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MANUAL OF BOTANY. 


By the same. 
In one volume, royal 8vo, pp. III7, price 21s. 


CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, 
Illustrated with 1800 Wood Engravings. 


Unitorm with above, price 7s. 6d. 


PALZONTOLOGICAL BOTANY. 


In foolscap 8vo, illustrated, price 3s. 6d. 
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 


In fcap. 8vo, second Edition, with Map, 3s. 6d. 
THE FLORA OF EDINBURGH. 


A 


MANUAL OF BOTANY 


BEING 


AN INTRODUCTION 
TO THE 
STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND . 
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 


BY 


JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR, A.M, M.D. Epm., 
FBS, Sec. BSE, PLS, 


PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY AND DEAN OF THE MEDICAL FACULTY IN THE 
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, HER MAJESTY’S BOTANIST FOR SCOTLAND, 
AND REGIUS KEEPER OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


FIFTH EDITION 


WITH UPWARDS OF NINE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 


EDINBURGH 
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK 


1875 
~ 


Printed by R. & R. CrarK, Edinburgh, 


ORIGINAL DEDICATION IN 1849. 


TO 


ROBERT KAYE GREVILLE, LL.D. 


AS A SMALL BUT SINCERE 
MARK OF REGARD FOR HIS EMINENCE AS A BOTANIST, 
OF GRATITUDE 
FOR HIS KIND BOTANICAL SERVICES, 
AND OF ESTEEM 
FOR HIS CHARACTER AS A CHRISTIAN FRIEND, 
THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE 


DEDICATED BY 


J. H. BALFOUR. 


' PREFACE. 


—{~— 


In drawing up this Manual of Botany, the object has been to 
give a comprehensive, and, at the same time, a condensed view 
of all departments of the science, including the microscopical 
structure of plants and their morphology, the functions of 
their various organs, their classification and distribution over 
the globe, and their condition at various geological epochs. 
Care has been taken to notice the plants used for commercial 
and economical purposes, and particularly those having 
medicinal properties. The principles of adaptation and order 
which prevail in the vegetable kingdom have been promi- 
nently brought into view, with their bearings on symmetry 
and arrangement. 

The physiology of plants has been considered in connec- 
tion with the anatomical structure of their different organs, 
and the recent views in regard to the embryogenic process 
in flowering and flowerless plants have been brought under 
notice. In the department of classification, the system of 
De Candolle has been more or less completely followed, and 
the characters of the Natural Orders have been briefly given. 
It has been shown that the great object of classification is to 
arrange plants according to their affinities in all important 
particulars, and thus to trace, what may be considered to be, 


Vili PREFACE. 


the plan of the Almighty and all-wise Creator. At the same 
time, in all systems it is necessary to have artificial means to 
aid in the study of genera and species. Such means, like an 
index, must be easily applied so as to assist the beginner in 
his studies. It is only the Botanist, who has an extended 
knowledge of the vegetation of the globe, who has examined 
the effects produced on vegetation by climate and other cir- 
cumstances of existence, and who has studied aberrant forms 
in connection with natural orders, that can take a correct 
view of the alliances of plants. 

The divisions of geographical and paleontological Botany 
are still in an imperfect state, and are undergoing constant 
changes from the discoveries of naturalists in various parts of 
the world. All that has been attempted in this volume is to 
give a very general outline of these subjects, and to call the 
attention of the student to the points which still require 
elucidation. In the Appendix will be found a description of 
the microscope, of its use as an instrument of research in 
histological Botany, and of the mode of making vegetable 
preparations. There are also added directions as to the col- 
lecting of plants and the formation of a herbarium, with hints 
as to alpine travelling, and as to the examination of a country 
in a botanical point of view. A full glossary of the ordinary 
botanical terms is likewise given. 

The: study of Botany is well fitted to call the observant 
faculties into active exercise. It teaches the student to mark 
the differences and resemblances between objects, and leads 
to habits of correct observation and diagnosis, In the present 
day there is a growing feeling of its importance in mental 


PREFACE. ix 


culture, and a tendency to include it as a subject of study in 
the curriculum of Arts, as well as in that of Medicine. It is 
now also taking a place in our school-books, and thus becom- 
ing part of the education of the young. It is a science fitted 
for all ages, for all ranks, and for all seasons. “In youth, 
when the affections are warm and the imagination vivid ; in 
more advanced life, when sober judgment assumes the reins ; 
in the sunshine of fortune and the obscurity of poverty, it 
can be equally enjoyed. The opening buds of spring; the 
warm luxuriant blossoms of summer ; the yellow bower of 
autumn ; and the leafless desolate groves of winter, equally 
afford a supply of mental amusement and gratification to the 
Botanist.” It is hoped that the present Manual may aid in 
the promotion of a science the study of which is so well cal- 
culated to contribute to the enjoyment and wellbeing of 
mankind. The examination of the plants which clothe the 
surface of the globe, of the lilies of the field, and of the 
meanest moss or lichen in our path, is well fitted to call forth 
exalted views of the eternal power and Godhead of Him who 
hath made all these for His own glory, and whose providential 
care extends to the clothing of the grass of the field, which 
to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven. 


2” InvERLEITH Row, EDINBURGH, 
April 1875. 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


—_4>—_ 


Ir has too often been supposed that the principal object of Botany 
is to give names to the vegetable productions of the globe, and to 
arrange them in such a way that these names may be easily found 
out. This is a most erroneous view of the science, and one which 
was perhaps fostered by some of the advocates of the Linnean 
system. The number of species collected by a botanist is not 
considered now-a-days as a measure of his acquirements, and 
names and classifications are only the mechanism by means of 
which the true principles of the science are elicited. The views 
in regard to a natural system proposed by Ray and Jussieu did 
much to emancipate Botany from the trammels of artificial 
methods, and to place it in its proper rank as a science. Their 
labours have been ably carried out by De Candolle, Brown, End- 
licher, Lindley, Hooker, Arnott, Bentham, and others. The 
-relative importance of the different organs of plants, their 
structure, development, and metamorphoses, are now studied 
upon philosophical principles. The researches of Gaudichaud, 
Mirbel, and Trecul, as to the structure and formation of wood ; 
the observations of Schleiden, Schwann, and Mohl on cell-develop- 
ment; the investigations of Brown, Schleiden, Fritzsche, Amici, 
Hofmeister, Tulasne, Darwin, Strasburger, Pringsheim, Cohn, Her- 
mann Miiller, and others, into the functions of the pollen, the 
fertilisation of plants, both phanerogamous and. cryptogamous, the 
development of the ovule and spore, and the formation of the 
embryo ; the experiments of Schultz, Decaisne, and Thuret, on 
the movements observed in the cells, vessels, and spores of plants, 
and various other physiological inquiries, have promoted much 
our knowledge of the alliances and affinities of plants. Thus the 
labours of vegetable anatomists and physiologists all tend to give 


xii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


correct views of the relation which plants bear to each other, of 
the laws which regulate their development, and of the great plan 
on which they were formed by the Creator. 

There is a tendency, however, to speak of the laws of nature 
as if they were in themselves executive, and this has led to 
erroneous views of the system of the universe. Some there are 
who attempt to shut out God from His works by this means. The 
Creator is regarded as looking at the development of His plan, 
and watching its progress, but not requiring to exercise constant 
and unwearied superintendence of the minutest event. Nay, 
even when He creates animals with certain instincts, and plants 
with certain functions, He is represented like an imperfect work- 
man taking a lesson from the operations of the beings which He 
has made, and which, by their own efforts of selection, or by their 
own struggles for existence, complete what the Creator had set 
on foot. A certain mechanism is set agoing in some unknown 
way, and it continues to work according to definite laws. But 
what are laws unless there is some one to carry them out? The 
great Author of these laws must be always working in them and 
by them, and upholding them in their integrity and efficiency. 
No doubt the Creator is a God of order and method, and the 
operations of His wisdom and power are displayed in what we 
call laws. The execution of these laws, however, is just as won- 
derful and miraculous as is a fiat of creation, and requires equally 
the exercise of Almighty power. The uniformity of nature de- 
pends on the wisdom that made these laws and adapted them 
to all the varying conditions of the universe. In the course 
of Providence, however, there are every now and then marked 
events which seem to be at variance with this uniformity, as 
when a deluge overwhelms mankind, or when a sudden convulsion 
destroys the cities of the plain. Such events show that all things 
do not continue as they were from the beginning of the creation. 
Those who look for a progressive development and a gradual and 
eternal advance towards perfection in the living beings which 
cover the earth, without further creative fiats or movements per 
saltwm, forget, in their speculations, that a time is coming when, 
as the Apostle says, “the earth and the works that are therein 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xiii 


shall be burned up,” and then shall there be ushered in “a new 
earth,” wherein righteousness shall dwell. We cannot but honour 
the man, who, by his genius and talent, has been enabled to 
develop one of the great laws of nature, and who feels and ac- 
knowledges that he has been the humble instrument to lift the 
veil to a certain extent which conceals the workings of the 
Almighty; but we have no sympathy with that discoverer in 
science, who, puffed up with intellectual superiority, puts the laws 
which he has elucidated in the place of the Creator, whose per- 
sonality and ever-working omnipresence he ignores. 

In studying, therefore, the laws which are exhibited in the 
economy of living beings, let us never, in. the pride of science 
and philosophy, forget Him who not only created all things but 
upholds all things, and by whom all things consist. While 
we apply ourselves with the earnestness of zealous students to 
examine those wondrous works which are sought out of all that 
have pleasure therein, let us take everything in connection with 
that Word which is the sole record of Truth, and which, as coming 
from the God of nature, must be in perfect harmony with the 
laws of nature. 

The Botanist, in prosecuting his researches, takes an en- 
larged and comprehensive view of the vegetation with which 
the earth is clothed. He considers the varied aspects under 
which plants appear in the different quarters of the globe, from 
the Lichen on the Alpine summits or on the Coral reef, to the 
majestic Palms, the Bananas, and Baobabs of tropical climes— 
from the minute aquatics of our northern pools to the gigantic 
Victoria of the South American waters—from the parasitic 
fungus, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the enormous 
parasite discovered by Raffles in the Indian Archipelago. 

It is interesting to trace the relation which all these plants 
bear to each other, and the mode in which they are adapted to 
different climates and situations. The lichens are propagated by 
spores or germs so minute as to appear like thin dust, and so 
easily carried by the wind that we can scarcely conceive any place 
which they cannot reach. They are the first occupants of the 
sterile rock and the coral-formed island—being fitted to derive 


xiv INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


the greater part of their nourishment from the atmosphere and 
the moisture suspended in it. By degrees they act on the rocks 
to which they are attached, and cause their disintegration. By 
their decay a portion of vegetable mould is formed, and in pro- 
gress of time a sufficient quantity of soil is produced to serve for 
the germination of the seeds of higher plants. In this way the 
coral island is, in the course of years, covered with a forest of 
coco-nut trees. ‘Thus it is that the most despised weeds lay the 
foundation for the denizens of the wood; and thus, in the pro- 
gress of time, the sterile rock presents all the varieties of meadow, 
thicket, and forest. 

The Creator has distributed His floral gifts over every part of 
the globe, from the poles to the equator. Every climate has its 
peculiar vegetation, and the surface of the earth may be divided 
into regions characterised by certain predominating tribes of 
plants. The same thing takes place on the lofty mountains of 
warm climates, which may be said to present an epitome of the 
latitudinal distribution of plants. Again, if we descend into the 
bowels of the earth, we find there traces of vegetation—a vegeta- 
tion, however, which flourished at distant epochs of the earth’s 
history, and the traces of which are seen in the coal, and in the 
fossil plants which are met with in different strata. By the 
labours of Brongniart, Goeppert, Schimper, and others, these fossil 
remains have been rendered available for the purposes of science. 
Many points have been determined relative to their structure, as 
well as in regard to the climate and soil in which they grew, and 
much aid has been afforded to the Geologist in his investigations, 

The bearings which Botany has on Zoology are seen when we 
consider the lowest tribe of plants, such as Diatomacez. These 
bear a striking resemblance to the lowest animals, and have been 
figured as such by Ehrenberg and others. The observations of 
Thwaites on Conjugation have confirmed the view of the vegetable 
nature of many of these bodies. There appear, however, to be 
many productions which occupy a sort of intermediate territory 
between the animal and vegetable kingdom, and for the time 
being the Botanist and Zoologist must consent to joint occupancy. 

The application of botanical science to Agriculture and Horti- 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xV 


culture has of late attracted much attention, and the chemistry 
of plants has been carefully examined by Liebig, Miilder, and 
Johnston. The consideration of the phenomena connected with 
germination and the nutrition of plants has led to important 
conclusions as to sowing, draining, ploughing, the rotation of 
crops, and the use of manures. 

The relation which Botany bears to Medicine has often been 
misunderstood. The medical student is apt to suppose that all 
he is to acquire by his botanical pursuits is a knowledge of the 
names and orders of medicinal plants. The object of the connec- 
tion between scientific and mere professional studies is here lost 
sight of. It ought ever to be borne in mind by the medical man, 
that the use of the collateral sciences, as they are termed, is not 
only to give him a great amount of general information, which 
will be of value to him in his after career, but to train his mind 
to that kind of research which is essential to the student of 
medicine, and to impart to it a tone and a vigour which will be 
of the highest moment in all his future investigations. What 
can be more necessary for a medical man than the power of 
making accurate observations, and of forming correct distinctions 
and diagnoses? These are the qualities which are brought into 
constant exercise in the prosecution of the botanical investigations 
to which the student ought to turn his attention, as preliminary 
to the study of practical medicine. In the prosecution of his 
physiological researches, it is of the highest importance that the 
medical man should be conversant with the phenomena exhibited 
by plants. For no one can be reckoned a scientific physiologist 
who does not embrace within the range of his inquiries all classes 
of animated beings; and the more extended his views, the more 
certain and comprehensive will be his generalisations. 

To those who prosecute science for amusement, Botany pre- 
sents many points of interest and attraction. Though. relating 
to living and organised beings, the prosecution of it calls for no 
painful experiments nor forbidding dissections. It adds pleasure 
to every walk, affords an endless source of gratification, and it 
can be rendered available alike in the closet and in the field. 
The prosecution of it combines healthful and spirit-stirring recrea- 


xvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


tion with scientific study ; and its votaries are united by associations 
of no ordinary kind. He who has visited the Scottish Highlands 
with a botanical party, knows well the feelings of delight connected 
with such a ramble—feelings by no means of an evanescent nature, 
but lasting during life, and at once recalled by the sight of the 
specimens which were collected. These apparently insignificant 
remnants of vegetation recall many a tale of adventure, and are 
associated with the delightful recollection of many a friend. It 
is not indeed a matter of surprise that those who have lived and 
walked for weeks together in a Highland ramble, who have met 
in sunshine and in tempest, who have climbed together the misty 
summits, and have slept in the miserable shieling—should have 
such scenes indelibly impressed on their memory. There is, 
moreover, something peculiarly attractive in the collecting of 
alpine plants, Their comparative rarity, the localities in which 
they grow, and frequently their beautiful hues, conspire in shed- 
ding around them a halo of interest far exceeding that connected 
with lowland productions. The alpine Veronica displaying its 
lovely blue corolla on the verge of dissolving snows ; the Forget- 
me-not of the mountain summit, whose tints far excel those of 
its namesake of the brooks ; the Woodsia, with its tufted fronds, 
adorning the clefts of the rocks; the nival Gentian concealing its 
eye of blue in the ledges of the steep crags ; the alpine Astragalus 
enlivening the turf with its purple clusters ; the dwarf mountain 
Lychnis choosing the stony and dry knoll for the evolution of its 
pink petals ; the Sonchus, raising its stately stalk and azure heads 
in spots which try the enthusiasm of the adventurous collector ; 
the pale-flowered Oxytropis confining itself to a single British cliff ; 
the Azalea forming a carpet of the richest crimson ; the Saxifrages, 
with their white, yellow, and pink blossoms, clothing the sides of 
the streams; the Saussurea and Erigeron crowning the rocks 
with their purple and pink capitula; the pendent Cinquefoil 
blending its yellow flowers with the white of the alpine Cerastiums 
and the bright blue of the stony Veronica; the stemless Silene 
giving a pink and velvety covering to the decomposing granite ; 
the yellow Hieracia, whose varied transition forms have been such 
a fertile cause of dispute among Botanists ; the slender and deli- 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xvii 


cate grasses, the chickweeds, the carices, and the rushes, which 
spring up on the moist alpine summits ; the graceful ferns, the 
tiny mosses, with their urn-like thece, the crustaceous dry lichens, 
with their spore-bearing apothecia ; all these add such a charm 
to Highland Botany, as to throw a comparative shade over the 
vegetation of the plains. 

Many are the important lessons which may be drawn from 
the study of plants when prosecuted in the.true spirit of Wisdom. 
The volume of Creation is then made the handmaid of the volume 
of Inspiration, and the more that each is studied, the more shall 
we find occasion to observe the harmony that subsists between 
them. It is only Science, falsely so-called, which is in any way 
opposed to Scripture. Never, in a'single instance, remarks Gaus- 
sen, do we find the Bible in opposition to the just ideas which 
Science has given us regarding the form of our globe, its magni- 
tude, its geology, and the productions which cover the surface. 
“The invisible things of God from the creation of the world are 
clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even 
his eternal power and Godhead.” The more minutely we examine 
the phenomena of the material world, and the more fully we 
compare the facts of Science with Revealed Truth, the more reason 
shall we have to exclaim, in adoring wonder, with the Psalmist 
of old, “O Lord! how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast 
thou made them all; the earth.is full of thy riches.” 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


—_>—_ 

Page 
PREFACE. és 2 5 3 s : 5 : vii 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS . 2 - - ‘ ‘ xi 

PART I.—VEGETABLE ANATOMY, ORGANOGRAPHY, AND PHY- 
SIOLOGY . . - . . . ‘ . 1 
CHAPTER I.—ELEMENTARY ORGANS, OR VEGETABLE TISSUES 1 
SEcTIoN I.—CELLULAR TISSUE _. . 3 F 3 3 
1. Form and Arrangement of Cells . . ‘ ‘ 3 
2. Contents of Cells ; : a 8 
3. Development and Functions of Cells ¢ : : 13 
Sxction IJ.—VascuLaR TIssuE : F : : 16 
1. Form and Arrangement of Vessels r ‘ : 16 
2. Development and Functions of Vessels . ‘ : 21 
Tabular Arrangement of Vegetable tissues . < ‘ 23 
CHAPTER II.—COMPOUND ORGANS FORMED BY THE TISSUES 25 
Srction I.—OrGaNs OF NUTRITION OR VEGETATION. : 25 
1. Structure, Arrangement, and Ree Functions. , 25 
General Integument . , . 25 
Stomata | : - 3 5 i 28 
Hairs . : : ‘ r ‘ 30 
Glands . . é 34 
Functions of the Epidermis - ‘ j 2 36 
Root or Descending Axis . - z a , 37 
Structure of Roots. ‘ ; . ; 37 
Forms of Roots ‘ 4 e . 40 
Functions of Roots . : ‘ 2 43 
Stem or Ascending Axis . Z 4 3 ; 44 
Forms of Stems 5 : : - . 44 
Internal Structure of Stems. ; 3 ‘ 49 
Exogenous or Dicotyledonous Stem. . 4 49 
Anomalies in its Structure A . Pe 60 
Endogenous or Monocotyledonous Stem P P 64 
Acrogenous or Acotyledonous Stem. 70 

Formation of the different a of es and their 

special Functions 75 
Leaves and their Appendages : ‘ ‘ . 79 


Structure of Leaves . ; F . : 79 


XxX 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Venation of Leaves 

Forms of Simple Leaves 

Forms of Compound Leaves 

Petiole or Leaf-Stalk . 

Stipules 

Anomalous Forms of Leaves and Petioles 

Structure and Form of Leaves in the Great Divisions of 
the Vegetable Kingdom 

Phyllotaxis, or the peer of Leaves on the Axis 

Leaf-buds i 

Vernation 

Aerial and Subterranean Leaf- buds ‘ a 

Anomalies and Transformations of Leaf-buds . 

Tendrils 

Special Functions of Leaves 


Section IJ.—GENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NUTRI- 


1. 


2. 
3. 


4. 


TIVE ORGANS 


Food of Plants, and Sources whence ey derive their 
Nourishment é c c . 
Chemical Composition of Plants 
Organic Constituents and their Sources 
Inorganic Constituents and their Sources . 
Chemical Composition of Soils 
Application-of Manure ~ : 
Various kinds of Manure 
Epiphytic and Parasitic Plants A 
Absorption and Circulation of Fluids 
Respiration of Plants . 
Effects of Certain Gases on n Living Plants 
Products and Secretions of Plants ' ‘ 


Section IIJ.—Orcans or REPRODUCTION 


ds 


Structure, Arrangement, and Functions 

Inflorescence or the seneentent of the flowers on the 
axis 

Tabular View of Inflorescence or Anthotaxis 


. Bracts or Floral leaves x 
. The Flower and its Appendages 


Flower-bud, ezstivation 
External Floral vee or the Floral Envelopes 
Calyx 
Corolla. 
Nectaries and Anomalies of the Petals fi 
Inner Floral ee or the Essential Oneens of if Repro: 
duction 
Stamens 
Pollen . 
Disk. 
Pistil, Carpels, and Placenta 
Ovule 


. Functions of the Floral Envelopes 5 é . 
. Functions of the Stamens and Pistil; Fertilisation or 


Fecundation 


195 
200 
209 


211 
212 
228 
234 
235 
251 
258 


264 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Fertilisation in Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants 
Fertilisation in Phanerogamous or Flowering Plants . 
Embryogenic process in Gymnoepermine Flower- 
ing Plants . 
Embryogenic process in Angiospermous Flower- 
ing Plants 
6. Fruit or the Pistil arrived at maturity ri 
Fruits which are the produce of a single flower ‘ 
Fruits which are the pees of several ae 
united ’ 
Tabular arrangement of Fruits f 
7. Maturation of the Pericarp 
Ripening of Fruits 


Grafting 
8. Seed or Fertilised Ovule arrived at Maturity 
Embryo é 
9. Functions oF. the Seed . ‘ 6 ‘ 
Germination . re 


Vitality of Seeds 
Transportation of Seeds 
Direction of Plumule and Radicle 
Proliferous Plants ‘ 
Duration of the Life of Plants 
10. General Observations on the Organs of Plants, and on 
the mode in which they are arranged 
Symmetry of Organs. é 
Teratology : 


Srction IV.—Some GENERAL PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH 


‘VEGETATION ‘ ¥ 
. Vegetable Irritability , i : 
. Temperature of Plants ‘ . 


. Luminosity of Plants . 
. Colours of Plants 

. Odours of Flowers 

. Diseases of Plants 


aor De 


PART II.—SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, TAXONOMY, OR THE CLASS- 
IFICATION OF PLANTS . . 


CHAPTER I,—SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION 


Nomenclature and Symbols 

Linnean System : ‘ 7 ‘ 
Natural System : : si " 
System of Jussieu F . 7 
System of De Candolle 

System of Endlicher 

System of Lindley . ‘ 
Henslow’s Comparison of Systems 7 é 
Natural arrangement by Hooker ‘ 


xxi, 
Page 


266 
281 


291 


295 
298 
309 


316 
318 
319 
320 
323 
325 
335 
343 
344 
348 
349 
352 
357 
359 


362 
363 
365 


374 


374 
388 
389 
390 
396 
397 


405 


405 


411 
413 
415 
418 
418 
419 
420 
422 
423 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Page 

CHAPTER II—CHARACTERS OF THE CLASSES AND NATURAL 
ORDERS . is : ‘ F 423 
Sus-Kinepom I.—PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS . 425 
Class I.—Dicotyledones or Exogenz : : 425 
Sub-class 1.—Thalamiflore . 7 . 425 
1. Ranunculacee . 426, 20. Tremandracer. 442) 39. Aceraceze . 458 
2. Dilleniacee. . 428] 21. Tamaricacee . 442] 40. Sapindacee . 458 
8. Magnoliaceer . 428/ 22. Frankeniaceer .443| 41. Meliaceze . 459 
4, Anonacee . . 429] 23. Elatinacen . . 448| 42. Cedrelaceer. . 460 
5. Menispermaceer 430| 24. Caryophyllacee 444] 43. Ampelidee. . 460 
6. Berberidacer . 4806| 25. Portulacacee . 445] 44. Geraniacee. . 462 
7. Nymphezacee . 431} 26. Malvacer . . 446) 45. Vivianacee . 463 
8. Sarraceniacee . 482] 27. Sterculiacee . 448] 46. Linacee . . 463 
9. Papaveracee . 433] 28. Byttneriacer . 449! 47. Balsaminacer . 464 
10. Fumariacee . 434] 29. Tiliacee . 450} 48. Oxalidacee. . 464 
11. Crucifere . . 434] 30. Dipterocarpacer 451] 49. Tropeolaceer . 465 
12. Capparidacee . 437] 31. Chlenacee. . 451) 50. Pittosporacee . 465 
13. Resedacew . . 438} 32. Ternstroemiacee 452) 51. Zygophyllacee. 466 
14. Cistaceze . 489] 33. Olacacee . . 453] 52. Rutacez . 467 
15. Canellacee. . 439| 34. Aurantiacee . 453] 53. Kanthoxylacee 468 
16. Bixacez . . 4389] 35. Hypericacee . 455] 54. Simarubacee . 468 
17. Violaceze . 440| 36. Guttifere . . 456] 55. Ochnacew . . 469 
18. Droseracee. . 441] 37. Erythroxylacee 457| 56. Coriariacer . 470 

19. Polygalacee . 4411 38. Malpighiacee . 457 

Sub-class 2.—Calyciflore. Section 1.—Polypetele. . 470 
57. Stackhousiacee 470 69. Rhizophoracee 488| 81. Turneracer. . 498 
58. Celastracee . 471] 70. Vochysiacee . 488] 82. Paronychiacer . 498 
59. Staphyleacee . 472| 71. Combretacer . 488] 83. Crassulacer . 499 
60. Rhamnacee . 472| 72. Melastomacee . 489| 84. Ficoidee . 500 
61. Anacardiacee . 473] 73. Philadelphaceew 489] 85. Cactacex - 500 
62. Burseracee . 475| 74. Myrtacee . . 490| 86. Grossulariacese 502 
63. Connaracese 476| 75. Onagracer . . 492] 87. Saxifragacer . 502 
64. Legumihose 476| 76. Halorageacer . 493} 88. Bruniacee. . 504 
65. -Moringacese 482| 77. Loasaceze . 493) 89. Hamamelidacez 504 
66. Rosacez 483| 78. Cucurbitacee . 494|/ 90. Umbellifere . 505 
67. Calycanthacer. 487| 79. Papayacee. . 496] 91. Araliacese . 509 
68. Lythracee . 487| 80. Passifloracee . 497| 92. Cornaceze . 509 
Sub-class 2.—Calyciflore. Section 2.—Gamopetale. 510 
93. Caprifoliacee . 510; 97. Calyceracee . 515)101. Stylidiacer. . 523 
94, Rubiaces . 511) 98. Composite . . 517/102. Campanulacer. 524 
95. Valerianaceee . 514] 99. Brunoniacee . 522/108. Lobeliaceew. . 525 
96. Dipsacacee. . 515|100. Goodeniacer . 522/104. Vacciniacer . 525 
Sub-class 8.—Corolliflore . . . 526 
105. Ericacex . 526,112. Jasminacez . 531[119. Gentianacemn . 539 
106. Epacridacee . 527/113. Columelliacee. 532/120. Bignoniacee . 540 
107. Ebenacee . . 528) 114. Oleacer. . 5382]121. Gesneracer’. . 541 
108. Styracacee. . 529/115. Salvadoraceew . 534] 122. Polemoniacee . 541 
109. Aquifoliacee . 529/116, Asclepiadacer. 534 | 123. Hydrophyllaces 542 
110. Sapotacee . . 530)117. Apocynacer . 586|124. Convolvulacer. 542 
111. Myrsinacee . 531|118, Loganiacer . 537/125. Cordiacer . . 545 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


xxiii 


Page Page Page 
126. Boraginacer . 5451130. Labiate . 5521134. Primulacee . 557 
127. Solanacee . . 547/131. Verbenacee . 555/]135. Plumbaginaceer 559 
128. Orobanchaceez . 550]132. Acanthacee . 556 |136. Plantaginacee. 559 
129. Scrophulariacee 551| 133. Lentibulariaceee 557 
Sub-class 4.—Monochlamydee. Section A.— Angiospermae . 560 
187. Nyctaginacee . 560{153. Santalacee. . 5741168. Podostemacee. 588 
188. Amaranthacee 562|154. Loranthacee . 574/169. Stilaginacee . 588 
139. Chenopodiacee 562]155. Aristolochiacee 575/170. Monimiacee . 588 
140. Phytolaccacee 563 | 156. Balanophoracez 577 | 171. Atherospermacee 589 
141. Polygonacee . 563/157. Cytinacee . . 577|172. Lacistemacee . 589 
142. Begoniacee . 566|158. Rafllesiacee . 577/173. Chloranthacee 590 
143. Lauraces . . 566/159. Nepenthacee . 578/174. Saururacee . 590 
144. Myristicacee . 569/160. Datiscacer. . 578|175. Piperacee . . 590 
145. Proteacee . . 570/161. Empetracee . 579|176. Salicacew . . 591 
146, Eleagnaces . 570/162. Euphorbiacee, 579|177. Myricacee . . 592 
147. Penwacer . . 571/163. Urticaceer . . 583|178, Casuarinacee . 593 
148. Thymeleacee . 571/164. Cannabinacee . 584|179. Betulacee . . 593 
149. Aquilariacee . 572)165. Ulmacez . 585] 180. Platanacee. . 593 
150. Chailletiaceee . 572|166. Moraceer . 586|181. Corylacee . . 594 
151. Samydacee . 573 | 167. Ceratophyllaceze 588 | 182. Juglandacee . 595 
152. Homaliacer . 573 
Section B.—Gymnosperme . 529 
183. Conifers 596 | 184. peas 600 
Class II.—Monocotyledones or Endogenze ‘ : 601 
Sub-class 1.—Petaloidez : - i 601 
a.—Epigyne : ‘ : : é 2 601 
185. Hydrocharidacese601 | 189. Musacez . 607 | 193. Dioscoreaceee. 610 
186. Orchidacew . 602 | 190. Iridacez . 608 | 194. Amaryllidacee 611 
187. Zingiberacew . 605 | 191. Burmanniacee . 610 | 195. Hypoxidaceer 612 
188. Marantacee . 606 | 192. Hemodoracee . 610 | 196. Bromeliacee . 612 
b.—Hypogynee , . 3 613 
197. Liliaceze . 613 | 201. Gilliesiacer . 618 | 205. Palme 619 
198. Melanthacese . 616 | 202. Pontederiacee . 618 | 206. Commelynacee 622 
199. Smilaceze . 617 | 203. Xyridaceee . . 618 | 207. Alismacee . 623 
200. Trilliaceze . 617 | 204. Juncacez . 619 | 208. Butomacee . 623 
c.—Incomplete ee , : 624 
209. Pandanacese 624; | 211. Naiadacez . 626 
210. Aracez 625 | 212. Restiacez é : 627 
; Sohne 2.—Glumifere : j ; 627 
213. Cyperacer . 627 | 214. Graminez F 628 
Sus-Kinepom II.—CryrtTocamous PLANTS 635 
Class III.—Acotyledons ‘ ‘ 635 
Sub-class 1.—Acrogene ‘ : 5 635 
215. Equisetacee . 636 | 217. Marsileacer . 640 | 219. Musci 641 
216. Filices 637 | 218. Lycopodiacee 640 | 220. Hepatice . 643 
Sub-class 2.—Thallogene . 5 : - 644 
921.’ Lichenes . . 644 | 222. Fungi . 647 | 223, Characee . 651 
224. Alege . . . . 652 
Additional Remarks on Fertilisation of Graminee 656 


Xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PART IIIL—GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY, OR THE DISTRIBUTION 
OF PLANTS OVER THE GLOBE. 


I,—EPIRRHEOLOGY, OR THE INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS EXTERNAL 
AGENTS ON PLANTS a ‘ : ‘ i 


1. Effects of Temperature 
2. Effects of Moisture 
38. Effects of Soil, Light, and other Agents . 


II.—DIssEMINATION OF PLANTS 


1. Agents employed in their Dissemination 

2. General and Endemic Distribution of Plants 

3. Conjectures as to the mode in which the Earth was origin- 
ally clothed with Plants " 

4, Distribution of Plants considered Physiognomically and 
Statistically . 

Physiognomy of Vegetation - 675 | Statistics of Vegetation 
5. Phyto-geographical Division of the Globe . 


Latitudinal Range of Vegetation 678 | Altitudinal Range of Vegetation 

Schouw’s Phyto-geographic Re- (Zones of Marine Vegetation 
gions . . 679 | ‘Distribution of Plants in Britain 

Meyen’s Phyto-geographical, Zones 692 | Acclimatising of Plants . 


PART IV.—FOSSIL BOTANY 


Character and arrangement of Fossil Fossiliferous Hedls 


Plants. : a é 719 | Fossil Plants of different Strata 
1. Flora of the Primary or Paleozoic Period . 4 Fl 
Reign of Acrogens : 7 
2. Flora of the Secondary or Mesozoic Period 


Reign of Gymnosperms p 
8. Flora of the Tertiary or Cainozoic Period : 
Reign of Angiosperms . = . 


APPENDIX . . f 
I.—On THE Usk OF THE AsoRROORE IN Bedusenaan RESEARCHES 
II,—Ow CoLLECTING AND EXAMINING PLANTS, AND ON THE Forma- 


TION OF A HERBARIUM é ; 
GLOSSARY . : ; : : . i : 
ABBREVIATION S AND SYMBOLS . ‘ r p 
INDEX ‘ a . 


Page 


657 


657 
658 
662 
662 
668 


668 
670 


671 


675 
677 
678 
695 
699 
702 
716 


718 


723 
724 
728 
728 
745 
745 
750 
750 


761 
761 
795 
809 
830 
831 


PART I. 


VEGETABLE ANATOMY, ORGANOGRAPHY, AND 
PHYSIOLOGY, 


——_ 


Borany is that branch of Biological science which comprehends the 
knowledge of all that relates to the Vegetable kingdom. It embraces 
a consideration of the external configuration of plants, their structure, 
the functions which they perform, the relations which they bear to 
each other, and the uses to which they are subservient. It takes a 
comprehensive view of the vegetation with which the earth is clothed 
at the present day, and of that which covered it at former epochs. 
It has been’ divided into the following departments :—1. Structural 
Botany, or Organography, having reference to the anatomical structure 
and the forms of the various parts of plants, including vegetable 
histology, or the microscopical examination of tissues; and morpho- 
logy, or the transformations which the organs undergo. 2. Physiological 
Botany, the consideration of the functions performed by the living 
plant, or the phenomena of life as exhibited by its various organs 
during the processes of development, growth, and multiplication. 
3. Systematical, or Taxological Botany, the arrangement and classifica- 
tion of plants, 4. Geographical Botany, the distribution of plants 
in space, 5. Fossil, or Paleontological Botany, the distribution of 
plants in time, with a description of the form and-structure of the 
plants found in a fossil state in the various geological formations, 


CHAPTER I. 
ELEMENTARY ORGANS, OR VEGETABLE TISSUES. 


In their earliest and simplest state plants consist of minute vesicles, 

each of them bounded by a transparent membrane, which is composed 

of a substance called Cellulose. This.substance is of general occurrence, 

and constitutes the basis of vegetable tissues. It is composed of 

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and the chemical formula representing 
B 


2 ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 


it is O, H,, 0,.* It was long considered as essentially a vegetable 
product, not found in animal structures ; but it has now been de- 
tected in the tissues of the ascidia, and other molluscous animals. 
It is a white substance, insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether, 
but soluble in an ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide. It is allied 
to starch, into which it is convertible by the action of heat, the 
addition of sulphuric acid, or caustic potash. It becomes yellow on 
the addition of iodine, and when acted upon by iodine and sulphuric 
acid, a blue colour, like that of iodide of starch, is produced. The 
acid appears to convert the cellulose into starch. When cellulose is 
acted on by a mixture of equal volumes of strong sulphuric and nitric 
acid it forms gun-cotton (pyroxylin), (vie, fire, and EvAov, wood), and 
this when dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol yields a solution 
called collodion. The membrane formed by cellulose is permeable by 
fluids, and becomes altered in the progress of growth, so as to acquire 
various degrees of consistence. A modification of cellulose occurs in 
the form of woody matter or lignin. The hard cells in the stone of 
the peach, in the shells of other fruits, and in the coats of seeds, 
consist of cellulose, with deposits of lignin. In the advanced stages 
of growth, plants consist of two kinds of tissue, Cellular and Vascular, 
which, under various modifications, constitute their Elementary organs ; 
and these, by their union, form the Compound organs, by which the 
different functions of plants are carried on. 
The elementary organs are vesicles and tubes, which vary in form 
and size, and, when united in different ways, constitute the tissues. 
Vesicles or cells may be defined as closed sacs, composed of 
() solid membrane, containing fluid or semifiuid matter, and 
having a diameter nearly equal in every direction (fig. 1) ; 
Fig. 1. while tubes or vessels are similar sacs with the longitudinal 
much exceeding the transverse diameter (figs. 3, 4). Cellular tissue 
is formed by a combination of these cells or vesicles ; a similar union 
of vessels constitutes vascular tissue. 


Fig. 1. Vesicles or small cells, each of them enclosed by a membrane of cellulose. 


“+ These symbols indicate the equivalents of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (0), 
which enter into the composition of cellulose. For the meaning of these and other chemical 
symbols, see Chap. II. Sect. I. Div. 2, on the Food of Plants. 


CELLULAR TISSUE. 3 


Section: I.—CELLULAR Tissue. 
1.—Form and Arrangement of Cells. 


CELLULAR TissvE is formed by the union of minute vesicles or 
bladders, called ceils, cellules, or utricles, This tissue is often called 
Parenchyma (vugd, through, and ¢yxva, an infusion). The terms 
Parenchymatous, Areolar, Utricular, and Vesicular, when 
applied to vegetable tissues, may be considered as synony- 
mous. The individual cells of which this tissue is com- 
posed, when allowed to develop equally in all directions, 
are usually of a more or less rounded form (figs. 5, 6, 7) ; 
but during the progress of development they frequently 
4 become more elongated in one direction than in another 
| (fig. 2), and often assume angular or polyhedral forms 


(fig. 8 


Figs. a 
9: 18.4, Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 


Fig. 7. 
The following names have been applied by Morren and other 
authors to the tissue made up of variously-formed cells :—1. Paren- 
chyma, a general name for cellular tissue, but often applied to that 
consisting of dodecahedral cells (figs. 8, 12, 13), which, when cut in 
any direction, exhibit a hexagonal form (figs. 14, 15), and hence the 
-tissue is sometimes called hexagonenchyma (&dywvos, six-angled) ; it is . 


: 


NaN 


Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. ‘ Fig. 13. 


seen in the pith of the Elder, and in young palm stems, 2. Spheren- 
chyma (spaigu, a sphere), spheroidal cells (fig. 5). 3. Merenchyma 


e 
Fig.2, Fusiform or spindle-shaped cell. Figs. 3, 4. Tubes or vessels. Figs. 5, 6, 7 
8, Cells, or utricles, separate and combined. Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. Figures representing 
the forms of cells. 


4 FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS. 


(ungi, to revolve), ellipsoidal cells (fig. 6). 4. Ovenchyma (adv, an 
egg), oval cells. Round, elliptical, and oval cells, are common in 
herbaceous plants. 5. Conenchyma (xéivos, a cone), conical cells, as 
hairs. 6, Columnar cellular tissue, divided into Cylindrenchyma 
(xdAwégos, a cylinder), cylindrical cells (fig. 17 a), as in Chara, and 
Prismenchyma (xgiswa, a prism), prismatical cells, seen in the bark of 
some plants (fig. 10). When flattened, prismatical- cells form the 
muriform (murus, a wall, like bricks of a building) tissue of the 
medullary rays of woody stems, and when much shortened they 
assume a tabular form, constituting Pinakenchyma (ive, a table), 
tabular cells (fig. 11), or square cells (fig. 9). 7. Prosenchyma (sgés, 
indicating addition), or Atractenchyma (drguxros, a spindle), fusi- 
form or spindle-shaped cells, seen in woody structures (fig. 2). 8. 
Colpenchyma (xéAros, a sinus or fold), sinuous or waved cells, as in 
the cuticle of leaves. 9. Cladenchyma (xAd6os, a branch), branched cells, 
as in some hairs. 10, Actinenchyma (dri, a ray), stellate or radiat- 
ing cells, as in Juncus and Musa (fig. 16). 11. Dedalenchyma (daidaros, 
entangled), entangled cells, as in some Fungi. 


= & 


Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. * 


The size of cells varies not less than their figure in different plants, 
and in different parts of the same plant. They are frequently seen 
from stu, stv, to rvs of an inch in diameter. In cork, which is 
cellular, there are about a thousand in the length of an inch. In’ 
the pith of Elder cells rio of an inch in diameter are seen, In 
many succulent vegetables, and in the pith of some aquatic plants, 
large cells ranging from ¢o to vo of an inch in diameter occur ; 
while the cells in spores of Fungi have been computed at svss of an 
inch in diameter. In a cubic inch of the leaf of a carnation, there 
are said to be upwards of three millions of cells. , 

Each cell has originally a separate membranous wall, but in the 
progress of growth the walls of contiguous cells may become united. 
When cells are united by their extremities (fig. 17), their, partitions 
are occasionally absorbed so as to form continuous tubes. When 
cells are united in a rectilinear manner, those in contiguous rows are 


Figs. 14, 15. Hexagonal cells, cut longitudinally and transversely. Fig. 16. Branching, 
stellate, or radiating cells of Vicia Faba, the common bean. 11, Intercellular lacune, or 
air-spaces between the cells. 


FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS. 5 


either directly opposite to each other, that is, are placed at the same 
height (fig. 18), or are alternate, from being placed at different 
heights (fig. 19) ; cells sometimes communicate with each other later- 
ally (fig. 20 aa). Isolated cells, as spores of sea-weeds, occasionally 
have free filaments, or cilia (ciliwm, an eyelash), developed on their 
surface, 


Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. 


The simplest kinds of plants, as mushrooms and sea-weeds, are 
composed entirely of cellular tissue, and are called Cellulares, The 
pulpy and succulent parts of all plants contain much cellular tissue, 
and the object of horticultural operations is to increase the quantity of 
this tissue in ordinary fruits and vegetables. The pith of trees, and 
plants during their early development are cellular; so also are cotton 
and rice-paper. The cell may be considered as the ultimate struc- 
tural element of all organisms. In the simplest vegetable forms, as in 
unicellular algee, it is adequate to all the purposes of plant life. Vital 
operations are carried on in all plants by means of cells, the constitu- 
tion and functions of which vary according to the nature of the plants 
and the position in the scale of organisation which they occupy. In 
the higher classes of plants, certain cells are concerned in the secre- 
tion:of organisable products, which are elaborated by others into new 
tissues. The life of the higher species of plants results from the 
regular action of cells, which are of unequal value as regards the for- 
mation of new organs and new products. In cells there are observed 
the absorption and movements of fluids, the elaboration of these by 
exposure to air and light, and the formation of new cells. Schacht 
remarks that a plant is composed of one or more cells, and that it is 
only. in the lowest species that the cells are of the same value ; in other 
words, are of the same chemical and physical nature, and of the same 
physiological importance. Even amongst the mushroom and sea- 
weed orders, it is only the lowest plants which have cells concerned 
alike in the processes of vegetation and reproduction. The higher 
plants of these orders are composed of parts having different values. 


Figs. 17, 18, 19. Cells united together by their extremities, Fig. 20. Elongated 
thickened cells from the root of the Date Palm. aa, Canals of communication. 


6 FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS. 


In general, no visible openings can be detected in cells, although 
fluids pass readily into and out of them. Harting and Miilder, how- 
ever, state, that they have observed perforations in the cells of Hoya 
carnosa, Asclepias syriaca, Cycas revoluta, Virginian spiderwort, and 
Traveller’s joy. In one cell (from a Euphorbia), having a transverse 
diameter of 0:03777 millimetres,* they counted 45 minute holes. In 
some mosses, also, openings have been found in the cells, as in 
Sphagnum and Leucobryum glaucum. 

Porous on Prrrep Cetzs are those in which the membrane is 
thickened at certain parts, leaving thin rounded spots intervening, which, 
when viewed by transmitted light, appear like perforations or pores 
(figs. 21, 28). The unequal deposit of the internal en- 
crusting cellulose or woody matter, is the cause of this 
condition. The pores of contiguous cells usually corre- 
spond as regards position, and sometimes the membrane 
becomes absorbed between them, so as to allow a direct 
communication by means of lateral canals, as is seen in 
J the cells from the root of the Date (fig. 20, aa). When 

ss oe porous cells are united end to end, so as to form tubes, 

j " the tissue is denominated articulated Bothrenchyma or 
Taphrenchyma (R60gog and régpeos, a pit), on account of their bead- 
like appearance, and the pits or depressions in their thickened walls 
(fig. 22). Pitted cells are seen in Elder pith. 

Frerous or SPrraL CELLS are those in which there is a spiral 
elastic fibre coiled up in the inside of the membrane (fig. 23). When 
united they form jibro-cellular tissue, or Inenchyma (ives, fibres). These 


Fig. 23. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 


cells generally consist of membrane and fibre combined, but the 
former appears to be sometimes absorbed wholly or partially during 
the progress of growth. The membrane, in some instances, is easily 
dissolved by water, and then the elastic close convolutions of the fibre 
spring out with considerable force, as in the outer covering of the seeds 
of Collomia linearis, and in the pericarp of Salvia. Spiral cells 

Fig. 21. Porous cell, from the Elder (Sambucus nigra). Fig. 22. Articulated Both- 
renchyma, or Taphrenchyma, from Mistleto, having a moniliform appearance. Figs. 23, 


24,25. Spiral, annular, and reticulated cells, from Mistleto (Viscum album). Fig. 26. 
Scalariform and dotted cell, from Elder (Sambucus nigra). 


* A millimetre is about 1-25th of an English inch. 


FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS. 7 


abound in many of the Orchidaceous plants, as Oncidium and 
Pleurothallis ruscifolia, also in the garden Balsam, in the leaf of the 
moss called Sphagnum, and in the Cactus tribe. They are also found in 
the inner covering of anthers, in the spore-cases of many of the lower 
tribes of plants, and in the coats of the seeds'of Acanthodium spica- 
tum, Sphenogyne speciosa, Calempelis scaber, and Cobza. The spiral 
filaments sometimes exhibit peculiar movements when placed in water. 

The fibre in these cells varies from about seo0 to rots of an inch 
in diameter ; it is solid, and presents either a circular, an elliptic, or 
a quadrangular section. The coils of the fibre sometimes separate 
from each other, and become broken up and united in various ways, 
so as to appear in the form of rings, bars, or dots, thus giving rise to 
annular (fig. 24), reticulated (fig. 25), scalariform and dotted cells 
(fig. 26), which constitute the spurious or imperfect Inenchyma of 
authors. Annular cells are met with in Opuntia, and in the endothe- 
cium of Cardamine pratensis ; reticulated cells, caused by fibres forming 
a sort of mesh or network, are seen in the wing of the seed of Swietenia, 
the pericarp of Picridium tingitanum, the leaf of Sanseviera guineensis, 
and the pith of Rubus odoratus and Erythrina Corallodendron, as well 
as in the endothecium of the sea-pink and the butterwort. 

In certain parts of plants cells are placed closely together, and 
touch each other by flat surfaces, fillmg up space completely, and 
leaving no intervals; they then form the perfect Parenchyma of 
Schleiden (figs. 8, 27). In lax tissues, however, the. cells retain a 
rounded shape, and then touch each other at certain points only, 
leaving intervals of various sizes and shapes, and forming the tniper- 
fect Parenchyma of Schleiden (figs. 7, 28). These intervals, when of 
moderate size and continuous, are called intercellular passages or canals ; 


when large, irregular, and circumscribed, intercellular spaces, or Lacune 
(fig. 16, 22). 


Fig. 27. Fig. 28. 


A difference of opinion prevails as to the mode in which cells 
are united together. Some maintain that the cell-walls in the young 


Fig. 27. Cellular tissue, from pith of Elder. Fig. 28. Porous merenchyma, from 
Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorwm). u, Intercellular canal. 


8 CONTENTS OF CELLS. 


state unite together directly, and become agglutinated, more or less, 
according to their places of contact. Others, as Mohl and Henfrey, 
hold that there is an intercellular matter which acts as a sort of 
cement, or Collenchyma (xéAAa, glutinous matter). In sea-weeds, the 
cells, of which the entire plant is composed, are placed at a distance 
from each other (fig. 29, aa), and the intervals are filled up by this 
intercellular substance (fig. 29, b), which thus forms a large part of 
their bulk. In the higher classes of plants, when the cells touch 
each other, the layer of intercellular matter must be very thin, except 
in the intercellular canals or spaces. Mirbel looks upon it as the 


Fig. 29, Fig. 30. 


remains of the mucilaginous fluid in which the cells were originally 
developed, and which has become thickened to a greater or less de- 
gree, as in the root of the Date (fig. 30), where aaa indicate the 
cells, and 66 b the interposed substance. 


2.—Contents of Cells. 


The external membrane of cells is composed of the unazotised 
substance called Cellulose, and in their interior a mucilaginous matter 
is contained, which undergoes changes in the progress of growth. 
This mucilaginous matter is the Protoplasm (aearog, first, and rAdoue, 
formative matter) of Mohl, the Cytoblastema (xiros, a cell, and 
Brdéornwx, growth) of some authors. It is at first homogeneous, but 
ultimately assumes a granular form. The appearance of granules may be 
regarded as the earliest evidence of the formative process. Protoplasm 
contains nitrogen in its composition, or is azotised, and it assumes a 
brownish colour when acted upon by iodine. It forms a mucilaginous 
layer on the inner surface of the cell-wall, and thus gives rise to the 
internal utricle of Harting and Milder, the primordial utricle of Mirbel. 
This inner membrane is visible in the young state of the cell, and under 
the action of tincture of iodine may be made to contract and separate 
from the outer cell-wall. It may also be rendered distinct by the action 
of strong hydrochloric acid, and by diluted sulphuric acid. When the 
process of lignification or thickening has advanced, this utricle dis- 
appears, in consequence of becoming incorporated with the cell-wall. 

Fig. 29. Cellular tissue of Sea-weed (Himanthalia lorea). aa, Cells. 0, Intercellular 


matter. Fig. 30. Central portion of young root of Date. aaa, Thickened cells. bbb, 
ntercellular substance of Mirbel. 


CONTENTS OF CELLS. 9 


When small portions of vegetable tissue are soaked in Beale’s Car- 
mine solution, only those cells containing protoplasm appear stained. 
The nuclei and granules in the protoplasm seem alone to be affected. 
The depth of colouring depends on the number of granules in the 
protoplasm and the size of the nuclei. 

In certain cells the membranous wall consists throughout life 
of a thin layer of cellulose, while in others it becomes thickened by 
the deposition of matter on its inner side. These secondary deposits 
are sometimes of a gelatinous consistence ; at other times they are 
hard. In the latter case, the matter is looked upon as a modification 
of cellulose, and has received the name of kgnin (lignum, wood), or 
sclerogen (oxAngds, hard, and yevvdew, to generate). On making sec- 
tions of such cells, in a transverse (fig. 31) or longitudinal direction 
(fig. 32), the successive layers may be seen 
either continuous all round, or leaving parts 
of the membrane uncovered. Cells of this 
kind are well seen under the microscope in 
thin sections of the hard shell of the Coco-nut, 
and Attalea funifera, and of the hard seed 
of the Ivory Palm. In all cell deposits there 
is a tendency to a spiral arrangement. When 
the deposition is uniform over the whole surface, this arrangement 
may not’ be detected; but when interruptions take place, then the 
continued coil becomes evident. In spiral cells the fibre seems to be 
formed before the full development of the cell, the coils of the fibre 
being at first in contact, and afterwards separated, whereas the second- 
ary thickening layers are deposited after the cell is fully formed. Ac- 
cording to the observations of Barry, Agardh, and others, the filamentous 
origin of fibrous structures is recognisable in the earliest stage of cell 
growth, and the interweaving of these filaments constitutes the cell-walls. 

Each cell is found to contain at some period of its existence a 
small body called a nucleus (fig. 33,» » 2), in which 
there are often one or two, rarely more, minute spots 
called nucleoli, The nucleus is of a round or oval 
shape, granular and dark, or homogeneous and trans- 
parent, bearing some resemblance to a smaller in- 
ternal cell. Nucleoli are not always present. They are 
either vesicles and granules contained in the nucleus, 
or minute cavities in its substance. The latter view 
is supported by Barry, who holds that a peculiar substance called hyaline 
(Uadros, glass) is developed there, which, according to him, is the origin 
of the nucleus. The nucleus is situated at different parts of the cell. 
It is either free in its cavity, or connected with its walls by mucilaginous 


Fig. 31. 


Fig. 33. 


Fig. 31. Transverse section of cells from pulp of Pear. Fig. 32. Longitudinal section 
ofthe same. Fig. 33. Nucleated cells from the Beet. 


10 CONTENTS OF CELLS. 


threads, or embedded in the substance of the membrane. The addi- 
tion of acetic acid often renders the nucleus distinct. 

STARCHY MATTER is found in cells, which constitute the tissue 
called by Morren, Perenchyma (area, a sac). Starch exists in the 
form of granules, which are minute cells (perhaps nuclei, as Miilder 
states), in which nutritious matter is stored up. This matter may be 
deposited in such a way as to give the appearance of strie surrounding 
a point or hilum, which is considered as an opening into the cell, 
Allman says the starch granule consists of a series of lamella, in the 
form of closed hollow shells, included one within another, the most 
internal inclosing a minute cavity filled with amorphous amylum. 
The concentric strie visible on the granule indicate the surface of 
contact of these lamelle, and the so-called nucleus of Fritsche corre- 
sponds to the central cavity. The external and internal lamelle differ 
in consistency, and in other conditions of integration. The lamelle are 
deposited centripetally. The starch granule differs from a true vege- 
table cell in the absence of a proper nucleus, and in presenting no 
chemical difference between the membrane and the contents. The 
grains of starch are well seen in the cells of the potato (fig. 34). In 


Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. 


wheat (fig. 35), and in maize (fig. 36), the form of the granules, and 
the successive layers of deposit, are also seen. The grains in the 
stem of Nuphar luteum show the centripetal formation, that is, the 
increase by layers deposited within each other. The addition of iodine 
causes the grains of starch to assume a blue colour, and marks the 
difference between them and the walls of the cell containing them. 
Schleiden affirms that starch is the most widely diffused substance in 
the vegetable kingdom ; its presence may be regarded as in a measure 
indicating the age of the cell, ‘With its formation in many cells, we 
have a limitation of vital activity, by which the organism is brought 
into such a condition that the power of germination may be preserved 
for a very long period. 

Crystats are found in the interior of cells. They probably owe 
their origin to the union between the acids produced or taken up by 
plants, as oxalic, phosphoric, malic and carbonic, and the alkaline 
matter, as lime and potash, absorbed from the soil and circulating in 
the sap. The crystals usually lie loose in the cells (figs. 37, 38) ; 
but they are sometimes found in a distinct tissue called a cystolith 
(xvoris, bladder, and Asoc, a stone), suspended from the wall of a 


Fig. 34. Cell of Potato, containing striated starch grains. Fig. 35. Grains of starch of 
Wheat. Fig. 36. Grains of starch of Maize. 


CONTENTS OF CELLS. 11 


large cell (fig. $9)—filling what some have supposed to be the base 
of an undeveloped hair. The crystals are of different 
sizes and forms. Occasionally, a single large crystal 
nearly fills a cell, as in the outer scales of the onion, 
but in general there are numerous erystals united to- 
gether. Sometimes the crystals radiate from a common 
point (figs. 40, £1), and form a conglomerate mass ; at 
other times they lie parallel, and have the appearance of 
bundles of fine needles (figs. 37, 38). To the latter, the 
name of Raphides (2a2/:, a needle), or acicular crystals 
(acus, a needle), was originally given. It has been said ; 
that these crystals exist also in the intercellular spaces; 9 PS *- 

but this seems to depend on the mode in which the section of the plant 
is made, for when raphidian cells (fig. 42, r r r r) are situated close to 
a lacuna, the crystals may easily be pushed into it accidentally by the 
knife. Raphides consist principally of phosphate and oxalate of lime. 
They abound in some plants, especially Cacti, and they are common in 
Squill, and in the officinal Turkey Rhubarb, the latter of which owes 
its grittiness to their presence. One hundred grains of rhubarb root 


Fig. 41. 


contain about 30 or 40 grains of oxalate of lime crystals. Acicular 
crystals may be easily seen by making a section of any Liliaceous 
plant. as the hyacinth, and spreading the thick mucilaginous matter 
of the cells on the field of the microscope. Radiating raphides are 
seen in the sepals of Geranium robertianum and lucidum ; the crystals, 
consisting of oxalate of lime, fill the whole of the cells in the middle 
of the sepal, their size varying from sv'sv to rs'ow of an inch. Quekett 
found them in all the species of Pelargonium and Monsonia that he 
examined, and he thinks that they are as general as the beautiful 
markings in the cuticle of the petals of these plants. Clustered crystals 
have been detected in Malvaceous plants, under the cuticle of the 

Fig. 37. Cellular tissue of Arum maculatum.  ¢, Cells containing chlorophyll. rr, 
Raphidian cells Fig. 38. Cells of Arum maculatum. Clusters of raphides in a large 
oval cell surrounded by smaller cells. Fig. 39. Cellular tissue from leaf of Ficus elastica 
c, A large cell. 7, Cystolith, an agglomeration of erystals (spheraphides) suspended in a 
sac by atube,# «, Utricles filled with grains of chlorophylL__Fig, 40. Cells of Beet with 
conglomerate radiating crystals, a. >, Separate erysials of different forms. Fig. 41. Con- 
glomerate crystals of oxalate of lime from Rhubarb. 


12 CONTENTS OF CELLS. 


Marvel of Peru, and in the sepals of the strawberry ; numerous 
_ acicular crystals have been observed in Fuchsias, and solitary cubical 
crystals in the superficial cells of the sepals of 
Prunella vulgaris and Dianthus Caryophyllus. 
In the outer covering of the seed of Ulmus 
campestris, the sinuous boundaries of the | 
compressed cells are traced out completely by 
minute rectangular crystals adhering to each 
other. Unger detected oxalate of lime crystals 
in Ficus indica and Calathea zebrina. Accord- 
ing to Dr. Gulliver the presence or absence of 
raphides may be used for distinguishing certain 
natural orders. He says that Balsaminacez, Onagraceze, and Galiacez, 
may be specially called Raphis-bearing orders. In the epidermal cells of 
many Urticacez concretions of carbonate of lime (cystoliths) are found.* 

CHLOROPHYLL (yAweds, green, and @uAAov, a leaf), or the green 
colouring matter of plants, floats in the fluid of cells, accompanied by 
starch grains. It differs from starch in being confined to the super- 
ficial parenchyma, and in being principally associated with the phe- 
nomena of active vegetable life. It has a granular form (fig. 39, w ; 
42, c), is soluble in alcohol, and is developed under the agency of light. 
It is well seen in leaves, Under the influence of darkness it under- 
goes changes which are seen in the phenomenon of blanching or etiola- 
tion. Its granules are usually separate, but sometimes they unite in 
masses (fig. 37, c). Stokes says that the chlorophyll of land plants 
consists of four substances, two green and two yellow, all possessing 
highly distinctive optical properties. The green substances yield 
solutions exhibiting a strong red phosphorescence; the yéllow sub- 
stances do not. These substances are soluble in the same solvents. 
Green sea-weeds agree with land plants. Red sea-weeds in addition 
to chlorophyll contain a red colouring matter of an albuminoid nature. 
Chlorophyll is important in a physiological point of view. It is 
developed under the influence of light, and the granules exhibit 
marked movements, as have been observed in the leaves of some 
mosses. Chlorophyll gives a black band in the red of the spectrum. 
Green vesicles or granules allied to chlorophyll are found in some of 
the lower animals, as Hydra viridis. Other kinds of colouring matter 
are also produced during vegetation, and occur in the form of fluids or 
of granules in the interior of cells, , 

Oris and REsINoUS MATTER are found in the interior of cells, as well 
as in intercellular spaces. The cavities containing them are denomi- 
nated cysts, reservoirs of oil, and receptacles of secretions, They are easily 


Fig. 42. Cellular tissue of Colocasia odora. cc, Cells with grains of chlorophyll. 
rrr, Raphidian cells projecting into a lacuna or intercellular space. 


Fig. 42. 


* See Papers by Dr. Gulliver, in the Annals of Natural History, 3d ser, xv. et seq. 


DEVELOPMENT OF CELLS. 13 


detected in the rind of the orange and lemon, and in the leaves of Myr- 
taceze and Hypericacese, When small portions of the fresh leaf of Schinus 
Molle are thrown on water, the resinous matter, by its rapid escape, 
causes them to move by jerks, and the surface of the fluid is covered 
with the exudation. In the bark of the Fir tribe there are cavities 
with thick walls containing turpentine, In the fruit of Umbelliferz, 
canals occur called vittce (vitta, a head-band, from surrounding the fruit), 
containing oil. 

Arr-CELLS, or cavities containing air, consist either of circumscribed 
spaces surrounded by cells (fig. 43), or of lacune formed: 
by the rupture or disappearance of the septa between a 
number of contiguous cells, as in grasses, Equisetum, 
Umbelliferous plants, and pith of Walnut. They are 
often large in aquatic plants, and serve the purpose of 
floating them, as in Pontederia, Trapa, Aldrovanda, and 
sea-weeds. The air-cells of Limnocharis Plumieri are 
beautiful objects. 


3.—Development and Functions of Cells, 


The subject of Cell-development, or Cytogenesis (xirog, a cell, and 
' yéveors, origin), has given rise to great diversity of opinion among 
physiologists. We have already noticed that in the interior of grow- 
ing cells there is a mucilaginous matter called protoplasm, which con- 
tains granules. The first lining of the cell-wall arising from the 
protoplasm, is the primordial utricle. It forms a sort of film around 
the protoplasm, and in certain cases it may supply the place of the 
proper cell-membrane. In the protoplasm cavities are sometimes seen 
filled with a watery sap, and called vacuoles. In the interior of the 
young cell may be seen a nucleus or cytoblast (xdros, a cell, and 
BAaorés, a germ), (fig. 33), composed of protoplasmic matter, and con- 
taining granules, called nucleoli. 

The nucleus often becomes attached to one side of the utricle. It 
is sometimes, however, retained in the centre of the cell by means of 
cords of protoplasm, which ultimately form the boundaries of vacuoles, 
or spaces containing fluid. Most physiologists think that the cyto- 
blast is not specially concerned in cytogenesis, but only takes part in 
the various chemical and other changes which occur in the contents of 
the cell during its growth and nutrition. 

It is supposed by some that cells may be formed by the simple 
ageregation of granular matter, which becomes enveloped in a mem- 
brane, and thus forms a cell with granular contents. Dr. Bennett 
advocates a molecular view of cell formation. He traces cytogenesis 
to the presence of histogenetic (iorés, veil, web, or tissue, and yéveors, 
origin) molecules, which unite together to form the cell-wall. New 


Fig. 43, Air-cells in Ranunculus aquatilis, ’ 


14 DEVELOPMENT OF CELLS. 


cells are also produced by the division of the primordial utricle, 

which gradually folds inwards about the middle, forming an annular 

constriction, and ultimately a complete separation of the utricle into 

two parts. Each of these afterwards becomes covered by a permanent 

cell-wall. This is seen in Palmella (fig. 44). Henfrey has supported 

this view by observations made on the hairs of 

a S Tradescantia and of Achimenes grandiflora, in which 

@ ~®) he has traced the gradual formation a oar 

Unger traces in Alge the development of new cells 

ZOD) SS: by a fissiparous (fissus, split, and pario, I produce) 

Fig. 44. or merismatic (wegisudc, division) separation of the 

old ones into two or four divisions, in the same 

way as occurs in pollen, In some of the most simple plants, multi- 

plication takes place by a sort of sprouting of new cells from old 

ones, like buds from a stalk: the portion thus shooting out being 

afterwards separated from the parent plant by a partition. This is 
seen in Torula, the yeast plant. 

The various theories of cell-development (cytogenesis) may be re- 
duced to the following: 1. Formation of cells in protoplasm, existing 
in the interior of a cell; 2. Formation of cells in protoplasm, not 

P contained in a cell, but isolated; 3. Formation of 

i cells by merismatic division of the primordial utricle, 
or protoplasmic lining of the cell; 4. Formation of 
cells by a process of budding. Cells are also formed 
by what has been called Conjugation, or by the union 
of two cells, which by their mutual action give origin 
to a third. This is particularly seen in some of 
the lower Algze, such as Zygnema (fig. 45). 

The formation of cells goes on with great rapidity, 
especially in the case of fungi. From an approxi- 
mative calculation, it is found that in Bovista gigantea 
20,000 new cells are formed every minute. Ward 
has noticed a similar occurrence in Phallus impudicus. 
In warm climates, at the commencement of the wet 
- season, the production of cells in the higher classes 
of plants proceeds with astonishing rapidity. 

In connection with the propagation of cellular plants much discus- 
sion has taken place as to the existence of their germs in the atmo- 
sphere, which, coming in contact with fluids of various kinds, are said 
to give rise to different species of fungi, such as Torula, Penicillium, , 


Fig. 44. Unicellular Alga (Palmella eruenta). The cell, a, absorbs, secretes, and forms 
new cells, by a process of fissiparous division, first into two, b b, and then into four parts, c. 
Fig. 45. Two filaments of a cellular plant (Zygnema), uniting together by means of 
tubes, p. The plant consists of a filament formed by a series of cells united in a single row. 
The cells, c c, appear to have different functions. Cell, s, produced by conjugation. 


DEVELOPMENT OF CELLS. 15 


Bacterium, etc. The doctrine of biogenesis (Gos, life), panspermism 
(waxy, all, onécwa, seed), or the development of cells in fluid from germs 
introduced from the atmosphere, has been advocated by Pasteur and 
his followers ; while the doctrine of abiogenesis («, privative, and Bios, 
life), heterogenesis (fregos, different, diverse), or what is called spon- 
taneous generation, has been supported by Pouchet and his followers, 
All that is known in regard to the growth of the lower class of plants, 
and their appearance in islands recently elevated by volcanic forces in 
the midst of the ocean, seems, independently of laboratory experi- 
ments, to favour Pasteur’s views.* 
The organised cells of plants appear to be the more immediate seats 
of the various changes which constitute the functions of nutrition and 
reproduction. In cellular plants they are the only form of elementary 
tissue produced throughout the whole of life. They absorb nourish- 
ment through their walls, elaborate secretions, and give rise to new 
individuals. In the newly-formed tissue of vascular plants, cells 
alone at first exist. Fluid matters are absorbed by them, and are 
transmitted from cell to cell by a process of transudation. The 
name of Endosmose (évdov, inwards, wdw, 4, I seek), and Exosmose 
" (a, outwards), were given by Dutrochet to the process of transuda- 
tion, which leads to the motions of fluids of different densities placed 
on opposite sides of animal and vegetable membranes. ‘This process 
appears to be of universal occurrence in plants, being concerned in 
the movements of the sap, the opening of seed-vessels, and many 
other phenomena, The capsule of the Elaterium, for instance, opens 
with great force by a process of endosmose going on in the cells, and 
such is also the case with that of the Balsam. The power which 
cells possess of absorbing fiuids is well seen in sea-weeds, which after 
being dried can easily be made to assume their natural appearance 
by immersion in fluids. It is also observable in the spores of the 
Equisetum, the teeth of Mosses, the seed-vessels of some Fig-mari- 
golds, the Rose of Jericho (Anastatica), and some Lycopodia. 

Various organic secretions, which are necessary for growth and 
nourishment, are formed by the internal membrane of cells. It is in 
cells that the azotised and unazotised matters are deposited, which 
are afterwards applied to the purposes of vegetable life. In them 
we meet with the protein compounds, albumin, fibrin, and casein, 
consisting of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with proportions 
of sulphur and phosphorus ; as well as starch, gum, sugar, oil, and 
colouring matters, in which no nitrogen occurs. Some of the organic 
matters found in plants have been artificially formed by chemical 
means, while others have as yet only been met with in the living 
organism, Spiral cells sometimes contain air. 


* See Professor Lister on Bacteria, in Medical Journal, October 1873; and Dr. Petti- 
grew’s Lecture on Physiology, in Lancet, 15th November 1873. 


16 FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF VESSELS. 


Section II.—Vascutar TIssvE. 
1, Form and Arrangement of Vessels. 


VascuLar Tissvs, or Angienchyma (c&yyos, a vessel), consists of 
tubes, whose length greatly exceeds their breadth. These may be 
formed of membrane only, or of membrane altered in various ways by 
deposits of fibre, or of thickening matter. 

Frsrovs Tusss, or Lignsous Tissue, Pleurenchyma (wAeuged, a 
rib, from its firmness), (fig. 46), consists of tubes, or, according to 
some, elongated cells, of a fusiform (fusws, a spindle) or spindle-like 
shape (fig. 3), having their walls thickened so as to give great firm- 
ness. This form of tissue does not exist in cellular plants. Some 
have called this tissue Prosenchyma, a term, however, generally ap- 
plied to shortened fusiform cells only. Pleurenchyma- 
tous vessels lie close together, overlap each other, and, 
by their union, give strength and solidity to the plant. 
Their membrane becomes thickened by successive deposits 
of layers of cellulose and sclerogen, and in a transverse 
section the tubes present the appearance of concentric 
x circles, occasionally with intervals, where the ligneous 
ei matter is deficient (fig. 47). The wood of trees is made 
: up of fibres or tubes of this kind, and they are found in 
-lf|:| |:| the inner bark, and in the veins of leaves. The fibrous 
tissue may be separated from the cellular parts of plants 
by maceration. In this way Flax and Hemp are pro- 
cured, as well as the Bast used for mats. The strength 
of the fibres of different plants varies. Thus, New Zea- 
:) land Flax, the produce of Phormium tenax, is superior 
in tenacity to Common Hemp; while the latter, in its 
turn, excels Common Flax, as well as Pita Flax, which 
is the produce of Agave americana. Linen is formed 
from woody tissue. Cotton, on the other hand, consists 
of elongated cells or hairs, the membrane of which be- 
comes contracted in the process of drying, so as to appear 
twisted when viewed under the microscope. By this cha- 
racter mummy cloth was shown to be composed of 
linen. Fibrous tissue, in fabric, forms muslin, lace, etc. 
(some fine Indian muslins only are formed from this 
tissue ; other muslins are made of cotton); when 
reduced to small fragments they constitute the pulp 
whence paper is made, 


ow, 


1 
» 
Pry 


ay ono 


et 
fas EC 


Fig. 46. Fibres of Pleurenchyma, from Clematis Vitalba. Fig. 47. Transverse section 
of the same. 


FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF VESSELS. 


17 


In their ordinary form, Pleurenchymatous tubes have no definite 
markings on their walls; but in some instances markings present 


themselves in the form of simple discs (fig. 48), 
or of discs with smaller circles in the centre 
(fig. 49). These dises occur in the wood of Firs, 
Pines, and Winter’s bark, which has received 
the name of glandular or punctated woody tissue. 
The markings are formed by concave depres- 
sions on the outside of the walls of contiguous 
tubes, which are closely applied to each other, 
forming lenticular cavities between the vessels, 
like two watch-glasses in apposition, and when 
viewed by transmitted light they appear like 
discs (fig. 48). In the centre of the depression 
there is a canal, often funnel-shaped, and the 


part of the tube corresponding to it being thus 


49, 50. 


thinner than the surrounding texture, gives the aspect of a smaller 
circle in the centre (fig. 49). When a thin section is made through 


two parallel lines of punctations, the slits or fissures are 
seen which give rise to the appearances mentioned (fig. 
50). That these markings are cavities between the 
fibres was proved by Quekett in the case of fossil pine 
wood, where he separated lenticular masses of solid matter 
from the discs. There is sometimes observed a thicken- 
ing layer, in the form of a spiral fibre, surrounding the 
discs more or less completely, as in the yew. The discs 
are usually arranged in single rows, but they occur also 
in double and triple rows, as in Araucaria, where the 
markings alternate with each other. 

Frgro-VascuLaR Tissvx, or Trachenchyma (trachea, 
windpipe ; rgayvs, rough), is formed of membranous 
tubes tapering at each end, less firm than Pleurenchyma, 
and either having a fibre coiled up spirally in their in- 
terior, or having the membrane marked with rings, bars, 
or dots, arranged in a more or less spiral form. 

TRUE SPIRAL VESSELS (spirotdea, trachec), constituting 
the typical form, present themselves as elongated tubes 
clustered together, overlapping each other at their conical 
extremities, and having a spiral fibre or fibres surrounding 
the interior of the cylinder (fig. 51). Their outer mem- 
brane is thin, and consists of cellulose, At the point 


bl 58. 


Fig. 48. Woody tubes, with circular spots where the membrane is thin, Bignonia. Fig. 49. 
Punctated woody tissue, with double circles or dises, from common Scotch fir. Fig. 50. Lon- 
gitudinal section of the same, showing the union between the fibres, and the mode in which the 
circles are formed. Fig. 51. Two spiral vessels united. Fig. 52. Simple trachea, with fibre 
uncoiled. Fig. 53. Spiral vessel with a ribband of united fibres (Pleiotrachea),from the Banana, 


Cc 


18 FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF VESSELS. 


where they overlap, it is sometimes absorbed, so as to allow direct com- 
munication between the vessels. The fibre or spiral filament is 
generally single, forming simple trachew (fig. 52); but sometimes 
numerous fibres, varying from two to more than twenty, are united 
together, as in the banana, assuming the aspect of a broad ribband 
(fig. 53), and constituting Pleiotrachea (whe/wy, more), The fibre is 
elastic, and can be unrolled. This can be seen by taking the leaf of 
a Pelargonium, and after making a superficial cut round the stalk, 
pulling the parts gently asunder, when the fibres will appear like the 
threads of a cobweb. 

Spiral vessels were first noticed as early as 1661, by Henshaw. 
They occur principally in the higher classes of plants, and are well 
seen in annual shoots, as in Asparagus ; in 
the stems of Bananas and Plantains, where 
the fibres may be pulled out in handfuls, 
and used as tinder; in many aquatics, as 
Nelumbium and Nymphea; and in Lili- 
aceous plants. In hard woody stems they 
are principally found in the sheath sur- 
rounding the pith, and they are traced 
from it into the leaves. They are rarely 
found in the wood, bark, or pith. Spiral 
vessels occasionally exhibit a branched ap- 
pearance. This may arise from the union 
of separate vessels in an angular or jointed 
manner, as where a leaf or branch is given 
off (fig. 54, wa), or it may depend on a 
regular division of the fibres, as is seen in the Mistleto, House-leek, 
and Gourd (fig. 55). 

The fibre is on the inside of the membrane. Quekett has shown 
this in silicified spiral vessels, where the mark of the 
spital was on the outside of the mineral matter filling the 
tube. The fibre usually turns from left to right, if we 
suppose the observer placed in the axis of the tube (fig. 
56), or from right to left, if we suppose him looking at 
the vessel in its natural position. The fibre retains its 
direction throughout the length of the vessel. When 
| examined under the microscope there is often the appear- 

Figs. ance of the crossing of fibres (fig. 56), in consequence of 

56. 57. the transparency of the membrane, and the observer seeing 
the fibre on each side of the vessel at the same time. In twining 
plants, the direction of the fibre does not always correspond with 


Fig. 54. Fig. 58. 


Fig. 54. Spiral vessels, united so as to have a branched appearance. Fig. 55. Branch- 
ing fibre, from spiral vessels of Gourd (Cucurbita Pepo). Fig. 56. Spiral vessels. Coils 
seen on both sides. Fig. 57. Coils of fibre, much separated in trachea of Gourd. 


FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF VESSELS. 19 


that of the stem. The coils of the spiral fibre may be close together 
(fig. 52), or be separated (fig. 57). Sometimes they become united 
together, and to the membrane of the tube, so that they cannot be 
unrolled. Such vessels are called closed trachem, or closed ducts, and 
are-seen in ferns. 

Fatsz orn Spurious TRACHEA, the ducts of some authors, are 
vessels in which the internal fibre does not form a complete spiral 
coil. The chief varieties are annular, reticulated, and scalariform 
vessels, or ducts. In annular vessels (annulus, a ring), the fibres 


—- 
—: 
po 

— 
= : 
= 
— = 
= = 
= = 
= = 
= 
F— 4 
= 
= : 
= = 
= = 
= 
= 
a, 
3 

Fig. 58. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 64. Fig. 63. 


form complete rings round the tubes (fig. 58). They resemble the 
trachese of animals more than spiral vessels do. The rings are by no 
means regular ; they may be horizontal or inclined, simple or forked 
(fig. 59), placed near to each other or separated by considerable 
intervals, the intermediate spaces being sometimes occupied by a 
fibre of an elongated spiral form, which is continuous with the rings 
or distinct from them (fig. 60). All these forms are easily recognised 
in the common Balsam. Occasionally, the ring becomes very much 
thickened in a direction perpendicular to the walls of the vessel, so as 
to leave only a small space in the centre, as in some of the Cactus 
tribe. When separate fibres cross each other, forming a kind of net- 
work on the walls of the tubes (fig. 61), the vessels become reticulated 

Figs. 58, 59, 60. Annular vessels from the stem of the Common Balsam. Fig. 61. 
Spiral vessel. Wide coil, and fibre dividing. Fig. 62. Vessel showing rings of fibre and 


dots. Fig. 63. Scalariform vessel from the Vine. Fig. 64. Prismatic scalariform 
vessel from Royal Fern (Osmunda regalis). 


20 FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF VESSELS. 


(reticulum, a net); and the name dotted is sometimes applied when 
the fibre is so broken up as to leave small isolated portions adhering 
to the membrane (fig. 62). In scalariform vessels (scala, a ladder), 
there are short horizontal lines or bars, composed of fibre, arranged 
along the sides of the tubes, at nearly equal distances, like the steps 
of a ladder, and presenting a striated ‘appearance. In some cases, as 
in the Vine (fig. 63), they are composed of tubes united to each other 
by thin, broad, oblique extremities ; at other times they taper like 
spiral vessels. They generally assume a prismatic form, the angles 
being unmarked by lines, as is seen in Ferns (fig. 64). 

Pirrep VesseLs.—Another kind of vessel common in plants is the 
pitted vessel, so called from the appearance of pits or depressions on its 
surface. The tissue formed by pitted vessels has received the name 
of Vasiform tisswe, Pitted tissue, Bothrenchyma, or Taphrenchyma (Bébgos 
or régeos, a pit), The vessels are of large size, and are easily observed 
in the Vine (fig. 65), Sugar Cane, Bamboo, Gourd 
(fig. 116 ter), and other plants, in which the sap 
circulates rapidly. They consist of cylinders more 
or»less elongated, in which the thickening matter is 
so deposited as to leave part of the membrane un- 
covered, thus giving rise to the porous or pitted 
appearance. The uncovered portions of membrane 
are sometimes absorbed in old 
vessels, and a direct communica- 
tion is established between them. 
The pits or so-called pores have 
sometimes a bordered aspect, 
which, according to Schleiden, 
depends on air contained inthe 
cavities between contiguous ves- 
sels. Pitted or porous vessels 
are usually united to each other 
by a broad and often oblique 
septum. 

This kind of vessel occasion- 
ally presents a beaded appearance, as if formed by pitted cells, with 
distinct constrictions at their point of union (fig. 67). This arti- 
culated Bothrenchyma is by some considered as a form of cellular 
tissue (fig. 22). To vessels exhibiting contractions of this kind, 
whether spiral or pitted, the terms moniliform (monile, a necklace), or 
vermiform (vermis, a worm), have been applied; and the tissue com- 


& ff 
ao y 


Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fi 


Fig. 65. Pitted vessel (Bothrenchyma) from the Vine, showing its connection with woody 
fibres, and the broad septa or partitions of the vessel itself. Fig. 66. Pitted vessel from 
Traveller’s joy (Clematis Vitalba). Fig. 67. Moniliform pitted vessels from the Common 
Balsam. : 


. 


‘ DEVELOPMENT OF VESSELS. 21 


posed of these moniliform vessels has been denominated phileboidal 
(pAzp, PAEBic, a vein). 

Laticirerovs Vussets (latex, fluid, and fero, I bear) form the 
tissue called Cinenchyma (xwéw, I move, from movements observed in 
their contents). They are the Milk-vessels, and the Proper vessels 
of old authors, and have been particularly described by Schultz. They 
consist of long, branched, homogeneous tubes, having a diameter of 
about rico of an inch, which unite or anastomose freely (fig. 68), 
thus resembling the vessels of animals. At first the tubes are very 
slender and uniformly cylindrical (fig. 69 a); but afterwards they 
enlarge and present irregular distensions at different parts of their 
course (figs. 69 6, 70), giving rise to an articulated appearance. Their 
walls vary in thickness, and are not marked by any depressions or 


Fig. 68. Fig. 70. 


fibres. These vessels are met with in the inner bark, and they con- 
tain a granular fluid called Jutec, which is at first transparent, but 
often becomes of a white, yellow, or reddish colour, Some suppose 
that these vessels are simply intercellular canals lined with a con- 
tinuous membrane, containing a peculiar fluid. The tissue can be 
easily examined in the India-rubber tree, in Dandelion, Lettuce, and 
Celandine, and in various species of Ficus and Euphorbia. 


2. Development and Functions of Vessels, 
? The simple cell is the form in which vegetable tissue first makes its 
appearance. It is the primary form of all the textures subsequently 


Fig. 68. Laticiferous vessels (Cinenchyma) from Euphorbia dulcis. Figs. 69, 70. Vessels 
of Latex from Celandine (Chelidontum majus). 4 


22 _ FUNCTIONS OF VESSELS. 


produced in vascular plants. To the elongation of cells, and the 
deposition of thickening layers and fibres in their interior, the various 
vessels owe their origin. Thus when cells are elongated, as spindle- 
shaped tubes, and their walls are thickened and hardened by depo- 
sitions of ligneous matter, they give rise to Pleurenchyma ; and when 
elongated membranous tubes are strengthened by spiral fibres, the 
different kinds of Fibro-vascular tissue are produced. The spiral 
vessel may be considered as the type of the last-mentioned tissue, 
and all its varieties may be traced to different conditions in de- 
velopment of the fibre. In the case of some vessels, their forma- 
tion can be distinctly traced to cells placed end to 
end, the partitions between which have been ab- 
sorbed. The moniliform or beaded appearance often 
presented by the different kinds of vessels, more espe- 
cially the Pitted, plainly indicates this mode of for- 
mation. Occasionally cellular prolongations are seen 
in the interior of pitted vessels, giving rise to what 
has been called Tylosis (rbAos, swelling or protru- 

als" sion), It has been noticed in the vessels of Oak, 
Fig. 71. Chestnut, Walnut (fig. 71 a), Ash, Elm, ete. 

As in cells, so in vessels, the walls are composed of cellulose, and 
there are usually no visible perforations ; the communication between 
them taking place by imbibition or osmose. In some instances, 
when vessels are closely applied to each other, especially when they 
overlap, the membrane becomes absorbed, and direct communication 
takes place. This has been seen in spiral and pitted vessels, The 
pits or depressions on the walls of vessels, and the thinning of the 
tissue at particular points, appear to serve the purpose of allowing the 
rapid transmission of fluids. 

Pleurenchyma, in its early state, contains fluids, and conveys them 
from one part of the plant to another. In the progress of growth, the 
secondary deposits obliterate the vessels, as in the perfect or heart 
wood of ordinary trees. These deposits are often of a very hard 
nature, and assume particular colours in different kinds of trees. 
From the firmness of this tissue, it is well fitted to give solidity to 
the stems and to strengthen the leaves of plants. In Spiral vessels, 
the fibre adds to their elasticity, and keeps the tubes always pervious, 
The fibre, when once formed, does not increase much in thickness, and 
the secondary deposits do not obliterate the canal. Various opinions 
have prevailed regarding the contents of these vessels. The name 
Trachex, given by Grew and others, was partly from their structure, 
and partly from the idea that they contained air. The accurate 
experiments of Bischoff lead to the conclusion that the perfect spiral 


Fig. 71. Longitudinal section of the stem of a species of Walnut (Juglans cinerea), showing 
ylosis in pitted vessels, a. 


FUNCTIONS OF VESSELS. 23 


vessels convey air, which often contains an excess of oxygen in its 
composition. Hales showed that air was evolved from the vessels 
of the Vine when cut, and Decandolle thought that part of the air in 
these vessels was derived from the pores of the leaves. Hoffman 
from his experiments concludes that spiral vessels in the ordinary 
state contain air, but that when a large quantity of fluid is applied 
to the leaves it enters the spirals. Other authors look upon these 
vessels as conveying fluids, while a third set maintain that both air and 
fluids are present, the air being derived in part from decompositions 
going on in the interior of the plant. The other kinds of vascular 
tissue, and especially the pitted vessels, are the means by which the 
fluids taken up by the roots of plants are conveyed to the leaves, and 
to all parts of the plants. Laticiferous vessels contain, according to 
Schultz, the elaborated sap or latex on its return from the leaves to 
the bark. This latex is either transparent or opaque, colourless or 
coloured. These vessels, when examined with the microscope in the 
living plant, exhibit movements in their fluid contents of a peculiar 
kind, which will be considered under Cyclosis, 

The cell has been already shown to be the type of all the tissues of 
plants, and to be the basis of all vegetable structure. It is of equal im- 
portance as regards function. In the lowest plants, as the Palmella 
(Protococcus) nivalis, or the Alga found in red snow, and other species of 
Palmella (fig. 44), also in Nostoc and Hematococcus, cells constitute 
the whole substance, and perform all the functions of life ; they absorb 
and assimilate, thus performing the functions of nutrition and secretion, 
and they form new cells, thus reproducing individuals like them- 
selves. When a more complex structure exists, as in the higher tribes 
of plants, certain cells are appropriated for absorption, others are con- 
cerned in assimilation, and others in forming and receiving secretions. 
When a certain degree of solidity is required to support the stem, 
leaves, and flowers, ligneous matter is deposited, and bast fibres 
are formed. When the transmission of fluids and air is carried ou 
rapidly, the elastic fibres of the fibro-vascular tissue seem to keep the 
elongated cells and vessels pervious, and when the elaborated sap is 
conveyed continuously without interruption, anastomosing tubes occur 
in the form of laticiferous vessels. Cells and vessels are thus differ- 
entiated for the performance of special functions. 


TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF VEGETABLE TISSUES. 


A.—Cellular Tissue (Parenchyma), composed of membrane, or of membrane and 
fibre, having the form of vesicles whose length does not greatly exceed 
their breadth. 

1. Membranous Cellular Tissue ; cells formed by membrane alone, of varying 
thickness, but without markings on it ; when thickened and fusiform 
they constitute prosenchyma, composed of bast cells. 


24 ARRANGEMENT OF VEGETABLE TISSUES. 


2. Pitted Cellular Tissue; cells formed by membrane, which has been un- 
equally thickened in such a way as to leave rounded depressions at 
regular intervals. 

8. Fibrous Cellular Tissue (Inenchyma) ; cells formed by membrane and fibre ; 
occasionally formed by fibre alone. 

a, Spiral Cells, with a complete spiral fibre inside. 

b. Dotted Cells, with opaque spots, which are isolated portions of fibre. 

B.—Vascular or Tubular tissue (Angienchyma), composed of cylindrical tubes, 
which are more or less continuous, and usually overlap each other, or 
are united by broad oblique extremities. 

I. Membranous Vascular Tissue ; tubes formed by membrane alone, of varying 
thickness, but without markings on it. 

1. Ligneous Tissue (Pleurenchyma), composed of fusiform tubes with thick- 
ened walls, 

2. Laticiferous Tissue (Cinenchyma), composed of tubes which anastomose, 
often present irregular dilatations, and convey a peculiar fluid, called 
Latex ; this tissue may be formed by intercellular canals lined with a 
continuous membrane, 

II. Pitted Vascular Tissue ; tubes formed by membrane, with markings of a 
more or less circular form on their walls. 

1. Pitted Vessels (Bothrenchyma or Taphrenchyma) ; large pitted tubes 
usually ending in broad extremities, the markings on their walls de- 
pending on internal depressions. This tissue sometimes exhibits con- 
tractions at regular intervals, as if formed of cells placed end to end, 
and then is called Moniliform, or Beaded (Articulated Bothrenchyma). 

2. Punctated Vessels (Glandular Woody Tissue) ; fusiform woody tubes, 
the markings on the walls depending on external depressions, and pre- 
senting the appearance either of single or double circular discs. 

III. Fibro-Vascular Tissue, composed of tubes in which the thickening matter 
is deposited in the form of spiral fibres, rings, bars, or dots. 

a. Perfect Fibro-Vascular Tissue, composed of tubes, in which there is a 
complete spiral fibre. _ : 

1. Spiral Vessels (Trachez, Trachenchyma), in which the spiral fibre is 
elastic, and may be unrolled. 

2. Closed Spiral vessels, or closed Trachez, in which the spiral fibre is 
brittle, or its coils so united to each other, and to the membrane, 
that they cannot be unrolled. 

b. Imperfect Fibro-Vascular Tissue, composed of tubes marked by rings, 
lines, or dots, but without a complete fibre inside. 

1, Annular Vessels or Ducts, having fibres in the form of detached rings, 
which are occasionally united by portions of fibre. 

2. Reticulated Vessels, having fibres which cross each other, or are disposed 
so irregularly as to form a network. 

8. Scalariform Vessels, having their walls marked by isolated portions of 
fibre, in the form of ladder-like bars. 

4, Dotted Vessels, having their walls marked by isolated portions of fibre 
in the form of opaque dots or points. 

Any of the vessels included under the Fibro-vascular tissue may exhibit con- 

tractions at regular intervals, so as to become moniliform. 


_two layers ; a superficial called 


ORGANS OF NUTRITION OR VEGETATION. 25 


CHAPTER II, 


COMPOUND ORGANS FORMED BY THE TISSUES, 


Some plants consist of cells only, which continue throughout life to 

produce new cells, and to perform all the vital functions. The great 

mass of flowering plants, however, although originally cellular, pro- 

duce organs composed of cells and vessels variously arranged, and ° 
covered by an epidermis. These compound Organs may be divided 

into Nutritive, or those concerned in the nourishment of the plant ; 

and Reproductive, or those which are employed in the production of 

new individuals. The former consist of the stem, root, and leaves ; 

the latter, of the flower and fruit. 


Section ]L—Orcans or NUTRITION OR VEGETATION. 
1.—Structure, Arrangement, and Special Functions, 


Under this head will be considered the tissues of which the various 
nutritive organs are composed, the mode in which the parts are 
arranged, and the particular function which each of the ‘organs 
performs. 

‘ General Integument. 


GENERAL InTEGUMENT is the name given to the external cellular 
covering of plants. It can be 
‘easily detached from ?young 
leaves and stems, usually in 
the form of a colourless trans- 
parent membrane. By pro- 
longed maceration it has been 
shown to consist frequently of 


Cuticle or Pellicle (fig. 72 pp), 
and a deep layer, usually called *- 
the Epidermis (fig. 72 ee). Dr. 
Carpenter thinks that the term 
epidermis should be dropped 
as regards plants. . He applies 
the term cuticle to the general 
integument. 

Tur SUPERFICIAL CUTICLE 
or PELLicLE (cutis and pellis, 


Fig. 72, General integument of a leaf of Iris germanica, pp, The Cuticular pellicle with 
slits, f, lying upon the proper epidermis, ¢ e, formed of hexagonal cells, and furnished with 


stomata, ss, 


26 SUPERFICIAL CUTICLE OR PELLICLE. 


skin) is a very thin continuous membrane, which is spread over all 
parts except the openings called stomata ; in some cases entering these 
openings, and lining the cavities beneath them. 
It is formed from the epidermal cells below it. 
Treviranus, Schleiden, and Payen, consider 
it as a secretion on the outside of the cells, 
while Moh] and Henfrey look upon it as com- 
posed of the altered primary walls of the cells. 
Mitscherlich regards it as a corky substance, 
which preserves the humidity of the plant by 
preventing the evaporation of moisture. This 
substance is considered by him to be an im- 
portant constituent of the cell-wall. In many 
plants we meet with a corky epidermis com- 
posed of cells containing air. The cork cells 
a are flat and thin-walled; and in some cases 
Fig. 73. they can be peeled off, as in the cork oak. In 
fig. 73 the pellicle is represented as detached 
from the leaf of the cabbage, forming a sheath over the hairs, hhhh, 
and leaving slits, ss, corresponding to the openings of the stomata. 
The pellicle is perhaps similar to the intercellular substance sur- 
rounding cells, and to the definite mucus (collenchyma) which is seen 
in seaweeds (fig. 29 0). It is possible that this matter, in place of 
being produced on the outside of cells, may be formed within them, 
and ultimately deposited externally by passing through their parietes. 
On the inner surface of the pellicle the impressions of the epidermal 
cells are sometimes observed. The pellicle is the only layer of in- 
tegument which is present in aquatic plants, and in some of the lower 
trikes. 

THe EprperMis (é7/, upon, and dégwa, skin), (fig. 72 ¢ ¢), is ex- 
tended over all the parts of plants exposed to the air, except the 
stigma. The internal cavities of seed-bearing organs are lined by a 
delicate membrane, termed Epithelium (éq/, upon, 8&AAesv, to flourish). 
On the extremities of newly-formed roots the integument consists of 
loose cells, which are either the ordinary cellular tissue of the plant, 
or an imperfectly-formed epidermis, which has received the name 
of Epiblema (é/, upon, and BAyw«a, wound, as being the tissue which 
first covers wounds). This latter kind of tissue occupies the place of 
the epidermis, in the parts of plants which are always under water. 
The cells forming the sheath of young roots are often densely filled 
with granular protoplasm, and contain nuclei. They become coloured 
in Beale’s carmine solution, On the aerial roots of Orchidaceous 


Fig. 73. Pellicle of Cabbage, detached by maceration, covering the hairs, hhhh, and 
having openings, s s, corresponding to the stomata. 


EPIDERMIS. 27 


plants, there is an epidermal layer consisting of spiral cells (fig. 23), 
containing air. 

The epidermis is usually formed by a layer or layers of compressed 
cells, which assume a more or less flattened tabular shape, and have 
their walls bounded by straight 
or by fiexuous lines. Fig. 72 ee, 
represents an epidermis formed of 
regular hexagonal cells; fig. 75, 
one composed of irregular hexa- 
gons ; while in fig. 74 the bound- 
aries of the cells, e, are flexuous 
and wavy. The cells of the epi- 
dermis are so intimately united 
together, as to leave no inter- 
cellular spaces (fig. 77 ¢ ¢). 

The epidermis is sometimes 
thin and soft, at other times dense 
and hard. In the former case it 
may be easily detached from the 
subjacent cells; in the latter the sa 
cells have become thickened by de- ic 
posits, and sometimes the layers are so produced as to leave uncovered 
spots, which communicate with the interior of the cell by canals passing 
through the thickening layers, as in Cycas. In Rochea falcata (fig. 


Fig. 75. Fig. 76. © 


76), the epidermis, ¢ ¢, consists of two layers of cells—the outer ones 
large, the inner small. The epidermis of Agave and Hoya is thickened 
by numerous secondary deposits ; such is also the case with that of 
the branches of the mistleto. The cells of epidermis are usually 
filled with colourless fluid, but they sometimes contain resinous and 


Fig. 74. Epidermis, from lower surface of the leaf of Madder (Rubia tinctorum). e, Cell 
of the Epidermis. s, Stoma. Fig. 75. Epidermal layer, from upper surface of a leaf of 
Ranunculus aquatilis when growing out of water. ee, Epidermal cells. ssss, Stomata. 
Fig. 76. Vertical section of lower epidermis of the leaf of Rochea falcata. ¢¢, Double epider- 
mal layer, with very large external cells, small internal ones, pierced by a stoma, s, which 
communicates with a lacuna, 7. p, Parenchyma of the leaf. 


28 STOMATA. 


other substances. Waxy matter is occasionally found in the epi- 
dermis, silica is met with in the integument of grasses and Equiseta, 
and carbonate of lime in that of Chara. The colour of the epi- 
dermis generally depends on that of the subjacent parenchymatous 
cells, from which it can be separated as a colourless layer. The 
epidermal cells are usually larger than those of the tissue below them ; 
but sometimes, for instance in Ficus elastica, they are smaller. 

Sromata (oréwa, a mouth) are openings existing between some of 
the cells of the epidermis on parts exposed to the air. They consist 
usually of two semilunar cells surrounding an oval slit or orifice (figs. 
72 ss, 74 s), supposed to resemble the lips and the orifice of the 
mouth. Stomata open or close according to the state of moisture 
or dryness in the atmosphere,— these changes depending on the 
hygroscopic character of the cells. By examining, under the micro- 
scope, thin stripes of epidermis in a moist and dry state, it will 
be seen that in the former case the lips are distended, they assume 
a crescentic or arched form, and leave a marked opening between 
them ; while in the latter they collapse, approach each other, and 
close the orifice. ‘ 

The cells surrounding the openings of stomata are sometimes 
numerous, as in Marchantia. In, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Allman 
observed stomata formed by three cells; two of which, in their open 
condition, are crescentic and concave inside, while the third surrounds 
them, except at a small space at the end of the long axis of the 
stoma, and has on this account been called peristomatic (wegi, around). 
In Ficus elastica four cells form the stoma. In Equisetum, the 
stomata, which are about viv of an inch in their greatest diameter, 
consist of four pieces ; two of which are arched and thick at their 
outer convex margin, becoming thin at their inner concave edge, 
where two other bodies occur, having numerous processes like the 
teeth of a comb, hence called pectinate (pecten, a comb). Occasionally 
the stomatic cells become united, so as to appear in the form of an 
uninterrupted rim ; and at other times the stoma is a minute orifice 
in the walls of a cavity. 

Stomata communicate with intercellular spaces (figs. 76 s, 77 s), the 
connection being sometimes kept up by means of a funnel-shaped prolon- 
gation inwards of the cuticle, called, by Gasparrini, a cistoma (x/orn, a 
cyst or bag, and oréwa,a mouth), They are scattered over the surface 
of the epidermis in a variable manner. Sometimes they are placed at 
regular intervals corresponding to the union of the epidermal cells 
(fig. 72 s); at other times they are scattered without any apparent 
order (figs. 74, 75); and in other instances they are united in sets of 
two or three, or in clusters at particular points, as may be seen in 
Begonia, Saxifraga (fig. 78 s s), Crassula, and some Proteaces, 

Stomata occur on the green parts of plants, especially on the leaves 


STOMATA. 29 


and their appendages. They are, however, also met with on parts 
not green, as on coloured sepals or petals, as those of the Marsh Mari- 
gold and Ornithogalum. They have also been seen on internal organs, 
as the replum of some cruciferous plants. They are not usually found in 


Fig. 77. Fig. 78.7 


cellular plants, nor in plants always submerged, nor in pale parasites. 
This is not, however, a universal rule, for stomata have been detected 
in Marchantia and some other Cellulares ; also in the submerged leaves 
of Eriocaulon setaceum,.and in the pale parasite Orobanche Eryngii. 
They do not exist on roots, nor in plants kept long in darkness so as 
to be blanched or etiolated, and they are rare or imperfectly developed 
in succulent plants, 

Stomata vary in their form. 
The oval form is very common, 
and may be easily seen in Lilia- 
ceous plants ; the spherical occurs 
in Oncidium altissimum and the 
Primrose, the quadrangular in 
Yucca and Agave. In the Ole- 
ander, in connection with the sto- 
mata, there are cavities in the epi- Fig. 79. 
dermis protected by hairs (fig.79s). 

The development of stomata has been traced by Mirbel and Mohl. 
In the Hyacinthus orientalis, they appear first between the epidermal 
cells in the form of quadrangular spaces containing granular matter, 
which gradually collects towards the centre of the space, where a sep- 


Fig. 77. Vertical section of epidermis, from the lower surface of the leaf of Madder, 
showing the intimate union of the epidermal cells, ¢ ¢, the loose subjacent parenchyma, p, 
with intercellular canals, m, and lacuna, 1. s, Stoma. Fig. 78. Epidermis of leaf of Saxi- 
fraga sarmentosa, showing clusters of stomata, s s, surrounded by large epidermal cells, ¢ e. 
The cells among which the stomata occur are very small, Fig. 79. Vertical section of 
lower epidermis of the leaf of Neriwm Oleander. ¢, Epidermis composed of several layers 
of cells. , Parenchyma of the leaf. s, Cavity filled with hairs, at the bottom of which is 
a stoma. : 


30 EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—HAIRS. 


tum or partition is formed. This septum ultimately splits, leaving a slit 
or opening which constitutes the stoma. Mohl has traced this process 
throughout the same leaf in different stages of growth. In Mar- 
chantia, Mirbel found several tiers of cells forming the stoma, and he 
supposed that the opening was produced by the absorption of a 
central cell, leaving the others to form the rim or border. ; 

The number of stomata varies in different parts of plants. They 
are most abundant on the under surface of leaves exposed to the air, 
and are often entirely wanting on the upper surface, more especially 
when it has a dense shining cuticle. In floating leaves the stomata, 
when present, are on the upper surface only. When plants usually 
under water are made to grow for some time in the air, their leaves 
exhibit stomata, When leaves grow vertically, the stomata are often 
equal in number on both sides. The number of stomata varies from 
a few hundreds to many thousands on a surface of one inch square. 
The following table exhibits the number of stomata in the leaves of 
a few plants :— 


STOMATA IN ONE INCH SQUARE OF SURFACE OF THE LEAF. 


Upper Side. Under Side. 

Mistleto (Viscum album) Z 4 : 200... 200 
Spiderwort (Tradescantia) . . » 2,000... 2,000 
Rhubarb (Rheum palmatum) . . - 1,000... 40,000 
Crinum amabile . : ji é . 20,000 ... 20,000 
Aloe . : 5 : A : . 25,000 ... 20,000 
Carnation (Dianthus Caryophyllus . 38,500 ... 38,500 
Yucca . 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . 40,000 ... 40,000 
Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum) ‘ . None. aii 4,000 
Peony . : é ‘ é F . None. -. 18,000 
Agave americana . é A c - None. wee 1,560 
Holly (Ilex Aquifolium) ‘ . None. ... 68,600 
Olive (Olea europea) . Z : . None. ... 57,600 
Potamogeton natans. 3 ‘ 7,800 ... None. 

Victoria regia 5 ‘ . é - 21,600 ... None. 

Vine (Vitis vinifera). 3 ; . None. .. 18,600 
Cherry-laurel (Laurocerasus communis) . None. .» 90,000 
Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) . ‘ : . Few. « 160,000 


APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS, or APPENDICULAR ORGANS.— 
The epidermis frequently exhibits projections or papille on its surface, 
in consequence of some cells being enlarged in an outward direction 
(fig. 76 ¢ ¢). When these assume an elongated or conical form they 
constitute hairs (pili or villi). 

Harrs, then, are composed of one or more transparent delicate cells 
proceeding from the epidermis, and covered with the cuticle (fig. 73), 
They are erect (fig. 80 ¢), or oblique, or they lie parallel to the sur- 
face, and are appressed. Sometimes they are formed of a single cell, 
which is simple and undivided (fig. 80), or forked (fig. 81) or 


EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—HAIRS. 31 


branched (fig. 82); at other times they are composed of many cells 
either placed end to end, as in moniliform or necklace-like hairs (fig. 
83), or united together laterally, and gradually forming a cone, as in 


¥ 


Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 82. 


compound hairs (fig. 84), or branched (fig. 85). When several hairs 
proceed from a common centre, they become stellate (stella, a star), 
or radiated (fig. 86). The latter arrangement occurs in hairs of the 
Mallow tribe, and is well seen in those of Deutzia scabra, and on the 
stem of the Rice-paper plant (Fatsia papyrifera). When stellate hairs 
are placed closely together, so as to form a sort of membranous ex- 
pansion (fig. 87), a scale or scurf is produced. In Bromeliacee the 
scurfiness of the leaves is a marked character. To such expansions of 
the epidermis the name lepis (Aewic, a scale) is applied, and the 
surface is said to be lepidote. These scales have sometimes a beau- 


in e 
Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. 


tiful silvery appearance, as in Eleagnus and Sea-buckthorn (fig. 87). 
Surrounding the base of the leaves of Ferns, a brown chaffy substance 


Figs. 80-86. Forms of hairs. e, Epidermis. 80. Simple hair formed of a single, undi- 
vided, elongated, and tapering cell, 81. Forked or bifurcate hairs of Sisymbrium Sophia, 
formed by one cell of the epidermis, e, dividing into two. 82. Branched hair of Arabis 
alpina, formed by a simple hair of the epidermis, -e, dividing into numerous conical cellular 
branches. 83. Moniliform hair, from Lychnis chalcedonica. Fig. 84. Partitioned, 
unbranched hair, from stem of Bryonia alba. Fig. 85. Partitioned, branched hair, from 
flower of Nicandra anomala. Fig. 86. Stellate or star-like hair, from leaf of Althea 
Tosea. 


EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—HAIRS, 


occurs, consisting of elongated cells, 
to which the name of ramentaceous 
hairs, or ramenta (ramentum, a shav- 
ing), has been given. In Palms also 
a similar substance (but of firmer tex- 


ture) occurs, called reticulum (reticulum, 
a net), or mattulla, (matta, a ‘aa 
Prickles or aculei, as in the Rose, are 
hardened hairs connected with the 
epidermis, and differ from spines 
or thorns, which have a deeper ori- 
gin, Sete are bristles or stiff hairs, 
and the surfaces on which they occur 
are said to be setose or setaceous, Some 
hairs, as those of Drosera, or sundew 
(fig. 88), have one or more spiral fibres 
in their interior. * 

Various names have been given 
to the different forms of hairs; they 
are clavate or club-shaped (clava, a club), 
gradually expanding from the base to 
their apex ; capitate, having a distinct 
rounded head ; rough or scabrous, with 
slight projections on their surface ; 
hooked or wneinate (uncus, a hook), 
j with a hook at their apex pointing 
y downwards and to one side; barbed 
or glochidiate (yAwyic, a barb), with 


i Fig. 87. Scale or scaly hair, from leaf of Hip- 
5 pophaé rhamnoides. Fig. 88, Drosera dichotoma, 
i double-leaved sundew, showing leaves covered with 
glandular hairs. The gland is terminal, and there 
is a spiral fibre inside the stalk supporting the 


land. 
Fig. 88 = 


EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—HAIRS. 33 


two or more hooks around the apex; shield-like or peltate (pelta, a 
buckler), when attached by their middle, and projecting horizontally 
on either side, as in Malpighia urens (fig. 89), and in many cruciferous 
plants ; ciliated (ctlium, an eyelash), 
when surrounding the margin of 
leaves, On the pod of the Cowitch 
(Mucuna pruriens), hairs are pro- 
duced with projections on their sur- 
face, which cause irritation of the 
skin. In Venus’ Fly-trap (Dionea muscipula), stiff hairs exist on the 
blades of the leaf (fig. 202 e), which, when touched, cause their closure. 

Hairs occur on various parts of plants ; as the stem, leaves, flowers, 
seed-vessels, and seeds, and even in the interior of vessels. In the 
interior of the spathe of some palms numerous ovate cells, analogous 
with hairs, occur in clusters, and when the spathe is dried they can 
be shaken out in the form of powder. Cotton consists of the hairs sur- 
rounding the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum and other species of Gossy- 
pium. Hairs are developed occasionally to a great extent on plants 
exposed to elevated temperatures, as well as on those growing at high 
altitudes. When occurring on the organs of reproduction they are 
connected with fertilisation, as the hairs on the style of Goldfussia, and 
the retractile hairs on the style of Campanula. Different organs of 
plants are transformed into hairs; as may be seen in the flowering 
stalks of the Wig-tree (Rhus Cotinus), and in the calyx of Composite. 

Names are given to the surfaces of plants according to the presence 
or absence of hairs, as well as the nature of the hairs which cover 
them. The followimg are the more important terms :— Glabrous, 
smooth, having no hairs; hairy (pilosus), furnished with hairs ; 
pubescent, covered with soft, short, downy hairs ; villous, having long, 
weak, often oblique hairs; sericeous, covered with long, closely ap- 
pressed hairs, having a silky lustre ; hispid (hispidus, hirtus), covered 
with long stiff hairs not appressed ; hirsute, having long tolerably dis-. 
tinct hairs, not stiff nor appressed ; velvety (velutinus), with a dense 
covering of short down, like velvet ; tomentose, covered with crisp, 
rather rigid, entangled hairs like cotton, which form a sort of felt 
(tomentum) ; woolly, with long curled and matted hairs like wool ; 
bearded or stupose (orvan, tow), when hairs occur in small tufts. 

The hairs which are most frequently met with in plants are called 
lymphatic, from their not being connected with any peculiar secretion. 
Those, on the other hand, which have secreting cells at their base or 
apex, are denominated glandular, and are not to be distinguished from 
glands, under which therefore they will be considered. Lymphatic 
hairs occur on parts exposed to the air, and are wanting in blanched 

Fig. 89. Peltate hair of Malpighia urens, p p, arising from epidermis, ¢. g, The gland, 
which communicates with the hair. ! 


D 


Fig. 89. 


34 EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—GLANDS. 


plants. On young roots cellular projections occur (fig. 97 h), which 
may be called radical hairs. Young leaves and buds are frequently 
thickly covered with protecting hairs. In this instance the hairs grow 
chiefly along the veins ; and as the leaves increase in size, and the 
veins are separated, the hairs become scattered and apparently less 
abundant. On the parts of the flower (as in the Iris), coloured hairs 
occur which have been called corolline. 

GLANDs are collections of cells forming secretions. The term has 
been vaguely applied to all excrescences occurring on the surfaces of 
plants, They are either stalked (petiolate, stipitate), or not stalked (sessile). 


a 


The former may be called glandular hairs, having the 
secreting cells at the apex. Stalked glands, or glan- 
dular hairs, are either composed of a single cell, with 
a dilatation at the apex (fig. 90 a), or of several cells 
united together, the upper one being the secreting 
cell (fig. 90 6). In place of a single terminating 
secreting cell, there are occasionally two (fig. 90 c) or more (fig. 90 d). 
Hairs sometimes serve as ducts through which the secretion of glands 
is discharged ; these are glandular hairs, with the secreting cells at the 
base. Such hairs are seen in the nettle (fig. 91), in Loasa or Chili nettle, 
and in Malpighia (fig. 89), and are commonly called stings. In the nettle 
they are formed of a single conical cell, dilated at its base (fig. 91 6), 
and closed at first at the apex, by a small globular button placed 


Fig. 90. Glandular hairs. e, Epidermis. a, Hair formed by a single cell, from Sisym- 
brium chilense. 6, Hairs formed of several cells terminated by a secreting cell, from 
flower-stalk of Antirrhinum majus. c, Hair composed of several cells, terminated by two 
secreting cells united laterally, from flower-stalk of Lysimachia vulgaris. d, Compound 
hair, terminated by several secreting cells united end to end, from Geum urbanum, Fig. 
91, Conical hair of Urtica dioica, or common nettle, ending in a button or swelling, s, with 
a dilatation or bulb at its base, b, which is surrounded by epidermal cells, ue, In this hair 
there are currents of granular protoplasm, ff. 


EPIDERMAL APPENDAGES—GLANDS. 35 


obliquely (fig. 91 s). This button breaks off on the slightest touch, 
when the sharp extremity of the hair enters the skin, and pours into 
the wound the irritating fluid which has been. pressed out from the 
elastic epidermal cells at the base. When a nettle is grasped with 
violence, the sting is crushed, and hence no injury is done to the 
skin. The globular apex of glandular hairs sometimes forms a viscid 
secretion, as in the Chinese primrose and sundew (fig. 88). The 
hairs of the latter plant, by this secretion, detain insects which 
happen to alight on them. The hairs gradually close on the insects, 
electrical phenomena taking place during the movement. Some think 
that in this case the insects are used as food by the plant. 

When glands are sessile, they consist of epidermal cells either 
surrounding a cavity or enclosing small secreting cells. In fig. 92 
is represented a gland taken from the flower-stalk of Dictamnus albus, 
cut vertically, to show the cavity surrounded by cells, which is filled 
with a greenish oil ; while in fig. 93 there is a 
gland with a short thick stalk, full of cells, 
taken from Rosa centifolia, These figures 
show the transition from sessile to stalked 
glands. Some of the superficial cells of the 
epidermis are sometimes slightly elevated above 
the rest, and contain peculiar fluids. In the 
Ice-plant, the appearance of small pieces of ice 
on the surface is produced by cells containing 
a clear fluid, which is said to have an alka- 
line reaction; in the Chick-pea, similar superficial cells contain an 
acid fluid. Clear glands are also seen on the under surface of the leaf 
of Passiflora lunata. Resinous glands are seen in the Hop and Hemp 
plants. Glandular depressions or pits occur, surrounded by secreting 
cells. At the base of the petals of the Crown-imperial, for instance, 
cavities are seen containing a honey-like fluid, secreted by what are 
called nectariferous glands. Cavities containing sac- 
charine matter, surrounded by small thin-walled cells, 
are met with in the leaves of Acacia longifolia, also 
in Viburnum Tinus, and Clerodendron fragrans. The 
cavities communicate with the surface of the leaves 
by means of canals, Peculiar glands are found at the 
inner side of the base of the petioles of Cinchona and 
Tpecacuan plants (fig. 94). 

Glands are occasionally sunk in the epidermis, so as merely to have 


Fig. 92, Fig. 93. 


Fig. 92. Gland from flower-stalk of Dictamnus albus, cut vertically, showing central 
cavity, 1, filled with greenish oil, and surrounded by a layer of cells, c, which contain a red 
juice, and are connected with the epidermis, e. Fig. 93. Gland from Rosa centifolia ; e, 
the epidermis. Fig. 94. Cluster of ovate-oblong cellular glands from the base of the 
stipule of the Ipecacuan plant (Cephaelis Ipecacuanha). 


36 FUNCTIONS OF EPIDERMIS. 


the apex projecting ; at other times they lie below the epidermal cells, 
as in the Myrtle, Orange, St. John’s-wort, and Rue. In the latter 
case they are sometimes called vesicular, and are formed by cells sur- 
rounding cavities containing oil (fig. 95). When 
they occur in the leaves, they give rise, when 
viewed by transmitted light, to the appearance 
of transparent points or dots. Verruce, or warts, 
are collections of thickened cells on the surface of 
plants, assuming a rounded form, and containing 
starch or other matters.  Lenticels, or Lenticular 
glands, ave cellular projections on the surface of 
the bark, arising from its inner part. Trecul says 
that lenticels result from the formation of corky matter under decayed 
or decaying tissues, the corky particles surrounding sub-stomatic cavi- 
ties. The corky matter protects the internal tissue from injurious 
atmospheric influence. Other lenticels are simply cracks of the epi- 
dermis before the production of cork or periderm, while a third set 
are produced on the surface of a peridermic layer. 

Tur Sprcrat Funcrions of the epidermis and its appendages 
are to protect the parts beneath from various atmospheric and meteoro- 
logical influences. In plants growing in dry climates, the epidermis 
is often very thick, and coated with a waxy secretion, to prevent too 
great transpiration or exudation of fluids, In those which inhabit 
humid places the epidermis is thin and absorbent ; while in submerged 
aquatics there is no proper epidermal covering. The stomata regulate 
the transpiration ; opening and closing, according to the state of humid- 
ity and dryness of the atmosphere surrounding them. When a plant 
is growing vigorously, the constant passage of fluids keeps the regu- 
lating cells around the stomata in a distended state, and thus opens 
the orifice ; whereas, when the circulation is languid and the fluids are 
exhausted, the cells collapse and close the opening. The opinion that 
the succulency of plants is.a sort of dropsical condition, caused by the 
absence of stomata to carry off the fluids, has not been confirmed by 
observation. Hairs, according to their structure, serve various pur- 
poses. Lymphatic hairs protect the surface, and regulate evaporation. 
Plants thickly covered with hairs, as Verbascum Thapsus (Great 
Mullein), have been known to resist an extended period of drought. 
When organs become abortive they sometimes assume the form of hairs. 
Glandular hairs, and glands in general, form secretions which are em- 
ployed in the economy of vegetation, or are thrown off as excretions 
no longer fitted for the use of the plant itself. Many of these secre- 
tions constitute important articles of materia medica, Lenticels keep 


Fig. 95. Vesicular gland from Ruta graveolens, or Common Rue. g, Gland formed by 
large transparent cells, surrounding a central lacuna, 1, e, Epidermis from upper surface 
of the leaf. wc, wc, Cells filled with Chlorophyll. 


STRUCTURE OF ROOTS. 37 


up & connection between the air and the inner bark, and probably per- 
form the function of stomata in the advanced period of the growth of 
the plant. They are considered by Decandolle and others as being 
the points where young roots are produced in certain circumstances, 
and on that account they have been called Rhizogens (éiZa, a root, and 
yewdew, to produce). They are conspicuous in Willows, the young 
branches of which form roots very readily when placed in moist soil. 
Some hairs occurring on the styles of plants are called collecting hairs, 
from the functions which they perform in taking up the pollen. In 
the species of Campanula, these hairs are so formed that after the 
pollen has been discharged, their upper part is drawn within the lower. 
In many hairs, as in the nettle, a circulation of fluids takes place, 
connected apparently with their nutrition and development (fig. 91). 
In nettle hairs and in the moniliform purple hairs on the stamens of 
Tradescantia, or Spiderwort, this movement may be easily seen under 
the microscope. The subject of the circulation in hairs will be con- 
sidered under Rotation, 


Root orn Descenpine AXIs. 
Structure of Roots. 


Before proceeding to the consideration of the special nutritive organs, 
the root, stem, and leaves, a few remarks are required in reference to 
the general division of plants into three great classes, Acotyledons, 
Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons. The first of these embraces 
flowerless plants, -having a cellular embryo, and no seed-leaf, or, as it 
is called, Cotyledon. Such plants as Ferns, Mosses, Lichens, Sea-weeds, 
and Mushrooms, belong to this class. The second includes flowering 
plants having an embryo with one seed-leaf or Cotyledon, such as Lilies, 
Palms, Grasses ; while the third includes plants which have two seed- 
leaves or Cotyledons, such as ordinary forest trees, and the majority 
of flowering plants. In these classes there are marked differences in 
the structure of the nutritive organs, to the consideration of which we 
now proceed. 

In the young state there is no distinction between stem and root, 
as regards structure; both being cellular, and prolongations of each 
other in opposite directions. In stemless plants, as Thallogens, the 
root remains in 4 cellular state throughout the life of the plants. The 
root is afterwards distinguished from the stem by the absence of a 
provision for the development of leaf-buds, and by increasing from above - 
downwards. It is not always easy to distinguish between a stem and 
a root. Many so-called roots bear at their upper part a portion called 
their crown, whence leaf-buds arise. Underground stems and roots are 
often confounded, Some plants, as the Moutan Peony, the Plum-tree, 


38 STRUCTURE OF ROOTS. 


Pyrus japonica, and especially Anemone japonica, have a power of 
forming buds on their roots. The last-mentioned plant develops 
these buds on every part of its extensively ramifying roots, which 
may be chopped into numerous pieces, each capable of giving rise to a 
new plant. Such is also the case with the annulated root of Ipecacuan. 
The part where the stem and root unite is the collwm or neck, In 
woody plants, the fibres of the stem descend into the roots, and there 
is an internal arrangement of woody layers, similar to that seen in 
the stem itself. 

Roots are usually subterranean and colourless. Externally, they 
havea cellular epidermal éovering of a delicate texture, sometimes called 
epiblema (p. 26), in which no stomata exist. Their internal structure 
consists partly of cells, and partly of vascular bundles, in which there 
are no vessels with fibres which can be unrolled. Roots do not ex- 
hibit true pith, nor a medullary sheath. The axis of the root gives 
off branches which divide into radicles or fibrils (fig. 96), the ex- 


he 


Fig. 96. Fig. 97. 


tremities of which are composed of delicate cellular tissue, and have 
been erroneously called spongioles or spongelets, They are not separate 
organs, and have nothing of the character of a sponge. Over these 
root extremities a very thin layer of cells is extended, called a 
Pileorhiza (a7 ros, a cap, and éi€a, a root). This sometimes becomes 
thickened, and separates in the form of a cup, as in Screw-pines (fig. 
98), and in Lycopodia (fig. 138), Occasionally the extremities of roots 
are enclosed in a sheath, or ampulla, as in Lemna. Cellular papillze 


Fig. 96. Tapering root of Malva rotundifolia, giving off branches and fibrils, Fig. 97. 
Young root of Madder, showing cellular processes, hhh, equivalent to hairs, , Outer 
cells of the root not elongated into hairs. 


STRUCTURE OF ROOTS. 39 


and hairs are often seen in roots, but no true leaves. These hairs 
consist of simple elongated cells, which occur singly, and appear to serve 
the purpose of absorption (fig. 97, hhh). Roots increase principally 
by additions to their extremities, which are constantly renewed, so 
that the minute fibrils serve only a temporary purpose, and represent 
deciduous leaves. The tissue at the extremities of roots is older and 
more dense than that immediately below it, so as to form a protecting 
covering. 

Roots, in some instances, in place of being subterranean, become 
aerial. Such roots occur in plants called Epiphytes, or air-plants (é/, 
upon, and gurdy, a plant, from growing on other plants), as in Orchi- 
dace ; also in the Screw-pine (Pandanus), (fig. 98), the Banyan 
(Ficus indica), and many other species of Ficus, where they assist in 
supporting the stem and branches, and have been called adventitious or 


abnormal. In Screw-pines these aerial roots follow a spiral order 
of development. In Mangrove trees (fig. 99) they often form the 
entire support of the stem, which has decayed at its lower part. The 
name of adventitious is applied to roots arising from the sides of 
stems, as for instance those which are formed when portions of stems 
and branches of the Willow and Poplar are planted in moist soil. 
They appear first as cellular projections, into which the fibres of the 
stem are prolonged, and by some are said to proceed from lenticels. 
They frequently arise from points where the epidermis has been in- 
jured. A Screw-pine, in the palm-house of the Edinburgh Botanic 
Garden, had one of its branches injured close to its union with the 

’ Fig. 98. Pandanus odoratissimus, the Screw-pine, giving off numerous aerial roots near 
the base of its stem. Fig. 99. Rhizophora Mangle, the Mangrove tree, supported, as it 


were, upon piles, by its numerous roots, which raise up the stem. The plant grows at the 
muddy mouths of rivers in warm climates. 


40 FORMS OF ROOTS. 


stem. This branch was at the distance of several feet above the part 
where the aerial roots were in the course of formation. At the part, 
however, where the injury had been inflicted, a root soon appeared, 
which extended rapidly to the earth, and then divided so as to form 
rootlets ; thus the branch was firmly supported. The extremities 
of the aerial roots of Orchids are covered with a layer of delicate 
whitish tissue, composed of spiral cells. This layer is called velamen 
radicum, or covering of the roots. 

Green-coloured aerial roots are frequently met with in endogenous 
plants. Such roots possess stomata. In the Ivy, root-like processes 
are produced from the stem, by means of which it attaches itself to 
trees, rocks, and walls. Those processes are subservient to the pur- 
poses of support rather than nutrition, In parasites, or plants which 
derive nourishment from other plants, such as Dodder (Cuscuta), roots 
are sometimes produced in the form of suckers, which enter into the 
cellular tissue of the plant preyed upon. 

When roots have been exposed to the air for some time, they 
occasionally assume the functions of stems, losing their fibrils, and 
developing abnormal buds. Duhamel proved this experimentally, 
by causing the branches of a willow to take root while attached to the 
stem, and ultimately raising the natural roots into the air. 


Forms of Roots, 


The forms of roots depend upon the mode in which the axis 
descends and branches. When the central axis goes deep into the 
ground in a tapering manner, without dividing, a tap-root is produced 
(fig. 96). This kind of root is sometimes shortened, and becomes 
succulent, forming the conical root of carrot, or the fusiform, or spindle- 
shaped root of radish, or the napiform root of turnip, or it is twisted, 
as in the contorted root of Bistort. 

When the descending axis is very short, and at once divides into 
thin, nearly equal fibrils, the root is called fibrous, as in many grasses ; 
when the fibrils become short and succulent the root is fasciculated, 
as in Ranunculus Ficaria and Asphodelus luteus (fig. 100) ; when the 
succulent fibrils are of uniform size, and arranged like coral, the root 
--is coralline, as in Corallorhiza innata; when some of the fibrils are 
developed in the form of tubercules, containing starchy matter, the 
root is tubercular ; the tubercules, in such cases, are in reality stem- 
tubers, as seen in the Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), and 
in Orchis (fig. 101) ; when the fibrils enlarge in certain parts only, the 
root is nodulose, as in Spireea Filipendula (fig. 102), or moniliform, as in 
Pelargonium triste (fig. 103), or annulated, as in Ipecacuan (fig. 104). 
Some of these so-called roots are formed of a stem and root combined, 


FORMS OF ROOTS. 41 


and when cut in pieces they give rise to buds and new plants. This 
occurs in the Ipecacuan plant, 


Fig. 101. 


Fig. 100. 


Fig. 102. 


In some Dicotyledonous roots, as in the Car- 
rot and Beet, there is a circle of fibro-vascular 
bundles, which are separated by medullary rays. 
In the turnip these bundles are immediately 
under the rind, and in the inner portion of the 
root the bundles are separated from each other by 
a great development of cellular tissue. In these 
peculiar thickened roots it is often difficult to 
determine their structure. They have more of 
the ‘aspect of stems, and have been called Hypo- 
cotyledonary stems. The structure in several % 
fleshy Dicotyledonous roots resembles that of Fig. 104. 
Monocotyledons, 

In Dicotyledonous plants the root, in its early state, or the radicle, 
as it is then called, is a prolongation of the stem, and elongates 
directly by its extremity. It then continues to grow in a simple or 
branched state (fig. 98). From this mode of root development, 
these plants have been called Exorhizal (2€w, outwards, and ¢/fu, a 


Fig. 100. Fasciculated root of Asphodelus luteus, Fig. 101. Tubercular roots or stem- 
tubers of Orchis. Several of the radical fibres retain their cylindrical form, while two are 
tubercules containing starchy matter. Fig. 102, Nodulose root of Spirza Filipendula. 
Fig. 103. Moniliform root of Pelargonium triste. Fig. 104. Ipecacuan (Cephaelis Ipeca- 
cuanha), with an annnlated root. 


42 FORMS OF ROOTS. 


root), by Richard. In their after progress these roots follow the 
arrangement seen in the woody part of the stein. In some cases, as 
in the Walnut and Horse-chestnut, there is a prolongation of the pith 
into the root to a certain extent. f ’ 

In Monocotyledonous plants the young root or radicle pierces the 
lower part of the axis (fig. 105 ), is covered with a cellular sheath, ¢ ; 
numerous fibrils, 7’ 7’ 7’ 7’, are then developed like adventitious 
roots. These plants are therefore called by Richard, Endorhizal 
(évéov, within) ; and the sheath is denominated Coleorhiza (noAsis, a 
sheath). In their after progress they usually retain their compound 
character, consisting of fibrils, most of which often remain unbranched 
(figs. 100, 101). The first-formed roots which surround the axis, 
if the plant is perennial, gradually die, and others are produced in 


‘succession farther from the central axis. In Endogenous roots, the 
same structure is observed asin the stem. Thus, fig. 106 represents a 
section of a root of a Palm, composed of cellular tissue, porous vessels, 
v p, modified spiral vessels, v s, fibrous or woody tissue, f, and latici- 
ferous vessels, 2. Roots are pushed out from various parts of the 
stems of many Palms, and are applied closely to the surface of the 
stem. 


Fig. 105. Grain of wheat germinating. g, The mass of the grain. #, The young stem begin- 
ning to shoot upwards. 7, The principal root from the axis. Lateral roots, 1’ 7’ 1’ 7’, covered, 
like the preceding, with small hairs or threads. Coleorhiza or sheath, cc c, with which each 
of the roots is covered at its base, while piercing the superficial layer of the embryo. Fig. 
106. Transverse section of part of the root of a Palm (Diplothemi mariti ), to show 
the mode in which the cells and vessels are arranged. v p, Large porous vessels situated in 
the interior. vs, Scalariform or modified spiral vessels more external, and becoming smaller 
the farther they are from the centre. ff, Fibrous tissue, or elongated cells, accompany- 
ing the vessels, 1, Groups of laticiferous vessels of different sizes, the larger being inside. 


FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS. 43 


In Acotyledonous plants the young root is a development of super- 
ficial cells from no fixed point, and they have been called Heterorhizal 
(éregos, diverse). In their subsequent progress these roots present 
appearances similar to those seen in the stem. They frequently 
appear in the form of fibres on the outer part of the stem, giving rise, 
by their accumulation at the base, to the conical appearance repre- 
sented in fig. 135, r a. 


Functions of Roots. 


Roots either fix the plant in the soil or attach it to other 
bodies, They absorb nourishment by a process of imbibition or 
endosmose (flow inward), through their spongioles or cellular ex- 
tremities. The experiment of Duhamel and Senebier, conducted by 
inserting at one time the minute fibrils alone into fluid, and at 
another the axis of the root alone, showed clearly that the cellular 
extremities were the chief absorbing parts of the roots. Hence the 
importance, in transplanting large trees, of cutting the roots some 
time before, in order that they may form young fibrils, which are 
then easily taken up in an uninjured condition, ready to absorb 
nourishment. When an acorn is put into the ground, it first sends 
down a long tap root. This is not well fitted for feeding young 
stems and leaves, and hence numerous fibrous roots appear near the 
surface of the ground. The more numerous these fibres the more 
rapid the growth. The tap root is sometimes cut about seven inches 
under ground at an early period, and this causes numerous fibres to be 
thrown out. 

The elongation of the roots by their extremities enables them to 
accommodate themselves to the soil, and allows the extremities of the 
rootlets to extend deeply without being injured. Roots, in their 
lateral extension, bear usually a relation to the horizontal spreading 
of the branches, so as to fix the plant firmly, and to allow fluid 
nutritive substances to reach the spongioles more easily. It is of 
importance to permit the roots to extend easily in all directions, By 
restricting or cutting the roots, the growth of the plant is to a certain 
degree prevented, although it is sometimes made to flower and bear 
fruit sooner than it would otherwise have done. The system of re- 
strictive potting, formerly practised in green-houses, often injured the 
natural habit of the plants. The roots filled the pots completely, and 
even raised the plants in such a way as to make the upper part of 
the root appear above the soil. 

To roots there are sometimes attached reservoirs of nourishment, 
in the form of tubercules, containing starch and gum (fig. 101), which 
are applied to the nourishment of the young plant. These are seen 


44 FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS. 


in the Dahlia and in terrestrial Orchids. In epiphytic Orchids, 
on the other hand, the roots are aerial, and the stems are much de- 
veloped, forming pseudo-bulbs. Upon the roots of Spondias tube- 
rosa there exist round black-coloured tubercules, about eight inches 
in diameter, consisting internally of a white cellular substance, 
which is full of water. These tubercules seem to be intended to 
supply water to the tree during the dry season. They are often dug 
by travellers, each of them yielding about a pint of fluid of excellent 
quality. 

Roots also give off excretions of different kinds. These are 
eliminated by a process of exosmose (flow outwards), and con- 
sist both of organic and inorganic matter. They were examined 
by Macaire and Decandolle, and at one time they were thought 
to be injurious to the plant, and by their accumulation to 
cause its deterioration. It was also supposed that while they 
were prejudicial to the species of plant which yielded them, they 
were not so to others, and that hence a rotation of crops was neces- 
sary. Daubeny and Gyde have found by experiment that these 
excretions are not injurious, and it is now shown that the necessity 
for rotation depends on the want of certain nutritive matters in the 
soil.* In very rich and fertile land the same crop may be grown 
successively for many years, 


Stem or AscenpinG AXIs. 
Forms of Stems, 


The stem is that part of a plant which bears the leaves and flowers. 
It receives the name of Caulis in ordinary herbaceous plants which do 
not form a woody stem, Culm in grasses, Truncus in trees, Caudex or 
Stock in Palms and in some Cacti, and Stipe in Ferns. Herba- 
ceous stems are those of annual and biennial plants, as well as the 


young yearly shoots of perennial plants. Theterm haulmisprobablya 


corruption of culm ; it is used by farmers to designate the stem of grasses 
and the herbaceous stems of plants. The stem is not always conspicuous. 
Plants with a distinct stem are called caulescent ;- those in which it is 
inconspicuous are acaules. Some plants are truly stemless, and con- 
sist only of expansions of cellular tissue, called a Thallus, and hence 
are denominated Thadlogens, or Thallophytes (@uAAds, a frond, yevvcery, 
to produce, gurdy, a plant), They have no true vascular system, but 
are composed of cells of various sizes, which sometimes assume an 
elongated tubular form, as in Chara, The cells are sometimes united 


* This subject is considered when the sources whence plants derive their nourishment 
are treated of. 


FORMS OF STEMS. 45 


in one or several rows, forming simple filaments, as in Conferve 5 or 
branched and interlaced filaments, as in some Fungi; or cellular 
expansions, as in Lichens and sea-weeds. 

Stems have usually considerable firmness and solidity, but some- 
times they are weak, and either lie prostrate on the ground, thus 
becoming procumbent; or climb on plants and rocks by means of 
rootlets like the Ivy, being then called scandent; or twist round other 
plants in a spiral manner like Woodbine, becoming volubile, Twining 
plants turn either from right to left, as the French bean, Convolvulus, 
Passionflower, and Dodder, Periploca, and Gourd ; or from left to right 
(left-handed screw), as Honeysuckle, Twining Polygonum, Hop, and 
Tamus. Bryony tendrils twine from right to left, and left to right, 
alternately. In warm climates twining plants (danas) often form 
thick woody stems ; while in temperate regions they are generally 
herbaceous. Exceptions, however, occur in the case of the Clematis, 
Honeysuckle, and Vine; the twining stem of the vine has been 
called sarmentum (sarmentum, a twig, or cutting of a vine). Some 
stems are developed more in diameter than in height, and present a 
peculiar shortened and thickened aspect, as Testudinaria or Tortoise- 
plant, Cyclamen, Melocactus, Echinocactus, and other Cactaceze. 

Stems have a provision for a symmetrical arrangement of leaves 
and branches,—nodes (nodus, a knot), or points whence leaf-buds are 
produced, being placed at regular intervals. No such provision occurs 
in roots, which ramify irregularly, according to the nature of the soil. 
The intervals between nodes are called internodes, The mode in which 
branches come off from the nodes gives rise to various forms of trees, 
such as pyramidal, spreading, or weeping; the angles formed with 
the stem being more or less acute or oblique. In the Italian Poplar 
and Cypress the branches are erect, forming acute angles with the 
upper part of the stem; in the Oak and Cedar they are spreading or 
patent, forming nearly a right angle; in the weeping Ash and Elm 
they come off at an oblique angle; while in the weeping Willow and 
Birch they are pendulous from their flexibility. The comparative 
length of the upper and under branches also gives rise to differences 
in the contour of trees, as seen in the conical form of Spruce, and the 
umbrella-like form of the Italian Pine (Pinus Pinea), The branching 
of some trees is very peculiar. In the Amazon district many Myris-' 
ticacese and Monimiacee have verticillate branches coming off in fives. 
Some Amazon trees taper remarkably downwards, so as to have a form 
like an inverted cone or pyramid. This is seen in the Mulatto tree 
(Eukylista Spruceana), one of the Cinchonacez. 

The buds of trees are developed in different ways. In some, such 
as the Oak and Birch, the terminal bud of each shoot produces 
yearly a new portion of the shoot, while the flowers come off from 
axillary buds. Again, in other trees, as Lilac and Horse-chestnut, the 


t 


46 FORMS OF STEMS. 


buds at the extremity produce inflorescence, which thus terminates the 
axis of the shoot, while the shoots of the succeeding year are from 
axillary buds. When the branches of trees bearing terminal buds 
have the axis of the shoot destroyed by wounds or by insects, then 
the lateral leafy buds become developed, giving rise to anomalous 
appearances seen in the Birch and other trees. 

Plants which form permanent woody stems above ground are 
denominated trees and shrubs, while those in which the stems die 
down to the ground are called herbs. The term tree (arbor) is ap- 
plied to those plants which have woody stems many times exceeding 
the height of a man, the lower part free from branches being the 
trunk ; a small tree (arbusculus) is one not above 25 feet high; a 
shrub (frute) has a stem about three times taller than a man, and 
branches from near the base: an wndershrub (suffrutex or fruticulus) 
does not exceed the length of the arm; while a bush (dumus) is a low 
diminutive shrub, with numerous branches near the base. The terms 
arborescent, fruticose, suffruticose, and dwmose, are derived from these. 

The cylindrical form of the trunk of trees is sometimes interfered 
with by peculiarities in the production of woody tissue. In this way 
protuberances are formed of various kinds, This is very remarkable 
in some kinds of Bombax, and in the Bottle-tree of Australia, where 
the whole stem appears in the form of a large flask or bottle, taper- 
ing to each end, and swollen in the middle. So also, by interruption 
to the growth of the root and other causes, knobby stems are formed, 
as in the Yew (fig. 128). 

Stems have usually around form. They are sometimes compressed 
or flattened laterally, while at other times they are angular: being 
triangular, with three angles and three flat faces; trigonous (resis, 
three, and ywvia, an angle), with three convex faces; triquetrous 
(triquetrum, a triangle), with three concave faces; quadrangular, or 
square; quinguangular, or five-angled ; octangular, or eight-angled, 
etc. Various terms are applied to the forms of stems, as cylindrical 
or terete, jointed or articulated—that is, with contractions at intervals, 
many-angled or polygonal. ‘ 

The stem has been called the ascending axis, from being developed 
in an upward direction. It does not, however, always ascend into the 
air; and hence stems have been divided into aerial, or stems which 
appear wholly or partially above ground; and subterranean, or those 
which are entirely under ground. The latter are often called roots, 
but they are distinguished by producing leaf-buds at regular intervals, 
Underground stems are common in Monocotyledons, and it is often 
found that the structure of Dicotyledonous underground stems, such 
as Jerusalem artichokes, resemble in structure Monocotyledons, The 
following are some of the more important modifications of stems :— 
The Crown of the root is a shortened stem, often partially under ground, 


FORMS OF STEMS. 47 


4 

which remains in some plants after the leaves, branches, and flower- 
stalks have withered. In this case the internodes are very short, and 
the nodes are crowded together, so that the plant appears to be stem- 
less. It is seen in perennial 
plants, the leaves of which die 
‘down to the ground annually. 
A Rhizome or root-stock (fig. 
107) is a stem which runs 
along the surface of the 
- ground, being partially cover- 
ed by the soil, sending out 
roots from.its lower side and 
leaf-buds from its upper. It 
occurs in Ferns, Iris, Hedy- Fig. 107. 

chium, Acorus or Sweet Flag, 

Ginger, Water-lily, many species of Carex, Rushes, Anemone, Lath- 
rea, etc. By many the term rhizome is applied to stems creeping 
horizontally, whether they are altogether or only partially subterranean. 
The short underground stem of Arum maculatum differs from the 
rhizome of Solomon’s Seal, in the presence of the old axes in the latter, 
and their decay in the former. A rhizome may then be considered as 
a series of corms united together, the internodes or individual axes 
being more or less elongated, and usually covered with leaf scales. In 
rhizomes, called definite, the terminal bud gives off flowers, and the 
lateral buds form the stem; while in indefinite rhizomes the terminal 
leaf-bud is formed annually. A rhizome sometimes assumes an erect form 
as in Scabiosa succisa, in which the so-called premorse (premorsus, 
bitten at the end) root is ‘in reality a rhizome, with the lower end 
decaying. The erect rhizome of Cicuta virosa shows hollow internodes, 
separated by partitions. A Pseudo-bulb is an enlarged bulbous-like 
aerial stem, common in Orchidaceous plants, It is succulent, often 
contains numerous spiral cells and vessels, and is covered with a 
thick epidermis. In the Kohl-rabi a peculiar thickened turnip-like 
stem is met with. A Soboles is a creeping underground stem, 
sending roots from one part and leaf-buds from another, as in couch 
grass, Carex arenaria, and Scirpus lacustris (fig. 108). It is often 
called a creeping root, but is really a rhizome with narrow elongated 
internodes. A Tuber is a thickened stem or branch produced by 
the approximation of the nodes and the swelling of the internodes, 
as in the potato (fig. 109 t). The eyes of the potato are leaf-buds. 
Tubers are sometimes aerial, occupying the place of branches, 


.Fig. 107. Portion of Rhizome, r, of Polygonatum multifiorum, Solomons Seal, forming 
buds and adventitious roots. a, A bud in the progress of development. 6, A bud developed 
as a branch at the extremity of the,rhizome. ce, Cicatrices or scars, indicating the situa- 
tion of old branches which have decayed, 


48 FORMS OF STEMS. 


The ordinary herbaceous stem of the potato, when cut into slips and 
planted, sometimes sends off branches from its base, which assume the 


d 
Fig. 108. 


form of tubers. These tubers occasionally become nodulated, or elon- 
gated, or curved in various ways. Arrow-root is derived from the 
scaly tubers of Maranta arundinacea. In the Orchis the radicular 
bodies called tubercules, or by some tubers, 
belong to the root system (fig. 101). In the 
didymous (twin) tubers of Orchis mascula, 
we find at the end of the season one of 
them withered, while the other is vigorous, 
and bears a bud at its apex. The lowest 
leaf of this bud gives rise to another bud, 
and when the oldest tuber decays this 
new one enlarges, and next season be- 
comes the bud-tuber, while its parent pro- 
duces the flowering stem. A Cormisa 
solid underground stem which does not 
spread by sending out shoots, but remains 
of a rounded form, and is covered by thin 
scales on the outside (fig. 110). The scales 
are modified leaves specially developed 
on subterraneous stems, and they may 
produce buds in their axils, The corm occurs in Colchicum, Crocus, and 


Fig. 110. 


Fig. 108. Soboles, or creeping subterranean stem, 7, of Scirpus lacustris. fe, fe. Scales 
or modified leaves on the stem. pa, Aerial portion of the plant. tt, Level of the earth. 
Fig. 109. Lower portion of a potato plant. ss, Level of earth. pa, pa, Aerial portion” 
bearing leaves. t, Subterranean portion, showing stem-tubers. 7, Tuber showing eyes or leaf- 
buds, covered by scales, 6, which are equivalent to leaves. Fig. 110. Corm or under- 
ground stem of Colchicum autumnale. +, Roots. f, Leaf. «’, Ascending axis of preceding 
year, withered. a”, Axis of the year. a’”, Point where axis of next year would be formed. 


STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 49 


Gladiolus. A Corm’is only of one year’s duration, while a rhizome or 
root-stock consists of a string of annual growths, persistently con- 
nected. It is distinguished from a root by sending off buds annually 
in the form of small corms or thickened branches, either from the 
apex, as in Gladiolus, or from the side, as Colchicum (fig. 110 a”), 
These buds feed on the original corm a’, and absorb it. In the 
Crocus, after flowering, may be seen the withered parent corm; new 
corms, which are in reality the basis of the flowering axis, branching 
from the old corm; and in the axil of the leaves of the flowering stem 
small buds ready for another season. In Colchicum autumnale 
(Meadow Saffron), we find in autumn the flowering stem united to 
the side of the corm at its base. The two lowest sheaths of the 
flowering stem produce buds in their axils. The flowering stem 
withers, and the internodes between the two buds form a new corm, 
while the old one decays. 


Internal Structure of Stems, 


Stems, according to their structure, have been divided into three 
classes :— Exogenous (¢&w, outward, and ysvvésw, to produce), when the 
bundles of vascular tissue are produced regularly in succession exter- 
nally, and go on increasing indefinitely in an outward direction. 
Endogenous (évdov, within), when the bundles of vascular tissue are 
produced in definite bundles and converge towards the interior, addi- 
tions being thus in the first instance made internally. Acrogenous 
(&xeoc, summit), when the vascular bundles are developed at the same 
time and not in succession, the addition to the stem depending on the 
extension of the growing point or summit. The plants which exhibit 
these three kinds of stem are distinguished also by the structure of 
their embryo. Thus exogenous stems are met with in plants having 
an embryo or germ which has two cotyledons or seed-lobes, hence they 
are called Dicotyledonous (d/¢, twice, and xorvAnday, a seed-lobe); plants 
with endogenous stems have only one cotyledon, and are called Mono- 
cotyledonous (4.6v0g, one) ; while plants with acrogenous stems have no 
cotyledons, and are called Acotyledonous (a, privative). The terms 
connected with the embryo will.be afterwards fully explained. 


Exogenous or Dicotyledonous Stem. 


‘The Exogenous or Dicotyledonous stem characterises the trees of 
this country. It consists of a cellular and vascular system ; the for- 
mer including the outer bark, medullary rays, and pith ; the latter, 
the inner bark, woody layers, and medullary sheath. In the early 
stage of growth the young dicotyledonous stem is entirely cellular ; 
but ere long fusiform tubes appear, forming bundles, having the 

E 


50 EXOGENOUS OR DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


appearance of wedges (fig. 111 ww) arranged in a circle round a cen- 
tral cellular mass of pith (fig 112 p), which is connected to the outer 
part or bark by means of cellular processes called medullary rays (fig. 
lll rrr). At first the cellu- 
lar portion is large,—the 
pith, bark, and rays occt- 
pying a large portion of the 
stem; but by degrees new 
vascular bundles are formed, 
which are deposited be- 
tween the previous ones 
(fig. 112 nnn). By this 
means the pith is more cir- 
cumscribed, the medullary 
rays become narrow, and 
the bark more defined. Such is the structure presented by an annual 
herbaceous dicotyledonous stem, consisting of pith, a circle of fibro- 
vascular and woody tissue, medullary rays, bark, and epidermis. 

The stems of trees and shrubs in their young state exhibit an 
arrangement similar to that represented as occurring in the herbaceous 
stem (fig. 112), with this difference, that the vascular circle is more 
firm and solid. As ligneous stems continue-to grow, further changes 
take place by which their diameter is increased, and they are rendered 
more dense. The shoots or young branches given out annually, how- 
ever, are similar in structure to 
annual herbaceous stems; and in 
making successive sections from 
the apex of a branch, which is suc- 
culent and green, to the base of a 
trunk, which is comparatively dry 
and hard, the various changes which 
take place can be easily traced. 
Fig. 113 represents a horizon- 
tal or transverse section of the 
upper part of a young branch of 
Acer campestre. In the centre, 
m, is the pith, very large at this 
period of growth, and occupying 


Fig. 111. 


Fig. 113. 


Fig. 111. Young Dicotyledonous or Exogenous stem. w w, Vascular bundles in the 
form of wedges. p, Pith. r 77, Medullary rays. Fig. 112. Same stem further advanced ; 
the letters as in fig. 111, nnn, New vascular wedges interposed between those first 
formed. Fig. 113. Horizontal section of young stem of Acer campestre, magnified twenty- 
six diameters. m, Pith. em,em, Medullary sheath. fb, fb, woody bundles. vp, Pitted 
vessels. 7m, Medullary rays, c¢, Cambium or zone of tissue between the xylem or wood 
portion, and phloem or bark portion. fe, Fibres of Endophleum. » 1, Laticiferous vessels. 
ec, Cellular envelope, Mesophleum. gp, Corky envelope, Epiphleum, e p, Epidermis. 


EXOGENOUS OR DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 51 


at least one-half of the whole diameter, its cells diminishin g in size as they 
approach the circumference. Immediately surrounding the pith is a layer 
of a greenish hue, the medullary sheath, em, from which the medullary 
rays, rm, proceed towards the circumference, dividing the vascular circle 
into numerous compact segments, which consist of woody vessels, f b, 
and of pitted vessels, vp, These are surrounded by a moist layer of 
greenish cellular tissue, c, called the cambium layer, which is covered 
by three layers of bark, fc, ec, and p, with laticiferous vessels, v Z, the 
_ whole being enclosed by the epidermis, ep. On making a thin vertical 
section of a portion of the same branch, and viewing it under the 
microscope, the parts composing the different portions become more 
obvious (fig. 114). The pith, m, with its hexagonal cells decreasing 


Fig. 115. , 


in size outwards, surrounded by a narrow fibro-vascular zone, the 
medullary sheath, consisting chiefly of spiral vessels, ¢; the medullary 
ray, rm; the vascular zone, consisting of pitted vessels, v p, of large 
diameter, and forming the large round apertures seen in a transverse 
section ; the fibres of the wood, f 2, with their thick walls and smaller 
apertures ; the inner bark or liber, f c, with the layer of cambium cells, 
c; the second layer of bark, or the cellular envelope, ec, with the 
laticiferous vessels, v 7; the outer or suberous layer of bark, p, with 
the thin layer of epidermis, ¢ p, having hairs seattered over its surface, 
A transverse section of a bundle of vascular tissue of a dicotyledonous 
plant, magnified 230 times, is represented in fig. 115. The arrow 
indicates the direction from within outwards. We here perceive the 
vascular bundle surrounded by a large-celled tissue (246 f). The 

Fig. 114, Vertical section of the same stem more highly magnified. 7, Trachez or spiral 
vessels. fl, fl; fl, Woody fibres. The other letters as in fig. 113. Fig. 115, Transverse 
section of a bundle of vascular ‘tissue of a Dicotyledonous plant. ad, Epidermis. b, Large- 
celled tissue of bark. ¢, Fibres of bast layer. d, d’, Woody layers and laticiferous vessels 
of inner bark. d’, Cambium cells. gg, and hh, Large pitted vessels, ev, Woody tubes. 
Jf, Large cells, 


52 EXOGENOUS OR DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


quadrangular cells, a é, form the epidermis, to which succeeds the 
cellular tissue of the bark, b. The latter surrounds a bundle of bast 
(phloem) fibres, c, and ligneous layers of inner bark, with laticiferous 
vessels, d d', which are separated, in the direction towards the interior, 
by a layer of cambium cells, d’, from the proper vascular tissue (xylem), 
consisting of pitted vessels with thick walls, g g, and others with thin 
walls, hh, mixed with woody tubes, e. 

Such is the structure of a young shoot during the first year of 
its growth. At the end of a second year the shoot is found to have 
increased in diameter by the formation of a zone of vessels consisting 


VAAN 
ca fhe dee 


Fig. 116: 


Jt 


of porous and woody tissue, and a zone of fibrous bark, the medullary 
rays being at the same time continued from within outwards. This is 
represented in fig. 116, where 1, 1 indicates the section of the stem 
of the first year’s growth (the letters referring to the same parts as in 
figs. 114, 115); and 2 shows the interposed zones of the second 
year, by which the diameter of the stem is increased. 

Tue Pra, or the central part of a dicotyledonous stem, is com- 


Fig. 116. Vertical section of a branch of common maple (Acer campestre) two years old, 
where (1, 1) indicates the portion formed the first year, and (2) that formed the second. 
The letters as in figs. 114 and 115. Fig. 116 bis. Certain parts of the preceding magnified, in 
order to show the structure of the vessels and cells, as well as their form and direction. 
Fig. 116 ter. A portion of a pitted vessel from the gourd, magnified. 


EXOGENOUS STEM—PITH. 53 


posed of cellular tissue, which is developed in an upward direction, the 
cells diminishing in size towards the circumference, and being often 
hexagonal. In the young plant it occupies a large portion of the stem, 
and sends cellular processes outwards at regular intervals to join the 
medullary rays (figs. 111,112 p). The pith has at first a greenish hue, 
and is full of fiuid, but in process of time it becomes pale- coloured, 
dry, and full of air. These changes take place first in the central cells. 
Sometimes the pith is broken up into cavities, which have a regular 
arrangement, as in the Walnut, Jessamine, and Cecropia peltata ; it is 
then called discoid or disciform (d/oxog, a disc, from the circular parti- 
tions). At other times, by the rapid growth of the outer part of the 
stem, the pith is ruptured irregularly, and forms large cavities as in 
the fistular stem of Umbelliferous plants. Cireumscribed cavities in 
the internal cellular portions of stems are by no means unfrequent, 
arising either from rupture or absorption of the cells. In some rare 
instances vessels occur in pith, as in Elder, Pitcher-plant, and Ferula ; 
and occasionally its cells are marked by pores indicating the formation 
of secondary deposits. The extent of pith varies in different plants, 
and in different parts of the same plant. In Ebony it is small, while 
in the Elder it is large. In the Shola plant, Auschynomene aspera, 
the interior of the stem is almost entirely composed of cellular tissue 
or pith ; from this a kind of rice-paper is made, and light hats. The 
same kind of tissue occurs in the Papyrus of the Nile. Large pith is 
also seen in Fatsia papyrifera, or Chinese rice-paper plant. When the 
woody circle of the first year is completed, the pith remains stationary 
as regards its size, retaining more or less its dimensions, even in old 
truriks, and never becoming obliterated. 

Tae Meputtary Suzarta is the fibro-vascular layer immediately 
surrounding the pith. It forms the inner layer of the vascular bundle 
of the first year (fig. 114 ¢), and consists chiefly of true spiral vessels, 
which continue to exercise their functions during the life of the plant, 
and which extend into the leaves. With the spiral vessels there are a 
few woody fibres intermingled. The processes from the pith are pro- 
longed into the medullary rays between the vessels of the sheath. 

Woopy Layers.—During the first year the vascular circle con- 
sists of an internal layer of spiral vessels forming the medullary sheath, 
and external bundles of pitted and ligneous vessels. In subsequent 
years the layer of spiral vessels is not repeated, but concentric zones 
of pitted vessels (fig. 116 ter) and pleurenchyma are formed, consti- 
tuting what are commonly called the woody circles of trees. The 
vascular bundles, from their mode of development in an indefinite 
manner externally, have been called Exogenous; and, for the same 
reason, Schleiden has denominated them Indefinite, Exogenous plants 
have sometimes received the name of Cyclogens (xinAos, a circle), 
in consequence of exhibiting concentric circles in their stems, Ona 


54 EXOGENOUS STEM—WOOD. 


transverse section, each zone or circle is usually seen to be separated 
from that next to it by a well-marked line of demarcation. This line, 
as in the Oak (figs. 117, 118), and in the Ash, is indicated by holes 
which are the openings of large pitted vessels ; the remainder of the 
tissue in the circle being formed by pleurenchyma, with thickened 
walls and of smaller calibre, In some trees, as the Lime, Hornbeam, 
and Maple, the line is by no means 
so well marked, as the openings are 
smaller and more generally diffused ; 
ig but there is usually a deficiency of 

Wy ge pitted vessels towards the outer part 
SQ Wii 1 of the circle. In cone-bearing plants, 

: as the Fir, in which the woody layers 
consist entirely of punctated woody 
tissue (fig. 49), without any large pit- 
ted vessels, the line of separation is 
marked by the pleurenchyma becoming 
dense and often coloured. In some 
kinds of wood, as Sumach, the zones are 
separated by a marked development 
of cellular tissue. The separation between the zones is said to be 
owing to the interruption in the growth of the tree during autumn 
and winter, and hence it is well defined in trees of temperate and 
cold climates. But even in tropical trees, the lines, although often 
inconspicuous, are still visible; the dry season, during which many 
of them lose their leaves, being their season of repose. 

The woody layers vary 
in their texture at dif- 
ferent periods, At. first 
the vessels are pervious 
and full of fiuid, but by 
degrees thickening layers 
are deposited which con- 
tract their canal, and 
sometimes obliterate it. 
The first-formed layers 
are those which soonest 
become thus altered. In 


Fig. 117. Horizontal section of the stem of an oak eight years old. b, Wood, showing 
concentric circles or zones, separated by points which correspond to the opening of the 
large pitted vessels, or Bothrenchyma. ¢, Bark, showing also eight concentric’ circles, 
thinner and less distinct. The wood and bark are traversed by medullary rays, some of 
which extend from the bark to the pith, and others reach only a certain way inwards. 
Fig. 118. Horizontal section of two woody bundles of Cork-oak, separated from each other 
by the medullary ray, rm’. The two primary bundles are divided by secondary rays, rm”, 
rm”, rm”, which vary in extent according to the period when they originated. m, Pith. ec, 
Cellular envelope, p, Corky envelope, which is highly developed, and exhibits several layers, 


Fig. 117. 


Fig. 118. 


EXOGENOUS STEM—woon. 55 


old trees, there is a marked division between the central Heart-wood 
or Duramen (durus, hard), and the external Sap-wood or Alburnum 
(albus, white): the former being hard and dense, and often 
coloured, with its tubes dry and thickened; while the latter is 
‘less dense, is of a pale colour, and has its tubes permeable by fluids. 
The difference of colour between these two kinds of woods is often 
* very visible. In the Ebony tree, the duramen or perfect-wood is black, 
and is the part used for furniture, while the alburnum is pale; in the 
Beech, the heart-wood is light-brown ; in the Oak, deep-brown ; in 
Judas tree, yellow ; in Guaiacum, greenish. The alteration in colour 
is frequent in tropical trees. In those of temperate climates, called 
white-wood, as the Willow and Poplar, no change in colour takes place; 
this is also the case in the Chestnut: and Bombax. The relative pro- 
portion of alburnum and duramen varies in different trees. Duhamel 
says that in the oak, six inches in diameter, the alournum and duramen 
are of equal extent ; in a trunk one foot in diameter they are as two to 
seven; in a trunk two feet in diameter, as one to nine. The heart-wood 
is more useful than the sap-wood, and less liable to decay. The wood: of 
different trees varies much in its durability. Pieces of wood 28 inches 
square, were buried to the depth of one inch in the ground, and decayed 
in the following order :—Lime, American Birch, Alder, and Aspen, in 
three years ; Willow, Horse-chestnut, and Plane, in four years ; Maple, 
Red Beech, and Birch, in five years; Elm, Ash, Hornbeam, and Lom- 
bardy Poplar, in seven years; Robinia, Oak, Scotch Fir, Weymouth 
Pine, Silver Fir, were decayed to the depth of half an inch in seven 
years ; while Larch, common Juniper, Virginian Juniper, and Arbor 
Vite, were uninjured at the end of that time. 

From the mode in' which the woody layers are formed, it is 
obvious that each vascular zone is moulded upon that which precedes 
it; and as, in ordinary cases, each woody circle is completed in the 
course of one year, it follows, that, by counting the concentric circles, 
the age of a tree may be ascertained. Thus fig. 117 represents an oak 
eight years old, having eight woody layers, 6. This computation can 
only be made in trees having marked separations between the circles, 
There are, however, many sources of fallacy. In some instances, by 
interruption to growth, several circles may be formed in one year, and 
thus lead to an erroneous estimate. Care must be taken to have a 
complete section from the bark to the pith, for the circles sometimes 
vary in diameter at different parts of their course, and a great error 
might occur from taking only a few rings or circles, and then estimating 
for the whole diameter of the tree. When by the action of severe 
frost, or other causes, injury has been done to the tender cells from 
which’ the young wood is developed, while, at the same time, the tree 
continues to live, so as’ to form perfect woody layers in subsequent 
years, the date of the injury may be ascertained by counting the 


56 EXOGENOUS STEM—CAMBIUM. 


number of layers which intervene between the imperfectly formed 
circle and the bark. In 1800, a Juniper was cut down in the forest 
of Fontainbleau, exhibiting near its centre a layer which had been 
affected by frost, and which was covered by ninety-one woody layers, 
showing that this had taken place in the winter of 1709. Inscriptions 
made in the wood become covered, and may be detected in after years 
when a tree is cut down; so also wires or nails driven into the wood. 
As the same development of woody layers takes place in the branches 
as in the stem of an Exogenous tree, the time when a branch was first 
given off may be computed by countipg the circles on the stem and 
branch respectively. If there are fifty circles, for instance, in the trunk, 
thirty in one branch and ten in another, then the tree must have been 
twenty years old when it produced the first, and forty when it formed 
the other. : 

In Exogenous stems the pith is not always in the centre. The 
layers of wood on one side of a tree may be larger than those on the 
other, in consequence of their fuller exposure to light and air, or the 
nature of the nourishment conveyed, and thus the pith may become 
excentric. Zones vary in size in different kinds of trees, and at different 
periods of a plant’s life. Soft wooded trees have usually broad zones, 
and old trees form smaller zones than young ones. There are certain 
periods of a plant’s life when it seems to grow most vigorously, and to 
form the largest zones. This is said to occur in the oak between twenty 
and thirty years of age. 

CamBium. — External to the woody layers, and between them 
and the bark, there is a layer of mucilaginous semifluid matter, which 
is particularly copious in spring, and to which the name of Cambium 
(cambio, I change, from the alterations that take place in it) has been 
given (figs. 113, 114 c). In this substance cells are formed, called 
cambium cells, of a delicate texture, in which the protoplasm and 
primary utricle are conspicuous. These cells undergo changes, so as 
to assume an elongated fusiform shape, and ultimately become thick- 

-ened pleurenchyma. So long as the primary utricle can be detected 
they appear to be in an active state, and capable of developing new 
cells. This cambium layer marks the separation between the wood 
and the bark, and may be regarded as constituting the active forma- 
tive tissue of Dicotyledonous stems. It constitutes the thickening zone, 
by means of which the stem is enlarged—the cambium cells situated 
most internally being subservient to the purposes of the wood forma- 
tion, while the external ones give origin to the new bark. According 
to Schacht this is the proper nourishing tissue. 

Bark oR Corticat (cortex, bark) System lies external to the wood, 
and, like it, consists of several layers. In the early state it is entirely 
cellular, and is in every respect similar to the pith ; but as the vascular 
bundles are developed, the bark and pith are separated, and the former 


EXOGENOUS STEM—BARK. 57 


gradually becomes altered by the formation of secondary deposits. 
The bark consists of a cellular and vascular system. In this respect 
it resembles the wood, but the position and relative proportion of these 
two systems is reversed. In the bark the cellular system is external, 
and is much developed ; while the vascular is internal, and occupies 
comparatively a small space. The cellular portion of the bark con- 
sists of an external layer, or Epiphicum (é2/, upon, on the outside, and 
pros, bark), and the cellular envelope, or Mesophlawm (m£00¢, middle) ; 
while the vasular system forms the internal portion called Liber, or 
Endophieum (évéoy, within). 

The inner bark, or endophleum (fig. 116 f c), is composed of 
elongated pleurenchyma mixed with laticiferous vessels and some 
cellular tissue. It is separated from the wood by the cambium layer. 
The pleurenchymatous tubes are thickened by concentric deposits in 
their interior, and thus they acquire a great degree of tenacity. The 
liber of the Lime tree and of Antiaris saccidora (the sack tree of 
Coorg) are used to form mats, cordage, and bags ; 
and the toughness of the fibres of the inner 
bark of flax, hemp, and of many of the nettle 
and mallow tribe, render them fit for various 
manufacturing purposes. The liber is sometimes, 
from its uses, called the bast-layer, Occasionally 
it is continuous and uninterrupted, as in the 
Vine and Horse-chestnut ; at other times, as in 
the Oak, Ash, and Lime, the fibres are separated 
during the progress of growth, and form a sort 
of network, in the interstices of which the 
medullary rays are seen. The fibres of the 
lace-bark tree (Lagetta lintearia) are similar. 
In figure 119 is represented the bark of Daphne 
Laureola; f indicating the woody fibres of 
liber, and r the medullary rays. The en- 
dophleeum increases by layers on its inside, 
which are thin, and may be separated like the 
leaves of a book, and hence the application of the name iber. The 
term liber may be derived from the fact of the inner bark being used 
for writing upon. 

The cellular envelope, or mesophiewm, lies immediately on the 
outside’ of the liber. It consists of polyhedral, often prismatical cells 
(fig. 116 ec), usually having chlorophyll, or green colouring matter, 
in their interior, but sometimes being colourless, and containing 
taphides. They are distinguished from those of the epiphleum by 
their form and direction, by their thicker walls, their green colour, 


Fig. 119. 


Fig. 119. Network formed by liber of Daphne Laureola. ff, Fibrous bundles. rr, 
Medullary rays. 


58 EXOGENOUS STEM—BARK,. 


and the intercellular spaces which occur among them. This covering 
is usually less developed than the outer suberous layer, but sometimes, as 
in the Larch and common Fir, it becomes very thick, and separates like 
the epiphleum, In the cellular envelope laticiferous vessels occur. 

The Zpiphiaum is the outer covering of the bark, consisting of 
cells which usually assume a cubical or flattened tabular form (fig. 
116 bis, p). The cells have no chlorophyll in their interior, are 
placed close together, and are elongated in a horizontal direction ; and 
thus they are distinguished from the cells of mesophleum. In the 
progress of growth they become often of a brown colour. This cover- 
ing may be composed of a single layer of tabular cells; but in some 
trees it consists of numerous layers, forming the substance called cork, 
which is well seen in Quercus Suber, the Cork-oak (fig. 118 p) ; hence 
the name suberous, or corky layer, which is given to it. The form of 
its cells varies in some instances, being cubical at one part, and more 
compressed or tabular at another, thus giving rise to the appearance 
of separate layers. After a certain period (sometimes eight or nine 
years), the corky portion becomes inactive, and is thrown off in the form 
of thickish plates, leaving a layer of tabular cells or periderm below. 
On the exterior of the epiphloum is situated the epidermis, which 
has already been described. It is formed of a layer of cells, which in 
woody stems serve only a temporary purpose, becoming ultimately 
dry, and being thrown off in the form of plates or shreds. 

The bark, in its increase, follows an order exactly the reverse of 
that which occurs in the woody layers. Its three portions increase 
by additions to their inside. The layers of liber owe their increase 
to the cambium cells, which, by their constant reproduction, mark the 
separation between the vascular bundles of the wood and the fibres 
of the endophleeum. These layers are often so compressed and united 
together as to be counted with difficulty, while at other times they 
are separated by rings of cellular tissue, and thus remain conspicuous. 
In the case of the cellularportions of the bark there are also succes- 
sive additions, sometimes to a great exent, but they do not usually 
éxhibit any marked divisions. 

As the additions are made to the woody layers on the outside, and 
to the bark on the inside, there is a constant distension going on, by 
which the bark becomes compressed, its layers of liber are condensed, 
the fibres are often separated (fig. 119) so as to form meshes (as in the 
lace-bark), its epidermis is thrown off, and the epiphloum is either de- 
tached along with it, or, when thick, is ruptured in various ways, 80 
as to give rise to the rugged appearance presented by such trees as 
the Elm and Cork-oak. In some instances the bark is very disten- 
sible, and its outer cellular covering is not much developed, so that 
the surface remains smooth, as in the Beech. The outer suberous 
layer sometimes separates with the epidermis, in thin plates or scales. 


EXOGENOUS STEM—RAYS. 59 


In the Birch, these have a white and silvery aspect. There is thus 
a continual destruction and separation of different portions of the 
bark. The cellular envelope and liber may remain while the epi- 
phiceum separates, or they also may be gradually pushed off—the parts 
which were at first internal becoming external. In the case of some 
Australian trees, both the cellular and fibrous portions are detached 
in the form of thin flakes, and occasionally each annual layer of liber 
pushes off that which preceded it. The epidermis separates early, and 
no renewal of it takes place. There is, however, an internal covering, 
which is formed of various portions of the bark. To this covering 
the name Periderm (eg, around, and dégwa, skin) has been given by 
Mohl. 

From the mode ip which the outer layers of bark separate, it fol- 
lows that inscriptions made on them, and not extending to the wood, 
gradually fall off and disappear. A nail driven into these layers ulti- 
mately falls out. In consequence of the continued distension of an 
exogenous stem, it is found that woody twining plants cause injury, 
by interrupting the passage of their fluids. Thus a spiral groove may 
be formed on the surface of the stem by the compression exercised by 
a twining plant, such as honeysuckle- From what has been stated 
relative to the changes which take place in the bark, it will be under- 
stood that it is often difficult to count its annual, layers, so as to esti- 
mate the age of the tree by means of them. This may, however, be 
done in some cases, as shown at fig. 117, where there are eight layers 
of bark, e, corresponding to eight woody layers, 0. 

MEDULLARY Rays orn P rates. — While the bark and pith 
become gradually separated by the intervention of vascular bundles, 
the connection between them is kept up by means of processes called 
medullary rays (figs. 111, 112 r). These form the silver grain of 
carpenters ;- they communicate with the pith and the cellular envelope 
of the bark, and they consist of cellular tissue, which becomes com- 
pressed and flattened so as to assume a muriform appearance (fig. 
120 mr). At first they occupy a large space (fig. 111 r); but as 
the vascular bundles increase they become more and more narrow, 
forming thin lamine or plates, which separate the woody layers. On 
making a transverse or horizontal section of a woody stem, the medul- 
lary rays present the aspect of narrow lines running from the centre 
to the circumference (figs. 117, 118 7 m); and in making a vertical 
section of a similar stem through one of the rays, the appearance 
represented in fig. 120 will be observed, where a medullary ray, m 1, 
composed of flattened muriform cells, passes from the pith, p, to the 
cellular envelope, ¢ e, crossing the trachez of the medullary sheath, ¢, 
the ligneous tissue, 2, the pitted vessels of the wood, }, and the fibres 
of the liber, cf, The lamine do not by any means preserve an unin- 
terrupted course from the apex to the base of the tree, They are 


60 ANOMALOUS EXOGENOUS STEMS. 


broken up by the intervention of woody fibres, as seen in a vertical 
section of a woody stem (fig. 121), tangentially to the medullary 
rays m7, mr, m7, which are separated by similar interlacing fibres, 
id. The medullary rays are usually continuous from the pith to the 


pUoSS-— 


bark, additions being made to them as they proceed outwards. But, 
occasionally, secondary rays arise from the outer cells, which pass 
only to a certain depth between the vascular bundles, as in the Cork- 
oak (fig. 118, 7 m," 7m"). Medullary rays are conspicuous in the 
Cork-oak, Hazel, Beech, Ivy, Clematis, Vine. They are not so well 
marked in the Lime, Chestnut, Birch, Yew. 


Anomalies in the Strueture of the Exogenous Stem. 


The stems of Dicotyledonous plants occasionally present anomalous 
appearances in the structure and arrangement of their wood, bark, 
and medullary rays. In place of concentric circles there are some- 
times only a few rows of wedge-shaped vascular bundles produced 
during the life of the plant, additions being made by the interposition 
of bundles of a similar kind annually, resembling in this respect the 
formation of woody bundles in the early growth of herbaceous plants 
(fig. 112). In the Pepper tribe, Aristolochiacese, and Menisper- 
macez, these anomalous stems occur. In Gnetum (fig. 122), the 


Fig. 120. Vertical section of a one-year old branch of Acer campestre, highly magnified, 
and extending from the pith to the bark, parallel to the medullary rays. mr, A medullary 
ray or plate extending from the pith, p, to the bark, ¢ e, crossing trachee, t, fibres of 
xylem or wood, J, pitted vessels, b, and cortical fibres,c f. Fig. 121. Vertical section of the 
same branch at right angles to medullary rays. 11, fibres of wood (xylem) which interlace, 
leaving spaces, mr, mr, mT, where the medullary rays pass. 


ANOMALOUS EXOGENOUS STEMS. 61 


vascular bundles, 6 6 db 6, form zones, which are each the produce of 
several years’ growth, and 
are separated by layers, 
110001, which may be con- 
sidered as representing dif- 
ferent zones of liber. 

In some of the Meni- 

spermum tribe, the sepa- 
rating layers are of a cellular 
and not of a fibrous nature. 
In Banisteria nigrescens 
fig. 123), the young stem 
1) presents a four-lobed 
surface ; the lobes become 
more evident (2); and ul- 
timately (3) the stem is divided into a number of separate portions, the 
central one of which alone exhibits pith and medullary rays. The 
portions are separated by interposed cortical layers. : 

Many of the Malpighiacez, Sapindacez, and Bignoniacex of Brazil, 
exhibit stems in which the woody layers are arranged in a very irre- 
3 


Fig. 122, 


Fig. 123. 
gular manner. In the stem of Calycanthus floridus, and of some 


Fig. 122.—Horizontal section of stem of Gnetum. m, Pith. e m, Medullary sheath. 
bbb bb, Woody bundles forming seven concentric zones, each of which is the produce of 
several years. 111111, Fibres of liber forming interposed circles, equal in number to the 
woody zones. Fig. 123, Horizontal section of stem of Banisteria nigrescens at different 
ages. 1. Stem presenting four superficial lobes. 2. Six more marked lobes, with inter- 
mediate divisions. 3, The lobes separated by cellular tissue, the middle one alone having 
pith and medullary sheath. The dots indicate the orifices of pitted vessels. 


62 ANOMALOUS EXOGENOUS STEMS. 


Brazilian Sapindacez, such as Paullinia pinnata (fig. 124), Serjania 
triternata and Selloviana, there is a central woody mass with from 
three to ten small secondary ones round it. ach of the masses con- 
tains true pith, derived either from the cortical cellular tissue, or 
from the original medullary centre. Gaudichanud and Jussieu state 
that around these separate collections of pith there is a medullary 
sheath and spiral vessels. No annual rings have been detected in 
the secondary masses, but medullary rays exist usually in their outer 
portion (fig. 124). In these anomalous Sapindacez, the central and 


Fig. 126. Fig. 127. 


lateral woody masses are enclosed in a common bark, with a continuous 
layer of liber. Some have supposed that the lateral masses are un- 
developed branches united together under the bark ; but Treviranus 


Fig. 124. Horizontal section of the stem of Paullinia pinnata, one of the Sapindaces of 
Brazil, showing numerous secondary woody masses surrounding a central one. Each of 
the separate masses has pith, often excentric, with a medullary sheath, containing spiral 
vessels, and a few medullary rays chiefly towards the circumference of the stem. Fig. 125. 
Horizontal section of the stem of Bignonia capreolata, showing the crucial division of the 
woody layers. Fig. 126. Horizontal section of stem of Heteropterys anomala, one of the 
Brazilian Malpighiacez, showing an irregularly lobed surface. The dots indicate porous 
vessels. Fig. 127. Fragment of a stem of climbing species of Banisteria (B. scandens), 
showing the effects of compression. 


ANOMALOUS EXOGENOUS STEMS. 63 


considers them as connected with the formation of leaves, and as 
depending on a peculiar tendency 
of the vascular bundles to be de- 
veloped independently of each 
other round several centres. 
In some Bignoniacee (fig. 
125), the layers of wood are di- 
‘vided in a crucial manner into 
four wedge-shaped portions by the 
intervention of plates differing in 
texture from the ordinary wood of 
the plant, and probably formed by 
introversion, or growing inwards 
of the liber. In some Guayaquil 
Bignonias, Gaudichaud perceived 
first four of these plates, next 
eight, then sixteen, and finally 
thirty-two. In Aspidosperma 
excelsum (Paddle-wood) of Guiana, 
and in Heteropterys anomala (fig. 
126), the stem assumes a peculiar 
lobed and sinuous aspect ; and in 
some woody climbing plants, pres- 
sure causes the stems to become 
flattened on the side next the tree 
on which they are supported, while 
from being twisted alternately in 
different directions, they present a 
remarkable zigzag form, having 
the woody layers developed only 
on one side (fig. 127). In Firs 
the wood is occasionally produced 
‘in an oblique in place of a per- 
pendicular manner, thus injuring 
_the timber, and causing it to split 
in an unusual way. The young 
plants produced from the seed of 
such twisted-wooded firs 
are said to inherit the 
peculiarity of their pa. 
rents. Occasionally the 
dicotyledonous stem, be- 
comes swollen at certain 
places, especially near the root, and thus exhibits a tuberous appear- 


Fig. 128. Swollen stem of Irish Yew (Taxus baccata, var. stricta). 


Fig, 128. 


64 ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


ance, as shown in fig. 128, which represents an Irish yew with an 
anomalous stem. This peculiar appearance is said to be liable to 
occur in coniferous plants grown from cuttings. A Sequoia (Welling- 
tonia) gigantea is mentioned in which a tuberous mass was produced 1 
foot 6 inches in circumference, on a plant grown from a cutting, the 
plant being only 3 feet in height, with a stem 24 inches in circum- 
ference. 


Endogenous or Monocotyledonous Stem, 


This kind of stem is composed of cells and vessels which are 
differently arranged from those of the Exogenous stem. The vascular 
bundles are scattered through the cellular tissue, and there is no dis- 
tinction between pith, wood, or bark. There are no medullary rays, 
nor concentric circles (fig. 129). . In the young 
state, the centre of the stem is occupied entirely 
by cells, which may be said to represent pith, 
and around this the vessels are seen, increasing in 
number towards the circumference. The central 
cellular mass has no medullary sheath. In 
some cases its cells are ruptured, and disappear 
during the progress of growth, leaving a hollow 
cavity (fig. 130); but in general it remains per- 
manent, and is gradually encroached upon by 
the development of the vascular system. The 
latter consists of vessels arranged in definite 
bundles, which do not increase by additions to. 
their outside after being once formed, although 
they are developed in @ progressive manner. 


wo Si 


nr (hime TE These bundles may be considered as representing 
i " | Ha the vascular wedges, produced during the first 
mi Ip’ year of an exogenous stem’s growth (fig, 111). 
Fig. 130. They consist of woody vessels enclosing some 


cellular tissue between them, with spiral and 

pitted vessels, The outer part of the stem is not formed by a sepa- 

rable bark, but consists of a dense mass of fibrous tissue, mixed with 

laticiferous vessels and cells. It is intimately connected to the inner 
part of the stem, without the intervention of medullary rays. 

On making a transverse section of a young endogenous stem 

(fig. 131), there is observed a mass of cells or utricles, u, of various 


Fig. 129. Part of the stem of Asparagus cut transversely, showing the vessels as points 
distributed through the cellular tissue. 1, Leaf in the form of ascale. Fig. 130. Trans- 
verse section of stem of Phragmites communis, or common reed. ‘The cellular tissue in the 
centre has disappeared, leaving a fistular or hollow stem, with a ring of cells and vessels, 
the latter indicated by dots. », Node where the fibres cross, soas to form a solid partition. 


' ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 65 


sizes, often small in the vicinity of the vascular bundles, spiral 
vessels or trachex, ¢, large pitted vessels, v », laticiferous vessels, 2, 
and bast fibres, f, resembling those of liber, thickened by internal 
deposits. A similar section of a farther advanced endogenous stem, 
as of a Palm (fig. 132), shows numerous bundles of vessels dispersed 
irregularly in cellular tissue; those near the centre, m, being scattered at 
a distance from each other, while those towards the outside are densely 
aggregated, forming a darkish zone, 6, and are succeeded at the cir- 
cumference by a paler circle of less compact vessels, 2, with some com- 
pressed cells, covered by an epidermis, e. The peripherical portion, Ze, 
differs from true bark, in not being separable from the rest of the tissue. 
It has received the name of false bark, and consists of the epidermal 


Eine 
Fig. 131. Fig. 182, 
cells, e, and what has been called the cortical integument, 7. This 
portion of the stem is often very inconspicuous, but sometimes it is 
much developed, as in'Testudinaria elephantipes, in which it is rugged, 
and is formed of a sftbstance resembling cork in many respects. 

Mohl states that in the stem of a Palm there may be distin- 
guished a central region, a fibrous layer, and a cortical region; and 
the same divisions are pointed out by Henfrey in the stem of Spar- 
ganium ramosum and other monocotyledons. The central portion, 
representing the pith of dicotyledons, consists in Sparganium of 
spherical cells, containing starch, while the cortical or outer portion 
is formed by irregular cells, which are usually destitute of starch, 

It was at one time stipposed that the woody portion of these 

Fig. 131. Horizontal section of a vascular bundle from the stem of a Palm (Corypha 
frigida). t, Trachez, or spiral vessels. vp, Large pitted vessels, «, Cells or utricles of 
various kinds surrounding the vessels, and forming the parenchyma. 1, Laticiferous 
vessels. jf, Fibres analogous to those of liber, thickened by concentric deposits. Fig. 132. 
Transverse section of part of the stem of a Palm (Astrocarywm Murumura). m, Central or 
medullary portion, in which the woody bundles are distant and scattered. b, External 
woody portion, where the fibres are numerous and densely aggregated, so as to form a dark 


zone. 1, Paler circle of more slender and less compact fibres, which may be considered 
as analogous to liber. ¢, Cellular epidermal portion. 


F 


66 ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


stems was increased by additions to the centre, so that the first- 
formed fibres were gradually pushed towards the circumference by 
those which succeeded them, in the manner represented in Fig. 133, 
1: hence the term Endogenous 
(60, within, and yevvdew, to pro- 
duce), meaning internal growth. 
: a But Mohl has shown that this 

is not strictly correct. For 

although the fibres connected 

with the leaves, in the first in- 

stance, are directed towards the 

centre, and are therefore always 

internal to those previously 
c formed, yet, when they are traced 

downwards, they are found not 

to continue in a parallel direc- 

tion, but to arch outwards, so as 

ultimately to reach the circum- 

ference. Hence, the newly-form- 

ed fibres really become external 
i at the base, although internal 
above. On making a vertical 
section of an endogenous stem, 
as of a Palm, there is observed 
an interlacing of fibres, similar 
to what is represented in Fig. 
133, 2, where the four vascular 
bundles, abc d, are first direct- 
ed towards the centre, and then 
curve outwards towards the cir- 
cumference, so that those last 
formed ultimately become ex- 
ternal. The term Endogenous 
will, therefore, only apply strict- 
ly to the fibres at the early part 
of their course. Of late years, 
the terms Endogenous and Exo- 
genous have been discarded by many writers, the terms Mono- 
cotyledonous and Dicotyledonous being substituted. The true dis- 
tinction between Exogenous and Endogenous stems is, that in the 
former the woody or vascular bundles increase indefinitely at their 


1 2 


Fig. 133. 


Fig. 138. Diagrams illustrating the arrangement of four pairs of vascular bundles (a a, 
bb, cc, dd), in endogenous stems. 1, According to the old idea of internal development 
throughout the stem. 2. According to the view of Mohl, who has shown that the fibres 
interlace, and that those which are at first internal become external, lower down. 


ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 67 


periphery, while in the latter they are arrested in their transverse 
growth at a definite epoch. The investing bark of the former permits 
an unlimited extension of woody growth beneath it; the fibrous cor- 
tical layer of the latter, by maintaining an intimate union with the 
subjacent tissue, prevents unlimited increase in diameter. Hence we 
find that true endogenous stems do not attain the enormous diameter 
exhibited by some exogenous trees, such as Sequoia (Wellingtonia) 
gigantea and the Baobab,—the former of which has been measured 
116 feet in circumference. 

The composition of the vascular bundles, in different parts of 
their course, varies, Thus, at the upper part, tracing them from 
the leaves towards the centre, they contain spiral vessels, pitted vessels 
with some cellular tissue, a few laticiferous vessels, and woody fibres 
resembling those of liber (fig. 131). As we descend, the spiral vessels 
disappear, then the pitted vessels; and when the bundles have reached 
the periphery, and have become incorporated with it, nothing but 
fibrous tissue, or pleurenchyma, remains, forming a complicated ana- 
stomosis or network. Thus, at the commencement, the bundles are 
large, but as they descend they usually become more and more atten- 
uated. In some instances, however, as in Ceroxylon Andicola, they 
increase at different parts of their course, probably by interstitial 
growth, and give rise to irregular swellings of the stem. This disten- 
sion takes place occasionally at the base of the stem, as in Euterpe 
montana. 

There are many herbaceous plants in this country, as Lilies, 
Grasses, etc., having endogenous stems, in which the course of the 
vascular bundles may occasionally be traced, but there are no British 
endogenous plants with permanent aerial woody stems. ll the 
British trees are exogenous, Illustrations of endogenous stems must 
therefore be taken from trees of foreign countries, Palms furnish the 
best examples. In them the stem forms a cylinder of nearly uniform 
diameter throughout. The leaves are produced from a single terminal 
and central bud, called a Phyllophor or Phyllogen (UAAoy, a leaf, and 
pogewv to bear, and yewdew, to produce). Connected with the leaves 
are the vascular bundles, and the bases of the leaves remain attached 
to the outer part of the stem, surrounded by the mattulla or reticulum. 
While the leaves produced by: one bud decay, another bud is de- 
veloped in the centre. As the definite vascular bundles are produced, 
the stem acquires increased thickness, but it is arrested in its trans- 
verse diameter at a certain epoch. The bundles, although developed 
progressively, do not multiply indefinitely ; and thus a Palm-stem 
seldom becomes of great diameter. 

In consequence of this mode of formation, the outer part of a 
Palm-stem is the hardest and densest, and after acquiring a certain 
degree of firmness it resists all further distension, and frequently be- 


68 ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


comes so hard as to withstand the blow of a hatchet. It has been 
already stated that in the exogenous stem provision is made for 
unlimited extension laterally, by the development of bundles of woody 
fibres and vessels indefinitely, and the formation of a separable bark 
which can be distended ; but in the endogenous stem there is no such 
provision. Hence, when the first formed or lowest part of the stem 
has increased to a certain amount, its progress is stopped by the hard 
indistensible outer fibrous covering ; and the same thing takes place 
successively in the higher parts of the stem, till at length all have ac- 
quired a comparatively uniform size, as is seen in the coco-nut palm 
(fig. 134, 1). In consequence of the small lateral increase of Palm- 
stems, a woody twining plant does less injury to them than to trees 
of exogenous growth. 

The growth of endogenous stems may be said to resemble an 
upward growth of an Exogen by 
terminal buds only, for there 
is no cambium layer, and no 
peripherical increase. In Palms, 
while the terminal shoot is 
developed, there are no an- 
nual rings. The hardening of 
the stem depends, in all pro- 
bability, partly on internal 
changes in the bast fibres, 
similar to what takes place in 
the heart-wood of Exogens, 
Occasionally, at the upper part 
of a palm-stem, there is an ap- 
pearance of zones, but it does 
not continue throughout the 
stem. From the absence of 
concentric circles, the age of a 
Palm cannot be estimated in 
the same way as that of an exo- 
genous tree. The elongation, 
however, of each species of 
Palm is pretty regular, and by 
it some idea may be formed 

Fig. 134. of its age. The rings on the 
stem do not usually indicate yearly growth. 

Fig. 134. Two endogenous or monocotyledonous trees, belonging to different fami- 
lies. 1. Cocos nucifera, or coco-nut, belonging to the Palm family. 2. Pandanus odora- 
tissimus, or screw-pine, belonging to Pandanacee. The first has a simple unbranched 
stem, with a cluster of leaves at the summit ; the second has a branched stem, with nume- 


rous leafy clusters, and peculiar aerial roots, proceeding from different parts of the stem. 
Two figures are given to indicate the height of the trees. 


ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 69 


In Palms, there is in general no provision for lateral buds, and no 
branches are formed. Hence, destroying the central bud will kill the 
tree. In some Palms, however, as the Doum palm of Egypt (Hy- 
phone thebaica), the stem divides in a forked or dichotomous (ding, 
two ways, and réuvew, to cut) manner. Gardner, in his travels in 
Brazil, noticed a Palm in which the central bud having been de- 
stroyed, two side ones had been produced, so as to give it a forked 
appearance. Other plants with endogenous stems also produce lateral 
buds. In fig. 134, 2, there is a representation of such a stem, in the 
case of the Screw-pine (Pandanus odoratissimus), and examples are 
seen in Grasses as the Bamboo, in Asparagus, Cordyline, and 
Dracena, In these cases the stem is more or less tapering, like 
that of Exogens, and the destruction of the terminal bud is not neces- 
sarily followed by the death of the plant. The development of 
lateral buds is often accompanied by an increased diameter of the stem. 
‘The famous Draceena Draco, or Dragon tree of Orotava, in the Canary 
Islands, had a hollow stem capable of holding several men; and the 
fact of its living in this state is marked by Jussieu as an argument 
against the strict endogenous formation ; for, if the centre were the 
youngest and newest part, its destruction would put an end to the 
existence of the tree in the same way as the removal of the outer 
part of the wood would destroy an exogenous stem. Professor Piazzi 
Smyth remarked that this famous Dragon tree was covered on the out- 
side with root-like fibres, which descended from the branches to the 
ground. The tree is now destroyed. The branches in such plants are 
formed on the same principle as the stems; but their fibres do not 
proceed to the centre of the stem, but extend outside the pre-existing 
bundles, between them and the outer false bark (fig. 132, 2 e), and 
thus give rise to lateral increase. In Grasses, the stem or culm is 
usually hollow or fistular (fig. 130), in consequence of the outer part, 
by its rapid increase, causing the rupture and ultimate disappearance 
of the internal cellular portion. The fibres in some Grasses cross 
from one side to the other, forming partitions, as in Bamboo, which 
add much to the strength of the stem. 

When the internodes of the caudex of a Palm are not much 
elongated, the scars of the leaves are seen forming spirals on the stem, 
as in the coco-nut and date. In Xanthorrhcea Hastile the same 
arrangement is observed. In Palms, such as species of Chameedorea, 
the internodes are much lengthened, and rings are seen on the stem 
at distant intervals, showing thickened node-like joints. Some 
Palm stems, as those of Calamus Rudentum, the common cane, are 
very thin and slender. In many Endogenous or Monocotyledonous 
plants the stem remains below ground, developing shoots which are 
simple, as in Banana and Plantain, or branched, as in Asparagus. In 
the former, the stem above ground is an herbaceous shoot, composed 


70 ACROGENOUS OR ACOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


of the sheaths of the leaves. It dies after fruiting, and is succeeded 
by other shoots from the subterranean stem. The shoots or buds 
from such stems occasionally remain in part below ground in the form 
of bulbs, as in Lilies, Tulips, and Hyacinths; or as corms, in Col- 
chicum, Crocus, Gladiolus, and Arum. 

In some instances the aerial stem has the usual endogenous struc- 
ture, while in the underground stem the vascular bundles are in the 
form of wedges, with cellular tissue in the centre, thus resembling 
Exogens. This structure has been remarked in the Smilax or Sarsa- 
parilla family. Lindley calls these plants Dictyogens (dixrvov, a net), 
from their netted leaves, by which they differ from most Endogens, 
Henfrey holds that the ring of woody fibres in these plants, as seen 
in Tamus and Smilax, is an alteration of the parenchymatous cells 
of the periphery, and is not produced in the same way as the zones 
of Dicotyledons. He considers this ring as probably analogous to 
the liber, and not to the indefinite vascular bundles of Exogenous 
stems. 


Acrogenous or Acotyledonous Stem. 


This stem, in its general external aspect, resembles that of 
Endogens. It is unbranched, usually of small, nearly uniform 
diameter, and produces leaves (fronds) at its summit. It is easily 
distinguished by its internal structure. Tree Ferns furnish the best 
example of this kind of stem. In them it is denominated a Stipe, 
and it often attains the height of 120 feet (fig. 135), A transverse 
section of the stem (fig. 136) exhibits an irregular circle of vascular 
bundles, composed of masses, z J, of various forms and sizes, situated 
near the circumference ; the centre, m, being formed of cellular tissue, 
and often becoming hollow. On the outside of the vascular circle, cells 
exist, p, covered by an epidermal layer or cellular integument, ¢, 
often of hard and dense consistence, and marked with the scars of the 
fronds. 

The vascular bundles are formed simultaneously, and not pro- 
gressively, as in the stems already noticed; and additions are 
made in an upward direction, The stem is formed by additions 
to the summit, and by the elongation of vessels already formed ; 
hence the name Acrogenous (éxeos, summit). The plants are also 
called Acrobrya (dxeos, summit, and Pevev to germinate). The 
vascular system is of greater density than the rest of the tissue, and 
is usually distinguished by the dark colour of the pleurenchyma or 
prosenchyma (fig. 136 f), which surrounds the paler vessels in the 
centre (fig. 136 v v). There is a continuous woody cylinder in the 
Fern stem. The vascular bundles, however, do not follow a straight 
course, but unite and separate, leaving spaces between them, similar 


ACROGENOUS OR ACOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 71 


to the meshes seen in the liber of Exogens (fig. 119). In these spaces 
vessels of communication pass between the outer or cortical, and the 
inner or central portions of the stem. 
From the point where the vascular 
bundles unite or anastomose, other 
vessels are given off to supply the 
fronds, and some pass into the ad- 
ventitious roots, which are often pro- 
duced abundantly on the outside of the 
stipe (fig. 135 ra). 

The trunk of the Acrogen differs from 
that of the Exogen, by having its 


Fig. 136. 


a 

vascular cylinder penetrated by only 
one kind of horizontal tissue, namely, 
the vascular bundles belonging to the 
fronds ; while the Exogen has in addi- 
tion another horizontal tissue, namely, 
‘medullary rays, composed of cellular 
tissue, and performing a totally different 
function. 

The acrogenous stem in the young 
state is solid, but it frequently be- 
comes hollow in the progress of, 
growth, by the rupture and absorp- 


Fig. 135. Tree fern (Alsophila perrotetiana), of the East Indies. Stem or stipe is 
cylindrical, unbranched, and presents at its base, r a, a conical enlargement, formed by a 
mass of adventitious roots. The leaves are terminal, and in the young state are rolled up 
in a circinate manner. Fig. 186. Transverse section of the stem of a Tree fern (Cyathea). 
m, Cellular tissue, corresponding to pith, occupying the central part. 21, Vascular circle 
composed of numerous irregularly-formed masses. , Dark-coloured woody or prosenchy- 
matous fibres, forming the borders of the vascular masses. vv, Pale-coloured vessels, chiefly 
scalariform, occupying the centre of the masses. p, Parenchymatous or cellular external 
zone, communicating with the central portion, e, Hard epidermal envelope, occupying the 
place of the bark. 


72 ACROGENOUS OR ACOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


tion of the walls of the cells in the centre. The bases of the leaves 
remain long attached, but ultimately fall off, leaving marked scars 
which are at first close together, but often separate afterwards by 
interstitial growth. On these scars or cvcatrices (cicatriz, a wound) 
the markings of the vessels are easily seen, arranged in the same 
manner as those of the stem, with which they are continuous. The 
vascular system of ferns consists chiefly of scalariform vessels (fig. 64), 
mixed with annular (fig. 62), woody and pitted vessels (fig. 116 ter). 
There are no true tracheze with fibres which can be unrolled. In the 
stems of Lycopodiacee closed tracheze or ducts occur; and in Equi- 
setacez the rings of the annular vessels are closely united. 

The stem of Ferns is generally of small diameter; it does not 
increase much laterally, after having been once formed, and it does not 
produce lateral buds. Sometimes it divides into 
two (fig. 137), by the formation of two buds at 
its growing point. This, however, is an actual 
division of the stem itself, and differs from the 
usual branching of Exogenous and Endogenous 
stems, In the Ferns of this country the stems 
usually creep along and under the ground, and 
the leaves which they produce die annually, with- 
out giving origin to a conspicuous trunk. In the 
common Brake (Preris aquilina), the arrange- 
ment of the vascular system may be seen by 
making a transverse section of the underground 
stem. The plant has received its name aquilina, 
from a supposed resemblance to a spread eagle, 
presented by the vessels when thus cut across. 

The axis of Lycopodiaceze or Club-mosses (fig. 1388) exhibits a 
vascular bundle of scalariform vessels and closed spirals. The bundle 
is developed in an upward direction as the stem grows, each inter- 
node having its permanent bundle. Vessels pass from the stem to 
the leaves, 

In Equiseta or Horse-tails (fig. 139) there is a circle of vascular 
bundles towards the exterior of the aerial stem; this vascular ring is 
covered by cortical cells of different kinds. The Equiseta have 
underground stems, from which the aerial branches are sent up 
annually. In some species the aerial stem attains a height of 
upwards of 30 feet. The largest species in Britain (Equisetum 
maximum), may be seen 5 to 6 feet high, with a diameter of half- 
an-inch. The aerial stem of the plant consists of hollow internodes, 
each with a transverse diaphragm at the base, and a sheath at the 


Fig. 187. 


Fig. 137. Vertical section of part of the forked stem or stipe of Alsophila perrotetiana. 
m, Cellular central portion, 21,21, Vascular zone, consisting chiefly of woody fibres and 
scalariform vessels. The forking is caused by an actual division of the stipe. 


ACROGENOUS OR ACOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 73 


upper end. The sheath of the lower internode embraces the base 
of the internode above it (fig. 139). The vascular bundles unite 
to form a hollow cylinder m the stem. In fig. 140 is shown the 


structure of a vascular bundle of Equisetum hyemale, with 
a hollow cavity or lacuna, 2, round which are large annular and 
spiral vessels, J v, smaller vessels, s v, and peculiar cells, ¢ v; which, 


Fig. 138. Lycopodium clavatwm, a species of Club-moss, showing a branch, J, covered with 
minute pointed leaves, from which proceeds a stalk bearing at its extremity two spikes, f, 
consisting of modified leaves with fructification. Fig, 139, Fructification of a species of 
Horse-tail (Equisetwm maximum). The stalk is surrounded by a series of membranous 
sheaths, ss, which are fringed by numerous sharp processes or teeth. The fructification, 
J, is at the extremity of the shoot, in the form of a pyramidal mass of polygonal scales, 
‘bearing spores on their under surface. The fructification in some species is on the same 
branch with the leaves, while in others it is on a separate branch. 


74 ACROGENOUS OR ACOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 


by their union, and the partial absorption of their transverse walls, 
form what are called cribriform or sieve-like vessels (vasa propria), 
thickened bast cells (6 p), and bast fibres (0 f). 


Cre 
poe 


Fig. 140. 


In some Thallogens the thallus or frond is supported by a stalk, in 
which there are concentric parenchymatous circles, with divisions in 
the form of rays, but no vascular bundles. These appearances are 
presented by some large antarctic seaweeds (species of D’Urvillea and 
Lessonia), and by some lichens, as Usnea. 


Fig. 140. Section of vascular bundle of stem of Equisetum hyemale x 310. Lacuna 
ora cavity, 1; parenchyma, a form of starch cells, p  ; large vessels, J v ; small vessels, s v; 
bast cells, 6 p; and bast fibres, b f; cribriform vessels, c v, formed by united cells, with a 
partial absorption of their transverse walls.—Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. 


DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF STEM. 75 


There are thus three kinds of stems in the vegetable kingdom, 
which may be defined generally as follows :— 

1. Exogenous or Dicotyledonous, having a separable bark ; distinct 
concentric circles, composed of progressive indefinite vascular bundles, 
increasing at their periphery, the density diminishing from the centre 
towards the circumference ; pith enclosed in a longitudinal canal or 
medullary sheath, with cellular prolongations in the form of medullary’ 
Tays. : 

2. Endogenous or Monocotyledonous, having no separable bark ; no 
distinct concentric circles ; vascular bundles progressive and definite, 
not increasing at their periphery, the density diminishing from the 
circumference to the centre; no distinct pith, no medullary sheath 
nor medullary rays, the cellular tissue being interposed between the 
vascular bundles. 1 

8. Acrogenous or Acotyledonous, having no separable bark ; no con- 
centric circles; vascular bundles simultaneous, forming an irregular 
‘circle; additions being made to the summit; no distinct pith, no 
medullary sheath nor medullary rays ; conspicuous scars left by the 
bases of the leaves, stem in some cases entirely cellular. 


Formation of the different parts of Stems, and their special Functions. 


The stem produces the buds from which branches, leaves, and flowers 
are developed ; it exposes these organs to the atmosphere and light, 
conveys fluids and air, and receives secretions. Stems vary much in 
their size, both as regards height and diameter. Some oaks in Britain 
have a height of nearly 120 feet ; forest trees in France have attained 
to 120 and 130 feet, and in America even to 450 feet. Some Palms 
attain a height of 200 feet. The trunks of the Baobab and Welling-. 
tonia are sometimes 30 or 40 feet in diameter. 

The pith, in its early state (fig. 111), is of a greenish colour, and 
contains much fluid, which is employed in the nourishment of the 
young plant, After serving a temporary nutritive purpose it becomes 
dry, or disappears by rupture and absorption of the walls of the cells 
which enter into its composition. The medullary sheath, which is the 
first formed vascular layer (fig. 113 em), keeps up a connection between 
the central parts of the stem and the leaves, by means of spiral 
vessels, which seem to be concerned partly in the conveyance of air. 
This is the part of a Dicotyledonous stem in which these vessels 
ordinarily occur. The medullary rays (fig. 1147 m) preserve a com- 
munication between the bark and the pith. The cells of which they 
are composed are concerned in the production of leaf-buds, and they 
assist in the elaboration and conveyance of secretions. They have a 
direct connection with the cambium cells (fig. 114 ¢), or the cells be- 
tween the wood and bark, whose function is to aid in the formation of 


76 FORMATION OF WOOD. 


new wood. The bark (fig. 114 fc, e¢, p) protects the tender wood, 
conveys the elaborated sap downwards from the leaves, and is the 
part in which many valuable products, such as gum, tannin, and bitter 
principles, are formed and deposited. The vascular bundles (fig. 114 
f 1, vp) convey the sap from the root to the leaves. This function 
is carried on during the life of the plant by the annular vessels and 
‘the pitted vessels, as well as other kinds of fibro-vascular tissue ; but 
in the fibres of the wood it ceases at a certain epoch, in consequence 
of the tubes being filled up by secondary deposits, so as to form the 
perfect wood, which gives strength and stability to the stem. 
Considerable differences of opinion have arisen on the subject of 
the formation of wood. All agree that it cannot be properly formed 
unless the leaves are exposed to air and light, but physiologists differ 
as to its mode of formation. Some say that it is produced in a hori- 
zontal, others in a vertical direction. There seems to be no doubt 
that the cambium cells perform an important part in the formation of 
wood, and that their activity depends on the proper development of 
leaves. These formative cells, although most easily detected in exo- 
genous stems, are also present in the other forms of stems which have 
been described. In Monocotyledonous stems these cambium cells are 
situated in the centre of the bundles, and are concerned in the forma- 
tion of the vascular tissue surrounding them. In woody Acotyle- , 
donous stems, as in Treeferns, these cells surround the vascular 
bundles. After a certain time the cambium zones in these stems be- 
come ligneous, and then the vascular bundles only grow at their ex- 
tremity by means of unchanged cambium cells. In both these kinds 
of stems the vascular bundles are limited, and the stems can only 
increase laterally by ramifying or dividing dichotomously (fig. 137). 
Knight espoused what is called the vertical theory, considering the 
wood as developed in a downward direction by the leaves, and in this 
view he was supported by Petit-Thouars and Gaudichaud. These phy- 
siologists maintain that there are two vascular systems in plants, an 
ascending and descending; the one connected with the leaf-forma- 
tion, or the spiral vessels ; the other connected with the production 
of roots, or the ligneous fibres ; the cellular tissue being more especi- 
ally concerned in horizontal development. Every bud is thus, accord- 
ing to them, an embryo plant fixed on the stem, sending leaves 
upwards, and roots downwards. The dicotyledonous embryo was 
supposed to be formed by two phytons (guréy, a plant) united, having 
each an ascending and descending system of vessels, while the monoco- 
tyledonous embryo was composed of one such phyton. In Palms, 
Dracznas, and other Endogenous stems, the peculiar manner in which 
the fibres interlace (fig. 133, 2) favours the opinion that they are 
developed like roots, by additions to their extremities ; and this is 
also strengthened by the formation of adventitious or aerial roots, 


FORMATION OF WOOD. 77 


which burst through different parts of the stem in Palms, Screw- 
pines (fig. 134, 2), the Banyan, and in the Fig tribe generally. 
In Vellozias and Tree Ferns, the surface of the stem is often covered 
with thin roots, protruding at various parts, and becoming so incor- 
porated with the stem as to appear to be a part of it. In the Tree- 
Fern, represented in fig. 135, the lower part of the stem is enlarged 
in a remarkable degree by these fibres, so as to give it a conical form. 
In exogenous stems, when ligatures are put round the stem, and when 
portions of bark are removed, a swelling takes place above the parts 
where the injury has been inflicted, thus apparently proving that the 
new matter is developed from above downwards, 

Gaudichand endeavours to account for various anomalous forms of 
stems (figs. 123-126), by considering them as depending on the 
arrangement of the leaves, and on the mode in which the woody 
fibres are sent down from them. Thus, the four secondary masses 
surrounding the central one in the stem of Calycanthus floridus are 
traced to four vascular bundles from the leaves, penetrating the cellu- 
lar tissue of the bark, distinct from the central wood and from each 
other, except at the nodes, where the cross bundles unite them so as 
to form a ring round the central mass. New fibres are formed on the 
inner side of these bundles, and by degrees they assume a crescentic 
shape, while the horns of the crescent ultimately unite on the outer 
side (centrifugally), and enclose a portion of the bark, which thus forms 
a kind of spurious excentric pith, with numerous woody layers on the 
inside, and a smaller number on the outside. Again, in Brazilian 
Sapindaces: (fig. 124), with five, seven, nine, or ten woody masses, 
the same thing is said to occur, with this difference, that the pith of 
each of the masses is derived from the original medullary centre, por- 
tions of which are enclosed by the vascular bundles in a centripetal 
manner, or from without, inwards. 

Treviranus states that the fibrous and vascular bundles descending 
from the leaves are destined in general to unite around a common 
centre, but that they retain a certain degree of independence, and 
may be developed separately in some instances, giving rise to ano- 
malous fasciculated stems. 

Gardner, from an examination of Brazilian Palms, adopts the 
vertical theory. It is, however, opposed by most vegetable physio- 
logists, who consider the development of the vascular bundles as 
proceeding from below upwards; in Dicotyledons, by peripherical 
production of woody and vascular tissue from cambium cells ; and in 
Monocotyledons, by a definite formation of woody and vascular 
bundles by means of terminal buds ; the hardening of the stem de- 
pending on the interstitial changes which take place afterwards in the 
woody fibres. 

All physiologists agree in believing that the formation of woody 


78 FORMATION OF WOOD. 


matter depends mainly on the functions of the leaves being car- 
ried on properly, and this can only be effected by exposure to, air 
and light. The more vigorously the plant grows, the better is the 
wood produced. Experiments made in the British dockyards proved 
that those oaks which had formed the thickest zones yielded the best 
timber. Barlow’s experiments at Woolwich showed that a plank of 
quick-grown oak withstood a greater strain than a similar plank of 
slow-grown oak, The stumps of fir-trees sometimes exhibit a circle of 
woody tissue which has been formed after the trees have been cut 
down, and without the agency of leaves. In some cases the vigour of 
these stumps has been traced to the roots being grafted into those 
of adjoining trees bearing branches and leaves. 

In order that trees may grow well, and that timber may be pro- 
perly formed, great care should be taken in planting at proper dis- 
tances, and in soil fitted for the trees. Firs ought to be planted from 
6 to 8 feet apart ; and hardwood trees, for a permanent plantation, 28 
feet distant, the spaces being filled up with larch, spruce, or Scotch 
fir, according to soil and situation. Hardwood is of no value till it 
has attained some age, while larch and spruce may be applied to use 
in ten or twelve years ; and thus judicious thinning may be practised. 
When trees are set too close their leaves are interrupted in their 
functions ; many of them fall off, leaving the stems bare ; the wood 
is imperfectly formed, and the roots are not sent out vigorously. 
When such plantations are allowed to grow without being thinned, 
the trees are drawn up without having a hold of the ground ; and 
when some of them are subsequently removed the remainder are 
easily blown over by the wind. In thick plantations it is only in 
the trees next the outside, where the leaves and branches are freely 
formed, that the wood and roots are properly developed. When a 
tree is fully exposed to air and light on one side only, it is frequently 
found that the woody zones on that side are largest. When trees are 
judiciously planted, there is a great saving both in the original outlay 
and in the subsequent treatment. Pruning, or the shortening of 
branches, and the removal of superfluous ones, ought to be cautiously 
practised. It is only applicable to young branches and twigs ; and is 
had recourse to chiefly in the case of fruit-trees, when the object is to 
make the plants produce flowers and fruit. If forest trees are pro- 
perly planted and thinned, little pruning is required. 


STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 79 


LEAVES AND THEIR APPENDAGES, 


Structure of Leaves. 


Leaves are expansions of the bark, developed in a symmetrical 
manner, as ‘lateral appendages of the stem, and having a connection 
with the internal part of the ascending axis. They appear at first as 
small projections of cellular tissue, continuous with the bark, and 
‘closely applied to each other. The points from which they arise are 
called nodes. In the early stages of their development they are 
undivided. The cellular papillee, from which they originate, gradually 
expand in various ways, acquire vascular tissue, and ultimately assume 
_. their permanent form and position on the axis. They may be divided 
into aerial and submerged leaves, the former being produced in the air, 
and the latter under water. 

Ariat Leaves.—These leaves consist of vascular tissue in the 
form of veins, ribs, or nerves, of cellular tissue or parenchyma filling up 
the interstices between the veins, and of an epidermal covering. 

The Vascunar Sysrem of the leaf is continuous with that of the 
stem, those vessels which occupy the internal part of the stem becoming 
superior in the leaf, while the more ex- 
ternal become inferior. Thus, in the 
upper part of the leaf, which may re- 
present the woody layers, there are spiral 
vessels (fig. 141 ¢), annular, reticulated, 
and pitted vessels, v, and ligneous fibres, 
Ff; whilst in the lower side, which may re- 
present the bark, there are laticiferous 
vessels and fibres, resembling’ those of 
liber, 2. There are usually two layers 
of fibro-vascular tissue in the leaf, which 
may be separated by maceration, They 
may be seen in what are called skeleton 
leaves, in which the cellular part is re- 
moved, and the fibro-vascular tissue is 
left. The vascular system of the leaf 
is distributed through the cellular tissue Fig, 141. 
in the form of simple or branching veins. 

The EprpErmis (fig. 142 ¢ s,e¢ +), composed of cells more or less 
compressed, has usually a different structure and aspect on the two 


Fig. 141. Bundle of fibro-vascular tissue, passing from a branch, }, into a petiole, ». 
The vessels are first vertical, then nearly horizontal, but they continue to retain their 
telative position, Changes take place in the size of the cells at the articulation a. tt, 
Traches or spiral vessels in which the fibre can be unrolled. vv, Annular vessels. f/f, 
Fibres of wood. 11, Cortical fibres, or fibres of liber, or the inner bark. 


80 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 


surfaces of the leaf. It is chiefly on the epidermis of the lower sur- 
face (fig. 143 ¢ 7), that stomata, ss, are produced, occupying spaces 
between the veins, and it is there also that hairs usually occur. In 
these respects the lower epidermis resembles the outer bark of young 
stems, with which it may be said to correspond. The lower epidermis 
is often of a dull or pale-green colour, soft, and easily detached. The 


Sern 


er 


Fig. 143. 
shining, and sometimes becomes very hard and dense. Many tropical 
plants present on the upper surface of their leaves several layers of 
compressed epidermal cells. These appear to be essential for the pre- 
servation of moisture in the leaf. In leaves which float upon the sur- 
face of water, as those of the water-lily, the upper epidermis alone 
possesses stomata (p. 30). On removing a strip of epidermis, part of 
the parietes of the cells below is often 
detached in the form of a green net- 
work (fig. 144 pp), and on examina- 
tion under the microscope, the stomata, 
8 s, are seen communicating with 
colourless spaces, / J 1, surrounded by 
green matter. 
The ParencHyma of the leaf is 
the cellular tissue surrounding the 
Fig. 144, vessels, and enclosed within the epi- 
dermis (fig..142 ps, pz.) It has 
sometimes received the names of Diachyma (sé, in the midst, and 
xin, tissue), or Mesophyllum (uéoos, middle, and pJA?.ov, a leaf), 
or Diploé (didn, a fold). It is formed of two distinct series 
of cells, each containing chlorophyll or green-coloured granules, but 
Fig. 142. Thin vertical section of the leaf of a Lily, highly magnified. es, Epidermis of 
upper pagina or surface. ei, Epidermis of lower surface. ps, Parenchyma of upper por- 
tion of the leaf, composed of close vertically-placed cells. pi, Parenchyma of lower portion, 
composed of loose horizontal cells, m, Intercellular passages. 11, Lacune. Fig. 143. 
Similar section of the leaf of Balsam. The letters denote the same parts as in fig. 142. 
ss, stomata. Fig. 144. Strip of the lower epidermis, ¢ ¢, of the leaf of Balsam, showing a 


network formed by a portion of the parenchyma below, p p, being detached. The spaees of 
the net are lacune, 711, often corresponding to stomata, ss. 


STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 81 


differing in form and arrangement. This may be seen on making a ver- 
tical section of a leaf, as in figs. 142 and 143. Below the epidermis of 
the upper side of the leaf there are one or two layers of oblong blunt 
cells, placed perpendicularly to the surface (fig. 142  s), and applied 
so closely to each other as to leave only small intercellular’ spaces (fig. 
142 m), except when stomata happen to be present. On the under 
side of the leaf the cells are irregular, often branched, and are arranged 
more or less horizontally (fig. 142 p <), leaving cavities between them, 
11, which often communicate with stomata (fig. 143 ss). On this 
account the tissue has received the name of cavernous. The form and 
arrangement of the cells, however, depend much on the nature of the 
plant, and its exposure to light and air. Sometimes the arrangement 
of the cells on both sides of the leaf is similar, as occurs in leaves 
which have their edges presented to the sky. In very succulent plants 
the cells form a compact mass, and those in the centre are often 
colourless. In some cases the cellular tissue is deficient at certain 
points, giving rise to distinct holes in the leaf, as in Monstera Adan- 
sonii; such a leaf has been called pertuse (pertusus, bored through), 
In Victoria regia perforations in the leaf seem to be subservient to the 
purposes of nutrition, in permitting the gases collected beneath the 
large expanded leaf to escape, and thus allowing its under surface to be 
brought into immediate contact with the water. ‘ 
SuBMERGED Lzaves.—Leaves which are developed under water 
differ in structure from aerial leaves, They have usually no fibro- 


att RP 
E SERGE ee SEED 
Le ey ae 


Se 

: ren <t) (33 

Qi res CS 
ie ae 


Fig, 145. Fig. 146. 


vascular system, but consist of a congeries of cells, which sometimes 
become elongated and compressed so as to resemble veins. They 
have a layer of compact cells on their surface (fig. 145 p), but no 
true epidermis, and no stomata, Their internal structure consists of 
cells, disposed irregularly, and sometimes leaving spaces which are 
filled with air for the purpose of floating the leaf (fig. 145 7). When 
exposed to the air these leaves easily part with their moisture, and 
become shrivelled and dry. In the submerged leaves of Trapa and 

Fig. 145. Perpendicular section through a small portion of the submerged leaf of Pota- 


mogeton perfoliatus. p, Parenchyma. J, Lacune. Fig. 146, Fenestrate leaf composed 
of filamentous cells, with intervening spaces, 


G 


1 


82 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 


Callitriche, spiral vessels have been seen. In some instances there is 
only a network of filamentous-like cells formed (fig. 146), the spaces 
between which are not filled with parenchyma, giving a peculiar 
skeleton appearance to the leaf, as in Ouvirandra fenestralis (lat- 
tice plant). Such a leaf has been called fenestrate (fenestra, a window). 

A leaf, whether aerial or submerged, generally consists of a flat 
expanded portion (fig. 147 1), called the blade, limb, or lamina, of a 
narrower portion called the petiole (petiolus, a little foot or stalk) or 
stalk (fig. 147 p), and sometimes of a portion at the base of the 

petiole, which forms a sheath or vagina 
( (fig. 147 g), or is developed in the form 
of leaflets, called stipules (fig. 205). 
The sheathing portion is sometimes in- 
corporated with the stem, and has been 
called tigellary (tige, Fr., a stem or 
stalk) by Gaudichaud. These portions 
are not always present. The sheath- 
ing or stipulary portion is frequently 
wanting, and occasionally only one of 
the other two is developed. When 
a leaf has a distinct stalk it is called 
petiolate ; when it has none, it is sessile 
(sessilis, from sedeo, I sit). When sessile leaves embrace the stem, 
they are called amplemcaul (amplexor, I embrace, and caulis, a 
stem). The part of the leaf next the petiole or the axis is the 
base, while the opposite extremity is the apex, The surfaces of 
the leaf are called the paginw (pagina, a flat page), and its edges 
or margins form the circumscription of the leaf. The leaf is usually 
horizontal, so that the upper pagina is directed towards the heavens, 
and the lower pagina towards the earth. In some cases leaves, or 
leaflike petioles, are placed vertically, as in Australian Acacias, 
Eucalypti, etc. In other instances, as in Alstrémeria, the leaf be- 
comes twisted in its course, so that what is superior at one part 
becomes inferior at another. 

The upper angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called 
its avil (a«illa, armpit), and everything arising at that point is called 
axillary. It is there that leaf-buds (p. 108) are usually developed. 
The leaf is sometimes articulated with the stem, and when it falls off 
a scar or cicatricula remains; at other times it is continuous with it, 
and then decays gradually, while still attached to the axis. In their 
early state all leaves are continuous with the stem, and it is only in 
their after growth that articulations are formed. When leaves fall 


Fig. 147. 


Fig. 147. Leaf of Polygonum Hydropiper, with a portion of the stem bearing it. 1, Limb, 
lamina, or blade. yp, Petiole or leaf-stalk. g, Sheath or vagina, embracing the stem, and 
terminated by a fringe, f. 


STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 83 


off annually, they are called deciduous ; when they remain for two or 
more years, they are evergreen, The laminar portion of a leaf is 
occasionally articulated with the petiole, as in the Orange (fig. 201), 


and a joint at times exists between the v4ginal or stipulary portion’ 
and the petiole, 


Distribution of the Veins, or Venation of Leaves, 


The distribution of the veins has been called Venation, sometimes 
Nervation, In most leaves this can be easily traced, but in the case of 
succulent plants, as Hoya, Agave, Stonecrop, and Mesembryanthemum, 
the veins are obscure, and the leaves are said to be Hidden-veined (figs. 
186, 187). In the fronds of the lower tribes of plants, 
as seaweeds, and in submerged leaves, there are no true 
veins, but only condensations of elongated cellular 
tissue, and the term Veinless (avenia) is applied. 
In an ordinary leaf, as that of Lilac or Chestnut, 
there is observed a central vein larger than the rest, 
called the midrib (fig. 148 nm); this gives off veins 
laterally (primary veins) ns ns ns, which either end in a 


i 
Fig. 148. Fig. 149. Fig. 150. 


curvature within the margin, as in Lilac and Belladonna (fig. 148), or go 
directly to the edge of the leaf, as in Oak (fig. 149) and Chestnut. If 
they are curved, then external veins and marginal veinlets are inter- 


Fig. 148. Leaf of Belladonna. p, Petiole or leaf-stalk. mm, Midrib. ns ns ns, Primary 
veins, ending in curvatures at their extremities. Fig. 149. Leaf of Oak, pinnatifid or 
divided into lateral lobes ; feather-veined, the veins going directly to the margin. ’ Fig. 
150. Leaf of Banana (Musa), showing the midrib, with the primary veins running parallel to 
each other in a transverse manner, and proceeding to the margin. No reticulation, Plant 
monocotyledonous. 


84 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 


spersed through the parenchyma external to the curvature. There are 
also other veins of less extent (costal veins) given off by the midrib, 
and these give origin to small veiniets. In some cases, as Sycamore 
and Cinnamon, in place of there being only a single central rib, there 
are several which diverge from the part where the blade joins the 
petiole or stem. Thus, the primary veins give off secondary veins, 
and these in their turn give off tertiary veins, and so on, until a com- 
plete network of vessels is produced. To such a distribution of veins 
the name of Reticulated or Netted venation has been applied. 

In the leaves of some plants there exists a central rib or midrib, 
with veins running nearly parallel to it from the base to the apex of 
the leaf, as in grasses (fig. 210); or with veins diverging in more or 
less parallel lines, as in Fan Palms; or with veins coming off from it 
throughout its whole course, and running parallel to each other in a 
straight or curved direction towards the margin of the leaf, as in Plan- 
tain and Banana (fig. 150). In these cases the veins are often united 
by cross veinlets, which do not, however, form. an angular network, 
These are called Parallel-veined, 

Leaves may thus be divided into two great classes, according to 
their venation— Reticulated or netted-veined leaves, in which there is an 
angular network of vessels, as seen generally in dicotyledonous plants ; 
and Parallel-veined leaves, in which the vessels run in a straight or 
curved manner from base to apex, or from the midrib to the margin of 
the leaf, and in which, if there is a union, it is effected by transverse 
veins which do not form an angular network. This kind of leaf 
occurs commonly in monocotyledonous plants. In many acotyledonous 
plants there is no true vascular venation, but when it is present, there 
is frequently a tendency in the veins to divide in a forked (furcate) 
manner. This is seen in many Ferns, which have hence been called 
Fork-veined, Condensed cellular tissue forming false venation is seen 
in mosses and in seaweeds. 


TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF VENATION. 


A.—Reticulated Venation. 
I. Unicostate (wnus, one). A single rib or costa in the middle (midrib). 
1. Primary veins coming off at different points of the midrib. 
w, Veins ending in curvatures within the margin (fig. 148), and forming 
what have been called true netted leaves (Lilac’). 
6, Veins going directly to the margin (fig. 149), and forming feather-veined 
leaves (Oak and Chestnut). 
2. Primary veins coming off along with the midrib (fig. 158) from the base 
of the leaf. 

Il. Multicostate (multus, many). More than one rib. In such cases there are 
frequently three (tricostate), as in fig. 177, or five (quinquecostate), 
as in fig. 173. Authors usually give to these leaves the general 
name of costate or ribbed. 

1. Convergent. Ribs converging, running from base to apex in a curved 


FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 85 


manner, as in Cinnamon and Melastoma (fig. 173). There is occa- 
sionally an obscure rib running close to the edge of the leaf, and 
called intramarginal, as in the Myrtle. 

2. Dwwergent. Ribs diverging or proceeding in a radiating manner (fig. 159). 
This is called radiating venation, and is seen in Sycamore, Vine, 
Geranium, Castor-oil plant (fig. 161). 

B.—Parallel Venation.—The term parallel is not strictly applicable, for the veins 
often proceed in a radiating manner, but it is difficult to find a 
comprehensive term. This venation may be characterised as not 
reticulated. 

I, Veins proceeding transversely from midrib to margin, usually with convexity 
towards the midrib, as in Musa (fig. 150) and Canna, 
II. Veins proceeding longitudinally from base to apex. 
1. Veins more or less convergent (fig. 188), as in Iris, Lilies, Grasses (fig. 
210). 
2. Veins more or less divergent, as in Fan Palms. 

C.—Furcate Venation (furca, w fork). Veins dividing in a forked manner, as in 

the case of many Ferns. 


Forms of Leaves, 


Leaves are divided into simple and compound. The former have 
no articulation beyond the point of their insertion on the stem or 


Fig. 151. Fig. 152. Fig. 153. 


branch, and consist of a single blade, which, however, may be vari- 
ously divided (figs. 151, 152, 153, etc.) The latter have one or more 
articulations beyond the point of their insertion on the stem, and con- 

Fig. 151. Leaf of Ulmus effusa. Reticulated venation ; primary veins going to the margin, 


which is serrated. Leaf unequalatthe base. Fig. 152. Pinnatifid leaf of Valeriana dioica. 
Fig. 153. Bipinnatifid leaf of Papaver Argemone. Feather-veined. 


86 FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 


sist of one or more leaflets (foliola) separately attached to the petiole 

or leaf-stalk (fig. 156). In a single leaf the blade may be either’ 
attached to a petiole or sessile on the stem ; while in a compound leaf 
the blades or leaflets are separately attached to the petiole. In the 

earliest stage of growth all leaves are simple and undivided, and it is 

only during the subsequent development that divisions appear, which 

may commence at the base or at the apex of the leaf. The forms 

which the different kinds of simple and compound leaves assume 

are traced to the character of the venation, and to the amount of 
parenchyma produced. 

SrmmpLrE Leaves.—When the parenchyma is developed symme- 
trically on each side of the midrib or stalk, the leaf is equal (fig. 164); 
if otherwise, the leaf is wnequal or oblique (fig. 151), as in Begonia, 
If the margins are even and present no divisions, the leaf is entire (i- 
teger), as in figs, 164 and 165; if there are slight projections of cellular 
or vascular tissue beyond the margin the leaf is not entire (fig. 151); 
when the projections are irregular and more or less pointed, the leaf 
is dentate or toothed (fig. 170); when they lie regularly over each 


Fig. 154. Fig. 155. Fig. 156, Fig. 157. Fig. 158. Fig, 159. 


other, like the teeth of a saw, the leaf is serrate (figs. 151, 169); when 
they are rounded, the leaf is crenate (fig. 174). If the divisions extend 
more deeply than the margin, the leaf receives different names accord- 
ing to the nature of the segments: thus, when the divisions extend 
about half-way down (figs. 149, 159), it is cleft (fissws), and its lines of 
separation are called jisswres (fissura, a cleft); when the divisions 
extend nearly to the base or to the midrib (fig. 185), the leaf is 
partite, and its lines of separation are called partitions. 

These divisions take place in simple leaves exhibiting different 
kinds of venation, and give rise to marked forms. Thus, if they 
occur in a feather-veined leaf (fig. 152), it becomes either pinnatifid 
(piuna, a wing or leaflet, and jissus, cleft), when the segments extend 


Fig 154. Lyrate leaf of Barbarea. Fig. 155. Panduriform, a fiddle-shaped leaf of 
Rumex pulcher. Fig. 156. Compound leaf, ternate, the leaflets being obcordate, 
Fig. 157. Compound leaf; quaternate, the leaflets being rotundate-cuneiform, or wedge- 
shaped with rounded apices. Fig. 158. Two-lobed leaf, somewhat cordate at the base, 
emarginate, and mucronate. Fig. 159. Palmate leaf, the divisions acute and serrated at 
their margins, Radiating venation. 


FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 87 


to about the middle and are broad ; or pectinate (pecten, a comb), when 
they are narrow ; or pinnatipartite, when the divisions extend nearly 
to the midrib, ‘These primary divisions may be again subdivided in a 
similar manner, and thus a feather-veined leaf will become bipinnatifid 
(fig. 153), or bipinnatipartite ; and still further subdivisions give origin 
to tripinnatifid and laciniated leaves. If the divisions of a pinnatifid 
leaf are more or less triangular, and are pointed downwards towards 
the base, the extremity of the leaf being undivided and triangular, the 
leaf is runcinate (runcina, a large saw), as in the Dandelion. When 
the apex consists of a large rounded lobe, and the divisions, which are 
also more or less rounded, become gradually smaller towards the base 
(fig. 154), as in Barbarea, ‘the leaf is called lyrate, from its resemblance 
to an ancient lyre. Under the term lyrate some include compound 
pinnate leaves in which the several pinnz are united at the apex of 
the leaf, and the others become gradually smaller towards the base. 
When there is a concavity on each side of a leaf, so as to make it 
resemble a violin, as in Rumex pulcher (fig. 155), it is called panduri- 
form (ravdotga, a fiddle). 

The same kinds of divisions taking place in a simple leaf with 
radiating venation, give origin to the terms lobed, cleft, and partite 
(figs. 161, 189). "When the divisions extend about half-way through 
the leaves, they may be three-lobed, five-lobed, seven-lobed, many-lobed ; 
or, trifid, quinquefid, septemfid, multifid, according to the number of 
divisions. The name of palmate, or palmatifid (fig. 159), is the 
general term applied to leaves with radiating venation, in which 
there are several lobes united by a broad expansion of parenchyma, 
like the palm of the hand, as in Passion-flower and Rheum palmatum. 
The divisions of leaves with radiating venation may extend to near 
the base of the leaf, and the names bipartite, tripartite, quinque- 
partite or digitipartite, and septempartite, are given according to the 
number of the partitions, two, three, five, or seven. In Drosera 
dichotoma (fig. 88), bipartite and tripartite leaves are seen. The 
term dissected is applied to leaves with radiating venation, having 
numerous narrow divisions, as in Geranium dissectum. When in a 
radiating leaf there are three primary partitions and two lateral ones, 
spreading and forming divisions on their inner margin only, as in 
Helleborus (fig. 185), the leaf is called pedate or pedatifid (pes, a foot), 
from a fancied resemblance to the claw of a bird. 

In all the instances already alluded to the leaves have been 
considered as flat expansions, in which the ribs or veins spread out 
on the same planes with the stalk. In some cases, however, the veins 
spread at right angles to the stalk. If they do so equally on all sides, 
and are united by parenchyma, so that the stalk occupies the centre 
(fig. 160), the leaf becomes orbicular (orbis, a circle), as in Hydrocotyle ; 
if unequally, so that the stalk is not in the centre, the leaf is peltate 


88 FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 


(pelta, a buckler), as in the Castor-oil plant (fig. 161). The edges or 
margins of orbicular and peltate leaves are often variously divided. 
. It has been thought by 


some that the order of the 
venation in the leaf bears 
a close analogy to the ar- 
rangement of the branches 
on the stem ; that a cer- 
tain unity so pervades 
vegetable organisation, 
that the root, the stem, 
and the leaves, may, in 
their ultimate arrange- 
ment, be regarded as being 
typical the one of the 

Elgs 16; Fig. 161, other. M‘Cosh states, that 
the angles at which the veins are given off in the leaves are the same 
as those at which the branches come off from the stem. The angles 
as given by him vary from 30° to 70°.* 

Without attempting to notice all the forms of leaves, the following 
are enumerated as the most important. When the veins do not spread 
out, but run from the base to the apex with a narrow strip of paren- 
chyma, the leaf is linear or acicular (acus, a 
needle), (fig. 162), as in Pines and Firs. 
These trees are hence called in Germany nadel- 
holzer, or needle trees. When the veins 
diverge, those in the middle being longest, and 
the leaf tapering at each end (fig. 181), it be- 


Figs. 
162, 163, 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169, 


Fig. 160. Orbicular leaf of Hydrocotyle vulgaris. Radiating venation. y, Petiole. 1, 
Lamina. Fig. 161. Peltate leaf of the Castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). Radiating 
venation. , Petiole or leaf-stalk. 1, Lamina or blade. Fig. 162. Linear, or acicular leaf 
of Fir. Fig. 163. Spathulate leaf of Daisy. Fig. 164. Oval leaf. Fig. 165, Oblong 
leaf. Fig. 166, Petiolated, reticulated, somewhat oblong leaf, truncate at the base. 
Fig. 167. Ovate pointed leaf. Fig. 168. Cordate pointed leaf. Fig. 169. Ovato-lance- 
olate leaf, 4.e, lanceolate in its general contour, but ovate at the base; doubly serrated, or 
having large and small serratures alternately at the margin. 


* M‘Cosh on the plant morphologically considered. Proceed. of the Edin. Bot. Soe., 
July 1851. Bot. Gazette, September 1851. 


FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. : 89 


comes lanceolate (lancea, a lance). If the middle veins only exceed the 
others slightly, and the ends are convex, the leaf is either rounded 
(rotundatus), as in fig. 179, elliptical (fig. 177), oval (fig. 164), or 
oblong (fig. 165). If the veins at the base are longest, the leaf is 
ovate or egg-shaped, as in Chickweed (fig. 167), and if those at the 
apex are longest, the leaf is obovate, or inversely egg-shaped. Leaves 
are cuneate (cuneus, a wedge) or wedge-shaped, in Saxifraga (fig. 170) ; 
spathulate, or spatula-like, having a broad rounded apex, and tapering 
down to the stalk- in the Daisy (fig. 163); subulate (fig. 182), 
. narrow and tapering like an awl (subula); acuminate, or drawn out 
into a long point, as in Ficus religiosa (fig. 174), mucronate, with a 
hard stiff point or mucro at the apex (figs. 175 and 158), When 


173. 174, 175. 


the parenchyma is deficient at the apex so as to form two rounded 
lobes, the leaf is obcordate or inversely heart-shaped ; when the 
deficiency is very slight, the leaf is called emarginate (fig. 158) as 
having a portion taken out of the margin; when the apex is merely 
flattened or slightly depressed (fig. 172), the leaf is retuse (retusus, 
blunt) ; and when the apex 
ends abruptly in a straight 
margin, as in the Tulip tree 
(fig. 178), the leaf is trun- 
cate, When the venation is 
prolonged downwards at an 
obtuse angle with the midrib, 
and rounded lobes are formed, ni ; j 

sian Dog-yiolet, tte leaf is Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. 
cordate or heart-shaped (fig. 168), or kidney-shaped (reniform) when the 
apex is rounded (fig. 176), as in Asarum. When the lobes are prolonged 


Fig. 170. Cuneate or wedged-shaped leaf of Saxifraga, ending in an abrupt or truncate 
manner, and toothed or dentate at the apex. Fig. 171. Perfoliate leaf of Bupleurum 
perfoliatum, formed by lobes uniting at the base on the opposite side of the stem from 
that to which the leaf is attached. Fig. 172. Retuse leaf, i.e. slightly depressed at the 
apex. Margin slightly waved. Fig. 173. Ovate five-ribbed leaf. Fig. 174. Rounded 
acuminated leaf of Ficus religiosa, with the margin crenate or slightly sinuous. Fig. 175. 
Sub-ovate, retuse, mucronate leaf. Fig. 176. Reniform or kidney-shaped entire leaf of 
Asarum. Radiating venation. Fig. 177. Elliptical and-somewhat lanceolate leaf; three- 
ribbed. Fig. 178. Three-lobed, truncate, or abrupt leaf of Liriodendron tulipiferum. 


90 FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES. 


downwards and are acute (fig. 180), the leaf is sagittate (sagitta, an 
arrow) ; when they proceed at right angles, as in Rumex Acetosella, 
the leaf is hastate (hasta, a halbert) or halbert-shaped. When a simple 
leaf is divided at the base into two leaf-like appendages (fig. 184), it 
is called awriculate (auricula, little ear). When the veins spread out in 
various planes, and there is a large development of cellular tissue, so as 


179. 180, 181. 182. 


to produce a succulent leaf, such forms occur as conical, prismatical, 
ensiform or sword-like (ensis, a sword), acinaciform (acinaces, a 
scimitar) or scimitar-shaped (fig. 187), and dolabriform (dolabra, an 
axe) or axe-shaped (fig. 186). When the development of cells is such 
that they more than fill up the spaces between the veins, the margins 
become wavy, crisp, or wndulated, as in Rumex crispus and Rheum 
undulatum (fig. 189). By cultivation the cellular tissue is often 


Figs. 
185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 


much increased, giving rise to the curled leaves of Greens, Savoys, 
Cresses, Lettuce, etc. In rushes the shoots which act as leaves are 


Fig. 179. Rounded entire leaf, ending in a short point. Fig. 180. Sagittate or arrow- 
shaped leaf of Sagittaria. Fig. 181. Lanceolate, acute leaf, with minute teeth or dentations 
atthe margin. Fig. 182, Subulate or awl-shaped leaf. Fig. 183. Whorl or verticil of 
linear-obovate leaves. Fig. 184. Auriculate lanceolate leaf, oblique at the base, with 
minute toothings at the margin. Fig. 185. Pedate or Pedatifid leaf of Hellebore. Radi- 
ating venation. Fig. 186. Dolabriform or axe-shaped fleshy succulent leaf. Hidden- 
veined. Fig. 187, Acinaciform or scimitar-shaped succulent leaf. Hidden-veined. 
Fig. 188. Oval leaf with converging veins; not reticulated. Fig, 189, Palmately-lobed 
leaf, crisp or undulated at the margin. Radiating venation. : 


FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 91 


often terete. They are either barren or bear flowers. Their cellular 
tissue is often stellate, 


and the shoots some- 
times exhibit a pe- 
culiar spiral twisting. 
(Fig. 190.) 
CompouND LEAVES 
are those in which the 
divisions extend to the 
midrib, or petiole (fig. 
191), and receive the 
name of foliola or leaf- 
lets, The midrib, or 
petiole, has thus the 
appearance of a branch 
with separate leaves 
attached to it, but it is 
considered properly as 
one leaf, because in its 
earliest state it arises 


MTT TTT TO) st 
Fig. 190. 


Fig. 191. Fig. 192, 


Fig. 190. Juncus effusus, variety, with spiral leaves, called Screw-rush. _. Fig. 191, Leaf 
of Robinia pseudacacia, often called Acacia. The leaf is impari-pinnate, or alternately pin- 
nate, The pinnew are supported on stalks or petiolules. , Petiole or leaf-stalk. 1, Lamina 
-- or blade divided into separate leaflets or pinne, Fig. 192. Septenate leaf of Horse Chest- 
nut (Zsculus Hippocastanwm).  p, Petiole. 1, Lamina divided into seven separate 
leaflets, 


92 FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 


from the axis as a single piece, and its subsequent divisions in the 
form of leaflets are all in one plane. The leaflets are either sessile 
(fig. 192), or have stalks, called petiolules (fig. 191), according as the 
vascular bundles of the veins spread out or divaricate at once, or remain 
united for a certain length. 

Compound leaves have been classified according to the nature of 
the venation, and the development of parenchyma. If we suppose that 
in a simple feather-veined unicostate leaf, the divisions extend to 
the midrib, and each of the primary veins spreads out or branches 
so as to become covered with parenchyma, and thus form separate 
leaflets, which are usually articulated to the petiole or midrib (fig. 193), 
the leaf becomes compound and pinnate (pinna, a wing or feather), 
If the midrib and primary veins are not covered with parenchyma, 


So 


CPC Bs 
PMD) 


Fig, 194. Fig. 195. 


while the secondary (or those coming off in a feather-like manner from 
the primary veins) are, and separate leaflets are thus formed which 
are usually articulated with the veins, the leaf is bipinnate (fig. 194). 
In this case the secondary veins form as it were partial petioles. A 
farther subdivision, in which the tertiary veins only are covered with 
parenchyma and have separate leaflets, gives tripinnate or decompownd, 
in which case the tertiary veins form the partial petioles ; and a leaf 
divided still more is called supradecompound (fig. 195). 
When a pinnate leaf has one pair of leaflets, it is unijugate (unum, 
one, and jugum, a yoke); when it has two pairs, it is bijugate; many 
Fig. 193. Pari-pinnate leaf with six pairs of pinne (seajugate). Fig. 194. Bipinnate leaf, 


with sessile foliola or leaflets, Fig. 195. Part of the supradecompound leaf of Laserpitium 
hirsutum. 


FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES. 93 


pairs, multijugate (fig. 191). When a pinnate leaf ends in a pair of 
pinne (fig. 193) it is equally or abruptly pinnate (pari-pinnate) ; when 
there is a single terminal leaflet (fig. 191), the leaf is unequally pinnate 
(impari-pinnate) ; when the leaflets or pinne are placed alternately on 
either side of the midrib, and not directly opposite to each other, the 
leaf is alternately pinnate (fig. 191); and when the pinne are of dif- 
ferent sizes, the leaf is interruptedly pinnate (fig. 196). 

In the case of a simple multicostate leaf with radiating venation, 
if we suppose the ribs to be covered with parenchyma, so as to form 
separate leaflets, each of which is articulated to the petiole, the digitate 
form of compound leaf is produced ; if there are three leaflets, the form 


1 
Fig. 196. Fig. 197. Fig. 198. 


is ternate (figs. 156, 197); if four, quaternate (fig. 157); if five, quinate ; 
if seven, septenate (fig. 192), and so on. If the three ribs of a ternate 
leaf subdivide each into three primary veins, which become covered 
with parenchyma so as to be separate articulated leaflets, the leaf is 
biternate ; and if another three-fold division takes place, it is triternate 
fig. 198). 

: pee summary of facts connected with the venation and con- 
formation of leaves :— 


1. Leaves of flowering plants are either netted-veined (reticulated) or parallel- 
veined. . 

2. Leaves have either a single midrib (unicostate), or several ribs (multicostate); 
and the latter are either radiating (spreading out from one point), or con- 
“vergent. 

3. Unicostate leaves have veins proceeding at different angles from various points 
of the midrib, and arranged more or less like the parts of a feather. 


Fig. 196. Impari- alternately and interruptedly pinnate leaf. Leaflets or pinne sessile, 
and serrated at the margin. Fig. 197. Ternate leaf of Strawberry, Margin of leaflets, 
toothed or dentate. jp, Petiole with projecting hairs. 1, Lamina divided into three 
leaflets. Fig. 198. Triternate leaf. Leaflets cordate. 


94 FORMS OF PETIOLES OR LEAF-STALKS. 


4, The conformation of leaves depends partly on the venation, and partly on the 
mode in which the parenchyma is developed. 

5. Leaves are either simple, ¢.e. composed of one piece, or compound, 7.¢. com- 
posed of one or more articulated leaflets. 

6. Simple leaves are either entire or divided into segments. When the divisions 
are marginal, they are dentate, serrate, or crenate ; when the divisions are 
deeper, cleft or partite. 

7. Simple unicostate (one-ribbed) leaves having their parenchyma cut laterally 
into various lobes, so that the divisions extend to about the middle of 
each half of the lamina, may be referred to the Pinnatijid type, including 
bipinnatifid, pectinate, panduriform, runcinate, and lyrate forms ; when the 
divisions extend nearly to the midrib the form is pinnati-partite. 

8, Simple multicostate (many-ribbed) leaves, with the ribs divergent, when cut 
longitudinally into various lobes, the divisions extending to about the 
middle of the lamina, may be referred to the Palmatifid type, including 
trifid, quinquefid, pedate, and dissected forms ; when the divisions extend 
to near the base the forms are palmately-partite or dissected. 

9, Simple leaves, with convergent ribs, are rarely divided deeply, and such is also 
the case with parallel-veined leaves, the margins of which are often entire. 

10. Simple leaves, whether unicostate or multicostate, with lobes or divisions at 
their base, exhibit reniform, cordate, sagittate, and hastate forms; with 
lobes or divisions at their apex, emarginate and obcordate forms. 

11. Compound unicostate leaves, having lateral articulated leaflets, may be 
referred to the Pinnate type, including bipinnate, tripinnate, and decom- 
pound forms. 

12. Compound multicostate leaves, with divergent ribs, divided longitudinally into 
articulated leaflets, may be referred to the Digttate type, including ternate, 
triternate, quaternate, and quinate forms. 


PetioLe or Lear-SraLK.—This is the part which unites the limb 
or blade of the leaf to the stem (figs. 147 and 191 p). It is absent 
in sessile leaves, and in many sheathing leaves is not well defined. It 
consists of one or more bundles of vascular tissue, with a varying 
amount of parenchyma. The vessels are spiral vessels, connected with 
the medullary sheath in Exogens, and with the fibro-vascular bundles 
in Endogens, porous vessels and other forms of fibro-vascular tissue, 
woody tissue, and laticiferous vessels. These vessels are enclosed in an 
epidermal covering, with few stomata, and are more or less compressed. 
When the vascular bundles reach the base of the lamina they separate 
and spread out in various ways, as already described under venation. 
A large vascular bundle is continued through the lamina to form the 
midrib (fig. 148, » m), and sometimes several large bundles form 
separate ribs (figs. 161, 177), whilst the ramifications of the smaller 
bundles constitute the veins and veinlets. 

At the place where the petiole joins the stem there is frequently 
an articulation, or a constriction with a tendency to disunion, and at 
the same time there exists a swelling (fig. 220 p), called pulvinus 
(pulvinus, a cushion), formed by a mass of cellular tissue, the cells of 
which occasionally exhibit the phenomenon of contractility. At other 
times the petiole is not articulated, but is either continuous with the 
stem, or forms a sheath around it. At the point where the petiole is 


FORMS OF PETIOLES OR LEAF-STALKS. 95 


united to the lamina, or where the midrib joins the leaflets of a com- 
pound leaf, there is occasionally a cellular dilatation called struma 
(strwma, a swelling), with an articulation. This articulation or joint 
is by many considered as indicating a compound leaf, and hence the 
leaf of the orange is considered as such, although it consists of one 
undivided lamina (fig. 201). In articulated leaves, the pulvinus may 
be attached either to the petiole or to the axis, and may fall with the 
leaf, or remain attached to the stem. When articulated leaves drop, 
their place is marked by a cicatrix or scar, seen below the bud in fig. 
220, In this scar the remains of the vascular bundles, ¢, are seen ; 
and its form furnishes characters by which particular kinds of trees 
may be known when not in leaf. In the case of many Palms and 
Tree-ferns, the scars or cicatrices of the leaves are very conspicuous, 
Tn fossil plants important characters are founded on them. | 

The petiole varies in length, being usually shorter than the 
lamina, but some- 
times much longer. 
In some Palms it 
is fifteen or twenty 
feet long, and is 
so firm as to be 
used for poles or 
walking-sticks, In 


Fig. 199. "Fig. 200. Fig. 201. 


general, the petiole is more or less rounded in its form, the upper 
surface being flattened or grooved. Sometimes it is compressed 
laterally, as in the Aspen, and to this peculiarity the trembling of the 
leaves of this tree is attributed. In aquatic plants, the leaf-stalk is 
sometimes distended with air (fig. 199 p), as in Pontederia and Trapa, 
so as to float the leaf. At other times it is. winged, or has a leaf-like 
appearance, as in the pitcher plant (fig. 200 p), orange (fig. 201 p), 

Fig. 199. Leaf with a quadrangular toothed lamina or blade, J, and an inflated petiole, p, 
containing air-cells. Fig. 200. Ascidium or pitcher of Nepenthes. , Winged petiole 
which becomes narrowed, and then expands so as to form the pitcher a, by folding on 
itself. e, The operculum or lid, supposed to be formed by the blade of the leaf, and articu- 
‘lated to the pitcher. Fig. 201. Leaf of Orange, which some call compound. », Dilated 
or winged petiole, united by an articulation to the blade. In such a leaf, if the vessels of 


the petiole were developed in a circular manner, so as to form a pitcher, the lamina or blade 
would form the jointed lid. ~ 


96 FORMS OF PETIOLES OR LEAF-STALKS. 


lemon and Dionza (fig. 202 p). In some Australian Acacias, and in 
some species of Oxalis, Bupleurum, etc., the petiole is flattened in a 
vertical direction, the vascular bundles separating immediately after 
quitting the stem, and running nearly parallel from base to apex. 
This kind of petiole (fig. 204 p) has been called Phyllodiwm (piAaroy, 
a leaf, and ¢760s, form). In these plants the laminz or blades of the 
leaves are pinnate, bipinnate, or ternate, and are produced at the 
extremities of the phyllodia in a horizontal direction (fig. 204 2) ; but 


Fig. 202. Fig. 203. Fig. 204. 


in many instances they are not developed, and the phyllodium serves 
the purpose of a leaf. Hence some Acacias are called leafless. 
These phyllodia, by their vertical position and their peculiar form, 
give a remarkable aspect to vegetation. On the same Acacia, there 
occur leaves with the petiole and lamina perfect; others having the 
petiole slightly expanded or winged, and the lamina imperfectly 
developed ; and others in which there is no lamina, and the petiole 
becomes large and broad. Some petioles, in place of ending in a 

Fig. 202. Leaf of Dionsa muscipula, or Venus’ Fly-trap. p, Dilated or winged petiole. 
e, Jointed blade, the two fringed halves of which fold on each other, when certain hairs on 
the upper surface are touched, Fig. 203, Ascidium, or Pitcher of Sarracenia, formed by 
the petiole of the leaf. The lid is not articulated to the pitcher as in Nepenthes (fig. 200). 
Fig. 204, Leaf of Acacia heterophylla. p, Phyllodium or enlarged petiole, with straight 


venation. 11, Lamina or blade, which is bipinnate. The blade is fréquently wanting, and 
the phyllodium is the only part produced. 


STRUCTURE AND FORMS OF STIPULES. 97 


lamina, form a tendril or cirrus (p. 120), so as to enable the plant 
to climb. 


Stipules. 


At the place where the petiole joins the axis, a sheath (vagina) is 
sometimes produced, which embraces the whole or part of the cir- 
cumference of the stem (fig. 147 g). This sheath is formed by the 
divergence of the vascular bundles, which separate so as to form a 
hollow cavity towards the stem. The sheath is occasionally developed 
to such a degree as to give a character to the plants, Thus, in the 
Rhubarb order, it is large and membranous, and has received the name 
of ochrea or boot (fig. 147 g) ; while in Palms it forms a kind of net- 
work, to which the name of reticulum has been given (p. 32); and in 
umbelliferous plants it constitutes the pericladiwm (wegi, around, and 
xAd0os, a branch). In place of a sheath, leaves are occasionally pro- 
duced at the base of the petiole (fig. 205 ss), 
which have been denominated stipules (stipula, 
straw or husk). These stipules are often two 
in number, and they are important as sup- 
plying characters in certain natural orders, 
Thus they occur in the Pea and Bean family, 
in Rosaceous plants, and the Cinchona bark 
family. They are rarely met with in Mono- 
cotyledons, or in Dicotyledons with sheath- 
ing petioles, and they are not common in 
Dicotyledons with opposite leaves. Plants having stipules are stipu- 
late; those having none are exstipulate. 

Stipules are formed by some of the vascular bundles diverging as 
they leave the stem, and becoming covered with parenchyma, so as to 
resemble true leaves. Like leaves they are large or small, entire or 
divided, deciduous or persistent, articulated or non-articulated. Their 
lateral position at the base of the petiole distinguishes them from true 
leaves. In the Pansy the true leaves are stalked and crenate, while 
the stipules: are large, sessile, and pinnatifid. In Lathyrus Aphaca, 
and some other plants, the true pinnate leaves are abortive, the 
petiole forms a tendril, and the stipules alone are developed, perform- 
.. ing the office of leaves. 

When stipules are attached separately to the stem at the base of 
the leaf, they are called caulinary. Thus, in fig. 205, r is a branch 
of Salix aurita, with a leaf, f, having a bud, b, in its axil, and two 
caulinary stipules, s s, When stipulate leaves are opposite to each 
other, at the same height on the stem, it occasionally happens that the 


Fig. 205. 


a 
Fig. 205. Portion of a branch, 7, of Salix aurita bearing a single petiolate leaf, f, which 
has been cut across. . ss, Caulinary stipules. 0, Bud in the axil of the leaf, 


H 


98 FORMS OF STIPULES. 


stipules on either side unite wholly or partially, so as to form an inter- 
petiolary or interfoliar (inter, between) stipule (fig, 206 s), as in Cin- 
chona and in Ipecacuan. In the case of alternate leaves, the stipules 
at the base of each leaf are sometimes united to the petiole and to 
each other, so as to form an adnate, adherent, or petiolary stipule, as 
in the Rose (fig, 207 s), or an avillary stipule, as in Houttuynia 


Fig. 208, Fig. 209. 


cordata (fig. 208 s). In other instances the stipules unite together 
on the side of the stem opposite the leaf, and become synochreate (oty, 
together), as in Astragalus (fig. 209 s). The union or adhesion of. 


Fig. 206. Branch, r, and two leaves, ff, of Cephalanthus occidentalis. s, Interpetiolary 
or interfoliar stipule, formed by the partial union of two. Fig. 207. Portion of a branch, 
r, of Rosa canina, or dog-rose, bearing a single. leaf, f, with its petiole, p, its petiolary or 
adnate stipules, s, its axillary bud, 6, and its aculei or prickles, a. Fig. 208. Portion of 
a branch, 7, of Houttuynia cordata, with a leaf, f, and an axillary stipule, s, formed by the 
union of two. Fig. 209. Branch, 7, and portion of the leaf, f, of Astragalus Onobrychis, 
with a synochreate stipule, s, formed by the union of two stipules on the opposite side of 
the branch from that to which the leaf is attached. The leaf is pinnate, and in the figure 
three pairs of leaflets or pinnz are left. 


ANOMALOUS LEAVES AND PETIOLES. 99 


stipules is not an accidental occurrence taking place after they have 
been developed, but is intimately connected with the general law, in 
accordance with which the parts of the plants are formed. 

Stipules are sometimes large, enveloping the 
leaves in the young state, and falling off in the 
progress of growth, as in Ficus, Magnolia, and 
Potamogeton ; at other times they are so minute 
as to be scarcely distinguishable without the aid 
of a lens, and so fugaceous as to be visible only 
in the very young state of the leaf. They may 
assume a hard and spiny character as in Robinia 
pseudacacia, or may be cirrose, as in Smilax, 
where each stipule is represented by a'tendril ; 
while in Cucurbitaceze there is only one cirrose 
stipule. In grasses the sheath or sheathing 
petiole (fig. 210 g v) has a prolongation or fold- 
ing of the epidermis at its upper part, distinct 
from the leaf, to which the name of ligule (ligula, 
a small slip) has been given (fig. 210 97). Some 
consider it as equivalent to a stipule. It is either 
long or short, acute or blunt, entire or divided, 
and thus gives rise to various characters. At 
the base of the leaflets or foliola of a com- 
pound leaf, small stipules are occasionally pro- 
duced, to which some have given the name of stzpels, 


Anomalous Forms of Leaves and Petioles, 


Variations in the structure and forms of leaves and leaf-stalks 
. are produced by the increased development of cellular tissue, by the 
abortion or degeneration of parts, by the multiplication or repetition 
of parts, and by adhesion. When cellular tissue is developed to a 
great extent, leaves become succulent, and occasionally assume a crisp 
or curled appearance. Such changes take place naturally, but they 
are often increased by the art of the gardener ; and the object of 
many horticultural operations is to increase the bulk and succulence 
of leaves. It is in this way that Cabbages and Savoys are rendered 
more delicate and nutritious. 

In some plants true leaves are not produced, their place being occu- 
pied by dilated petioles or phyllodia (p. 96), or by stipules (p. 97). 
In other instances scales are formed instead of leaves, as in Orobanche, 
Lathrea, and young Asparagus (fig. 129 2). Divisions take place in 


' Fig. 210. Portion of a leaf of Phalaris arundinacea, one of the grasses. f, Laminar 
merithal or blade of the leaf, with straight parallel venation. gv, Vaginal, or sheathing 
portion, representing the petiole, ending in a membranous process or ligule, g 1, 


100 ASCIDIA OR PITCHERS. 


leaves when there is a multiplication of their parts; and a union of 
two or more leaves, or of parts of leaves, occurs in many cases. 
When two lobes at the base of a leaf are prolonged beyond the stem 
and unite (fig, 171), the leaf is perfoliate (per, through, and folium, 
leaf), the stem appearing to pass through it, as in Bupleurum perfolia- 
tum, and Chlora perfoliata ; when two leaves unite by their bases 
they become connate (con, together, and natus, born), as in Lonicera 
Caprifolium ; and when leaves adhere to the stem, forming a sort of 
winged or leafy appendage, they are decurrent (decurro, to run down 
or along), as in Thistles. 

The vascular bundles and cellular tissue are sometimes deve- 
loped in such a way as to form a circle, with a hollow in the 
centre, and thus give rise to what are called fistular (fistula, a pipe) 
or hollow leaves, and to ascidia (doxidsv, a small bag) or pitchers, 
Hollow leaves are well seen in the Onion. Pitchers are formed either 
by petioles or by laminz, and they are composed; of one or more 
leaves. In some Convallarias, two leaves unite to form a cavity. In 
Sarracenia (fig. 203) and Heliamphora, the pitcher is composed 
apparently of the petiole of the leaf. In Nepenthes (fig. 200) and 
perhaps in Cephalotus, while the folding of a winged petiole, », forms 
the pitcher, a, the lid, e, which is united by an articulation, corre- 
sponds to the lamina. This kind of ascidium is called calyptrimor- 
phous (xardrrpa, a covering, and joggq, form), and may be con- 
sidered as formed by a leaf such as that of the Orange (fig. 201) ; 
the lamina, ¢, being articulated to the petiole, p, which, when folded, 
forms the pitcher. In Dischidia Rafflesiana, a climbing plant of 
India, the pitchers, according to Griffith, are formed by the lamina of 
the leaf, and have an open orifice into which the rootlets at the upper 
part of the plant enter. These pitchers would seem therefore to 
contain a supply of fluid for the nourishment of the upper branches of 
the plant. In Utricularia, the leaves form sacs called ampulla, 
Some suppose that pitchers are not due to folding and adhesion, but 
that they are produced by a hollowing out of the extremity of the stalk. 


Structure and Form of Leaves in the Great Divisions of the 
Vegetable Kingdom. 


Leaves or Dicotytepons.—In Dicotyledons, the venation is 
reticulated, the veins, coming off at various angles, form an angu- 
lar network of vessels (fig. 151), and the tracheze communicate 
with the medullary sheath. They are frequently articulated, ex- 
hibit divisions at their margin, and become truly compound. There 
are no doubt instances in which the veins proceed in a parallel man- 
ner, but this will be found to occur chiefly in cases where the petiole 
may be considered as occupying the place of the leaf. Examples of 


LEAVES OF EXOGENS, ENDOGENS, AND ACROGENS. 101 


this kind are seen in Acacias (fig. 204), as well as in Ranunculus 
gramineus and R. Lingua. 

LEAVES OF MonocoryzEpons. —In Monocotyledons, the leaves 
do not present an angular network of vessels, nor do they exhibit 
divisions on their margin (figs. 150, 210). Exceptions to this rule 
occur in some plants, as Tamus and Dioscorea, which have been called 
Dictyogens by Lindley, on account of their somewhat netted venation ; 
and in Palms, in which, although the leaves are entire at first, they 
afterwards become split into various lobes. Leaves of Monocotyle- 
dons are rarely stipulate, unless the ligule of grasses be considered as. 
being a stipule. Their leaves are often sheathing, continuous with 
the stem (forming a spurious stem in Bananas), and do not fall off by 
an articulation, When there is only a slight divergence of their 
veins, they may be looked upon more as enlarged and flattened petioles 
than as true lamine. This remark is illustrated by the leaves of 
Typha and Iris. In some Monocotyledons, as in Sagittaria sagitti- 
folia, the submerged and floating leaves are narrow, like petioles, 
while those growing erect above the water expand and assume an 
arrow-like shape (fig. 180). 

Leaves of ACoTYLEDONS.—In Acotyledons, such as Ferns and 
their allies, the leaves vary much ; being entire or divided, stalked or 
sessile, often feather-veined, occasionally with radiating venation, the 
extremities of the veins being forked. The fibro-vascular bundles of 
the leaves resemble those of the stem both in structure and arrange- 
ment, In Thallogens, the leaves when present have no vascular 
venation. In many of them, as Lichens, Fungi, and Alge, there are 
no true leaves. 


Phyllotaais, or the Arrangement of the Leaves on the Axis, 


Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and 
have received different names according to their situation. Thus 
leaves arising from the crown of the root, as in the Primrose, are 
called radical; those on the stem are cauline ; on the branches, ramal ; 
on flower-stalks, floral leaves, The first leaves developed are deno- 
minated seminal (semen, a seed), or cotyledons (xorvAnday, a name given 
to a plant or a seed-lobe) ; and those which succeed are primordial 
(primus, first, and ordo, rank), 

The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its appendages is 
called phyllotaxis (pbrAov, a leaf, and ré&ss, order). In their arrange- 
ment leaves follow a definite order. It has been stated already, p. 45, 
that there are regular nodes or points. on the stem (fig. 211 n) at 
which leaves appear, and that the part of the stem between the nodes 
is the internode (fig. 211 m). Each node is capable of giving origin 
to a leaf. Occasionally several nodes are approximated so as to form 


102 PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT, 


as it were one, and then several leaves may be produced at the same 
height on the stem. When two leaves are thus produced, one on 


Fig. 211. Fig. 212. 


each side of the stem or axis, and at the same level, they are called 
opposite (fig. 212) ; when more than two 
are produced (figs. 183, 213), they are 
verticillate (verto,I turn), and the circle 
of leaves is then called a verticil or whorl, 
When leaves are opposite, the pairs which 
are next each other, but separated by an 
internode, often cross at right angles (fig. 
212 wb), or decussate (decusso, I cut cross- 
wise), following thus a law of alternation. 
The same occurs in verticils, the leaves of 
each whorl being alternate with those of 
the whorl next to it ; or, in other words, 
each leaf in a whorl occupying the space 
between two leaves of the whorl next to 
it. There are considerable irregularities, 
however, in this respect, and the number 

Fig. 218. of leaves in different whorls is not always 
uniform, as may be seen in Lysimachia vulgaris (fig. 213). 


Fig. 211. Portion of a branch of a Lime tree, with four leaves arranged in a distichous man- 
ner, or in two rows. a, The branch with the leaves numbered in their order, n being the 
node, and m the internode or merithal. 0 Is a magnified representation of the branch, 
showing the cicatrices of the leaves and their spiral arrangement, which is expressed by }, or 
one turn of the spiral and two leaves. Fig. 212. Opposite, decussate leaves of Pimelea 
decussata. a, A pair of opposite leaves. 6, Another pair placed at right angles. Fig. 
218. Leaves of Lysimachia vulgaris, in verticils or whorls of three. The leaves of each ver- 
ticil alternate with those of the verticils next it. In this plant the number of the leaves in 
a verticil often varies. 


PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 103 


When a single leaf is produced at a node, and the nodes are sepa- 
rated so that each leaf occurs at a different height on the stem, the 
leaves are alternate (fig. 214). The relative position of alternate 
leaves varies in different plants, although it is tolerably uniform in 
each species. In fig. 211, leaf 1 arises from a node, n; leaf 2 is 
separated by an internode, m, and is placed to the right or left ; while 
leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf 1. The arrangement in this case 
is distichous (dls, twice, and oriyos, order), or the leaves are arranged 
in two rows. In fig. 215, on the other hand, the fourth leaf is 
directly above the first, and the arrangement is trist’chous (ree7¢, three, 
and oriyos, order). The same arrangement continues throughout the 
stems, so that in fig. 215 the 7th 
leaf is above the 4th, the 10th 
above the 7th; also the 5th above 
the 2d, the 6th above the 3d, and 
so on, There is thus throughout 
a tendency to a spiral arrangement, 
the number of leaves in the spire 
or spiral cycle, and the number of 
turns, varying in different plants. 
In_ plants whose leaves are close to 
each other, the spiral tendency is 
easily seen. In the Screw pine 
(Pandanus odoratissimus), in the 
Pine-apple family, and in some 
Palms, as Copernicia cerifera, the 
screw-like arrangement of the 
leaves is obvious. This mode of 
development prevails in all parts 
of plants, and may be considered 
as depending on their manner of 
growth in an upward and at the same time in a lateral direction. 
Alternation is looked upon as the normal arrangement of all parts of 
plants. This arrangement is liable to be interrupted by many causes, 
so that its distinct existence cannot be always detected. 

In a regularly-formed straight branch covered with leaves, if a 
thread is passed from one to the other, turning always in the same 
direction, a spiral is described, and a certain number of leaves and 
of complete turns occur before reaching the leaf directly above that 
from which the enumeration commenced. This arrangement has been 
expressed by a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the number 


Fig. 214. 


Fig. 214. Part of a branch of a Cherry with six leaves, the 6th being placed vertically 
over the first, after two turns of the spiral. This is expressed by 2 or the quincunx. a, 
The branch, with the leaves numbered in order. b, A magnified representation of the branch, 
showing the cicatrices of the leaves or their points of insertion, and their spiral arrangement, 


104. PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 


of turns, and the denominator the number of leaves in the spiral 
cycle. Thus, in fig. 214, a 6, the cycle consists of five leaves, the 6th 
leaf being placed vertically over the Ist,’ 
the 7th over the 2d, and so on; while 
the number of turns between the Ist 
and 6th leaf is two: hence, this arrange- 
ment is indicated by the fraction 2, In 
other words, the distance or divergence 
between the first and second leaf, ex- 
pressed in parts of a circle, is2 of a 
circle, or 860° + %= 144°. In fig. 211, 
a b, the spiral is 4, 7.2. one turn and two 
leaves ; the third leaf being placed verti- 
cally over the first, and the divergence 
between the first and second leaf being 
one-half the circumference of a circle, 
360°+4 = 180°. Again, in fig, 215, 
ab, the number is %, or one turn and 
: three leaves, the angular divergence being 
Fig. 215. 120°. 

The general forms of Phyllotaxy may be brought out by a con- 

tinued fraction— 


1 
a+1+1+4+4141, ete, 


where a may have the values 1, 2, 3, or 4, ete. 
The actual fractions thus resulting are—when 


a= 1.432 £2 3s, ete 
a= 2... 42 2 45, ete. 
@ = 3..3 £ + wr ae, ete. 
a= 4.44 % 3% os, ete 


Each fraction being obtained by adding together the numerator and 
denominator in the two preceding fractions. 

When the leaves or scales are alternate, and run in a single series, 
they are unijugate ; when the leaves are opposite, and there are two 
parallel rows produced, the arrangement is bijugate, while in the case 
of whorled leaves the arrangement may be trijugate or quadrijugate, 


Fig. 215.—Young plant of Cyperus esculentus, with leaves in three rows, or tristichous, 
expressed by the fraction 4, or one turn and three leaves. a, The plant, with its leaves 
numbered in their order. b, Magnified representation of the stem, showing the insertion of 
the leaves and their spiral arrangement, 


PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 105 


In cases where the internodes are very short, and the leaves are 
closely applied to each other, as in the House-leek, it is difficult to 
trace what has been called the generating spiral, or that which passes 
through every leaf of the cluster. Thus in fig. 216, there are thirteen 
leaves which are numbered in their order, and five turns of the spiral 
marked by circles in the centre (,8, indicating the arrangement) ; but 
this could not be detected at once. So also in Fir cones (fig. 217), 
which are composed of scales or modified leaves, the generating spiral 
cannot be determined easily. In such cases, however, there are 
secondary spirals running parallel to each other, as is seen in fig. 217, 
where spiral lines pass through scales numbered 1, 6, 11, 16, etc., 


‘ 
Fig. 216. Fig. 217. 


and 1, 9, 17, etc., and by counting those which run parallel in differ- 
ent directions, the number of scales intervening between every two in 
the same parallel coil may be ascertained. Thus, in fig. 217, it will 
be found that there are five secondary spirals running towards the 
tight and parallel to each other, the first passing through the scales 1, 
6, 11, 16, ete.; the second through 9, 14, 19, 24, etc.; the third 
through 17, 22, 27, 32, 37, etc. ; the fourth through 30, 35, 40, 45, 
etc. ; the fifth through 43, 48, 53, etc. -The number of these second- 
ary spirals indicates the number of scales intervening between every 


Fig. 216. Cycle of thirteen leaves placed closely together so as to form a rosette, as in 
Sempervivum. A is the very short axis to which the leaves are attached. The leaves are 
numbered in their order, from below upwards. The circles in the centre indicate the five 
turns of the spiral, and show the insertion of each of the leaves. The divergence is expressed 
by the fraction 5-thirteenths. Fig. 217. Cone of Abies alba, with the scales or modified 
leaves numbered in the order of their arrangement on the axis of the cone. The lines 
indicate a rectilinear series of scales, and two lateral secondary spirals, one turning from 
left to right, the other from right to left. 


106 PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT, 


two scales in each of these spirals—the common difference being five. 
Again, it will be found on examination that there are secondary spirals 
running to the left, in which the common difference between every two 
scales is eight, and that this corresponds to the number of secondary 
spirals, the first of which passes through the scales 1, 9, 17, etc. ; 
the second through 6, 14, 22, 30,-etce. ; the third through 3. 11, 19, 
27, 35, 43, and so on. Thus it is that, by counting the secondary 
spirals, all the scales may be numbered, and, by this means the gene- 
rating spiral may be discovered. 

In the cone of the American larch (fig. 218) there is a quincuncial 
arrangement of scales marked by the fraction 3. There are five 
vertical ranks, as marked in the tabular numerical view at the side of 

15: : ; : thecone—viz.,2,7,12; 4,9, 14; 1, 6,11; 

>: ? i14 : 38, 8,13; 5,10, 15, the common difference 

:13 : : + in each row being 5. On looking at the cone 

— : 12 we find also parallel oblique ranks, two of 

1 :: i : which, ascending to the left, are marked by 

: ? g ; the numbers 1, 3, 5, which, if the diagram 
8 : : : is coiled round a cylinder, continue in the 
: i : 7 numbers 7, 9, 11, 13, 15; and 2, 4, 6, 8, 
: : + + 10, continued into 12, 14. There are thus 
Fig 218, : : 4 ; two left-handed spirals, with 2 as the com- 

: : 3 : : : mon difference in the numbering of the scales. 

: : i 2 Again, three oblique: parallel spirals ascend 

1: = to the right, marked by the numbers 1, 4, 7, 

running into 10, 13; 3, 6, 9, 12, going on to 15; and 5, 8, fl, 14: 

here the common ‘numbering of the scales is 3, corresponding 
with the oblique right-handed spirals. 

The primitive or generating spiral may pass either from right to 
left or from left to right. It sometimes follows a different direction 
in the branches from that pursued in the stem. When it follows the 
same course in the stem and branches, they are homodromous (Gwors, 
similar, and dgémos, a course) ; when ‘the direction differs, they are 
heterodromous (éregos, another or diverse), In different species of the 
same genus the phyllotaxis frequently varies. 

Considering alternation as the usual leaf-arrangement, some have 
supposed that opposite leaves are due to the development of two 
spirals in opposite directions, while others look upon them as pro- 
duced by two nodes coming close together without an internode. A 
verticil, in the latter view, will be the result of the non-development 
of more than one internode, and may occur in plants, the normal 


Fig. 218. Cone of a species of Larch (Lariz microcarpa), taken from Professor Asa 
Gray’s work, with the scales numbered so far as seen. The arrangement is in the five- 
ranked series. There are five vertical rows of scales, 1, 6, 11; 4, 9, 14; 2, 7,12; 5, 10,15; 
and 3, 8, 13, as shown in the diagram. 


PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 107 


arrangement of whose leaves is alternate. Thus, in fig. 211, if the 
space between 1 and 2 were obliterated, or the internode, m, not 
developed, the leaves would be opposite. In fig. 214, if the spaces 
between each of the leaves were obliterated, there would be a verticil 
of five leaves. In many plants there is a law of arrestment of 
development, by which opposite and verticillate leaves are naturally 
produced: but in such cases the alternation is still seen in the 
arrangement of the different clusters of leaves. ; 

In some cases the effect of interruption of growth, in causing 
alternate leaves to become opposite and verticillate, can be distinctly 
shown, as for instance in Rhododendron ponticum. In other cases, . 
parts which are usually opposite or verticillate become alternate by 
the vigorous development of the axis: and on different parts of the 
same stem, as in Lysimachia vulgaris, there may be seen alternate, 
opposite, and verticillate leaves. When the interruption to develop- 
ment takes place at the end of a branch the leaves become fusciculate 
(fasciculus, a bundle) or clustered, as in the Larch. A remarkable 
instance of the shortening of internodes and the clustering of leaves 
occurred in the Palm-house of the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, in 
the case of a Bamboo, which was exposed for many months to a low 
temperature, during the time that the roof of the house was being 
renewed. The plant had been growing rapidly, with its internodes 
of the usual length, but it was suddenly arrested near the summit, 
the internodes became gradually shortened, till the nodes were close 
to each other, and the leaves came off in bunches. All modifications 
of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement as true leaves—a fact 
which is of importance in a morphological point of view. 

In Dicotyledonous plants, the first leaves produced, or the 
cotyledons, are opposite. This arrangement often continues during 
the life of the plant, but at other times it changes. Some tribes of 
plants are distinguished by their opposite or verticillate, others by 
their alternate, leaves. Labiate plants have decussate leaves, while 
Boraginaceze have alternate leaves, and Tiliacez usually have distichous 
leaves ; Cinchonaceze have opposite leaves; Galiacez, verticillate. 
Such arrangements as 2, 3, ,5,, and 8, are common in Dicotyledons. 
The first of these, called guincunx (quincunz, an arrangement of five), 
is met with in the Apple, Pear, and Cherry (fig. 214); the second, in 
the Bay, Holly, Plantago media; the third, in the cones of Pinus 
(Abies) alba (fig. 217); and the fourth, in those of the Pinus (Abies) 
Picea. In Monocotyledonous plants there is only one seed-leaf or 
cotyledon produced, and hence the arrangement is at first alternate ; 
and it generally continues so more or less. Such arrangements as 
4,4 (fig. 215), and 2, are common in Monocotyledons, as in Grasses, 
Sedges, and Lilies. In Acotyledons the leaves assume all kinds of 
arrangement, being opposite, alternate, and verticillate. It has been 


108 LEAF-BUDS AND BRANCHES. 


found in general that, while the number 5 occurs in the phyllotaxis 
of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in that of Monocotyledons. 

Although there is thus, in the great divisions of the vegetable 
kingdom, a tendency to certain definite numerical arrangements, yet 
there are many exceptions. In speaking of Palms, which are Mono- 
cotyledonous plants, Martius states that the leaves of different species 
exhibit the following spirals—s, 3, $, & 5, #s, 3%, 34. In the species of 
the genus Pinus, 2, +, 2%, 4%, #4, occur. Thus, while it has been 
shown that the phylloplastic (g4AAo», a leaf, and tAwor:xéc, formative) 
or leaf-formative power moves in a spiral round the axis, it has been 
found impossible to apply phyllotaxis satisfactorily to the purposes of 
classification. 

The spiral arrangement of the leaves allows all of them to be 
equally exposed to air and light, and thus enables them to carry on 
their functions with vigour. The form of the stem is also probably 
connected with the leaf-arrangement. M. Cagnat has remarked that 
an analogy in arrangement of leaves and character of stem may be 
traced. The leaves of juniper are in verticils of three, and the pith 
is triangular ; the leaves of cypress being opposite, the pith presents 
the form of a cross. When. leaves are opposite and decussate, the 
stems are often square, as in Labiate plants. The ordinary rounded 
stem appears to be associated with a certain degree of alternation in 
the separate leaves, or in the different pairs of leaves when they are 
opposite. 

The study of the structure, forms, and arrangement of leaves, 
is of great importance, when it is considered that all parts of plants 
are to be looked upon as leaf-formations variously modified, in order 
to serve special purposes in the economy of vegetation. The morpho- 
logical relations of leaves, or the varied forms which they assume, will 
be illustrated during the consideration of the organs of reproduction, 
and of the doctrine of metamorphosis, as propounded by Goethe and 
others. It is only by looking upon all the organs of plants in their 
relation to the leaf as a type, that a philosophical view can be given 
of the great plan on which they have been formed. 


Leaf-buds, 


LEaF-BUDS contain the rudiments of branches, and are found 
in the axtl of previously-formed leaves (fig. 219 ba, ba, ba); or, 
in other words, in the angle formed between the stem and leaf. 
They are hence called aail/ary, and may be either terminal, bt, or 
lateral, ba, They commence as cellular prolongations from the 
medullary rays bursting through the bark. The central cellular 
portion is surrounded by spiral vessels, and is covered with rudi- 
mentary leaves. In the progress of growth, vascular bundles are 


LEAF-BUDS AND BRANCHES. 109 


formed continuous with those of the stem; and, ultimately, branches 
are produced, which in every respect resemble the axis whence the 
buds first sprang. The cellular portion in the 
centre remains as pith with its medullary sheath, 
which is closed and not continuous with that 
of the parent stem, Thus, in the stem and 
“branch, this sheath forms a canal which. is 
closed at both extremities, and which sends 
prolongations of spiral vessels to the leaves. 
As the axis or central portion of the leaf-bud 
increases, cellular projections appear at regular 
intervals, which are the rudimentary leaves. 

A leaf-bud may be removed in a young *— 
state from one plant and grafted upon another, 
by the process of budding, so as to continue to 
form its different parts; and it may even be 
made to grow in the soil, in some instances, 
immediately after removal. In certain cases 
leaf-buds are naturally detached during the life of the parent, so as to 
form independent plants, and thus propagate the individual. Leaf- 
buds have on this account been called fiwed embryos, by Petit-Thouars 
and others, who’ look upon them as embryo plants fixed to the axis, 
capable of sending stems and leaves in an upward direction, and bast 
or ligneous fibres downwards, which, according to them, may be con- 
sidered as roots. A tree may thus be said to consist of a series of 
leaf-buds, or phytons (purty, a plant), attached to a common axis or 
trunk. In ordinary trees, in which there is provision made for the 
formation of numerous lateral leaf-buds, any injury done to a few 
branches is easily repaired ; but in Palms, which only form central 
leaf-buds, and have no provision for a lateral formation of them, an 
injury inflicted on the bud in the axis is more likely to have a 
prejudicial effect on the future life of the plant. 

In the trees of temperate and cold climates the buds which 
are developed during one season lie dormant during the winter, ready 
to burst out under the genial warmth of spring. They are generally 
protected by external modified leaves in the form of scales, tegmenta 
or perule (tegmenta, coverings ; perule, small bags), which frequently 
exhibit a firmer and coarser texture than the leaves themselves, 
These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of the 
altered lamine, or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules, as 
in the Fig and Magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined. 


Fig. 219. 


Fig. 219. Upper portion of a branch of Lonicera nigra in a state of hibernation, that is 
to say, after the fall of the leaves ; covered with leaf-buds. 6%, A terminal bud. ba, ba, 
ba, Axillary lateral buds. Below the buds the cicatrix or scar left by the fallen leaves 
is seen, 


110 VERNATION OR PRAFOLIATION. 


They serve a temporary purpose, and usually fall off sooner or later 
after the leaves are expanded. The bud is often protected by a coat- 
ing of resinous matter, as in the Horse-chestnut and Balsam poplar, or 
by a thick downy covering, as in the Willow. Linnzus called leaf- 
buds Aibernacula, or the winter quarters of the young branch. 

In the bud of a common tree, as the Sycamore (fig. 220), there is 
seen the cicatrix left by the leaf of the previous year, c, with the 
pulvinus or swelling, p, then the scales, ¢ ¢, arranged alternately in a 
spiral manner, and 
overlying each other 
in what is called an 
imbricated (imbrex, a 
roof tile) manner. On 
making a transverse 
section of the bud (fig. 
221), the overlying 
scales, ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢, are dis- 
tinctly seen surround- 
ing the leaves, f, which 
are plaited or folded 
round the axis orgrow- 
ing point. In plants 
of warm climates the- buds are often formed by the ordinary leaves 
without any protecting appendages ; such leaves are called naked, 

VeERNATION.—The arrangement of the leaves in the bud has been 
denominated vernation (ver, spring), or prepfoliation (pre, before, and 
folium, leaf), or gemmation (gemma, a bud). In considering vernation 
we must take into account both the manner in which each individual 
leaf is folded and also the arrangement of the leaves in relation to 
each other. These vary in different plants, but in each species they 
follow a regular law. The leaves in the bud are either placed simply 
in apposition, as in the Mistleto, or they are folded or rolled up 
longitudinally or laterally, giving rise to different kinds of vernation, 
as delineated in fig. 222 a-n, where the dot represents the axis and 
the folded or curved lines represent the leaves, the thickened part in- 
dicating the midrib; figs. a and g being vertical sections ; b-f and 
h-n, horizontal. ; 

The leaf taken individually is either folded longitudinally from 
apex to base (fig. 222 a), as in the Tulip-tree, and called reclinate 
or replicate; or rolled up in a circular manner from apex to base, as 

Fig. 210. Leaf-bud of Sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus) covered with scales. 7, The 
branch. p, Pulvinus or swelling at the base of the leaf which has fallen, leaving a scar or 
cicatricula, c, in which the remains of three vascular bundles are seen, ee, Imbricated scales 
of the bud. Fig. 221, Transverse section of the same leaf-bud. e¢ eee, Thescales arranged 


in an imbricated manner, like the tiles on a house. /, The leaves folded ina plaited manner, 
exhibiting plicate vernation. 


Fig 220. Fig. 221. 


VERNATION OR PRAFOLIATION. 111 


in Ferns (fig. 222 9), and called circinate (circino, I turn round) ; or 
folded laterally, conduplicate, as in Oak (fig. 222 6); or it has several 
folds like a fan, plicate or plaited, as in Vine and Sycamore (figs. 221 f, 
222 c), and in leaves with radiating vernation, where the ribs mark 
the foldings ; or it is rolled upon itself, convolute or supervolute, as in 
Banana and Apricot (fig. 222 d); or its edges are rolled inwards, 
involute, as in Violet (fig. 222 ¢) ; or outwards, revolute, as in Rose- 
mary’ (fig. 222 f). The different divisions of a cut leaf may be 
folded or rolled up separately, as in Ferns, while the entire leaf may 
have either the same or a different kind of vernation. 

Other kinds of vernation receive their names from the arrange- 
ment of the leaves in the bud, taken as a whole. Leaves in the bud 


are opposite, alternate, or verticillate ; and thus different kinds of 
vernation are produced, Sometimes they are nearly in a circle at the 
same level, remaining flat, or only slightly convex externally, and 
placed so as to touch each other by their edges, thus giving rise to 
valvate vernation (fig. 222, h). At other times they are at different 
levels, and are applied over each other, so as to be imbricated, as in 
Lilac, and in the outer scales of Sycamore (figs. 220, 221); and 
occasionally the margin of one leaf overlaps that of another, while it, 
in its turn, is overlapped by a third, so as to be twisted, spiral, or con- 
tortive (fig. 2227). When leaves are applied to each other, face to 
face, without being folded or rolled together, they are appressed. When 
the leaves are more completely folded they either touch at their 


Fig. 222. Diagrams to show the different kinds of vernation. a-g, The folding of indi- 
vidual leaves ; a and g being vertical sections, } ¢ d e and f being horizontal. a, Reclinate 
or replicate. 6, Conduplicate. c¢, Plicate. d, Convolute. e, Involute. f, Revolute, g 
Circinate. h-n, Folding of leaves when united together in the leaf-bud. The sections are 
horizontal or transverse, and show the relative position of the leaves, and the mode in which 
each of them is folded. h, Valvate. 4, Twisted, spiral, or contortive. %, Opposite or 
accumbent, with the margins reduplicate. J, Induplicate. m, Equitant. mn, Obvolute or 
half-equitant, In all the figures the thickened portion indicates the midrib of the leaf and 
the dot marks the position of the axis, 


112 : LEAF-BUDS AND BRANCHES. 


extremities and are accumbent or opposite (fig. 222 &), or are folded 
inwards by their margin, and become induplicate (fig. 222 1); ora 
conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded, which in turn covers 
a third, and thus the vernation is equitané (riding), as in Privet 
(fig. 222 m); or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the half 
of the one covers the half of another, and thus they become halj- 
. equitant or obvolute, as in Sage (fig. 222 n). The scales of a bud 
sometimes exhibit one kind of vernation, and the leaves another (fig. 
221). The same modes of arrangement occur in the flower-buds, as 
will be afterwards shown. ; 

Leaf-buds, as has been stated, are either terminal or lateral. By 
the production of the former (fig. 219 b¢), stems increase in length, 
while the latter (fig. 219 ba, ba, ba) give rise to branches, and 
add to the diameter of the stem. The terminal leaf-bud, after pro- 
ducing leaves, sometimes dies at the end of one season, and the whole 
plant, as in annuals, perishes ; or part of the axis is persistent, and 
remains for two or more years, each of the leaves before its decay 
producing a leaf-bud in its axil, This leaf-bud continues the growth 
in spring. 

In some trees of warm climates, as Cycas, Papaw-tree, Palms, 
and Tree ferns, the production of terminal buds is well seen. In these 
plants the elongation of the stem is generally regular and uniform, so 
that the age of the plant may be estimated by its height. Such stems 
(often endogenous) may thus be considered as formed by a series of 
terminal buds, placed one over the other. From this mode of growth 
they do not attain a great diameter (fig. 134, 1). ‘In other trees, 
especially Exogens, besides the terminal bud there are also lateral 
ones. These, by their development, give rise to branches (rami), from 
which others, called branchlets or twigs (ramuli) arise. Such buds 
being always produced in the axil of leaves are of course arranged in 
a manner similar to the leaves. By the continual production of lateral 
leaf-buds, the stem of exogenous plants acquires a great diameter. 

Although provision is thus made for the regular formation of 
leaf-buds, there are often great irregularities in consequence of many 
being abortive, or remaining in a dormant state: Such buds are 
called latent, and are capable of being developed in cases where the 
terminal bud, or any of the branches, have been injured or destroyed. 
In some instances, as in Firs, the latent buds follow a regular system 
of alternation ; and in plants with opposite leaves, it frequently hap- 
pens that the bud in the axil of one of the leaves only is developed, 
and the different buds so produced are situated alternately on opposite 
sides of the stem. ' 

When the terminal bud is injured or arrested in its growth, the 
elongation of the main axis stops, and the lateral branches often 
acquire increased activity. By continually cutting off the terminal 


LEAF-BUDS AND BRANCHES. 113 


buds, a woody plant is made to assume a bushy appearance, and thus 
pollard trees are produced. Pruning has the effect of checking the 
growth of terminal buds, and of causing lateral ones to push forth. 
The peculiar bird-nest appearance often presented by the branches of 
the common Birch depends on an arrestment in the terminal buds, a 
shortening of the internodes, and a consequent clustering or fascicula- 
tion of the twigs. In some plants there is a natural arrestment of the 
main axis after a certain time, giving rise to peculiar shortened stems. 
Thus the crown of the root (p. 46) is a stem of this nature, forming 
buds and roots. Such is also the case in the stem of Cyclamen, 
Testudinaria Elephantipes, and in the tuber of the potato. The pro- 
duction of lateral in place of terminal buds sometimes gives the stem 
a remarkable zigzag aspect. 

In many plants with a shortened axis, the lateral buds produce 
long branches. Thus the flagellum (flagellum, a whip or twig), or 
runner of the Strawberry and Ranunculus, is an elongated branch, 
developing buds as it runs along the ground ; the propagulum (pro- 
pago, a shoot), or offset, is a short thick branch produced laterally in 
fleshy plants from a shortened axis, and developing a bud at its ex- 
tremity, which is capable of 
living when detached, as in 
Houseleek, Fig. 223 repre- 
sents a strawberry plant, in 
which a’ is the primary axis, 
ending in a cluster of green 
leaves, 7, and some rudi- 
mentary leaves, f, and not 
elongating ; from the axil of © 
one of the leaves proceeds a 
branch or runner, a”, with a 
rudimentary leaf, f’, about the Fig. 223. 
middle, and another cluster 
of leaves, f” and 1’, forming a young plant with roots; from this a 
third axis comes off, @”, and so on. In many instances the runner 
decays, and the young plant assumes an independent existence. 
Gardeners imitate this in the propagation of plants by the process 
of layering, which consists in bending a twig, fixing the central part 
of it into the ground, and, after the production of adventitious roots, 
cutting off its connection with the parent. 

When the stem creeps along the surface of the ground, as in 
the Rhizome (fig. 107), or completely under ground, as in the Soboles 

Fig. 223. Flagellum or Runner of the Strawberry. a’, One axis which has produced a 
cluster of leaves, the upper, 7, green, the lower, f, rudimentary. From the axil of one of the 
latter a second axis, a”, arises, bearing about the middle a rudimentary leaf, f’, and a cluster 


of leaves, r, partly green and partly rudimentary, f”, at its extremity. From the axil of one 
of the leaves of this cluster a third axis, a, proceeds, 


I 


114 AERIAL AND SUBTERRANEAN LEAF-BUDS. 


or creeping stem (fig. 108), the terminal bud continues to elongate 
year after year, thus making additions to the axis in a horizontal 
manner. At the same time buds are annually produced on one side 
which send shoots upwards and roots downwards. Thus, in fig. 108 
(soboles of a Rush), r is the extremity of the axis or terminal bud, f e 
the leaves in the form of scales, p a the aerial shoots or branches, ¢ ¢ 
being the level of the ground. Again, in fig. 107 (rhizome of Solomon’s 
seal), a is the terminal bud which has been formed subsequently to 6, 
b the bud which has sent up leaves, and which has decayed, ¢ ¢ being 
the scars left by the similar buds of previous seasons. 

AERIAL AND SUBTERRANEAN LeEaF-BupDs.— According to the 
nature of the stems, leaf-buds are either aerial or subterranean; the 
former occurring in plants which have the stems above ground, the 
latter in those in which the stems are covered. In the case of 
Asparagus and other plants which have a perennial stem below ground, 
subterranean buds are annually produced, which appear above ground 
as shoots or branches covered with scales at first (fig. 129 J), and 
ultimately with true leaves, The young shoot is called a Turto (turio, 
a young branch), These branches are herbaceous and perish annually, 
while the true stem remains below ground ready to send up fresh 
shoots next season. In Bananas and Plantains, the apparent aerial 
stem is a shoot or leaf-bud sent up by an underground stem, and 
perishes after ripening fruit. In some plants several branches are sent 
up at once from the underground stem, in consequence of a rapid 
development of lateral as well as terminal buds ; and in such cases the 
lateral ones may be separated as distinct plants in the form of suckers 
(surculi). The potato is a thickened stem or branch capable of 
developing leaf-buds, which in their turn form aerial and subterranean 
branches, the former of which decay annually, while the latter remain 
as tubers to propagate the plant. Thus, in fig. 109, s's is the surface 
of the soil, p a is the aerial portion of the potato covered with leaves, 
tis the subterranean stem or tuber covered with small scales or pro- 
jections, as represented at T 6, from the axil of which leaf-buds are 
produced. This provision for a symmetrical development of axillary 
leaf-buds at once distinguishes the tuber of the potato from fleshy 
roots, like those of the Dahlia. 

Buisp.—A good example of a subterranean bud occurs in the Bulb, 
as seen in the Hyacinth, Lily, and Onion. This is a subterranean 
leaf-bud covered with scales, arising from a shortened axis. From the 
centre of the bulb a shoot or herbaceous axis is produced which dies 
down. New bulbs, or cloves, as they are called, are produced in the 
axil of the scales arising from the subterranean axis. At the base of 
the scales there is a flattened disc, varying in thickness, which is 
formed by the base of the buds, and which has sometimes been called 
the stem. The parts of the bulb are seen in fig. 224, where » marks the 


. 


SUBTERRANEAN LEAF-BUDS, BULB, AND CORM. 115 


disc or round flat portion formed by the bases of the lateral buds from 
which the fasciculated roots, 7, proceed, e the scales or modified leaves, 
and f the true leaves, In the vertical section (fig. 225), b is the new 
bulb, formed like a bud in the axil of a scale. The new bulb some- 
times remains attached to the parent bulb, and sends up an axis and 
leaves ; at other times it is detached in the course of growth, and 


Fig. 295. Fig. 226. 


forms an independent plant. The new bulbs feed on the parent one, 
and ultimately cause its absorption. The scales are sometimes all 
fleshy, as in the scaly or naked bulb of the white lily (fig. 226 ¢ ¢ e), 
or the outer ones are thin and membranous, overlapping the internal 
fleshy ones, and forming a tunicated bulb, as in the Onion, Squill, 
Tulip, and Leek (fig. 224). 

The scales in bulbs vary in number. In Gagea there is only one 
scale ; in the Tulip and Fritillaria imperialis they vary from 2 to 5; 
while in Lilies and Hyacinths there are a great number of scales. In 
the Tulip a bud is formed in the axil of an outer scale, and this gives 
rise to a new flowering axis, and a new bulb, at the side of which 
the former bulb is attached in a withered state. In some Liliaceous 
plants the bulbs continue for two or more years. The bulb may 
bear on the same axis growths belonging to two seasons ; or it may 
bear numerous growths or shortened axes of several years. In the 
common hyacinth-there may be seen axes of four distinct generations 
on one bulb. 

The Corm (xogués, a stump) has already been noticed under 


Fig, 224. Tunicated bulb of Allium Porrum, or the Leek. 1, Roots. yp, A circular disc, 
or shortened stem intervening between the roots and the bulbous swelling. ee, Scales or 
subterranean modified leaves. jf, Upper leaves which become green. Fig, 225 Vertical 
section of the tunicated bulb of the Leek. The letters indicate the same parts as in the 
last figure. 0, Bud situated in the axil of a scale, which, by its development, forms a new 
bulb. Fig. 226. Scaly or naked bulb of Lilium album. 1, Roots. ee, Scales or modified 
underground leaves. ¢, The flowering axis, cut. 


116 ANOMALIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEAF-BUDS. 


the head of subterranean stems (p. 48, fig. 110). It may be considered 
as a bulb in which the central portion or axis is much enlarged, while 
the scales are reduced to thin membranes. Some have called it a 
solid bulb. A Corm may be generally distinguished from a Bulb by 
a transverse section of the latter presenting a series of circles, equal in 
number to the fleshy scales arranged around its central axis. It is 
seen in the Colchicum, Crocus, and Gladiolus. It produces either 
terminal buds, as in Gladiolus and Crocus, in which several annual 
additions to the corm remain attached together, and the newly pro- 
duced corms come gradually nearer and nearer to the surface of the 
soil ; or lateral buds, as in Colchicum, represented at fig. 110, where r 
indicates the roots, f the leaf, a’ the stem or axis of the preceding 
year withered, a” the secondary axis, or the stem developed during 
the year, and taking the place of the old one, and which, in its turn, 
will give origin to a new axis, a’”, on the opposite side, according to 
the law of alternation. The new axes or corms being thus produced 
alternately at either side, there is very little change in the actual 
position of the plant from year to year. Bulbs and corms contain a 
store of starch and of other substances, for the nourishment of the 
young plants. 

ANOMALIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF Lrar-Bups.—Leaf-buds 
arise from the medullary system of the plant, 
and in some instances they are found among 
the cellular tissue, without being in the axil of 
leaves. In this case they are extra-axillary, 
and have been called adventitious or abnormal, 
Such buds are produced after the stem and 
leaves have been formed, and in particular 
circumstances they are developed like normal 
buds. What have been called embryo-buds are 
woody nodules seen in the bark of the Beech, 
Elm, and other trees. They are looked upon as partially developed 
abnormal buds, in which the woody matter is pressed upon by the 
surrounding tissue, and thus acquires a very hard and firm texture. 
When a section is made, they present woody circles arranged around 
a central pith, and traversed by medullary rays (fig. 227). The 
nodules sometimes form knots on the surface of the stem, at other 
times they appear as large excrescences, and in some cases twigs and 
leaves are produced by them. Some consider embryo-buds as formed 
by layers of woody matter, which originate in the sap conveyed 
downward by the bark and cambium cells, and are deposited round 
a nucleus or central mass. 


Fig. 227, 


Fig. 227. Vertical section of a nodule, , or embryo-bud embedded in the bark of the 
Cedar. It forms a projection on the surface. The woody layers form zones round a kind of 
pith. 


ANOMALIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEAF-BUDS. 117 


r 


Leaf-buds sometimes become extra-axillary (fig. 228 6), in con- 
sequence of the non-appearance or abortion of one or more leaves, or 
on account of the adhesion of the young branch to the parent stem. 
In place of one leaf-bud, there are occasionally several accessory ones 
produced in the axil, giving origin to numerous branches (fig. 229 b). 


Fig. 229, 

Such an occurrence is traced to the presence of latent or adventitious 
buds. Fig. 228 represents a branch, 7, of walnut, » the cut petiole, 
and 6 two buds, of which the upper is most developed ; while fig. 229 
exhibits a branch of Lonicera tartarica, with numerous buds, 6, in the 
axil of the leaves, the lowest of which are most advanced. By the 
union of several such leaf-buds, branches are produced, having a 
thickened or flattened appearance, as is seen in the Fir, Ash, and 
other trees, These fasciated ( fascia, a band) branches, in some cases, 
however, are owing to the abnormal development of a single bud. 

In the axil of the leaves of Lilium 
bulbiferum, Dentaria bulbifera, and some 
other plants, small conical or rounded 
bodies are produced, called buwlbils or 
bulblets (fig. 230 666). They resemble 
bulbs in their aspect, and consist of a 
small number of thickened scales enclos- 
ing a growing point. These scales are 
frequently united closely together, so as 
to form a solid mass. Bulbils are there- 
fore ,transformed leaf-buds, which are 
easily detached, and are capable of pro- 
ducing young plants when placed in 
favourable circumstances, 

Occasionally leaf-buds are produced naturally on the edges of 

Fig. 228. Portion of a branch, 7, of the walnut, bearing the petiole, p, of a leaf which 
has been cut. In the axil of the leaf, several buds, 6, are produced, the highest of which 
are most developed. Fig. 229, Portion of a branch, 7, of Lonicera tartarica, bearing two 
opposite leaves, one of which has been cut, the other, f, being preserved. In the axil of 
the leaves clusters of buds, 0, are seen, the lowest of which are most developed. Fig. 


230. Portion of the stem of Lilium bulbiferum, with three alternate leaves, f/f, and three 
bulbils or bulblets, 6 b b, in their axils. 


118 ANOMALIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEAF-BUDS. 


leaves, as in Bryophyllum calycinum and Malaxis paludosa (fig. 55a 
and on the surface of leaves, as in Ornithogalum thyrsoideum (fig. 232 

These are capable of forming independent plants. Similar buds are 
also made to appear on the leaves of Gesnera, Gloxinia, and Achimenes, 
by wounding various parts of them, and placing them in moist soil ; 
this is the method often pursued by gardeners in their propagation. 
The Ipecacuan plant has been propagated by means of leaves inserted 


in the soil. In this case the lower end of the leaf becomes thickened 
like a corm, and from it roots are produced, and ultimately a bud and 
young plant, as shown in fig. 233. The cellular tissue near the surface 
of plants seems therefore to have the power of developing abnormal leaf- 


Fig. 231. Extremity of a leaf, 2, of Malaxis paludosa, the margin of which is covered with 
adventitious buds, 6b; thus becoming proliferous. Fig. 232. Portion of the blade of a 
leaf, f, of Ornithogalum thyrsoideum, on the surface of which are developed adventitious 
or abnormal buds, bbb, some of which are large. Fig. 233. Ipecacuan leaf, with petiole, 
annulated root, and young plant. «a, Lamina or blade of leaf. , Petiole or leaf-stock. 
c, Swelling at the end of the petiole after being placed in the soil. d, Root proceeding from 
a oe showing an annulated form. e, Young plant arising from the swelling of the 
petiole. 


SPINES OR THORNS. - 119 


buds in certain circumstances, Even roots, when long exposed to the 
air, may thus assume the functions of stems. Leaves bearing buds on 


their margin are called proliferous (proles, offspring, and fero, I bear). 
Sprnes or THorNs. Branches 


are sometimes arrested in their 
development, and, in place of 
forming leaves, become trans- 
formed into spines and tendrils, 
Spines or thorns are undeveloped 
branches, ending in more or less 
pointed extremities, as in the 
Hawthorn. Plants which have 
spines in a wild state, as the 
Apple and Pear, often lose them 
when cultivated, in consequence 
of their being changed into 
branches ; in some cases, as in 
Prunus spinosa, or the Sloe 
(fig. 234), a branch bears leaves 
at its lower portions, and terminates in a spine. Leaves them- 


Fig. 234, 


Fig. 237. Fig. 238, 


Fig. 234, Branch of Prunus spinosa, or Sloe, with alternate leaves, and ending in a spine 
or thorn, Fig. 235. Pinnate leaf of Astragalus massiliensis, the midrib of which, 7, ends 
ina spine. s, Petiolary stipules. jf, Nine pairs of leaflets. Fig. 236. Branch of Berberis 
vulgaris, or Barberry, the leaves of which, fff, are transformed into branching spines. In 
the axil of each, a cluster, rrr, of regularly formed leaves is developed. Fig, 237. Base 
of the pinnate leaf of Robinia pseudacacia, the stipules of which, ss, are converted into 
spines or thorns. b, Branch. 1, Petiole. Fig. 238, Branch of Ribes Uva-crispa, in which 
the pulvinus or swelling, ¢ cc, at the base of each of the leaves, fff, is changed into a spine, 
which is either simple, or double, or triple. 0 b, Leaf-buds arising from the axil of the 
leaves, 


120 SPINES OR THORNS, AND TENDRILS. 


selves often become spiny by the hardening of their midrib or 
primary veins, and the diminution or absence of parenchyma, as in 
Astragalus massiliensis (fig. 235 r), where the midrib becomes spiny 
after the fall of some of the leaflets ; in the Holly, where all the veins 
are so; and in the Barberry (fig. 236), where some of the leaves, f f f, 
are produced in the form of spiny branches, with scarcely any paren- 
chyma. In place of producing a lamina or blade at its extremity, the 
petiole sometimes terminates inaspine. Stipules are occasionally trans- 
formed into spines, as in Robinia pseudacacia (fig. 237 s s), and 
such is also the case with the swelling or pulvinus at the base of the 
leaf, as in Ribes Uva-crispa (fig. 238 c¢c). Branches are sometimes 
arrested in their progress at an early stage of their development, and 
do not appear beyond the surface of the stem ; at other times, after 
having grown to a considerable size, they undergo decay. In both 
instances the lower part of the branch becomes embedded and 
hardened among the woody layers of the stem, and forms a knot. 
TEnpDrRits.—A leaf-bud is sometimes developed as a slender spiral 
or twisted branch, called a tendrid or cirrus (cirrus, a curl). Tendrils 
have their homologues in various organs, such as stems, branches, leaves, 
stipules, buds, midribs, parts 
of the flower, etc. When 
tendrils occupy the place of 
leaves, and appear as a con- 
tinuation of the leaf-stalk, 
they are called petiolary, as 
in Lathyrus Aphaca, in which 
the stipules perform the func- 
tion of true leaves. In 
Flagellaria indica, Gloriosa 
superba, Anthericum cirrha- 
tum, and Albuca cirrhata, 
the midrib of the leaf ends 
ina tendril ; and in Vetches, 
the terminal leaflet, and some 
of the lateral ones at the 
extremity of their pinnate 
leaves, are changed, so as to 
form a branching tendril. 
In the Passion-flower the 
lateral buds are thus altered, 


Fig. 239. Portion of a branch of the Vine (Vitis vinifera). a’, First axis, terminated by 
a tendril or cirrus, v’, which assumes a lateral position, and bears a leaf, f’, From the axil 
of this leaf a second axis, a”, comes off, which seems to be a continuation of the first, and 
is terminated also by a tendril, v’, bearing a leaf, f”. From the axil of this second leafa 
third axis, a”, arises, terininated by a tendril, v”, and bearing a leaf, f’”, from the axil of 
which a fourth axis, a’”, arises. 


Fig. 239. 


TENDRIL OR CIRRUS. 121 


with the view of enabling the plant to climb. In the Vine the tendrils 
are looked upon as the terminations of separate axes, or as transformed 
terminal buds, and are sometimes called sarmenta. In the Vine there 
are no young buds seen in the angle between the stem and leaves, nor 
between the stem and tendrils ; and the latter are not axillary. Fig. 
239 represents the branch of a Vine, in which @ is the primary or first 
formed axis, ending in v’, a tendril or altered terminal bud, and having 
a leaf, f’, on one side. Between this leaf and the tendril, which repre- 
sents the axis, a leaf-bud was formed at an early date, producing the 
secondary axis, or branch, a", ending in a tendril, v", with a lateral leaf, 
f', from which a tertiary axis or branch, a”, was developed, ending in a 
tendril v”, and so on, The tendrils of Ampelopsis Veitchii are termi- 
nated by discs which secrete a sticky matter, by means of which they 
adhere to walls, etc. The tendrils, like those of the Vine, are modi- 
fications of the axis. 

Tendrils twist in a spiral manner, and enable the plants to rise 
into the air by twining round other plants. The direction of the spiral 
frequently differs from that of the climbing stem which produces 
the tendril. In the Vine, the lower part of the stem is strong, and 
needs no additional support ; the tendrils therefore occur only in the 
upper part, where the branches are soft, and require aid to enable 
them to support the clusters of fruit. In the vanille plant. (Vanilla 
aromatica) the tendrils are produced opposite the leaves, until the 
plant gains the top of the trees by which it is supported ; the upper 
tendrils being then developed as leaves. The midrib is sometimes 
prolonged in a cup-like or funnel-shaped form ; this is occasionally 
seen in the common cabbage, and seems to depend on the vascular 
bundles of the midrib spreading out at their extremity in a radiating 
manner, and becoming covered with parenchyma in such a way as to 
form a hollow cavity in the centre. 


Special Functions of Leaves. 


Leaves expose the fluids of plants to the influence of air and 
light. The fluids so exposed are elaborated, and thus fitted for the 
formation of the various vegetable tissues and secretions. For the 
proper performance of this function the structure of the leaves and 
their arrangement on the stem and branches, renders them well 
adapted. A plant, if constantly stripped of its leaves, is destroyed, 
from non-development of tissue and absence of secretions. On this 
principle, weeds, with creeping stems and vigorous roots, which are 
with difficulty eradicated, may be killed. The elaboration of fluids 
in the leaves necessarily implies interchange of their constituents with 
those of the surrounding atmosphere ; hence two processes are inevi- 
table—a passing inwards into the leaf of the atmospheric elements 


122 FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES. 


by a process of absorption, and an outward current of the components 
of the plant-juices by a process of exhalation, In the cells of the 
leaves changes take place under the agency of light, by which oxygen 
is given off and carbon fixed. These will be considered under the 
head of vegetable respiration. The absorption of carbonic acid and 
of fluids is carried on by the leaves, chiefly through their stomata, 
and most rapidly by the under surface of ordinary leaves in which 
the cuticle is thinnest, the cellular tissue least condensed, and stomata 
most abundant; the upper surface of the leaf, which usually pre- 
sents a polished and dense epidermis, with few stomata, taking little 
part in such a process. Hoffman has ascertained that leaves absorb 
fluids in large quantities ; that during a fall of rain the vegetable 
fluids undergo from such a cause a process of dilution, leading to an 
immediate and more rapid descent of sap, which under such circum- 
stances is capable of general diffusion throughout the several vege- 
table tissues. Some physiologists have expressed doubts as to absorp- 
tion being carried on by the leaves in ordinary circumstances. Leaves 
also absorb gaseous matters, Saussure states that oxygen is absorbed 
by the leaves during night, the quantity varying according to the 
nature of the plant. . Boussingault found that the leaves of the Vine 
absorbed carbonic acid from the air. Other experiments prove that 
ammonia and nitrogen are similarly acted on. 

Leaves also give off gases and liquids by a process of exhalation 
or transpiration. A moderate amount of carbonic acid is exhaled 
during darkness, and a large quantity of liquid is given off by tran- 
spiration. The number and size of the stomata regulate the transpi- 
ration of fluids, and it is modified by the nature of the epidermis. 
The absorbing power of leaves depending on similar causes, is capable 
of being increased by any process which removes either natural or 
imposed obstructions to the free action of their surface. It is thus 
that rain, while supplying the material for absorption, at the same 
time renders the leaf more capable of such action. In plants with a 
thick and hard epidermal covering, exhalation is less vigorous than in 
those where it is thin and soft. Some succulent plants of warm 
climates have a very thick covering. The peculiar character of the 
phyllodia of Australian plants is probably connected with the dry 
nature of the climate. The process of transpiration is more under the 
influence of light than of heat. It assists the process of endosmose, 
by rendering the fluid in the cells thicker, and thus promotes the 
circulation of sap. 

The quantity of fluid exhaled varies in amount in different plants. 
A Sunflower three feet high gave off twenty ounces of watery fluid 
daily. Hales found that a Cabbage, with a surface of 2736 square 
inches, transpired on an average nineteen ounces per day; a Vine, 
of 1820 square inches, from five to six ounces. Deheran found that 


EXHALATION OR TRANSPIRATION. 123 


large leaves of Colza evolved in an hour from one to two per cent of 
their weight of water. Experiments have shown that the mean amount 
of water contained in the leaves of the Cherry Laurel is 63-4 per cent, 
and of this only about 6 per cent could be easily removed by sulphuric 
acid or chloride of calcium, In the sun leaves transpire most in a 
saturated atmosphere. In the shade transpiration ceases when the 
atmosphere is loaded with watery vapour. Experiments on exhalation 
may be made by taking a fresh leaf with a long petiole, putting it 
through a hole in a card which it exactly fits, and applying the card 
firmly and closely to a glass tumbler, about two-thirds full of water, 
so that the petiole is inserted into the water, then inverting an empty 
tumbler over the leaf, and exposing the whole to the sun, the fluid 
exhaled will be seen on the inside of the upper tumbler. The ex- 
periment may be varied by putting the apparatus in darkness, when 
little or no exhalation takes place, or in diffuse daylight, when it is less 
than in the sun’s rays. This process of exhalation imparts moisture 
to the atmosphere, and hence the difference between the air of a 
wooded country and that of a country deprived of forests. The cells 
in the lower side of a leaf where stomata exist are chiefly concerned 
in the aeration of the sap, whilst other assimilative processes go on in 
the upper cells. 

Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, wither 
and die. In doing so, they frequently change colour, and hence arise 
the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change 
of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the 
leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll 
has been submitted. Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as 
in the Walnut and Horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those 
which are continuous with it remain attached for some time after 
they have lost their vitality, as in the Beech. Most of the trees of 
this country have deciduous leaves, their duration not extending over 
more than a few months ; while in trees of warm climates, the leaves 
often remain for two or more years. In tropical countries, however, 
many trees lose their leaves in the dry season. This is seen in the 
forests of Brazil, called Catingas, The period of defoliation varies in 
different countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees 
which are called evergreen, as Pines and Evergreen-oak, are always 
deprived of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being 
left, however, to preserve their green fappearance. Various causes 
- have been assigned for the fall of the leaf. In cold climates, the 
deficiency of light and heat in winter causes a cessation in the 
functions of the cells of the leaf ; its fluids disappear by evaporation ; 
its cells and vessels become contracted and diminished in their calibre ; 
various inorganic matters accumulate in the texture; the whole leaf 
becomes drys; its parts lose their adherence ; a process of disjunction 


124 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITIVE ORGANS. 


takes place by a folding inwards of the tissue at the point where the 
leaf joins the stem or branch, and this gradually extends ; complete 
separation then takes place, and the leaf either falls by its own weight 
or is detached by the wind. In warm climates the dry season gives 
rise to similar phenomena. 


Section IL—GeENERAL VIEW OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE 
NvutTRITIVE ORGANS. 


In order. that plants may be nourished, food is required. This food, 
in a crude state, enters the roots by a process of absorption or imbibi- 
tion; it is then transmitted from one part of the plant to another, 
by means of the circulation or progressive movement of the sap ; it reaches 
the leaves, and is there submitted to the action of light and air, 
which constitutes the function of respiration ; and thus the fluids are 
finally fitted for the process of assimilation, and form various vegetable 
products and secretions, 


1.—Food of Plants and Sources whence they derive their Nourishment. 
Chemical Composition of Plants, 


The nutriment of plants can’ only be ascertained when their 
chemical composition has been determined. The physiologist and 
chemist must unite in this inquiry, in order to arrive at satisfactory 
conclusions. Much has been done by chemists to aid the botanist in 
his investigations, and to place physiological science on a sound and 
firm basis. It is true that many processes take place in plants which 
cannot as yet be explained by the chemist, and to these the name of 
vital has been applied. This term, however, must be considered as 
implying nothing more than that the function so called occurs in 
living bodies, and in the present state of our knowledge cannot be 
fully explained by chemical or physical laws. A greater advance in 
science may clear up many difficulties in regard to some of the vital 
functions, while others may ever remain obscure. 

Plants are composed of certain chemical elements, which are com- 
bined in various ways, to form organic and inorganic compounds. The 
former are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen or 
azote, with a certain proportion of sulphur and phosphorus ; while 
the latter consist of various metals, combined with oxygen, other metal- 
loids, and acids. In all plants there is a greater or less proportion 
of water, the quantity of which is ascertained by drying at a temper- 
ature a little above that of boiling water. By burning the dried plant 
the organic constituents disappear, and the inorganic part is left in 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 125 


the form of ash. The relative proportion of these constituents varies 
in different species, as seen in the following table by Solly, in which 
the proportions are given in 10,000 parts of the fresh plants :-— 


Water. Organic Matter. Inorganic. 
Potato. - “ . 7718 tes 2173 oA 114 
Turnip. ‘ , . 93808 its 588 sah 104 
Sea Kale . P . 9238 as 705 a 57 
French Beans . . - 9317 ets 619 re 64 
Red Beet . 2 ¥ . 8501 ile 1390 ie, 109 
Asparagus : ; . 9210 ce 735 oe 55 
Water Cress. 7 . 9260 a 633 vat 107 
Sorrel . : ‘ . 9207 Las 702 fey 91 
Parsley . : : . 8430 sae 1299 ede 271 
Fennel . 5 ‘ . 8761 ae 1048 an 191 
‘Salsafy . . . 7951 is 1929 ie 120 
Mustard 2 . - 9462 es 436 Pr 102 


An analysis of 100 parts of Fruits gives the following results :— 


Water. Organic. - Inorganic. 
Strawberry . « 90°22 eis 9°37 — 0°41 
Green Gage, whole fruit. 83°77 an 15°83 ee 0°40 
Cherry, do. . 82°48 is 17°09 i 0.43 
Pear, do. » 82°55 oie 16°04 0 0°41 
Apple, do. » 84-01 os 15°72 ee 0:27 
Gooseberry . ‘i - 90°26 eed 9°35 mae 0°39 


The following table, by Johnston, represents the constituents in 
1000 parts of plants and seeds, dried at 230° Fahrenheit, and in the 
state in which they are given to cattle; the organic matter being 
indicated by the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; the inorganic 
by the ash :— 


Wheat. Oats. Peas. Hay. Turnips. Potatoes. 
Carbon . . 455 ... 507... 465 ... 458 2. 429 2. 441 
Hydrogen Bh nse 64 we 61 cg, “50 ee, BG ses. 58 
Oxygen. . 4380 ... 867 ... 401 ... 887... 422 ... 439 
Nitrogn * . 85 .. 22 2. 42 2. 15 1. 17 2. 12 
Ash. ¢ BB ac, “AO a, BI as “90 ex 28 ces. 50 


By the process of drying, the 1000 parts of these substances lost 
water in the following proportions :— 


Wheat 166 vie Peas 86 si Turnips 925 
Oats 151 ae Hay 158 Sd Potatoes 722 


As plants have no power of locomotion, it follows that their food 
must be universally distributed. The atmosphere and the soil ac- 
cordingly contain all the materials requisite for their nutrition. These 
materials must be supplied either in a gaseous or a liquid form, and 
hence the necessity for the various changes which are constantly going 
on in the soil, and which are aided by the efforts of man. Plants are 
capable of deriving all their nourishment from the mineral kingdom. 


126 ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 


The first created plants in all probability did so, but in the present 
day the decaying remains of other plants and of animals are also con- 
cerned in the support of vegetation. 


Organic Constituents and their Sources. 


Carson (C) is the most abundant element in plants. It forms 
from 40 to 50 per cent of all the plants usually cultivated for food. 
When plants are charred the carbon is left, and as it enters into all 
the tissues, although the weight of the plants is diminished by the 
process, their form still remains. When converted into coal (a form 
of carbon), plants are frequently so much altered by pressure as to 
lose their structure, but occasionally it can be detected under the 
microscope. Carbon is insoluble, and therefore cannot be absorbed in 
its uncombined state. When united with oxygen, however, in the 
form of carbonic acid, it is readily taken up either in its gaseous state 
by the leaves, or in combination with water by the roots. The humus 
or vegetable mould in the soil contains carbon, and in soils of a peaty 
nature it exists in very large quantity. The carbon in the soil is 
converted into carbonic acid in order to be made available for the 
purpose of plant-growth. Carbon has the power of absorbing gases, 
and in this way, by enabling certain combinations to go on, it assists 
in the nourishment of plants. In the atmosphere, carbonic acid is 
always present, averaging about zscv part, arising from the respiration 
of man and animals, combustion, and other processes. A certain 
atmospheric equilibrium is thus maintained, consequent on the dif 
ference between vegetable and animal respiration, the latter giving 
out carbonic acid, which the former consumes. 

OxyceEn (QO) enters into the composition of all plants, but never 
in quantity sufficient to convert all the hydrogen and carbon present 
in the plant into water and carbonic acid. In the ash of plants, 
oxygen, next to carbon, is the most abundant constituent. Oxygen in 
the air amounts to about 20°9 per cent, and it forms $ by weight of 
water. Combined with various elements it forms a great part of the 
soil and solid crust of the earth. It is chiefly in its state of combina- 
tion with hydrogen to form water (H,O) that oxygen is taken up by 
plants, but also as carbonic acid (CO,) and oxysalts. 

Hyprocen (H) is not found in a free state in nature, and with 
the exception of coal, it does not enter into the composition of the - 
mineral masses of the globe. It forms + by weight of water, and it 
is present in the atmosphere in combination with nitrogen. It is also 
found in the air united with sulphur (8) and carbon, as a product of 
vegetable decay. It is mostly from the decomposition of water by 
the combined action of chlorophyll and sunlight that plants obtain 
their supply of hydrogen. ‘ 


‘ 


ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 127 


Nirtrocen (N) is another element found in plants. It forms 79:1 
per cent of the atmosphere, and abounds in animal tissues. It is 
therefore requisite for the purposes of animal life that nitrogen be 
furnished in food. Those vegetables containing the greatest quantity 
of nitrogenous matter are the most nutritive. Animal matters, during 
their decay, give off nitrogen, combined with hydrogen, in the form 
of ammonia (NHs), which is absorbed in large quantities by carbon, 
is very soluble in water, and seems to be the chief source whence 
plants derive nitrogen. In tropical countries where thunderstorms 
are frequent, the nitrogen and oxygen of the air are sometimes made 
to combine, so as to produce nitric acid (N2O;), which, either in this 
state, or in combination with alkaline matters, furnishes a supply of 
nitrogen. Daubeny thinks that the ammonia and carbonic acid in 
the atmosphere are derived in part from volcanic actions going on in 
the interior of the globe. The continued fertility of the Terra del 
Lavoro, and other parts of Italy, is attributed by him to the disengage- 
ment of ammoniacal salts and carbonic acid by volcanic processes 
going on underneath ; and to the same source he traces the abundance 
of glutin in the crops, as evidenced by the excellence of Italian 
macaroni, 

Miilder maintains that the ammonia is not carried down from 
the atmosphere, but is produced in the soil by the combination 
between the nitrogen of the air and the hydrogen of decomposing 
matters. The same thing takes place, as in the natural saltpetre 
caverns of Ceylon, with this exception, that, by the subsequent action 
of oxygen, ulmic, humic, geic, apocrenic, and crenic acids, are formed, in 
place of nitric acid. These acids consist of carbon, oxygen, and 
hydrogen, in different proportions, and they form soluble salts with 
ammonia. By all porous substances, like the soil, ammonia is pro- 
duced, provided they are moist, and filled with atmospheric air, and are 
exposed to a certain temperature. It is thus, he states, that moist 
charcoal and humus become impregnated with ammonia. . 

These four elementary bodies then are supplied to plants, chiefly 
in the form of carbonic acid (COs), water (H.O), and ammonia (NH;). 
In these states of combination they exist in the atmosphere, and 
hence some plants can live suspended in the air without any attach- 
ment to the soil. When a volcano or a coral island appears above 
the waters of the ocean, the lichens which are developed on it are 
nourished in a great measure by the atmosphere, although they sub- 
sequently derive inorganic matter from the rocks, to which they 
are attached. Air plants, as Bromelias, Tillandsias, some Orchidacee, 
and many species of Ficus, can grow for a long time in the air. 
In the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh a specimen of Ficus australis 
lived in this condition for upwards of twenty years, receiving no 
supply of nourishment except that afforded by the atmosphere and 


128 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 


common rain water, containing, of course, a certain quantity of in- 
organic matter. 

The elementary bodies already mentioned, in various states of 
combination, constitute the great bulk of plants. They occur in the 
form of binary compounds, as water and oily matters ; ternary, as 
starch, gum, sugar, and cellulose; quaternary, as glutin, albumin, 
casein, and fibrin. The latter compounds seem to require for their 
composition not merely the elements already noticed, in the form of a 
basis, called Protein, but certain proportions of sulphur and phosphorus 
in addition ; thus, albumin = 10 Pr. + 1 P + 28; fibrin = 10 Pr. 
+1P +15; casein = 10 Pr. + 158. The tissues, into the com- 
position of which these protein compounds enter, are tinged of a deep 
orange-yellow by strong nitric acid. These compounds are highly 
important in an agricultural point of view, and the consideration of 
them will be resumed when treating of the application of manures. 


Inorganic Constituents and their Sources, 


The consideration of the inorganic constituents of plants is no less 
important than the study of their organic elements. The organic 
substances formed by plants are decomposed by a moderately high 
temperature ; they easily undergo putrefaction, especially. when ex- 
posed to a moist and warm atmosphere, and few of them have been 
formed by human art. Their inorganic constituents, on the other 
hand, are not so easily decomposed ; they do not undergo putrefaction, 
and they have been formed artificially by the chemist. 

The organic part of plants, even in a dried state, forms from 88 
to 99 per cent of their whole weight. Consequently, the ash or 
inorganic matter constitutes a very small proportion of the vegetable 
tissue. It is not, however, on this account to be neglected, for it is 
found to be of great importance in the economy of vegetation, not 
merely on account of its entering directly into the constitution of 
various organs, but also from assisting in the production of certain 
organic compounds. Some of the lower tribes of cellular plants can 
exist apparently without any inorganic matter. Thus Miilder could 
not detect a particle of ash in Mycoderma vini, nor in moulds pro- 
duced in large quantity by milk sugar. Deficiency of inorganic 
matter, however, in general injures the vigour of plants, and it will 
be found that, in an agricultural point of view, this requires par- 
ticular attention—a, distinct relation subsisting between the kind and 
quality of the crop, and the nature and chemical composition of the 
soil in which it grows. It has been shown, by careful and repeated 
experiments, that when a plant is healthy and fairly ripens its seeds, 
the quantity and quality of the ash is nearly the same in whatever 
soil it is grown; and that, when two different species are grown in 


INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 129 


the same soil, the quantity and quality of the ash varies—the dif- 
ference being greater the more remote the natural affinities of the 
plants are. 


The following are the inorganic elements of plants and their 
combinations :— 


Chlorine (Cl.) combined with metals forming chlorides. 


Todine (I.) woo) MOtals iodides. 
Bromine (Br.) wove )=6 Metals... bromides, 
we wee (Metals. sulphides, 
: sulphuretted hydrogen, or 
Sulphur (S.) clas hydrogen ... rar nena Se 
2 ag ae ORYSO ae, sulphuric acid. 
Phosphorus (P.) we) Sees CORY BOM. cae phosphoric acid, 
y ag cee ORYCOM  oee otash. 
Potaesmien (i) sage | she ee ei thforide of potassium. 
weve) = OKYGEN soda. 
Sodium (Na.) } :..  @hlevivie chloride of sodium. 
av (common salt.) 
é oxygen... lime. 
cals (oe) seas. Gist ahioalt as chloride of calcium. 
Magnesium (Mg.) wo... oxygen .... -magnesia, 
Aluminum (Al.) we owe) OKYGEN alumina. 
Silica (Si.) eee. SORYEED ss silica. 
Tron (Fe.) oxides 
Manganese (Mn.) pe ne ae a and. 
Copper (Cu.) ea sulphides. 


To these we may add Fluorine (F), the presence of which in plants 
has been recently noticed. The extraordinary attraction of this 
element for Silica renders it a matter of impossibility to procure it 
in a separate state for examination. It is found in those vegetable 
structures in which Silica abounds, as in the stems of the Graminez 
and Equisetacez. , 

The quantity of inorganic matter or ash left by plants varies 
in different species, and in different parts of the same plant. The 
dried leaves usually contain a large quantity. Saussure found that— 


Dried bark of Oak ag 5 i : 60 parts of ash in 1000 
Dried leaves ‘ : 53 bis ht 
Dried alburnum r , ‘ é 4 

Dried duramen ; - . 2 2 


The dried leaves of Elm contain more than 11 per cent of inorganic 
matter, while the wood contains less than 2 per cent; the leaves of 
the Willow, 8 per cent, wood, 0°45 ; leaves of Beech, 6°69, wood, 
0°36 ; leaves of Pitch- -pine, 3: 5, wood 0:25. Thus, the decaying 
leaves of trees restore a large quantity of inorganic matter to the soil. 

The following tables show the relative proportion of inorganic 
compounds present in the ash of plants :— 

K 


130 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 


According to Sprengel, 1000 Ibs. of wheat leave 11°77 Ibs., and of wheat straw 
35°18 lbs. of ash, consisting of— 


Grain. Straw. 
Potash ‘ : a f ‘ 2°25 bai 0°20 
Soda . : ‘ “ , : 2°40 ts 0:29 
Lime . ‘ : : : 5 0:96 ue 2°40 
Magnesia. : : . F 0°90 ai 0°32 
Alumina with trace of Iron . F 0°26 es 0°90 
Silica. 3 . 5 , 4:00 ae 28°70 
Sulphuric acid ‘ ‘ * 7 0°50 was 0°37 
Phosphoric acid. 5 : é 0°40 ee 1°70 
Chlorine - 3 c ‘i z 0°10 si 0°30 

11°77 Ibs. 35°18 lbs. 


In 1000 Ibs. of the grain of the Oat are contained 25°80 Ibs., and of the dry straw 
57°40 lbs. of inorganic matter, consisting of— 


Grain. Straw. 
Potash f : 3 ¢ : 1°50 ok 8°70 
Soda . . ‘ , r ‘ 1°32 oe 0°02 
Lime . P x ‘ 4 , 0°86 ies 1°52 
Magnesia. 2 z - . 0°67 ase 0°22 
Alumina : . F A A 0-14 ssa 0°06 
Oxide of Iron P ‘ ‘ “ 0°40 is 0°02 
Oxide of Manganese . ‘ . 0°00 sis 0:02 
Silica. ‘ , , “ . 19°76 — 45°88 
Sulphuric acid , : : : 0°35 is5 0°79 
Phosphoric acid. . . i 0°70 St 0°12 
Chlorine " F ‘ F : 0-10 ae 0°05 

25°80 lbs. 57°40 Ibs. 


In 1000 Ibs. of the field Bean, field Pea, and Rye-grass hay, after being dried in 
the air, the following is the amount of ash, and its composition :— 


Field Bean. Field Pea. Rye-grass. 

Seed. Straw. Seed. Straw. Hay. 
Potash 7 : » 415 1656 ... 810 2°35 .. 8°81 
Soda t : » 816 050 ... 7°89 — .« 38°94 
Lime : . 165 6:24 ... 0°58 27:30 ... 7:34 
Magnesia ‘i é - 158 2:09 ... 1°36 3°42 ... 0°90 
Alumina . é . 034 O10 .. 020 0°60 ... 0°31 
Oxide of Iron. . — 007 .. O10 020 2. — 
Oxide of Manganese . — 0°05 — 007 w. — 
Silica & - » 1:26 220 .. 410 9°96 ... 27°72 
Sulphuric acid. » 089 034 ... 0°53 3°37 ... 3°58 
Phosphoric acid . - 292 2:26 ... 1°90 2°40 ... 0°25 
Chlorine. , . O41 0°80 ... 0°38 0°04 ... 0°06 


21°36 31-21 24°64 49°71 52°86 


Dr. R. D. Thomson gives the following analysis of the inorganic 
matter in the stem and seeds of Lolium perenne :— 


INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 131 


Stem. Seed. 
Silica . : : . ‘ . 64°57 ie 42-28 
Phosphoric acid. . ‘ 5 » 12°51 ‘es 18°89 
Sulphuric acid =. : : , _— we 3°12 
Chlorine 4 ‘ s rs ‘ _ sii trace. 
Carbonic acid ‘ f 7 - _— sas 3°61 
Magnesia. : é : ‘ 4:01 a 5°31 
Lime . : ey be , 6°50 fie 18°55 
Peroxide of Tron ; . ‘ 2 0°36 — 2°10 
Potash . ; « 7 j ‘ 8°03 wee 4°80 
Soda . : . : 2 . 2°17 ia 1°38 


These inorganic elements are variously combined in plants, in the 
form of sulphates, phosphates, silicates, and chlorides. Some plants, 
as Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Rye, contain a large quantity of Silica 
in their straw ; others, such as Tobacco, Pea-straw, Meadow-clover, 
Potato-haulm, and Sainfoin, contain much lime; while Turnips, Beet- 
root, Potatoes, Jerusalem-artichoke, and Maize-straw, have a large 
proportion of salts of potash in their composition. Sulphates and 
phosphates are required to supply part of the material necessary for 
the composition of the nutritive protein compounds found in grain. 

Sizica (SiO,) abounds in Grasses, in Equisetum, and other plants, 
giving firmness to their stems. The quantity contained in the Bamboo 
is very large, and it is occasionally found in the joints in the form of 
Tabasheer. Reeds, from the quantity of siliceous matter they contain, 
are said to have caused conflagrations, by striking against each other 
during hurricanes in warm climates. In species of Equisetum, the 
silica in the ash is as follows :— 


Ash. Silica. 

Equisetum arvense F ‘ . 13°84 wha 6°38 
limosum. if i 15°50 as 6°50 

hyemale ‘ 7 11°81 gis 8°75 

maximum . ‘ 5 23°61 Aa 12°00 


The third of these furnishes Dutch Reed, used for polishing mahogany. 
The silica is deposited in a regular manner, forming an integral part 
of the structure of the plant. Many insoluble matters, as silica, seem 
to be deposited in cells by a process of decomposition ; thus, silicate 
of potash in a vegetable sap may combine with oxalic acid, by which 
oxalate of potash and silicic acid will be produced, as in the cells of 
Grasses and Equisetum. Chara translucens has a covering of silicic 
acid, while OC. vulgaris has one composed of silicic acid and carbonate 
of lime ; and Chara hispida has a covering of carbonate of lime alone. 
Silica, the only known oxide of Silicon, contains 28 parts silicon, and 
* 32 parts oxygen. It is in reality an acid, though a very weak one at 
ordinary temperatures. Its insolubility in water prevents the mani- 
festation of its acid properties under ordinary circumstances. In those 
plants in which silica most abounds, Fluorine has also been discovered. 


132 INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 


The test for the presence of the latter rests in acting on the fluoride 
with concentrated sulphuric acid, and so producing hydrofluoric acid, 
which possesses the property of etching glass ; the glass being coated 
with wax, and the design to be etched traced with a pointed instru- 
ment. 

_ Lime is found in all plants, and in some it exists in large quantity. 
It occurs sometimes in the form of carbonate on the surface of plants, 
Thus, many of the Characeze have a calcareous encrustation. The 
crystals or raphides (p. 10), found in the cells of plants, have lime in 
their composition. In the roots of Turkey and East India Rhubarb 
the crystals of oxalate of lime have been estimated at about 25 per 
cent, while in those of the English plant the proportion is about 10 
per cent. In the Cactus tribe crystals of the same kind have been 
observed, the presence of which, in excessive quantity, imparts brittle- 
ness to the stem of the old plant. 

Sopa AND PorasH occur abundantly in plants. They are taken 
up from the soil in combination with acids. Those growing near the 
sea have a large proportion of soda in their composition, while those 
growing inland contain more potash. Various species of Salsola, 
Salicornia, Halimocnemum, and Kochia, yield soda for commercial 
purposes, and are called Halophytes (@As, salt, and girov, plant), 
The young plants furnish more soda than the old ones. There are 
certain species, as Armeria maritima, Cochlearia officinalis, Plantago 
maritima, and Silene maritima, which are found both on the sea- 
shore and high on the mountains removed from the sea. In the 
former situation they contain much soda and some iodine; while in 
the latter, potash prevails, and iodine disappears. 

Inon, Mancanese, and Copper, especially the two latter, exist 
in small quantity in plants. Iron exists in the soil either as an 
oxide, sulphide, or carbonate, usually occurring as peroxide. Iron 
when held in solution as carbonate is capable of being absorbed into 
the vegetable tissues. ' Copper has been detected in coffee. 

All these inorganic matters are derived in a state of solution from 
the soil, and plants are said to have, as it were, a power of selection, 
certain matters being taken up by their roots in preference to others. 
Saussure made a series of experiments on this subject, and stated 
that when the roots of plants were put into solutions containing 
various saline matters in equal proportions, some substances were 
taken up by imbibition in larger proportion than others. Bouchardat 
doubts the accuracy of Saussure’s conclusions on this point. He 
thinks that errors arose from the excretions of the plants and other 
causes. He performed similar experiments with plants of Mint, 
which had been growing for six months in water previous to experi- 
ment, and he found that in watery solutions of mixed salts the plant 
‘absorbed all in equal proportions. Daubeny states, that if any par- 


ROTATION OF CROPS. 133 


ticular salt is not present, the plant frequently takes up an isomor- 
phous one. 

The differences in the absorption of solutions depend, perhaps, on 
the relative densities alone, and not on any peculiar selecting power 
in roots, for it is well known that poisonous matters are absorbed as 
well as those which are wholesome. The following experiments show 
that poisonous matters in solution, varying from half a grain to five 
grains in the ounce of water, are taken up by roots, and that some 
substances which are poisonous to animals do not appear to act 
energetically upon plants :— 


Growing Plants. 


Zincic chloride é on beans 
Zincic sulphate ‘ . cabbages and wheat 
Cupric sulphate. . beans 
Cupric nitrate E . beans - 
Cupric acetate . . cabbages quickly destroyed. 

beans 
Mercuric chloride . . 4 wheat 

cabbages 
-Arsenious acid i . cabbages and wheat weak solutions did not de- 
Potassic arseniate . . barley and cabbages stroy. 
Plumbic acetate . . beans destroyed in a few days. — 
Potassic bichromate . cabbages, beans, barley ih maleas: “nuoht it 
Paes isc ica . beans destroyed in a few days. 
Baric chloride i . beans 
Baric nitrate . . . cabbages and wheat qunclely destenyed: 
Strontic nitrate beans plants. unigjured, Gmless ¢- 

i i lution strong. 
Calcic chloride, sul- beanie improved when very di- 
phate, and nitrate : luted. 
Magnesic chloride and injured, and if strong de- 
sulphate beans and cabbages atta y ea 


Sodic phosphate . . beans and cabbages sae ‘i 
Sodic chloride 7 . beans and cabbages HOEY WHE aTlNeR 


Rotation or Crops.—As the inorganic materials which enter 
into the composition of plants vary much in their nature and relative 
proportions, it is evident that a soil may contain those necessary for 
the growth of certain species, while it may be deficient in those re- 
quired by others. It is on this principle that the rotation of crops is 

founded; those plants succeeding each other in rotation which 
require different inorganic compounds for their growth. In ordinary 
cases, except in the case of very fertile virgin soil, a crop if grown for 
several years in succession in the same field will deteriorate in a 
marked degree. This has been tested by growing plants on the same 


and on different plots in successive years, with the following 
results :— 


134 COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 


Average of 5 years. 


in the same plot : F ‘ : 72:9 lbs. tubers. 
Eotelors | in different plot: : 4 : 9228! har! as 
Flax same A ‘ 7 < . 15:0 Ibs. 
different : ¥ : ‘ ae 
same F é : : ‘ ‘ : 
Beans - } different ne ne 84:8 
same ; > ; ‘ ‘ i 
Barley -j different. . . .  - i865 
2 same : F : : 5 | 
Tamm ps different . ‘ 3 i r ‘ pie \ 
same . 4 : m : i : 
ate different . 5 ; 7 ‘ 7 32:4 


This shows a manifest advantage in shifting crops, varying from 1 to 
75 per cent ; the deficiency of inorganic matter being the chief cause 
of difference. As this matter is of great importance to plants, it 
follows that the composition of soil requires special notice. 


CHEMICAL CoMPOSITION oF SoILs. 


Soils have been divided according to the proportion of clay, sand, 
and lime, which they possess, into— 


1. Argillaceous soils, possessing little or no calcareous matter, and 
above 50 per cent of clay. 

. Loamy soils, containing from 20 to 50 per cent of clay. 

. Sandy soils, not more than 10 per cent of clay. 

. Marly soils, 5 to 20 per cent of calcareous matter. 

. Calcareous soils, more than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime. 

Humus soils, in which vegetable mould abounds. 


D> OUP o9 bo 


Below the superficial soil there exists what is called subsoil, which 
varies in its composition, and often differs much from that on the 
surface. Into it- the rain carries down various soluble inorganic 
matters, which, when brought to the surface by agricultural opera- 
tions, as trenching and subsoil ploughing, may {materially promote 
the growth of crops. The advantages of subsoil ploughing are 
dependent on the nature of the soil. By means of it the subsoil is 
loosened, so as to be easily acted upon by air and water, and the 
efficiency of the drainage is increased, It is not fitted for all soils, 
and in some instances it may do harm. A knowledge of the chemical 
as well as mechanical nature of soils guides the agriculturist to a 
certain extent in his operations ; since, by the judicious application of 
manures, certain deficiencies may be supplied, and, by admixture, 
soils may be rendered more suitable for the purposes of vegetation. 
Humvs, or decaying woody fibre, called also ulmine, or coal of 
humus, exists in soils, It is soluble in alkalies, yielding a brown 
solution, which, when treated with an acid, produces a brown pre- 
cipitate, said to contain humic, ulmic, and geic acids ; but the separate 


, 


COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 135 


existence of these compounds as definite acids is somewhat doubtful. 
Humus absorbs ammonia, and it is slowly acted upon by the atmo- 
sphere, so as to form carbonic acid by combination with oxygen. 
Peaty soils contain much of this substance. When peroxide of iron 
is present in such soils it loses part of its oxygen, and is converted 
into the protoxide. 

Sinica, in greater or less quantity, is found in all soils; but it 
abounds in sandy soils. In its ordinary state it is insoluble, and it 
is only when acted upon by alkalis in the soil that it forms compounds 
which can be absorbed by plants. Silica, in a soluble state, exists in 
minute quantities in soils, the proportion, according to Johnston, 
varying from 0:16 to 0°84 in 100 parts, while the insoluble siliceous 
matter varies from 60°47 to 83°31 in 100 parts. Wiegman and 
Polstorf found that plants took up silica from a soil composed entirely 
of quartz sand, from which everything organic and soluble had been 
removed. The following table shows the plants which germinated, the 
height to which they grew previously to being analysed, the quantity 
of silica they contained when planted, and the increase :— 


Silica in the ash. Silica had 

Height. Seed. Plant. increased 

Barley . . Uimches ... 0°084 ... 0°355 ... 10 times. 
Oats . 3) PS ys « 0°064 ... 0°54 .. 54 ,, 
Buckwheat . 18 ,, = 0°004 ... 0075 ... 18 4, 
Vetch . 2 AO 4 -. 07013 ... 091385 ... 10 = ,, 
Clover . . ay .. 0:009 ... 0091 ... 10 4, 
Tobacco ADS aa: «. 07001 ... 0°549 ... 500 ,, 


AtumiIna exists abundantly in clayey soils, but it does not enter 
largely into the composition of plants, It has the power of absorbing 
ammonia and saline matters, and may prove beneficial in this way. 

Lime is an essential ingredient in all fertile soils. In 1000 lbs. 
of such soil there are, according to Johnston, 56 Ibs. of lime; while a 
soil is barren which contains only 4 lbs. The presence of phosphoric 
acid in soils, in the form of phosphates of potash, soda, and lime, is 
essential for the production of certain azotised compounds in plants ; 
and sulphuric acid, similarly combined, is required for the formation 
of others. Calcareous soils contain upwards of 50 per cent of lime. 
The addition of lime to soils is often highly beneficial, by destroying 
noxious weeds, and preventing disease in crops. Lime is a forcing 
agent, and is useful in stiff clayey soils where it decomposes the silicate 
of potash, forming silicate of lime, and liberating the potash which is 
taken up by the plants, In marly soils lime exists in the proportion of 
5-20 per cent. In loamy soils lime is in smaller quantity, 

A rough way of estimating the general nature of a soil is thus 
given by Professor Johnston :— 


136 APPLICATION OF MANURE. 


1. Weigh a given portion of soil, heat it and dry it. The loss is water. 

2. Burn what remains. The loss is chiefly vegetable matter. 

8. Add hydrochloric acid to the residue, and from this the quantity of 
lime may be determined. 

4, Wash a fresh portion of soil to determine the quantity of insoluble 
siliceous sand. 


Such an analysis, however, is by no means sufficient for the pur- 
poses of the farmer. 

The chemical composition of a plant being known, conclusions 
can be drawn as to the soil most suitable for its growth. This is a 
matter of great importance both to the farmer and to the planter. 
In order that a plant may thrive, even in a suitable soil, exposure 
and altitude must also be taken into account. It is only by attention 
to these particulars that agricultural and foresting operations can be 
successful. As regards trees, the following practical observations are 
given as an illustration of what has been stated. The Scotch Fir 
thrives best in a heathy soil, incumbent on a pervious subsoil, and 
at a high altitude; Larch in loam, with a dry subsoil, in a high 
situation, and on sloping banks ; Spruce and Silver firs in soft loam 
or peaty soil, in a low moist situation, but they will also grow in a 
dry soil, and at a pretty high altitude; Oak in any soil and situation 
under 800 feet above the level of the sea, but it thrives best in 
clayey loam, on a rather retentive subsoil, and on gently sloping 
ground ; Ash and Elm, on a gravelly loam, on gravel or sand, at an 
altitude under 500 feet above the level of the sea ; Sycamore, at 100 
feet higher than the ash or elm, and in a more retentive soil and 
subsoil ; Beech, on a dry gravelly soil, and in a rather high situation, 
but it is often luxuriant on strong retentive clay, and in a low damp 


situation. 
1 


APPLICATION oF Manure. 


If the soil does not contain the ingredients required for a crop, 
they must be added in the form of manure. The principle of manur- 
ing is to supply what the plant cannot obtain from the soil, and to 
render certain matters already in the soil available for nutrition. In 
order that this may be properly practised, there must be an analysis 
of the soil, of the plant, and of the manure. Hence the importance 
of agricultural chemistry to the farmer. 


Various kinds of Manure. 


Narurat Manoures, as farmyard dung, are more valuable than 
simple manures ; inasmuch as the former furnish all the substances 
required for the growth of plants, while the latter only supply a 
particular ingredient. Natural manures may be regarded as confer- 


VARIOUS KINDS OF MANURE. . 187 


ring on the soil the most lasting advantage, as from the slowness of 
their decomposition their beneficial effects are not so readily exhausted. 
Plants themselves, in a soluble state, would be the best manure. In 
ordinary farmyard manure the straw is again made available for the 
purpose of the plant. The whole crop of wheat and oats, however, 
cannot be returned to the soil, as part must be retained for food. A 
substitute, therefore, must be found for the portion thus taken away. 
This contains both azotised and unazotised matters, the former con- 
sisting of protein compounds which supply nitrogen for the muscular 
tissue of man and animals ; the latter of starchy, mucilaginous, and 
saccharine matters, which furnish carbon as a material for respiration 
and the formation of fat. The object of manuring is chiefly to increase 
the former, and hence those manures are most valuable which contain 
soluble nitrogenous compounds. 

The value of manures is often estimated by the quantity of 
glutin which is produced by their application. Hermbstaedt sowed 
equal quantities of the same wheat on equal plots of the same ground, 
and manured them with equal weights of different manures, and from 
100 parts of each sample of grain produced he obtained glutin and 
starch in the following proportions :— 


Glutin. Starch. 
Without manure. : “ i oe AF oe 66°7 
Cow dung 3 : - - . . 12°0 sts 62°3 
Pigeons’ do... : . . 12:2 is 63°2 
Horse do . 3 7 . . 137 sis 61°6 
Goats’ do. . - F . . . 82°9 oe 42-4 
Sheep do . ‘ F i , » Bae i 428 
Dried night soil , : ; - 83'1 ek 41-4 
Dried ox blood : - . . . 842 aa 41°3 


Manures containing ammonia owe their excellent qualities to the 
nitrogen which enters into their composition ; hence the value of sulphate 
of ammonia, ammoniacal liquor of gas-works, and urine. The value 
of guano, or the droppings of sea-fowl, depends chiefly on the ammo- 
niacal salts, and the phosphates which it contains ; thus supplying the 
nitrogen and phosphorus requisite for the protein compounds which 
furnish the elements for flesh and blood. The guano which is im- 
ported is the excrement of numerous sea-fowl which frequent the 
rainless shores of South America and Africa. It often contains 
beautiful specimens of Diatoms, as Campylodiscus, Coscinodiscus, etc. 
The guano found in caves on the coasts of Malacca and Cochin-China 
is the produce of frugivorous and insectivorous bats, and of a species of 
swallow—the last being the best. - 

The following analyses, by Dr. Colquhoun of Glasgow, which are 
the result of an examination of a large number of samples, give a 
general idea of the composition of guano, The term ammoniacal 


138 . VARIOUS KINDS OF MANURE. 


matter includes urate of ammonia and other ammoniacal salts, such as 
oxalate, phosphate, and chloride, as well as decayed organic matter of 
animal otigin. The term bone earth includes phosphate of lime 
(always the principal ingredient), phosphate of magnesia (always in 
small amount), oxalate of lime; and in African guano a minute 
quantity of carbonate of lime, and from 4 to 2 per cent of fragments 
of sea-shells, The jiaed alkaline salts are various salts of sodium, as 
chloride, phosphate, and sulphate ; a little of a potash salt has been 
detected. 


South American Guano. 


Secs Middling. Inferior. Low Qualities, 

Ammoniacal matter 62 es 42 or 28 eee 12... 15 
Bone earth B 20 — 24 aks 30 ne 50 ... 87 
Fixed alkaline salts 10 ee 14 ist 21 es LO! ce, 5, 
Rock, sand, earth O58... 5 ot 3 a 15... 34 
Water. 3 FO okie 15 noi 18 ts 13... 9 
100°0 100 100 100 = =100 


African Guano, 
Best Ichaboe. Inferior. Low Quality. 


Ammoniacal matter . : 45 id 28 ane 20 
Bone earth . 7 F 3 20 a 21 ne 17 
Fixed alkaline salts Fi ‘ 12 Sup 16 ‘oye 14 
Rock, sand, earth P i 1 ss 3 at 25 
Water f r ‘ - 22 cs 32 a 24 

100 100 100 


The guano from the islands on the British coasts contains the 
same ingredients, but the soluble salts are generally washed out by 
the action of rain. The following is the analysis, by Dr. R. D. 
Thomson, of guano gathered on Ailsa Craig :— 


Water 2 z 3 ‘i : 7 . , 50°30 
Organic matter and ammoniacal salts, containing 3°47 per 

cent of ammonia . , is ‘ é is e 12°50 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia . i , . 12°10 
Oxalate of lime . : ‘ 3 ‘ ‘ 3 : 1:50 
Sulphate and phosphate of potash, and chloride of potassium 1:00 
Earthy matter and sand 5 f : “ 2 15°00 


Simpre Manvres supply only one or two of the materials re- 
quired for the growth and nourishment of plants. The ammoniacal 
liquor of gas-works, in a very diluted state, has been advantageously 
applied to the soil, on account of the nitrogen which it contains, Soot 
has also been used, from furnishing salts of ammonia. Nitrates of 
potash and soda have been recommended not only on account of the 


VARIOUS KINDS OF MANURE. 139 


alkalies, but also on account of the nitrogen which they contain, in the 
form of nitric acid. The quantity of glutin is said to be increased by 
the use of nitrates. Carbonate of potash and soda, and chloride of 
sodium, are frequently used as manures. The latter is especially use- 
ful in the case of plants cultivated inland, which were originally 
natives of the sea-shore, as Cabbage, Asparagus, and Sea-kale. As 
lume is found in all plants, the salts containing it are of great import- 
ance. It may be used in the caustic state with the view of decom- 
posing vegetable matter. It also neutralises any acids previously in 
the soil, such as occur occasionally in boggy and marshy land, abound- 
ing in species of Juncus, Carex, and Eriophorum, with some Calluna 
vulgaris. Lime also combines with certain elements of the soil, and 
sets potash free, which reacts on the silica, and renders it soluble. 
Lime is sometimes washed down into the subsoil ; and in such cases 
trenching improves the land. Phosphate of lime is a valuable manure, 
both on account of the lime, and of the phosphorus which it contains. 
Without the presence of phosphates, glutin and the protein compounds 
of plants cannot be formed. Phosphate of lime exists abundantly in 
animal tissues, and hence it must be furnished by plants. The use 
of bone-dust as a manure depends in a great measure on the phos- 
phate of lime which it contains. Besides phosphate of lime, bone-ash 
contains from 3 to 12 per cent of phosphate of magnesia, carbonate 
of lime, and salts of soda. The gelatine of bones also seems to act 
beneficially, by forming carbonic acid and ammonia. Bones are best 
applied after being acted on by sulphuric acid, so as to form soluble 
phosphates by decomposition. They are broken into pieces, and 
mixed with half their weight of boiling water, and then with half 
their weight of sulphuric acid. The superphosphate thus formed is 
applied to the soil, either in a dry state by the drill, with sawdust 
.and charcoal added, or in a liquid state, diluted with 100 to 200 parts 
of water. Phosphates and other inorganic matters sometimes exist 
potentially in the soil, but in a dormant state, requiring the addition 
of something to render them soluble. Allowing the ground to lie 
fallow, stirring and pulverising it, are methods by which air and 
moisture are admitted, time being allowed for the decomposition of 
the materials, which are thus rendered available for plants. Sulphur 
exists in considerable quantity in some plants, as Cruciferee, and it 
forms an element in albumin ; hence the use of sulphuric acid and of 
sulphates as manures. Sulphate of lime or gypsum is well fitted as 
a manure for clover, by supplying sulphur and lime, and absorbing 
ammonia. Charcoal in a solid state has been applied with advan- 
tage as a manure. It acts partly by taking up ammonia in large 
quantity, and partly by combining slowly with oxygen, so as to form 
carbonic acid. The effects of carbonic acid on vegetation are said to 
be remarkably conspicuous in some volcanic countries, in which this 


140 VARIOUS KINDS OF MANURE. 


gas is evolved from the bottom of lakes. When it accumulates in 
large quantities, however, it destroys plants as well as animals, 

ManvurinG WITH GREEN Crops is sometimes practised. The 
mode adopted is to sow certain green crops, the roots of which extend 
deeply into the soil ; and when the plants have advanced considerably 
in growth, to plough them in, and sow a crop of some kind of grain, 
In this way the nutritive matter from the deeper part of the soil is 
brought within reach of the roots of the grain crop. Manuring with 
seaweeds is also resorted to in cases where they are accessible. They 
supply abundance of carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate of lime, be- 
sides chloride of sodium. There are considerable differences in their 
chemical composition ; thus, while in Laminaria saccharina, alkaline 
carbonates, potash, and iodine, predominate ; in Fucus vesiculosus and 
serratus, sulphates and soda are in excess, and iodine is less abundant, 
In the cultivation of the Coco-nut Palm seaweeds act beneficially. 

Liquip Manurss have of late years been much employed, and 
the formation of tanks for their reception has been strongly recom- 
mended, in which the ammonia is fixed by the addition of sulphuric 
acid or charcoal. They can be applied after vegetation has advanced, 
and they are in a state to be at once available to the crop. Some 
have advocated steeping seeds and grains in certain solutions before 
sowing them. Professor Johnston suggests a mixture of phosphate 
of soda, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate of potash, common salt, and 
sulphate of ammonia (1 1b. of each), in ten gallons of water, to steep 
300 lbs. of seeds, which are afterwards to be dried with gypsum or 
quicklime. 

The following experiment, conducted by Mr. Wilson, at Knock, 
near Largs, shows the mode of estimating the effects of manures. The 
land was a piece of three-year-old pasture, of uniform quality. It was 
divided into ten lots, and these.were treated with different kinds of 
manure, The quantity of well-made hay is given in Ibs.— 


Produce Rate 
per Lot. per Acre, 


Lot 1. Left untouched . F . 420 ... 3360 
», 2 2% barrels Irish quicklime . . . 602 ... 4816 
>, 8. 20° cwt. Lime of gasworks 3 - 651 ... 5208 
» 4 44 cwt. Wood charcoal his « 665 .» 5820 
>» 5. 2 bushels Bone-dust 7 . 698 ... 5544 
1» 6. 18 Ibs. Nitrate of potash ‘ . 742... 5936 
> @ 20 lbs. Nitrate of soda . 2 . 784 .. 6272 
» 8 24 bolls Soot. ‘ . 819 ... 6552 
559 23 lbs. Sulphate of ammonia . 874 ... 6776 
5,10. 100 gallons Ammoniacal liquor of gas- 945 7560 

works, 5° Twaddell’s hydrometer ( a 


The value of each application was the same, all were applied at the 
same time, and the grass also was cut at the same time. 


EPIPHYTES’ AND PARASITES. 141 


Plants are thus employed to form from the atmosphere and soil 
those organic products which are requisite for the nourishment of 
man and animals. Nutrition derivable from the atmosphere being 
generally diffused, is accessible to all plants, and is perpetually re- 
newed. Nutrition derivable from the soil being fixed to certain 
localities, requires that those elements contributing to it be mechani- 
cally supplied as they become exhausted. While an animal consumes 
carbon so as to form carbonic acid, gives off ammonia in various 
excretions, transforms organised into mineral matters, and restores 
its elements to air and earth ; a plant, on the other hand, fixes carbon 
in its substance, and gives off oxygen, forms from ammonia solid 
compounds, transforms mineral into organised matters, and derives its 
elements from the air and earth. Thus, says Dumas, what the 
atmosphere and soil yield to plants, plants yield to animals, and 
animals return to the air and earth, a constant round, in which matter 
merely changes its place and form. 


EpipHytic AND Parasitic PLANTS. 


Some. plants grow without any attachment to the soil, and are able 
to derive in a great measure, from the atmosphere, all the materials 
required for their growth. Such plants are called Epiphytes (27, upon, 
and guroy, a plant), or air-plants, and may be illustrated by the Til- 
landsias, Bromelias, and Orchids of warm climates. Such plants, 
when attached to the surface of trees, may perhaps derive some 
nourishment from the inorganic matter in the decaying bark; but they 
do not become incorporated with, nor do they send prolongations into, 
the trees. Orchidaceous plants, which are always perennial, are found 
in the greatest variety and profusion in those regions where heat and 
moisture abound. Extremes of cold or dryness are the least favour- 
able to their growth. Tillandsias and Bromelias flourish in dry hot 
air without any contact with the earth. 

There are other plants, however, which are true Parasites (raed, 
beside, and o/ros, food, deriving food from another), sending prolonga- 
tious of their tissue into other plants, and preying upon them. Many 
_ Fungi, for instance, develop their spores (seeds) and spawn (mycelium) 
in the interior of living or dead plants, and thus cause rapid decay. 
The diseases of corn, called smut and rust, and the dry rot in wood, 
are due to the attacks of these parasitic Fungi. The minute dust or 
powder produced by these plants consists of millions of germs which 
are easily carried about in the atmosphere, ready to fix themselves on 
any spot where they can find a nidus. There are also flowering plants 
which grow parasitically, and they may be divided into two classes : 
‘1. Those which are of a pale or brownish colour, and have scales in 
place of leaves ; and 2. Those which are of a green colour, and have 


142 CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 


‘leaves. The former, including Orobanche or broom-rape, Lathrea or 
toothwort, Cuscuta or dodder, derive nourishment entirely from the 
plant to which they are united ; while the latter, as Loranthus, Viscum 
or mistleto, Myzodendron, Thesium, Euphrasia, Melampyrum, and 
Buchnera, elaborate sap in their leaves under the action of air and 
light. By this power of elaboration, the mistleto is able to grow on 
different species of plants, as on the apple, beech, oak, etc. Some 
parasites are attached by suckers to the roots of plants, as in the case 
of Broom-rape, Toothwort, and Thesium, and are called root-parasites ; 
while others, as Dodder, Mistleto, etc. derive nourishment from stems, 
and are called stem-parasites. The specific names of many parasites 
are taken from the plants on which they grow. The species of 
Cuscuta or dodder inhabit all the temperate and warm parts of the 
globe, and are peculiarly destructive to clover and flax. They are 
produced from seed which at first germinates in the soil like other 
plants ; but after the stem has coiled closely round another plant, and 
become attached to it by means of suckers, then all connection with 
the soil is severed, and the Dodder lives as a true parasite. A re- 
markable genus of parasites, called Rafflesia, has been found in Sumatra 
and Java. The species are leafless, and produce brown-coloured flowers, 
which are sometimes three feet in diameter. On account of their only 
producing a flower and root they are denominated Rhizanths (giZa, a 
root, and dvéos, a flower). 


2.—Absorption and Circulation of Fluids. 


While the leaves and other aerial organs of plants have the power 
of absorbing fluids, it is chiefly by the roots that this process takes 
place. The cells of the spongioles or fibrils of the roots are covered 
by a very delicate membrane (p. 38), which allows the imbibition of 
fluids to proceed rapidly ; and as additions are made to their extremi- 
ties, they are constantly placed in circumstances favourable for the 
reception of fresh nutriment for the plant. Animals having the 
power of locomotion are enabled, as they exhaust the nutritive matter 
of one locality, to remove to another. Plants having no provision for 
locomotion would perish, after taking up all the nourishment in the 
soil in their immediate neighbourhood, were it not that the roots spread 
over large areas in search of food. The nutritive materials in the soil, 
partly derived from the decomposition of its organic and inorganic 
materials, and partly from the atmosphere, are supplied to the roots 
in a state of solution ; and as the substances in the cells of plants are 
usually colloid and denser than the external liquid crystalloid matters, 
a process of endosmose takes place by which the latter pass in large 
quantities into the cell through its membranous covering, while a 
small portion of the former is excreted by exosmose. These move- 


CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 143 


ments in the contents of cells and vessels take place when fluids of 
different densities are separated by an animal or vegetable mem- 
brane. j 

If, on opposite sides of an animal or vegetable membrane, we place 
two fluids of unequal density, having an affinity for the interposed 
membrane and for each other, the fluid on the one side being thick and 
gelatinous, whilst the other is thin and watery, two unequal and 
opposite currents are at once established—the thin fluid setting with 
a strong and full current through the membrane towards the thicker 
fluid, which it penetrates ; the thicker fluid, with a more feeble current 
and in less quantity, reaching the thin fluid with which it mingles. 
This constitutes Osmose. The inequality in strength and amount of 
the two currents depends, not so much on the density of the liquids, as 
on their character, those of a gluey or albuminous nature passing 
slowly, whilst those of a more liquid’ nature transude very rapidly. 
If the membrane form a sac or bladder, in which the thick gelatinous 
fluid is contained, then the thin fluid rapidly passing 
inwards into the sac penetrates the thick fluid, and 
thus the amount of fluid in the bladder is increased 
and its walls are distended. To this inward current 
the term Endosmose is applied, and conversely, Exos- 
mose refers to the slow and feeble outward current of 
the thick contained fluid. In this instance the Endos- 
mose current is the stronger, but a reversal of the 
relation of the fluids to the membrane renders the 
Exosmose current the stronger, consequently the con- 
tents of the sac are diminished in amount and its 
walls collapse. The relative rapidity of the Exosmose 
and Endosmose currents depends on the position of the 
liquids as regards the membrane ; the strongest cur- 
rent always setting in towards the most colloid body. 
In fig. 240 is represented the mode of showing en- 
dosmose by meahs of a bladder full of syrup, which is 
attached to the end of a tube, and immersed in water. 
In this case the water passes rapidly into the bladder 
by endosmose, so that the fluid rises in the tube, while a portion of 
the thicker fluid passes out by exosmose. The force of this endosmose 
may be measured by a graduated tube, as in the figure, or by a tube 
with a double curvature, as fig. 242, the lower part of which is filled 
with mercury. In the Jatter case the mercury is pushed upwards 
into a graduated tube, and thus an endosmometer (“érgov, a measure), 
or measure of the force of endosmose, is formed. 


Fig. 240. 


Fig. 240. Instrument to show Endosmose and Exosmose, consisting of a bladder con- 
taining syrup attached to a tube, and plunged in a vessel of water. The inward motion of 
the water (endosmose) exceeds the outward movement of the syrup (exosmose). 


144 CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 


Dutrochet found that with a membrane of 40 millimetres in 
diameter, a tube of 2 millimetres, and a solution of sugar, the density 
of which was 1-083, the fluid rose 39 millimetres in the space of an 
hour and a half; with syrup, of density 1-145, the rise was 68 milli- 
metres ; and with syrup, of density 1-228, the rise was 106 millimetres, 
Syrup, of density 1:3, produced a current capable of raising a column 
of mercury of 127 inches, which is equal to a pressure of 44 atmo- 
spheres. Thus the velocity and force of the rise depend in this 
instance on the excess of density of the enclosed liquid over that of 
the water outside. Different’ substances act with varying intensity 
in producing endosmose. The following ratio expresses the variable 
intensity of endosmose in different cases in which the density of the 
solution was the same :—Solution of gelatin, 3; of gum, 5:17; of 
sugar, 11; of albumin, 12. In order that endosmose and exosmose 
may take place, the liquids must have an affinity for the interposed 
membrane, and an affinity for each other, and be miscible. The 
interposed membrane, whether animal or vegetable, is very actively 
concerned in the intensity and direction of the endosmotiec current. 
Graham assigns a chemical character to osmose, accompanied with a 
constant decomposition of membrane. In the living plant the renewal 
of the membrane forming the septum is constantly taking place, and 
thus the osmotic action is kept up. 

The fluid matters, absorbed by the roots, are carried upwards 
through the cells and vessels of the stem, as ascending sap; they pass 
into the leaves, where they are exposed to the influence of air and 
light, and afterwards return through the inner bark as descending or 
elaborated sap, and a portion ultimately reaches the root, where it is 
either excreted or mixed with the new fluid entering from the soil, 
The presence of light is essential for the elaboration of the sap. 
Vegetable growth cannot progress unless the vegetable circulation be 
perfectly accomplished. This act of vegetable vitality may, however, 
be effected while the plant is removed from the action of light, but 
the oxygenation of the juices cannot be perfected without their free 
exposure to its influence, 

Numerous experiments have been performed in order to show the 
course of the fluids in oxogenous stems, such as making incisions or 
notches in the bark and wood of trees at different heights, and noting 
the points where the sap first made its appearance at different periods 
of the year, more especially in spring ; also in plunging plants, with 
their roots, entire into certain coloured solutions, and marking the 
course of the coloured fluids, These experiments led to the con- 
clusion that the sap ascends chiefly through the alburnum or newer 
wood, proceeds to the leaves, and returns by the bark to the root. 
If incisions are made into the trunk of a tree at different heights 
early in spring, it is found that the flow of sap (called bleeding) 


CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 145 


takes place, first from the lower parts of the incisions, and chiefly 
from the alburnum ; while at a later period of the year it occurs on 
both sides of the incision, chiefly from the new wood on the lower 
side, and from the bark on the upper side. If a plant be plunged 
into a weak solution of acetate of lead (which is capable of being 
absorbed), the metal may be detected by means of a salt of iodine, 
first in the new wood, next in the leaves, and then in the bark, A 
similar experiment may be made by means of weak solutions of potassic 
ferrocyanide, and of a persalt of iron. 

From the minuteness of the tissue, and the difficulty of examining 
the circulation in a living plant, it is not easy to determine the vessels 
through which the sap moves. In its upward course it appears to 
pass through the intercellular spaces, the recent woody tissue and 
the porous vessels, and in its downward course through the laticiferous 
vessels and cellular tissue of the bark, being also transmitted laterally 
through the cells of the medullary rays. In some cases, when the 
bark has been removed, the descent of the sap takes place by the cells 
of the medullary rays. The sap nourishes the different organs, its 
carbonic acid’ and water are partly decomposed, combinations’ take 
place with nitrogen, protoplasm or formative matter is produced, and 
various secretions are formed in the cells and intercellular passages. 

Gaseous matters are taken up by the roots of plants, and circulated 
along with the sap as well as in the spiral vessels. These usually 
consist of air, carbonic acid, and oxygen. Hales showed the existence 
of air in the vessels of the Vine, and Geiger and Proust proved that 
the sap of this plant contained carbonic acid. Some plants, as Ponte- 
deria and Trapa, float in water by means of air contained in the vessels 
or in the intercellular spaces. In Vallisneria, the large cells in the 
centre of the leaves are surrounded by air-cavities, which are seen 
as dark lines under the microscope. 

Changes take place in the composition and density of the sap in 
its upward course. The chief alterations in it take place in the 
leaves, where it is exposed to the influence of light and air. By this 
means carbon is fixed, oxygen is given off, and an exhalation of 
watery fluids takes place. The fluids pass from cell to cell through 
the leaves, where they are acted upon by air through the stomata, 
and reach ‘the vascular and cellular tissue of the bark, where further 
changes take place. Walker, from his experiments, concluded that no 
descent takes place until after the development of the leaves. ' 

The sap, after being elaborated in the leaves, is sometimes clear 

_and transparent, at other times it is milky or variously coloured and 
opaque. The elaborated sap has been called latex, and the vessels 
transmitting it have been denominated laticiferous (p. 21). The 
latex contains granules, which exhibit certain movements under the 
microscope. The movements are analogous to those observed in the 


L 


146 CYCLOSIS. 


capillary circulation of animals. On account of these movements in the 
latex, the laticiferous vessels have been denominated Cinenchymatous 
(aivéw, I move), and the movements themselves are included under 
the name Cyclosis (xbxAos, a circle). 

The plants in which the movements are best observed are those 
having the latex milky or coloured, such as various species of Ficus, 
Euphorbia, and Chelidonium. In fig. 241 there is represented 
a small fragment of a leaf of 
Chelidonium majus (celandine), 
which shows the current of 
orange granules in the lati- 
ciferous vessels, their direction 
being indicated by arrows. If 
the young unexpanded sepal of 
the Celandine is removed from 
the plant, and put under the 
microscope, or if the inner 
lining of the young stipule of 
Ficus elastica be treated in a 
similar manner, very obvious 
motion is seen in the granular 
contents of the vessels, and 
this motion is modified by 
pricking the vessels or by pres- 
sure, If the microscope be 
applied to the stipule of Ficus 
elastica, while still attached to 
the plant and uninjured, pres- 
sure with any blunt object on the stipule will be observed to cause 
a marked oscillation in the vessels, thus showing their continuity. 
There will also be seen a regular movement from the apex towards the 
base, independent of external influences, when the stipule is allowed 
to lie on the field of the microscope without any pressure or injury 
whatever. This movement has been observed to continue for at 
least twenty minutes. It is of importance to distinguish between 
those molecular movements which are caused by injury and pressure, 
and those which depend on changes going on in the interior of the 
living plant, The elaborated sap descends through the vessels of 
the liber. 

It appears, then, that in the case of Exogenous plants, the fluid 
matter in the soil, containing different substances in solution, is 
absorbed by the extremities of the roots, ascends to the stein, passes 


Fig, 241. 


Fig. 241. Small portion of the leaf of Chelidonium majus or Celandine (highly magnified), 
showing a network of laticiferous vessels. The direction of the currents in the vessels is 
indicated by the arrows. 


CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 147 


through the woody tissue, porous vessels, and cells, dissolving starch 
and other matters, and appropriating various new substances. Pro- 
ceeding upwards and outwards, this sap reaches the leaves, where it 
is exposed to the air, and is elaborated by the function of respiration, 
It then returns, or descends chiefly through the bark, either directly 
or in a circuitous manner, communicating with the central parts by 
the medullary rays, depositing various secretions, more especially in 
the bark, and giving origin to substances which are destined to 
nourish and form new tissues. Finally, it reaches the extremity of 
the root, where absorption commenced ; a small portion is there 
excreted, while the remainder mixes with the newly-absorbed fluids, 
and again circulates in the sap. The rapidity with which the sap 
ascends is dependent on the endosmotic property of the cells in the 
roots, and on the density of the fluids, An absorption of water, con- 
taining various matters in solution, is constantly going on through the 
extremities of the rootlets. The sap thus formed is carried forward 
through the cells, vessels, and intercellular passages, by a force which 
acts by propulsion. The stimulus of light, acting on the cellular 
tissue of the leaves, enables them to elaborate the organic compounds 
which are necessary for vegetable nutrition. The leaf-action may be 
reckoned one of attraction or suction, transpiration ‘giving rise to a 
constant flow of fluids to supply the place of those exhaled. 

Dr. Pettigrew has given the following views as to the circulation 
in plants, and has illustrated them in the accompanying diagram (fig. 
242). In spring the sap being mainly concerned 
in the growth of the branches, development of buds, 
and evolution of leaves—a vigorous and rapid 
movement takes place in an upward direction, 
as at a. During summer, when the plant is 
elaborating secretions, and storing up nourishment, 
the course of the sap is partly upwards and partly 
downwards, represented by the arrows at cd; the 
ascending and descending currents are indicated as 
continuous in the direction of the leaves and roots, 
and thus as it were constituting a true circulation. 
In autumn, owing to the fall of the leaf, excess 
of moisture, and a general waning activity in the 
plant, there is a marked descent of the sap, as 
shown at b. But besides, and consequent on, those main currents, 
others exist. Thus the ascending spring and descending autumn 
currents, being in great measure endosmotic, give rise to unequal 


Fig. 242. Diagram representing the ascending, descending, and transverse currents in the 
plant. u, Ascending or spring current. b, Descending or autumn current, ed, Ascending 
and descending currents of summer ; these being continuous in the direction of the leaves 
and roots. ac, Transverse currents. The arrows in this diagram represent the endosmotic 
currents, the darts the exosmotic ones. 


148 PROGRESSION OF THE SAP. 


exosmotic currents in an opposite direction—i.e, downwards and 
upwards respectively. In summer exosmotic currents flow equally 
in both directions. These counter-currents are indicated on the dia- 
gram by darts pointing in a direction opposite to that of the arrows, 
One other current exists—viz., a lateral current, represented by hori- 
zontal darts. By this current, sap which has been abstracted from 
the currents passing along the main channels, is diffused into sur- 
rounding tissue. Although the upward and downward currents are 
respectively most vigorous in spring and autumn, still at all periods of 
the year currents of sap pass both upwards, downwards, and transversely. 

In the case of Endogenous plants, observations are still wanting 
by which to determine the exact course of their fluids. The vascular 
bundles contain woody vessels, which probably are concerned in the 
ascent of the sap, and vessels equivalent to those of the bark and of 
the latex, by which it descends. The cellular tissue is also probably 
concerned in the movements. Cambium is produced in these plants 
in the neighbourhood of the vascular bundles, and is thus generally 
diffused through the texture of the stem. In Acrogenous stems it is 
likely that the sap follows the same course as in Endogens, although, 
in regard to both, experiments are still wanting ; according to Hoff- 
mann there is no channel for the descent of fluids in Acrogens, the sap 
simply ascending and diffusing itself in the substance of the plant in 
its progress. In cellular plants transmission of the sap takes place 
from one cell to another ; and as their texture is often delicate, the 
movements are rapid. Many of these, as seaweeds, when plunged 
into water, after having been dried by evaporation, imbibe the fluid 
with very great rapidity. 

The CaUSE OF THE PROGRESSION OF THE Sar has been investi- 
gated by numerous physiologists. While the capillarity of the vessels 
in the higher plants operates to a certain degree, it would appear 
that the process of endosmose is that by which the continued imbibition 
and movement of fluids is: chiefly carried on. From the loss of its 
watery contents, by exhalation, and the metamorphoses going on 
during the process of nutrition and secretion, the sap becomes 
gradually more and more dense, and thus throughout the whole 
plant there is a forcible osmotic transmission of the thinner fluids, 
and a constant change in the contents of the cells and vessels, These 
movements will of course take place with greater vigour and rapidity 
according to the activity of the processes going on in the leaves, 
which thus tend to keep up the circulation. While the ascending 
movement of the sap is powerfully promoted by the active operation at 
the surface of the leaves, its lateral movements are no less influenced 
by the individual relations of each distinct cell, since the different func- 
tions of separate cells, when actively exercised, call into action those vital 
agencies by which a transmission of the cellular contents is effected. 


PROGRESSION OF THE SAP. 149 


Draper attributes the movement of the sap to capillary attraction, 
which he considers as an electrical phenomenon. This attraction takes 
place when a fluid moistens a capillary tube, and there can be no flow 
unless a portion of this fluid is removed from the upper extremity ; 
for capillarity will not of itself raise a fluid beyond the end of the 
tube. Evaporation and transpiration, which take place in the leaves, 
remove a portion of the vegetable fluids, and thus they promote the 
capillary action of the vessels. When two fluids of different kinds 
come into contact in a tube on different sides of a membrane (which 
membrane, being porous, may be considered as made up of numerous 
short capillary tubes), that will pass through most rapidly which wets 
it most completely, or has the greatest affinity for it. Hence, Draper 
explains the phenomena of endosmose and exosmose by referring them 
to capillary attraction, aided by transpiration. 

Liebig adopts a somewhat similar view of the phenomena, He 
states that the accurate experiments of Hales have shown the effects 
of evaporation and transpiration on the movements of sap. Transpira- 
tion takes place chiefly in clear and dry weather ; and, consequently, is 
regulated by the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. When the 
weather is cloudy and the atmosphere moist, transpiration is checked, 
and stagnation of the juices takes place. The greater the transpira- 
tion, the greater the supply of fluid necessary. Hence, plants kept 
in the dry atmosphere of rooms fade from want of a due supply to 
compensate for transpiration ; and hence the importance of pruning plants 
before transplanting them, so as to diminish the evaporating surface, 
and of performing the operation in dull and moist weather, so as to 
allow the absorption of fluids to keep pace with the transpiration. 
This process of transpiration, therefore, by forming a vacuum, assists 
capillary attraction and the atmospheric pressure, and thus the fluids 
rise. As the process of endosmose and exosmose depends on the 
chemical affinity and physical character of the fluids on each side of a 
membrane, the porosity of the membrane, and the attraction existing 
between it and either of the fluids, it follows that the nature of the 
parietes of the cells and vessels of plants must have a marked effect 
on their contents and secretions. 

The observations of physiologists and chemists thus lead to the 
conclusion that there are four factors concerned in the circulation 
of the sap in plants—viz. nutrition, acting as a wis a fronte, as is 
shown by the current setting most strongly in the direction of most 
rapid growth ; osmose, indicated by the difference in density between 
the fluids of the plants and those supplied to it from without ; 
capillary attraction, consequent on the character of the vessels; and 
lastly, evaporation, by which the capillary attraction is kept up, 
osmose favoured, and nutrition facilitated. To these another may be 
added,—intermittent mechanical strain, produced by swaying in the 


150 PROGRESSION OF THE SAP. 


wind, which, as Mr. Spencer has shown, exercises considerable in- 
fluence not only propulsive on the main ascending and descending 
currents, but also extravasating into the lateral flows. It may be 
said that there is a vis a tergo, without the presence of leaves, as shown by 
the experiments of Hales (fig. 243), combined with a vis a fronte, 
depending on the suction power of the leaves. 

When cut twigs or flowers are put into water, their functions are 
kept up for some time by endosmose and capillarity. The latter power 
has great influence in such a case, and hence the cleaner the cut the 
better, so that no lacerated or ragged edge may interrupt its operation. 
In these circumstances, also, small solid particles and colouring matters 
will enter the tubes. Boucherie found that felled trees, the extremities 
of which were immediately immersed in various solutions, continued 
to. imbibe them with great force and rapidity for many days, A 
Poplar, 92 feet high, absorbed in six days nearly sixty-six gallons of a 
solution of pyrolignite of iron. 

Heat and light have a powerful influence on the movements of the 
sap, by promoting transpiration and the action of the cells. After the 
winter’s repose the first genial sunshine of spring stimulates the sap 
to activity, and after the leaves are expanded the circulation goes on 
with vigour. The effect of leaf-buds in promoting the movement of 
sap, may be exhibited by introducing a single branch of a vine grow- 
ing in the open air into a hothouse during winter, thus exposing it to 
the action of heat as well as light. In this case the leaves are de- 
veloped, and the fluids are set in motion from the roots upwards, so 
as to supply this single branch, although in the other branches there 
is no increase in the circulation. 

In spring, the first effect of light and warmth is to stimulate the 
leaf-buds. These enlarge, and the osmotic action commences in their 
cells. The matter stored up during the winter undergoes changes ; 
certain substances are dissolved, and thus the sap is thickened, so that. 
the endosmotic process is powerfully increased, and the whole plant 
exhibits an active and vigorous circulation. The starch deposited in 
the previous season becomes converted into sugar and dextrin, it is 
thus readily acted on by the ascending fluids, and in a state of solu- 
tion admits of being generally diffused. Towards the latter part of 
the season when the heat and light decrease, the leaves perform their 
functions more languidly, and there is a near approach to equilibrium 
in the density of the fluids, and ultimately there is a cessation of the 
circulation. 

The height to which the sap rises in the case of lofty trees with 
spreading roots is very great. The force with which it ascends has 
been measured by Hales, and is found to vary according to the state 
of the weather and the vigour of the plant. By fastening a bent tube, 
containing mercury, on the stem of a vine, he found in one of his 


MOVEMENTS IN CELLS—ROTATION. 151 


experiments that the sap raised the mercury upwards of thirty inches, 
The apparatus used by Hales is similar to that used by Dutrochet, to 
measure endosmose, as is represented 

at fig. 243, where c is the stem of a L 
vine cut, tis a bent glass tube fitted i 
to the cut extremity of the vine by { 
a copper ring, v, carefully luted and i 
secured by a bit of bladder, m; nn, a 
represents the level of the mercury i 
in the two branches of the lower 
curvature, before the experiment, and 
n’ nw’ the level at the conclusion of it. 
He calculated that the force of the sap 
in the vine, in some of his experi- 
ments, was five times greater than 
that of the blood in the crural artery 
of the horse. 

SpecraL MoveMEnNts oF FLUvIDs. 
—Besides this general circulation of the 
sap, special movements have been 
observed in the individual cells of 
plants, which have been included 
under the name of Rotation (rota, a 
wheel) or Gyration (gyrus, a circuit or 
circle). These motions have been de- 
tected in the cells of many aquatic 
plants, especially species of Chara and 
Vallisneria, and in the hairs of Trades- 
cantia. The currents proceed in a 
more or less spiral direction, and are 
rendered visible by the granules of 
chlorophyll which they carry along 
with them. There exist also other 
granules in the fluids, which are 
coloured yellow by iodine, and are 
probably of a nitrogenous nature. 

The species of Chara (fig. 244) in 
which rotation has been observed, are 
aquatic plants growing in stagnant 
ponds, and composed of a series of cylin- 
drical cells, placed end to end. Some- 


Fig. 243. Apparatus of Hales, to show the force of ascent of the sap. c, Stem of a vine 
cut. #, Aglass tube with a double curvature attached to the upper part of the vine-stem, 
by means of a copper cap, v, which is secured by means of a lute and piece of bladder, m 
nm, Level of the column of mercury in the two portions of the tube at the commencement 
of the experiment. 2 n/, Level of the mercury at the conclusion of the experiment. 


152 MOVEMENTS IN CELLS—ROTATION. 


times the plant consists of a single central cell ; at other times there are 
several smaller ones surrounding it, which must be removed in order 
that the movements which occur in the central cell may be seen. Many 
of the species are incrusted with calcareous matter, and thus become 
opaque, while others, as Chara or Nitella flexilis, have no incrustation, 
and are transparent. Those plants with unincrusted tubular, cells 
best exhibit movements. In these plants the movements take place 
between the two membranes of which the cell-wall is composed. They 
are not interrupted when a division of the cell has been made by 


<_—& 
Geo aw pees i | 


»-——> 


(eae 
if 
1 3 


Fig. 245, 


means of a ligature ; an evident movement may still be observed in 
either section. Some granules, of a green colour, are attached to the 
cell-wall, while others are carried with the current which passes along 
one side and returns by the other, following an elongated spiral direc- 
tion. In the cells of the branches the descending current is next to 
the axis. In figure 244 the course of the currents in different cells 
is indicated by arrows. 


In Vallisneria spiralis (which includes V. Micheliana and Jac- 


Fig. 244. A small portion of a Chara, magnified to show the intracellular circulation. 
The arrows mark the direction of the fluid and granules in the different cells, The clear 
spaces are parts where there is no movement. The circulation in each cell is independent 
of that in the others, Fig. 245. Large internal cell of Vallisneria, showing the direction of 
the currents in intracellular rotation. There is an occasional nucleus seen in the course 
of the circulation along with the chlorophyll grains, 


MOVEMENTS IN CELLS—ROTATION. 153 


quiniana), the cells in all parts of the plant, leaf, root, flower-stalk, 
and calyx, contain numerous green granules, and an occasional cyto- 
blast or nucleus, which, under certain circumstances, are carried, with 
the juices of the plant, in continual revolution round the walls of each 
cell (fig. 245). Although in different cells the currents proceed often 
in different directions, still in any given cell the rotation is uniform ; 
for if stopped by cold ‘it resumes the same direction. Rotation will 
continue in detached portions of the plant for several days, or even 
for three or four weeks. The best way of showing these motions is to 
take a small portion of a young leaf and divide it in halves, by making 
a very oblique section on the plane of the leaf, by which means a 
transparent end is obtained. This should be done at least an hour 
before it is put under the micro- 
scope. The part is to be viewed 
in water, between two pieces of 
glass ; and a little heat is some- 
times useful in promoting the 
movements. In Vallisneria the 
motion ceases at about 45° 
Fahr., while in Chara it goes 
on at a lower temperature; if 
the temperature be raised above 
150° the motion ceases. 

A similar intracellular cir- 
culation is seen in species of 
Potamogeton, Hydrocharis, and 
Anacharis, as well as in the 
moniliform purple hairs on the 
filaments, and in the calycine 
hairs, of Tradescantia virginica. 
In the examination of these 
hairs a higher microscopic power 
is required than in the case of 
the plants previously mentioned. 
A nucleus is usually seen in the 
cells of these hairs, and it may 
either remain immovable, or 
may be carried along with the 
current. The movements ap- i : : 
pear to be confined between a Fig. 246 
double cell-wall. Fig. 246 shows : 

a calycine hair, p, of Tradescantia virginica, with a small portion of 


Fig. 246. Hair, p, taken from the calyx of Tradescantia virginica, with a small portion of 
the epidermis, e e, on which there isa stoma, s. In each of the epidermal cells there is a 
nucleus, m, and currents (rotation), the direction of which is indicated by the arrows. 


154 MOVEMENTS IN CELLS—ROTATION. 


the epidermis, ¢ e, on which a stoma, s, is seen. In each of the 
cells, both of the epidermis and the hair, there is a nucleus, n, 
and rotatory currents, the direction of which is indicated by the 
arrows. In each cell, as seen at a, there are several currents, which 
cross each other at the point where the nucleus is situated, thus 
giving rise to the appearance of an irregular network. The hairs 
of many other flowering plants exhibit rotation (fig. 90), and it is 
probable that in all young cells these currents may be observed. 
The circulating fluid is a mucilaginous protoplasm or formative matter, 
and in Chara and Vallisneria it forms a uniformly investing layer on 
the inner surface of the cell. The motions would appear to be 
connected in some way with the nutrition of cells and the formation 
of new ones; and while they continue throughout life in aquatics, 
they often cease in plants living in air, after they have attained a 
certain development. Mohl’s experiments have shown that at the 
temperature of 66° Fahrenheit the quickest motion was 1-125th of a 
Parisian line,* the slowest, 1-600th, and the mean, 1-185th. 

Schleiden says that in the Vallisneria cells it is not the cell-sap 
that is in motion, but a mucilaginous fluid, with which the chloro- 
phyll granules and the nucleus are connected, and which flows in an 
uninterrupted manner along the cell-walls, In Chara, also, he states 
it is not the cell-sap which moves, but a denser fluid, present in large 
quantity, and occupying the outer part of the cell cavity. Mohl 
thinks that a homogeneous protoplasm fills these cells at first com- 
pletely, but that during growth it becomes hollowed out into one or 
more cavities, and that around these the mucilaginous matter 
circulates. 

The velocity of the currents in various plants, at 66° to 68°° 
Fahrenheit, is thus given by Mohl :— 


Filamental hairs of Tradescantia virginica,—3}y to $y of a Parisian line in a 
second ; mean, 54>. 

Leaves of Vallisneria spiralis—quickest, 4; ; slowest, giy ; mean, z$;; of a 
line in a second. 

Stinging hairs of Urtica baccifera—quickest, g}7 ; slowest, s+, ; mean, 7$o- 

Cellular tissue of young shoot op Sagittaria soetinifolia, rho to rosa; Mean, ghz 

si leaf of do., yyy to Tis0 3 mean, Tas 
Hairs of Cucurbita Pepo—quickest, 74> ; slowest, s7gq ; mean, zos7- 


The measurements were made by noting the passage of the globules 
across the field of a micrometer, fixed in the ocular of the microscope, 
and counting the strokes of a seconds pendulum. These movements 
appear more rapid to the observer ; but then it must be recollected 
that the parts are seen in a highly magnified state. 

The cause of those intracellular movements is obscure ; both vital 


* Parisian line = ‘088815 of an inch. 


RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 155 


and physical causes having been adduced in explanation. By some 
they are considered as connected with the nourishment of the cell, 
the presence of the nucleus, and the process of cytogenesis, Certain 
authors have referred the phenomena to endosmdse, dependent on 
varying density in the cell-contents, while electrical agency has been 
called into requisition by others. In Chara the chlorophyll granules 
lining the walls of the cells have been supposed to exercise a galvanic 
action upon the sap, and thus give rise to the motion. 

Dr. Pettigrew, from experiments by which he succeeded in inducing 
similar movements artificially, concludes that the ultimate causes are 
mainly physical, of which adsorption, resulting in endosmose and 
exosmose, and evaporation, are the chief; and that the phenomena 
are influenced by the general circulation. He says, “‘ while the cells 
in the root of the plant inaugurate the general circulation, the general 
circulation in its turn influences the intracellular circulation. This 
follows, because when a current of fluid travels up the one side of a 
thin porous cell-wall, and another and opposite current travels down 
the other or opposite side, a certain proportion of the currents pass 
obliquely through the cell-wall, and cause the fluid contents of the 
cell to gyrate or move in a circle. The cell-contents are made to 
gyrate, even in the absence of opposing currents outside the cell, 
if endosmotic and exosmotic currents are induced within it; or if 
evaporation or capillarity be made to act at- certain points.” 


3.—Respiration of Plants. 


The changes which are produced in the atmosphere by living 
plants have been included under the title of Vegetable Respiration. 
The experiments of Priestley, in 1771, show that plants when ex- 
posed to light in an atmosphere containing a considerable proportion 
of carbonic acid, purify the air by removing carbon and producing 
oxygen. Air in which animals had died was thus rendered again fit 
for breathing. Percival confirmed those observations. Scheele made 
a series of experiments with nitrogen in place of carbonic acid, and 
he found that plants did not purify an atmosphere composed of 
nitrogen alone. The foul air then, in his experiments, differed com- 
pletely from that in Priestley’s experiments, and hence the difference 
of results, Ingenhouz and Senebier performed numerous experiments, 
which proved that during the day plants gave out oxygen gas, while 
during darkness this process was suspended. The former has shown 
that the green portions of all vegetables, irrespective of their specific 
properties, are equally available for such operations ; that it is from 
the under surface of the matured leaves that oxygen is chiefly given 
off; and that in plants placed in shade the action of the leaves 
does. not prevent deterioration of the air, Saussure stated that 


156 RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 


during the night oxygen gas was absorbed in different quantities 
by plants. Fleshy plants absorbed least ; next came evergreens, 
and then deciduous trees and shrubs. This absorption of oxygen 
is attended with the formation of carbonic and other acids. It has 
been said that some leaves, on account of this process of oxidation, 
are acid in the morning, and become tasteless during the day. De- 
candolle, Ellis, Daubeny, and numerous other observers, have con- 
firmed the conclusions drawn by the early experimenters. The results, 
of all these observations are, that plants, more especially their leaves 
and green parts, have the power of decomposing carbonic acid under 
the influence of solar light, and of evolving oxygen. While in dark- 
ness no such decomposition takes place, oxygen is absorbed in moderate 
quantity, and some carbonic acid is given oft. The former process, 
caused by the deoxidising or rather decarbonising power of plants, 
much exceeds the latter in amount. And thus the respiratory process 
in plants and in animals is antagonistic, consisting in the former of 
the elimination of oxygen, while in the latter it is the elimination of 
carbon. 

Burnett endeavoured to show that there are two processes con- 
stantly going on in plants, one being what he calls digestion, consisting 
in the fixation of carbon and the evolution of oxygen, and only carried 
on during the day ; the other being what he calls proper respiration, 
consisting in the evolution of carbonic acid gas, and carried on at all 
periods of a plant’s growth. He thinks that his experiments prove the 
disengagement of carbonic acid from the leaves of plants both during 
night and day. Carpenter entertains similar opinions, believing that 
under all circumstances vegetable respiration is a process continued 
throughout, and essential for vegetable life; that it consists of the 
elimination from the system of the superfluous carbon, either by its 
entering into combination with the oxygen of the air, or by giving off 
carbonic acid to replace the oxygen absorbed. Mr. Pepys is of opinion 
that the evolution of carbonic acid indicates an abnormal condition of 
the leaf, which, in the process of healthy active vegetation, absorbs 
carbonic acid and disengages oxygen. He believes that the action of 
light leads to the greater perfection of this function, which is less 
energetically performed if not wholly suspended during the night. 
The changes produced in the atmosphere are mainly caused by the 
superficial green parts of plants. The oxygen evolved by plants 
appears to be derived from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, the 
carbon of which is appropriated, and probably partly from the water, 
the hydrogen of which is assimilated. Light is necessary for these 
decompositions, and it is probable that the alkalies taken up by the 
roots aid the process, 

If the leaves of a plant are bent under an inverted tumbler of 
water, in a pneumatic trough, and exposed to the sun, bubbles of gas 


RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 157 


will soon be given off, which are found to be pure oxygen; and any 
carbonic acid in the water will be diminished in quantity. The same 
leaves in darkness will not evolve any oxygen, light being essential for 
the process. The brighter and longer continued the light, the more 
oxygen is given off, and the greater the quantity of carbon added to 
the plant. Ifa healthy plant is covered by a bell jar, and exposed to 
light for twelve hours, oxygen will be formed, and if carbonic acid be 
added to the air, it will be decomposed, and the oxygen will increase, 
During the night the action is reversed, and if the plant is left twelve 
hours in darknéss, the oxygen will decrease, while carbonic acid will 
increase. Daubeny, from his experiments respecting the action of 
plants on a known amount of atmospheric air, states that leaves are 
requisite for the purification of the air, that the action of light on them 
gives rise to the emission of oxygen and the decomposition of carbonic 
‘acid, that for the elimination of oxygen the presence of carbonic acid 
is requisite, and that the greatest amount of oxygen which can, by 
vegetable respiration, be added to air confined within a jar is 18 per 
cent. The following is a simple experiment showing the production of 
oxygen by green leaves under the action of light. If a green leaf is 
placed in an atmosphere composed of hydrogen and carbonic acid, and 
a stick of phosphorus is introduced, no apparent action takes place 
in the dark, but the moment a beam of light, or the electric light 
rays, are thrown on it, white fumes of phosphorous anhydride are 
instantly produced, indicating the combination of the free oxygen, 
evolved from the leaf under the action of light, with the phosphorus. 

_ The following are the results of Boussingault’s experiments on the 
functions of leaves :— 


. The volume of CO, decomposed, is identical with that of the oxygen produced. 

. Leaves decompose pure carbonic acid with extreme slowness. 

. Leaves in presence of ordinary air and CO, effect readily the decomposition of 
the latter. 

Leaves decompose CO, in sunlight, when it is diluted with hydrogen, nitrogen, 
carbonic oxide, or marsh gas. 

. Leaves lose the power of decomposing carbonic acid as they lose water (becoming 


for) or ~ wh et 


. The a ae surface of thick leaves, such as those of the Cherry Laurel, decom- 
pose more CO, than the under, in the proportion of 4 to 1 in the sun; 
whereas in the shade itisas 2t0 1. Jeaves having a thin parenchyma do 
not differ in'the power of decomposing in the upper or under surface. 


The fixation of carbon probably takes place gradually, giving rise, 
at different stages, to the formation of various organic compounds, 
Thus, two molecules of carbonic acid, by losing one atom of oxygen, 
become oxalic acid ; this oxalic acid, with the aid of water, may yield 
other acids, from which, by the elimination of oxygen and the addition 
of the elements of water, various unazotised matters, as starch, gum, 
and sugar, may be derived; these changes being promoted by the 


158 RESPIRATION OF PLANTS. 


presence of alkalies. The fixation of carbon and hydrogen from the 
decomposition of carbonic acid and water gives rise to the formation 
of the various secretions found in the bark and external cells, as chloro- 
phyll, resin, oil, caoutchouc, and wax. 

Carbonic acid in solution, as has already been noticed, is taken up 
in large quantity by the roots of plants from the soil, and it is also 
absorbed from the atmosphere by the leaves. It may even be formed 
in the cells of plants during the various chemical changes connected 
with the elaboration of their juices and secretions. In the interior 
of plants it is changed in various ways, but it is in the leaves more 
especially that its decomposition takes place. At night it is given off 
unchanged, by what Liebig considers as a mere process of exosmose, 
in consequence of the dissolved acid being no longer assimilated by 
the action of light. The quantity of this acid given off during the 
night is by no means equal to that which is absorbed by the plant 
during the day. 

The parts of plants which are not green seem to absorb oxygen. 
Thus, roots and subterranean organs act in this way, and the presence 
of oxygen seems to be necessary for their growth. There are also 
certain periods in the life of a plant when carbonic acid is very largely 
given off, even during the day, depending on a chemical change taking 
.place in the starch of the plant, by which it is converted into sugar. 
These periods are germination, flowering, and fruiting. The changes 
alluded to will be discussed when these subjects are considered, 
When plants are decaying, or are in an unhealthy state, they undergo 
chemical changes, by which carbonic acid is formed. . 

Aquatic plants have the power of decomposing carbonic acid 
highly developed, and thus the preservation of the purity of lakes 
and ponds is provided for. In Batavian ponds Pistia Stratiotes is 
remarkable for its purifying effects, and Sir-H. Davy notices the great 
vigour of aquatic plants in the lake Solfatara, where carbonic acid 
was constantly bubbling up on the surface. The oxygenation of the 
water by aquatics has also been observed by Morren of Geneva. 

In conclusion, three views of the respiratory process in plants have 
been advanced— 


1. That oxygen is exhaled in large quantity during the day, and a 
moderate quantity of carbonic acid given off during the 
night. 

2. That carbonic acid is exhaled in greater or less quantity at all 
times, but during the day it is decomposed, so that oxygen is 
evolved. 

3. That no carbonic acid is evolved by leaves in a healthy state of 
the plant, but the elimination of oxygen only occurs. 


The last view is not now accepted by physiologists, Of the 
others each has a number of adherents—many able physiologists 


EFFECTS OF GASES ON PLANTS. 159 


ranging on either side. The view generally adopted is, that plants 
give out carbonic acid at certain times, and that the green parts of 
plants under the influence of light decompose the gas, fix the carbon, 
and eliminate the oxygen. 

Experiments have been made as to the effect of the different rays 
of the spectrum in aiding the decomposition of carbonic acid, by the 
green parts of plants. The light-giving rays, or those nearest the 
yellow, appear to have the greatest effect in the fixation of carbon, 
and in the production of wood ; while the heat-giving, and the tithonic 
or chemical rays, have scarcely any influence. 

The tropics and warm climates, where a sky seldom clouded per- 
mits the ‘glowing sun rays to shine on a luxuriant vegetation, are 
the constant and inexhaustible source of oxygen, thus contributing 
to the respiration of the animals, not only of their own latitudes, 
but also of the temperate and colder zones, where artificial light and 
warmth must replace the deficient light and heat of the sun, and 
which thus produce a copious supply of carbonic acid, to be expended 
on the nutrition of the tropical plants. The life of animals is thus 
connected intimately with the vegetable productions of the globe, not 
merely as regards the materials of their food, but also in reference to 
the air which they breathe. 

While the breathing of man and animals, and the various pro- 
cesses of combustion, are constantly abstracting oxygen from the 
atmosphere, and substituting carbonic acid, plants are decomposing 
this noxious gas, and restoring the oxygen. 


Effects of certain Gases on living Plants. 


It has been already stated that plants can live in an atmosphere 
containing a considerable proportion of carbonic acid, provided they 
are exposed to the light. Thus, an atmosphere which could not be 
breathed by man and animals is capable of supporting vegetable life. 
Experiments show, however, that plants will not continue to exercise 
their functions in pure carbonic acid gas, but that in all cases a certain 
quantity of free oxygen must be present. It has been found that 
though plants do not thrive in pure nitrogen, nor in hydrogen gas, yet 
their vitality is not destroyed by the presence of these gases. Saus- 
sure observed that a plant of Lythrum Salicaria lived for five weeks 
in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas, Nitrogen has been proved to be 
innocuous. These gases seem of themselves to have no directly 
injurious effects, but to act chiefly by depriving the plants of carbon 
and oxygen. F 

There are certain gases, however, which have very prejudicial 
effects on plants, as proved by the experiments of Turner and 
Christison. Some of them act as irritant poisons, causing local dis- 


160 EFFECTS OF GASES ON PLANTS. 


organisation; others as narcotic poisons, inducing a drooping and 
decay of the entire plant. To the former class belong sulphurous 
acid gas, hydrochloric acid gas, chlorine and nitrous acid gas; while 
amongst the latter are included sulphuretted hydrogen, cyanogen, 
carbonic oxide, and ammonia. 

SutpHurovus Actp Gas is highly injurious to plants. It pro- 
duces greyish-yellow dry-looking spots on the leaves, which gradually 
extend until the leaves are destroyed. The effect resembles much 
the ordinary decay of the leaves in autumn. The proportion of 
gas, in some experiments, was only 1 in 9000 or 10,000 parts of air, 
and the quantity + of a cubic inch; and yet the whole unfolded 
leaves of a mignonette plant were destroyed in forty-eight hours. 
This proportion of the gas is hardly or not at all discoverable by the 
smell. 

Hyprocutoric Acip Gas produces effects similar and scarcely 
inferior to those of the last-mentioned gas. When ¢ of a cubic inch 
is diluted with 10,000 parts of air, it acts destructively on Laburnum 
and Larch, destroying the whole vegetation in less than two days. 
Even when in quantity not perceptible by the smell, it still acts as an 
irritant poison. 

SULPHURETTED HyprocEN acts in a different way from the acid 
gases. The latter attack the leaves at the tips first, and gradually 
extend their operation to the leaf-stalks.) When in considerable 
proportion, their effects begin in a few minutes ; and, if diluted, the 
parts not attacked generally survive if the plants are removed into 
the air. But in the case of sulphuretted hydrogen, the leaves, without 
being injured in texture or colour, become flaccid and drooping, and 
the plant does not recover when removed into the air. It requires a 
larger quantity of this gas to produce the effects stated. When six 
cubic inches are added to sixty times their volume of air, the droop- 
ing begins in ten hours. This gas then acts like a narcotic poison, 
by destroying life throughout the whole plant at once. 

These observations point out the great injury which is caused to 
plants by the gases given off during the combustion of coal, and more 
especially by certain chemical works. In the vicinity of the latter, 
the vegetation, for a considerable distance around, is often destroyed, 
- particularly in the direction of the prevailing winds of the locality. 
The atmosphere of large manufacturing towns, in which fuliginous 
matter and sulphurous gases abound, is peculiarly hurtful to vegetable 
life. In order to protect plants from such prejudicial influences, Mr. 
N. B. Ward has invented close glass cases, in which plants can be 
grown independently of the noxious atmosphere around. These 
cases consist of a trough containing soil, and a frame of glass, which 
is accurately fitted upon it. The soil is well supplied with water at 
first, and after the plants are put in, they are kept exposed to the 


GROWTH OF PLANTS IN WARD’S CASES. 161 


light. In these circumstances they will continue to thrive for a long 
time, even for years, without any fresh supply of moisture or any 
direct exposure to the air. These Cases are well fitted for rooms 
where the dryness of the atmosphere interferes with the vigour of 
plants, by causing greater exhalation than can be compensated by the 
absorption of moisture by the roots. Some plants, as Ferns, requiring 
a humid atmosphere, thrive well in such Cases. 

But it is not merely as objects of luxury and curiosity that these 
Cases deserve notice. They supply an important means of transport- 
ing plants, in a living state, to and from foreign climates; and they 
are in constant use for that purpose. Plants have thus been brought 
to this country which could not have retained their vitality in the 
form of seed, and which would have been destroyed by exposure to 
the sea-breeze and to the vicissitudes of climate experienced during 

‘their transport. Plants of Musa Cavendishii have been thus intro- 
duced into the South Sea Islands, and Tea, Ipecacuan, and Cinchona 
into our Indian possessions. The stillness of the atmosphere in the 
Case contributes materially to prevent injurious consequences, In 
June 1833, Mr. Ward filled two Cases with Ferns,’ Grasses, etc., and 
sent them from Britain to Sydney, where they arrived in January 1834. 
The plants were taken out in good condition, and the Cases were re- 
filled at Sydney, in February 1834, the thermometer then being 
between 90° and 100° Fahrenheit. In their passage to England they 
encountered very varying temperatures, The thermometer fell to 20° 
on rounding Cape Horn, and the decks were covered a foot with snow. 
In crossing the line the thermometer rose to 120°, and fell to 40° 
on their‘arrival in the British Channel in the beginning of November, 
eight months after they had been enclosed. The plants were not 
once watered during the voyage, and received no protection by day 
or by night, nevertheless they reached London in a healthy and 
vigorous condition. 

It is a mistake to suppose that the air in the Cases remains un- 
changed. They are not hermetically sealed ; and by the law of diffu- 
sion of gases there is a constant although gradual mixture of the 
external air with that inside, free however from many impurities. 
Plants will continue to grow for a long time, even in Cases hermeti- 
cally sealed, if supplied at first with abundance of good soil and water. 
By the united action of the plant and light, the air undergoes constant 
changes, and thus continues fit for vegetable life. 


4.—Products and Secretions of Plants. 


The sap in its progress through the cells and vessels, and especi- 
ally in its passage through the leaves, is converted into organisable 
products, from which the vegetable tissues are nourished and the 

M 


162 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS—STARCH. 


secretions are elaborated. Light, by enabling plants to fix carbon, 
has an important influence over these secretions. When plants are 
kept in darkness they become etiolated or blanched, and do not 
form their proper sécretions, Gardeners resort to the practice of 
blanching when they wish to diminish or destroy certain secretions, — 
and to render plants fit for food ; a familiar example of which may be 
seen in their culture of Apium graveolens (Celery). In speaking of 
the contents of cells and vessels, allusion has already been made to 
some of the more important organisable products. It is proposed in 
this place to take a general view of those vegetable secretions which 
are connected with the nutrition of plants, or which are important on 
account of their medicinal or commercial uses. Some of these occur 
in small quantity, and are limited to certain plants only ; others are 
abundant, and more universal in their distribution. Thus, while 
quinia and morphia, the active ingredients respectively of Peruvian 
bark, and opium, are circumscribed, both as regards quantity and 
distribution, starch, gum, sugar, woody matter, and certain nitrogenous 
compounds, are more abundant, and more generally diffused through- 
out the vegetable kingdom. The latter substances therefore demand 
special attention. Ifa plant is macerated in water and all its soluble 
parts removed, lignin is left, and the water in which it has been 
macerated gradually deposits starch, If the liquid is boiled a scum 
coagulates, formed of albumin and some azotised matters, while gum 
and sugar remain in solution. : 
Sranca is a general product, being laid up as a store of nourish- 
ment, and undergoing changes at certain periods of a plant’s life, 
which fit it for further uses in the economy of vegetation. It is not 
usually found in animal cells. It consists of C, H,, O,, and occurs 
in grains of various sizes and shapes, having an external membrane, 
enclosing a soluble substance. By boiling in water, the pellicle bursts, 
and the contents are dissolved, becoming gelatinous on cooling. The 
circular markings and striee seen on the grains, and the part called the 
hilum, have already been noticed (p. 10). The grains of potato starch, 
seen by polarised light, exhibit a well-marked black cross, the centre 
of which corresponds with the hilum. Some plants, such as potato, 
arrow-root, and wheat, contain a large quantity of starch, which varies, 
however, in quantity according to the period of growth. Thus, while 
starch abounds in the potato towards the latter part of the season, it 
decreases when the tubers begin to germinate in spring. It was found 
that 240 lbs. of potatoes, left in the ground, contained of starch— 


In August . . 2 23 to 25 lbs., or 9°6 to 10°4 per cent. 
», September . : 32 ,, 88 4, 4,133 ,, 16 55 
», October “ : 32,,40 , 4,133 ,, 166 ,, 
» November . ‘i B85, 45> 55. 5,18 5 287 a; 
»Aprl .  . . S88, 288, 4 16 4 116, 


» May. : 3 28 ,,20 , 116, 83 ,, 


VEGETABLE PRODUCTS—GUM. 163 


The quantity of starch remained the same during the dormant state 
in winter, but decreased whenever the plant began to grow. 

Starch is stored up in many seeds. It exists in roots, especially 
in those which are fleshy ; in stems; in the receptacles of flowers ; 
and in pulpy fruits. The seed-lobes of the Bean and Pea, and 
many other leguminous plants ; the roots and the underground stem 
of Maranta arundinacea (arrow-root), and of Canna coccinea (tous- 
les-mois), Canna Achiras and C. edulis ; the stem of Sago Palms (Sagus 
Rumphii and farinifera), and of the Cycas order ; the receptacle of the 
artichoke, and the pulp of the apple, are familiar instances of parts in 
which starch abounds, The grains of potato-starch are of large size, 
with pearly or sparkling lustre, having one or more hila, and frequently 
cracks on the surface. Those of arrow-root are small, and have a dull 
white appearance, while those of tous-les-mois are larger, and glisten 
like potato-starch. In some cases starch is associated with poisonous 
or acrid juices, as in Jatropha Manihot, which yields Cassava and 
Tapioca, and in Arum maculatum, the underground stem of which 
furnishes Portland sago. Inulin (Cs H,, O,) is a substance analogous 
to starch, to which Iodine communicates a brown colour. It is found 
in the roots and tubers of Inula Helenium (Elecampane), Dahlia 
variabilis, and Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke); while 
Lichenin is a variety of starch occurring in Cetraria islandica (Iceland 
moss). Lichenin or lichen starch consists of O, H,, O,, and is de- 
posited on the primary cell-wall of the plant, in the form of an encrust- 
ing layer. By the action of malt, or of sulphuric acid upon starch, by 
long boiling in water, or by heating up to 400° Fahrenheit, a soluble 
gummy substance is produced called deatrin* (C, H,, O,), which, when 
dried, constitutes British gum. It is one of the steps in the process 
of the conversion of starch into sugar. 

Gum is one of the substances which are produced abundantly in 
the vegetable kingdom. Its composition is C,, H,, 0,,, the same as 
that of Cane-sugar. It exists in many seeds, exudes from the stems 
and twigs of many trees, and is contained in the juices of others from 
which it does not exude. It is one of the forms through which organic 
matter passes during the growth of plants, The different kinds of 
gums have been divided into those which are soluble in eold water 
(Arabin, mucilage), and those which only swell up into a gelatinous 
matter (Bassorin or Tragacanth, Cerasin, and Pectin), Arabin is 
familiarly known by the name of gnm-arabic or gum-senegal, and is 
the produce of various species of Acacia, chiefly natives of Arabia, | 
Egypt, Nubia, and Senegambia, such as Acacia Ehrenbergii, tortilis, 
Seyal, arabica, vera, and albida. From the bark of these plants it 
exudes in the form of a thick juice, which afterwards concretes into 


* Dextrin is so called from possessing the property of effecting the right-handed rotation 
of the plane of polarisation of a ray of polarised light. 


164 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS—SUGAR. 


tears, The characters of gum from the same species of plant are 
liable to considerable variation ; the same tree may yield a transparent 
or an opaque, a light or a dark coloured gum. Old stunted trees, in 
hot and dry seasons, yield most gum. Arabin exists with cerasin in 
the gum of the Cherry and Plum. Mucilage is present in many of the 
Mallow tribe, as Malva sylvestris, and Althzea officinalis or marsh mal- 
low, also in Linseed. In Spherococcus crispus, mucilage is present, of 
which the formula is C,, H,, 0, Bassorin (C,, H,) O,,) forms the 
chief part of gum-tragacanth (the produce of several species of Astra- 
galus), and of gum-bassora. It exists in Salep, procured from the 
tubercules of Orchis mascula, Cerasin (C,, H,, O,)) is that part of 
the gum of the Cherry (Cerasus), Plum, and Almond trees, which is 
insoluble in cold water. Pectin is a substance procured from pulpy 
fruits, as the apple and pear. It forms a jelly with water, and when 
dried, resembles gum or isinglass. It is changed by alkalies into 
pectic acid, which is found in many fruits and esculent roots, 

Sucar.—This substance, which forms an important article of diet, 
exists in many species of plants. Sugars have been divided into those 
which undergo vinous fermentation, as Cane and Grape sugar, and 
those which are not fermentescible, as Mannite. Cane sugar, C,, H,, 
0,,, is procured from Saccharum officinarum (sugar-cane), Beta 
vulgaris (beet-root), Acer saccharinum (sugar-maple), and many other 
plants. It has been conjectured that the Calamus or sweet cane 
mentioned in the Old Testament, may be the sugar cane. At all 
events, the plant was known as early as the commencement of. the. 
Christian era. In the East and West Indies, at the present time, 
numerous varieties of cane are cultivated, such as Country cane, Ribbon 
cane, Bourbon cane, Violet or Batavian cane, which are distinguished 
by their size, form, the position and colour of their joints, their foliage, 
and their glumes. Bourbon cane is richest in saccharine matter. 
Canes demand a fertile soil, and for their perfect maturation they 
require from twelve to fourteen months. Those which are grown from 
planted slips are plant-canes, those which sprout up from the old stems 
are rattoons, After being cut, the canes are crushed (the pressed canes 
being called begass), the saccharine juice is extracted, evaporated, and 
crystallised, as Raw or Muscovado sugar, which is afterwards refined 
in vacuo, so as to form loaf sugar. In 1870 the import of unrefined 
sugar in Great Britain amounted to 12,798,631 cwts., and of refined 
sugar 1,710,176 cwts. 

Maple Sugar is much used in America. It is procured from the 
sugar maple (Acer saccharinwm) by making perforations in the stem, and 
allowing the sweet sap to flow out. Two or three holes, at the 
height of eighteen or twenty inches from the ground, are said to be 
sufficient for an ordinary tree. The season of collecting is from the 
beginning of February to the middle of April. Beet Sugar is the 


VEGETABLE PRODUCTS—LIGNIN. 165 


produce of the root of Beta vulgaris, and is extensively manufactured 
in many parts of the Continent. Manna Sugar, or Mannite, differs’ 
from the others in not being fermentescible. Its composition is C5 
H,, 0, It is the chief ingredient of Manna, which exudes from the 
Ornus europa and rotundifolia, From Sicily and Calabria it is 
imported under the name of flake-manna. Mannite is found in the 
juices of Mushroom, in Celery, and in Laminaria saccharina, and 
Eucalyptus mannifera. Dr. Stenhouse has determined the quantity 
of Mannite in some sea-weeds as follows :— 


Laminaria saccharina . 7 . 12 to 15 per cent of Mannite. 
Halydris siliquosa . ‘ . 5 to 6 per cent e 
Laminaria digitata ‘ a 4to 5 per cent ss 
Fucus serratus ¥ 2 . , rather Jess se 
Alaria esculenta . ‘ 2 % about the same 59) 
Rhodymenia palmata. ‘ 7 2 to 3 per cent 55 
Fucus vesiculosus . é : 3 1 to 2 per cent 55) 
Fucus nodosus . é . ‘ nearly the same is 


Knop and Schnederman have detected Mannite in Agaricus piperatus, 
and other chemists have found it in Cantharellus esculentus, and 
Clavellaria coralloides. 

Grape Sugar, called also Starch sugar or Glucose, is composed of 
OC, H,, O, It occurs in the juices of many plants, and is a product of 
the metamorphosis of starch, cane sugar, and lignin. It may be 
extracted from dry grapes, and may be prepared from starch by the 
action of an infusion of malt, or of a substance contained in malt, 
called Diastase. It is less soluble and less sweet than cane sugar. 
It gives sweetness to gooseberries, currants, apples, pears, plums, 
apricots, and most other fruits. It is also the sweet substance of the 
chestnut, of the brewer’s wort, and of all fermented liquors. 

LicNIn is the substance which gives hardness and solidity to the 
cells and vessels of plants. It exists abundantly in the woody tubes, 
which may be said to be composed of cellulose forming the parietes, 
and lignin or sclerogen, forming the encrusting matter in the in- 
terior. The latter dissolves in strong nitric acid, forming oxalic acid, 
while the former is left undissolved. Lignin cannot be separated in 
the pure state, and hence its exact composition is unknown. When a 
portion of the stem of a herbaceous plant, or of newly cut wood, is 
reduced to small pieces and boiled in successive portions of water, 
alcohol, ether, diluted acids and alkalies, until everything soluble in 
these agents is removed, a white fibrous mass remains. This fibrous 
matter exists in linen and paper; and these substances, when sub- 
jected to the action of sulphuric acid, are converted into grape sugar. 
Lignin gives support to the vegetable texture, and is often deposited 
in concentric layers, It occurs in large quantity in the wood of trees, 
and is also present in the stem of herbaceous plants, In some 


4 


166 AZOTISED VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 


cellular plants it is absent, and the object of many horticultural 
‘operations, as blanching, is to prevent its formation. Beet-root and 
white turnips contain only 3 per cent. Lignin is not coloured by 
iodine. 

All these organic substances, consisting of carbon united with'the 
elements of water, are easily convertible into each other by the action 
of sulphuric acid and heat. Similar changes are induced during the 
growth and development of plants, as will be noticed under the head 
of flowering, fruiting, and germination. In many unazotised matters 
the proportion of elements is the same, that is, they are isomeric, 
Thus, cellulose and starch have the same composition (C, H,, O,), and 
are said to be isomeric. The difference in their qualities seems to depend 
on the mode in which the atoms which make up the molecule are 
grouped. The form is altered by a re-arrangement of the component 
atoms. The unazotised products which have been noticed supply 
materials for the respiration of man and animals, and probably assist 
in the formation of fat. It is impossible to notice all the compounds 
of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, found in plants. For example, 
Salicin, C,, H,, O,, a bitter neutral crystalline substance, is procured 
from the bark of Salix alba, Helix, purpurea, viminalis, pentandra, etc. ; 
and Phlorizin, C,, H,, O,,, an analogous substance, occurs in the bark 
of the roots of the apple, pear, cherry, and plum. 

AzotTIsED Propucts.—There are certain azotised products which 
exist in greater or less quantity in plants, and which are particularly 
abundant in grains and seeds. The nutritive matter of wheat consists 
of starch or unazotised matter, separable by washing, and of azotised 
matter or glutin. Glutin is composed of certain protein compounds 
(fibrin, casein, albumin, emulsin), containing carbon, oxygen, hy- 
drogen, and nitrogen, with some phosphorus and sulphur. Vegetable 
fibrin is the essential part of the glutin of wheat, and of the cereal 
grains, It may be procured by treating with ether the glutinous mass 
left after kneading wheat flour in linen bags under water. Vegetable 
casein or legumin is an essential part of the seeds of Leguminous 
plants, and also of oily seeds. It may be procured in solution from 
kidney beans and peas, by bruising them in a mortar with cold water, 
and straining. Vegetable albumin occurs in a soluble form associated 
with casein, It forms a small proportion of cereal grains, Wheat is 
said to contain # to 1} per cent; Rye, 2 to 32 per cent; Barley, y, 
to 4 per cent; and Oats,z to $ per cent. It is distinguished by 
coagulating at a temperature of 140° to 160°, and by not being pre- 
cipitated by acetic acid. Zmulsin, or synaptase, has never been 
obtained in a state of purity. It is a nitrogenous compound, found 
in certain oily seeds, as in almonds, It exists in the milky emulsion 
which these seeds form in water, and it is coagulated by acetic acid, 
and by heat. In bitter almonds it is associated with a substance 


a 


VEGETABLE OILS. 167 


called amygdalin (O,, H,, NO,,), on which it acts in a peculiar manner, 
producing hydrocyanic acid. Diastase is an azotised substance procured 
from malt, and developed during the germination of plants. It is 
probably fibrin i in an altered state, and it has the power of promoting 
the conversion of starch into sugar. 

The azotised products of plants have a composition similar to blood 
and muscular fibre, and hence their value in the food of man and 
animals. The following table gives a general view of the quantity of 
azotised and unazotised matters occurring in certain plants, with the 
amount of water and inorganic matter :— 


Azotised  Carbonaceous 


Water. matter. matter. Ashes. 
Peas . : ‘ 16 wa 29 ea 52 3 
Beans i i 14 ca 31 34 52 3 
Lentils F ‘ 16 = 33 as 48 3 
Oats . ‘i ‘ 18 ish 11 a 68 3 ; 
Barley : z 16 a 14 ie 69 2 
Potatoes. 7 72 is 2 25 25 1 
Turnips . 7 89 a8 1 ae 9 1 


The following arrangement is given by Fromberg of the compara- 
tive value of various plants as articles of food, taking into account the 
protein compounds, and the starch, gum, and saccharine matter which 
they contain, the highest value being 100 :— 


Beans . é 100 Rye. F . ‘ 55 
Peas 5 a . 80 Barley. % e 50 
Oats “ ‘ i 75 Potatoes . ‘ , 45 
Wheat . . ‘ 70 Rice . : ‘ ‘ 35 
Maize. P é 60 


As regards the produce of different crops per acre, Johnston. gives 
the following estimate of the nutritive products which they yield :— 


Average produce per No. of Ibs. of true 
acre of tubers and nutriment in pro- 
grain. duce of an acre. 
Beet, Mangel-warzel, a and. pans 30 tons . 672 Ibs, 
Beans : 30 bushels, or "1980 Ibs. 594 ,, 
Potatoes. . 7 ‘ 8 tons. . 358 ,, 
Peas ‘i 2 : s 20 bushels, or 1160 Tos. 348 ,, 
Barley . i ; 36 bushels, or 1872 Ibs. 248 ,, 
J ernealoit Artichokes . ‘ 10 tons . . 224 ,, 
Wheat x . : 7 25 bushels, or 1500 Ibs. 180 5 
Oats . ‘ . . . 30 bushels, or 1200 Ibs. 132 ,, 


Frxep O1ts are found in the cells and intercellular spaces of the 
fruit, leaves, and other parts of plants. Some of these are drying oils, 
as Linseed oil, from Linum usitatissimum ; others are fat oils, as that 
from Olives (fruit of Olea europea); while others are concrete, as 
Palm oil, The solid oils or fats procured from plants, are Butter of 


168 VEGETABLE OILS. 


Cacao, from Theobroma Cacao ; of Cinnamon, from Cinnamomum 
zeylanicum ; of Nutmeg, from Myristica moschata ; of Coco-nut, from 
Cocos nucifera ; of Laurel, from Laurus nobilis; Palm oil, from Elais 
guineensis ; Shea butter, from Bassia Parkii; Galam butter, from 
Bassia butyracea; and Vegetable tallow, from Stillingia sebifera in 
China, from Vateria indica in India, and from Pentadesma butyracea 
in Sierra Leone. These oils contain a large amount of stearin, and are 
used as substitutes for fat. Castor Oil, from the seeds of Ricinus 
communis, differs from other fixed oils in its composition. 

Decandolle gives the following table to show the quantity of oil 
got from seeds :— 


Hazel-nut . 60 per cent by weight. | White Mustard 36 per cent by weight. 


Garden Cress 57  ,, 45 Tobacco . . 34 4 5 
Olive. . . 50 4, ss Plum. . . 33 4 Ph 
Walnut . . 50 ,, 5 Woad. . . 80 4, ss 
Poppy . . 48 4» ” Hemp .. 2 4 ” 
Almond . . 46 ,, ss Pee ee 5) DAO mas ” 
Euphorbia Lath- Sunflower . 15 ,, 59 

ys. . 41 y 6 Buckwheat . 14 ,, + 
Colzaa. . . 38 yy ” Grapes . . 12 4, e 


VEGETABLE Wax is a peculiar fatty matter sometimes found in 
the stem and fruit of plants. It is procured from several species of 
Palms, as Ceroxylon Andicola, and Copernicia cerifera, and from the 
fruit of Myrica cerifera (candle-berry myrtle) and Myrica cordifolia, 
By boiling these plants in water and compressing them the wax exudes, 
floats on the water, and may be collected and melted. It is of a 
greenish yellow colour. By saponification it yields stearic, margaric, 
and oleic acids, along with glycerin. It therefore more nearly approxi- 
mates the character of fat than that of wax. Waxy matter also 
occurs on the exterior of fruits, giving rise to the bloom of grapes, 
plums, etc., on the outer surface of the bracts of Musa paradisiaca, 
and on the leaves of many species of Encephalartos. In Cork there 
exists a fatty substance which, when acted upon by nitric acid, yields 
suberic acid. Chlorophyll, or the green colouring matter of leaves, 
is allied to wax in its nature, being soluble in ether and alcohol, but 
insoluble in water. 

VoLATILE oR EssENTIAL OILs occur in the stem, leaves, flowers, 
and fruit of many odoriferous plants, and are procured by distillation 
along with water. They are called essences, and contain the concen- 
trated odour of the plant. They usually exist ready-formed, but 
occasionally they are formed by a kind of fermentation, as oil of bitter 
almonds, and oil of mustard. Some of them consist of carbon and 
hydrogen only, as oil of turpentine, procured from various species of 
Pinus and Abies; oil of juniper, from Juniperus communis ; oil of 
savin, from Juniperus Sabina ; oil of lemon and orange, from the rind 


RESINOUS PRODUCTS—CAOUTCHOUC. 169 


of the fruit ; and oil of neroli, from orange flowers. A second series 
contain oxygen in addition, as oil of cinnamon, from Cinnamomum 
zeylanicum ; otto or attar of roses, from various species of Rose, 
especially Rosa centifolia ; oil of peppermint, from Mentha viridis ; 
oil of caraway, from Carum Carui; oil of cloves, from Caryophyllus 
aromaticus. Oils of this kind are procured from many Labiate, as 
_ species of Lavandula, Origanum, Rosmarinus, Thymus ; and from the 
fruit of Umbelliferee, as species of Anethum, Foeniculum, Coriandrum, 
Cuminum, Petroselinum, Pimpinella; and from some Composite, as 
species of Anthemis, Pyrethrum, and Artemisia. A third series have 
also sulphur in their composition, and have a peculiar pungent, often 
alliaceous smell, with an acrid burning taste, as oil of garlic, and of 
onion, procured from the bulbs of Allium sativum and Cepa; oil of 
assafcetida, from Narthex Assafoetida; and oil of mustard, which is 
obtained from the seeds of Sinapis nigra when macerated in water by 
a kind of fermentation induced by the action of a nitrogenous body, 
myrosin, on a substance called myronic acid, or myronate of potash. 
A similar oil exists in many Crucifere, as in Alliaria officinalis, 
Armoracia rusticana, and Cochlearia officinalis, and in several Um- 
belliferee, yielding gum-resin, as Opoponax, Ferula, Galbanum, etc. 
Many of the essential oils deposit a solid crystalline matter, called 
Stearoptene, allied to camphor. This latter substance, which consists 
.of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, is procured from Camphora offici- 
narum, a native of Japan and India. There is also another kind of 
camphor, produced in Borneo, from Dryobalanops Camphora. 
Restnous Propucts.—The milky and coloured juices of plants . 
contain frequently resins mixed with volatile oils, in the form of 
balsams, besides a quantity of caoutchouc. The resinous substances 
found in plants are either fluid or solid. The former may be illus- 
trated by Balsam of Tolu, procured from Myroxylon toluiferum ; 
Balsam of Peru, from Myroxylon Pereire ; Balsam of Copaiba from 
various species of Copaifera, especially Copaifera officinalis and mul- 
tijuga ; Carpathian Balsam, from Pinus Pinea ; Strasburg turpentine, 
from Abies pectinata (silver fir) ; Bordeaux turpentine, from Pinus 
pinaster ; Canada Balsam, from Abies balsamea (Balm of Gilead fir) ; 
Chian turpentine, from Pistacia Terebinthus, etc. The latter may be 
illustrated by common resin or Colophony, and Burgundy pitch, from 
Pinus sylvestris ; Mastich, from Pistacia Lentiscus ; Sandarach, from 
Callitris quadrivalvis ; Elemi, from several species of Amyris ; Guaiac, 
from Guaiacum officinale ; Dragon’s-blood, from Dracaena Draco, and 
Calamus Draco; Dammar, from Dammara australis and orientalis ; 
Labdanum, from Cistus creticus, and other species ; Tacamahaca, from 
Calophyllum Cadaba, and from Elaphrium tomentosum ; Resin of Jalap, 
from Exogonium Purga; Storax, from Styrax officinale; Benzoin, 
from Styrax Benzoin; Copal, from Vateria indica, etc. Lac, from 


170 — ACIDS, ALKALOIDS, AND COLOURING MATTERS. 


various species of Ficus, as Ficus indica, after attacks of Cocci, and 
from Aleurites laccifera, and Erythrina monosperma; Euphorbium, 
from Euphorbia officinarum, antiquorum, and canariensis. 

Caoutcnovc is in some respects analogous to essential oils. It is 
found associated with them and with resinous matters, in the milky 
juice of plants. It is the inspissated juice of various species of Ficus, 
as Ficus elastica, Radula, elliptica, and prinoides, also of Urceola 
elastica, Siphonia elastica, and Vahea gummifera, A kind of caout- 
chouc, called gutta percha, imported from Singapore and Borneo, is 
procured from Isonandra Gutta, one of the Sapotacee. The milky 
juice of many orders of plants, as of Euphorbiacez, Asclepiadacez, 
Apocynaces, Artocarpacese, and Papayaces, contains caoutchouc or 
gum elastic. Some of these coloured juices are bland, as that produced 
by the Cow-tree (Galactodendron utile) ; others are narcotic, as those 
of Poppy and Chelidonium ; others are purgative, as Gamboge ; others 
diuretic, as Taraxacum. 

Orcanic Acips are produced by processes going on in living 
plants, and exist in vegetable juices often combined with peculiar 
bases and alkaloids. Thus Citric acid occurs in the fruit of the orange, 
lemon, lime, red currant, etc. ; Tartaric acid, in the juice of the grape, 
and in combination with potash in tamarinds ; Malic acid, in the fruit 
of the apple, gooseberry, and mountain ash ; Tannic acid or Tannin, in 
oak bark and nut-galls ; Gallic acid, in the seeds of Mango ; Meconic 
acid, in the juice of Papaver somniferum ; Kinic acid, in the bark of 
various species of Cinchona. Besides these, there are numerous others, 
which are characteristic of certain species or genera, To these may 
be added Hydrocyanic acid, as found in Prunus Laurocerasus, etc., 
and Oxalic acid, which exists in combination with potash in Rumex 
acetosa, and Acetosella, Oxyria reniformis, Oxalis Acetosella, and in 
combination with lime in Rhubarb, and many species of Parmelia and 
Variolaria. 

ALKALOIDS OR ORGANIC BASES are azotised compounds found in 
living plants, and generally containing their active principles. They 
occur usually in combination with organic acids. Quinia and Cincho- 
nia exist in the bark of Cinchona, the former predominating in yellow 
bark, the latter in pale bark; Morphia, Narcotin, Codeia, Thebaia, 
and Narcein, occur in the juice of Papaver somniferum ; Solania is 
an alkaloid found in many species of Solanum, as Solanum tuberosum, 
nigrum, and Dulcamara; Veratria exists in Veratrum Sabadilla and 
album ; Aconitia in Aconitum Napellus ; Strychnia in Strychnos 
Nux- -yomica, Sancti Ignatii, Colubrina and Tieuté ; Brucia also in 
Nux-vomica or false Angustura bark ; Atropia in Atropa Belladonna ; 
Beberia in Nectandra Rodiei ; Piperin i in Piper longum and nigrum ; 
Emetina in Cephielis Tpecacuanha ; Caffein (Thein and Guaranin) 
in Coffea arabica, Thea Bohea and viridis, Paullinia sorbilis and 


ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 171 


Tlex paraguensis ; Theobromin in the seeds of Theobroma Cacao or 
chocolate ; besides numerous others of less importance. These Alka- 
loids are often found in plants having poisonous properties. 
CoLoURING MATTERS are furnished by many plants, either directly 
or by a process of fermentation. Yellow colouring matters are procured 
from the roots of Curcuma longa (turmeric), from the pulp surround- 
ing the seeds of Bixa orellana (arnotto), from the Ceylon Gamboge 
plant (Hebradendron Cambogioides), and various species of Garcinia, 
as Garcinia Cambogia and elliptica, from the flowers of Carthamus 
tinctorius (saflower), from the stigmata of Crocus sativus (saffron), 
from a kind of Mulberry (Morus tinctoria), from Reseda Luteola 
(weld), and from some Lichens, as Parmelia parietina (parietin or 
chrysophanic acid). Red colouring matters are produced from the root 
of Anchusa tinctoria (alkanet), from Pterocarpus santalinus, Draceena 
Draco eaeeeten the root of Rubia tinctorum or madder (aliza- 
tin), the root of Morinda citrifolia (sooranjee), from Heematoxylon 
campechianum (logwood), Czesalpinia braziliana (Brazil wood), Cam- 
wood, Carthamus tinctorius (carthamine), and from some Lichens, as 
Roccella tinctoria (archil and litmus). Blue colouring matters are 
furnished by the flowers and fruits of many plants, and from the leaves 
of some, by chemical action. Indigo, a most valuable dye, is procured 
by fermentation from various species of Indigofera, as Indigofera, tinc- 
toria, Anil, ceerulea and argentea, as well as from Wrightia tinctoria, 
Marsdenia tinctoria, Nerium tinctorium, Gymnema tingens, and Isatis 
tinctoria, etc. The plants in full flower are cut and put into vats 
with water, fermentation takes place, and a peculiar substance is 
formed, which, by absorption of oxygen, becomes blue. The best and 
the largest quantity of indigo is produced on the Delta of the Ganges. 
Several Lichens yield nitrogenous colouring matters, which give blue 
and purple colours with alkalies, ete. Lecanora tartarea yields cud- 
bear (Gyrophoric acid). This acid also exists in Gyrophora pustulata. 


Section IIJ.—Orcans or REPRODUCTION. 


Structure, Arrangement, and Functions, 


The reproductive organs consist of the flower and its appendages, 
the essential parts being the stamens and pistil. When the flower, or 
at least the essential organs, ‘are conspicuous, the plants are called 
Phanerogamous (pavegds, conspicuous, and yé0s, union or marriage), or 
Flowering plants ; when they are inconspicuous, the plants are Crypto- 
gamous (xeuvrrds, concealed, and yéos, union or marriage), or Flower- 
less plants. The former include Exogens and Endogens, the latter 
Acrogens and Cellular plants. On careful examination it will be 


/ 


172 INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS. 


found that the organs of reproduction and of nutrition are modifications 
of each other. The parts of the flower, as regards their development, 
structure, and arrangement, may all be referred. to the leaf as a type. 
They commence like leaves in cellular projections, in which fibro- 
vascular tissue is ultimately formed ; they are arranged in a more or 
less spiral manner, and are often partially or entirely converted into 
leaves. 


1.—Inflorescence, or the Arrangement of the Flowers on the Amis, 


The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of 
the floral axis, is called Inflorescence or Anthotaxts (dvbos, a flower, and 
ré&sc, order). Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil 
of leaves, and these are called floral leaves or bracts. A flower-bud 
has not in ordinary circumstances any 
power of extension’ by the develop- 
ment of its central cellular portion. 
In this respect it differs from a leaf- 
bud. In some cases, however, of 
monstrosity, especially seen in the Rose 
(fig. 247) and Geum, the central part, 
A, is prolonged, and bears leaves or 
flowers. In such cases the flowers are 
usually abortive, the essential organs 
being so altered as to unfit them for 
their functions. Such metamorphoses 
confirm Goethe’s doctrine, that all the 
parts of the flower are modified leaves. 

The general axis of inflorescence is 
sometimes called rachis (géyic, the 
spine) ; the stalk supporting a flower, 
or a cluster of flowers, is a peduncle 
(pes, a foot (fig. 252 a’); and if small 
branches are given off by it, they are 
called pedicels (fig. 252 a"). A flower 
having a stalk is called pedunculate or 
pedicellate (fig. 252); one having no 
stalk is sessile (fig. 258). In deserib- 

Fig. 247. ing a branching inflorescence, it is 

common to speak of the Rachis as 

the primary floral axis, its branches as the secondary floral axes, 
their divisions as the tertiary floral axes, and so on; thus avoiding 


Fig. 247. Proliferous or monstrous Rose, showing the prolongation of the axis beyond 
the flowers. c, Calyx transformed into leaves. , Petals multiplied at the expense-of the 
stamens, which are reduced in number. jf, Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels. 
u, Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex, 


INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS. 173 


any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms rachis, 


peduncle, and pedicel, 


The PEDUNCLE may be 
cylindrical, compressed, or 
grooved ; simple, bearing a 
single flower, as in Prim- 
tose; or branched, as in 
London-pride. It is some- 
times succulent, as in the 
Cashew (fig. 248 p), in 
which it forms the large 
coloured expansion 
porting the nut; spiral, 
as in Cyclamen and Val- 


sup- 


Fig. 248. Fig. 249. 


lisneria (fig. 249); or spiny, as in Alyssum spinosum. In some 


rushes there is-a green terete and sometimes 
spiral floral axis (fig. 190). Sometimes the 
peduncle proceeds from radical leaves; that 
is, from an axis which is so shortened as to 
‘bring the leaves close together in the form of a 
cluster, as in the Primrose, Auricula, Hyacinth, 
etc. In such cases it is termed a scape. The floral 
axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, 
convex, or concave form, and bearing numerous 
flowers, as in the Artichoke, Daisy, and Fig. 
In these cases it is called a Receptacle or 
Phoranthium (pogéw, I bear, and évéos, flower), 
or Clinanthium (xAivn, a bed, and &véos, flower). 

The Floral axis sometimes assumes a leaf- 
like or phylloid (pvAdov, a leaf, and ¢/do¢, form) 
appearance, bearing numerous flowers at its 
margin, as in Xylophylla longifolia (fig. 250), 
and in Ruscus ; or it appears as if formed by 
several peduncles united together, constituting 
a fasciated axis, as in the Cockscomb (fig. 251), 
in which the flowers form a peculiar crest at 
the apex of the flattened peduncles. Adhe- 
sions occasionally take place between the 
peduncle and the bracts or leaves of the plant, 
as in the Lime tree, Helwingia, Chailletia, 
several species of Hibiscus, and in Zostera. 
The adhesion of the peduncles to the stem 


Fig. 248. Fruit of Cashew (Anacardiwm occidentale). p, Enlarged peduncle. a, Fruit, or 
nut. Fig. 249. Pistilliferous plant of Vallisneria spiralis, showing spiral peduncles or 
flower-stalks, by the uncoiling of which the flowers reach the surface of the water, 


previous to fertilisation. 


Fig. 250. Leaf-like (phylloid) flattened peduncle, r, of Xylo- 


phylla longifolia. ff, Clusters of flowers developed in a centrifugal or cymose manner, 


174 INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS. 


accounts for the extra-axillary position of flowers, as in many 
Solanacez. When this union extends for a considerable length along 
the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where 
the peduncle becomes free, and the leaf whence it originated, and 
it may be difficult to trace the connection. 

The peduncle occasionally becomes abortive, and in place of bear- 
ing a flower, is transformed into a tendril (p. 120); at other times it 
is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently 
to form the lower part of the outer 
floral envelope, as in Eschscholtzia. 

( The termination of the peduncle, or 
* the part on which the whorls of the 
" flower are arranged, is called the Thala- 
mus or Torus. The term receptacle’ is 
also sometimes applied to this, whether 
expanded and bearing several flowers, 
or narrowed so as to bear one. It may 
be considered as the growing point of 
the axis, which usually is arrested by 
the production of the flowers, but which 
sometimes becomes enlarged and ex- 
panded. Thus, in the Geranium, it is prolonged beyond the flower 
in the form of a beak; in the Arum it is a club-shaped fleshy 
column (fig. 260, 2, a); in the Strawberry it becomes a conical 
succulent mass, on which the seed-vessels are placed; while in 
Nelumbium it forms a truncated tabular expansion, enveloping the 
seed-vessels, In some cases it bears naked seeds. In some monstrous 
flowers, as in Rose and Geum, it is prolonged as a branch bearing 
leaves (fig. 247). The flowers follow a spiral course round the floral 
axis, which is subject to laws similar to those which regulate 
phyllotaxis ; this is easily traced in such plants as Banksia. 

There are two kinds of injlorescence—one in which flowers are pro- 
duced in the axil of leaves, beyond which the axis continues to 
elongate and bears leaves and flowers ; whilst in the other the axis 
ends in a single terminal flower. In the former the flowers are 
axillary, the axis extends in an indefinite manner, and the flowers, as 
they successively expand, spring from floral leaves placed higher on 
the axis than the leaf from which the first flower was developed. In 
the latter the single solitary flower terminates and arrests the axis, 
and the flowers developed subsequently, arise from floral leaves below 
this central flower, and therefore farther removed from the centre. 

The first kind of inflorescence is Indeterminate, Indefinite, or Axillary. 


Fig. 251. Upper part of flattened or fasciated flowering stem of Celosia cristata (Cocks- 
comb), having the form of a crest, covered with pointed bracts, and supporting flowers on 
its summit. 


INFLORESCENCE. OR ANTHOTAXIS. 175 


Here the axis is either elongated, producing flower-buds as it grows, 
the lower expanding first; or it is shortened and depressed, and 
the outer flowers expand first. The expansion of the flowers is 
thus centripetal, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference to 
centre. This kind of inflorescence is shown in fig. 252, where the leaf 
from which the cluster of flowers is produced, f, represents the bract 
or floral leaf. The rachis, or primary axis of the flower, is a’; this 
produces small leaflets, 6, which bear smaller flower-leaves or bractlets, 
from which peduncles or secondary axes spring, each bearing single 
flowers. The whole inflorescence is the product of one branch, the 
lower flowers having expanded first, and bear- 
ing fruit, while the upper are in bud, and the 
middle are in full bloom. In fig. ,»253, the 
same kind of inflorescence is shown on a 
shortened axis, the outer flowers expanding 
first, and those in the centre last. 


Fig. 252. 


The second kind of Inflorescence is Determinate, Definite, or Terminal. 
In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary flower, which 
thus terminates the axis, and if other fiowers are produced, they belong 
to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the axis is shortened 
and flattened, producing a number of separate floral axes, the central 
one expanding first, while the others are developed in succession farther 
from the centre. The expansion of the flowers is in this case centri- 
jugal, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to circumference. It 
is illustrated in fig. 254, where a representation is given of a plant of 
Ranunculus bulbosus ; @ is the primary axis swollen at the base in a 
bulb-like manner, 6, and with roots proceeding from it. From the 


Fig. 252. Raceme of Barberry (Berberis vulgaris), produced in the axil of a leaf or bract, 
J, which has been transformed into a spine, with two stipules, s, at its base. a’, Primary 
floral axis, bearing small alternate bracts, 6, in the axil of which the secondary axes, a” a”, 
are produced, each terminated by a flower: The expansion of the flowers is centripetal, or 
from base to apex; the lower flowers have passed into the state of fruit, the middle are 
fully expanded, and those at the top are still in bud. Indeterminate simple inflorescence. 
Fig. 253, Head of flowers (capitulwm) of Scabiosa atro-purpurea, The inflorescence is 
simple and indeterminate, and the expansion of the flowers centripetal, those atthe circum- 
ference opening first. 


176 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 


leaves which are radical proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal 
flower, 7. About the middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from 
which a secondary floral axis, a’, is produced, ending in a single 
flower, f", less advanced than the flower f. This secondary axis 
bears a leaf also, from which a tertiary floral axis is produced, a”, 
bearing an unexpanded solitary flower, f”. From this tertiary axis a 
fourth is in progress of formation. Here f is the termination of the 
primary axis, and this flower expands first, while the other flowers are 
developed centrifugally on separate axes. It is a definite inflo- 
rescence, with numerous floral axes. 


InprEFInite InFLoREscENcE.—The simplest form of this inflores- 
cence is when single flowers are produced in the axils of the ordinary 


Fig. 254. Plant of Ranunculus bulbosus, showing determinate inflorescence. a’, Primary 
floral axis dilated at its base, so as to form a sort of bulb, b, whence the roots and radical 
leaves proceed. f’, Solitary flower, terminating the primary axis. About the middle of the 
axis a leaf is developed which gives origin to a secondary axis, a”, ending in a solitary flower, 
Jf”, which is not so advanced as f’.. On the secondary axis a leaf is formed, from the axil of 
which a tertiary axis, a”, proceeds, ending in a flower, f”, which is still in bud. On this 
axis another floral leaf and bud is in the progress of formation. Fig. 255. Branching 
raceme or so-called panicle of Yucca gloriosa. a’, Primary axis or rachis. a”, Secondary 
axes or smaller peduncles, a”, Tertiary axes or pedicels bearing flowers. 0 bb b, Bracts 
and bractlets, in the axil of which the axes are produced. The inflorescence is indeterminate 
and consists of a series of racemes on a common axis, a’, The expansion of the whole in- 
florescence is centripetal, and such is also the case with each of the racemes forming it, the 
flowers at the base of the successive axes opening first. ; 


INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. - 177 


leaves of the plant, the axis of the plant elongating beyond them, as in 
Veronica hederifolia, Vinca minor, and Lysimachia nemorum. he ordi- 
nary leaves in this case become floral leaves or bracts, by producing 
flower-buds in place of leaf-buds. The flowers, being all offshoots 
of the same axis, are said to be of the same generation or degree, and 
their number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite, 
varying with the vigour of the plant, Frequently, however, the floral 
axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending 
in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears numerous leaflets, called 
bracteoles or bractlets, from which smaller peduncles are produced, and 
those in their turn may be branched in a similar way. According to 
the nature of the subdivision, and the origin and length of the flower- 
stalks, numerous varieties of floral arrangements arise. When the 
primary peduncle or floral axis, as in fig. 252 a’, is elongated, and gives 
off pedicels, a’, of nearly equal length ending in single flowers, a raceme 
or cluster is produced, as in Currant, Hyacinth, and Barberry. If the 
secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branch- 
ing, and forms-what is by some called a panicle; but it is better to 
restrict this term to the lax inflorescence of some grasses andrushes, In 


Fig. 257. 


fig. 255 is represented a branching raceme or so-called panicle of Yucca 
gloriosa, a’ being the primary axis or rachis with bracts, giving off 
numerous secondary axes, a’, which in their turn develop tertiary axes, 


Fig. 256. Corymb of Cerasus Mahaleb, produced in the axil of a leaf which has fallen, 
and terminating an abortive branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of 
scales, e. a’, Primary axis, or peduncle, or rachis, producing alternate bracts, 0 b, from the 
axil of which secondary axes or pedicels, a” a”, arise, each bearing a single flower. The 
expansion of the flowers is centripetal. Fig. 257. Branching corymb of Pyrus torminalis. 
a’, Primary axis. a” a”, Secondary axes. a” a”, Tertiary axes or pedicels bearing the 
flowers. 00, Bracts. 

N 


178 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 


a 


a. The development in each of the secondary axes is centripetal, 
bbdb being the bracts from which the separate axes are produced. 
If in a raceme the lower flower-stalks are elongated, and thus all the 
flowers are nearly on a level, a corymb is formed, which may be simple, 
as in fig. 256, where the primary axis, a’, divides into secondary axes, 
a’ a’, which end in single flowers ; or branching, as in fig. 257, where 
the secondary axes again subdivide. 


Fig. 258. Fig, 259. Fig. 260. 


If the peduncles or secondary axes are very short or awanting, so 
that the flowers are sessile, a spike is produced, as in Plantago and. 
Verbena officinalis (fig. 258). The spike sometimes bears unisexual 
flowers, usually staminiferous, the whole falling off by an articulation, 
as in Willow or Hazel (fig. 259), and then it is called an amentum or 
catkin ; at other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers 


Fig. 258. Spike of Verbena officinalis, showing sessile flowers on a common rachis ; the in- 
florescence indefinite, and the evolution of the tlower centripetal. The flowers at the lower 
part of the spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in full bloom, and 
those at the top areonlyin bud. Fig. 259. Amentum or catkin of Hazel (Corylus Avellana), 
consisting of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales (squame), each of 
which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are seen projecting beyond the scale. The 
catkin falls off in a mass, separating from the branch by an articulation. Fig. 260. Spadix 
or succulent spike of Arum maculatum, 1 Exhibits the sagittate leaf, the spathe or sheath- 
ing bract, 0, rolled round the spadix, the apex of which, a, is seen projecting. 2 Shows the 
spathe, 6, cut longitudinally, so as to display the spadix, a. f, Female flowers at the base. 
m, Male flowers. On the spadix above the male flowers there are numerous abortive flowers 
indicated by hair-like projections. 


INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE, 179 


surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes a 
spadix, which may be simple, as in Arum maculatum (fig. 260), or 
branching, as in Palms, A spike bear- 
ing female flowers only, and covered 
with scales, is either a strobilus, as in 
the Hop ; or a cone, as in the Fir (figs, 
217, 218). In grasses there are usu- 
ally numerous sessile flowers arranged 
in small spikes, called Locuste or 
sptkelets, which are either set closely 
along a central axis, or are produced 
on secondary axes formed by the 
branching of the central one; to the 
latter form the term Panicle is applied. 


Fig. 262. \ 


If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, 


Fig. 261. Several umbels, o’ o' 0’ o’, of Aralia racemosa. a, General Axis or the apex of 
the branch terminated by a single umbel farther advanced than the rest. a a a’ a’, Axes 
arising from it, which are secondary as respects the general axis, a; each of them bears an 
umbel, and as regards this inflorescence they are primary. a” a” a”, Secondary axes, or the 
radii of the umbel. 00, Bracts placed alternately on the general axis. d, Shows a double 
pudgproceeding from the axil ofZone of these bracts, and thus giving rise to two stalked or 
stipitate umbels. 47%, Verticillate bracts, forming involucres at the base of the radii of the 
umbels. Fig. 262. Compound umbel of Carrot (Daucus Carota), a’, Primary axis 
shortened and depressed, so as to present a convex surface. a” a’, Secondary axes, or radii 
of the general umbel, each ending in a partial umbel or umbellule, o” 0” 0” 0”. a” a”, 
Tertiary axes or radii of the partial umbels or umbellules. 7@, Pinnatipartite bracts, form- 
ing the general involucre. 7” i”, Simple bracts, forming the partial involucre or involucel. 
Fig. 263. Capitulum, Anthodium, or Head of flowers of Scorzonera hispanica, 0, Imbricated 
bracts, forming an involucre. /j, Florets or small flowers on the receptacle, having a centri- 
petal evolution. 


180 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 


it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When 
the axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a 
common point, and spread out as radi of nearly equal length, each 
ending in a single flower, or dividing again 
in a similar radiating manner, an Umbel is 
produced, as in figs. 261 and 262. In fig, 
261 the floral axes, a a’ a’, end in simple 
umbels, o’ o’ o’, and the‘ umbels are called 
stipitate or stalked ; while in fig. 262 the 
primary floral axis, a, is very short, and the 
secondary axes, a’ a’, come off from it in 
a radiating or umbrella-like manner, and 
end in small umbels, 0", which are called 
partial umbels or umbellules, to distinguish 
them from the general wmbel arising from 
the primary axis. This inflorescence is 
seen in Hemlock, and other allied. plants, which are hence called 
Umbelliferous. : 

If there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex, or slightly 


Fig. 265. Fig. 266. 


concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a capi- 
tulum (head) or anthodiwm (dvéog, a flower, 60é¢, a way or method), 


Fig. 264. Capitulum of Scorzonera hispanica cut vertically. +, Receptacle, Phoran- 
thium, or the flattened and depressed apex of the peduncle, bearing the florets, f, which 
are surrounded by bracts, b. Fig. 265. Inflorescence of Dipsacus sylvestris. Capi- 
tulum, or head of flowers, each of which is surrounded by long pointed bracts. The 
flowers are evolved ina centripetal manner. e i, The first expanded, followed by those at 
em, while those at the apex, es, are in bud, Fig. 266. Inflorescence of Dorstenia Con- 
trayerva, consisting of a broad slightly concave receptacle, 7, in which numerous male 
and female flowers, f, are placed. Fig. 267. Inflorescence of Fig (Fiews Carica), showing 
the hollow receptacle, r, or peduncle (which is popularly called the fruit), covered with 
flowers, f, of various kinds. 


INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 181 


or calathiwm (xurdééiov, a small cup), is formed, as in Dandelion, 
Daisy, and other composite plants (figs. 263 and 264); also in 
Scabiosa (fig. 253), .and Dipsacus (fig. 265). Such a receptacle or 
shortened peduncle may sometimes be folded so as to enclose partially 


. Ha is a i 
: ail LESS VA 


- Fig. 268, 


or completely a number of flowers (generally unisexual), giving rise to 

the peculiar inflorescence of Dorstenia (fig. 266), or to that of the 

Fig (fig. 267), where f indicates the flowers placed on the inner sur- 

face of the receptacle, and provided with bracteoles. This inflorescence 
has been called Hypanthodium (iad, under, é&véos, a flower). 

Lastly, we have what are called compound indefinite inflorescences, 

Fig. 268. Anemone nemorosa. a, Subterranean stem: f, Leaf. d, Floral axis producing 


bracts, b, which form a three-leaved involucre, e, Solitary flower terminating the axis. In- 
florescence definite. 


182 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 


Thus we may have a group of racemes arranged in a racemose manner, 
on a common axis forming a raceme of racemes or a compound raceme, 
as in Astilbe. In the same way we may have compound umbels, as 
in Hemlock and most Umbellifers (fig. 262), a compound spike, as 
in Rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound 
capitulum, as in the Hen-and-Chickens Daisy. Again, there may be 
a raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a race- 
mose manner, as in Petasites,a raceme of umbels as in Ivy, and so 
on, all the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition. 

On reviewing these different kinds of inflorescence, it will be 
observed that the elongation or shortening of the axis, and the pre- 
sence or absence of stalks to the flowers, determine the different 
varieties. Thus, a spike is a raceme in which the flowers are not 
stalked, the umbel is a raceme in which the primary axis is shortened, 
the capitulum or head is a spike in which the same shortening has 
taken place. 

Derinite InFLORESCENCE.—The simplest form of this inflores- 
cence is seen in Anemone nemorosa (fig. 268), or in Gentiana acaulis 
(Gentianella), where the axis termi- 
nates in a single flower ; and if other 
flowers are produced, they arise from 
the leaves below the first-formed 
flower. The general name of Cyme 
is applied to the arrangement of a 
group of flowers in a definite inflor- 
escence. It is sometimes difficult to 
understand the mode of development 
or evolution of the flowers in such 
an inflorescence, if the axes are much 
contracted, and the flowers them- 
selves are numerous. It may be 
distinctly traced, however, in plants 
with opposite leaves, in which the 

| different axes are clearly developed. 
Fig. 269. In fig. 269 is represented the flower- 
ing branch of Erythreea Centaurium. Here the primary axis, a’, ends in 
a flower, f’, which has passed into the state of fruit, At its base two 
leaves are produced, each of which is capable of developing buds. 
These are flower-buds, and constitute secondary axes, a” a’, ending in 
single flowers, f" f”, which are thus terminal and solitary; and at 


Fig. 269. Flowering branch of Erythrea Centaurium. a’, Primary axis. a” a”, Two 
secondary axes. a” a” a, Tertiary axes, four in number. a’ a!” a”, Quaternary axes, 
eightin number. The flowérs are shown in various stages of development. /’, Solitary flower 
which has passed into fruit, terminating the primary axis. f”, Flowers less advanced, ter- 
minating the secondary axes. f”, Flowers in bud at the extremity of the tertiary axes, and 
s0.0n. Inflorescence definite or determinate, Evolution of flowers centrifugal. 


DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 183 


the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced, giving 
rise to tertiary axes, a” a” a”, ending in single flowers, f” f” f”, and 
soon. The divisions in this case always take place by two, or in a 
dichotomous (dia, in two ways, and réwvey, to cut) manner, Had 
there been a whorl of three leaves in place of two, the division would 
have been by three, or trichotomous (ree, in three ways). 

This inflorescence constitutes the Cyme, by which we mean an 
inflorescence formed by the successive development of unifloral axes 
from pre-existing axes, limited in extent only by the vigour of the 
plant ; the floral axes being thus evolved in a centrifugal manner. 
The cyme, elongated according to its development, has been cha- 
racterised as biparous (bis, twice, and pario, I produce), or uniparous 
(unus, one). In figs. 270 and 271, the biparous cyme is represented 


Fig. 270. Fig. 271. 


in two species of Cerastium, belonging to the natural order Caryo- 
phyllaceze, in which cymose inflorescence is of general occurrence. The 
leaves in the figures are small bracts giving origin to flower-buds in 
the same way as in fig. 269 ; the flowers at a’ a’ being the termination 
of the primary axis, and expanding first, the others being subsequently 
developed in a centrifugal order. In some of the Pink tribe, as 
Dianthus barbatus, Carthusianorum, etc., in which the peduncles are 

Fig. 270. Inflorescence (biparous cyme) of Cerastium grandiflorum. 6 b b, Opposite 
bracts produced at each of the branchings. The axes are indicated as in last figure. The 
primary axis, a’, ends in a flower which has passed into fruit. Inflorescence determinate. 
Evolution of flowers centrifugal. Fig. 271. Inflorescence (biparous cyme) of Cerastium 
tetrandrum, Letters have the same meaning as in the last two figures, In the quaternary 


axes, a’, the inflorescence becomes unilateral by the non-development of the flower-buds 
on one side. , 4 rae 


184 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 


short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal expan- 
sion, the inflorescence has a contracted cymose form, and receives the 
name of fascicle, A similar inflorescence is seen in such plants as 
Xylophylla longifolia (fig. 250). When the axes become very much 
shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the 
nature of the inflorescence is only indicated by the order of opening of 
the flowers. In labiate plants, as the 
dead-nettle (Lamium), the flowers 
are produced in the axil of each of 
the leaves, and might be looked 
upon as ordinary whorls, but on 
examination it is found that the 
central flower expands first, and from 
its axis two secondary axes rise, and 
the expansion is thus centrifugal. The 
inflorescence is therefore a contracted 
biparous cyme, the flowers being 
sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters 
are called werticillasters (verticillus, a 
kind of screw). Sometimes, especially 
towards the summit of a biparous 
cyme, owing to the exhaustion of the 
growing power of the plant, one of 
the bracts only gives origin to a new 
axis, the other remaining empty, and 
thus the inflorescence becomes uni- 
lateral, and further development is 
arrested (fig. 271 6). 
Pig. 278 A branching biparous cyme is 
| observed in the privet (fig. 272). In 
this the primary floral axis a’ gives rise to secondary axes a’ a’, along 
its whole length. These, in a similar manner, produce tertiary axes, a”, 
which again dividing in a cymose manner, the whole inflorescence 
acquires an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and has re- 
ceived from some the name of thyrsus. 

In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively de- 
veloped one from the other, but the axis of each successive generation, 
instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only a single one. Here 
the basal portion of the successive axes collectively forms an apparent 
or false axis, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the 
raceme, however, we find only a single true axis, producing in succes- 


Fig. 272. Branching biparous cyme or thyrsus of Privet (Ligustrum vulgare). The primary 
axis, a’, gives off secondary axes, a” a”, which are opposite to each other, and produce ter- 
tiary axes, a’ a”, which are dichotomous, and consequently end in small three-flowered 
cymes, cc. Of the three flowers terminating these tertiary axes, the central one expands 
first, the evolution of the others being centrifugal. 


DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. 185. 


‘sion a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise, and this 


each flower is on the same side of the true axis as the bract, in the 
axil of which it is developed ; but in the uniparous cyme the flower 
of each of these axes, the basal part of which unites to form the false 
axis, is situated on the opposite side of the axis to the bract from 
which it apparently arises (fig. 275). But this bract is not the one 
from which the axis terminating in the . . 

flower arises, but is a bract produced upon 
that axis, and gives origin in its axil to 
a new axis, the basal portion of which, 
constituting the next part of the false 
axis (as in fig. 275), intervenes between 
this bract and its parent axis. The 
uniparous cyme presents two forms, the 
scorpioid (scorpio, a scorpion), and the 
helicoid (¢u&, a spire, and 
eidoc, form). In the scor- 
picid the flowers are ar- 
ranged alternately in a 
double row along one side 
of the false axis (fig. 274), 
the bracts when developed 

Fig. 273. forming a second double Fig. 274. 
row on the opposite side, as seen in the Henbane; the whole in- 
florescence usually curves on itself like a scorpion’s tail, hence its 
name. In fig. 273 we have a diagrammatic sketch of this 
arrangement. The false axis a bc d is formed by successive genera- 
tions of unifloral axes, the flowers being arranged along one side 
alternately and in a double row; had the bracts been developed they 
would have formed a similar double row on the opposite side of the 
false axis ; the whole inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. 
In fig. 274 (Forget-me-not) the same scorpioid form of uniparous cyme 
is seen, with the double row of flowers on one side of the false axis, 
but in this case the bracts, which should appear on the opposite side, 
are not developed, and hence the cyme is not complete. 

In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal 
portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in 
a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix round 
the false axis. In Alstrémeria, as represented in fig. 275, the axis, 
a’, ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf. From ' 
the axil of this leaf, that i is between it and the primary axis, a’, arises 
a secondary axis, a”, ending in a flower /’, and producing a leaf 
about the middle. From the axil of this leaf, a tertiary floral axis, 


Fig. 273. Diagram to show the formation of a scorpioidal cyme, consisting of separate 
axes,abede. Fig. 274. Scorpioidal or gyrate cyme of Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris). 


186 MIXED INFLORESCENCE, 


a", ending in a flower f”, takes origin. In this case the axes are 
arranged, not in two rows along one side of the false axis, but are 
placed at regular intervals, so as to form an elongated spiral round it. 

In the Bell-flower (Campanula), (fig. 276), there is a racemose uni- 
parous cyme, developed in a very irregular manner, and giving rise to 
a peculiar mixed inflorescence; a a’ is the primary axis, ending in a 


flower, f', which has withered, and giving off secondary axes, a” a", 
each terminated by a flower, and developed centripetally, the lowest 
being most expanded. In Streptocarpus polyanthus, and in several 
calceolarias, we probably have examples of compound definite inflores- 
cence. Here there are scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers, each pair con- 
sisting of an older and a younger flower. 

Mrxep InFLoRESCENCE.—Forms of inflorescence occur, in which ' 
both the definite and indefinite types are represented. Thus, in Com- 
posites, such as Hawkweeds (Hieracia), the heads of flowers, taken as a 
whole, are developed centrifugally, the terminal head first ; while the 


Fig. 275. False raceme or helicoid cyme of a species of Alstrimeria. a/ a” a” a’. 
Separate axes successively developed, which appear to form a simple continuous raceme, of 
which the axes form the internodes, It isa definite uniparous inflorescence, however, with 
centrifugal evolution. Each of the axes is produced in the axil of a leaf, and is terminated 
by a flower, f’ f” f” f’", opposite to that leaf, and the axes have a spiral arrangement. Fig. 
276. Uniparous racemose cyme, or cymose raceme of Campanula, a/, Primary axis, termi- 
nated by a flower, j’, which has already withered, and is beginning to pass into the state of 
fruit. a’ a” a”, Secondary axes, each terminated by flowers, f”, which are more advanced 
the lower they are in their position, 


MIXED INFLORESCENCE. 187 


florets, or small flowers on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the 
‘ circumference first. So also in Labiate, such as dead-nettle (Lamium), 
the different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while 
the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal. Sometimes this mixed 
character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiate, where the 
leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and 
thus might lead to the supposition of all being a single inflorescence. 
In such cases, the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, 
according to circumstances. In Saxifraga umbrosa (London pride), 
and in the horse-chestnut, we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes ; 
in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a 
glomerulus) ; in Laurustinus a compound umbel of dichotomous cymes. 
In concluding this subject of inflorescence, the following diagrams 
may serve to illustrate the different types of inflorescence :— 


a, 


Fig, 277. Fig. 278, 


Fig. 279. 


Fig. 277 shows an indefinite inflorescence—i.c. one in which all 
the flowers belong to the same axis. Here we have a single elongated 
axis, giving off laterally a floret (1), which expands first ; beyond this 
the axis elongates and gives off another floret (2), which expands 
after the first one—and so on were the axis elongated farther, _ Thus, 
in this case, the flowers develop from below upwards, and if we were 


Fig. 277 shows indefinite inflorescence, in which the lower floret (1) expands first, and 
then the upper floret (2). Fig. 278 shows definite inflorescence, where the terminal floret 
(1) opens first, and then the lower floret (2). Fig. 279 shows definite inflorescence with 
numerous floral axes, The first floral axis bears a flower (1), which opens first ; from this 
axis come off two floral axes (2 2), the flowers of which expand next; then each of these 
gives off two floral axes (3 3, 8 3), which expand third in order, and so on. 


188 TABULAR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCE. 


to shorten the axis, and have all the flowers rising from its contracted 
termination, we should find that the outer flowers expanded first and 
were followed by the inner ones, the development being then centri- 
petal, and as the development of flowers from the main axis is limited 
only by the vigour of the plant, the inflorescence is called indefinite, 
Fig. 278 shows a definite inflorescence. In this case all the flowers 
do not belong to the same axis, but the first axis elongates and 
terminates in a single floret (1), and no more flowers are produced 
on this axis, but if another flower exist in the inflorescence it consti- 
tutes the terminal floret of a new axis (2), similar to the first, and 
arising from it. And the flower of this new axis expands after that 
of the central axis, hence the expansion of florets is from above down- 
wards, or from within outwards, 7.¢. centrifugal. And as each axis 
has the power of producing only one floret which terminates it, the 
inflorescence is definite. If more florets exist in this inflorescence, 
each one terminates an axis which arises in a manner similar to that 
already described. Thus the number of florets in such an inflores- 
cence will depend on the number of bracts which are produced upon 
the several axes, and which give rise to new unifloral axes, Fig. 278 
represents such a definite inflorescence, where two bracts are produced 
on each axis, giving rise to similar new axes ; the whole inflorescence 
in this case being a biparous cyme. 


TaBuLaR VIEW OF INFLORESCENCE. 


A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence. 
I. Flowers solitary, axillary. 
Vinca, Veronica hederifolia. 
II. Flowers in groups, pedicellate. 
1. Elongated form (Raceme), Hyacinth, Laburnum, Currant. 
(Corymb), Ornithogalum. 
2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), Cowslip, Astrantia. 
III. Flowers in groups, sessile. 
1. Elongated form (Spike), Plantago. 
(Spikelet), Grasses. 
——— (Amentum, Catkin), Willow, Hazel. 
——— (Spadix) Arum, some Palms. 
(Cone), Fir, Spruce. 
(Strobilus), Hop. 
2. Contracted or shortened form (Capitulum), Daisy, Dandelion, Scabious. 
IV. Compound indefinite inflorescence. 
a. Compound Spike, Rye-grass. 
6. Compound Spadix, Palms. 
c. Compound Raceme, Astilbe. 
d. Compound Umbel, Hemiock and most Umbellifere. 
e. Raceme of Capitula, Petasites, 
J. Raceme of Umbels, Jvy. 
B. Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence. 
I. Flowers solitary, terminal, 
Gentianella, Peony. 


BRACTS OR FLORAL LEAVES. 189 


II. Flowers in Cymes. 
1. Uniparous Cyme. 
uw. Helicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral). 
* Elongated form, Alstrdmeria. 
** Contracted form, Witsenia corymbosa. 
b. Scorpioid Cyme (axes unilateral, two rows). 
* Elongated form, Forget-me-not, Symphytum,, Henbane. 
** Contracted form, Hrodium, Alchemilla arvensis. 
2. Biparous Cyme (Dichotomous), including 3-5-chotomous Cymes, 
a. Elongated form, Cerastium, Stellaria. 
b. Contracted form (Verticillaster), Dead-nettle, Pelargonium. 
8. Compound Definite Inflorescence. 
Streptocarpus polyanthus, many Calceolarias, 
C. Mixed Inflorescence. 
1. Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, Horse-chestnut. 
2. Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, Vernonia centriflora. 
8. Compound Umbel of Dichotomous Cymes, Lawrustinus. 
4, Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus), Sea-pink. 


ee 


2.—Bracts or Floral Leaves. 


Flowers arise from the axil of leaves, called Bractew, bracts or 
floral leaves, The term bract is properly applied to the leaf, from 
which the primary floral axis, whether simple or branched, arises, 
while the leaves which arise on the axis between the bract and the 
outer envelope of the flower are bracteoles or bractlets. Bracts some- 
times do not differ from the ordinary leaves, and are then called 
leafy, as in Veronica hederifolia, Vinca, Anagallis, and Ajuga. Like 
leaves, they are entire or divided. In general, as regards their form 
and appearance, they differ from ordinary leaves, the difference being 
greater in the upper than in the lower branches of an inflorescence. 
They are distinguished by their position at the base of the flower or 
flower-stalk. Their phyllotaxis is similar to that of the leaf. When 
the flower is sessile the bracts are often applied closely to the calyx, 
and may thus be confounded with it, as in Malvaceze and Rosacez, 
where they have received the name of epicaly« (p. 198). In many 
cases bracts seem to perform the function of protecting organs, within 
or beneath which the young flowers are covered in their earliest stage 
of growth. 

When bracts become coloured, as in Amherstia nobilis, Euphorbia 
splendens, Erica elegans, and, Salvia splendens, they may be mistaken 
for parts of the corolla, They are sometimes mere scales dt threads, 
and at other times they are abortive, and remain undeveloped, giving 
rise to the ebracteated inflorescence of Cruciferee and some Boraginacee. 
Sometimes no flower-buds are produced in their axil, and then they 
are empty, A series of empty coloured bracts terminates the inflores- 
cence of Salvia Horminum. The smaller bracts or bracteoles, which 
occur among the subdivisions of a branching inflorescence, often produce 
no flower-buds,, and thus anomalies occur in the floral arrangements, _ 


190 BRACTS OR FLORAL LEAVES. 


Bracts are occasionally persistent, remaining long attached to the 
base of the peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling 
off early by an articulation. In some instances they form part of the 
fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the cones of 
Firs (figs. 217, 218) and the strobili of the 
Hop are composed of a series of bracts 
arranged in a spiral manner, and covering 
fertile flowers ; and the scales on the fruit 
of the Pine-apple (fig. 280 a) are of the 
same nature. In Amenta or catkins (fig. . 
259) the bracts are called squame or scales, 
As regards their arrangement, they follow 
the same law as leaves; being alternate, 
opposite, or verticillate. 

At the base of the general umbel in 
umbelliferous plants, a whorl of bracts often 
exists, called a general involucre (fig. 262 7’), 
and at the base of the smaller umbels or 
umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl 
called involucel or partial involwcre (fig. 
2627”). In Composite, the name involucre 
is applied to the leaves, scales, or phyllaries, 
surrounding the head of flowers (fig. 263 
b), as in Dandelion, Daisy, Artichoke. This involucre is frequently 
composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or 
of different forms and lengths, and often lie over each other in an im- 
bricated manner. When the bracts are arranged in two rows, and 
the outer row is perceptibly smaller than the inner, the involucre is 
sometimes said to be caliculate, as in Senecio. The leaves of the in- 
volucre are spiny in Thistles and in Dipsacus (fig. 265, e «), and hooked 
in Burdock. Such whorled or verticillate bracts may either remain 
separate (polyphyllous), or may be united by cohesion (gamophyllous), as 
in many species of Bupleurum, and in Lavatera. In the acorn they 
form the cupula or cup (fig. 281, c), and they also form the husky 
covering of the Hazel-nut. In the yew the bracts form a succulent 
covering of the seed. 

When bracts become united together, and overlie each other in 
several rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce 
flowers, that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke, the outer 
imbricated scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the 
membranous white scales or bracts (palew) forming the choke attached 


Fig, 280. 


Fig. 280. Fruit of Pine-apple (Ananassa sativa), composed of numerous flowers united 
into one mass ; the scales, a, being modified bracts or floral leaves. The crown, 0, consists 
of a prolongation of the axis bearing leaves, which may be considered as a series of empty 
bracts, i.e. bracts not producing flowers in their axil. 


THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER. 191 


to the edible receptacle, that the flowers are produced. The sterile 
bracts of the Daisy occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to 
the Hen-and-Chickens Daisy. In place of de- 
veloping flower-buds, bracts may, in certain 
circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous 
plants, produce leaf-buds. 

A sheathing bract enclosing one or several 
flowers is called a spatha or spathe. It is com- 
mon among Monocotyledons, as Narcissus, Snow- 
flake, Arum (fig. 260 5), and Palms. In some 
Palms it is 20 feet long, and encloses 200,000 
flowers. It is often associated with the spadix, 
and may be coloured, as in Richardia zthiopica, 
sometimes called the Aithiopian or Trumpet lily. When the spadix is 
compound or branching, as in Palms, there are smaller spathes, sur- 
rounding separate parts of the inflorescence, to which the name spathelle 
has sometimes been given. The spathe protects the flowers in their 
young state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down 
in a withered form, as in some Palms, Typha, and Pothos, In grasses 
the outer scales of the spikelets have been considered as sterile bracts, 
and have received the name of glumes; and in Cyperaceze bracts enclose 
the organs of reproduction. 


Fig. 281. 


3.—The Flower and its Appendages, 


The Flower consists of whorled leaves placed on an axis, the 
internodes of which are not developed. This shortened axis is the 
Thalamus or torus, There are usually four of 
these whorls or verticils:—1. The calyx, the 
outer one. 2. The corolla, 3, The stamens, 
4, The most internal one, the pisti, Each 
of these consists normally of several parts, 
which, like leaves, follow a law of alternation. 
Thus, the flower of Crassula rubens (fig. 282) 
presents a calyx, cc, composed of five equal 
parts arranged in a whorl; a corolla, p », 
also of five parts, placed in a whorl within 
the former, and occupying the intervals be- Fig. 282. 
tween the five parts of the calyx; five stamens, ¢¢¢, in the space 
between the parts of the corolla, and consequently opposite those of 
the calyx ; and five parts of the pistil, o 0, which follow the same law 


‘Fig. 281, Acorn, or Fruit of the Oak. v, Cupula or cup, formed by the union of 
numerous bracts or floral leaves, the free points of which are seen arranged ina spiral 
manner. Fig. 282. Flower of Crassula rubens. ¢¢, Foliola of calyx or sepals. p, p, Petals. 
ee, Stamens, 00, Carpels, each of them having a small scale-like appendage, a, at their 
base. 


192 FLORAL ENVELOPES. 


of arrangement, Again, in Scilla italica, the parts are arranged in 
sets of three in place of "five, as shown in fig, 283, where p' p’ p' are 
three parts of the external whorl ; iP pp", three of the next whorl ; ¢’, 

an outer row of stamens; e”, an inner row ; 0, the pistil formed of 
three parts. It is distinctly seen in these instances that the parts of 
the flower are to be regarded as leaves arranged on a depressed or 
shortened axis. 

When all the parts of the flower are separate, and normally de- 
veloped, there is no difficulty in tracing this arrangement; but in 
many cases it is by no means an easy 
matter to do so, on account of changes 
produced by the union of one part to 
another, by degeneration, by the abortion 
or non-development of some portions, 
and by the multiplication or folding of 
others, Of the four whorls noticed, the 
two outer (calyx and corolla) are called 
floral envelopes ; the two inner (stamens 
and pistil) are called essential organs, 
When both calyx and corolla are present, 

the plants are Dichlamydeous (dis, twice, 

BIg 2288; and yAauds, a covering); occasionally 
one or both become abortive, and then the flower is either Mono- 
chiamydeous (w6vos, single), having a calyx only, or Achlamydeous (a, 
privative) or naked, having only 
the essential organs, and no 
floral envelope. 

The Firorat ENVELOPES 
consist of the calyx and corolla, 
In most cases, especially in Di- 
cotyledons, these two whorls 
are easily distinguishable, the 
first being external and green, 
the latter internal, and more or 
less highly coloured. If there 
is only one whorl, then, what- 
ever its colour or degree of de- 
velopment, it is the calyx. Some- 
times, as in many Monocotyledons, the calyx and corolla both display 

Fig. 283, Flower of Beilla italica. p’p’p', Three external leaflets, or divisions of the 
Perianth or Perigone. pp” p” p’, The three internal leaflets. ¢/, Stamens, opposite to the 
first or external leaflets. ¢’, Stamens, opposite the second or internal leaflets. 0, Ovaries 
united together into one. s, Three styles, consolidated so as to form one. Fig. 284. 
Flower of White Lily (Liliwm albwm). p, Perianth or Perigone, having three parts exterior, 


pe, alternating with three interior, pi. e, Stamens, having versatile anthers attached to the 
top of the filaments. s, Stigma at the apex of the style. 


. FLOWER-BUD—ZSTIVATION. 193 


rich colouring, and are apt to be confounded. In such cases, the term 
Perianth (weg, around, édvbos, flower), or Perigone (regi, and youn, 
pistil) has been applied to avoid ambiguity. Thus, in the Tulip, 
Crocus, Lily, Hyacinth, authors speak of the parts of the perianth, in 
place of calyx and corolla, although in these plants, an outer whorl 
(calyx) may be detected, of three parts, and an inner (corolla), of a 
similar number, alternating with them. Thus, the perianth of the 
white Lily (Lilium album, fig. 284 ) consists ‘of three outer parts, 
pe, alternating with three internal parts, pi, surrounding the essential 
organs, g, the stamens, and s, the pistil. 

The ‘term perianth is usually confined to the flowers of Mono- 
cotyledons, whatever colour they present, whether green, as in Aspa- 
ragus, or coloured, as in Tulip, Some use the term perianth as a 
general one, and restrict the use of perigone to cases where a pistil 
‘only is present. In some plants, as Nymphea alba (fig. 342), it is 
not easy to say where the calyx ends and the corolla begins ; as these 
two whorls pass insensibly into each other. 

FLOWER-BUD.—To the flower-bud, the name alabastrus (meaning 
rose-bud) is sometimes given, and its period of opening has been called 
anthesis (&vénoic, flower opening), whilst the manner in which the 
parts are arranged with respect to each other before opening is the 
estivation (estivus, belonging to summer), or prefloration (pre, before, 
and flos, flower). The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud in 
the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive names 
have been given to the different arrangements exhibited, both by the 
leaves individually and in their relations to each other. Thus the 
sepals and petals may be conduplicate, or they may be rolled outwards 
or inwards in various ways, or may be folded transversely, becoming 
crumpled or corrugated, as in the poppy. When the parts of a 
whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are applied to each other by 
their edges only, without overlapping or being- folded, thus resembling 
the valves of a seed-vessel, the zstivation is valvate, as in the calyx of 
Guazuma ulmifolia (fig. 285 c). The edges of each of the parts may 
be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case, the zstiva 
tion is induplicate, as in the corolla of Guazuma ulmifolia (fig. 285 
_p), in the latter: reduplicate, as in the calyx of Althza rosea (figs. 
286 c, 287 c). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a 
circle, "each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one ol’ 
its sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in 
like manner by that standing next to it, the estivation is twisted or 
contortéve, as in the corolla of Althea rosea (figs. 286 p, 288 p). This 
arrangement is characteristic of the flower-buds of Malvacee and 
Apocynaces, and it is also seen in Convolvulaceze and some Caryo- 
phyllaceez. When the flower expands, the traces of twisting often 
disappear, but sometimes, as.in Apocynacex, they remain. 


ie) 


194 FLOWER-BUD—ASTIVATION. 


In these instances of zstivation, the parts of the verticils are con- 
sidered as being placed regularly in a circle, and about the same height, 


Fig. 285. Fig. 286. Fig. 287. Fig. 288. 


and they are included under circular estivation.. But there are other 
cases in which there is a slight difference of level, and then the true 
spiral aeapeoet exhibits itself. This is well seen in the leaves of 
the calyx of Camellia japonica (fig. 289 c), 
which cover each other partially like tiles on a 
a house. This estivation is imbricate. At 
other times, as in the petals of Camellia (fig. 
289 p), the parts envelop each other completely, 
so as to become convolute. This is also seen in 
a transverse section of the calyx of Magnolia 
grandiflora (fig. 291), where each of the three 
leaves embraces that within it. When the 
parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many 
Dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that 
there are two parts external, two internal, 
and a fifth which partially covers one of the internal parts by its 
margin, and is in its turn partially covered by one of the external 
parts, the estivation is quincuncial (fig. 290). This quincunx is com- 
mon in the corolla of Rosacew. Fig. 290 is a transverse section of 
the calyx in the flower-bud of Convolvulus sepium, in which the parts 
are numbered according to their arrangement in the spiral cycle, and 
the course of the spiral is indicated by dotted lines. In fig. 292, a 
section is given of the bud of Antirrhinum majus, showing the imbri- 
cate spiral arrangement. In this case it will be seen, when contrasted 


Fig. 289. 


Fig. 285. Diagram of calyx, c, and corolla, p, in the bud of Guazuma ulmifolia. Zistiva- 
tion of calyx valvate, of petals induplicate. Fig. 286. Diagram of calyx, c, and corolla, 
p, in the flower-bud of Althea rosea. Aistivation of calyx reduplicate, of petals contortive 
or twisted. Fig. 287. Flower-bud of Althea rosea in a young state, showing calyx, ¢, 
still completely enveloping the other parts, and the edges of its divisions touching each 
other. Fig. 288. The same in a more advanced state, where the calycine divisions, c, are 
separated so as to allow the expansion of the corolla, the petals of which, p, are contortive 
in estivation. Fig. 289. Flower-bud of Camellia japonica. c, Imbricated sepals of the 
calyx. yp, Petals with convolute estivation. 


FLORAL ENVELOPES—CALYX, 195 


with fig. 290 that the part marked 2 has, by a slight change in posi- 
tion, become overlapped by 4. In flowers, such as those of the Pea 
(p. 205, fig. 316), one of the 


a 2 
parts, the vexillum, is often A “\ ia 
large and folded over the : y) N ( 
ibaa te ‘ 5 ahi 
others, giving rise to venillary “\w a « ds 
tere ee 


estivation, or the carina may 
perform a similar office, and ° 
then the sstivation is carinal, Mig. 200. Fig. 291. Fig. 292. 

The several verticils often differ in their mode of estivation. 
Thus, in Malvacez, the corolla is contortive and the calyx valvate, or 
reduplicate (fig. 288); in St. Johns-wort the calyx is imbricate, and 
the corolla contortive. In Convolvulacez, while the corolla is twisted, 
and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbricate and 
exhibits a spiral arrangement (fig. 290). In Guazuma (fig. 285), the 
calyx is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular estivation is 
generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla ; while the spiral 
estivations are connected with irregular as well as regular forms. 

The different parts of the flower, besides having a certain position 
as regards each other, bear also definite relations to the floral axis 
whence they arise. An individual part of a flower may be turned to 
one or other side of the axis, to the right or to the left. This law 
often holds good with whole groups of plants,'and a means is thus 
given of characterising them. If a whorl of the flower consists of 
four} parts, that which is turned towards the floral axis is called 
superior or posterior, that next the bract whence the pedicel arises is 
inferior or anterior, while the other two are lateral. If, again, there 
are five parts of the whorl, then two may be inferior, two lateral, and 
one superior, as in the corolla of the Pea tribe; or one may be in- 
ferior and two superior, as in the corolla of the Rose tribe. In plants 
having blossoms like the Pea, the vexillum, or odd petal, is the 
superior part ; whilst in the calyx the odd part, by the law of alter- 
nation, is inferior. Sometimes the twisting of a part makes a change 
in the position of other parts, as ‘in orchids, where the twisting of 
the ovary changes the position of the labellum. 


External Floral Whorls, or Floral Envelopes, 


Catyx.—tThe calyx is the external envelope of the flower, and 
consists of verticillate leaves, called sepals, foliola or phylla (folium, 


Fig. 290. Transverse section of calyx in flower-bud of Convolvulus sepium. Calyx con- 
sists of five sepals corresponding to the numbers in the figure, and the dotted lines indicate 
the direction of the spiral according to which they are arranged. Fig. 291. Transverse 
section of the bud of Magnolia grandiflora, showing the convolute estivation of the three 
outer leaflets (calyx). Fig. 292, Arrangement of the parts of the calyx in the flower of 
Frogsmouth (Antirrhinum majus). The arrangement differs from that in fig. 290, on ac- 
count of a slight twisting and overlapping of the parts. 


196 FLORAL ENVELOPES—CALYX. 


and giAAov, a leaf). These calycine leaves are sometimes separate 
from each other, at other times they are united to a greater or less ex- 
tent; in the former case, the calyx is dialysepalous (d:aAdverv, to divide), 
polysepalous or polyphyllous (woAvs, many); in the latter, gamosepalous 
or gamophyllous, monosepalous or monophyllous (ydmos, union, sudvos, 
one). The divisions of the calyx present usually all the characters of 
leaves, and in some cases of monstrosity they are converted into the 
ordinary leaves of the plant. This is frequently seen in the Rose 
(fig. 247 c, p. 172), Peony, etc. Their structure consists of cellular 
tissue or parenchyma, traversed by vascular bundles, in the form of 
ribs and veins, containing spiral vessels, which can be unrolled, deli- 
cate woody fibres, and other vessels,—the whole being enclosed in an 
epidermal covering, having stomata and often hairs on its outer sur- 
face, which corresponds to the under side of the leaf. 

In the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the venation of 
the calyx is similar to that of the leaves ; parallel in Monocotyledons, 
reticulated in Dicotyledons. The leaves of the calyx are usually 
entire (fig. 293), but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in 
the Rose (fig. 294 ef), and they are sometimes hooked at the margin, 
as in Rumex uncatus (fig. 295 ci), In the last-named plant there 


Fig. 293. Fig. 204, Fig. 295. 


are two whorls of calycine leaves, the outer of which, ce, are entire, 
while the sepals of the inner whorl have hooked margins and have 
also swellings, g, in the form of grains or tubercles on the back. The 
outer leaves, ce, may be looked upon in this case as bracts, occupying 
an intermediate place between leaves and sepals. It is rare to find 


Fig. 293. Pentaphyllous or pentasepalous calyx of Stellaria Holostea; sepals entire. 
Fig. 294. Flower of Rose, cut vertically. ct, Tube of the calyx. of, Limb of calyx 
divided into leaflets. ¢e, Stamens. 00, Ovaries, each having a style which reaches beyond 
the tube of the calyx, and ends in a stigma, s. vr, Receptacle. Fig. 295. Calyx of 
Rumex uncatus, composed of two verticils or whorls; the outer, ce, having short and 
entire divisions ; the inner, ci, having larger divisions, which exhibit at the margin narrow 
hooked projections, and have on the back a tubercular swelling, g. 


FLORAL ENVELOPES—CALYX. 197 


the leaves of the calyx stalked. They are usually sessile leaves, in 
which the laminar portion is only slightly developed, and frequently 
the vaginal part is alone present. Sepals are generally of a more or 
less oval, elliptical, or oblong form, with the extremity either blunt or 
acute. In their direction they are erect or reflexed (with their apices 
downwards), spreading outwards (divergent or patulous), or arched in- 
wards (connivent). They are usually of a greenish colour, and are 
called foliaceous or herbaceous; but sometimes they are coloured,. as 
in the Fuchsia, Tropzeolum, Globe-flower, and Pomegranate, and are 
then called petaloid. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope of 
the flower must be considered as the calyx. 

The nature of the hairs on the calyx gives rise to terms similar 
to those already mentioned as applied to the surfaces of other parts 
of plants (p. 33). The vascular 
bundles sometimes have a promi- 
nent rib (figs. 296, 297), which 
indicates the middle of the sepal, 
at other times they have several 
ribs (fig. 298). Thevenation is use- 
ful as pointing out the number of 
leaves which form a gamosepalous 
calyx. At the part where two 
sepals unite, there is occasionally 297. Fig. 298, 

a prominent line, formed by the 
union of the vessels of each (fig. 298), which divides near the apex 
into two branches, each following the course of their respective sepals. 

In a polysepalous calyx, the number of the parts is marked by 
Greek numerals prefixed. Thus, a trisepalous calyx has three sepals, 
pentasepalous or pentaphyllous, five, as in Stellaria Holostea (fig. 293), 
and soon. The sepals occasionally are of different forms and sizes. 
In Aconite, one of them is shaped like a helmet, and has been called 
galeate (gale, a helmet). In Calcophyllum one of the sepals en- 
larges after the corolla falls, and assumes a pink colour. In Clero- 
dendron Thomsonz the white calyx becomes pinkish after the scarlet 
corolla withers. 

In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals adhere in various ways, some- 
times very slightly, as in Ginothera; and their number is marked by 
the divisions at the apex. These divisions are either simple projections 
in the form of acute or obtuse teeth (fig. 297); or they extend down 
the calyx as fissures about half-way, the calyx being trifid (three-cleft), 
quinquefid (five-cleft), as in Primula elatior (fig. 296), according to 
their number ; or they reach to near the base in the form of partitions, 


Fig. 296. Quinquefid or five-cleft calyx of Primula elatior, the oxlip. Fig. 297. Five- 
toothed inflated calyx of Silene inflata. Fig. 298. Calyx, c, of Hibiscus, with its 
caliculus or epicalyx, b. 


/ 


198 FLORAL ENVELOPES—CALYX. 


the calyx being tripartite, quadripartite, quinguepartite, etc. The 
adhesion or union of the parts may be complete, and the calyx may 
be quite entire or truncate, as in some Correas, the venation being 
the chief indication of the different parts. The adhesion is sometimes 
irregular, some parts uniting to a greater extent than others ; thus a 
two-lipped or dabiate calyx is formed, which, when the upper or 
posterior lip is arched, becomes ringent. The upper lip is often com- 
posed of three parts, which are thus posterior or next the axis, while 
the lower has two, which are anterior. The part formed by the 
union of the sepals is called the tube of the calyx ; the portion where 
the sepals are free is the limb. Sometimes a gamosepalous calyx 
assumes an angular or prismatic form, as in Lamium and Primula, 
and then the angles are marked by the midribs of the sepals which 
form it. Occasionally the calyx has a globular form, as in the globe- 
flower, at other times it is bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, turbinate (like a 
top), or inflated as in Silene inflata (fig. 297). 

Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals 
undergo marked enlargement. In the 
Violet, the calycine segments (Jacinim) are 
prolonged downwards beyond their inser- 
tions, and in the Indian Cress (Tropzolum) 
this prolongation is in the form of a spur 
(calcar), formed by three sepals (fig. 299 e) ; 
in Delphinium it is formed by one. When 
one or more sepals are thus enlarged, the 
calyx is calcarate or spurred, In Pelar- 
gonium the spur from one of the sepals 
is adherent to the flower-stalk. 

In some plants, as in the Mallow tribe, the flower appears to be 
provided with a double calyx, which has been denominated caliculate, 
the outer calyx being the epicalyxz. In fig. 298, ¢ represents the 
calyx of Hibiscus, and 6 the smaller calyx or epicalyx outside ; and 
in fig. 300, the same thing is shown in Potentilla verna. Many 
authors look upon this epicalyx as a collection of 
whorled bractlets, forming an involucre immedi- 
ately below the flower. In some cases the project- 
ing teeth between the divisions of the calyx, as in 
Rosacez, are to be traced to the transformed 
stipules of the calycine leaves. Degenerations take 
place in the calyx, so that it becomes dry, scaly, 
and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses), as in Fig. 300. 
the Rush tribe ; hairy, as in Composita ; or a mere rim, as in some 
Umbellifere and Acanthacez, when it is called obsolete or marginate. 


Fig. 299. 


Fig. 299. Calcarate calyx of Tropzolum, Indian cress. e, Spur or calcar. , Pedicel. 
Fig. 300. Calyx, cc, of Potentilla verna, with its epicalyx or caliculus, bb. 


FLORAL ENVELOPES—CALYX. 199 


In Composite, Dipsacaces, and Valerianaces, the calyx is at- 
tached to the pistil, and its limb is developed in the form of hairs, 
called pappus. This pappus is either simple (pilose) (fig. 302), or 
feathery (plumose) (fig. 303). In cases where, to the naked eye, 
the hairs appear to be simple, the examination by a lens sometimes 
exhibits distinct tooth-like projections often irregularly scattered. In 
figs. 301, 302, 303, there are examples of calyces, c, which are 
attached to the pistil, while their limbs, 7, show the transition from 
the narrowed thread-like form in Catananche cerulea (fig. 301) to 
the pilose in Scabiosa atro-purpurea (fig. 302), and thence to the 
plumose in Pterocephalus palestinus (fig. 303). In Valeriana the 
superior calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens, 
it is shown to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to 
waft the fruit. 


Fig. 301. Fig. 303, 


The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower expands, as in 
Poppies, and is caducous; or along with the corolla, as in Ranunculus, 
and is deciduous ; or it remains after flowering, as in Labiate, Scrophu- 
lariaceze, and Boraginacee ; or its base only is persistent, as in Datura 
Stramonium. In Eschscholtzia and Eucalyptus the sepals remain 
united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base or 
middle, so as to come off in the form of a lid or funnel. Such a 
calyx is operculate (operculum, a lid), or calyptrate (xaAlarea, a cover- 
ing). The existence or non-existence of an articulation determines 
the deciduous or persistent nature of the calyx. In the case of Esch- 
scholtzia the axis seems to be prolonged so as to form a sort of tube, 
from which the calyx separates. In Eucalyptus the calyx consists of 
leaves, the laminze or petioles of which are articulated like those of 


Figs. 301-303. Examples of calyces, the limbs of which, J, gradually pass into the state 
of hairs or pappus. ct, Calyx, united to the ovary, and forming a narrow column above 
it ; in figs. 302, 303, the calyx ends in numerous simple or feathery hairs, J. 1, Involucre 
or gamosepalous bracts cut vertically. Fig. 301. Calyx of Catananche cerulea. _Fig. 
302. Calyx of Scabiosa atro-purpurea. Fig. 303, Calyx of Pterocephalus palestinus, 


200 FLORAL ENVELOPES—COROLLA. 


the Orange, and the separation between the parts occurs at this 
articulation. 

The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the pistil, 
and enlarges, so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the Apple, Pear, 
Pomegranate, Gooseberry, etc. In these fruits the withered calyx is 
seen at the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after 
flowering, and encloses the fruit, without being incorporated with it, 
becoming accrescent (accresco, I increase), as in various species of 
Physalis (fig. 304); at other times it remains in a withered or 
marcescent (marcesco, I decay) form, as in 
Erica ; sometimes it becomes inflated or vesi- 
cular, as in sea campion. In Trifolium fra- 
giferum the union of the inflated calyces 
produces the strawberry-like appearance of 
the head of flowers when in fruit. 

Corotta.—The corolla is the more or 
less coloured inner floral envelope, forming 
the whorl of leaves between the calyx and 
the stamens. It is generally the most con- 
spicuous whorl, The gay colours and fra- 
grant odours of flowers are resident init. It 
is present in the greater number of Dicoty- 
ledons. It is composed of parts which are 

Fig. 804. usually disposed in one or more verticillate 
rows, and which are called petals (réra2ov, a leaf). The petals some- 
times form a continuous spiral with the calycine segments, but in 
general they are disposed in a circle, and alternate with the sepals. 

Petals differ more from leaves than sepals do, and are much 
more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases, how- 
ever, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and occasionally 
leaf-buds are developed in their axil. They are seldom green, although 
occasionally this colour is met with, as in some Cobeas, Hoya viridi- 
flora, Gonolobus viridiflorus, and Pentatropis spiralis. As a rule they 
are highly coloured, the colouring matter being contained in cells, and 
differing in its nature from the chlorophyll of the leaves. As regards 
their structure, petals consist of cellular tissue traversed by true 
spiral vessels, and thin-walled tubes. In delicate flowers, as Convol- 
vulus and Anagallis, these vessels are easily seen under the microscope. 
Petals do not usually present numerous layers of cells like the leaves, 
neither is the epidermis always distinct, although in some instances it 
may be detached, especially from the surface next the calyx. The 
cuticle of the petal of a Pelargonium, when viewed with a 4 or } inch 
object glass, shows beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are 
ornamented with several inflected loops in the sides of the cells. 

Fig. 304. Accrescent calyx, c, connected with the fruit of Physalis Alkekengi. 


FLORAL ENVELOPES—COROLLA. 201 


On the outer surface of petals, corresponding to the lower side of 
leaves, stomata are sometimes found. Petals are generally glabrous 
or smooth ; but, in some instances, hairs are produced on their surface. 
Petaline hairs, though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the 
same arrangement as those which occur on the leaves: thus in Bom- 
bacez they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen 
on the petals of Menyanthes, and on the segments 
of the perianth of the Iris. Although petals are 
usually very thin and delicate in their texture, they 
occasionally become thick and fleshy, as in Stapelia 
and Rafflesia ; or dry, asin Heaths; or hard and 
stiff, as in Xylopia. A petal often consists of two 
portions—the lower narrow, resembling the petiole 
of a leaf, and called the unguis or claw ; the upper 
broader, like the blade of a leaf, and called the 
lamina or limb. These parts are seen in the petals 
of the Pink (fig. 305), where o is the claw, and 1 Fig. 805. 
the limb. The claw is often wanting, as in the Rose, and the petals 
are then sessile. Petals having a claw are unguiculate, 

Petals, properly so called, belong to Dicotyledonous plants, for in 
Monocotyledonous the flowers consist of a perianth or perigone, which 
is referred to the calycine envelope. Hence the venation of petals 
resembles that of the leaves of Dicotyledons. In the claw the vessels 
are approximated, as in the petiole, and in the limb they expand. 
There may be a median vein whence lateral veins go off, at the same 
or different heights, forming reticulations; or there may be several 
primary veins diverging from the base of the limb, and forming a sort 
of fan-shaped venation. At other times the median vein divides into 
two. 

According to the development of veins, and the growth of cellular 
tissue, petals present varieties similar to those already noticed in the 
case of leaves, Thus the margin is either 
entire or divided into lobes or teeth. 
These teeth sometimes form a regular 
fringe round the margin, and the petal be- 
comes fimbriated (fimbria, a fringe), as in 
the Pink (fig. 305); or laciniated, as in 
Lychnis Flos-cuculi ; or crested, as in Poly- 
gala. Sometimes the petal becomes pinna- 
tifid, as in Schizopetalum. The median 
Fig. 306. Fig. 307. vein is occasionally prolonged beyond the 


Fig. 305. An unguiculate petal of Dianthus monspessulanus. o, Unguis or claw. 
1, Limb, which is fimbriated, or has a fringed margin. Fig. 306, A petal of Eryngium 
campestre, with the apex inflexed or turned down towards the base. __ Fig. 307. A bipartite 
petal of Stellaria media, or common Chickweed. 1, The limb split into two. 0, The claw. 


202 FLORAL ENVELOPES—COROLLA. 


summit of the petals in the form of a long process, as in Strophanthus 
hispidus, where it extends for seven inches ; and at other times it ends 
in a free point or cuspis, and the petal becomes cuspidate ; or the pro- 
longed extremity is folded downwards or inflexed, as in Umbelliferee 
(fig. 306), so that the apex approaches the base. If the median 
vein divides into two, the space between. the divisions may be filled up 
so as to leave only a slight deficiency, and thus the petal becomes 
emarginate ; or the deficiency may be greater, while the limb gradually 
expands from below upwards, and its extremity becomes two-lobed, 
so that the petal is obcordate, If the separation extends to the 
middle, it is bifid; if to near the base, bipartite, as in Chickweed 
(fig. 307 1). In the same way as in leaves, the venation of the petals 
is sometimes unequal, and the cellular tissue is developed more on 
one side than on the other, thus giving rise to an oblique petal. 

The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, or hollowed like 
a boat, cymbiform or navicular (cymba, a boat, navis, a ship), or like 
a spoon, cochleartform (cochleare, a spoon). In the case of the navicular 
petal, the median vein forms a marked keel. In Hellebore the petals 
become folded in a tubular 
form, resembling a horn; in 
Aconite (fig. 308) some of the 
petals, p, resemble a hollow 
curved horn, supported on a 
grooved stalk ; while in Colum- 
bine (fig. 309) Violet, Snap- 
dragon, and Centranthus, one 
or all of them are prolonged 
in the form of a spur, and are 
calcarate (calcar, a spur). In 
Valeriana, Antirrhinum, and 
Corydalis, the spur is very 
short, and the corolla or petal 
is said to be gibbous (gibbus, a 
bunch or swelling), or saccate 
at the base. In some Bora- 
ginacee (fig. 322) there are 
foldings at the upper part of 
the tube of the corolla, 7, forming projections concave outwardly, 
which might be considered as small internal spurs. 

When a petal is narrow throughout, as if formed by a prolongation 


Fig. 308, Fig. 310. 


Fig. 308. Part of the flower of Aconitum Napellus, showing two irregular horn-like 
petals, p, supported on grooved stalks, 0. These used to be called nectaries, s, The 
whorl of stamens inserted on the thalamus, and surrounding the pistil. Fig. 309. Single 
spurred petal of Aquilegia vulgaris, common Columbine, formed bya folding of the 
margins. Fig. 310. Cordate or cordiform petal of Genista candicans, vo, The claw. 
1, The limb. 


i 


FLORAL ENVELOPES—COROLLA. 203 


of the claw, it is called linear ; when the limb is prolonged at the base, 
so as to form two rounded lobes, it is cordate, as in the petal of Genista 
candicans (fig. 310) ; and when the lobes are acute, it may be sagittate 
or hastate. The meaning of the terms indicating the forms of petals 
will be understood by considering those applied to leaves. As arule, the 
terms refer to the limb of the petal, which is frequently the only portion 
developed. In the Poppy, the petals have a puckered or corrugated 
appearance, arising from their delicacy, and the mode in which they are 
folded in eestivation. Other petals have a crisp or wavy margin. 

A corolla rarely consists of one petal, and when this occurs, as in 
Amorpha, it depends on the abortion or non-development of others. 
Such a corolla is unipetalous (unus, one), a term quite distinct from 
monopetalous. In general, the corolla consists of several petals, equal- 
ling the sepals in number, or being some multiple of them. When 
this is the case, the floral envelopes are said to be symmetrical ; when, 
however, by the abortion of some of the petals the numbers do not 
correspond, then the flower becomes unsymmetrical. Under the head 
of floral symmetry the various changes consequent on non-development 
of petals will ‘be noticed. A corolla is dipetalous, tripetalous, tetra- 
petalous, or pentapetalous, according as it has two, three, four, or five 
separate petals, 

The general name of polypetalous (woAds, many), or dialypetalous 
(dsaAver, to divide), is given to corollas having separate petals, while 
monopetalous or gamopetalous (wévos, one, and 
yawos, union) is applied to those in which 
the petals are united. This union generally 2 
takes place at the base, and extends more 
or less towards the apex; in Phyteuma the 
petals are united at their apices also. In 
some polypetalous corollas, as that of the 
Vine, the petals are separate at the base, and 
adhere by their apices. That a monopetal- 
ous corolla consists of several petals united 
is shown in such plants as Phlox amena, 
where some specimens have petals more or 
less completely disunited, while others ex- 
hibit the normal form of coherent petals. | 
When the petals are equal as regards their e\W 
development and size, the corolla is regular; _ ” 
when unequal itis erregular. Even although 
the separate petals are oblique, still, if they are all equally so, as in 


o 


Fig. 311. Fig. 312. 


Fig. 811. Regular monopetalous or gamopetalous tubular corolla of Spigelia marylandica. 
¢, Calyx. ¢, Tube of the corolla, 1, Limb of the corolla. s, Stigma at the summit of style. 
Fig. 812. Irregular gamopetalous or monopetalous corolla of Digitalis purpurea, Fox- 
glove. c¢, Calyx. y, Corolla. t, Tube. J, Limb. 


204. POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS. 


many Malvacee with twisted estivation, the corolla is regular. The 
size of the corolla as compared with the calyx, the number, direction, 
and form of its parts, and their relation to the axis of the plant, 
require attention. 

When a corolla is gamopetalous, it usually happens that the claws 
are united into a tube (figs. 311 ¢, 312 t), while the upper parts are 
either free or partially united, so as "to form a common limb (fig. 311 1), 
the two portions being separated by the faua or throat, which often 
exhibits a distinct constriction or dilatation. The number of parts 
forming such a corolla can be determined by the divisions, whether 
existing as teeth, crenations, fissures, or partitions; or if, as rarely 


Fig. 318. Fig. 314. 
happens, the corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be 
equal among the parts, or some may unite more than others. Some- 
Li times the tubular portion is bent, as in 


Lycopsis; at other times the limb is 
curved at its apex, as in Lamium. 
RecuLaR PoLtyPeTatous CoRoLLas. 
—Among them may be noticed the rosa- 
ceous corolla, in which there are five 
spreading petals, having no claws, and 
arranged as in the single Rose (fig. 313) 
and Potentilla; the caryophyllaceous co- 
rolla, in which there are five petals with 
long narrow tapering claws, as in many 


Fig. 313. Polypetalous flower of Rosa rubiginosa, the Sweet-brier. b, Bract or floral 
leaf. ct, Hollow torus, which forms the conspicuous part of what is commonly called the 
fruit. cf, cf, ef, ef, of, Sepals or foliola of the calyx. pp pp, Petals without a claw. ¢, 
Stamens attached to the calyx. Fig. 314. Polypetalous flower of Dianthus monspessu- 
Janus. 6, Bracts. c, Calyx. pp, Petals with their claws, 0, approximated so as to form a 
tube. Fig. 315. Cruciferous flower of Cheiranthus Cheiri, Wallflower. c, Lobes of the 
sepals ; the two external sepals being prolonged at the base, so as to form a sort of spur or 
swelling (gibbous or saccate). pp, The four petals arranged like a cross. e, The four longer 
stamens, the summits of the anthers being visible, 


APS 
a) 


Fig. 315. 


GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 205 


of the Pink tribe (figs. 305, 314); the alsinaceous, where the claw is 
less narrow, and there are distinct spaces between the petals, as in 
some species of Chickweed ; cruciform, having four petals, often un- 
guiculate, placed opposite in the form of a cross, as seen in Wall- 
flower (fig. 315), and in other plants called cruciferous (crux, a cross, 
and fero, I bear), 

IrrecutaR PotypeTatous Corotnas.—The most marked of 
these is the papilionaceous (fig. 316), in which 
there are five petals ; one superior (posterior), ¢, 
placed next to the axis, usually larger than the 
rest, and folded over them in estivation, called 
the vexillum or standard ; two lateral, a, the ale 
or wings ; two inferior (anterior), partially or 
completely covered by the ale, and often united 
slightly by their lower margins, so as to form a 
single keel-like piece, b, called carina, or keel, 
which embraces the essential organs. This 
corolla occurs in the Leguminous plants of Britain, or those plants 
which have flowers like the pea. Among the irregular polypetalous 
corollas might be included the orchideous (fig. 
317), although it is really the perianth of 
a Monocotyledon. This perianth consists of 
three outer portions equivalent to the calyx, 
and three inner parts alternating with them, 
constituting the petals. The latter are often 
very irregular, some being spurred, others 
hooded, etc. ; and there is always one, called 
the labellum or lip (Fig. 317 2), which pre- 
sents a remarkable development, and gives rise 
to many of the anomalous forms exhibited by 
these flowers. 

RecuLtsR MonopetaLous on GAMOPETAL- 
ous CoroLLAs.—These are sometimes campanu- 
late or bell-shaped, as in Campanula rotundifolia 
(fig. 318); infundibuliform or funnel-shaped, 
when the tube is like an inverted cone, and 
the limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in Tobacco (fig. 
319); hypocrateriform or salver-shaped, when there is a straight 
tube surmounted by a flat spreading limb, as in Primula (fig. 


Fig. 316. i 


Fig. 316. Irregular polypetalous corolla in the papilionaceous flower of Lathyrus 
odoratus, Sweet-pea, ¢, Calyx. e, Vexillum or standard. a, Two ale or wings. 2, 
Carina or keel, formed of two petals. Fig. 317. Flower of Twayblade (Listera ovata), seen 
in front, showing a large bifid labellum, 2, which is different from the other five divisions of 
the perianth. The divisions of the perianth are in two rows of three each. The essential 
organs of reproduction are placed on a column opposite the labellum, The perianth is 
irregular polyphyllous, and is denominated Orchideous, 


206 GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 


320); tubular, having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continu- 
ous with the limb, as in Spigelia (fig. 311), and Comfrey (fig. 321) ; 
rotate or wheel-shaped, when the tube is very short, and the limb flat 
and spreading, as in Myosotis (fig. 322); when the divisions of the 
rotate corolla are very acute, as in Galium, it is sometimes called 
stellate or star-like ; urceolate or wrn-shaped, when there is scarcely any 
limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the middle, 


Fig. 318. Fig. 319. Fig. 320. Fig. 321. 


as in Bell-heath (Erica cinerea) (fig. 323). Some of these forms may 
become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more developed 
than others. Thus, in Veronica, the rotate corolla has one division 
much smaller than the rest, and in Digitalis there is a slightly irregular 
campanulate corolla (fig. 312), which some have called digitaliform. 
IgrReGULAR MOoNoPETALOUS OR GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS.— 
Among these may be remarked the labiate or lipped (fig. 324), having 
two divisions of the limb in the form of what are called labia or lips 
(the upper one composed usually of two united petals, and the lower of 
three), separated by a hiatus or gap, 7. In such cases the tube varies 
in length, and the parts of the calyx follow the reverse order in their 
union, two sepals being united in the lower lip, and three in the upper. 
When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the lips 
separated by a distinct gap, it is called ringent (ringens, grinning). 
The labiate corolla characterises the natural order Labiatz. In Lobelia 


Fig. 318, Regular monopetalous or gamopetalous campanulate or bell-shaped corolla of 
Campanula rotundifolia. ¢, Calyx. J, Limb of corolla. s, Stigma. Fig. 319. Regular 
monopetalous or gamopetalous infundibuliform corolla of Nicotiana Tabacum, Tobacco. 
ce, Calyx. 1, Limb of corolla, s, Stigma. Fig. 320. Regular monopetalous or gamo- 
petalous hypocrateriform corolla of Primula elatior, Oxlip. c, Calyx. p, Corolla. t, Tube. 
i, Limb. a, Anthers. Fig. 321. Regular gamopetalous tubular and somewhat bell- 
shaped corolla of Symphytum officinale, Comfrey. ¢, Calyx. ¢, Tube of corolla. 
1, Limb. ss, Stigma. 1, External depressed surface of folds, which project into the tube of 
the corolla, 


GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 207 


there is a labiate corolla, the upper lip of which becomes convex 
superiorly, and is split to near the base. When the lower lip is 


Fig. 322, Fig. 323. Fig, 324. Fig. 825, 
pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a chink or rictus between 
them, the corolla is said to be personate or mask-like (persona, a mask), 
as in Frogsmouth (fig. 325), Snapdragon, and some other Scrophu- 


lariacese, and the projecting portion, p, of the 
lower lip is called the palate. In some corollas 
the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable 
manner, as in Calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like 
appearance, similar to what occurs in the labellum 
of some Orchids, as Cypripedium. The calceolate 
(calceolus, a slipper) corolla of Calceolaria may be 
considered as consisting of two slipper-like lips. 
When a tubular corolla is split in such a way 
as to form a strap-like process on one side with 
several tooth-like projections at its apex, it becomes 
ligulate (ligula, a little tongue), or strap-shaped (fig. 
326). This corolla occurs in many composite 
plants, as in the florets of Dandelion, Daisy, and 
Chicory. The number of divisions at the apex 


NAW 
\\ 


indicates the number of united petals, some of o\) 
which, however, may be abortive. Occasionally 
some of the petals become more united than others, Fig. 326. 


Fig. 322. Regular gamopetalous rotate corolla of Myosotis palustris, or Forget-me-not. 
ce, Calyx. yp, Corolla. 1, Folds of the corolla, forming projections at the upper part of the 
tube, which are opposite to the lobes of the corolla, Fig. 323. Regular gamopetalous 
urceolate or urn-shaped corolla of Erica cinerea, or cross-leaved Heath. ¢, Calyx. ¢, Tube 
of corolla, 1, Limb of corolla. 3s, Stigma. Fig. 324. Irregular gamopetalous labiate or 
lipped corolla of Salvia pratensis. c, Calyx. t, Tube of corolla, 1, Limb, forming two lips, 
having a gap or hiatus between them. s, Summit of style. Fig. 325. Irregular gamo- 
petalous personate or mask-like corolla of Antirrhinum majus, or Frogsmouth. ¢, Calyx. 
t, Tube of corolla, having a gibbosity or swelling, u, at its base. 1, Limb of corolla. g, The 
faux or mouth closed by a projection of the lower lip, p. Fig. 326. Irregular gamo- 
petalous ligulate floret of Catananche cerulea. ¢, Calyx, with a quinquefid limb united 
inferiorly with the ovary, 0. e, Stamens with united sethens: a (synantherous or syngenesious), 
surrounding the style, s, with its bifid stigma, 


208 FLOWERS OF GRASSES. 


and then this corolla assumes a bilabiate or two-lipped form, as seen 
in the division of Composite called Labiatifloree, In Composite there 
are often two kinds of florets associated in the same head. Thus, in 
the Daisy there are irregular ligulate white florets on the outside or in 
the ray, while there are regular tubular yellow florets in the centre or 
disc. In Scevola and in Honeysuckle the corolla is split down to 
its base, so as to resemble somewhat the ligulate form. 

FLowers or Grasses AND Sep@rs.—lIn these plants, in place 
of verticillate leaves forming the flower, there are alternate scales 
or glumes. The flowers of grasses usually occur in spikelets (fig. 
327), which consist of one or two glumes, a, covering several flowers, 
b. The spikelets are associated in spikes or panicles. In Wheat 


{Fig. 327. Fig. 328. Fig. 329, Fig. 330. 


these spikelets are arranged alternately along a common rachis, 
Each spikelet (fig. 327) consists of two empty glumes, a a, having 
the form represented in figure 328, and enclosing flowers which are 
composed of scales (paleze or glumellie), delineated in figures 329 and 
330—the former being the outer, and the latter the inner pale or 
glumella—which are placed at different heights in an alternate manner. 
In the flower of the Oat (fig. 331), after removing the outer pale or 
glumella, the inner one, pz, is seen with two scales (lodiculz. or squame), 
sq, at the base, enclosing the essential organs of reproduction. The 
paleze of grasses are called by some flowering glumes, while hypogynous 
scales (lodicule) within this are considered as the rudimentary 
perianth. In Wheat (Triticum) there are two empty glumes, and 

Fig. 327. A spikelet of Wheat (Triticum), consisting of two glumes, a a, enclosing several 
flowers, b b, which are composed of two pales (palez) covering the essential organs of repro- 
duction. The stamens, s, hang out by long slender thread-like filaments. The individual 
glumes and palez are placed alternately on the floral axis. Fig. 328. One of the glumes 
of Wheat (Triticum), seen in profile. These glumes are bracts or floral leaves which consti- 
tute the outer covering of the spikelet. They are placed at different levels, following the 
law of alternation. The glume is marked with three ribs. Fig. 329, External (outer) 
palea or glumella of the flower of Wheat. It is a glumaceous scale marked with two ribs on 
each side of the midrib. Fig. 330, Internal (inner) palea or glumella of the flower of 


Wheat, It is thinner and more membranous than the outer glumella (flowering glume), its 
edges are folded inwards and its apex is bifid, 


‘ 


COROLLINE APPENDAGES., 209 


two flowering glumes. In the Oat (Avena) there are two empty 
glumes (gluma, a husk), usually three flowering glumes with awns, and 
two lodicules (Jodicwla, a coverlet), representing the perianth. In 
Sedges (Carices) the male flowers are borne on scales, and so are 
the female, as shown in figure 332, in which the scale, s, is placed 
on one side. Within the scale the female flower is situated, having 
a peculiar bag-like covering, «, termed perigynium. 

NecraRizs AND ANOMALIES IN Prrats.—Certain abnormal 
appearances occur in the petals of some flowers, which received in 
former days the name of nectaries. The term nectary was very vaguely 
applied by Linnzeus to any part of the flower which presented an un- 


encekee tens 


v 


Fig. 331, Fig. 832. Fig. 338, Fig. 334. 

usual aspect, as the crown (corona) of Narcissus, the fringes of the 
Passion-flower, etc. If the name is retained, it ought properly to 
include only those parts which secrete a honey-like matter, as the 
glandular depression at the base of the perianth of the Fritillary (fig. 
333 r), or on the petal of Ranunculus, or on the stamens of Rutacez. 
The honey secreted by flowers attracts insects, which, by conveying the 
pollen to the stigma, effect fertilisation, What have usually, however, 


Fig. 331, Flower of Oat (Avena sativa), with the two empty glumes, and the outer flower— 
glume removed. The inner glumella or palea, pi, is seen of a lanceolate form, and bidentate 
at the apex. The outer glumella has a long twisted geniculate dorsal awn, with two points 
or bristles at the summit. By removing this gluniella there are seen two scales (lodicule, 
squamz), sq, with the three stamens and two feathery styles. Fig. 332. Female (pistilli- 
ferous or pistillate) flower of a Sedge (Carex), with a single glume or scale, s. The pistil is 
covered by an urceolate glumaceous bag, u, called perigynium. There is one style, st, with 
three stigmas at its summit. Fig. 333. One of the segments, s, of the perianth of Fritil- 
laria imperialis, or Crown Imperial, with a pit or depression, 7, at its base, containing 
honey-like matter. The cavity is coloured differently from the rest of the segment, and it 
is often called a nectary, or a nectariferous gland. Fig. 334, Petal of Lychnis fulgens, 
seen on its inner side. 0, Claw. 1, Limb. a, An appendage supposed to be formed_by 
chorisis, This appendage was called a nectary by old authors. 


P 


210 COROLLINE APPENDAGES. 


been called nectaries, are mere modifications of some part of the 
flower, especially of the corolla and stamens, produced either by 
degeneration or outgrowth, or by a process of dilaméination (dis, 
separate, and lamina, a blade), or chorisis (wei, I separate). This 
process, called also deduplication, consists in the separation of a layer 
from the inner side of a petal, either presenting a peculiar form, or 
resembling the part from which it is derived. The parts thus pro- 
duced are not alternate with the petals or the segments of the corolla, 
but opposite to them. In these cases, the petals at the lower part 
consist of one piece, but where the limb and claw separate, or where 
the tube ends, the vascular layer splits into two, and thus two lamin 
are formed, one posteriorly and the other anteriorly. These scales are 
well seen in Lychnis (fig. 334 a), Silene, Cynoglossum, and Ranun- 
culus, and may be considered as formed in the same way as the ligule 
of grasses (fig. 210, p. 99). Corollas having these scaly appendages 
are sometimes denominated appendiculate, In other cases, as in Cus- 
cuta and Samolus, the scales are alternate with the petals, and may 
represent altered stamens. The formation of these scales is referred 
to under the section of Morphology and Symmetry. 

The parts formerly called nectaries are mere modifications of the 
corolla or stamens. Thus the so-called horn-like nectaries under the 
galeate sepal of Aconite (fig. 308, p. 202), are modified petals, so also are 
the tubular nectaries of Hellebore. The nectaries of Menyanthes and of 

Tris consist of hairs developed on the petals. Those 
of Parnassia (fig. 335 »), and of the Passion-flower, 
Stapelia, Asclepias, and Canna, are fringes, rays, 
(( and processes, which are probably modifications 
of stamens ; and some consider the crown of Nar- 
\ cissus as consisting of a membrane similar to that 
which unites the stamens in Pancratium. It is 
sometimes difficult to say whether these nectaries 
are to be referred to the corolline or to the staminal 
row. The paraphyses of the Passion-flower, the 
crown of Narcissus, and the coronet of Stapelia, 
are referred sometimes to the one and sometimes 
to the other. In general, they may be said to 
belong to that series with which they are immediately connected. 
Some have given names indicating the parts of which they are modi- 
fications, by prefixing the term para (raga, beside, or close to), using 
such terms as paracorolla and parastemones. 
Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base, but 


P 
4 
\| 


Fig. 385. 


Fig. 335. Petal, p, of Parnassia palustris, or grass of Parnassus, with a so-called nectary, 
n, Which may be an abortive state of some of the stamens, or a process from the petals, 
surmounted by stalked glands. 


DEVELOPMENT OF FLORAL ENVELOPES. 211 


occasionally the base is larger than the limb, as in the Orange flower. 
When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals fall 
off either immediately after expansion (caducous), or after fertilisation 
(deciduous), A corolla which is continuous with the axis and not arti- 
culated to it, as in Campanula, Heaths, etc., may be persistent, and 
remain in a withered or marcescent state while the fruit is ripening. 
A gamopetalous corolla falls off in one piece ; but sometimes the base 
of the corolla remains persistent, as in Rhinanthus and Orobanche. 

DEVELOPMENT oF FLorat EnveELorEes.—The floral envelopes, 
when gamosepalous and gamopetalous, first appear 
in the form of a ring, whence various cellular pro- 
jections arise, representing the sepals and petals ; 
when they are polysepalous and polypetalous, the 
ring is wanting. Even when the parts become 
ultimately unequal, as in Digitalis (fig. 309), they 
form equal cellular papille when first developed 
(fig. 336). Fig, 336. 

Trregular flowers may be referred to regular types, from which 
they seem to have degenerated. There appear to be three principal 
kinds of irregularity among corollas:—1l. Irregularity by simple in- 
equality in the development of the several segments, often along with ad- 
hesion or atrophy, or arrest of growth: this is the most common kind. 
2. Irregularity of deviation, when the segments, though equal, turn all 
to the same side, as in ligulate florets, 3. Irregularity by simple meta- 
morphosis of stamens, as in Canna. The irregular corollas of Acan- 
thaceze, Bignoniaceze, Gesneracez, Lobeliaceze, and Scrophulariacez, 
are formed at first in a regular manner, by equal projections from a 
sort of cup or ring. In Calceolaria, there is at first a scooped-out cup, 
with four regular and very minute teeth, which are ultimately de- 
veloped as‘ the corolla; the nascent calyx has also four divisions. 
In Begoniacez the floral envelope at first appears as a continuous 
ring, having five equal small segments; some of these, especially in 
the male flowers, disappear entirely or become atrophied. 


Inner Floral Whorls, or the Essential Organs of Reproduction, 


These organs are the stamens and the pistdl, the latter containing 
the seeds or germs of young plants, and corresponding to the female, 
while the former produces a powder necessary for fecundation, and is 
looked upon as performing the part of the male. The presence of 
both is required in order that perfect seed may be produced. A flower 
may have a calyx and corolla, and yet be imperfect if the essential 


Fig. 336. Bud of the irregular gamopetalous flower of Digitalis purpurea. cc, Calyx. 
p, Corolla, which in its early development is regular. ¢, The stamens, at first projecting 
beyond the corolla. 


212 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


organs are not present. The name of hermaphrodite or bisexual is 
given to flowers in which both these organs are found; that of wni- 
sexual (one sex), or diclinous (dis, twice, and %Aivq, a bed), to those in 
which only one of these organs appears,—those bearing stamens only 
being. staminiferous (stamen, a stamen, fero, I bear), or male ; those 
having the pistil only, pistilliferous (pistillum, a pistil, fero, I bear), or 
female. 

The absence of one of the organs is due to abortion or non-develop- 
ment, When in the same plant there are unisexual flowers, both male 
and female, the plant is said to be monectous or monoicous (wévos, one, 
and oixioy, habitation), as in the Hazel and Castor-oil plant; when 
the male and female flowers of a species are found on separate plants, 
the term diwctous or dioicous (dis, twice) is’ applied, as in Mercurialis 
and Hemp; and when a species has male, female, and hermaphrodite 
flowers on the same or different plants, as in Parietaria, it is poly- 
gamous (wor0c, many, and yéwos, marriage). The term agamous (a, 
privative, and yéwoc, marriage) has sometimes been applied to Crypto- 
gamic plants, from the supposed absence of any bodies truly represent- 
ing the stamens and pistil. 

Flowers of the same species of plant sometimes present different 
forms as regards stamens and pistil. Thus, in the same species of 
Primula and Linum there are differences in the size and development 
of the stamens and pistil, one flower having long stamens and a pistil 
with a short style, the other having short stamens and a pistil with 
a long style. The former occur in what are called thumb-eyed prim- 
roses, the latter in those called pin-eyed. Such plants are called 
dimorphic (is, twice, and w0go%, form), These plants, and many others, 
have thus two kinds of hermaphrodite flowers on distinct individuals. 
In some plants the stamens are perfected before the pistil ; these are 
called protandrous (aedros, first, dvjg, male or stamen), Examples of 
these are Ranunculus repens, Lychnis Flos-cuculi, Silene maritima, 
Geranium pratense and sylvaticum, Digitalis purpurea, Campanula 
rotundifolia, and Zea Mais. In other plants the pistil is perfected 
before the stamens, as in Potentilla argentea, Plantago major, lanceo- 
lata, and maritima, Lonicera Periclymenum, and Coix Lachryma. 
These are called protogynous plants (aeairos, first, yuvy, female or pistil). 

Stamens.—The stamens (stamina) arise from the thalamus or 
torus within the petals, with which they alternate, forming one or 
more verticils or whorls which collectively constitute the andracium 
(dyje, male, ofxiov, habitation), or the male organs of the plant, as 
distinguished from the gyneciwm (yuvj, female, ofxiov, habitation), 
or female organs of the plant. Their normal position is below 
the inner whorl or the pistil, and when they are so placed (fig. 337 e), 
they are hypogynous (id, under, yuv7, female or pistil). Sometimes 
they become united to the petals, or are epipetalous (éa/, upon, and 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS, 213 


wérohov, a leaf), and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar, 
so that they, are still hypogynous, provided they are independent 
of the calyx and the pistil. In fig. 338, the stamens, ¢, and the petals, 
p, are below the pistil or ovary, 0, and both are separate from it and 
from the calyx, c, and are therefore hypogynous. When the stamens are 
inserted on the calyx, that is, are united to it toa greater or less height 
above the base of the pistil, then they become lateral as it were in 
regard to the latter, and are perigynous (weg, around). This is shown 
in the flower of the almond (fig. 339), in which the petals, p, and 
the stamens, ¢, are united to the calyx, c, while the pistil is free. 


Fig. 337. Fig. 338, Fig. 339. 


When the union of the parts of the flower is such that the stamens 
are inserted on the top of the ovary, they are epigynous (éa/, upon or 
above). In this case the torus is supposed to be united to the ovary, 
while the calyx is above it, and bears the stamens. In the Orchis 
tribe, where the stamens and pistil are united so as to form a column, 
the flowers are said to be gynandrous. In Aralia spinosa (fig. 340), all 
the whorls, calyx, c, petals, p, and stamens, ¢, are united by the torus 
to the pistil, and the two latter whorls appear to rise from the point 
where the calyx joins the upper part of the pistil. These arrange- 
ments of parts have given rise to, certain divisions in classification, 


Fig. 387. Central part of the flower of Liriodendron tulipifera, the tulip-tree, composed 
of carpels, ¢ c, which together form the pistil. They cover the upper part of the axis, a, and 
below them are inserted numerous stamens, some of which are seen, ¢e. These stamens 
are hypogynous and extrorse. Fig. 388. Section of a flower of Geranium Robertianum. 
cc, Calyx. p, Petals. ¢, Stamens. Pistil composed of ovary, 0, and style and stigmata, s. 
t, Torus or Thalamus, The petals and stamens are hypogynous, and the latter are monadel- 
phous. Fig. 339. Section of the flower of the Almond-tree. The letters indicate the same 
parts as in the last figure. The petals and stamens are perigynous, The pistil is free. 


214 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS, 


to be afterwards particularly noticed. For instance, the term tha- 
lamifloral is applied to plants having a 
polypetalous corolla and all the whorls in- 
serted immediately into the torus or thala- 
mus ; calycifloral to those where the petals 
are separate or united, and the stamens are 
inserted directly on the calyx; corollijfloral 
to those in which the united petals are 
placed under the ovary, and the stamens are 
either borne by them, or are inserted inde- 


Fig. 340. 


pendently into the torus. 

The stamens vary in number, from one to many hundred. Like 
the other parts of the flower, they are modified leaves, resembling 
them in their structure, development, and arrangement. They consist 
of cellular and vascular tissue. They appear at first in the form of 
cellular projections, and are arranged in a more or less spiral form. 
In their general aspect they have a greater resemblance to petals than 
to the leaves, and there is often seen a gradual transition from petals 


Fig. 342. 


to stamens. Thus, in Nymphea alba, the White Water-lily (figs. 341, 
342), ¢ represents a sepal, which gradually passes into the petals, p, 
and these in their turn become modified so as to form the stamens, ¢, 
which are more or less perfect as we proceed from without inwards, 
or from 1 to 5. When flowers become double by cultivation, the 
stamens are converted into petals, as in the Peony, Camellia, Rose, 


Fig. 340. Section of the flower of Aralia spinosa, Letters as in last figure. The petals 
and stamens are epigynous, attached to the torus, d, which covers the summit of the 
ovary. The ovary is adherent to the torus, and has been laid open to show its loculaments 
and pendulous ovules, Fig. 341. Flower of Nympheza alba, White Water-lily. cccc, 
The four foliola of the calyxor sepals. pp pp, Petals. ¢, Stamens. s, Pistil. Fig. 342. 
Parts of the flower separated to show the transition from the green sepals of the calyx, c, 
and the white petals of the corolla, p, to the stamens, e. The latter present changes 
from their perfect state, 5, through intermediate forms, 4, 3, 2, and 1, which gradually re- 
semble the petals. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 215 


Anemone, and Tulip; and, in these instances, the changes from 
one to the other may be traced in the same way as in the Waiter-lily. 

When there is only one whorl, the stamens are usually equal in 
number to the sepals or petals, and are arranged opposite to the former, 
and alternate with the latter. The flower is then isostemonous (io0s, 
equal, and orjuzmv, a stamen). When the stamens are not equal in num- 
ber to the sepals or petals, the flower is anisostemonous (dévoos, unequal). 
When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the parts of each 
successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl preceding it. 
The staminal row is more liable to multiplication of parts than the outer 
whorls. A flower with a single row of stamens is aplostemonous (daAdos, 
single). If the stamens are double the sepals or petals as regards 
number, the flower is diplostemonous (d:rAé0s, double) ; if more than 
double, polystemonous (woAds, many). In diplostemonous and_poly- 
stemonous flowers we sometimes find that the inner stamens are the 
younger, and thus alternate with the carpels, as in Cerastium and 
Lilium. In this case the development is centripetal. At other times 
the external are the younger, and the carpels alternate with the 
older stamens, as in Geranium and Heath. In this case the develop- 
ment is centrifugal. The outer stamens in the latter case may repre- 
sent interstaminal parts analogous to interpetiolar stipules. In general, 
when the stamens are normally developed, and are more numerous 
than the sepals and petals, they will be found arranged in several 
whorls, and their parts multiples of the floral envelopes. Thus, if a 
flower has five sepals, five petals, and twenty stamens, the latter are 
arranged in four alternate rows, having five in each. Although this 
is the usual law, yet various changes take place by abortion, arrest- 
ment of development, and other circimstances leading to abnormal 
growth. In this way the stamens may neither be equal to, nor a 
multiple of, the floral envelopes, and they may even be less numerous, 
so that the flower is miostemonous (we/wy, less). In Cruciferous plants, 
while the petals and sepals are equal in number (four), and alternate 
in arrangement, the stamens are six in number, four long and two 
short ; this imparity of numbers has been supposed to result from the 
splitting of the long stamens by lateral chorisis, a presumption favoured 
by the fact that partial union frequently exists between the two long 
stamens placed next each other (and superposed to the antero-posterior 
petals), that teeth are found only on the outer side of these long 
stamens, and that in many cruciferze only four stamens exist. In the 
case of Gloxinia, where the parts of the flower are arranged in fives, 
there are oxily four perfect stamens, but the fifth one is seen in the 
form of a small conical projection from the base of the corolla, and by 
cultivation the fifth stamen is sometimes fully developed, while the 
flowers assume a regular form, and have an erect in place of an 
inclined position on the peduncle. 


216 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


In certain cases, as in Primula, the row of stamens is opposite 
to the petals forming the gamopetalous corolla. This opposition is by 
many looked upon as caused by the non-appearance of an outer row 
of stamens; by others it is considered as produced by chorisis or 
separation of laminz from the petals, which become altered so as to 
form stamens, a view which is thought to be confirmed by their de- 
velopment taking place before the petals; by a third party, each petal 
is looked upon when fully developed as formed by the halves of two 
contiguous petals, and thus the stamens are considered as being really 
alternate with the original petals.3 

When the stamens are under twenty they are called definite, and 
the flower is oligandrous (dA/yos, few, and &vje, male or stamen) ; when 
above twenty they are indefinite or polyandrous (woAds, many), and are 
represented by the symbol oo. The number of stamens is indicated 
by the Greek numerals prefixed to the term androus; a flower with 
one stamen being monandrous (wédvos, one) ; with two, diandrous (és, 
twice) ; with three, triandrous (resis, three) ; with four, tetrandrous 
(rereas, four) ; with five, pentandrous (aévre, five); with six, hexan- 
drous (2, six); with seven, heptandrous (ard, seven); with eight, 
octandrous (éxr@, eight); with nine, enneandrous (ewed, nine); with 
ten, decandrous (dena, ten) ; with twelve, dodecandrous (dwdexa, twelve). 
These terms will be referred to when treating of the Linnzan system 
of classification. 

A stamen consists of two parts—a contracted portion, usually 
thread-like, equivalent to the petiole of the leaf, and termed the jila- 
ment (filum, a thread) ; and a broader portion, representing the folded 
blade of the leaf, termed the anther (dvéneds, belonging to a flower), 
which contains a powdery matter, called pollen. The filament is no 
more essential to the stamen than the petiole is to the leaf, or the claw 
to the petal. If the anther is absent, the stamen is abortive, and 
cannot perform its functions. The anther is developed before the 
filament, and when the latter is not produced the anther is sessile 
(sessilis, sitting), or has no stalk, as in the Mistleto. 

Tae FirameEnt, when structurally considered, is found to consist 
of a thin epidermis, on which occasionally stomata and hairs occur, 
and of a layer of cellular tissue enclosing a bundle of spiral vessels, 
which traverses its whole length, and terminates at the union between 
the filament and the anther. The filaments of Callitriche verna are 
said to have no vessels, The filament is usually, as its name imports, 
filiform or thread-like, cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its 
summit. It is often, however, thickened, compressed, and flattened 
in various ways. It sometimes assumes the appearance of a petal, 
or becomes petaloid (wirwrov, a leaf or petal, efdoc, form), as in 
Canna, Maranta, Nymphzea alba (fig. 342) ; occasionally it is subulate 
(subula, an awl), or slightly broadened at the base, and drawn out 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS-——STAMENS, 217 


into a point like an awl, as in Butomus umbellatus; and at other 
times it is clavate (clava, a club), or narrow below and broad above, 
like the club of Hercules, as in Thalictrum. In place of tapering, it 
happens, in some instances, as in Tamarix gallica (fig. 
343), Peganum Harmala, and Campanula, that the base 
of the filament is dilated much, and ends suddenly in 
a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases the base 
may represent the sheath or vagina of the petiole, and, 
like it, may give off stipulary processes in a lateral 
direction. Sometimes the filament is forked, or divided 
at the apex into branches or teeth. In Allium and 
Alyssum calycinum there are three teeth, the central vi Di Ay 
one of which bears the anther. In the common garlic Fig. 349. 
one of the lateral teeth is somewhat cirrose. 

The filament varies much in length'and in firmness. The length 
sometimes bears a relation to that of the pistil, and to the position of 
the flower, whether erect or drooping. The filament is usually of suf- 
ficient solidity to support the anther in an erect position ; but some- 
times, as in Grasses, Littorella, and Plantago, it is very delicate and 
capillary (capillus, a hair), or hair-like, so that the anther is pendulous. 
The filament is usually continuous from one end to the other, but in 
some cases it is bent or jointed, becoming geniculate (genu, a knee) ; at 
other times, as in the Pellitory, it is spiral. It is frequently colourless ; 
but, in many instances, it exhibits different colours. In Fuchsia and 
Poinciana, it is red ; in Adamia and Tradescantia virginica, blue ; in 
(Enothera and Ranunculus acris, yellow. 

Hairs, scales, teeth, or processes of different kinds are sometimes 
developed on the filament. In Tradescantia 
virginica, or Spiderwort, the hairs are beauti- 
fully coloured, and moniliform (monile, a 
necklace) or necklace-like. These hairs 
exhibit movements of rotation (p. 153), Such 
a filament is bearded or stupose (stupa, tow). 
At the base of the filament certain glandular 
or scaly appendages are occasionally pro- 
duced, either on its internal or external sur- 
face. These may be either parts of a whorl, 
to be afterwards noticed under the name 
of the Disk, or separate prolongations from 
the filament itself. In fig. 345, a represents t Wy 
such a staminiferous appendage found on the gig. 344, Fig. 345. 


Fig. 343, Three out of ten stamens of Tamarix gallica, united together by the dilated 
bases of their filaments. Fig. 344, Stamen of Borago officinalis. jf, Appendiculate fila- 
ment. a, Appendage prolonged in the form of a horn-like process. J, Lobes of the anther, 
Fig. 345. Stamen of Zygophyllum Fabago. jf, Filament, connected with a broad scaly 
appendage, a. 


218 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


inner side of the base of the filament, f, which is hence called appen- 
diculate, or sometimes strumose (struma, a swelling). The processes 
noticed in the Boraginaces as modified petals (fig. 344 a) may be 
considered external appendages of the filaments, the stamen being 
regarded as the lamina of a petal. 

Filaments are usually articulated to the thalamus or torus, and 
the stamen falls off after fertilisation ; but in Campanula and other 
plants they are continuous with the torus, and the stamen remains 
persistent, although in a withered state. Certain changes are pro- 
duced in the whorl of stamens by adhesion of the filaments to a greater 
or less extent, while the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments 
of the andreecium may unite, forming a tube round the pistil (fig. 338 
e), or a central bundle when the pistil is abortive (fig. 346, 1), the 


Fig. 346, 1. Fig. 346, 2. 


stamens becoming monadelphous (wdvos, one, and &deAgis, brother), as 
occurs in Geranium (fig. 338), Malva, Hibiscus, and Jatropha Curcas 
(fig. 346, 1); or they may unite so as to form two bundles, the 
stamens being diadelphous (d/s, twice), as in Polygala, Fumaria, and 


Fig. 346. Male or staminiferous flower (1), and female or pistilliferous flower (2), of 
Jatropha Curcas. ¢, Calyx. , Corolla. e, Stamens united by filaments occupying the 
centre in flower 1, in consequence of the suppression of the pistil. , Pistil in flower 2, 
composed of ovary, 0, with three bifid styles at its summit. a, Small glandular appendages 
alternating with the divisions of the corolla. Above each of the flowers is a diagram repre- 
senting the order in which the different parts of the flower are arranged. In diagram 1 are re- 
presented five parts of the calyx, five of the corolla, two rows of stamens, five in each. In 
diagram 2, the staminal rows are abortive, and there are three carpels forming the pistil, in 
the centre. Fig. 347. Triadelphous stamens of Hypericum wgyptiacum surrounding the 
pistil, o. ff, United filaments forming columns. ¢e, Anthers free. The outer envelope 
of the flower has been removed, the essential organs alone being left. 


. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 219 


Pea ; in this case the bundles may be equal or unequal. It frequently 
happens, especially in Papilionaceous flowers, that out of ten stamens 
nine are united by their filaments, while one (the posterior one) is free. 
When the filaments are united in three or more bundles, the stamens 
are triadelphous (rge7s, three), as in Hypericum egyptiacum (fig. 347), 
or polyadelphous (xoAds, many), as in Luhea paniculata (fig. 348, 1), or 
in Ricinus communis (fig. 349, 1). These staminal bundles may be sup- 
posed to be a compound stamen divided, or they may be looked upon as 
resembling digitately-divided leaves. When there are three stamens in 
a bundle we may conceive the bundle as representing a leaf, with two 
stipules united at its base. In Lauracez there are perfect stamens, 
each having at the base of the filament two abortive stamens or stami- 
nodes (fig. 357), which may be analogous to stipules. The union of the 
filaments takes place sometimes at the base only, as in Tamarix gallica 
(fig. 343); at other times it extends throughout their whole length, so 


Fig. 348, 1. Fig. 348, 2. Fig. 349, 2. Fig. 349, 1. 


that the bundles assume a columnar form. In certain cases, the co- 
hesion extends to near the apex, forming what Mirbel calls an andro- 
phore (d&vqe, male or stamen, Qogéw, I bear), or a column which 
divides into terminal branches, each bearing an anther (347, f ¢). 
Occasionally some filaments are united higher up than others, and 
thus a kind of compound branching is produced (fig. 349, 2). In 
Pancratium, the filaments are united by a membrane, which may be 
considered as corresponding to the crown of Narcissus. 

Filaments sometimes are united with the pistil, forming a 
columna or column, as in Stylidium, Asclepiadacex, Rafflesia, and 


Fig. 348, 1. Flower of Luhea paniculata. cccc, Segments of calyx. pp, Petals. ee, 
Stamens grouped in bundles, which alternate with the petals. s, Stigma, composed of five 
parts, indicating the union of five carpels. 2. One of the staminal bundles magnified, showing 
all the filaments united in a single mass at the base, but separating superiorly. fa, The 
larger internal filaments, each ending in an anther. fs, The shorter outer ones, sterile and 
abortive. Fig. 349, 1. Male flower of Ricinus communis, or Castor-oil plant, consisting of 
a calyx, c, composed of five reflexed sepals, and of stamens, e, united by their filaments so 
as to form many bundles, thus being polyadelphous. 2. One of the staminal bundles, f, 
branching above so as to leave the anthers free and separate. 


220 ESSENTIAL ORGANS.—STAMENS, 


Orchidacee. The column is called gynostemiwm (yuvq, pistil, and 
orjuov, stamen), and the flowers are denominated gynandrous (yuri, 
pistil, dvjg, male or stamen). 

In the case of certain Achlamydeous (p. 192) flowers, as Euphorbia, 
with only one stamen developed, there is the appearance of a jointed 
filament bearing one anther. This, however, is not a true filament, 
but a peduncle with a single stamen attached to it, as proved by the 
fact, that in some species of Euphorbia one or more verticils are pro- 
duced at the joint. In this case the apparent anther represents a 
single flower supported on a stalk, all the parts being abortive except 
a solitary stamen. 

THE ANTHER corresponds to the blade of the leaf, and consists of 
lobes or cavities containing minute powdery matter, called pollen, 
which, when mature, is discharged by a fissure or opening of some 
sort. The anther-lobes may be considered as formed by the two halves 
of the lamina, their back corresponding to the under surface, and their 
face to the upper surface, united by the midrib, the pollen being 
cellular tissue, and the fissure of the anther taking place at the margin, 
which, however, is often turned towards the face. In this view, the 
two cavities which are found to exist in each lobe may correspond 
with the upper and under layer of cells, separated by a septum 
equivalent to the fibro-vascular layer of the leaf. Others view the 
anther as formed by each half of the lamina being folded upon itself, 
so that the outer surface of both face and back corresponds to the 
lower side of the leaf, and the septum dividing each cavity into two is 
formed by the united upper surfaces of the folded half. 

There is a double covering of the anther—the outer, or exothe- 
cium (e&w, outwards, énxiov, a covering), resembles the epidermis, and 
often presents stomata and projections of different kinds (fig. 350 ce) ; 
_ the inner, or endotheciwm (zvéov, within), is 

* formed by a layer or layers of fibro-cellular 
tissue (fig. 350 cf), the cells of which have 
F a spiral (fig. 23), annular (fig. 24), or reti- 
culated (fig. 25) fibre in their interior. 
This internal lining varies in thickness, 

Hig 300: generally becoming thinner towards the part 
where the anther opens, and there disappears entirely. The membrane 
of the cells is frequently absorbed, so that when the anther attains 
maturity the fibres are alone left, and these by their elasticity assist 
in discharging the pollen, The cells in the endothecium of Armeria 
maritima and Pinguicula vulgaris are reticulated, while annular cells 
occur in the endothecium of Cardamine pratensis. 


Fig. 350. Transverse section of a portion of the covering of the anther of Cobeea scandens 
at the period of dehiscence. ce, Exothecium, or external layer, consisting of epidermal 
cells. of, Endothecium, or inner layer, composed of spiral cells or inenchyma, 


, 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 221 


The anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile 
in the first instance. In many examples it continues permanently so. 


Fig. 351. Fig. 352. 


It appears in the form of a small cellular projection, containing a mass 
In the progress of growth, certain 


Fig. 353. Fig. 354. 


hollowed out into two marked cavities, containing a mucilaginous 
matter (figs. 352, 353). In these cavities cells make their appearance 
—the outer small (figs. 852, 353, cp), forming ultimately the en- 
dothecium (fig. 350 cf); the interior layer forming cells in which 
the pollen is produced (figs. 352, 353, up). As the cavities become 
larger, the layer of cells (figs. 352, 353, ec) between the endothecium, 
cp, and exothecium, ce, is gradually absorbed more or less completely, 
forming at first septa in the cavities; and ultimately the anther 
assumes its mature form, consisting of two lobes with their mem- 
branous coverings (fig. 354 2). 
In the young state there are usually four cavities produced, two 
for each anther-lobe, separated by the connective, and each divided by 
Fig. 351. Transverse section of an anther of Cucurbita Pepo, or Gourd, taken from a bud 
about two millimetres, or 1-12th of an English inch, in length. Fig. 352. Similar hori- 
zontal section from a bud in a more advanced state. ce, Outer layer of cellules (Exotheciwm) 
forming the epidermis. ct, Intermediate layer of cellules in several layers, most of which 
are ultimately absorbed. cp, Internal layer of cells (Endothectum). up, Anther-cavities 
filled with large cells, which constitute the first state of the pollen-utricles, or pollinic cells. 
Fig. 353. Similar section in a still more advanced state. The letters as in the last figure. 
Fig. 354. Anther of the Almond-tree. 1. Seen in front. '2. Seen behind. f/f, Filament 
attached to the connective, ¢, by a point. 12, Anther-lobes containing pollen. 


222 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


the septum, which sometimes remains permanently complete, and 
thus forms a quadrilocular (quatuor, four, loculus, a pouch or box) or 
tetrathecal (rergcs, four, é4xy, a sac) anther. The four cavities 
are sometimes placed in apposition, as in Poranthera (fig. 355) and 
Tetratheca juncea (fig. 356), and at other times two are placed above 
and two below, as in Persea gratissima (fig. 357 7 7). In general, 
however, only two cavities remain in the anther, in consequence of the 
more or less complete removal of the septum, in which case the anther 
is said to be bilocular (bis, twice), or dithecal (d/s, twice) as seen in 
figs. 354, 358. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and be- 
comes unilocular (unus, one), or monothecal (uévos, one), either by the 
disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the abortion 
of one of its lobes, as in Styphelia leta (fig. 359) and Althza, offici- 
nalis (fig. 360). Occasionally there are numerous cavities in the 
anther, as in Viscum and Rafflesia. The number of loculi or cavities 
is only seen when the anther opens. 


Pads ONS ES 


Fig. 356. 


Fig. 359. 


The form of the anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a 
more or less oval or elliptical form (figs. 354, 361 7). Sometimes 


Fig. 355. Quadrilocular anther, 2, of Poranthera, attached to the filament, f, and opening 
at the summit by four pores, p. Fig. 356. Quadrilocular anther of Tetratheca juncea. 
1, The anther entire, with its four loculaments ending in one opening. 2. Anther cut 
transversely, showing the four loculaments. Fig. 357. Anther of the Avocado pear (Persea 
gratissima), composed of four cavities or loculaments, J J, united in pairs, one above the 
other, and opening each bya valve, v. At the base of the filament, f, are two glands, ° 
gg, which seem to be abortive stamens or staminodes, and which may represent stipules. 
Fig. 358. Pendulous anther lobes, 21, of Mercurialis annua, supported on the filament, f, 
and united by the connective, c. Fig. 359. Unilocular or monothecal anther of Styphelia 
leta, one of the Epacridacew, seen in front, 1, and behind, 2. f, Filament. 1, Anther. 
Fig. 360. Unilocular anther of Althea officinalis, or Marsh mallow. One of the lobes of the 
anther, J, abortive. jf, Filament. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS, 223 


they are globular, as in Mercurialis annua (fig. 358) ; at other times 
linear or clavate (fig. 362), curved (fig. 363), flexuose, sinuose, or 
anfractuose (anfractus, winding), as in Bryony and Gourd (fig. 364). 
The lobes of the anther are sometimes in contact throughout their 
whole length (fig. 361), at other times they are separate (figs. 358, 


Fig. 361. Fig. 362. Fig. 363. Fig. 364. Fig. 365. 


’ 


Fig. 368. Fig. 369. Fig. 370. Fig. 371. 


365). In the former case their extremities may be rounded, forming 
a cordate anther (fig. 354), or the apex may be acute (figs. 344, 345) ; 
in the latter case the lobes may divide at the base only, and end in a 
sagittate or arrow-like manner (fig. 366 7); or at the apex, so as to 
be bifurcate or forked (fig. 367 p); or quadrifurcate, doubly forked 


Fig. 361. Adnate or adherent anther of Begonia manicata, opening by longitudinal de- 
hiscence. 1, Anther-lobes. f, Filament. Fig. 362. Forked or bifurcate anther, 1, of Aca- 
lypha alopecuroidea, in the expanded flower. Fig. 363. Same anther in the bud, exhibiting 
a curved form. Fig. 364, Sinuous anther, J, of Bryonia dioica. jf, Filament. Fig. 365. 
Anther of Salvia officinalis. Jf, Fertile lobe full of pollen. 7s, Barren lobe without pollen. 
c, Distractile connective. Fig. 366. Anther of Nerium Oleander, with its lobes, 2 J, sagittate 
at the base, and ending at the apex in a long feathery prolongation. Fig. 367. Anther, J, of 
Vaccinium uliginosum, 1, Lobes ending in two pointed extremities, which open by pores. 
a, Appendages to the lobes. Fig. 368. Quadrifurcate anther of Gualtheria procumbens. 
1, Lobes ending in four points. Fig. 369. Versatile anther of Poa compressa, /, Filament, 
1, Lobes separating at each end. Fig. 370. Anther, J, of Erica cinerea. f, Filament. 7, 
Lobes split partially downwards. a, Scale-like prolongations at the base. Fig. 871. Anther 
of Pterandra pyroidea. 1. Entire anther, seen laterally. 2. Lower half after having been 
cut transversely. aaa, Antherine appendages. 11, Anther-lobes. cc, Connective, 


224. ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


(fig. 368 2); or at both base and apex, so as to be forked at each 
extremity, as in Grasses (fig. 369). The cavities of the anther are 
occasionally elongated so as to end in points (fig. 368 7). Sometimes 
the lower part of the antherine cavities is obliterated, and they de- 
generate into flattened appendages (fig. 370 a). It happens at times 
that the surface of the anther presents excrescences in the form of 
warts, awl-shaped pointed bodies (fig. 367 a), or crests (fig. 371 a). 

That part of the anther to which the filament is attached, and 
which is generally towards the petals, is the back, the opposite being 
the face. The division between the lobes is marked on the face of the 
anther by a groove or furrow, and there is usually on the face a suture, 
indicating the line where the membranous coverings open to discharge 
the pollen. The suture is often towards one side in consequence of 
the valves being unequal. 

The anther-lobes are united either by a direct prolongation of 
the filament, or more generally by a body called the connective, con- 
sisting of a mass of cellular tissue different from that contained in the 
filament. In this tissue the spiral vessels of the latter terminate: 
From the connective a partition or septwm extends across each antherine 
loculus, dividing it either partially or completely. The septum some- 
times reaches the suture. When the filament is continuous with the 
connective, and is prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be 
united to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition and 
on either side of it, the anther is said to be adnate or adherent (fig. 
361); when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then the 
latter is innate or erect. In these cases the anther is to a greater or 
less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is very narrow, 
and an articulation exists, the anthers are then movable, and easily 
turned by the wind. This is well seen in what are called versatile 
(verto, I turn) anthers, as in Tritonia, Grasses, etc. (figs. 327, 369), 
where the filament is attached only to the middle of the connective ; 
and it may occur also in cases where it is attached to the apex, as in 
pendulous anthers (fig. 372). : 

The connective may unite the anther-lobes completely, or only 
partially. It is sometimes very short, and is reduced to a mere point, 
(fig. 358), so that the lobes are separate or free. At other times it 
is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes in the form of a point, as in 
Acalypha (fig. 363 c); or of a feathery awn, as in Nerium Oleander 
(fig. 366) ; or of a conical or tongue-like process (figs. 373, 374 c) ; or 
of a membranous expansion (fig. 375 c); or it is extended backwards 
and downwards, in the form of a spur, as in fig. 375 a; or downwards, 
as in the case of the flaky appendage in Ticorea febrifuga. In Salvia 
officinalis (fig. 365), the connective is attached to the filament in a 
horizontal manner, so as to separate the two anther-lobes, and then 
it is called distractile (dis, separate, traho, I draw). In Stachys, 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 225 


the connective is expanded laterally, so as to unite the bases of the 
-antherine lobes, and bring them into a horizontal line. 


a ty 


Fig. 372. Fig. 373. 


Fig. 375. 


The opening of the anthers to discharge their contents is denomi- 
nated dehiscence (dehisco, I open). This takes place either by clefts, by 
hinges, or by pores. When the anther-lobes are 
erect, the cleft takes place lengthwise along the 
line of the suture, constituting longitudinal de- 
hiscence (figs. 354, 361, 374). At other times, 
the slit takes place in a horizontal manner, from 
the connective to the side, as in Alchemilla 
arvensis, and in Lemna, where the dehiscence is 
transverse, When the anther-lobes are rendered 
horizontal by the enlargement of the connective 
(figs. 360, 376, aq), then what is really longi- 
tudinal dehiscence may appear to be transverse. 
In other cases (fig. 376 ag), when the lobes are 
united at the base, the fissure in each of them 
may be continuous, and the two lobes may appear as one. 

The cleft does not always proceed the whole length of the anther- 
lobe at once, but often for a time it extends only partially (figs. 375, 2; 
370). In other instances the opening is confined to the base or 
apex, each loculament (Joculus) opening by a single pore, as in Pyrola 
(fig. 372), Vaccinium (fig. 367), also in Solanum, where there are 


Fig. 376, 


Fig. 372. Pendulous Anther, J, of Pyrola rotundifolia. The Anther is suspended from 
the summit of the filament, f, and opens at its apex by two pores, p. Fig. 873. Anther 
of Humiria balsamifera. 11, Anther lobes. f, Filament, ciliated or fringed with glandular 
teeth. v, Conical appendage, which seems to be a prolongation of the connective. 
Fig. 374. Anther of Byrsonima bicorniculata. jf, Filament. 1, Anther-lobes. The empty 
lobes at the summit are detached in the form of two small horn-like projections. ¢, A 
linguiform or tongue-like appendage prolonged from the connective. Fig. 375. Sessile 
anther of Viola odorata, or sweet violet. 1, Seen in front. 2, Seenbehind. J, Anther-lobes. 
a, Spur-like appendage from the connective. c, Membranous expansion at the apex of 
anther-lobes. Fig. 376. Corolla of Digitalis purpurea, eut in order ‘to show the didyna- 
mous stamens (two long and two short) which are attached to it. ¢, Tube. f, Filaments 
which are united to the corolla ati, and run along its inner surface, having formed a marked 
adhesion. ag, Anthers of the long stamens. ag, Anthers of the short stamens. 


Q 


226 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


two, and Poranthera (fig. 355), where there are four. In Tetratheca 
juncea the four cavities (fig. 356, 2) open into a single pore at the apex 
(fig. 356, 1); and in the Mistleto the anther has numerous pores for 
the discharge of the pollen. Another mode of dehiscence is called 
hinged. In the Barberry each lobe opens by a valve on the outer 
side of the suture, separately rolling up from base to apex ; while in 
some of the Laurel tribe (fig. 357 v) there are two such separating 
valves for each lobe, or four in all. This may be called a combination 
of transverse and hinged dehiscence. In some Guttiferze, as Hebra- 
dendron cambogioides (the Ceylon Gamboge plant), the anther opens 
by a lid separating from the apex, or as it is called circumscissile 
(circum, around, scindo, I cut) dehiscence. In the last-mentioned 
dehiscence the anther may be considered as formed of jointed leaves 
like those of the Orange, the blades of which separate at the joint. 

The anthers open at different periods during the process of flowering ; 

sometimes in the bud, but more commonly when the pistil is fully de- 
veloped, and the flower is expanded. They either open simultaneously 
or in succession. In the latter case, individual stamens may move in 
succession towards the pistil and discharge their contents, as in Parnassia 
palustris, or the outer or the inner stamens may open first, following 
thus a centripetal or centrifugal order. The anthers 
are called imtrorse (introrsum, inwardly), or antice 
(anticus, the fore part), when they open on the sur- 
face next to the centre of the flower (fig. 377); theyare 
eatrorse (eatrorsum, outwardly), or postice: (posticus, be- 
hind), when they open on the outer surface ; when they 
open on the sides, as in Iris, and some grasses, they 
are’ called laterally dehiscent (fig. 369). Sometimes 
‘anthers, originally introrse, from their versatile nature 
become extrorse, as in the Passion-flower and Oxalis. 
The attachment of the filament either on the outer 
or inner side, and the position of the anther in the 
young state, assist in determining the direction of the dehiscence when 
the anthers open by pores, or are versatile, 

The usual colour of anthers is yellow, but they present a great 
variety in this respect. The are red in the Peach, dark purple in the 
Poppy and Tulip, orange in Eschscholtzia, etc. The colour and appear- 
ance of the anthers often change after they have discharged their 
functions. 

Sometimes a flower consists of a single stamen, as already stated 
in regard to Euphorbia. It is said, also, that in the Coniferz, as in 


Fig. 377. Tetradynamous stamens (two long and two short) of Cheiranthus Cheiri. p, Top 
of the peduncle. c¢, Cicatrices left by the sepals of calyx which have been removed. eg, Two 
pairs of long stamens. ep, The short stamens. ¢, Torus or thalamus to which the stamens 
are attached, 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 227 


the Fir, and in the Cycadacez, the stamens are to be regarded as single 
male flowers, supported on scales; being either a single stamen with 
bilocular anthers, as in Pinus, or unilocular, as in Abies, or several 
stamens united in an androphore, as in Taxus. In the genus Pinus 
there are male cones composed of bract-like processes, bearing on their 
lower side two parallel anther-lobes, beyond which a scale-like con- 
nective extends. In the Yew and Cypress there is a peltate connec- 
tive overhanging the anthers. In Cycads there are numerous anthers 
on the lower surface of the scales of the male cones. 

Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or non- 
development of the anthers, which, in consequence of containing pollen, 
are essential for fertilisation ; such stamens receive the name of stamin- 
odia, or rudimentary stamens. In Scrophularia (fig. 378) the fifth 
stamen, s, appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons 
it is reduced to a filament with hairs, or a shrivelled membrane at the 
apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are converted 
into petals ; this is also probably the case with such 
plants as Mesembryanthemum, where there is a multi- 
plication of petals in several rows. In Persea gratis- 
sima (fig. 357), two glands, g, are produced at the 
base of the filament in the form of stamens, the 
anthers of which are abortive ; the same thing is seen 
in other Lauracee. In these cases the central perfect 
stamen may be considered as representing the true 
leaf, and the two staminodes or glandular bodies, the 
stipules. Sometimes only one of the anther-lobes be- - 
comes abortive. In many unilocular anthers, the non- 
development of one lobe is indicated by the lateral 
production of a cellular mass resembling the connective. 
’ In Salvias, where the connective is distractile, one of the lobes only 
is perfect or fertile (fig. 365, Uf), containing pollen, the other (fig. 
365, Js) is imperfectly developed and sterile. In Canna, in place of 
one of the lobes, a petaloid appendage is produced. 

The stamens, in place of being free and separate, may become united 
by their filaments (pp. 218, 219). They may also unite by their 
anthers, and become syngenesious or synantherous (adv, together, yéveors, 
origin, évéyee, anther), This union occurs in Composite flowers, and 
in Lobelia, Jasione, Viola, etc. 

Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla. Some are en- 
closed within the tube of the flower, as in Cinchona, and are called 
included (figs. 311, 312, 376); others are exserted, or extend beyond 
the flower, as in Littorella, Plantago, and Exostemma. Sometimes 
the stamens in the early state of the flower project beyond the petals, 


Fig. 378. Irregular corolla of Scrophularia, with a staminodium, s, or abortive stamen, in 
the form of a scale. 


gs 


Fig. 378. 


228 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—STAMENS. 


and in the progress of growth become included, as in Geranium stria- 
tum (fig. 379). Stamens also vary in their relative 
lengths as respects each other. When there is more 
than one row or whorl in a flower, those on the out- 
side are sometimes longest, as in Rosaceze (fig. 339) ; 
at other times those in the interior are longest, as in 
Luhea (fig. 348, 2, fa). When the stamens are in 
two rows, those opposite the petals are usually 
shorter than those which alternate with the petals. 

It sometimes happens that a single stamen is 
longer than all the rest. In some cases there exists 
a definite relation, as, regards number, between the 
long and the short stamens. Thus, some flowers 
are didynamous (d/c, twice, Sivasurs, power or superiority), having 
only four out of five stamens developed, and the two corresponding to 
the upper part of the flower longer than the two lateral ones. This 
occurs in Labiatee and Scrophulariaces (figs. 376, 378). Again, in 
other cases, there are six stamens, whereof four long ones are arranged 
in pairs opposite to each other, and alternate with two isolated short 
ones (fig. 377), and give rise to tetradynamous (reredc, four, dbvapus, 
power or superiority) flowers, as in Cruciferze. 

Stamens, as regards their direction, may be erect, turned inwards, 
outwards, or to one side. In the last-mentioned case they are called 
declinate (declino, I bend to one side), as in Amaryllis, Horse-chestnut, 
and Fraxinella, 

Tue Porten.—The pollen or powdery matter contained in the 
anther consists of small cells developed in the interior of other cells. 
The cavities formed in the anther (fig. 353) are surrounded by a 
fibro-cellular envelope, cp, and within this are produced large cells, 
up, containing a granular mass (fig. 380, 1), which divides into four 
minute cells (fig. 380, 2), around which a membrane is developed, 
so that the original cell, or the parent pollen-utricle, becomes resolved 
by a merismatic division (p. 14) into four parts (fig. 380, 3), each of which 
forms a granule of pollen. The four cells continue to increase (fig. 
380, 4), distending the parent cell, and ultimately causing its absorp- 
tion and disappearance. They then assume the form of perfect pollen- 
grains, and either remain united in fours, or multiples of four, as in 
some Acacias, Periploca greeca (fig. 381), and Inga anomala (fig. 382), 
or separate into individual grains (fig. 380, 5), which by degrees 
become mature pollen (figs. 380, 6; 383, 384). In Acacia ringens, 
there are eight pollen-grains united ; in Acacia decipiens, twelve ; and 
in Acacia linearis, sixteen. Occasionally the membrane of the parent 
pollen-cell is not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in 


Fig. 379. 


Fig. 379. Bud of polypetalous corolla of Geranium striatum, exhibiting the stamens, e e, 
at first longer than the petals, p p. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS-—POLLEN. 229 


a viscous matter, surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagracee. 
In Orchideous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses or 
pollima (fig. 387), by means of viscid matter. In Asclepiadaceze 
(fig. 385) the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 386 5), 
belonging to two contiguous antherine cavities ;- each pollen-mass 
having a caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means 
of which they are attached to a process of the stigma (figs. 385 p, 
and 386 p). The pollinia are also provided with an appendicular stami- 


Fig. 381. Fig. 382. 


Fig. 380. Fig. 383. Fig. 384. 


nal covering (fig. 385 p). Pollinia in different plants vary from two 
to eight. Thus, there are usually two in Orchis, four in Cattleya, 
and eight in Lelia. The two pollinia in Orchis Morio, according to 
Amici, contain each about 200 secondary smaller masses. These 
small masses, when bruised, divide into grains which are united in 
fours. In Orchids each of the pollen-masses (fig. 387) has a pro- 
longation or stalk, called a caudicle (cauda, a tail), which adheres to a 
prolongation at the base of the anther, called rostellum (rostellum, a 
beak), by means of a viscous gland (fig. 387 g), called retinaculum 
(retinaculum, a band or rein). The gland is either naked or covered. 


Fig. 380. Development of the pollen of Viscum album, or the Mistleto. 1. Two pollen- 
cells or pollinie utricles filled with granular matter. 2. Four nuclei produced in this 
matter. 8. Separation into four masses, each corresponding to a nucleus or a new utricle. 
4. Pollinic utricle containing three separate vesicles in its anterior. 5. Two of the latter, 
or the young pollen-grains, removed from the mother-cell or utricle. 6. The grains of pollen 
in their perfect state. Fig. 381. Pollen of Periploca greca, showing four grains aggluti- 
nated together. Fig. 382. Pollen of Inga anomala. The grains united in multiples of four. 
Fig. 383. Pollen-grain showing the extine covered with small punctations. Fig. 384, 
Pollen-grain with the extine covered with granulations. 


230 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—POLLEN. 


The term clinandrium (xAivn, a bed, and cvje, a stamen) is sometimes 
applied to the part of the column in Orchids where the stamens are 
« situated. 


Fig. 385. Fig. 386. Fig. 387. 


When mature, the pollen-grain is a cellular body having an exter- 
‘nal covering, extine (exto, I stand out, or on the outside), and an 
internal, intine (intus, within). Fritzsche states that he has detected, 
in some cases, other two coverings, which he calls inteatine and eaintine. 
They occur between the extine and intine, and are probably formed 


Fig. 388. Fig. 389. ; Fig. 390. 


by foldings of these membranes. In some aquatics, as Zostera marina, 
Zannichellia pedunculata, Naias minor, etc., only one covering exists, 


Fig. 385. Flower of Asclepias, showing the pollinia or pollen-masses, p, attached to the 
stigma, and covered by appendages. Fig. 386. Pistil of Asclepias, a, with pollen-masses, p, 
adhering to the stigma, s. Pollen-masses, removed from the stigma, b, united by a gland-like 
body. Fig. 387. Pollinia or pollen-masses of orchis, separated from the point above the 
stigma, with their retinacula or viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen- 
masses, p, are supported on stalks or caudicles, c, with glands at base, g. These masses are 
easily detached by the agency of insects. Fig. 388. Pollen-grain of Passiflora before burst- 
ing. 000, Opercula or lids formed by the extine, which open to allow the protrusion of 
the intine in the form of pollen-tubes. Fig. 389. Pollen-grain of Cucurbita Pepo, or Gourd, 
at the moment of its dehiscence or rupture. o 0, Opercula or lids separated from the extine 
by the protrusion of the pollen-tubes, ¢¢. Fig. 390. Pollen-grain of Ipomeea, with a reticu- 
lated extine. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—POLLEN. 231 


and that is said to be the intine. The extine is a firm membrane 
which defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and gives colour to it. It 
is either smooth, or covered with numerous projections, granules, points 
minute hairs, or crested reticulations (fig. 390). The colour is generally 
yellow, and the surface is often covered with a viscid or oily matter, 
The intine is uniform in different kinds of pollen, thin and transparent, 
and possesses great power of extension. It is said to be the first 
envelope formed, the other being subsequently deposited while enclosed 
in the parent cell. 

Within these coverings a granular 
semifluid matter called fovilla is con- 
tained, along with some oily particles, 
and occasionally starch. The fovilla 
contains small spherical granules, some- 
times the ,,3,, of an inch in diameter 
(fig. 391), and larger ellipsoidal or iia : 
elongated corpuscles (fig. 392), which Fis: 391. Hieueeay 
exhibit molecular movements under the microscope. 

Pollen-grains vary from ,3, to »4, of an inch or less in diameter. 
Their forms are.various, The most common form of grain is ellip- 
soidal (figs. 392, 393), more or less narrow at the extremities, which 
are called its poles, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from 


Fig. 393. Fig. 394. 


either extremity, and which is its equator. In figs. 393, 394, 1 and 
2, the two surfaces of the pollen-grains of Allium fistulosum and 
Convolvulus tricolor are represented with their poles, p, their equator, 
e, and the longitudinal folds in their membrane ; while at 3 are shown 
transverse sections at the equators, with a single fold in one case, and 
three folds in the other. Pollen-grains are also of a spherical, tri- 
angular, trigonal (fig. 396), or polyhedral figure (fig. 398). In the 
latter case, when there are markings on their surface, those at the 


Fig. 391. Pollen-grain of Amygdalus nana, the intine or internal membrane of which is 
protruding at three pores, under the form of as many ampulle or sacs, ¢¢t. One of these is 
open at the extremity, and from it is discharged the fovilla, f, composed of variously-sized 
granules, Fig. 392. Large granules of fovilla of Hibiscus palustris. Fig. 393. Pollen of 
Allium fistulosum, yp, Pole. e, Equator. 1. Pollen-grain seen on the face. 2. On the 
opposite side or back. 38. Transverse section through its equatorial line. Fig. 394. Pollen 
of Convolvulus tricolor. The letters and numbers have the same signification as in fig. 
393. 


' 


232 FORMS OF POLLEN-GRAINS. 


poles, 7, sometimes differ from those at the equator, ¢. In Tradescantia 
virginica the pollen is cylindrical, and becomes curved ; it is polyhedral 
in Dipsacaceze and Composite ; nearly triangular in Proteacee and 
Onagracez (fig. 396). The surface of the pollen-grain is either uniform 


Fig, 395. Fig. 396. Fig, 397. Fig. 398. 
and homogeneous, or it is marked by folds dipping in towards the centre, 
and formed by thinnings of the membrane, In Monocotyledonous 
plants there is usually a single fold (fig. 393) ; in Dicotyledons, often. 
three (fig. 394). Two, four, six, and even twelve folds are also met 
with. 

There are also pores or rounded portions of the membrane visible 
in the pollen-grain. These vary in number 
from one to fifty. In Monocotyledons, as in 
Grasses, there is often only one (fig. 399) ; 
while in Dicotyledons, they number from 
three upwards. When numerous, the pores 
are either scattered irregularly (fig. 400), or 
in a regular order, frequently forming a circle 
round the equatorial surface (fig. 395). Some- 
times at the place where the pores exist, the 
outer membrane, in place of being thin and 
transparent, is separated in the form of a lid, 
thus becoming operculate (operculum, a lid), 
as in the Passion-flower (fig. 388) and 

Hig 401. Gourd (fig. 389). Grains of pollen have 
sometimes both folds and pores. There may be a single pore in 
each fold, either in the middle (fig. 401) or at the extremities; or 


Fig. 395, Grain of pollen of Cannabis sativa, or common Hemp. e, Equator. » p, Poles. 
Fig. 396. Pollen-grain of Ginothera biennis, entire, with three angles, where tubes are pro- 
duced, Fig. 397, The same, with one of its angles giving origin to a pollen-tube, which is 
formed by the intine. When the tube protrudes, the extine is ruptured. Fig. 398. Poly- 
hedral pollen-grain of Cichorium Intybus, or Chicory. Fig. 399. Pollen-grain of Dactylis 
glomerata, or Cocks-foot grass. Fig. 400. Pollen-grain of Fumaria capreolata. Fig. 401. 
Grain of pollen of Lythrum Salicaria, showing six folds, three of which are perforated by 
a pore in their middle, and three alternating with them have no pores; p 9, poles; e e, 
equator. 1. The grainina diy state, 2. The grain swollen in water, so as to take a globu- 
form and display its folds, The intiae or internal membrane begins to protrude through 

8 pores. 


CRYPTOGAMIC ANTHERIDIA. 233 


folds with pores may alternate with others without pores ; or finally, 
the pores and folds may be separate. 

The form of the pollen-grains is much altered by the application 
of moisture. Thus, in fig. 401, 1, the pollen-grain of Lythrum Sali- 
caria, when, dry, has an ellipsoidal form, but when swollen by the 
application of water it assumes a globular form (fig. 401, 2). This 
change of form is due to endosmose, and depends on the fovilla being 
denser than the water. If the grains are retained in water the dis- 
tension becomes so great as to rupture the extine irregularly if it is 
homogeneous, or to cause projections and final rupture at the folds or 
pores when they exist. The intine, from its distensibility, is not so 
liable to rupture, and it is often forced through the ruptured extine, 
or through the pores, in the form of small sac-like projections (figs. 
396, 401, 2). This effect is produced more fully by adding a little 
nitric acid to the water. The internal membrane ultimately gives 
way, and allows the granular fovilla to escape (fig. 391 f). If the 
fluid is applied only to one side of the pollen-grain, as when the pollen 
is applied to the pistil, the distension goes on more slowly, and the 
intine is prolonged outwards like a hernia, and forms an elongated 
tube called a pollen-tube (fig. 397). -This tube, at its base, is often 
covered by the ruptured extine, and probably also by some of the 
coverings mentioned by Fritzsche as intervening between it and the 
intine. It contains in its interior fovilla-granules, and its functions 
will be particularly noticed under fertilisation. The number of pollen- 
tubes which may be produced depends on the num- 
ber of pores. In some pollinia the number of 
tubes which are found is enormous. Thus, Amici 
calculates that the two pollen-masses of Orchis 
Morio may give out 120,000 tubes. 

In Cryprocamic Piants there are organs 
equivalent to stamens, and denominated antheridia, 
They consist of closed sacs of different forms, 
rounded, ovate, oblong, clavate, flask-like, etc., 
developed in different parts of the plants, con- 
taining a number of corpuscles immersed in a 
mucilaginous fluid, which at a certain period of 
growth are discharged through an opening at the 
surface. Sometimes the antheridium is a simple 
cell, at other times it is composed of a number of 
cells, as in Hypnum triquetrum (fig. 402, 1). An- 
theridia are sometimes confined to particular parts 
of the plant, at other times they are more generally diffused. Their 


Fig. 402. 1, Antheridium, a, of a moss called Hypnum triquetrum, at the moment when 
its apex is rupturing to discharge the contents, f 2, Four utricles of the contents contain- 
ing each a spermatozoid or moving corpuscle rolled up in a circular manner. 3, Single 
spermatozoid separated. 


Fig. 402. 


234 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE DISK. 


contents are small utricles or cellules, varying, like pollen-grains, in the 
different orders of cryptogamic plants, 
and enclosing peculiar bodies called 
phytozoids (guriv, a plant, and Eéov, 
an animal), or spermatozoids (oréguc, 
a seed), or antherozoids (fig. 402, 2), 
which are rolled up in a circular or 
spiral manner, as in Hepaticee and 
Mosses (fig. 402, 3). These exhibit 
active movements at certain periods 
of their existence, and resemble in 
this respect animalcules. In Chara 
vulgaris (fig. 403), the antheridium 
or globule, as it is called, contains 
cells, 1, from which proceed numerous 
septate (septum, a division) tubes, t. 

Fig. 408. In each of the divisions of these tubes, 
2, there is a spermatozoid of a spiral form, which escapes, leaving the 
division empty, 3, and ultimately becomes unrolled, 4, exhibiting two 
vibratile cilia (ciliwm, an eyelash), to which its movements are 
referred. 

Tue Disx.—The term disk is applied to whatever intervenes 
between the stamens and the pistil, and 
is one of those organs to which the name 
of nectary was applied by old authors. It 
presents great varieties of form, such as a 
a ring, scales, glands, hairs, petaloid append- 

ages, etc., and in the progress of growth 
it often contains saccharine matter, thus 

* becoming truly nectariferous. The disk is 
frequently formed by degeneration or trans- 
formation of the staminal row. It may 
consist of processes rising from the torus, 
alternating with the stamens, and thus re- 
presenting an abortive whorl; or it may 
be opposite to the stamens, as in Crassula. 
Fig. 404. tubens (fig. 282 a). In some flowers, 

as Jatropha Curcas, in which the stamens are not developed, their 


Fig. 403. 1, Portion of antheridium or globule of Chara vulgaris. Several septate or 
partitioned tubes, ¢, attached to a utricle or vesicle, A mass of similar utricles, forming 
the bases of a large number of tubes, fills the cavity of the antheridium. 2, Extremity of 
one of these tubes, composed of several cellules, in each of which is a phytozoid or sperma- 
tozoid. One of the spermatozoids is represented half detached from the cellule. 3, Ex- 
tremity of a tube from which the spermatozoids have escaped, with the exception of the 
terminal cellule. 4, One of the spermatozoids separated. Fig. 404. Disk, d, of Ponia 
Moutan, or Tree Peony, covering the ovary, and interposed between the whorl of stamens, 
3, and the pistil, p. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 235 


place is occupied by glandular bodies forming the disk (fig. 346, 
2, a). In Gesneracese and Crucifere the disk consists of tooth-like 
scales at the base of the stamens (fig. 377, t). The parts forming the 
disk sometimes unite and form a glandular ring, as in the Orange ; or 
a dark-red lamina covering the pistil, as in Paonia Moutan (fig. 404, 
d); or a waxy lining of the calyx tube or hollow receptacle, as in the 
Rose (fig. 294, ct); or a swelling at the top of the ovary, as in Um- 
belliferee, in which the disk is said to be epigynous. The enlarged 
torus covering the ovary in Nymphea and Nelumbium may be re- 
garded as a form of disk. 

Tue Pistit.—The pistil occupies the centre or axis of the flower, 
and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes, when these are 
present. It constitutes the innermost whorl, and is the female organ 
of the plant, which after flowering is changed into the fruit, and con- 
tains the seeds. It sometimes receives the name of gynaciwm (yuvn, 
pistil, o/xfov, habitation). It consists essentially of two parts, the ovary 
or germen, containing ovules or young seeds, and the stigma, a cellular 
secreting body, which is either seated on the ovary, and is then called 
sessile, as in the Tulip and Poppy*(fig. 444), or is elevated on a stalk 
called the style, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The style 
is not necessary for the perfection of the pistil. Sometimes it becomes 
blended with other parts, as with the filaments of the anthers in the 
column of Orchidaceze. 

Like the other organs, the pistil consists of one or more modified 
leaves, which in this instance are called carpels (xagmic, fruit). The 
analogy of carpels to leaves may be deduced from their similarity in 
texture and in venation; from the presence of stomata, hairs, and 
glands ; from their resemblance to leaves in their nascent state ; from 
their occasional conversion into true leaves, as in Lathyrus latifolius ; 
and from the ovules corresponding in situation to 
the germs or buds found on some leaves, as those 
of Bryophyllum calycinum. When a pistil consists 
of a single carpel it is simple, a state usually de- 
pending on the non-development of other carpels ; 
when it is composed of several carpels, more or E 
less united, it is compound. In the first-mentioned "4% 
case the terms carpel and pistil are synonymous. 
Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when present), 
and stigma, and is formed by a folded leaf, the upper 
surface of which is turned inwards towards the axis, 
and the lower outwards ; while from its margins are 
developed one or more buds called ovules, That this is the true nature 

Fig. 405. Carpellary leaf of the double-flowering Cherry. In this plant the pistil is com- 
posed distinctly of one or more leaves folded inwards. 1, Lamina or blade of the leaf or 


carpel. s, Prolongation of the midrib, 7, representing the style, and ending in a circular 
thickened portion equivalent to the stigma. 


Fig. 405. 


236 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 


of the pistil may be seen by examining the flower of the double-flower- 
ing Cherry. In it no fruit is produced, and the pistil consists of sessile 
leaves (fig. 405), the limb of each being green and folded, with a 
narrow prolongation upwards, s, as if from the 
midrib, n, and ending in a thickened portion. 
When the single-fiowering Cherry is examined, 
it is found that, in place of folded leaves, there 
is a single body (figs. 406, 407), the lower part 
of which is enlarged, forming the ovary, 0, and 
containing a single ovule, g, attached to its 
walls, with a bundle of vessels, fn, entering 
it, a cylindrical prolongation, ¢, forming the 
~) style, and a terminal expansion, s, the stigma. 
It will be seen that in this case two carpellary 
™ leaves have become succulent, and have united 
together so as to form a compound pistil, with 

a single cavity containing one seed. 

The Ovary then represents the limb or 
lamina of the leaf, and is composed of cellular tissue with fibro-vascu- 
Jar bundles, and an epidermal covering. The cellular tissue, or paren- 
chyma, often becomes much developed, as will be seen particularly 
when fleshy fruits are considered. The outer epidermis corresponds 
to the lower side of the leaf, exhibiting stomata, and sometimes hairs ; 
the inner surface represents the upper side of the leaf, being usually 
very delicate and pale, and forming a layer called sometimes epi- 
thelium, which does not exhibit stomata. The vascular bundles cor- 
respond with the veins of the leaf, and consist of spiral, annular, and 
other vessels. 

The Style has usually a cylindrical form, consists of cellular and 
vascular tissue, and when carefully examined is found to be traversed 
by a narrow canal (fig. 407 c), in which there are some loose project- 
ing cells (figs. 408, 409), forming what is called the conducting tissue. 
A transverse section of the style of Crown Imperial (fig. 408) shows 
three vascular bundles, v v v, corresponding to three styles which are 
united into one, and loose cells, p, in the canal of the style. This 
canal is bounded by cellular tissue (fig. 409, ¢ c), traversed by spiral 
vessels, v v, and in its interior, besides the loose cells, » p, there are, 
especially at the period of fecundation, elongated tubes, f f, which in 
part fill up the canal. The name, conducting tissue, is given to that 
found in the canal of the style, on account of the part which it plays 
in conveying the influence of the pollen to the ovules, as will be ex- 


i / 
C7 
Fig. 406. Fig. 407. 


Fig. 406. Pistil or carpel of the single-flowering Cherry in its normal state. 0, Ovary. t, 
Style. s, Stigma. Fig. 407. The same, cut vertically, to show the central cavity of the 
ovary, 0, with the ovule, g, suspended from its wall,‘at a point where a bundle of nourishing 
vessels, fn, terminates. t, Style traversed by a canal, c, which runs from the stigma, s, to 
the cavity of the ovary. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 237 


plained under fertilisation. Lindley has shown that in some instances 
the style seems to derive its origin from the placenta. The presence 
of the style is by no means essential to the perfection of the pistil. It 


Fig. 408. Fig. 409. 


varies in its shape and position, being usually apicilar, but from altera- 
tion in the direction of the central axis it occasionally seems to be 
lateral. Its form and appearance 
also vary; under ordinary cir- 
cumstances it is rounded in shape, 
‘but occasionally becomes flattened, 
as in the Iris. In Clematis it is 
furnished with hairs ; in Euphorbia 
it is forked. 

The Stigma isa continuation of 2 
the cellular tissue in the centre of 
the style, and it may be either ter- 
minal, when the canal opens at the 
top only (figs. 407 s, 410, 1), or 
lateral, when the splitting of the 
canal takes place on one side (fig. 
411 s), or on both sides (fig. 412 ss), The stigma sometimes extends 
along the whole length of the style. In other instances the style is 
absent, and then the stigma is said to be sessile, In Orchideous plants 


/\. 


Fig. 410. Fig. 411. Fig. 412. 


Fig. 408. Transverse section of the style of Fritillaria imperialis, or Crown Imperial. 
The style is composed of three united together. v v v, Three vascular bundles, each 
corresponding to one of the three styles. p, Papille or cellular bodies projecting into the 
cavity of the canal. Fig. 409. Structure of the canal in the centre of the style of a 
Campanula. cc, Cellular tissue forming its parietes traversed by trachex, v. p p, Variously 
formed cells, displaced as it were, and along with other elongated and filamentous ones, ff, 
obstructing the canal. Fig. 410. 1, Stigma, s, of Daphne Laureola, terminating the style, 
t. o, Summit of the ovary. 2. A small portion of the surface of the stigma, much magnified 
to show its papille. Fig. 411. Unilateral stigma, s, of Asimina triloba. 1, Style. Fig. 
412. Bilateral stigma, ss, of Plantago saxatilis. 0, Ovary. t, Style. 


238 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 


it is placed on a part of the column called the gynizus (yuvi, pistil, 
and iZw, I sit). It is composed of cellular tissue more or less lax, 
often having projecting cellules in the form of papille (fig. 410, 2), 
or of hairs (figs. 413, 3; 446s), and at the period of fertilisation 
exuding a viscous fluid, which retains the grains of pollen, and causes 
the protrusion of tubes. 

A pistil is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels 
may be arranged like leaves, either at the same or nearly the same 
height in a verticil (figs. 414, 415), or at different heights in a spiral 
cycle (fig. 337 c). When they remain separate and distinct, thus show- 
ing at once the composition of the pistil, as in Caltha, Ranunculus, 
Hellebore, and Butomus (fig, 415), the term apocarpous (amd, separate, 
and xaezic, fruit) is applied. Thus, in Crassula rubens (fig. 414), 
the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels, o, alternating with the 
stamens, ¢; and the same arrangement is seen in Xanthoxylon 
fraxineum (fig. 414). In the Tulip-tree (fig. 337) the separate car- 
pels, ¢ c, are numerous, and arranged in a spiral cycle upon an 
elongated axis or receptacle. In the Raspberry the carpels are on a 
conical receptacle ; in the Strawberry, on a swollen succulent one; and 
‘in the Rose (fig. 294 0 0), on a hollow one, r 7, ct, which is probably 
a prolongation of the torus. 


Fig. 413. 


When the fruit consists of several rows of carpels on a flat 
receptacle, the innermost have their margins directed to the centre, 


Fig. 413. 1, Summit of the style, ¢, of Hibiscus palustris, dividing into five branches, 
which are each terminated by a stigma, ss, 2, One of these branches highly magnified. 
8, Portion of the surface of the stigma still more magnified, to show its papille, which are 
elongated like hairs. Fig. 414. Pistil of Xanthoxylon fraxineum, consisting of five distinct 
carpels, supported on a gynophore, g. Hach of the ovaries, o, bears a terminal style dilated 
at its extremity into a stigma, s. The five stigmata remain for a long time adherent by their 
sides. Fig. 415. 1, Carpels of Butomus umbellatus, consisting of folded leaves arranged. 
in different verticils. 2, Section of the same, showing the alternation of the parts of the 
flower. Three outer leaves of the perianth, o’, alternating with three inner ones, pi, three 
rows of stamens, co and ei, and the carpels, ce and ci. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 239 


while the margins of the outer rows are arranged on the back of the 
inner ones ; if the receptacle is convex, the outer carpels are lowest, as 
in the Strawberry; if concave, the outer 
ones are uppermost, as in the Rose. 
At other times the carpels are united, 
as in the Pear, Arbutus, and Chick- 
weed, so that the pistil becomes syn- 
carpous (ody, together or united), In 
Dictamnus Fraxinella (fig. 416) five 
carpels unite to form a compound pis- 
til. In Scilla italica (fig. 283) the 
three carpels form apparently only one ; 
but on examination it will be found 
that the pistil consists of three carpels 
alternating with thé three inner sta- 
mens. The union, however, is not al- 
ways complete; it may take place by 
the ovaries alone, while the styles and 
stigmata remain free, the pistil being then gamogastrous (ydos, union; 
and yaorne, ovary) ; and in this case, when the ovaries form apparently 
a single body, this organ receives the name of compownd ovary ; or the 
union may take place by the ovaries and styles, 
while the stigmata are disunited; or by the 
stigmata and the summit of the style only (fig. 
414). Various intermediate states exist, such 
as partial union of the ovaries, as in the Rue, 
where they coalesce at their base; and partial 
union of the styles, as in Malvacez (fig. 417). 
The union is usually most complete at the Fig. 418. 

base ; but in Labiate the styles are united throughout their length, 
and in Apocynaceze and Asclepiadaces the stigmata only. 

When the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a com- 
pound pistil may be determined by the number of styles and stigmata 
(fig. 417 s); when complete, the external venation, the grooves on 
the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary, indicate the 
number. When the grooves between the carpels are deep, the ovary 


Fig. 416. Portion of the pistil of Dictamnus Fraxinella. Two of the five varpels have 
been removed in order to show how the styles, s, produced on the inner side of the carpels, 
and at first distinct, approximate and become united into one. 0, Ovaries, two of which 
in front show their dorsal surface, d, and their lateral surface, 1. At the base of the 
gynophore, g, are seen the cicatrices, c, marking the insertion of the calyx, the petals, and 
the stamens. Fig. 417. Pistil of Malva Alcea. o, Nine ovaries, united so as to form one, 
t, Column formed by nine styles united to near their summit, where they diverge and separate. 
Each of the divisions of the style is terminated by a stigma, s. Fig. 418. Horizontal 
section of the four-celled (quadrilocular or tetrathecal) ovary of Fuchsia coccinea, cece, 
Wall of the ovary, which is formed by four carpellary leaves. a, Quadrangular axis to which 
the carpels are united. 0, Ovules attached to the inner margin of the carpels, 


240 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE PISTIL. 


is denominated lobed, being one, two, three, four, or five lobed, 
according to circumstances. In fig. 417 the nine carpels forming the 
ovary, 0, are divided by grooves; and in fig, 418 a transverse section 
of the ovary of Fuchsia coccinea shows the four carpels which form 
it. The changes which take place in the pistil by adhesion, degenera- 
tion, and abortion, are frequently so great as to obscure its composi- 
tion, and to lead to anomalies in the alternation of parts. The pistil 
4 more liable to changes of this kind than any other part of the 
ower. 

The carpels are usually sessile leaves, but sometimes they are 
petiolate, and then are elevated above the external 
whorls. This elevation of the pistil may in 
general, however, be traced to an elongation of 
the axis itself, in such a way that the carpels, 
in place of being dispersed over it, arise only from 
its summit. A monstrosity often occurs in the 
’ Rose (fig. 419), by which the axis is prolonged, 
and bears the carpels, f, in the form of alternate 
leaves. Thus, by the union of the petioles of 
the carpels, or by lengthening of the axis, the 
pistil becomes stipitate (stipes, a trunk), or sup- 
ported, as in the Passion-flower, on a stalk (figs, 
414, 416 9g), called a gynophore (yum, pistil, 
and gogéw, I bear), or thecaphore (84xn, a case). 
Sometimes the axis is produced beyond the 
ovaries, and the styles become united to it, as 
in Geraniacee and Umbellifere. In this case 

Fig. 419. the prolongation is called a carpophore (xaemdg, 
fruit, and Qogéw, I bear). 

The ovules are developed on the inner side of the carpel where 
the two edges of the carpellary leaves unite, and they are connected 
to it by vascular bundles which proceed from below upwards, traverse 
the carpel, and send a branch to each of the ovules. At the same 
place there is a development of cellular tissue in connection with the 
conducting tissue of the style and with the stigma. By the union of 
these tissues is fofmed the placenta, a cellular projection to which the 
ovules are attached. Some restrict the term placenta to the point of 
attachment of a single ovule, and call the union of placentas, bearing 
several ovules, placentaries or pistellary cords. The part of the carpel 
where the placenta is formed is the inner or ventral sutwre, correspond- 
ing to the margin of the folded carpellary leaf, while the outer or dorsal 
suture corresponds to the midrib of the carpellary leaf. The placenta 


Fig. 419. Section of monstrous Rose, as figured at page 172, the axis of which is pro- 
longed beyond the flower, and the envelopes removed to show the abortive stamens, r, The 
carpels, f, are attached alternately along the axis in the form of leaves, p, Abortive floral 
envelopes. s, Stamens in imperfect flower at the apex. 


FORMATION OF THE PLACENTA, 241 


is hence sometimes called marginal. The placenta is formed on each 
margin of the carpel, and hence is essentially double. This is seen 
in cases where the margins of the carpel do not unite, but remain 
separate, and consequently two placentas are formed in place of one. 
In fig. 420 the two carpels are folded, so that their margins meet, 
and the placenta is apparently single ; whereas in fig. 421 the margins 
of each carpel do not meet, and the placenta of each is double. 
Again, in fig. 422, the two carpels, after meeting in the centre or axis, 
a, are reflected outwards towards the dorsal suture, sd, and their margins 
separate slightly, each being placentiferous, and bearing ovules, o. 


Ge tS 


Fig. 420. Fig. 421. Fig. 422. 


When the pistil is formed by one carpel, the inner margins unite 
in the axis, and form usually a common marginal placenta, This 
placenta may extend along the whole margin of the ovary as far as 
the base of the style, or it may be confined to the base or apex only. 
When the pistil is composed of several separate carpels, or, in other 
words, is apocarpous, there are generally separate placentas at each of 
their margins, In a syncarpous pistil, on the other hand, the carpels 
are so united that the edges of each of the contiguous ones, by their 
union, form a septum (septum, a fence or enclosure), or dissepiment 
(dissepio, I separate), and the number of these septa consequently in- 
dicates the number of carpels in the compound pistil. It is obvious 
then that each dissepiment is formed by a double wall or two lamine ; 
that the presence of a septum implies the presence of more than one 
carpel ; and that, when carpels are placed side by side, true dissepi- 
ments must be vertical, and not horizontal. 

When the dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is 
divided into cavities, cells, or loculaments (loculus, a box), and it may 
be bilocular, trilocular, quadrilocular, quinquelocular, or multilocular, 
according as it is formed by two, three, four, five, or many carpels, 
each corresponding to a single cell or loculament (fig. 415, 2, ce, ci), 
In these cases the marginal placentas meet in the axis, and unite so 
as to form a single central one (fig. 420 a). The number of locula- 
ments is equal to that of the dissepiments. In fig. 418 there is 
shown a transverse section of the ovary of Fuchsia coccinea, ¢ ccc 
being its parietes formed by the union of four carpellary leaves, a the 
axis united to the parietes by dissepiments, and o the ovules attached 

Figs. 420, 421, 422, Horizontal sections of ovaries, composed of two carpellary leaves, the 


edges of which are folded so as to meet in the axis, a, in fig. 420; are turned inwards into 
the loculaments after meeting in the axis in fig. 422; and do not reach the axis in fig. 421. 


R 


242 FORMATION OF THE PLACENTA. 


to the placentas at the margin of each carpel. When the carpels in a 
syncarpous pistil do not fold inwards completely so as to meet in the 
centre, but only partially, so that the dissepiments appear as projections 
on the walls of the ovary, then the ovary is undlocular 
(fig. 421), and the placentas are parietal (paries, a 
wall). A horizontal section of the ovary of Erythraa 
Centaurium (fig. 423) exhibits a unilocular ovary 
with parietal placentas, p, formed at the inner 
yy margins of each of the carpels, which do not meet in 
the centre. In these instances the placentas may 
Zz} be formed at the margin of the united contiguous 
leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may 
not be united, each developing a placenta. From 
this it will be seen that dissepiments are opposite to placentas, 
formed by the union of the margins of two contiguous carpels, but 
alternate with those formed by the margins of the same carpel. 

The carpellary leaves may fold inwards very slightly, or they may 
be applied in a valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the 
placentas then being parietal, and ‘appearing as lines or thickenings 
along the walls. In fig. 424 the pistil of Viola tricolor is represented, 
1, cut vertically, and, 2, cut transversely, the ovules being attached 


Fig, 493. 


Fig. 426. 


Fig. 424, 


to the walls of the ovary, and the placentas, », being merely thickened 
portions of the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas 


Fig. 423. Horizontal section of the ovary of Erythrea Centaurium. c, Wall or paries of 
the ovary or carpellary leaf. , The edge on which the placenta is formed, bearing the 
ovules, 0. 1, Cell or loculament. Fig. 424. Pistil of Viola tricolor, or Pansy. 1, Vertical 
section to show the ovules, v, attached to the parietes. Two rows of ovules are seen, one 
in front, and the other in profile. p, A thickened line on the walls forming the placenta. 
ce, Calyx. d, Ovary. s, Hooded stigma terminating the short style. 2, Horizontal section 
of the sane. p, Placenta. o, Ovules. s, Suture. Fig. 425. Pistil of Cerastium hirsutum 
cut vertically. 0, Unilocular or monothecal ovary. sp, Free central placenta. g, Ovules, 
s, Styles. -Fig. 426, The same cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as to show the 
interior of the cavity of the ovary o, with the free central placenta, p, covered with 
ovules, g. 


FORMATION OF THE PLACENTA. 243 


are not connected with the walls of the ovary, and form what is called 
a free central placenta. This is seen in many of the Caryovhyllacez. 
Thus, in Cerastium hirsutum (figs. 425, 426), the ovary, o, is com- 
posed of five carpels, indicated by the styles, s, but there is only one 
loculament, the placenta, », being free in the centre, and the ovules, 
g, attached to it. 

In Caryophyllacese, however, while the placenta is free in the 
centre, there are often traces found at the base of the ovary of the 
remains of septa, as if rupture had taken place ; and, in rare instances, 
ovules are found on the margins. But examples occur of this kind 
of placentation, as in Primulacee, Myrsinacez, and Santalacez, in 
which no vestiges of septa or marginal ovules can be perceived at any 
period of growth. The free placenta of Primulacez is different from 
that of Caryophyllacez. It is always free, and rises in the centre of 
the ovary, and the part uncovered by ovules gradually extends into the 
style. It is not first continuous with the style, and then free ; neither 
is it originally marginal and then free; but it is, throughout its 
organogeny (deyavoy, organ, and yéveors, production or development), 
separate and axile, : 

Free central placentation, therefore, has been accounted for in two 
ways : either by supposing that the placentas in the early state were 
formed on the margins of carpellary leaves, and that in the progress 
of development these leaves separated from them, leaving the placentas _ 
and ovules free in the céntre ; or by supposing that the placentas are 
not marginal but axile formations, produced by an elongation of the 
axis, the ovules being lateral buds, and the carpels verticillate leaves, 
united together around the axis. The latter view has been supported 
by many botanists, and is confirmed by the fact that in some cases 
the placenta is actually prolonged ‘beyond the carpels. The first of 
these views would apply well to Caryophyl- 
laceze, the second to Primulacee. The latter 
case has been explained, on the marginal 
hypothesis, by considering the placentas as 
formed from the carpels by a process of 
chorisis, and united together in the centre. 

Some consider the axile view of placenta- 
tion as applicable to all cases, the axis in some 
cases remaining free and independent, at ‘\ 
other times sending prolongations along the 
margins of the carpellary leaves, and thus 
forming the marginal placentas. The oc- "8 427 — Fig. 428. 
currence of placentas over the whole inner surface of the carpels or of 


Figs. 427, 428. One of the carpels of Butomus umbellatus, or flowering Rush, cut trans- 
versely in 427, and longitudinally in 428. 2, Loculament or cavity of the carpel. v, Ovules. 
s, Stigmata. 


244. DIVISIONS IN OVARIES. 


the dissepiments, as in Nymphaea and in Butomus umbellatus (figs. 
427, 428); also, though very rarely, along the dorsal suture, as in 
Cabomba, or on lines within the margin, as in Orobanche, has been 
supposed to confirm this view. Schleiden argues in favour of it, from 
the case of Armeria, where there are five carpels and a single ovule 
attached to a cord, which arises from the axis, and becomes curved 
at the apex, so as to suspend the ovule; also, from cases, such as 
Taxus, where the ovule appears to be naked and terminates a branch. 

This theory of placentation, however, cannot be easily applied to all 
cases ; and Gray says that it is disproved in cases of monstrosity, 
in which the anther is changed into a carpel, or where one part of the 
anther is thus transformed and bears ovules, while the other, as well 
as the filament, remain unchanged. In the case of Luffa foetida, the 
entangled fibres of the carpellary leaves, even in the young state, 
seem to be connected with perpendicular lines forming the placenta. 
Brongniart mentions a case where the marginal placenta was entire, 
while the ‘axis was prolonged separately, and totally unconnected 
with the placenta; he also notices peculiar monstrosities, which seem 
to prove that, in some cases at least, marginal placentation must take 
place. 

Upon the whole, then, it appears that marginal, or, as it is often 
called, carpellary placentation, generally prevails ; that axile placenta- 
tion explains easily cases such as Primulaceze; while such instances as 
Caryophyllaceze are explicable on either view. 

Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not formed 
by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called spurious ddssept- 
ments. They are often horizontal, and are then called 
phragmata (~edywa, aseparation), as in Cathartocarpus 
Fistula (fig. 429), where they consist of transverse 
cellular prolongations from the walls of the ovary, only 
developed after fertilisation, and therefore more pro- 
perly noticed under fruit. At other times they are 
vertical, as in Datura, where the ovary, in place of 
being two-celled, is rendered four-celled ; in Cruciferze, 
where the prolongation of the placentas forms a re- 
plum (replum, leaf of a door) or partition ; in Astragalus 
and Thespesia, where the dorsal suture is folded in- 
wards; in Oxytropis where the ventral suture is 
folded inwards; and in Diplophractum, where the 
inner margin of the carpels is inflexed (fig. 422). In Cucurbitacez, 
divisions are formed in the ovary, apparently by peculiar projections 
inwards from curved parietal placentas. In some cases horizontal 
dissepiments are supposed to be formed by the union of carpels 


Fig. 429. 


Fig. 429. Pistil of Cassia or Cathartocarpus Fistula, in an advanced state, cut longi- 
tudinally, to show the spurious transverse dissepiments, or phragmata. 


ADHESIONS BETWEEN THE TORUS AND OVARY. 245 


situated at different heights, so that the base of one becomes united 
to the apex of another. In such cases the divisions are true dissepi- 
ments formed by carpellary leaves. The anomalous divisions in the 
ovary of the Pomegranate have been thus explained. 

The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form, 
sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times hairy 


Fig. 439, 


and grooved. The grooves, especially when deep, indicate the 
divisions between the carpels, and correspond to the dissepiments. 


Fig. 430. Flower of Cucumis Melo, or Melon. o, Inferior ovary covered by the adherent 
torus. Calyx, J, and Corolla, p, being above the ovary. Fig. 431. Flower of Saxifraga 
Geum, cut vertically to show the ovary, 0, adherent for half its height to the torus. c, The 
calyx, which is called half-superior. p, Petals. e, Stamens. s. Styles and stigmas. Fig. 
432. Pistil of Hoteia japonica, one of the Saxifragacee, cut vertically, in order to show the 
interior of its two cavities or loculaments. Itis a bilocular or dithecal ovary. o, Two 
ovaries consolidated into one, and adherent for half their height to the torus, ¢. t, Styles. 
s, Stigmas. p, Placentas covered with ovules. pe, Base of the petals. | Fig. 433. Flower 
of Fuchsia coccinea divided horizontally into two halves, through the middle of the ovary, o. 
The lower half, 2, of the ovary has been left untouched, to show its four cavities or loculi, 
with the ovules attached to their internal angles. (Fig. 418 shows the same section more 
highly magnified.) The upper half, 1, has been cut vertically, to show the ovules, g, ar- 
ranged in a row in each loculament. The torus incorporated with the ovary below bears 
the calyx, ¢ 1. p, Petals inserted on the calyx. ¢, Stamens inserted also on the tube, 
alternately large and small, The style rising from the summit of the ovary, and terminated 
by an ovoid stigma, s. 


246 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE STYLE. 


The dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection, or by a 
superficial groove. 

The ovary, as a rule, is free, in the centre of the flower, and not 
adherent to any of the surrounding organs. It is then termed superior, 
as in Lychnis, Primula, and Geranium (fig. 338). In many cases, 
however, it is united with surrounding parts,—most usually with the 
torus (receptacle), which, being prolonged into a cup-shaped expansion, 
becomes adherent to the ovary, and the floral whorls (calyx, corolla, 
stamens), proceeding from it are thus carried upwards, and rise from 
a plane, level with the summit of the ovary,—which is thus beneath 
their point of origin, and is therefore inferior, whilst they are superior. 
This is well seen in Rose, Almond (fig. 339), Aralia (fig. 340), Melon 
(fig. 430), Pomegranate, Apple, Pear, Gooseberry, and Fuchsia 
(fig. 433). A transverse section of the ovary of Fuchsia (figs. 418, 
433) shows several closed loculaments containing ovules ; while 
the pistil of the Rose when cut vertically exhibits a receptacular cup 
or hollow torus, open at the top, and covering numerous separate 
carpels, arranged on its concave surface, each of the carpels consisting 
of ovary, style, and stigma (fig. 294, p. 196). In these examples the 
torus is adherent to the ovary throughout its entire extent; but in 
some plants, as Saxifragaceze (figs. 431, 432), the union is only par- 
tial, and the term half inferior is applied to the ovary, welitlst the 
floral whorls are half superior. 

These appearances were formerly explained by supposing an 
adhesion between the calyx tube of the ovary ; and the term adherent 
was applied to the calyx in cases where the ovary is inferior, and 
the corolla and stamens were considered to be attached to and carried 
upwards by the adherent calyx. But this view has been superseded 
by the one already explained. These adhesions between the torus 
and the ovary will be found to be of importance, as determining the 
epigynous and perigynous condition of the stamens. 

Tue StyLE proceeds from the summit of the carpel, and may be 
v looked upon as a prolongation of it in an 

upward direction (fig. 406 ¢). It is hence 
ae called apicilar (apex, top). It consists not 
ij, §/¢ merely of the midrib, but of the vascular 

i \ and cellular tissue of the carpel, along 
with a continuation of the placenta con- 


§ stituting what is called conducting tissue, 
Fig. 434. Fig. 435. = which ends in the stigma. In some cases 
the carpellary leaf is folded from above downwards, in a hooded 


Fig. 434. Carpel of Strawberry. 0, Ovary. 1, Style arising from near the base, and 
pecoming basilar by the mode in which the ovary is developed ; the style, however, still 
indicating the organic apex of the ovury. Fig. 485. Carpel of Chrysobalanus Icaco. 0, 
Ovary. ¢t, Basilar style. s, Stigma. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE STYLE, 247 


manner, so that its apex (as in reclinate vernation, fig. 222 a) ap- 
proaches more or less the base. When the folding is slight, the 
style becomes Jateral (fig. 416); when to a greater extent, the style 
appears to arise from near the base, as in the Strawberry (fig. 434), or 
from the base, as in Chrysobalanus Icaco (fig. 435), when it is called 
basilar. In all these cases the style still indicates the organic apex of 
the ovary, although it may not be the apparent apex. 

The carpel sometimes becomes imbedded in the torus, which 
consequently forms an elevated margin round it; and then, if the 
style is basilar or lateral, it may adhere to a portion of the torus, on 
one side of the carpel, and appear to arise from it. This is seen in 
Labiatze (fig. 436) and Boraginacez (fig. 437), where the four carpels, 
o, are sunk in the torus, r, in such a way that the common style, s, 
formed by the union of four 
basilar styles, seems to be 
actually a prolongation of the 
torus. When carpels are . 
arranged round a central pro- 
longation of the torus, with 
which their united style is con- 
tinuous, the arrangement is 
called a gynobase (yuvq, pistil, 
Bdors, base). It is well de- 
veloped in Ochnacee. In Ge- Fig. 436. 
raniacee there is a carpophore or prolongation of the torus in the 
form of a long beak, to which the styles’ are attached. 

The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or 
less filiform and simple ; sometimes it is grooved on one 
side, at other times it is flat, thick, angular, compressed, 
and even petaloid, as in Iris and Canna. In Goodeni- 
acez it ends in a cup-like expansion, enclosing the stigma. 
It may be smooth and covered with glands and hairs. 
These hairs occasionally aid in the application of the 
pollen to the stigma, and are called collecting hatrs, as in 
Goldfussia ; in Campanula they appear double and re- 
tractile. In Aster and other Composite: (fig. 438) hairs 
are produced on parts of the style, pc, prolonged be- 
yond the stigma, s; these hairs, during the upward development of 


Fig. 438. 


Fig. 436, Pistil of Lamium album, shown by a vertical section of part of the flower. 
Two of the four ovaries have been removed to exhibit the connection of the style with the 
torus, 7, by adhesion. vu, The two remaining ovaries. d, Glandular disk placed below the 
pistil. c, Part of calyx. p, Corolla. Fig. 487. Pistil of Eritrichium Jacquemontianum 
with one of the ovaries removed in front, to show the manner in which the ovaries are 
inserted obliquely on a pyramidal torus, r, whence the style appears to arise, ending in a 
stigma, s. Fig. 438. Summit of the style, t, of an Aster, separating into two branches, s, 
each terminated by an inverted cone of collecting hairs, pc. The stigma, s, is seen below as 
a. band or line on the inner curvature of the branches. : 


248 . ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE STIGMA. 


the style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and carry 
it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the mature 
stigma of other flowers. In Vicia and Lobelia the hairs frequently 
form a tuft below the stigma. 

The styles of a syncarpous pistil may be either separate or united ; 
when separate, they alternate with the septa. When united com- 
pletely, it is usual to call the style simple (fig. 433) ; when the union 


\ 


Fig. 439. 


is partial, then the style is said to be bifid, trifid, multifid, according 
as it is two-cleft, three-cleft, many-cleft ; or, to speak more correctly, 
according to the mode and extent of the union of two, three, or many 
styles, The style is said to be bipartite, tripartite, or multipartite, 
when the union of two, three, or many styles only extends a short 
way above the apex of the ovary. The style of a single carpel, or of 
each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. In fig. 346, 
2, each division of the tricarpellary ovary of Jatropha Curcas has a 
bifurcate or forked style, s, and in fig. 439 the ovary of Emblica 
officinalis has three styles, each of which is divided twice in a bifurcate 
manner, exhibiting thus a dichotomous division. 

The length of the style is determined 

\ 1 by the relation which ought to subsist be- 
LER ~ tween the position of the stigma and that 
SS of = of the anthers, so as to allow the proper 
SC W/E yy application of the pollen. In some cases 
~ WW the ovary passes insensibly into the style, 
as in Digitalis, in other instances there is 
7 marked transition from one to the other, 
The style may remain persistent, or it may 
fall off after fertilisation is accomplished, 

and thus be deciduous, 

Tue Sriema is the termination of the 
conducting tissue of the style, and is usually 
in direct communication with the placenta. 

It may, therefore, in most instances, be considered as the placental 
portion of the carpel, prolonged upwards. In Armeria, and some 
other plants, this connection with the placenta cannot be traced. Its 
position may be either terminal or lateral. The latter is seen in some 
cases, as Asimina triloba, where it is unilateral (fig. 411), and in 
Plantago saxatilis (fig. 412), where it is bilateral. Occasionally, as 
in Tasmannia, it is prolonged along the whole inner surface of the 
style. In Iris it is situated on a cleft on the back of the petaloid 
divisions of the style. Some stigmata, as those of the Mimulus, 
present sensitive flattened laminz, which close when touched. The 

Fig. 439, Female flower of Emblica officinalis, one of the Euphorbiacee. c, Calyx. pp, 


Petals. ¢, Membranous tube surrounding the ovary. 0, Ovary, crowned by three styles, s, 
each being twice bifurcate. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE STIGMA. 249 


stigma consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid matter 
which detains the pollen, and causes it to protrude tubes. This 
secreting portion is, strictly speaking, the true stigma, but the name 
is generally applied to all the divisions of the style on which the 
stigmatic apparatus is situated, as in Labiate. The stigma alternates 
with the dissepiments of a syncarpous pistil, or, in other words, 
corresponds with the back of the loculaments ; but in some cases it 
would appear that half the stigma of one carpel unites with half that 
of the contiguous carpel, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepi- 
ments, that is, alternates with the loculaments. This appears to be 
the case in the Poppy, where the stigma of a single carpel is two-lobed, 
and the lobes are opposite the septa. 

If the stigma is viewed as essentially a prolongation of the 
placenta, then there is no necessary alternation between it and the 
placenta, both being formed by the margins of carpellary leaves, which 
in the one case are ovuliferous, in the other stigmatiferous. There is 
often a notch in one side of a stigma (as in some Rosacez), indicating 
apparently that it is a double organ like the placenta. To the division 
of a compound stigma the terms bifid, trifid, etc., are applied, accord- 
ing to thé number of the divisions, Thus, in Labiate (fig. 324), and 
in Composite (figs. 326, 438 s), the stigma is bifid; in Polemonium, 
trifid. When the divisions are large, they are called lobes, and when 
flattened like bands, lamelle ; so that stigmas may be bilobdate, trilobate, 
bilamellar, trilamellar, etc. 

It has already been stated that the divisions of the stigma mark 
the number of carpels which are united together. Thus, in Cam- 
panula (fig. 440), the quinquefid or five-cleft stigma indicates 


! l i 
Fig. 440. Fig. 441. Fig. 442. Fig, 443. Fig. 444, 


five carpels, the stigmata of which are separate, although the other 
parts are united. In Bignoniacez (fig. 441), as well'as in Scrophu- 


Fig. 440. Stigmas, s, of Campanula rotundifolia. 1, Style. Fig. 441, Bilamellar stigmas 
of-Bignonia pandorea. The two lamelle are applied naturally against each other in 1, while 
in 2 they are artificially separated. Fig. 442. Globular stigma of Mirabilis Jalapa. t, Style. 
s, Stigma. Fig, 443. Circular stigma, s, and t, style of Arbutus Andrachne. Fig. 444. 
Pistil.of Papaver somniferum, or opium Poppy. 0, Ovary. s, Radiating stigmas on its 
summit. * 


250 PISTILLIDIA IN CRYPTOGAMIC PLANTS. 


lariaceze and Acanthaces, the two-lobed or bilamellar stigma indicates 
a bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in the case of the styles, 
the stigma of a single carpel may divide. It is probable that in 
many instances what is called bifurcation of the style is only the 
division of the stigma. In Graminex and Composite (figs. 331, 438) 
there is a bifid stigma, and only one cavity in the ovary. This, how- 
ever, may be probably traced to subsequent abortion in the ovary of 
one of the carpels. The stigma presents various forms. It may be - 
globular, as in Mirabilis Jalapa (figs. 410, 442); orbicular, as in 
Arbutus Andrachne (fig. 443) ; umbrella-like, as in Sarracenia, where, 
however, the proper stigmatic surface is beneath the angles of the 
large expansion of the apex of the style; ovoid, as in Fuchsia (fig. 
433) ; hemispherical ; polyhedral; radiating, as 
in the Poppy (fig. 444), where the true stig- 
matic rays are attached to a sort of peltate 
or shield-like body, which may represent de- 
pressed or flattened styles; cucullate — 1.¢, 
covered by a hood, in Calabar Bean (fig. 445 a), 
where it is situated on the apex of a declinate 
style, bearded (hairy) on its concave surface 
(fig. 445 b). The lobes of a stigma may be flat 
and pointed, as in Mimulus and Bignonia (fig. 
441; fleshy and blunt, smooth or granular, or 
they may be feathery, as in many Grasses (fig. 
446). In Orchidacez the stigma is situated 
on the anterior surface of the column formed 
by the union of the styles and filaments; the 
point where it occurs being called gynizus (p. 
238). In Asclepiadacez the stigmas are united 
to the face of the anthers, and along with them form a solid mass 
(fig. 386). 

In Cryprocamrc Puants there exist organs called pistillidia, 
which have been supposed to perform the function of pistils. They 
are hollow flask-shaped organs, like ovaries, to which the names of 
sporangia (omogé, a spore or seed, and déyyoc, a vessel), and thecee 
(xm, a sac), have also been given. They contain bodies called spores, 
equivalent to ovules. These spores being capable of germination, and 
being devoid of cotyledons, have been termed leafless phytons. The 
sporangia, or spore-cases, are sometimes immersed in the substance of the 
plant, as in Riccia glauca (fig. 447, 1); at other times they are sup- 
ported on stalks, or setw (seta, a bristle), as in Mosses. In Marchantia 
polymorpha they consist of distinct and separate expansions, having a 
flask-shaped appearance (fig. 448), the lower enlarged part, 0, contain- 


Fig. 445. Style and stigma of the Calabar Bean (Physostigma venenoswm), showing the 
curved barbate style with hairs, a, on its concave surface, and a hooded (cucullate) stigma, b. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 251 


ing the spores, and surrounded by a cellular coat resembling a calyx, c. 
From this ovary-like body there is a prolongation which may be con- 


Fig. 447. 


sidered as a style, t, terminated by a cellular enlargement, s, which 
has been compared to a stigma. The styloid pro- i 
longation withers and disappears when the spores 
are mature. Sometimes the theca, as in Lichens, 
consist of a club-shaped elongated cell or ascus 
(fig. 449, 1), containing nuclei or cells in its in- 
terior, which form the spores. Sometimes these 
are single, at other times united in sets of two 
(fig. 449, 2), or of four (fig. 447, 2), or of some 
multiple of four. There are various modifications 
of sporangia in other COryptogamic tribes. In 
Ferns, they are often surrounded by an annular 
ring, or by elastic bands, which cause their de- 
hiscence ; while in Chara they are called nucules, 
and present an oval form with a spiral arrangement of tubes. 

Tue OvuLe.—tThe ovule is the body attached to the placenta, 


Fig. 449. 


Fig. 446. Pistil of Cynodon Dactylon, a Grass. 0, Ovary. s, Feathery stigmas. Fig. 447. 
1, Perpendicular section of the frond, f, of Riccia glauca, and of the sporangium or spore- 
case, 0, which is imbedded in it. s, Narrow process or style by which the sporangium com- 
municates with the external surface. 1, Its cavity or loculus. s, Young spores still united 
in sets of four in the parent cells, 1, Cells elongated like roots, 2, One of the cells more 
highly magnified, with the four spores which it contains. Three of the spores are seen, the 
fourth being concealed by them. Fig. 448. Sporangium or spore-case of Marchantia poly- 
morpha. o, Hollow swelling containing spores, and which has been compared to the ovary. 
t, Narrow process prolonged upwards, and resembling a style. s, Termination of this cellu- 
lar process, compared to the stigma. c, Cellular covering of the sporangium, or spore-case, 
surrounding it like a calyx. Fig. 449. 1, Theca or ascus of Solarina saccata, a species 
of Lichen, containing eight spores, united in sets of two. 2, Two of these double spores, 
highly magnified. 


252 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 


and destined to become the seed. It bears the same relation to the 
carpel that marginal buds do to leaves, and when produced on a free 
central placenta, it may be considered as a bud developed on a branch 
formed by the elongated axis. The single ovule contained in the 
ovaries of Composite and Grasses may be called a terminal bud 
surrounded by a whorl of adhering leaves or carpels, in the axil of 
one of which it is produced. In Delphinium elatum ovules some- 
times appear as mere lobes of the carpellary leaf; in Aquilegia ovules 

“transformed into true leaves are occasionally produced on either 
margin of the carpel; and the ovules of Mignonette sometimes assume 
the form of leaves. In such cases the vascular bundles of the placenta 
(pistillary cords) are formed by the lateral veins of the carpellary leaf. 
These veins pass into the marginal lobes or leaflets which represent 
ovules, and seem to prove that the placenta, in such cases, must be 
truly a carpellary, and not an axile, formation. 

The ovule is usually contained in an ovary, but in Conifer and 
Cycadaceze it is generally considered as having no proper ovarian 
covering, and is called naked, these orders being denominated gymno- 
spermous (vumvds, naked, and oxégwa, a seed), or naked-seeded. In 
these orders the ovule is produced on the edges, or in the axil of 
altered leaves, which form no evident style or stigma, The scales of 
the cones in Coniferze are by some looked upon as the homologue of 
opened-out carpels bearing exposed ovules. In the common Fir 
there are usually two ovules at the base of the upper surface of each 
scale. In the Juniper each scale bears one ovule. In the Cypress 
the scales are peltate, and cover numerous ovules; while in the Yew 
there is a solitary ovule at the apex of a cone-like organ formed 
by numerous barren scales, In Gnetacez there is also a solitary 
ovule, the secundine of which is pushed out into a long tube-like 
process. In Cycadacez the ovules are either produced on the edge of 
altered leaves, which some have called leaf-like carpels, as seen in 
Cycas, or, as in Zamia, they are covered by peltate scales, from the 
summit of which they are suspended. The Gymnospermal view is not , 
supported by all botanists ; some maintain that there is a true ovarian 
covering independent of the scales, and others think that the outer coat 
is of the nature of a disk. The subject is still under discussion. The 
carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a way as to leave an 
opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the ovules are exposed or 
semi-nude, as in Mignonette. In Leontice thalictroides (blue cohosh) 
the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules are 
exposed. So also in species of Ophiopogon, Peliosanthes, and Stateria. 
In the species of Cuphea the placenta ultimately bursts through the 
ovary and corolla, becoming erect, and bearing the exposed ovules. 

The ovule is attached to the placenta either directly, when it 
is called sessile, or by means of a prolongation called a funiculus 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 253 


(funis, a cord), umbilical cord, or podosperm (wots, a foot, and 
orégua, a seed), This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after 
fertilisation. The placenta is sometimes called the trophosperm (reépu, 
I nourish). The part by which the ovule is attached to the placenta 
or cord is its base or hilum, the opposite extremity being its apea. 
The latter is frequently turned round in such a way as to approach 
the base. The ovule is sometimes imbedded in the placenta, 

In its simplest form, as in the Mistleto, the ovule appears as a 
small cellular projection. The cells multiply until they assume a 
more or less enlarged ovate form, constituting what has been called 
the nucleus (figs. 450, 451 n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. 
The ovular nucleus alters in the progress of growth so as to be prepared 
for the development of the embryo 
plant in its interior. At the apex of 
the cellular nucleus, an absorption or 
obliteration of cells takes place, by 
which a hollow cavity is formed (fig. 
451 c), which in some plants becomes 
lined by a thin layer of cells or epithe- 
lium (p. 236), whilst in others the cells 
of the nucleus alone form its walls. 
This cavity is the embryo-sac, and contains amnios or mucilaginous 
fluid, in which, after fertilisation has been completed, the embryo 
plant is formed, being attached to the apex of the sac by a thread- 
like cellular process called the suspensor. 

The nucleus (fig. 457 ~) may remain naked, and alone form the 
ovule, as in the Mistleto, and a few other plants; but in most 
plants it becomes surrounded by certain coverings during its de- 
velopment. These appear first in the form of cellular rings at the 
base of the nucleus, which gradually 
spread over its surface. In some 
cases only one covering is formed, 
as in Composite, Campanulacesx, 
Walnut, etc. Thus, in the latter 
(fig. 452), the nucleus, , is covered 
by a single envelope, t, which, in 
the first instance, extends over the Wy i Ll 
base, and then spreads over the Fig. 452. Fig, 453. 
whole surface (fig. 453), leaving only 
an opening at the apex. In other instances (fig. 454), the nucleus, x, 


Fig. 450. Ovule of the Mistleto entire. Fig. 451. Ovule of Mistleto cut to show the 
embryo-sac, ¢, and the whole of the rest of the mass, 7, composed of uniform tissue, and 
forming a nucleus without integuments. Fig. 452. Ovule of Juglans regia, the Walnut. 
t, Simple integument. 7, Nucleus, the base of which only is covered with integument at 
the early period of development. Fig. 453, The same ovule more advanced, in which the 
nucleus is nearly completely covered. i 


Fig. 450, 


254 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 


besides the single covering (fig. 454, 2, ti), has another developed sub- 
sequently (fig. 454, 3, te), which gradually extends over that first 
formed, and ultimately covers it completely, except at the opening at 
the apex. There are thus two integuments to the nucleus, an outer 
and an inner, called respectively -prinvine, te, and secundine, i. The 
name tercine has been given to the cells of the nucleus which surround 
the embryo-sac (fig. 451). These names are applied to the coverings 
of the ovule without reference to théir order of development. At the 
apex of the ovule the primine 
and secundine leave an open- 
ing termed the foramen or 
micropyle (wingds, smal], and 
avan, a gate). This foramen 
extends through both coats, 
the opening in the primine 
(fig. 454, 3, ex), being the exo- 
stome (ew, outside, and oréue, 

: : . mouth, that in the secundine 
(fig. 454, 3, ed), being the endostome (zdov, within). The micro- 
pyle indicates the organic apex of the ovule, while the part united directly 
or by the funiculus to the placenta is the base or hilum. The name mi- 
cropyle is sometimes restricted to the foramen in the perfect seed. The 
length of the canal of the foramen depends on the development of the 
nucleus, as well as on the thickness of the integuments. The embryo- 
sac is sometimes prolonged beyond the apex of the nucleus, as noticed 
by Meyen in Phaseolus and Alsine media, and by Griffith in Santalum 
album and Loranthus. Some authors, as Mirbel, considering the 
ovule in reference to the embryo, speak of five coverings of the latter— 
viz. 1, primine; 2, secundine ; 3, tercine, or the covering of the nucleus 
lining the secundine ; 4, quartine, a temporary cellular layer, which is 
occasionally formed at an after period in the form of perisperm around 
5, quintine, or the embryo-sac. By most botanists the nucleus and 
sac, with its two integuments (primine and secundine), are mentioned 
as the ordinary structure of the ovule. Occasionally, as in Mistleto, 
there are two or three embryo-sacs formed. In Veronica and Euphrasia 
the neck of the embryo-sac becomes elongated and swollen, and from 
it are developed certain cellular or filamentous appendages, which are 
probably connected with the nutrition of the embryo. 

All these parts are originally cellular. The nucleus and integu- 


1 2. 3. 


Fig. 454. Ovule of Polygonum cymosum at various ages. mn, Nucleus. te, The outer in- 
tegument or primine. ti, The inner integument or secundine. ex, Exostome or opening in 
the primine. ed, Endostome or opening in the secundine, 1, Ovule in the early state, when 
the nucleus is still naked. 2, Ovule in second stage, when the nucleus is covered at its 
base by the internal integument or secundine only. 8, Ovule in the third stage, when the 
two integuments, primine and secundine, form a double covering, at the apex of which the 
nucleus still appears. : 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 255 


ments are united at the base of the ovule by a cellulo-vascular process 
called the chalaza (fig. 458 ch). This is often coloured, of a denser 
texture than the surrounding tissue, and is traversed by fibro- 
vascular bundles, which come from the placenta, to nourish the ovule. 
When the ovule is so developed that the union between the primine, 
secundine, and nucleus, with the chalaza, is at the hilum or base (next 
the placenta), and the foramen is at the opposite extremity (figs. 453, 
454), the ovule is orthotropal, orthotropous, or atropous (ég6ds, straight, 
and reémoc, mode ; or u, ptivative, and rgérw, I turn). This is the 
position of an ovule when it first makes its appearance, and occasion- 
ally, as in Polygonacez, it remains as the permanent condition. In 
such an ovule a straight line drawn from the hilum to the foramen 
passes along the axis of the ovule. 

In general, however, changes take place in the ovule, so that it 
assumes a different form. Thus it may be curved upon itself, so that 
the foramen approaches the hilum or placenta, and ultimately is placed 
close to it, while the chalaza is only slightly removed from the hilum. 
This change depends apparently on the ovule increasing more on one 
side than on the other, and as it were drawing the chalaza slightly to 
the side of the hilum opposite to that to which the foramen is inclined. 


Fig. 455. Fig. 456. 


Such ovules are called campylotropal or campylotropous (xauarbros, 
curved), when the portions on either side of the line of curvation are 
unequal (fig. 455) ; or camptotropal (xamric, curved), when they are 
equal (fig. 456). Curved ovules are found in Leguminose, Cruciferze, 
and Caryophyllacee. The union between the parts of the curved 
portion usually becomes complete, but in some cases there is no union, 
and the ovules are licotropal, or horse-shoe shaped (Aéxos, a hollow disk, 
and reéqoc, mode or form). 

Fig. 455. Campylotropal or Campylotropus ovule of the Stock. 1, Ovule entire, 2, Ovule 
cut lengthwise. jf, Funiculus or umbilical cord. c, Chalaza. n, Nucleus. te, Primine or 
outer covering. ti, Secundine or inner covering. ex, Exostome. ed, Endostome. _ Fig. 456. 
Carpel of Menispermum canadense, with 4 curved or camptotropal ovule, v. f, Funiculus. 
s, The base of the style. 


256 ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 


When, in consequence of the development on one side, the ovule is 
so changed that its apex or foramen (fig. 457, 4, ») is brought into 
close apposition with the hilum (fig. 457, 5, h), and the chalaza is also 


carried round so as to be at the opposite extremity (fig. 457, 5, c), 
then the ovule becomes inverted, anatropal or anatropous (&vargérw, I 
subvert). In this case (fig. 458) the union of the chalaza, ch, with 
the nucleus, , is removed from the hilum, and the connection between 
the chalaza and placenta is kept up by a vascular 
cord, r, passing through the funiculus, and called the 
raphe (ga07, a line). The raphe often forms a ridge 
along one side of the ovule, and it is usually on the 
side of the ovule next the placenta. Some look upon 
this kind of ovule as formed by an elongated funiculus 
(fig. 457, 5, f) folded along the side of the ovule, and 
becoming adherent to it completely ; and support this 
view by the case of semi-anatropal ovules, where the 
funiculus is only, as it were, partially attached along 
one side, becoming free in the middle; and also by 
cases where an anatropal ovule, by the separation of the funiculus from 
its side, becomes an orthotropal seed. 

The anatropous form of ovule is of very common occurrence, and 
may probably aid in the process of fertilisation. Ovules which are at 
first orthotropous, as in Chelidonium majus (fig. 457, 2), sometimes 
become anatropous in the progress of development (fig. 457, 4). 
When the ovule is attached to the placenta, so that the hilum is in 
the middle, and the foramen and chalaza at opposite ends, it becomes 
transverse, amphitropal or heterotropal (duo, around, éregos, diverse), 

The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When 
there is a single ovule, and with its axis vertical, it may be attached 

Fig. 457. Ovule of Chelidonium majus at different stages of development. h, Hilum or 
umbilicus. ch, Chalaza. jf, Funiculus or umbilical cord. 7, Raphe. », Nucleus. ti, Se- 
cundine. te, Primine. ed, Endostome. ex, Exostome. 1, First stage: nucleus still naked, 
2, Second stage: nucleus covered at its base by the secundine. 3, Third stage: the primine 
developed and covering the secundine at its base. 4, Fourth stage: the ovule completely 
reflected, and its point turned downwards. 5, The same cut longitudinally, to show the 


relation of its different parts. Fig. 458, Anatropous ovule of Dandelion, cut vertically. 
ch, Chalaza. r, Raphe. n, Nucleus. 


Fig. 458. 


ESSENTIAL ORGANS—THE OVULE. 257 


to the placenta at the base of the ovary (basal placenta), and it is then 
erect, as in Polygonaceze and Composite (fig. 459); or it may be 
inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its apex 
upwards (fig. 460), and then is ascending, as in Parietaria. It may 
hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its apex 
being directed downwards, and is inverted or pendulous, as in Hippuris 
vulgaris (461), or from a parietal placenta near the summit, and then 
is suspended, as in Daphne Mezereum (fig. 462), Polygalacez, and 


{ 
Fig. 461. Fig. 462. 


Fig. 459. 


Euphorbiaceze. Sometimes a long funiculus arises from a basal: pla- 
centa, reaches the summit of the ovary, and there bending over 
suspends the ovule, as in Armeria; at other times the hilum or 
organic base appears to be in the middle, and the ovule becomes 
horizontal, peltate (pelta, a shield), or peritropous (aegi, around, and 
reérw, I turn). All these modifications are determined by the rela- 
tive position of the hilum and foramen, the length of the funiculus, 
and its adhesion, as well as the position of the placenta. 

When there are two ovules in the same cell, they may be either 
collateral, that is, placed side by side (fig. 463), or the one may be erect 
and the other inverted, as in some species of Spirzea and Atsculus 
(fig. 464), or they may be placed one above another, each directed 
similarly. Such is also the case with ovaries containing a moderate 
or definite number of ovules. Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous 
plants (fig. 465), the ovules, 0, are attached to the extended marginal 
placenta, one above the other, forming usually two parallel rows 
corresponding to each margin of the carpel. When the. ovules are 
definite (uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attach- 


Figs. 459-462. Carpels belonging to different flowers, cut vertically to show the various 
directions of the solitary ovule, 0, contained in them. jf, Funiculus. r, Raphe. c, Chalaza, 
s, Base of the style. Fig. 459. Carpel of Senecio vulgaris, with a straight or erect ana- 
tropous ovule. Fig. 460. Carpel of Parietaria officinalis (pellitory), with an ascending 
orthotropous ovule. Fig. 461. Carpel of Hippuris vulgaris (mare’s-tail), with a reversed 
or pendulous anatropous ovule, Fig. 462. Carpel of Daphne Mezereum, with a suspended 
anatropous ovule, 


iS) 


258 FUNCTIONS OF FLORAL ENVELOPES. 


ment so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When 
the ovules are very numerous or indefinite, while at the same time the 
placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great variation, 
some being directed upwards, others downwards, others transversely 


Fig. 463. Fig. 464. Fig. 465. Fig. 466. 


(fig. 466), and their form is altered by pressure into various polyhedral 
shapes. In such cases it frequently happens that some of the ovules 
are arrested in their development and become abortive. In Crypto- 
gamous plants, in place of ovules there are cellular bodies called spores, 
to which allusion will be made when the seed is considered. 


4.—Functions of the Floral Envelopes. 


The bracts and calyx, when of a green colour, perform the same 
functions as leaves, giving off oxygen under the influence of light, and 
producing the substance called chlorophyll or phytochlor. They are 
consequently concerned in the assimilation of matters fitted for the 
nutrition of the flower, and they aid in protecting the central organs. 
The corolla does not in general produce chlorophyll, nor does it give 
off oxygen. On the contrary, it absorbs oxygen from the air. At 
the same time there is a conversion of starch into grape sugar, an 
evolution of carbonic acid gas, and in many instances a very marked 
elevation of temperature, caused by the combination between the 
carbon of the flower and the oxygen of the air. The starch, which is 
stored up in the receptacle and at the base of the petals, by passing 
into the state of dextrin and grape sugar, becomes fitted for vegetable 
nutrition. Important purposes are thus served in the economy of the 
plant. The saccharine or honey-like matter which often collects in 


Fig. 463. Carpel of Nuttallia cerasoides, with two suspended collateral ovules. o, One of 
the ovules. jf, Funiculus. s, The base of the style. Fig. 464, One of the loculaments of 
the ovary of Zisculus hybrida, laid open to show two ovules, 00, inserted at the same height, 
but turned in different directions. mm, Micropyle indicating their apex. s, Base of the 
style. Fig. 465. Carpel or legume of Ononis rotundifolia, with several campylotropous 
ovules, 0, placed one above the other. f, Funiculi. s, Base of the style. Fig. 466. Locu- 
lament of the ovary of Peganum Harmala, with numerous ovules, o, attached toa projecting 
placenta, p, and pointing in different directions. s, Base of style. 


FUNCTIONS OF FLORAL ENVELOPES. 259 


the cup of the flower, and sometimes in special pits or depressions, as 
in Crown Imperial, and Asarabacca,’attracts bees and various insects, 
which are instrumental in disseminating the pollen. The quantity of 
oxygen absorbed was determined by Saussure. He found that double 
flowers absorbed less in proportion to their volume than single flowers ; 
that the essential organs absorbed more oxygen than the floral enve- 
lopes ; and that the greatest absorption took place when the stamens 
and pistil were mature. 

The following are the results of some of Saussure’s experiments :— 


Oxygen consumed— 


Name. anne By Flowers entire. By oe Organs 

Stock, single - . 24hours. 11:5 times their vol. 18° times their vol. 
Do. double sy 77 ” a9! ” 
Polyanthes tuberosa, single ,, 9: Ar ” ” 
Do. do. double,, 7.4 ve ¥9 ” 
Indian Cress, single . 4, 85 5 16°3 ” 

Do. do. double . ,, 7°25 ” ry) » 
Brugmansia arborea. ,, 9° ” ” ” 
Passiflora serratifolia .  ,, 18°5 ” ” » 
Gourd, male flower .10,, 76 95 1 ” 

Do. female . Pt ae 3°5 59 » ” 
Hibiscus speciosus Digs 54 a 63 3 
Hypericum calycinum . 24 ,, 75 2 85 _ 
Cobza scandens . Bogs 6°5 - TS x 
Arum italicum . er = 5 30° ” 
Typha latifolia . By 9°8 re ” ” 
Whitelily. . . 4, 5 i 3 io 
Castanea vulgaris ei ntt35 91 - ” ” 


While this oxidation is going on, carbon is given off in the form 
of carbonic acid, and heat is evolved by the combination between the 
oxygen and carbon. The quantity of carbonic acid evolved is in a 
ratio corresponding to the amount of oxygen absorbed, and the degree 
of heat present is proportionate to the activity of the chemical and 
vital changes taking place. Experiments have been made as to the 
amount of heat produced during flowering, especially by species of 
Arum, Caladium, and Colocasia. These are plants in which the floral 
envelopes are nearly absent, while the torus and growing point, and the 
essential organs, attain a high degree of development, forming a spadix 
enclosed in a large spathe. No heat eould be detected when the con- 
tact of oxygen was prevented, either by putting the plants into other 
gases, or by covering the surface of the spadix with oil. The surface 
of the spadix is tha part whence the heat is chiefly evolved. Aram 
cordifolium occasionally had a temperature 20° or 30° above that of 
the surrounding air; Arum maculatum 17° to 20°; and Arum Dra- 
cunculus and other species still higher. The following observations 
were made by Brongniart on the spadix of Colocasia odora, The spathe 


260 FUNCTIONS OF FLORAL ENVELOPES. 


opened on the 14th of March ; the discharge of pollen commenced on 
the 16th, and continued till the 18th, The maximum temperature 
occurred at a different hour on each day. 


. T rature ie T ture 

Maximum, abana te Air. Maximum. abaver the res 

14th March. 3 PM. 4°5° Cent. | 17th March. 5 P.M. 11°0° Cent. 
15th ,, 4, 100° ,, | 18th ,, liam. 82 ,, 
16th |, 5, 10-22 ;, | 19th ,. 10-45 25°, 


Vrolik and De Vriese made a series of observations on the same 
plant, and have given the results for every half-hour of the day. The 
following are some of these results :— 


mm, 
saa: a TNS aes DRY Meets 
11-30 20°6° Cent. 183° Cent. | 3 25°0° Cent. —15°6° Cent. 
12 21, 187 4, 3-30 24-4 ,, 150 4, 
12-30 23-3, 1944, 4 23:3, 150 4, 
it 24-4 | 19-4, 5 22-2, 18-7 4 
1-30 244, 189 ,, 6 21:0 ,, 18-7 ,, 
2 25-6 17-2, 7 20:0, 18-7 45 
2-30 265 ,, 156, 


The greatest amount of heat observed was at 2-30 P.m., when it was 
10°9° above the temperature of the air. On the previous day the 
maximum occurred at 3 p.m., and on the following day at 1, but then 
it was only 8°2° above that of the air. Decandolle states that at Mont- 
pellier, Arum italicum attained the maximum of temperature about 5 
p.m. Saussure observed similar phenomena, but to a less extent, in 
the Gourd, where the temperature varied from 1°8° to 3°6°; also in 
Bignonia radicans, from 0°9° to 3°. From all these experiments it 
would appear that in the Aracez and some other plants, especially at 
the period when the essential organs reach maturity, there is a pro- 
duction of heat, which increases during the performance of their 
functions, attaining a daily maximum, and ultimately declining. 

While these changes are taking place the starch is converted into 
dextrin, and ultimately into grape-sugar, which, being soluble, can be 
immediately applied to the purposes of the plant. 

Flowering takes place usually at a definite period of the plant’s 
existence. The process requires a considerable amount of nutrient 
matter, and its occurrence is accompanied by a greater or less ex- 
haustion of the assimilated products. A certain degree of accumulation 
of sap seems necessary in order that flowering may proceed. Annual 
plants are so exhausted after flowering as to die; but, by retarding 
the epoch for two or more years, as by nipping off the flower-buds, 
time is allowed for accumulating sap, the stems, from being herbaceous, 
become shrubby, and sometimes, as in the Tree-Mignonette, they may 
live and flower for several years. Perennial plants, by the retardation 


PERIODS OF FLOWERING. 261 


of flowering, are enabled to accumulate a greater amount of nutritive 
matter, and thus to withstand the exhaustion. Many cultivated 
plants which lay up a large store of nutriment in the form of starch, 
lose it when the plants shoot out a flowering stem. This is seen in 
the case of Carrots and Turnips, in which the succulent roots become 
fibrous and unfit for food when the plants are allowed to run to seed. 
The receptacle of the Artichoke and many Composite, which is succu- 
lent before the expansion of the flowers, becomes dry as the process of 
flowering proceeds. The juices of plants, when required for the pur- 
pose either of food or medicine, ought in general to be collected 
immediately before the flowering of the plant. 

By cutting a ring out of the bark of trees, and thus retarding the 
descent of the sap, the period of flowering is sometimes hastened. 
Again, when the period of flowering is long delayed, either naturally, 
as in Agave and several palms, or artificially, the process, when it 
does begin, proceeds with amazing rapidity and vigour. Richard 
mentions that a plant of Agave, which had not flowered for nearly a 
century, sent out a flowering stem of 224 feet in 87 days, increasing 
at one period at the rate of one foot a day. In such cases this vigor- 
ous flowering is often followed by the death of thé plant. Common 
fruit trees, when they begin to flower, often do so luxuriantly ; but 
if, from the season being bad, there is a deficiency in flowering, it 
frequently happens that, from the accumulation of nourishment, the 
next year’s produce is abundant. 

If plants are allowed to send' out their roots very extensively in 
highly nutritive soil, the tendency is to produce branches and leaves 
rather than flowers. In such cases, cutting the roots or pruning the 
young twigs may act beneficially in checking the vegetative functions. 
In pruning, the young shoot is removed, and the buds connected with 
the branch of the previous year are left, which thus receive accumu- 
lated nourishment. Grafting, by giving an increase of assimilated 
matter to the scion or graft (see remarks on Fruiting), and at the 
same time checking luxuriant branching, contributes to the hastening 
of the period of flowering. 

The period of flowering of the same plant varies at different 
seasons, and in different countries. During the winter, in temperate 
climates, and during the dry season in the tropics, the vegetative pro- 
cess is checked, more especially by the diminished supply of moisture,, 
and the arrestment of the circulation of the sap. The assimilated 
matter remains in a state of repose, ready to be applied to the purposes 
of the plant when the moisture and heat again stimulate the vege- 
table functions. This stimulation occurs at different periods of the 
year, according to the nature of the climate. By observing the 
mode of flowering of the same species of plant in successive years, 
conclusions may be drawn as to the nature of the seasons in a 


262 PERIODS OF FLOWERING. 


country ; and by contrasting these periods in different countries, 
comparisons may be instituted as to the nature of their climate. Thus 
valuable floral calendars may be constructed. 

Plants are accommodated to the climate in which they grow, and 
flower at certain seasons, and even when transferred to other climates 
where the seasons are reversed, they still have a tendency to flower 
at their accustomed period of the year. Again,'in the same climate, 
some individuals of a species, from a peculiar idiosyncrasy, regularly 
flower earlier than others. Decandolle mentions a horse-chestnut at 
Geneva, which flowered always a month before the rest in the neigh- 
bourhood. From such individuals, by propagation, gardeners are able 
to produce early-flowering varieties. 

There is a periodicity as to the hours of the day at which some 
species open their flowers. Some expand early, some at mid-day, 
others in the evening. The flowers of Succory open at 8 a.m., and 
close at 4 p.mM.; those of Tragopogon porrifolius, or Salsafy, close 
about mid-day. lLinnzus constructed a floral clock or watch, in 
which the different hours were marked by the expansion of certain 
flowers. The periods, however, do not seem to be always so regular 
as he remarked them at Upsal. The following are a few of these 
horological flowers, with their hours of opening :— 


Ipomea Nil 38to 44.M 
Tragopogon pratense 4to 5 ,, 
Papaver nudicaule 5 93 
Hypocheris maculata . 6 ay 
Various species of Sonchus and Hieracium 6to 7 ,, 
Lactuca sativa 7 9 
Specularia Speculum Tto 8 
Calendula pluvialis ° ” 
Anagallis arvensis 8 33 
Nolana prostrata . 8to 9 ,, 
Calendula arvensis i ‘ « 9 se 
Arenaria rubra. F . ‘ . 9told ,, 
Mesembryanthemum nodifloram i 3 » Jw AL 4; 
Ornithogalum umbellatum (Dame d’onze “heures) .1l 5a 
Various Ficoideous plants. , . : . 12 5 
Scilla pomeridiana 4 ‘ z r a” P.M. 
Silene noctiflora . ‘ , S : ‘ ~ BLE DB og 
Cnothera biennis " 2 . 6 a 
Mirabilis Jalapa . j : 2 s . 6to 7 ,, 
Cereus grandiflorus : 7to 8 ,, 


Plants which expand their flowers in the evening, as some species 
of Hesperis, Pelargonium, etc., were called by Linnseus plante tristes 
on that account. Several species of Cooperia, and of Cereus, also 
Sceptranthus Drummondii, are nocturnal flowers. Some flowers open 
and decay in a day, and are called ephemeral, others continue to open 
and close for several days before withering. The corolla usually 


PERIODS OF FLOWERING. 263 


begins to fade after fecundation has been effected. Many flowers, or 
heads of flowers, do not open during cloudy or rainy weather, and 
have been called. meteoric, Composite plants frequently exhibit, this 
phenomenon, and it has been remarked in Anagallis arvensis, which 
has hence been denominated the “poor man’s weather-glass.” The 
closing of many flowers in such circumstances protects the pollen from 
the injurious effects of moisture. 

The opening and closing of flowers is regulated by light and 
moisture, and also by a certain law of periodicity. A plant accustomed 
to flower in daylight at a certain time, will continue to expand its 
flowers at the wonted period, even when kept inadark room. Decan- 
dolle made a series of experiments on the flowering of plants kept in 
darkness, and in a cellar lighted by lamps. He found that the law 
of periodicity continued to operate for a considerable time, and that 
in artificial light some flowers opened, while others, such as species 
of Convolvulus, still followed the clock hours in their opening and 
closing. 

Light has been said also to have an effect on the position which 
flowers assume. Some Composite as Hypocheris radicata and 
Apargia autumnalis, are stated by Henslow to have been seen in 
meadows, where they abound, inclining their flowers towards the 
quarter of the heavens in which the sun is shining. A similar state- 
ment has been made regarding the Sunflower, but it has not been 
confirmed in this country at least. Perhaps in its native clime, where 
the effect of the sun’s rays is greater, the phenomenon alluded to may 
be observable. The effects of light on the direction of the flowers 
has been noticed in many plants, as Narcissus and certain species of 
Melampyrum. 

It is of importance, both as regards meteorology and botanical 
geography, that observations should be made carefully on what are 
called the annual and diurnal periods of plants: the former being 
the space of time computed between two successive returns of the 
leaves, the flowers, and the fruit ; and the latter, the return of the 
hour of the day at which the flowers of certain species open. The same 
species should be selected in different localities, and care should be 
taken that the plants are such as have determinate periods of flower- 
ing. Rules as to the mode of observing periodical phenomena in 
plants have been drawn up by a committee of the British Association, 
and they have published (1.) a list of plants to be observed for the 
periods of foliation and defoliation ; (2.) a list of plants to be noticed 
for flowering and ripening of the fruit; (3.) a list of plants to be 
observed at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and summer solstice, 
for the hours of opening and closing their flowers, 


264 FERTILISATION OR FECUNDATION. 


5,—Functions of the Organs of Reproduction—Fertilisation or 
Fecundation. 


The stamens and pistil are called the Essential Organs of flowering 
plants, inasmuch as without them reproduction cannot be effected. In 
plants which do not flower, this function is performed either by special 
organs, which have been termed antheridia and archegonia, or it is 
accomplished by a process of conjugation or union of cells. The stamens, 
considered as the male organs, prepare the pollen, which is discharged 
by the dehiscence of the anther. The pistil, or the female organ, is pro- 
vided with a secreting surface or stigma, to which the pollen is applied 
in order that the ovules contained in the ovary may be fertilised. 

The existence of separate sexes in plants appears to have been 
conjectured in early times, as shown by the means taken for perfecting 
the fruit of the Date Palm. In this palm, the stamens and pistils 
are on separate plants; and the Egyptians were in the habit of 
applying the sterile flowers to those in which the rudiments of the 
fruit appeared, in order that perfect dates might be produced. This 
practice appears to have been empirical, and not founded on correct 
notions as to the parts of the plant concerned in the process. In the 
case of the Fig, they were in the habit of bringing wild figs in contact 
with the cultivated ones, on the erroneous supposition that a similar 
result was produced as in the case of the Date, proving that they 
were not aware of the fact that in the Fig there are stamens and 
pistils present on the same receptacle. The effect produced by the 
wild figs, or the process of caprification (caprificus, a wild fig-tree), as 
it was called, seems to depend on the presence of a species of Cynips, 
which punctures the fruit, and causes an acceleration in ripening. 
The presence of sexual organs in plants was first shown in 1676, by 
Sir Thomas Millington, Savilian Professor at Oxford, and by Grew. 
The opinions of these naturalists were subsequently confirmed by 
Malpighi, Ray, Morland, Geoffrey, and others. Linnzeus made these 
organs the basis of his artificial system of classification. 

Numerous proofs have been given of the functions of the stamens 
and pistils, especially in the case of plants where these organs are in 
separate flowers, either on the same or on different plants. Thus, a 
pistilliferous specimen of Palm (Chamerops humilis), in the Leyden 
Botanic Garden, which had long been unproductive, was made to pro- 
duce fruit by shaking over it the pollen from a staminiferous specimen. 
The same experiment has on several occasions been performed in the 
Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, and the fruit thus ripened has furnished 
seeds which have germinated. Similar results were observed in the 
case of the Pitcher plant. In Cucumbers, when the staminiferous 
flowers are removed, no perfect fruit is formed. Removing the 


FERTILISATION OR FECUNDATION. 265 


stamens in the very early state of the flower, before the pollen is 
perfectly formed, prevents fertilisation. Care must be taken, in all 
such experiments, that pollen is not.wafted by the wind or carried 
by insects to the pistil from other plants in the neighbourhood, and 
the result must be put to the test by the germination of the seed. In 
some instances the fruit enlarges independently of the application of 
the pollen, without, however, containing perfect seed. Thus, a species of 
Carica was fertilised by the application of pollen, and produced perfect 
fruit and seed, and it continued for at least one year afterwards to 
have large and apparently perfect fruit, but the ovules were abortive. 

Some authors maintain that in the case of Hemp, Spinach, 
Lychnis dioica, Coelebogyne ilicifolia, Aberia Caffra, and some other 
plants, perféct seeds have been produced without the influence of 
pollen, but these statements have not been confirmed. Such cases 
are recorded as examples of Parthenogenesis (wagdévos, maiden, yéveors, 
origin), or the production of perfect seeds without fertilisation. In 
Phanerogamous or flowering plants all experiments lead to the con- 
clusion that there are distinct sexual organs, the presence of which is 
required for the production of the embryo. 

In Cryptogamous or flowerless plants there are also organs of re- 
production, although they are not always very conspicuous. In the 
simplest form of Cryptogamic plants, reproduction and nutrition 
progress within the same cell. As we ascend in the scale of vegeta- 
tion, and the plant becomes more complex, there are cells of different 
kinds, which require to be brought into contact in order that spores 
(which are equivalent to seeds) may be produced. These reproductive 
cells are of two kinds, and they are situated either together or apart, 
on the same or on different individuals, one Fig. 467. Fig. 468." 
representing the male and the other the female. —& 
One of these is the Antheridiwm (dvdngic, 
flowery, ¢/d0¢, form), a cellular body, containing 
free cells, in which are enclosed Phytozoa (gurby, 
a plant, and Zwds, living), (Antherozoids), minute 
bodies which exhibit movements ; the other is 
the Pistillidiwm or Archegonium (dex7, begin- 
ning, and yévos, offspring), containing cells 
which, after contact with phytozoa, are able to 
germinate, and which are sometimes provided 


Fig. 469. Fig. 470. 


with cilia (figs. 467-470), and then are called Zoospores (Cwos, living, 
and omogé, a seed or spore), or moving spores. The phytozoa are re- 
garded as exercising a function similar to that of the spermatozoa in 
animals, and hence they are sometimes called Spermatozoids (onéguc., 


Figs. 467-470. Spores of different fresh-water Alge. Fig. 467. Sporesof Conferva, with 
two vibratile cilia. Fig. 468. Spore of Chetophora, with four cilia. Fig. 469. Spore of 
Prolifera, with a circle of cilia. Fig. 470, Spore of Vaucheria, covered with cilia, 


266 ’ CRYPTOGAMIC EMBRYOGENY. 


seed). A cessation of their active movements has been observed co- 
incident with the earliest formation of the embryo. When the 
contents of the antheridia and archegonia are brought into contact, 
a cellular body is produced in the latter. This cell or germ, when 
mature, may either be discharged, or may remain in connection with 
the plant until further developed. 


Fertilisation or Fecundation in Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants, 


In the simplest Cryptogamic plants, composed of a single rounded 
cell, as the Yeast plant, the Red-snow plant, and Palmella cruenta 
(fig. 44, p. 14), the processes of reproduction and 


«| ve nutrition cannot be separated. The same cell ap- 
> | pears to perform both functions, At a certain 
é ry period of growth divisions take place in the cell- 


contents, and by the bursting of the parent cell 
germs are discharged which are capable of produc- 
ing new individuals. As we ascend in the scale the 
plants become more complex. In place of one cell 
q they consist of several, united together either in a 
“ single or branched linear series, and combined both 
end to end and laterally, so as to form cellular ex- 
pansions. In this state the nutritive and reproduc- 
tive cells are often separate and distinct, as may be 
seen in common Mould, and in Fungi generally. In 
Conferve (fig. 45, p. 14), and in Diatomacese (fig. 
472), reproductive cells are observed with distinct 
functions. In many of them we perceive at certain 
Fig. 471. stages of growth cells uniting by a process of conju- 
gation, the result of this union being the pro- 

duction of a cellular embryo or spore. This conjugation is a very 
interesting process, and tends to throw light on the subject of 
reproduction throughout the whole vegetable kingdom. It is well 
seen in species of Zygnema, Spirogyra, Tyndaridea, Mougeotia, and 
Staurospermum, which are called Conjugate on this account. The 
cells in these plants have in their interior a granular endochrome, 
which appears to have different functions in the different cells. When 
certain cells are brought into contact, tubes are emitted which unite 
the two (fig. 471 6), the endochromes come into contact and the 
result is the formation of a spore, the mixed endochromes being 
surrounded with a proper membrane. Sometimes the contents of 
Fig. 471. Filaments of Zyguema, with conjugating cells. The tubes uniting two cells 
are seen at b, and similar tubes connect two upper cells, a and d. The contents of the cells 
intermingle, and spores or sporoid embryos, c and d, are produced. The upper cells, in 


which there is no conjugation, retain their usual contents; while some of the lower cells 
have lost their contents, and spores are produced in others. 


EMBRYOGENY IN CELLULAR PLANTS. 267 


one cell, considered as the male, pass into the other in which the spore 
is produced, as in Zygnema (fig. 471), and sometimes the contents 
of both cells unite, and the spore is produced in the tube between 
them. Besides this process of conju- 
gation, by means of which a cellular 
embryo is formed, some of these plants 
have a power of merismatic or fissi- 
parous division (fig. 472), by which He 
cells are separated, capable of inde- 
pendent existence. This may be 
compared to the process of budding, 
and is thus distinct from fecundation. 

In many of the Confervee, however, spores appear to be produced 
without the conjugation of separate filaments. In such instances it 
is conjectured that different cells in the same filament perform different 
functions, and are so placed that at a certain period their contents by 
coming into contact develop a fertile germ. The same filament may 
thus contain both. male and female cells; although botanists as yet 
have not been able to show the difference between them. In some 
species of Meloseira the endochrome at each end of the cell appears 
to have a different property, and mixture takes place in the cavity 
of a single frustule. In this case there is a movement towards the 
centre of the cell where the spore is formed. 

Proceeding to other divisions of Acotyledons, we find different 
kinds of reproductive organs, which can, however, only be observed 
at certain periods of development, and frequently cannot be seen after 
the embryo has been fully formed. In the same way as in flowering 
plants, when the seed has been ripened the stamens have generally 
withered and fallen off, and sometimes also the style and stigma. It 
is of importance, therefore, in all investigations into Cryptogamic 
reproduction, to examine the plants at an early period of their growth. 
The reproductive organs have received different names in the several 
orders of Cryptogams. The usual name applied to the male organs 
is antheridia, containing sperm-cells with phytozoa; and to the female 
organs, archegonia, containing germ-cells. 

We shall now proceed to examine the reproductive organs and 
their functions in various divisions of flowerless or Cryptogamous plants. 

In the case of Fungi (the mushroom order), reproductive bodies 
called spores are produced, either naked (often stalked) or contained in 
sacs called thecw (64xn, a box) or asci (ascus, a bag). Many of the 
spores, such as those called conidia (xéms, dust), are rather of the nature 
of buds. In some fungi, as Peronospora, a conjugation of cells has been 


Fig. 472. Diatomaceous Alga (Diatoma marinwm), the cells of which are increased by a 
constant process of fissiparous or merismatic division. The plant increases by abscission 
of segments. 


\ 


268 EMBRYOGENY IN FUNGI. 


observed, and in Zyzygites megalocarpus as well as in species of 
Rhizopus (R. nigricans), the formation of a compound spore by the 
complete amalgamation of two cells has occasionally been noticed. 
This compound spore is termed a zygospore (Cuyivy, a yoke). The 
bodies called cystidia (xdoric, a bladder), seen in Fungi, are supposed 
to represent antheridia ; while others called oogonia (atv, an egg, and 


Fig. 473. 


yéws, offspring), are reckoned as equivalent to archegonia or sporangia, 
in which, after the action of the antheridia, a fertilised spore is 
formed, which is denominated an oospore, 

In Lichens, which are Thallogens, reproductive bodies called spores 


‘a 


Fig. 475. Fig. 476. Fig. 477. 


occur in thece or asci, which are united in the form of open discs or 
apothecia (dab, from, 64x, box), and in hollow conceptacles called 
perithecia (wegi, around). On the thallus of lichens smaller hollow sacs, 
called spermagones (owéguc, seed, vévos, offspring), also occur (fig. 473). 
These when cut through show bodies inside called spermatia (fig. 
474), which some consider as representing antherozoa or sperma- 
tozoids ; they are supported on stalks called sterigmata (orjerypa, a 

Fig. 478. Two Spermagones on thalli of Lichens, Fig. 474, Spermagones of a Lichen 
cut through, showing outer filaments, f (hypha), with rounded green cells, g (gonidia) ; in the 
interior sterigmata and spermatia; opening at top, o. Fig. 475. Sterigmata, a, and sper- 
tmatia, 6, of Cladonia fimbriata, Fig. 476. Pyenides of a parasitic Lecidia on thallus of a 


Cladonia. Fig, 477. Basidia, a; stylospores, 0; free stylospores, c, from pycnides of same 
Lecidia. 


EMBRYOGENY IN LICHENS. 269 


support), (fig. 475). Besides the spermagones, other externally 
similar reproductive bodies, called pycnides (wuxvis, crowded) (fig. 476), 
are, though less regularly, produced on the thallus, containing minute 
bodies denominated stylospores (fig. 477 b), which are either attached 
to style-like stalks (basidia), a, or are found free, c. 

The fertilisation of Lichens is still very obscure, and the functions 
of their several reproductive organs require further examination. In 
the thallus of lichens there are interlaced filaments or threads, forming 
what is called the hypha (fig. 474 f), (bo, weaving), in the midst of 
which are peculiar green-coloured rounded bodies, called gonidia. (fig. 
474 g) (yévos, offspring, ¢7é0s, form), which appear to be concerned 
in vegetative propagation, like the zoospores of Algs. These gonidia 
have been shown in some cases, as in Parmelia parietina, to contain 
corpuscles capable of development into zoospores, 

In the division of Thallogens called Algee, embracing Cryptogams, 
which inhabit salt and fresh water, there are more evident organs 
of fecundation. We have already noticed these in the case of the 
conjugation of confervee (fig. 471), when two cells being different, the: 
contents unite to form a spore or germinating body. This process 
is seen also in Diatoms and Desmidiee. In the minute Closterium 
Lunula there is a fissiparous division of the plant, and the contents of 
the two ruptured cells unite to form a rounded body, containing a 
spore. Besides the process of conjugation, there are also other modes 
of reproduction in Alge; the same plant is seen forming cells which 
separate as independent plants, and also antheridia and archegonia 
which give rise to spores. In Vaucheria there 
is a multiplication by zoospores or moving cells, 
which are discharged from the extremity of a fila- 
ment (fig. 478 a and b). This zoospore (fig. 478 
b) is a vegetative reproductive body, independent of 
fertilisation. The plant also produces a recurved 
horn-like organ, which performs the part of an an- 
theridium, and a slightly recurved organ close beside 
it, which represents the sporangium, from which 
a beak-like process is turned in the direction of the 
antheridium. These two organs are then in direct 
communication by their bases with the tube of the 
Vaucheria, but they are afterwards separated from 
it, each forming a septum. Spermatozoids, contained in the an- 
theridium, afterwards penetrate the beak-like process of the spo- 


a. Fig. 478 0b. 


Fig. 478 a. Clavate cellular filament of an Alga(Vaucheria ovoidea). The terminal portion 
becomes separated from the rest by a partition. In this portion the single spore, s, is de- 
veloped, which is discharged through an opening, as seen in the figure. The spore has cilia, 
by means of which it moves about for some time in water after being separated from the 
parent cell, The lower part of the filament contains green endochrome. The spore is of a 
very dark green colour. », Zoospore of an Alga (Vaucheria), surrounded by moving cilia, 


270 EMBRYOGENY IN ALGA, 


rangium, and thus fertilisation is effected, and the true spore is formed 
in the interior. 
In Vaucheria there are thus three reproductive organs :— 
1. Zoospores, which are vegetative or bud-like reproductive organs (moving spores). 
2. Antheridia, with sperm-cells containing fusiform corpuscles, which move by 
means of two cilia. 


3. Sporangia, with germ-cells, which are fertilised by the etna corpuscles. and 
form resting spores, whence the new plants arise. 


Pringsheim has examined the reproduction in two minute Algw, 
Cdogonium and Bulbochete. The greater part of the cells of Gido- 
gonium contain each a zoospore (fig. 479, 1, a), provided anteriorly 
with a complete crown of cilia. This body (zoospore) is produced 
without sexual intercourse; it germinates and gives rise to a new 
plant in the same way as a bud does. Between the common cells 
of the cellular plants occur other utricles, usually more swollen, 
(fig. 479, 1, 2, 66), either isolated or in groups. In these are formed 
motionless spores (or resting spores), which are the female sexual 
organs. In the individuals which produce these female cells, as well 
as in others which have no such cells, there occurs a third’ kind of 
cell, shorter than the common cell of the plant, and forming often 
irregular groups. The third kind gives birth to spermatozoids, either 
at once or after the appearance of an intermediate production of a 
special nature, which becomes detached from the primordial filament, 
and contains the male sexual apparatus. In Cdogonium ciliatum, a 
small species, found attached to the leaves of aquatic mosses, the cells 
containing the male organs are formed towards the anterior extremity 
of the filament, between the setiform terminal cells (fig. 479, 1, 2, d) 
and the upper female organ. In each of these cellules there is formed, 
at the expense of the contained plastic materials, a single small 
zoospore called microgonidium (wimeds, small). This, according to 
Pringsheim, is the antecedent or generator of the male organs. These 
male organs have been called androspores (dye, male). These andro- 
spores, furnished with a circle of cilia at their anterior and transparent 
part, after quitting their mother-cells, move about at first, and then 
become fixed (in a determinate manner in each species) either to the 
female organ itself or in its neighbourhood. Pringsheim has seen in 
Cidogonium ciliatum several androspores fix themselves on the surface 
of the female organ (fig. 479,1,2,ccc), The latter organ continues 
to be developed, while each androspore becomes a sort of compound 
cellular plant. In one part of this the spermatozoids are formed, and 
hence it is called the antheridium. The fixed androspore acts like a 
mother-cell. The antheridium, properly so called, represents the 
secondary utricle produced at the upper part of the androspore, and 
the stalk of the antheridium is formed by the secondary inferior 
utricle, The antheridium bears at its summit a small lid, formed 


EMBRYOGENY IN ALGA. 271 


from the upper part of the membrane of the androspore. This 
antheridium, at first unicellular, divides into two cells, which become 
the mother-cells of the spermatozoids. The whole plastic contents of 
each mother-cell are employed in the formation of a single spermato- 
zoid of considerable size. When the spermatozoids are mature then 
the upper spermatozoid raises slightly the lid of the antheridium 
(fig. 479, 1, 2, c). In the meantime the female organ is going 
through a process of development. When its contents are mature, the 
membrane of the female organ is ruptured all at once a little below 
its summit, the upper part forming a sort of lid, and the filaments 
which surmount it are turned to the side by the swelling of the plastic 
contents (fig. 479, 1, 2, a). 
There is thus a space on one 
side between the lid and the 
lower part of the female organ. 
Then the mucous colourless por- 
tion of the endochrome protrudes 
from theaperture, and its colour- 
less cellular membrane presents 
a distinct lateral opening turned 
towards the antheridium. When 
the female organ has undergone 
these further changes in its con- 
tents, the lid of the antheridium 
is completely detached, and 
allows the upper cuneiform 
ciliated spermatozoid to escape. 
This spermatozoid, after mov- / 
ing around the female organ 
for some time, enters the open- 
ing. The spermatozoid reaches 
the female globule, which is : 
then fertilised, and seems to 1 ; 2 

be absorbed in its substance. Bee 

After this the female globular body becomes more and more definite, 
and finally is surrounded by a double membrane. 

In the cells of another Alga, called Sphzeroplea annulina (fig. 480 
ab), there are produced stellate spores, very like the reproductive 
bodies of Volvox stellatus. In spring the contents of these spores 
divide into two, then into four or eight parts, which become zoospores. 


Fig. 479, 1. Entire plant of Edogoniwm ciliatwm. a, Ordinary cells containing zoospores, 
which ultimately escape and form new plants. 6, Sporangium, containing spores. c, 
Androspore fixed on the sporangium, bearing at its summit an antheridium withalid. d, 
Setiform prolongation of the plant. Fig. 479,{2. Sporangium, with spores. 0, Magnified. 
c, Androspores bearing antheridium, with the lid at the top. d, Filament bending to the 
side, so as to expose an opening into the spore-case, by which the spermatozoids enter, 


272 EMBRYOGENY IN ALG. 


These zoospores swim about, and then fix themselves, giving rise to 
young Conferve. This is a first asexual generation. The young 
Conferva is a sort of prothallium, for it bears certain sexual organs. 
One kind of organ presents itself in the form of cells covered by a 
membrane, pierced with a certain number of apertures, and having 
contents which become converted into spores. These are the arche- 
gonia (fig. 480 6). A second kind has a membrane also pierced with 
several apertures, and contains small mobile baculiform (rod-shaped) 
bodies. These are the antheridia, with their spermatozoids (fig. 480 a). 
The spermatozoids come out from the cells, and enter the openings in 
the spore-bearing cells, and thus fertilise the spores. 

Saprolegniex, including the genera Achlya, Saprolegnia, and Py- 
thium, are cellular plants which grow on dead and living animals. 
The name is derived from susreés, putrid, and Aéyvov, a coloured border. 
The bodies of flies thrown into water often 
become covered with these minute thread- 
like organisms. Gold fish in tanks have 
their gills sometimes covered with Achlya 
prolifera, They resemble in appearance 
the mucors or moulds, and: some have 
placed them amongst the Fungi. They 
seem, however, to be more nearly allied 
to filamentous Algee, such as Vaucheria. 
At the end of the filaments a cell is 
formed, which becomes separated from the 
rest of the filament by a septum. Zoo- 
spores (fig. 481 a a) are developed, which 
escape by the bursting of the cell. The 
filaments of Saprolegniez also produce 
lateral branches, at the ends of which are 
swellings, which are divided from the rest 
of the tissue. In them sacs called oosporangia are formed (fig. 481 0). 
These are fertilised by the union of cells containing spermatozoids, in the 
same way as Vaucheria, and oogones (av, an egg) are formed. Thus 
there are two modes of reproduction—one by asexual zoospores (fig. 481 
a b), and the other by sexual antheridia and cosporangia (fig. 481 ¢ d). 

In the red sea-weeds, called Rhodospermes or Florides, fecunda- 
tion is effected by antheridia, containing motionless corpuscles, and a 
peculiar hair-like body called trichogynium (Ogi, hair, yuv7, female). 
At the base of this latter organ there is a cell which, after 
fertilisation, is transformed into the cystocarp (toric, a bladder 


Fig. 480. 


Fig. 480 a b. Sphwroplea annulina. Male filament, a, consisting of cells with vacuoles, 
and with spermatozoids which are passing out of the cells by openings in the walls. Female 
filament, 6, formed by cells containing spores, which are being fertilised by the spermato- 
zoids, which enter the cells by openings in the walls, and come in contact with the cellular 
spores, 


EMBRYOGENY IN ALGA. 273 


and xaeqés, fruit), which is sometimes supported on a cellular body 
called trichophore (dg/E, reiyés, hair, 
gogedi, I bear). In some cases, as in 
Nemalion, the fertilisation is direct, 
the influence of the antheridian cor- 
puscle being at once conveyed by 
the trichogynium to the rudiment- 
ary cell of the cystocarp. In other 
cases, as in Dudresnaya, the action 
is less direct—the influence of the 
antheridian corpuscles being con- 
veyed by connecting tubes which 
pass laterally from the base of the 
trichogynium to numerous fructi- 
ferous filaments, on which the 
cystocarps are finally developed. 

In Floridez there are also bodies 
called tetraspores (rerecs, four), on 
account of their being divided into : 
four spore-like organs. These are contained in a distinct sac (fig. 
482). They are probably concerned in vegetative and not in sexual 
reproduction. In the brown seaweeds (Fucacez) there are concep- 


Fig. 481. 


Fig. 482. Fig. 483. Fig. 4840. Fig. 4840. Fig. 485, 


tacles (fig. 483) containing antheridia (fig. 484, a and b) and archegonia 
(fig. 485), either separate or combined, the plants thus being moneecious 
or dicecious. 


Fig. 481. Saprolegnia showing organs of reproduction. aa, Filaments containing asexual 
zoospores, some of which are being emitted from the end of the cell. 6, Stalked sporangium 
(oosporangium) ending in a rounded cell c, containing in its interior cells called oogones 
ready to be fertilised. d, Antheridium coming into contact with the female cell, and sending 
tubes to the oogonia so as to fecundate them. Fig. 482, Tetraspore, t, of one of the rose- 
coloured Seaweeds (Callithammion cruciatum). It is a sac formed by the metamorphosis of 
the lowermost pinnule of the frond, and contains four germinating spores. Fig. 483. Cell 
of a conceptacle of Fucus containing spores and abortive filaments. The spores %scape at 
the opening, 0; other conceptacles contain antheridia. Fig. 484, Antheridia of a Sea- 
weed (Fucus serratus). a, Antheridium, containing spermatozoids, b, Antheridium with two 
spermatozoids having vibratile cilia attached. Fig. 485, Archegonium (sporangium) of a 
seaweed containing pear-shaped spores which germinate, 


T 


274 EMBRYOGENY IN HEPATICA. 


In Characez, which are aquatic cryptogamic plants found in 
ponds, there are two fertilising organs, one called, from its rounded 
form, the globule (fig. 486 g), corresponding to the antheridium ; and 
another (fig. 486 n), the nucule (nucula, a small 
nut), representing the archegonium. The globule 
contains a definite number of cells, which meet in 
the centre and form a round mass, whence jointed 
filaments containing spermatozoids arise (fig. 487). 
The colour of the globule is red. The nucule is 
a large oval cell (archegonium), round which five 


Fig. 486. Fig. 487. 


filaments are spirally twisted, ending at the summit in five or ten 
tooth-like processes. The central oval cell in the nucule is fer- 
tilised by spermatozoids from the jointed filaments of the globule 
coming into contact with it. After fertilisation the nucule drops 
off and ultimately forms a new plant. While the nucule may be 
considered as equivalent to the archegonium, it is in reality a com- 
bination of that organ and a spore. 

In Hepatice (Liverworts), including Marchantize and Jungerman- 
nis, the reproductive organs consist of antheridia and archegonia, 
The antheridia are small cellular sacs of a globular, ovoid, or flask- 
like form. They have a single or double cellular covering, enclosing 
viscid matter, in which are developed four-sided cells, in each of 
which is a small filiform spermatozoid (phytozoon), rolled up in a 
circular manner, and displaying rapid movements. The spermatozoids 
are finally liberated, and unrol themselves, appearing as filaments 
swollen at one extremity, and gradually tapering to the other. In 
Marchantia (fig. 488) the antheridia occur in the upper side of an 
elevated disk or receptacle, r. When this disk is cut vertically, as in 
fig. 489, they are seen at aa, as flask-like cellular sacs separated by 
air-cavities, cc, which communicate with stomata, ss, In fig. 490 
an antheridium is shown discharging its minute cells containing sperma- 
tozoids. In some Hepatice the antheridia occur in the substance of 
the thallus, while in others (as in some Jungermannixe) they 
appear in the axil of the leaves. 


Fig. 486. Cellular tubes of Chara, with verticillate branches, from the axil of which 
proceeds the ‘nucule, n, containing a germinating spore, while below the branch is placed 
the red globule, g, containing antheridian cells and spermatozoids. Fig. 487. Filament 
from the globule of Chara, consisting of numerous sperm-cells (phytozoary cells). A sper- 
matozoid, s, is seen escaping from one of them. 


EMBRYOGENY IN HEPATICA. 275 


The archegonia of Hepatice are either situated in the substance 
of the thallus, as in Riccia and Anthoceros, or they are raised upon 


Fig. 489. 


Fig. 488. 


stalks, as in Marchantia (fig. 491) and Jungermannie. In Mar- 
chantia these stalks bear radiated receptacles, r, on the under surface 
of which the sporangia are placed, which are peculiar bottle-shaped 
bodies (fig, 492) containing germ-cells. 

The spermatozoids enter the archegonia, and thus a cell is fertilised, 
from which the sporangium or spore-capsule, a distinct body, is pro- 
duced (fig. 491 s), constituting the second generation. In Junger- 
mannia bicuspidata (fig. 493) there is represented at a an arche- 
gonium containing an unimpregnated germ-cell, and at 6 an arche- 
gonium containing an impregnated germ-cell, which is the rudiment- 
ary spore-capsule. The germ-cell, after fertilisation, shows two 
nucleated cells, c, and from it, as a second generation, the fruit- 

Fig. 488, A species of Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha), with its green thallus, t, bearing 
a cup-like body, g, in which minute cells or free buds (sporules of some) are seen, and a 
stalked receptacle, sv. Inthe substance of the disk-like receptacle, r, cells are produced con- 
taining spermatozoids. These are considered antheridia. Fig. 489. Vertical section of the 
disk-like receptacle of Liverwort (Marchantia), showing the antheridia, a a, in its substance. 
These antheridia are flask-shaped sacs containing phytozoary cells. They communicate 


with the upper surface, and their contents are discharged through it. Between the anther- 
jdia there are air cavities, c c, connected with stomata, s s, 


276 EMBRYOGENY IN MOSSES AND LIVERWORTS. 


bearing stalk is produced. Around the orifice of the canal leading to 
the germ-cell and rudimentary spore-capsule are seen numerous sper- 
matozoids, s s, which have been discharged from the antheridia. 


Fig. 490. Fig. 491. 


In Mosses there is a free germ-cell (embryonal cell) at the base of 
the archegonium. Spermatozoids, from the sperm-cells of the anthe- 
ridium (fig. 494), reach it, and then it is developed into the sporangium 
or spore-case (fig. 495), which is the second generation of the plant. 
The spores produce the leafy plant, bearing antheridia and archegonia. 
In fig. 496 is shown the confervoid prothallium, p, of a Moss pro- 
duced from the spore, and bearing buds, a 6, which produce leafy 
individuals with organs of reproduction. After the contact of these 
organs, a single cell of the archegonium is developed into the com- 
plete fruit (theca or sporangium), which is often borne upon a stalk 
(fig. 495). The complete fruit contains spores, which, when 
discharged, again develop the foliaceous plant. 

In leafy Mosses and in Jungermannie there is also an increase 
by buds. The confervoid filament produced by the spore gives origin 
to a number of buds (fig. 496), whence leafy stems proceed, and 

Fig. 490. Antheridium of Liverwort (Marchantia) discharging its sperm-cells, that is, 
cells containing spermatozoids, Fig. 491. Thallus of Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha), 
bearing a stalked fruit, s, which is the product of the impregnated cell of the archegonium. 
The receptacle at the apex of the stalk bears on its under surface sporangia containing 
spores and elaters. The spores, when germinating, produce a thallus, on which antheridia 
and archegonia are formed. Fig. 492, Pistillidium or archegonium of Liverwort (Mar- 


chantia), containing in its interior a cell, which is impregnated by the spermatozoids of the 
antheridium. 


EMBRYOGENY IN MOSSES AND LIVERWORTS. 277 


these leafy stems also produce buds or gemme, called innovations, 


There is thus a multiplication by sexual reproduction and by gem- 
mation, as in higher plants, 


X 


Fig. 496. Fig. 495. 


Fig. 493. Archegonia of Jungermannia bicuspidata. a, Unimpregnated archegonium, 
with a tube leading to a cavity, near the base of which is a cell. b, Archegonium after 
impregnation, with the cell divided into two nucleated portions. This double nucleated 
body is the rudiment of the fruit-bearing stalk. At the apex of the canal leading to the cell 
are seen spermatozoids, s s. Fig. 494. The male organs of a Moss (Polytrichwm). a, 
Antheridium containing sperm-cells, two of which are seen at c. These spérm-cells contain 
spermatozoids, which are discharged so as to impregnate the archegonium. Surrounding 
the antheridium there are filaments or paraphyses, p. Fig. 495. Sporangium of a Moss 
(Polytrichwm), supported on a stalk. This stalked sporangium is produced by the impreg- 
nated cell of the archegonium, It constitutes the second generation. Fig. 496. Con- 
fervoid filament forming the prothallium, 9 (exothallium), of a Moss (Punaria hygrometrica), 
consisting of a congeries of cells arranged in a filiform manner. This prothallium originates 
from the spore, and bears a bud, a, and a young stem, 6, from the base of which roots 
proceed, Fig. 497. End of fructiferous branch of Lycopodium clavatum, common Club- 
moss, The leafy branch, J, ends in a stalk bearing two spikes of fructification, f 


278 EMBRYOGENY IN LYCOPODIACEA. 


Lycopodiacew, Club Mosses (fig. 497), have sporangia which are 
either all alike as in- Lycopodium, or of two forms as in Selaginella. 
The dimorphic sporangia consist of mécro-sporangia (fig. 498), 
(wimeéc, small), containing numerous granules (microspores or anthe- 
ridia), (fig. 499), and macrosporangia (fig. 500), (waxeds, long), 
called by some megasporangia (wéyas, great), or oophoridia (wiv, 
an egg, Qogéw, I bear), of a large size containing often four macro- 
spores or megaspores, in the interior of which a cellular prothallus 
is formed (fig. 501, p), on which archegonia are developed (fig. 


Fig. 502. Fig. 503. 


502 a). In the microspores of Isoetes and Lycopodium there is a 
sort of male prothallium bearing antheridia with spermatozoids. No 
germination has been observed in the microspores of the genus Lyco- 
podium. The process of impregnation in Lycopodiacez is supposed 


Fig. 498. Antheridium of a Club-Moss (Lycopodium), containing microspores, which are 
cells containing spermatozoidal cellules, as seen in fig. 499. Fig. 499. Small spore (pollinic 
spore) of a Lycopod (Selaginella helvetica), bursting and discharging cellules, c, containing 
spermatozoids. Fig. 500. Oophoridium or macro-sporangium of a Club-Moss (Lycopodium), 
opening and showing four large spores in its interior. These macrospores or megaspores 
contain a cellular prothallium or endothallium in their interior, bearing archegonia. 
Fig. 501. Macrospore discharged from the oophoridium of a Lycopod (Selaginella Mertensit), 
with the outer coat removed to show the young cellular prothallium, p, at the upper end. 
Fig. 502. Vertical section of the prothallium and upper half of a large spore of a Lycopod 
(Selaginella denticulata). There are several archegonia, and in one of them, at a, there is a 
central free cell, whence the leafy frond ultimately proceeds. Fig. 503. Vertical section 
of a small portion of the prothallium and upper part of the large spore of a Lycopod (Sela- 
ginella denticulata), showing the embryo, e¢, developed from a central cell of one of the 
archegonia, a, carried down by the growth of the suspensor, so as to be imbedded in the 
cellular tissue at the upper part of the spore. 


EMBRYOGENY IN MARSILEACEE AND FERNS. 279 


to take place by the spermatozoids of the small spores coming into 
contact with the large spore after the coat of the large spore has 
burst at its apex, so as to expose the cellular prothallium and its 
archegonia (fig. 502 a). The free central cell of the archegonium 
then enlarges, divides, and elongates into a filament, which grows 
down into the prothallium (fig. 503). A suspensor is thus 
formed, at the end of which is the embryo, ¢, imbedded in the 
cellular tissue at the upper part of the large spore. The embryo 
_finally produces its radicle and its bud, which is developed as the 
leafy frond, — 

In Rhizocarps (Marsileacez) there are also antheridia and arche- 
gonia. The former are sacs containing small spores, which produce 
inside a small prothallium, on which are borne antheridia containing 
spermatozoids. The latter are sporangia containing large spores 


Fig. 504, Fig. 505. Fig. 506. 


which ‘produce a prothallium like that of Lycopods, on which 
archegonia appear. The prothallium usually produces only one 
central archegonium, the spermatozoids get access to the arche- 
gonia, and thus the young plant is produced. 

In Ferns there is a prothallus bearing antheridia and archegonia 
atthe same epoch. It is produced by the spore during its germination, 
and consists of cells, as shown in fig. 507. The antheridia occur 
on the under surface of the prothallus, and they consist of a cellular 
papilla having a central cavity (fig. 508). This cavity contains free 
cellules, which are discharged by a rupture at the apex, b, and each 
of these little cellules, in bursting, gives exit to a ciliated spiral 
filament (spermatozoid), (fig. 509), which swims actively in water, 
advancing with a rotatory motion through the water when seen under 
the microscope. The archegonia (fig. 510) exist on the under side of 
the prothallus, near the notch of the border. They are less numerous 
than the antheridia (varying from three to eight), and consist of 
cellular papilles formed by ten or twelve cells. They are larger than 


Fig. 504. The small spore of a Rhizocarp (Pilularia globulifera, Pillwort). The inner 
coat is protruded, and the outer coat has burst, so as to discharge cellules containing sper- 
matozoids. Some of the spermatozoids are separate, and are seen coiled up in a spiral form. 
Fig. 505. Large spore of a Rhizocarp (Marsilea, Pepperwort), which contains a cellular pro- 
thallium bearing archegonia, The mammillary projection is the point whence the gem- 
mation of the embryo proceeds after impregnation, Fig. 506. Vertical section of prothal- 
lium of a Rhizocarp (Pilularia globulifera), containing a central archegonium, u, before 


impregnation. bs 


280 EMBRYOGENY IN FERNS. 


the antheridia, and have a central canal, a, leading down to a large 
globular cell, c, imbedded in the substance of the prothallus, and 
containing the embryo-germ, ¢. The canal is closed at first, and then 
opens, The spermatozoids enter the archegonial canal and fertilise 
the germ-cell. After a time this cell divides and gives rise to the 


Fig. 510, Fig. 511. a 


embryonic body, whence the stem of the Fern arises (fig. 511 /). 
The life of the sporangiferous plant is indefinite, as seen in Tree 
Ferns, while the prothallus is of very short duration. Thus in 
Ferns the spores contained in the sporangium form the prothallus 
without impregnation, while this latter process is necessary for the 
development of the germ, which gives rise to the leafy sporangiferous 


Fig. 507. Cellular prothallium (exothallium) of a Fern (Pteris longifolia), produced by a 
spore, s, and giving off a root, 7, at one end. It consists of numerous cells, and it gives 
origin to antheridia, and pistillidia or archegonia. Fig. 508. Antheridia from the prothal- 
lium of the Common Brake (Pteris aywilina). a, An unopened antheridium ; b, antheridium 
bursting at the apex, and discharging free cellules, each containing a spermatozoid; ¢, 
antheridium after the discharge of the cellules. Fig. 509. A spermatozoid with cilia, 
discharged from a cellule in the antheridium of the Forked Spleenwort (Asplenium septen- 
trionale). Fig. 510. Archegonium of the Forked Spleenwort (Asplenium septentrionale) 
immediately after impregnation. a, Canal leading to the ovule or large cell, c, at the 
base of the archegonium ; e, nucleated embryonic cell, whence the sporangiferous frond 
proceeds. Spermatozoids from the antheridinm reach the canal of the archegonium, and 
impregnate the ovule. Fig. 511. Young plant of a Fern (Pteris paleacea), showing the 
commencement of the sporangiferous frond, f, arising from the impregnated ovule in the 
archegonium ; the prothallium, p, being still attached. 


EMBRYOGENY IN EQUISETACEAH AND FERNS. 281 


frond ; while in Mosses the spore forms the prothallus and the leafy 
stem without impregnation, and this operation gives rise to the 
formation of the stalked theca. S 

The reproduction of Equisetacez (fig. 512), Horsetails, resembles 
much that of ferns. Their spores, which are surrounded 
by hygrometric filaments, called elaters, germinate 
and form a lobed prothallus bearing antheridia at the 
top of its lobes and archegonia at its base. The an-- 
theridia appear as ovoid swellings containing at first 
globules, which ultimately are developed as spermatozoids 
(antherozoids).. The archegonia consist of globular 
bodies, terminated by a long neck with a four-lobed 
opening at the top. The spermatozoids enter by the 
opening and fertilise a cell in the archegonium, which 
ultimately constitutes the germ of the new plant. 

Ferns, Ophioglossaceze and Equisetacex, are called 
isosporee (00s, equal), because they produce a single 
kind of spore, which in its turn gives origin to a pro- 
thallus furnished with chlorophyll and roots, and capable 
of independent existence. On the same prothallus, or 
on two neighbouring ones, antheridia first of all origin- 
ate, and when mature emit spermatozoids, then follow 
archegonia generally formed of a central cell, to which 
access is gained by a canal opening outwards. Fecun- 
dation being effected by the entrance of spermatozoids 
into the archegonium, the first period is closed, and then 
commences the asexual generation. The embryo is 
developed at first in the substance of the prothallus, but 
afterwards becomes disengaged from it, and passes 
through the different phases of its. development. 
Finally, the second generation terminates its evolution 
by the development of the organs of multiplication as spores, which 
always originate from a normal or modified leaf. 


Fig. 512. 


Fertilisation or Fecundation in Phanerogamous or Flowering Plants, 


In flowering plants the organs of reproduction are stamens and- 
pistils, the former representing the male element, and the latter the 
female. The cellular pollen (sperm-cells) produced by the former 
must be applied to the cells contained in the latter (germ-cells), in 
order that the embryo plant may be formed in the seed. 

Fig. 512. Fructification of Equisetum maximum, Great Water Horsetail, showing the 
stalk surrounded by membranous sheaths, ss, which are fringed by numerous processes or 


teeth. The fructification, f, at the extremity, is in the form of a cone bearing polygonal 
scales, under which are spore-cases containing spores with clavate filaments, 


282 FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS. 


In flowering plants various provisions are made for insuring the 
application of the pollen to the stigma. The saccharine secretions of 
the flower, the comparative length of the stamens and pistils, their 
position, and the dehiscence of the anthers, are all regulated with this 
view. The existence of spiral cells in the endothecium has reference 
apparently to the bursting of the anther and the scattering of the 
pollen. The number of pollen-grains produced is also very great. In 
a floret of wheat Wilson reckoned about 7000 pollen-grains. Hassall 
says that a single head of Dandelion produces upwards of 240,000, 
each stamen of a Peony 21,000, a Bulrush 144 grains by weight. 
It has been stated that a single plant of Wistaria sinensis produced 
5,750,000 stamens, and these, if perfect, would have contained 
27,000,000,000 pollen-grains.* In a single flower of Maxillaria F. 
Miiller estimated the pollen-grains at 34,000,000. This same flower 
produces 1,756,000 seeds. In Orchis mascula the pollen-grains in a 
single flower have been estimated at 120,000. In the case of Ever- 
greens, such as Firs, the quantity of pollen is enormous, apparently 
to insure its application notwithstanding the presence of leaves. The 
pollen from pine forests has been wafted by the winds to a great 
distance, and sometimes falls on the ground like a shower of sulphur. 
It is thus that some kinds of coloured rain, occasionally witnessed, 
may be accounted for. The pollen powder transmitted to considerable 
distances remains floating in the air till carried down by a passing 
shower. 

The quantity of pollen required for impregnation varies. Koel- 
reuter says, that from fifty to sixty grains of the pollen of Hibiscus 
Trionum are required to fecundate the fruit completely, containing 
about thirty ovules. The ovary of Nicotiana, Datura, Lychnis, and 
Dianthus, according to Gertner, may be completely fertilised by the 
pollen of a single perfect anther. In Geum, from eight to ten anthers, 
out of eighty-four to ninety-six contained in each flower, are sufficient 
to fertilise from eighty to one hundred and thirty ovules contained in 
the ovaries, 

In many trees in which the organs of reproduction are in separate 
flowers (as in Hazel and Willow), the leaves are not produced until 
fertilisation has been effected. The protection of the pollen from the 
direct influence of moisture is effected by the closing of the flowers, 
by the elasticity of the anther-coat only coming into play in dry 


* The following estimate was made of the amount of flowers, stamens, etc., in a single 
specimen of Wistaria sinensis :— 


Number of clusters of Flowers .. 9,000 
— jndivigual Elowers 675,000 
—Petals.. d 

— Stamens.. 

— Ovules .. 


For the purpose of fertilising. these vies the dathiens: if perfect, eee have contained 
about 27,000,000,000 pollen-grains, or about 7000 grains to each ovule. 


FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS. 283 


weather ; and in aquatics, either by a peculiar covering and structure 
as in Zostera, or by the flowers being developed above water, as in 
Nymphea, Lobelia, Stratiotes, and Hottonia. In Vallisneria spiralis 
(fig. 513), a plant growing in ditches in the south of Europe, the stami- 
niferous flowers are detached from the 
male plant, float on the surface of the 
water, and scatter their pollen ; while 
the pistilliferous plant, b, sends up a 
long peduncle, which accommodates 
itself to the depth of the water by 
being spiral, and bears on its summit 
the flower with the pistil. By this 
means the two organs are brought into 
contact, and fertilisation is effected. 
Lagarosiphon muscoides, an aquatic 
plant from Africa, shows similar phe- 
nomena in regard to impregnation 
as are seen in Vallisneria. When continued wet weather comes on 
after the pollen has been matured, and has begun to be discharged, it 
often happens that little or no fruit is produced. In flowers where 
the anthers burst in succession, the injury done by moisture is less 
likely to extend to all. Stamens are protected in various ways from 
wind and moisture. In Iris by the petaloid divisions of the style, 
in Phyteuma by the upper united part of the corolla, in Trollius by 
the sepals turned inwards, so as to form a, ball (hence the name globe- 
flower), and in Arum by the spathe (fig. 260, p. 178). In many 
flowers the perianth gives shelter to the stamens. In Orchids the 
pollen is well protected. 

In some plants the stamens, at a certain period of their develop- 
ment, move towards the pistil, before the contents of the anther are 
discharged. In Parnassia palustris (fig. 514) and Rue they do so in 
succession. In Kalmia the anthers are contained in little sacs or 
pouches of the corolla, until the pollen is mature, and when the 
expansion of the corolla and the elasticity of the filament combine to 
liberate them, they spring towards the pistil with a jerk. In Parie- 
taria officinalis, and in the Nettle, the spiral filament is kept in a 
folded state until the perianth expands, and then it rises with elastic 
force and scatters the pollen. Similar phenomena are observed in the 
Cornus canadensis. In the various species of Barberry the inner and 
lower part of the filament, is irritable, and when touched it causes 
the stamen to move towards the pistil. The anther opens by recurved 


Fig. 513. Male and female plants of Vallisneria spiralis. a, The male plant, the 
flowers of which are detached, and rise to the surface of the water so as to mature 
its pollen and scatter it ; 0, the female plant, which remains fixed in the mud, and sends up 
a spiral peduncle, which uncoils according to the depth of the water, and bears the pistil- 
liferous flowers above the water, so as to allow the pollen to be wafted upon them. 


w ‘Fig. 518. ob 


284 FERTILISATION IN FLOWERING PLANTS. 


valves, which are covered with pollen-grains. The species of Stylidium 
have their anthers and stigma seated on a column, the base of which 
is slightly swollen and irritable. When a stimulus is applied, this 
column passes with considerable force from one side of the flower to 
the other, rupturing the anther-lobes, and thus aiding in fertilisation. 
In some plants the pollen is scattered by the wind, and they are 
called anemophilous (dvewos, wind, and g/Ao¢, love); while in other cases 
animals are the agents employed in its distribution, and the plants 
are called zoophilous (@wov, animal). It has been ascertained that 
self-fertilisation is by no means common in flowers, that is to say, the 
pollen is not always applied to the pistil of the flower in which it is 
produced. We constantly find that pollen produced by the anther of 
one flower is applied by the medium of wind or insects to the pistil 
of another flower on the same plant, or on different plants. This is 
seen very evidently in moncecious and dicecious plants. It also occurs 
in dimorphic plants where there is a difference in the development of 
the stamens and pistil in the case of individual flowers; as is well 
seen in some species of Primula, and of Linum. Flowers visited 
by insects are often highly coloured and odoriferous, and secrete 
honey-like matter. Night-flowering and night-smelling plants attract 
crepuscular insects. These may be illustrated by Pelargonium triste, 
Hesperis tristis, and Nyctanthus Arbor-tristis, Stapelias (carrion 
flowers) by the fetid odour of their flowers attract blow-flies, which 
deposit their eggs amongst the hairs of the flower. The eggs in due 
time are hatched, and then the maggots in search of food press the pollen 
masses downwards to the stigma and so cause fertilisation. In Oxalis 
Acetosella the flower is erect during the day, and is open to the visits 
of insects ; it describes an arc of more than 100 degrees when the 
sun sets, and finally has its opening directed to the ground. 

The pollen in the case of plants fertilised by insects is sometimes 
elliptical with three or more longitudinal furrows, as in Ranunculus 
Ficaria, Aucuba japonica, and Bryonia dioica; at other times it is 
spherical or elliptical, and covered with projecting processes (echinate), 
as in many Composite, Malvacez, and Cucurbitacee; or, thirdly, the 
pollen grains are attached together by threads or a viscid secretion, 
as in Richardia Rhododendron and CEnothera, In plants fertilised by 
the wind, as in most grasses, Hazel and Populus balsamifera, the 
pollen is almost perfectly spherical, and has no processes, and is 
generally light and dry. Dr. Dyer remarks that while in Crucifere 
fertilisation is generally effected by insects, in Pringlea antiscorbutica 
(Kerguelen Island Cabbage), which differs from the plants of the order 
in having no petals, no honey glands, an exserted style and papillose 
stigma, fertilisation is effected by the wind. It has been stated by some 
authors that in the case of the cereal grains impregnation is effected 
before the flowers are open, and that thus self-fertilisation takes place. 


HETEROMORPHIC FERTILISATION. 285 


This has been specially noticed by Hildebrand in the case of barley, 
and Mr. Stephen Wilson states that the same thing occurs in wheat 
and oats. Delpino remarks that in an ear of barley there are certain 
flowers differently constructed from the rest, in which cross-fertilisation 
is possible, and that in the oat the process varies according to the 
weather. In fine warm weather the flowers open freely, and cross- 
fertilisation is favoured ; while in cold wet weather they remain 
closed, and self-fertilisation is inevitable. In rye, fertilisation from the 
pollen of other flowers is provided for.* 

Certain flowers of Primrose are called pin-eyed, having a long style 
with the rounded stigma projecting beyond the tube of the corolla, 
and standing high above the anthers, which are situated halfway 
down the tube; others are called thumb-eyed, having a short style, 
with the anthers attached at the mouth of the tube, and therefore 
high above the stigma. These flowers occur on distinct plants. 
Such species are dimorphic, and may be conveniently called diceciously- 
hermaphrodite—that is, having two kinds of hermaphrodite flowers 
on distinct plants, Efficient fertilisation is only attained by the 
application of the pollen from stamens of a given length to styles of _ 
a corresponding length. The short styles are of the same length as 
the short stamens, and the long styles as the long stamens, and it 
appears that the best fertilisation and the greatest number of seeds 
are produced by the application of the pollen of the short-styled 
flowers to the long-styled. This is called heteromorphic fertilisation, 
in contradistinction to homomorphic where the pistil is fertilised by 
the pollen of its own flower. In the Ipecacuan plant (Cephaelis 
Ipecacuanha) dimorphic flowers occur of a similar kind. Lythrum 
Salicaria is trimorphic ; that is, it presents three forms of flowers. 
Each of these has stamens and pistils, each is distinct in its pistil 
from the other two forms, and each is furnished with two sets of 
stamens differing from each other in appearance and function. There 
are three lengths of stamens—long, medium, and short—but. two 
lengths only occur in the same plant ; and there are also three lengths 
of styles, but they are not associated with stamens of corresponding 
length. There are then three forms of flowers—1l. With short and 
medium stamens, and long style; 2. With short and long stamens, 
and medium style; 3. With medium and long stamens, and short 
style. The stigma is best fertilised by pollen from stamens of lengths 
corresponding to the styles. Two of the three hermaphrodite forms 
must co-exist, and the pollen must be conveyed reciprocally from one 
to the other, in order that either of the two may be fully fertile ;, but 
unless all three forms co-exist there will be waste of two sets of 
stamens, and the organisation of the species as a whole will be im- 
perfect. On the other hand, when all three hermaphrodites co-exist, 

* See Stephen Wilson’s paper in Trans. Bot. Soc., Edin., 1874, 


286 DICHOGAMOUS PLANTS. 


and the pollen is carried from the one to the other, the scheme is 
perfect. The three forms are divided according to their styles into 
long-styled, mid-styled, and short-styled. Such plants may be called 
triceciously hermaphrodite. The fertilisation is effected by the agency 
of insects, The insect in passing from flower to flower will brush 
against a stigma at a given level with the same part of its head or 
body which has brushed off the pollen from an anther at a corre- 
sponding level. The object of all these arrangements is the pre- 
vention of close inter-breeding. Homomorphic unions, where a pistil is, 
supplied with pollen from its own flower, or from a flower of the same 
form, result either in very diminished fertility, or, as in the dimorphic 
species of Linum (Flax), in absolute sterility. 

The same object—namely, the prevention of close inter-breeding— 
may be effected by other means ; sometimes, as in Orchidaceee (fig. 
317, p. 205), and Asclepiadacese (figs. 385, 386, p. 230), by the 
mechanical arrangement of the parts of the flowers, and, more 
especially, the consistence of the pollen, being such that fertilisation 
cannot occur without the agency of insects, which carry the pollen 
masses (pollinia) from one flower to another. In the species of 
Orchids, such as Orchis mascula, the pollen masses (fig. 387, p. 230) 
have each a caudicle, which is firmly attached to a viscid disk, con- 
sisting of a minute oval or rounded piece of membrane, with a ball of 
viscid matter on its under side. These balls are contained within a 
cup-like rostellum, the lip of which is easily depressed by contact with 
a foreign body, such as the proboscis of an insect. The pollinia be- 
come thus attached to the proboscis. At first they stand erect, but 
ultimately, by the contraction of the minute disk, they bend down- 
wards and forwards towards the point of the proboscis. In this way 
the pollen is in a position to be at once applied to the stigma when 
the insect visits another flower, and thus fertilisation is effected. 

The prevention of close inter-breeding is also accomplished in many 
cases by the physiological condition of the parts concerned in fertilisa- 
tion, as occurs in what are called Dicho- 
gamous plants—that is, plants in which 
the stamens and stigmas of the same flower 
do not reach maturity at the same time— 
the stamens being matured first in what 
are called protandrous plants, and the 
stigmas first in protogynous plants. (See 
notice of Protandrous and Protogynous 
plants, at page 212.) In Parnassia palus- 
tris (fig. 514) the stamens move in suc- 


Fig. 514. Flower of the Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris), the stamens of which 
mmove in succession towards the pistil, and discharge their pollen. In the figure some 
stamens are seen applied to the pistil, and others removed from it. - 


FERTILISATION EFFECTED BY MEANS OF INSECTS. 287 


cession towards the pistil, and after the pollen has been discharged 
they curve back to the petals. But the stigma is not perfect at that 
time. It becomes developed after the pollen has been discharged and 
the anthers have retired. It requires the agency of insects to effect 
complete fertilisation. The pollen is discharged on the part visited 
by insects, and they take it up on that part of their bodies which 
touches the perfect stigma in other flowers, and thus fertilisation is 
effected. In Lobelia we have an instance of the stamens being com- 
plete and the pollen discharged before the stigma is perféct. After 
the pollen has been discharged, the style elongates and carries the 
stigma upwards beyond the syngenesious anthers, and then the stigma 
becomes perfect, so as to be ready for the pollen applied by insects, 
Both these flowers are Protandrous. 

In Euphorbia jacquiniflora, several days before the stamens burst 
through the involucre which closely invests them, the pistil with its 
ovary on the long pedicel has protruded itself beyond, expanded its 
stigma, and received pollen from neighbouring flowers. It is there- 
fore Protogynous, ; 

In the case of Aristolochia Clematitis (fig. 515), the flowers, as 
long as the essential 
organs are in a state 
fit for fertilisation, 
stand erect, with their 
oblique mouth turned 
outwards, by which an 
insect can enter easily, 
and pass down the tube 
till it comes to the 
column bearing the 
stamens and stigma. 
It is prevented from 
returning by inverted 
hairs in the tube. It 
is detained in the tube 
till the pollen is fully 
matured, and then the 
hairs collapse so as to 

permit its escape. It 
carries with it pollen 
grains, It then visits 
a flower where the 
stigma is matured, and 
which presents the open 
mouth of the tube in an erect condition, and on reaching the cavity 
: Fig. 515. Flowering stalk of Common Birthwort (Aristolochia Clematitis). Fertilisation 

is effected by insects. 


288 FERTILISATION EFFECTED BY MEANS OF INSECTS. 


at the bottom of the tube, fertilises the pistil with the pollen which 
it has carried with it from another flower. This plant is proto- 
gynous, the stigma being matured before the stamens. When the 
flower is duly fertilised it sinks down, no longer presenting a tempting 
orifice for the entrance of insects. If no insect visits the chamber, 
then the stigma passes its maturity before the pollen of its own flower 
is ripened, and no fertilisation takes place. 

Orchids with very long nectaries, such as Anacamptis, Gymna- 
denia, and Platanthera, are habitually fertilised by Lepidoptera, while 
those with only moderately long nectaries are fertilised by bees and 
Diptera. The length of the nectary is correlated with that of the pro- 
boscis of the insect which visits the plant. Orchis Morio has been 
seen fertilised by the hive-bee (Apis mellifica), to some of which 10 
or 16 pollen-masses were attached; by Bombus muscorum, with 
several pollinia attached to the bare surface close above the mandibles ; 
by Eucera longicornis, with 11 pollinia attached to the head, and by 
Osmia rufa. Empis livida has been seen fertilising Orchis maculata. . 

In Listera (fig. 317, p. 205) the viscid mass of the rostellum bursts 
with force, and then allows the pollinia to escape. The nectar in 
some species of Orchids is secreted between the outer and inner mem- 
brane of the nectary, and bees puncture the inner lining of the 
nectary and suck the fluid contained between the coats. In some 
Orchids, as in Neotinea intacta, there is evident self-fertilisation, 
although there is also provision for fertilisation by insects. So also in 
Ophrys apifera, Gymnadenia, Platanthera, Epipactus, Cephalanthera, 
Neottia, Epidendrum, Dendrobium. In Disa grandiflora the weight 
of the pollen masses bends the caudicle. In this plant the posterior 
sepal secretes nectar. In Coryanthes, Gongora, Catasetum, Stan- 
hopea, etc., the extraordinary crests and projections on the labellum 
are gnawed by insects, and while doing so they are sure to touch the 
viscid disk of the pollinia and remove them. The flowers of these 
plants exhibit remarkable animal forms, probably with the view of 
attracting insects. It has been remarked that in Orchids the forms 
of the perianth resemble those of the insects belonging to the native 
country of the plant. The flowers also secrete a large amount of 
saccharine matter, and are odoriferous ; their pollen masses are very 
easily detached, and are very adhesive. All these circumstances seem 
to be connected with their mode of impregnation. In Asclepiadacee, 
which have also peculiar pollinia (fig. 386, p. 230), insects are 
attracted by the odour of the flowers (sometimes very fetid, as in 
Stapelia), as well as by saccharine matter. 

Darwin states that bees always alight on the left wing petal (ala) 
of the scarlet kidney-bean, and in doing so depress it ; and this acts 
on the tubular and spiral keel petal (carina), which causes the pistil 
to protrude. On the pistil there is a brush of hairs, and by the 


FERTILISATION EFFECTED BY MEANS OF INSECTS. 289 


repeated movement of the keel petal the hairs brush the pollen beyond 
the anthers on to the stigmatic surface. He found, in many instances, 
that if the plants were protected from bees, the number of fertile 
seeds produced was much smaller than when the bees were freely 
admitted. In the common bean the bees alight on the wing petals 
(alee), and cause the rectangularly-bent pistil and the pollen to protrude 
through the slit of the carina, : 

In Erica Tetralix each anther-cell adheres, just in the part where 
its opening is situated, to the corresponding part of the adjoining cell 
of the next placed anther in the circlet. Thus the pore of a cell, say 
the right cell of an anther, is, so to speak, closed by the pore of: the 
left cell of the next adjoining anther, and so on all the way round. 
A very little power, however, dislocates the chain of anthers ; a slight 
pressure on the antherine processes or spurs effects this, An insect 
accomplishes this easily, and thus its head becomes covered with pollen 
and applies it to the stigma of another flower. 

Polygala is one of the flowers in which a provision is made for 
insect fertilising. ‘The corolla consists of five petals united into one 
piece and folded in the form of a two-lipped tube. The lower lip has 
a sort of cup-shaped appendage, with a beard of gland-like bodies ; 
this lip opens in front by a narrow vertical slit. The filaments are 
united, and the stamens expand within the cup of the lower lip into 
a two-lobed membrane crowned by the anthers. The pistil has two 
stigmas,—one is placed at right angles to the upper side of the style and 
is perfect, the other is transformed into a spoon-shaped petaloid pro- 
longation of the pistil reaching to the opening of the lower lip of 
the corolla, and dividing the interior of the flower into two cham- 
bers, in the lower of which are the stamens, which are thus separated 
from the true stigma, The entrance to the flower is closed by hairs 
pointing outwards and meeting in front, on the mouse-trap principle. 
A narrow passage is left open above the petaloid stigma. On each 
side of the interior of the tube of the corolla, above the style and just 
behind the true stigma, is a group of white hairs pointing down. the 
tube and meeting above the style. An insect lights on the beard, 
finds a narrow passage leading over the stigma into the upper chamber. 
It is prevented by hairs on the corolla from returning, and is obliged 
to crawl out through the lower chamber and over the stamens, and 
thus carries the pollen to other flowers. The calyx, at first tempting 
to insects, gradually assumes a green colour, and closes over the ripen- 
ing seed-vessel.” (Hart.) 

In Serophulariacez and Labiatee (figs, 324, 325, p. 207) the axis 
of the flower is horizontal, and the stamens are approximated beneath 
the upper lip of the corolla, An insect in passing separates the 
anthers, and causes the pollen to fall from them, and thus 
transports it to a more advanced flower. In some Leguminose the 


U 


290 CHANGES IN STYLE AND STIGMA. 


insect touches the back of the keel, which throws itself hastily back- 
ward, and the insect receives a few grains of pollen, with which it 
impregnates a neighbouring flower. In Fumariacez the stamens and 
pistil are enclosed between two petals. At the base of the petals, 
which is prolonged into a spur, there is a quantity of nectar which 
attracts insects. To reach this an insect must pass between the two 
petals, the upper parts of which, being borne upon a sort of hinge, 
separate easily ; then the insect is covered with pollen, which is 
applied to the stigma. 

Hermann Miiller states that there are two forms of Euphrasia offici- 
nalis in which the mode of fertilisation is different. In the large 
form there is provision for insect fertilisation or cross-fertilisation ; 
while in the smaller-fiowered form there is regularly self-fertilisation. 
In Rhinanthus Crista-galli there are also two forms, one small and the 
other large. In the former there is self-fertilisation, while in the 
latter this is not the case, as the stigma so far overlaps the anther 
as to render self-fertilisation impossible. 

Other animals, besides insects, are instrumental in distributing 
pollen. Humming-birds, when inserting their bills into the nectaries 
of plants in some countries, carry the pollen on their head feathers from 
one flower to another. They are said to act as pollen-distributors in 
the case of a species of Erythrina in Nicaragua. In Marcgraavia 
nepenthoides there are peduncular pitchers below the flowers con- 
taining a sweet liquid, attracting insectivorous birds which come and 
feed on their contents, and in so doing burst the anther and carry 
the pollen to other plants. 

While the pollen is being elaborated, the stigma is also under- 
going changes. It becomes enlarged, and secretes a viscid, usually 
saccharine, matter, ready to detain the pollen-grains when they 
are discharged. In Goldfussia anisophylla, and in species of 
Campanula, as C. media, C. Rapunculoides, C. Trachelium, C. 
rotundifolia, the style is covered with collecting hairs (fig. 
516), which appear to aid in the application of the pollen. 
In the first-mentioned plant a remarkable curvation of the 
style takes place, so as to make the stigma come into contact 
with the hairs. In Campanula the style is at first slightly 
longer than the stamens, but it soon becomes twice their 
length, and during its elongation the hairs upon it brush the 
» pollen-grains out of the anther-cases. The stigma consists of 
two branches, which are at first erect and closely applied to 
each other, but afterwards, by changes in the cells, become 
revolute. This completely developed state of the stigma does 
not occur until some time after the pollen of its own flower has been 


Fig. 516, Style of a species of Bellflower (Campanula), covered with hairs, which brush 
out the pollen from the anthers, 


Fig. 516, 


FERTILISATION IN GYMNOSPERMS. 291 


discharged. The plant is dichogamous and requires the ae of 
another flower to fertilise the pistil. In rare instances, 
as in the Sea-pink (Armeria maritima), the conduct. 
ing tissue of the style at its lower part becomes 
elongated so as to pass into the ovary, and ultimately 
comes in contact with the ovule, when impregnation 
takes place (fig. 517). 

The length of time during which the pollen re- 
tains its vitality, or power of effecting fertilisation, 
varies in different plants. According to Geertner and 
others, the pollen of some species of Nicotiana retains 
its vitality only for forty-eight hours ; pollen of various 
species of Datura, two days; pollen of Dianthus Fig. 517. 
Caryophyllus, three days; pollen of Lobelia splendens, eight or nine 
days; pollen of Cheiranthus Cheiri, fourteen days; pollen of Orchis 
abortiva, two months ; pollen of Candollea, one year; pollen of Date 
Palm, one year or more. Michaux says that in some Palms, as Date 
and Chameerops humilis, the pollen may be applied successfully after 
having been carefully kept for eighteen years. The pollen retains 
its vitality longer when not removed from the anthers ; and the finer 
it is, the more quickly it loses its fecundating property. 

In most flowering plants the pollen is applied directly to the 
stigma, but in some cases when the plants are Gymnospermous, that 
is, have no proper ovarian covering, and no stigma, the pollen is 
applied directly to the ovule. The pollen then undergoes changes 
‘by the formation of tubes, through which the fovilla passes in order 
to come in contact with the minute cells in the ovule. The matter 
called fovilla covered by the intine consists of minute molecules, 
which often exhibit movements, to which the term molecular has 
been applied. 


Embryogenic process in Gymnospermous Flowering Plants. 


In Gymnospermous plants, such as Coniferze (Firs and Pines, fig. 
518) and Cycadacez (fig. 519), impregnation is effected by direct 
contact between the pollen and the ovule. There is no true 
ovary bearing a stigma. Such is the view taken by many 
botanists. There are however others of equally high authority 
who do not adopt this opinion, and who look upon the so-called outer 
covering as not solely composed’ of the spermoderm, but as formed 
partly of it and partly of the ovarian coat. Some speak of the 
ovuliferous leaves in Cycads as being open carpels, and they also look 

, Fig. 517. Ovary, ov, of Sea-pink (Armeria maritima), in which the ovule is suspended 


by a curved cord, cor, and the conducting tissue, s, of the style elongates in a downward 
direction, 


292 FERTILISATION EFFECTED BY MEANS OF INSECTS. 


upon the bracts of Conifers in the same light. In these cases there is 
no evidence of the presence of a stigma, Gmetacex seem to form a 
link between Cycads and Conifers. They have an open ovary without 


——— 


HT 


Fig. 518. Fig. 519. 


style or stigma. The name of Archisperms (deyf, beginning, origue, 
seed) has been given by some to Gymnospermous plants; while the 
term Metasperms (werd, after) has been applied to Angiospermous 
plants. These views will be noticed when 
the natural orders are described. In treat- 
ing of the embryogenic process it is probably 
not of much importance which view we adopt. 
The ovules of the so-called Gymnosperms (fig. 
520 ov, and fig. 521) consist of a nucleus (fig. 
521 a) covered by one or more integuments, 
and having a large micropyle (fig. 520 mic, and 
fig. 521m), In the delicate cellular nucleus 
(fig. 521 a) there is developed an embryo- 
sac, 6, sometimes more than one, as in the 
Yew tribe. The pollen-grains enter the large micropyle and come 
into contact with the nucleus, and then send their tubes into its apex 
(fig. 522 c). This process sometimes requires several weeks or 
months, After this the embryo-sac (fig. 522 b) becomes gradually 


Fig. 518. A Coniferous tree, the Stone-pine, which belongs to the Gymnospermous divi- 
sion of Phanerogams, the seeds being {naked, that is, not contained in an ovary with a 
stigma. The seeds are in cones covered by scales. Fig. 619. A Cycadaceous plant (Cycas 
revoluta), belonging also to the Gymnospermous division. The seeds in Cycads are produced 
on the edge of abnormal leaves or on the lower side of scales of cones. Fig. 520, Female 
flower of a Pine, consisting of a scale, eca, and two ovules, ov, attached to its base ; mic, the 
foramen of the ovule. The ovules are naked, not being contained in a true ovary. 


Fig. 520. 


EMBRYOGENY IN GYMNOSPERMS. 293 


filled with cellular tissue or endosperm cells, and at the same time 
enlarges. This development of endosperm cells occupies frequently 
a long time, especially in the Abietinese, which require two years to 
vipen their seeds. After the embryo-sac has become filled with 
cellular tissue, certain cells at the micropylar end of the sac enlarge 
and form the corpuscles of Brown, the secondary embryo-sacs of 
Mirbel and Spach (fig. 523 d). Each corpuscle is at first separated 


Fig. 521. Fig. 522, Fig. 523. 


from the inner surface of the embryo-sac by a simple cell, which after- 
wards divides into four by the formation of two septa crossing each 
other; then a passage is formed between the inner angles of these 
cells leading to the corpuscle. In the cavity of each corpuscle free 
cells appear. After the corpuscles become evident, the pollen tubes 
resume their growth, pass through the tissue of the nucleus, and reach 
the outside of the embryo-sac, one over each corpuscle. The tubes 
then perforate the membrane of the embryo-sac, reach the canal be- 
tween the four cells, and come into contact with the corpuscle (fig. 
523 d). A cell at the lower end of the corpuscle then enlarges, and 
forms the embryonal vesicle. A free cell in the vesicle divides into 
eight cells by vertical and transverse septa, and these together consti- 
tute a short cyclindrical cellular body (fig. 524), the pro-embryo, as 
it is called by Hofmeister. The four lower cells of this pro-embryo, 
by the elongation of the upper ones (fig. 525), are finally pushed 

Fig. 521. Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine (Pinus austriaca), showing 
the nucleus, a, consisting of delicate cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an 
embryo-sac, b, formed before impregnation by the coalescence of a vertical series of a few 
cells. The micropyle, m, is very wide, and through it the pollen-grains come into contact 
with the summit of the nucleus, into the substance of which they send their tubes. Fig. 
522. Vertical section'of the ovule of the Scotch Fir,(Pinus sylvestris) in May of the second 
year, showing the enlarged embryo-sac, 6 (full of endospermal cells), and pollen-tubes, c, 
penetrating the summit of the nucleus after the pollen has entered the large micropyle of 
the ovule. Fig. 523, Vertical section of the embryo-sac, 6, and of part of the nucleus, u, 
of the ovule of the Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus), At the micropylar end of the embryo- 
sac, two cells called corpuscles, d, have made their appearance. Each of these is at first 
separated from the inner surface of the micropylar end of the sac by a single cell, which 
afterwards divides into four, leaving a passage from the surface of the sac down to the 
corpuscle. The pollen-grain, c, on the summit of the nucleus, then sends down a tube 
which perforates the embryo-sac, and reaches the corpuscle through the intercellular canal. 


294 EMBRYOGENY IN GYMNOSPERMS. 


into the substance of the nucleus. The four elongated pro-embryonic 
cells (fig. 526, 1) now appear as isolated suspensors (fig. 526, 2), 
and the cell at the end of each suspensor becomes an embryo, g. 
There are thus four times as many rudimentary embryos as there are 
corpuscles. Usually one of these only becomes developed as the 
embryo of the ripe seed. 


Fig. 524, Fig. 526. Fig. 525. 


In many points this process resembles what takes place in Lyco- 
pods. The anthers of Gymnosperms may be considered as corresponding 
to the microsporangia, and the grains of pollen to the microspores. 
Certain cells in the anther may represent the prothallus, while a. cell 
forming the pollen-tube may be the antheridium. The embryo-sac 
in Gymnosperms may be reckoned equivalent to the macrospores, and 
the endospermal cellular development may be analogous to the pro- 
thallus produced in the large spore of Selaginella (see page 278). 
The prothallus in some Ferns, as Ophioglossacee, is produced inside 
the spore, while in others it grows out from it in the form of a green 
expansion, bearing both antheridia‘and archegonia (fig. 507, p. 280). 


Embryogenic process in Angiospermous Flowering Plants, 


In the case of Angiospermous Phanerogams, the pollen-grains 
(fig. 527 gp) ave discharged from the anther, and are applied to the 
stigmatic surface of the pistil (fig. 527 ps), either directly or by the 


Fig. 524. Nucleated cells of what Hofmeister calls the pro-embryo, in the ovule of the 
Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus). The cells are pushed downwards into the cellular tissue 
of the nucleus by the elongation of the upper cells, which finally form the suspensor. 
Fig. 525. The same pro-embryonic body in the ovule of the Weymouth Pine, with the lower 
cells pushed farther down by the elongation of the upper suspensory cells. Fig. 526. 
Suspensors taken from the ovule of the Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus). In No, 1 the four 
suspensors are united. They form a cylinder composed of four elongated cells, and at the 
end, p, are seen some of the lower nucleated cells of the pro-embryo. In No. 2 the suspen- 
sors have separated, three of them, a, are cut off, and the remaining one, b, is connected 
with the embryo, g, at its extremity. 


EMBRYOGENY IN ANGIOSPERMS. 295 


agency of wind or insects. The viscid fluid secreted by the stigmatic 
cells (ps) causes a rupture of the extine, and the intine passes out in 
the form of a tubular prolongation, which gradually elongates (tp, tp) 
as it proceeds down the loose conduct- 
ing tissue (tc, tc) of the style till it 
reaches the ovule. The length attained 
by the pollen-tube is sometimes very 
great. In Cereus grandiflorus, Morren 
estimated that the tubes, when they 
reached the ovary, extended as far as 
1150 times the diameter of the pollen- 
grain ; in Crinum amabile, Hassall says 
that they reach 1875 times the diameter 
of the grain; in Cleome speciosa, 2719 
times; in Oxyanthus speciosus, 4489. 
times; and in Colchicum autumnale, 
9000 times. The length of time which 
the pollen-ttbe takes to traverse the 
conducting tissues of the style in Angio- 
sperms varies. 

On reaching the ovule the pollen- 
tube enters the foramen, and finally 
comes into contact with the embryo-sac 
(fig. 528 ¢). In the interior of this 
sac one or more nucleated germ-vesicles are produced before impregna- 
tion in the midst of the endospermal cells and protoplasmic matter 
(fig. 530 ¢). In fig. 529 an anatropal ovule is represented with the 
raphe r, the opening in the primine and secundine ex, en, the nucleus 
n, the embryo-sac es, and the pollen-tube pi, in contact with the 
germ-vesicle e, a, fA 

After the contact of the pollen-tube, one of the embryonal vesicles 
becomes enlarged, and is then divided by septa into two, the upper 
division growing out in a filamentous form, constituting the suspensor 
(fig. 530 s, 531 6), while the lower portion enlarges and divides re- 
peatedly so as to form a cellular globule—the embryo (fig. 530 s, 
531 c). The parts of the embryo being finally differentiated into 
cotyledonary and radicular portions, as shown in fig. 532, 1-4. 

Taking a comprehensive view of the whole subject, it may be said 
that the union of. two kinds of cells appears to be necessary for 
fertilisation, In’ Cryptogamic plants this has been traced, particularly 


Fig. 527. 


Fig. 527. Portion of the stigma of Antirrhinum majus at the time of fecundation. ps, 
ps, Superficial cells forming the papille. tc, tc, Deep elongated cylindrical cells forming 
the conducting tissue. gp, Grains of pollen attached to the surface of the stigma, the 
extine having been ruptured, and the intine protruded in the form of tubes, tp, tp, which 
pierce the interstices between the superficial stigmatic cells. 


296 EMBRYOGENY IN ANGIOSPERMS. 


in certain cases of conjugation ; where the two cells come into contact, 
a tube is formed between them, and the contents of the one unite 


Fig. 528. 


Fig. 530. Fig. 532. Fig. 531. 


Fig. 528. Section of ovule of an Orchis (Orchis Morio), showing the pollen-tube passing 
through the endostome, and reaching the embryo-sac in the nucleus. The closed and 
enlarged end of the tube, ¢, is applied to the sac, in which a germ-vesicle had been pre- 
viously formed. Transudation of fluids takes place, and the embryo, e, is developed at the 
lower end of the germinal or embryonal vesicle while the upper part of the vesicle elon- 
gates, and forms a confervoid suspensor. Fig. 529. Section of anatropal ovule. 1, 
Raphe, ch, -Chalaza. p, Primine. s, Secundine. ex, Exostome. en, Endostome. 1, 
Nucleus. es, Embryo-sac. pt, Pollen-tube. 9s, The germ-cell which forms the embryo. 
Fig 530. Section of the ovule of Ginothera, showing the pollen-tube, ¢, with its enlarged 
extremity applied to the end of the embryo-sac, and introverting it slightly ; one of the 
germinal vesicles in the sac has been impregnated, and has divided into two parts, the 
upper part forming a confervoid septate suspensor, s, and the lower dividing into four parts, 
which form a globular mass—the rudimentary embryo, surrounded by endospermal cells, e. 
Fig. 531. Ovule of Orchis mascula. a, Primine. 0, Secundine. ¢, Embryo. ¢, Confervoid 
filament which proceeds from the embryo towards the placenta. Fig. 582. The embryo in 
different stages of development. 1, Embryo in young state as a globular mass at the end 
of a suspensor, 2 and 3, Embryo more advanced. 4, Embryo showing the division 
into two cotyledons. 


PRODUCTION OF HYBRIDS. 297 


with those of the other, giving rise to a germinating body. In 
Phanerogamic plants, also, there are two cells with different contents 
—the pollen-grain with its granular fovilla, and the ovule with its 
protoplasm, These are brought into connection by means of the 
pollen-tube, formed from the intine, which either enters the embryo- 
sac, or comes into contact with it, the union taking place either 
directly by its extremity, or indirectly by cellular prolongations 
from the conducting tissue, or from the ovule. By this means the 
formation of the embryo is determined, which commences as a cellular 
body or germinal vesicle, in the interior of which other cells are sub- 
sequently formed in a definite order of succession. 

THe Propuction or Hysrips.—lf the pollen of one species is 
employed to fertilise the ovules of another, the seed will often pro- 
duce plants intermediate between the two parents. These are termed 
hybrids, and are analogous to mules in the animal kingdom. Asa 
general rule, hybrids can only be produced between plants which are 
very nearly allied, as between the different species of the same genus. 
Thus, different species of Heath, Fuchsia, Cereus, Rhododendron, 
and Azalea, readily inoculate each other, and produce interme- 
diate forms, It is found, however, that many plants which seem to 
be nearly related do not hybridise, Thus, hybrids are not met 
with between the Apple and the Pear, between the Gooseberry and 
Currant, nor between the Raspberry and Strawberry. The ovules of 
Fuchsia coccinea, fertilised with the pollen of Fuchsia fulgens, pro- 
duce ‘plants having intermediate forms between these two species. 
Some of the seedling plants closely resemble the one parent, and 
some the other, but they all partake more or less of the characters of 
each. By the examination of the foliage, conclusions may be drawn 
as to what will be the character of the flower. Mr. Thwaites men- 
tions a case in which a seed produced two plants extremely different 
in appearance and character, one partaking rather of .the character 
of Fuchsia fulgens, and the other of Fuchsia coccinea. While hybrids 
are produced between two species, crosses are produced between two 
varieties. ; 

In the case of hybridisation, there appears to be a mixture of 
matters derived from the pollen-grain and the ovule, just like the 
mixture of two endochromes in flowerless plants; and the nature of 
the hybrid depends on the preponderance of the one or other. Some 
have supposed that the pollen-grains require to be of the same form 
and dimensions in order to admit of artificial union taking place ; but 
this is a mere conjecture. It is, however, requisite for successful 
hybridising, that the pollen should be in a state of full maturity, and 
the stigma perfect. Hybrids perform the same functions as their 
parents, but they do not perpetuate themselves by seed. They must 
be propagated by offsets or cuttings. If not absolutely sterile at first, 


298 FRUIT OR MATURE PISTIL. 


they usually become so in the course of the second or third generation. 
Herbert mentions instances of hybrid Narcissi, from which he at- 
tempted in vain to obtain seed. The cause of this sterility has not 
been determined. Some have referred it to an alteration in the 
pollen. Hybrids may be fertilised, however, by the pollen taken 
from one of the parents, and then the offspring assumes more or less 
the characters of that parent. 

Hybrids are rarely produced naturally, as the stigma is more likely 
to be affected by the pollen of plants of its own species than by that 
of other species. In dicecious plants, however, this is not the case, 
and hence the reason, probably, of the numerous co-called species of 
Willows. Hybrids are constantly produced artificially, with the view 
of obtaining choice flowers and fruits, the plants being propagated 
afterwards by cuttings. In this way many beautiful Roses, Azaleas, 
Rhododendrons, Pansies, Cactuses, Pelargoniums, Fuchsias, Calceo- 
larias, Narcissuses, etc., have been obtained. By this process of 
inoculation, and carefully selecting the parents, gardeners are enabled 
to increase the size of the flowers, to improve their colour, to render 
tender plants hardy, and to heighten the flavour of fruits. Herbert 
thinks, from what he saw in Amaryllides, that in hybrids the flowers 
and organs of reproduction partake of the characters of the female 
parent, while the foliage and habit, or the organs of vegetation, re- 
semble the male. 


6.—Fruit, or the Pistil arrived at Maturity. 


After fertilisation, various changes take place in the parts of the 
flower. Those more immediately concerned in the process, the anther 
and stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style 
often remain for some time ; the floral envelopes also become dry, the 
petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain persistent in 
an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged, forming the pericarp 
(aeg/, around, and zaerés, fruit); and the ovules are developed as the 
seeds containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly applied 
to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior. But it 
often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts and floral 
envelopes, Thus, the fruit of the Hazel and Oak consists of the 
ovary and bracts and calyx combined ; that of the Apple, Pear, and 
Gooseberry, of the ovary and calyx; and that of the Pine-apple, of 
the ovaries and floral envelopes of several flowers combined. Fruits 
formed by the ovaries alone, as the Plum and the Grape, seem to be 
more liable to drop off and suffer from unfavourable weather, than 
those which have the calyx attached, as the Gooseberry, the Melon, 
and the Apple. 

In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertilisation has been 


FRUIT OR MATURE PISTIL. 299 


effected ; but cases occur in which the fruit swells, and becomes to 
all appearance perfect, while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are 
seedless Oranges, Grapes, and Pine-Apples. When the seeds are 
abortive, it is common to see the fruit wither and not come to 
maturity ; but in the case of Bananas, Plantains, and Bread-fruit, the 
non-development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth and a 
greater succulence of fruit. 

In order to comprehend the structure of the fruit, it is of great 
importance to study that of the ovary in the young state. It is in this 
-way only that the changes occurring in the progress of growth can be 
determined. The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single 
-earpel, or of several. It may have one cell or cavity, then being uni- 
‘locular (wnus, one, and loculus, box or cavity) ; or many, multilocular 
(multus, many), etc. The number and nature of the divisions depend 
on the number of carpels, and the extent to which their edges are 
‘folded inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not, 
however, always remain permanent in the fruit. Great changes are 
observed to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the 
ovary, its softening and hardening, but also in its internal structure, 
owing to the suppression, enlargement, or union of parts. 
In this way the parts of the fruit often become unsymmetri- 
eal, that is, not equal to, or not a multiple of, the parts of 
the flower; and at times they are developed more in one 
‘direction than another, so as to assume an irregular appear- 
ance. In the Ash (fig. 533) an ovary with two cells, each 
containing an ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed 
into a unilocular fruit with one seed; one ovule, J, having 
become abortive, and the other, g, gradually ex- 
tending until the septum is pushed to one side, 
becoming united to the walls of the cell, and the 
placenta appearing to be parietal. In the Oak 
and Hazel, an ovary with three cells, and two 
ovules in each, changes into a one-celled fruit 
with one seed. Similar changes take place in the 
Horse-chestnut, in which the remains of the abor- 
tive ovules are often seen in the ripe fruit. In the 
Coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary is changed into a one-celled, 
one-seeded fruit. This abortion may depend on the pressure caused 
by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from the 
influence of the pollen not being communicated to all the ovules. 
Again, by the growth of the placenta or the folding inwards of parts 


Fig. 533. 


Fig. 583, Samara or Samaroid fruit of Fraxinus oxyphylla. 1, Entire, with its wing, u. 
2, Lower portion cut transversely, to show that it consists of two loculaments; one of 
which, 1, is abortive, and is reduced to a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged, 
and filled with a seed, g. i 


300 FRUIT OR MATURE PISTIL. 


of the ovary, divisions may take place in the fruit which did not 
exist in the ovary. In Pretrea zanzibarica a one-celled ovary is 
changed into a four-celled fruit by the extension of the placenta. In 
Cathartocarpus Fistula (fig. 429, p. 244) a one-celled ovary is 
changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate cell, in con- 
sequence of spurious dissepiments being pro- 
duced in a horizontal manner, from the inner 
wall of the ovary after fertilisation, In Tri- 
bulus terrestris, each cell of the ovary (fig. 
534) has slight projections, ¢, on its walls, in- 
terposed between the ovules, 0, which, when 
the fruit is ripe, are seen to have formed dis- 
tinct transverse divisions (fig. 535 c), or 
spurious dissepiments, separating the seeds, g. 
In Astragalus, the folding of the dorsal suture inwards converts a one- 
celled ovary into a two-celled fruit ; and in Oxytropis the folding of 
the ventral suture gives rise to a similar change in the fruit, 

The development of cellular or pulpy matter frequently alters the 
appearance of the fruit, and renders it difficult to discover its formation, 
In the Strawberry, the axis becomes succulent, and bears the carpels 
on its convex surface; in the Rose there is a fleshy hollow torus or 
disk, which bears the carpels on its concave surface. In the Goose- 
berry, Grape, Guava, Tomato, and Pomegranate, the seeds nestle in 
pulp formed apparently by the placentas. In the Orange, the pulpy 
matter surrounding the seeds is formed by succulent cells, which are 
produced from the inner partitioned lining of the pericarp. 

The pistil, in its simplest state, consists of a carpel or folded leaf, 
with ovules at its margin; and the same thing will be found in the 
fruit, where the pericarp, as in the Bean (fig. 536), represents the 
carpellary leaf, and the seeds correspond to the ovules. The pericarp 
consists usually of three layers ; the external (fig. 536 ¢), or epicarp 
éxi, upon, or on the outside, xagréc, fruit), corresponding to the lower 
epidermis of the leaf; the middle (fig. 536 m), or mesocarp (uéoos, 
middle), representing the parenchyma of the leaf; and the internal 
(fig. 536 n), or endocarp (évdov, within), equivalent to the upper 
epidermis of the leaf, or the epithelium of the ovary. In some plants, 
as Bladder Senna (Colutea arborescens), the pericarp retains its leaf- 
like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in con- 
sistence and in colour. Sometimes the three parts become blended 
together, as in the Nut; at other times, as in the Peach, they remain 
separable, In the latter fruit, the epicarp is thickened by the addition 


Fig. 534. Fig. 535. 


Fig. 534, Cell or loculament of the ovary of Tribulus terrestris, cut vertically, to show 
the commencement of the projections, c, from the paries, which are interposed between the 
ovules, 0. Fig. 535. The same in a mature state, showing the transverse partitions, e, 
dividing the fruit into cavities, in one of which aseed, g, is left. 


‘ 


FRUIT OR MATURE PISTIL. 301 


of cells, and can be taken off in the form of what is called the skin . 
the mesocarp becomes much developed, forming the flesh or pulp, and 
hence has sometimes been called surcocarp (otgé, 
flesh), while the endocarp becomes hardened by 
the production of woody cells, and forms the 
stone or putamen (putamen, a shell), immediately 
covering the kernel or the seed. The same 
arrangement is seen in the fruit of the Cherry, 
Apricot, and Plum. In these cases, the meso- 
carp is the part of the fruit which is eaten. In 
the Almond, on the other hand, the seed is used 
as food, while the shell or endocarp, with its 
leathery covering or mesocarp, and its greenish 
epicarp, are rejected. The pulpy matter found 
in the interior of fruits, such as the Gooseberry, 
Grape, and Cathartocarpus Fistula (fig. 429, p. 244), is formed from 
the placentas, and must not be confounded with the sarcocarp. 

In the Date the epicarp is the outer brownish skin, the pulpy 
matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, and the thin papery-like lining is 
the endocarp covering the hard seed. In the Pear and Apple the 
outer skin or epicarp is the epidermal covering ; the fleshy portion is 
the mesocarp, formed by the cellular torus; while the scaly layer, 
forming the walls of the seed-bearing cavities in the centre, is the 
endocarp. In the Medlar (fig. 568, p. 314) the endocarp becomes of a 
stony hardness, In the Melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, 
while the mesocarp forms the bulk of the fruit, varying in its texture 
and taste in the external and internal part. The rind of the Orange 
consists of epicarp and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions 
in the interior, filled with pulpy cells. 

While normally the divisions of the fruit ought to indicate the 
number of the carpels composing it, and these carpels should each 
have three layers forming the walls, it is found that frequently the 
divisions of a multilocular fruit are atrophied or absorbed, in whole or 
in part, and the layers become confounded together, so that they 
appear to be one. Again, in fruits formed of several carpels, the 
endocarp and mesocarp are occasionally so much developed as to leave 
the epicarp only on the free dorsal face of the fruit, forming a covering 
which is wholly external, as in the Castor-oil plant (fig. 543, p. 304), 
Euphorbia, and Mallow (fig. 548, p. 305). Occasionally, the endo- 
carp remains attached to the centre, forming cells, in which the 
seeds are placed, while the outer layer separates from it at certain ° 


Fig. 536, Lower portion of the carpel or legume of the Bean, Faba sativa, cut trans- 
versely, to show the structure of the pericarp. ¢, Epicarp, or external epidermis. m, 
Mesocarp. n, Endocarp. sd, Dorsal suture. sv, Ventral suture. g, A seed situated at 
the upper part of the section, and cut also transversely. 


302 FRUIT OR MATURE PISTIL. 


points, and leaves a row of cavities in the substance of the pericarp 
itself. 

In some fruits the calyx is superior, or in other words above the 
pericarp, while in others it is closely applied to the ovary, but 
separable from it. Thus in the fruit of Mirabilis Jalapa (fig. 537, 1), 
when a section is made longitudinally (fig. 537, 2), the hardened 
calyx (perianth), cc, is distinct from the fruit, j, which is in this 
instance incorporated with the seed, but at once distinguished by its 
style, s. The same thing occurs in Spinach (Spinacia). Again, in 
the Yew (fig. 538), there is an external succulent covering, %c, 
formed by modified bracts, which here occupy the place of a pericarp, 
and surround the seed, g, which is naked, inasmuch as it is not con- 
tained in a true ovary with a stigma. 


Fig. 537, 1. Fig. 537, 2. Fig. 538. 


The part of the pericarp attached to the peduncle is called its 
base, and the part where the style or stigma existed is the apex. This 
latter is not always the mathematical apex. In Alchemilla, Fragaria, 
Labiate, and Boraginacez, it is at the base or side (figs. 434, 435, 
436, pp. 246, 247). Thestyle sometimes remains in a hardened form, 
rendering the fruit apiculate; at other times it falls off, leaving only 
traces of its existence. The presence of the style or stigma serves to 
distinguish certain single-seeded pericarps from seeds. 

As in the case of the carpel, so in the mature ovary formed of it, 
the edges unite towards the axis, and constitute the ventral suture 
(fig. 539 sv), while the back, corresponding with the midrib, is the 
dorsal suture (fig. 539 sd). The inner suture in some fruits formed 
of a single carpel, as the Apricot and Bladder Senna, is marked by a 
distinct furrow or depression, consequent on the folding inwards of the 
carpellary edges ; and occasionally the outer or dorsal suture is also 


Fig. 537. Fruit of Mirabilis Jalapa. 1, Entire. 2, Cut longitudinally, to show its com- 
position. ¢c, Lower part of perianth hardened, and forming an outer envelope. f, The true 
fruit, covered by the perianth. The integuments of the fruit are incorporated with those of 
the seed, which has been also cut. The fruit is distinguished by the remains of the style, s, 
at the apiculus or summit. Fig. 538. Fruit of Taxus baccata, the Yew. 0b, Imbricated 
bracts at its base. ic, Fleshy envelope taking the place of the pericarp. This envelope 
eovers the seed, g, partially, leaving its apex naked. 


INDEHISCENT AND DEHISCENT FRUITS. 303 


thus rendered distinctly visible. When the fruit consists of several 
mature carpels, all meeting in the centre, and united 
together, then the dorsal suture is also visible ex- 
ternally ; but in cases where the placentation is 
either parietal or free central, the edges of the sepa- 
rate carpels, being near the surface, may present also 
externally the marks of the ventral sutures. 

Where the sutures are formed, there are usually 
two bundles of fibro-vascular tissue (fig. 539), one 
on each edge. The edges of the sutures are often 
so intimately united as not to give way when the 
fruit is ripe. In this case it is called indehiscent 
(in, used in the sense of not, and dehisco, I open), as in the Acorn and 
Nut ; at other times the fruit opens between the two vascular bundles, 
either at the ventral or dorsal suture, or at both, so as 
to allow the seeds to escape, and then it is dehiscent 
(dehisco, I open). By this dehiscence the pericarp becomes 
divided into different pieces, which are denominated 
valves, the fruit being univalvular, bivalvular, or multi- 
valvular, etc., according as there are one, two, or many 
valves. These valves separate either completely or par- 
tially. In the latter case, the divisions may open in the 
form of teeth at the apex of the fruit, the dehiscence 
being apicilar, as in Caryophyllaces (fig. 540 v), or as 
partial slits of the ventral suture, when the carpels are 

g. 540. only free at the apex, as in Saxifrages, 

InDEHIScENT Fruits are either dry, as the Nut, or fleshy, as the 
Cherry and Apple. They may be formed of one or several carpels ; 
and in the former case they usually contain only a single seed, which 
may become so incorporated with the pericarp as to appear to be 
naked. Such fruits are called pseudospermous (evdqs, false, and 
ortgwa, seed), or false-seeded, and are well seen in the grain of Wheat. 
In such cases the presence of the style or stigma determines their true 
nature. 

Dzntscent Fruits, when composed of single carpels, may open 
by the ventral suture only, as in the follicles of Peony, Hellebore (fig. 
539), and Calthea ; by the dorsal suture only, as in Magnolias and 
some Proteacese ; or by both together, as in the legume of the Pea 
and Bean; in which cases the dehiscence is called sutural. When 
composed of several united carpels, the valves may separate through 


Fig. 539, 


Fig. 589. A single carpel of Helleborus foetidus after dehiscence. sd, Dorsal suture. 
sv, Ventral suture. The carpel, when mature, opens on the ventral suture, and forms the 
fruit denominated a follicle. Fig. 540. Capsule or dry seed-vessel of Cerastium triviale 
after dehiscence. c, Persistent calyx. p, Pericarp dividing at the apex, v, into ten teeth, 
which indicate the summits of as many valves united below. 


804 DEHISCENT FRUITS. 


the dissepiments, so that the fruit will be resolved into its original 
carpels, as in Rhododendron, Colchicum, etc. This dehiscence, in 
consequence of taking place through the lamell of the septum, is 
called septicidal (septum and cedo, I cut) (figs. 541, 542). The valves 


Fig. 544. Fig. 545. Fig. 546, 


may separate from their commissure, or central line of union, carrying 
the placentas with them, or they may leave the latter in the centre, 
so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical, or 
prismatic shape, which has received the designation of colwmella (fig. 


Fig. 541. Capsule of Digitalis purpurea at the moment of dehiscence, when the two 
cavities, cc, separate by division of the septum, dd, so as to have'the appearance of distinct 
carpels. At the apex are seen the seeds, g. Fig. 542, Inferior portion of the same cap- 
sule cut transversely, to show the formation of the septum, formed by the two inner 
faces of the carpels,cc. pp, Placentaries reflected and projecting into the interior of the 
cavities. g, Seeds. Fig. 543. Capsule (tricoccous regma) of Ricinus communis, Castor-oil 
plant, at the moment of dehiscence. The three carpels or cocci, ¢.cc, are separated from 
the axis, a, by which they were at first united (see fig. 549), and which remains in a colum- 
nar-form. These cocci begin to open by their dorsal suture, sd. Fig. 544, Capsule of 
Iris opening by loculicidal dehiscence. Fig. 545. Capsule of Hibiscus esculentus, show- 
ing loculicidal dehiscence. vv v, Valves of the seed-vessel. c, Septum or partition. g, 
Seeds. Fig. 546. Capsule of Cedrela angustifolia, the valves of which, v v v, separate from 
the septa, c c, by septifragal dehiscence. The separation takes place from above down- 
wards, in such a manner that the axis, a, remains in the centre, with five projecting angles, 
corresponding to the septa. g, The seeds contained in the loculaments. 


DEHISCENT FRUITS. 305 


543 c), The union between the edges of the carpels may be persistent, 
and they may dehisce by the dorsal suture, or through the back of 
the loculaments, as in the Lily and Iris (fig. 544). In’ this case the 
valves are formed by the halves of the cells, and the septa either 
remain united to the axis, or they separate from it, carrying the 
placentas with them (fig. 545), or leaving them in the centre. This 
dehiscence is loculicidal (loculus, cell, and cdo, I cut). Sometimes the 
fruit opens by the dorsal suture, and at the same time the valves or 
walls of the ovaries separate from the septa (fig. 546), leaving them 
attached to the centre, as in Thorn Apple (Datura Stramonium). This 
is called septifragal dehiscence (septum and frango, I break), and may be 
looked upon as a modification of the loculicidal. The separation of 
the valves takes place either from above downwards (fig. 546), or from 
below upwards (fig. 547). 

Sometimes the axis is prolonged as far as the base of the styles, as 
in the Mallow (figs. 548; 417, p. 239), and Castor-oil plant (fig. 549), 


Tig. 549. 


the carpels being united to it by their faces, and separating from it 
without opening. In the Umbelliferze (fig. 550) the two carpels 
separate from the lower part of the axis, and remain attached to a 
prolongation of it, called a carpophore (xagéc, fruit, and gogéw, I bear), 
or ~podocarp (obs, foot, and xaerds, fruit), which splits into two 
(fig. 550 a), and suspends them. Hence the name cremocarp (xeeucu, 


Fig. 547. Capsule of Swietenia Mahagoni, opening by valves from below upwards. The 
letters have the same signification as in fig. 546. Fig. 548, Fruit of Malva rotundifolia, 
with half the carpels composing it removed, to show the axis, a, to which they are attached. 
This axis ends at the point where the style, s, is produced. ec, The carpels, which are left 
attached to the axis, around which they are arranged in a verticillate‘manner. The lateral 
surface of the two carpels in front, c’, is exposed. Fig. 549. Tricoccous capsule of Rici- 
nus communis, Castor-oil plant, cut vertically, to show the axis, a, prolonged between the 
carpels, and terminating by small cords or funiculi, f, which project into the loculaments, 
and are attached to seeds. gg, Seeds exposed, each surmounted by a fleshy caruncula, c. 
” p, Pericarp. 

x 


306 ’ DEHISCENT FRUITS. 


I suspend or hang), applied to this fruit. By some authors the term 
schizocarp (oxiZw, I split) is applied to such dry fruits consisting of one or 
more; one-seeded or few-seeded, indehiscent carpels. 
In Geraniacee the axis is prolonged beyond the 
carpels, forming a carpophore, to which the styles 
are attached, and the pericarps separate from below 
upwards, before dehiscing by their ventral suture 
(fig. 551). Carpels of this kind are called cocci 
(xéxxos, kernel), and the fruit is said to be tricoc- 
cous, etc., according to the number of separate 
carpels, In the case of many Euphorbiacez, as 
Fig. 550. Hura crepitans, the cocci separate with great 
force and elasticity, the cells being called dissilient (dissilio, I burst 
asunder). 
In the Siliqua, or fruit of. Cruciferae, as Wallflower (fig. 552), the 
valves separate from the base of the fruit, leaving a central replwm, or 


Fig, 551. Fig, 552. Fig, 553. 


frame, r. The replum is considered as being formed by parietal 
placentas, which remain attached to the fibro-vascular line of the 
suture, the valves giving way on either side of the suture. In Orchi- 
dacez (fig. 553) the pericarp, when ripe, separates into three valves, 


Fig. 550. Fruit or cremocarp of Prangos uloptera, an umbelliferous plant. Fruit some- 
times called schizocarp. The carpels, mericarps, or achenia, cc, separate from the axis, a, 
and are each suspended by a carpophore. ss, Persistent styles with swollen bases, formed 
by an epigynous disk. Fig. 551. Fruit or mature carpel of Geranium sanguineum. ¢, Persis- 
tent calyx. a, Axis prolonged as a beak. ¢ ¢, the styles at first united to the beak, and 
afterwards separating from below upwards, along with the earpels, o 0, which dehisce by 
their ventral suture. s, Stigmas. The fruit is sometimes called gynobasic. Fig. 552. 
Siliqua of Cheiranthus Cheiri, Wallflower, dehiscing by two valves, v v, which separate from 
aframe orreplum,r. g, Seeds arranged on either margin. s, Two-lobed stigma. Fig. 
553. Capsule of Orchis maculata at the period of dehiscence. c, Remains of the perianth 
crowning the fruit. vv, Segments of the pericarp which are detached in the form of valves. 
 p, Arched repla or placentas which remain persistent, and bear the seeds. 


DEHISCENT FRUITS. 307 


by giving way only on the margins within the sutures, where the 
placentas are united ; and when the valves fall off, the placentas are 
left in the form of three arched repla, or frames, to which the seeds 
are attached. In the case of a free central placenta, when the valves 
separate, it is sometimes difficult 
to tell whether the dehiscence is | 
septicidal or loculicidal, inas- 
much as there are no dissepi- 
ments, and the placentas and 
seeds form a column in the 
axis, Their number, as well as 
their alternation or opposition, 
as compared with the sepals, will 
aid in determining whether the 
valves are.the entire carpellary 
leaves, as in septicidal dehis- 
cence, or only halves united, as 
in loculicidal dehiscence. In 
some instances, as in Linum 
catharticum, the fruit opens 
first by loculicidal dehiscence, and afterwards the carpels separate 
in a septicidal manner. 

Another mode in which fruits open is transversely, the dehiscence 
in this case being called circumscissile (circwm, around, and scindo, I 
cut). In such cases, the fruit or seed-vessel may be supposed to be 
formed by a number of articulated leaves like those of the Orange, 
the division taking place where the laminz join the petioles. In this 
dehiscence the upper part of the united valves falls off in the form of 
a lid or operculum, as in Anagallis (fig. 554), and in Henbane (Hyo- 
scyamus), (fig. 555), and hence the fruit is often denominated operculate 
(operculum, a lid). In some instances the axis seems to be prolonged 
in the form of a hollow cup, and the valves appear as leaves united to 
‘it by articulation, similar to what occurs in the calyx of Eschscholtzia. 
In Lecythis (the Monkey-pot) and in Couratari the calyx is superior, 
and the lid is formed at the place where the calyx is attached. 

Transverse divisions take place occasionally in fruits formed by a 
single carpel, as in the pods of some leguminous plants. Examples 


Fig. 554. Pyxidium or capsule of Anagallis arvensis, opening by circumscissile dehis- 
cence, ¢, Persistent calyx. sp, Pericarp divided into two, the upper part, 0, separating in 
the form of a lid or operculum. On the capsule are seen three lines passing from the base 
to the apex, and marking the true valves. g, Seeds forming a globular mass round a central 
placenta, Fig. 555. Operculate capsule or pyxidium of Hyoscyamus niger, Henbane., 
o, Operculum or lid separating and allowing the seeds to appear. Fig. 556. Lomentaceous 
legume or lomentum (transverse schizocarp) of Hedysarum coronarium. 1, Entire, the 
upper division being nearly detached from the rest. 2, Two of the joints cut longitudinally 
to show the spurious loculaments, each containing a seed. This seed-vessel divides into 
separate single-seeded portions by solubility. 


308 CARPOLOGY. 


are seen in Ornithopus, Hedysarum (fig. 556), Entada, Coronilla, and 
the Gum-arabic plant (Acacia arabica), in which each seed is con- 
tained in a separate division, the partitions being formed by the 
folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separations 
taking place at these partitions by what has been termed solubility. 
The name schizocarp has been also applied to such fruits. In 
Cathartocarpus Fistula transverse partitions occur without exhibit- 
ing evident separations of the parts externally. Some look upon 
these pods as formed by pinnate leaves folded, and the divisions ' 
as indicating the points where the different pairs of pinne are 
united. Dehiscence may also be effected by partial openings 
in the pericarp, called pores, which are situated either at the 
apex, base, or side. In the Poppy 
(fig. 444, p. 249) the opening takes 
place by numerous pores under the 
peltate processes bearing the stigmas, 
In Campanulas there are irregular 
openings towards the middle or base 
(fig. 557 t), which pierce the pericarp. 
In Frogsmouth or Snapdragon (fig. 
558) the pericarp gives way at 
certain fixed points, forming two or 
three orifices, one of which corresponds 
to the upper carpel, and the other to 

Fig. 557. Fig. 558. the lower. These orifices have a 
ragged appearance at the margins, which has given rise to the name 
rupturing, as applied to this mode of dehiscence. 

CarpoLocy.—Much has been done of late in the study of car- 
pology (xagarés, fruit, and Aéyos, discourse), or the formation of the 
fruit ; but much still remains to be done ere the terminology of this 
department is complete. Many classifications of fruits have been 
given, but they are confessedly imperfect, and unfortunately much 
confusion has arisen in consequence of the same names having been 
applied to different kinds of fruit. In many cases, therefore, it is 
necessary to give a description of a fruit in place of using any single 
term. There are, however, some names in general use, and others 
which have been carefully defined, to which it is necessary to direct 
attention. 

Fruits may be formed by one flower, or they may be the pro- 


Fig. 557. Capsule of Campanula persicifolia, opening by holes or pores, ¢ t, above the 
middle. c¢, Persistent calyx, separating above the pericarp, p, into five acute segments, in 
the midst of which is seen the withered and plaited corolla, in the form of induviez, v. The 
holes perforate the walls of the pericarp. Fig. 558. Capsule of Antirrhinum majus, Frogs- 
mouth, after dehi cc, Persi + calyx. ip, Pericarp perforated near the summit by 
three holes, ¢t ¢, two of which correspond to one of the loculaments, and one to the other. 
The apex of the capsule is acuminated by the remains of the persistent style, ». 


INDEHISCENT APOCARPOUS FRUITS. 309 


duct of several flowers combined. In the former case they are 
either apocarpous (dro, separate, and xaerés, fruit), or dialycarpous 
(deAtw, I part asunder), that is, composed of one mature carpel, or 
of several separate free carpels; or syncarpous (odv, together), that is, 
composed of several carpels, more or less completely united. These 
different kinds of fruits may be indehiscent (not opening), or dehiscent 
(opening). When the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several 
flowers united, it is usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also 
joined with them, so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are 
called multiple or anthocarpous (évbos, flower, and xaeeés, fruit). The 
term simple is perhaps properly applied to fruits which are formed by 
the ovary of a single flower, whether they are composed of one or 
several carpels, and whether these carpels are separate or combined. 
Simple fruits are hence sometimes denominated Monogynecial (uévos, 
one, yuv7, pistil, and e/xsov, habitation), as being formed by one gyne- 
cium ; while multiple fruits are called polygynecial (woAts, many) as 
being formed by many gyneecia, 


Simple or Monogynecial Fruits which are the produce 
of a Single Flower, 


Apocarpous Fruits.— These fruits are formed out of one or 
several free carpels. They are either dry or succulent; the pericarp, 
in the former instance, remaining more or less feliaceous in its struc- 
ture, and sometimes becoming incorporated with the seed; in the 
latter, becoming thick and fleshy, or pulpy. Some of these do not 
open when ripe, but fall entire, the pericarp either decaying, and thus 
allowing the seeds ultimately to escape, as is common in fleshy fruits, 
or remaining united to the seed, and being ruptured irregularly when 
the young plant begins to grow; such fruits are indehiscent. Other 
apocarpous fruits, when mature, open spontaneously to discharge the 
seeds, and are dehiscent. : 

InpEHIScENT APocaRPOUS FRuITs, when formed of a single mature 
carpel, frequently contain only one seed, being thus monospermous (wdvos, 
one, and oréeua, seed). In some 
instances there may have: been 
only one ovule originally, in 
others two, one of which has 
become abortive. 

The Achenium (a, privative, 
and xaivw, I open) is a dry 
monospermous fruit, the pericarp 
of which is closely applied to the Fig., 559. 

Fig. 559. Achenium or indehiscent monospermous carpel from the pistil of a Ranunculus. 
Fig. 560. 1, Similar achenium, with rough points on the pericarp, from the pistil of Ranun- 


culus muricatus. 2, Achenium cut transversely to show the seed, g, not adherent to the 
parietes, 


310 INDEHISCENT APOCARPOUS FRUITS. 


seed, but separable from it (fig. 559). It may be solitary, forming a 
single fruit, as in the Cashew (fig. 248 a, p. 173), where it is supported 
ona fleshy peduncle, p ; or aggregate, as in Rununculus (fig. 560), where 
several acheenia are placed on a common elevated receptacle. In the 
Strawberry the achenia (fig. 434, p. 246) are placed on a convex 
succulent receptacle. In the Rose they are supported on a concave 
receptacle (fig. 294, p. 196), and in the Fig they are placed inside 
the hollow peduncle or receptacle (fig. 267, p. 180), which ultimately 
forms what is commonly called the fruit. In Dorstenia (fig. 266, p. 
180) the achenes are situated on a flat or slightly concave receptacle. 
In the Rose the aggregate achenia, with their covering, are sometimes 
collectively called Cynarrhodum (xtwv, a dog, and édov, a rose, seen in 
the dog-rose). It will thus be remarked that what in common 
language are called the seeds of the Strawberry, Rose, and Fig, are in 
reality carpels, which, are distinguished from seeds by the presence of 
styles and stigmas. The styles occasionally remain attached to the 
achenia, in the form of feathery appendages, as in Clematis, where 
they are called caudate (cauda, a tail). 

In Composite the fruit, which is sometimes called Cypsela (av.péan, 
a box), when ripe, is an acheenium (fig. 301 t, p. 199). The calyx in the 


Fig. 561. Fig. 562. Fig. 568. 


Composites sometimes becomes pappose, and remains attached to the 
fruit (fig. 303, p. 199), as in Dandelion and Thistles. A pappose 
calyx occurs also in some Dipsacacese (fig. 302, p. 199). When the 
pericarp is thin, and appears like a bladder surrounding the seed, the 
acheenium becomes a Utricle, as in Amarantacese, This name is often 


Fig. 561. Seed-vessel of Acer Pseudo-platanus (Sycamore, called in Scotland Plane), com- 
posed of two samaras or winged monospernious carpels united. a, Upper part forming a 
dorsal wing. 1, Lower portion corresponding to the loculaments. Fig. 562. Samara 
taken from the fruit of Hivaa, s, Persistent style. 1, Part corresponding to the locula- 
ment. aa, Marginal wing or ala. Fig. 563. Caryopsis of Secale cereale, Rye. 1, Entire. 
2, Cut transversely to show the seed adherent to the parietes of the pericarp. 


INDEHISCENT APOCARPOUS FRUITS. 311 


given to fruits which differ from the acheenium in being composed of 
more than one carpel. When the pericarp is extended in the form of 
a winged appendage, a samara (samera, seed of Elm) or samaroid 
acheniwm is produced, as in the Ash (fig: 533, p. 299), common Sycamore 
(fig. 561), and Hirea (fig. 562). In these cases there are usually 
two achenia united, one of which, however, as in Fraxinus oxyphylla 
(fig. 533), may be abortive. The Wing (fig. 561 a) is formed by the 
carpel, and is either dorsal, i.e. a prolongation from the median vein 
(fig. 561 a), or marginal, that is, formed by the lateral veins (fig. 
562 a). It surrounds the fruit longitudinally in the Elm. When 
the pericarp becomes so incorporated with the seed as to be inseparable 
from it, as in grains of Wheat, Maize, Rye ‘(fig. 563), and other 
grasses, then the name caryopsis (xcgvoy, a nut, and os, appearance) 
is given. 

There are some fruits which consist of two or more acheenia, at 
first united together, but which separate when ripe. Of this nature 
is the fruit of the Tropszolum or Indian Cress, also that of Labiatee 
and Boraginacee, which is formed of four achznia attached to the 
axis (fig. 436, p. 247), whence the common style appears to proceed. 
Some of these are occasionally abortive. In the ripe state the 
pericarp separates from the seed in these cases; and thus there is a 
transition from indehiscent acheenia to single-seeded dehiscent peri- 
carps. The cremocarp (xgewdw, I hang), or the fruit of Umbel- 
liferee (fig. 550, p. 306), is composed of two achenia united by a com- 
missure to a common axis or carpophore (xaerés, fruit, and Qogéw, I 
bear), from which they are suspended at maturity. It is sometimes 
denominated diachenium (6/s, twice), from the union of two achenia, 
which in this instance receive the name of mericarps (égoc, part), or 
hemicarps (7pious, half, and xweqés, fruit). 

The Nut or Glans.—This is a one-celled fruit with a hardened 
pericarp, surrounded by bracts at the base, and, when mature, con- 
taining only one seed. In the young state the ovary contains two or 
more ovules, but only one comes to maturity. It is illustrated by the 
fruit of the Hazel and Chestnut, which are covered by leafy appendages, 
in the form of a husk, and by the Acorn, in which the leaves or bracts 
are united so as to form a cupula or cup (fig. 281, p. 191). The parts 
of the pericarp of the Nut are united so as to appear one. In Sagus, 
or the Sago Palm, the nut is covered by peculiar tesselated epicarp, 
giving the appearance of a cone. 

The Drupe (drupe, unripe olives)—This is a succulent fruit 
covered by a pericarp, consisting of epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp ; 
and when mature containing a single seed. This term is applied to 
such fruits as the Cherry, Peach, Plum, Apricot, Mango, Walnut, 
Nutmeg, and Date. The endocarp is usually hard, forming the stone 
of the fruit, which encloses the kernel or seed, The mesocarp is 


312 DEHISCENT APOCARPOUS FRUITS. 


generally pulpy and succulent, so as to be truly a sarcocarp (odeé, 
flesh), as in the Peach, but it is sometimes of a tough texture, as in 
the Almond, and at other times more or less fibrous. There is thus a 
transition from the Drupe to the Nut. Moreover, in the Almond, 
there are often two ovules formed, only one of which comes to per- 
fection. In the Walnut, the endocarp, which is easily separable into 
two, forms prolongations which enter into the interior, and cause the 
brain-like divisions in the seed. It has been sometimes called Tryma. 
In the Raspberry and Bramble several drupes or drupels are aggre- 
gated so as to constitute an Eterio (erajgos, acompanion). This name is 
also given by some to the aggregate achenes of the Strawberry and Rose. 

Deuiscent Apocarpous Fruits.—These open in various ways, 
and usually contain more than one seed, being either few-seeded, 
oligospermous (6Atyos, few, and oxégua, a seed), or many-seeded, poly- 
spermous (woAuc, Many). 

Follicle (folliculus, a fittle bag).—This is a mature car- 
pel, containing several seeds, and opening by the ventral 
suture (figs. 539, p. 303; 564). It is rare to meet with a 
solitary follicle forming the fruit. There are usually several 
aggregated together, either in a circular manner on a short- 
ened receptacle, as in Hellebore, Aconite, Delphinium, 
Crassulacee (fig. 282, p. 191), Butomus (fig. 415, p. 238), 
and Asclepiadacee ; or in a spiral manner on an elongated 
receptacle, as in Magnolias, Banksias, and Liriodendron (fig. 

Fig. 664. 337, p, 213). Occasionally, some of the follicles open by the 
dorsal suture, as in Magnolia grandifiora and Banksia. 

The Legume or Pod (legumen, pulse) is a solitary, simple, mature 
carpel, dehiscing by the ventral and dorsal suture, and bearing seeds 
on the former. It characterises leguminous plants, and is seen in the 
Bean and Pea (fig. 565). In the Bladder-senna (fig. 566) it retains 
its leaf-like appearance, and forms an inflated legume. In some 
Leguminose, as Arachis and Cathartocarpus Fistula (fig. 429, p. 244), 
and the Tamarind, the fruit must be considered a legume, although it 
does not dehisce. The first of these plants produces its fruit under- 
ground, and is called earth-nut ; the second has a partitioned legume ; 
and both the second and third have pulpy matter surrounding the 
seeds. In place of opening at the sutures, some legumes are contracted 
at intervals so as to include each seed in a separate cell, and when 
ripe, the different divisions of the pod separate from each other. This 
constitutes the Lomentwm (lomentum, bean-meal) or lomentaceous legume 
of Hedysarum coronarium (fig. 556, p. 307), Coronillas, Ornithopus, 
Entada, and some Acacias. In Medicago the legume is twisted like 
a snail (fig. 567), and in Cesalpinia coriaria, or Divi-divi, it is ver- 

Fig. 564. Follicle or dehiscent many-seeded carpel of Aquilegia vulgaris, Columbine. 
The follicle dehisces by the ventral suture only. 


* INDEHISCENT SYNCARPOUS FRUITS. 313 


miform or curved like a worm ; in Carmichaelia the valves give way 
close to the suture, and separate from it, leaving a division. 


Fig. 565. Fig. 566, Fig. 567. 


Syncarpous Fruits are formed by several carpels, which are 
so united together as to appear one in their mature state. These 
fruits are either dry or succulent ; in the former case being usually 
dehiscent, in the latter indehiscent. 

InpeniscenT SyncaRPous Fruits.—The Berry (bacca) is a succu- 
lent fruit, in which the seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass, formed 
by the placentas. The name is usually given to such fruits as the 
Gooseberry and Currant, in which the ovary is inferior, and the 
placentas are parietal, the seeds being ultimately detached from the 
placenta, and lying loose in the pulp. Others have applied it also to 
those in which the ovary is superior, as in the Grape, Potato, and 
Ardisia, and the placentas are central or free central. The latter 
might be separated under the name Uva (grape). In general, the 
name of baccate or berried is applied to all pulpy fruits: In the Pome- 
granate there is a peculiar baccate many-celled inferior fruit, 
having a tough rind, enclosing two rows of carpels placed above 


Fig. 565. Legume of Pisum sativum, common Pea, opened. It is formed by a single 
carpel, and dehisces by the ventral and dorsal suture. vv, Valves formed by the two parts 
of the pericarp. , The epicarp or external layer of the pericarp. ’, Endocarp or internal 
layer. Between these the mesocarp is situated. g, Seeds placed one over the other, 

‘attached to the placenta by short funiculi or cords, ff, The placenta forms a narrow line 
along the ventral suture, sv. sd, The dorsal suture corresponding to the midrib of the 
earpellary leaf. Fig. 566. Legume of Bladder-senna (Colutea, arborescens), showing an in- 
flated, foliaceous pericarp. Fig. 567, Twisted or spiral legume of Medicago. ; 


314 INDEHISCENT SYNCARPOUS FRUITS. 


each other. The seeds are immersed in pulp, and are attached 
irregularly to the parietes, base, and centre. The fruit has been 
called Balausta (balaustiwm, flower of pomegranate), and the tough 
rind is called maticorium (a name applied to it by Pliny). ° 

The Pepo or Peponida (xérav, a pumpkin) is illustrated by the 
fruit of the Gourd, Melon (fig. 430, p. 245), and other Cucurbitaceze, 
where the calyx is superior, the rind is thick and fleshy, and there are 
three or more seed-bearing parietal placentas, either surrounding a 
central cavity, or sending prolongations inwards. The fruit of the 
Papaw resembles the Pepo, but the calyx is not superior. 

The Hesperidiwm (golden fruit in the garden of Hesperides) is the 
name given to such fruits as the Orange, Lemon, and Shaddock, in 
which the epicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the 
endocarp sends prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, in 
which pulpy cells are developed so as to surround the seeds which are 
attached to the inner angle. Both Pepo and Hesperidium may be 
considered as modifications of the Berry. 


Fig. 568. Fig. 569. 


The Pome (pomum, an apple), seen in the Apple, Pear, Quince, 
Medlar, and Hawthorn, is a fleshy fruit with the calyx attached, and 
has an outer skin or epicarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and a scaly or horny 
endocarp, the core enclosing the seeds. Some look upon the so-called 
epicarp and mesocarp as formed by the prolonged receptacle or torus 
with a fleshy lining ; while the endocarp represents the true carpels. 
In this view the endocarp might be regarded as consisting of a number 
of indehiscent follicles (usually five) surrounded by a pulpy torus. In the 
Medlar the endocarp (or what may be called the true pericarp) is of a 


Fig. 568, Fruit of common Medlar (Mespilus germanica). Transverse section showing, e, 
epicarp; s, Sarcocarp; , Endocarp, forming stony coverings of the seeds. The fruit has 
been called nuculanium, and the hard central cells pyrene. In the Medlar, as well as in 
the Apple, Pear, and Quince, the fruit may be considered as composed of stony or parch- 
ment-like follicles, covered by a pulpy disk. Fig. 569. Fruit of Cernus mascula, com- 
mon Cornel. 1, Transverse section detaching the upper half of the fleshy portion, s, so as 
to show the central kernel, n. 2, Transverse section of the fruit through the central por- 
tion, n, showing that it consisted of two loculaments. 1, One of the loculaments empty, 
the other containing a seed, g. 


DEHISCENT SYNCARPOUS FRUITS. 315 


stony hardness, while the outer pulpy covering is open at the summit. 
The stones of the Medlar are called pyrene (aiejy, the stone of fruit) ; 
some apply the term nuculanium (nucula, a nut) to the Medlar. Taking 
this view of the Pome it may be said to resemble the fruit‘of the Rose, 
with this difference, that the Rose produces achenes, and the Pome 
closed follicles. In Cornus mascula (fig. 569, 1, 2) there are two stony 
cells, n, surrounded by the fleshy epicarp and mesocarp, and as they 
are close together, and one is often abortive (fig. 569, 2, 1), there is a 
direct transition to the Drupe. 

Deniscent Syncarpous Frurrs.—The Capsule (capsula, a little 
chest). This name is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits, 
which open by valves or pores. The valvular capsule is observed in 
Digitalis (fig. 541, p. 304), Hibiscus esculentus (fig. 545, p. 304), 
Cedrela angustifolia (fig. 546, p. 304), Mahogany (fig. 547, p. 305), 
and Cerastium triviale (fig. 540, p. 303). The porose capsule is seen 
in the Poppy (fig. 444, p. 249), Antirrhinum majus (fig. 558, p. 308), 
and Campanula. persicifolia (fig. 557, p. 308). Sometimes the capsule 
opens by a lid, or by circumscissile dehiscence, and it is then called a 
Pysidium (pysis, a box), as in Anagallis arvensis (fig. 554, p. 307), 
Henbane (fig. 555, p. 307), and Monkey-pot (Lecythis). The capsule 
assumes a screw-like form in Helicteres, and a star-like or stellate 
form in Illicium anisatum. In certain instances the cells of the 
capsule separate from each other, and open with elasticity to scatter 
the seeds. This kind of capsule is met with in the Sandbox tree 
(Hura crepitans), and other Euphorbiacez, where the cocci, containing 
-each a single seed, burst asunder with force (fig. 549, p. 305); and in 
Geraniaceze, where the cocci, each containing, when mature, usually 
one seed, separate from the carpophore, and become curved upwards 
by their adherent styles (fig. 551, p. 306). In the former case, the 
fruit collectively has been called Regma (é%ymwa, a rupture). 

The Siliqua (siliqua, a husk or pod) (fig. 552, p. 306) may be con- 
sidered as a variety of the capsule, opening by two valves; these are 
detached from below upwards, close to the sutures, bearing thin parietal 
placentas, which are united together by a prolongation called a replum, 
or spurious dissepiment dividing the fruit into two. The seeds are 
attached on either side of the replum, either in one row or in two. 
When the fruit is long and narrow, it is called Sigua; when broad 
and short, it is called Silicwla, It occurs in cruciferous plants, as 
Wallflower, Cabbage, and Cress. The siliqua may be considered 
as formed of two carpels and two parietal placentas united together 
so as to form a two-celled seed-vessel. Some say that in its normal 
state it consists of four carpels, and that two of these are abortive. 
There are four bundles of vessels in it, one corresponding to each 
valve, which may be called valvular or pertcarpial, and others running 
along the edge called placental. The replum consists of two lamella. 


316 CONFLUENT OR POLYGYNCECIAL FRUITS. 


It sometimes exhibits perforations, becoming fenestrate (fenestra, a 
window), At other times its central portion is absorbed, so that the 
fruit becomes one-celled. 


Multiple or Polygynecial Fruits which are the produce of 
several Flowers wnited, 


It sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as 
to form a double fruit. This may be seen in many species of Honey- 
suckle. But the fruits which are now to be considered consist usually 
of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of several flowers united 
into one, and are called Multiple, Confluent, or Polygynacial. The 
term Anthocarpous (dréos, a flower, xaeéc, fruit) has also been applied 
as indicating that the floral envelopes as well as the carpels are con- 
cerned in the formation of the fruit. 

The Sorosis (cweés, a congeries or cluster) is a confluent fruit 
formed by a united spike of flowers, which be- 
comes succulent. The fruit of the Pine-apple (fig. 
570) is composed of numerous ovaries, floral enve- 
lopes, and bracts, combined so as to form a succulent 
mass. The scales outside, cc, are the modified 
bracts and floral leaves, which, when the develop- 
ment of the fruit-hearing spike terminates, appear 
in the form of ordinary leaves, and constitute the 
crown, f. Other instances of a sorosis are the Bread- 
fruit and Jack-fruit. Sometimes a fruit of this 
kind resembles that formed by a single flower, and 
a superficial observer might have some difficulty in 

Fig. 570. marking the difference. Thus, the Strawberry, 
Raspberry, and Mulberry appear to be very like each other, but they 
differ totally in their structure. The Strawberry and 7 
Raspberry are each the produce of a single flower, the 
former being a succulent edible receptacle bearing achenia 
on its convex surface; the latter being a collection of 
drupes placed on a conical unpalatable receptacle ; while 
the Mulberry (fig. 571) is a sorosis formed by numerous 
flowers united together, the calyces becoming succulent 
and investing the pericarps. 

Syconus (otxov, a fig) is a confluent anthocarpous fruit, 
in which the axis, or the extremity of the peduncle, is 


Fig. 570. Polygyncecial or confluent fruit of Ananassa sativa, Pine-apple. Axis bearing 
numerous flowers, the ovaries of which are combined with the bracts, ¢ c, to form the fruit. 
J, Crown of the Pine-apple, consisting of empty bracts or floral leaves. Fig. 571. Antho- 
carpous fruit of the Mulberry, formed by the union of several flowers. The floral envelopes 
become succulent, and cover the pistil. 


CONFLUENT OR POLYGYNCCIAL FRUITS. 317 


hollowed, so as to bear numerous flowers, all of which are united in one 
mass to form the fruit. The Fig (fig. 267, p. 180) is of this nature, 
and what are called its seeds are the acheenia or monospermal seed- 
vessels of the numerous flowers scattered through the pulpy hol- 
lowed axis. In Dorstenia (fig. 266, p. 180) the axis ‘is less deeply 
hollowed, and of a harder texture, the fruit exhibiting often very 
anomalous forms. 

Strobilus (org6B7do¢, fir-cone) is a fruit-bearing spike more or less 
elongated, covered with scales (fig. 572), each of which represents a sepa- 
rate flower, and has often two seeds 
at its base. The scales may be 
considered as bracts, or as flattened. 
carpellary leaves or branches, and 
the seeds are naked, as there is no 
true ovary present with its style or 
stigma. This fruit is seen in the 
cones of Firs, Spruces, Larches, and 
Cedars, which have received the 
name of Coniferee, or cone-bearers, 
on this account. The scales of the 
strobilus are sometimes thick and 
closely united, so as to form a more 
or less angular and rounded mass, 
as in the Cypress (fig. 573) ; while 
in the Juniper they become fleshy, 
and are so incorporated as to form 
a globular fruit like a berry (fig. 
574). Theidry fruit of the Cypress, and the succulent fruit of the 
Juniper, have received the name of Galbulus (galbulus, nut of the 
cypress). The fruit of the Yew (Taxus baccata) is regarded as a cone 
reduced to a single naked seed, covered by succulent scales, which 
unite to form a scarlet fleshy envelope. In the Hop the fruit is called 
algo a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and membranous, and the 
seeds are not naked but are contained in pericarps. 


Fig. 572. 


Fig. 572. Cone of Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Fir, consisting of numerous bracts or floral 
leaves, each of which covers two winged seeds. These seeds are ealled naked, in conse- 
quence of not being contained in an ovary, with a style or stigma. Fig. 573. Cone of 
Cupressus sempervirens, Cypress ; one of the Gymnospermous or naked-seeded plants, like 
the Pine. Fig. 574. Succulent cone or Galbulus of Juniperus macrocarpa. ¢¢¢e, The 
different scales or bracts united so as to enclose the seeds, 


318 TABULAR VIEW OF CARPOLOGY. 


TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF FRUITS. 


A. Simple or Monogynecial Fruits formed by the gyncecium of a single flower, 
and consisting of one or more Carpels either separate or combined ; thus 
including Apocarpous, Aggregate, and Syncarpous Fruits. 


I. Indehiscent Pericarps, 


1. Monospermal—usually containing a single seed : 
( Achenium (Lithosper- 
| mum). 
: Mericarp and Cremocarp 
in Umbellifere, and 
; \ Cypsela in Composite. 
Achemia enclosed in a hollow fleshy torus, Cynarrhodum (Rose). 


Separable from the seed . 


Covered by a dry 
simple Pericarp. 


Inseparable from the seed i ‘ ‘ Caryopsis (Grasses). 
Inflated 7 A Utricle (Chenopodium). 
Having a cupulate involucrum . : : Glans (Acorn). 

\ Having winged appendages. 5 Samara (Sycamore), 


Covered by a Pericarp, consisting of Epicarp, Sarcocarp, 
and Endocarp. 
Drupe, with a two-valved Endocarp, having divisions extending from its 
inner surface, Tryma (Walnut). 
Aggregate Drupes, Htcerio (Raspberry). 


Drupe (Cherry). 


2. Polyspermal—containing two or more seeds : 
(Ovary inferior, Placenta parietal, attachment 


b 
2 of seeds lost when ripe { Bacea (Gooseberry). 
ga attachment permanent, rind ) 
fs : thick and hard . Pepo (Gourd) 
ip, J Peculiar berried many- celled fruit, with two 
ro Bt 1 or more rows of Carpels 5 Balausta (Pomegranate). 
2 & | Ovary superior, Placenta central . . Uva (Grape). 
a 3 | —————— Placenta parietal. Papaw fruit. 
Having hepens a spongy separable rind, and separable ia 
an rillpy relia: ¢ Hesperidium (Orange). 
"38 — ( Endocarp horny, covered by a fleshy Mesocarp 
a 3 a and Epicarp formed by the disk Pome (Apple). 
cam End t 7 d by a fleshy M 
3:38 ) Endocarp stony, covered by a fleshy esocarP z 
| Ss and Epicarp formed by the disk Nuculanium (Medlar). 
II. Dehiscent Pericarps. 
Opening by Ventral Suture only * Follicle (Pzony). 
t Opening by Ventral and Dorsal Suture ‘ Legume (Pea), 
Py Lomentum, a Legume separating into distinct pieces, each containing 
2 a seed. (Ornithopus), a kind of Schizocarp. 
Fy Opening by two valves which separate from a ) Siliqua (Cabbage). 
Ss Central Replum or Frame . Silicula (Capsella). 
4+ Opening by Transverse or Circumscissile De- 
3 ee Pyxidium (Henbane). 
A Opening by several "valves or pores * without 
3 Ventral or Dorsal Suture or Replum Pepeile enn) 
g Capsule inferior ‘ ‘ , "i Diplotegia (Campanula). 
nm A long pod-like Capsule . : . Ceratium (Glaucium). 


\Opening by separation of elastic Cocci Regma (Hura). 


MATURATION OF THE PERICARP. 319 


B. Polygnecial or Multiple Fruits formed by the union of several Flowers, and 
consisting of Floral Envelopes, as well as Ovaries ;j these are Anthocarpous. 


Hollow Anthocarpous Fruit.—Syconus (Fig). i 
formed by Indurated or Scaly Catkin.—Stro- 
bilus (Fir Cone and Hop). 
Convex Anthocarpous Fruit. + formed by Succulent Spike.—Sorosis (Bread- 
fruit, Mulberry, Pine-apple), Galbulus 
(Juniper), 


Professor Dickson gives the following classification of Fruits (ma- 
ture pistils), 

1. Capsule. Dry, dehiscent, allowing the seeds to escape—Capsule, Siliqua, 
Follicle, Legume, Regma, Diplotegia, Pyxidium, etc., of authors. 

2. Schizocarp. Dry, breaking up into two or more, one- or few-seeded 


indehiscent pieces—Carcerulus (Malva, Tropwolum, Lamium, etc.), Samara (Acer), 
Lomentum, Cremocarp, of authors. 


8. Achene. Dry, indehiscent, one- or few-seeded, not breaking up as the last - 
—Achene, Caryopsis, Samara (Framinus, etc.), Cypsela, Glans, of authors. 


4, Berry. Indehiscent. Seeds imbedded in pulp. Outer portion of variable 
consistence—Uva, Hesperidium, Amphisarca, Pepo, Balausta, Bacca, of authors. 


5. Drupe. Indehiscent. Seed or seeds inclosed by the distinctly defined and 
indurated endocarp. Outer portion of variable consistence (fleshy, fibrous, etc.)— 
Drupe, Tryma, Pome, of authors.* 

Where several distinct (apocarpous) fruits are produced from one flower ; the 

» » term Eterio designates a collection of Achenes, Drupes or Follicles (?), upon a 
more or less convex receptacle ; and Cynarrhodum a collection of Achenes upon 
the inner surface of a hollow succulent receptacle. " 

Where the fruits from an inflorescence are massed together the whole forms a 
“confluent fruit.” (a) Syconus—Achenes, upon a flat or hollow, dry or succulent 
axis of inflorescence. (5) Sorosis—Achenes, Drupes, or Berries, with succulent 
perianths, or succulent bracts, or both, upon 4 more or less elongated axis of 
inflorescence ;—Sorosis and Galbulus of authors. (c) Strobitus—Achenes, with 
dry bracts, and sometimes scale-like secondary peduncles, upon a more or less 
elongated axis of inflorescence. 


7. Maturation of the Pericarp. 


After fertilisation, the parts of the ovary begin to swell, the 
foramen of the ovule is more or less closed, the stigma becomes dry, 
and the style either withers and falls off, or remains attached as a 
hardened process or apiculum ; while the embryo plant is developed 
in the ovule. Certain fruits, such as Oranges and Grapes, are some- 
times produced without seeds. It does not appear, therefore, necessary 
for the production of fruit in all cases, that the process of fertilisation 


* The above classification is founded upon the idea that the definition or description of 
a fruit, as such, should involve the structural modification undergone by the pistil in ripen- 
ing, rather than the origin of the fruit from superior to inferior ovary, etc., which is to be 
understood or taken for granted, from the description of the immature pistil. From such 
a principle not being recognised, the terms indicating different fruits have been needlessly 
multiplied. 


320 MATURATION OF THE PERICARP. 


should be complete. In speaking of seedless Oranges, Dr. Bullar 
states that the thinness of the rind of a St. Michael Orange, and its 
freedom from pips, depend on the age of the tree. The young trees, 
when in full vigour, bear fruit with a thick pulpy rind and abundance 
of seeds; but as the vigour of the plant declines, the peel becomes 
thinner, and the seeds gradually diminish in number, till they dis- 
appear altogether. 

While the fruit enlarges, the sap is drawn towards it, and a great 

exhaustion of the juices of the plant takes place. In Annuals this ex- 
haustion is such as to destroy the plants; but if they are prevented 
from bearing fruit, they may be made to live for two or more years. 
Perennials, by acquiring increased vigour, are able better to bear the 
demand made upon them during fruiting. If large and _ highly- 
flavoured fruit is desired, it is of importance to allow an accumulation 
of sap to take place before the plant flowers. The wood should be 
well ripened. When a very young plant is permitted to bear fruit, it 
seldom brings it to perfection. When a plant produces fruit in very 
large quantity, gardeners are in the habit of thinning it early, in 
order that there may be an increased supply of sap to that which 
remains. In this way, Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots, are ren- 
dered larger and better flavoured. When the fruiting is checked for 
one season, there is an accumulation of nutritive matter, which has a 
beneficial effect on the subsequent crop. 
. The pericarp is at first of a green colour, and performs the same 
functions as the other green parts of plants, decomposing carbonic 
acid under the agency of light, and liberating oxygen. Saussure 
found by experiments that all fruits in a green state perform this pro- 
cess of deoxidation. As the pericarp advances to maturity, it either 
becomes dry or succulent. In the former case, it changes into a brown 
or a white colour, and has a quantity of ligneous matter deposited in 
its substance, so as to acquire sometimes great hardness, when it is 
incapable of performing any active process of vegetable life; in the 
latter it becomes fleshy in its texture, and assumes various bright 
tints, as red, yellow, etc. In fleshy fruits, however, there is fre- 
quently a deposition of ligneous cells in the endocarp, forming the 
stone of the fruit; and even in the substance of the pulpy matter or 
sarcocarp there are found isolated cells of a similar nature, as in some 
varieties of Pear, where they cause a peculiar grittiness. The con- 
tents of the cells near the circumference of succulent fruits are thick- 
ened by exhalation, and a process of endosmose goes on, by which the 
thinner contents of the inner cells pass outwards, and thus cause 
swelling of the fruit. As the fruit advances to maturity, however, 
this exhalation diminishes. In all pulpy fruits which are not green 
there are changes going on by which carbon is separated in combina- 
tion with oxygen. 


MATURATION OF THE PERICARP. 321 


Dry fruits may remain attached to the tree for some time before 
they are fully ripe, and ultimately separate by disarticulation, 
Occasionally, when the pericarp is thick, it separates in layers like the 
bark. Succulent fruits contain a large quantity of water, along with 
cellulose, lignine, sugar, gummy matter or dextrine, albumen, colouring 
matter, various organic acids, as citric, malic, and tartaric, combined 
with lime and alkaline substances, besides a pulpy gelatinous matter, 
containing pectose, the characteristic constituent of unripe fruits. 
This substance is quite insoluble in water, but during the ripening of 
the fruit it is converted by the vegetable acids into pectine, which is 
soluble in water, and exists in the pulp of fruits, as Apples, Pears, 
Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Strawberries, etc. This substance 
undergoes a further change, being converted into pectic acid 
(C* H® 0%) and pectosic acid (C* H* 0”). These are easily soluble 
in boiling water and gelatinise on cooling (aqxrés, congealed) ; hence 
their use in making preserves. Each kind of fruit is flavoured with a 
peculiar aromatic substance. Starch is rarely present in the pericarp 
of the fruit, although it occurs commonly in the seed. In Plantains, 
Bananas, and Bread-fruit, however, especially when seedless, there is 
a considerable quantity of starchy matter, giving rise to mealiness, 
Oily matters are also found in the cellular tissue of many fruits. Thus, 
a fixed oil occurs in the Olive, and essential oils in the Orange, Lemon, 
Lime, Rue, Dictamuus, etc. 

During ripening much of the water disappears, while the cellulose, 
lignine, and the dextrine, are converted into sugar. Berard is of 
opinion that the changes in fruits are caused by the action of the 
oxygen of the air. Fremy found that fruits covered with varnish did 
not ripen. As the process of ripening becomes perfected the acids com- 
bine with alkalies, and thus the acidity of the fruit diminishes, while 
its sweetness increases. The formation of sugar is by some attributed 
to the action of organic acids on the vegetable constituents, gum, dex- 
trine, and starch; others think that the cellulose and lignine are 
similarly changed by the action of acids. The sugar of fruits is grape 
or starch sugar, called also Glucose. Its formula is C’ H* O". In the 
Grape, when young, there is abundance of tartaric acid; but as the 
fruit advances to maturity this combines with potash, so as to 
diminish the acidity. Certain fruits owe their aperient qualities to 
the saline matter which they contain, In seasons when there is little 
sun, and a great abundance of moisture, succulent fruits become 
watery, and lose their flavour. The same thing frequently takes place in 
young trees with abundance of sap, and in cases where a large supply 
of water has been given artificially. 

The following analysis of the Cherry in its unripe and ripe state, 
as given by Berard, exhibits generally the chemical composition of suc- 
culent fruits :— 

Y 


322 MATURATION OF THE PERICARP. 


Unripe. Ripe. 

Chlorophyll ‘ , F . 0°05 5 é : — f 
Sugar . ‘ _ : e Le - : . 18°12 
Gum or dextrine ” 6°01 : f é 3°23 
Cellulose . ‘ ‘ : . 2°44 ‘ , 5 112 
Albumen . i : 2 .  0'21 2 P ‘ 0°57 
Malic Acid 3 a 175 Fs ‘ i 2°01 
Lime : : i ‘ . O14 3 : 0°10 
Water 3 3 4 F . 88°28 é : ‘ 74°85 
100°00 100°00 


The following table shows the changes produced on the water, sugar, 
and cellulose, in 100 parts of unripe and ripe fruits :— 


Water. Sugar. Cellulose. 
Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. 
Apricot . . . 89°39 74:87. . 6°64 16°48. . 3°61 1°86 
Peach . . . 90°31 80°24. . 0°63 11°61. . 38°01 1°21 
Cherries . . . 88°28 74°85. . 1:12 1812. . 2°44 1:12 
Plums . . 7487 7110. = . 17°71 «24°81. . 1:26 1:11 
Pears A . 86°28 83°88. . 6°45 11°52. . 38°80 2:19 


It is not easy in all cases to determine the exact time when the 
fruit is ripe. In dry fruits, the period immediately before dehiscence 
is considered as that of maturation ; but, in pulpy fruits, there is much 
uncertainty. It is usual to say that edible fruits are ripe when their 
ingredients are in such a state of combination as to give the most 
agreeable flavour. This occurs at different periods in different fruits. 
After succulent fruits are ripe, in the ordinary sense, so as to be capable 
of being used for food, they undergo further changes, by the oxidation 
of their tissues, even after being separated from the plant. In some 
cases these changes improve the quality of the fruit, as in the case of 
the Medlar, the austerity of which is thus still further diminished. In 
the Pear, this process, called by Lindley bletting (from the French, blest), 
renders it soft, but still fit for food; while in the Apple it causes a 
decay which acts injuriously on its qualities. By this process of oxi- 
dation the whole fruit is ultimately reduced to a putrefactive mass, 
which probabl¥’ acts beneficially in promoting the germination of the 
seeds when the fruit drops on the ground. 

The period of time required for ripening the fruit varies in dif 
ferent plants. Most plants ripen their fruit within a year from the 
time of the expansion of the flower. Some come to maturity in a few 
days, others require some months. Certain plants, as some Conifere, 
require more than a year, and in the Metrosideros the fruit remains 
attached to the branch for several years. The following is a general 
statement of the usual time required for the maturation of different 
kinds of fruit :— 


EFFECT OF GRAFTING ON FRUITS. 323 


Grasses. : 4 “ . 18 to 45 days, 

Raspberry, Strawberry, Cherry . : : . F 2 months. 

Bird-cherry, Lime-tree je % F . 

Roses, White-thorn, Horse- chestnut ‘ 4 

Vine, Pear, Apple, Walnut, Beech, eee Nut, Almond, 5 to 6 
7 


” 
” 
2 


Olive, Savin . . ay 
Colchicum, Mistleto . é ° : ‘ : 'g tod ,, 
Many Conifer . F - 10tol2 ,, 


Some Conifer, certain species of Oak, Metrosideros, above 12 ,, 


The ripening of fruit may be accelerated by the application of heat, 
by placing dark-coloured bricks below it, and by removing a ring of 
bark so as to lead to an accumulation of sap. It has been observed 
that plants subjected to a high temperature not unfrequently prove 
abortive, which seems to result from the over-stimulation causing the 
production of unisexual flowers alone. Trees are sometimes made to 
produce fruit by checking their roots when too luxuriant, and by 
preventing the excessive development of branches. 

GraFrrinc.—aA very important benefit is produced, both as regards 
the period of fruiting and the quality of the fruit, by the process of 
grafting. This is accomplished by taking a young twig or scion, 
called a graft, and causing it to unite to a vigorous stem or stock, thus 
enabling it to derive a larger supply of nutritive matter than it could 
otherwise obtain, and checking its vegetative powers. In place of a 
slip or cutting, a bud is sometimes taken. In order that grafting 
may be successfully performed, there must be an affinity between the 
graft and the stock as regards their sap, etc. It has often been sup- 
posed that any kinds of plants may be grafted together, and instances 
are mentioned by Virgil and Pliny, where different fruits are said to 
have been borne on the same stock. This was probably produced by 
what the French call greffe des charlatans,—cutting down a tree within 
a short distance of the ground, and then hollowing out the stump, and 
planting within it several young trees of different species ; in a few 
years they grow up together so as to fill up the cavity, and appear to 
be one. The deception is kept up better if some buds of the parent 
stock have been kept alive. Fortune gives an instance in the Punjaub 
of a Peach growing out of an old Mango tree about six or eight feet 
from the ground. In this case the Peach had its roots in the ground, 
and had grown through the hollow stem of the Mango, In India the 
Peepul tree (Ficus religiosa) occasionally grows on the stumps of other 
trees, and sends its roots down so as to cover the stump completely, 
and thus presents the appearance of two kinds of trees growing from 
one root. By grafting the branches of hedge plants together good 
fences are occasionally formed (see drawing of such hedges and trees, 
Trans, Bot. Soc, Edin., vol. x. p. 452). 

The object which gardeners wish to secure by grafting, is the 
improvement of the kinds of fruit, the perpetuation of good varieties, 


324 DIFFERENT MODES OF GRAFTING. 


which could not be procured from seed, and the hastening of the period 
of fruit-bearing. Grafting a young twig on an older stock has the 
effect of making it flower earlier than it would otherwise do. The 
accumulation of sap in the old stock is made beneficial to the twig, 
and a check is given at the same time to its tendency to produce leaves. 
Although the general law is, that grafting can only take place between 
plants, especially trees, of the same family, there are certain exceptions, 
Loranthaceous parasites can form a union with genera in different orders. 

Mr. Knight did much to improve fruits by grafting. He believed, 
however, that a graft would not live longer than the natural limit of 
life allowed to the tree from which it had been taken. In this way he 
endeavoured to account for the supposed extinction of some valuable 
varieties of fruit, such as the Golden pippin, and many cider apples of 
the seventeenth century. He conceived that the only natural method 
of propagating plants was by seed. His views have not been confirmed 
by physiologists. Many plants are undoubtedly propagated naturally 
by shoots, buds, and tubers, as well as by seed ; and it is certain that 
the life of slips may be prolonged by various means, much beyond the 
usual limit of the life of the parent stock. The Sugar-cane is propa- 
gated naturally by the stem, the Strawberry by runners, the Couch-grass 
by creeping stems, Potatoes and Jerusalem Artichokes by tubers, 
the Tiger lily by bulblets, and Achimenes by scaly bodies like tubers. 
The fruits, moreover, which Mr. Knight thought had disappeared, 
such as Red streak, Golden pippin, and Golden Harvey, still exist, and 
any feebleness exhibited by them does not appear to proceed from old 
age, but seems to be owing to other causes, such as the nature of the 
soil, cold, violence, and mutilation. Vines have been transmitted by 
perpetual division from the time of the Romans. A slip taken from a 
Willow in Mr. Knight’s garden, pronounced by him as dying from old 
age, was planted in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden many years ago, 
and is now a vigorous tree, although the original stock has long since 
undergone decay. It is true, however, that a cutting taken from a 
specimen already exhausted by excessive development of its parts will 
partake of the impaired vigour of its parent, and will possess less con- 
stitutional energy than that taken from a vigorous stock. 

In grafting, various methods have been adopted. One of these is 
grafting by approach, or inarching, when two growing plants are united 
together, and after adhesion one is severed from its own stock, and 
left to grow on the other. This kind of adhesion sometimes takes place 
naturally in trees growing close together. The branch of the same tree 
may also be bent, so as to become united to the stem at two points. 
This is often seen in the Ivy. The roots of contiguous trees occasion- 
ally unite by a process of grafting, and to this is attributed the con- 
tinued vigour of the stump of Spruce-trees cut down on the Swiss 
mountains. This natural grafting of roots has been observed in the 


DIFFERENT MODES OF GRAFTING. 325 


White Pine (Abies pectinata), and sometimes in the Red Pine (Abies 
excelsa), as well as in the Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris) and the Larch 
(Laria europea), 

The usual method of grafting is by sctons or slips, which are applied 
to the stock by a sloping surface, or are inserted into slits in it by 
cleft-grafting, or into perforations by wimble- or peg-grafting. Whip- 
grafting or tongue-grafting is performed by inserting a tongue or cleft- 
process of the stock between the lips of a cut in the scion, Side-grafting 
resembles whip-grafting, but it is performed on the side of the stock 
without heading it down. Sometimes several slips are placed ina 
circular manner round the inside of the bark of the stock by crown- 
grafting ; or the bark of a portion of the stock is removed, and that of 
the scion is hollowed out, so as to be applied over it like the parts of 
a flute, hence called flute-grafting. Budding is practised by the removal 
of a bud from one plant, along with the portion of the bark and new 
wood, and applying it to another plant, in which a similar wound has 
been made.. Grafting is usually performed between the woody parts 
of the plants, but herbaceous parts may also be united in this way. 
The graft and stock are secured by clay, or by bees’-wax and tallow, 
or by Indian rubber, gutta percha, or collodion. 

By grafting, all our good varieties of apples have been produced 
from the Crab Apple. The seeds of the cultivated apples, when sown, 
produce plants which have a tendency to revert to the original sour 
Crab. Grafted varieties can only be propagated by cuttings. The 
influence exercised by the stock is very marked, and it is of great 
importance to select good stocks on which to graft slips. In this way 
the fruit is often much improved by a process of ennobling, as it is called. 
The scion also seems in some cases to exercise a remarkable effect on the 
stock. Slips taken from plants with variegated leaves, and grafted on 
others with non-variegated leaves, have sometimes caused the leaves of 
the latter to assume variegation, and the effect, when once established, 
has continued even after the slip was removed. The effects of grafting 
are well seen in the case of the Red Laburnum, when united to the 
Yellow species. The Red Laburnum is a hybrid between the common 
Yellow Laburnum and Cytisus purpureus (the Purple Laburnum). 
The branches below the graft produce the ordinary Yellow Laburnum 
flowers of large size; those above exhibit often the small Purple 
Laburnum flowers, as well as reddish flowers, intermediate between 
the two in size and colour, Occasionally, the same cluster has some 
flowers yellow and some purplish. 


8.—Seed or Fertilised Ovule arrived at Maturity. 


While the pistil undergoes changes consequent on the discharge 
of the pollen on the stigma, and ultimately becomes the fruit, the 


326 SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 


ovule also is transformed, and, when fully developed, constitutes the 
seed. After fertilisation, the foramen of the ovule contracts, the 
young plant gradually increases in its interior, by the absorption of 
the fluid matter contained in the sac of the amnios (embryo-sac), 
solid nutritive matter is deposited, and a greater or less degree of 
hardness is acquired. The seed then is the fecundated mature ovule 
containing the embryo, with certain nutritive and protective append- 
ages. When ripe, the seed contains usually a quantity of starchy 
and ligneous matter, azotised compounds, as caseine and vegetable 
albumen, oily and saline matters. It sometimes acquires a stony 
hardness, as in the case of the seed of Phytelephas macrocarpa, which 
yields vegetable ivory. Care’must be taken not to confound seeds 
with single-seeded pericarps, such as the Achznium and Caryopsis, in 
which a style and stigma are present; nor with bulbils or bulblets, 
as in Lilium bulbiferum and Dentaria bulbifera, which are germs or 
separable buds developed without fecundation. 

Seeds are usually enclosed in a seed-vessel or pericarp, and hence 
the great mass of flowering plants are called angiospermous (dyyoc, or 
ayyesiov, a vessel, and ortewa, a seed). In Coniferee and Cycadacee, 
however, the seeds are generally looked upon as having 
no true pericarpial covering, and fertilisation therefore 
takes place by the direct application of the pollen to the 
seed, without the intervention of stigma or style. Hence 
the seeds, although sometimes protected by scales, are 
truly naked, and the plants are called gymnospermous 

Fig.575. — (yuwvés, naked, and owéeua, a seed). Occasionally, by 
the early rupture of the pericarp, seeds originally covered become 
exposed. This is seen in Leontice and Cuphea. In Mignonette, the 
seed-vessel (fig. 575) opens early, so as to expose the seeds, which 
are called seminude, 

Besides being contained in a pericarp, the seed has its own 
peculiar coverings. Like the ovule, it consists of a nucleus or kernel, 
and integuments. In some instances, although rarely, all the parts of 
the ovule are visible in the seed—viz., the embryo-sac or quintine, 
the quartine, the tercine or covering of the nucleus, the secundine, 
and the primine. In fig. 576 there is a representation of the seed of 
Nymphea alba, in which se indicates the embryo-sac, containing the 
embryo, ¢; , the cellular farinaceous covering (quartine), formed 
round the embryo-sac; mf, membrane formed round the nucleus 
(tercine) ; mi, the secundine ; ¢, the primine. In general, however, 
great changes take place by the development of the embryo; the 
embryo-sac is often absorbed, or becomes incorporated with the 
cellular tissue of the nucleus ; the same thing occasionally takes place 


©° Fig. 575. Fruit or capsule of Mignonette (Reseda odorata), opening early, so that the 
ovules become seminude, 


SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 327 


in the secundine, so that in the ripe seed, all that can be detected is 
the embryo with two coverings, The general 
covering of the seed is called spermoderm 
(origua, seed, and dégua, covering) In 
order to correspond with the name applied 
to the covering of the fruit, it ought more 
properly to be denominated perisperm (regi, 
around, and oégua, seed). This latter 
term, however, has been appropriated to 
a certain portion of the seed, to be after- 
wards noticed under the name of albumen, 

THE SPERMODERM usually consists of 
two parts an external membrane, called the 
episperm or testa (277, upon, or on the out- 
side, and ovégua, a seed ; testa, a shell), and 
an internal membrane, called endopleura (évdov, 
within, and rAzved, side or rib), The former 
may consist of a union of the primine and 
secundine, or of the primine only, when, as 
occasionally happens, the secundine is ab- 
sorbed; the latter, of a combination be- 
tween the membrane of the nucleus and the 
embryo-sac, or of one of these parts alone. Sometimes the secundine 
remains distinct in the seed, forming what has been called a mesosperm 
(#éo0g, middle) ; and when it assumes a fleshy character, it has re- 
ceived the name of sarcosperm or sarcoderm (odeé, flesh). 

Tue Episperm consists of cellular tissue, which often assumes 
various colours, and becomes more or less hardened by depositions in 
its interior. In Abrus precatorius and Adenanthera pavonina it is 
of a bright red colour ; in French beans it is beautifully mottled ; in 
the Almond it is veined; in the Tulip and Primrose it is rough; in 
the Snapdragon it is marked with depressions ; in Cotton and Ascle- 
pias it has hairs attached to it; and in Mahogany and Bignonia it 
is expanded in the form of wing-like appendages. In Collomia, Acan- 
thodium, and other seeds, it contains spiral cells, from which, when 
moistened with water, the fibres uncoil in a beautiful manner. Spiral 
cells are also seen in the episperm of the seeds of Cobzea and’ Calem- 
pelis scaber. In the episperm of the seed of Ulmus campestris the 
cells are compressed, and their sinuous boundaries are traced out by 
minute rectangular crystals adhering to their walls. 


Fig. 576. 


Fig. 576. Young seed of Nymphea alba cut vertically. jf, Funiculus or umbilical cord. 
a, Arillus derived from the placenta. 7, Raphe. ec, Chalaza or cotyledonary end of the 
seed. h, Hilum or base of the seed. m, Micropyle or foramen. ¢, Testa or primine, mi, 
Secundine, mt, Tercine or membrane of the nucleus. , Farinaceous external perisperm 
or albumen formed by the nucleus, and probably constituting the quartine of Mirbel. se, 
se, Internal perisperm or endosperm formed by the embryo-sac, e, The embryo. 


328 SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 


THe ENpDopPLEuRA is also cellular. It is often thin and trans- 
parent, but it sometimes becomes thickened. It is applied more or 
less closely to the embryo, and sometimes follows a sinuous course, 
forming folds on its internal surface, and separating from the episperm. 

When the embryo-sac remains distinct from the nucleus in the 
seeds, as in Nymphzea, Zingiber, Piper, ete., it forms a covering to 
which the name of vitellus (vitellus, yolk of an egg) was given by 
Geertner. 

Aritius. Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, 
derived from an expansion of the funiculus or placenta after fertilisa- 
tion, to which the name arillus has been given. This is seen in the 


Fig. 577. 


Passion-flower, where the covering commences at the base, and proceeds 
towards the apex, leaving the foramen uncovered. In the Nutmeg 
and Spindle-tree this additional coat is said to commence at the side 
of the exostome, and to proceed from above downwards, constituting, 
in the former case, the substance called mace; and, in the latter, the 


Fig. 578, 


bright scarlet covering of the seeds (figs. 577, 578). In such instances 


Fig. 577. 1, 2, 8, 4, Various states of the arillus of the spindle-tree (Euonymus). The 
figures show the mode in which it is developed from the edges of the foramen. aaaa, Aril- 
lode. f fff, Foramen or Exostome. 

Fig. 578. Development of the same arillus, a, around the ovule, o, exhibited in a different 
position. 1, 2, 3, 4, are four successive stages of development. In fig. 4 the arillus has been 
cut vertically to show its relation to the ovule, which it surrounds completely. 


SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 329 


it has been called by some an ariilode, This arillode, after growing 
downwards, may be reflected upwards, so as to cover the foramen. 
On the testa, at various points, there are pro- 
duced at times cellular bodies, which are not 
dependent on fertilisation, to which the name of 
strophioles (strophiolum, a little garland), or car- 
uncules (caruncula, a little piece of flesh), has been 
given, the seeds being strophiolate or carunculate. 
These tumours may occur near the base or apex of 
the seed, they may be swellings of the exostome, 
as in Ricinus (fig. 579 c), or they may occur in the 
course of the raphe. Fig. 579. 
Seeds are attached to the placenta by means of a funiculus or 
umbilical cord, which varies much in length. In Magnolias it attains 
a great length, and when the seed is ripe it appears like a cord sus- 
pending it from the follicle. The point of the seed by which it is 
united to the cord, or the scar left on its separation, is called the hilum 
or umbilicus, and represents its base. The hilum frequently exhibits 
marked colours, being black in the Bean, white in many species of 
Phaseolus, etc. It may occupy a small or large surface, according to 
the nature of the attachment. In the Calabar bean and in some 
species of Mucuna and Dolichos it extends along a large portion of the 
edge of the seed. The part called the foramen in the ovule becomes 
the micropyle (wimeés, small, and ran, gate) of the seed, with its 
exostome and endostome. This may be recognisable by the naked eye, 
as in the Pea and Bean tribe, Ivis, etc., or it may be very minute and 
microscopic. It indicates the true apex of the seed, and is important 
as marking the part to which the root of the embryo is directed. At 
the micropyle in the Bean is observed a small process of integument, 
which, when the young plant sprouts, is pushed up like a lid, and is 
called embryotega (tego, I cover). The fibro-vascular bundles, from the 
placenta pass through the funiculus and reach the seed, either entering 
it directly at a point called the omphalode (supaAéc, navel), which forms 
part of the hilum, or being prolonged between the outer and inner 
integument in the form of a raphe (é¢p4, a seam), and reaching the 
chalaza (yérud, a pimple or tubercle), or organic base of the nucleus, 
where a swelling or peculiar expansion may often be detected, as in 
Crocus. In fig. 576 the spiral vessels, 7, are seen entering the cord, f, 
passing through the hilum, 4, forming the raphe, », between the testa, t, 
and endopleura, mi, and ending in the chalazal expansion, c. So also 


Fig. 579. Vertical section of a carpel of Ricinus communis, and of the seed which it 
contains. a, Pericarp. 2, Loculament. jf, Funiculusor umbilical cord. ¢, Integuments of 
the seed, having at their apex a caruncula, c, which is traversed by the small canal of the 
exostome., The exostome does not correspond exactly with the endostome, which is imme- 
diately above the radicle. 7, Raphe. ch, Chalaza. yp. Perisperm or albumen, the upper 
portion of which only is seen. ¢, Embryo, with its radicle, er, and its cotyledons, ec. 


330 SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 


in fig. 577, where / is the funiculus, r the raphe united to the hilum, 
and chalaza, c, whence vessels, n, penetrate the seed. In some seeds, 
as Narthecium ossifragum, the vessels are said not to appear till after 
fertilisation, and in Habenaria viridis none have been detected. The 
chalaza is often of a different colour from the rest 
of the integuments. In the Orange it is of a reddish- 
brown colour, and is easily recognised at one end of 
the seed when the integuments are carefully removed. 
Sometimes, however, its structure can only be recog- 
nised by careful dissection. It indicates the cotyle- 
donary extremity of the embryo. The hilum and 

Fig. 580. chalaza may correspond, or they may be separated 
from each other and united by the raphe (fig. 580). The raphe is 
generally on the side of the seed next the ventral suture.’ 

The positions of the hilum, micropyle, and chalaza, are of importance 
in determining the nature of the seed. The hilum is the base of the 
seed, and the micropyle its apex, while the chalaza is the organic base 
of the nucleus. The hilum and chalaza may correspond, the micropyle 
being at the opposite extremity, and then the seed is orthotropal (286s, 
straight). The seed may be curved so that the micropyle is close to 
the hilum, and the chalaza, by the growth of the seed on one side, may 
be slightly removed from the hilum, then the seed is campylotropal 
(xapardaos, curved). The micropyle may be close to the hilum, and 
the chalaza in the progress of development may be removed to the 
opposite end, then the seed is anatropal (dvargérw, I reverse).* 

The position of the seed as regards the pericarp resembles that of 
the ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied—erect, ascend- 
ing, pendulous, suspended, curved, etc. (figs. 459, 460, 461, 462, 456, 
pp. 257, 255). These terms have no reference to the mode in which 
the fruit is attached to the axis. Thus the seed may be erect while 
the fruit itself is pendent, in the ordinary meaning of that term. The 
part of the seed next the axis or the ventral suture is its face, the 
opposite side being the back. Seeds exhibit great varieties of forms. 
They may be flattened laterally, compressed; or from above downwards, 
depressed, They may be round, oval, triangular, polygonal, rolled up 
like a snail, as in Physostemon; or coiled up like a snake, as in 
Ophiocaryon paradoxum. 

The object of fertilisation is the formation of the embryo in the 
interior of the seed. In general, one embryo is produced, constituting 
what is denominated monembryony (wévos, one); but in Conifere, 
Cycadacez, Mistleto, etc., there are frequently several embryos, giving 


Fig, 580. Seed of the Hazel. f, Funiculus. 7, Raphe. c, Chalaza. mn, Veins spreading 
in a radiating manner over the integuments of the seed. 


* See pp. 255, 256, where these terms are more fully explained when treating of the ovule. 


SEED OR MATURE OVULE. 331 


rise to what is called polyembryony (woAus, many). Sometimes two 
embryos become united together in the same seed. In the coniferous 
seeds numerous corpuscles are seen, whence the embryos proceed. The 
process of fertilisation has already been traced until the embryo appears 
as a rounded cellular body, enclosed in the embryo-sac, and attached 
to a suspensor. In fig. 576, ¢ is the embryo, and se the embryo-sac, 
In this sac there is at first a protoplasm, in which cells are developed. 
The embryonic cell (fig. 581 ), still attached to the sac by its suspensor, 
s, contains distinct nucleated cells (fig. 581, 2). These gradually 
multiply, and form at length a cellular mass, at first undivided 
(fig. 581, 3 ¢), but afterwards showing a separation of parts, so that the 
axis and lateral projections or rudiments of leaves can be distinguished. 
Figs. 
584. 585, 


Fig. 581. Fig, 583. Fig. 586. Fig. 587. 


In figs, 582 to 587 all the stages of the formation of embryo can be 
traced; appearing first as a simple cell (figs. 582, 584), forming others 
in its interior (figs. 585, 586); and finally, the parts of the embryo 
becoming visible, figs. 583, 587, where g r is the axis representing the 
stem and roots, and c’c are the lateral projections, which are developed 
as leaf-like bodies, called cotyledons (xoriAnduv, the name of a plant 
having leaves like seed-lobes). 

PERISPERM OR ALBUMEN.—As the embryo increases in size it 
gradually causes absorption of the cellular tissue in the embryo-sac, and 
it is sometimes developed to such a degree as to reduce the nucleus and 
embryo-sac to a thin integument. In such a case the seed consists of | 


Fig. 581. First development of the embryo of Draba verna. 0, Suspensor, which in this 
plant is very long. v, Embryonic or germinal vesicle. e, Embryo. 1, First stage, in which 
the embryonic vesicle only is seen. 2, Second stage, showing several cells formed in the 
embryonic vesicle. 38, Third stage, in which the embryo becomes more conspicuous in 
consequence of the formation of numerous small cells. Fig. 582. Monocotyledonous 
embryo of Potamogeton perfoliatus in its early stage, appearing as a vesicle or simple cell. 
Fig. 583. The same, further advanced, showing radicle, r, gemmule or plumule, g, and the 
cotyledon, c. Fig. 584. Dicotyledonous embryo of Cinothera crassipes in its early stage, 
appearing as a vesicle or cell. Fig. 585. The same, further advanced, showing three 
united utricles or cells. Fig. 586. The same, more developed, showing numerous cells. 
Fig. 587, The same in a more developed state, showing radicle, r, gemmule, g, and cotyle- 


dons, cc, 


332 PERISPERM OR ALBUMEN OF THE SEED. 


integuments and embryo alone. In Santalum, Osyris, and Loranthus, 
Griffith says the ovule is sometimes reduced entirely to a sort of 
embryonary sac. In Avicennia the embryo, at its maturity, is on the 
outside of the nucleus and body of the ovule. In other cases it enlarges 
to a certain extent, filling the embryo-sac completely or partially, and . 
only encroaching slightly on the cells of the nucleus. The cells sur- 
rounding the embryo then become filled with a solid deposit called 
albumen, consisting of starchy, oily matter, and nitrogenous compounds. 
To this some have applied the term perisperm (aeg/, around, and ovégua, 
seed); others, that of endosperm (¢vdov, within). The name, perispermic 
albumen, or perisperm, is often restricted to that found in the cells of 
the nucleus alone, outside the embryo-sac (fig. 576 mn); endospermic 
albumen, or endosperm, to that found within the embryo-sac alone 
(fig. 576 se), as in Chelidonium majus, Ranunculaceze, Umbellifere, 
and in many Endogens, etc. Sometimes both kinds of albumen occur 


Fig. 589. Fig. 590. 


in the same seed, as in Nympheeaceze and Piperaceze. In some instances 
the albumen is produced in the region of the chalaza. In some Scrophu- 
larias the embryo-sac forms little cavities or bags, which in the ripe 
seed remain as appendages to the albumen. Seeds in which the 
embryo occupies the entire seed, are called exalbwminous (ex, without), 
as Composite, Cruciferse, and most Leguminose, while others having 
separate albumen are albuminous. The larger the quantity of albumen 
in a seed the smaller the embryo. In figs. 588 to 590 the relative 
proportion which the embryo bears to the albumen or perisperm in 
different seeds is shown ; ¢ being the embryo with its cotyledons and 
young root, p the perisperm, ¢ the coverings of the seed, f the funiculus 
or cord, & the hilum, and ¢ the chalaza. In fig. 588 the embryo is 


Fig. 588. Anatropal mature seed of Helleborus niger, cut vertically. The embryo, e, is 
small, as compared with the perisperm or albumen, p. t, Spermoderm or coverings of the 
seed. f, Funiculus. h, Hilum. ¢, Chalaza. Fig. 589. Mature seed of Diphylleia peltata, 
showing an embryo, e, which occupies a larger portion of the seed than in fig. 588. Letters 
indicate the same parts as in the previous figure. Fig. 590. Ripe seed of Berberis vulgaris, 
exhibiting a larger embryo, e, as compared with the perisperm, p. Letters as in figs, 588 
and 589. 


PERISPERM OR ALBUMEN OF THE SEED. 333 


minute, and occupies only a small part of the apex of the albumen; in 
fig. 589 it is larger, and has encroached on the perisperm ; while in 
fig. 590 it is still more developed, much of the albumen having been 
absorbed. - 

The albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and fur- 
nishes important characters. It may be farinaceous or mealy, consisting 
chiefly of cells filled with starch (fig. 591), as in Cereal grains, where 
it is abundant ; fleshy or cartélaginous, consisting of thicker cells which 
are still soft, as in the Coco-nut, and which sometimes contain oil, as 
in the oily albumen of Croton (fig. 592), Ricinus, and Poppy ; horny, 
when the matter in the cells is of a hard consistence, and often 
arranged in a concentric manner, so as nearly to fill the entire cavity, 
as in Date, Ivory-Palm, and Coffee. The albumen may be uniform 
throughout, or it may present a mottled appearance, as in the Nutmeg, 
the seeds of Anonaceze, and some Palms (fig. 593), where it is called 
ruminated, This mottled appearance depends often on the endopleura 


Fig. 591. Fig. 592. 


or inner integument forming folds on which the albumen is deposited, 
and when the seed is ripe these foldings of the membrane divide the 
albumen in a sinuous or convoluted manner. 

The albumen is a store of matter laid up for the nourishment of 
the embryo. In the Coco-nut and double Coco-nut it forms the great 
bulk of the seed, weighing many ounces, while the embryo is minute, 
weighing a few grains, and lies in a cavity at one extremity. In Coffee 
the albumen is the horny portion, the infusion of which is used for a 
beverage. In Phytelephas it is called vegetable ivory from its hardness, 
and is used for the same purposes as ivory. In the horny albumen of 
this Palm, as well as in that of the Attalea funifera, the Date, and the 
Doom Palm, the concentric deposition of secondary layers, leaving a 


Fig. 591. Section of a small portion of the farinaceous perisperm or albumen of Zea 
Mais, Indian corn. cec, Cells. fff, Grains of starch in the cells. Fig. 592. Section 
of a small portion of the oily perisperm or albumen of Croton Tiglium, cccc,Cells. hhh, 
Drops of oil contained in the cells. Fig. 593. Vertical section of the fruit of Areca 
Catechu, c¢, Perianth. jf, Pericarp. p, Ruminated perisperm or albumen, e, Embryo. 


334 PARTS OF THE EMBRYO PLANT. 


small cavity in the centre of the cells, and radiating spaces uncovered 
with thickening matter, is well seen under the microscope. 

The embryo consists of cotyledons or rudimentary leaves, the 
plumule (plumula, a little feather), or gemmule (gemma, a bud), repre- 
senting the ascending axis, radicle (radix, root), or the descending 
axis, and their point of union the collwm, collar or neck ; that part of 

a the axis which intervenes between the collar and cotyledons 
p:") being the caulicule (cauliculus, a little stalk), or tigelle (tigellus, 
Si?’ a little stalk). The embryo varies in its structure in the dif- 

Fig. 594. ferent divisions of the vegetable kingdom. In acrogenous and 
thallogenous plants it continues as a cell or spore, with granular matter 
in its interior (fig. 594), without any separation of parts or the produc- 


 ? 
Fig. 595. Fig. 596. Fig. 597. 


tion of cotyledons. Hence these plants are called acotyledonous (a priva- 
tive, xortAndav). Endogenous and Exogenous plants, on the other hand, 
exhibit a marked separation of parts in their embryo, the former 
having one cotyledon, and hence being monocotyledonous (tévos, one) ; 
the latter two, and hence dicotyledonous (dé, twice). Thus, the 
whole vegetable kingdom is divided into three Classes by the nature 
of the embryo, the first of which classes corresponds with the 
cryptogamic division of plants, the second with the endogenous 
division of phanerogamous or flowering plants, the third with the 
exogenous division of the same. Fig. 595 represents a monocotyle- 
donous embryo, with its cotyledon, c ; while figs, 596 and 597 exhibit 
a dicotyledonous embryo, with its cotyledons, ¢ c. 
THE SporE of acotyledonous plants (fig. 594) is a cellular body, 
Fig..594. Acotyledonous embryo of Marchantia polymorpha. Such embryos bear the 
name of spores. Fig. 595. Monocotyledonous embryo of Potamogeton perfoliatus nearly 
mature. r, Radicle. t, Caulicule or tigellus. c, Cotyledon. g, Gemmule or plumule. 
Fig. 596. Mature dicotyledonous embryo of the common Almond. r, Radicle or young 
root. Fig. 597. The same, with one of the cotyledons removed. r, Radicle. ¢, Tigelle or 


caulicule. c, One of the cotyledons left. ic, Cicatrix left at the place wliere the other 
cotyledon was attached. g,Gemmule composed of several small leaves, 


PARTS OF THE EMBRYO PLANT. 335 


from which a new plant is produced. Germination takes place in 
any part of its surface, and not from fixed points. It sometimes 
presents filaments or vibratile cilia on its surface (figs. 467-470, p. 
265), by means of which it moves about in fluids, like some of the 
Infusoria. When it germinates, these cilia disappear. Sometimes 
spores are united in definite numbers, as in fours, surrounded by a 
cellular covering, or perispore (qegi, around, and ozogd, offspring), or 
sporidium, and thus forming the reproductive body called a tetraspore 
{rereds, four), which is common in Algze (fig. 482, p. 273). 

Empryo.—tIn the embryo or corculum (corculum, a little heart), 
the first part formed is the awis, having one of its extremities turned 
towards the suspensor, and the other in the opposite direction ; the 
former indicating the point whence the young root or radicle is to 
proceed, and the latter that whence the leafy stem is to arise. The 
part which produces the first leaves or cotyledons is called the cotyle- 
donary extremity of the embryo, while the other is the radicular 
extremity. The radicular extremity is thus continuous with the 
suspensor, and consequently points towards the micropyle (fig. 590 h), 
or the summit of the nucleus, an important fact in practical botany ; 
while the cotyledonary, being opposite, is pointed towards the base of 
the nucleus or the chalaza (fig. 590 c). Hence, by ascertaining the 
position of the micropyle and chalaza, the two extremities of the. 
embryo can in general be discovered. In some rare instances, in 
consequence of a thickening in the coats of the seed, as in Ricinus 
(fig. 579, p. 329), and some other Euphorbiacee, there is an alteration 
in the micropyle, so that the radicle does not point directly to it. 

The part of the axis which unites the radicle and the cotyledon 
or cotyledons is denominated caulicule or tigelle (figs. 595 t, 597 t). 
This is sometimes very short. From the point where the cotyledons 
are united to the axis a bud is developed (in the same way as from 
the axil of leaves); this bud contains the rudiments of the true or 
primordial (primus, first, and ordo, rank) leaves of the plant, and has 
been called plumule or gemmule. This bud may be seen usually lying 
within the cotyledons, Thus in fig. 597 
the embryo of the Almond exhibits the 
gemmule, g, lying on one of the cotyledons, 
the other having been removed and leaving 
"a cicatrix, ic; while in fig. 595 the gem- 
mule, g, of Potamogeton perfoliatus is 
covered by the single cotyledon, ¢. 

The gemmule as well as the cotyledon aa 
are sometimes obscurely seen, Thus in Fig. 598. Fig. 599. 

Fig. 598. Spiral embryo of Cuscuta or Dodder. Fig. 599. Embryo of Caryocar buty- 

rosum, #, Thick tigelle or caulicule, forming nearly the whole mass, becoming narrowed 


and curved at its extremity, and applied to the groove, s. In the figure this narrowed 
portion is slightly separated from the groove, ¢, Two rudimentary cotyledons. 


336 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. ‘ 


Cuscuta (fig. 598) the embryo appears as an elongated axis without 
divisions ; and in Caryocar butyrosum (fig. 599) the mass of the embryo 
is made up by the radicular extremity and tigelle, ¢, in a groove of 
which, s, the cotyledonary extremity lies embedded, which when 
separated, as in the figure, shows only very small cotyledons. In 
some monocotyledonous embryos, as in Orchidacez, it requires a micro- 
scopic examination to detect the cotyledonary leaf. 

MonocoryLeponous Empryo.—In this embryo the single coty- 
ledon in general encloses the gemmule at its lower portion, and 
exhibits on one side a small slit (fig. 600 f), which indicates the edges 
of the vaginal or sheathing portion of the cotyledonary 
leaf. The embryo presents commonly a cylindrical form, 
rounded at the extremities, or a more or less elongated 
ovoid (fig. 600). At first sight there seems to be no dis- 
tinction of parts; but on careful examination, by moisten- 
ing the embryo, and making a vertical section, there will be 
detected, at a variable height, a small projecting mammilla, 
buried a little below the surface. This is the gemmule 
which marks the termination of the axis. From the lower 
extremity proceeds the radicular portion (figs. 595 ¢7, 
600 r), which may be said to represent both the tigelle 
and radicle. The upper portion or chalazal end of the 
embryo is the cotyledon (figs. 595, 600 c), which is sheathing at its 
base, so as to enclose the gemmule. In some cases, as in the com- 
mon oat (Avena sativa), there is a peculiar process which covers the 
plumule, and which is considered by some as an axillary stipule of 
the cotyledon. The length of the radicular portion, or that below 
the gemmule, varies. It is usually shorter than the cotyledon, 
and is denser in structure ; but in some instances it becomes much 
larger, giving rise to what has been called a macropodous embryo (waxgés, 
long, and rods, a foot). Thus, in fig. 601, ¢ represents the long radi- 
cular portion in the young state, whence ultimately the root, 7, 
proceeds. Occasionally, the radicular portion becomes very thick and 
large, so as to form a considerable portion of the embryo; and in all 
monocotyledons it may be considered as an enlarged mammillary 
projection, whence the rootlets (adventitious roots) proceed by 
bursting through it, and carrying with them a covering or sheath, 
coleorhiza (fig. 105, p. 42). 

When considering endogenous or monocotyledonous stems, it was 
shown that the leaves are produced singly and alternately, in a 
sheathing manner, each embracing the subsequently developed bud. 
So it is in the monocotyledonous embryo. There is a single leaf or 
cotyledon produced, and if in any instance there is more than one, it 


Fig. 600. Embryo of Triglochin Barrelieri. 1, Radicle. f, Slit corresponding to the 
gemmule. c, Cotyledon. 


DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 337 


is alternate with the first formed. In the Oat an abortive organ 
called the epiblast (SAaorés, a shoot) is produced, which may be con- 
sidered a rudimentary second cotyledon. 
The cotyledon (fig. 600 c) is folded either 
partially, as in Dioscorea, or completely. 
Its sheathing portion (vagina) embraces the 
bud or gemmule, which appears as a mam- 
millary projection ; its position being indi- 
cated by a cleft or slit (fig. 600 f, p. 336), 
where the edges of the sheath unite. All the 
portion of the embryo above the gemmule 
is the cotyledon ; all below, the radicle. 

DicoryLeponovus Empryo.—tThe form 
of this embryo varies much ; and although 
sometimes resembling in its general aspect 
that of monocotyledons, yet it is always 
distinguished by a division taking place at 
the cotyledonary extremity, by which it is 
separated. into two, more or less evident, 
lobes. The parts of this embryo are easily 
traced in the Bean, Pea, Acorn, and Almond. 
In the latter (fig. 596) the embryo has an 
oval form, consisting of two thick cotyle- 
dons, cc, and a radicle,r, When one of 
the cotyledons is removed (fig. 597), leaving 
scars, ic, the gemmule or plumule, g, is 
seen included between them, with its cauli- 
cule or tigelle, ¢. 

The cotyledons are not always, however, 
of the same size. Thus, in a species of 
Hireea (fig. 602), one of them, co’, is smaller 
than the other; and in Carapa guianensis 
(fig. 603) there appears to be only one, in 
consequence of the intimate union which 
takes place between the two, as indicated by 
the dotted line, c. The union between the 
cotyledonary leaves may continue after the 
young plant begins to germinate. Such em- 
bryos have been called pseudo-monocotyle- 
donous (pevdjs, false). When there are 
two cotyledons, they are opposite to each . 
other, In some cases there are more than two present, and then 


Fig, 601. t; 
" 


Fig. 601. Monocotyledonous embryo of Zannichellia palustris germinating. m, Collum 
or neck, the point intermediate between the stem or tigelle, ¢, and the radicle or root, r. 
ce, Cotyledon. g, Gemmule or plumule. ; 


Z 


338 DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 


they become verticillate. This occurs in Conifers, especially in the 
Fir (fig. 604), Spruce, and Larch, in which six, nine, twelve, and even 
fifteen have been observed. In such cases it is probable that the 
cotyledons are split by collateral chorisis, and thus divided into 
several. They are linear, and resemble in their form and mode of 
development the clustered or fasciculated leaves of the Larch. Plants 
having numerous cotyledons are occasionally denominated polycoty- 
ledonous, Duchartre thinks that the multiple cotyledons of the Firs 


2 


<< 


Fig. 602. Fig. 603. Fig. 604. 


are not verticillate, but occur in two opposite groups, placed like two 
ordinary cotyledons. Hence he considers the plants to be truly 
dicotyledonous, with the cotyledons deeply divided into a number of 
segments. Between the two cotyledons there is a slit which is well 
seen in Pinus Pinaster and excelsa. Thus, the arrangement of the 
cotyledons follows the same law as that of the leaves in dicotyledonous 
or exogenous plants, being opposite or verticillate according to the 
mode of formation of the axis. In Welwitschia there are two coty- 
ledons which last throughout its life (more than a century), and in the 
course of time they grow to an enormous size, being sometimes six 
feet long and two or three in breadth. They constitute the only 
leaves of the plant. In species of Streptocarpus the cotyledons are 
also permanent and act the part of leaves. One of them is frequently 
largely developed, while the other is small or abortive. 

The texture of the cotyledons varies. They may be thick, as in 
the Bean, exhibiting only slight traces of venation, with their flat 
internal surfaces in contact, and their backs more or less convex ; or 
they may be in the form of thin and delicate lamine, flattened on both 


Fig. 602. Embryo of Hira Salzmanniana, cut vertically, to show‘the inequality of the two 
cotyledons, one of which, c, forms almost the whole mass of the embryo. ec’, The small coty- 
ledon, g,Gemmule or plumule, 7, Radicle. Fig. 603. Embryo of Carapa guianensis, cut 
vertically to show the union of the cotyledons, the distinction between which is only 
indicated by a faint line, c. 7, Radicle. g, Gemmule. Fig. 604. Embryo of Fir. 1, 
Taken from the seed. 2, Beginning to germinate. 1, Radicle. «, Cotyledons, which are 
numerous ; the plant being polycotyledonous, 


DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 339 


sides, and having distinct venation, as in Ricinus (fig. 605), Jatropha, 
Euonymus, etc. In the former case they are called fleshy, or seminal 
lobes ; in the latter, foliaceous, or seminal leaves. 

Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. But they occasionally 
become lobed, as in the Walnut and the Lime (fig. 606), where the 
cotyledon, c, has five lobes; or petiolate, as in Geranium molle (fig. 
607 p); or auriculate, as in the Ash (fig. 608 0). Like leaves in the 
bud (see Vernation, p. 110), cotyledons may be either applied directly 
to each other (fig. 605), or may be folded in various ways. In the 


Fig. 608. Fig. 609. Fig. 610. Fig. 611. 


Almond (fig: 596) they lie in the direction of the axis. In other cases 
they are folded laterally, conduplicate (fig. 609) ; or from apex to base, 
reclinate (fig. 222 a, p. 111); or rolled up laterally, so as partially to 
embrace each other, convolute (fig. 610); or rolled up like the young 
fronds of ferns, circinate (fig. 611). In these cases, both cotyledons 
follow the same direction in their foldings or convolutions, but, in 
other instances, they are folded in opposite directions, resembling the 


Fig. 605. Embryo of Ricinus communis taken out of the seed (see fig. 579, p."829), and cut 
transversely. The two halves are separated so as to show the two cotyledons, ¢, applied to 
each other. 7, Radicle. Fig. 606. Embryo of the Lime. 1, Radicle. c¢, One of the divided 
or palmate cotyledons. Fig. 607, Embryo of Geranium molle. r, Radicle. c, Cotyledons 
attached to the collar by a stalk or petiole, p. Fig. 608. Embryo of the Ash. 7, Radicle. 
c, one of the cotyledons. 00, Auricular appendages to the cotyledon. Fig. 609. Embryo 
of Brassica oleracea, Cabbage. 7, Radicle. c, Cotyledon. 1, Entire embryo. 2, Embryo 
cut transversely, showing the cotyledons folded on the radicle or conduplicate. The radicle 
is dorsal, or on the back of the cotyledons. Fig. 610. Embryo of Punica Granatum, 
Pomegranate, cut into two halves. The upper half removed to show the convolute coty- 
ledons. c, Radicle. Fig. 611. Circinate embryo (spirolobez) of Bunias orientalis, 


340 DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 


equitant (fig. 222 m, p. 111) and semi-equitant (fig. 222 n, p. 111) 
vernation. , 
The radicle may be either straight or curved, and, in particular 
instances, it gives a marked character to the seed. Thus, divisions 
of the order Cruciferze are founded on the relative position and folding 
of the radicle and cotyledons, In the division Plewrorhizew (aheugd, 
side, and £/Z«, root), the cotyledons are applied by their faces, and 
the radicle (figs. 612, 613 r) is folded on their edges, so as to be 
lateral, while the cotyledons, c, are accumbent (accwmbo, I lie at the 


ay 


ig. 612. 


Fig. 614. 


side). In Notorhizee (vwros, the back) the cotyledons (fig. 614 c) are 
applied to each other by their faces, and the radicle, r, is folded on 
their back, so as to be dorsal, and the cotyledons are incumbent (incumbo, 
I lie upon, or on the back). In Orthoplocee (dg66¢, straight, and 
whoxh, a plait) the cotyledons are conduplicate (fig. 609, 1, 2, c), 
while the radicle, 7, is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds. In 
other divisions, the radicle is folded in a spiral manner (fig. 611), 
and the cotyledons follow the same course. In the Dodder (fig. 598) 
the embryo appears as an axis without divisions, having several turns 
of the spiral on different planes. 

The seed sometimes is composed of the embryo and integuments 
alone, the former being either straight or folded in various ways, as 
already shown. In other cases there is an addition of perisperm or 
nutritive matter, in greater or less quantity, according to the state of 
development which the embryo attains (figs. 588, 589, 590), When 
the embryo is surrounded by the perisperm on all sides except its 
radicular extremity (fig. 590, p. 332), it becomes internal or intrarius 
(intra, within) ; when lying outside the perisperm, and only coming 
into contact with it at certain points, it is external or extrarius (extra, 


Fig. 612. Embryo of a Pea, cut transversely. Upper half separated to show the fleshy 
accumbent cotyledons, c, 7, Radicle applied laterally, Fig. 613. Embryo of Isatis tinctoria. 
e, Accumbent cotyledons. 7, Radicle. 1, Embryo entire. 2, Transverse section of the 
embryo. Fig. 614. Embryo of Cheiranthus Cheiri, Wallflower. c, Incumbent cotyledons. 
r, Radicle. 1, Embryo entire. 2, Transverse section of the embryo. 


POSITION AND FORM OF THE EMBRYO. _ 341 


without). When the embryo follows the direction of the axis of the 
seed, it is awile or awial, and it may be either external, so as to come 
into contact with the perisperm only by its cotyledonary apex (fig. 
615), or internal (figs. 588, 589, 590, see p. 332). In the latter case, 
the radicular extremity may, as in some Coniferxe, become incorporated 
with the perisperm apparently by means of a thickened suspensor. 


When the embryo is not in the direction of the axis, it becomes 
abawile or abawial (fig. 616 ¢); and in this case it may be either 
straight or curved, internal or external. In the straight seed of 
Grasses the perisperm is abundant, and the embryo lies at a point 
on its surface immediately below the integuments, being straight and 
external. In Campylotropous ovules the embryo is curved, and in 
place of being embedded in perisperm, is frequently external to it, 
following the concavity of the seed (fig. 618), and becoming peripheri- 
cal (aseipigw, I carry round), with the chalaza situated in the curva- 
ture of the embryo. : 

It has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo is 
directed to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. In 
some cases, by the growth of the integuments, the former is turned 
round so as not to correspond with the apex of ‘the nucleus, and then 
the embryo has the radicle directed to one side, and is called excentric, 
as is seen in Primulacex, Plantaginacee, and many Palms, especially 
the Date (fig. 616). The position of the embryo in different kinds 
of seeds varies. In an orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or 
antitropal (dvr/, opposite, rgévw, I turn), the radicle pointing to the 
apex of the seed, or to the part opposite the hilum (fig. 617), Thus, 
fig. 619 represents an orthotropal seed of Sterculia Balanghas, at- 


Fig. 615, Grain of Carex depauperata, cut vertically. ¢, Integuments. », Perisperm. 
¢, Embryo. Fig. 616. Seed or kernel of the Date. yp, Perisperm or horny albumen. e, 
Embryo. 1, Entire seed. 2, Seed cut transversely at the point where the embryo, ¢, is 
situated, Fig. 617. Winged fruit of Rumex, cut vertically to show the abaxile or abaxial 
slightly curved embryo. Fig. 618. Carpel of Mirabilis Jalapa, cut vertically, with the 
. seed which it contains. a, Pericarp crowned with the remains of the style, s. ¢, Integu- 
ments of the seed orspermoderm. e, Peripherical embryo, with its radicle, 7, and its coty- 
ledons, ¢. , Perisperm or albumen surrounded by the embryo. 


342 ” POSITION AND FORM OF THE EMBRYO. 


tached to the pericarp, pc, by the funiculus, f, The chalaza and 
hilum are confounded together at ch, the micropyle being at the 
opposite end. The integuments of the seed, ¢, cover the embryo with 
its perisperm, ps; the coty- 
ledons, c, point to the hilum 
and chalaza; while the 
tadicle, r, points to the 
micropyle, and the embryo 
is thus reversed or inverted. 
Again, in an anatropal seed 
(figs. 589, 590, p. 332), 
where the micropyle is close 
to the hilum, and the 
Fig. 619. Fig. 620.  chalaza at the opposite 
extremity, the embryo is erect or homotropal (dmoios, like, and 
reérw, I turn), the radicle or base of the embryo being directed to 
the base of the seed. In some anatropal ovules, as in Castor oil 
(fig. 579, p. 329), the exostome is thickened or carunculate, c, and 
the endostome does not correspond exactly to it, so that F 
the radicle, er, of the embryo is directed to a point a 
little removed from the exostome, In curved or campy- 
lotropal seeds (fig. 455, p. 255) the embryo is folded so 
that its radicular and cotyledonary extremities are ap- 
proximated, and it becomes amphitropal (d¢ugi, around, 
reérw, I turn). In this instance the seed may be 
exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself 
(fig. 620), or albuminous, the embryo surrounding more 
or less completely the perisperm, and being peripherical 
(fig. 618). In fig. 620 the seed of Erysimum cheiran- 
thoides is shown, with the chalaza, ch, and the hilum, A, 
nearly confounded together, the micropyle, m, the embryo 
occupying the entire seed, with the radicle, 7, folded on the cotyledons, 
c, which enclose the plumule, gy. Thus, by determining the position 
of the hilum, chalaza, and micropyle, the direction of the embryo may 
be known. 
According to the mode in which the seed is attached to the 


Fig. 619. Orthotropal seed of Sterculia Balanghas, cut longitudinally, with the portion 
of the pericarp, yc, to which it is attached. f, Funiculus. ch, Chalaza and hilum con- 
founded together. t, Integuments of the seed, or spermoderm. ps, Perisperm, the sum- 
mit of which only is seen. c, One of the cotyledons. The other cotyledon has been re- 
moved to show the gemmule, g. 7, Radicle which is directed to the foramen at the apex 
of the seed. The embryo is antitropal or inverted. Fig. 620. Campylotropal seed of 
Erysimum cheiranthoides, cut longitudinally. m, Micropyle. ch, Chalaza not far removed 
from the hilum, h. t, Testa or episperm. mi, Inner covering of the seed or endopleura. 
r, Radicle. c, Cotyledons. g, Gemmule. The embryo is curved or amphitropal. Fig. 
621. Vertical section of the carpel of Triglochin Barrelieri. p, Pericarp crowned by the 
sessile stigma, s. g, Seed. f, Funiculus. r, Raphe. c, Chalaza. 


Fig. 621. 


FUNCTIONS OF THE SEED. 343 


pericarp, the radicle may be directed upwards or downwards, or 
laterally, as regards the ovary. In an orthotropal ovule, attached to 
the base of the pericarp, it is superior (fig. 617). So also in a 
suspended anatropal ovule, as in fig. 579, p. 329. In other anatropal 
ovules, as in figs. 588, 600, 621, the radicle is inferior. When the ovule 
is horizontal as regards the pericarp (fig. 619), the radicle, r, is either 
centrifugal, when it points to the outer wall of the ovary; or 
centripetal, when it points to the axis or inner wall of the ovary. 


9.—Functions of the Seed. 


The seed contains the embryo or germ, which, when placed in 
favourable circumstances, is developed as a new plant. The embryo 
is usually of a whitish or pale colour, resembling the perisperm when 
present, and sometimes scarcely distinguishable from it at first sight. 
Occasionally, however, it is of a greenish or yellow hue. Instances 
of this occurs in the perispermic or albuminous seed of Euonymus, 
and the aperispermic or exalbuminous seeds of most Cruciferee. The 
changes which take place in the composition of the seed, and in its 
coats, are with the view of protecting the embryo from vicissitudes 
of temperature, moisture, etc., and of laying up a store of nourish- 
ment for its after growth. The coats become thickened and hardened 
by the deposition of lignine; and in its interior, starch, nitrogenous 
compounds, phosphates, and sulphates, besides oily and fatty matters, 
various organic acids, tannin, and resins, are found. The specific 
gravity of the seed is much increased, so that it usually sinks in water, 
and it becomes more capable of resisting decomposition, and preserv- 
ing the vitality of the embryo. In some instances where air is con- 
tained in their envelopes seeds float in water. 

When seeds are matured, they are detached from the plant in 
various ways. They separate from the funiculus at the hilum, and 
remain free in the cavity of the pericarp, which either falls along with 
them, or opens in various ways so as to scatter them. The elasticity 
with which some seed-vessels open during the process of desiccation 
is very great. It may be seen in Hura crepitans, Common Broom, 
and Cardamiine. In the Geranium (fig. 551, p. 306) the seed-vessels 
are coiled upwards on the elongated beak, and in this way the seeds 
are dropped. In the Cyclamen the peduncle curves towards: the 
earth so as to place the seed-vessels in a position suitable for germina- 
tion. In the succulent fruit of Ecballium Elaterium, or squirting 
Cucumber, the cells vary in their size and contents in different parts ; 
and by the force of endosmose a rupture of the valves takes place at 
their weakest points—viz. where they are united to the peduncle. 
By the elasticity of the valves the seeds and fluid contents are sent 
out with great force through the opening left by the separation of the 


344 GERMINATION—REQUISITES FOR IT. 


peduncle. In the Balsam (Impatiens noli-me-tangere) the seed-vessel 
opens with force by a similar process, the five valves curving inwards 
in a spiral manner, in consequence of the distension of the outer large 
cells. The seeds are discharged before they are dry. In the Mig- 
nonette (fig. 575, p. 326) the seed-vessel opens early, so as to expose 
the seeds ; and in Cuphea the placenta bearing the seeds pierces the 
ovary and floral coverings, and is raised above them. Fleshy fruits, 
which fall to the ground when ripe, supply by their succulent portion 
the most suitable nutriment for the young embryo in its earliest 
stages of growth. 

Wind, water, animals, and man, are instrumental in the dissemina- 
tion of seeds. Some seeds, as those of Mahogany, Bignonia, Tecoma, 
Pine, Asclepias, Epilobium, and the Cotton plant, have winged or 
hairy appendages, by means of which they are wafted to a dis- 
tance. The same thing occurs in some indehiscent seed-vessels, as 
the samara of the Sycamore and Ash, and the achenia’of Dandelion, 
Thistles, etc. Moisture, as well as dryness, operates in the bursting 
of seed-vessels. The pod of the Rose of Jericho (Anastatica hiero- 
chuntina), and the capsule of some Fig-marigolds (Mesembryanthe- 
mum Tripolium) exhibit the effects of moisture in a remarkable 
degree. Animals, by feeding on fleshy fruits, the kernels of which 
resist the action of the juice of the stomach, disseminate seeds ; and 
man has been the means of transporting seeds from one country to 
another. In some cases the pericarps ripen their seeds under ground, 
and are called hypocarpogean (76, under, xaerés, fruit, yéu, 7%, earth). 
This is seen in the Ground nut (Arachis hypogeea). Other plants, as 
Vicia amphicarpos, have both aerial and subterranean fruit. Many 
seeds are used for food by animals, and a great destruction of them takes 
place from decay ; but this is compensated for by the vast number pro- 
duced, so as to secure the continuance of the species. The quantity of 
seeds produced by many plants is very great. In single capsules of 
Poppy and Tobacco upwards of 40,000 have been counted. 

GERMINATION.—The act by which the embryo of a seed leaves 
its state of torpidity, and becomes developed as a new plant, is called 
germination (germinatio, springing). In order that this process may 
go on, a certain combination of circumstances is necessary. The chief 
requisites are moisture, air, and a certain temperature. Exclusion 
from light is also beneficial. In Cotyledonous plants germination 
may be defined as the act by which the fecundated embryo of a seed 
leaves the state of torpor in which it has remained for a longer or 
shorter period, starts into life, as it were, comes out from its envelope, 
and sustains its existence until such time as the nutritive organs are 
developed. 

Moisture is necessary in order that the nutritive matters may be 
taken up in a state of solution, and that certain changes may take | 


GERMINATION—REQUISITES FOR IT. 345 


place in the seed. Dry seeds will not germinate. Until water be 
absorbed no circulation of fluids in the seed can take place. The 
quantity of water absorbed by seeds is often very large. Decandolle 
found that a French bean, weighing 544 millegrammes, absorbed 756 
of water. The swelling of Peas by absorption of water is familiar to 
all, The-kernels or seeds of stone-fruits by this means are enabled to 
burst their hard coverings. ; 

The temperature required for germination varies in different seeds. 
Some demand a tropical heat, others are satisfied with the warmth 
of our spring. In general, the requisite temperature may be said to 
vary from 60° to 80° F. Some seeds can bear a temperature which 
would kill others. Some have been known to germinate after ex- 
posure for a short time to the heat of boiling syrup; others after 
exposure to a cold of -39° F. Cereals and beans can only bear 
immersion in water at 110° F. for a few minutes. In steam they 
will bear 140° F. ; and in dry air 170° F. Many plants grow in the 
immediate vicinity of very hot springs, others in cold regions. 
Edwards and Colin, from their experiments, were led to fix 95° F. 
as the highest limit of prolonged temperature which cereal grains can 
bear in water; and 113° F. as the highest they can bear in sand or 
earth. Vegetable life has been observed progressing under much 
higher temperatures. In the Manilla Islands, a hot spring, which 
raised the thermometer to 187°, had plants flourishing in it and on 
its borders. A species of Chara grows in the hot springs of Iceland, 
and various Conferve in the boiling springs of Arabia and of the 
Cape of Good Hope. Dr. Hooker states that on the edge of hot 
springs in the valley of the Soane in India, the temperature of which 
was sufficient to boil eggs, there occurred sixteen species of flower- 
ing plants,—Desmodium, Oldenlandia, Boerhaayia, some Composite, 
Grasses, and Cyperaceze. Moseley noticed specimens of Botryococcus, 
Braunia, Diatoms, and other Algz, in the hot springs of Furnas in 
the Azores. Hooker found Conferve in the hot springs of Bel- 
cuppee on the Behar Hills, at 168° F. Cyperaceze grew in water of 
100° F. Dr. Wood of California found Nostoc calidarium and Chry- 
sococcus thermophilus in the hot springs of Benton, at 160° F. Abel 
mentions an Arenaria growing in soil at a temperature of 110° F. 
Cyperus polystachius and Pteris longifolia were found by Schouw 
in very hot soil which burnt the hand. Wheat, Oats, and Barley, are 
said to thrive in any country where the mean temperature exceeds 
65° F. The spores of certain cryptogamic plants are especially fitted 
for cold countries. Edwards and Colin found that seeds in a dry air 
bore a higher temperature than in water or steam. . 

Air, or rather oxygen, was shown by Scheele to be necessary for 
germination. Seeds deeply buried in the soil, and excluded from 
air, do not spring. The depth at which seeds should be sown varies 


346 GERMINATION—-REQUISITES FOR IT. 


from half-an-inch to two inches, according to the nature of the soil. 
The following experiments were made by Petri :— 


Seed sown to the Came above ground No. of plants that 

depth of i came up. 

F ANCD soa voaeranoeenes vas 7-8ths 

dL Maier genteel Roveaeee Nears all. 

De sg. sealer este 7-8ths. 

By: gut atwaenasdaawnrcoas 6-8ths 

ee ais. eaten nabntua arerartans 4-8ths. 

age, Cupehane ye Gala cs eet Sensae 3-8ths. 

6 1-8th. 


Shallow sowing is thus proved to be the best. 

Seeds, when buried deep in the soil, sometimes lie dormant for 
a long time, and only germinate when the air is admitted by the 
process of subsoil ploughing, or other agricultural operations. When 
ground is turned up for the first time it is common to see a crop of 
white clover and other plants spring up, which had not been pre- 
viously seen in the locality. After the great fire in London, plants 
sprang up, the seeds of which must have long lain dormant ; and the 
same thing is observed after the burning of forests and the draining 
of marshes. Gardner says that the name capoeira is given in Brazil 
to the trees which spring up after the burning of the virgin forests 
(matos virgens), and that they are always very distinct from those 
which constituted the original vegetation. Mr. Vernon Harcourt 
mentions a case where turnip seeds lay in a dormant state for seven 
or eight years, in consequence of being carried down to a great depth 
in the soil. On the Calton Hill, at Edinburgh, when new soil was 
turned up some years ago for building, a large crop of Fumaria mic- 
rantha sprang up; and seeds gathered from under six feet of peat- 
moss in Stirlingshire have been known to germinate. A weak solution 
of chlorine is said to accelerate germination, probably by the decom- 
position of water, and the liberation of oxygen. Weak solutions of 
chlorate of potash, of nitric acid, and of oxalic acid, are also said to 
accelerate the sprouting of seeds. 

Darkness is favourable to germination. Seeds germinate best 
when excluded from light. M. Boitard showed this by experiments 
on Auricula seeds, some of which were covered by a transparent bell- 
jar, others by a jar of ground glass, and a third set by a jar enveloped 
in black cloth. The last germinated most rapidly. Senebier con- 
cluded that the height and size of a plant were proportionate to the 
intensity of the illumination, its verdure dependent on the quality of 
the rays. Mr. Hunt says that the luminous or light-giving rays, and 
those nearest the yellow, have a marked effect in impeding germina- 
tion; the red or heat-giving rays are favourable to the process, if 
abundance of water is present ; while the blue rays, or those concerned 


% 


GERMINATION—REQUISITES FOR IT. 347 


in chemical action or actinism, accelerate the process and cause rapid 
growth. His experiments were performed by making the sun’s rays 
pass through different kinds of coloured glass. He believes that the 
scorching effect of the sun on leaves may be prevented by the use of 
blue glass, and that a high temperature might be obtained by red 
glass. He has suggested a pale-green glass made with oxide of copper, 
as that best fitted for conservatories. By this means he expects that 
the scorching rays of light will be excluded, while no hindrance is 
given to the passage of the others; the green colour being a compound 
of yellow or luminous, and of blue or chemical rays. A delicate 
emerald-green glass has been employed, at his suggestion, in glazing 
the large Palm-house at Kew. 

Tn order that plants may germinate vigorously, moisture, heat, and 
air must be supplied in due proportion. If any of them are deficient, 
or in excess, injury may be done. It is of great importance, therefore, 
in agricultural operations, that the ground should be well pulverised, 
the seeds regularly sown at a proper and equal depth, and the soil 
drained. Pulverised soil, when examined, is found to consist of small 
particles having cavities in their interior, and separated from each 
other by interstitial spaces. In a very dry soil, all these cavities are 
full of air; in a very wet undrained soil, they are full of moisture ; 
in a properly drained soil, the interstices are full of air, while the 
particles themselves are moist. The seed in such a soil is under 
the influence of heat, air, and moisture, and is excluded from light. 
Hence it is in very favourable circumstances for germination. Great. 
attention should be paid to the temperature of the soil in which seeds 
are sown. Frost has an important effect in pulverising the soil, by 
the expansion of the water contained in the particles, when it is con- 
verted into ice. Snow, again, acts in giving a covering to the young 
plant, protecting it from intense frost and sudden alternations of 
temperature, and by its slow melting allows the plant to accom- 
modate itself to the mild atmosphere, Snow contains often much 
oxygen. ; 

If a field is not equally planted, the seeds will sink to different 
depths, and will spring up very irregularly. In ordinary productive 
soils seeds should be placed at a depth not greater than two inches, 
Draining acts not merely in removing superfluous moisture, but in 
allowing a constant renewal of nutritive matter, more especially of 
ammonia and carbonic acid from the atmosphere, in giving a supply of 
air, and in keeping up a proper temperature in the soil. In an 
undrained soil the water is stagnant, and there is little supply of 
fresh nutriment, and much cold is produced. There has been a dis- 
cussion as to whether shallow or deep draining is the best. Much 
depends on the nature of the soil, and it is impossible to lay down 
any fixed rule applicable to all cases, Mr. Smith says that drains in 


348 VITALITY OF SEEDS—ITS DURATION. 


very stiff soils should be fifteen feet apart, and in very light soils 
thirty or forty ; the depth being from thirty to thirty-six inches, and 
the main drains six inches deeper than the parallel ones, In extremely 
stiff clays he makes drains two and a half feet deep. He was the 
first to advocate the system of parallel drains, or what is called 
thorough-draining. 

Viratity or SzEDs.—Some seeds lose their vitality soon, others 
retain it for a long time. Coffee seeds, in order to grow, require to 
be sown immediately after ripening. On the other hand, Melon seeds 
have been known to retain their vitality for upwards of forty years, 
and those of the Sensitive plant for more than sixty years. Oily seeds 
in general lose their vitality quickly, probably from their power of ab- 
sorbing oxygen, and the chemical changes thus induced. Considerable 
discussions have taken place as to the length of time during which 
seeds will retain their germinating powers. Lindley mentions a case 
in which young plants were raised from seeds found ‘in an ancient 
barrow in Devonshire, along with some coins of the Emperor Hadrian ; 
and M. des Moulins relates an instance of seeds capable of germinating, 
which were discovered in a Roman tomb, supposed to be fifteen or 
sixteen centuries old. In these instances, it is to be remarked that 
the seeds were protected from the influences required for growth, and 
were preserved in circumstances which cannot be easily imitated. The 
statements relative to the germination of Mummy Wheat, that is to 
say, grain actually deposited in the case along with the mummy, have 
not been confirmed, and there are many sources of fallacy. 

With the view of preserving seeds, it is of importance that they 
should be thoroughly ripened, kept in a uniform temperature, and in a 
dry state, and not directly exposed to the oxygen of the air. They 
are often best kept in their seed-vessels. The hard coverings of many 
foreign legumes, and of the cones of Firs, etc., seem to be of importance 
in preserving the germinating power of seeds. Seeds not fully ripened 
are very apt to decay, and are easily affected by moisture. Seeds, 
although fit for food, may have lost their germinating power. Corn, 
pulse, and farinaceous seeds generally, will live for a long time if 
gathered ripe, and preserved quite dry. In sending seeds from foreign 
countries, they should be put up into dry papers and exposed to free 
ventilation in a cool place ; as, for instance, in a coarse bag suspended 
in a cabin. Oily seeds, and’ those containing much tannin, as beech- 
mast, acorns, and nuts, must not only be ripe and dry, but also must 
be excluded from the air. When transported they are often put into 
dry earth and sand, and pressed hard, the whole being covered with 
tin, and put into astout box. Some have suggested their preservation 
in hermetically-sealed bottles full of carbonic acid gas, Earthenware 
bottles, containing ordinary soil, moderately dry, are useful for the con- 
veyance of seeds. A common wooden box, about 10 inches square, with 


TRANSPORTATION OF SEEDS. 349 


the sides ? of an inch thick, is also suitable for the purpose. In the box 
may be put alternate layers of eartli and seeds, the whole being pressed 
firmly together, Seeds enveloped in wax sent from India germinated 
well. They had been kept for three months, and were quite firm and 
fresh. Spanish Chestnuts and Filberts have been sent enveloped in 
wax to the Himalaya, and are now growing there. Cuttings of fruit- 
trees, with their ends enveloped in wax, were also sent, and arrived in 
a living state. In this way also, apples, pears, and plums have been 
sent. Living plants are best transported in Wardian Cases (fig. 622), 
and seeds and fruits may also be put in the earth of the Cases. When 
plants are sent in pots the Case may be divided into separate com- 
partments, as shown in fig. 623, each compartment containing only 


yy eens ae pen) 
Fig. 622 
- 
ae 8 iis yb 
fel 
Fig. 623. Fig. 624 


one pot (fig. 624). The pots should be enveloped in moss, and they 
should be kept in their place by means of fine galvanised iron-wire. 
The bottom of the Case should be perforated with six or eight holes, in 
order to allow the escape of superfluous moisture. Strong white cotton 
may be used in some instances for covering the Case in-place of glass ; 
the cotton to be moistened from time to time during transit, 

M. Alphonse Decandolle made experiments on the vitality of seeds. 


Fig. 622. Wardian Case, used for transporting living plants and germinating seeds. The 
top may be glazed with thick glass, or strong white cotton may be firmly stretched over it. 
Fig. 623. Wooden partitions, which may be inserted in the Case to hold pots, which must be 
carefully fastened to prevent injury during transit, Fig. 624. Section of the Case, showing 
the separate pots, with plants, in the interior. 


350 CHANGES IN THE SEED DURING GERMINATION. 


He took 368 species of seed, fifteen years old, collected in the same 
garden, and sowed them at the same time, and in the same circum- 
stances as nearly as possible. Of the 368 only 17 germinated, and com- 
paratively few of the species came up. The following are the results :— 


Per cent, 
Malvacee 5 came up out of 10 species ‘ . 0°50 
Leguminose Gen" es » 45 5, 5 . 0°20 
Labiate . - ee ae +» 380 4, ; s 0:03 
Scrophulariaceze x OY 95 gy, LOE by 3 . 0°00 
Umbellifere 0 4 a9 LO as H . 0°00 
Caryophyllacez Oe ays ga Or s's c . 0°00 
Graminez Oy wee) Oe Cass ~ 000 
Cruciferz e Oh! -55 se OR as fi » 0°00 
Composite é oO sy sy ADD, z . 0°00 


In 357 species, of which the duration of life was known, the results 
‘were :— * 


Per cent. 
Annuals . 3 . 9 came up out of 180 species 50 
Biennials . is ae Oh gy PY 28 yy, 0-0 
Perennials 4 4, vx L05- 5, 3°8 
Ligneous . O38 gy 55 67 
16 357 44 


Ligneous species thus seem to preserve the power of germinating 
longer than others, while biennials are at the opposite end of the scale ; 
perennials would appear to lose their vitality sooner than annuals, 
Large seeds were found to retain the germinating power longer than 
small ones, and the presence or absence of separate albumen or perisperm 
did not seem to make any difference. Composite and Umbellifere 
lost their germinating power very early. From these experiments 
Decandolle concludes that the duration of vitality is frequently in an 
inverse proportion to the rapidity of the germination. : 

CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING GERMINATION.— During the process 
of germination certain changes take place in the contents of the seed, 
by which they are rendered fit for the nourishment of the embryo. In 
exalbuminous or aperispermic seeds, where the embryo alone occupies 
the interior, these changes are effected principally in the matters stored 
up in the cotyledons. In albuminous or perispermic seeds, on the 
other hand, the changes occur in the substance of the perisperm. One 
of the most remarkable of these changes is the conversion of starch into 
dextrine and grape sugar by a process of oxidation, the object being 
the conversion of an insoluble into a soluble substance. While this 
conversion of starch into sugar proceeds, oxygen is absorbed, carbonic 
acid is given off, and heat is produced. It is probable that at this 
period there is a certain amount of electric disturbance. Carpenter 
states that the conversion of the starch of the seed into sugar involves 


STAGES OF GERMINATION. 351 


the liberation of carbonic acid, with a small quantity of acetic acid ; 
and as all acids are negative, and like electricities repel each other, it 
is probable that the seed is at the time in an electro-negative condition. 
The phenomena of germination are well seen in the malting of barley, 
-which consists in the sprouting of the embryo and the formation of 
sugar. The changes produced in the air by germinating seeds have 
been investigated by Saussure, who showed that in all cases carbonic 
acid was evolved at the expense of the carbon of the seed. During 
growth and evolution it would appear that all living beings, whether 
plants or animals, give out carbonic acid (carbon dioxide), whilst oxy- 
gen or some oxidising substance is absorbed. Growth and evolution must 
be considered in a different way from the decomposition of CO, by 
leaves, under the influence of light, to provide the starch, gum, sugar, 
and other materials that are to be organised. 

When all the requisites for germination are supplied, the seed, by 
the absorption of moisture, becomes softened and swollen. When 
albumen or the perisperm is present, it undergoes certain chemical 
changes by the action of the air and water, so as to be rendered fit 
for the nutrition of the embryo. These changes consist partly in the 
conversion of starch into sugar, and are accompanied with the evolu- 
tion of carbonic acid, and the production of heat. As the fluid 
‘matters are absorbed by the cells of the embryo, the latter continues 
to increase until it fills the cavity of the seed, and ultimately bursts 
through the softened integuments. In cases where there is no peri- 
sperm, the exalbuminous embryo occupies the entire seed, and the 
process of germination goes on with greater rapidity. The embryo 
speedily swells, ruptures the integument, and is nourished at the 
-expense of the cotyledons, which are often fleshy, containing much 
starchy matter, as in the Bean and Pea, along with oily matter, as in 
the Nut and Rape seed. There are thus two stages of germination— 
that in which the embryo undergoes certain changes within the seed 
itself, and that in which it protrudes through the integuments and 
becomes an independent plant. 

The embryo, nourished at the expense of its perisperm and coty- 
ledons, continues to grow, and usually protrudes its radicular extremity 
(fig. 625, 1) in the first instance, which is nearest the surface, and 
next the micropyle. This, which in the embryo is very short, and 
-confounded with the cauliculus so as to form the first internode, 
becomes thickened by addition to its extremity (fig. 625, 2), and the 
‘division between the ascending ‘and descending axis becomes more 
marked. The caulicule or axis also elongates, bearing at its summit 
the plumule, which now appears outside the integuments (fig. 625, 3 9), 
forming the second internode, either accompanied by the cotyledons, 
or leaving them still within the seed coats, In the latter case, the 
-cotyledons are usually fleshy and of a pale colour, and become 


352 DIRECTION OF PLUMULE AND RADICLE. 


gradually absorbed like the perisperm. In the former they assume 
a more or less leafy aspect, exercis- 
ing the functions of leaves for a 
certain period, and ultimately decay- 
ing. While the radicle descends 
towards the centre of the earth, pro- 
ducing roots of a pale colour, the 
plumule has a tendency to ascend, 
forming the leafy axis, and assuming 
a green colour under the influence of 
light and air. 

Direction or PLUMULE AND Rapictz.—Various attempts have 
been made to explain the ascent of the plumule and the descent of 
the radicle, but none of them are satisfactory. Physiologists have 
not been able to detect any law to which they can refer the phenomena, 
although certain agencies are obviously concerned in the effects, 
Some have said that the root is especially influenced by the attraction 
of the earth, while the stem is influenced by light. Experiments 
have shown that the direction of the root is not owing,to the moisture 
of the soil, and that the ascent of the stem is not due to the action of 
light and air; for roots descend, and stems ascend, even when the 
latter are placed in contact with the earth, and the former submitted 
to the action of light, Knight thinks that the direction of stem and 
roots may be traced to gravitation, and the state of the tissues. When 
a branch is horizontal, the fluids gravitate towards the lower side; a 
vigorous growth takes place there; the tissues enlarge, and, by 
increasing more than those on the upper side, an incurvation is pro- 
duced, the convexity of which looks downwards, and thus the extremity 
of the branch is directed upwards. Again, in the root the increase 
takes place by the extremity, and the fluids by their gravity cause 
this to retain always a descending direction. A similar explanation 
is given by Dodart. Dutrochet refers the phenomena to endosmose, 
which varies in its effects according to the comparative size of the 
cells in the centre and circumference of an axis. In young stems 
with large pith, the central cells are larger, and they diminish towards 
the circumference ; whereas in roots, according to him, the diminution 
takes place in the reverse manner. Large cells distend more rapidly 
than small ones; and, according to their position in the axis, will 


Fig. 625. 


Fig. 625. Germination of the dicotyledonous aperispermic seed of Acacia Julibrissin. 
e, Spermoderm or testa. 1, Radicle of the embryo. ¢, Tigellus or cauliculus. ¢, Cotyledons. 
g,Gemmule or plumule. 1, First stage: in which the radicle ruptures the envelope or 
spermoderm, and appears externally at the micropyle. 2, Second stage: where the parts 
of the embryo are further disengaged from the covering, the summit of the cotyledons only 
being retained by the spermoderm. 38, Third stage: where the embryo is entirely dis- 
engaged from the envelope or spermoderm, and the cotyledons, cc, are séparated so as to 
exhibit the plumule, g. 


DIRECTION OF PLUMULE AND RADICLE. “353 


thus cause curvature outwards or inwards, the largest occupying the 
convexity of the arch, the smallest the concavity. When a branch or 
root is laid horizontally, the force of endosmose is weakened on the 
lower side, and, consequently, will cease to neutralise the tendency to 
incurvation on the upper side, which will therefore be directed either 
upwards or downwards, according to the position of its layers of small 
cells,—in the case of a branch with large central cells, curving 
upwards ; and in the case of a root with larger hemispherical cells, 
downwards. 

These explanations do not appear, however, to be altogether 
satisfactory. It is known that the stem is directed upwards, the root 
downwards, but, as yet, physiologists have not been able to ascertain 
the laws which regulate them. The tendencies of the root and stem 
are not easily counteracted. When a seed is planted in moist earth, 
and suspended in the air, the root will, in the progress of growth, 
leave the earth and descend into the air in a perpendicular direction, 
while the stem will pass through a quantity of moist earth in an up- 
ward direction. If their positions are reversed they will become 
twisted, so as to recover their natural positions. Henfrey remarks 
that ‘so far as we are in a position to tell, there is some definite, 
and as yet unknown, cause which makes the radicle first grow towards 
the earth or other source of nourishment, which it penetrates by elonga- 
tion, a resisting point being offered by the weight of the seed or the 
earth covering it; and then, in its further growth downward, it 
requires a point of resistance to be afforded by the adhesion of the 
earth around the collar, ring, or neck of the root, since the elongation 
takes place in the structures just above the point of the root, thus 
exerting a pressure upwards and downwards, which if the upper part 
of the root be kept free, and the weight of the plant balanced, will 
cause the whole to rise bodily upwards. Thus, when seeds germinate 
in damp moss lying upon a hard surface, the elongation of the root 
will push the stem up through the moss, unless the root branches so 
as to get fixed down by entanglement among the loose matter. We 
may admit, therefore, that we are at present totally ignorant of the 
cause of the direction taken by roots. All the notions hitherto 
advanced having been purely speculative.” 

The effect of light on the stem may be illustrated by the growth 
of plants in circumstances where a pencil of light only is admitted on 
one, side. Dr.-Poggioli of Bologna was the first who observed the 
influence exercised by the rays of the spectrum in causing flection of 
plants.. Experiments on this subject have been made by Payen, 
Dutrochet, and Gardner. They consider the blue rays as those which 
have the greatest effect on the plumule. Hunter observed, that if a 
barrel filled-with earth, in the centre of which are some beans, was 
rotated for several days horizontally, the roots pointed in a direction 

2A 


354 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION. 


parallel to the axis of rotation. Knight* put Mustard seeds and 
French beans on the circumference of two wheels, which were put in 
rapid motion, the one in a horizontal, and the other in a vertical 
manner ; and he found that in the former the roots took a direction 
intermediate between that impressed by gravitation and by the centri- 
fugal force—viz., downwards and outwards, while the stems were 
inclined upwards and inwards. In the latter, where the force of 
gravitation was neutralised by the constant change of position, the 
centrifugal force acted alone, by which the roots were directed out- 
wards, at the same time that the stem grew inwards. To explain 
these results, there must be allowed—1. A more or less liquid con- 
dition of the new parts of the young plant. 2. A different density in 
the different parts of the latter. 3. A tendency of the denser parts 
of new plants, during germination, towards the root. On the vertical 
wheel, the parts of the young plants submitted to the centrifugal 
force only, had their roots or densest parts at the circumference. On 
the horizontal wheel the effect was intermediate between centrifugal 
force and gravity. The upper side of leaves is under the influence of 
light in a marked degree, for, when placed in the reverse position by the 
turning of a branch, they twist round so as to resume their natural 
exposure. During darkness, on the contrary, many leaves fold in 
such a way that their lower surface is exposed. Some plants grow 
indifferently in all directions at the period of germination. The 
Mistleto and other parasites direct their radicles towards the centre 
of the plants to which they are attached, while the plumule grows 
perpendicularly to the surface. 

MonocoryLeponovus GERMINATION.—In Monocotyledons there 
is generally a perisperm present, often in large quantity, and in them 
the cotyledon remains more or less within the seed at the period of 
germination, The intra-seminal portion of the cotyledons, as in 
Canna (fig. 626), and especially in the Coco-nut, becomes developed 
as a pale cellular mass, which increases much, and absorbs the nutri- 
ment required for the embryo. In some Monocotyledons the perisperm 
disappears entirely ; in others, as in the Phytelephas or Ivory Palm, 
while certain soluble matters are removed, the perisperm still retains 
its original form. The intra-seminal part may be said to correspond 
to the limb or lamina of the cotyledonary leaf. The extra-seminal 
portion, corresponding to the petiole, becomes often much elongated, 
‘as in the double Coco-nut, and ends in a sheath which envelopes the 
axis or cauliculus, and the plumule. Sometimes, however, there is no 
marked elongation of the cotyledon, the sheath being at once formed 
on the outside of the seed, so that the plumule and radicle are, as it 
were, sessile on its surface. These phenomena are well seen in Canna 
indica (fig. 626), where ¢ is the envelope of the seed; p, the peri- 

* See Knight’s Horticultural Papers, London, 1841, p. 124. 


MONOCOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION. 3905 


sperm or albumen ; ¢, the intra-seminal portion of the cotyledon, which 
absorbs the nourishment ; p c, the petiolary or extra-seminal portion 
of the cotyledon, which varies in length, and may be wanting ; », the 
sheathing portion of the cotyledon, from a slit in which, f, the plu- 
mule, g, protrudes, supported on the axis or cauliculus, ¢; while the 


Fig. 626. 


radicles, r and 7’, pierce the integument at the base, and are each 
covered with a separate sheath, co, called coleorhiza (fig. 105, p. 42). 
In aperispermic Monocotyledons, as Alismaceze and Potamese (fig. 595, 
p. 334), the cotyledon does not remain within the seed, but is raised 
above the ground, c, giving origin to the plumule, g, which is at first 
enclosed in its sheath. 

Thus the cotyledon follows the development of leaves. Its 
limb is first produced, and is either pushed above ground, or 
is confined within the seed. In the latter case it is arrested in 
its progress; subsequently, a sheath is formed which may either 
be a direct continuation of the limb, or may be separated from it 
by a petiolary portion. When the limb is confined in the seed, and 
ceases to be developed, the sheath often continues to grow, forming a 
marked covering of the axis. The rootlets in Monocotyledons during 
germination (fig. 105 rr, p. 42) pierce the radicular extremity of the 
embryo, and become covered with sheaths or coleorhizas, ¢ c, formed 
by a superficial layer of cellular tissue. As the radicular extremity 


Fig. 626. Germination of the monocotyledonous perispermic seed of Canna indica. The 
seed is cut to show the relation between the perisperm and the embryo at different stages, 
the former diminishing, while the latter increases. e, Envelope or spermoderm. 0, Its 
upper part, which is separated like a lid or operculum, to allow the passage of the radicle. 
, Perisperm or albumen. ¢, Cotyledon. 7, Radicle or young root. 7 1’, Secondary 
tadicles. co, Coleorhiza or sheath of the roots. /f, Slit indicating the position of the gem- 
mule ; at this slit an elongated sheath, v, is protruded. oc, Narrow portion of the cotyle- 
don (corresponding to the petiolary portion), intermediate between its enlarged portion, ¢ 
(corresponding to the lamina or limb of the leaf), and its sheathing or vaginal portion, v. 
t, Tigellus or cauliculus. g, Gemmule or plumule. 1, First stage, in which the radicle, r, 
begins to appear through the integuments or spermoderm. 2, Second stage, where the slit, 
J, is seen also on the outer surface, indicating the situation of the gemmule. The true 
radicle, 7, has pierced the envelope of the seed, and at its base shows a small sheath or 
coleorhiza. One of the small radicles, 7’, is also seen with a coleorhiza, 38, Third stage, 
when all the parts are more developed, and the gemmule, g, appears on the outside of the 
slit, f, the edges of which are prolonged in the form of a sheath or vagina, v. 


356 DICOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION. 


thus remains within the embryo, and sends out radicles (adventitious 
or secondary rootlets) from its surface, the plants are said to be endo- 
rhizal (evdov, within, ¢/Za, a root). See page 42. 

DicoryLeponous GERMINATION.—In Dicotyledons, the cotyledons 
generally separate from the integuments, and either appear above 
ground in the form of temporary leaves (figs. 627, 628 cc), which 
differ in form from the permanent leaves of the plant (fig. 628 g), or 
remain below as fleshy lobes. In the former case they are epigeal (éai, 


Fig. 628. 


1 ER 
$03) 
i val 


“i 
if 
4 


Fig. 627. Fig. 629. 


upon or above, yéa, 7%, the earth), in the latter case (as in Beans, 
Arachis, etc.), they are hypogeal (bxé, under). The cotyledons usually 
separate, but sometimes they are united, and appear as one. In all 
cases, the plumule (figs. 627, 628 g) proceeds from between the two 
cotyledons, and does not pierce through a sheath as in monocotyle- 


Fig. 627. Germination of the dicotyledonous embryo of Acer Negundo. m, Collum, 
collar or neck. 7, Root. t, Caulicule or stem. cc, Cotyledous. g, Gemmule or plumule. 
Fig. 628. Upper part of the same embryo more developed. cc, Cotyledons. g, Gemmule, 
the first leaves of which are already expanded. ¢, Caulicule or stem. Fig. 629. Acotyle- 
donous embryos or spores of Marchantia polymorpha, germinating. 1, Spore in the early 
stage of germination. 2, Ina more advanced stage. The spores are simple cells, which 
elongate during germination at some point of their surface. They are heterorhizal. They 
may be compared to naked embryos rather than to seeds, 


ACOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION. 357 


dons. The root (fig. 627 r) is a direct prolongation of the axis, ¢, in 
a downward direction, separating from it at the collar, m, and the 
embryo is here exorhizal (&w, outwards). See page 41. 

ACOTYLEDONOUs GzRMINATION.—In Acotyledons the spore (fig. 
629) has no separate embryo in its interior. It may be considered 
rather as a cellular embryo than a seed. It germinates by sending 
off cellular root-like prolongations from all parts of its surface, hence 
it is called Aeteroriizal (zregos, diverse) (see p. 43). These cellular 
processes may be formed either from the entire wall of the spore or 
from its inner covering. In fungi the spore gives origin to a cellular 
axis called spawn (mycelium), on which ultimately the fructification is 
developed. The spores of Fungi often germinate in anomalous posi- 
tions, such as the organs of other plants, and the bodies of animals and 
man. Much injury is often occasioned in crops by the attacks of these 
spores. In the higher acotyledons the spores form in the first instance 
a cellular prothallus, in which the organs of reproduction ultimately 
are developed (see p. 279). In speaking of the germination of Hypho- 
mycetous Fungi, Lister states that these spores (conidia) germinate 
in three ways. 1. They may form their sprouts, which become 
plants like the parent. 2. They may multiply by pullulation, like 
the yeast plant, and, under some circumstances, this toruloid growth 
may continue for an indefinite period, though the resulting progeny 
will, under favouring conditions, reproduce a fungus like the original. 
3. The conidia may shoot out sprouts of exquisite delicacy, which 
break up into Bacteria. These Bacteria, like the fungi whence they are 
derived, are of various totally distinct kinds, both morphologically 
and physiologically. They give rise to different fermentative changes, 
and some refuse to grow in media in which others thrive. Bacteria 
cannot be classified merely by forms, we must take into account their 
physiological peculiarities. 

Some seeds commence the process of germination before being de- 
tached from the plant. This occurs in a remarkable degree in the 
Mangrove tree, Rhizophora Mangle, which grows at the muddy mouths 
of rivers in warm climates. Coco-nuts often begin to germinate during 
a voyage from the tropics to Britain, and germinating seeds have been 
found in the interior of Gourds, as well as in the fruit of Carica Papaya, 
the Papaw. The seeds of the Banyan, or Bo-tree (Ficus indica), seldom 
‘ germinate on the ground. The fig-like fruit of the tree is eaten by 
birds, and the seeds are deposited in the crown of Palms, where they 
grow, sending down roots which embrace and generally kill the Palm. 

Promirerous PLants.—In place of seeds, some plants produce 
buds, which can be detached, and produce separate individuals. 
Flowers which are thus changed into separable buds are called prolifer- 
ous (proles, offspring, and fero, I bear), or viviparous (vivus, alive, and 
pario, I produce). They are met with in many alpine grasses, as 


358 PROLIFEROUS OR VIVIPAROUS PLANTS. 


Festuca ovina, var, vivipara, Aira ceespitosa, var. alpina, Poa alpina, 
etc., as well as in Alliums, Trifoliums, and Ferns. Buds of a similar 
kind may be produced on the edges, or in the axil of leaves, as in 
Bryophyllum calycinum, Malaxis paludosa (fig. 231, p. 118), many 
species of Gesnera, Gloxinia, and Achimenes ; and the bulbils of Lilium 
(fig. 230, p. 117), Ixia, Dentaria, Ornithogalum (fig. 232, p. 118), 
some Saxifrages (S. cernua and §. foliolosa), seem to be peculiar 
forms of buds, capable of being detached, and of assuming indepen- 
dent growth. Buds, however, differ from true embryos in the 
direction of the roots being towards the axis of the plant. In uni- 
cellular plants, and others of the lowest class, it is common to find 
each cell possessing the power of producing a new individual, either 
by simple division or by the formation of a'cellular bud. In higher 
plants this mode of propagation is carried out by means of an assem- 
blage of cells, which are developed into an organ or bud of a more 
complicated nature, before it is detached. Multiplication by division 
of cells is very common among the lowest Algee, such as Desmidiacese 
and Diatomaces (fig. 472, p. 267). In the case of Lichens, the 
thallus produces gonidia (p. 269), which appear to be a collection of 
cellular buds capable of producing independent individuals, On the 
thallus of Liverworts (Marchantia) cup-like bodies are produced con- 
taining gemme (fig. 488 g, p.275). In Mosses the power of repro- 
duction by gemme is very marked. Almost every cell of the surface 
of Mosses, according to Schimper, is capable of giving origin to a leafy 
plant .or innovation. Ferns are propagated by buds, and gemma 
occasionally occur on their prothallium. The higher classes of plants 
may be considered as consisting of numerous buds united on a common 
axis (fig. 219, p.109). These possess a certain amount of independent 
vitality, and they may be, separated from the parent stem in such a 
way as to give origin to new individuals. In some instances buds 
are produced which are detached spontaneously at a certain period of 
a plant’s life. The cloves formed in the axils of the scales of bulbs 
are gemme or buds, which can be detached so as to form new plants. 

The length of time required for the protrusion of the radicle varies 
in different plants. Some seeds, as garden cresses, germinate in the 
course of twenty-four hours, others require many days or many months. 
Seeds with hard coverings, or a stony perisperm, may lie dormant in 
the soil for a year or more. The following experiments were made in 
the Geneva garden, on seeds similarly watered, and exposed to a 
medium temperature of 53° F. It was ascertained that one-half of 
the species of the following families germinated after the lapre of the 
number of days here mentioned :— 


Amarantacese ‘ - si % . : ‘ 7 9 days. 
Crucifere 10 ,, 
Boraginacee, Car yophyllacex, Chenopodiaces, Malvaces: a LY <3; 


DURATION OF THE LIFE OF PLANTS. 359 


Composite, Convolvulacez, Plantaginacese a i 12 days. 
Polygonacee . 7 i C 3 13° 55 
Campanulacez, Leguminosee, Valerianacez - : é 14 ,, 
Graminex, Labiate, Solanaces 2 : ; a A LB Ge 
Rosacez . * F 4 “ . ‘ . Tw 
Ranunculacese ‘ ; i 2 F ‘ ‘ 20 4, 
Antirrhinums, Onagr acess i 7 i F ‘ 22 45 
Umbelliferz . ¥ i fi ‘ ‘ é 3 . 23 


Temperature has a great effect in accelerating germination. Thus, 
Erigeron caucasicum, at a temperature varying from 49° to 53°, ger- 
minated in ten days ; at a temperature from 66° to 72°, in two days ; 
Dolichos abyssinicus, at the former temperature, in ten days, at the latter, 
in three ; Zinnia coccinea, in twenty-two and five days respectively. 

Duration oF THE Lire oF Piants.—Plants, according to the 
duration of their existence, have been divided into annual, biennial, 
and perennial. * The first|of these terms imports that the seed ger- 
minates, and that the plant produces leaves and flowers, ripens its 
seed, and perishes within the year; the second, that a plant ger- 
minates and produces leaves the first year, but does not produce a 
flowering stem, nor ripen its seed, till the second, after which it 
perishes ; while the third intimates that the process of flowering and 
fruiting may be postponed till the third year, or any indefinite period. 
The first two exercise the function of flowering in general only once, 
while the last may do so several times before dying. Under different 
climates, however, and under different modes of management, the 
same species may be annual, biennial, or even perennial. Thus, 
Wheat in this country is annual if sown early in spring, but biennial 
if sown in autumn ; in hot climates Lolium perenne proves annual ; 
the Castor-oil plant in ‘this country is annual, while in Italy it is a 
shrub of several years’ duration ; the annual Mignonette, by removing 
its flower-buds the first year, and keeping it in a proper temperature 
during the winter, may be rendered perennial and shrubby. Many 
flowering garden plants, as Neapolitan Violet and Lily of the Valley, 
may be brought into flower at a late period of the year, by pinching 
off the blossoms in the early part of the season. 

Plants, as regards their flowering and fruiting, have also been 
divided into monocarpic (u6vos, one, and xaprds, fruit), or those which 
flower once only and then die ; and polycarpic (woAtc, many), or those 
which flower and fruit several times before the entire plant dies. 
Thus, annuals and biennials, which flower the first or second year 
and die, as well as the Agave, and some Palms which flower only once 
in forty or fifty years, and perish, are monocarpic; while perennials 
are polycarpic. Some perennial woody plants live to a great age. 
The Baobab of Senegal, the Wellingtonia, the Dragon-tree, the Yew, 
the Oak, the Lime, the Cypress, the Eucalyptus, the Olive, the Orange, 
Banyan, and Chestnut, often attain great longevity. 


f 


360 DURATION OF THE LIFE OF PLANTS. 


The following is a notice of the size and age of some trees :— 


Height to which forest trees grow in France . . 120 to 180 feet. 
Height to which forest trees grow in America . ‘ 150 to 250 ,, 
Height of specimens of Wellingtonia (Sequoia) gigantea . 450 ,, 
Trunks of some Baobabs (Adansonia) have a girth of . . 90, 
Trunk of Dragon-tree (Dracena) of the Canaries hasagirthof 45 ,, 
That of a Maple (Acer) in South Carolina hasa girthof . 62 ,, 
In France trees have often a girth of . 7 . . 25 to 30 
Oaks in Britain planted before the pie aia more than - 800 years old, 
Yew at Fountains Abbey, Ripon . é 3 . 1200 _——4, 
Yews in churchyard of Crowhurst, Surrey . ‘ 1450S, 
Yew at Fortingal, Perthshire . - i ” upwards of 2000 a 
Yew at Hedsor, Bucks . . , ; : é . 8200——o,, 


A specimen of the Banyan (Ficus indica), which grew till recently on 
an island in the river Nerbudda, was believed to be identical with one 
that existed in the time of Alexander the Great, and which, according 
to Nearchus, was then capable of overshadowing 10,000 men. The 
chief trunks of this tree greatly exceeded our English Oaks and Elms 
in thickness, and were above 350 in number. The smaller stems 
were more than 3000 in number. The Maronites believe that some 
Cedars near the village of Eden in Lebanon are the remains of the 
forest which furnished Solomon with timber for the temple, full 
3000 years ago. They must be of great antiquity, seeing they were 
counted old 300 years ago. Maundrell mentions the size of some of 
the Cedars. The largest he measured was 36 feet 6 inches in circum- 
ference, and 117 feet in the spread of its boughs. 

Decandolle has given a list of the ascertained ages of certain 
trees :— 


Elm. : é : ‘ 3 é ; . 885 years. 
Cypress, about . ; ‘ ; ‘ = | 1800) 3, 
Cheirostemon (Hand- tree), about . ; , é 400 ,, 
Ivy. 7 : ‘ “ ‘ i , . 450 ,, 
Larch .. “ , " . be IDLE: yy 
Sweet Chestnut, about - ‘ x é ‘ » 600 ,, 
Orange . é . a 5 c i - 630 ,, 
Olive . : , . 700 ,, 
Platanus orientalis (oriental Plane) . xs 5 = A205 
Cedar . . 800 ,, 
Many tropical trees, according to Humboldt, ahout - 1000 ,, 
Wellingtonia, according to Torrey ' . . we ALZO 55 
Lime , . i 4 ‘ , . 1076, 1147 ,, 
Oak ; , ¥ F é . 810, 1080, 1500 ,, 
Yew _ . ‘ "1214, 1458, 2588, 2820 ,, 
remen ae as old as the Yew. 


Decandolle states that the Yew increases little more than one line 
in diameter annually, during the first hundred and fifty years, and a 
little more than one line afterwards, and in very old specimens he con- 


DURATION ,OF THE LIFE OF PLANTS. 361 


siders their age to be at least equal to the number of lines in their 
diameter. This average, however, is probably too high for young 
trees, and too low for old ones. In 1836, Mr. Bowman measured the 
trunks of eighteen Yews in the churchyard of Gresford, near Wrex- 
ham, in North Wales, which were planted out in 1726, and found 
their average diameter to be 20 inches, or 240 lines. Comparing 
them with the dimensions of other trees whose ages are known, he 
came to the conclusion, that for Yews of moderate age, and where the 
circumference is less than 6 feet, at least two lines, or } of an inch of 
their diameter, should be allowed for annual increase, and even three 
lines or more if growing in favourable circumstances. He states that 
a, Yew in the same churchyard, whose mean diameter is 8 feet 6 inches, 
or 1224 lines, and whose age, by Decandolle’s method, would be as 
many years, was in reality 1419 years old. Sections taken from 
different sides of the trunk contained as follows :— 


Average number of annual rings per inch, oS A oe a rr : 


counted on the horizontal plane. (Oui tha. sotth=west aide 18 


giving a general average of 342 rings in an inch of the diameter. 
Supposing that this tree, when 150 years old, had a diameter equal to 
that of the eighteen already mentioned, and among which it grows, 
and had continued to increase in the same ratio up to 150 years, and 
also making additional allowance for an intermediate rate of increase 
between 150 and 250 years, Mr. Bowman arrives at the following 
result :—At 150 years old, its diameter would be 25 inches; at 246 
years old, 33 inches, leaving 5 feet 9 inches of the diameter for subse- 
quent increase, the radius of which, at 34 rings to the inch, would 
contain 1173 rings, or years of growth; to this add 246, and its 
present age would be 1419 years. — 

Another Yew in Darley churchyard, Derbyshire, is mentioned by 
Mr. Bowman, in which sections taken from its north and south sides 
gave 44 annual rings in the inch, so that its radius would contain 286 
such rings, supposing them to be of equal thickness throughout, but 
making the same deductions as before, its present age may be esti- 
mated at about 2006 years. This examination shows the Gresford 
Yew to be about 200, and that at Darley about 650 years older than 
Decandolle’s standard of one line per annum of the diameter would 
indicate, and consequently, that for old trees his average is too low. It 
also shows that the Darley tree, with a greater diameter than the 
other of only 11 inches, is 587 years older, the excess arising from the 
extreme thinness of its annual deposits. No precise rule can there- 
fore be laid down, and actual sections must he resorted to if anything 
like accuracy be required. 


362 VEGETABLE METAMORPHOSES. 


10.—General Observations on the Organs of Plants, and on the 


Mode in which they are arranged. 


Plants may be said to be composed of numerous individuals, each 
having a sort of independent existence, and all contributing to the 
general growth of the compound individual formed by their union. In 
the case of a tree there are a vast number of buds, each of which is 
capable of being removed, and of being made to grow on another tree 
by grafting ; and although each has thus a vitality of its own, it is 
nevertheless dependent on the general vitality of the tree, so long as 

. , it is attached to it. The same thing is seen in Sertularian Zoophytes. 
Each of the individuals forming a compound plant is called by Gaudi- 
chaud a phyton (pursv, a plant), and in it he recognises three parts or 
merithalli (wéeos, a part, and éaAAés, a young shoot), the radicular 
merithal corresponding to the root, the cauline to the stem, and the 
foliar to the leaf. In Acotyledonous plants the embryo or spore consists 
of united cells, and it is only after germination that it exhibits these 
different parts. In Monocotyledons, the embryo consists of a single 
phyton, with a radicular merithal or radicle, a cauline or tigellus, 
and a foliar or cotyledon. In Dicotyledons the embryo consists of 
two or more phytons united, with their foliar merithals (cotyledons) 
distinct, while their cauline and radicular merithals form each a single 
organ, 

In tracing the various parts of plants, it has been shown that all 
may be referred to the leaf as a type. This morphological law was 
propounded by Linneus and Wolff, but it is to Goethe we owe the 
full enunciation of it. Vegetable morphology, the study of forms, or 
the reference of the forms of the parts of plants to the leaf, is now 
the basis of organography, and it will be observed that in considering 
the various organs this has been kept constantly in view. The calyx, 
corolla, stamens, and pistil, are only modifications of the leaf adapted 
for peculiar functions. It is not meant that they were originally 
leaves, and were afterwards transformed ; but that they are formed 
of the same elements, and arranged upon the same plan, and that in 
the changes which they undergo, and the relation which they bear to 
each other, they follow the same laws as leaves do. The different 
parts of the flower may be changed into each other, as into true 
leaves ; or, in other words, the cellular papille from which they are 
formed are capable of being developed in different ways, according to 
laws which are still unknown. These changes may take place from 
without inwards, by an ascending or direct metamorphosis, as in the 
case of petals becoming stamens; or from within outwards, by descending 
or retrograde metamorphosis, as when stamens become petals, 

Bracts are very evidently allied to leaves, both in their colour and 


SYMMETRY OF ORGANS. 363 


form. Like leaves, too, they produce buds in their axil. ~The mon- 
strosity called Hen and Chickens Daisy depends on the development 
of buds in the axil of the leaves of the involucre. The sepals 
frequently present the appearance of true leaves, as in the Rose. 
The petals sometimes become green like leaves, as in a variety of 
Ranunculus Philonotis mentioned. by Decandolle, and in a variety of 
Campanula rapunculoides noticed by Dumas. At other times they 
are changed into stamens. Decandolle mentions a variety of Capsella 
Bursa-pastoris, in which there were ten stamens produced in conse- 
quence of a transformation of petals. The stamens in double flowers 
are changed into petals, and in Nymphea alba there is a gradual 
transition from the one to the other. Sometimes the stamens are 
changed into carpels, and bear ovules. This has been seen in Wall- 
flower, some Willows, Poppy, etc. Petit-Thouars noticed a plant of 
House-leek, in which the one-half of the anthers bore ovules, and the 
other half pollen. The carpels, as in the double Cherry, may be seen 
in the form of folded leaves ; in double flowers they are transformed 
into petals, and in other cases they are developed as stamens. In a 
monstrosity of Wallflower the placenta gave origin to flowers. It is 
said that increase of temperature and luxuriance of growth sometimes 
make flowers produce stamens only. In plants having unisexual 
flowers this is more liable to take place, as in Melon, Cucumber, etc. 
Increased vigour seems to be required for the development of stamens. 
Some fir trees in their young state bear cones, and produce male 
flowers only when they reach the prime of life. ‘ 

“ Symmetry or OrnGans.—In the progress of growth the plants 
belonging to the different divisions of the vegetable kingdom follow 
certain organogenic laws (éeyvé&vov, an organ, and yew, I produce), 
the operation of which is seen in the definite arrangement of their 
organs. The flower consists sometimes of three, at other times of 
four or five equal sets of organs, similarly and regularly disposed. 
Thus, the Iris has three straight parts of its perianth, and three 
reflexed ones alternately disposed, while the Fuchsia has four parts of 
the calyx alternating with four petals, and the Rose has five alternat- 
ing portions. This orderly and similar distribution of a certain 
number of parts is called symmetry, and flowers are thus said to be 
symmetrical with various numbers of members. When the number 
of parts is two the flower is dimerous.(d/c, twice, wégos, a part) (fig. 
630), and the symmetry two-membered. ‘When the number of parts 
is three the flower is trimerous (rge%, three), and when the parts 
are arranged in an alternating manner (fig. 631) the symmetry is 
trigonal or triangular (ree, three, ywvic, an angle), as in the Lily. 
When there are four parts the flower is tetramerous (rereds, four), 
and the symmetry is tetragonal or square (figs. 632, 633), as in Galium 
and Paris. When there are five parts the flower is pentamerous 


364 SYMMETRY OF ORGANS. 


(wévre, five), and the symmetry pentagonal (fig. 634), as in Ranun- 
culus. The number of parts in the flower is indicated by the 
following symbols :—Dimerous 2/, Trimerous %/, Tetramerous </, Pen- 
tamerous 4/. 


ia ( eX. oe -2\ 

(2) KD EGS) 

ee oo 2 <7 
Fig. 630. Fig. 631. Fig. 632. Fig. 633. 


There are also other kinds of arrangements in flowers, which may 
be referred to certain modifications in the organogenic law. Thus, 
what is called oblong or two and two-membered symmetry, occurs in 
cases where the opposite ends are similar, and the opposite sides, as in 
the arrangement of the stamens of Crucifere. The term symmetry, 
however, is properly confined to cases where the parts are arranged 
alternately, and are either equal or some multiple of each other, and 
has no reference to the forms of the different parts. In the very 
young state, the parts of the flower appear as a shallow rim, from 
which the petals and sepals arise as mammille, in a symmetrical 
manner. In the case of irregular corollas the parts at first appear 
regular. In speaking of flowers it is usual to call them symmetrical 
when the sepals, petals, and stamens follow the law mentioned, even 
although the pistil may be abnormal. Thus, many Solanacez are 
pentamerous, and have a dimerous ovary, yet they are called sym- 
metrical. In Cruciferze the flowers are, properly speaking, unsym- 
metrical, for while there are four sepals and four petals, there are six 
stamens in place of four. This condition of the stamens depends pro- 
bably on deduplication (p. 210). In Papilionaceous flowers the parts 
are usually symmetrical, there being five divisions of the calyx, five 
petals, and ten stamens in two rows. In these flowers there should 
normally be five carpels, but there are very rarely more than one. 

In Dicotyledonous plants it is common to meet with pentagonal 
(figs. 634, 635, 636) and tetragonal (figs. 632, 633) symmetry, the 
parts being arranged in fives and fours, or in multiples of these num- 


Fig. 630. Diagram of the dimerous flower of Circa Lutetiana, Enchanter’s Nightshade. 
There are two carpels, two stamens, two divisions of the corolla, and two of the calyx. The 
flower is Isostemonous. Fig. 631. Diagram of the trimerous Isostemonous flower of 
Cneorum tricoccum. The floral envelopes are arranged in sets of three, and so are the 
essential organs. Fig. 632, Diagram of the tetramerous Isostemonous flower of Zieria. 
The organs are arranged in verticils of four parts each. Fig. 633. Diagram of the tetra- 
merous Diplostemonous flower of Ruta graveolens, There are four carpels, eight stamens, 
or four in each verticil, four folioles of the calyx, and four petals. 


TERATOLOGY—SUPPRESSION OF ORGANS. 365 


bers. The stamens are often more numerous than the petals, and in 
that case they are arranged in different verticils, each alternating with 
that next it. Thus, if there are five sepals, five petals, and twenty 
stamens, the latter are considered as forming four verticils. No doubt 
the verticils are often traced with difficulty, more especially when 


eG pen 
(& rex +\ (ER) Ao o 
cS) ) 5! ( 8.) Ae) 
@ y) 4 


Fig. 634. Fig. 635. Fig. 636. Fig. 637. 


cohesions or adhesions take place. In Monocotyledons (fig. 637) the 
parts are usually in sets of three, or in some multiple of that number, 
exhibiting trigonal symmetry. In Acotyledons, when any definite 
number can be traced, it is found to be two, or some multiple of two. 
The teeth of Mosses are in sets of four, or some multiple of four. 
The spores of many Acotyledons are also arranged in fours (fig. 482, 
. 273). 
‘ Foc has thus been traced a tendency to symmetri- 
cal arrangement. But the parts of plants are often modified by natural 
causes which cannot be explained. It is assumed that each of the 
‘similar members of a flower have the same organisation, and a similar 
power of development; and hence, if among these similar parts some 
are less developed than others, they are considered as abortive, and these 
abnormal states are traced to changes which take place in the earlier 
stages of growth. Such changes often interfere with the symmetry of 
the flower. Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement, as well as in 
the forms of the different parts of plants, have been traced to suppression 
or the non-development of organs, degeneration or imperfect formation, 
cohesion or union of parts of the same whorl, adhesion or union of the 
parts of different whorls, multiplication of parts, and deduplication 
(sometimes called chorisis). The study of Teratology (régae, a mon- 
strosity, and Aéyos, treatise), or of the monstrosities occurring in plants, 


Fig. 634, Diagram of the pentamerous Isostemonous flower of Crassula rubens. ¢c¢c 9% 
Parts of the calyx. pppypp, Petals alternating with the leaves of the calyx. eeece, 
Stamens alternating with the petals. wu, Accessory bodies in the form of scales, or a disk 
alternating with the stamens. These scales are often an abortive row of stamens. 0, 
-Carpels alternating with the stamens, and opposite to the scales. Fig. 635. Diagram of 
the pentamerous flower of Sedum Telephium. The stamens are ten, arranged in two alter- 
nating verticils. The flower is Diplostemonous. Fig. 636. Diagram of the pentamerous 
Diplostemonous flower of Coriaria myrtifolia ; the parts of the four whorls alternating, the 
verticil of stamens being double. Fig. 637. Diagram of the trimerous Diplostemonous 
flower of Ornithogalum pyrenaicum, Stamens six, in two alternating verticils, 


366 TERATOLOGY—SUPPRESSION OF ORGANS. 


has led to many important conclusions relative to the development of 
organs, and it is only by tracing the parts of plants through all their 
stages and transformations that correct ideas can be formed as to their 
relations and forms.* 

By suppression is meant the non-appearance of an organ at the 
place where it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the organ 
being wanting to complete the symmetry. This suppression is liable 
to occur in all the parts of plants, and gives rise to various abnormalli- 
ties. Suppression may consist in the non-appearance of one or more 
parts of certain verticils, or of one or more entire verticils. In the 
flowers of Staphylea (fig. 638) there are five parts of the calyx, five 
petals, five stamens, and only two carpels; in many Caryophyllacee, 
as Polycarpon and Holosteum (fig. 639), while the calyx and corolla 
are pentamerous, there are only three or four stamens and three car- 
pels ; in Impatiens noli-me-tangere (fig. 640) the calyx is composed 
of three parts, while the other verticils have five ; in Labiate flowers 
there are five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens ; 
and in Tropolum pentaphyllum (fig. 641) there are five sepals, two 


Fig. 638. Fig. 639. Fig. 640. Fig. 641. 


petals, eight stamens, and three carpels. In all these cases the want 
of symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the last- 
mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said that there 
are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position of the two 
remaining ones (fig. 641); there are two rows of stamens, in each of 
which one is wanting, and there are two carpels suppressed. In many 


Fig. 638. Diagram of the flower of Staphylea pinnata. The parts of the calyx, corolla, 
and stamens are pentamerous, while the pistil, in consequence of the suppression of three 
carpels, is dimerous. Fig. 639. Diagram of the flower of Holosteum umbellatum. There 
are five calycine divisions, and five petals ; but the stamens, by the suppression of one, are 
only four in number; while the carpels are, by suppression, reduced to three. Thus the 
flower is unsymmetrical. Fig. 640. Diagram of the flower of Impatiens parviflora, with 
one of the calycine leaves spurred. There are five carpels, five stamens, five petals, one of 
which is larger than the rest, but only three parts of the calyx, in consequence of suppres- 
sion. Fig. 641. Diagram of the flower of Tropeolum pentaphyllum, with a spurred or 
ealearate calycine leaf. The petals, by suppression, are reduced to two; the stamens are 
eight in place of ten, and the carpels three in place of five. 


* For a complete treatise on this subject, see Vegetable Teratology, by Dr. M. T. Masters. 


TERATOLOGY—SUPPRESSION OF ORGANS. 367 


instances the parts which are afterwards suppressed can be seen in the 
early stages of growth, and occasionally some vestiges of them remain 
in the fully developed flower. Sometimes 

the whorl of the petals is wanting, the = ~~ 
flowers being apetalous (a, privative, and ( o py e ~ 
wérdaov, a leaf) (fig. 642), and in such cases | g oF 8C) 0) 
it is common to see the stamens opposite to © oo 
the segments of the calyx which is the whorl eA Nr 
verticil) next to them, as in Chenopodiacese "®: 94 Eng C88 
a 643). That this suppression of the petals takes place is shown 
in the case of certain allied plants, as in the natural orders Caryophyl- 
laceze and Paronychiaceze, where some species have petals and others 
want them. 

By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the carpels, 
flowers become wnisexual (unus, one, and sews, sex), or diclinous (dis, 
twice, and xAfvy), a bed, and are marked thus, ¢ 9; the first of these 
symbols indicating the male, and the second the female flower. Thus, 
in Jatropha Curcas (fig. 346, p. 218), the flowers have five segments 
of the calyx, and five petals, while in some (fig. 346, 1) the pistil is 
wanting ; in others (fig. 346, 2), the stamens. In the genus Lychnis 
there are usually stamens and pistil present, or the flower is hermaphro- 
dite, or monoclinous (uévos, one, and xAivn, a bed); but in Lychnis 
dioica some flowers have stamens only ; others pistils only. Thus it 
is that monwcious or monoicous and dicctous or dioicous (wéovos, one, dis, 
twice, and o/z/ov, a habitation) plants are produced by the suppression 
of the essential organs of the flowers, either in the same or in different 
individuals of the same species ; while polygamous (woAds, many, and 
yéwos, marriage) plants are those in which, besides unisexual, there 
are also hermaphrodite or perfect flowers. 

Some parts of the pistil are generally suppressed in the progress of 
growth, and hence it is rare to find it symmetrical with the other 
whorls. When the fruit was treated of (p. 299) it was shown that 
carpels and ovules often become abortive by pressure and absorption, 
so that the pericarp and seeds differ in their divisions and numbers 
from the ovary and ovules. If the whorls of the calyx and corolla are 
wanting the flower becomes naked or achlamydeous (p. 177), It may 
still, however, be fitted for the functions of producing seed ; but if 
the essential organs—viz. the verticils of stamens and pistils—are sup- 
pressed, then the flower, however showy as regards its envelopes, is 


Fig. 642. Diagram of the flower of Glaux maritima, showing the suppression of the verticil 
of the corolla, There are five divisions of the calyx, five stamens alternating with them, 
and five divisions of the ovary, with a central placentation. Fig. 643. Diagram of the 
flower ‘of Chenopodium album, showing the suppression of the verticil of the corolla. The 
five stamens, in this case, are opposite to the divisions of the calyx, thus exhibiting the 
arrangement which might be expected from a non-development of the corolla. The divisions 
of the ovary are not easily seen, the placentation being central. 


368 TERATOLOGY—SUPPRESSION OF ORGANS. 


unfit for its functions, and is called neuter. Flowers having stamens 
only are staminaferous, staminal, sterile; those having pistils only are 
pistilliferous, pistillate, or fertile. The suppression of various verticils, 


one e: 
4E.2) 88 w~A oo, 
oy) ( 5) Wd ee Sy ol 
Figs. 
644, 645, 646, 647. 648. 649. 


and parts of them, is well seen in the family of the Euphorbiacese (figs, 
644-649). Thus, in fig. 644 is delineated an apetalous trimerous 
staminal flower ; in fig. 645 one of the stamens is suppressed, and in 
fiz. 646 two of them are wanting. Again, in figs. 647, 648, 649, 
the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two, or three 
bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamydeous), and 
only one or two stamens are produced. In fig. 649, 1, there is a sterile 
flower, consisting of a single stamen with a bract ; and in fig. 649, '2, 
a fertile is of asingle carpel with a bract. There is 
thus traced a degradation, 
as it is called, from a 
flower with three stamens 
and three divisions of the 
calyx, to one with a single 
bract and a single stamen 
or carpel. 

It is common to find 
some of the buds of a plant 
suppressed, thus altering 
the spiral arrangement. 
Such buds, however, are 
often capable of being de- 
veloped, if any accident 
occurs, or if the plant is pruned. Deficiency of light and of air, and 

Figs. 644-649, Diagrams of flowers of Euphorbiaceous plants, becoming more and more 
simple. (1.) The calyx is the only envelope, and consists of three parts, in figs. 644, 645, 
and 646. It is completely suppressed in figs. 647, 648, and 649, and its place is occupied by 
a bract, in the axil of which the flower is produced; this bract being accompanied in 
figs. 647 and 648 with two small bractlets. (2.) The male flowers in fig. 644 have three 
stamens, in figs. 645 and 646 they have two, in figs. 646 and 648 one stamen only is developed, 
and in fig. 649, 1, the solitary stamen has only oneanther-lobe. (3.) The female flower in 
fig. 649, 2, is reduced to a single carpel, with a bract in the axil of which it is produced. 
Fig. 644. Diagram of a staminiferous flower of Tragia cannabina. Fig. 645. Diagram of a 
staminiferous flower of Tragia volubilis. Fig. 646. Diagram of a staminiferous flower of 
Anthostema senegalense. Fig. 647, Diagram of a staminiferous flower of Adenopeltis 
colliguaya. Fig. 648, Diagram of a staminiferous flower of a Euphorbia. Fig. 649. 
1, Diagram of a staminiferous flower of Naias minor. 2, Of a pistiliferous flower of Naias 
major. Fig. 650. Capitula of Daisy, in which small tufts of greenish leafy scales occupy 
the place of the flowers. A represents the Capitulum of the Daisy with tufts of leaves in 


place of flowers, and a leaf on the scape. 3B, Section of the Capitulum. C, Section through 
one of the leafy tufts. 


Fig. 650. 


TERATOLOGY—DEGENERATION. 369 


want of proper nourishment, are capable of producing abortions of 
various kinds. The non-development of a branch gives rise to clustered 
or fascicled (fascis, a bundle of twigs) leaves, as in the Larch, and to 
fascicled twigs, as in a common bird-nest-like monstrosity of the Birch. 
When the true leaves of a plant are suppressed, their place may be 
occupied by a tendril, as in Lathyrus Aphaca, in which the stipules 
perform the functions of leaves (p. 120); or the petiole may be 
developed in a peculiar way, as in the phyllodia (p. 96) of some 
Acacias. 

Degeneration, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise either 
to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in form. 
Branches, when not properly developed, may assume the form of 
thorns or spines (p. 119), as in the Hawthorn and Wild-plum ; and 
by culture these spines may be converted into leaf-bearing branches. 
Leaves often become mere scales, as in Lathrzea, Orobanche, and in 
Bulbs. The limb of the calyx may appear as a rim, as in some Um- 
belliferee ; or as pappus, in Composite and Valeriana. In Scrophu- 
laria the fifth stamen appears as a scale-like body, called staminodium 
(fig. 378, p. 227); in other Scrophulariacese, as in Pentstemon, 
it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place 
of an anther. In -unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find 
vestiges of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or 
scales. To many of these staminal degenerations Linnzus gave the 
name of nectaries, In double flowers transformations of the stamens 
and pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In Canna, 
what are called petals are in reality metamorphosed stamens. In 
the capitula of Composite we sometimes find the florets converted 
into green leaves (fig. 650). Allusion has already been made to the 
various changes which the different parts of the flower thus undergo. 
The object of the florist is to produce such monstrosities ; and flowers, 
which by him are considered perfect, are looked upon by the botanist 
as imperfect, from the want of the essential organs. 

Cohesion, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and Adhesion, or 
the growing together of parts of different whorls, are very common 
causes of changes both as regards form and symmetry. The union of 
stems gives rise occasionally to anomalies, as in the fasciated stalk 
of Cockscomb (fig. 251, p. 174), and the flattened stems of some 
Conifer (p. 117), and probably also the peculiar stems of certain 
Sapindacez and Menispermacez of Brazil (p. 62). Some of these,. 
however, may perhaps be. traced not to union, but to an abnormal 
development of buds, producing wood only in one direction, in place 
of all round. Natural grafts occasionally occur from one branch of a 
tree uniting to another. Roots also sometimes become grafted, and 
to this has been attributed the vitality occasionally preserved by the 
stumps of Spruce-firs which have been felled on the Swiss Alps. The 

2B 


370 TERATOLOGY—COHESION AND ADHESION. 


cohesion of two leaves by their bases forms a connate leaf, and the 
union of the lobes of a single leaf on the opposite side of the stalk 
gives rise to perfoliate leaves (fig. 171, p..89). The union of the 
edges of a folded leaf forms Ascidia, or pitchers (figs. 200, 203, pp. 
95, 96). The different parts of the same verticil of the flower unite 
often more or less completely, giving rise to a monophyllous or gamo- 
phyllous involucre (p. 190); a monosepalous or gamosepalous calyx 
(fig. 297, p. 197; a monopetalous or gamopetalous corolla (figs. 318, 
319, p. 206); monadelphous (figs. 338, p. 213; 346, 1, p. 218), 
diadelphous (p. 218), and polyadelphous (figs. 347, p. 218; 651) 
stamens ; syngenesious anthers (p. 227); a gynandrous column (p. 
220), and a syncarpous ovary (fig. 417, p. 239). The different verti- 
cils of the flower are frequently adherent. The calyx is often united 


Fig. 651. Fig. 652. 


to the corolla or to the stamens, or both (fig. 339, p. 213); the sta- 
mens may adhere to the corolla (fig. 652); or there may be a union 
of the torus with the ovary, so that the calyx becomes superior (fig. 
340, p. 214). In some instances, when the axis is elongated, adhesions 
take place between it and certain whorls of the flower. Thus, in some 
Caryophyllacee (fig. 653), the calyx, c, bearing the stamens, e, and 
petals, », becomes united to the axis, g, which supports the ovary, o. 
In Capparidacez (fig. 654), the calyx, c, and petals, p, occupy their 
usual position, but the axis is prolonged in the form of a gynophore, 
ag, to which the stamens, e, are united. Occasionally, contiguous 
flowers may unite, giving rise to double fruits, as is sometimes seen in 
Apples, Grapes, and Cucumbers. 

Multiplication, or an increase of the number of parts, gives rise 
to changes in plants, It is often found that in plants belonging to 


Fig. 651. One of the five bundles of stamens taken from the polyadelphous flower of 
Malva miniata. Stamens are united by their filaments. Fig. 652. Portion of the gamo- 
petalous or monopetalous corolla, p, of a Collomia, showing part of the tube, t, terminated 
by two lobes of the limb, 2, and having the stamen, e, inserted into it, and united to it, so 
that the upper part of the filament, #, only is free. 


TERATOLOGY—MULTIPLICATION AND CHORIZATION. 371 


the same natural order the number of stamens in one is greater than 
that in another, either in consequence of additional stamens being 
developed in the verticil, or on account of the production of additional 


Fig. 653. Fig. 654. 


verticils. The same thing is met with in the case of the other whorls, 
and is well illustrated in the formation of the disk (p. 234). Multi- 
plication causes a repetition of successive whorls, which still follow 
the law of alternation. 

Parts of the flower are often increased by a process of deduplication, 
unlining, dilamination, or chorization, ¢.e, the separation of a lamina 
from organs already formed (p. 210). This is believed to take place 
in a remarkable degree in the case of appendages to petals. Thus, in 
Ranunculus, the petal (fig. 655) has a scale at its base, a, which is 
looked upon as .a mere fold of it. This fold may in some cases be 
more highly developed, as in Caryophyllacez, and in Crassula rubens 
(fig. 282 a), and it may even assume the characters of a stamen, 
which will therefore be opposite the petal, as in Primulacee. Some 
do not consider the production of scales or stamens opposite to the 
petals as the result of chorization. Lindley argues against it from 
what is observed in Camellia japonica, in which the petals are usually 
alternate ; but, by cultivation, the law of alternation is interfered 
with, and the parts are so developed that the petals are opposite, and 


Fig. 653. Flower of Lychnis Viscaria, one of the Caryophyllace, cut lengthwise, to show 
the relation of its different parts. c, Gamosepalous calyx. pp, Petals with their elongated 
unguis or claw, «wu, their limb, 1, and the appendages, aa, in the form of dilaminated 
scales of the petals. ec, Stamens. Pistil consists of the ovary, 0, and five styles, s. Pro- 
longation of the axis g, in the form of a gynophore or anthophore, bearing the petals, the 
stamens, and the pistil. Fig. 654. Flower of Gynandropsis palmipes, one of the Cappari- 
dacew. c, Calyx. p, Petals. e, Stamens. ag, Gynophore or elongated internode or axis 
bearing the stamens. ag’, Gynophore or elongated internode bearing the pistil. of, Pis- 
til composed of an ovary, 0, a style and a stigma, jt 


372 TERATOLOGY—MULTIPLICATION AND CHORIZATION. 


tun in several regular lines from the centre to the circumference, 
Again, by this process of deduplication it is supposed one stamen may 
give rise to several. Thus, in Luhea paniculata (fig. 348, 
p. 219), in place of five stamens there are five bundles, 
composed partly of sterile filaments fs, and partly of 
filaments bearing anthers, f a; and each of these bundles 
is traced to a deduplication of a single stamen, inasmuch 
as they arise from one point, and do not follow the law 
of alternation. This process, therefore, repeats the single 
organs, and causes opposition of parts. Such cases may 
be explained by supposing each stamen to represent a com- 
pound leaf, or a single leaf divided in a digitately-partite 
manner (p. 219). In the case of the four long stamens of 
Cruciferze (p. 364), chorization is said to take place by a 
splitting of the filaments of two stamens ; and thus the two stamens 
on each side are, by gemination (gemini, twins), normally one. This 
view is supported by cases in which the filaments of the long stamens 
are more or less united ; also by cases in which the shorter filaments 
exhibit tooth-like processes on either side, while the longer ones have 
them only on the outer side. In such cases the two long filaments, 
if united, would present the same appearance as the shorter ones, and 
occupy their usual position of alternation with the petals. In some 
instances, by pelorization (w#Awgros, monstrous), it is found that tetra- 
dynamous plants become tetrandrous, with stamens of equal length 
alternating with the petals. 

The mode of explaining anomalies is well illustrated by Darwin’s 
view of the formation of the flower of an Orchid (fig. 656). According 
to him “An Orchid flower consists of five simple parts—namely, 
three sepals and two petals; and of two compounded parts—namely, 
the column and labellum. The column is formed of three pistils, and 
generally of four stamens, all completely confluent. The labellum is 
formed of one petal and two petaloid stamens of the outer whorl, 
likewise completely confluent.° This view of the nature of the 
labellum explains its large size, its frequently tripartite form, and 
especially its manner of coherence to the column, unlike that of the 
other petals. As rudimentary organs vary much, we can thus also 
probably understand the variability of the excrescences on the labellum. 
With respect to the six stamens or anthers which ought to be repre- 
sented in every Orchid, the three belonging to the outer whorl are 
always present, with the upper one generally fertile, and the two 
lower ones invariably petaloid and forming part of the labellum ; the 
three stamens of the inner whorl are less plainly developed, especially 
the lower one, which, when it can be detected, serves only to strengthen 


Fig. 655. Petal of Ranunculus Ficaria, viewed on the inside. 2, The limb. u, Small 
scaly appendage at its base, formed by chorization or dilamination. 


Fig. 655. 


ANOMALIES IN FLOWER OF ORCHID. 373 


the column, and, in some rare cases, according to Brown, forms a sepa- 
rate projection or filament. The upper two anthers of this inner 
whorl are fertile in Cypripedium, and in other cases are generally 
represented either by membranous expansions or by minute auricles 
without spiral vessels, These auricles, however, are sometimes quite 
absent, as in some cases of Ophrys.” On this view of the homologies 
of Orchid flowers, Darwin further remarks—“ We can understand the 
existence of the conspicuous central column,—the large size, generally 
tripartite form, and peculiar manner of attachment of the labellum,— 
the origin of the clinandrium,—the relative position of the single fer- 
tile anther in most Orchids, and of the two fertile stamens in Cypri- 
pedium,—the position of the rostellum, as well as of all the other 
organs,—and, lastly, the frequent occurrence of a bilobed stigma, and 
the occasional occurrence of two distinct stigmas.” 


Upper or posterior sepal. ‘ 


Upper Upper 
petal. se petal. 
Lower Lower 
sepal. sepal. 


Labellum, 
Fig. 656. 
SECTION OF THE FLOWER OF AN ORCHID (Darwin), 


Fig. 656. The little circles show the position of the spiral vessels, which 
alternate in five whorls, the three central groups running to the three petals are 
connected by a triangle. 

SS. Stigmas; S,, stigma modified into the rostellum. 

A,. Fertile anther of the outer whorl; A,, Az, anthers of the same whorl com- 
bined with the lower petal, forming the labellum. 

4 Gy, Rudimentary avthers of the inner whorl (fertile in Cypripedium), gene- 
rally forming the clinandrium ; a, third anther of the same whorl, when 
present, forming the front of the column. 


374 EFFECTS OF CULTIVATION ON ORGANS. 


Cultwation has a great effect in causing changes in the various 
parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number, and adhesion 
of parts, are due to the art of the horticulturist. The development 
of cellular tissue and of starchy matter is often thus much increased, 
as may be seen in the case of Turnips, Carrots, and Potato. The 
succulence of the leaves of the Cabbage and Lettuce, and the forma- 
tion of a heart, as it is called, is due to cultivation ; so also the curled 
leaves of Savoys, Cress, Endive, etc. The changes in the colour and 
forms of flowers thus produced are endless. In the Dahlia, the 
florets are rendered quilled, and are made to assume many glowing 
colours. In Pelargonium the flowers have been rendered larger and 
more showy ; and such is also the case with the Ranunculus, the Au- 
ricula, and the Carnation. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their 
usual state, as Columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear ; 
and others, as Linaria, in which one petal only is usually spurred, are 
altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present what are- 
called pelorian varieties. 


Section IV.—SomE GENERAL PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH 
VEGETATION. 


1.— Vegetable Irritability. 


Under this head are included certain sensible movements of living 
plants not referable to mere elasticity, or to the hygroscopic nature of 
the tissues. These motions are influenced chiefly by light and heat, 
and, like many phenomena occurring in organised beings, they cannot 
at present be fully explained by chemical or mere mechanical laws. 
They may, however, be excited by stimuli of a chemical or mechanical 
nature, Although the cause of them is obscure, still, in some in- 
stances, their use is obvious. 

Among the lowest classes of plants there are some peculiar move- 
ments of this kind. The simplest members of the sea-weed tribe 
occasionally move throughout their whole substance. Oscillatorias, 
which are filaments composed of cells placed end to end, containing 
fluid and granular matter, have an undulating movement, by means 
of which they advance. When placed in fluids under the field of the 
microscope, some of them may thus be seen to pass from one side to 
the other. The filaments sometimes twist up in a spiral manner, and 
then project themselves forward by straightening again. The motions. 
are influenced by temperature and light. The spores of many Crypto- 
gamic plants, especially species of Vaucheria, and Conferva, and 


VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 375 


Prolifera, exhibit motions which depend on the presence of cellular 
hair-like processes called cilia, These mobile organs are in a state of 
constant agitation, which lasts for some hours, becoming slower, and 
finally ceasing after germination has commenced. In the spores of 
Conferva glomerata and rivularis (fig. 467, p. 265) there are two of 
these cilia or filiform tentacula, which project from a colourless 
rostrum. In Chetophora elegans, var. fusiformis, four have been 
seen (fig. 468, p. 265); in Prolifera (fig. 469, p. 265) there is a circle 
of cilia, and in Vaucheria (fig. 478, p.. 269) the spore is entirely 
covered with very short cilia, the vibration of which determines their 
forward movement. These spores, from their movements, have re- 
ceived the name of Zoospores (p. 265). Mr. Thwaites accounts for 
the rhythmical movements of cilia by electrical currents. In certain 
cells of Cryptogamic plants, especially in what are called Antheridia, 
bodies are met with called Phytozoa or Spermatozoids (p. 265), which 
also exhibit movements during a part of their existence. They are 
well seen in Cidogonium (p. 271), Spheroplea (p. 272), Saprolegnia 
(p. 273), Fucus (p. 273), Hepaticee (p. 276), Mosses (p. 277), and 
Ferns and their allies (pp. 279, 280). 

Remarkable movements have also been observed in the higher 
classes of plants. The fovilla contained in the pollen-grain in a young 
state, when moistened with water, exhibits movements when viewed 
under the microscope. These movements have by some been referred 
to irritability, but by Brown and other accurate observers they are 
considered as merely molecular, and similar to what takes place be- 
tween the minute particles of inorganic matter—as, for instance, finely 
powdered Gamboge suspended in water. These fovilla movements 
are easily seen in the very young,pollen of Antirrhinum majus. Cer- 
tain movements also take place in the floral envelopes. Thus many 
flowers open and close at particular, periods (p. 262); these pheno- 
mena depending on light, temperature, and moisture. Leaves also, 
especially those which are compound, are folded at certain periods in 
a distinct and uniform manner. What was called by Linneus the 
sleep of plants is the change produced on leaves by the absence of 
light. It is by no means analogous to the sleep of animals. During 
darkness some are slightly twisted and hang down; others, such as 
pinnate and ternate leaves, have the leaflets folded together, and 
frequently the common petiole depressed. The youngest leaflets first 
exhibit these changes; and when the plants become old, and their 
tissues are hardened, the irritability is often much diminished, as is seen 
in Oxalises. The folding of the leaflets of compound leaves usually 
takes place from below upwards, but sometimes in the reverse manner, 
as in Tephrosia Caribzea ; so also with the common petiole, which is 
directed upwards during sleep in the Cassias and downwards in 
Amorpha. When, besides the common petiole, there are partial 


376 VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 


petioles, as in the Sensitive plant, they may be bent inwards towards 
each other, while the common petiole is bent downwards. 

Mimosa sensitiva and pudica (fig. 657), commonly called sensitive 
plants, display these movements of their leaves in a remarkable degree, 
not only under the influence of light and 
darkness, but also under mechanical and 
other stimuli. They have bipinnate 
leaves with four partial petioles pro- 
ceeding from a common rachis, and each 
of the petioles is furnished with nume- 
rous pairs of leaflets (about twenty), 
which are expanded horizontally during 
the day. During darkness, or when 
touched or irritated in any way, each 
leaflet moves upwards towards its fellow 
\/) of the opposite side, which in its turn 
V7? rises up, so that their upper surfaces 

Fig, 657. come into contact. When the movement 
commences at the apex of the leaf it usually proceeds downwards to 
the base, and thence may be communicated to the leaflets of the next 
partial petiole, and ultimately to the common petiole, which falls 
down towards the stem. The partial petioles then converge towards 
each other, and have a tendency to become parallel to the common 
petiole, at the extremity of which they are suspended. When the 
plant is shaken, as by the wind, all the leaflets close simultaneously, 
and the petioles drop together. If, however, the agitation is long 
continued, the plant seems as it were to become accustomed to the 
shock, and the leaflets will expand again. The stem itself is not 
concerned in the movements. It may be cut and wounded cautiously 
without causing any change in the leaves, and a portion of it may be 
removed with a leaf attached and-still remaining expanded. [If, 
however, a mineral acid is applied to the stem, after some time the 
petioles will fall and the leaflets collapse—the ‘leaves perishing with 
the stem which has been moistened. The chemical action of the acid 
and absorption cause these phenomena. When a sensitive plant is 
exposed to artificial light during the night, it is found that its 
leaves expand, and that they close when put into a dark room 
during the day, showing the influence which light has on these 


Fig. 657. Branch and leaves of Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in 
its erect state, a, and in its depressed state, b ; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets 
expanded, d. At the base of the petiole a swelling or intumescence (pulvinus) is observed, 
and smaller swellings exist at the base of each partial petiole, and at the base of each 
leaflet. During darkness the leafstalks hang down, and the leaflets are closed, while the 
reverse is the case during light. The cellular swellings at the base of the petioles and leaves 


are concerned in the movements. Protoplasmic contractions probably take place in the 
cells, 


_ SENSITIVE PLANTS. 377 


phenomena. It is tobe remarked, however, that if the plant is kept 
for a long period of time in darkness, it will ultimately expand its 
leaves, and the phenomena of folding and opening will go on, although 
at very irregular intervals. 

The leaf of the Mimosa is sensitive of various kinds of stimuli, 
such as shaking, wounding, burning, contact of irritating fluids, elec- 
tric and galvanic shocks, Many chemical stimuli cause the leaves to 
fold. Thus the vapour of prussic acid, of chloroform, and of ether, is 
found to produce this effect ; and in such cases the irritability of the 
leaves is either destroyed, or, at all events, a considerable period of time 
elapses before it is restored. One or two drops of chloroform placed 
on the base of the petiole make it droop, and cause the leaflets to close 
in succession from apex to base. The influence extends to the other 
partial petioles and their leaflets. Although the leaflets expand after- 
wards, yet they are nearly insensible to the excitement produced by 
touch. When chloroformised several times they at length lose their 
contractility. Professor Simpson found that the vapour of chloro- 
form affected the sensitive plant. If the vapour was either too strong 
or too long continued, the plant was destroyed. When it was weak, 
and applied only for a few minutes, the leaflets in some plants closed, 
as when irritated, and did not expand again for an unusual length of 
time. In other plants under exposure to chloroform, no closure of the 
leaflets took place, and in a few minutes the plant became so anzs- 
thetised that the mechanical and other irritations of the leaflets and 
petiole did not produce the common movements, nor did the irrita- 
bility become restored for a considerable time afterwards. The 
Yellow Water Sensitive plant (Neptunia plena), found in the East 
and West Indies and in South America, exhibits irritability in its 
petioles and leaflets. ; 

The ternate leaves of many species of Oxalis (fig. 658) fold not 
merely during darkness, but also when agitated or struck lightly and 
repeatedly. Each of the leaflets folds upon itself, and then bends 
downwards upon the common petiole. The plant called Desmodium 
gyrans of the East Indies (fig. 659), the Gorachand of Bengal, or 
Telegraph plant, has compound leaves, consisting of a large terminal 
leaflet, and usually two smaller lateral ones. The latter are in con- 
stant movement, being elevated by a succession of little jerks, until 
they come into contact, and sometimes even slightly cross each other ; 
after remaining in this position for a short time they separate from 
each other, and move downwards by rapid jerks on opposite sides of 
the petiole. This process is constantly repeated, and goes on in a 
greater or less degree, both during day and night, but is most 
vigorous during warm moist weather. The large terminal leaflet 
undergoes movements also, oscillating very gradually from one side to 
the other, and becoming horizontal or depressed. By the lateral 


378 VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 


oscillatory movement the leaf becomes inclined in various ways, often 
assuming a remarkably oblique direction. The upward and downward 
movements seem to depend on the influence of light and darkness. 


Fig. 658. Fig. 659. 


During the day the leaf becomes more or less horizontal, while during 
darkness it hangs down. Similar movements are seen in other species 
of Desmodium, as D. gyroides and vespertilionis. 

The movements in these’ cases have been referred to certain 
‘changes in the organs, causing distension or contraction of the tissues. 
Dutrochet and Morren refer them to alterations in the circulation of 
fluids and air in the vessels and cells. In plantsjwith irritable leaves 
there are frequently swellings where the leaflets join the stalk, as well 
as where the stalk joins the stem. These swellings contain cells 
which differ in their dimensions and their contents, and the move- 
ments are considered as being produced by changes in the contents of 
the cells, some of which become more distended than others, and thus 
cause incurvation or folding. In these swellings the vascular bundles 
are disposed in a circle near the periphery, and may be concerned in 
the movements. The contraction of the protoplasm in the cells may 
also be concerned in the leaf movements. Mechanical and chemical 


Fig. 658. Wood-Sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella), with its ternate leaves, which are said to dis- 
play a certain amount of irritability when exposed to bright sunshine. During the night 
each of the three leaflets, forming the compound leaf, fold on their midrib, and then fall 
down towards the common petiole. Some say that this plant is the true Irish Shamrock. 
Fig. 659. A portion of the branch and leaf of the moving plant of India (Hedysarwm or 
Desmodiwm gyrans). The leaf is impari-pinnate, and often pinnately-trifoliolate. The large 
odd leaflet, a, becomes more or less horizontal, under the influence of light and heat, and 
is depressed during darkness or cold. Besides the movement of rising and falling, it has 
also a lateral oscillatory motion, so that it often becomes oblique in its position relative to 
the leaf-stalk. At its base there is a cellular intumescence. The smaller leaflets, b, of 
which there are either one or two pairs, have also swellings at their base. They exhibit 
constant jerking movements, by which they approach and retire from each other, and these 
motions go on to a certain extent during darkness. 


SENSITIVE PLANTS. 379 


stimuli are supposed to act by inducing alterations in the contents of 
the vessels and cells, ; 

In the case of the sensitive plant, if the swelling at the base of 
the common petiole is touched even slightly on its lower side, it is 
followed by instant depression of the whole leaf, but no such effect is 
produced if the upper portion of the swelling is lightly touched. 
‘Again, touching the little swelling at the base of each leaflet on its 
upper side, causes the upward movement of the leaflet, but no such 
effect follows cautious touching of the lower part of the swelling only. 
If a pair of leaflets is touched at the extremity of a petiole, the irrita- 
tion is usually continued downwards from apex to base ; but if a pair 
at the base are touched, the progress of folding is reversed. Clear 
warm weather, with a certain degree of moisture, seem to be the 
conditions most favourable for these movements. They are seen best 
in young plants. The leaves of the sensitive plant contract under 
the action of electricity and galvanism. Some suppose that in the 
sensitive plant there are two kinds of cells connected with the upper 
and lower sides of the leaves and petioles; the one set being con- 
tractile, and causing the closing of the leaflet and the fall of the 
petiole, the other being acted on chiefly through the circulation. In 
the case of the petiole, it is conceived that the tissue on the lower 
side of the swellings is contractile, while that in the upper is disten- 
sible. The turgescence of the latter, which is kept up by light, 
counteracts the contractility of the former, and maintains an equili- 
brium, so as to keep the petiole erect; but when acted on by cold, 
mechanical irritation, etc., the equilibrium is disturbed, and the 
contractility operates in depressing the petiole. A careful microscopic 
dissection of the swellings, shows peculiar cells in some parts, which 
seem to differ in their contents from others in their vicinity. 

In the sensitive species of the Desmodium and Oxalis, the move- 
ments are not so evidently influenced by mechanical irritation. In 
the former, the little leaflets are supported on swollen petiolules, and 
it is to the curvation and twisting of these in different directions that 
the movements seem to be owing. The leaflets remain flat and do 
not fold on themselves. It is said that by arresting the vital actions 
going on in the leaflets, by giving them a coating of gum, and thus 
preventing transpiration and respiration, the movements are stopped, 
and that they recommence when the gum‘is removed by water. Cutting 
a leaflet across, and only leaving a small portion of its lamina attached 
to the petiolule, does not immediately stop the movement of gyration. 
In such a case, however, the motion ultimately ceases, while it con- 
tinues in the uncut leaflet, So also, if a leaflet is divided longitudi- 
nally into two parts, each of them continues to move for a time, but 
the motions cease as the process of desiccation goes on. 

The leaves of plants belonging to the natural order Droseraces 


380 VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 


(Sundews) show marked irritability. The leaf of Dionwa muscipula 
(Venus’s Fly-trap), a plant of that order, exhibits movements when 
touched. The leaf represented in figure 660 is composed of a pylloid 
petiole, », and a lamina, J, consist- 
ing of two movable halves united 
by a strong midrib. The lobes 
when open are placed at right angles 
to each other. Along the edge of 
each of them there are about 
twenty spiny hairs ; on the reddish 
upper surface there are numerous 
glands and three stiff hairs, a, with . 
glandular bases on each division 
of the lamina, These, when touch- 
ed, cause the leaf to close with 
considerable force. An insect alight- 
ing on these hairs is instantly 
entrapped. If it is very small it may escape through the grating 
formed by the crossing of the teeth, and the leaf will soon open 
again ; but if it is large it cannot get out, as the two halves of the 
lamina close firmly on it, and the spines at this edge interlace more 
and more completely, like the teeth of a rat-trap, the irritation being 
kept up by the struggles of the insect. If the hairs are touched with 
a camel-hair pencil the leaf closes, and may remain so for twenty- 
four hours. Such is also the case if a small piece of any mineral and 
indigestible matter is placed in the leaf. But if a fly is caught; then 
the closure continues for a week or more. During the progress of 
the pressure the spiny hairs at the margin lose their interlacing posi- 
tion and become more or less erect, and finally the lamina opens. 
There is often a bulging on the outside of the lobes caused by the 
body of the insect contained within them. 

During the time of closure the glands pour forth a peculiar 
secretion of an acid nature, as shown by the effect on litmus paper. 
This secretion acts upon the insect, which is gradually digested, 
nothing being left ultimately but the dry outer covering of the animal. 
The same thing occurs when a very small piece of flesh is grasped by 
the leaf. The leaf closes on it, and it is so completely digested that 
when the leaf opens there is nothing left. If too large a quantity of 
flesh is inserted digestion is not carried on properly, and the lamina 


Fig 660. Leaves of Venus’s Fly-trap (Dioncea muscipula), which exhibit evident irrita- 
bility. The leaf consists of two parts, a lamina or blade, 1, and a petiole or leafstalk, p. 
The two halves of the blade are united by a sort of hinge, a, and there are on each of them 
three hairs, which, when touched, cause the folding of the lamina in the way represented 
atlandb. At the base of each of the hairs there is a swelling. The irritation seems to be 
communicated by means of the vessels to the midrib, and the folding is owing to the tur- 
gescence of the lower cells of the midrib, The motion is of the nature of a hinge-joint. 


DIONZA MUSCIPULA. 381 


shows symptoms of decay. The phenomena seem to resemble very 
much those which take place in animals in whom food is subjected to 
the action of ptyaline in the mouth and of pepsine in the stomach, 
along with the formation of hydrochloric acid. Both in the leaf and 
in the animal stomach an acid is formed with the view of promoting 
digestion. The plant has therefore been called insectivorous and 
carnivorous, as requiring the presence of albuminous animal food for 
its growth and nutrition. There is marked irrito-contractility ; first 
irritation and then contraction. Every living substance is capable of 
being excited into action—that is, of having its stored-up force dis- 
charged. There is a change of form, seen usually in some mechanical 
work. There seems, as Dr. Burdon Sanderson remarks, to be a 
resemblance between the contraction of muscle and the contraction of 
a leaf. The muscle exhibits chemical changes, consisting in disinte- 
gration of chemical compounds and dissipation of force stored up in 
these compounds. These phenomena are more especially seen when 
muscle contracts and when heat is developed. 

The muscle in its living state is electro-motive, and the force 
depends on the vigour of the muscle. When the muscle and the leaf 
contract, electro-motive force disappears and work is done. There is, 
however, no conversion of the one into the other, and there is no 
evidence that the force is electrical. 

Dr. Burdon Sanderson gives the following account of the elec- 
trical phenomena which accompany irritation of the leaf of Dionzea :— 

“1, When the opposite ends of a living leaf of Dionzea are placed on 
non-polarisable electrodes in metallic connection with each other, and 
a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer of high resistance is introduced 
into the circuit thus formed, a deflection is observed, which indicates 
the existence of a current from the proximal to the distal end of the 
leaf. This current I call the normal leaf-current. If, instead of the 
leaf, the leaf-stalk is placed on the electrodes (the leaf remaining 
united to it) in such a way that the extreme end of the stalk rests on 
one electrode; and a part of the stalk at a certain distance from the 
leaf on the other, a current is indicated, which is opposed to that 
in the leaf. This I call the stalk-current. To demonstrate these two 
currents, it is not necessary to expose any cut surface to the electrodes. 

“9. Ina leaf with the petiolé attached, the strength of the cur- 
rent is determined by the length of the petiole cut off with the leaf, 
in such a way that the shorter the petiole the greater is the deflec- 
tion. Thus, in a leaf with a petiole an inch long, I observed a deflec- 
tion of 40. I then cut off half, then half the remainder, and so on. 
After these successive amputations, the deflections were respectively 
50, 65, 90, 120. If in this experiment, instead of completely sever- 
ing the leaf at each time, it is merely all but divided with a sharp 
knife, the cut surfaces remaining in accurate apposition, the result is 


382 VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 


exactly the same as if the severance were complete; no further effect . 
is obtained on separating the parts. 

“ 3, Effect of constant current directed through the petiole on the 
leaf-current—If the leaf is placed on the galvanometer electrodes as 
before, and the petiole introduced into the circuit of a small Daniell, 
a commutator being interposed, it is found that on directing the 
battery-current down the petiole (i.e. from the leaf), the normal deflec- 
tion is increased ; on directing the current towards the leaf, the deflec- 
tion is diminished. 

“4, Negative variation.—a, If, the leaf being so placed on the 
electrodes that the normal leaf-current is indicated by a deflection 
leftwards, a fly is allowed to creep into it, it is observed that the 
moment the fly reaches the interior (so as to touch the sensitive hairs 
on the upper surface of the lamina), the needle swings to the. right, 
the leaf at the same time closing on the fly. 

“6, The fly having been caught does not remain quiet in the leaf; 
each time it moves the needle again swings to the right, always 
coming to rest in a position somewhat farther to the left than before, 
and then slowly resuming its previous position. 

“¢, The same series of phenomena present themselves if the sensitive 
hairs of a still expanded leaf are touched with a camel-hair pencil. 

“d. If the closed leaf is gently pinched with a pair of forceps with 
cork points, the effect is the same. 

““¢, If the leaf-stalk is placed on the electrodes as before, with the 
leaf attached to it, the deflection of the needle due to the stalk-cur- 
rent is increased whenever the leaf is irritated in any of the ways 
above described. 

““f, If half the lamina is cut off, and the remainder placed on the 
electrodes, and that part of the concave surface at which the sensitive 
hairs are situated is touched with a camel-hair pencil, the needle 
swings to the right as before.” * 

Species of the genus Drosera (Sundew) exhibit excitability in the 
leaves, with a certain amount of contractility. The leaves are of 
various forms, some narrow and elongated, others spathulate or 
rounded, all bearing on their surface and at their edges beautiful 
glandular hairs, with a spiral coil in their interior, and a globular apex 
containing peculiar secretions (fig. 661). They are also insectivorous. 
When insects alight on the leaves they are entangled by the viscid 
matter of the glandular hairs, which gradually close upon them, and 
prevent their escape. The apex of the leaf turns inwards, so as more 
effectually to secure the prey. This is well seen in some Australian and 
African species. Drogeras are by no means so excitable as the Dionza, 
but they seem to act in a similar manner upon insects, Small por- 
tions of flesh placed upon the leaves induce movements of the hairs ; 

* Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Nov. 20, 1873. 


DROSERA AND SARRACENIA, 383 


and it would appear that albuminous food is thus taken up by the 
plant for its nourishment. 

The species of Drosera are widely distributed ; 
three species and some varieties being found in 
Britain, and numerous species occurring in Australia 
(fig. 88, p. 32), Equatorial America, and South «- 
Africa. Experiments have been made upon the 
British species, as well as upon Drosera Whittakeri 
of Australia, D. filiformis of North America, and 
on some African species. In all these, leaf move- 
ments, of the nature described, have been observed 
in a greater or less degree. 

The species of the genus Pinguicula appear also 
to secrete a viscid fluid, which detains insects. The 
leaves curl in at the margin, but the presence of 
irritability is doubtful. Fig. 661. 

We may here make some remarks on plants which seem also to be 
insectivorous, although not displaying excitability and contractility. 
We may specially notice the species of Sarracenia (Trumpet-leaf). The 
leaves of these plants are all radical, with a more or less tubular petiole, 
the blade being small, and often lying over the orifice of the tube (fig. 
203, p. 96). In some of the tubular petioles honey-like matter is secreted, 
- and this attracts insects, and a secretion collects at the bottom of the 
tube, which seems to have the power of destroying them. In the 
case of Sarracenia variolaris (Spotted trumpet-leaf) the inner surface 
of the tube or pitcher, from the mouth to midway down, is smooth 
and velvety to the touch, as the finger is passed downwards ; from 
midway there are retrorse bristles, increasing in size downwards, and 
ceasing near the base. Insects are attracted by a viscid, honey-like 
substance, secreted from the internal surface of the pitcher, and ex- 
tending a short way from the margin, and in passing downwards they 
slip down into the secretion at the bottom, and are prevented from 
getting out by the hairs. The fluid in this species seems to destroy 
insects, but it has not yet been proved that it feeds upon them. 

Hooker says that there are two types of pitchers in Sarracenia ; 
first, those with the mouth open and lid erect, into which rain-water 
-enters easily ; and secondly, those with the mouth closed, by the lid, 
into which rain can hardly obtain ingress. To the first belong such 
.species as Sarracenia purpurea, 8. flava, 8. rubra, and 8. Drummondii, 
To the second belong Sarracenia variolaris and S. psittacina. In 
these pitchers he describes four surfaces:—1. An attractive surface 
on the inner part of the lid, with minute honey-secreting glands ; 


Fig. 661. Leaf of a species of Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), covered with glandular 
hairs. These hairs secrete a viscid fluid, which often detains insects. The leaves are 
sometimes seen partially folded. This folding is supposed to be due to irritability. 


384 INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. 


2. A conducting surface, formed of glassy cells, with deflexed processes 
overlapping like tiles of a house, forming a surface down which the 
insect slips, and affording no foothold to an insect attempting to 
crawl up again; 3. Below this a glandular surface (seen in S. pur- 
purea), which is smooth and polished, and is formed of sinuous cells, 
studded with glands; 4. A detentive surface occupying the lower part 
of the pitcher. This last, in some cases, extends nearly the whole 
length of the pitcher. It has no cuticle, and is studded with deflexed 
rigid hairs, which effectually detain insects. It is probable that these 
pitchers, which are so variously constructed, may act in different ways. 
Numerous insects, such as ants, hymenoptera, heteroptera, coleoptera, 
flies, cockroaches, moths, butterflies, arachnida, and myriapoda, have 
been observed in a dead state in the fluid at the bottom of the pitcher. 

There are some insects which are not destroyed by the plant, but 
which make use of it. Xanthoptera semicrocea (Guen.), a small glossy 
moth, walks with impunity over the inner surface of the pitcher. The 
female lays eggs near the mouth of the pitcher, and the young larva, 
by weaving a thin gossamer-like web, closes up the mouth, and feeds 
on the substance of the tube. Another insect, which feeds on S§, 
variolaris and S. flava, is a fleshy fly, called Sarcophage sarracenia. 
Insects accumulate in large quantities at the bottom of the pitchers, 
and seem to be far in excess of what the plant requires for digestion. 
They become decomposed, and other insects, which are not entrapped, 
drop their eggs into the open mouths of the pitchers, to take advan- 
tage of the accumulation of food. Old pitchers are consequently some- 
times found full of living larvee and maggots, showing that the fluid 
had become exhausted and could not injure them; and insectivorous 
birds slit open the pitchers with their beaks in order to get at the 
contents, 

In the pitcher of Darlingtonia saccharine matter is formed, and 
its pitchers become crammed with large moths. Hooker has examined 
the pitchers of Nepenthes (the true Pitcher Plant), (fig. 200, p. 95), 
of which there are above 30 known species, inhabiting chiefly the 
hotter parts of the Asiatic’ Archipelago. He finds in these pitchers also 
an attractive, conductive, and secreting surface. There is also a glan- 
dular surface secreting a fluid which appears to act on nitrogenous 
substances. He found that fragments of meat rapidly dissolved when 
placed in the-fluid. Pieces of fibrine disappeared in two or three days; 
cartilage was reduced to a clear transparent jelly. He thinks it pro- 
bable that a substance acting as pepsine is given off from the inner 
walls of the pitchers, but chiefly after placing animal matter in the 
fluid. Voelcker found that the fluid in the pitchers of Nepenthes 
distillatoria, in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, consisted of water, con- 
taining in solution malic acid and a little citric acid, chloride of 
potassium, carbonate of soda, lime, and magnesia. The fluid was col- 


VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 385 


lected from the pitcher before the lid opened. It is probable that the 
pitchers of Dischidia and Cephalotus may contain similar fluids, and 
may act in the same manner on insects. 

rritability exists in the stems of twining plants and in tendrils. 
The coiling of tendrils seems to be due to the same cause as the closing 
of the leaves of the sensitive plant on being touched. Hofmeister says 
that the shoots and leaves of all plants, while young, move after being 
shaken ; and it is almost invariably young petioles and young tendrils, 
whether formed of modified leaves or flower-peduncles, which move 
on being touched. The young flower-peduncles of Maurandia semper- 
florens spontaneously revolve in very small circles and bend them- 
selves, when gently rubbed, to the touched side. Asa Gray found that 
the tendrils of many common plants coiled up more or less promptly 
after being touched or brought with a slight force into contact with a 
foreign body. In some plants the coiling is rapid enough to be directly 
seen by the eye. The tendril of Sicyos angulatus, one of the Cucurbi- 
tacez, when touched, will uncoil into a straight position in the course 
of an hour, and will again coil up at the second touch. This may be 
repeated three or four times in the course of six or seven hours. A 
certain temperature seems to be necessary. Gray experimented at 
77° F. <A tendril that was straight, except a slight hook at the top, 
on being gently touched once or twice with a piece of wood on the 
upper side, coiled at the end into 24 or 3 turns within a minute and 
a half. The motion began after an interval of several seconds, and 
fully half of the coiling was quick enough to be very distinctly seen. 
After little more than an hour had elapsed, it was found to be straight 
again. The contact was repeated, timing the result by the second- 
hand of a watch. The coiling began in four seconds, and made one 
circle and a quarter in four seconds. It had straightened again in an 
hour and five minutes, and it coiled the third time, on being touched 
rather firmly, but not 80 quickly as before — viz. 1} turn in halfa- 
minute. The same movements have been observed in the tendrils of 
the grape-vine and of other plants. The coiling is perhaps caused 
by the contraction of the cells on the concave side of the coil.— 
(Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, iv. Aug. 12, 1858, 

88. 

i Be ee has given a valuable paper on climbing plants in the 
Journal of Proceedings of the Linnean Society, ix. p. 1. 

Climbing plants are thus divided by him :— 

Ist. Those which twine spirally round a support. 

2a. Those which ascend by the movement of the foot-stalks or tips 
of their leaves. 

3d. Those ascending by true tendrils, which are either modified 
leaves or flower-peduncles, or perhaps branches or stipules. 

4th. Those Frnictiod ‘with hooks or rootlets for climbing. 


20 


386 VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 


There are thus spiral-twiners, leaf-climbers, tendril-bearers, and 
hook and root climbers. The most interesting point in the natural 
history of climbing plants is their diverse powers of movement. The 
young shoots of the hop revolve during the day and in hot weather, at 
the rate of two hours and eight minutes for each revolution. The 
greater number of twiners revolve in a course opposed to that of the 
sun, or the hands of a watch. The majority therefore ascend the 
supports from right to left. 

Plants belonging to eight families have clasping petioles, and piants 
belonging to four families climb by the tips of their leaves. As regards 
tendrils, they place themselves in the proper position for action, stand- 
ing, for instance in Cobeea, vertically upwards, and with their branches 
divergent, and their hooks turned outwards ; or, as in Clematis, the « 
young leaves temporarily curve themselves downwards so as to serve 
as grapnels. If the young shoot of a twining plant or of a tendril be 
placed in an inclined position it soon bends upwards, though com- 
pletely secluded from the light, the guiding stimulus in this case being 
the attraction of gravity. Climbing plants bend towards the light by a 
process closely analogous to that incurvation which causes them to 
revolve. In some cases the spontaneous revolving movement depends 
on no outward stimulus, but is contingent on the youth of the part, 
and on its vigorous health. Sometimes the movement depends om 
contact with any body. After clasping a support tendrils contract 
spirally. i 

Blondeau and others have shown that ether acts as an anzsthetic 
on sensitive plants. A current of electricity causes the leaves to fold 
and the petioles to droop. If too long continued the plant is destroyed. 
The current could be passed for five or ten minutes without destroying 
the plant, but when the current lasted for twenty-five minutes the 
plant was killed. For the effects of anesthetic agents (such as chloro- 
form) on plants, see Livingstone’s paper in Edin, WN. Phil. Journal, 
2d ser. xi. 333 ; and Mr. W. Coldstream’s paper in the same Journal, 
xiii. 87. 

Movements take place in some parts of the flower, occasionally 
with the view of scattering the pollen. The stamens of various 
species of Berberis and Mahonia are articulated to the torus or thala- 
mus, and when touched at their inner and lower part, move towards the 
pistil. In Parnassia palustris the stamens move towards the pistil in 
succession to discharge their contents (fig. 514, p. 286). The common 
Rock-rose (Helianthemum vulgare) exhibits staminal movements also 
connected with the bursting of the anthers. Morren has noticed 
sensitiveness in the andreecium of Sparmannia africana and Cereus 
grandiflorus. In the Nettle, Pellitory, Pilea serpyllifolia (the artil- 
lery plant), and Kalmia, the filaments are confined by the perianth, 
and are afterwards released so as to allow their elasticity to come into 


VEGETABLE IRRITABILITY. 387 


play, by means of which the pollen is forcibly scattered (p. 283). In 
Ruellia anisophylla the style has a curved stigmatic apex, which 
gradually becomes straightened, so as to come into contact with the 
hairs of the corolla, upon which the pollen has been scattered ; and in 
Mimulus and Bignonia (fig. 441, p. 249) the stigma has two expanded 
lobes which close when touched, a movement apparently in some way 
connected with fertilisation. In the Passion-flower, and some Cacti, the 
styles move towards the stamens. The species of Stylidium (fig. 662) 
have the filaments and styles united in. 
a common column, at the upper part of 
which the anther-lobes and stigma are 
placed. The column often projects be- 
yond the flower, and is jointed. At the 
articulation an irritable swelling occurs, 
which, when touched, or acted upon by 
heat and light, causes a sudden incur- 
vation by which the column is thrown 
to the opposite side of the flower, burst- 
ing the anthers and scattering the pollen _«& 
on the central stigma. After a time the , @ea 
column recovers its position, These i 
movements take place in the flower for 
some time after it has been removed 
from the plant and kept in water (p. 
284). Certain petals in some flowers, as in Orchidacez, are said to 
move. Morren notices this in the case of species of Megaclinium 
and Pterostylis. Drakea elastica, a Swan River terrestrial Orchid, 
shows irritability in the stalk of the labellum. This stalk has a 
movable joint like an elbow. Bolbophyllum barbigerum has a movable 
bearded labellum. Gentiana sedifolia closes its flowers when touched. 

Chemical agents have an effect on the movements of plants. 
Some act by causing irritation, others by destroying irritability. Nar- 
cotic poisons, as opium, belladonna, and hydrocyanic acid, either 
taken up by the roots or applied externally, destroy the irritability of 
plants. They cause closure of the leaves of the sensitive plant, and 
render it insensible to the action of stimuli. Their prolonged action 
causes death, but if they are applied in moderate quantity, the plant 
may recover, and again unfold its leaflets. It- frequently happens, 
however, that the irritability continues for some time much impaired ; 
so that mechanical stimuli do not act in the same rapid and energetic 
manner as at first. Similar effects (as already noticed) are produced by 
ether and chloroform when sensitive plants are introduced into an atmo- 
sphere through which these substances are diffused. The effects may be 


Fig. 662. 


Fig. 662. Stylidium tenuifolium. a and 6, Separate flowers, showing the irritable column 
which bears anthers and stigma at its summit. 


388 TEMPERATURE OF PLANTS. 


produced locally by applying the vapour only to certain parts of the 
plant. For remarks on the effects of gases on living plants, see pp. 
159-161. 


2.—Temperature of Plants, 


The heat developed during the expansion of flowers and the pre- 
paration of the pollen, especially in the case of Aroides, and also at the 
period of germination, has been already considered (pp, 259 and 260). 
These phenomena appear to be strictly of a chemical nature, and may 
be traced to the absorption of oxygen, and its combination with the 
carbon of the starch, the latter being converted into dextrine and 
grape sugar. It is now proposed to consider the observations which 
have been made relative to the general temperature of plants. 

Great differences of opinion have prevailed as to the existence of 
a proper heat in plants. Hunter examined the heat of the internal 
parts of the trunks of trees by boring holes of different depths in 
them, and inserting thermometers ; and similar experiments were made 
by Schubler at Tiibingen. The results of these experiments were, 
Ist, That the temperature of trees is higher than that of the air in 
winter, and lower in summer; 2d, That the temperature corresponds 
to the depth in the soil to which the roots penetrate ; and 3d, That 
it depends on the temperature of the fluid matters taken up by the 
roots, as well as the bad conducting power of the wood of the trees. 
Dr. Hooker found that the temperature of the juices of plants in 
India depended materially on that of the soil at their spongioles. 
Dutrochet made experiments to determine the temperature of the 
growing parts of plants. He found, by means of a thermo-electric 
apparatus, that this varied from two or three tenths of a degree to 
one degree above that of the air. This generation of heat only takes 
place when the plant is active and vigorous, and seems to be connected 
with processes going on in the interior of the cells. When the cells 
cease to be actively engaged in the processes of vegetable life, they 
cease to manifest this vital heat. It reaches a daily maximum, the 
period of which varies in different plants, according to their vigour. 
Rameaux has confirmed Dutrochet’s observations. He observed that 
during the day the temperature of the various layers diminished from 
the surface to the centre, while during the night the reverse took place, 
and that both ,of these processes were materially influenced by the 
nature of the surrounding temperature and the diameter of the tree. 
There appear, therefore, to be two sources of heat in plants, one de- 
pending on organic actions carried on in the growing parts, and the 
other on meteorological influences, which either act directly through 
the air, or indirectly through the fluid matters brought up from a 
certain depth in the earth. 


LUMINOSITY OF PLANTS. 389 


3.—Luminosity of Plants. 


Luminous appearances have been observed in certain plants. 
These have been long noticed in the lower classes of plants, such as 
Fungi. Decaying wood, in which Fungi are developed, is sometimes 
luminous. Mr. James Drummond describes some species of Agaric, 
near the Swan River, growing on the trunks of Banksias and other 
trees, which emitted at night a phosphorescent light sufficient to 
enable him to read. A phosphorescent Agaric, with the upper sur- 
face of the pileus black, while the centre and gills were white, was 
noticed by him on the trunk of a dead Eucalyptus occidentalis, The 
Agaricus Gardneri, found in Brazil, gives out a light of a pale greenish 
hue, similar to that of fireflies. It is found growing on a Palm, and 
is called Flor de Coco, Delile found luminosity in the Agaricus 
olearius, near Montpellier. Agaricus igneus is another luminous 
species ; and a luminous fungus, probably a species of Didymium, has 
been noticed on the leaves of a Spermacoce in the West Indies. Mr. 
Worthington G. Smith mentions the occurrence of luminous fungi and 
mycelia in the coal-mines of Glamorganshire and Carmarthenshire. 
One of these, Polyporus annosus, gave out a phosphorescent light, which 
was Visible at twenty yards’ distance. Mr. Smith also mentions Poly- 
porus sulfureus and Corticium cceruleum, as well as a species of 
Collybia or Lentinus, as being luminous. In the coal-mines of Dres- 
den certain Rhizomorphous fungi have long been celebrated for the 
light which they emit. The spawn of the Truffle (Tuber estivum) 
is said to present similar appearances. The Mycelia of fungi are 
sometimes luminous. Temperature has an influence on the intensity 
of the phosphorescence. The luminosity increases up to 25° or 30° 
C.; whilst at higher temperature it decreases, and is destroyed at 50° 
C. A low temperature stops the luminosity, the lower limit of phos- 
phoresence being near the freezing point. A certain amount of moist- 
ure and contact with the atmosphere are said to be essential to phos- 
phorescence. (For notice of luminous fungi see paper by Mr. M. C. 
Cooke in the Gardeners’ Chronicle for 1871, p. 405.) It has been said 
that the luminosity of these fungi, as well as of decaying wood, is 
increased by exposure to oyxgen gas. Some consider it as connected 
with the absorption of oxygen, being in reality a slow spontaneous 
combustion ; while, according to others, it is referable to the liberation 
of phosphorus from some of its combinations in the plant. 

These luminous appearances are said not to be confined to fungi. 
The younger Linneus states that the flowers of Nasturtium, Orange 
Lily, and African Marigold, at the end of a hot summer day give out 
intermittent light. Mr. Dowden and Mr. James confirmed this by 
observations on the common Marigold and Papaver pilosum ; while 


390 COLOURS OF PLANTS. 


other observers have noticed the phenomena in the Sun-flower, French 
Marigold, species of CEnothera, and Arum. It is to be remarked 
that the flowers said to be thus luminous are all of a more or less 
orange colour, and that the phenomenon takes place in still warm 
summer evenings, towards twilight. Hence, Professor Allman is dis- 
posed to attribute them to optical illusions, depending on a peculiar 
intermittent effect on the retina. Some authors mention the occur- 
rence of luminous sap in plants with milky juices, as the Euphorbia 
phosphorea of Brazil. A rhizome of an endogenous plant from India, 
is said, when moistened, to acquire a phosphorescent appearance, and 
to lose this property when dry. 


4.— Colours of Plants. 


Colour is not of much importance in Botany as regards classifica- 
tion and arrangement. It is chiefly in the case of Fungi that it is 
employed as a means of diagnosis. Perhaps the want of an accurate 
nomenclature of colours in Botany may have in part led to this. 
Mirbel and Henslow have proposed a nomenclature, which consists in 
referring all natural colours to certain absolute tints and shades, 
determined according to fixed rules. Thus, the latter assumes three 
primaries, as red, blue, and yellow, which together give white light, 
and derives all others from admixtures of these in definite proportions. 
On this principle he has constructed a chromatometer (xe, colour, 
and “érgov, a measure), or measure of colour, the employment of which 
would lead to an accurate nomenclature. 

It has already been remarked that the green colour of the leaves, 
young bark, calyx, and carpels, depends on the presence of chlorophyll 
(p. 12). This substance is contained in the deep cells or mesophyllum 
of leaves, and depends on the action of light for its elaboration. 
When leaves are grown in darkness they become colourless from the 
absence of chlorophyll. Light acts by the fixation of carbon. The 
different rays of the spectrum appear to vary in their power of de- 
veloping the green colour. Senebier performed experiments on the 
subject, by making the light pass through coloured media, and he 
was led to the conclusion that while the yellow rays had the greatest 
effect on the growth of the plant, the blue and chemical rays were 
those chiefly concerned in the production of the green colour. Hunt 
seems to agree with Senebier. Other experimenters, however, as Mor- 
ren, Daubeny, Draper, and Gardner, think the yellow rays are the 
most active in producing the green colour. The following table shows 
the result of some of Gardner's experiments. The rays are denomi- 
nated active or inactive in relation to their power of producing a green 
colour, and the figures under each of them show their power in this 


GREEN COLOUR OF PLANTS, "391 


respect, 1 being the highest value. The sign — indicates that the 
effect was not satisfactorily tested :— 


Hours of i . i 
Ex. Plants. anashine. aoe Red. ae de Gr. BI Pon Vio. 
1, Turnips. . 22 ... 109 ... 4 2 1 3 0 0 0 
2. Beans . .14 ... 95 «2. — 2 1 3 0 —_ 
3. Turnips. . 8 .. 69 ... 4 2 1 3 - - — 
4. Turnips. . 23... 101 2.2. — — — 1 0 0 0 
5. Turnips. . 175 ... 52 —_ 2 1 3 4 0 0 
6. Turmips. . 55 ... 6 4 2 i 3 0 0 0 


The ray producing the green colour is found to be that which acts 
most efficiently in the decomposition of carbonic acid, as shown by 
the following table :— 


Places of spectrum Production of Decomp. of Illuminating 
examined. chlorophyll. co2. power. 
Extreme Red . : . 0000 ... 00000 ... 0:0000 
Commencement of Orange. is ~_— .. $500 2.0 — 
Centre of Orange. : : i i 
Centre of Yellow . ‘ . - 1000 ... 1:0000 ... 1:0000 
Centre of Green. i . 688 2. —— 12. 
Centre of Blue i ‘ » 100 .. —— we 


The green colour becomes lighter or deeper according to the 
quantity of chlorophyll and the aggregation of the cells. It is usually 
paler on the lower sides of leaves. The dark shades of green in the 
Yew, Bay, and Holly, are the effect of an immense crowding together 
of green cells. 

As light decreases in autumn, the chlorophyll, in many cases, 
diminishes, and is probably altered by the loss of a portion of carbon. 
Thus, Evergreen leaves become of«a paler colour, and deciduous leaves 
assume various hues, commonly called autumnal tints. The leaves of 
the Poplar, Ash, and Beech, before falling, become yellow ; those of 
some species of Rhus, bright red; those of Cornus sanguinea, dull 
ted ; those of the Vine, yellow and purple. Berzelius states that the 
leaves become red in plants having red fruits. Robinet and Guibourt 
maintain that the Vines which produce bluish grapes have red leaves 
in autumn, while such as produce white grapes have yellow leaves. 
These yellow and red colours by some are said to depend on changes 
in the state of oxidation of: the chlorophyll, and have been traced by 
others to the production of peculiar substances, one red, called erythro- 
phyll, the other yellow, canthophyll. Marquart believes that the action 
of water on chlorophyll, in different proportions, gives rise to yellow 
and blue matters. Ellis supposed the change of hues to be due to 
the prevalence of acid and alkaline matters. 

Martens says that the colour of chlorophyll depends on the mix- 
ture of anthocyane, blue colouring (xdavos, blue), and anthoxanthine, 
yellow colouring (Zavéc, yellow). Chlorophyll has a tendency to 


392° COLOURS OF PLANTS. 


become yellow in consequence of the great alterability of the blue 
colouring principle, unless the latter is rendered more stable by union 
with an acid which reddens it. In this case the leaf becomes red. 
In Selaginella mutabilis the colouring matter becomes aggregated in 
balls at certain times, while at other times it is diffused. This accounts 
for the change of colour in bright and in diffused light. In this plant 
the leaves are pale milk-white in the evening or in cloudy weather, 
and bright green in sunshine. 
Sorby classifies the colouring matter of leaves as follows :— 


1. Chlorophyll (xAwpés, green, PUAAO», a leaf), a green colouring matter, rarely found 
pure, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol or bisulphide of carbon. 
Spectral tint more or less green. 

2. Xanthophyll (av0és, yellow), yellow group, insoluble in water, soluble in alco- 
hol and bisulphide of carbon. General spectral colour clear yellow or orange. 

3. Erythrophyll (épv@pés, red), red colouring matter, soluble in water and aqueous 
alcohol, insoluble in bisulphide of carbon. Strong absorption in the green 
part of the spectrum. 

4. Chrysophyll (xpve6s, gold), golden yellow group, soluble in water and in aqueous 
alcohol, insoluble in bisulphide of carbon. Varying spectra. 

5: Phaiophyll (gatos, brown), group comprising various browns, soluble in watet, 
but not in bisulphide of carbon. No well-defined absorption-bands in the 
spectrum. 


Groups of colours as leaves advance to decay :— 


Complete vitality and growth oe ue More or less bright green. 
vad Tiertheephyll More or less green-brown. 
Low vitality and change. . Xanthophyll More or less red-scarlet. 
is Phaiophyll More or less bright orange-brown. 
Death and decomposition . Hunts Less or more dull brown. 


(Nature, Jan. ‘19, 1871, p. 237.) 


Dr. Hope endeavoured to show that there is in plants a colourable 
principle, chromogen (xeGua, colour, and yewvdw, I generate,) consisting 
of two separate principles, one of which forms a red compound with 
acids, while the other forms a yellow with alkalies, and he attributes 
the green colour produced by the latter to the mixture of the yellow 
matter with the blue infusion. The two principles, according to him, 
may exist together, or separate, in different parts of the same plant. 

In some very fleshy leaves, as Agave, the central cells are pale, 
while those of the cuticle are coloured and much thickened. Although 
leaves are usually of a green colour, still they frequently assume 
various tints. In certain varieties of Beech and Beet they become 
of a uniform red or copper colour. In some cases only one of the 
surfaces of the leaf is coloured, as in many species of Begonia, Saxi- 
fraga, Cyclamen, and Tradescantia, in which they are green above 
and red or brown below ; while in others there is a variation of colour, 
giving rise to variegation, as in Aucuba japonica, Carduus marianus, 


COLOURS OF PLANTS. 393 


and Calathea zebrina, where there are yellowish spots; or in many 
Arums, where the spots are of a red colour. The whitish or brown spots 
which occur on leaves are often produced by thickened cells contain- 
ing peculiar colouring matter, underlying the chlorophyll cells, In 
such cases variegation might be traced to an alteration in the epider- 
mal cells ; and the same is true of certain bright colours assumed by 
the surfaces of some leaves. The juices of many plants are colourless 
when contained in the vessels, but become milky or coloured by 
exposure to the air. Thus, the sap of Cinanthe crocata becomes 
yellow, that of Chelidonium becomes orange, that of Madder changes 
from yellow to red, and that of some Boletuses becomes blue or bluish- 
green. In some instances the changes have been prevented by keeping 
the cut or broken surfaces in nitrogen, or hydrogen, or carbonic acid, and 
thus preventing their exposure to oxygen. It is said, however, that the 
change of colour in the Madder does not take place in pure oxygen. 

The bark, at first green, becomes often of a brown colour from 
the thickening of the cell-walls; as well as the deposition of brown 
matter. Similar changes take place in the woody tissue, giving rise 
to the coloured duramen of many trees, as the Laburnum, Guaiac, 
Ebony, etc. Such changes, however, depend on chemical actions 
going on in the interior of stems, and are not due to the direct 
influence of the air. The colour of wood, however, is generally 
deepened when exposed to the atmosphere. 

The red, blue, and yellow colours of flowers depend on fluid or 
semifluid matters ‘contained i in superficial cells, which can be detached 
with the cuticle. In petals, different cells frequently contain different 
kinds of colouring matter, thus giving rise to variegation. By the 
juxtaposition and mechanical mixture of various cells different tints 
are produced ; and the colours are also modified by the nature of the 
cuticle through which they are seen. In the interior of petals the 
colour is generally more or less yellow, but it is modified when seen 
through superficial cells. Along with the colouring matter there isa 
colourless substance present, the relative quantity of which varies, 
and hence the colour may be deeper or fainter. In flowers, as well as 
in leaves, the colours appear to depend on the action of light. It has 
been said, however, that the powerful action of solar light, in some 
cases, tends to decolorise flowers. Hence, tulips are screened by 
floriculturists from the direct rays of the sun. The leaves of herba- 
ceous plants also, when exposed to the direct rays of the sun, do not 
acquire so deep a green as when they are subjected merely to a bright 
daylight. 

The colours of flowers have been arranged in two series :—1st, 
The santhic (Eovdds), yellow; and 2d, The cyanic (xvavés), blue ; 
and it has been shown that plants in general may be referred to 
one or other of these series, while red is common to both series, 


394 COLOURS OF FLOWERS. : 


and green, as composed of blue and yellow, is intermediate between 
them. White is considered as depending on absence or extreme 
dilution of the colouring principles, while brown or black depends 
on their accumulation or concentration. Even in white flowers there 
will be seen a slight admixture of a yellowish or bluish tint. 


Green. 
Greenish-blue. Yellowish-green. 
Blue. - Yellow. 
Cyanic } Violet-blue. Orange-yellow. Xanthic 
series, | Violet. Orange. series, 
Violet-red. Orange-red. 
Red. Red. 


Some, starting from greenness, as a state of equilibrium between 
the two series, pass through the blue and violet’ to red, by a process 
of oxidation, while the transition from red to orange and yellow has 
been traced to deoxidation. As illustrations of the cyanic series may 
be mentioned all, or nearly all, the species of Campanula, Phlox, 
Epilobium, Hyacinth, Geranium, Anagallis ; of the xanthic series, 
Cactus, Aloe, Cytisus, Oxalis, Rose, Verbascum, Potentilla, Ginothera, 
Ranunculus, Adonis, Tulip, Dahlia. 

Plants belonging to either series vary in colour usually by rising 
or falling in the series to which they belong, and not by passing from 
one to the other. Thus, a plant belonging to the blue series does not 
usually become yellow, nor does one in the yellow series change into 
a pure blue. This remark will not apply in all cases, although it is 
generally true. It cannot be said to hold good in regard to genera, 
as at present determined ; thus in the genus Gentian there are blue 
and yellow species. It seems, however, to be applicable to individual 
species ; thus the Dahlia, belonging to the yellow series, may pass 
through all the varieties of that series, but has never been produced of 
a blue colour ; so also with the Tulip, the Rose, etc. Even in the 
case of species, however, there are anomalies. Thus the rule does not 
apply to such plants as Myosotis versicolor and Dendrobium sanguino- 
lentum, where there are different yellow and blue colours on the 
corolla. Notwithstanding, however, all the exceptions, the general 
law already mentioned as to the variation of colour in flowers seems 
to be founded on correct observations. 

Changes are produced in the colour of flowers by bruising and 
injuring the petals. The pure white flowers of Camellia easily become 
brown, while those of Calanthe veratrifolia and Bletia Tankerville 
assume a deep blue. By drying many flowers become of a brown or 
black colour ; this is particularly the case with Orchidaceew, Melam- 
pyrum, and Lathyrus niger. It would appear to depend on the com- 
bination between the colouring principle and the oxygen of the air, 


COLOURS OF FLOWERS. 395 


and may in some cases be traced to the existence of tannin, gallic acid, 
and iron. Blue flowers, under the process of desiccation, are often 
whitened. Ipomcea Learii, in drying, changes from blue to red. 

Remarkable changes take place in the colour of some flowers 
during the course of the day. The flowers of the common pink 
Phlox, early in the morning, have a lightish blue colour, which alters 
as the sun advances, and becomes bright pink. (Enothera tetraflora 
has white flowers which change to red. Hibiscus variabilis has its 
flowers white in the morning, pink at noon, and bright red at sunset. 
The colour of many flowers of Boraginaceze, before expansion, are red ; 
after expansion, blue. The bracts of Hakea Victoria are yellowish- 
white in the centre the first year; the second year, what was white 
becomes a rich golden yellow ; the third year, the yellow becomes rich 
orange ; the fourth year, the colour becomes blood-red; the green 
portion of the bracts becomes annually darker. It has been stated 
that soils have an effect on the colour of flowers. The flower of the 
common Hydrangea hortensis may be changed from pink and rose- 
coloured to blue, by growing the plant in certain kinds of loam and 
peat earth. Alum in the soil is said to produce a similar effect. 

Kohler and Schubler have endeavoured to determine the relative 
proportions between the different colours met with in fiowers. They 
examined upwards of 4000 species, belonging to twenty-seven natural 
orders, of which twenty were dicotyledonous and seven monocotyle- 
donous. The following are some of their conclusions :— 


1. White . i , 11938 | 6. Green . ‘ : . 153 
2. Yellow. : és . 951 | 7. Orange 50 
3. Red. 3 ‘ 923 | 8 Brown. z . 18 
4, Blue : . 594 | 9. Nearly black . : 8 
5. Violet . é . 807 


The proportion of white, cyanic, and xanthic flowers varies in 
different quarters of the globe, and at different elevations. The follow- 
ing are the proportions of colour in different natural orders, deduced 
from the examination of about 120 species of each :— 


Red. Violet. Blue. Green, Yel. Orange. White. 


Nympheacee . rae ll _ 14 —_ 28 —_— 46 
Rosacee r . 382 1 _— _— 52 —_ 40 
Primulacee . d . 4 7 6 2 15 10 27 
Boraginaceze . . 10 9 28 3 13 1 35 
Convolvulacee . . 89 10 12 _— vA 2 7 
Ranunculacee  . . 16 4 15 2 42 1 19 
Papaveracese F » 28 9 — —_ 36 v 7 
Campanulacee . a) 21 58 _ 3 1 10 


Thus, Nymphzeacee and Rosacez, according to Schubler and Kéhler’s 
observations, contain a large number of white flowering species; Primu- 


396 ODOURS OF FLOWERS. 


lace and Convolvulace, red ; Campanulacez, blue; Ranunculacez, 
yellow. 

In arranging flowers in a garden it is of importance to place the 
complementary colours together, in order to produce the best effect. 
The complementary colour of red, or that which is required to make 
white light, is green ; of orange, blue ; of yellow, violet ; consequently 
blue and orange-coloured flowers, yellow and violet, may be placed 
together ; while red and rose-coloured flowers harmonise well with 
their own green leaves. When the colours do not harmonise, the 
interposition of white or of black often restores harmony. 


5.—Odours of Flowers, 


The peculiar odours of plants depend on various secreted volatile 
matters, which are often so subtle as to be incapable of detection by 
ordinary chemical means. Nothing is known of the causes which 
render one flower odoriferous and another scentless. In some cases 
the odours of plants remain after being dried, but in general they 
disappear. Some leaves, as of the Woodruff, become scented only 
after drying ; and certain woods, as Teneriffe rosewood, give out their 
odour only when heated by friction. Meteorological causes have a 
great influence on the odours of living plants. Dew, or gentle rain 
with intervals of sunshine, seem to be the circumstances best fitted 
for eliciting vegetable perfumes. Light has a powerful effect on the 
odour as well as the colour of flowers. Plants, when etiolated by 
being kept in darkness, generally lose their odour. In certain cases 
the perfumes of flowers are developed in the evening. Some of these 
plants were called tristes by Linneus, as Hesgperis tristis, or night- 
scented stock. Many orchidaceous plants are fragrant at night only, 
as some Catasetums and Cymbidiums. Cestrum nocturnum and the 
white flowers of Lychnis vespertina are also night-scented. The odours 
of some plants are peculiarly offensive. This is the case with Phallus 
impudicus, and with the flowers of many Stapelias. 

Schubler and Kohler, whose investigations in regard to colour have 
been noticed, have also made observations on the odours of plants in 
the same monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous orders. The following 
tables show some of their results :—. 


No. of 


Colour. species. Odoriferous. Agreeable. Disagreeable. 
White ‘ » L293 . 187 . 175 
Yellow . 951. 75. 61 


12 
14 
Red . ~ B23. » 86 » : 76 9 
Blue : « bo. » Bl. 23 7 
Violet A «= | B07 x A 23. 17 6 
Green 153 A Ly. _ 10 2 
Orange. 50 oF 4 1 2 
Brown. F 18 4 Los 0 1 


DISEASES OF PLANTS. 397 


Thus, of the plants examined, those having white flowers presented 
the larger proportion of odoriferous species. The orange and brown 
coloured flowers often gave a disagreeable odour. In examining 
numerous species from various natural orders, they found that out of 
100 species of 


Nympheacee . z A é . 22 were odoriferous. 
Rosacee . é ‘ é E % . 18 ,, s 
Primulacez . ¥ i eee eee se 
Boraginacee . oxy se 
Convolvulacese . BS gy ¥5 
Ranunculacee . 4 ,, i 
Papaveracee. . os 5 
Campanulacee . de a a5 


6.—Diseases of Plants, 


Great obscurity attends this department of botany, and much 
remains to be done ere a system of vegetable nosology (vé00s, disease) 
can be completed. It is, however, of great importance, whether we 
regard its bearing on the productions of the garden or the field. Some 
have divided the diseases of plants into general, or those affecting the 
whole plant, and local, or those affecting a part only. A better 
arrangement seems to be founded on their apparent causes, and in this 
way they have been divided by Lankester into four groups. 1. 
Diseases produced by changes in the external conditions of life; as 
by redundancy or deficiency of the ingredients of the soil, of light, 
heat, air, and moisture, 2. Diseases produced by poisonous agents, 
as by injurious gases, or miasmata in the atmosphere, or poisonous 
matter in the soil. 3. Diseases arising from the growth of parasitic 
plants, as Fungi, Dodder, etc. 4. Diseases arising from mechanical 
injuries, as wounds and attacks of insects. 

Plants are often rendered liable to the attacks of disease by the 
state of their growth. Thus, cultivated plants, especially such as be- 
come succulent by the increase of cellular tissue, appear to be more 
predisposed to certain diseases than others. Concerning the first two 
causes of disease very little is known. Absence of light causes blanch- 
ing, which may be looked upon as a diseased state of the tissues. 
Excess of light may cause disease in plants whose natural habitat is 
shady places. Excess of heat is sometimes the occasion of a barren or 
diseased state of some of the organs of the flowers, and frost acts pre- 
judicially on the leaves, stem, and flowers. By excess of moisture a 
dropsical state of the tissue is induced, A curious imstance of 
mechanical injury acting on plants is given by Mr. Berkeley. He 
states that the injury to the tops of the branches of Araucaria 
imbricata is caused by the shoots coming in contact with their neigh- 


398 DISEASES OF PLANTS. 


bours, and the leaves being punctured by the rigid points, so that there 
is an extravasation of resinous juices ; when this is often repeated the 
terminal bud at length dies. Some coniferous trees imported into 
Britain are suffering from the nature of the climate and soil. This is 
especially seen in the case of the Larch. Some have supposed that 
the destruction of the Larch is owing to dryness of the soil in conse- 
quence of draining ; while others attribute it to the propagation of the 
tree by means of badly matured seeds, taken from specimens grown in 
Britain. 

Concerning the influence of atmospheric changes on plants, very 
little has been determined. Many extensive epidemics seem to depend 
on this cause. By some the late potato-disease has been referred 
to an unknown miasma conveyed by the air, and operating over 
large tracts of country ; the disease probably affecting some plants 
more than others, according to their state of predisposition, and in its 
progress leading to disorganisation of the textures, alteration in the 
contents of the cells and vessels, and the formation of a nidus for the 
spores of Fungi. In the early stage of the disease, as witnessed in 
1845, Harting observed that a brown granular matter was deposited 
in the interior of the cells, beginning with those near the surface. 
For some time the cell-walls and starch-grains remained uninjured, but 
were ultimately attacked, the former losing their transparency, and 
the latter becoming agglomerated in masses. Subsequently to this, 
parasitic organisms of various kinds made their appearance, cavities 
were formed, and rapid decay took place. Among the vegetable 
parasites were detected species of Fusisporium, Oidium, Botrytis, 
Capillaria, Polyactis, Berkeley supports the Fungus-theory of Potato- 
disease, while Solly thinks that the development of parasites is a 
secondary step in the morbid process. The prevalence of hot or cold 
weather, the amount of light and moisture, changes in the atmosphere, 
and electrical conditions of the air and earth, are in all probability 
connected with epidemic diseases. Some, with Liebig, attribute the 
late potato-disease to suppressed evaporation and transpiration, depend- 
ing on the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. The vessels and 
cells are said to become charged with fluids, stagnation of the circula- 
tion takes place, and thus disease and death are induced. 

Balfour Stewart remarks that the researches of Baxendell, Mel- 
drum, Smyth, and others, go to show that the convection-currents 
of the earth are influenced by the state of the solar surface. Any- 
thing that influences the motions of our atmosphere may readily be 
supposed to influence the distribution and activity of those disease- 
germs that are now believed to be present in the atmosphere. 
Some kinds of blight seem to be associated with the prevalence of 
certain winds. The maximum of sun-spots may be connected also with 
the state of the atmosphere ; and great auroral outbursts are connected 


DISEASES ‘OF PLANTS. 399 


with the epochs of maximum sun-spots. When we arrive at an ex- 
planation of the sun-spots we may be able to prove some connection. 

Gangrene in plants is caused by alterations in the contents of the 
cells, leading to the death of a part. In succulent plants, as Cactuses, 
this ‘disease i is apt to occur. It is capable. of extension by contact of 
the diseased cells. Sometimes excision of the diseased part checks the 
progress of the gangrene. Canker, which attacks Apple and Pear 
trees, is a kind of gangrene. 

Some of the most important diseases of corn and other agricultu- 
ral crops are owing to the production of Fungi. These have been 
divided into 1. Those attacking the grain, as Uredo foetida, pepper- 
brand. 2. Those attacking the flower, as Uredo segetum, smut. 3. 
Those attacking the leaves and chaff, as Uredo Rubigo, rust. 4. 
Those attacking the straw, as Puccinia graminis, corn mildew. 

Bunt, smut-balls, pepper-brand, or blight, is a powdery matter, occu- 
pying the interior of the grain of wheat, etc. When examined under 
the microscope it consists of minute balls, four millions of which may 
exist in a single grain, and each of these contains numerous excessively 
minute sporules. It is caused by the attack of Uredo Caries or 
foetida. In this disease the seed retains its form and appearance, and 
the parasitic fungus has a peculiarly fetid odour, hence called stinking 
rust. 

Smut or dust-brand is a sooty powder, having no odour, found in 
Oats and Barley, and produced by Uredo segetum. The disease 
shows itself conspicuously before the ripening of the crop. Bauer says 
that in zsdsoo part of a square inch he, counted 49 spores of the 
uredo. 

Rust is an orange powder, exuding from the inner chaff scales, and 
forming yellow or brown spots and blotches in various parts of corn 
plants. It owes its presence to the attack of Uredo Rubigo. It is 
sometimes called red gum, red robin, red rust, and red rag. Some con- 
sider Uredo linearis as another state of the same disease. 

Mildew is a disease caused by a Fungus denominated Puccinia 
graminis. The ripe spore-cases of this plant are small dark-brown 
club-shaped bodies, their thicker end being divided into two chambers, . 
each filled with minute spores, and their lower end tapering into a 
fine stalk. The sori or clusters of spore-cases burst through the 
epidermis, sometimes in vast numbers. The minute spores seem to 
enter the plant by the stomata. Some think that they, as well as 
other minute spores, are absorbed by the roots. The disease attacks 
Wheat. Spring Wheat is less liable to this disease than winter 
Wheat, and heavy soils are less subject to it than light ones. Many 
have supposed that the Barberry is in some way connected with the 
production of Mildew. It has been ascertained that there is a curious 
connection beween them. It has been shown that the Fungus called 


400 DISEASES OF PLANTS. 


Puccinia graminis will not reproduce itself, but if its spores are sown 
on the leaves of the Barberry they will give rise to the Fungus called 
AKcidium Berberidis. On the other hand, it has also been proved 
that the spores of the Aicidium will not reproduce itself, but will give 
rise to Puccinia graminis. There is thus an alternation of generation 
in this case, which is remarkable, and in some measure explains the 
old idea as to the injury caused to Wheat by the Barberry. 

Those Fungi which are developed in the interior of plants, and 
appear afterwards on the surface, are called entophytic (évrés, within, 
and gurév, a plant). Their minute sporules are either directly applied 
to the plants, entering by their stomata, or they are taken up from the 
soil. Many other Fungi grow parasitically on plants, and either give 
rise to disease, or modify it in a peculiar way. Among them may 
be mentioned species of Ustilago, Botrytis, Fusisporium, Depazea, 
Claviceps, Fusarium, and Erysiphe. Puccinia malvacearum makes great 
havoc among Mallows and Hollyhocks. Fusisporium solani is considered 
by Martius as the cause of a certain disease in the Potato. In the 
recent potato-disease Peronospora infestans, and other Fungi, com- 
mitted great ravages, spreading their mycelium or spawn through the 
cells of the leaves and the tuber, and thus accelerating their destruc- 
tion. Berkeley, Morren, and Townley, consider the Fungus as the 
cause of the disease. Others think that there exists, in the first 
instance, a diseased condition of the cells of the potato, caused by 
meteorological influences, in connection with high cultivation, and that 
the subsequent attack of the fungus aggravates the disease and causes 
rapid decay. Various species of Botrytis also attack the Tomato, 
Beet, Turnip, and Carrot. A species of Depazea sometimes causes 
disease in the knots of Wheat. A diseased state of Rye and other 
grasses, called ergot, owes its production to the presence of Claviceps 
purpurea. By the action of the fungus the ovary becomes diseased 
and altered in its appearance, so as to be dark-coloured, and project 
from the chaff in the form of a spur. Hence the name spurred rye 
(secale cornutum). The nutritious part of the grain is destroyed, and 
it acquires certain qualities of an injurious nature. Spontaneous 
gangrene is the consequence of living for some time on diseased rye. 
Ergot has been seen in Lolium perenne and arvense, Festuca pratensis, 
Phleum pratense, Dactylis glomerata, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Pha- 
laris arundinacea, etc. Quekett found that he could propagate the 
ergot by mixing the sporules with water and applying this to the 
roots. 

Extensive disease has been caused to vineyards by the attack of a 
Fungus called Oidium Tuckeri. The remedy which seemed the most 
effectual was sulphur. Coffee leaves in Ceylon have suffered from the 
attack of a Fungus called Hemileia vastatrix. 

Fruits when over-ripe are liable to attacks of Fungi, which cause 


DISEASES OF PLANTS. 401. 


rapid decay. Wood also, especially alburnum or sapwood, is injured 
by the production of Fungi. Dry rot is the result of the attack of 
Meruleus lacrymans, which in’ the progress of growth destroys the 
texture of the wood, and makes it crumble to pieces. Some kinds 
of wood are much more liable to decay than others. Peziza seru- 
ginosa, which grows on the dead branches of oak and larch, imparts a 
verdigris colour to the wood. 

The diseases caused by attacks of Fungi may be propagated by 
direct contact, or by the diffusion of their minute spores through the 
atmosphere. When we reflect on the smallness of the spores, the 
millions produced by a single plant, and the facility with which they 
are wafted by the wind in the form of the most impalpable powder, 
we can easily understand that they may be universally diffused and 
ready to be developed in any place where a nidus is afforded. Perhaps 
some of the diseases affecting man and animals may be traced to 
such a source. Diseases of the skin are often aggravated by attacks 
of Fungi. This is the case in the disease called Porrigo. Diseases 
in animals, such as the silkworm and polistes, are caused by Fungi. , 

Mr. Lawes observed a luxuriant growth of Fungi on wnmanured 
plots of ground, and in plots receiving mineral without nitrogenous 
manure; and by far the most vigorous growth of grass on “ fairy rings ” 
was on superphosphated plots, and those receiving superphosphate with 
salts of soda and magnesia, without potash. Ammonia salts seem 
to prevent the growth of Fungi. Fairy rings occur most abundantly 
in poor pastures, and one mode of extirpating them is the application 
of nitrogenous manures. 

In order to prevent fungoid diseases, it has been proposed to steep 
grains in various solutions previously to being sown. For this pur- 
pose alkaliné matters and sulphate of copper have been used. In all 
cases the seed should be thoroughly cleansed. Smut and pepper- 
brand have been averted by these means. Diseased grains may be 
removed by being floated off in water, and the grains that remain 
may be washed with a solution of lime, common potash, or sub- 
stances containing ammonia. A weak solution of sulphate of copper 
acts by destroying the fungus. To preserve wood from dry rot, 
the processes of Kyanizing and Burnetizing have been adopted: the 
former consists in making a solution of corrosive sublimate enter into 
the cells and vessels; the latter, in impregnating the wood with a 
solution of chloride of zinc. Creasote has also been used to preserve 
wood. Boucherie proposed that a solution of pyrolignite of iron 
should be introduced into trees before being felled, by making perfora- 
tions at the base of the trunk, and allowing the absorbing power of 
the cells and vessels to operate. This plan does not appear to have 
been successful, although it was reported on favourably to the French 
Academy. 

2D 


402 DISEASES OF PLANTS. 


The following is the substance of some remarks on the Potato-dis- 
ease by Dr. Alfred Carpenter :— 

“Resting-spores of Fungi are very abundant in places where potatoes 
are usually stored. They do not produce mycelia until the proper 
juices are ready for their development, and they also require certain 
physical agencies, such as moisture, heat, and the proper kind of 
exhalations from damp unventilated ground, with a disturbed state. 
of the earth and air. The Tuber is planted with the resting-spore in 
the eye. The haulm is sent up with the spore in its tissues. About 
the time of flowering the juices in the plant are matured sufficiently 
for the development of the resting-spore. If at that time we have 
moisture, undrained ground, and electric disturbance, with luxuriant 
tops to the plants, the fungus is developed most rapidly. Millions of 
spores are wafted over the field, and these are not resting, but developing 
spores. They send out the mycelia through the stomata, and in a few 
hours the whole crop is poisoned. Every potato receiving juice 
from the haulm becomes diseased. These fungus-spores abstract the 
juice of the plant, and destroy the character of its circulating fluid. 
Highly manured land and crops make the disease spread more rapidly. 

“We must destroy the germ before planting, by using a pound of 
quick-lime stirred into a bucket-full of water, with an ounce of carbolic 
acid of commerce added. ° This quantity will serve for the dressing of 
a sack of potatoes. 

“Potatoes require to be kept dry ; exposure to the sun helps to 
preserve them. 

“ After the attack of Peronospora infestans, another fungus generally 
appears, called Fusisporium Solani. This acts on the starch, and 
destroys it ; so that, if you wish to use the starch, it must be done 
before the appearance of Fusisporium. 

“Tn preservation from potato-disease three things have to be attended 
to:—Ist, Choice of seed (tubers). 2d, Removal of mycelia and resting- 
spores from the seed chosen. Spread seed potatoes out in the sun, and 
let them dry and become somewhat green.. 3d, The preservation of the 
seed itself. Keep it in a temperature to prevent growth of mycelia 
or the development of the Entophyte, which will not grow below 
48° F. Tubers should be kept in an outhouse where the temperature 
will not rise above that, nor sink below 35° F.” 

In the case of the potato-disease the spores may perhaps follow the 
same course as that mentioned as occurring in the barley and the wheat 
fungus. The spores may be produced in one species of plant in the 
first instance, and then complete their development in another ; the 
fungus may thus pass part of its life upon some other host than the 
potato. This process has received the name of Heteraciwm (éregos, 
diverse, and o/xiov, habitation). 

Other diseases in plants owe their origin to insects. Earcockles, 


DISEASES OF PLANTS. 403 


purples, or pepper-corn, is a disease affecting especially the grains of 
wheat. The infected grains become first of a dark green, and ulti- 
mately of a black colour. They become rounded like a small pepper- 
corn, but with one or more deep furrows on their surface. The glumes 
spread-open, and the awns become twisted. The blighted grains are 
full of a fine white cottony matter, which, when moistened and put 
under the microscope, is seen to consist of a multitude of minute in- 
dividuals of the Vibrio tritici, or eel of the wheat. The animalcules 
deposit their eggs. in the ovary, and their young are hatched in eight 
or ten days. Henslow calculates that 50,000 of the young might be 
packed in a moderately sized grain of wheat. The Vibrio retains its 
vitality long. It will remain in a dry state for six or seven years, 
and when moistened with water will revive. The wheat-fly, or 
Cecidomyia tritici, is another destructive insect. It deposits its eggs 
by means of a very long retractile ovipositor, and is seen abundantly 
in warm evenings. The Cecidomyia destructor, or Hessian fly, also 
causes injury, and is said to be very destructive to wheat in America. 
These insects are destroyed in numbers by the Ichneumons, which 
deposit their ova in their bodies. The Apple-tree mussel, or dry-scale 
Aspidotus conchiformis, attacks the bark of Apples, Pears, Plums, 
Apricots, and Peaches. Many of the Coccus tribe are highly injurious 
to plants. One of this tribe, in 1843, destroyed the whole orange 
trees in the island of Fayal, one of the Azores. Many insects cause 
the rolling up of leaves. Tortricida viridana acts thus on the leaves 
of the Oak, and various species of Losotenia do so with other trees. 
Adelges abietis is the aphis which causes the leaves of the Spruce-fir 
to be united together, so as to have the appearance of a cone. 

The insect called the Coffee-borer (Xylotrichus quadrupes) perforates 
the wood of the Coffee-tree and destroys the plant. The recent Vine- 
disease has been caused by Phylloxera vastatrix, a very minute 
Homopterous insect, not more than ¥; inch in length. It has a pro- 
boscis lying in a groove on its under side, and with this it pierces 
the roots on which it feeds. It draws nourishment by means of a 
sucker. The insect is yellow in summer, but in autumn it turns 
to a copper-brown. Its active life is from the beginning of April to 
about the month of October ; it hibernates during the other months. 

Many insects, called miners, make their way into the interior of 
leaves, and hollow out tortuous galleries, sometimes causing an alter- 
ation in the colour of the leaves. Galls are caused by the attacks of 
species of Cynips, which are provided with ovipositors, by means of 
which they pierce the bark or leaves, with the view of having a nidus 
for their ova. These galls are very common on the Oak, and are 
called oak-apples. Sometimes they have one cavity, at other times 
they are divided into numerous chambers, each containing a grub, 
pupa, or perfect fly, according to the season. Galls are produced on 


404 DISEASES OF PLANTS. 


the twigs, catkins, and leaves of the Oak. The artichoke gall of the 
Oak depends on an irregular development of a bud, caused by the 
attack of insects, and consists of a number of leafy imbricated scales, 
resembling a young cone, A cone-like gall has also been observed in a 
species of Pernettia. On examining the galls of commerce, the pro- 
duce of the Quercus infectoria, some are of a blue colour, containing 
the larva of the insect; others are pale, and are marked with a per- 
foration by which the insect has escaped. Extensive ravages are 
committed in Elms and other trees by the attacks of Scolyti. The 
presence of much moisture, such as the rapid flow of sap, destroys 
them. Mr. Robert found that the flow might be promoted by taking 
off the suberous layer of the bark, and he proposes this as a method 
of getting rid of the insects, Some galls are formed in the substance 
of leaves, and burst through the cuticle in the form of ovate bodies, 
with crenate borders and opercula, which are perforated in the centre. 
These galls resemble parasitic fungi. Oak-spangles are galls of this 
nature. They are attached by a central point to the outer surface of 
the leaf, the inner side being smooth—the outer red, hairy, and 
fringed. Each contains a single insect, which retains its habitation 
till March, long after the leaves have fallen to the ground. 

It is impossible in this ‘place to enumerate all the insects which 
attack plants. Almost every species has certain insects peculiar to 
it, which feed on its leaves, juices, etc., and often cause great injury. 
Those which are common ‘to hot-houses and green-houses have called 
-for the special attention of horticulturists, and various means have 
been suggested for their removal or prevention. Among them may 
be enumerated vapour of tobacco and ammoniacal liquor of gasworks 
to kill aphides; vapour of sulphur for the red spider; sulphur for 
the vine-disease; vapour of turpentine for the wasp; vapour of 
crushed laurel leaves for the white bug; coal tar for the wire-worm. 
Carbolic acid, and sulphur mixed with soft soap, are also used. 


PART VL 


SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, TAXONOMY, OR THE 
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 


a 


CHAPTER I. 
SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 


Tuis department of Botany may be considered as a combination of all 
the observations made on the structure and physiology of plants, with 
the view of forming a scientific arrangement. It can only, there- 
fore, be prosecuted successfully after the student has acquired a com- 
plete knowledge of Organography. In every branch of science 
arrangement is necessary in order that the facts may be rendered 
available, and this is more especially the case when a knowledge of 
species is to be acquired. When it is considered that there are up- 
wards of 150,000 known species of plants, it is obvious that there 
must be a definite nomenclature and classification, were it only to. 
facilitate reference and communication. Taxonomy has sometimes 
been pursued with no higher aim than that of knowing the names of 
plants. When prosecuted in such a spirit, it does not lead to an en- 
larged and philosophical view of the vegetable kingdom. In all truly 
scientific systems regard is paid not merely to the determination of 
the names of the species, but to their relations and affinities, so as to 
give some conception of the order which has been followed in the 
plan of creation. 

In Classifactory Sciences the arrangements are founded upon an 
idea of likeness—an idea, however, which is applied in a more exact 
and rigorous manner than in its common and popular employment. 
The resemblances of the objects must rest-not on vague generalities, 
but upon an accurate scientific basis. In order that an arrangement 
may be constructed on philosophical principles, and that it may be 
rendered useful for the purpose of science, the following steps are re- 
quired :—1. A Technical (reyvxéc, artistic) language, rigorously de- 


406 DEFINITION OF SPECIES. 


fined, or what is termed Glossology (yAdoou, a tongue or language, 
and éyyos, a discourse), and Terminology (réguct, a boundary ; Latin, 
terminus). The meaning of the terms in this descriptive language 
must not depend on fancied resemblances, but must have a precise 
definition, and be constant. In acquiring a knowledge of the conven- 
tional terms, or of the vocabulary of the science, the student at the 
same time fixes in his mind the perceptions and notions which these 
-terms convey, and thus, in reality, becomes acquainted with important 
elementary facts. 2. A plan of the system, or the principles on 
which the divisions and subdivisions of the system are made, Diataxis 
(diaradss, orderly arrangement), or what is properly called ‘Taxonomy 
(ré&sc, order, and véwos, law). There have been two great plans pro- 
posed in Botany, one denominated artificial, the other natural. The 
first is founded on characters taken from certain parts of plants only, 
without reference to others; while the second takes into account all 
the parts of plants, and involves the idea of affinity in essential organs. 
3. There must be also the means of detecting the position of a plant 
in a system, by short diagnostic marks. In doing so, a few essential 
characters are selected in accordance with natural affinities. The 
division into genera is a most valuable help in determining plants. 
Linneus did great service to science by his generic divisions, and by 
adopting a binomial (bis, twice, and nomen, a name) system of nomen- 
clature, in which the genus and species are included in the name of 
the plant. 

’ Species,—Plants as they occur in nature are viewed as individuals 
resembling or differing from each other. Some individuals are so 
decidedly alike that we at once give them the same names. Thus, a 
field of wheat is composed of numerous similar individuals, which can 
be separated from each other, but cannot be distinguished by any per- 
manent or marked difference. Although there may be some difference 
in size and other minor points, still we at once say they are stalks of 
Wheat. Every grain of Wheat, when sown, produces a stalk of 
Wheat ; these stalks yield grains, which produce individuals like their 
parents. The shoots or buds given off from the base of Wheat by 
tillering also produce stalks of Wheat. On such universal and in- 
evitable conceptions as these our idea of species is founded. No classi- 
fication can be made unless the meaning of the term species is defined. 
By species (as regards the present epoch of the earth’s history) we 
mean an assemblage of individuals having characters in common, and 
coming from an original Stock or Protoplast. They resemble each 
other more closely than they do any other plant, so that they are con- 
sidered as originating from a common parent, and their seeds produce 
similar individuals. There may be differences in size, colour, and other 
unimportant respects; and thus varieties may exist, exhibiting minor 
differences, which are not, however, incompatible with a common 


DEFINITION OF SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 407 


origin. Varieties owe their origin to soil, exposure, and other causes, 
and have a constant tendency to return to their original type. They 
are rarely propagated by seed, but can be perpetuated by cuttings and 
grafts. By cultivation, as well as by natural causes, permanent varie- 
ties or races are produced, the seeds of which give rise to individuals, 
varying much from the original specific type. Such races are kept up 
entirely by the art of the gardener, and may be illustrated in the case 
of the Cereal grains, and of culinary vegetables, such as Cabbages, 
Cauliflower, Brocoli, Turnips, Radishes, Peas, It is only after a series 
of years that these permanent varieties have been established, and 
there is still a tendency in their seeds, when sown in poor soil and 
neglected, to produce the original wild form. Permanent. varieties in 
_ the animal kingdom may be illustrated by the different races of 
mankind. 

Such are the definitions of species, varieties, and races, which 
were generally adopted by all naturalists. But of late years theories 
have been propounded in regard to the origin of species which are not 

in accordance with those views, and which have given rise to new 
definitions, founded on the supposed derivation of species from others 
previously existing. 

The tendency to variation which exists among the descendants of 
the same original is not considered as being restrained within fixed 
limits, but, after the lapse of long periods of time, and under the in- 
fluence of varying external conditions, the descendants from a common 
stock may exhibit the differences which characterise distinct species. 
At the present time aggregates of individuals are seen, forming species, 
These are supposed by some to have originated from pre-existing spe- 
cies by derivation, and these again from others, and so on, till at last 
we come to a very few primordial forms (perhaps only one). On this 
supposition it is necessary to account for the various modifications 
which these primordial forms have undergone in the production of the 
present species of the globe. According to Darwin, these primordial 
forms had a tendency to variations in structure, some of which were 
favourable, and others unfavourable, for ‘the continuance and develop- 
ment of the species. There would then be a struggle for existence, 
and, by a method which he calls natwral selection, the fittest would 
be preserved, while the weakest would be destroyed. He therefore 
does not look upon species as fixed and unchangeable, but as trans- 
ition forms. Species would thus from time to time be formed, fitted 
for the circumstances in which they were placed. This hypothesis 
proposes to explain the various phenomena connected with the evolution 
of species. It does not look upon each species as a direct individual 
creation, but as produced from previous forms by a law of selection. 
This law, however, must indicate the acting of a Creator who knows 
the end from the beginning, and overrules all things for his own 


408 DEFINITION OF SPECIES. 


wondrous designs. Those, however, who adopt this theory, too often 
appear to put the Creator out of the question, and to subject the whole 
of the process to an inexorable law,—how enacted they cannot tell. 
The theory affiliates species of the present day with those of former 
epochs, and attempts to show a natural connection between them 
by genealogical descent. This is no doubt important in the view of 
what is called the natural system of classification, where a law of 
affinity comes into play. At the present day we see the agriculturist 
and horticulturist selecting seeds from vigorous plants, planting them 
in favourable circumstances, improving them by various physiological 
methods, preserving the forms best fitted for their purpose, and ulti- 
mately establishing races which continue to propagate themselves 
by seed when cultivated in favourable circumstances. Something of 
this sort may be supposed to occur in the case of natural selection, 
under the guidance and direction of Him who works by means of 
instruments, and who carries out His mighty plans in an orderly and 
systematic manner. 

There are numerous variations in species, some of them being of 
a more permanent character than others. Some species vary in a 
remarkable manner, without any external influences to account for it. 
Thus, a plant of Fuchsia has produced, in successive years, flowers 
differing so much in form and shape, that, if they had not been known 
to be produced by the same plant, they would have been considered as 
belonging to distinct species. Such is also the case with Calceolarias, 
some species of Amaryllis, and many Orchids. Hence there is some- 
times considerable difficulty in determining what are true species and 
what are only varieties, more especially when these varieties are perma- 
nent and reproduce themselves, To this must in part be attributed 
the disputes which have arisen among botanists as to the species of 
many British genera, such as Roses, Rubi, Salices, and Hieracia. 

Mr. John Ball remarks “that most widely diffused plants give 
rise to numerous varieties, ‘which reproduce themselves by hereditary 
descent, forming what are called races. In the case of wild plants we 
have, in most cases, no positive proof that such races are descended 
from the family stock, but we draw that inference from observing that 
the differences by which they are distinguished are not greater than 
what we observe among the descendants of plants submitted to culti- 
vation, with one important difference—viz., that the wild races, having 
been for a long period subject to the same external conditions, usually 
show greater constancy in their characters than cultivated varieties, 
developed under conditions of a less permanent kind. The varieties 
enumerated in the works of systematic Botany are almost invariably 
races, such as those above referred to, and under this head many 
botanists are disposed to rank a large portion of the so-called species 
described of late years in France and Germany.” 


DEFINITION OF SPECIES AND SUB-SPECIES. 409 


Sub-species are forms more widely different from recognised species 
than varieties usually are, distinguished by well-marked characters 
affecting several organs, and occupying a definite geographical area, 
but which probably spring from other and more widely diffused species. 
Ball gives Euphrasia officinalis, and all its varieties, as an example of 
a species ; while the small alpine yellow-flowered Euphrasia minima is 
considered by him as a sub-species. 

Dr. Boswell Syme, in his preface to English Botany, remarks,— 
“Tt is often extremely difficult to decide whether a certain form ought 
to be regarded as a species or a sub-species. Occasionally, in a work 
on descriptive botany, what are admitted as true species will be found 
to be quite as closely allied to each other as two other forms which 
the same author regards as mere varieties, or it may be as sub-species. 
In fact, all botanists are guided in this matter by an imperfect kind 
of judgment, which is sometimes not far removed from caprice.” He 
recognises as sub-species those plants which have less strongly-marked 
differences between them than are found between generally received 
species, but which are nevertheless too constant in their characters 
to be considered mere varieties. 

The term variety is applied by him to forms which are, or are 
supposed to be, confined to individuals, and which may revert to the 
original type in a single or a few generations ; while a sub-species 
transmits its peculiarities for an indefinite period. Many mistakes, no 
doubt, occur respecting variety and sub-species, which better observa- 
tion and long-continued cultivation may in time meet. ‘ A state” is 
even less permanent than a variety, for it may be removed in the 
same individual by altering the external circumstances, such as soil, 
climate, place of growth, etc. ; 

By scattering the pollen of one plant on the pistil of an allied 
species, seeds are formed, which, when sown, produce intermediate 
forms.or hybrids (p. 297). Hybrids, however, are rarely perpetuated - 
by seed. While many hybrids are produced artificially, some are 
also produced naturally. In giving names to hybrids, those of the 
two parent species are often given, Thus, a hybrid between Ver- 
bascum nigrum and Verbascum Lychnitis'is called Verbascum nigro- 
Lychnitis. In the case of the genus Rhododendron many hybrid forms 
have been produced by applying the pollen of the Rhododendron 
arboreum to the pistil of other more hardy species, such as R. ponticum, 
R. caucasicum, R. catawbiense, and these are indicated by such names 
as R. arboreo-ponticum, etc, Gardeners very often give special names to 
these hybrids, and thus confusion is introduced into nomenclature. 
For instance, Rhododendron arboreo-caucasicum has been called R. 
Nobleanum, and Rhododendron arboreo-catawbiense has received the 
names of R. alta-clerense and R. Russellianum, etc. Sometimes hybrids 
are produced between species of different genera, as between Rhodo- 


410 GENERA AND ORDERS. 


thamnus Chamecistus and Phyllodoce cerulea, to which the name of 
Bryanthus erectus has been erroneously given. These hybrids are pro- 
pagated chiefly by layering and grafting. Cultivators sometimes 
mark these named hybrids with a cross (X), to indicate their 
nature. 

Genera,—Certain species are more nearly allied than others, and 
are conveniently grouped together so as to forma distinct kind or genus. 
A genus, then, is an assemblage of nearly related species, agreeing with 
one another in general structure and appearance more closely than 
they accord with any other species, Thus, the various species of Roses 
compose one genus, which is distinguished by marked chargcters— 
more especially by the fruit. Occasionally a sub-genus is formed by 
grouping certain species, which agree more nearly with each other in 
some important particulars than the other species of the genus. The 
characters of the genera are taken exclusively from the parts of fruc- 
tification, while all parts of the plant furnish specific characters, In 
designating a plant the name of the genus is given as well as that of the 
species. The latter was called by Linneus the érivial name. -Thus, a 
particular species of Rose is called Rosa spinosissima ; the first being the 
genus, and the second the specific or trivial name. As regards the 
definition of genera and species, and the binomial nomenclature, no 
one has conferred so much benefit on science as the great Linnzus. 
This may be considered as among his highest titles to fame. 

The division of a genus may be illustrated from Hooker’s Student's 
Flora of the British Islands, as follows : — 


Genus—TaHaLiotrum of Linneus, Meadow-rue, 
includes the following British species, sub-species, and varieties :— 
1. Thalictrum alpinum of Linneus. 


2. Thalictrum minus of Linneus. 
Sub-species minus (proper). 
Variety 1. maritimum. 
$3 2. montanum, a species of Wallroth. 

Synonym. TT. caleareum of Jordan. 

Sub-species, majus of Jacquin. 
Synonym. T. flexuosum of Bernhardi. 

Sub-species, Kochii, a species of Fries. 

Sub-species, saxatile, a species of Schleicher, 


8. Thalictrum flavum of Linnzus. 
Variety 1. spherocarpum of Boswell Syme. 
» 2. rviparium, a species of Jordan. 
», 3 Morisonia, a species of Gmelin. 


Orders, — Several genera agreeing in more general characters, 
although differing in their special conformation, are grouped together 
so as to form an order or family. As genera include allied species, so 
orders embrace allied genera. Subdivisions are also made to facilitate 


CLASSES, ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS, AND NOMENCLATURE. 411 


reference, so that sub-orders and tribes are formed, consisting of certain 
genera, more nearly related in particular characters than others. Thus, 
the order Rosacez, or the Rose family, includes the genera Rosa, 
Rubus, Potentilla, Fragaria, Prunus, etc., which all agree in certain 
general characters ; and the order is divided into various sub-orders, 
such as the true Roses, with achenes contained in a hollow torus ; the 
Amygdalez, with drupaceous fruit, comprehending the plum, almond, 
peach, etc.; the Potentillez, with achenes on a convex receptacle, 
embracing the Cinquefoil, Strawberry, etc. 

Classes —Orders having some general characters in common are 
united together in classes; and sub-classes are formed in the same way 
as sub-orders, This is the general plan upon which botanical classifica- 
tion proceeds. The object of the enlightened botanist is to follow 
what he considers to be the natural affinities, and thus to trace, as far 
as possible, the order which pervades the vegetable creation. 

EssENTIAL CHARACTERS.—EHach of the divisions of a system is 
accurately defined, the characters being as short as is consistent with 
precise diagnosis. Such characters are called essential, and they em- 
brace only those points by which the group is distinguished from the 
others in the same section. The complete description of an individual 
species, from the root to the flower and fruit, is called the natural 
character, and embraces many particulars which are not requisite for 
the purpose of diagnosis, The essential characters of genera, when in 
Latin, are put in the nominative case, while those of species are in 
the ablative. Professor Henslow was instrumental in introducing into 
schools an excellent method of teaching the young to notice and de- 
scribe. the parts of plants. His method has been very generally 
adopted, and with the best results. For describing the parts of a 
plant tables are constructed with the names of the organs, and blank 
spaces are left for the student to fill in the characters in methodical 
order—1l. Root ; its form and structure; 2. Stem; its form and 
structure; 3. Leaves, simple or compound, petiole, and lamina, vena- 
tion, form, margin and apex, stipules. 4. Inflorescence ; indefinite or 
definite ; peduncle, pedicels, bract. 5. Parts of the flower ; calyx, 

corolla, stamen, pistil ; number of parts in each whorl ; their insertion 
and relative position ; separation or cohesion ; adhesion ; the parts of 
which each organ in a whorl is composed. 

NoMENCLATURE—The names of genera are variously derived, 
from the structure or qualities of the group, from the name of some 
eminent botanist, from the classical name of the plant, from old 
mythological names, and from English names which are Latinised, 
etc. ; while specific names have reference also to the country where 
the ‘plant is found, the locality in which it grows, the form of the 
leaves, root, stem, or the colour of the flowers, etc. The general rule 
is, that the name shall consist of a substantive and an adjective, the 


° 


412 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS, 


former indicating the genus and the latter the species. Sometimes, 
in place of an adjective, there is a substantive used adjectively. 
When a species is named in honour of its discoverer or describer, his 
name is put in the genitive, as Carex Vahlii, or the species of the 
genus Carex detected by Vahl; but if it is merely in compliment to 
a botanist, his name is added in an adjective form, as Jungermannia 
Doniana, or a Jungermannia named in honour of Don, as a botanist. 
Sometimes two nouns are united in a specific name, as Dictamnus 
Frawxinella, In such cases the specific name is often an old generic 
one, has a capital letter prefixed, and does not necessarily agree in 
gender with the name of the genus. The names of the orders in what 
is called the natural system are derived from one of the typical genera 
included under them. 

ABBREVIATIONS AND SymBois.—It is of great importance that 
correct descriptions should be given of species, for without them it is 
impossible to form the groups accurately. The difficulties of the 
taxonomist are often greatly increased by imperfect and careless de- 
scriptions. Valuable directions are given in Lindley’s Introduction to 
Botany, as to the proper method of describing plants. There are 
certain abbreviations in constant use among botanists, which it may be 
of importance to notice here. The authorities for genera and species 
are given by adding the abbreviated name of the botanist who de- 
scribed them. Thus, Veronica L. is the genus Veronica as defined by 
Linneus ; Veronica arvensis L, is a certain species of Veronica, defined 
by the same author; Oxytropis DC. is the genus as defined by De 
Candolle. It is usual in descriptive works to give a list of the 
.. authors, and the symbols for their names. The abbreviation v. s. sp., 
means vidi siccam spontaneam, or that the author has seen a dried wild 
specimen of the plant; v. s. c., means vidi siccam cultam, or that he 
has seen a dried cultivated specimen ; v. v. s. means vidi vivam spon- 
taneam, or that he has seen a living wild specimen; while v. v. c., 
means vidi vivam cultam, or that the author has seen a living culti- 
vated specimen, The asterisk prefixed to a name (*L.) indicates that 
there is a good description at the reference given to the work ; while 
the dagger (tL.) implies some doubt or uncertainty. The point of 
admiration (!DC.) marks that an authentic specimen has been seen, 
from the author named; and the point of interrogation (?) indicates 
_, doubts as to the correctness of genus, species, etc., according as it is 
placed after the name of the one or other. © (symbol for the Sun), 
O, @, or A, annual; ¢ (symbol for Mars); ©, ©, or B, biennial ; 
24 (symbol for Jupiter), A, or P, perennial; h (symbol for Saturn), 
3, or Sh, shrub; (, twining to the right ; ), twining to the left; 9, 
hermaphrodite; $, male; 2 (symbol for Venus), female; $- 2, 
moneecious, or the male and female on one plant; $:9, diccious, 
or the male and female on different plants; 00 or co, means inde- 


SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 413 


finite in number. After the description of a plant, its habitat, or the 
country and locality in which it grows, is given. If the plant has 
been described by others, reference is given to the work in which the 
description may be found. If it has received different names, the 
synonyms must be carefully detailed, and ought tobe arranged in 
chronological order. Condensed analyses of orders, genera, and 
species are often given in botanical works, and are very useful for 
students. Dichotomous keys are also used, a series of characters being 
given in the form of two contradictory propositions, so that the one 
being granted, the other must be rejected. In this way the student 
is led to the order, genus, or species. 

Systems.—Various attempts have been made at different times 
to classify plants. One of the earliest methodical arrangements was 
that of Cesalpinus, in 1583. It was entirely artificial ; and the same 
thing may be affirmed of those of Gesner, Morison, Rivinus, and 
Tournefort. The system propounded, by Tournefort was for a long 
time adopted by the French school, but was ultimately displaced by 
that of Linnzus, who must be looked upon as the great promulgator 
of the artificial method. In 1682, Ray published a system which laid 
‘the foundation of the natural method of classification. It was long 
neglected, and did not receive the attention it deserved, until Jussieu 
entered the field, and developed his views. Since that time the 
natural method has been advanced by the labours of De Candolle, 
Brown, Endlicher, Lindley, and many others. 

Linnzan System.—Although the Linnean system is not in 
conformity with natural affinities, and does not tend to comprehensive 
views of structure, still it is useful to the student as an index.4 Lin- 
neus himself did not consider it as occupying a higher position, and 
he stated distinctly that a natural method was the great object of 
scientific inquiry. When not elevated to a rank which its author 
never meant it to occupy, this system may, with all its imperfections, 
be employed as a useful artificial key, and as such may be combined 
with the natural system. In many works of the present day, as in 
Babington’s Manual of British Botany, the Linnean system is used 
as an index to the genera. In the Linnean or sexual system, twenty- 
three classes are founded on the number, position, relative lengths, 
and connection of the stamens; while the orders in these classes 
depend on the number of the styles, the nature of the fruit, the 
number of stamens in the classes where this character is not used for 
distinguishing them, and the perfection of the flowers. The twenty- 
fourth class includes plants having inconspicuous flowers, and in it 
the orders are formed according to natural affinities. Under these 
classes and orders all the known genera aud species were arranged. 
It is in the higher divisions that the system is artificial, for, as re- 

_gards genera, the Linnzan rules are followed even in the natural 
systems of the present day. 


414 


LINNAZUS’S ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM. 


TABULAR VIEW OF THE CLASSES OF THE LINNZAN SYSTEM. 


A. Flowers present (Phanerogamia). 
I. Stamens and Pistil in every flower. 
1. Stamens Free. 


a. Stamens of equal length, or not differing in certain propor- 


tions ; 

in number 1 Class I. 
_ 2 IL. 
— 3 III. 
—_— Be ; : IV. 
_— 5. . . Vv. 
_ 6 VI. 
_ 7 VIL. 
_— 8 VIII. 
—_ 9. . : IX. 
— 10. : Xx. 
—12-19 . ; : XI. 

Inserted on 
— 20 Calyx. ath 

or more ) —on Recep- 
ae {. XIII. 


6. Stamens of different lengths ; 


two long and two short XIV. 
four long and two short XV. 
2. Stamens united ; 
by Filamentsin one bundle XVI. 
—— in two bundles XVII. 
—— in more than two 
‘bundles XVIII. 
by Anthers (Compound XIX. 
flowers) 
with Pistil on a column . XX. 
II. Stamens and Pistil in different 
flowers on the same Plant. AX 
on different Plants XXII. 
III. Stamens and Pistil in the 
same or in different XXIIL 
flowers on the same or 
on different plants . 
B. Flowers Absent XXIV. 


Monandria . 
Diandria 
Triandria 
Tetrandria . 
Pentandria . 
Hexandria . 
Heptandria . 
Octandria 
Enneandria 
Decandria, . 
Dodecandria 


Icosandria . 


Polyandria 


Didynamia 


Tetradynamia 
Monadelphia 


Diadelphia. 


Polyadelphia 


Syngenesia . 
Gynandria 


Moneecia . 
Diecia 


Polygamia 


Cryptogamia 


dvyp, male or stamen. 
. pbvos, one, 
. ols, two. . 
. Tpets, three. 
. TeTpds, four. 
. wévre, five. 
. €&, six. 
. ém7Td, seven. 
. 6x7, eight. 
. évvéa, nine, 
. Oka, ten, 
. dwoexd, twelve. 


. elkoot, twenty. 


. Wodvs, many. 


Svvduts, power, 
superiority. 


ddedpés, brother. 


{ odv, together, 


( y&eors, origin. 
. yury, female. 


olxtov, habitation. 


. 


« ydpos, marriage. 


. kpumrés,concealed. 


TaBULAR VIEW OF THE ORDERS OF THE LINNHAN SYSTEM. 


Class I.\ Monogynia 1 Free Style 
II. | Digynia . 2 Free Styles 
III. | Trigynia . 3 = 
IV. | Tetragynia 4 _ 
V.| Pentagynia 5 _ 
VI. | Hexagynia 6 _ 
VII. } Heptagynia 7 _ 
VIII. | Octogynia 8 _ 
IX. | Enneagynia rane, —_ 
X. | Decagynia & LO _ 
XI. | Dodecagynia . 12-19 — . 
XII. } Polygnia 20 and upwards . 


abe female or pistil. 


pévos, one. 
ols, two. 
rpels, three. 
rerpdas, four. 
mévre, five, 
é&, six. 
émrd, seven. 
éxr, eight. 
évvéa, nine. 
6éxa, ten. 
Swiexd, twelve. 
mods, many. 


LINNZUS’S ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM. 415 


Gymnospermia . . Fruit formed by four Achenia ) yupvds, naked. 
XIV. 4 Angiospermia . . . Fruit, a two-celled Capsule . ‘ dyyos, a vessel. 
with many seeds. . . . } omépua, a seed. 
xv eae - . . . Fruit, a Silicula. 
‘ (Siliquosa . . . . Fruit, a Siliqua. 


XVI. 
XVII. ? Triandria, Decandria, etc. (aumber of Stamens), as in the Classes. 
XVIII. 
(Polygamia Aiqualis . Florets all hermaphrodite. 

Superflua . Florets of the disk hermaphrodite, those of the 
ray pistilliferous and fertile. 
———— Frustranea Florets of the disk hermaphrodite, those of the 
XIX. 4 ray neuter. 
——— Necessaria Florets of the disk staminiferous, those of the 
ray pistilliferous. 

Segregata . Each floret having a separate involucre. 
(Monogamia. . . . Anthers united, flowers not compound. 


XX. 
XXI_ > Monandria, Diandria, etc. (number of Stamens), as in the Classes. 
XXII. 


Monecia. ... . . Hermaphrodite, staminiferous, and pistilliferous 
flowers on the same plant, 
file Diecia . 2. . on two plants. 
Trivcia. sc -% 6 ; on three plants. 
(Filices . . . . . Ferms. 
| Musci . . . . . Mosses. 
Hepatice . . . . Liverworts. 
susie Lichenes. . . . . Lichens. 
Alge. . . . . . Seaweeds. 
Fungi . . . . . Mushrooms. 


Even as an artificial method, this system has many imperfections. 
If plants are not in full flower, with all the stamens and styles per- 
fect, it is impossible to determine their class and order. In many 
instances the different flowers on the same plant vary as regards the 
number of the stamens. Again, if carried out rigidly, it would sepa- 
tate in many instances the species of the same genus ; but as Linneus 
did not wish to break up his genera, which were founded on natural 
affinities, he adopted an artifice by which he kept all the species of 
a genus together. Thus, if in a genus nearly all the species had both 
stamens and pistils in every flower, while one or two were monecious 
or dicecious, he put the names of the latter in italics, in the classes and 
orders to which they belonged according to his method, and referred 
the student to the proper genus for the description. 

Natura System.—It has been already stated that a natural 
system endeavours to bring together plants which are allied in all 
essential points of structure. It purposes to ascertain the system of 
nature, and the affinities of plants; and, in doing so, it takes into 
account all their organs. Every natural method, however, is, to a 
certain extent, artificial, and is likely to be so. It is impossible to 
show the affinities of plants in a lineal series ; many orders pass insen- 


416 PLAN OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 


sibly into others, so that their limits cannot be accurately defined ; 
and no perfect system can be constituted until all the plants of the 
globe are known. Moreover, many artificial means are avowedly 
used in all natural systems to aid the student. 

The early natural systems were very imperfect, being founded on 
comparatively vague views of structure and affinity. Such were the 
systems of Magnol and Adanson. The sketch of a natural system by 
Linneus was very incomplete, and even that of the celebrated Ray 
was imperfect. It was not until the knowledge of structural botany 
had advanced, that the affinities of plants were ascertained, and the 
relative importance of the different characters discovered. The na- 
tural systems of the present day recognise a certain subordination of 
characters, founded on the fact that some organs are of more import- 
ance to the life of plants than others. The relative values of these 
characters are determined by the study of organisation, and are not 
fixed by arbitrary rules. The following table will illustrate this 
subordination of character :— 


Subordination in Value of the Organs of the same Class. 


Relative Values. Elementary. Nutritive. Reproductive. 
1 Cellular Tissue. 
( Vascular Tissue . . ( Embryo. a 
a, Spiral Vessels . a, Cotyledon. — 
9 { b. Pitted Vessels . b. Radicle. = 
; e. Scalariform c. Plumule, — 
Vessels . . | Spore. — 
Stomata . . . . \Prothallus 
1. Stamens and Pistil. 
2. Antheridia and Arche- 
3. — Root, Stem, Leaf, cone 
Frond, Thallus 3. bey t. 
ericarp. 
Theca. 
Perianth. 
4 — — a. Corolla. 
6. Calyx. 
Inflorescence. 
5 — —. Torus, Nectary. 
Bract, Involucre. 


Thus, cellular tissue occupies the highest place, as being most 
universally diffused, and capable of carrying on all the functions 5 next 
comes vascular tissue, By the consideration of these, the two great 
divisions of cellular and vascular plants are determined. There is 
nothing in the nutritive and reproductive systems of the same value 
as cellular tissue. The embryo and its parts are reckoned as occupy- 
ing the highest place in the nutritive system, and as corresponding in 
value with the vascular among the elementary tissues. In the same 


PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. A17 


way the other values are determined. In examining organs it is 
essential to compare those which belong to the same series ; for an 
organ which occupies the highest place in one series may be inferior 
in value to a second-rate organ in another. The comparative import- 
ance of the different series must be taken into account also. Thus, 
the nutritive may be considered as of more importance than the re- 
productive function, as being more essential for the life of the in- 
dividual ; and an organ of first-rate value in the one will therefore 
assume a higher function than one of the same value in the other. 
The changes which take place in any one set of organs are often 
accompanied with changes in others ; and thus it is found that natural 
divisions may be arrived at by different routes—for instance, by the 
elementary, nutritive, and reproductive functions. This gives the 
true notion of affinity ; and classifications founded on such principles 
‘will obviously be more valuable, in a practical and physiological point 
of view, than those which adopt characters in an arbitrary manner. 
Primary Divisions oF THE VEGETABLE Kinepom.—In taking 
a survey of the Vegetable Kingdom, some plants are found to be com- 
posed of cells only, and are called Cellular (p. 5); while others consist 
of cells and vessels, especially spiral vessels, and are denominated 
Vascular (p. 16), If the embryo is examined, it is found in some 
cases to have cotyledons or seed-lobes, in other cases to want them ; 
and thus some plants are cotyledonous, others acotyledonous (p. 334) ; 
the former being divisible into monocotyledonous, having one cotyle- 
don ; and dicotyledonous, having two cotyledons. The radicle, or young 
root of acotyledons, is heterorhizal (p. 357), that of monocotyledons is 
endorhizal (p. 356), that of dicotyledons eaorhizal (p. 357). When 
the stems are taken into consideration, it is seen that marked differ- 
ences occur here also,—acotyledons being acrogenous, monocotyledons 
endogenous, and dicotyledons exogenous (p. 75). The venation of 
leaves, parallel, reticulated, or forked (p. 84), establishes the same 
great natural divisions ; and similar results are obtained from a con- 
sideration of the flowers,—monocotyledons and dicotyledons being 
phanerogamous, and acotyledons eryptogamous (p. 171). 
Thus, the following natural divisions are arrived at :— 


1. Cellular . Acotyledonous. Heterorhizal. Acrogenous. Cryptogamous. 


Monocotyledonous. Endorhizal. Endogenous. 


2. Vascular . Dicotyledonous. Exorhizal. Exogenous. } Phanerogamous, 


These larger groups are, on similar principles, subdivided, until at 
length genera and species are reached by a process of analysis, 
Similar results will be obtained by a synthetical process, conducted 
on the same principles, and proceeding from species upwards, 
Henslow illustrates the divisions and subdivisions of a natural 
system by reference to Anthyllis Vulneraria, thus :— 
25 


418 


I. Class ne, oe 
Subclass . i 

II. Order 
Suborder . & 
Tribe : a 
Subtribe . F 

ITI. Genus : ‘ 
Subgenus or section . 

IV. Species 
Variety 
Race ‘ % 
Variation . 


SYSTEMS OF JUSSIEU AND DE CANDOLLE. 


Dicotyledones, 
Calyciflore. 
Leguminose. 
Papilionacez. 
Lotezx. 

Genistz. 
Anthyllis. 
Vulneraria. 
Vulneraria. 
Dillenii. 

Floribus coccineis. 
Foliis hirsutissimis. 


The most important natural systems are those of Jussieu, De 


Candolle, Endlicher, and Lindley. The larger divisions of each of 
these systems are given in a tabular form. 


Classes of Jussieu's System. 


Acotyledones ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ i ‘ Class I. 
Mono-hypogyne (Stamens hypogynous) . : II. 
Monocotyledones . 4 Mono-perigyne .(  ,, perigynous) . III. 
Mono-epigyne .( ,, epigynous) . ‘ IV, 
Monoclines, Flowers hermaphrodite. 
Epistaminee . (Stamens epigynous) . : Ne 
Apetale . . § Peristaminese 9 perigynous) VI. 
(No Petals.) Hypostaminee . »»  hypogynous) . Z VII. 
4 (Hypocorolle . (Corolla hypogynous) «VIII. 
8 Pericorollee >>  perigynous) . j IX. 
3 J Monopetale Synanthere . xX. 
'& | (Petals united.) (Corolla (anthers united) 
9 | Epicor - Lepigynous) Corisanthere . XI. 
A (anthers free) 
Epipetale . . (Petals epigynous) XII. 
Polypetalae - « Hypopetale »  bypogynous) . XIII. 
(Petals distinct) ( Peripetale »  perigynous) . XIV. 
\ Diclines Flowers unisexual, or without a perianth . . XV. 


Under these Classes Jussieu included 100 Natural Orders, or Groups of Genera. 


Classes of the Natural System of De Candolle. 
A. Vasculares or Cotyledonee. 


Class I. Dicotyledones or Exogene. 


Subclass 1. Thalamiflore . Petals distinct, stamens hy- 
pogynous. 

Petals distinct or united, 
stamens perigynous. 

Petals united, hypogynous, 
bearing the stamens. 


Dichlamydee, 
having calyx 
and corolla, 


2. Calyciflore , . 


” 


3. Corolliflore . fi 


Having a single 


perianth. A calyx only, or none. 


4. Monochlamydee . 


” 


Class II. 


Subclass 1. Mon-Phanerogame . . . 
2. Mon-Cryptogame . ; é 


Monocotyledones or Endogene. 


Having floral envelopes. 


45 Having no floral envelopes. 


‘ 


SYSTEM OF ENDLICHER. 419 


B. Cellulares or Acotyledonec. 


Class III. Acotyledones, 


Subclass 1. Folios . ‘ . P . Having leaves, 
re 2. Aphylle, fe . 7 . Leafless. 


; By some recent authors this system has been modified, so as to 
include, under Corolliflore, all Dicotyledons with united petals, 
whether hypogynous or not, and to exclude from Class IT. all plants 
without flowers. It is then presented in the following form :— 


Modification of De Candolle’s System. 
Class I. Dicotyledones or Exogene. 

Dichlamydex, (Subclass 1. Thalamiflore. Petals distinct, stamens hypogynous. © 
having calyx » 2. Calyciflore . Petals distinct, stamens perigynous. 
and corolla. ‘ 8. Corolliflore . Petals united, bearing the stamens. 

Havingasingle 


perianth, 4, Monochlamydee A calyx only, or none. 


” 
Class II. Monocotyledones or Endogene. 


Subclass 1. Petaloidez or Floride . Floral envelopes verticillate. 


9 2. Glumaceze ‘: . Floral envelopes imbricated. 


Class III. Acotyledones or Acrogene. 


Subclass 1. Aitheogame . - . Having vascular tissue. 
2. Amphigame or Cellulares . Entirely cellular. 


” 


System of Endlicher. 

REGION I.—THALLOPHYTA (0aAXés, frond, purdv, a plant). No opposition 
of stem and root. No spiral vessels, and no sexual organs, Propa- 
gated by spores. 

SECTION I. PROTOPHYTA (zpGros, first or originating). Developed without 
soil; deriving nourishment all around ; fructification indefinite. 
Algz, Lichenes. 

SECTION 1. HystERoPHYTA (Uerepos, posterior or derivative). Developed 
on decaying organisms ; nourished internally from a matrix ; all 
the organs appearing at once, and perishing in a definite manner. 
Fungi. 

REGION II.—CORMOPHYTA (xopyés, a stalk or trunk). Opposition of stem 
and root. Spiral vessels and sexual organs distinct in the more 
perfect. 

SEcTION 1. ACROBRYA (dxpa, summit, and Bpdw, to germinate). Stem in- 

. creasing by the apex, the lower part being unchanged, and only 
conveying fluids. 

Cohort 1. Anophyta (dvw, above). No spiral vessels. Both sexes 
present, Spores free within spore-cases. Hepatic, Musci. 

Cohort 2. Protophyta. ‘Bundles of vessels more or less perfect. Both 
sexes present. Spores free within one- or many-celled spore-cases. 
Filices, Equisetacez, etc. 

Cohort 3. Hysterophyta. Both sexes perfect. Seeds without a true 
embryo, consisting of many spores, Parasitic. Balanophore, 
Cytinew, etc. 


420 


Section Iv. AMPHiBRYA (dul, around). 
ence. Vegetation peripherical. 


NATURAL SYSTEM OF LINDLEY. 


Stem increasing at the circumfer-- 


SECTION v. ACRAMPHIBRYA (dkpa, du@l, and Bpiw). Stem increasing both 


by apex and circumference. 


Vegetation peripherico-terminal. 
Cohort 1. Gymnosperme (yupvés, naked, and omépua, seed). 


Ovules 


naked, receiving the fecundating matter directly at the micropyle. 


Conifere, 


Cohort 2. Apetale (a, privative or without, and mérddor, a petal. 


Peri» 


gone either wanting or rudimentary or single, green or coloured, free 


or adherent to the ovary. 
Cohort 3. Gamopetale (yduos, union). 


inner corolline ; gamopetalous, rarely wanting by abortion. 


petale of Jussieu. 


Perigone double: outer calycine, 
Mono- 


Cohort 4. Dialypetalze (Stadvw, I separate). Perigone double ; outer caly- 
cine, parts distinct or united, free or attached to the ovary; inner 
corolline, parts distinct or very rarely cohering by means of the base 
of the stamens; insertion hypogynous, perigynous, or epigynous ; 


sometimes abortive. 


Polypetale of Jussieu. 


Under these sections Endlicher enumerates 279 natural orders, which 


are grouped under 61 classes, 


Division of the Vegetable Kingdom by Lindley. 1839. 


. Cyclogens, Class I. 

Exogens . . 4 (Wood in circles), IL. 
Wood in Wedges, TIT 

Spermogens, IV, 

Endogens . . 4 (Bearing seeds), Vv 
Bearing spores, VI 

Distinct Stem, VIL. 

USE ENS ih Only a Thallus, VIII 


Exogens (proper). 


. Gymnogens (naked seeds), 

. Homogens. 

. Dictyogens (leaves reticulated). 
. Endogens (proper). 

. Sporogens or Rhizanths. 

. Cormogens. 

. Thallogens. 


In the Exogens and Endogens the following subordinate series of sub- 


classes are formed :— 


1. Consolidated. Floral envelopes are united both with each other and the sta- 


mens, and are attached to the ovary. 


2. Separated. Floral envelopes and stamens 
ovary is consolidated and free. 
3. Adherent. 


are united to each other, but the 


Petals and sepals adhere to each other and the stamens, and are 


attached to ovary, but have their parts disunited. 

4, Disunited. Petals and sepals adhere to each other and the stamens, but have 
their parts disunited, and are not attached to the consolidated ovary. 

5. Dissolved. Petals and sepals are distinct from the stamens, and also from the 
ovary, whose carpels are disunited, either wholly or by the styles. 

Tn each of these subdivisions the orders are arranged in two series, 

the one Albuminous, the other Exalbuminous. 


Lindley’s Division of the Vegetable Kingdom. 1846. 
Asexual or Flowerless Plants. 


Stem and leaves undistinguishable 
Stem and leaves distinguishable 


Class I. Thallogens. 
II. Acrogens. 


NATURAL SYSTEM OF LINDLEY. ADL 


Seanual or Flowering Plants. e 


Wood of stem youngest in the centre, cotyledon single. 
Leaves parallel-veined, permanent, wood of stem 


always confused =. 3 é III.” Endogens. 
Leaves net-veined, deciduous, Hoot of per “phan 
perennial, arranged i in a circle with a central pith IV. Dictyogens. 


Wood of stem youngest at the circumference, always 
concentric, cotyledons two or more 
Seeds quite naked é F Z . V. Gymnogens. 
Seeds enclosed in seed-vessels ‘ 7 . VI. Exogens. 


The following are the sub-classes of Endogens and Exogens adopted 
by Lindley :— 
Endogens. 


Sub-class 1. Glumaceous.—Floral envelopes imbricated. 
- 2, Petaloid.—Floral envelopes verticillate. 

a. Unisexual, often achlamydeous., 

6. Hermaphrodite, ovary inferior. 

c. Hermaphrodite, ovary superior. 


Ezxogens. 


Sub-class 1. Diclinous.—Flowers unisexual. 


: — 2. Hypogynous.—Flowers usually hermaphrodite, stamens cone eile 
hypogynous, free from the calyx or corolla. 
8. Perigynous.—Flowers usually hermaphrodite, stamens growing to 
the side of either the calyx or corolla ; ovary superior, or nearly so. 
— 4, Epigynous.—Flowers usually femmiaplrodile, stamens growing to the 
side of either the calyx or corolla ; ovary inferior or nearly so. 


Under the classes Lindley enumerates 303 natural orders, which are 
grouped together under 56 alliances, In this system of Lindley the 
divisions of Asexual and Sexual plants correspond to Endlicher’s 2 
Regions ; the 7 classes represent Endlicher’s 5 sections ; and the 56 
alliances are equivalent to the 61 classes in Endlicher’s system, 

This division may be presented thus :-— 


Floral 


Classes. Wood. Leaves, Envelopes. Sexes. Embryo. 

1. Exogene . . Exogenous Netted 5or4mary Perfect . Dicotyledonous. 
Parallel 

2. Gymnosperme Exogenous or None .Seednaked Dicotyledonous. 
forked } 

3. Endogene . Endogenous Parallel | Ternary Perfect. Monocotyledonous. 

4, Dictyogene . Endogenous Netted . Ternary Perfect . Monocotyledonous. 

5. Acrogene . . Acrogenous | a ad None . None . ~. Acotyledonous. 

6. Thallogene . None. . . None. . None. None . . Acotyledonous. 


Henslow has given a comparative view of all these systems, point- 
ing out, in a tabular form, the corresponding divisions in each of 
them :— 


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NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF HOOKER. 423 


The following is Dr. Hooker's synopsis of classes, sub-classes, and 
cohorts :— 


Sus-Kinepom I,—Puanogamovs, CoTYLEDONOUS, OR FLOWERING 
PLANTS. 


Class I. Dicotyledons. 
Sub-class I. Angiospermous. 
Ovules produced in a closed ovary, fertilised by the pollen-tube tra- 
versing a stigmatic tissue to-reach the cavity of the ovary, and hence 
the embryo-sac of the ovule. 


Division "I. Polypetalous. 
Flowers with both a calyx and a corolla, the latter of separate petals. 


Series I. Thalamifloral. 
Sepals usually distinct and separate, free from the ovary. Petals 
1-2- co-seriate, hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous, rarely inserted on 
a short or long torus, or on a disk. Ovary superior. 
Cohorts.—1, Ranales ; 2, Parietales ; 3, Polygalales ; 4, Caryophyllales ; 
5, Guttiferales ; 6, Malvales. 


Series II. Discifloral. 
Sepals distinct or connate, free or adnate to the ovary. Disk usually 
conspicuous, as a ring or cushion, or spread over the base of the 
calyx-tube, or confluent with the base of the ovary, or broken up into 
glands. Stamens usually definite, inserted upon or at the outer or 
inner base of the disk. Ovary superior. 


Cohorts.—7, Geraniales ; 8, Olacales ; 9, Celastrales ; 10, Sapindales. 


Series III. Calycifloral. 

Sepals connate (rarely free), often adnate to the ovary. Petals 1- 
seriate, perigynous or epigynous. Disk adnate to the base of the 
calyx, rarely tumid or raised into a torus or gynophore. Stamens 
perigynous, usually inserted on or beneath the outer margin of the 
disk. Ovary frequently inferior. 

Cohorts. —11, Rosales ; 12, Myrtales ; 18, Passiflorales ; 14, Ficoidales ; 
15, Umbellales. 


Division II. Monopetalous. 
Flowers furnished with both sepals and petals, the latter connate. 
Series I. Epigynous. 
Ovary inferior. 
Cohorts.— 16, Caprifoliales ; 17, Asterales ; 18, Campanales. 


Series II. Hypogynous or Perigynous. 
Ovary superior. 
Cohorts.—19, Ericales; 20, Primulales; 21, Hbenales ; 22, Gentian- 
ales ; 28, Polemoniales ; 24, Solanales ; 25, Personales ; 26, Lamiales. 
Division III. Apetalous or incomplete-fiowered. Flowers with a single 
floral envelope (the calyx) or none. 
Subdivision I. Ovary superior—perianth usually distinct. 
Cohorts——27, Chenopodiales; 28, Laurales; 29, Daphnales; 30, 
Urticales ; 31, Amentales ; 32, Euphorbiales ; 33, Piperales,; 34, 
Nepenthales. 


424 NATURAL SYSTEM IN MANUAL. 


Subdivision II. Ovary inferior —Perianth more or less distinct in the 
6, or ?, or both. : 
Cohorts. —35, Asarales ; 36, Quernales ; 37, Santalales. 
Sub-class II. Gymnospermous. 
Ovules produced superficially on a scale (bract or open ovary) ; ferti- 
lised by the direct application of the pollen to the apex of the nucleus, 
which the pollen-tube penetrates. Flowers unisexual (except in 
Welwitschia.) 
Class II. Monocotyledons. 
Division I. Ovary inferior —Perianth usually distinct; 2-seriate and 
coloured, 
Cohorts.—1, Hydrales ; 2, Amomales; 3, Orchidales ; 4, Taccales ; 5, 
Narcissales ; 6, Dioscorales, 
Division IJ. Ovary superior. 
Subdivision I. Ovary apocarpous. 
Cohorts. —7, Triurales ; 8, Potamales. 
Subdivision II. Ovary syncarpous. 
Cohorts.—9, Palmales ; 10, Arales; 11, Liliales; 12, Pontederales ; 
13, Commelynales ; 14, Restiales ; 15, Glumales. 


Sus-Krinepom II.—Crrrtoaamous, ACOTYLEDONOUS, OR FLOWERLESS 
Puanrs. 


Class III. Acrogens. 
Cohorts.—1, Filicales ; 2, Muscales. 


Class IV. Thallogens, 


In the succeeding pages the natural orders will be grouped under 
the following divisions :— 


A. PHANEROGAMOUS, COTYLEDONOUS, OR FLOWERING PLANTS. 


Class I. Dicotyledones or Exogene. 


(Sub-class 1. Thalamiflore, ...Petals distinct, 
stamens hypogynous............ 
2. Calyciflore ....... Petals distinct Polypetale of Jus- 
or united, stamens perigynous ee and Monopet. 
Dichlamydex, OF CpiZYNOUS ......... seer eeeeee Peri- and Epi-co- 
having calyx , Section 1. ge ere i rolle. 
aud corolla, —— 2. Gamopetale:... 
coherent. 
——. 3. Corolliflore......... Petals united, . 
corolla hypogynous, usually Monee Ea 
L bearing the stamens............. A 
i ——- 4. Monochlamydex...A calyx only, 
Having a sin- OF MONE, ....0eseeeeeeeeeees ee Apetale and partly , 
gle perianth. | a eas seeds in an Fr “Hiclines of Jussieu. 


6. Gymnosperme, seeds naked. 


CHARACTERS OF CLASSES AND ORDERS. 425 


Class II. Monocotyledones or Endogenz. 


Sub-class 1. Petaloidese or Floride, Floral envelopes verticillate. 
a. Hermaphrodite, ovary inferior. 
6, Hermaphrodite, ovary superior. 
¢. Unisexual, often achlamydeous. 

2. Glumifere, Floral envelopes imbricated. 


B. CRYPTOGAMOUS, OR ACOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 
Class III. Acotyledones or Acrogene. 


Sub-class 1. Aitheogamee or Cormogene.............ccceeeeee Having vascular tissue. 
—— 2, Amphigame, Thallogenz, or Cellulares......... Entirely cellular. 


CHAPTER II. 


ARRANGEMENT AND CHARACTERS OF THE CLASSES AND 
NATURAL ORDERS. 


Suge-Kinepom J.—Puanerocamous Prants. 
Plants producing Stamens and Pistils, 
Crass I.—DIcoryLEDONES aND ExocsEna, Juss. and DC.; AcRaMPHIBRYA, Endl. 


This is the largest class in the vegetable kingdom. The plants 
included under it have a cellular and vascular system, the latter con- 
sisting partly of elastic spiral vessels, (Fig..51, p. 17). The stem is 
more or less conical, and exhibits wood and true bark. The wood is 
exogenous, 2.¢, increases by additions at the periphery, the hardest part 
being internal (p. 49, et seg.). It is arranged in concentric circles. 
Pith exists in the centre, and from it diverge medullary rays. The 
bark is separable, and increases by additions on the inside. The epider- 
mis is furnished with stomata (p. 28). The leaves are reticulated 
(p. 84), usually articulated to the stem. The flowers are formed upon 
a quinary or quaternary type, and have stamens and pistils, The 
ovules are either enclosed in a pericarp, and fertilised by the applica- 
tion of the pollen to the stigma, or they are naked and fertilised by 
the direct action of the pollen. The embryo has two or more opposite 
cotyledons, and is exorhizal in germination (p. 41). 


Sub-class 1.—THALAMIFLORA.* 
Calyx and corolla present; petals distinct,t inserted into the 
* Thalamus, receptacle, and flos, flower. 


+ Sometimes the petals are abortive, and it is then difficult to determine whether the 
plant belongs to this sub-class or to Monochlamydez. 


426 RANUNCULACEA, 


thalamus (receptacle) ; stamens hypogynous. This includes the hypo- 
gynous polypetalous orders of Jussieu, and a diclinous order (Meni- 
spermacez.). 
Order 1.—Ranuncunacge&, the Crowfoot Family. (Polypetale 
Hypogyne.) Sepals 3-6, frequently 5, deciduous (fig. 663 c). Petals 
5-15 (fig. 663 pe), rarely abortive, sometimes 
, N anomalous in form (fig, 308, p. 202), occasion- 
ff ally with scales at the base (fig. 662 a). Sta- 
a . mens usually indefinite, hypogynous (fig. 663 e) ; 
es) anthers adnate (figs. 665, 666) ; carpels numerous, 
SSZ l-celled (fig. 663 pi), distinct or united into a 
LA single many-celled pistil; ovary containing one 
: anatropal ovule (figs. 588, p. 332; 667 g), or 
Hig: O6 several united to the inner edge. Fruit various, 
either dry achzenia (figs. 559, p. 309 ; 668), or baccate, or follicular 
(figs. 539, p. 303; 564, p. 312). Seeds albuminous, erect, or pen- 


Fig. 668. Fig. 667. Fig. 666. Fig. 663. Fig. 665, 


dulous ; albumen, horny (fig. 668 p); embryo minute (fig. 668 e).— 
Herbaceous, suffruticose, or rarely shrubby plants, having alternate 
or opposite, simple, much-divided leaves, with dilated sheathing 
petioles (fig. 254, p. 176). Juice watery. Hairs, if present, simple. 

The plants of the order are found in cold damp climates, and in 
the elevated regions of warm countries. Europe contains one-fifth of 
the order, and North America about one-seventh. The order is 
divided into five tribes :—1. Clematidez ; 2, Anemones (fig. 268, p. 


Figs. 663-668 exhibit the organs of fructification of Ranunculus acris, to illustrate the 
natural order Ranunculacee. Fig. 663, Flower cut vertically. c, Calyx. pe, Petals. e¢, 
Stamens. yi, Pistil composed of several carpels on an elongated receptacle or axis. Fig. 
664, Diagram of the flower, showing 5 imbricated sepals, 5 petals alternating with the 
sepals, indefinite stamens in several whorls, multiples of the petals, and numerous carpels 
or achenia in the centre. Fig. 665. Adnate anther seen on the outer side. The anther 
is in this instance extrorse. In Peonia and some other Ranunculacee it is introrse. Fig. 
666. Adnate anther viewed on the inside. Fig. 667. Vertical section of the ovary, 0, 
showing the ovule, g. 8, Stigma. Fig. 668. Fruit, an achenium cut vertically. f, Peri- 
carp. t, Spermoderm or integument of the anatropal seed. p, Perisperm or albumen, 
between fleshy and horny. e, Minute embryo. 


RANUNCULACEA. 427 


181) ; Ranunculez (fig. 254, p. 176); 4. Hellebores (fig. 539, p. 303), 
5. Peonie (fig. 404, p. 234), according to the estivation of the calyx, 
the nature of the fruit, etc. The following is an analysis of these 
sub-orders, with the number of British species in each :—~ 


Spec. Brit. Anther. Carpel, Seed. Aistiv. 
1. Clematidee . . 1 pe ® valvate 
a ana 19 ( extose { sperm, { Eopypmlous imbnate. 
4, Helleboree . . 10 polysperm. * * 
5. Peonie . . . 1 _ introrse * * * 


Authors enumerate 32 known genera, comprising 1290 species, Ez- 
amples of the genera—Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Helleborus, 
Aquilegia (fig. 309, p. 202), Delphinium, Aconitum, Actzea, Pzeonia, 
Podophyllum. 

The order has narcotico-acrid properties, and the plants are usually 
more or less poisonous. The acridity is frequently volatile, and 
disappears when the plants are dried or heated. It varies in 
different parts of the plants, and at different seasons. Ranunculus 
(the genus whence the order is named) contains many acrid species, 
such as R. sceleratus, alpestris, bulbosus (fig. 254, p. 176), gramineus, 
acris, and Flammula ; while others, such as R. repens, aqguatilis, Lingua, 
and Ficaria, are bland. The acridity is entirely lost by drying, and 
it disappears in the pericarps as the seeds (which are themselves 
bland) ripen. The leaves of Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood, Friar’s- 
cap, or Helmet-fiower (fig. 308, p. 202), contain a narcotic alkaloid, 
called aconitine. They are used as an anodyne in neuralgic affections, 
in the form of extract and tincture. The root or rhizome has some- 
times been mistaken for Horse-radish. The root of Aconitum ferox 
furnishes the powerful East Indian poison, called Bikh, Bish, or Nabee. 
The root or rhizome of Aconitum heterophyllum, atis or atees, is used 
as a remedy for intermittent fever in India. The leaves of Clematis 
recta and Flammula have been used as vesicants. The seeds of 
Delphinium Staphysagria, Stavesacre, are irritant and narcotic, and 
are used for destroying vermin. They owe their activity to an 
alkaloid principle, called delphinia. Delphinium glaciale grows at 
the height of 16,000 feet on the Himalayas. The Hellebores have 
been long noted for their irritant qualities. Helleborus officinalis, niger 
(Christmas-rose), fetidus, and viridis, act as drastic purgatives ; hence 
the use of some of them in ancient times in cases of mania. Actwa, 
spicata, baneberry, has a single succulent carpel, containing many 
ovules. The rhizome has some resemblance to that of black Hellebore. 
The fruit is poisonous. The rhizome of Actwa (Cimicifuga) racemosa, 
black ‘snake-root, black 'cohosh or bugbane, is used in rheumatic 
affections. The rhizome of Coptis Teetew is used in India as a bitter 
tonic, Wigella sativa is supposed to be the fitches of Scripture (nyp, 


428 DILLENIACEZ—MAGNOLIACEZ. 


ketzach), called also black cummin and Fennel-flower. The roots of 
Hydrastis canadensis, yellow-root, are used as a tonic. The rhizome 
of Podophyllum peltatum, May-apple, is employed in America as a 
purgative. Some of the Ranunculacee are chiefly marked by bitter 
tonic properties. This order, in the position, number, and structure of 
its parts of fructification generally, presents a resemblance to several 
widely differing families. It differs from Dilleniacee in the want of 
an aril, in its deciduous calyx, and in its whole habit; from Magno- 
liacez, in the want of true stipules; from Papaveracee and 
Nympheacex, in the distinct not united carpels, watery not milky 
juice, and acrid properties. It closely approaches the Berberidacez, 
especially in Podophyllum (which some authors look upon as a Ber- 
berid), but differs in its stamens not bursting by recurved valves. In 
its numerous carpels, floral divisions, and indefinite stamens, it agrees 
with the Rosacez, but differs in its stamens being hypogynous instead 
of perigynous, in the large quantity of albumen surrounding the 
minute embryo, in the want of true stipules, and in its acrid pro- 
perties. Crowfoots and Umbellifers agree in some particulars; the 
latter, however, have their ovary inferior, and their stamens always 
definite. 

Order 2.—DiILLENIAcEa, the Dillenia Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, deciduous, in a single row. Stamens 
indefinite, hypogynous, either distinct or combined into bundles ; fila- 
ments dilated at the base or apex; anthers adnate, introrse, with 
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovaries definite, more or less distinct, with 
a terminal style and simple stigma; ovules anatropous. Fruit of 2-5 
capsular or baccate unilocular carpels, which are either. distinct or 
coherent. Seeds erect or ascending, usually arillate, several in each 
carpel, or only two, or one by abortion ; testa crustaceous ; embryo 
straight, minute, axile, at the base of fleshy albumen—tThe plants 
of the order are trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs, having alternate, 
exstipulate, coriaceous, or rough leaves. They are found chiefly in 
Australia, Asia, and the warm parts of America. The Indian species 
are remarkable for their beauty, the grandeur of their foliage, and the 
magnificence of their flowers. They have astringent properties, and 
some of the species afford excellent timber. Authors enumerate 30 
genera, including 230 species. Hxamples—Dillenia, Delima, Hib- 
bertia, Candollea, Tetracera. 

Order 3. —MAcNotiacea, the Magnolia Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 2-6, usually deciduous. Petals 2-30, hypogynous ; often in 
several rows, Stamens indefinite, distinct, hypogynous; anthers 
adnate, long, dehiscing longitudinally. Carpels numerous, 1-celled, 
arranged upon a more or less elevated receptacle; ovules anatropal, 
suspended or ascending ; styles short. Fruit consisting of numerous 
distinct or partially coherent carpels, which are either dehiscent or 


ANONACEA, 429 


indehiscent, sometimes samaroid. Seeds, when ripe, often hang sus- 
pended from the carpels by a long slender cord; embryo minute, at 
the base of a fleshy, not ruminate, perisperm.—Trees and shrubs, with 
alternate coriaceous leaves, and deciduous convolute stipules. They 
abound in North America, and species occur in India, South America, 
China, Japan, New Holland, and New Zealand. The order has been 
divided into—1. Winterez ; aromatic plants, in which the leaves are 
dotted, the carpels are in a single verticil, and the wood is often marked 
with punctations or dots. 2. Magnolies ; bitter plants with fragrant 
flowers, in which the carpels are arranged in several rows on an ele- 
vated receptacle (fig. 337, p. 213), and the leaves are not dotted. The 
Indian mountains and islands are the great centres of Magnolias. 3. 
Schizandreze ; usually climbing shrubs, with unisexual flowers, numer- 
ous baccate carpels, arranged-in heads or spikes, no stipules. Authors 
mention 10 or 12 known genera, comprising 70 species. Examples— 
Illicium, Drimys, Magnolia, Liriodendron, Schizandra, Trochodendron. 

The properties of the order are bitter, tonic, and often aromatic. 
Illicium anisatum, Star-anise, is so called from its carpels being arranged 
in a star-like manner, and having the taste and odour of anise. It is 
also called Badiane. Its fruit is employed as a carminative. Drymis 
Wintert or aromatica, brought by Captain Winter from the Straits of 
Magellan (Magulhaens) in 1578, yields Winter's bark, which has been 
employed medicinally as an aromatic stimulant. It somewhat re- 
sembles Canella bark. Magnolias are remarkable for their large odori- 
ferous flowers, and their tonic aromatic qualities. The bark of Mag- 
nolia glauca, Swamp Sassafras or Beaver-tree, is used as a substitute 
for Peruvian bark. The seeds of Magnolia Yulan, a species with deciduous 
leaves, are used in China as ajfebrifuge. Liriodendron tulipifera, the 
tulip-tree (fig. 337, p. 213), marked by its truncate leaves, has similar 
properties. Talawma fragrantissima supplies the Organ-nut of Brazil. 

Order 4.—Anonace#, the Custard Apple Family. (Polypet. 
Hypcg.) Sepals 3-4, persistent, often partially cohering. Petals 6, 
hypogynous, in two rows, coriaceous, with a valvate zstivation. Sta- 
mens indefinite (very rarely definite) on a large torus ; anthers 
adnate, extrorse, with a large 4-cornered connective. Carpels usually 
numerous, separate or cohering slightly, rarely definite ; ovules ana- 
tropal, solitary or several, erect or ascending. Fruit succulent or dry, 
very rarely capsular, the carpels being one- or many-seeded, and either 
distinct or united into a fleshy mass; spermoderm brittle; embryo 
minute, at the base of a ruminated or motiled perisperm or albumen, 
which constitutes an important character of the order.—Trees or shrubs, 
with alternate, simple, exstipulate leaves, found usually in tropical 
countries. Authors enumerate 50 genera, including about 300 species. 
Examples—Bocagea, Anona, Uvaria, Guatteria, Xylopia, Duguetia, 
Asimina, 


430 MENISPERMACEAI—BERBERIDACEA. 


Their properties are generally aromatic and fragrant, Some of 
the plants are bitter and tonic, others yield edible fruits. The cus- 
tard-apples, Sweetsops, and Soursops of the East and West Indies, are 
furnished by various species of Anona, such as A. muricata, squamosa, 
and reticulata. Anona Cherimolia furnishes the Cherimoyer, a well- 
known Peruvian fruit. The fruit of Yylopia aromatica is commonly 
called Ethiopian pepper, from being used as pepperin Africa. Xylopia 
glabra is called Bitter-wood in the West Indies. The Lancewood of 
coachmakers appears to be furnished by a plant belonging to this 
order, called by Schomburgk Duguetia quitarensis. 

Order 5.—M=ENIsPERMACEm, the Moon-seed Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Flowers usually unisexual (often dicecious), generally of a 
pale-greenish hue. Sepals and petals similar in appearance, in two 
rows, usually 3 in each row, hypogynous, deciduous, Stamens mona- 
delphous, or occasionally free; anthers adnate, extrorse. Carpels 
solitary or numerous, distinct or partially coherent, unilocular ; ovule 
solitary, curved (fig. 456, p. 255). Fruita succulent 1-seeded oblique 
or lunate drupe. Embryo curved or perpherical; radicle superior ; 
albumen fleshy, sometimes wanting.—The plants of this order are 
sarmentaceous or twining shrubs, with alternate leaves, and very 
small flowers. The wood is frequently arranged in wedges. The 
order is common in the tropical parts of Asia and America. There 
are about 36 known genera, including about 300 species. Zxamples 
—Menispermum, Cissampelos, Cocculus. 

The species are bitter and narcotic. Some are employed as tonics, 
others have poisonous properties. The root of Jateorhiza palmata, a 
plant of east Africa, is known as Calumba-root, and is used as a pure 
bitter tonic in cases of dyspepsia, in the form of infusion or tincture. 
It contains a bitter crystallisable principle called Calumbin. Cocculus 
indicus is the fruit of Anamirta Cocculus, It is extremely bitter. The 
seed contains a crystalline poisonous narcotic principle, Picrotoxin, 
which is its active ingredient; while the pericarp yields a non- 
poisonous substance called Menispermin. The seeds have been used 
externally in some cutaneous affections, At one time they were 
employed, most prejudicially, to give bitterness to porter. Tinospora 
cordifolia, called Gulancha, is used as a tonic. The stem and root of 
Chondodendron tomentosum, found in Peru and Brazil, furnish Pareira- 
brava, which is tonic and diuretic, and is used in chronic inflammation 
of the bladder. Ctssampelos ovalifolia and C. Mauritiana are tonic and 
diuretic.  Cosciniwm (Menispermum) fenestratum supplies a false 
Calumba-root, which contains much Berberine, the same yellow bitter 
crystalline substance which is found in the Barberry. 

Order 6.—BERBERIDACEA, the Barberry Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 3-4-6, deciduous, in a double row. Petals hypogynous, equal 
in number to the sepals, and opposite to them, or twice as many, 


NYMPHAACEA, 431 


often having an appendage at the base on the inside. Stamens equal 
in number to the petals, and opposite to them; anthers adnate, 
bilocular (dithecal), each of the loculi opening by a valve from-the 
bottom to the top. Carpel solitary, unilocular, containing 2-12 ana- 
tropal ovules; style sometimes lateral; stigma orbicular. Fruit 
baccate or capsular, indehiscent. Albumen fleshy or horny; embryo 
straight, sometimes large (figs. 589, 590, p. 332).—Shrubs or her- 
baceous perennial plants, with alternate, compound, exstipulate leaves 
and flowers often in racemes (fig. 252, p. 175). The true leaves are 
often changed into spines, by non-development of parenchyma and 
induration of the veins (fig. 236 f, p. 119). Found chiefly in the 
mountainous parts of the temperate regions of the northern hemi- 
sphere. The plants of the order have bitter and acid properties. The 
bark and stem of Berberts vulgaris, common Barberry, are astringent, 
and yield a yellow dye and a crystalline matter called Berberine ; the 
fruit contains oxalic acid, and is used as a preserve. Berberis Lyciwm 
is used in India for ophthalmia. The genus Podophyllum is placed 
in this order by some botanists (see Ranunculacez). Lindley enume- 
rates 12 genera, including 109 species. Haxamples—Berberis, Mahonia, 
Epimedium, Diphylleia, Leontice, Lardizabala. 

Order 7.—NympH#aces, the Water-lily family (figs. 341, 342, 
p. 214; fig. 669). (Polypet. Hypog.) Sepals 3 to 5, sometimes con- 
founded with the petals. Petals numerous, often passing gradually 
into stamens (fig. 342, 2, p. 214), inserted at different heights in a 
torus. Stamens indefinite, inserted above the petals into the torus (fig. 
669 c); filaments petaloid ; anthers 
adnate, introrse, opening by two 
longitudinal clefts, Torus large, 
fleshy, surrounding the ovary more 
or less (fig. 669 t). Ovary multilo- 
cular, many-seeded, with radiating 
stigmas (fig. 669 s) ; numerous ana- 
tropal ovules. Fruit many-celled, 
indehiscent. Seeds very numerous, 
attached to spongy dissepiments ; 
albumen farinaceous ; embryo small, 
enclosed in a fleshy vitellus, and 
situated at the base of the peri- 
sperm (fig. 576, p. 327).—Aquatic Fig. 669. 
plants, with peltate or cordate fleshy leaves, and a rootstock or stem ° 
which extends itself into the mud at the bottom of the water. There 
are 3 sub-orders :—1. Nymphez, water-lilies ; sepals 4-6, petals and 


Fig. 669.—Section of a flower of Nymphea alba, white Water-lily, showing the pistils, 
and the receptacle or torus bearing the stamens and petals. p, Peduncle or flower-stalk, 
t, Elevated torus or receptacle. s, Radiating stigmas, u, Sepal. 0. Petal. c, Stamens, 


432 ‘ SARRACENIACEA, 


stamens oo, carpels united, ovules ©, flowers large and showy. 2. 
Cabombex, water-shields ; sepals and petals 3, carpels few, placed in 
the torus, ovules three, flowers small. 3. Nelumbonez, water beans ; 
sepals 4-5, petals and stamens oo, carpels inserted in the top of a 
large flattened torus, ovules 1-2, seeds exalbuminous, flowers showy, 
and leaves rising above the water. Authors enumerate 8 genera, 
comprehending about 30 species. Zxamples—Nymphea, Nuphar, 
Victoria, Euryale, Cabomba, Hydropeltis, Nelumbium. 

Little is known in regard to the properties of the plants of this 
order. Some of them are astringent and bitter, while others are said 
to be sedative. They have usually showy flowers, and their petioles 
and peduncles contain numerous air-tubes. Victoria regia is one of the 
largest known aquatics. It-is found in the waters of South America, 
and is said to range over 35 degrees of longitude. The flowers have 
a fine odour. When expanded they are a foot in diameter. The 
leaves are from four to six and a half feet in diameter. The seeds 
and rootstocks of many plants of this order contain much starch, and 
are used for food. It has been said that the rhizomes of Nymphea 
alba are better than Oak-galls for dyeing grey ; they have been long 
employed advantageously for tanning leather. Nymphaea Lotus, 
Lotus Water Lily, is supposed by some to be thé lily (UW, sheshan or 
shushan) of the Old Testament. The stems of Nuphar lutewm, yellow 
pond lily, are reported to be astringent. Cabombez have peltate 
floating leaves ; some of them have astringent properties. The flower 
of Nelumbiwm speciosum is supposed to be the Lotus figured on 
Egyptian and Indian monuments, and the fruit is said to be the 
Pythagorean Bean (xicos). It ig the sacred bean of India. The 
plant is said to have disappeared from the Nile, where it used to 
abound. The petioles and peduncles contain numerous spiral vessels, 
which have been used for wicks of candles. Dr. Wight states that 
those wicks on great and solemn occasions are burnt in the lamps of 
the Hindoos, placed before the ‘shrines of their gods. Nelumbium 
Leichardtt is the sacred bean of N.E. Australia. 

Order 8.—SarRAcENIACEA, the Sidesaddle-flower, Water-pitcher, 
or Trumpet-leaf Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) Sepals 5, persistent, im- 
bricated in estivation, often with coherent bracts outside. Petals 5, 
hypogynous, concave ; occasionally the corolla is absent (Heliamphora), 
and the calyx consists of 4-6 segments. Stamens 00 ; anthers adnate, 
dithecal, introrse, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, tri- 
quinquelocular ; style single, sometimes dilated at the top into a 5- 
angled or 5-lobed parasol-like expansion, the deflexed points of which 
are stigmatiferous ; stigma persistent, sometimes truncated, at other 
times divided ; ovules anatropal. Capsule 3-5 celled, with loculicidal 
dehiscence. Seeds very numerous, small, attached to large placentas, 
which project from the axis into the cavity of the cells; albumen 


PAPAVERACEA. . 433 


copious ; embryo cylindrical, lying at the base of the seed; radicle 
pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, found in boggy places, 
having radical leaves, the petioles of which are folded, and cohere at 
the edges, so as to form ascidia or hollow tubes, which are lined with 
hairs, and act as secreting organs (fig. 203, p. 96). Scapes one or 
more flowered. (See remarks on the physiology of these ascidia at 
p. 383.) The plants are found chiefly in North America. Darlingtonia 
grows on the Rocky Mountains, Heliamphora on Roraima Mountain in 
Venezuela, Their properties are not known. There are 3 genera, 
including 8 species. Examples—Sarracenia, Heliamphora, Darlingtonia. 

Order 9.—PapavERACEs, the Poppy Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 2, rarely 3, caducous. Petals hypogynous, usually 4, cruciate, 
sometimes a multiple of 4, regular, rarely wanting. Stamens hypo- 
gynous, usually 00, sometimes a multiple of 4; anthers dithecal, in- 
nate. Ovary solitary ; style short or none; stigmas 2, or many and 
radiating (fig. 444, p. 249); ovules 00, anatropal (fig. 457, p. 256). 
Fruit unilocular, either siliqueeform with two, or capsular with seve- 
ral parietal placentas. Seeds numerous ; albumen between fleshy and 
oily ; embryo minute, at the base of the albumen, with plano-convex 
cotyledons.—Herbs or shrubs, usually with milky or coloured juice, 
having alternate exstipulate leaves, and long one-flowered peduncles. 
The plants belonging to this order are chiefly European. The species, 
however, are found scattered over tropical America, Asia, China, Aus- 
tralia, Cape of Good Hope, etc. Lindley mentions 20 known 
genera, and 140 species. Examples—Papaver, Meconopsis, Esch- 
scholtzia, Sanguinaria, Glaucium, Chelidonium, Platystemon. 

The order possesses well-marked narcotic properties. Opium is the 
concrete milky juice procured from the nearly ripe capsules of Papaver 
somniferum, and its varieties. The plant is a native of Western Asia, 
and probably also of the south of Europe ; but it has been distributed 
over various countries. There are four kinds of opium known in 
commerce, viz. Turkey, Egyptian, East Indian, and Persian; of 
which the first is the kind chiefly used in Britain, The most im- 
portant active principle in opium is the alkaloid called morphia, 
There are other crystalline principles found in it, such as codeia, 
narcotine, thebaia, meconine, and an acid called meconic acid, which 
constitutes with sulphuric acid the solvent of the active principles. 
Opium is administered so as to act as a stimulant, a narcotic, ano- 
dyne, or diaphoretic. The seeds of the Opium Poppy yield a 
bland, wholesome oil. The petals of Papaver Rheas, red corn 
poppy, or corn-rose, are used in pharmacy chiefly for their colouring - 
matter. Chelidonium majus, Celandine, yields an orange-coloured juice, 
which is said to have acrid properties. In this plant, observations 
were made by Schultz on Cyclosis (fig. 241, p..146). Zschscholtzia 
is remarkable for the dilated apex of the peduncle, from which the 

2F 


434 . FUMARIACEAI—CRUCIFER, 


calyx separates in the form of a calyptra, resembling an extinguisher 
of a candle. Sangwinaria canadensis, Blood-root, or Puccoon, has 
emetic and purgative properties. 

Order 10.—Fumart1acea, the Fumitory Family., (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 2, caducous. Petals 4, cruciate; one or both of the two outer 
gibbous at the base, the two inner cohering at the apex. Stamens hypogy- 
nous, usually 6, diadelphous ; anther of middle stamen of each parcel 
bilocular, outer ones unilocular. Ovary free, 1-celled ; style filiform ; 
stigma with 2 or more points ; ovules amphitropal. Fruit either an 
achzenium, or a 1-celled 2-seeded, or 2-valved many-seeded pod. Seeds 
crested; albumen fleshy; embryo minute, eccentric.— Herbaceous 
plants, with a watery juice, and alternate multifid leaves, Although 
at first sight very unlike the Poppy family, the Fumitories resemble 
this order in their deciduous sepals, in their seeds, and, in many 
cases, in their fruit. The two outer unilocular stamens of each parcel 
may be considered as forming one perfect stamen, thus making the 
whole number four. They are found chiefly in northern temperate 
latitudes. Two are found at the Cape of Good Hope. They are 
usually scentless, and are said to be bitter and diaphoretic in their 
properties. The tuber of Corydalis bulbosa has been used as a substi- 
tute for Birthworts in expelling intestinal worms, and as an emmena- 
gogue. Authors notice 18 genera, including 134 species. Examples— 
Fumaria, Corydalis, Dicentra (Dielytra), Hypecoum. 

Order 11.— Crucirera, the Cruciferous or Cresswort Family, 


Fig, 670. Fig. 673. Fig. 671. 
two lateral ones gibbous at the base. Petals 4 rarely wanting (as in 
Pringlea), hypogynous, alternating with the sepals, deciduous, cruciate 


Figs. 670-677. Organs of fructification of Erysimum lanceolatum, one of the Crucifere. 
Fig. 670. Diagram of the flower, showing the arrangement of four sepals, four petals 
alternating with them, six tetradynamous stamens, and a siliqua with replum. Fig. 671. 
Vertical section of the flower. c, Calyx. , Petals. e, Stamens. o, Ovary laid open. s, 
Stigma. Fig. 672. Flower deprived of its envelopes. , ¢, Cicatrices left by the fall of 
the sepals, g, Glands which are situated at the base of the stamens, e’, Two short stamens 
opposite lateral sepals. e”, Four long stamens opposite anterior and posterior sepals. 7, 
Pistil Fig. 673. Horizontal section of the ovary. g, Ovules. c, Spurious dissepiment or 
replum, which divides the ovary into two cavities. This replum is formed by the placentas. 


CRUCIFERA. 435 


(fig. 315, p. 204). Stamens 6, tetradynamous (figs. 372, p. 226; 672) ; 
two shorter solitary (fig. 672 ¢’) opposite the lateral sepals, occasion- 
ally toothed ; four longer (fig. 672 ¢’), opposite the anterior and pos- 
terior sepals, generally free, sometimes partially united and furnished 
with a tooth on the inside ; anthers bilocular, introrse (fig. 671); (in 
Megacarpea polyandra the stamens are numerous). Torus with green 
glands between the petals and stamens and ovary (fig. 672.9). Ovary 
superior, with parietal placentas, which meet in the middle, forming a 
spurious dissepiment or replum (fig. 673 c); stigmas 2, opposite the 
placentas, or anterior and posterior (fig. 552 s, p. 306). Fruit a 
siliqua (figs. 674, 675), or a silicula, rarely 1-celled and indehiscent, 
usually spuriously 2-celled and dehiscing by two valves, which sepa- 
rate from the replum (figs. 5527, p. 306; 675), one- or many-seeded. 
Seeds campylotropous (figs. 455, p. 255; Fig. 676. 
620, p. 342), pendulous, attached in a single 
row by a funiculus to each side of the pla- 
centas (fig. 676) ; perisperm none; embryo 
with the radicle folded upon the cotyledons 
which are next the placenta (figs. 620, p. 342 ; 
677 r).—Herbaceous plants seldom under- 
shrubs, with alternate leaves, and yellow or 
white, rarely purple, flowers, without bracts. 
This order is well distinguished by having 
tetradynamous stamens. Most of the plants 
belonging to the order are European. The 
species, however, are found scattered all over 
the world. Authors enumerate 172 genera, Fig. 677. Fig. 675. Fig. 674. 
including 1700 species. Examples—Draba, Lepidium, Isatis, Brassica, 
Sinapis, Bunias, Senebiera, Schizopetalon, Pringlea, Megacarpza. 
The order has been subdivided into sections, according to the mode 
in which the radicle of the embryo is folded on the cotyledons, as well 
as according to the nature of the fruit. The sub-orders founded on the 
embryo are—1, Pleurorhizez (rAeved, side, and é/Za, root), 0 = cotyle- 
dons accumbent, radicle lateral, z.c. applied to their edge, as in Stock, 
(fig. 613, p. 340). 2. Notorhizeze (véros, back), 0 || cotyledons incum- 
bent, radicle dorsal, .¢. applied to their back, as in Shepherd’s purse, 
(fig. 614, p. 340). 3. Orthoplocese 20é¢, straight, and rAéxos, a plait 
or fold, 077 cotyledons conduplicate (folded), radicle dorsal, as in 
Mustard (figs. 609, p. 339; 677). 4. Spirolobez (o7e7gu, a coil, and 
robs, a ioe 0 || || cotyledons folded spirally, radicle dorsal as in 
Bunias (fig. 611, p. 339).. 5. Diplecolobese (dis, twice, rAexw, I fold 
: Fig. 674. Siliqua or long pod. Fig. 675, Siliqua with one of its valves removed, in 
order to show the seeds attached to the replum, - Fig. 676. Vertical section of the seed. 
Jf, Funiculus or umbilical cord. ¢, Spermoderm or testa swollen at the chalaza,c. r, Radicle. 


c, Cotyledons, Fig. 677. Horizontal section of the seed. ¢, Spermoderm or testa. 
r, Radicle, c, Incumbent cotyledons, 


436 CRUCIFERA. 


or plait, and AoBEs, a lobe), 0 |||| || cotyledons twice folded, in a spiral, 
radicle dorsal, as in Subularia. The tribes Pleurorhizex and Noto- 
rhizez are sometimes included under the name Platylobexw, meaning 
that the cotyledons are plane or flat (wAards, broad). 

The divisions founded on the seed-vessel are—1. Siliquose, a 
siliqua, linear or linear-lanceolate, valves opening longitudinally, as in 
Wallflower. 2. Siliculosze Latiseptee (latus, broad, and septwm, par- 
tition), a silicula, partition in its broadest diameter, oval or oblong, 
valves flat or convex, opening longitudinally, as in Thlaspi. 3. Sili- 
culos angustiseptze (angustus, narrow), a silicula, partition in its nar- 
row diameter, linear or lanceolate, valves opening longitudinally, folded 
and keeled as in Capsella. 4. Nucumentaceze (nucumentum, a nut), 
silicula, valves indistinct or indehiscent, often 1-celled, from the absence 
of the replum or partition, as in Isatis. 5. Septulatz: (septa, parti- 
tions), valves opening longitudinally, furnished with transverse parti- 
tions in.their interior, as in Anastatica. 6. Lomentaceze (omentum, 
an articulate legume), siliqua or silicula, dividing transversely into 
single-seeded cells, the true siliqua being often barren, and all the seeds 
placed in the beak, as in Sea-kale. 

In this order there is a want of symmetry as regards the number 
of stamens, compared with the floral envelopes. The two long 
stamens placed close together may, however, be looked upon as one 
divided by a process of deduplication, so that the actual number will 
thus be reduced to four. This view is confirmed by the shorter stamens 
having teeth on each side, while the longer ones are toothed on one 
side only. By pelorization, too, some Cruciferee become tetrandrous. 
While there is a splitting of the filaments, there is also the production 
of two additional anther-lobes. Others think that the androecium of 
Cruciferze is composed of two quaternary whorls, the lower one being 
composed of the two lateral short stamens only, the other two, which 
should be developed in front of the antero-posterior sepals, being 
abortive ; while the upper whorl is composed of the four long stamens 
which approach each other and form two pairs, In regard to the fruit, 
it has been stated that normally there are four carpidia or carpels, 
two of which are constantly abortive. In some species of Iberis there 
have been seen four sepals, four petals, four stamens, and four carpels. 
Thus the floral type of Cruciferee is quaternary: calyx having four 
sepals, corolla four petals, receptacle four staminiferous glands, androe- 
cium four stamens, gyncecium four phyllidia, fruit four carpidia. 

There are no truly poisonous plants in the ‘order. In general, 
it possesses antiscorbutic and stimulant qualities, with a certain degree 
of acridity. Many of the most common culinary vegetables belong to 
the order, such as Cabbages, Cauliflower, Turnip, Radish, Cress, Horse- 
radish, etc. They contain much sulphur and nitrogen, and on this 
account, when decaying, give off a disagreeable odour. Many garden 


CAPPARIDACES, 437 


flowers, such as Wallflower, Stock, Rocket, and Honesty, are found 

in this order. Brassica oleracea is the original species whence all the 

varieties of Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brocoli, and Savoys, have been 

obtained by the art of the gardener. The part of the Cauliflower used 

as food is the deformed flower-stalks. Brassica Rapa is the common 

Turnip, while Brassica campestris is the source of the Swedish turnip. 

Brassica Napus, Rape or Coleseed, yields Colza and Carcel oils. Some 

consider Brassica campestris, Rapa, and Napus, as sub-species. Bras- 

sica chinensis yields Shanghae oil. Lepidiwm sativum is the common 

Cress, and Raphanus sativus the Radish. Crambe maritima is the Sea- 
kale. The seeds of Sinapis nigra (Brassica nigra of some) furnish table 
mustard. These contain a bland fixed oil, a peculiar bitter principle, 

myronic acid, and another principle analogous to albumen or emulsin, 

called myrosine. When water is added, the myronic acid and myro- 
sine, by their combination, form a pungent volatile oil, containing 
sulphur and nitrogen, which gives to mustard its peculiar properties ; 
a crystallisable substance called myronate of potassium, now called 
sinigrin, is found in Mustard. Sinapis alba furnishes white Mustard, 

which contains more fixed oil than black mustard. It does not, however, 

contain myronic acid, but an analogous principle called sinapin, or 
sinapisin, which, by combination with another principle, forms an 
acrid compound, but not a volatile oil. The mustard of Scripture, 

according to Royle, is not a species of Sinapis, but Salvadora persica, 
belonging to the natural order Chenopodiacew, This view is not con- 
firmed by Dr. Tristram, who says that the mustard plant of Scripture 
(sivaim) is Sinapis nigra, Black Mustard, while Salvadora is a tropical 
plant, growing on the north of the Dead Sea, and not found generally 
in Palestine. Many other Cruciferous plants yield volatile oils con- 
taining sulphur, and the seeds of many yield by expression a bland 

fixed oil, such as Rape-seed oil. Cochlearta officinalis, common Scurvy- 
grass, is used asa stimulant. Cochlearia Armoracia, or Armoracia rusti- 
cana, the Horse-Radish, has irritant and even vesicant qualities, Ana- 

statica hierochuntina, Rose of Jericho, is remarkable for the hygrometric 
property of the old withered annual stems, which are rolled up like a 
ball in dry weather, and drifted about by the winds in the deserts of 
Syria and Egypt. If rain falls, they resume their original position. 

They thus continue for many years to curl up and expand, according 
to the state of the atmosphere. The genus Schizopetalon is remark- 
able on account of its tetracotyledonous (having four cotyledons) 

embryo. satis tinctoria, Woad, when treated like Indigo, yields a 
blue dye. satis indigotica is the Tein-Ching, or Chinese Indigo. . 
Pringlea antiscorbutica, Kerguelen Island Cabbage, is found in that 

island, as well as in Tristan d’Acunha, Marion Island, and Heard 

Island. It has no petals, no glands, and the stigma is hairy. 

Order 12.—CappartDaces, the Caper Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 


438 RESEDACEA, 


Sepals 4-12, often more or less cohering (fig. 654, p. 371). Petals 
4-8, sometimes 0, cruciate (fig. 654, p), usually unguiculate and un- 
equal, Stamens hypogynous, 4-6 (fig. 654 ¢), or 00, but in general 
some high multiple of four, placed on an elongated hemispherical and 
often glandular torus (fig. 654 ag’). Ovary usually stalked (fig. 
654 0); styles filiform, sometimes 0; ovules curved. Fruit unilo- 
cular, siliqueeform and ‘dehiscent, or fleshy and indehiscent, rarely 
monospermous, usually with two polyspermous parietal placentas. 
Seeds generally reniform and exalbuminous ; embryo curved ; cotyle- 
dons foliaceous, flattish——Herbs, shrubs, sometimes trees, with alter- 
nate, stalked, undivided, or palmate leaves, which are either exstipu- 
late or have spines at their base. Capparids may be distinguished 
from Crucifers by their stamens being often indefinite, or, if definite, 
scarcely ever tetradynamous, while their ovary is usually stipitate, 
their fruit often succulent, and their seeds generally reniform. They 
are found chiefly in warm countries, and are abundant in Africa. There 
are 23 genera, and 300 species. The order is divided into two sub- 
orders :—1, Cleomez, with capsular fruit. 2. Cappareze, with baccate 
fruit. Lxamples—Cleome, Capparis. 5 

The plants of this order have stimulant qualities. The flower- 
buds of Capparis spinosa furnish capers. The plant is a native of the 
south of Europe. It, or C. egyptiaca, is supposed to be the Hyssop 
(28) of Scripture ; but there is a difficulty in deciding the point. 
Some species of Cleome and Polanisia are very pungent, and are used as 
substitutes for mustard. The pungency of some is so great that they act 
as blisters. The root of Cleome dodecandra is used as an anthelmintic. 

Order 13.— Resepaces, the Mignonette Family.  (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Calyx many-parted. Petals 4-6, unequal, entire, or lacer- 
ated, in the latter case consisting of a broad scale-like claw with a 
much-divided limb. Stamens 3-40, hypogynous, attached to a gland- 
ular torus ; filaments variously united ; anthers bilocular, innate, with 
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary sessile, 3-lobed, 1-celled, multiovular, 
with 3-6 parietal placentas; stigmas 3. Fruit either a unilocular 
many-seeded capsule, opening at the apex so as to render the seeds 
seminude (fig. 575, p. 326), or 3-6 few-seeded follicles. Seeds reni- 
form, usually exalbuminous ; embryo curved ; radicle superior ; coty- 
ledons fleshy.—Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, with alternate, entire, 
or divided leaves, having gland-like stipules. They inhabit chiefly 
Europe and the adjoining parts of Asia. A few are found in the north 
of India and south of Africa. The uses of the order are unimportant. 
Reseda Luteola, Weld, yields a yellow dye. Reseda odorata is the 
fragrant Mignonette. The Mignonette is rendered suffruticose by 
preventing the development of its blossoms. This is the origin of the 
tree Mignonette, which is much cultivated in France. There are 
6 known genera, and 30 species. Hxample—Reseda. 


CISTACEH—CANELLACEA, 439 


Order 14.—Cistacrs, the Rock-Rose Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals usually 5, persistent, unequal, the three inner with contorted 
estivation. Petals 5, caducous, hypogynous, estivation corrugated, 
and twisted in an opposite direction to that of the sepals. Stamens 
usually 00, free, hypogynous ; anthers 2-celled, adnate. Ovary syn- 
carpous, l- or many-celled ; style single; stigma simple. Fruit cap- 
sular, 3-5-10-valved, either 1-celled or imperfectly 5-10-celled, with 
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds usually indefinite; embryo inverted, 
either spiral or curved, in the midst of mealy albumen ; radicle remote 
from the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants with entire, opposite, 
or alternate, stipulate or. exstipulate leaves. They inhabit chiefly the 
southern regions of Europe, and the north of Africa. Some of the 
species are remarkable for the irritability of their stamens (p. 386). 
Many of them yield a resinous balsamic juice, which imparts viscidity 
to the branches. The resinous matter called ladanum or labdanum 
is yielded by Cistus creticus and other species. There are 4 known 
genera, and 100 species, according to authors. Examples—Cistus, 
Helianthemum, Hudsonia, Lechea. 

Order 15.—CANELLACEa, the Canella Family. Flowers herma- 
phrodite, with imbricated bracteoles (sepals of some authors). Sepals 
(petals of some) 4-5. Petals (petaloid scales of some) 4-5, sometimes 0. 
Stamens 20, hypogynous, with connate filaments. Disk 0. Ovary free, 
unilocular ; placentas 2-5 parietal ; style short; stigmas 2-5; ovules 
ascending or horizontal. Fruit baccate, 2- or many-seeded. Seeds with 
a shining testa ; albumen fleshy and oily ; embryo straight or curved.— 
Glabrous aromatic trees, with alternate exstipulate leaves and cymose 
flowers. Natives of tropical America. There are 3 known genera and 
5 species. Hxamples—Canella, Cinnamodendron. 

Canelle alba, a tree 30-50 feet in height, a native of the West 
Indies, yields the canella bark, called also White Cinnamon, which 
is imported from the Bahamas. It yields several kinds of oils, and is 
an aromatic stimulant. Cinnamodendron corticosum yields an aromatic 
bark in the West Indies. 

Order 16.—Brxacra, the Arnatto or Annatto Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 4-7, slightly cohering. Petals equal to and alternat- 
ing with the sepals, or wanting. Stamens hypogynous, equal in 
number to the petals, or some multiple of them. Ovary roundish, 
sessile or slightly stalked; style either none or filiform; stigmas 
several, more or less distinct ; ovules attached to parietal placentas, 
which sometimes branch all over the inner surface of the valves. 
Fruit 1-celled, containing a thin pulp, either fleshy and indehiscent, 
or capsular, with 4 or 5 valves. Seeds numerous, enveloped in a 
covering formed by the withered pulp; albumen fleshy, somewhat 
oily; embryo axile, straight; radicle turned towards the hilum ; 
cotyledons flat, foliaceous.—Shrubs or small trees, with alternate, 


440 BIXACEAI—VIOLACE:. 


simple, usually exstipulate leaves, which are ofted dotted. The plants 
are chiefly natives of the warmest parts of the East and West Indies, 
and of Africa, The order is divided into 4 tribes:—1. Bixee. 
2. Oncobes. 3. Flacourtier. 4. Pangiez. 

Many of the plants yield edible fruits. The pulp is often sweet 
and wholesome. Some are astringent, others purgative. The red- 
dish pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa orellana supplies the sub- 
stance called arnatto, which is used for yielding a red colour, and for 
staining cheese. The seeds are cordial, astringent and febrifugal. The 
seeds of Trichadenia zeylanica, a large tree of Ceylon, called Tettigaha 
or Tettigass, yield an oil used for burning. The oil expressed from 
the seeds of Gynocardia odorata (called chalmugra seeds) is used in 
India for the cure of leprosy, and for various cutaneous diseases. 
The tree is poisonous, but the seeds yield by expression a bland 
fixed oil having a peculiar smell and taste. The surface of the 
leprous ulcers is dressed with the oil, while a six-grain pill of the 
seed is given three times a day. The seeds are prescribed in cases of 
scrofula, skin diseases, and rheumatism. The fruit of Hydnocarpus 
venenatus and H. Toon is used to poison fish. There are 30 genera, 
and 160 species, according to authors, Hxamples—Bixa, Oncoba, 
Flacourtia, Aberia, Gynocardia, Pangium. 

Order 17.—VioLacz#, the Violet Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, persistent usually elongated at the base, estivation imbri- 
cated. Petals 5, hypogynous, equal or unequal, generally withering, 
estivation obliquely convolute. Stamens 5, alternate with the petals, 
sometimes opposite to them, inserted on a hypogynous torus ; anthers 
dithecal, introrse, often cohering, with a prolonged connective some- 
times spurred (fig. 375, p. 225); filaments dilated, two of them in 
the irregular flowers having an appendage at their base. Ovary uni- 
locular, with many anatropal ovules, rarely one; style single, usually 
declinate, with an oblique hooded stigma (fig. 424, 1. s, p. 242). 
Fruit a 3-valved capsule, dehiscence loculicidal, placentas on the 
middle of the valves (fig. 424, p. 242). Seeds 00 or definite ; em- 
bryo straight, erect, in the axis of a fleshy perisperm.—Herbs or 
shrubs, with alternate, rarely opposite, leaves, having persistent 
stipules, and an involute vernation. They are natives of Europe, 
Asia, and America. The herbaceous species inhabit chiefly the tem- 
perate parts of the northern hemisphere, while the shrubby species 
are found in South America and India. They have been divided into 
three tribes :—1. Violece, with irregular flowers. 2. Papayrolez, with 
irregular corolla, and slightly coherent claws. 3. Alsodex, with regular 
flowers. To these some authors add a fourth tribe, Sauvagesiez, 
having anthers without appendages, and septicidal dehiscence. Their 
distinctive peculiarity may be regarded as resting in their definite 
stamens, whose anthers turn inwards, and extend their connective into 


DROSERACEAi—POLYGALACEA, 441 


a crest. There are 21 known genera, and about 300 species. 
Examples—Viola, Ionidium, Papayrola, Alsodeia. 

They are distinguished by the emetic properties of their roots, 
which contain an active principle called violin, similar in its qualities 
to emetin. Some species of lonidium are used in South America as 
substitutes for Ipecacuan. The roots of Viola odorata, the Sweet or 
March Violet, the ‘ov of the Greeks, have been used medicinally as an 
emetic ; the petals are laxative, and are used in the form of infu- 
sion mixed with sugar; and a violet or purple colouring matter is 
procured from them, which is employed as a test for acids and 
alkalies, being changed into red by the former, and into green by the 
latter. Viola tricolor, Heart’s ease, and other species, have been used 
as demulcent expectorants. V. tricolor is the origin of all the culti- 
vated varieties of pansy. 

Order 18.—Droseracrs, the Sundew Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, persistent, equal; estivation imbricated. Petals 5, hypo- 
gynous. Stamens free, withering, alternate with the petals, or 10 or 
more ; anthers bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary single ; 
styles usually 3-5 ; sometimes 1 or wanting. Fruit, a unilocular or 
spuriously trilocular capsule, 3-5-valved, with loculicidal dehiscence, 
occasionally indehiscent. Seeds numerous, either albuminous or ex- 
albuminous; embryo minute and erect. — Herbaceous: plants with 
alternate leaves, usually inhabiting marshy places. They are found 
in various parts of the world, in Europe, Australia, North and South 
America, South Africa, China, East Indies, etc. The order is con- 
sidered by some as allied to Saxifragaceze. There are 6 known genera, 
and about 110 species. Examples — Drosera, Drosophyllum, Aldro- 
vanda, Dionzea, 

The Droseras have a more or less acid taste, combined with slight 
acridity. Some of them are said to be poisonous to cattle. Their 
leaves are furnished with glandular capitate hairs (fig. 88, p. 32; fig. 
661, p. 383), which are covered with drops of fluid in sunshine ; hence 
the name Sundew or fos solis. An Italian liqueur, called Rossoli, 
derives its name from a Drosera used in its manufacture. Some of 
the Droseras have dyeing properties. The hairs of Drosera have a 
spiral coil in their interior. They fold upon insects. (For a full 
account of the phenomena connected with the irritability of these 
plants, see pages 380-383). Dionea muscipula, Venus’s fly-trap, is a 
North American plant, having the lamin of the leaves in two halves, 
each furnished with three irritable hairs, which, on being touched, 
cause the folding of the divisions in an upward direction (fig. 660, 
p. 380). It is insectivorous. Aldrovandra vesiculosa, an aquatic found 
in the south of Europe, is distinguished by its whorled cellular leaves, 
or floating bladders. 

Order 19.— Potyeataces, the Milkwort Family. (Polyper. 


442 TREMANDRACEA—TAMARICACE, 


Hypog.) Sepals 5, very irregular, distinct ; 3 exterior, of which 1 is 
superior, and 2 inferior; 2 interior, usually petaloid, lateral ; sstiva- 
tion imbricated. Petals hypogynous, unequal, usually 3, of which 
1 is anterior, and larger than the rest, and 2 are alternate with the 
upper and lateral sepals; sometimes there are 5 petals, 2 of them very 
minute ; the anterior petal, called the keel, is often crested. Stamens 
hypogynous, 8, monadelphous or diadelphous ; anthers clavate, usually 
l-celled, and having porous dehiscence. Ovary mostly bilocular ; 
ovules solitary, rarely 2; style simple, curved ; stigma simple. Fruit 
dehiscing in a loculicidal manner, or indehiscent. Seeds pendulous, 
anatropal, strophiolate at the hilum ; albumen fleshy, embryo straight. 
—Shrubs or herbs with alternate or opposite exstipulate leaves. 
They are found in all quarters of the globe. Authors mention 15 
genera, including 400 species. Hzxamples— Polygala, Securidaca, 
Krameria. 

In the appearance of their flowers the plants of this order have a 
resemblance to Papilionaces. They are distinguished, however, by 
the odd petal being inferior, and the sepal superior. They are gene- 
rally bitter, and their roots yield a milky juice. Polygala Senega, 
Senega or Seneka root, called also Snake-root, is a North American 
species, the root of which is used medicinally, in large doses, as emetic 
and cathartic; and in small doses as a stimulant, sudorific, expec- 
torant, and sialagogue. It contains an acrid principle called senegin, 
and polygalic acid. The name of Snake-root was given from its sup- 
posed use as an antidote to the bite of the rattlesnake, Krameria 
triandra, a Peruvian plant, furnishes Rhatany-root, which is employed 
as a powerful and pure astringent in cases of hemorrhage and chropic 
mucous discharges. Its infusion is of a blood-red colour, and has been 
employed to adulterate port wine. A Chilian plant, Krameria cistoidea, 

also yields a kind of rhatany. 

' Order 20.— TREMANDRACES, the Porewort Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 4-5, slightly coherent, deciduous, with a valvate 
estivation. Petals 4-5, deciduous, with an involute estivation. 
Stamens hypogynous, distinct, 8-10, 2 before each petal; anther di- 
or tetra-thecal, with porous dehiscence (fig. 356, p. 222). Ovary bilocu- 
lar, with 1-3 pendulous ovules in each cell ; style, 1; stigmas, 1-2. Fruit 
a 2-celled, 2-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds ana- 
tropal, pendulous, with a caruncula at the apex ; embryo cylindrical, 
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen. — Heath-like shrubs, with 
hairs usually glandular, alternate or verticillate exstipulate leaves, 
and solitary axillary 1-flowered pedicels. They are natives of extra- 
tropical Australia. Nothing is known regarding their properties. 
Authors mention 3 genera, including 24 species. Examples—Tetra- 
theca, Tremandra, ; 

Order 21.—Tamaricacea, the Tamarisk Family. (Polypet. 


FRANKENIACEE—ELATINACEA, 443 


Hypog.). Calyx 4-5 partite, persistent, with imbricated zstivation. 
Petals 4-5, hypogynous, or perhaps inserted at the base of the calyx, 
marcescent, with imbricated estivation. Stamens hypogynous, free 
or monadelphous (fig. 343, p. 217), equal to the petals in number, or 
twice as many; anthers dithecal, introrse, with longitudinal dehis- 
cence. Ovary unilocular; styles, 3. Fruit a 3-valved, 1-celled cap- 
sule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, anatropal, erect or 
ascending, comose; albumen 0; embryo straight, with the radicle 
next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbs, with alternate scale-like leaves, and 
racemose or spiked flowers. They abound in the Mediterranean region, 
and are confined chiefly to the eastern half of the northern hemisphere. 
Many are found in the vicinity of the sea, They have a bitter astrin- 
gent bark, and some of them yield a quantity of sulphate of soda when 
burned. The saccharine substance called Tamarisk or Mount Sinai 
Manna, is yielded by Tamarix gallica, var, mannifera, as the result of 
puncture by an insect called Coccus manniparus, The plant grows in 
the valleys of the peninsula of Sinai. Tamarix orientalis of North 
Western India furnishes galls, which are used in place of oak-galls. 
Authors mention 5 genera, comprising 40 species. Ezamples—Tamarix, 
Myricaria, Reaumuria. 

Order 22.—FRANKENIACES, the Frankenia Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 4-5, cohering into a tube, persistent. Petals 4-5, 
alternate with the sepals, hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous, equal 
in number to the petals, and alternate with them, sometimes more 
numerous ; anthers bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 
unilocular, with parietal placentas ; style filiform, often trifid. Fruit 
a 1-celled, usually 3-valved capsule, with septicidal dehiscence. This 
latter distinguishes them from the Violet-worts to which they are 
allied. Seeds very minute, numerous, anatropal ; embryo straight, in 
the axis of fleshy albumen.—Herbs or undershrubs, with opposite 
exstipulate leaves. They are found chiefly on extratropical maritime 
shores. They are said to have mucilaginous and slightly aromatic 
properties. Genera, 3; species, 30. Zxample—Frankenia. 

Order 23.—ExatTinace#, the Water-pepper Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 3-5, free, or slightly coherent at the base. Petals 
alternate with the sepals, hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous, equal 
to, or twice as many as, the petals. Ovary tri-quinquelocular ; styles 
3-5 ; stigmas, capitate. Fruit capsular, 3-5 celled, 3-5 valved, locu- 
licidal ; placenta central. Seeds 00, exalbuminous, anatropal ; 
embryo cylindrical and slightly curved.—Annual marsh plants, with 
hollow creeping stems, and opposite stipulate leaves. They are found 

“in all parts of the globe. Some of them have acridity, and hence the 

name Water-pepper. Genera 2, and species 20. The Elatines are 
natives of Europe and Asia, Bergias of the Cape of Good Hope. 
Examples—Hlatine, Bergia. 


444, CARYOPHYLLACEA. 


Order 24,—CarvoruyLLaces, the Chickweed Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 4-5 (fig. 678), free (fig. 293, p. 136), or united in a 
tube (figs. 297 c, p. 197; 653 ¢, p. 371), persistent. Petals 4-5 (fig. 
678), hypogynous, unguiculate (fig. 305, p. 201), often bifid or bipar- 
tite (fig. 307, p. 201), occasionally 0. Stamens (fig. 679 ¢) usually 
double the number of the petals, or, if equal, usually alternate with 
them ; filaments subulate, sometimes united ; anthers innate, bilocular, 
dehiscence longitudinal. Ovary single, often stalked or supported on 
a gynophore (fig. 653 g, p. 371), composed of 2 to 5 carpels, which are 
usually united by their edges, but sometimes the edges are turned in- 


Fig. 678. 


Fig. 681. Fig. 679. Fig. 682. 


wards, so as to form partial dissepiments ; stigmas 2-5 (figs. 425, 426 
s, p. 242), with papille on their inner surface (fig. 679 s). Capsule 
unilocular (figs. 425, p. 242; 681, 2), or imperfectly bi-quinquelocular 


Fig. 678-682. Illustrations of the natural order Caryophyllacem. Fig. 678. Diagram 
of the flower of Alsine media, common Chickweed, belonging to the natural order Caryo- 
phyllacee, tribe Alsinee. The flower consists of five imbricate sepals, five alternate 
petals, five stamens, a unilocular ovary, with a free central placenta, and numerous ovules, 
Fig. 679. Section of the flower of Dianthus Caryophyllus, Carnation. c, Calyx; p, petals, 
cohering with the stamens at the base; e, stamens; g, gynophore or thecaphore, i.e. the 
stalk supporting the ovary; 0, ovary with central placenta and ovules; s, two stigmas, 
which are papillose all along their inner surface. Fig. 680. Horizontal section of the 
ovary in a very young state, showing the partitions cc, which divide the ovary into two 
cavities, These divisions ultimately disappear, leaving the placenta, p, bearing the ovules 
free in the centre. Fig. 681. Capsule of Lychnis Githago at the period of dehiscehce, 
when the pericarp separates into five valves at the summit, 1, The capsule entire. 2, 
Capsule cut vertically, to show the seeds, g, grouped in a mass, on a free central placenta, 
p. Fig. 682. Seeds. 1, Entire seed. 2, Seed cut vertically. #,Spermoderm. e, Peri- 
pherical embryo, surrounding the mealy perisperm, p. 


PORTULACACEA, 445 


(fig. 680), 2-5 valved, opening ther by valves, or more commonly 
by twice as many teeth as stigmas (figs. 540, p. 303; 681), placenta 
in the axis of the fruit (figs. 425, p. 242; 681, 2, p). Seeds usually 
00, amphitropal with mealy affumen, and a peripherical embryo (fig. 
682).—Herbs, sometimes suffruticose plants, with opposite, entire, 
exstipulate, sometimes‘ connate leaves, and usually cymose inflor- 
escence (figs. 270, 271, p. 183)», They inhabit chiefly temperate and 
cold regions, According to the calculation of Humboldt, Cloveworts 
constitute 7: of the flowering plants of France, zy of Germany, zy of 
. Lapland, and vz of North America. Those found within the tropics 
are usually met with on high elevations and mountainous tracts, many 
of them exclusively vegetate in regions of the lowest temperature. 
The order has been divided into two tribes :—1. Alsinex, sepals dis- 
tinct (fig. 293, p. 136). 2. Sileneze, sepals cohering in a tube (fig. 
297, p. 197). Authors mention 35 genera, and 1000 species. Ez- 
amples—Alsine, Cerastium, Dianthus, Silene, Polycarpon. 

The plants of this order are usually insipid, but some are said to be 
~ poisonous. The poisonous quality is attributed to Saponine, which exists 
in many of thespecies of Saponaria, Silene, Lychnis, and Dianthus, To 
saponine, also, is due the saponaceous or soap-like properties of the 
plants. Honkeneja peploides has been used as a pickle. In Iceland 
it serves as an article of food. The greater part of the plants of the 
order are weeds, but some are showy garden flowers. To the latter 
may be referred all the varieties of Dianthus Caryophyllus, Clove-pink 
or Carnation, Picotees, Bizarres, and Flakes, numerous species of Pink, 
Campion, etc. The varieties of Carnation depend on the mode in 
which the coloured stripes or dots are arranged on the petals, and the 
entire or serrated appearance of their edges. The formation of the 
placenta in the Caryophyllacee has given rise to discussion, some 
looking upon it as a marginal, others as an axile formation (p. 243). 

Order 25.—PortuLacaces, the Purslane Family. (Polypet. 
Hypo-Perigyn.) Sepals 2, cohering at the base. Petals usually 5, 
rarely wanting, distinct or cohering at the base, sometimes hypogy- 
nous. Stamens perigynous or hypogynous, variable in number, all 
fertile, sometimes opposite the petals ; filaments distinct; anthers 
versatile, bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free or par- 
tially adherent, I-celled, formed by 3 united carpels; style single or 
0; stigmas several. Fruit capsular, 1-celled, opening by circumscissile 
dehiscence, or by 3 valves, occasionally monospermous and indehiscent. 
Seeds numerous or definite, or solitary, attached to a central placenta ; 
albumen farinaceous ; embryo peripherical ; radicle long.—Succulent 
shrubs or herbs, with alternate, seldom opposite, entire, exstipulate 
leaves, often having hairs in their axils, They are found in various 
parts of the world, chiefly, however, in South America and at the, 
Cape of Good Hope. They always inhabit dry parched places. They 


446 MALVACE. 


have a great affinity to Caryophyllacez, from which they are chiefly 
distinguished by their bisepalous calyx, their stamens being often 
perigynous, and their transversely dehiscent capsule. The plants 
belonging to the order have few properties of importance. They are 
insipid and destitute of odour. Portulaca oleracea, common Purslane, 
is used as a potherb on account of its cooling and antiscorbutic quali- 
ties; the ancients thought the seeds, steeped in wine, to be an 
emmenagogue. The tuberous roots of Claytonta tuberosa, a Siberian 
plant, are eaten ; and those of Melloca (Ullucus) tuberosa, a native of 
Peru, have been recommended as a substitute for the potato. In 
Portulaca oleracea and grandiflora the stamens, if brushed lightly in 
any direction, will immediately, with a strong impulse, bend over 
to the point from which they were brushed. There are 15 known 
genera, and 125 species, Hxamples—Portulaca, Talinum, Calandrinia, 
Claytonia, Montia, 

Order 26.—Matvacez, the Mallow Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5 (fig. 683), rarely 3 or 4, more or less cohering at the base 
(fig. 298 ¢, p. 197), with a valvate zstivation (fig. 287, p. 194), often 
bearing an external calyx (epicalyx) or involucre (fig. 298 b, p. 197). 
Petals equal in number to the sepals; wstivation twisted (fig. 286, p. 
194). Stamens 00 (fig. 685 a), hypogynous, all perfect ; filaments 


eZ 


Fig. 683.5 Fig, 684. 


monadelphous (fig. 685 ¢), or polyadelphous (fig. 651, p. 370) ; anthers 
monothecal (fig. 360, p. 222), reniform (fig. 686), with transverse 
dehiscence. Ovary formed by the uuion of several carpels round a 
common axis (figs. 417, p. 239; 548, p. 305; 687), either dis- 
tinct or cohering ; styles as many as the carpels (fig. 685 s), united 
or free. Fruit capsular or baccate; carpels one- or many-seeded, 
sometimes closely united, at other times separate or separable (figs. 


Figs. 683-691. Organs of fructification of Malva sylvestris, to illustrate the natural order 
Malvacee. Fig 683, Flower viewed from above, with its five petals, monadelphous 
stamens, peduncle or flower-stalk, and two stipules, s. Fig. 684, Diagram of the flower, 
showing the different whorls or verticils ; five valvate or induplicate sepals, five twisted 
petals, indefinite monadelphous stamens, and united carpels. 


MALVACEA. 447 


687, 413, p. 238); dehiscence loculicidal (fig. 543, p. 304), or septi- 
cidal. Seeds amphitropal or semi-anatropal ; albumen 0, or in very 
small quantity; embryo curved (fig. 690); cotyledons twisted or 
doubled (fig. 691) Herbaceous plants, trees or shrubs, with alternate 
stipulate leaves (fig. 683 s), more or less divided, and often with 


Fi Hp 
ce) \\ 


Fig. 686, Fig. 685. " Fig. 691. Fig. 687. 


stellate hairs (fig. 86, p. 31). They are dispersed over all parts of 
the world, with the exception of the Arctic regions. They abound in 
tropical countries and in the warm parts of the temperate zone. 
Authors enumerate 40 genera, including about 700 species. The 
order has been divided into three tribes :—1. Malves, calyx with an 
involucel, carpels 5 or many, whorled, separating from the axis when 
ripe. 2. Hibiscese, calyx with an involucel ; carpels 3-5-10, united 
into a loculicidal capsule. 3. Sideze, calyx naked ; fruit syncarpous. 
Examples—Lavatera, Malva, Hibiscus, Sida. 

The plants of the order are all wholesome, and yield mucilage in 
large quantity. Some furnish materials for cordage, others supply 
cotton. Malva sylvestris, Common Mallow, and Althea officinalis, 
Marsh Mallow, are employed medicinally, as demulcents and emol- 
lients. The latter is the Guimauve of the French. The flowers of 
Althea rosea, the Hollyhock, are officinal in Greece for similar pur- 
poses ; the plant also yields fibres and a blue dye. The petals of 
Malva Alcea and Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis possess astringent properties ; 
the Chinese make use of them to blacken their eyebrows and the 
leather of their shoes. The flowers of Abutilon esculentum, and the 


Fig. 685. Vertical section of the flower. 4, Caliculus, epicalyx, or involucre; ¢, calyx; 
p, petals; t, tube of monadelphous stamens, forming an arch above the ovary, v, and 
united at the base to the petals; a, anthers at the summit of the filaments, free ; s, styles 
free at the summit, united below. Fig. 686. A reniform monothecal anther, dehiscing 
transversely, separated with the upper part of the filament. Fig. 687. Fruit, surrounded 
by the persistent calyx, c, consisting of whorled carpels united together by the axis, a. 
Fig. 688. A separate carpel viewed laterally. Fig. 689. Exalbuminous amphitropal seed. 
Fig. 690, Curved embryo. Fig. 691. Section of the embryo, to show the doubled coty- 


ledons. 


448 STERCULIACEA. 


fruit of Abelmoschus esculentus (Hibiscus esculentus), called Ochro and 
Gombo, are used as articles of food. Hibiscus cannabinus is the source 
whence sunnee-hemp is procured in India. Hibiscus mutabilis receives 
its name from the changing colour of its flowers, varying from a pale 
rose to a rich pink colour. Other species of Hibiscus as well as Pari- 
tiwm tiliacewm yield useful fibres. The bark of Paritiwm elatum fur- 
nishes Cuba Bast. Cotton is composed of the hairs surrounding the 
seeds of various species of Gossypiwm. These hairs, when dry, exhibit 
under the microscope a peculiar twisted appearance. Gossypium 
barbadense seems to be the species which yields the best cotton ; the 
Sea-Island, New Orleans, and Georgian cotton being produced by 
varieties of it. Gossypiwm peruvianum or acuminatum furnishes the 
South American cotton ; Gossypiwm herbacewm, the common cotton of 
India. G. arboreum is the Indian-tree cotton. The Chinese Nankin 
cotton is furnished by a variety of G. herbacewm. The quality of 
cotton-wool depends on the length, strength, and firmness of the 
tissue, or, as it is called, the staple. These essential attributes are 
modified by the cleanliness and the colour. Long-stapled cottons are 
generally used for the twist or warp, and short-stapled for the weft. 
The value of cotton varies not only according to the species, but also 
according to the nature of the climate in which it grows. The total 
import of raw Cotton into Britain in 1874 was upwards of 124 
millions of cwts. The seeds of the cotton-plants yield oil which has 
been used for lamps; when bruised they are employed for oil-cake. 
Cotton is used in the preparation of gun-cotton and of collodion. 
Order 27,—Srercuiiaces, the Sterculia and Silk-cotton Family. 
(Polypet. Hypog.) Calyx of 5, more or less united, sepals, often sur- 
rounded by an involucre ; estivation usually valvate. Petals 5 or 
none, hypogynous, estivation twisted. Stamens usually o ; their 
filaments variously united ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse. FPistil of 5 
(rarely 3) carpels, either distinct or cohering ; styles equal in number 
to the carpels, free or cohering ; ovules orthotropal (fig. 619, p. 342) 
or anatropal. Fruit capsular, usually with 5 cells, or follicular or 
succulent. Seeds often with a woolly covering; with a fleshy or 
oily perisperm (rarely 0), and either a straight or a curved embryo ; 
cotyledons leafy or thick, plaited or rolled round the plumule.—Trees 
or shrubs, with alternate leaves, which are either simple or compound, 
deciduous stipules, and often a stellate pubescence. They are distin- 
guished from Malvacese by their dithecal extrorse anthers. They 
inhabit warm climates. The order has been divided into the follow- 
ing tribes:—1. Bombacez, with hermaphrodite flowers and palmate 
or digitate leaves; found most abundantly in America. 2. Helic- 
tereze, with hermaphrodite flowers and simple leaves; apparently 
unknown in Africa. 3, Sterculiese, with unisexual flowers, and either 
simple or palmate leaves; chiefly in India and Africa. Authors men- 


BYTTNERIACEA. 449 


tion 80 genera, including 130 species, ZHxamples—Bombax, Helic- 
teres, Sterculia. 

The plants are mucilaginous and demulcent ; many are used for 
food, others supply a material like cotton. The silky hairs surround- 
ing the seeds of Bombax Ceiba, the Silk-cotton tree, are used for 
stuffing cushions and chairs, and for various other domestic purposes. 
They cannot be manufactured, in consequence of want of adhesion 
between the hairs. The trunk of the tree is made into canoes, Adan- 
sonia digitata, the Baobab tree of Senegal, or monkey-bread, is one of 
the largest known trees. Its trunk sometimes attains a diameter of 
thirty feet, while its height is by no means in proportion. The pulp 
of its fruit (amphisarca) is used as an article of food. It is emollient 
and mucilaginous in all its parts, The dried leaves when powdered 
constitute Jalo, a favourite article with the Africans, which they mix 
with their food for the purpose of diminishing the excessive perspira- 
tion to which in those climates they are subject. It is found by 
Europeans to be most serviceable in cases of diarrhoea, fevers, and 
other maladies. Adansonia Gregorit is the Gouty-stem tree of Australia. 
Durio zibethinus furnishes the fruit called Durian in the Indian Archi- 
pelago. The fruit is much prized, although it has a fetid odour, 
which has given rise to the name Civet Durian. The moment the 
fruit is ripe, it falls of itself, and the way to eat it in perfection is to 
get it as it falls. Brachychiton populneum is the Poplar Bottle-tree of 
Australia, Cheirostemon platanoides is called the Hand-plant of Mexico, 
on account of its five peculiarly curved anthers, which resemble a claw. 
Helicteres (from heliv, a snail) is so named on account of its twisted 
fruit. The Kola, mentioned by African travellers as being used to 
sweeten water, is the seed of Sterculia tomentosa or acuminata. 

Order 28.—ByTTNERIACE#, the Byttneria and Chocolate Family. 
(Polypet, Hypog.) Calyx 4-5 lobed, valvate in estivation (fig. 285 c, 
p. 194). Petals 4-5 or 0, often elongated at the apex, with a twisted 
or induplicate eestivation (fig. 285 p,p. 194). Stamens hypogynous, 
either equal in number to the petals, or some multiple of them, more. 
or less monadelphous, some of them sterile ; anthers bilocular, introrse. 
Ovary free, composed usually of 4-10 carpels arranged round a central 
column ; styles terminal, as many as the carpels, free or united ; 
ovules 2 in each loculament. Fruit capsular, either with loculicidal 
dehiscence, or the carpels separating from each other. Seeds anatropal, 
often winged ; embryo straight or curved, lying usually in fleshy albu- 
men ; cotyledons either plaited or rolled up spirally.—Trees, shrubs, , 
or undershrubs, with alternate leaves, having either deciduous stipules 
or 0, and stellate or forked hairs. They abound in tropical climates. 
Authors enumerate 30 genera, embracing about 400 species. Bytt- 
neriads are often united with Sterculiads, from which they are distin- 
guished by their slightly monadelphous stamens, and anthers turmed 

26 


450 TILIACER. ! 


inwards. Their two-celled anthers and non-columnar stamens distin- 
guish them from Mallow-worts. The order has been divided into six 
tribes, founded on the following genera: Examples —Lasiopetalum, 
Byttneria or Buttneria, Hermannia, Dombeya, Eriolzena, and Philip- 
podendron. 

The plants abound in mucilage, and many yield cordage. The 
seeds of Theobroma Cacao are called Cacao beans, and are the chief 
ingredient in chocolate, which contains also sugar, arnatto, vanilla, 
and cinnamon. The seeds by pressure yield a fatty oil, called Butter 
of Cacao, which has but little tendency to rancidity. They contain a 
crystalline principle analogous to caffeine called Theobromine. Other 
species of Theobroma also furnish Cacao-seeds, The Cocoa of the shops 
consists generally of the roasted beans, and sometimes of the roasted 
integuments of the beans, ground to powder. 

Order 29.—Ti1acez, the Lime-tree Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 4-5, often with a valvate estivation. Petals 4-5, entire, rarely 
wanting. Stamens hypogynous, free, or united by the enlarged border 
of the stalk of the pistil (fig. 348, 1, 2, p. 219), usually oo ; anthers 
2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally or by pores, occasionally some abortive 
(fig. 348, 2, p. 219). Disk often large and glandular. Ovary soli- 
tary, formed by the union of 2-10 carpels ; style 1; stigmas as many 
as the carpels. Fruit dry or pulpy, either multilocular with numerous 
seeds, or by abortion unilocular and 1-seeded. Seeds anatropal ; em- 
bryo erect in the axis of fleshy albumen, with flat, leafy cotyledons 
(fig. 606, p. 339).—Trees or shrubs, rarely herbaceous plants, with 
alternate stipulate leaves (fig. 211, p. 102). The principal part of the 
order is found within the tropics, forming weed-like plants, or shrubs, 
or trees, with handsome, usually white or pink flowers. A small 
number are peculiar to the northern parts of either hemisphere, where 
they form timber trees. The order has been divided into two sections : 
—l. Tiliez, with entire petals or 0, and anthers dehiscing longitu- 
dinally. 2. Eleeocarpeze, with lacerated petals, and anthers opening 
at the apex. Authors enumerate 40 genera, including 330 species. 
Hxamples—tTilia, Corchorus, Grewia, Aristotelia, Eleeocarpus. 

The plants possess mucilaginous properties, and many of them 
furnish excellent materials for cordage. The fruit of some is edible. 
From the gummy matter they contain some have been employed as 
demulcents. The inner bark, the bast or bass, of the Linden or 
Lime-tree (Tilia Europea) is tough and fibrous, and from it are manu- 
factured Russian mats. The lime-trees of Europe are Tilia Europea, 
grandifolia, and parvifolia, The bark of Luhea grandiflora is used in 
Brazil for tanning leather. An infusion of the flowers is used on the 
continent as an antispasmodic and expectorant. Corchorus capsularis in 
India furnishes the Jute used for coarse carpets and gunny bags. The 
leaves of Corchorus olitorius, Jew’s-mallow, are used as a culinary 


i DIPTEROCARPACEA—-CHLZNACEA. 451 


vegetable. C. pyriformis supplies fibres in Japan. The bark of Eleo- 
carpus is used as a tonic. The fruits of Grewia microcos and asiatica 
are agreeable, and are used for sherbet in N.W. India. Other 
species of Grewia yield cordage, and the fibres of G. oppositifolia are 
used for making paper. 

Order 30.—DrprERocaRPaces, the Sumatra-Camphor Family. 
(Polpet. Hypog.) Calyx tubular, 5-lobed, unequal, naked, persistent, 
and afterwards enlarged, with an imbricated estivation. Petals hypo- 
gynous, sessile, often combined at the base, with a twisted sstivation. 
Stamens indefinite, hypogynous ; filaments dilated at the base, either 
distinct or irregularly cohering ; anthers innate, bilocular, subulate, 
opening by terminal fissures. Torus not enlarged in a disk-like man- 
ner. Ovary superior, 3-celled ; ovules in pairs, pendulous ; style and 
stigma simple. Fruit coriaceous, unilocular by abortion, 3-valved or 
indehiscent, surrounded by the calyx, which is prolonged in the form 
of long wing-like lobes. Seed solitary, exalbuminous; cotyledons 
often twisted and crumpled ; radicle superior.—Trees with alternate 
leaves, having an involute vernation, and deciduous convolute stipules. 
They are found in India, and especially in the eastern islands of the 
Indian Archipelago, where, according to Blume, they form the largest 
trees of the forest. There are about 10 known genera, including 100 
species. Hxamples—Dipterocarpus, Vateria, Dryobalanops. 

The trees belonging to this order are handsome and ornamental, 
and they abound in resinous juice. A kind of Camphor is procured 
in Sumatra from Dryobalanops Camphora or aromatica, It is secreted 
in crystalline massés in cavities of the wood. It is less volatile 
than the common camphor of commerce, It supplies this cam- 
phor only after attaining a considerable age. In its young state 
it yields on incision a pale yellow liquid, called the liquid camphor of 
Borneo and Sumatra, which consists of resin and a volatile oil having a 
camphoraceous odour. Vateria Indica yields an oleo-resinous substance 
called white Dammar or Piney resin (called also Indian copal or gum 
animi), used in India as a varnish. From this resin a concrete oil is 
obtained, called Piney-tallow, or vegetable butter of Canara. The fruit 
of this tree yields to boiling water the celebrated butter of Canara, or 
Piney tallow. Various species of Dipterocarpus yield a substance like 
Balsam of Copaiva. D. levis, angustifolius, turbinatus, hispidus, zey- 
lanicus, yield wood-oil. Shorea robusta, a native of India, supplies the 
valuable timber called Sal. It yields the Dhoom or Dammar pitch, 
used for incense in India. 

Order 31.—CuLanaceg, the Chlenad Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
A small order, allied to Malvacez in having a 1-2-flowered involucre, 
and in having the stamens cohering at the base; while the zstivation 
is imbricate and resembles that of Ternstroemiaceze.—Trees or shrubs, 
with alternate stipulate leaves, found in Madagascar. Their proper- 


452 TERNSTREMIACEZ. 


ties are unknown. ‘There are four genera enumerated, including pro- 
bably about 8 or 10 species, Hxamples—Sarcolena, Leptolena, Schizo- 
lena, Rhodolena. 

Order 32.—TERNSTREMIACEA, the Tea Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5 or 7, concave, coriaceous, deciduous, the innermost often the 
largest ; estivation imbricated (fig. 289 c, p. 194). Petals 5, 6, 
or 9, often combined at the base. Stamens indefinite, hypogynous ; 
filaments free, or united at the base into one or more parcels ; anthers 
versatile, or adnate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary multilocular ; 
styles 2-7, Fruit either a capsule, 2-7 celled, opening by valves, or 
coriaceous and indehiscent. Seeds attached to the axis, few and 
large; albumen 0, or in very small quantity; embryo straight or 
bent, or folded back ; radicle next the hilum ; cotyledons very large 
(fig. 599, p. 335), often containing oil—Trees or shrubs, with alter- 
nate coriaceous, exstipulate leaves, which are sometimes dotted. 
They abound in South America, and many occur in India, while others 
inhabit China and North America, They do not occur in Australia 
and New Zealand. There are 32 genera and 260 species enumerated. 
The order has been divided into six tribes, founded on the following 
genera: Examples—l1. Rhizobola. 2. Marcgravia. 3. Ternstroemia. 
4, Saurauja. 5. Gordonia. 6. Bonnetia. 

The most important plants of this order are those which yield Tea. 
Considerable discussion has taken place regarding the Tea plants ; 
some say that there is only one species; others, two; others, three. 
Fortune visited the black and green tea districts of Canton, Fokien, 
and Chekiang, and he says that the black and green teas of the north- 
ern districts of China are obtained from the same species or variety, 
viz. that cultivated in Britain under the name of Thea viridis ; while 
the black and green teas from the neighbourhood of Canton are made 
from the species or variety cultivated in this country under the name 
of Thea Bohea. Some make the Assam plant a different species, and 
thus recognise three, Thea Cantoniensis or Bohea, Thea viridis, and Thea 
Assamica, The quality of the tea depends much on the season when the 
leaves are picked, the mode in which they are prepared, as well as the 
district in which the plant grows. Green Tea contains more essential oil 
and tannin than Black Tea. The Green Teas include Twankay, Young 
Hyson, Hyson, Gunpowder, and Imperial; while the black include 
Bohea, Congou, Souchong, Oolong, and Pekoe. The teas of certain dis- 
tricts, such as Ankoi, have peculiar characters. In some instances teas 
are dyed by means of Isatis indigotica ; in other cases by Prussian blue, 
turmeric, and gypsum. Perfume is communicated to teas by means 
of Olea fragrans, Chloranthus inconspicuus, and Aglaia odorata, There 
is a bitter principle in tea called theine, which may be procured by 
adding a slight excess of acetate of lead to a decoction of tea, filtering 
hot, evaporating, and subliming. According to Dr. Stenhouse, 


OLACACEAi—AURANTIACE. 453 


a 
1 1b. of Green Hyson Tea gave 72 grains pure white Theine, and 2 coloured 
= 74 grains or 1°05 p.c. 
8 oz. Black Congou gave 34°5 gr. pure, and 1°5 impure = 36 gr. or 1°02 p.c. 
6 oz. of Black Assam Tea yielded 36 gr. or 1°37 p.c. 
1 lb. of a cheap Green Tea, called Twankay, gave 69 gr. or 0°98 p.c. 


In 1874, the imports of tea into the United Kingdom amounted 
to 142,068,524 lbs., of which 127,323,630 lbs. were retained for home 
consumption, The tea plant is now largely cultivated in India, 
especially at Darjeeling and Saharunpore. The genus Camellia is 
prized on account of its showy flowers. There are numerous culti- 
vated varieties of Camellia japonica, many of which can endure the 
climate of Britain when trained on a wall with a southern exposure, 
or slightly protected. In China, Camellia Sasanqua, or Sasanqua tea, 
is cultivated on account of its flowers, which are said to impart fra- 
grance and flavour to other teas. Camellia oleifera yields a valuable 
oil. Souari or Butter Nuts are the produce of Caryocar butyrosum. 
The flowers of Marcgravia are occasionally furnished with bracts, which 
are folded, and united so as to form ascidia. The stem, root, and 
leaves of Marcgravia umbellata are regarded in the West Indies as 
diuretic. The leaves of Fresiera theoides are used as tea in Panama. 

Order 33.—Oxacacea, the Olax Family.  (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Calyx small, gamosepalous, entire or toothed, often becoming finally 
large and fleshy ; estivation imbricated. Petals 3-6, hypogynous, 
free, or adhering in pairs by means of the stamens; estivation val- 
vate. Stamens hypogynous, some fertile, others sterile ; the former 
3-10, alternate with the petals, the latter opposite to the petals; 
filaments compressed ; anthers innate, bilocular, with longitudinal 
dehiscence. Ovary 1-3-4 celled; ovules 1-3, pendulous from a cen- 
tral placenta ; style filiform; stigma simple. Fruit fleshy, indehis- 
cent, often surrounded by the enlarged calyx, unilocular, monospermal. 
Seed anatropal, pendulous; albumen copious, fleshy ; embryo small, 
at the base of the albumen.— Trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate, 
exstipulate leaves, which are, however, sometimes abortive. They are 
chiefly tropical or subtropical—being found in the East Indies, New 
Holland, and Africa, One only is known in the West Indies. A few 
are from the Cape of Good Hope. Little is known in regard to their 
properties. Olaw zeylanica has a fetid wood witha saline taste, and is 
employed in putrid fevers ; its leaves are used asa salad. There are 36 
genera and 170 species enumerated. Hxamples—Olax, Opilia, Icacina. 

Order 34. —AURANTIACES, the Orange Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Calyx urceolate or campanulate, short, 3-5 toothed, withering. Petals 
3-5, broad at the base, sometimes slightly coherent ; estivation 
imbricated. Stamens equal in number to, or a multiple of, the 
petals ; filaments flattened at the base, distinct or combined into one 
or more parcels ; anthers erect. Thalamus enlarged in the form of a 


454 AURANTIACEZ. 


~ 


hypogynous disk, to which the petals and stamens are attached. 
Ovary free, multilocular ; style 1; stigma thickish, somewhat divided. 
Fruit a hesperidium, having a spongy separable rind, and pulpy sepa- 
rable cells (p. 314). Seeds anatropal, attached to the axis, solitary 
or several, usually pendulous, having the chalaza and raphe usually 
well marked ; perisperm 0; embryo straight; cotyledons thick and 
fleshy.—Trees or shrubs, usually conspicuous for their beauty, with 
alternate, often compound leaves, which are articulated with a petiole, 
usually winged (fig. 201, p. 85). They abound in the East Indies. 
Limonia Laureola is remarkable as the only plant of this family found 
near the summit of lofty mountains, where it is for some months 
of the year covered with snow. Some include this order in Rutacez, 
to which in many points it is allied. There are 13 genera and nearly 
80 species enumerated. £xamples—Citrus, Limonia, Triphasia, 

The plants exhibit in every part receptacles of volatile oil. The 
oil abounds in the leaves and in the rind of the fruit. It is fragrant 
and bitter. The fruit has a more or less acid pulp, and the wood is 
generally compact. The Orange, Lemon, Lime, Citron, Shaddock, 
and Forbidden Fruit belong to this order. Citrus vulgaris yields the 
Bitter or Seville Orange, from the flowers of which an essential oil, 
called Neroli-oil, is procured, in the proportion of an ounce from 550 
pounds of flowers. A similar oil is got from the flower of the Sweet 
Orange, Citrus Aurantium. The rind of the Bitter Orange is used in 
conserves. In the young state the fruit is sold under the name of 
Orangettes or Curacoa oranges. Orange- flower-water, as obtained 
from the flowers of the Bitter Orange, is employed as an anodyne. 
The chief kinds of Sweet Orange are the Common Orange, the Chinese 
or Mandarin Orange, the Maltese, and St. Michael’s. The last are 
the finest imported into Britain, and are distinguished by their smooth, 
thin rind. A single tree, it is said, will produce 20,000 good oranges. 
Their fruit is used medicinally, on account of the pulp, which contains 
sugar, mucilage, and citric acid. From the rind of the Sweet Orange, 
an oil, called Oil of Orange, is procured, which differs from Neroli-oil. 
A similar oil, but of inferior quality, is procured from the rind of the 
Seville Orange. Many look on the Bitter and Sweet Oranges as pro- 
duced by varieties of one species. The Bitter Orange tree is less than 
that yielding the Sweet Orange ; the petioles are more distinctly foli- 
aceous ; the flowers have a sweeter fragrance ; the rind of the fruit 
is darker and more bitter ; and its pulp more bitter and less saccharine. 
The Lemon, Lime, and Citron, are distinguished from oranges by their 
oblong form, their adherent rind, and a protuberance at the apex. 
Citrus Limonum yields the Lemon, the juice of which is antiscorbutic, 
and is used for cooling drinks and effervescing draughts, while the 
peel or rind, on account of the oil it contains, is employed as an 
aromatic and anthelmintic. A single tree will produce 8000 lemons. 


HYPERICACEA, 455 


Citrus medica furnishes the Citron, which is larger than the Lemon, 
has a thicker and tuberculated rind, and a less acid pulp. The rind 
and juice may be applied to the same purposes as those of the Lemon. 
C. Bergamia is the Mellarosa or Bergamot, which is a variety 
of C. Limetia, the Lime. The Bergamot is less than the Lemon in 
size, and is more pyriform, while its colour is golden. The Lime is 
about half the size of the Lemon; its rind is thin, dense, and of a 
greenish-yellow colour, and its. taste is more bitter. Oil of Bergamot 
is the volatile oil of the rind, and 100 fruits are said to yield 2} 
ounces. Citrus acida is the East Indian Lime. Citrus Decumana 
furnishes the Shaddock; 0. paradisi, the Forbidden Fruit; 0. olive- 
formis, the Kumquat; and C. Pompelmos, the Pompelmoose fruit: 
What are called horned oranges and fingered citrons are produced by 
a separation or multiplication of the carpels. Sometimes small fruits 
are enclosed within the large one. In the navel-orange of Pernambuco 
abortive carpels are seen at the apex. gle Marmelos (Indian Bael) 
yields an excellent fruit. The halfripe fruit is used as a remedy for 
dysentery. From Feronia elephantum, a gum, like gum-arabic, is 
procured. 

Order 35.— Hyprricacrm, the Tutsan or St. John’s-wort 
Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) Sepals 4-5, separate or united, persist- 
ent, usually with glandular dots, unequal; estivation imbricated. 
Petals 4-5, oblique, often with black dots; sstivation contorted. 
Stamens hypogynous, o ; generally polyadelphous (fig. 347, p. 218), 
very rarely 10, and monadelphous or distinct; filaments filiform ; 
anthers bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Carpels 2-5, united 
round a central or basal placenta; styles the same number as the 
carpels, usually separate ; stigmas capitate or simple. Fruit either 
fleshy or capsular, multilocular, and multivalvular, rarely unilocular. 
Seeds usually 00, minute, anatropal, usually exalbuminous ; embryo 
usually straight.—Herbaceous plants, shrubs or trees, with exstipu- 
late entire leaves, which are usually opposite and dotted. Flowers 
often yellow. They are distributed very generally over all parts of 
the globe, are found in elevated and low, dry and damp situations. 
They yield a resinous coloured juice which has purgative properties, 
and resembles gamboge. In the European species this yellow juice 
is in small proportion to the essential oil and the rest of the vege- 
table matter ; they have been used as tonics and astringents. Hypert- 
cum hireinum is fetid. A gargle for sore throats is prepared in Brazil 
from Hypericum connatum. A decoction of the leave of Hypericum 
laxiusculum, or Allecrim brabo, is reputed in the same country to be 
a specific against the bite of serpents. Parnassia palustris, Grass of 
Parnassus, has remarkable gland-like bodies between the stamens (fig. 
335, p. 210). These are probably an abortive state of the staminal 
organs. Lindley looks upon them as bundles of stamens, and hence 


456 GUTTIFERZ OR CLUSIACEA, 


places the genus among Hypericacex, while others refer the plant to 
the natural order Crassulacez. The stamens of Parnassia are irritable, 
and move towards the pistil in succession (p. 386). There are 
17 known genera, and about 281 species. Hxamples—Hypericum, 
Elodea, Vismia, Parnassia. 

Order 36.—GutTtirER# or CLustacea, the Gamboge Family. 
(Polypet, Hypog.) Sepals 2-6-8, usually persistent, round, fre- 
quently unequal and coloured ; xstivation imbricated. Petals hypo- 
gynous, equal to, or a multiple of, the sepals. Stamens hypogynous, 
usually 00, rarely definite, free or variously united at the base ; fila- 
ments unequal in length ; anthers adnate, introrse or extrorse, some- 
times very small, occasionally unilocular, and sometimes with porous 
or circumscissile dehiscence. Thalamus forming a fleshy, sometimes 
5-lobed disk. Ovary solitary, 1- or many-celled ; ovules either solitary 
and erect or ascending, or numerous and attached to central placentas ; 
style 0 or very short ; stigmas peltate or radiate. Fruit dry or fleshy, 
1- or many-celled, 1- or many-seeded, either with septicidal dehiscence 
or indehiscent. Seeds definite, anatropal, or orthotropal, in a pulp, 
apterous and often arillate, with a thin and membranous spermoderm ; 
albumen 0; embryo straight ; cotyledons usually cohering.—Trees or 
shrubs, sometimes parasitical, with exstipulate, opposite, coriaceous, 
entire leaves, having a strong midrib, and lateral veins running directly 
to the margin. Flowers articulated with the peduncle, often unisexual 
by abortion. They are natives of tropical regions, more especially of 
South America; a few are from Madagascar and the continent of 
Africa. They generally require situations combining excessive heat 
and humidity. Authors enumerate 30 genera, including about 230 
species. Hxamples—Clusia, Garcinia, Cambogia, and Calophyllum. 

The plants of this order yield a resinous juice, which is acrid, pur- 
gative, and has a yellow colour. Gamboge is one of the most im- 
portant products. It is procured from Garcinia Morella, var. pedicel- 
lata (G. Hanburyi of Hooker), a dicecious tree, with laurel-like foliage 
and small yellow flowers, found in Camboja, Siam, and in the 
southern parts of Cochin-China. Garcinia pictoria and Travancorica 
also furnish Gamboge. In commerce this drug occurs in the form of 
Pipe or Roll Gamboge, and of Lump or Cake Gamboge. Another 
kind of gamboge, called Coorg or Wynaad Gamboge, seems to be the 
produce of Garcinia elliptica. Gamboge is a powerful irritant, and in 
large doses acts as a poison, causing inflammation of thé mucous 
membrane. It is employed medicinally as a drastic and hydragogue 
cathartic. It is an excellent pigment. The resin of Tacamahaca is 
yielded by Calophyllum Calaba, An oil is obtained from the seeds of 
Calophyllum Inophyllum. Pentadesma butyracea is the Butter and 
Tallow-tree of Sierra Leone, so called on account of the solid oil which 
is furnished by the fruit. While an acrid resin is the product of 


ERYTHROXYLACEA—MALPIGHIACE. 457 


most of the plants of the order, there are some parts in which the 
resin is either absent or elaborated in small quantity. Thus some of 
them produce fruits which are used as articles of diet. Garcinia 
Mangostana supplies the East Indian Mangosteen, which is said to be 
one of the finest known fruits; it resembles a middle-sized Orange, 
and is filled with a sweet and highly-flavoured pulp. Mammea 
americana gives a drupaceous fruit, called Mammee Apple, or Wild 
Apricot of South America. Its seeds are anthelmintic ; its flowers 
yield by distillation a stomachic spirit called Eau de Oréole; and a 
wine is obtained by fermenting its sap. Mesua ferrea yields a hard 
and durable timber. The Clusias are handsome trees, remarkable for 
the mode in which they send out adventitious roots. The fruit of 
Clusia flava, sometimes called Wild Mango, or Balsam-tree, yields a 
yellow juice like gamboge. 

Order 37. ERYTHROXYLACEA, the Erythroxylon Family. (Poly- 
pet. Hypog.) Sepals 5, united at the base, persistent ; xstivation 
imbricated. Petals 5, hypogynous, broad and with a small scale at 
the base, slightly contorted in estivation. Stamens 10, monadel- 
phous ; anthers erect, bilocular, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 
3-celled, two cells sometimes abortive ; styles 3, distinct or united ; 
stigmas 3 ; ovule single, pendulous, Fruit a 1-seeded drupe. Seed 
angular, anatropal; embryo in the axis of firm albumen, rarely 
exalbuminous ; cotyledons linear, flat, and leafy.—Shrubs or trees 
with alternate stipulate leaves. Flowers arising from numerous, im- 
bricated, scale-like bracts. Found chiefly in the West Indies and 
South America, The plants of the order have tonic, purgative, and 
narcotic qualities. The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca are used by the 
miners of Peru as a stimulant, like opium. They receive the name of 
Coca or Ipadu. They are chewed with a small mixture of finely- 
powdered chalk. The wood of some is of a bright red colour, and 
yields a dye. There are 3 known genera, and about 60 species. 
Example—Erythroxylon. : 

Order 38.—Matriauiaces, the Malpighia Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 5,islightly united, persistent, often glandular at the 
base ; eestivation imbricated. Petals 5, unguiculate, with convolute 
estivation, Stamens usually 10,. often monadelphous; anthers 
roundish, with a projecting process from the connective (fig. 371, p. 
223 ; 374, p. 225). Ovary formed by 3 (rarely 2 or 4) carpels, 
more or less combined ; ovules solitary, with a long pendulous cord ; 

~ styles 3, distinct or united. Fruit dry or fleshy, sometimes winged 
(fig. 562, p. 310). Seeds solitary, orthotropal, suspended, exalbumi- 
nous ; embryo straight or curved in various ways ; cotyledons foliace- 
ous or thickish (fig. 602, p. 338)—Trees or shrubs, sometimes 
climbing, with simple, opposite, or very rarely alternate, stipulate 
. leaves, without dots. Hairs, when present, peltate (fig. 89, p. 33). 


458 ACERACEA—SAPINDACEA. 


Flowers either perfect or unisexual. They are inhabitants of tropical 
countries chiefly, and a great number of them are found in South 
America. Authors notice 50 genera, including 589 species. Hxamples 
—NMalpighia, Banisteria, Hiptage, Hirea, Gaudichaudia. 

Some of the woody plants of this order exhibit an anomalous for- 
mation of the stem, from the absence of annular rings and medullary 
rays, and the peculiar mode in which the bark is produced. This is 
shown in figs. 123, p. 61; 126, and 127, p. 62. Many of the 
plants are astringent. Some have stinging hairs (fig. 89, p. 33). 
The fruit of Malpighia glabro and of M. punicifolia is called Barbados 
Cherry, and is used as an article of dessert. Nitraria is a genus doubt- 
fully referred to this order; by some it is placed under the order 
Zygophyllacee, N, tridentata, found in the desert of Soussa, near Tunis, 
is said by some to be the true Lotus-tree of the ancient Lotophagi. 

Order 39.—AcERAcEs, the Maple Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Calyx divided into 5, rarely into 4 or 9 parts, with an imbricated 
estivation. Petals equal in number to the lobes of the calyx, with 
which they alternate, rarely wanting. Stamens generally 8, inserted 
on a hypogynous disk. Ovary free, 2-lobed, 2-celled ; ovules in pairs ; 
amphitropal, pendulous ; style 1; stigmas 2. Fruit, a samara (fig. 
561, p. 310), composed of two winged carpels, each 1-celled with 1-2 
seeds. Seeds erect, exalbuminous; embryo curved, with foliaceous 
cotyledons, and the radicle next the hilum.—Trees with opposite, 
simple, lobed or palmate, exstipulate leaves. Flowers often polyga- 
mous. They are confined chiefly to the temperate parts of HKurope, 
Asia, and North America. They yield a saccharine sap, from which 
sugar is sometimes manufactured. It is said that their juices become 
acrid as the season advances. The bark is astringent, and yields 
reddish-brown and yellow-coloured dyes. Acer saccharinum is the 
Sugar Maple of America, Acer Pseudo-platanus, the Sycamore or 
Great Maple (the Plane-tree of Scotland), acts well as a shelter in 
exposed places, as near the sea. Its sap is slightly saccharine. Its 
wood is used in machinery and for charcoal. The leaves are often 
covered with black spots, caused by the attack of a fungus, Rhytisma 
acerinum. There are 3 known genera, and 60 species, Hxamples— 
Acer, Negundo, Dobinea. 

Order 40.—Sapinpacea, the Soapwort Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering at the base ; xstivation imbricated. 
Petals 4-5, occasionally absent, hypogynous, sometimes naked, some- 
times with a glandular or scaly appendage inside ; estivation imbri- 
cated. Stamens usually 8-10, sometimes 5-6-7, very rarely 20 ; fila- 
ments free, or combined just at the base; anthers introrse. Thala- 
mus forming a fleshy or glandular disc, into which the stamens are 
often inserted. Ovary trilocular, rarely bi- or quadri-locular ; ovules 
anatropal, definite ; style either undivided or 2-3 cleft. Fruit either 


MELIACE. 459 


fleshy and indehiscent, or samaroid, or capsular, and 2-3 valved. 
Seeds solitary, often arillate, exalbuminous ; embryo straight, curved, 
or spiral ; cotyledons incumbent; radicle next the hilum.—Trees or 
shrubs, sometimes climbing herbaceous plants, with alternate, some- 
times opposite, compound, rarely simple leaves, often marked with 
lines or pellucid dots. They are natives principally of South America 
and India. Africa contains many of them; they are wanting in the 
cold regions of the north. None are found wild in Europe. (In this 
order some include the Hippocastaneze or Horse-chestnuts, which are 
distinguished by their opposite leaves, and their two ovules in each 
cell, one ascending, the other suspended) (fig. 464, p. 258). Authors 
give 70 genera, including 600 species. Examples—Sapindus, 
Paullinia, Nephelium, Dodonxa, Meliosma, Aisculus, Pavia. 

In this order are included many plants which yield edible fruits, 
and others which are poisonous. A saponaceous principle exists in 
certain species. The fruit of Sapindus Saponaria, under the name of 
Soap-berries, is used as a substitute for soap in the West Indies. The 
Longan and Litchi are excellent Chinese fruits, the produce of Nephe- 
liwm Longan and N. Litchi. The kernel of the Longan powdered is 
sometimes made into paper. Blighia or Cupania sapida yields the 
Akee fruit, the succulent arillus of which is used as food. Many of 
the Paullinias are poisonous. From the seeds of Paullinia sorbilis, 
however, the Guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa is prepared in Brazil. 
The seeds, after being dried and deprived of their white aril, are 
pounded and kneaded into a dough, which is afterwards made up 
into cakes or balls. This guarana contains a bitter crystalline matter 
called Guaranine, identical with Caffeine. The bark of Asculus 
Hippocastanum, Horse-chestnut, has been recommended as a febrifuge, 
and its seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee. The fruit and 
leaves of Alsculus ohiotensis, the Buck-eye or American Horse-chestnut, 
are said to be poisonous. Paullinia pinnata, and some other Sapin- 
dacee of Brazil, exhibit anomalous exogenous stems (fig. 124, p. 62). 
Ophiocaryon paradoxwm is the Snake-nut-tree of Demerara, and is so 
called on account of the embryo resembling a coiled-up snake. 

Order 41.—Metiacem, the Melia Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 4-5, more or less united, with an imbricated estivation. Petals 
4-5, hypogynous, sometimes cohering at the base, with a valvate or 
imbricated eestivation. Stamens equal in number to the petals, or 2, 
3, or 4 times as many; filaments combined in a long tube ; anthers 
sessile within the orifice of the tube. Disk often large and cup-shaped. 
Ovary single, multilocular, the cells often equal in number to the 
petals ; ovules usually anatropal, 1-2 in each cell; style 1; stigmas 
distinct or,united. -Fruit baccate, drupaceous or capsular, multilocu- 
lar, or by abortion unilocular; when valves are present opening by 
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds not winged ; albumen usually absent ; 


460 CEDRELACEZ—AMPELIDEA OR VITACEA. 


embryo straight, with leafy cotyledons—Trees or shrubs with alter- 
nate (occasionally opposite), exstipulate, simple, or pinnate leaves. 
They are chiefly found in the tropical parts of America and Asia. 
Under this order some include Humiriacex, which are distinguished 
by a prolonged fleshy connective (fig. 373, p. 225), albuminous seeds, 
and a slender embryo. Arnott includes Cedrelacez also under this 
order. There are about 29 known genera, and upwards of 240 species. 
Examples—Melia, Trichilia, Humiria. 

_ The plants of this order are bitter, tonic, and astringent. Melia In- 
dica,or Azadirachta, is used in India as a febrifuge, and its fruit yields 
an oil which is employed for domestic purposes, and as an antispas- 
modic. Jt is an ornamental tree, 40 or 50 feet high. Its Hindu- 
stanee name is Nim, and its Portuguese name is Margosa. Its bark 
is used as a tonic, under the name of Margosa bark. The root of 
Melia Azedarach, a native of China, is bitter and nauseous, and is used 
in North America as an anthelmintic. Oils are procured also from 
species of Trichila and Carapa (fig. 603, p. 338). A warm pleasant- 
smelling oil is prepared from the fruit of Trichilia speciosa, which in 
India is considered as a valuable external remedy in chronic rheuma- 
tism and paralytic affections. The bark of Carapa quineensis has repu- 
tation as an anthelmintic. The fruit called in the Indian Archipelago 
Langsat, is the produce of a species of Lansium. A fragrant balsam, 
called balsam of Umiri, is got from the trunk of Humiria floribunda. 

Order 42.—CrpRELAcE#, the Mahogany Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Calyx 4-5-cleft, with imbricated estivation. Petals 4-5, 
with imbricated estivation. Stamens 8-10, united below into a tube, 
sometimes distinct, inserted into a hypogynous annular disc ; anthers 
bilocular, acuminated, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary usually 
4- or 5-celled ; ovules anatropal, pendulous; style simple; stigma 
peltate. Fruit a capsule opening septifragally (fig. 546, p. 304; 
547, p. 305). Seeds winged ; albumen thin or 0; embryo straight, 
erect ; cotyledons fleshy—Trees with alternate, pinnate, exstipulate 
leaves. They are found in the tropical parts of America and Asia. 
Authors enumerate 8 genera, including 24 species. Examples— 
Cedrela, Swietenia. 

The plants of this order are bitter, and have an aromatic fragrance. 
Swietenta Mahagoni supplies the well-known mahogany wood. Its 
bark, as well as that of Soymida febrifuga, called Rohun bark, and 
of Cedrela febrifuga, are used for the cure of intermittents. The wood 
of the tree is sometimes called Bastard Cedar. Chloroxylon Swietenia 
produces satin wood, and also yields a kind of wood-oil. 

Order 43.—AMPELIDE® or ViTacea, the Vine Family. (Fig. 
692.) (Polypet. Hypog.) Calyx small, nearly entire (fig. 693 c). 
Petals 4-5, sometimes cohering above (fig. 693 p), inserted outside 
an annular hypogynous disk (figs. 693, 694 g); sestivation valvate. 


AMPELIDE OR VITACEA. 461 


Stamens 4-5, opposite to the petals (figs. 693, 694 ¢), inserted on the 
disk ; filaments free, or united at the base; anthers ovate, versatile 
(fig. 694). Ovary 2-6-celled ; ovules erect, anatropal (fig. 695 0); 
style 1, very short ; stigma simple (695 s). Fruit pulpy and globular, 
not united to the calyx (fig. 696), sometimes 1-celled by abortion. 
Seeds 1 to 4 or 5, erect (fig. 697), with an osseous spermoderm, horny 


Fig. 695. Fig. 694. Fig. 693. 


Fig. 692. Fig. 699. Fig. 696. Fig. 698. Fig. 697. 


albumen (figs. 698, 699 p), and an erect embryo (fig. 698 ¢)—Climb- 
ing shrubs, having the lower leaves opposite, the upper ones alternate 
(fig. 239, p. 120). Flowers in racemes, which are often opposite the 
leaves ; floral peduncles sometimes becoming cirrhose. They inhabit 
the milder as well as the hotter parts of both hemispheres, and abound 
in the West Indies. There are 4 genera and 250 species. Examiples 
—Vitis, Cissus, Leea. 

The plants of this order have generally acid leaves, and their 
fruit when ripe is saccharine. Vitis vinifera, the Grape Vine, belongs 
to this order. It is said to be a native of the shores of the Caspian, 
whence it was imported into Europe. The unripe fruit contains a 
harsh acid juice, called verjuice. It contains free citric, malic, and 
tartaric acids, along with bitartrate of potass. As grapes ripen, sugar, 


Fig. 692-699. Organs of fructification of Vitis vinifera, to illustrate the natural order 
Vitacee or Ampelidez. Fig. 692, Diagram of the flower, showing 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5, 
stamens opposite the petals on account of the non-development of one staminal row, a disk, 
and the ovary. Fig. 693. Flower showing the petals, p, detached at the base, and re- 
maining united above in a calyptra-like manner. c, Calyx. g, Glands forming a disk, 
e, Stamens, the filaments of which only are seen. Fig. 694. Flower after the petals have 
fallen. g, Glands of the disk. e, Stamens with versatile anthers. p, Pistil. Fig. 695. 
Vertical section of the flower. c, Calyx. , Petals. ¢, Filaments. o, Ovary, with 2 cells 
and their erect anatropal ovules. s, Stigma, Fig. 696. Globular pulpy fruit, uva, or 
grape, differing from a berry, in the calyx not forming part of the pericarp. It is by some 
called nuculanium. Fig. 697. The seed of the grape, with its osseous spermoderm en- 
closing a hard perisperm. Fig. 698. The seed cut vertically. ¢, The integument or sper- 
moderm. p, Perisperm, or albumen, which is horny. e, Erect embryo, with lanceolate 
cotyledons. Fig. 699. Horizontal section of the seed of the grape, about the middle, ¢, 


Integument or spermoderm. », Perisperm or albumen. 


462 GERANIACEA. 


called Grape-sugar, is formed at the expense of the acids (pp. 164, 165). 
The vessels of the vine are large (fig. 63, p. 19), and the sap passes 
through them with great force and rapidity. When cut in spring the 
plant bleeds freely. The leaves of the vine, on account of their as- 
tringency, have been used in diarrhcea. In France its sap is a popular 
remedy for chronic ophthalmia, Raisins (uve passe), as found in the 
shops, are the produce of Spain and Asia Minor. Muscatel raisins are 
imported from Malaga, and are used for dessert ; Valencia raisins 
from Spain. The stoneless Sultana raisins, from Smyrna, are used for 
culinary purposes. In pharmacy Valencia raisins are used. In 1872, 
the consumption of raisins in Great Britain amounted to 617,418 
ewt., value £1,149,337. The currants of the shops are the dried fruit 
of the Corinthian vine. The name currant in this case is a corruption 
of Corinth. Vitis vulpina yields the Fox-grapes of Rhode Island. 
The leaves of Cissus cordata and C. setosa are said to possess acrid pro- 
perties. The berries of the latter are acrid. Both leaves and fruit of 
Cissus tinctoria abound in a green colouring matter, which on exposure 
to air and light becomes blue, and is highly esteemed as a dye for 
cotton fabrics. Amypelopsis virginica, the Virginian creeper, is com- 
monly cultivated as a climbing plant. 

Order 44.—GERANIACEA, the Cranesbill Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, persistent, more or less unequal (figs. 338, p. 213; 351 ce, 
p. 306), one sometimes spurred at the base (Pelargonium) ; estivation 
imbricated. Petals 5 (or by abortion 4), unguiculate, with contorted 
estivation (figs. 338, p. 213; 379 pp, p. 228). Stamens mona- 
delphous, hypogynous (figs. 338, p. 213 ; 379 e¢, p. 228), twice or thrice 
as many as the petals, some occasionally abortive. Ovary of 5 carpels, 
placed round an elongated axis (fig. 338 t, p. 213); ovules pendulous, 
solitary ; styles 5, cohering round the axis or carpophore (fig. 338, p. 
213), Fruit formed of 5 one-seeded coccoons, terminated each by an 
indurated style, which curls upwards, carrying the coccus or pericarp 
with it (fig. 551, p. 306), Seeds exalbuminous, solitary, with a curved 
folded embryo, and leafy, convolute, and plaited cotyledons (fig. 607, 
p. 339).—Herbs or shrubs, with simple, stipulate leaves, which are 
either opposite, or alternate with peduncles opposite to them. They 
are distributed over various parts of the world. The species of Pelar- 
gonium abound at the Cape of Good Hope. The species of Geranium 
proper have regular flowers without spurs. Authors mention 7 genera, 
including, after separating hybrids, about 300 species. Examples— 
Geranium, Pelargonium. 

The name Cranesbill is derived from the long beak-like prolonga- 
tion of the axis, or what is called the carpophore (p. 240). The plants 
of this order are astringent and aromatic. The root of Geranium macu- 
latum receives the name Alum root, in consequence of being a very 
powerful astringent. The tuberous or moniliform roots of some, such 


VIVIANIACEZ—LINACEA, 463 


as Pelargonium triste (fig. 103, p. 41) are eatable. ‘The root-stock of 
Geranium oblongatum, called the yellow geranium, is used by the 
natives of Namaqualand as an article of food. The species of Pelar- 
gonium are remarkable for the beauty of their flowers. By the art of 
the gardener, and by hybridisation, many fine varieties of Pelargonium 
have been produced. 

Order 45.—Vivianrace&, the Viviania Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, united. Petals 5, hypogynous, unguiculate, persistent, with 
twisted zstivation. Stamens 10, hypogynous ; filaments free ; anthers 
bilocular, opening longitudinally. Ovary free, 3-celled; stigmas 3. 
Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved, loculicidal ; seeds, 2 in each cell, with a 
curved embryo lying among fleshy albumen.—Herbaceous or suffruti- 
cose plants, with opposite or verticillate exstipulate leaves. All the 
members of this order which have yet been discovered inhabit Chili 
and South Brazil. They have no properties of importance. Genera 2 ; 
species 8. Hxamples—Viviania, Cesarea. 

Order 46.—Linacz4, the Flax Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) Sepals 
3, 4, or 5, persistent, with an imbricated estivation. Petals 3, 4, or 
5, fugitive, unguiculate, hypogynous, with a twisted estivation. Sta- 
mens equal to the petals and alternate with them (with intermediate 
teeth or abortive stamens), arising from a hypogynous annular disk ; 
anthers ovate, erect. Ovary with as many cells and styles as sepals, 
seldom fewer ; stigmas capitate ; ovules anatropal, pendulous. Fruit 
a multilocular capsule, pointed generally with the indurated base of 
the styles ; each loculament or cell more or less completely divided by 
a spurious dissepiment, arising from the dorsal suture, and opening 
by two valves at the apex. Seeds solitary in each spurious cell, com- 
pressed, pendulous ; albumen ‘usually in small quantity, sometimes 0 ; 
embryo straight ; cotyledons flat; radicle next the hilum.—Annual 
and perennial plants, with exstipulate, simple, entire leaves, which are 
usually alternate. Many species,of Linum have showy flowers, the 
colours being blue, yellow, and crimson. Linum grandiflorum, from the 
north of Africa, has a beautiful crimson flower. They are scattered 
over the globe, but are said to be most abundant in Kurope and in the 
north of Africa, By some authors the order is associated with 
Geraniacez, from which it differs in its unbeaked fruit and exstipulate 
leaves, as well as the absence of joints in the stem. There are 4 
genera, comprising about 90 species. Hxamples—Linum, Radiola. 

The plants yield mucilage and fibre. Flax, which consists of 
xylem or bast fibre, is procured from the inner bark of the stalk of 
Linum usitatissimum, by the process of steeping and stripping off the 
bark. Linen and cambric are prepared from it. The flax plant is 
supposed to have been originally a native of Egypt, and mummy. 
cloth has been shown to be formed of linen. The integument of the 
seeds is mucilaginous, and an infusion of them in boiling water is used 


464 BALSAMINACEH—OXALIDACEA, 


as a demulcent and diuretic. The cotyledons of the seeds are olea- 
ginous, and by expression yield Linseed oil, which has the property 
of drying and hardening into an elastic varnish on exposure to the 
air. It is used medicinally for burns, mixed with lime water. After 
expressing the oil a cake remains, called oil-cake, which is used for 
fattening cattle. The powdered cake receives the name of linseed 
meal, and is commonly used for poultices. Another species of Linum, 
called L. catharticum, has purgative properties, which seem to depend 
on the presence of an acrid bitter matter, called Linin, Linum sela- 
ginotdes is considered in Peru bitter and aperient. 

Order 47.—BatsaMInaces, the Balsam Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, irregular, deciduous, the two inner and upper connate, 
coloured, the lower (odd) sepal spurred (fig. 640, p. 366); estivation 
imbricated. Petals alternate with the sepals, usually 4, in conse- 
quence of 1 being abortive, often more or less irregularly united ; 
estivation convolute. Stamens 5. Ovary 5-celled; ovules usually 
numerous, stigma sessile, more or less 5-lobed. Fruit a 5-celled 
capsule, opening septifragally, by 5 elastic valves. Seeds usually 
numerous, suspended, exalbuminous, with a straight embryo, and 
radicle next the hilum. —Succulent herbaceous plants with watery 
juice, having simple, opposite, or alternate, exstipulate leaves, and 
axillary irregular flowers. They inhabit chiefly the East Indies, and 
are remarkable for the force with which the seed-vessels open when 
ripe. The valves give way on account of the osmose which goes on 
in the cells, and they then curl up in a peculiar manner (pp. 15, 344). 
They have usually showy flowers, but their properties are unimportant. 
Lindley mentions 2 genera, including 136 species. Examples—Im- 
patiens, Hydrocera. 

Order 48.— Oxattpacem, the Wood-sorrel Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals 5, equal, sometimes cohering slightly at the base, 
persistent, imbricate in estivation. Petals 5, equal, unguiculate, 
hypogynous, with a twisted estivation. Stamens 10, more or less 
monadelphous, in 2 rows ; those opposite the petals being longer than 
those in the outer row ; anthers erect, bilocular, Ovary usually quin- 
quelocular ; styles filiform, distinct ; ‘stigmas capitate or slightly bifid. 
Fruit capsular, membranous or fleshy, usually 5-celled, and when 
dehiscent 5-10 valved. Seeds few, anatropal, albuminous, attached 
to a central placenta, sometimes with a peculiar elastic integument ; 
embryo straight, as long as the fleshy albumen, with a long radicle and 
leafy cotyledons, —Herbs, undershrubs, or trees, with alternate, rarely 
Opposite compound (occasionally simple) leaves, which are generally 
without stipules, They are found in the hot as ‘well as the temperate 
parts of the world, and are abundant in North America and at the 
Cape of Good Hope, The shrubby species are confined to the hotter 
parts of the world. In some cases phyllodia, or winged petioles, occupy 


TROPAOLACEA!—PITTOSPORACEA. 465 


the place of leaves. The genus Hugonia is placed by some in the order 
Linacex, along with Roucheria. There are about 6 known genera, and 
upwards of 230 species, Zuamples—Oxalis, Averrhoa, Hugonia. 

They are often acid in their properties. Some of them yield 
esculent roots. Oxalis Acetosella, common Wood-sorrel, receives its 
name from its acid taste. It contains binoxalate of potash, which is 
sometimes called the salt of sorrel, and at other times the essential salt 
of lemons. The plant has been used as a refrigerant and antiscorbutic. 
Its leaves are trifoliate, and some have considered it to be the true 
Shamrock, in consequence of being in flower about the period of the 
year when St. Patrick’s day occurs. Some of the oxalises, as 0. sen- 
sitiva, have sensitive leaves, and experiments have been made in regard 
to their closing and opening by Morren (p. 377). Oxalis crenata, 
esculenta, and Deppet, yield tubers, which have been used as a substi- 
tute for potatoes. The acid fruits of Averrhoa Bilimbi and Carambola 
are used in the East Indies as food. 

Order 49.—TropxoLacrm, the Indian Cress Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Sepals usually 5, the upper spurred (fig. 299, p. 198) ; 
estivation slightly imbricate. Petals often 5, hypogynous, more or 
less unequal, sometimes abortive (fig. 641, p. 366) ; cestivation con- 
volute. Stamens 8 or 10, seldom fewer, free, almost perigynous ; 
anthers bilocular, innate. Ovary triquetrous, composed of 3-5 carpels, 
with a single style, and 3-5 acute stigmas; ovules solitary, often pen- 
dulous. Fruit indehiscent, usually composed of 3 pieces. Seeds 
exalbuminous, with a large embryo, which has thick, often united, 
cotyledons, and a radicle next the hilum. — Herbaceous trailing or 
twining plants, having a delicate texture, with alternate exstipulate 
leaves, and axillary, often gay, flowers. They are natives of the tem- 
perate parts of America, and are extensively cultivated on account of 
their showy yellow, orange, scarlet, and occasionally blue flowers. 
The free spur of Tropzeolum represents the adherent spur of Pelar- 
gonium. They have more or less pungency in their fruit, which is 
used as a cress. The unripe fruit of Tropwolum majus, common In- 
dian Cress, or Garden Nasturtium, has been pickled, and used as capers, 
LIMNANTHACEZ are included by some in this order. They are charac- 
terised by regular flowers, valvate sepals, glands alternating with the 
petals, stamens double the number of the petals, carpels not beaked, 
indehiscent, separating from the axis, ovules solitary, with an inferior 
micropyle. ‘The species are found in North America, Limnanthes 
is a Californian genus, with showy flowers. Their roots are sometimes 
eaten. Genera 4, including 40 species. Hxample, Tropolum, Floer- 
kea, Limnanthes. 

Order 50.—Prrrosporaces, the Pittosporum Family. (Polypet, 
Hypog.) Sepals 4 or 5, deciduous ; distinct or partially united ; zsti- 
vation imbricated. Petals 4 or 5, sometimes slightly cohering, with 

2H 


466 ZYGOPHYLLACEA. 


imbricated estivation. Stamens 5, distinct, alternate with the petals. 
Ovary single, 2-5-celled ; style 1; stigmas 2-5, equal in number to 
the placentas. Fruit capsular or berried, with many-seeded cells, 
which are sometimes incomplete ; dehiscence loculicidal. Seeds often 
enveloped in a glutinous or resinous pulp, anatropal, with a minute 
embryo lying in fleshy albumen ; radicle long ; cotyledons very short. 
—Trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate, exstipulate leaves, and flowers 
occasionally polygamous. Some place the order next Tremandracex 
and Bixacee. They are found chiefly in Australia. Many of them 
are resinous, and, in some instances, the berries are eaten. Bursaria 
spinosa is called native Box and native Myrtle ,in Van Diemen’s 
Land. Authors mention 9 genera, including 90 species. Examples— 
Pittosporum, Billardiera, Sollya, Bursaria. 

Order 51,—ZycorHytLaces, the Guaiacum Family. (Polypet. 
Hypog.) Calyx 4-5-parted, with convolute zstivation. Petals alter- 
nate with the calycine segments, estivation imbricated. Stamens 
twice as many as the petals; filaments dilated at the base, usually 
arising from scales (fig. 345, p. 217). Ovary simple, 4-5-celled ; 
divisions occasionally formed by spurious dissepiments (figs. 534, 535, 
p. 300). Ovules 2 or more in each cell, usually pendulous ; style 
simple, 4-5-furrowed ; stigma simple, or 4-5-lobed. Fruit capsular 
or rarely fleshy, with 4-5 angles or wings, 4-5-valved, either opening 
by loculicidal dehiscence, or indehiscent. Seeds few, usually with 
whitish albumen, sometimes exalbuminous; embryo green, with foli- 
aceous cotyledons and a superior radicle.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, 
with opposite, stipulate, usually compound leaves, which are not 
dotted, and hermaphrodite flowers. They occur in various parts of 
the world, chiefly in warm extra-tropical regions, as in the south of 
Europe, America, Africa, and India. The order has been divided into 
two sections :—1. Zygophyllez, having albuminous seeds. 2. Tri- 
bulez, having exalbuminous seeds. Authors mention 10 genera, 
comprising 60 species. xamples—Zygophyllum, Guaiacum, Tribulus. 

Some of the plants abound in a stimulant resin, which pervades 
the wood and bark; others are bitter and acrid. The medicinal 
species are used as sudorifics. Zygophyllum Fabago is called the Bean- 
caper, on account of its flowers being used as a substitute for capers. 
The plant is said to act as a vermifuge. Guaiacwm officinale is a 
beautiful West Indian tree, the wood of which, commonly called 
lignum-vitee, is prized for its hardness. The alburnum is of a greyish- 
yellow colour, while the duramen is greenish-black. The fibres of the 
wood are remarkable for their direction, being cross-grained, in conse- 
quence of one layer crossing another diagonally. It yields a resinous 
matter known as the resin of Guaiac, or Gum-guaiac. This resin 
exudes spontaneously, or it may be procured by incisions, or by the 
application of heat. A solution of the resin in alcohol, when applied 


RUTACEA, 467 


to the fresh cut surface of a potato, gives rise to a blue colour. Both 
the wood and the resin are used medicinally on account of their 
stimulant diaphoretic properties. In decoction and tincture they are 
administered in cutaneous and syphilitic diseases. Guatacum sanctum 
from Mexico and the Bahamas also supplies Guaiac resin, and is 
sometimes used medicinally on the continent. Tribulus terrestris is a 
prickly plant which grows in the East, and is found in Palestine. 
Some suppose that the Hebrew word 1755, dardar, translated thistle 
in the Old Testament, and re/Sodos, translated thistle in the New 
Testament, refers to this plant (figs. 534, 535, p. 300). 

Order 52.—Rutaces, the Rue Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) See 
figs. 632, 633, p. 364. Calyx having 4-5 segments, with an imbricated 
estivation. Petals alternate with the divisions of the calyx, distinct, 
or cohering below into a spurious gamopetalous corolla, rarely wanting ; 
estivation either contorted or valvate. Stamens equal in number to 
the petals (fig. 632, p. 364), or twice or thrice as many (rarely fewer 
by abortion or non-development) (fig. 633, p. 364), usually hypogy- 
nous, but in some instances perigynous. Between the stamens and 
ovary there is a more or less complete cup-shaped disk, which is either 
free or united to the calyx. Ovary sessile or supported on a gyno- 
phore (fig. 416, p. 239), its carpels equal to the petals in number or 
fewer ; ovules 2, rarely 4 or more in each carpel; styles adherent 
above (fig. 416, p. 239); stigma simple or dilated. Fruit capsular, 
its parts either combined completely or partially ; seeds solitary or in 
pairs, albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo with a superior radicle. 
—Trees or shrubs, with exstipulate, opposite, or alternate leaves, 
usually covered with pellucid resinous dots (figs. 92, p. 35; 95, p. 36), 
and hermaphrodite flowers. The order has been subdivided into two 
sub-orders :—1. Rutez, with albuminous seeds, and the fruit with 
sarcocarp and endocarp combined. 2. Diosmez, with exalbuminous 
seeds, and a 2-valved endocarp, which dehisces at the base, and when 
the fruit is ripe separates from a 2-valved sarcocarp. Rutez are 
found chiefly in the southern part of the temperate zone, as in the 
south of Europe, while Diosmez abound at the Cape of Good Hope and 
in Australia. Authors mention 44 genera and 430 species. Examples— 
Ruta, Dictamnus, Diosma, Barosma, Correa, Boronia, Zieria, Pilocarpus. 

The plants are remarkable for their peculiar odour, which is very 
powerful and penetrating. Many have antispasmodic properties, 
while others are bitter, and act as febrifuges and tonics. The leaves 
and unripe fruit of Ruta graveolens, common or garden Rue, are used 
in medicine as stimulant, antispasmodic, anthelmintic, and emmen- 
agogue. They emit when bruised a strong and peculiar oppressive 
odour, and have a bitter and acrid taste. By distillation with water 
they yield a yellow acrid volatile oil, which is their active constituent. 
The leaves of various species of Barosma, especially B. crenulata, 


468 XANTHOXYLACEAI—SIMARUBACEZ. 


serratifolia, and betulina, are used in medicine under the name of 
Buchu. They contain a yellowish volatile oil, having a powerful 
odour, and they have been used as stimulants and antispasmodics, 
They are prescribed in catarrh of the bladder. Jaborandi, a sudorific 
and sialagogue from Pernambuco, appears to be the produce of a 
species. of Pilocarpus. Galipea Cusparia (G. officinalis, or Bon- 
plandia trifoliata), a plant found in Venezuela, supplies the Angos- 
tura bark, which is used as a tonic and febrifuge. The bark is im- 
ported by way of Trinidad. On the continent Angostura bark is 
sometimes adulterated with the poisonous bark of Strychnos Nux- 
vomica. Some of the species of Dictamnus, such as D. Fraainedla, 
False Dittany, abound in volatile oil to such a degree that the atmo- 
sphere around them becomes inflammable in hot, dry, and calm 
weather. The Correas are remarkable for their gamopetalous corolla, 
The leaves of some of the species have been used for tea in Australia. 

Order 53, —XANTHOXYLACES or ZANTHOXYLACE#, the Xanthoxy- 
lon Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) Flowers unisexual. Calyx in 3, 4, 
or 5 segments, with imbricated estivation. Petals the same num- 
ber, rarely 0, usually larger than the calyx ; sestivation imbricated or 
convolute. Stamens as many, or twice as many, as the petals, not 
developed in the female flowers. Ovary consisting of as many 
carpels as there are petals (sometimes fewer), the carpels being either 
completely or partially united (fig. 414, p. 238); ovules 2, rarely 4, 
in each carpel; styles more or less combined (fig. 414 s, p. 238). 
Fruit baccate or membranous, sometimes of 2-5 cells, sometimes of 
several drupes, or 2-valved capsules, the fleshy sarcocarp of which is 
partially separable from the endocarp. Seeds solitary or in pairs, pen-. 
dulous ; embryo lying within fleshy albumen ; radicle superior ; coty- 
ledons ovate, flat.—Trees or shrubs, with exstipulate, alternate, or 
opposite leaves, having pellucid dots. They exist chiefly in the 
tropical parts of America. Authors enumerate.24 genera, including 
160 species. ELxamples—Xanthoxylon, Toddalia, Ptelea. 

The plants yield a volatile oil, which is aromatic and pungent. 
Some are diaphoretic in their properties, others are febrifugal and 
tonic. The pungency of species of Xanthoxylon has caused them 
sometimes to be denominated peppers. Xanthoxylon fraxinewm, or 
prickly ash, acts as a sialagogue. X. cartbeum has a bitter and febri- 
fugal bark. The bitter principle secreted by many of the plants of 
this order is called Xanthopicrine. Toddalia aculeata, a prickly climb- 
ing plant of the Indian Peninsula, the Mauritius, and Southern China, 
furnishes a pungent aromatic root. The bark of the root is used in 
India as a stimulating tonic. It was formerly known in Europe as 
Radix indica Lopeziana. 

Order 54.—SimaRuBAcEs, the Quassia and Simaruba Family. 
(Polypet. Hypog.) Flowers usually hermaphrodite. Calyx in 4 or 5 


OCHNACEA. 469 


divisions ; estivation imbricated. Petals 4 or 5, spreading or conni- 
vent into a kind of tube; estivation twisted. Stamens twice as 
many as the petals ; filaments arising from scales. Ovary 4-5-lobed, 
4-5-celled, supported on a gynophore ; ovules solitary ; styles simple ; 
stigma 4-5-lobed. Fruit indehiscent, consisting of 4 or 5 drupes 
arranged round a common receptacle. Seeds anatropal, pendulous ; 
embryo exalbuminous.—Trees or shrubs, with exstipulate, alternate, 
usually compound leaves without dots. They are found in the tropical 
parts of America, Asia, and Africa. Authors give 30 genera, and 112 
species. Haxamples—Simaruba, Quassia, Picreena, 

All the plants of the order are intensely bitter. Quassia wood 
was originally the product of Quassia amara, a tall shrub, never above 
15 feet in height, inhabiting Surinam, Guiana, and Colombia. It is 
a very ornamental plant, and has remarkable pinnate leaves, with 
winged petioles. In their early state the leaves seem to be simple, 
but in the progress of growth two or more contractions take place, at 
each of which two leaflets appear, the pairs being separated by a 
winged midrib,—a continuation of the petiole. This Surinam Quassia 
does not appear to be exported now, and it is not met with in English 
trade. The Quassia of the shops is the wood of Picrena excelsa, a 
very large forest tree, attaining a height of nearly 100 feet, growing 
in Jamaica and other West Indian islands, where it is called Bitter 
Ash, and Bitter Wood. The quantity shipped from Jamaica in 1871 
was 56 tons. Quassia is used medicinally, in the form of infusion 
and tincture as a tonic and anthelmintic. It acts as a narcotic poison 
on flies and other insects. Although prohibited by law, it is fre- 
quently employed by brewers as a substitute for hops. The bitterness 
of Quassia is said to be owing to a crystalline principle called Quas- 
sin. The bark of the root of Simaruba amara or officinalis, a tree 
found in Cayenne and in the West Indies, is used as a bitter tonic 
and astringent, more especially in the advanced stages of diarrhcea 
and dysentery. Brucea antidysenterica was at one time erroneously 
supposed to furnish false Angostura bark. It has properties similar 
to those of Quassia. The bark of Samadera indica is bitter and tonic, 
and contains a principle like Quassia. 

Order 55.—Ocunaces, the Ochna Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Sepals 5, persistent, imbricated in estivation. Petals equal to, or 
twice as many as the sepals, deciduous, spreading, imbricated in esti- 
vation, Stamens 5, opposite the sepals, or 10, or indefinite ; filaments 
persistent, attached to a hypogynous disk; anthers bilocular, innate, 
opening by pores, or longitudinally. Carpels as many as the petals, 
seated on an enlarged gynobase (thecaphore) ; ovules erect or pendu- 
lous, styles united into one. Fruit gynobasic, consisting of several 
succulent, indehiscent, monospermous éarpels. Seeds anatropal, usually 
exalbuminous ; embryo straight ; radicle short; cotyledons thick.— 


470 CORIARIACEZ—STACKHOUSIACEA. 


Undershrubs or trees, with alternate, simple, stipulate leaves, and 
pedicels articulated in the middle. They grow in tropical countries, 
and are remarkable for the large succulent prolongation of the recep- 
tacle to which the carpels are attached. They fare generally bitter, 
and some of them are used as tonics. Genera, 12; species, 140. 
Ezxamples—Ochna, Gomphia, Godoya. 

Order 56.—Cor1artacea, the Coriaria Family. (Polypet. Hypog.) 
Flowers unisexual. Calyx campanulate, 5-parted ; zestivation imbri- 
cate. Petals alternate with the calycine segments, very small, fleshy, 
with a keel on the internal surface. Stamens 10 (fig. 636, p. 365) ; 
filaments filiform, distinct; anthers dithecal, oblong. Ovary com- 
posed usually of 5 carpels, attached to a thickened receptacle or gyno- 
base, 5-celled ; ovules solitary, pendulous; style 0; stigmas 5, long 
and glandular. Fruit, consisting of 5 monospermous, indehiscent 
crustaceous carpels, enclosed by the enlarged petals. Seeds pendulous, 
anatropal, exalbuminous ; embryo nearly straight ; cotyledons fleshy ; 
radicle short and blunt.—Shrubs with opposite square branches, oppo- 
site, simple, ribbed leaves, and scaly buds. They are found in small 
numbers!in the south of Europe, South America, India, and New 
Zealand. Some of them are poisonous. ‘The leaves of Coriaria myrti- 
folia have been employed to adulterate Alexandrian Senna on the 
Continent. The leaves are known from those of true Senna by being 
3-ribbed, and by wanting the inequality at their base which charac- 
terises true Senna. The leaves are used for dyeing black, and an in- 
fusion of them gives a dark-blue with sulphate of iron. Coriaria rusct- 
folia is the Toot or Tutu plant of New Zealand, the seeds and young 
shoots of which are narcotico-acrid poisons. Genus, 1; species, 5. 
Example—Coriaria. 


Sub-class II. —CatycirLor#&. 


In this Sub-class are included the polypetalous orders of Jussieu, 
in which the stamens are not hypogynous, as well as some mono- 
petalous and diclinous orders. A calyx and corolla are present, in 
other words, the plants are dichlamydeous ; the petals are distinct or 
united, and the stamens are either attached to the calyx, and free 
from the ovary, or they are placed above the ovary,—being perigynous 
or epigynous. This sub-class, along with Thalamiflore, comprises the 
dialypetalee of Endlicher. There are also included in it gamopetalous 
plants in which the ovary is inferior. 


Section L—Potypretata. Petals separate, stamens perigynous or 
epigynous, 

Order 57.—SrackuHoustace#, the Stackhousia Family. (Poly- 
pet. Perigyn.) Calyx, 5-cleft, equal, with an inflated tube. Petals 
5, equal, inserted at the top of the tube of the calyx, claws of the 


CELASTRACEZ, 471 


petals united, limb narrow and stellate. Stamens 5, unequal, attached 
to the tube of the calyx. Ovary superior, 3-5-celled, cells partially 
distinct ; ovules solitary, erect ; styles 3-5, sometimes united at the 
base; stigmas simple. Fruit consisting of 3-5 indehiscent pieces, 
which are sometimes winged, and are attached to a central persistent 
column. Seeds anatropal ; embryo long, erect, in the axis of fleshy 
albumen.—Shrubs with simple, entire, alternate, stipulate leaves, 
found chiefly in Australia, and not possessing any marked properties. 
Genus, 1; species, 20. Hxample—Stackhousia, 

Order 58.—CrLAsSTRACE#, the Spindle-tree Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Sepals 4-5 imbricated in eestivation. Petals 4-5 on a 
fleshy disk surrounding the ovary, estivation imbricated. Stamens 
alternate with the petals; anthers erect. Disk large, flat, and ex- 
panded, surrounding the ovary to which it adheres. Ovary superior, 
2-5-celled ; ovules ascending, one or numerous, attached to the axis by 
_ a short funiculus, Fruit either a 2-5-celled capsule, with loculicidal 
dehiscence, or drupaceous. Seeds one or many in each cell, anatropal, 
usually ascending, and sometimes arillate (figs. 577, 578, p. 328) ; 
albumen fleshy ; embryo straight, with flat cotyledons and a short 
radicle.-—Small trees or shrubs, with simple, alternate, rarely opposite 
leaves, and small deciduous stipules. They inhabit the warm parts of 
Europe, North America, and Asia, and many are found at the Cape of 
Good Hope. Hippocrates are arborescent or climbing shrubs, found 
chiefly in South America. The order contains 39 known genera and 
400 species. It has been divided into two tribes :—1. Celastreze, with 
4-5 stamens inserted on the margin of the disk, filaments subulate, 
seeds albuminous. 2. Hippocrateze with, usually, 3 stamens inserted 
on the face of the disk, filaments flattened, seeds exalbuminous. 
Examples—Celastrus, Euonymus, Catha, Eleodendron, Hippocratea. 

The plants of the order have subacrid properties, and the seeds of 
some yield a useful oil. Those of Celastrus nutans or paniculatus are 
said in India to be of a stimulant nature, and to be used as a remedy 
in the disease called Beriberi. Some of the species of Celastrus, as C, 
venenatus, are reckoned poisonous. The seeds of Huonymus, Spindle- 
tree, are surrounded by an aril, or rather arillode, which is considered 
as a prolongation from the exostome (figs. 577, 578, p.328). In some 
of the species the capsules are crimson, and with the bright scarlet 
arillodes, they present a very showy appearance when the fruit is ripe. 
The bark of Huonymus tingens furnishes a yellow dye, which is used for 
marking the tika on the forehead of the Hindoos. It is also considered 
useful in diseases of the eye. The young shoots of Euonymus euro- 
peus, when charred, are used to form a particular kind of drawing- 
pencil ; its fruit and inner bark are said to be purgative and emetic. 
The young shoots of Catha edulis furnish the Arabian drug called Kat, 
which is used as a stimulant. The fruit of Salacia pyriformis, a native 


472 STAPHYLEACEEZ—RHAMNACEZ. 


of Sierra Leone, is about the size of a Bergamot Pear: its flavour is 
rich and sweet. The nuts of Hippocratea comosa are oily and sweet ; it 
is called, in the French West Indian Islands, Amandier du Bois. 

Order 59.—SvapHyiLEaces, the Bladder-nut Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) (Fig. 638, p. 366.) Sepals 5, united at the base, coloured. 
imbricated in estivation. Petals 5, alternate, with an imbricated 
estivation. Stamens 5, alternate with the petals. Disk large and 
urceolate. Ovary 2-3-celled, superior ; ovules usually ascending ; 
styles, 2-3, cohering at the base. Fruit membranous or fleshy, inde- 
hiscent or opening internally, often partly abortive. Seeds anatropal, 
roundish, truncate at the hilum, with a bony testa ; albumen generally 
0; embryo straight, with thick cotyledons and a small inferior radicle. 
—Shrubs with opposite, pinnate leaves, having stipules and stipels. 
By many authors they are included under the last order. The plants 
are found in Europe, America, and Asia. Some are subacrid, while 
others are bitter and astringent. The species of Staphylea receive the , 
name of bladder-nut, on account of their inflated bladder-like pericarp. 
They are cultivated as handsome shrubs. Three known genera are 
enumerated and 14 species. Example—Staphylea. 

Order 60.— Ruamnacea#, the Buckthorn Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Calyx 4-5-cleft, valvate in estivation. Petals distinct, 
hooded or convolute, inserted into the throat of the calyx, sometimes 
0. Stamens definite, opposite the petals. Disk large, fleshy, flat or 
urceolate. Ovary superior or half superior, 2-3- or 4-celled ; ovules 
solitary, erect, anatropal. Fruit fleshy and indehiscent, or dry and 
separating into three parts. Seeds erect ; albumen fleshy, rarely 0 ; 
embryo about as long as the seed, with a short inferior radicle and 
large flat cotyledons ; raphe dorsal or lateral.—tTrees or shrubs, often 
spiny, with simple, alternate, rarely opposite leaves, and minute 
stipules. They are generally distributed over the globe, and are 
found both in temperate and tropical regions. There are 37 genera, 
and 430 species enumerated. EHxamples—Rhamuus, Ceanothus, Phy- 
lica, Pomaderris. 

Many of the plants of the order have active cathartic properties. 
Some, however, yield edible fruit, and others are tonic and febrifugal. 
Rhamnus catharticus, common or purging Buckthorn, is a European 
shrub, the black succulent fruits or berries of which are used as a 
hydragogue cathartic in cases of dropsy. The greenish juice becomes 
gradually red by the formation of acetic acid in it. It may be pre- 
served unchanged in the form of syrup. When mixed with lime and 
evaporated to dryness, it forms the colour called sap-green. The 
fruit of Rhamnus Frangula, Black Alder, is emetic and purgative. 
The wood supplies charcoal for gunpowder, and crayons for artists, 
The berries of Rhamnus infectorius, as well as those of other species, 
are known by the name of French berries. They have been used for 


ANACARDIACEA, 473 


dyeing yellow. The fruit of many species of Zizyphus is used for 
food; Zizyphus Jujuba supplies the fruit called Jujube; and the 
Lotus, or Lote-bush of the classics, whence the Lotophagi were named, 
is Zizyphus Lotus, A kind of Scinde lac is found on Zizyphus Jujuba, 
Paliurus aculeatus, Christ’s-thorn, is common in the hedges of Judea. 
Ceanothus Americanus is used in America as an astringent, and its 
leaves, under the name of New Jersey Tea, have been used as a sub- 
stitute for tea. The leaves of Sageretia theezans are used for the same 
purpose by the poorer classes in China, Phylica arborea is a tree 
found in the island of Tristan d’Acunha, and also on Amsterdam 
Island in the South Indian Ocean, the two islands being separated 
by 5000 miles of ocean, and being nearly in the same latitude. 

Order 61.—ANACARDIACES, the Cashew-nut Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Flowers usually unisexual. Calyx usually small and per- 
sistent, with 5, or sometimes 3-4-7 divisions. Petals equal in num- 
ber to the calycine divisions, perigynous, sometimes 0 ; imbricated in 
estivation. Stamens either equal to the petals in number and alter- 
nate with them, or twice as many or more; filaments distinct or 
cohering at the base, usually perigynous. Disk fleshy, annular or 
cup-shaped, sometimes inconspicuous. Ovary single, rarely 5 or 6, 
free or adhering to the calyx, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, attached by a 
funiculus to the bottom or along the side of the cell; styles 1-3, 
occasionally 4; sigmas 1-3 or 4. Fruit usually drupaceous and inde- 
hiscent. Seed ascending or frequently pendulous, from the adherence 
of the funiculus to the angle of the cell, exalbuminous ; radicle inferior 
or superior, sometimes curved suddenly back ; cotyledons thick, fleshy, 
or leafy.—Trees or shrubs, with a resinous, often caustic juice, and 
alternate leaves without dots. The order is a subdivision of the 
Terebinthacese of Jussieu. The natural order SABrlacEa&, embracing 
East Indian plants, is considered by some as a tribe of Terebinthacez. 
The plants inhabit chiefly the tropical parts of America, Africa, and 
India ; some, however, are found in Europe. The order is unknown 
in Australia. There are 46 known genera and 450 species. Examples 
—Anacardium, Rhus, Mangifera, Spondias. 

The order is characterised by the presence of an acrid resinous 
juice. In some cases, however, the fruit of the plants is edible. 
Many of them supply varnishes. Anacardiwm occidentale furnishes the 
Cashew-nut, which is remarkable for its large succulent peduncle sup- 
porting the fruit or nut (fig. 248, p.173). The pericarp has the acrid 
properties which pervade the order, while the seed is eatable. A vesi- 
cating oil is procured from the pericarp, and is called cardole in the 
East Indies. The fleshy peduncle is acid and edible, and a bland gum 
exudes from the bark. Pstacéa vera is the Pistacia or Pistachio nut- 
tree, which extends from Syria to Bokhara and Caubul, and is culti- 
vated in the south of Europe. It has green-coloured oily kernels, 


474 ANACARDIACEA. 


which are used as articles of diet. The Hebrew word p'3012 (botnim), 
translated nuts in Gen. xliii. 11, is supposed to refer to the fruit of 
this plant. P. Terebinthus is a native of the southern part of Europe, 
and the northern part of Africa, and yields a liquid resinous exudation, 
known as the Chian or Cyprian turpentine. The turpentine receives 
its name on account of being collected in the island of Chio or Scio, 
where the plant thrives. The plant is common on the islands and 
shores of the Mediterranean, and is found in Asia Minor, Syria, and 
Palestine. The tree attains a height of 30 or 35 feet, and one tree 
will yield ten ounces of the liquid resinous matter, which thickens on 
exposure to air, by the loss of volatile oil. Like other turpentines, 
it has diuretic and excitant properties. Pistacia Lentiscus, the Len- 
tisk, a native of the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, furnishes 
the concrete resinous exudation called Mastich or Mastic. It isa 
bush of about 10 or 12 feet in height, which is cultivated abundantly 
in the island of Chios. Mastich is used as a masticatory for consoli- 
dating the gums and cleansing the teeth. It has also been employed as 
an antispasmodic, and it enters into the composition of varnishes. 
Rhus Toxicodendron, Poison-oak, is a shrub found in Canada and the 
United States, the leaves of which have been used as stimulants in 
cases of palsy. Like the other species of this genus, it yields an acrid 
milky juice, which becomes black on exposure to the air. Rhus 
radicans, Poison-ivy, or Poison-vine, is probably another name of the 
same species, Rhus venenata, Poison-sumach, or Poison-elder, has 
acrid, poisonous properties, and contact with it, in some instances, 
gives rise to inflammation of the skin. Cases are related of persons 
who are peculiarly liable to be thus affected, and in whom the irrita- 
tion caused by the juice of the poisonous species of Rhus is very great, 
and even alarming. Rhus coriarta, R. typhina, and R, glabra, are used 
for tanning, and their fruit is acid. Rhus Cotinus is called Arbre d 
perruque (Wig-tree) in France, on account of the hairy appearance of 
its abortive pedicels. Many of the plants in this order furnish var- 
nishes and marking ink. Semecarpus Anacardium, commonly called 
the Marking-nut tree, supplies the Sylhet varnish, while Melanorrhea 
usitatissima furnishes that of Martaban. Stagmaria vernicifiua is the 
source of the hard black varnish called Japan Lacquer. The leaves 
of many of the species of Schinus, as 8. Molle, when torn and 
thrown on the surface of water, send out a resinous matter with 
great force, so as to cause a sort of spontaneous motion by the recoil. 
Although a resinous principle pervades the plants of this order, yet in 
some cases it is not developed in the fruit, which becomes eatable. 
Of this an illustration is furnished by the Mango, the produce of 
Mangifera indica. The Hog-plums of the West Indies are furnished 
by various species of Spondias, as S. purpurea and Mombin. Spondias 
dulcis yields the fruit called Wi in the Fiji islands. 


BURSERACEA. 475 


Order 62.—Bursreracrs,’ the Myrrh and Frankincense Family. 
(Polypet. Perigyn.) Flowers usually bisexual, sometimes unisexual by 
abortion. Calyx persistent, regular or nearly so, with 2 to 5 divisions. 
Petals 3-5, inserted at the base of the calyx; estivation valvate or 
imbricated. Stamens twice or four times as many as the petals, peri- 
gynous. Disk covering the base of the calyx often in a ring-like man- 
ner. Ovary superior, sessile, 1-5 celled; ovules in pairs, anatropal, 
. pendulous or suspended ; style 1 or none; stigma simple or lobed, 
sometimes capitate, Fruit dry, 1-5-celled, indehiscent, or its epicarp 
splitting into valves. Seeds solitary, exalbuminous, with a superior 
radicle next the hilum, and cotyledons, which are fleshy or wrinkled. 
—Trees or shrubs, abounding in resin, with opposite or alternate 
compound leaves, which are frequently stipulate and dotted. They are 
natives of tropical regions. There are two tribes :—1. Burserez, with 
a 2-5-celled ovary ; 2. Amyridex, with an unilocular ovary. Some 
look upon the stamens of Amyridez as truly hypogynous, and consider 
the order as allied to Aurantiacee, Authors give 26 genera and 56 
species. Hxamples—Amyris, Boswellia, Bursera, Balsamodendron. 

The plants yield a fragrant balsamic and resinous juice, which, 
in a dry state, is often used as frankincense, and is employed medi- 
cinally as a stimulant or expectorant. The resin called Elemi is 
supposed to be produced by species of Canarium (C. commune and 
balsamiferum, The resin contains a stimulant volatile oil. Olibanum 
(Frankincense), the nad (Lebonah) of the Scriptures, is procured from 
the stem of several species of Boswellia which inhabit the hot and 
arid regions of eastern Africa near Cape Gardafui, and of the southern 
coast of Arabia. Among these may be mentioned Boswellia Carterit 
of Birdwood, including several varieties, B. Bhau-Dajiana of Birdwood, 
and B. Frereana. The two latter are natives of the Somali country. 
The last mentioned yields a resin called Luban Matti, which Hanbury 
considers to be the substance originally known as Elemi. The quan- 
tity of olibanum exported from Bombay in 1872-73 was 25,100 cwt. 
It is used for incense in the Roman Catholic and Greek churches. Bos- 
wellia thurifera, the Salai tree of India, produces an odoriferous resin. 
It contains a volatile oil, and has been used as a stimulant, and as a 
material for fumigation. Balsamodendron (Protium ?) Myrrha, a shrub 
growing in Abyssinia, appears to be the source of the officinal myrrh, 
the 49 (mor) of the Bible. It is a bitter aromatic gum-resin, con- 
taining volatile oil, and was used in ancient times as frankincense. It 
is a heating stimulant, and is employed medicinally as an emmenagogue 
and diaphoretic, as well as for arresting various mucous discharges, 
The resin called Bdellium is procured from various species of Balsamo- 
dendron, as B. africanum and Roxburghti. The bdellium of Scripture 
(nda) is not known. Thecelebrated balsam called Balm of Gilead, y¥ 
(tzori) is an exudation from Balsamodendron gileadense, Tacamahac 


A476 CONNARACEAI—LEGUMINOSAL 


is procured from Elaphriwm tomentosum. Various other balsams and 
resins are yielded by plants of this order. Amyris toxifera is said to 
be poisonous. 

Order 63.—ConnaRacea, the Connarus Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual. Calyx 5-partite, regu- 
lar, persistent ; sestivation imbricate or valvate. Petals 5, inserted at 
the base of the calyx. Stamens twice as many as the petals, inserted 
with them, and doubtfully hypogynous ; filaments united at the base. 
Ovary consisting of one or more separate carpels, each having a ter- 
minal style and a dilated stigma; ovules in pairs, collateral, ascend- 
ing, orthotropal. Fruit follicular, dehiscing along the ventral suture. 
Seeds solitary or in pairs, erect, with or without albumen, sometimes 
arillate ; embryo with a superior radicle, remote from the hilum, and 
cotyledons, which are either fleshy or leafy.—Trees or shrubs, with 
compound, alternate, exstipulate leaves, which are not dotted. They 
are tropical plants, and according to Endlicher are common in America. 
Some of them have febrifugal properties. Omphalobium (Agelea) Lam- 
berti is said to furnish Zebra-wood. This order, as well as the orders 
Anacardiaceee and Amyridacez, are by many considered truly hypo-, 
gynous, and as belonging to Thalamiflore. Lindley includes them in 
his Rutal alliance. Genera 12, species 140. Hxamples—Connarus, 
Omphalobium, Cnestis. 

Order 64.— Lecuminos& (Fabacee of Lindley), the Pea and 
Bean Tribe. (Polypet. Perigyn.) Calyx 5-partite, toothed, or cleft 
(figs. 700, 701 ¢ c), with the odd segment anterior ; segments often 
unequal and variously combined. Petals 5 (figs. 700, 701), or by 
abortion, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0, inserted into the base of the calyx, some- 
times equal, but usually unequal, often papilionaceous, with the odd 
petal superior (fig. 701 ¢). Stamens definite or indefinite, usually 
perigynous, distinct, or monadelphous or diadelphous (fig. 701, ¢) or 
rarely triadelphous ; anthers bilocular, versatile. Ovary superior, 
1-celled, consisting usually of a solitary carpel (fig. 701 0), sometimes 
of 2-5; ovules 1 or many; style simple, proceeding from the upper 
or ventral suture ; stigma simple (fig. 701 s). Fruit a legume (figs. 
536, p.301 ; 565, p. 313 ; 702), or a drupe. Seeds solitary or several 
(fig. 702), sometimes arillate, often curved (fig. 703); embryo usually 
exalbuminous, straight, or with the radicle bent upon the edges of the 
cotyledons (figs. 465, p. 258; 612, p. 340), which are either epi- 
geal or hypogeal (p. 536) in germination (fig. 704), and leafy (Phyllo- 
lobe), or fleshy (Sarcolobece).—Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees, 
with alternate usually compound leaves, having two stipules at the base 
of the petiole (fig. 209, p. 98), and two at the base of each leaflet in 
the pinnate leaves. Pedicels usually articulated. The flowers are fre- 
quently papilionaceous (fig. 316, p. 205), and the fruit is commonly 
leguminous (figs. 556, p. 307 ; 565, 566, 567, p. 313), and by the 


LEGUMINOSA. 477 


presence of one or other of these characters the order may be recog- 
nised. It is remarkable that one or other of these distinctions dis- 
appears in a great number of cases. Czesalpiniee have irregular 
flowers, with spreading petals and stamens adhering to the calyx; 


Fig. 702. 


Fig. 701. 


others have no petals at all, or some number less than five; while 
Mimosez have perfectly regular flowers and indefinite hypogynous 
stamens. Detarium and other plants of this family bear fruits not 
to be distinguished from a drupe. Leguminous plants and Roseworts 
have so many features in common that it may be affirmed that no 
positive character has been discovered to distinguish the one order 
from the other, except the inferior position of the odd calycine lobe. 


Figs. 700-704. Organs of fructification of Lathyrus odoratus, Sweat-pea, a papilionaceous 
flower, showing the structure of the natural order Leguminose. Fig. 700. Diagram of the 
flower, showing five divisions of the calyx, 5 petals, consisting of 2 parts forming the carina, 
2 alee, and the vexillum, which is superior, 10 stamens in 2 rows, diadelphous ; ovary 1- 
celled, formed by a single carpel; one of the ovules shown with its funiculus attached to 
the ventral suture. Fig. 701. Longitudinal section of the flower of Lathyrus odoratus. 
cc, Calyx, with five segments. ¢, Vexillum or standard, being the superior or posterior odd 
petal. a, One of the ale, or wings. ca, One-half of the carina, or keel. t, Tube of the 
stamens, the filaments being united in two bundles, or diadelphous. 0, Ovary laid open, 
showing the ovules attached to the placenta, on the ventral or upper suture. s, Stigma, at 
the apex of the style, which is continuous with the ventral suture. Fig. 702. Fruit, a 
Legume or Pod, opening by two valves, and dehiscing by the ventral and dorsal suture. 
Seeds attached on each side of the ventral suture, curved upon themselves, having a 
marked hilum and funiculus (podosperm or umbilical cord). Fig. 703. A Seed separated. 
J, Funiculus. c, Hilum, which is united to the funiculus. m, Micropyleorforamen, Fig. 
704. Embryo, which occupies the entire seed after the spermoderm is removed. ¢¢, Two 
cotyledons separated: they are fleshy and hypogeal—t.e. remain under ground during 
germination. g, Gemmule or plumule. 7, Radicle. 


478 LEGUMINOSA. 


The plants of the order are very generally distributed over the 
globe, but many genera are very limited in their range. De Candolle 
gives the following geographical distribution of the 3600 species 
known in his day :— 


Equinoctial America : s . ¢ ‘ é - 605 
Basin of the Mediterranean. é és ‘ F . 468 
East Indies . é , i a , a . 452 
Cape of Good Hope a ¥ : . . : . 358 
Levant . 5 i é ‘ , ¢ ‘ » 250 
New Holland . é i i F i : ‘ » 229 
West Indies . i ‘ : . 221 
Europe, excepting the Mediterranean . 7 A » 184 
United States ; ; : ‘ 7 7 . 183 
Mexico . 3 ¥ E ‘ 2 ‘ » 152 
Equinoctial Africa . : ‘ ‘ . : : . 180 
Siberia . P é é F ‘ ‘ 2 « “120 
Arabia and Egypt < < : ‘ : : , 87 
China, Japan, Cochin- China . é ‘ ‘ : : 77 
Isles of Southern Africa . é Fi . 3 é 5 42 
South America, be ie the noe ‘ : . : 29 
Canaries é z a , P 7 « 'S1 
South Sea Islands . r % x 13 


No native species occur in the island of Tristan d’Acunha, nor in the 
cold Antarctic islands. 

The order has been divided into three sub-orders :—1. Papilion- 
aces ; papilionaceous flowers, petals imbricated in estivation, and 
upper one exterior, This sub-order is subdivided into the tribes 
Podalyriex, Lotex, Vicies, Hedysareze, Phaseoleze, Dalbergiez, 
Sophoreze ; according to the nature of the filaments, whether free or 
variously united, the form and dehiscence of the legume, the cotyle- 
dons whether fleshy or leafy, and the simple or compound nature of 
the leaves, Examples—Podalyria, Lotus, Cytisus, Pisum, Hedysarum, 
Phaseolus, Dalbergia. 2. Ceesalpinieze ; flowers irregular, sub-papilion- 
aceous, petals spreading, imbricated in estivation, upper one interior, 
stamens often free. Examples—Hematoxylon, Czsalpinia, Cassia, 
Swartzia, Amherstia, Bauhinia, Copaifera, and Ceratonia. 3. Mimosez ; 
flowers regular, petals valvate in estivation, stamens free or mona- 
delphous. Ezamples—Parkia, Mimosa, Acacia. 


Sub-orders. Tribes. Species. British species. 
(1. Podalyriee . : 350 a 0 
2. Lotee with . 8000 .. 48 
Viciee. ... 7 ve 28 
1. Papilionacer . .4 3. Hedysareer . . 500 on 4 
4. Phaseolee . ‘ 650 0 
5. Dalbergiee . ‘i 250. 0 
(6. Sophoree . . : 50 a 0 
2. Cesalpiniee . 5 ; ‘ ‘ . 700 ae 0 
3. Mimosez 6 ‘ ji " : 1000 ae 0 
6500 75 


LEGUMINOSA. 479 


The preceding is the estimate of species in the different sub-orders and 
tribes, considered in reference to the flora of the globe and the flora 
of Britain (Bentham and Henslow). The number of known genera 
at the present day is about 400, including about 6500 species. 

This is a very extensive and a very important natural order. 
It embraces many valuable medicinal plants, such as those yielding 
Senna, Gum-arabic, Tragacanth, Catechu, and Kino; important 
dyes, as Indigo and Logwood ; many valuable timber-trees, as Locust- 
tree and Rosewood ; plants furnishing nutritious food, such as the 
Bean and Pea, Haricots, Kidney-beans, Lentils, Pigeon-peas, Chick- 
pea. The properties of the order may be considered in general as 
wholesome, although it contains some poisonous plants. Lindley, 
however, says that the order must be considered upon the whole as 
poisonous, and that the plants used for food are exceptions to the 
general rule; the injurious juices of the order not being in such 
instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious, being replaced 
to a considerable extent by either sugar or starch. 

Sub-order Papilionacew. The plants in this section have frequently 
beautiful showy flowers; for example, Robinia, Laburnum, Wistaria, 
Lupinus, Clianthus, Erythrina (Coral-flower), Hovea, They are often 
nutritious. The various kinds of Clover, Beans, Peas, and Pulse 
belong to it. The common red Clover is Trifolium pratense. White 
or Dutch Clover (T. repens) springs up frequently on ground recently 
cleared. The Shamrock is generally considered as a species of Trefoil. 
Various species of Medick and Lucerne (Medicago, fig. 567, p. 313), 
of Saintfoin (Onobrychis), and Melilot (Melilotus), are cultivated as 
food for cattle. Several species of Medicago are called Calvary Plants, 
on account of dark, blood-like spots on their leaflets. Medicago 
Echinus is one of the symbolic plants of the East. Many are used for 
their medicinal qualities. Glycyrrhiza glabra. (Liquiritia officinalis) 
is the plant which yields liquorice-root, This plant is a native of the 
southern part of Europe, and it has been occasionally cultivated with 
success in Britain, especially at Pontefract in Yorkshire, and at 
Mitcham in Surrey. An extract is prepared from the root or under- 
ground stem by decoction in water, and subsequent inspissation. It 
owes its sweetness to a peculiar principle called Glycion, or Glycyr- 
thizin, which appears also to be present in the root and leaves of other 
papilionaceous plants, as Glycyrrhiza echinata and glandulifera, Tri- 
folium alpinum, and Abrus precatorius, Liquorice is used medicinally 
asa demulcent. A sweet secretion (a kind of Manna) is produced by 
Alhagi Maurorum (Camel’s-thorn). Astragalus verus, creticus, aristatus, 
gummifer, and other species, yield an exudation known by the name 
of Gum Tragacanth. A. verus seems to be the chief source of the 
European tragacanth. Itis a shrub found in Asia Minor and Persia, 
and the gum is procured by exudation or incision. Tragacanth forms, 


480 LEGUMINOSA. 


with cold water, a bulky jelly, while it is soluble in boiling water. It 
contains both Arabin and Bassorin in its composition, and is used as 
a demulcent. Myrospermum (Myroxylon) Pereire yields the Balsam 
of Peru, while Myrospermum (Myroxylon) toluiferum is the source of 
the Balsam of Tolu. These balsams are procured chiefly by making 
incisions in the trees. They consist of resinous and oily matter, with 
cinnamic acid, and they are used as stimulant expectorants. Ptero- 
carpus Marsupium, a tree of the Indian forests, furnishes the concrete 
exudation called Kino. Butea frondosa, the Dhak tree of the East 
Indies, yields a similar product ; it has bright orange-red petals, and 
a black calyx. African Kino is procured from Pterocarpus erinaceus, 
Kino is used as a powerful astringent, and is administered in the form 
of powder and tincture. Broom-tops, procured from Cytisus (Sarotham- 
nus) Scoparius, are used as adiuretic. The hairs from the legumes of 
Mucuna pruriens in the West Indies, and of M. Prurita in the East, 
under the name of Cowhage, or Cowitch, have irritating properties, 
and, mixed with syrup, they are used in the treatment of intestinal 
worms. The leaves of Colutea arborescens, Bladder-Senna (fig. 566, 
p- 313), are purgative, and are used abroad to adulterate the obovate 
or blunt-pointed Senna. The leaves of Tephrosia apollinea are also 
purgative, and are occasionally mixed with Alexandrian Senna. The 
bark of Andira inermis, the Cabbage-tree of the West-Indies, acts as 
a purgative and anthelmintic. The fruit of Geoffroya superba, Umari, 
is much used by the inhabitants of Brazil on the banks of the Rio 
San Francisco ; the fruit is a drupe. 

Besides the plants which have active medicinal qualities, there are 
others which are valuable in commerce and the arts, as furnishing 
food, dyes, fibres, timber. Various species of Indigofera, as I. tinctoria 
and cerulea, furnish the Indigo of commerce. Piéerocarpus santalinus 
yields red Sandal-wood, which is used as adye. It is probably the 
obs Almug or Algum-trees: of Scripture. P. Draco yields Gum- 
Dragon, and P. Dalbergioides is said to yield Andaman redwood, and 
to be valuable both as a dye and as timber. Baptisia tinctoria gives 
a blue dye, and is the wild Indigo of the United States. Dalbergia 
Sissoo is an Indian forest tree, which is valued on account of its wood. 
Crotalaria juncea supplies fibres, which are known as Sun or Bengal 
Hemp. The fragrant seeds of Dipterix odorata are known as Tonka- 
beans. A similar fragrance is given out by some species of Melilot, 
the flowers and seeds of which are employed to give the peculiar odour 
to Gruyere cheese. Arachis hypogwa produces its legumes under 
ground, and receives the name of underground Kidney-bean, or 
Ground-nut. Erythrina monosperma yields Gum lac. The roots of 
Glycine Apios, or Apios tuberosa, are used as an article of food in Ame- 
rica, Robinia pseudo-acacia is often cultivated in Britain as the Locust- 
tree. The tree attains in England a height varying from forty-five to 


LEGUMINOSA, 481 


eighty feet, and sometimes has a diameter of three feet. Its wood is 
durable. According to Bertoloni, akind of Ebony is the produce of 
Fornasinia ebenifera, a papilionaceous plant, found in Caffraria, near 
Mozambique. Rosewood is said to be the timber of two or three 
species of Triptolomea. It is rare to find papilionaceous plants pro- 
ducing double flowers. The Whin is one of the plants which exhibits 
this monstrosity. Desmodium or Hedysarum gyrans (the Gorachand 
of Bengal) exhibits a remarkable irritability in its leaves (p. 378). 
There are certain poisonous plants in this sub-order. The seeds and 
bark of Cytisus Laburnum are narcotic; such is said also to be the 
case with those of Lathyrus Cicera and L. Aphaca. The roots of many 
species of Phaseolus, as P. multiflorus, the Scarlet-runner, and P. radi- 
atus, are poisonous. The branches and leaves of Tephrosia toxicaria, 
and the bark of the root of Piscidia erythrina, Jamaica Dogwood, are 
employed as fish poisons. Physostigma venenosum yields the Calabar 
ordeal-bean (see figure Trans, R. Soc, Ed., vol. xxii.) It causes con- 
traction of the pupil. The plant has a remarkable hooded stigma 
(fig. 445; "p. 250). Gompholobiwm wneinatum has poisoned sheep in 
the Swan River colony. Coroniila varia acts as a narcotic poison. 
The leaves of it and of Coronilla Emerus are sometimes used to adul- 
terate Senna. 

Sub-order Cesalpiniee. In this section there are many plants 
which furnish purgative remedies. Among these may be noticed vari- 
ous species of Cassia, ©. lanceolata, acutifolia, elongata, obtusata, and 
obovata, supply the various kinds of Senna known as Alexandrian or 
Egyptian, Tripoli, and East Indian Senna. Other species also, as 
Cassia marilandica, Absus, corymbosa, biflora, tomentosa, alata, and Por- 
turegalis, have purgative leaves. Cassia Fistula, called also Catharto- 
carpus Fistula, has an indehiscent pod, divided by numerous transverse 
phragmata (fig. 429, p. 244), and containing a laxative pulp, which 
is a secretion from the endocarp. A pulp having similar properties is 
procured from the pericarp of Tamarindus indica, the Tamarind-tree. 
The pod of Ceratonia Silique is known as the Algaroba-bean, and is 
used occasionally for feeding horses. The tree is denominated Carob- 
tree, and sometimes Locust-tree, or St. John’s Bread, from an errone- 
ous idea that the pods supplied food to John the Baptist in the wilder- 
ness. The pods of Hymencea Courbaril, the West Indian Locust-tree, 
supply a nutritious matter; its inner bark is anthelmintic, and the 
plant yields a kind of resin called Animé. The bark of Guilandina 
Bonducella, the Nicker-tree, is bitter, tonic, and its seeds are said to be 
emetic. The curved pods of Cesalpinia coriaria, under the name of 
Divi-divi, are used for tanning. Ocsalpinia brasiliensis yields the 
Brazil-wood of commerce ; and the Mora-wood of Guiana is yielded by 
a large tree called Mora eacelsa. Many dyes are furnished by the 
plants of this sub-order. Haematoxylon campechianum gives Logwood 

21 


482 LEGUMINOSA—MORINGACEA. 


or Campeachy-wood, which is employed both as a dye and as an 
astringent. The inner wood is the part employed both in the arts 
and officinally, The alburnum is of a yellowish colour, and is not 
imported. The red colouring principle is Hematoxylin. Cesalpinia 
echinata furnishes Pernambuco-wood ; C. Sappan, Sappan-wood, the 
Wukkum or Bukkum-wood of Scinde; Baphia nitida, Camwood. 
Various species of Copaifera, as C. Jacquinii, Langsdorfin, bijuga, 
multijuga, Martti, guianensis, coriacea, etc., furnish the balsam of 
Copaiva, of which two kinds are distinguished—the West Indian and 
Brazilian. The balsam contains a resin and volatile oil. It is used 
in medicine as a stimulant, cathartic, and diuretic, and is especially 
employed in the treatment of mucous inflammations. Cassia Chame- 
crista, marilandica, and nictitans, all exhibit, according to Bromfield, a 
high degree of irritability ; the leaflets close together when gathered, 
and when rudely handled, or brushed by the feet in walking through 
the herbage. Trachylobiwm mossambicense yields Zanzibar copal. 

Sub-order Mimosee, The plants of this section yield Gum in 
quantity, and their bark is frequently astringent. Acacia Ehrenbergit, 
tortilis, Seyal, arabica, vera, gummifera, Adansonti, Verek, albida, and 
various other species, yield the gummy substances known as Gum 
Arabic, Gum Senegal, Barbary Gum, and East Indian Gum. A kind 
of gum is procured at the Cape of Good Hope from Acacia Karroo ; and 
in Australia, A. decurrens yields another variety. A variety of 
Indian gum procured from A. arabica is called Babul, or Babool- 
Gum ; Babul-bark is used for tanning in Scinde. These gums are all 
more or less nutritive and demulcent, and are administered in the form 
of mucilage, emulsion, or lozenges. The Wattles of Australia are species 
of Acacia, which furnish astringent barks. An extract made from 
them has been imported for the purpose of tanning. The duramen of 
Acacia Catechu, an Indian shrub, furnishes a kind of Catechu, or Cutch, 
which contains much tannin, and is used for tanning, and as a power- 
ful astringent. Some of the New Holland Acacias are remarkable 
for the peculiar development of the petiole, which assumes the form 
of a phyllodium (fig. 204, p. 96). The large seeds of Entada scan- 
dens are sometimes carried by the winds and tides from the West 
Indies to the shores of the outer Hebrides. Acacia Seyal is supposed to 
be the Shittah Tree, nuw, of Scripture, which furnished Shittim wood. 
A. formosa supplies the Cuba timber called Sabicu. Some of the 
plants in this sub-order display peculiar irritability in their pinnate 
leaves, This is particularly the case with Mimosa sensitiva and pudica, 
which are commonly called sensitive plants (p. 376). Almost all of 
the pinnate-leaved Leguminous plants close their leaves in a marked 
way during darkness, 

Order 65.—Morincacza, the Moringa Family. (Polypet. Pe- 
rigyn.) Calyx 5-partite ; estivation slightly imbricated. Petals 5, 


MORINGACEZ—ROSACEA. 483 


rather unequal, upper one ascending. Stamens 8 or 10, perigynous ; 
filaments slightly petaloid, callous, and hairy at the base; anthers 
simple, 1-celled, with a thick convex connective. Disk lining the 
tube of the calyx. Ovary superior, stipitate, 1-celled ; ovules anatro- 
pal, attached to parietal placentas; style filiform; stigma simple. 
Fruit a pod-like capsule, 1-celled, 3-valved, opening by loculicidal 
dehiscence. Seeds numerous, half buried in the spongy substance of 
the valves, sometimes winged, exalbuminous ; embryo with a supe- 
rior, straight, small radicle, and fleshy cotyledons.—Trees, with bi- or 
tri-pinnate, stipulate leaves, natives of the East Indies and Arabia. 
Some of them are pungent and aromatic. The seeds of Moringa 
pterygosperma, Horse-radish tree, are winged, and are called Ben-nuts. 
From them is procured a fluid oil, used by watchmakers, and called 
Ben Oil. The root is pungent and stimulant, and resembles Horse- 
radish in its taste. It is used as a stimulant in paralytic affections and 
intermittent fever. It is also a rubefacient. Some place this order 
near Violacez, others near Capparidacee. Genus, 1; species, 3. 
Example—Moringa. 

Order 66.—Rosacew, the Rose Family. (Polypet. Perigyn.) 
(Figs. 247, p. 172; 256, 257, p. 177; 300, p. 198; 313, p. 204; 
419, p. 240; 705). Calyx 4-5-lobed (fig. 706 cc), the fifth lobe 
superior. Petals as many as the divisions of the calyx, often 5 (fig. 
706 pe), sometimes wanting, perigynous, generally regular ; zstiva- 
tion quincuncial (fig. 705). Stamens inserted with the petals (fig. 
706 ¢), definite or indefinite ; filaments incurved in zestivation : anthers 
bilocular (fig. 707), dehiscing longitudinally (fig. 354, p. 221). Ova- 
ries superior, either solitary or several, unilocular (fig. 708), sometimes 
uniting so as to form a many-celled pistil ; ovules, 1, 2, or more, ana- 
tropal, suspended (figs. 407 g, p. 236; 708 g), rarely erect; styles 
lateral (figs. 434, p. 246; 708, 710); stigmas usually simple. Fruit 
either achenia (fig. 294, p. 196), or drupes (figs. 407, p. 236 ; 709), 
or follicles or pomes (fig. 568, p. 314). Seeds erect or inverted, 
usually exalbuminous ; embryo straight, with the radicle next the hilum 
(figs. 710, 712), and leafy or fleshy cotyledons (figs. 597, p. 334 ; 711). 
—Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, or trees, with simple or compound, 
alternate, stipulate leaves (fig. 207, p. 98), and the flowers sometimes 
unisexual, They are found chiefly in the cold and temperate climates 
of the northern hemisphere. Some’ are found on high mountains 
within the tropics, and a few occur in warm regions. The superior 
odd lobe of the calyx distinguishes this order from Leguminose. 

The order has been divided into the following sub-orders:—1. Chry- 
sobalanez, petals and stamens more or less irregular ; ovary stipitate, 
its stalk adhering on one side to the calyx, style basilar (fig. 435, 
p. 246), fruit a 1-2-celled drupe. 2. Amygdaleze or Prunes (Drupa- 
cex of Lindley), tube of calyx lined with a disk, styles terminal, fruit 


484 ROSACEA. 


a drupe (figs. 339, p. 213; 405, p. 235; 406-7, p. 236). 3. Spi- 
reeew (fig. 102, p. 41), calyx-tube herbaceous, lined with a disk, fruit 
consisting of numerous follicles, seeds apterous. 4. Quillaiez, flowers 
unisexual, calyx-tube herbaceous, fruit capsular, seeds winged at the 
apex. 5. Sanguisorbe, or Poteriexw, petals 0, tube of calyx thick- 
ened and indurated, lined with a disk, stamens definite ; nut solitary, 
enclosed in the calycine tube. 6. Potentillee (including Rubew) (fig. 
300, p. 198), calyx-tube herbaceous, lined with a disk which some- 


Fig. 709. 


\ 


Fig. 712. 


times becomes fleshy, fruit consisting of numerous achenia. 7. Rosez, 
calyx-tube contracted at the mouth, becoming fleshy, lined with a disk, 
and covering numerous hairy acheenia (figs. 294, p. 196 ; 313, p. 204). 
8. Neuradew, calyx-lobes, with or without bracts, petals 5, carpels 5 
or 10, uniovulate, fruit 5-10 valved. 9. Pomez (Pomaces of Lind- 
ley), tube of calyx more or less globose, lined with a fleshy and juicy 


Figs. 705-712. Organs of fructification of Rubus strigosus, illustrating the natural order 
Rosacee. Fig. 705. Diagram of the flower, with five divisions of the calyx, 5 quincun- 
cial petals, indefinite perigynous stamens, and numerous succulent carpels. Fig. 706. 
The flower cut vertically. ec, Calyx. pe, Petals. e, Stamens. d, Disk, lining the base of 
the calyx, upon which the stamens are inserted. i, Pistil, composed of several carpels. 
Fig. 707. Bilocular anther separated, with the upper part of the filament seen on the out- 
side. Fig. 708. Ovary, 0, cut vertically. g, Exalbuminous, suspended seed. s, Lateral 
style. Fig. 709. Fruit. jf, Fleshy carpels accompanied with the persistent calyx, ec, con- 
nected with which the withered filaments are seen. Fig. 710, Vertical section of a carpel, 
s, Lateral style. m, Fleshy mesocarp or sarcocarp. e, Endocarp. g, Seed. Fig, 711. 
Horizontal section of the exalbuminous seed. ¢, Integument (spermoderm). c, Cotyledons 
of the embryo. Fig. 712. Embryo isolated. It fills the entire seed. 


ROSACEA. 485 


disk, fruit a 1-5-celled (fig. 568, p. 314) or spuriously 10-celled pomum. 
There are 71 known genera, and about 1000 species. Examples— 
Chrysobalanus, Amygdalus, Prunus, Spirea, Quillaia, Sanguisorba, 
Poterium, Potentilla, Rubus, Fragaria, Rosa, Neurada, Pyrus. 

Many of the plants of the order yield edible fruits, such as 
Raspberries, Strawberries, Brambles, Plums, Apples, Pears, Quinces, 
Cherries, Almonds, Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots. Some are 
astringent, others yield hydrocyanic acid. Those belonging to the 
sub-order Chrysobalanee are principally natives of the tropical parts 
of Africa and America. Many of them furnish edible fruits. The 
drupes of Chrysobalanus Icaco are eaten in the West Indies under 
the name of cocoa-plums. The root and bark are used as astringents. 

The plants in the tribe Amygdalew are chiefly remarkable on 
account of the presence of hydrocyanic acid in their kernels, leaves, 
or flowers. Amygdalus communis, the Almond-tree, grows naturally 
in Barbary and in Asia, from Syria to Affghanistan. It is extensively 
cultivated in the south of Europe. It is the 1pw, Shaked, of the Old 
Testament. There are two varieties of the tree,—a. dulcis, yielding 
the sweet Almond, and @. amara, yielding the bitter Almond, In the 
former the style is much longer than the stamens, and there are glands 
on the base of the leaf; while in the latter the style is equal in length 
to the stamens, and the glands are situated on the petioles. The chief 
kinds of sweet Almonds are the Valentia, the Italian, and the Jordan, 
Almonds ; the latter come from Malaga. Under the name of shell 
Almonds, they are often sold with the brittle endocarps on them. 
They consist chemically of a bland fixed oil, and a kind of vegetable 
albumen called Emulsin or Synaptase. Bitter Almonds are imported 
from Mogadore. Besides a fixed oil and synaptase, they contain a 
bitter azotised principle called Amygdalin, which, when brought into 
contact with a solution of Emulsin, produces a volatile oil containing 
hydrocyanic acid. This gives rise to the peculiar aroma of bitter 
Almonds when mixed with water. Sweet Almonds are used medi- 
cinally, in the form of Emulsion, as demulcents. The hydrocyanated 
essential oil of bitter Almonds is sedative, and has been used as a 
substitute for Prussic acid. They sometimes produce derangement of 
the digestive functions, and give rise to nettle-rash. The leaves of 
Amygdalus persica (Persica vulgaris of some), the Peach, contain a 
similar oil, and have been employed as sedative and vermifuge. The 
flowers of the Peach exhale the odour of bitter Almonds. Peaches 
are divided into Freestone and Clingstone, according as the pulp (sarco- 
carp) separates easily from the endocarp or adheres to it. The fruit 
of Prunus domestica, the Plum-tree and its varieties, when dried, con- 
stitute Prunes, which are used medicinally, on account of their nutri- 
tive and laxative qualities. Some think that the Bullace, Damson, 
Orleans Plum, and the Quetches, are all derived from the common 


486 ROSACE. 


Sloe. They differ much, however, in the form of the stone. The 
leaves of Prunus or Cerasus Laurocerasus, Cherry Laurel, or Common 
Bay Laurel, have been used medicinally, as anodyne and hypnotic 
remedies. The water distilled from them has poisonous properties, 
owing to the presence of a hydrocyanated oil, which seems to be de- 
veloped in a similar manner as in the case of bitter Almonds. The oil 
exists in large quantity in the young leaves. Prunus Lusitanica is 
the Portugal Laurel, which is extensively cultivated in Britain as an 
evergreen. The leaves of Prunus spinosa, the Sloe, have been used as 
a substitute for as well as an adulteration of Tea. The fruit of a 
variety of Cerasus aviwm, the Cherry, is used in the manufacture of 
Kirschenwasser. The kernel of Cerasus occidentalis is used for flavour- 
ing Noyau. The. flavour of Ratafia, Cherry-brandy, and Maraschino, 
is due to the kernels of Cerasus, 

The tribe Pome (fig. 257, p. 177) supplies many edible fruits, as 
Apples, Pears, Medlars (fig. 568, p. 314), and Quinces. The seeds, 
and occasionally the flowers and bark of some, yield hydrocyanic acid. 
All the cultivated varieties of Apple are derived by grafting from the 
native species, Pyrus Malus ; while Pears have their origin in Pyrus 
communis. The seeds or pips of Cydonia vulgaris (Pyrus Cydonia), the 
Quince, when boiled in water, yield a mucilaginous decoction, which has 
been used as a demulcent. Malic acid is found in some of the fruits 
of this sub-order. Eriobotrya japonica yields the Loquat, a Japan fruit. 

The other tribes contain plants which are distinguished by astrin- 
gent and tonic qualities. Gewm urbanum and rivale (Avens) have been 
employed as tonics and astringents, as also the root of Potentilla Tor- 
mentilla (Tormentil). Brayera anthelmintica (Hagenia abyssinica), 
Cusso or Kousso, an Abyssinian tree growing to a height of 60 feet, 
has been used as a vermifuge in cases of Tenia. The varieties of 
Scotch Roses are derived from Rosa spinosissima. The fruit (hips) of 
Rosa canina, the Dog-rose, which consists of the enlarged calyx and 
disk enclosing numerouy acheenia (fig. 294, p. 196), is beat into a pulp 
with sugar, after the hairy achenes have been removed, and used as 
an acidulous refrigerant and astringent. The petals of Rosa gallica, 
Red, French, and Provins Rose, are employed in the form of infusion, 
as a tonic and slightly astringent remedy. The petals of Rosa centi- 
folia, the Hundred-leaved or Cabbage-rose (fig. 93, -p. 35), and its 
varieties, R. damascena, Damask-rose, R. moschata, Musk-rose, etc., are 
employed in the preparation of Rose-water, and of the oil or attar of 
Roses. It is stated by Sir R. Christison that 100,000 roses, the pro- 
duce of 10,000 bushes of Rosa damascena, yield at Ghazeepore, near 
Benares, only 180 grains of attar. The finest Rose perfume is said 
to be prepared at Grasse, in France. Oil of Roses is adulterated with 
sandal-wood oil, The bark of many species of Quwillaia, as Q. sapon- 
aria, is used as a substitute for soap. 


CALYCANTHACEAIX—LYTHRACEZ. 487 


Order 67—CatycantHacea, the Calycanthus Family. (Polypet, 
Perigyn.) Sepals and petals confounded, indefinite, combined in a 
fleshy receptacle ; wstivation imbricated. Stamens oo, perigynous ; 
anthers adnate, extrorse, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovaries 
several, 1-celled, adhering to the tube of the calyx ; ovules solitary or 
two, one above the other, anatropal ; style terminal. Fruit consisting 
of achzenia enclosed in the fleshy receptacle. Seed exalbuminous ; 
embryo straight ; cotyledons convolute ; radicle inferior.—Shrubs, with 
square stems, consisting of a central woody mass, with four smaller 
ones around (p. 61); leaves opposite, simple, scabrous, exstipulate. 
By many authors this order is placed between Dilleniacee and Mag- 
noliacese. The plants are natives of North America and Japan. Their 
flowers are aromatic; the bark of some is used as a carminative. 
Calycanthus floridus is called Carolina or common American Allspice. 
The order includes 2 genera and 3 species. Examples—Calycanthus, 
Chimonanthus. 

Order 68.—LyTuracea, the Loosestrife Family. (Polypet. Perigyn.) 
Calyx tubular, lobed, the lobes sometimes with intermediate lobes or 
teeth ; estivation valvate. Petals alternate with the primary lobes 
of the calyx, very deciduous, sometimes 0. Stamens inserted into 
the tube of the calyx a little below the petals, equal in number to 
them, or two, three, or four times as many ; anthers adnate, dithecal, 
introrse, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary superior, 2-6-celled ; 
ovules numerous, anatropal; style filiform ; stigma usually capitate. 
Fruit a dehiscent membranous capsule, surrounded by the calyx, but 
not adherent to it, sometimes l-celled by the obliteration of the dis- 
sepiments. Seeds numerous, small, apterous, or winged, exalbuminous, 
attached to a central placenta ; embryo straight ; cotyledons flat and 
foliaceous ; radicle next the hilum.—Herbs and shrubs, with branches 
which are usually tetragonal, and with opposite, rarely alternate, entire, 
exstipulate leaves without glands. They are natives of Europe, North 
and South America, and India. Authors give 30 genera, including 
about 250 species. Examples—Lythrum, Cuphea, Lagerstrémia. 

Many of the plants of the order are distinguished by astringent 
properties, and some are used for dyeing. Lythrum Salicaria, Purple 
Loosestrife, or Willowstrife, a European plant, found also in Australia, 
has been used in cases of diarrhoea, on account of the tannin in its 
composition. Its flowers are trimorphic (p. 285). The flowers of 
Grislea tomentosa are employed in India, mixed with Morinda, for dye- 
ing, under the name of Dhaee. Heimia salicifolia is said to possess 
diaphoretic properties, and is considered by the Mexicans as a potent 
remedy for venereal diseases, The Henna, or Alhenna of the Arabs, 
which is used in Egypt for dyeing orange, is the product of Lawsonia 
inermis, The Cupheas are remarkable for the mode in which the pla- 


488 RHIZOPHORACEZ—VOCHYSIACEZ—COMBRETACEE, 


centa bursts through the ovary and floral envelopes, so as to expose 
the seeds. 

Order 69.—RuizopHorace®, the Mangrove Family. (Polypet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx adherent, 4-12-lobed ; estivation valvate, or some- 
times calyptriform. Petals arising from the calyx, alternate with the 
lobes, and equal to them in number. Stamens inserted with the 
petals, twice or thrice their number; filaments distinct, subulate ; 
anthers erect. Ovary 2-3-4-celled; ovules 2 or more in each cell, 
anatropal. Fruit indehiscent, crowned by calyx, unilocular, monosperm- 
ous. Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous; cotyledons flat; radicle 
long, piercing the fruit.—Trees or shrubs, with simple opposite leaves, 
and deciduous interpetiolary stipules. They are found on the muddy 
shores of the tropics. There are 17 genera and about 50 species 
known. Examples—Rhizophora, Kandelia, Cassipourea. 

The plants of the order have frequently an astringent bark, which 
is in some cases used for dyeing black. Rhizophora Mangle, the Man- 
grove, forms thickets at the muddy mouths of rivers in tropical coun- 
tries, and sends out adventitious roots, which often raise the main 
trunk much above its original level, and give the tree the appearance 
of being supported upon stalks (fig. 99, p. 39). The fruit is sweet 
and eatable. The embryo germinates before the fruit falls, and the 
radicle is much elongated before the seed drops into the mud. The 
anther consists of numerous cells containing pollen. 

Order 70.—VocuystacE#&, the Vochysia Family. (Polypet. Pe- 
rigyn.) ~Sepals 4-5, united at the base, unequal, the upper one largest 
and spurred ; estivation imbricated. Petals 1, 2, 3, or 5, alternate 
with the divisions of the calyx, and inserted into its base, unequal. 
Stamens 1-5, opposite to or alternate with the petals, perigynous, one 
having an ovate, fertile, 4-celled anther, the rest being sterile. Ovary 
free, or partially so, 3-celled ; ovules solitary or in pairs, rarely nu- 
merous, amphitropal or anatropal; style and stigma one. Fruit a 
triquetrous, 3-celled and 3-valved capsule, usually with loculicidal de- 
hiscence. Seeds usually 1-2 in each cell, erect, exalbuminous, attached 
to a central placenta ; embryo straight ; cotyledons large and leafy ; 
radicle short and superior—Trees or shrubs, with opposite, entire, 
stipulate leaves. They inhabit the warmer parts of America. Their 
properties are little known. Their flowers are reputed to be very 
sweet, and some are said to have a resinous juice. The order is by 
some placed near Polygalace, There are 7 genera enumerated, in- 
cluding 100 species. Hxamples—Vochysia, Qualea. 

Order 71,—ComBretacem, the Myrobalan Family. (Polypet. 
Lipigyn.) Calyx 4-5-lobed, lobes deciduous. Petals arising from the 
orifice of the calyx, alternate with the lobes, or wanting. Stamens 
epigynous, twice as many as the lobes of the calyx, rarely equal in 
coumber, or thrice as many; filaments distinct, subulate ; anthers 


COMBRETACEA—-MELASTOMACEAi—PHILADELPHACEH, 489 


_, dithecal, dehiscing longitudinally or by recurved valves. Ovary 
adherent to the tube of the calyx, unilocular ; ovules 2-4, pendulous ; 
style 1; stigma simple. Fruit succulent or nut-like, inferior, unilo- 
cular, indehiscent, often winged. Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbu- 
minous ; cotyledons leafy, usually convolute, sometimes plicate ; radicle 
turned towards the hilum.—tTrees or shrubs, with altefnate or opposite, 
exstipulate, entire leaves. They are natives of the tropical regions of 
Asia, Africa, and America. The general property of the order is astrin- 
gency. Many are used for tanning, and some for dyeing. The fruit 
of Terminalia Belerica, and of T. Chebula, under the name of Myro- 
balans, is used as an astringent. The seeds of Terminalia Catappa are 
eaten like almonds. The order has been divided into three tribes :— 
1. Terminaliex, petals 0, cotyledons convolute. 2. Combretex, petals 
present, cotyledons plicate. 3. Gyrocarpex, petals 0, cotyledons con- 
volute, anthers, dehiscing by recurved valves. There are 15 genera, 
including 240 species. Hxamples—Terminalia, Combretum, Quisqualis, 
Gyrocarpus, ‘ 
Order 72—MzLastomacem, the Melastoma Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn. or Epigyn.) Calyx with 4, 5, or 6 divisions, which are more 
or less deep, or are sometimes united and separate from the tube like 
a lid. Petals equal to the segments of the calyx, perigynous, zsti- 
vation twisted. Stamens equal in number to the petals and alternate 
with them, usually with intermediate sterile ones; filaments curved 
downwards in the young state ; anthers long, often beaked, bilocular, 
dehiscing by two terminal pores or longitudinally. Ovary more or 
less adherent to the calyx, mutilocular ; ovules usually 00; style 1; 
stigma simple, either capitate or minute. Fruit multilocular, either 
capsular, with loculicidal dehiscence, or succulent and indehiscent, 
with calyx attached. Seeds o , minute, attached to central placentas, 
exalbuminous ; embryo straight or curved; cotyledons sometimes 
unequal, flat, or convolute.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, 
undivided, usually entire, often 3-9-ribbed leaves, not dotted. They 
are found chiefly in warm climates. Many are natives of America 
and India. There are no unwholesome plants in the order, and the 
succulent fruit of several is edible. A slight degree of astringency 
pervades all the plants of the order, and hence some are used medi- 
cinally in cases of diarrhea, The name Melastoma (widas, black, and 
oréuwe, mouth) is derived from the circumstance that the fruit of 
some dyes the lips black. There are two sub-orders :—1. Melastomes, 
with ribbed leaves and flat cotyledons. 2. Memecylex, with ribless 
leaves and convolute cotyledons, Authors notice 134 genera, com- 
prising 1800 species. Examples—Melastoma, Osbeckia, Lasiandra, 
Rhexia, Lavoisiera, Miconia, Charianthus, Memecylon, Mouriria. 
Order 73,—PHILADELPHACEa, the Syringa Family. (Polypet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx with a 4-10-divided, persistent limb. Petals alter- 


\ 


490 PHILADELPHACEAI—MYRTACE, 


nate with the divisions of the calyx, and equal to them in number ; 
estivation convolute, imbricate. Stamens oo (rarely 10), in one or 
two rows, arising from the orifice of the calyx. Ovary adherent to 
the tube of the calyx; styles distinct, or united into one; stigmas 
4-10 ; ovules co, attached to a central placenta. Fruit a 4-10-celled 
capsule, free above. Seeds oo , scobiform, subulate, smooth, pendulous, 
with a loose membranous arillus ; albumen fleshy ; embryo straight, 
about as long as the albumen ; cotyledons flat ; radicle next the hilum, 
obtuse.—Shrubs with deciduous, opposite, exstipulate leaves without 
dots ; flowers usually in trichotomous cymes. They are natives of 
the South of Europe, of North America, Japan, and India. They 
have no marked properties, The flowers of Philadelphus coronarius, 
Syringa or mock-orange, have a peculiar odour, which to some persons is 
overpowering and disagreeable. The smell is due to the presence of 
an oil. Deutzia scabra has a scurfy matter on its leaves,twhich, under 
the microscope, is seen to consist of beautiful stellate hairs. The 
leaves are in conséquence used in Japan by polishers. Its inner bark 
is.used for poultices. The order is included by some in the tribe 
Hydrangiez, of the natural order Saxifragaces, There are 5 genera 
enumerated, including 22 species. £xamples—Philadelphus, Deutzia, 
Decumaria. 

Order 74.—Myrrtacex, the Myrtle Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx 4-5-6-8-cleft, the limb sometimes cohering at the apex, and 
falling off like a lid; estivation valvate. Petals attached to the 
calyx, alternating with its segments, and equal to them in number, 
with a quincuncial estivation, rarely 0. Stamens inserted with the 
petals, twice as many as the petals, or oo ; filaments distinct, or united 
in one or more parcels, curved inwards in the bud ; anthers ovate, 
dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary inferior, 1-6-celled ; 
style and stigma simple ; ovules anatropal, pendulous or erect. Fruit 
dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent, Seeds usually oo , attached to 
a central placenta ; mostly exalbuminous ; embryo straight or curved ; 
cotyledons distinct (fig. 610, p. 339), or consolidated with the radicle, 
which is next the hilum.—Trees or shrubs, with opposite, rarely 
alternate leaves, which are usually entire and dotted, and frequently 
have an intramarginal vein. They are natives chiefly of warm coun- 
tries, as South America and the East Indies. Many, however, are 
found in more temperate regions. Some of the genera are peculiar to 
Australia. The order has been divided into the following tribes :—1. 
Chamelauciex, heath-like plants, with a 1-celled ovary, indehiscent 
capsule, and opposite dotted leaves. 2. Leptospermex, having a mul- 
tilocular capsule with loculicidal dehiscence, and opposite or alternate, 
usually dotted leaves. 3, Myrtex, having a baccate fruit, distinct 
stamens, opposite dotted leaves. 4. Barringtonies, having a fleshy 
l-celled fruit, monadelphous stamens, albuminous seeds, opposite or 


MYRTACEA. 491 


verticillate leaves, not dotted. 5. Lecythidex, having a multilocular 
woody capsule, which either remains closed or opens by a lid, mona- 
delphous stamens, alternate, not dotted leaves; the stamens form a 
cup, which often grows out on one side, with a curious hooded appen- 
dage. Several of these tribes are made separate orders by Lindley, 
Miers, and others, There are 75 known genera, and upwards of 1800 
species. EHxamples—Chamelaucium, Calytrix, Leptospermum, Mela- 
leuca, Metrosideros, Eucalyptus, Myrtus, Psidium, Eugenia, Caryo- 
phyllus, Barringtonia, Gustavia, Lecythis, Bertholletia, Napoleona 
(Belvisia), Asteranthus. 

Many of the plants of the order yield an aromatic volatile oil. 
This is particularly the case with those having pellucid dots in their 
leaves. Some yield edible fruits, others furnish astringent and saccha- 
tine substances. The leaves of species of Leptospermum and Mela- 
leuca aré used as tea in Australia. The leaves of Melaleuca Leucaden- 
dron, a tree of the Indian Archipelago, Malayan Peninsula, and 
Australia, yield the volatile oil of Cajuput. It is a very liquid oil, of 
a grass-green colour, having a pungent camphoraceous odour, and 
capable of dissolving caoutchouc. It is used medicinally as a stimu- 
lant and antispasmodic. Species of Hucalyptus constitute the gigantic 
gum-trees of Australia, some of which attain a height of 2-300 feet. 
Baron Mueller mentions specimens of Eucalyptus amygdalinus 400 feet 
high. They are remarkable for their operculate calyx, which may be 
considered as formed by several jointed leaves (like those of the orange), 
united throughout, and separating at the articulation in the form of a 
lid (p. 199). Their bark also separates remarkably in layers. They 
yield an astringent matter, which has been used for tanning. 
Eucalyptus resinifera, Brown Gum-tree of New Holland, furnishes 
Botany-Bay Kino, an astringent, resinous-like substance, which exudes 
in the form of red juice from incisions in the bark. A single tree 
will yield sixty gallons. 2. mannifera gives a saccharine exudation 
resembling manna. A saccharine substance, mixed with cellular hairs, 
which arise from a cup-like body, is found upon the leaves of £. 
dumosa, It is called Lurp by the natives, and is produced by the 
attack of a species of insect belonging to the genus Psylla, Hucalyptus 
globulus, Blue Gum-tree or Fever Gum-tree, is said to take up moisture 

largely from marshy lands. It furnishes good timber, and has an 
astringent bark. It yields a fragrant oil, which is used as an 
embrocation. The wood of many species of Metrosideros is hard 
and ‘dark-coloured. The flower-buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus 
(Eugenia caryophyllata), a tree which was originally a native of the 
Moluccas, but is now cultivated in the East and West Indies, consti- 
tute the Cloves of commerce. They have the form of a nail (French 
clow), and, when examined, are seen to consist of the tubular calyx 
with a roundish projection formed by the unopened petals. They 


492 MYRTACEA—ONAGRACEZ. 


contain a volatile oil, associated with resinous, gummy, and astringent 
matter. The oil is aromatic and acrid, and has been used as a condiment 
and a stimulant carminative. Some suppose that the name is derived from 
the Greek xaguépuAdov, on account of the flower-bud being round like 
a nut (xcéguov), Pimento, Allspice, or Jamaica Pepper, is the berried 
fruit of Pimenta officinalis (Eugenia Pimenta, Myrtus Pimenta), a tree 
which is a native of the West Indies and Mexico. The fruit has an 
aromatic odour, and its taste combines that of cinnamon, nutmeg, and 
cloves ; hence the name Allspice. It contains an acrid volatile oil, to 
which its properties are due. Medicinally Pimento is sometimes em- 
ployed as a stimulant and carminative. The fruit of Bugenia acris 
is used for Pimento. Among the pulpy edible fruits of the order may 
be noticed Guavas and Rose-apples. The former are the produce of 
various species of Psidiwm, such as P. pyriferum, pomiferum, and 
Cattleyanum ; the latter are procured from species of Eugenia as £. 
Jambos and malaccensis. The fruit of Eugenia caulifora is eaten in 
Brazil, and that of E. Ugni in Chili The berries of the common 
Myrtle (Myrtus communis) are also used as food. Punica Granatum, 
the Pomegranate-tree, is a native of the warmer parts of Asia and 
Northern Africa, whence it was introduced into Europe. It is the 
jv (Rimmén) of Scripture. It produces dark scarlet flowers, formerly 
called Balaustia, which have been used as an astringent. The fruit of 
the Pomegranate has given rise to much difference of opinion among 
botanists. It is composed, in the young state, of two rows of carpels, 
some of which are placed round the axis, and adhering to the bottom 
of the calycine tube, while others are placed outside, and adhere to 
the upper part of the tube. The subsequent contraction of the tube 
of the calyx, and the peculiar adhesion of the placentas, according to 
Lindley, account for the anomaly in the fruit (Balausta, p. 314). The 
rind of the fruit (malicorium) and the bark of the root are used as 
anthelmintics, especially in cases of tapeworm.  Lecythis ollaria, a 
large Brazilian tree, yields the woody capsules called Monkey-pots, 
which open by circumscissile dehiscence. These seed-vessels seem to 
be formed in the same way as the calyx of Eucalyptus, the part where 
the lid separates indicating the articulations of the carpellary leaves. 
The seeds are eatable, and are relished by monkeys. The bark of the 
tree may be separated into numerous thin layers. Bertholletia excelsa, 
or, according to Miers, Bertholletia nobilis, is the source of the Brazil 
nuts, The amount exported from Para, and from Mandog on the 
Rio Negro, in six months in 1865, was about 2,500,000 of the fruits, 
or 50,000,000 of the seeds, occupying the bulk of 60,000 bushels. 
The seeds retain vitality long. Sapucaia nuts are the produce of 
Lecythis usitata of Miers. 

Order 75.— Onacracez (Onagraries), the Evening-Primrose 
Family. (Rolypet. Epigyn.) Calyx tubular, the limb having usually 


ONAGRACEA—HALORAGEACEAI—LOASACEZ:, 493 


4 (fig. 433 1, p. 245), sometimes 2, 3, or 6 divisions (fig. 630, p. 364), 
which cohere in various ways; wstivation valvate. Petals usually 
equal in number to the calycine segments, regular (rarely irregular), 
inserted into the tube of the calyx (fig. 433 p, p. 245); sstivation 
twisted. Stamens usually 4 or 8 (rarely 1 or 2, fig. 630, p. 364), 
epigynous (fig. 433 ¢, p. 245); filaments distinct ; pollen triangular, 
usually cohering by threads (fig. 396, p. 252). Ovary 2-4-celled 
(fig. 630, p. 364), adherent (fig. 433 0, p. 245), usually with an 
epigynous disk ; style filiform ; stigma capitate (fig. 433 s, p. 245) or 
4-lobed ; ovules (figs. 418 0, p. 239; 433 g, p. 245) indefinite, rarely 
definite, anatropal. Fruit succulent or capsular, dehiscent or inde- 
hiscent, 1-2-4-celled. Seeds usually o, exalbuminous; embryo 
straight, with a long slender radicle pointing to the hilum, and short 
cotyledons (figs. 530, p. 296; 584, 585, 586, p. 331).—Herbs or 
shrubs, with alternate or opposite, simple, not dotted leaves, and with 
the parts of the flower usually tetramerous. They inhabit chiefly 
temperate regions, and are found abundantly in Europe, Asia, and 
America, and sparingly in Africa. Some yield edible fruits, as 
Fuchsia, others furnish edible roots, as Ginothera biennis. Many of 
them have mucilaginous properties, while a few are astringent. Trapa 
has unequal cotyledons. T. natans, Water Chestnut, and T. bicornis, 
remarkable for its horned fruit, both supply edible seeds. There are 
about 22 known genera, and upwards of 300 species. Lxamples— 
CEnothera, Epilobium, Jussiza, Montinia, Fuchsia, Circea, Gaura, 
Trapa. 

‘Order 76.—HaLoraGEACcE®, the Mare’s-Tail Family. (Polypet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx with a minute limb, which is either 3-4-divided, or 
entire ; it is sometimes reduced toa mererim. Petals epigynous or 
0. Stamens epigynous, equal in number to the petals, or twice as 
many, rarely fewer; when the petals are wanting, stamens often 1 or 
2. Ovary cohering with the tube of the calyx, with 1 or more cells, 
sometimes tetragonal or compressed. Style 0, what is frequently 
called the styles being the papillose stigmas, which are equal in number 
to the cells; ovules pendulous, anatropal. Fruit dry, indehiscent, 
membranous or bony, with 1 or more cells. Seed solitary or in pairs, 
pendulous ; albumen fleshy or thin ; embryo straight, or slightly curved, 
in the axis of the albumen ; cotyledons minute ; radicle superior, long. 
—Herbs or undershrubs, often aquatic, with large air cavities, having 
alternate, opposite, or whorled leaves, and axillary, sessile flowers, 
which are occasionally unisexual, They are found in ditches and lakes 
in various parts of the world. They have no properties of importance. 
There are 9 known genera and about 80 species. Examples—Hip- 
puris, Myriophyllum, Haloragis, Callitriche, Gunnera. 

Order 77,—Loasacea, the Chili-Nettle Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) 


Calyx 4-5-parted, persistent, spreading in estivation. Petals 5, 


» 


494. LOASACEH—CUCURBITACEA, 


cucullate, epigynous, alternate with the segments of the calyx, some- 
times with an inner row of 5, which are either similar to the outer 
or dissimilar ; estivation inflexed, valvate, or twisted. Stamens o, in 
several rows, distinct, or polyadelphous, each parcel being opposite the 
outer petals ; filaments subulate, unequal, the outer ones often sterile. 
Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with parietal placentas ; ovules anatropal ; 
styles combined into 1; stigma 1 or several. Fruit capsular or suc- 
culent, 1-celled. Seeds without an arillus ; embryo straight, in the 
axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons small, flat ; embryo pointing to the 
hilum.—Herbaceous plants, hispid with stinging hairs, having oppo- 
site or alternate exstipulate leaves, and axillary 1-flowered peduncles. 
They are American plants, chiefly distinguished for their stinging 
qualities, and hence the name of Chili-Nettle. The roots of Mentzelia 
hispida, a Mexican herb, are said to possess purgative qualities. There 
are 10 genera enumerated by authors, including 100 species. Zz- 
amples—Loasa, Mentzelia, Blumenbachia. 

Order 78.—Cucursitacza, the Cucumber Family. (Polypet. or 
Monopet. Epigyn. and Diclines.) Calyx 5-toothed (figs. 430 1, p. 245°; 
713 ©), sometimes obsolete. Petals 5, distinct, or more or less 
united, sometimes scarcely distinguishable from the calyx, strongly 
marked with reticulated veins (fig. 430 p, p. 245), sometimes fringed. 
Stamens 5, distinct or united in one or three parcels, attached to 
the petals (fig. 713 ¢), anthers bilocular, sinuous (figs. 364, p. 
223; 714 a; 389, p. 230), ovary (figs. 430 0, p. 245; 715 co), 
adhering to the tube of the calyx, l-celled, formed by 3. car- 
pels, and having 3 parietal placentas (fig. 716, p. 495), which some- 
times project so as to join in the centre, the ovules remaining attached 
to the curved free edges; ovules solitary or indefinite (fig. 716), 
anatropal ; styles short ; stigmas very thick, velvety or fringed (fig. 
715 s). Fruit a pepo (p. 314). Seeds flat and ovate (fig. 717), 
enveloped in a juicy or dry and membranous covering; testa 
coriaceous; albumen 0; embryo straight (figs. 717, e; 718); 
cotyledons leafy and veined; radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous 
plants, with succulent stems, climbing by means of lateral tendrils, 
which are transformed stipules ; leaves alternate and palmate, covered 
with asperities ; flowers generally unisexual. They are natives of warm 
climates chiefly, and abound,in India. A few are found towards the 
north, in Europe and North America, and several are natives of the 
Cape of Good Hope. Those which are annuals readily submit to the 
climate of northern latitudes during the summer, and thus, though of 
tropical origin, they grow well in European gardens. There are nearly 
70 known genera and about 470 species. Examples—Cucurbita, 

_ Cucumis, Momordica, Bryonia, Telfairia, Fevillea. 

A certain degree of acridity pervades the order, and many of the 

plants are drastic purgatives. In some cases, however, more espe- 


CUCURBITACEA, 495 


cially under cultivation, the fruits are eatable. Instances of edible 
fruits are seen in Oucwmis Melo, common Melons > oMOIN, 
Abbattichim of Scripture; Cucumis sativus, Cucumbers, p»xwp, 
Kishuim, of the Bible; Cucurbita Citrullus, Water Melon 3 Cucurbita 
Pepo, White Gourd; Cucurbita maxima, the Pumpkin; Cucurbita 
Melo-pepo, the Squash; Cucurbita ovifera, the Egg-gourd. The 
genus Cucumis contains the Melon and Cucumber, with edible fruits, 


, 


Fig, 714. Fig. 713. 


Fig. 716. Fig. 717. Fig. 718. 


and the Colocynth, with purgative fruit. Much discussion has taken 
place in regard to the structure of the fruit in this genus, and in 
Cucurbitaceze in general. Some have considered it an anomaly in vege- 
table structure, from the apparent formation of the placenta and ven- 
tral suture, externally, as if the usual position of the carpels were 
reversed. It would appear, however, as shown by Lindley, that the 
placentas follow the ordinary law. They are parietal; and curve in a 


Figs. 713-718. Organs of fructification of Cucurbitacex. Fig. -713. Male flower of 
Cucumis sativus, Common Cucumber, laid open to show the interior of it. ¢, 5-divided 
calyx. p, United petals, by some considered as being an internal coloured calyx, 2, Epi- 
gynous stamens. Fig. 714. Stamen separated. f, Filament. a, Long sinuous anther. 
Fig. 715. Female flower. co, Calyx attached to the ovary. p, United petals, s, Thick 
velvety stigmas. Fig. 716. Horizontal section of the ovary, showing its division into 
three, by projections from the parietal placentas, to which the indefinite ovules are attached 
Fig. 717. Anatropal seed cut vertically. ¢, Spermoderm swollen at the chalaza, ¢, ¢, Em- 
bryo. Fig. 718. Embryo separated. +, Radicle. c, Cotyledons. 


496 CUCURBITACEAi—PAPAYACEA. 


peculiar way, bearing the seeds on their curvature ; at the same time 
prolongations are sent inwards, which often meet in the centre, 
Stocks and others consider the carpels as being involute, and they 
trace this involution particularly in Luffa pentandra, Luffa egyptiaca 
is called the Towel-gourd, as its split fruit is used as a flesh-brush. 
Sooly Qua is the fruit of this species of Luffa. Cucumis Colocynthis, or 
Cttrullus Colocynthis, yields a globular fruit called Coloquintida, or 
Bitter Apple, the pulp of which constitutes the medicinal Colocynth. 
It is imported from the Levant and the coasts of the Mediterranean. 
It is used in the form of powder and extract as an irritant cathartic. 
The plant is supposed to be the nypp (Pakyoth), or Wild Gourd of 
Scripture. Momordica Elateriwm or Eeballium agreste (enBdrrw, I 
expel, in allusion to the expulsion of the seeds), the Wild or Squirting 
Cucumber, is so called on account of the force with which its seeds 
are expelled when ripe. The fruit, by a process of Endosmose going 
on in the cells, becomes distended, and ultimately gives way atithe 
weakest part, where the peduncle is united to it. In separating from 
the stalk, the elasticity of the parietes comes into play, so as to dis- 
charge the brown seeds and slimy juice through the aperture at the 
base of the fruit. The feculence which subsides from the juice con- 
stitutes the medicinal Elaterium, which is used in small doses of $4 
a grain, as a violent cathartic, especially in dropsical cases. The active 
principle is Elaterin. The roots of Bryonia alba and dioica are also 
powerful purgatives. The fruit of various species of Gourd, as Cucur- 
bita Pepo, the White Gourd, and C. maxima the Red Gourd, C. ovifera 
succada, Vegetable Marrow, are used as potherbs; while C. Citrullus, 
the Water Melon, is prized for its cool refreshing juice. The fruit of 
Echinocystis lobata is the Mock-apple of Canada. Trichosanthes angwina, 
the Snake-gourd, is eaten in India, The fruit of Lagenaria vulgaris, 
in consequence of having a hard outer covering, is used as a vessel 
for containing fluid, after the pulp and seeds are removed. It is 
hence called Bottle Gourd. It is stated that poisoning has followed 
on the drinking of beer that had been standing in a flask made of one 
of those Gourds. Dr. Royle mentions that symptoms of cholera have 
been induced by eating the bitter pulp. The seeds of the plants in 
this order frequently supply a bland oil. The seeds of Telfairia pedata 
(Africa) are as large as Chestnuts, and are used as food. 

Order 79.—Papayacem, the Papaw Family. (Monopet. Polypet. 
Epigyn. and Diclines.) Calyx minute, 5-toothed. Corolla monopetal- 
ous, inserted into the base of the calyx; in the male, tubular and 5- 
lobed ; in the female, divided nearly to the base into 5 segments. 
Stamens 10, inserted into the throat of the corolla ; anthers bilocular, 
introrse, innate, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, 1-celled ; ovules 
indefinite, attached to 5 parietal placentas ; stigma 5-lobed, lacerated. 
Fruit usually succulent and indehiscent, sometimes capsular and dehi- - 


PAPAYACEZ—PASSIFLORACEA. 497 


scent, 1-celled. Seeds oo , enveloped in a loose mucous coat, parietal ; 
spermoderm brittle, pitted ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen ; 
cotyledons flat ; radicle slender, turned towards the hilum. ‘Trees or 
shrubs, not branching, with alternate lobed leaves, supported on long 
slender petioles, and with unisexual flowers. They are found in South 
America, and in other warm countries. One of the most important 
plants of the order is Carica Papaya, the Papaw-tree, which yields 
an acrid milky juice and an edible fruit. The juice of the unripe 
fruit and the seeds are said to act as anthelmintics. The juice is said 
to have the property of rendering meat tender. The order is by some 
considered to be a tribe of Passifloracee. The order has been divided 
into two tribes :—1. Caricez, corolla monopetalous, fruit succulent and 
indehiscent. 2. Modecces, corolla monopetalous, fruit capsular and 
dehiscent. There are 6 known genera, including about 40 species. 
Examples—Carica, Modecca. 

Order 80.—PasstrLoRAcEa, the Passion-flower Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Sepals 5, combined below into a more or less elongated 
tube. Petals 5, perigynous, often with filamentous or annular pro- 
cesses on their inside, which appear to be an altered whorl or whorls 
of petals, occasionally wanting, imbricated in estivation. Stamens 5, 
monadelphous, surrounding the gynandrophore when present, rarely oo ; 
usually with processes from the thalamus, interposed between them 
and the petals; anthers dithecal, extrorse, versatile, dehiscing longi- 
tudinally ; pollen-grains sometimes bursting by opercula (fig. 388, 
p. 230). Ovary l-celled, often with a gynophore (p. 240); ovules, 
anatropal, o; styles 3; stigmas dilated. Fruit often stipitate, 
1-celled, sometimes 3-valved, opening by loculicidal dehiscence, or suc- 
culent and indehiscent. Seeds o , attached to parietal placentas, aril- 
late, or strophiolate ; spermoderm brittle and sculptured; embryo 
straight in the midst of thin fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the 
hilum.—Herbs or shrubs, often climbing, with alternate stipulate or 
exstipulate leaves. The order has been divided into three tribes :— 
1. Paropsiex, plants not climbing, with a sessile ovary, arillate 
seeds, and exstipulate leaves. 2. Passiflorese, climbing plants with a 
stalked ovary, arillate seeds, stipulate leaves, and glandular petioles. 
3. Malesherbiex, plants not climbing, with a stalked ovary, style below 
the apex of the ovary, strophiolate seeds, and exstipulate leaves, 
They are natives chiefly of warm climates, and are found in America, 
the East and West Indies. There are 12 known genera, and about 
210 species. Eaamples— Paropsia, Smeathmannia, Passiflora, Tac- 
sonia, Malesherbia. : 

Considerable discussion has taken place as to the true nature of 
the calyx and corolla in Passifloraces. Lindley supports the view 
here given. Others consider the calyx as consisting of ten sepals in 
two rows, the inner more or less petaloid, and they look on the petals 

2k 


498 PASSIFLORACEZ—TURNERACEA—PARONYCHIACEA. 


as either wanting, or existing in the form of filamentous or annular 
processes. The name Passion-flower was given on account of a fancied 
resemblance in the flowers to the appearances presented at Calvary. 
In the five anthers the superstitious monks saw a resemblance to the 
wounds of Christ ; in the triple style, the three nails on the cross ; in 
the central gynandrophore, the pillar of the cross ; and in the fila- 
mentous processes, the rays of light round the Saviour, or the crown 
of thorns. Many of the plants, such as Passifora quadrangularis and 
edulis (Grenadillas), Paropsia edulis, and species of Tacsonia, yield 
edible fruits, the pulp or succulent arillus being fragrant and cooling. 
The root of Passiflora quadrangularis is said to be emetic and power- 
fully narcotic, on which account it is cultivated in several French 
settlements. It seems to owe its activity to a peculiar prin- 
ciple called Passiflorin. Other plants of the order are bitter and 
astringent. 

Order 81.—TuRNERACE, the Turnera Family. (Polypet. Perigyn.) 
Calyx with 5 equal lobes; estivation imbricated. Petals 5, peri- 
gynous, equal; estivation twisted. Stamens 5, perigynous, alter- 
nating with the petals ; filaments distinct ; anthers dithecal, innate, 
oblong. Ovary free, 1-celled, with 3 parietal placentas ; ovules oo, 
anatropal ; styles more or less cohering, or forked ; stigmas multifid. 
Fruit a 1-celled, 3-valved capsule, dehiscing only half-way down, in a 
loculicidal manner. Seeds crustaceous, reticulated, arillate on one 
side; embryo slightly curved, in the midst of fleshy albumen ; cotyle- 
dons plano-convex ; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbaceous or 
somewhat shrubby plants, occasionally with stellate pubescence, having 
alternate, stipulate leaves, and frequently two glands at the apex of the 
petiole. Seemann states that Turneraceze ought to be included in Pas- 
sifloracee. They are natives of the West Indies and South America. 
They are not put to any important use. Turnera opifera is astringent, 
and is employed in Brazil against dyspepsia. Turnera ulmifolia is 
considered tonic and expectorant. Genera, 3; species, 76. Examples 
—Turnera, Wormskioldia. 

Order 82.— Paronycuiacea, the Knotwort Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Sepals 4-5, distinct or cohering. Petals perigynous, be- 
tween the divisions of the calyx, usually inconspicuous, sometimes 0. 
Stamens usually perigynous, sometimes hypogynous, opposite to the 
sepals when equal to them in number, some of them occasionally 
wanting ; filaments distinct, rarely united ; anthers bilocular. Ovary 
superior, with one or more ovules; styles 2-3, distinct or combined, 
Fruit unilocular, either a utricle covered by the calyx, or a 3-valved 
capsule. Seeds either numerous, attached to a free central placenta, 
or solitary and pendulous from a long funiculus arising from the base 
of the fruit. Embryo more or less curved, lying on one side of the 
farinaceous albumen, or surrounding it.—Herbaceous or somewhat 


PARONYCHIACEAI—CRASSULACEA. 499 


shrubby plants, with opposite or alternate, sometimes setaceous and 
clustered leaves, which are either exstipulate or have scarious stipules. 
Found in barren places in various parts of Europe, Asia, and North 
America. A slight degree of astringency pervades this order, and is 
the only sensible property that it is known to possess. This order 
is allied to Caryophyllacez in many respects. It is placed by some 
among the Monochlamydeous orders, as being allied to Chenopodiacez. 
The order has been divided into two sections :—1. Illecebres, with 
the embryo lying on one side of the albumen, and stipulate leaves. 
2. Scleranthez, with a peripherical embryo and exstipulate leaves. 
There are 30 known genera, and nearly 120 species. Examples— 
Paronychia, Ilecebrum, Polycarpon, Corrigiola, Scleranthus. 

Order 83.—CrassuLacEa#, the Houseleek or Stonecrop Family 
(figs. 634, 635, p. 365). (Polypet. Perigyn.) Sepals 3-20, more or 
less united at the base (fig. 282 cc, p. 191). Petals equal to the 
sepals in number, inserted in the bottom of the calyx (fig. 282 pp, 
p. 191), either distinct or cohering in a gamopetalous corolla. Stamens 
inserted with the petals, either equal to them in number, and alternate 
with them (fig. 282 ¢ e, p. 191), or twice as many, those opposite the 
petals being shortest ; sometimes one or two rows of abortive stamens ; 
filaments distinct, or united, subulate, anthers bilocular, dehiscing 
longitudinally or transversely. Abortive stamens or scales (sometimes 
obsolete), at the base of each carpel (fig. 282 aa, p. 191). Carpels 
equal in number to the petals and opposite to them, 1-celled (fig. 
282 0 o, p. 191), sometimes consolidated ; styles several or combined ; 
stigmas pointed or 4-cornered ; ovules 00, or definite, anatropal. Fruit 
consisting of several follicles, dehiscing by the ventral suture, some- 
times by the dorsal suture. Seeds variable in number; embryo straight 
in the midst of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum—Her- 
baceous plants or shrubs, often succulent, with simple, entire, or 
pinnatifid, exstipulate leaves. They are found in the driest situations, 
as on rocks, walls, and sandy plains, in various parts of the world. 
Some of them are acrid, as Sedwm acre, Biting Stonecrop ; others are 
refrigerant, from the presence of an acid, such as malic-acid. Sem- 
pervivum tectorum is commonly known as the Houseleek. The fisher- 
men of Madeira rub their nets with the fresh leaves of the Sempervivum 
glutinosum, by which the nets are rendered as durable as if tanned, 
provided they are steeped in some alkaline liquor. Bryophyllwm caly- 
cinum is remarkable for the property of producing germinating buds 
at the edges of its leaves (p. 118). In the leaves of some of the 
species, as Crassula profusa, C. lactea, and C. marginata, there are 
two kinds of stomata; one kind being of the ordinary size, and scat- 
tered over the leaves, the other being very minute, and raised on orbi- 
cular slightly convex punctiform disks, arranged in a row within the 
margin of the leaf. These disks consist of dense cellular tissue which 


500 FICOIDEA. OR MESEMBRYACEZi—CACTACEA. 


terminates downwards in a conical form, and communicates with the 
peripheral ends of the veins, or the loose parenchymatous substance of 
the leaf. There are two tribes:—l. Semperviver, with numerous 
separate carpels. 2. Penthores, with pistil consolidated. There are 14 
genera and about 400: species. Examples—Crassula, Sempervivum, 
Cotyledon, Sedum, Penthorum. 

Order 84.—Ficoipr@ or MrsemBryace4, the Fig-marigold and 
Ice-plant Family. (Polypet. Perigyn.) Sepals definite, usually 5, but 
varying from 4-8, more or less combined at the base, adherent to the 
ovary or distinct from it, equal or unequal; estivation valvate or im- 
bricate. Petals indefinite, coloured, sometimes 0. Stamens ‘perigyn- 
ous, distinct, definite or indefinite ; anthers oblong, incumbent, Ovary 
usually many-celled ; stigmas several, distinct; ovules 00, anatropal 
or amphitropal, attached by cords to the placenta, which is either 
central or parietal, Fruit a many-celled capsule, opening in a stellate 
or circumscissile manner at the apex, or an indehiscent nut. Seeds 00, 
rarely definite or even solitary ; embryo curved or spiral, on the out- 
side of mealy albumen; radicle next the hilum.—Herbaceous or 
shrubby succulent plants, with opposite or alternate simple leaves. 
They are found in warm regions chiefly. The greater part of them 
grow at the Cape of Good Hope. The order has been divided into 
three tribes :—1. Mesembryez, numerous conspicuous petals, many- 
celled capsule, with stellate dehiscence. 2. Tetragoniew, petals 0, 
fruit woody and indehiscent. 3. Sesuvem, petals 0, capsule with 
circumscissile dehiscence. 4. Molluginesw, calyx 5-partite, petals 
3-5 or 0, stamens sub-perigynous, fruit capsular, or with 2-5 cocci. 
There are 22 known genera and 450 species. Examples—Mesembry- 
anthemum, Tetragonia, Aizoon, Sesuvium, Mollugo. 

Some of them are used as articles of diet, as the leaves of Mesem- 
bryanthemum edule, Hottentot’s Fig, and Tetragonia expansa, New 
Zealand Spinach. Others yield soda, and have been employed in the 
manufacture of glass. Mesembryanthemum erystallinum, the Ice-plant, 
is remarkable for the watery vesicles which cover its surface, and which 
have the appearance of pieces of ice. Its.juice is said to be diuretic, 
and has been prescribed in dropsy and liver complaints. The seed- 
vessels of some species of Mesembryanthemum, as M. Tripolium, have 
the property of expanding in a star-like manner when put into water, 
and closing when dry. The flowers of many of the plants of the order 
exhibit the phenomenon of opening only under the influence of sun- 
shine, and closing in dull weather (p. 262). Leaves of Mesembryan- 
themum, called Pigs’-faces, are eaten with Kangaroo flesh in some parts, 
of Australia, as a substitute for salt. , 

Order 85.—Cacrace#, the Cactus or Indian Fig Family. (Poly- 
pet. Epigyn.) Sepals numerous, usually co, and confounded with the 
petals, adherent to the ovary. Petals numerous, usually indefinite, 


CACTACEA. 501 


sometimes irregular, inserted at the orifice of the calyx. Stamens in- 
definite, cohering more or less with the petals and sepals ; filaments 
long, filiform ; anthers ovate, versatile. Ovary fleshy, inferior, unilo- 
cular ; style filiform ; stigmas numerous ; ovules oo , attached to parie- 
tal placentas, equal in number to the stigmas. Fruit succulent, 1- 
celled. Seeds oo, parietal, or, after losing their adhesion to the 
placenta, nestling in pulp, ovate or obovate; albumen 0; embryo 
straight, curved, or spiral; cotyledons thick, leafy, sometimes nearly 
obsolete ; radicle thick, obtuse, next the hilum—Succulent shrubs, 
with peculiar angular or flattened stems, having the woody matter 
often arranged in wedges. Leaves usually absent; when present, - 
fleshy, smooth, entire or spinous. Flowers sessile, sometimes showy. 
They grow in hot, dry,.and exposed places, and are natives chiefly of 
the tropical parts of America. Some grow rapidly on the lava in 
volcanic countries. There are two tribes:—l. Echinocactex, calyx 
tube produced beyond the ovary, stem with tuberculated ribs, or with 
elongated aculei, 2. Opuntiez, calyx tube not produced beyond the 
ovary, stem branching, articulated. There are 13 known genera and 
about 1000 species. Hxamples—Opuntia, Melocactus, Mammillaria, 
Echinocactus, Cereus, Epiphyllum, Pereskia, Rhipsalis. 

The plants of this order are remarkable for their succulence, “for 
the great development of their cellular tissue, and the anomalous forms 
of their stems, some of which attain a great size. In their structure 
numerous spiral cells are met with, and in many cases the fibre in 
these cells is interrupted so as to present thickened rings united by 
membrane. These rings, when the cells are macerated, can be ob- 
tained in a free state. Many of the plants in this order show a 
remarkable tendency to spiral development. The sete, spines, and 
hairs, are sometimes arranged spirally, and in Cereus flagelliformis the 
cells of the setee have this tendency. Many of them yield an edible 
fruit, which is sometimes refreshing and agreeable, at other times 
insipid. The fruit of Pereskia aculeata, under the name of Barbados 
Gooseberry, is used in the West Indies as an article of diet. That of 
Opuntia vulgaris is known under the name of Prickly Pear. The juice 
of the fruit of some species is subacid, and has sometimes been used 
as a refrigerant. Cattle sometimes feed on the succulent stems in dry 
seasons. Some of the plants are noted as night-flowering (p. 262). 
Cereus grandiflorus expands its large white blossoms about 10 p.m. in 
our hothouses, and their beauty lasts only for the night. Such is also 
the’case with CO. MacDonaldie and C. nycticalus, A plant of the latter 
species, in the Glasgow Botanic Garden, began. to open its flowers 
between 7 and 8 P.m., and they were fully opened at 10. The follow. 
ing were the numbers ’and sizes of the various parts :— 


Length of the tube of the calyx 3 ‘ ‘i 7 inches. 
Length of the petals : F 7 ‘ ‘ 43 


oe 


502 GROSSULARIACEZ OR RIBESIACEA—SAXIFRAGACEA, 


Length of the style . : . : : . 10 inches. 
Breadth of flower when fully expanded i MER gy 
Number of long sepals . . . : - 75 
Number of short sepals. : : - . é . 20 
Number of petals c : . ; . . 25 
Number of stamens . A E i . A . 400 
Number of stigmas . : » 15 


The size to which some of the Cactus family grow may be illustrated 
by a specimen of Echinocactus Viznaga, imported into Kew gardens 
from the mountains of San Luis, Potosi :— 


Weight of the plant 4 ‘ 4 5 2 718 Ibs. 
Height from surface of the eart z é : y 4k feet. 
Measured over the top from the ground on each side 10 feet 9 inches, 
Circumference at 1 foot fron the ground is "i 8 feet 7 inches, 
Number of deep angles or coste  . 4 ‘ ; 44 

“ Number of spines . 3 ‘ , - 8800 


In Brazil, some epiphytic Cactuses are met with ; and there are some 
species described by Gardner as attaining a height of thirty feet, with 
a circumference of three feet. Opuntia cochinellifera, and other species, 
are infested by the Coccus Cacti, or the cochineal insect, which feeds 
upon them. The plants are cultivated in what are called nopaleries, 
for the sake of the insect, the females of which, when dried, consti- 
tute the cochineal of commerce. 

Order 86.—GRossULARIACEH or Ripestace#, the Gooseberry 
and Currant Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) Calyx 4-5 cleft, regular, 
coloured. Petals minute, perigynous, equal in number to the seg- 
ments of the calyx, and alternate with them. Stamens 4-5, alternate 
with the petals, and inserted into the throat of the calyx ; filaments 
short ; anthers dithecal, Ovary unilocular, adherent to the tube of 
the calyx; ovules «, anatropal, attached to two opposite parietal 
placentas ; style single, 2-4 cleft. Fruit a 1-celled berry, crowned 
with the remains of the flower. Seeds oo, immersed in pulp, and 
attached to the placentas by long thread-like funiculi; spermoderm 
gelatinous externally; albumen horny; embryo straight, minute; 
radicle pointing to the hilum.—Shrubs, with alternate lobed leaves, 
having a plicate vernation. They are natives of temperate regions, 
and are found in Europe, Asia, and America. Many yield edible 
fruits, which sometimes contain malic acid. The various kinds of 
Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia) and Currant (Ribes rubrum and nigrum) 
belong to this order. The black currant possesses tonic and stimulant 
properties. On the under surface of its leaves and flowers fragrant 
glands may be perceived. The order is considered by some as a 
tribe of Saxifragacee. It contains 2 or 3 genera, and nearly 60 
species. Hxample—Ribes. : 

Order 87.—Saxirracacem, the Saxifrage Family. (Polypet. 
Perigyn.) Calyx superior, or more or less inferior (fig. 431 cc, p. 
245) ; sepals usually 5, more or less cohering at the base. Petals 


° 


SAXIFRAGACEA, 503 


usually 5, perigynous, alternate with the lobes of the calyx (fig. 431, 
pp, p. 245), rarely 0. Stamens perigynous (fig. 431 ¢, p. 245), 5-10 
or ©, in 1 or more rows; anthers bilocular, with longitudinal or 
porous dehiscence. Disk often present, either annular or scaly. Ovary 
more or less completely united to the tube of the calyx, consisting 
usually of two carpels, cohering by their face (figs. 431 ; 432 o, p. 
245), but distinct and diverging at the apex; styles as many as the 
earpels, distinct (fig. 432 ¢, p. 245) or combined ; stigmas capitate 
(fig. 432 s, p. 245) or clavate. Placentas (fig. 432 p, p. 245) mar- 
ginal (basal or apicilar), rarely central. Fruit generally a 1-2-celled 
capsule, the cells dehiscing at the ventral suture, and often divari- 
cating when ripe, sometimes baccate. Seeds usually oo, rarely defi- 
nite ; spermoderm often reticulated ; embryo small, in the axis of fleshy 
albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum—Shrubs or trees, or herbs, 
with alternate or opposite, usually exstipulate leaves. They are 
generally natives of temperate climates, and some of them character- 
ise alpine districts. The order has been divided into the following 
sub-orders :—1. Escallonieze, petals and stamens 5 ; ovary inferior ; 
style simple ; albumen oily ; evergreen shrubs, with alternate, simple, 
exstipulate leaves, found in the temperate regions of South America, 
often at a great elevation. 2. Cunonies, petals 4-5 or 0; stamens 
8-10 or © ; ovary half inferior ; styles 2, distinct or combined ; trees 
or shrubs, with opposite leaves, having interpetiolary stipules ; found 
in South America, the East Indies, south of Africa, and Australia. 
3. Hydranges, petals 4-6 ; stamens 8-12 or 0; anthers sometimes 
biporose ; ovary more or less inferior ; styles 2- 5, usually distinct ; 
shrubs with “opposite, sometimes whorled, exstipulate leaves, and 
inflorescence frequently cymose, with the exterior flowers sterile and 
dilated ; found chiefly in the temperate parts of Asia and America. 
4, Saxifragee, petals 5 or 0; stamens 5-10; ovary more or less 
adherent ; styles usually 2, and distinct; herbs, with alternate, 
usually exstipulate leaves, found in the mountainous regions of 
Europe, etc. Few of the plants are put to any use. Some of them 
are astringent, and used for tanning ; others have bitter tonic proper- 
ties. The glutinous exudation of a few of them is acrid. Escallonias 
may be said to represent shrubby Saxifrages. They inhabit chiefly the 
mountainous districts of Chili and the southern part of South 
America. Escallonia macrantha and rubra are grown in the milder 
parts of Great Britain. The leaves of Hydrangea Thunbergti furnish 
tea of a very recherché character, bearing the name of Ama-tsja in 
Japan. In the entire order there are 60 known genera, and upwards of 
500 species. Some include Philadelphacez and Francoacez in this order. 
Cephalotus is considered as an anomalous apetalous genus of the 
order. It is allied also to Crassulaces, and by some authors it is in- 
cluded in a separate order —CEPHALOTER, There is only one species, 


504 BRUNIACEZI—HAMAMELIDACE: 


C. follicularis, which inhabits §.W. Australia. Its leaves are arranged 
in arosette at the top of the rhizome, They are of two kinds, one flat, 
with a somewhat cylindrical dilated petiole, and the other true ascidia 
(pitchers) formed by the petiole, which is dilated at the top into two 
lips, the lower being larger and cup-like, and opening by a circular 
orifice, the upper being smaller, and acting as a lid to the cup. The 
pitchers contain a secretion. Hzamples—LEscallonia, Brexia, Itea, 
Cunonia, Weinmannia, Hydrangea, Bauera, Saxifraga, Astilbe, 
Chrysosplenium, Heuchera. 

Order 88.—Brun1ace#, the Brunia Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx 5-cleft ; zestivation imbricated. Petals inserted in the throat 
of the calyx, and alternate with its segments. Stamens alternate 
with the petals, arising from them, or from a disk surrounding the 
ovary; anthers introrse, 2-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. 
Ovary usually adherent to the tube of the calyx, and 1-3-celled ; 
ovules anatropal, suspended, 1 or 2 in each cell ; style simple or bifid; 
stigmas 1-3. Fruit either bicoccous and 2-celled, or indehiscent and 
1-celled, crowned by the persistent calyx. Seeds solitary or in pairs, 
suspended, sometimes with a short arillus; embryo minute, at the 
base of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons short and fleshy ; radicle conical, 
next the hilum.—Branched heath-like shrubs, with small, imbricated, 
rigid, and entire leaves, and small, often capitate flowers. They are 
natives principally of the Cape of Good Hope, and have no important 
properties. There are 10 known genera and about 40 species. 
Examples—Brunia, Staavia, Berzelia. 

Order 89.—H aMaMELIDACE®, the Witch-hazel Family. (Polypet. 
Epigyn.y Calyx 4-5-lobed or truncate. Petals 4-5 or 0, inserted on 
the calyx, alternating with the calycine segments. Stamens twice as 
many as the petals, in two rows, one of which alternates with the’ 
petals and is fertile, the other is opposite to them and sterile ; anthers 
bilocular, introrse. Ovary adherent, 2-celled ; ovules solitary, or seve- 
ral (in Bucklandia and Sedgwickia), pendulous or suspended ; styles 2. 
Fruit a 2-celled, 2-valved capsule, opening by loculicidal dehiscence. 
Seeds pendulous; embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen; 
cotyledons leafy ; radicle superior.—Shrubs or small trees, with alter- 
nate, petiolate, feather-veined, and stipulate leaves, and small axillary, 
bracteated, often unisexual flowers. They are found in various parts’ 
of Asia, Africa, and America. The seeds of Hamamelis virginica are 
used as food, while its leaves and bark are astringent and acrid. 
Inquidambar orientalis yields liquid storax, which is used as a cure for 
scabies. The resins yielded by Liquidambar styraciflua, Formosana, 
and altingiana, are also used as fragrant balsams. By some authors 
these plants are placed in a Monochlamydeous order, Balsamiflue or 
Altingiacee. Authors notice 15 genera, including 30 species. Ez- 
amples—Hamamelis, Fothergilla, Bucklandia, Rhodoleia, Liquidambar. 


UMBELLIFERA. 505 


Order 90.—UmpetiirEera, the Umbelliferous Family (figs. 719- 
725), Apiacess of Lindley. (Polypet. Epigyn.) Calyx superior, 5- 


Fig. 724. Fig. 725. ; 


Figs. 719-723. Organs of fructification of Daucus Carota, common Carrot, to illustrate the 
natural order Umbellifere. Fig. 719. Diagram of the flower, with a 5-toothed calyx, 5 
inflexed petals, 5 stamens, and fruit formed by 2 carpels, with primary and secondary ridges, 
vallecule, commissure, and flat albumen. Fig. 720. The flower viewed from above, show- 
ing the petals with inflexed points and 5 stamens. ge, Epigynous disk or stylopod. Fig. 
721. Vertical section of the flower. p, Petals with inflexed points. ¢, Stamens, one incurved 
at the apex. vu, Ovary formed by two carpels, adherent to the calyx throughout. s, Styles 
and stigmas. ge, Epigynous disk or stylopod. Fig. 722. Horizontal section of the fruit 
(cremocarp) with bristly ridges. Fig..723. Vertical section of the cremocarp. /f, Pericarp. 
g, Seed. pp, Flat perisperm. e, Embryo. Fig. 724, Perfect flower of Narthex Asafcetida, 
with obsolete 5-toothed calyx, 5 oblong petals, one showiug inflexed point, 5 stamens, 
epigynous disk, and 2 slightly-curved styles. Fig. 725. Pistillate flower of ditto, with 
obsolete-lobed calyx, 2 deflexed styles surmounting the cremocarp. 


506 UMBELLIFERA, 


toothed or entire. Petals 5, inserted on the outside of a fleshy epi- 
gynous disk, often with inflexed points (figs. 306, p. 201; 720). 
Stamens 5, alternate with the petals, incurved in xstivation (figs. 720, 
721, 723). Ovary inferior, 2-celled, crowned with a double disk or 
stylopod (fig. 721 ge); ovules solitary, pendulous; styles 2, distinct (fig. 
550 ss, p. 306); stigma simple. Fruit (figs. 722, 723) a cremocarp 
(p. 311), consisting’ of two achenia (mericarps or hemicarps), which 
adhere by their face (commissure) to a common axis (carpophore), 
from which they separate, and are suspended when ripe (figs. 550 a, p. 
306 ; 725); each mericarp is traversed“ by five primary longitudinal 
ridges (juga), and often by four alternating secondary ones, the ridges 
being separated by channels (vallecule). In the substance of the 
pericarp there are frequently vitte containing oil, which are usually 
opposite the channels. Seeds pendulous (fig. 723 9), usually adherent 
to the pericarp, rarely loose ; embryo minute, at the base of abundant 
horny albumen (fig. 723 ¢) ; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbace- 
ous plants, often with hollow and furrowed stems, with alternate, 
rarely opposite, variously divided, sheathing leaves (which sometimes 
assume the appearance of phyllodia), and with umbellate, involucrate 
flowers (fig. 262, p. 179). They are found chiefly in the northern 
parts of the northern hemisphere. In warm countries they occur at 
high elevations. The order has been divided according to the number 
and size of the pericarpial ridges, the presence or absence of vitte, and 
the form of the albumen. The following sections are given by old 
authors, but they are not sufficiently definite for the purpose of classi- 
fication :—1. Orthosperme (és, straight, and omégwa, seed), albumen 
flat on the inner face, neither involute nor convolute. 2. Campylo- 
sperma (xaarddos, inflected), albumen curved at the margins, so as to 
form a longitudinal furrow. 3. Ccelospermee (x07A0¢, concave), albu- 
men curved at the ends (from base to apex). The following are the 
sections now adopted :—1. Heterosciadee, umbels simple, vitte in 
vallecule 0. 2. Haplozygie ; umbels compound, primary ridges of 
the fruit alone conspicuous; vitte in vallecule very rarely absent. 
3. Diplozygie ; umbels compound, primary and secondary ridges on 
the fruit, vallecule thickened above the vitte. Authors enumerate 
160 genera, including about 1300 species. Examples—l. Heterosciadece 
(2regos, diverse, ox/a, shade) — Hydrocotyle, Sanicula, Eryngium, 
Astrantia. 2. Haplozygia (aadéos, single, and Zivév, a yoke)—Conium, 
Apium, Carum, Cinanthe, Narthex, Heracleum, 3, Déplozygie 
(6:7A60g, double)—Coriandrum, Daucus. 

The properties of the plants of this order are various. Some yield 
articles of diet, others gum-resinous and oily substances, while others 
are highly poisonous. According to their qualities, the species have 
been divided into—1. Those which are harmless, and are used as 
esculent vegetables. 2. Those producing a gum-resin, often having a 


UMBELLIFERA. 507 


-fetid odour from the presence of a sulphur-oil, and which are used as 
antispasmodics and stimulants. 3. Those yielding a volatile oil, | 
which renders them carminative and aromatic. 4. Those which are 
poisonous, in consequence of the presence of an acrid and narcotic juice. 

Among esculent species may be noticed —Daucus Carota (Carrot), 
Pastinaca sativa (Parsnip), Apiwm graveolens (Celery), Feniculum 
vulgare (Fennel), Petroselinwm sativum (Parsley), Anthriscus Cerefolium 
(Chervil), Siwm Stsarum (Skirret), and Archangelica officinalis (An- 
gelica). Crithmum maritimum is the Samphire, which grows abun- 
dantly on rocks near the sea, and is used as a pickle. The roots of 
Arracacha esculenta, a native of Grenada, have been recommended as 
a substitute for the potato; they are large and esculent, resembling a 
Parsnip in quality. The roots of Cherophyllum bulboswm (bulbous 
Chervil) are used like carrots. A dwarf kind of Fennel, called Fin- 
ochio, is used in Italy asa salad. The roots of Eryngium campestre 
and maritimum, or Eryngo, are sweet, aromatic, tonic, and diuretic. 
The tubers of Buniwm Bulbocastanwn and flexuosum are eaten under 
the name of Pig-nuts or Earth-nuts. Prangos pabularia, a plant of 
Southern Tartary, is highly recommended as fodder for cattle. 

Many species yield milky juices, which concrete into a fetid gum- 
resin. Asafcetida is procured from Narthex Asafatida (Ferula Narthex). 
The plant is found in Persia and Affghanistan, and seeds of it were 
sent to this country by Dr. Falconer, some of which germinated in 
the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, and produced abundance of flowers 
and fruit.—(Trans. R. S. Edin., xxii., with figures.) The fruit of 
the plant is distinguished by divided and interrupted vitte, which 
form a network on the surface, and its leaves have a resemblance to 
those of a Peony. It would appear that Ferula persica, a plant with 
very much divided leaves, yields an inferior sort of asafcetida. The 
asafcetida is procured by taking successive slices off the top of the root, 
and collecting the milky juice which is allowed to concrete in masses. 
It consists of resinous and gummy matter, with a sulphur-oil similar 
to that of Garlic, which is probably its active ingredient. It is em- 
ployed medicinally in substance or tincture, as a stimulant, antispas- 
modic, and anthelmintic. Scorodosma fotidum, found in the east of the 
Sea of Aral, also yields a substance similar to asafcetida, Ammoniac, 
another fetid gum-resin, is the produce of Dorema Ammoniacum (Diser- 
neston gunmiferum), a native of Persia. It contains resin, gum, and 
volatile oil, and is used medicinally as a stimulant, antispasmodic, and 
expectorant. Galbanum, which seems to be the maabn (Chelbenah) of 
Scripture, is procured, in all probability, from Ferula galbaniflwa and 
rubricaulis, found in northern Persia. It consists of resin, gum, and vola- 
tile oil, and is used as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue. Opoponax 

_ is another gum-resin, procured from Opoponax Chironum (Pastinaca Opo- 
ponax), a native of the southern parts of Europe. Sagapenum seems 


508 UMBELLIFER. 


to be the produce of a species of Feruda. Sumbul root, used as a stimu- 
lant tonic in Russia, is the produce of Euryangium Sumbul. 

There are other species which supply a carminative and aromatic 
oil. From the fruits of Carum Oarui, which are commonly called 
Caraway seeds, a volatile oil of this nature is procured. Similar oils 
are obtained from the fruit of Pimpinella Amisum (Anise) ; from that 
of Feniculwm vulgare, or F. dulce (common Fennel); Anethum graveolens 
(common Dill), éymdov, Anise of the Bible ; Coriandrum sativum (Cori- 
ander), 33, Gad of the Bible ; Cuminum Cyminum (Cumin), }192 (Kam- 
mon) xtuivov; Archangelica officinalis (Garden Angelica), and Daucus 
Carota (Carrot). Ammi copticum (Ptychotes Ajowan) is the Ajowan or 
Omam, a condiment of India. 

_ In regard to the poisonous species of this order there is still much 
to be learned. They appear to vary according to the soil and climate 
in which they grow. Some species, generally reputed poisonous, have 
been found by Sir Robert Christison to be quite innocuous when 
gathered from localities in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. The 
most important plant of this section is Conium maculatum (Hemlock), 
the xverov of the Greeks, and probably cicuta of the Romans, It is 
a biennial plant, found abundantly in Britain, and distinguished by 
its undulated ridges, smooth purple-spotted stem, and the peculiar 
mouse-like odour of its leaves, when being dried. Every part of the 
plant, especially the fresh leaves and green fruit, contain a volatile 
oleaginous alkali, called Conia, which acts as an energetic poison. To 
this substance the effects of hemlock on the animal frame are due, and 
care is required in the preparation of the leaves and fruit in order to 
retain this active principle. A few drops of Conia will kill a small 
animal. It acts on the spinal cord, producing paralysis with slight 
convulsive twitches, and its fatal effects are attributed to asphyxia, 
produced by palsy of the muscles of respiration, without convulsions 
or coma. Hemlock has been employed medicinally to allay pain, more 
especially in cancerous and neuralgic affections. nanthe crocata 
(Hemlock-Dropwort, or Dead-tongue), and a variety called apiifolia, 
have been long looked upon as poisonous. The roots have been mis- 
taken for parsnips, and fatal effects have been thus produced. It would 
appear, however, that these poisonous qualities are not invariably pre- 
sent, for Sir Robert Christison found that the roots of this plant, 
when growing in a sea-side locality, near Edinburgh, were innocuous. 
It remains to be determined if the climate and locality have any effect 
in modifying the properties of the plant. The same remarks may be 
made in regard to Mnanthe Phellandrium (Water Dropwort), and Cicuta 
virosa (Water Hemlock or Cowbane), which seem to vary as regards 
their poisonous properties. Mthusa Cynapium (Fool’s Parsley) is 
another plant of the order reputed poisonous, It has been stated that 
the roots of Parsnip, during the spring of the second year, on the 


ARALIACEZ—CORNACEZ, 509 


approach of the flowering season, occasionally produce a poisonous 
matter, : 

Azorella Selago, an umbelliferous plant, forms great green cushions 
in Kerguelen’s Island, and seems to take the place of Bolax glebaria, 
Balsam-bog, an umbellifer of the Falkland Islands. A species of 
Dichopetalum in Victoria has 5 petaloid sepals. 

Order 91.— ARattacem, the Ivy Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx entire or toothed (fig. 340 ¢, p. 214). Petals definite (fig. 340 p, 
p. 214), 2, 5, 10, deciduous, occasionally 0; astivation valvate. 
Stamens as many as the petals, or twice as many, inserted below the 
margin of an epigynous disk (fig. 340, ¢ ¢, p. 214). Ovary adherent 
to the tube of the calyx, 2 or more celled (fig. 340 0, p. 214); ovules 
solitary, pendulous (fig. 340, p. 214), anatropal; styles 2 or more, 
distinct or connate (fig. 340 s, p. 214); stigmas simple. Fruit usually 
succulent, 2-15-celled, covered by the calycine limb. Seeds solitary, 
pendulous, adhering to the endocarp ; albumen fleshy ; embryo small ; 
radicle pointing to the hilum.—Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, 
with alternate exstipulate leaves, and umbellate (fig. 261, p. 179) or 
capitate flowers. They are found both in tropical and in cold regions. 
There are 5 series or sub-orders :—1. Araliez, petals more or less im- 
bricated, fixed by a broad base. 2. Mackinlayiex, petals involute, 
contracted into a very short claw. 3. Panacez, petals valvate, 
stamens equal in number to the petals, albumen uniform. 4. Hederez, 
petals valvate, stamens and petals isomerous, albumen ruminate. 
5. Plerandres, petals valvate or connate, stamens o, styles 0, or 
cohering in a cone. Authors enumerate 38 genera, including 340 
species. Examples—Aralia, Mackinlaya, Panax, Fatsia, Hedera, Hel- 
wingia, Plerandra. 

They have generally aromatic and stimulant properties. They are 
allied to Umbelliferze, but do not possess poisonous qualities in a marked 
degree, nor does their fruit usually yield volatile oil. A species of Panax 
yields the famous Ginseng root of the Chinese, which is used as a 
stimulant. Panaz quinquefolium possesses qualities resembling those 
of ginseng. The celebrated Rice Paper of the Chinese is ascertained 
to be prepared from the pith of Fatsia papyrifera. Some species of 
Aralia yield an aromatic gum-resin. Aralia nudicaulis, a native of 
North America, has fragrant and aromatic roots, which are used as a 
substitute for sarsaparilla, A. spinosa, called toothache-tree in North 
America, is a stimulant diaphoretic. Aralia japonica (canescens), 
racemosa, spinosa, hispida, etc., are commonly grown in drawing-rooms 
in Britain. The succulent fruit of Hedera Helix, the Ivy, is emetic 
and purgative. 

Order 92.—Cornacea, the Cornel Family. (Polypet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx 4-lobed. Petals 4, oblong, broad at the base, regular, inserted 
into the upper part of the calycine tube ; zstivation valvate. Stamens 


510 CORNACEA—CAPRIFOLIACEA. 


4, inserted along with the petals, and alternate with them ; anthers 
dithecal. Ovary adherent to the tube of the calyx, 2-celled, crowned 
by a disk ; ovules solitary, pendulous, anatropal ; style filiform ; stigma 
simple. Fruit fleshy, crowned by the limb of the calyx, 2-celled, 
rarely 1-celled by abortion’; endocarp bony (fig. 569, p. 314). Seeds 
solitary, pendulous ; embryo straight, long, in the axis of fleshy albu- 
men ; radicle superior, shorter than the oblong cotyledons.—Trees, 
shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, very rarely alternate, exstipulate 
leaves, and capitate, umbellate, or corymbose, or amentiferous flowers, 
They inhabit the temperate climates of Europe, Asia, and America ; 
also met with in Australia and New Zealand, and in Africa. The orders 
ALANGIACEE and GARRYACE# are included in this order. The bark 
of Cornus florida and sericea is used in America as a tonic and febrifuge. 
The fruit of Cornus mascula has been used as food, and the seeds of 
Cornus sanguinea furnish oil. From the wood of Cornus mascula, or 
Akenia of the Greeks, the Kizziljiek or Redwood of Turkey, the Turks 
obtain the dye for their red fez. The fruit stewed and mixed with 
water forms a good drink in hot weather, and from its astringency it 
is useful in diarrhea. The fruit of Cornus suecica, a species found on 
the Scotch mountains, is reputed tonic. Aucuba japonica has leaves 
which exhibit a variegated aspect. Garrya elliptica is prized for its 
peculiar silky catkins. It has unisexual flowers. Some species of 
Alangium yield edible fruits, others are purgative. Authors give 12 
genera and 75 species. Examyples—Cornus, Alangium, Aucuba, Garrya, 
Nyssa. 

Section Il—GamoprTata.—Petals united; stamens usually 
epigynous. 

This section includes the Monopetalous orders of Jussieu, and the 
Gamopetale of Endlicher, in which the ovary is inferior ; or, in other 
words, in which the calyx is superior. Many authors put this section 
as an epigynous division of the sub-class Corollifore. Decandolle’s 
arrangement is followed in this Work. 


Order 93.—CapriroLiacra, the Honeysuckle Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx with its limb 4-5 lobed, usually bracteated. Corolla 
superior, lobed, usually regular and gamopetalous, sometimes irregular. 
Stamens epicorolline, equal in number to the lobes of the corolla, and 
alternate with them. Ovary adherent to the tube of the calyx, usually 
3-celled, rarely 4-5-celled ; ovules few in each cell, pendulous; style 
one or none; stigmas 3-5. Fruit fleshy or dry, crowned by the limb 
of the calyx, indehiscent, uni- or multi-locular ; endocarp sometimes 
bony. Seeds solitary, or several in each cell, pendulous ; spermoderm 
often bony ; embryo small in the centre of fleshy albumen ; radicle 
next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbs, with opposite exstipulate leaves, 
and corymbose flowers. Chiefly found in the northern parts of 


CAPRIFOLIACEZ—RUBIACES. 511 


Europe, Asia, and America ; found very sparingly in northern Africa, 
and little known in the southern hemisphere. The order has been 
divided into two sub-orders :—1. Loniceres, the true Honeysuckles, 
with a regular rotate or tubular corolla, three sessile stigmas, and a 
raphe on the inner side of the ovule. 1. Sambucez, the Elder Tribe, 
with a corolla more or less tubular, often irregular, a filiform style, 
and a raphe on the outside of the ovule. Genera, 14; species, 200. 
Examples—Lonicera, Diervilla, Leycesteria, Linnzea, Adoxa, Sambu- 
cus, Viburnum. 

Many of the plants, such as the Honeysuckle and Elder, have 
odoriferous flowers. Some possess emetic and purgative properties. 
The fruit of Sambucus nigra, the Common Elder, is used in the manu- 
facture of a kind of wine. The flowers contain a concrete volatile oil, 
and a minute portion of a volatile odoriferous oil, They are used for 
making an aromatic distilled water. The inspissated juice of the fruit, 
and the inner bark, possess purgative qualities. Viburnum Opulus, the 
Gueldres Rose, often cultivated in gardens, is called snowball, from its 
globular head of abortive flowers. Viburnum Lantana has an acrid 
bark. Viburnum Tinus is the Laurustinus of gardeners. Linnea borealis 
(two-flowered Linnza) is a northern plant, named after Linnzus. Sym- 
phoricarpus racemosus yields the Snowberry, which is a dipyrenous drupe. 

Order 94.—Rvusracza, the Madder and Peruvian Bark Family. 
(Monopet. Epigyn.) (Figs. 726-732.) Calyx superior, the limb with 


Fig. 728. Fig. 727. 


Fig. 726. Fig. 729. Fig. 731. Fig. 730. 


a definite number of divisions (usually 4-5), sometimes obsolete (fig. 
728 c). Corolla gamopetalous, regular, tubular, or rotate (fig. 728 p), 


Figs. 726-731. Illustrations of the natural order Rubiacez. Fig. 726. Diagram of the 
flower of Galium Mollugo, belonging to the section Stellatw. Calyx nearly obsolete, corolla 
rotate, 4-lobed, 4 stamens, and didymous ovary. Fig. 727. Flower entire. Fig. 728. 
Flower cut vertically. c, Calyx adherent to the ovary, 0, which is 2-celled. , Corolla. 
ee, Stamens surrounding the style and stigmas. Fig. 729. Fruit of Rubia tinctoria, 
Madder. Fig. 730. The same, showing the separation of ‘the two carpels. Fig. 731. 
The seed cut vertically, p, Perisperm. e, Curved embryo. 


512 RUBIACEA, 


superior, usually with 4-5 divisions (fig. 727) ; zstivation valvate or 
imbricate. Stamens more or less adherent to the corolline tube, as 
many as the lobes of the corolla, and alternate with them (fig. 726). 
Ovary inferior, usually bilocular (fig. 728 0), some- 
times multilocular, crowned with a fleshy ; disk; 
ovules numerous or solitary, anatropal or amphitropal ; 
style single, sometimes partly divided; stigmas 
j usually 2, more or less distinct (fig. 728). Fruit in- 
ferior, 2- or many- celled, dry or succulent, either inde- 
hiscent or splitting into two mericarps (figs. 729, 730). 

Wig. 782. Seeds 1 or many in each cell, in the former case erect 
or ascending (fig. 728), in the latter attached to a central placenta ; 
albumen copious, horny or fleshy (fig. 731 ») ; embryo small, straight, 
or slightly curved (fig. 731 ¢); cotyledons leafy ; radicle turned to 
the hilum.—tTrees, shrubs, or herbs, with simple, entire, opposite, or 
verticillate leaves, which have either interpetiolary stipules (fig. 206, 
p. 98), or are exstipulate, sometimes with glands at the base of the 
stipules, as in Cinchona and Ipecacuan (fig. 732). The order has 
been divided into three series :—1. Galiez or Stellate, with square 
stems, verticillate leaves, and no true stipules (as the leaves in the 
verticil are alike), ovary with 1 seed in each cell. 2. Coffeze, distinct 
stipules, ovary with 1-2 seeds in a cell, 3, Cinchonex, with distinct 
stipules, ovary having numerous seeds. The plants in the first series 
are natives of temperate and cold climates. Those in the other two 
are natives of warm climates. The order has been divided into 25 
tribes by Hooker and Bentham. -Some authors think that: the ver- 
ticillate leaves of Stellatze consist partly of true leaves, and partly: 
of stipules. The order includes nearly 340 genera and upwards of 
4000 known species. Hxamples—Galium, Rubia, Asperula, Nestera, 
Coffea, Cephaelis, Psychotria, Spermacoce, Cephalanthus, Cinchona, 
Gardenia, Hedyotis, Isertia, Hamelia, Guettarda, Peederia. 

The properties of the order, in general, are tonic, febrifuge, and 
astringent. Important articles of materia medica are furnished by 
the plants in the sub-orders Coffee and Cinchonex. Peruvian or 
Jesuits’ Bark, Quinquina of the French, China of the Germans, known 
under the vague and ill-defined names of Pale, Yellow, and Red Bark, 
is procured from various species of Cinchona, which grow abundantly 
in the district of Upper Peru. The Cinchona trees seem to be con- 
fined exclusively to the Andes, within the boundaries of Peru, Colum- 
bia, and Bolivia, from 11° north lat. to 20° south lat., chiefly growing 
at elevations varying from 5000 to 8000 feet above the level of the sea, 
and in a dry rocky soil; the highest limit is 11,000 feet. The barks 
are met with either in thick, large, flat pieces, or in thinner pieces, 
which curl inwards during drying, and are called quilled. At least 

Fig. 732. Glands at the base of the stipules of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, 


RUBIACEA, 513 


twelve species are supposed to furnish commercial barks. The greater 
number of these barks are used in the manufacture of Quinine. Those 
which are used pharmaceutically are—1. Cinchona officinalis (Hook.), 
a native of Ecuador and Peru; 2. C. Calisaya (Wedd.), from the 
valleys of Bolivia and south-eastern Peru; 3. C. succirubra (Pavon.), 
found in the valleys of the Andes which open into the plain of Guayaquil. 
Of the other species, the following may be mentioned :—Cinchona 
lanceolata, pahudiana, pitayensis, purpurea, ovalifolia, ovata, cordifolia. 
(See Hanbury’s Pharmacographia, p. 318.) The most important princi- 
ples procured from Cinchona bark are the alkaloids of Cinchonine, Cin- 
chonidine, Quinine, Quinidine, and Quinamine, combined with Kinic, 
Cincho-tannic, and Quinovic acids. The chief officinal kinds are— 
1. Crown-bark, China-loxa, a pale bark in quills 6 to 15 inches long. 
2. Gray bark, Silver bark, or Huanuco bark, China-Huanuco, another 
variety of quilled pale bark. 3. Yellow bark, China-regia, or Calisaya 
bark, partly flat, partly quilled. 4. Red bark, China-rubra, partly 
flat and partly quilled. Besides these, there are various inferior kinds of 
bark met with in commerce, such as Ash bark, China-Jaen, hard Cartha- 
gena bark, China-flava-dura, Rusty bark, China-Huamalies, Orange- 
bark, and,|Red bark of Santa Fé. Cinchona bark is used medicinally 
as a tonic and antiperiodic, in cases of dyspepsia, neuralgia, and inter- 
mittent fever. It has been administered in the form of infusion and 
tincture, but at present the disulphate of Quinine is the chief prepa- 
ration used. The genus Eaostemma yields various kinds of false 
Cinchona bark, which do not contain the Cinchona alkalis. In this 
genus the stamens are exserted, whereas in Cinchona they are included. 
Pinckneya pubens yields the fever-bark of Carolina, 

Some of the plants of this order have emetic and purgative quali- 
ties. Cephdelis Ipecacuanha (see Trans, R. S. Ed., xxvi., with figures) 
yields the Ipecacuanha of the Pharmacopoeia (figs. 104, p. 41; 233, 
p. 118). The plant is found in the woods of several Brazilian pro- 
vinces, as Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio Janeiro. The flowers are 
dimorphic. The fruit is a succulent, dark purple, 2-seeded drupe. 
The roots, which are the officinal part, are, contorted, knotty, and 
annulated, and about the thickness of a goose-quill, They are used 
as emetic and diaphoretic remedies, in the form of powder or wine. 
Their active ingredient is an alkaloid called Emetine. The plant can 
be propagated by making sections of the rhizome, as well as by 
means of the leaves. Ipecacuan and Cinchona are now largely culti- 
vated in India. The import of Ipecacuan into Britain in 1870 was 
62,952 lbs. Besides this brown or gray annulated Ipecacuanha, there 
are spurious kinds, such as large black striated Ipecacuanha, the produce 
of Psychotria emetica, and small striated Ipecacuanha, from a species of 
Richardsonia, and white undulated Ipecacuanha, furnished by Richard- 
sonia scabra or brasiliensis, a native of the provinces of Rio Janeiro 


21 


514 RUBIACEZ—VALERIANACEA. 


and Minas Geriies. Some of the species of Psychotria, Cephielis, and 
Randia, are said to act so violently as to produce poisonous effects. 

Among the astringent plants of the order may be noticed Uncaria 
Gambier, which supplies a kind of Catechu, known by the name of 
Gambier. Of the plants furnishing articles of diet, the most import- 
ant is Coffea arabica, a native of Arabia and of the borders of Abyssinia, 
which furnishes the Coffee of commerce. The fruit is succulent, and 
the horny albumen of the seed is the part used as a beverage. It 
contains a bitter principle, denominated Caffein, which is identical 
with that got from Tea. The import of Coffee into the United King- 
dom, in 1870, was 179,901,864 lbs, The seeds of some other plants 
of the order, as species of Galium, have been used as substitutes for 
Coffee. Among the plants yielding dyes, the most interesting is Rubia 
tinctoria, the root of which is the Madder of commerce. It contains 
three volatile colouring matters — madder purple, orange, and red. 
The latter is in the form of crystals, having a fine orange-red colour, 
and called Alizarine. This is the substance which yields the turkey- 
red dye. Rubia Munjista (cordifolia), Munjeet, is also used for a 
similar purpose. The import of Madder into Britain in 1870 was 
37,820 cwts.; of madder root 132,749 cwts.; and of munjeet 2749 
ewts. Oldenlandia umbellata is employed in the East Indies as a sub- 
stitute for Madder, and so is the root of Morinda citrifolia, under the 
name of Sooranjee. The latter yields a peculiar colouring matter, 
called Morindine. It is extracted from the bark of the root, and is 
procured in the form of minute acicular crystals of a fine yellow colour. 
It is incapable of producing colours with alum and iron mordants, but 
with turkey-red mordant it produces a dark red. Many of the plants 
of this order, especially in the section Cinchonex, have very showy 
and fragrant flowers. The species of Musswenda and Caleophyllum are 
remarkable on account of one of their sepals becoming large and showy, 
Asperula odorata, Woodruff, gives out its fragrance when dried. 

Order 95. — Vatertanacea®, the Valerian Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx superior, its limb being either membranous or pap- 
pose. Corolla gamopetalous, inserted into the top of the ovary, tubu- 
lar, 3-4-5-lobed, sometimes gibbous or spurred at the base. Stamens 
1-5, adherent to the corolla and alternate with its lobes. Ovary 
inferior, 1-3-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous, style filiform ; stigmas 
1-3, Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned by the limb of the calyx, 1-celled, 
in consequence of 2 cells being abortive. Seed solitary, pendulous, 
exalbuminous ; embryo straight ; radicle superior.—Herbs, with oppo- 
site exstipulate leaves, and cymose inflorescence. They are found in 
temperate climates. Authors give 9 genera and 300 species, Ex- 
amples—Patrinia, Valeriana, Centranthus, Valerianella, Fedia. 

The plants belonging to the order are strong-scented or aromatic, 
and some of them have been used as bitter tonics, anthelmintics, 


DIPSACACEAi—CALYCERACE. 515 


and antispasmodics. The root of Valeriana officinalis is the common 
medicinal Valerian. It has a bitter acrid taste, and a peculiar odour, 
which is fetid and disagreeable in the dry state. In the form of 
tincture and infusion it is prescribed in cases of hysteria. Other 
species of Valerian, as V. celtica, Phu, sitchensis, and Saliunca, have 
similar properties. Valerian is known to have a peculiar effect on 
cats, causing a species of intoxication. Nardostachys Jatamans? is the 
‘a3 (nerd), végdos, or spikenard of the ancients, which was highly 
prized on account of its perfume. Valerianella olitoria, Lamb’s lettuce, 
is used as a salad. Many of the plants in the order secrete a peculiar 
volatile oil, to which these properties are due. 

Order 96.-—-DipsacacEa, the Teazel Family, (Jonopet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx superior ; entire, or toothed, or pappose (figs. 302, 303, p. 199). 
Corolla gamopetalous, superior, with an oblique 4-5-lobed limb ; sesti- 
vation imbricated. Stamens 4, attached to the tube of the corolla, and 
alternate with its lobes; anthers dithecal, distinct. Ovary inferior, 
unilocular ; ovule solitary, pendulous, anatropal ; style filiform ; stigma 
simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, crowned by the limb of the calyx, 
covered by an epicalyx or involucellum, l-celled. Seed solitary, pen- 
dulous, albuminous; embryo straight ; radicle superior.—Herbs or 
undershrubs, wth opposite or verticillate leaves, and capitate or verti- 
cillate flowers, surrounded by a many-leaved involucre (figs. 253, 
p. 175 ; 265, p. 180). They are found in the south of Europe, the 
Levant, and at the Cape of Good Hope. The properties of the order 
are unimportant. The name Dipsacus is derived from dia, thirst, in 
consequence of the bases of the leaves of some of the species being 
connate, in such a way as to enclose a cavity which contains water 
ready to allay thirst. D. sylvestris is hence called Venus’s Bath ; 
the water contained in which was considered good for bleared eyes. 
The heads of Depsacus fullonwm, Fullers’ Teazel, on account of their 
spiny bracts, are used ‘in dressing cloth. Some of the species are 
reputed febrifugal. Scabiosa succisa is said to yield a green dye, and 
has from its astringent qualities attracted the attention of tanners. 
‘It has a premorse rhizome. Genera, 5 ; species, 120. Haamples— 
Morina, Scabiosa, Dipsacus. 

Order 97.—CatyceRacem, the Calycera Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx superior, with a limb of 5 unequal segments. Corolla 
regular, infundibuliform, with a long slender tube, and a 5-lobed 
limb, the lobes having each three principal veins. Stamens 5, attached 
to the tube of the corolla, with as many alternating glands below 
them ; filaments monadelphous ; anthers partially united. Ovary 
inferior, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous ; style single, smooth ; 
stigma capitate. Fruit an achenium, crowned by the rigid spiny 
segments of the calyx, sometimes covered with papille, which emit 
spiral tubes when placed in water. Seed solitary, pendulous ; embryo 


516 COMPOSITE. 


AY 


Fig. 734. Fig. 735. 


- . * 
wl ie Fig. 736. 
ee — 
/ ert dN 


Fig. 787. “Fig. 739. Fig. 738. Fig, 741, Fig. 740. Fig. 742.0, 


COMPOSIT. 517 


in the axis of fleshy albumen; radicle superior.—Herbaceons plants, 
with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and sessile capitate flowers, sur- 
rounded by an involucre. They inhabit South America, rarely occur- 
ring in the tropical districts, but more plentiful in South Chili. Their 
properties are unknown. There are 3 known genera and 20 species. 
ELxamples—Calycera, Boopis. 

Order 98.—Composit (Asteracese of Lindley, and Synantheree 
of other authors), the Composite Family. (Monopet. Epigyn.) (Figs. 
733-744). Calyx superior, its limb either wanting or membranous, 
or divided into bristles, pales, or hairs, and called pappus (figs. 301, 
p. 199; 736 a). Corolla gamopetalous, ligulate (figs. 826, p. 207 ; 
734), or tubular (fig. 736 p), in the latter case usually 5-toothed, 
‘sometimes bilabiate (fig. 735) ; two marginal veins, containing spiral 
cells, run along each of the corolline divisions, and afterwards proceed 
along the axis of these divisions ; eestivation valvate. Stamens usually 
5, alternate with the teeth of thé corolla (fig. 736 ¢); filaments dis- 
tinct ; anthers (figs, 326 a, p. 207; 734, 735, 736 ¢) cohering into a 
cylinder (synantherous or syngenesious). Ovary inferior, closely adhe- 
rent to the tube of the calyx (figs. 734, 735, 736 0, 744), and un- 
distinguishable from it, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, erect (figs. 458, 459, 
p. 257; 736, 744); style simple, sometimes with collecting hairs (fig. 
737) ; stigmas two, distinct (figs. 438, p. 247; 637, 643) or united. 
Fruit, an acheenium (Cypsela, p. 310), crowned with the limb of the 
calyx (fig. 744). Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous (fig. 744) ; radicle 
inferior. — Herbs or shrubs, with alternate or opposite, exstipulate 
leaves, and capitula of flowers (called florets), which are either herma- 
phrodite or unisexual, and are surrounded by bracts in the form of an 
involucre (figs. 263, p. 179; 264, p. 180). Bractlets are sometimes 
interspersed with the flowers on the receptacle, and are then called 
pales. Some of the flowers belong to the cyanic, others to the xanthic 
series (p. 393). In the same head the flowers are sometimes homo- 
chromous (dos, similar, and xeéue, colour), belonging to the same 
series ; at other times they are heterochromous (éregos, diverse), be- 
longing to different series,—the ligulate to the cyanic, and the tubular 
to the xanthic. 

This is one of the largest, and, at the same time, one of the most 
important natural families in the vegetable kingdom. The plants 
were all included by Linneus in the class Syngenesia, and were 
divided into five orders according to the sexes of the florets and the 
nature of the involucre. These divisions are given at page 415, 
under the names Polygamia Aiqualis, Superflua, Frustranea, Neces- 
saria, and Segregata, The following series of terms have also been 
employed to express the nature of the capitula, as regards stamens and 
pistils :-— 


518 COMPOSIT. 


1. Homogamous (80s, alike, the same, and yduos, marriage), flowers all her- 
maphrodite (8 ). 

2. Heterogamous (repos, diverse), the flowers of the disk (centre) hermaphro- 
dite, those of the ray (circumference) either pistillate (female) only, or 
neutral, z.¢. destitute both of stamens and pistils. 

3. Moneecious, 4 — 9, male and female flowers in the same capitulum. 

4, Heterocephalous (érepos, diverse, and ke@ady, a head), some capitula 
entirely male, others entirely female, in the same plant. 

5. Dicecious, & : 9, some plants with male capitula only, others with female 
capitula only. 


The following series of terms have been used to express the nature of 
the capitula, as regards the form and arrangement of the flowers :— 


. Discoid or Flosculous, corollas all tubular. 

. Ligulate or Semiflosculous, corollas all ligulate. 

. Radiate, corollas of the margin or ray ligulate, those of the centre or disk 
tubular. 

. Falsely-discoid, corollas all bilabiate. 

. Falsely-radiate, or radiatiform, corollas of the margin ligulate, those of the 
centre bilabiate. 


of wne 


Jussieu divided the order into three sections :—1. Cynarocephalze 
(cynara, the artichoke), having the flowers all flosculous (tubular) ; 
involucre hard, conical, and often spiny. 2. Corymbiferze (corymbus, 
a corymb, and fero, I bear), having flosculous (tubular) florets in the 


Figs. 733-744. Organs of fructification of Composite, Fig. 733. Diagram of the flower 
of a Senecio. The outer,dotted circle indicates the pappose limb of the calyx; within it is 
the tubular corolla with five divisions, next five stamens with united anthers, and in the 
centre the 1-celled, 1-seeded ovary. Fig. 734. One of the ligulate flowers or florets of Cicho- 
rium Intybus, Succory or Chicory, belonging to the section Cichoraceze. v, Ovary com- 
pletely adherent to the tube of the calyx, the limb of the calyx forming a crown surround- 
ing the base of the ligulate (strap-shaped) corolla, which has five apicilar divisions, 
e, Cylinder formed by the anthers (synantherous), traversed by the style with its bifid 
stigma, s. Fig. 735. Flower of Chetanthera linearis, belonging to the section Labiatiflore. 
o, Ovary, with adherent calycine tube. ¢, Tube of the gamopetalous bilabiate corolla, 
ls, Upper lip of the corolla. Ji, Lower lip of the corolla. e, Tube of the anthers. s, The 
bifid stigma at the apex of thestyle. Fig. 736. Tubular (flosculous) flower of Aster rubri- 
caulis, belonging to the section Corymbiferx, cnt longitudinally, to show the erect ovule, o, 
enclosed in the pericarp, consisting of the walls of the ovary, and the calycine tube incor- 
porated. , United petals. a, Pappus, consisting of the altered limb of the calyx. e, Sta- 
mens with their united anthers, attached to the corolla. s, Style traversing the antherine 
tube. Fig. 737-7438. Summits of the styles of plants belonging to different tribes of Com- 
posite. Two stigmatic bands are seen bordering the internal surface of the two branches 
which terminate each of these styles. Several have collecting hairs at different parts. 
Fig. 737. Summit of the style of Cichorium Intybus, one of the Cichoracex. Fig. 738, 
Summit of the style of Chetanthera linearis, one of the Labiatiflore. Fig. 739. Summit 
of the style of Thevenotia, one of the Cynarez. Fig. 740. Summit of the style of Senecio 
Doria, one of the Senecionidez. Fig. 741. Summit of the style of Aster adulterinus, one 
of the Asteroidex. Fig. 742. Summit of the style of Stevia purpurea, one of the Eupa- 
toriacex. Fig. 743, Summit of the style of Vernonia angustifolia, one of the Vernoniacee. 
Fig. 744. Ripe fruit (Cypsela) of a Senecio, cut vertically. e, Exalbuminous embryo, with 
inferior radicle. %, Spermoderm or covering of the erect seed. p, Pericarp consisting of 
ovarian parietes with the closely-adherent calycine tube.  s, Style. 


COMPOSITA, 519 


disk (centre), and ligulate (semiflosculous) in the ray (circumference) ; 
involucre hemispherical, leafy, or scaly, seldom spiny. 3. Cichoraceze 
(cichorium, succory), having the florets all ligulate. Another section 
was subsequently added, 4. Labiatifloree, containing bilabiate flowers. 

De Candolle made the following divisions, which are now pretty 
generally adopted :—1. Tubuliflore, hermaphrodite flowers tubular, 
regularly 5- rarely 4-toothed. Under this section he included several 
tribes, in which the distinctions are founded on the nature of the 
style and stigma in the hermaphrodite flowers. These characters are 
shown in figs. 739-743, which illustrate the tribes Vernoniaceze (fig. 
743), Eupatoriacee (fig. 742), Asteroidez (figs. 736, 741), Senecio- 
nidee (figs. 733, 740), and Cynarez (fig. 739). 2. Labiatifloree, her- 
maphrodite flowers, or at least the unisexual ones, divided into two 
lips (fig. 735). The subdivisions of this section are also founded on 
the style and stigma (fig. 738). 3. Ligulifloree (Cichoracez), all the 
flowers hermaphrodite and ligulate (fig. 734). The form of the style 
and stigma is seen in fig. 737. 

Henslow gives the following tabular view of these various divi- 
sions—the letter / meaning ligulate flowers ; f, flosculous ; H, herma- 
phrodite ; F, female; N, neuter; M, male; the relative position of 
the letters indicating the nature of the florets in the circumference 
and in the centre of the same capitulum ; and in the last three divi- 
sions the letters having reference to the nature of the separate 
capitula :— 


Jussieu. De Candolle. 

(f. ff)  Cynarocephale . ‘ 
(1 f.1)  Corymbiferse a chee oe 
(1. 1.4)  Cichoraceze i : ‘ Liguliflore 3. 

* * Labiatifiore 2. 

Heads of Flowers. ® Linnean Orders. 

(H.H.H.) Homogamous . : : Polygamia equalis. 
(F. H. F.) superfilua, 
(N. H. N.) Eioverdgamous frustranea, 
(F.M. F.)  Monecious  . . : eer eats necessaria. 

((H.)] | Involucrate florets . : sas ach segregata. 
(M.)—(F.) — Dicecious : : . * 
((M.) (F.)]  Heterocephalous ‘ * 


The plants of this order are variously distributed over all quarters 
of the world. According to the calculations of Humboldt, they con- 
stitute 3 of the phanerogamous plants of France, 3 of Germany, 7s of 
Lapland ; in North America %, within the tropics of America 4, Upon 
the authority of Brown they only form 7s of the Flora of the north 
of New Holland, and did not exceed zs in the collection of plants 
formed by Smith upon the western coast of Africa in Congo. In 
northern regions they are generally herbaceous, while in warm climates 
they sometimes become shrubby, or even arborescent. Cichoracez 


520 COMPOSIT&. 


abound in cold regions, while Corymbifere are common in hot climates. 
The number of known genera amounts to 766, comprehending 9800 
species, They are considered as forming rv of the known species of 
plants, and this seems to have been the proportion at different periods. 
Examples—Vernonia, Eupatorium, Aster, Bellis, Anthemis, Senecio, 
Centaurea, Carduus, Triptilion, Trixis, Cichorium, THieracium, 
Sonchus. 

The plants belonging to this vast order have all more or less 
bitterness, which is sometimes associated with astringent, acrid, and 
narcotic qualities. 

Sub-order Cynarocephalew,—The plants of this sub-order are usually 
tonic and stimulant. The bitterness of the plants of this section is 
often much lessened by cultivation, so that they become esculent. 
The root of Arctium Lappa (majus and minus), Burdock, is bitterish, 
and has been used in the form of infusion as a substitute for sarsa- 
parilla. The root, leaves, and fruits (often called seeds), are 
diaphoretic, diuretic, and alterative. Aplotuwis Lappa (Aucklandia 
Costus), found in Cashmere, is said to be the ancient costus, the 
root of which was celebrated for its virtues. It has an aro- 
matic, pungent odour, and is used for incense. In northern India 
it is called Koosht; in Bengal, Puchak. The leaves of Carduus 
Benedictus, Blessed Thistle, were formerly used in medicine as a 
stomachic and diaphoretic. The blanched stems and leaf-stalks of 
Cynara Cardunculus, Cardoon, are eaten, and so are the young'succu- 
lent receptacles of Cynara Scolymus, the Artichoke. Scolymus hispani- 
cus is the Spanish oyster-plant. Its tubers are used like potatoes. 
The dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius constitute safflower, which 
yields a pink dye. The genus Cardwus includes the various species 
of Thistle. What is dgnominated by gardeners the Scotch Thistle 
is Onopordon Acanthium, a doubtful native of Scotland, but not un- 
common in England. 

Sub-order Corymbiferce.—The plants of this section have the gene- 
ral bitterness of the order, and some of them have an aromatic odour, 
from the presence of volatile oil, The flowers of Anthemis nobilis, 
Chamomile, are odoriferous, and yield a volatile oil, which is at first 
greenish, or bluish, but afterwards yellowish brown. They are used 
as materials for fomentation, and an infusion of them acts as a dia- 
phoretic and emetic. An extract is made from them, having bitter 
tonic qualities. The essential oil is an excellent carminative. Anthe- 
mis tinctoria supplies a yellow colour used for dyeing. Pyrethrum 
Parthenium, common Feverfew, is aromatic and stimulant. The root 
of Anacyclus Pyrethrum (Anthemis Pyrethrum), Pellitory of Spain, 
is an irritant and sialogogue; its properties depending on the 
presence of a volatile oil. Tussilago Farfara, Coltsfoot, has been used 
as ademulcent. The root of Inula Helenium, Elecampane, has stimu- 


COMPOSITA, 521 


lant and expectorant qualities. It contains a white amylaceous mat- 
ter called Inulin. The species of Artemisia are remarkable for their 
strong odour and bitter taste. The heads of flowers of Artemisia Ad- 
sinthium (Absinthium officinale), or Wormwood, and those of Artemisia 
santonica (A. maritima var.), and of other species, under the name of 
Wormseed, are used as anthelmintics and tonics. Several of these species 
contain a crystalline bitter principle. Artemisia mutellina and spicata 
are used in the preparation of a tincture or distilled spirit, called.in 
France Eau or Créme d’Absinthe, which is in request among those 
who are addicted to the pleasures of the table. The woolly leaves of 
Artemisia Moxa are used in China to form the inflammable cones or 
cylinders called Moxas, which are employed as counter-irritants. 
Artemisia Dracunculus, Tarragon, is used in pickles and salads, and in 
the medication of vinegar, A. Abrotanwm is commonly called Southern- 
wood, and is used on the continent in the preparation of beer. Arée- 
misia indica, Sikkim-wormseed, grows 12 feet high, at elevations vary- 
ing from 2000 to 6000 feet. The flowers of Chrysanthemum (Pyrethrum) 
carneum are said to destroy fleas. Senecio cruenta is the origin of the 
cultivated Cinerarias, The leaves of Tanacetum vulgare, Tansy, have 
stimulant antispasmodic properties. They contain a bitter resin, 
and an aromatic volatile oil. Arnica montana, Mountain Tobacco, or 
Leopard’s-bane, is an acrid stimulant. Its flowers, leaves, and root- 
stock, are administered in nervous diseases, as well as in gout and 
rheumatism. The seeds (properly fruits) of Helianthus annuus, com- 
mon Sunflower, contain a bland oil, and when roasted they have been 
used as a substitute for Coffee. The name Helianthus (7As0s, the sun, 
évbos, a flower) is derived from the popular supposition that its large 
heads of flowers follow the sun in its course (p. 263). The roots of 
Helianthus tuberosus, Jerusalem, or more properly, Girasole Artichoke, 
are used as substitutes for potatoes. Hupatorium Ayapana, and Mika- 
nia Guaco, have been used to cure the bites of snakes. Ceradia fur- 
cata is a peculiar branching coral-like plant, which grows in dry sterile 
places in the south and west of Africa, and yields a resinoid substance, 
called by some African bdellium. Madia sativa has been cultivated 
on account of its bland oil. The species of Lychnophora give a pecu- 
liar feature to the mountains of Minas Gerdes in Brazil. They grow 
like Vellozias, and they are covered with a dense coat of long brownish- 
‘ coloured wool, which is often used for beds and pillows. 

Sub-order Cichoracee.—Most of the plants of this section -yield a 
milky juice, which is bitter, astringent, and sometimes narcotic. By 
cultivation some of them are rendered esculent. Cichorium Intybus, 
Wild Succory, or Chicory, is cultivated for the sake of its root, which 
is used asa substitute for and as an addition to Coffee. The blanched 
leaves of Cichorium Endivia constitute Endive. Taraxacum Dens Leonis 
(Leontodon Taraxacum), Dandelion, yields a milky juice, which, in the 


522 COMPOSITA—-BRUNONIACEZ— GOODENIACEZ. 


form of extract, has been used medicinally as a diuretic and alterative. 
It contains a bitter crystalline principle called Taraxacine. Its root is 
mixed with Coffee in the same way as Chicory. The inspissated juice 
of Lactuca sativa, common Lettuce, and of L. virosa, wild or strong- 
scented Lettuce, receives the name of Lactucarium, or Lettuce-opium, 
and is used medicinally for allaying pain and inducing sleep. It con- 
tains a neutral active principle called Lactucin. Other species of Lac- 
tuca yield an inspissated juice having similar qualities. Scorzonera is 
the esculent root of Scorzonera hispanica, while Salsafy is the root of 
Tragopogon porrifolius, which is called the Oyster-plant in America, 
Many of the plants of the Cichoraceous section, such as Hieracium, 
Sonchus, and Tragopogon, act as horological and meteorological flowers 
(pp. 262, 263), their capitula opening and closing at certain periods of 
the day, and in different states of the weather. 

Order 99.—BruNoNIACEs, the Brunonia Family. (Monopet, Pe- 
rigyn.) Calyx persistent, 5-partite, with bracts at the base. Corolla 
inserted at the base of the calyx, monopetalous, nearly regular, wither- 
ing; limb 5-parted, having central veins in its segments, which divide 
at the top into two recurrent marginal veins; estivation valvate. 
Stamens 5, inserted with, but free from, the corolla, alternating with 
its segments ; anthers articulated with the short filaments, dithecal, 
introrse, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, unilocular ; ovule soli- 
tary, erect, anatropal ; style single ; stigma enclosed in a 2-valved cup 
or indusium. Fruit a utricle, enclosed in the hardened calycine tube. 
Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous; embryo straight; cotyledons 
fleshy, plano-conyex ; radicle minute, inferior.—Stemless herbaceous 
plants, with radical, exstipulate leaves, and capitate flowers, supported 
on scapes, and surrounded by an involucre of enlarged bracts. _Na- 
tives of Australia. Their properties are unknown. The order con- 
tains as yet only 1 genus and 2 species. Lxample—Brunonia. 

Order 100.—GoopENIACEs, the Goodenia Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn. and Perigyn.) Calyx persistent, usually equal, with 3-5 
divisions, sometimes obsolete. Corolla inserted into the calyx, mono- 
petalous, more or less irregular, marcescent or deciduous ; its tube 
split at the back, and sometimes separable into five pieces, when the 
calyx only coheres with the base of the ovary ; its limb 5-partite, uni- 
or bilabiate, the thin part of the segments being at the edges, which 
are folded inwards in estivation. Stamens 5, distinct, inserted with, 
but free from, the corolla, and alternate with its segments ; anthers 
not articulated with the filaments, distinct or cohering, bilocular, with 
longitudinal dehiscence ; pollen-grains either separate or united in 
fours. Ovary more or less united to the calycine tube, 1-2- or 4- 
celled, sometimes with a gland at its base; ovules definite or 00, 
attached to a central, often free, placenta ; style 1, simple, rarely 
divided ; stigma fleshy, undivided or 2-lobed, surrounded by a cup- 


GOODENIACEAI—STYLIDIACEA. 523 


like indusium. Fruit a 1-2- or 4-celled capsule, or drupaceous or 
nut-like. Seeds definite or indefinite, with a thickened, often hard 
testa ; embryo straight, in fleshy albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle 
inferior.—Herhs, rarely shrubs, not lactescent, with scattered, ex- 
stipulate, usually alternate leaves, and distinct, never capitate flowers. 
They are found chiefly in Australia and in the South Sea Islands. The 
leaves of Scwvola Taccada are eaten as potherbs. Some superstitious 
qualities are ascribed to its berries. The pith, which is soft and 
spongy, is fashioned by the Malays into artificial flowers. Scevola 
Bela-Modogam appears to be emollient, and is used in India to bring 
tumours to a head. The order is divided into two, sub-orders :—1. 
Goodeniez, with dehiscent capsular fruit, and numerous seeds. 2. 
Sceevolez, with indehiscent, drupaceous, or nut-like fruit, and seeds 
solitary, or two in each cell, There are 23 known genera, according 
to authors, and about 200 species. Examples—Goodenia, Velleia, 
Leschenaultia, Sceevola, Dampiera. 

Order 101—Srvurp1aces, the Stylidium or Stylewort Family. 
{Monopet. Epigyn.) Calyx adherent, persistent, with 2-6 divisions, 
bilabiate, or regular. Corolla gamopetalous, falling off late, limb 
usually irregular, 5-6-partite, segments with a central vein ; estivation 
imbricated. Stamens 2; filaments united with the style into a longi- 
tudinal column ; anthers didymous, rarely simple, lying over the 
stigma ; pollen simple, globose, or angular. Ovary cohering with the 
calyx, bilocular, or by contraction of the dissepiment unilocular, often 
surmounted by one gland in front, or by two opposite ones ; ovules 
anatropal ; style 1; stigma entire or bifid. Fruit a bivalvular, bilo- 
cular, or spuriously unilocular capsule, with septicidal dehiscence. 
Seeds 00, small, erect ; embryo minute, enclosed in fleshy, somewKat 
oily albumen.—Non-lactescent herbs or undershrubs, with alternate, 
scattered, or somewhat verticillate, entire, exstipulate leaves. They 
are well distinguished by their gynandrous structure. The column 
formed by the union of the filaments and style, possesses, in the species 
of the genus Stylidiwm, a peculiar irritability. It hangs down on one 
side of the flower, and when touched at the point of flexure, it springs 
over with considerable force from one side to the other. If not too 
far advanced to. maturity, the column will recover its former position 
in the course of time. The flower may be cut off carefully without 
disturbing the column, and the irritability continues for a considerable 
length of time if the flower is put into water. The movement is said 
to be connected with the bursting of the anthers, and the discharge of 
the pollen on the stigma. The cause of this movement is very ob- 
scure, but it seems to depend on some changes in the cells (pp. 284, 
387). The plants are principally natives of marshy places in Aus- 
tralia. Some are found at the southern point of South America. 
There are 5 known genera and 123 species. Heamples—Stylidium, 
Forstera. 


524 CAMPANULACE&, 


Order 102.—CampanuLaces, the Harebell Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn.) (Fig. 745.) Calyx superior, usually 5-lobed (figs. 746, 
747 c), sometimes 3-8-lobed, persistent. Corolla gamopetalous, in- 
serted into the top of the calyx, usually 5-lobed (fig. 276, p. 186), 
sometimes 3-8-lobed, regular, marcescent (fig. 557 ¢, p. 308) ; zestiva- 
tion vaivate (figs. 746, 747 p). Stamens inserted into the calyx, 
alternating with the corolline lobes, and equal to them in number ; 
anthers bilocular, free (fig. 747 ¢) ; pollen spherical, Ovary more or, 
less completely inferior, composed of two or more carpels ; ovules indefi- 
nite (fig. 748) ; style simple, covered with collecting hairs (fig. 747) ; 
stigma naked, simple, or with as many lobes as there are ovarian 
cells (figs. 318 s, p. 206 ; 440, p. 249; 747s). Fruit capsular, crowned 


Fig. 748. Fig. 749. Figs, 751, 752, 750. 


with the withered calyx and corolla, dehiscing in a loculicidal manner 
by lateral apertures (figs. 557 ¢ ¢, p. 308 ; 749), or by valves at the 


Figs. 745-752, Organs of Fructification of Campanula Rapunculus, Rampion, to illus- 
trate the natural order Campanulacex. Fig. 745. Diagram of the flower, showing five 
divisions of the calyx, five divisions of the corolla alternating with them, five alternating 
stamens, and five cells of the ovary. Fig. 746. Flower-bud. ¢, Calyx adherent to the 
ovary. p, Corolla, with valvate estivation. Fig. 747. Vertical section of the flower. 
¢, Calyx cohering with the ovary, 0. p, Gamopetalous corolla. e, Stamens with bilocular 
anthers. s, Lobed stigma at the apex of the style, which is covered with collecting hairs. 
v, Ovary containing numerous ovules attached to a central placenta. Fig. 748. Horizon- 

al section of the ovary. Fig. 749. Fruit crowned by the limb of the calyx, dehiscing by 
openings at the base. Fig. 750, Seed in an entire state. Fig. 751. Seed cut vertically. 
p, Perisperm (albumen). e, Straight embryo in the axis of the albumen, with the radicle 


pointing to the hilum. Fig. 752. Embryo detached, showing its form, the cotyledons 
and radicle. 


CAMPANULACEZ—LOBELIACEA:—VACCINIACEA. 525 


apex. Seeds 00, attached to a central placenta; embryo straight, in 
the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum (figs, 750- 
752).—Lactescent herbs or undershrubs, with alternate, rarely oppo- 
site, exstipulate leaves. The hairs on the style are said to be retrac- 
tile, and seem to be connected with the application of the pollen (fig. 
516, p. 290). The flowers in most instances belong to the cyanic 
series. They are natives chiefly of northern and temperate regions. 
They abound in the alpine regions of Europe and Asia, and are also 
frequent in North America. It is stated that the species whose 
capsule dehisces by lateral fissures are natives of the northern hemi- 
sphere, while those with apicilar dehiscence are principally found in 
the southern hemisphere. The milky juice found in the plants of this 
order has acrid properties. The roots and young shoots of Campanula 
Rapunculus, Rampion, are used as articles of diet. Authors enume- 
rate 29 genera, including 536 species. Haamples—Campanula, Phy- 
teuma, Jasione. 

Order 103.—LosrL1aces, the Lobelia Family. (Monopet. Epigyn.) 
Calyx superior, 5-lobed or entire. Corolla gamopetalous, inserted on 
the calyx, irregular, more or less deeply 5-cleft. Stamens 5, attached 
to the calyx, alternate with the segments of the corolla; anthers 
cohering ; pollen oval. Ovary inferior, 1-3-celled ; ovules 00, attached 
either to central or parietal placentas ; style glabrous, with a fringe of 
hairs below the stigma, Fruit a 1- or many-celled capsule, with 
apicilar dehiscence. Seeds numerous; embryo straight, in the axis 
of fleshy albumen ; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Lactescent herbs 
or shrubs, with alternate, exstipulate leaves. They are found both in 
temperate and warm countries. There are 29 known genera and 386 
species. Hxamples—Lobelia, Siphocampylus, Clintonia. 

Acridity prevails more or less in the order. The milky juice 
of some, such as Lobelia urens, is said to be vesicant. Lobelia inflata, 
Indian Tobacco, a native of North America, is used medicinally as a 
sedative, expectorant, and antispasmodic. It is chiefly administered 
in cases of asthma, The whole plant is active, but the root and cap- 
sules are said to be most powerful. In large doses the plant acts as 
a narcotico-acrid poison. It owes its properties to a volatile alkaloid 
called Lobelina. The root of Lobelia syphilitica is acrid and emetic. 
The milky juice of some of the plants of the order contains a consider- 
able quantity of caoutchouc. 

Order 104. — Vacctntace#, the Cranberry Family. (Monopet. 
Epigyn.) Calyx superior, entire, 4-6-lobed. Corolla monopetalous, 
4-6-lobed ; xestivation imbricated. Stamens distinct, 8-12, inserted 
into an epigynous disk; anthers bilocular, with two horn-like cells, 
dehiscing by pores (fig. 367, p. 223). Ovary inferior, 4-5-celled ; 
ovules 00 ; style simple ; stigma simple. Fruit succulent, crowned by 
the persistent limb of the calyx, Seeds 1 or many in each cell, minute ; 


526 VACCINIACE—ERICACEA. 


embryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons very short ;. 
tadicle long, inferior. —Shrubby plants, with alternate, undivided, 
exstipulate leaves. They are closely allied to Ericacez, and differ 
from that order chiefly in their inferior ovary. They are natives of 
temperate regions, and some of them are marsh plants. Some are 
astringent, others yield subacid edible fruits. Cranberries are produced 
by Vacciniwm Oxycoccus (Oxycoccus palustris) and V. macrocarpum. In 
the common Cranberry there are two forms of fruit, one pyriform, the 
other round. V. Vitzs-idea, red Whortleberry, or Cowberry, yields a 
fruit which is often used as a substitute for Cranberries. The leaves 
of the plant are sometimes used to adulterate Uva-Ursi. V. uli- 
ginosum, found in alpine countries, produces the black Whortleberry. 
Vaccinium Myrtillus yields the Bilberry or Blaeberry. There are 28 
genera and 200 species. Hxamples—Vaccinium, Oxycoccus, Thibaudia. 


Sub-class III. —CoroLuiFLor&. 


Calyx and corolla present. Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, 
usually bearing the stamens. It includes the hypogynous mono- 
petalous and gamopetalous orders of Jussieu and Endlicher. 


Order 105,—Ericacem, the Heath Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) 
Calyx 4-5-cleft, nearly equal, persistent. Corolla inserted at the base 
of the calyx, or hypogynous, monopetalous (fig. 323, p. 207), 4-5-cleft, 
sometimes tetra- or penta-petalous, regular or irregular, often marces- 
cent ; estivation imbricated. Stamens definite, equal in number to 
the segments of the corolla, or twice as many, inserted with the 
corolla, and either free from it or attached to its base ; anthers 2-celled, 
cells hard and dry, bifid (fig. 368, p. 223), usually having appendages 
at the base (fig. 370 a, p. 223) or apex, dehiscing by apicilar pores 
(fig. 372, p. 225) or clefts. Ovary free, surrounded at the base by 
a disk or scales, multilocular ; ovules 00, attached to a central pla- 
centa; style 1, straight ; stigma 1, undivided (fig. 443, p. 249) or 
toothed. Fruit capsular or baccate, many-celled, with loculicidal or 
scepticidal dehiscence. Seeds 00, minute ; embryo cylindrical, in the 
axis of fleshy albumen ;.radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs, undershrubs, 
or herbaceous plants, with evergreen, often rigid, entire, verticillate, 
or opposite, exstipulate leaves. The order contains many beautiful 
and showy plants, which abound at the Cape of Good Hope, and 
which are found also in Europe, North and South America, and Asia.. 
The order has been divided into the following sub-orders :—1. Ericex, 
with the testa closely adherent to the kernel, including the true 
Heaths with naked buds, and the Rhododendron tribe with scaly 
conical buds. 2. Monotropez, seeds having a loose winged testa,. 
including the true Monotropas or Fir-rapes, scaly plants, with longi- 


ERICACEA—EPACRIDACEA, 527 


tudinally or transversely dehiscent anthers, and Pyrolez, or the 
Wintergreen tribe, leafy plants with porous anthers. These plants are 
usually put in separate orders—Monotropacez and Pyrolacee, There 
are 54 known genera and about 900 species. Examples—Erica, Cal- 
luna, Menziesia, Andromeda, Arbutus, Rhododendron, Azalea, Da- 
beocia, Monotropa, Pyrola. 

The plants of the order are not distinguished for medicinal virtues. 
None of the species of Erica are put to any use. There are six species 
of the genus natives of Britain ; two of which, £. cinerea and E.[etra- 
liv, are common ; two are peculiar to Ireland, Z. Mackatana and £. medi- 
terranea ; and two are common to England and Ireland, £. ciliaris and £. 
vagans, Culluna vulgaris is Ling, or the common Heather. Its capsule is 
septicidal, while in Erica the capsule is loculicidal. It has astringent’ 
qualities, and has been used for dyeing. It is commonly made into 
brooms, The leaves of Arbutus or Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, Bearberry, 
are used as astringents, especially in chronic mucous discharges. Its 
fruit is baccate. Arctostaphylos glauca, Manzanita, covers the moun- 
tains of California with a thick brushwood. Many of the species of 
Rhododendron, Azalea, Kalmia, Andromeda, and Ledum, have poisonous 
narcotic qualities. These properties are well marked in Rhododendron 
Chrysanthum, a Siberian species. It is said that Azalea pontica was 
the plant the flowers of which yielded the poisonous honey noticed by 
Xenophon in his account of the retreat of the Ten Thousand. Andre- 
medas have scaly buds and loculicidal capsules ; while Rhododendrons 
have scaly buds and septicidal capsules. A. fastigdata is Himalayan 
heather. The fruits of many plants belonging to the order are eatable. 
Gaultheria procumbens and Shallon are American shrubs, which furnish 
succulent and grateful berries. They yield a volatile oil. In Sikkim 
the leaves of species of Gualtheria and Andromeda are used for tea, 
Azalea procumbens grows on the Scottish mountains, also in the arctic 
regions, and on the Alps of northern and southern Europe, but not on 
the Himalaya. Arbutus Unedo is called Strawberry-tree, from its fruit 
resembling a strawberry in aspect. It is, however, by’no means 
agreeable as an article of food, and the specific name may possibly in- 
dicate that to eat one is sufficient. The plant grows at the Lakes of 
Killarney, in a native state. Chimaphila (Pyrola) umbellata, a North 
American plant, has been employed as a tonic and diuretic. The 
leaves have a bitter astringent taste, and the fresh plant is irritant. 

Order 106.—Epacripsces#, the Epacris Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx’5- rarely 4-parted, often coloured, persistent. Corolla 
‘inserted at the base of the calyx, or hypogynous, deciduous or mar- 
cescent, monopetalous, sometimes separable into 5 petals ; limb with 5, 
rarely 4, equal divisions, sometimes by the cohesion of the segments, 
bursting transversely ; estivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens 
inserted with or on the corolla, equal in number to, and alternate with, 


528 EPACRIDACEAX—EBENACEA, 


its segments, rarely fewer ; anthers 1-celled (fig. 359, p. 222), with- 
out appendages, opening longitudinally ; pollen round, or formed of 
three united grains, attached toa single central receptacle. Ovary 
sessile, free, multilocular, rarely unilocular, surrounded by scales at 
the base ; ovules solitary or 00; style 1; stigma simple, sometimes 
toothed. Fruit drupaceous, baccate, or capsular. Seeds albuminous ; 
embryo slender, in the axis of fleshy albumen, and about half its length, 
—Shrubs, or small trees, with alternate, rarely opposite, exstipulate 
leaves, which are sometimes half-amplexicaul at the base. They are 
allied to Ericacee, and may be said to represent the heaths in Aus- 
tralia. They are distinguished from heaths by the structure of their 
anthers. Some yield edible fruits. One of the plants, called Native 
Currant in Australia, is Leucopogon Richet, The order has been divided 
into two tribes:—1. Epacrexw, polyspermous. 2. Stypheliew, mono- 
spermous. There are 32 genera and 336 species. ELxamples—Epa- 
cris, Sprengelia, Styphelia, Leucopogon, Lissanthe. 

Order 107,—Esrnacea, the Ebony Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) 
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, Calyx 3-7-divided, nearly equal, 
persistent. Corolla gamopetalous, regular, deciduous, somewhat cori- . 
aceous ; limb with 3-7 divisions; estivation imbricated. Stamens 
either attached to the corolla, or hypogynous, 2 or 4 times as many 
as the corolline segments, rarely equal to them in number, and then 
alternate with them; filaments usually in two rows, the inner row 
having smaller anthers; anthers erect, lanceolate, bilocular, with 
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, sessile, multilocular; ovules 
1-2 in each cell, pendulous; style divided, rarely simple ; stigmas 
bifid or simple. Fruit fleshy, round or oval, the pericarp sometimes 
opening regularly. Seeds few; testa membranous ; embryo straight, 
nearly in the axis of cartilaginous albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle 
taper, next the hilum—tTrees or shrubs, not lactescent, with alter- 
nate, exstipulate, coriaceous leaves. They are chiefly found in tro- 
pical regions, and many species are met with in India. The plants 
are remarkable for the hardness and durability of their wood. Some 
yield edible fruit. Diospyros reticulata and Ebenum and other African 
and Asiatic species, supply Ebony, which is the black duramen of the 
tree. Other species of Déospyros furnish Ironwood. Diospyros vir- 
giuniana, the Persimon, yields a fruit (sometimes called the Date- 
plum) which is austere when green, but becomes sweet and eatable 
when ripe, especially after being acted on by frost. Its bark has 
been employed as a febrifuge. D. Kaki is the Keg-fig of Japan, the 
fruit of which resembles a plum. Diospyros Embryopteris, a native of 
India and Siam, yields a succulent fruit, the pulp of which is astrin- 
gent.  Diospyros quesita supplies the Coromandel or Calamander 
wood of Ceylon. Genera, 12; species, 175. Examples—Diospyros, 
Royena, Maba. 


STYRACACEZ—AQUIFOLIACEA. 529 


Order 108.—Sryracacez (Symplocineew of Don), the Storax 
Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) Calyx persistent, with an entire ora 
5- or 4-divided limb. Corolla gamopetalous, regular, inserted in the 
calyx ; estivation imbricated or valvate. Stamens definite or 00, 
attached to the corolline tube, of unequal length; filaments often 
slightly united at their base in one.or more parcels; anthers innate, 
dithecal, introrse. Ovary either free or cohering more or less to the 
calycine tube, 2-5-celled, the septa occasionally deficient towards the 
centre ; ovules 2-4 in each cell, or 00, pendulous, sometimes the upper 
ones ascending ; style simple; stigma simple. Fruit enclosed in the 
calyx, drupaceous, usually unilocular by abortion. Seeds usually 
solitary, erect, or suspended ; embryo slender, in the axis of fleshy 
albumen ; cotyledons flat, foliaceous; radicle long, pointing to the 
hilum.—Trees or shrubs, with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and 
fréquently stellate hairs. They are chiefly natives of warm countries. 
There are two tribes:—I1. Styracese, with a more or less valvate 
xstivation of the corolla, and long anthers. 2. Symploces, with a 
quincuncial corolline zestivation, and roundish anthers. Authors give 
12 genera, including 130 species. Hxamples—Styrax, Halesia, Sym- 
plocos. 

The plants of the order have in general stimulant, aromatic, and 
fragrant properties. Styras officinale, a tree inhabiting Syria, Arabia, 
and the southern parts of Europe, is supposed to be the source of the 
balsamic resinous substance called Storax. The resinous juice is pro- 
cured after incisions or punctures by insects. Common Storax is im- 
ported into Britain from Trieste, in the form of little cakes, having a 
balsamic odour. Besides resin and a little volatile oil, it contains from 
1-24 per cent of Benzoic acid. It has been employed medicinally as 
a pectoral remedy. Styrax Benzoin is a tree 70 or 80 feet high, a 
native of Sumatra and Borneo, which yields by incisions the concrete 
balsamic exudation called Benzoin. When fine this substance con- 
tains about 80 per cent of resin, and nearly 20 of Benzoic acid. It 
is used medicinally as a stimulant expectorant, and is one of the in- 
gredients in the celebrated Friar’s balsam. It exists also in other 
empirical remedies, such as Riga balsam and Jesuits’ drops. Benzoin 
is generally used for fumigation and incense. Pastilles are made by 
mixing it with balsam of tolu, sandal-wood, labdanum, charcoal, nitre, 
gum, and tragacanth. It is used for incense in the Greek Church. 
There are two kinds of Benzoin, one from Siam, and the other from 
Sumatra. Halesias are the Snowdrop trees of Carolina. Some of the 
species of Symplocos are used for dyeing ; others are used as tea. 

Order 109,.—AQuUIFOLIACES (Ilicines of some), the Holly Family. 
(Monopet, Hypog.) Sepals 4-6 ; estivation imbricated. Corolla mono- 
petalous, hypogynous, 4-6-parted ; eestivation imbricate. Stamens 
inserted into the corolla, alternate with its segments, and equal to 

2M 


530 AQUIFOLIACEZ—SAPOTACEA. 


them in number; filaments straight; anthers adnate, bilocular, in- 
trorse. Disk 0. Ovary free, fleshy, somewhat truncate, 2-6-celled ; 
ovules solitary, anatropal, pendulous from a cup-shaped funiculus ; 
stigma nearly sessile, lobed. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, with 2-6 mono- 
spermous nucules, and hence it is sometimes called a nuculanium. 
Seed suspended ; albumen large, fleshy ; embryo small, lying next the 
hilum ; cotyledons small ; radicle superior—Evergreen trees or shrubs, 
with alternate or opposite, coriaceous, simple, exstipulate leaves. They 
are found in various parts of the world, as in Europe, North and South 
America, and Africa. Lindley enumerates 11 genera, including 110 
species. Hxamples—Ilex, Prinos. 

Astringent and tonic properties seem to pervade the order. Ilex 
Aquifolium, the common Holly, is a native of Europe, and is one of 
the indigenous plants of Britain. It forms excellent fences and 
hedges. At Tynninghame, in Scotland, there were 2952 yards of holly 
hedges, most of them upwards of 140 years old. These hedges vary 
in height from 10 to 23 feet, and they are 9 to 13 feet wide at the 
base. The leaves and bark of the Holly are said to possess tonic and 
febrifuge properties ; while its succulent fruit (berries) are emetic and 
purgative. Haller recommends the juice of the leaves in jaundice. Its 
wood is white and hard, and is much esteemed in turnery, joinery, and 
cabinet work, while its bark furnishes bird-lime. Ilex Paraguensis, 
and other species, furnish Yerba Maté or Paraguay Tea, which is used 
extensively in some districts of South America. The leaves of the 
plant yield the bitter principle called Theine, which has been men- 
tioned as existing in Tea and Coffee. Other species of Jlea are em- 
ployed in Brazil for a similar purpose. The black drink of the Creek 
Indians is prepared from the leaves of Ilex vomitoria, 

Order 110.—Saporacea, the Sapodilla Family. (dHonopet. 
Hypog.) Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx regular, with 5, sometimes 
4-8 divisions, persistent ; estivation valvate or imbricate. Corolla 
monopetalous, hypogynous, deciduous, regular, its lobes equal to, rarely 
twice or thrice as many as, those of the calyx. Stamens inserted on 
the corolla, definite, distinct ; fertile ones as many as, rarely more than, 
the segments of the calyx, with which they alternate ; sterile ones 
alternating with the fertile ones, rarely wanting. Disk 0. Ovary free, 
multilocular ; ovules solitary, anatropal, ascending or pendulous ; style 
1; stigma simple, sometimes lobed. Fruit fleshy, multilocular, or by 
abortion unilocular. Seeds nut-like, solitary ; testa bony and shining, 
with along scar on its inner face ; embryo large, erect, white ; albumen 
usually fleshy, sometimes 0 ; cotyledons in the albuminous seeds, folia- 
ceous, in the exalbuminous, fleshy ; radicle straight or slightly curved, 
pointing to the hilum.—Lactescent trees or shrubs, with alternate, 
exstipulate, entire, coriaceous leaves. They are natives chiefly of the 
tropical parts of India, Africa, and America. A few are found at the 


SAPOTACEH—MYRSINACEA:—JASMINACE, 531 


Cape of Good Hope. The number of known genera noticed by authors 
is 25; species 218. Ezamples—Chrysophyllum, Achras, Bassia, Ison- 
andra, Mimusops. 

Many of the plants of this order yield edible fruits, while others 
supply oily matter. Some act as tonics, astringents, and febrifuges ; 
Achras Sapota and other species furnish the Sapodilla Plum and 
Naseberry, well known West Indian fruits; while Achras mammosa 
yields the fruit called Marmalade. The bark of some of the species of 
Achras is tonic and astringent, and the seeds of several have laxative 
properties. The fruit of Chrysophyllwm Cainito is the Star-apple. Mimu- 
sops Elengi, supplies the Surinam Medlar of Europeans. The fruit of 
Mimusops kaki is eaten in India. Various species of Bassia yield oil. 
B. Parkii is said to be the source of the Shea butter, and hence the 
tree is called the Butter-tree of Park. B. butyracea, the Madhuca tree, 
gives a similar product, which is used as butter in Nepaul. The milky 
juice of some of the plants contains elastic matter. Jsonandra Gutta 
is the source of Gutta Percha, a kind of caoutchouc, which softens at 
a moderate temperature, and is used for the soles of shoes, ropes, 
straps, casts, and various articles for domestic use. The kernels of 
Lucuma mammosa contain prussic acid. 

Order 111. — Myrstnacza, the Myrsine Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Flowers hermaphrodite or occasionally unisexual. Calyx 
4-5-cleft, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, 4-5-cleft, 
equal. Stamens 4-5, inserted into the corolla, and opposite to its 
segments ; filaments distinct, rarely united, sometimes 0, occasionally 
5 sterile petaloid alternating ones ; anthers sagittate, erect, bilocular, 
with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free or slightly adherent, unilo- 
cular ; ovules definite or indefinite, campylotropal, immersed in a free 
central placenta ; style single ; stigma simple or lobed. Fruit fleshy, 
1- or many-seeded. Seeds angular or roundish, with a concave hilum, 
-and a membranous spermoderm ; albumen horny; embryo usually 
curved, often heterotropal ; cotyledons short ; radicle horizontal when 
the seed is solitary, inferior when there are several seeds.—Trees, 
shrubs, or undershrubs, with alternate or opposite, coriaceous, exstipu- 
late leaves. . They are much restricted as regards their geographical 
limits, and they are said to abound chiefly in islands with an equable 
temperature. They are found in Africa, Asia, and America. Little 
is known regarding their properties. Theophrasta Jussiced is a prickly- 
leaved shrub, which is called Coco in St. Domingo. Its seeds are 
eatable, and a kind of bread is made from them. The berries of Myr- 
sine bifaria are said to possess cathartic properties. The Ardisias are 
prized for the beauty of their foliage. There are 33 known genera 
and about 300 species. xamples—Myrsine, Ardisia, Mesa, Jac- 

uinia. 
: Order 112. —Jasminacza, the Jasmine or Jessamine Family. 


532 JASMINACEAZ—COLUMELLIACEZ—OLEACEA. 


(Monopet. Hypog.) Flowers 8. Calyx with 5-8 divisions or teeth, 
persistent. Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, regular, salver-shaped, 
with 5-8 divisions ; estivation twisted or valvate. Stamens 2, inserted 
on the corolla, included ; anthers bilocular, with longitudinal dehis- 
cence. Disk 0. Ovary free, 2-celled ; ovules erect, anatropal, 1-4 in 
each cell; style 1; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a double berry, or a pyx- 
idium, or a 2-valved capsule. Seeds usually solitary, rarely in pairs, 
albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo straight; radicle inferior.— 
Shrubs often with twining stems, and opposite or alternate, pinnate 
leaves. They abound chiefly in the tropical parts of India. They 
have frequently fragrant flowers which yield oils, and their leaves and 
roots are sometimes bitter. The essential oil of Jasmine is procured 
from Jasminum officinale, grandiforum, odoratissimum, and Sambac. 
The bitter root of Jasminum angustifolium, ground small and mixed 
with powdered Acorus Calamus root, is considered in India as a valu- 
able external application in cases of ringworm. In the East Indies the 
tube of the corolla of Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis is fragrant at night, and 
its flowers yield an orange dye. There are 6 known genera and 110 
species. Hxamples—Jasminum, Nyctanthes, Bolivaria. 

Order 113.—CoLumELLIaces, the Columellia Family. (Aonopet, 
Epigyn.) Calyx superior, quinquepartite. Corolla rotate, inserted 
into the calyx, 5-8 parted ; xstivation imbricate. Stamens 2, inserted 
in the throat of the corolla ; anthers roundish, 3-lobed, extrorse, each 
consisting of six linear sinuous cells, arranged in pairs, dehiscing longi- 
tudinally, and attached to a 3-lobed fleshy connective. Disk fleshy, 
perigynous. Ovary adhering to the calycine tube, 2-celled ; ovules 
00 ; style simple, smooth ; stigma capitate, 2-lobed. Fruit a bilocular, 
bivalvular capsule, with both septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence. 
Seeds 00; testa smooth and coriaceous ; embryo straight, in the axis 
of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons oval, obtuse ; radicle long, pointing to 
the hilum.—Evergreen shrubs or trees, with opposite, entire, exstipu- 
late leaves, and solitary yellow flowers. Natives of Mexico and Peru. 
Their properties unknown. There is 1 genus mentioned, including 3 
species. Example — Columellia. 

Order 114.— Oxzacza, the Olive Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) 
(Fig. 272, p. 184.) Flowers %, sometimes & 9. Calyx gamose- 
palous, divided, persistent. Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, 4-cleft, 
sometimes of 4 petals, which are connected in pairs by means of the 
filaments, sometimes 0, estivation somewhat valvate. Stamens 2 
(rarely 4), alternate with the corolline segments ; anthers dithecal, with 
longitudinal dehiscence. Disk 0. Ovary free, 2-celled; ovules in - 
pairs, collateral or pendulous ; style 1 or 0 ; stigma entire or bifid. 
Fruit drupaceous, baccate or capsular, sometimes samaroid (fig. 533, 
p. 299.) Seeds often by abortion solitary ; albumen dense, fleshy, 
abundant ; embryo straight, about half the length of the albumen ; 


OLEACEA, 5383 


cotyledons leafy ; radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs, with opposite 
leaves (fig. 272, p. 184), which are either simple or compound, Found 
chiefly in temperate regions. They occur in North America, Asia, 
Europe, and Australia. There are 2 tribes of the order:—l. 
Ole, with a drupaceous or berried fruit. 2. Fraxinee, with a 
samaroid (winged) fruit. Lindley mentions 26 genera, including 144 
species. £Lxamples — Olea, Ligustrum, Fraxinus, Syringa, Phillyrea, 
Chionanthus, 

The plants of the order are bitter, tonic, and astringent, and some 
yield fixed oil. Olea ewropea is the Olive-tree, the n'y (zait or sait) of 
the Old Testament, the éAuia of the Greeks. It grows naturally on 
the coast of the Mediterranean, and is cultivated in many parts of the 
south of Europe. There are several varieties of the plant, two of 
which have been long distinguished—the wild and cultivated. The 
former is an evergreen shrub or low tree, with spiny branches and 
round twigs; the latter is a taller tree, without spines, and with four- 
angled twigs. The fruit is a drupe, about the size and colour of a 
damson, Its fleshy pericarp yields by expression olive-oil, of which the 
finest comes from Provence and Florence. It consists of two olea- 
ginous principles—Margarin and Elain. Olive oil has nutrient, emol- 
lient, and laxative properties. It is used in forming ointments, lini- 
ments, and plasters. The bark of the Olive-tree has been used as a 
tonic ; and a resinous exudation from it, called Olivile, or Olive-gum, 
or Lecca-gum, is employed in the same way. Spanish or Castile soap 
is made by mixing olive oil and soda, while soft soap is made by mix- 
ing the oil with potash. The flowers of Olea fragrans, the Kwei-hwa of 
the Chinese, are used to perfume teas. Several species of Ornus, more 
particularly O. rotundifolia and O. europea, yield a sweet exudation 
called Manna, not however the jo (manna) of the Bible, on which the 
Israelites fed. The Manna or flowering Ash is a native of southern 
Europe, and grows abundantly in the south of Italy and in Sicily, 
whence the Manna of commerce is imported. The tree attains a 
height of 20 or 30 feet, and it has a fine appearance when its clusters 
of white flowers are produced. Manna is the concrete juice of the 
tree, which flows out after incisions or insect-punctures. It contains 
a peculiar sweet principle called Mannite. Manna is nutritive and laxa- 
tive, and is sometimes administered to infants and young children, on 
account of the mildness of its action. Syringa vulgaris, common Lilac, 
has a febrifuge bark, which is extensively employed by the peasants 
in Brenne for the cure of the endemic intermittent fever. According 
to Meillet this quality is owing to a principle which he calls Lilacine. 
Fraxinus eacelsior, the common Ash, is one of the trees which comes 
late into leaf, and the leaves of which fall off early in autumn. Some 
specimens attain the height of 70, 90, or 100 feet, with a circum- 
ference of 20 or 30 feet. The wood of the tree is tough and elastic, 


534 SALVADORACEH—ASCLEPIADACEA. 


and is used for oars, as well as by coachmakers, etc. The wood of its 
roots is beautifully veined. The pendulous variety, called Weeping- 
ash, is often engrafted on the common Ash, so as to produce a better 
effect. The leaves of Ligustrum vulgare, common Privet (fig. 272, 
p. 184), are astringent. L. lucidum yields a kind of waxy excretion, 
which is used in China for economical purposes. L. Jbota is a Japan 
privet, on which the wax insect (Asicaca cerifera) feeds. 

Order 115.—Satvaporacea, the Salvadora Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx of 4 minute sepals; corolla 4-partite; stamens 4 ; 
ovary superior. Fruit succulent, 1-celled ; seed solitary, exalbuminous,— 
Small trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves and minute panicled flowers. 
Natives of Syria and India. The plants are acrid and stimulant, and 
some of them have properties like Mustard. Salvadora persica was 
considered by Royle to be the Mustard tree of Scripture, but this 
seems to be anerror. (See Mustard, under natural order CRUCIFERA, 
p. 437.) There are 2 or 3 genera and a small number of species. 
Examples—Salvadora, Monetia. 

Order 116.—AscrEpraDacea, the Asclepias Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) (Figs. 385, 386, p. 230; 753-761.) Calyx 5-divided, 
persistent (fig. 756 c). Corolla synpetalous (monopetalous), hypogy- 
nous, regular, 5-lobed (figs. 754, 755 p p), deciduous ; estivation im- 
bricate, rarely valvate. Stamens 5, inserted into the base of the 
corolla, and alternate with its segments (fig. 756 ¢); filaments usually 
combined so as to form a tube; staminal tube rarely naked behind, 
generally furnished with a corona (crown) of variously-formed leaves, 
which are either distinct or connate. Anthers bilocular, each cell 
sometimes spuriously divided ; pollen, when the anther dehisces, 
cohering in masses (pollinia), which are either as numerous as the 
cells, or are confluent in pairs, and adhere to the five stigmatic pro- 
cesses, either in sets of two or four, or singly (figs. 381, p. 229 ; 385, 
386, p. 230; 757). Ovaries 2 (fig. 756 0) ; ovules 00 ; styles 2, closely 
approaching each other (fig. 756 s), often very short ; stigma common 
to both styles, dilated, quinquangular; the angles furnished with 
cartilaginous corpuscles which retain the pollinia, or with glands (figs. 
755, 756 g). Fruit consisting of two follicles (sometimes only one 
by abortion), having a placenta on the ventral suture (fig. 759). 
Seeds 00, imbricate, pendulous, usually comose (hairy) at the hilum 
(fig. 760) ; albumen thin (fig. 761 p); embryo straight ; cotyledons 
leafy ; radicle superior (fig. 761 ¢).—Shrubs, or occasionally herbs, 
usually with milky juice, and often twining. The leaves are usually 
opposite, sometimes alternate or verticillate, with interpetiolary cilia 
in place of stipules. The gynostegium (yuv4, pistil, and oréyw, I 
cover), staminal crown, or peculiar-hooded (cucullate) appendages, pro- 
longed from the tube of the filaments, which occur in many of the 
plants of this order, give a peculiar aspect to their flower (see fig. 385, 


-ASCLEPIADACE, 535 


p. 230). They inhabit chiefly warm and tropical regions, but many 
species extend to northern climates. Many succulent species are 


Fig. 756. Fig. 759. Fig. 761. Fig. 760. 
found in the south of Africa. In tropical India and Australia, and 


Figs. 753-761. Organs of fructification of Asclepias nivea, to illustrate the natural order 
Asclepiadacez. Fig. 753, Diagram of the flower, with five divisions of the calyx, five 
segments of the corolla, five stamens, and two ovaries. Fig. 754. Theentire flower. yp, 
Corolla, with five lobes. a, Appendages forming the staminal crown (corona). Fig. 755. 
The flower viewed from above. pp, Gamopetalous corolla with its five lobes. a a, Append- 
ages forming the corona or crown. gg, Glandular bodies attached to the stigma, and 
bearing the pollen-masses (pollinia). Fig. 756. The flower cut vertically. c, Calyx. 9, 
Corolla. aa, Coronal appendages, ¢, Stamens. o, Ovary. s, Styles, which are united at 
the upper part by means of the large stigma, at the base of which, towards the points, p p, 
the pollen tubes enter. Fig. 757. Two pollen-masses, m, attached by two prolongations, ' 
q, in the form of a caudicle or tail, to another body, g, formed by the union of two stigmatic 
glands. », Pollen-grains with tubes beginning to escape from the masses. Fig. 758, One 
of the pollen-grains, with its tube separated and highly magnified. Fig. 759. Fruit at the 
period of dehiscence. ff, Two follicles. p, Placenta, which is detached. g, Comose seeds. 
Fig. 760. One of the comose seeds separated. . a, The hairy appendage at the hilum. 
Fig. 761. Seed separated from the hairs and cut vertically. _ te, External integument. tt, 
Internal integument. p, Perisperm or thin albumen. e, Embryo, with leafy cotyledons 
and superior radicle. 


536 ASCLEPIADACEA—APOCYNACE, 


in all the equinoctial parts of America, they also abound. Authors 
enumerate 159 genera, including 958 species. Hxamples—Periploca, 
Asclepias, Calotropis, Cynanchum, Gonolobus, Stapelia, Hoya, Dis- 
chidia. 

The plants of the order have acrid, purgative, emetic, and dia- 
phoretic properties. The milky juice is usually bitter and acrid, but 
occasionally it is bland, and is used as milk, as in the case of 
Gymnema lactiferum, the Cow-plant of Ceylon. Asclepias tuberosa, 
the Butterfly-weed, or Pleurisy-root, is used as a cathartic and 
diaphoretic in North America. The emetic properties of Asclepias 
curassavica have secured for it the name of Wild Ipecacuanha in the 
West Indies. The leaves of Solenostemma (Cynanchum) Argel are 
used to adulterate Alexandrian Senna. The fragrant roots of Hemi- 
desmus indicus are used in Madras as a substitute for Sarsaparilla, 
under the name of Country Sarza. It is also called Nannéari, or 
Ananto-mul. The bark of the root of several species of Calotropis, 
such as C. procera’ (Hamiltonii), and gigantea, furnish the substance 
called Mudar, which is used as a diaphoretic in India, It contains a 
principle called Mudarine, which gelatinises on being heated, and 
becomes fluid on cooling. Cynanchwm monspeliacum furnishes Mont- 
pellier Scammony, and Periploca mauritiana is the source of Bourbon 
Scammony. Both of these substances act as purgatives, and are used 
to adulterate true Scammony. Marsdenia tinctoria and Gymnema 
tingens are said to yield a dye similar to indigo. The milky juice of 
many of the plants contains caoutchouc in its composition. The root 
of Tylophora asthmatica, an Indian plant naturalised in the Mauritius, 
is used as country or Indian Ipecacuanha. Hoya carnosa receives the 
name of wax-flower from the peculiar aspect of its blossoms. Dischidia 
Rafflesiana, an, Indian climber, has remarkable ascidia (p. 100). The 
Stapelias are singular plants, resembling some of the Cactuses and 
Euphorbias. Their blossoms are often very fetid, and hence they are 
called Carrion flowers. Some of the species of Asclepias receive the 
name of Wild Cotton, on account of the hairs attached to their seeds. 
Gomphocarpus fruticosus is the silk plant of Madeira. 

Order 117.—Apocynacem, the Dogbane Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx usually 5-partite, persistent. Corolla hypogynous, 
gamopetalous, regular, usually 5-lobed, deciduous; sstivation con- 
torted, twisting in some cases to the right, in others to the left. 
Stamens 5, inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments ; fila- 
ments distinct ; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally ; pollen 
granular, globose, or 3-lobed, immediately applied to the stigma. 
Ovaries 2, and each unilocular, or 1, and bilocular ; ovules 00 ; styles 
2 or 1; stigma 1, with a contraction in the middle. Fruit follicular 
or capsular, or drupaceous or baccate, double or single. Seeds 00, 
rarely definite, usually pendulous; albumen cartilaginous or fleshy, 


APOCYNACEAI—LOGANIACEAE, 537 


rarely 0; embryo foliaceous ; radicle turned towards the hilum.— 
Trees or shrubs, usually lactescent, with entire, generally opposite, 
exstipulate leaves, with interpetiolary cilia or glands, They are 
chiefly found in tropical regions. They appear to be most abundant 
in the hot parts of Asia, are less common in the tropics of America, 
and still less abundant in Africa. Authors enumerate 110 genera, 
including 602 species, Hxamples—Apocynum, Echites, Strophanthus, 
Nerium, Balfouria, Vinca, Tanghinia, Plumieria, Carissa. 

Many of the plants of this order are poisonous. Some are used 
medicinally, as cathartics, and there are a few which yield edible 
fruits. The order is in general to be regarded with suspicion. One 
of the most deadly plants of the order is Tanghinia venenata (Cerbera 
Tanghin), the seeds of which, Tangéna nuts, supply the famous Tanghin 
poison, used formerly in Madagascar as an ordeal in cases of criminals. 
Strophanthus Kombe furnishes the Kombe arrow-poison of South 
Africa, S. Aispidus seems also to supply an arrow-poison in: West 
Africa. Toxicophlea Thanbergit is used as a fish-poison at the Cape 
of Good Hope. Nerium Oleander, the common Oleander, is poisonous. 
The stomata of its leaves are furnished with cellular hair-like pro- 
cesses (fig. 79, p. 29), and the anthers are terminated by feathery 
appendages (fig. 366, p. 223). Death has ensued from eating the 
flowers of this plant. Its branches, when divested of their bark and 
used as skewers, rendered meat roasted’ on them poisonous. The 
meat proved fatal to seven out of twelve of those who partook of it. 
The roots of Apocynum cannabinum and androsemifolium are said to 
be emetic. The bark of Alstonia (Echites) scholaris is used in India 
as a tonic. The Vincas, Periwinkles, are astringent and acrid. 
Allamanda cathartica, a native of Ceylon and Java, is emetic and 
cathartic. Although the milky juice is generally acrid, still in some 
instances it is bland. Thus, the juice of Tabernemontana utilis, Hya- 
hya, the Cow-tree or Milk-tree of Demerara, is used as milk. Many 
of the plants, such as Urceola elastica and Vahea gummifera, supply 
caoutchouc. Wrightia tinctoria yields a dye like indigo. Aspidosperma 
excelsum is a Guiana tree, remarkable for the sinuous arrangement of 
its wood, which gives the stem a deeply-fluted appearance. Beaumontia 
is a magnificent Indian climber ; it has splendid foliage, and festoons 
of enormous funnel-shaped white flowers. . 

Order 118.—Locanracea, the Logania or Nux Vomica Family. 
(Monopet. Hypog.) Oalyx 4-5-partite (fig. 311 ¢, p. 203); estivation 
valvate or imbricate. Corolla hypogynous, regular or irregular, 4-5- 
or 10-divided (fig. 311 ¢ 2, p. 203); estivation convolute or valvate. 
Stamens inserted on the corolla, 5 or 1, not always corresponding with 
the divisions of the corolla; pollen elliptical or triangular, simple, or 
marked with three bands. Ovary free, usually 2-celled ; ovules 00 
or solitary, peltate and amphitropal, or ascending and anatropal. 


538 LOGANIACEA. 


Fruit a 2-celled capsule, with placentas finally becoming loose ; or a 
nuculanium with 1- or 2-seeded nucules ; or baccate, with seeds im- 
mersed in a pulp. Seeds usually peltate, sometimes winged ; albumen 
fleshy or cartilaginous ; embryo small ; radicle turned towards the 
hilum, or parallel with it—Shrubs, herbs, or trees, with opposite 
entire leaves, and usually with stipules, which adhere to the foot- 
stalks, or form interpetiolary sheaths. They inhabit chiefly tropical 
and warm climates, in Asia, Africa, and America. The order is 
divided into three sub-orders :—1. Loganies, zestivation of corolla 
convolute, fruit a bilocular capsule or nuculanium, seeds peltate, 
sometimes winged. 2. Strychnez, estivation of corolla valvate, fruit 
a 2-3-celled berry or capsule, seeds peltate, embryo rather large. 3. 
Spigelies, stivation of corolla valvate, fruit a didymous capsule, 
seeds apterous, embryo small, cotyledons inconspicuous. There are 
about 32 known genera, and nearly 190 species. Hxamples—Logania, 
Potalia, Strychnos, Spigelia. 

The plants of this order are highly poisonous. They act energeti- 
cally on the spinal marrow, causing tetanic spasms, or they produce 
narcotic symptoms by acting on the brain. Many are very bitter and 
a few are tonic. Strychnos Nua«-Vomica, the Poison-nut or Koochla, 
a tree which abounds on the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, sup- 
plies the substance called Nux-Vomica. It yields fruit of the size 
and appearance of an orange, with a coriaceous reddish integument, 
enclosing a mucilaginous pulp. The seeds, which are embedded in 
the pulp, are the officinal part of the plant. They are circular and 
flat, umbilicated on one surface, and are thickly covered with brown 
silky hairs. All parts of the plant, especially the seeds and bark, 
are intensely bitter. The seeds contain two alkaloids, Strychnia and 
Brucia, to which they owe their poisonous properties. These alkaloids 
occur in combination with Igasuric or Strychnic acid. Nux-Vomica 
and Strychnia, in poisonous doses, cause death by producing tetanic 
spasms in the muscles of respiration. The bark of the Nux-Vomica 
tree is the false Angostura bark, and the wood is often called Snake- 
wood. Strychnia exists in other species of Strychnos, as S. Ignatia 
(Ignatia amara), St. Ignatius’s Bean, 8. colubrina, 8. lagustrina (Snake- 
wood), and S. Tieuté, the source of a Java poison called Upas Tieuté. 
It is also said to exist in the Woorali or Ourari poison of Guiana, 
which some consider to be the produce of 8S. toxtfera or guianensis. 
The effects of this last-mentioned poison, however, do not seem to 
agree with those of Strychnia. Strychnia stimulates the spinal cord 
without affecting the function of the brain. It causes convulsive 
twitches of the muscles of the arms and legs, and hence it has been 
recommended in cases of chronic palsy, unconnected with any signs of 
local irritation or determination of blood to the head. Its administra- 
tion requires great caution, as 3 of a grain have been known to produce 


GENTIANACEA, 539 


alarming lock-jaw, and 4 of a grain has killed a dog. Effects anta- 
gonistic to the action of Strychnia are produced by the Calabar bean. 
Some species of Strychnos seem not to possess a poisonous principle in 
large quantity, for they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Among them 
may be noticed Strychnos potatorum and pseudoguina. The former is 
called Clearing-nut, and is used in India for purifying water. The 
root of Spigelia marilandica, Carolina Pink-root (fig. 311, p. 203) is 
used as an anthelmintic, more particularly in the United States. S. 
Anthelmia, Guiana Pink-root, is employed in Demerara for a similar 
purpose. These plants also possess narcotic qualities. 

Order 119.—Guntianacem, the Gentian Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) (Fig. 269, p. 182.) Calyx gamosepalous, usually in 5 divi- 
sions, sometimes 4-6-8 or 10 divisions, persistent. Corolla gamo- 
petalous, hypogynous, usually regular and marcescent ; limb sometimes 
fringed, divided into as many lobes as the calyx; estivation plaited 
or imbricate-twisted. Stamens inserted upon the corolla, alternate with 
its segments, and equal to them in number, some of them occasionally 
abortive. Ovary composed of 2 carpels, unilocular or partially bilo- 
cular (fig. 423, p. 242); ovules 00; anatropal ; style 1; continuous ; 
stigmas 1 or 2. Fruit capsular or baccate, 1-celled (fig. 423, p. 242), 
usually bivalvular, with septicidal, or rarely loculicidal dehiscence. 
Seeds 00, small; embryo straight, minute, in the axis of soft fleshy 
albumen ; radicle next the hilum.—Herbs, seldom shrubs, with oppo- 
site (fig. 269, p. 182), rarely alternate, entire or divided, exstipulate 
leaves, which are often 3-5-ribbed. The plants of the order are dis- 
tributed generally over the globe, inhabiting both cold and warm 
regions. They are rare in the arctic and antarctic islands. They 
exhibit great varieties of colours, and many are prized for their beauty. 
There are two tribes :—1. Gentianex, zestivation of corolla imbricate- 
twisted, leaves opposite, simple, and entire. 2. Menyanthex, estiva- 
tion of corolla plaited or induplicate, leaves usually alternate and com- 
pound, or divided. Authors mention 67 genera, including 484 species. . 
Examples—Gentiana, Chironia, Agathotes, Erythrea, Chlora, Meny- 
anthes, Villarsia. 

The general property of the plants of this order is bitterness, 
which pervades all their organs, Hence they are used as tonics. 
The medicinal gentian is the root of Gentiana lutea, a plant which 
grows abundantly on the Pyrenees, and on the Alps of Switzerland 
and Austria, usually at an elevation of 3000 to 5000 feet. It produces 
showy yellow flowers, and its root is yellow internally. It is adminis- 
tered in the form of extract, infusion, tincture, and wine, as a tonic. 
Its roots are often mixed with the roots of other species, such as Gen- 
tiana punctata, purpurea, and pannonica. Gentiana Kurroo of the 
Himalayas has similar properties. The British species, Gentiana cam- 
pestris and Amarella, have also been used as bitter tonics. The 


ieee 


540 BIGNONIACEZ. 


officinal Chiretta is the herb and root of Agathotes Chirayita (Ophelia 
Chirata), a herbaceous plant found in the Himalayas. The whole plant 
is bitter, and has been long used in Bengal as a tonic and stomachic. 
Adenema hyssopifolia is the Chota chirayta. The flowering cymes of 
Erythrea Centaurium, common Centaury (fig. 269, p. 182), are used as 
a substitute for gentian, and so are the leaves of Menyanthes trifoliata, 
Buck-bean, Marsh-trefoil, or Bogbean. The roots of Frasera Waltert 
sometimes receive the name of American Calumba. Red-flowered species 
of Gentian are nearly confined to the Andes and New Zealand. Blue- 
flowered species on the Himalayas reach to 16,000 feet. 

Order 120.—BigNnoniacea, the Trumpet-Flower Family. (dMono- 
pet. Hypog.) Calyx divided or entire, sometimes spathaceous. Corolla 
monopetalous, hypogynous, usually irregular, 4-5 lobed. Stamens 5 
and unequal, or 4 and didynamous, some of them occasionally sterile ; 
authers bilocular. Disk annular or glandular. Ovary superior, 1-2- 
celled, each cell being often spuriously divided ; ovules indefinite ; 
style 1; stigma bilamellar (fig. 441, p. 249), or 2-4-cleft or entire. 
Fruit a 2-celled (sometimes spuriously 4-celled) and 2-valved ‘capsule, 
occasionally succulent. Placentas parietal, sometimes extending to the 
centre, and forming a spurious dissepiment, which finally separates, 
bearing the seeds. Seeds winged or wingless, often flat and com- 
pressed, exalbuminous ; embryo straight; radicle next the hilum.— 
Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, rarely alternate, exstipulate 
leaves. They abound generally in tropical regions, but some of them 
are widely distributed. The order has been divided into four sub- 
orders :—1. Bignoniez, capsule 2-valved, 2-celled, sometimes spuri- 
ously 4-celled, with a dissepiment parallel or contrary to the valves, 
at length free, bearing the seeds, which are transverse, compressed, 
and winged. 2. Cyrtandreze (Didymocarpez), fruit succulent or cap- 
sular, or siliquose and 2-valved, seeds small, ovate, or cylindrical, 
suspended, apterous, sometimes comose. 3. Crescenties, fruit woody, 
_ and melon-shaped, enclosing large seeds, which are immersed in the 
pulp of the placentas. 4. Pedaliez, fruit drupaceous, rarely capsular 
and 2-valved, spuriously many-celled ; seeds few, large and apterous, 
pendulous, erect or transverse. These are reckoned separate orders 
by many. There are upwards of 100 known genera and about 666 
species. Ezamples—Bignonia, Spathodea, Eccremocarpus, Cyrtandra, 
Didymocarpus, Orescentia, Pedalium, Sesamum, Kigelia, Tanzecium. 

There are many showy plants in this order. Their flowers are 
frequently large and trumpet-shaped. None of them are noted for 
marked medicinal properties. Some are timber trees, others furnish 
dyes and articles of diet, while a few have bitter and astringent 
qualities. The species of Bignonia are conspicuous objects in tropical 
forests. Their wood sometimes exhibits a crucial arrangement (fig. 
125, p. 62). From Bignonia Chica the Indians extract a red ochreous 


BIGNONIACEAi—GESNERACEAi—POLEMONIACEA, 541 


colouring matter, with which they paint their bodies. Crescentia 
Cujete (C. cunetfolia), the Calabash-tree, is found in the tropical 
regions of America, and produces a large melon-like fruit, containing 
a slightly acid pulp, which is sometimes eaten. Its pericarp is hard, 
and after removal of the pulp it is used as cups and bottles. Cala- 
bashes are used in crossing the rivers in Africa; a large Calabash can 
support two men on the water. These Calabashes are two feet or 
more in diameter. Teel seeds, the produce of Sesamum orientale, 
supply a bland oil, called by the Arabs Siritch. It is used, under 
the name of gingilee oil, to adulterate oil of almonds. Parmentiera 
certfera, Palo de Velas, is the candle-tree of the Isthmus of Panama, 
Kigelia pinnata yields excellent timber in Africa, The bark of K. 
africana is used on the Gold Coast for dysentery. The succulent fruit 
of Tanecium lilacinum is eaten. The fruit of the species of Mar- 
tynia, the Unicorn-plant, is furnished with hooked processes. Tecoma 
radicans and Eccremocarpus scaber are climbing plants often cultivated. 
In the perfect fruit of Pretrea (Martynia) Zanguebarica there are 6 
cells formed by the mode in which the placentas unite, and of these 
cells two are seedless. 

Order 121.—GusnERaces, the Gesnera Family. (Monopet. 
Perigyn.) Calyx partially adherent, 5-partite; zstivation valvate. 
Corolla monopetalous,'tubular, more or less irregular, 5-lobed ; eestiva- 
tion imbricated. Stamens 4, didynamous, with the rudiment of a 
5th, rarely 2; anthers dithecal, with a thick swollen connective. 
Ovary partly free, unilocular, formed by two carpels with parietal 
placentas, which are 2-lobed ; ovules indefinite, anatropal ; style con- 
tinuous with the ovary ; stigma capitate, concave, glandular or annular. 
Disk surrounding the base of the ovary. Fruit capsular or succulent, 
1-celled, more or less adherent. Seeds 00, minute ; testa thin, finely 
and obliquely veined; embryo erect in the axis of fleshy albumen ; 
tadicle pointing to the hilum. Herbs or shrubs, often springing from 
scaly tubers, with opposite or whorled, rugose, exstipulate leaves and 
showy flowers. They are found principally in the warmer regions of 
America, and are interesting chiefly on account of their beauty, for 
they do not appear to possess any important qualities. There are 22 
known genera and upwards of 120 species. Examples—Cesnera, 
Columnea, Gloxinia, Achimenes. ; 

Order 122.—Potemontacea, the Phlox Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx inferior, in 5 divisions, persistent, sometimes irregu- 
lar. Corolla regular, rarely irregular, 5-lobed. Stamens 5, inserted 
on the middle of the tube of the corolla, and alternate with its seg- 
ments ; pollen often blue. Disk lobed. Ovary free, 3-celled ; ovules 
anatropal or amphitropal ; style simple; stigma trifid. Fruit a 3- 
celled, 3-valved capsule, with septifragal dehiscence. Seeds angular 
or oval, or winged, ‘often enveloped in mucus, containing spiral threads, 


. 


542 POLEMONIACEE—HYDROPHYLLACEA.—CONVOLVULACEA, 


ascending, in a single or a double row ; embryo straight, in the axis of 
a fieshy or horny albumen ; cotyledons foliaceous, elliptical or cordate ; 
radicle inferior, next the hilum.—Herbaceous or climbing plants, with 
opposite or alternate, simple or compound leaves. They inhabit tem- 
perate countries chiefly, and they abound in the north-western part of 
America. There are 17 genera enumerated by Lindley, including 
116 species, Hxamples—Polemonium, Phlox, Cobsa (fig. 350, p. 
220), Collomia, Gillia, Leptosiphon, Cantua. 

Many of the plants of this order have showy flowers, and are 
commonly cultivated in flower-borders. Connected with the episperm 
of various species of Collomia are numerous spiral cells, and when the 
seeds are moistened with water, the mucus surrounding the cells is 
dissolved, so that the spiral fibres are uncoiled. The movements of 
these fibres, when uncoiling, are beautifully seen under the microscope. 
The fibres carry with them a mucous envelope which has the appear- 
ance of amembrane. Polemoniwm ceruleum, Greek Valerian, or Jacob’s 
ladder, is bitter. In Siberia poultices are prepared from its leaves. 
The Russians fancy that a decoction of it is useful in hydrophobia. 

Order 123.— HypropHytiace&, the Hydrophyllum Family. 
(Monepet. Hypog.) Calyx 5-parted, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, 
hypogynous, regular, 5-cleft; sestivation plicate or imbricate. Sta- 
mens 5, inserted upon the corolla, and alternate with its segments ; 
filaments sometimes petaloid ; anthers deeply-lobed at the base, often 
versatile, 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally or transversely. Disk 
annular or 0. Ovary free, 1-2-3-celled ; ovules definite or indefinite ; 
style 1 or 2; stigmas usually 2. Fruit capsular, 2-valved, 1-2-celled, 
with a parietal or a large central placenta. Seeds with a brittle or 
reticulated testa ; embryo in the midst of fleshy or cartilaginous albu- 
men ; radicle next the hilum.—tTrees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite, 
or alternate, exstipulate, often lobed leaves. They occur both in the 
northern and southern parts of America chiefly. They have no pro- 
perties of importance. Many have showy flowers, and some have 
glandular or stinging hairs. The order has been divided into two 
tribes :—1. Hydrophyllez, including Hydrolez of authors, with the 
anthers dehiscing longitudinally, disk present, ovary 1-2-celled, styles 
2. 2. Diapensiez, with anthers dehiscing transversely, disk 0, ovary 
3-celled, style single. There are 20 known genera and 81 species. 
Examples—Hydrophyllum, Hydrolea, Nemophila, Eutoca, Phacelia, 
Diapensia. 

Order 124—-ConvoLvuLacea, the Convolvulus or Bindweed 
Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) Calyx in five divisions, persistent, im- 
bricated, often bracteated (figs. 762-764). Corolla monopetalous, 
hypogynous, deciduous, regular ; limb 5-lobed, with a plaited or con- 
torted wstivation (fig. 763 p); tube sometimes with scales, alternate 
with the lobes of the limb. Stamens 5, inserted in the base of the 


CONVOLVULACE. 543 


corolla, and alternate with its lobes (fig. 764 e); filaments included 
or exserted, equal or unequal. Disk annular, hypogynous. Ovary 
free, 2-4-celled, rarely by abortion 1-celled ; ovules definite, erect, 
when more than one, collateral ; style 1 (fig. 764 s), usually bifid, 
rarely 2; stigmas obtuse or acute (fig. 765). Fruit succulent or 
capsular (fig. 766), 1-4-celled, with septifragal and septicidal, or cir- 
cumscissile dehiscence. Seeds albuminous; embryo curved or spiral 
(figs. 769 ; 598, p. 335) ; cotyledons corrugated (fig. 768) or incon- 
spicuous ; radicle inferior——Herbs or shrubs, usually twining, some- 
times parasitical, often with a milky juice, and with alternate, un- 


| 


Fig. 765. Fig. 766. Fig. 767. Fig. 768. Fig. 769. 


divided or lobed, exstipulate leaves, rarely leafless. They occur chiefly 
in tropical and temperate regions. A few only are found in cold 


Figs. 762-769. Organs of fructification of Convolvulus (Calystegia) sepium, to illustrate 
the natural order Convolvulacez. Fig. 762. Diagram of the flower, showing two bracts 
five unequal divisions of the imbricated calyx, five lobes of the plicate contorted corolla, 
five stamens alternating with the corolline lobes, and a quadrilocular ovary. Fig. 763, 
Flower bud. 0, Large bracts. ce, Calyx. yp, Corolla. Fig. 764. Vertical section of the 
lower part of the flower. 0, Bracts. c, Calyx. p, Tube of corolla, bearing the filaments 
of the stamens, ¢. v, Ovary. s, Style. Fig. 765. Summit of the style and stigmas, 
Fig. 766. Fruit, f, surrounded by the calyx, c, and the bracts, b, which are persistent. 
Fig. 767. Seed. h, Hilum. Fig. 768. Section of the seed, showing the corrugated coty- 
ledons. Fig. 769. Embryo separated. 


544. CONVOLVULACEA. 


climates. The order has been divided into two sub-orders :—1. Con- 
volvulez, true Bindweeds, leafy plants, with the corolline tube not 
scaly, embryo curved, cotyledons conspicuous. 2. Cuscutese, Dodders, 
leafless parasites, having scales on the corolline tube, embryo spiral 
and filiform (fig. 598, p. 335), cotyledons inconspicuous. There are 
51 genera and upwards of 740 species. Exvamples—Convolvulus, 
Ipomea, Exogonium, Dichondra, Cuscuta. 

The order is characterised generally by the presence of an acrid 
juice in the roots, which has purgative properties. On this account 
several of the plants are used medicinally. The old genus Convolvulus 
has been split into various genera, such as Ipomaa, Hxogontum, Phar- 
bitis, Batatas, Quamoclit, Calonyction, and Lepistemon, according to 
the form of the corolla, the exsertion or inclusion of the stamens, the 
form and nature of the stigma, and the structure of the ovary. Exo- 
gonium Purga (Ipomea Purga) is the Jalap plant, a native of the 
eastern declivities of the Mexican Andes, which grows well in this 
country, requiring only the protection of a frame during winter. The 
plant flowered regularly for many years in a cold frame in the Edin- 
burgh Botanic Garden. It has been introduced on the Neilgherry hills, 
South India. The root-stock is the officinal part. It has a roundish 
tuberous form, is black externally, white and milky within, and varies 
in size from that of a walnut to that of a moderate-sized turnip. It 
contains a resin, in which its active properties reside. It is used in 
the form of powder and tincture, as an active irritant cathartic. Ipo- 
mea Jalapa yields Mechoacan root, which has purgative properties. 
I, Orizabensis supplies a kind of Jalap, the Purgo macho of the Mexi- 
cans ; while I. simularis furnishes Tampico Jalap. The root of Con- 
volvulus Scammonia yields a gummy resinous exudation, which consti- 
tutes medicinal Scammony. The plant grows abundantly in Greece, 
the Grecian Islands, and various parts of the Levant. The plant 
succeeds well in a cold frame in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. The 
Jalap and Scammony plants flower in the open border in the garden. 
Scammony is procured by cutting the root across, and collecting the 
milky juice, which soon concretes. The drug is imported into this 
country from Smyrna. Its active principle is a resin. It is used 
medicinally as a drastic purgative, in the form of powder, pill, and 
extract. A spurious kind of Scammony has been prepared from the 
root of Convolvulus (Calystegia) sepium ; and several plants belongin, 
to the natural order Asclepiadaces yield a purgative exudation, which 
has been used under the names of Montpellier and Bourbon Scammony. 
The roots of some of the plants do not possess purgative qualities, and 
have been used as articles of food. Batatas edulis (Convolvulus Bata- 
tas) yields the sweet Potato, which contains much saccharine and 
amylaceous matter, and is used as food in tropical countries. The 
plant is reared in Carolina, Japan, and China, and succeeds within an 


CONVOLVULACEA.—CORDIACEZ—-BORAGINACEA, 545 


annual Isotherm of 59° F. It is cultivated also in Spain and Portu- 
gal, In the Philippine Islands the Batatas, or Camotas, as they are 
called, are used for making soup, as well as roasted. Ipomea macro- 
rhiza also yields farinaceous edible roots. The species of Cuscuta, 
Dodder, or Scald-weed, have acrid purgative properties. Their seeds 
germinate in the soil, and the plants afterwards twine round others, 
and become attached to them by means of suckers. They then lose 
their connection with the soil, and are supported as true parasites. In 
this way they often destroy crops of Flax and Clover, Beans and Hops.. 
Calonyction speciosum is a night-flowering plant, with large white 
blossoms, and has received the name of Moon-plant. Convolvulus sco- 
porius is said to yield the perfume called Oil of Rhodium. Ipomea 
Bona-nox is the moon-flower of Ceylon and of other warm countries. 
Pharbitis Nil, a plant of tropical countries, common in India,.and 
ascending the mountains to 5000 feet, supplies Kaladana seeds, which 
are used as purgatives. 

Order 125.—Corp1acra, the Cordia Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) 
Calyx 4-5-toothed, inferior. Corolla monopetalous, 4-5-cleft, regular. 
Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with its segments; usually 
long, exserted ; anthers versatile. Ovary free, 4-8-celled ; ovules soli- 
tary, pendulous, anatropal ; style continuous ; stigma 4-8-cleft. Fruit 
drupaceous, 4-8-celled. Seed exalbuminous, pendulous from the apex 
of the cell by a long funiculus, upon which it is turned back ; radicle 
superior ; cotyledons plaited longitudinally—Trees, with alternate, 
rough, exstipulate leaves, and panicled flowers. They‘are chiefly 
natives of warm countries. Some yield edible fruits; their bark is 
occasionally bitter, tonic, and astringent, and their wood is used for 
various economical purposes. The succulent, mucilaginous fruits of 
Cordia Myxa and latifolia receive the name of Sebesten Plums. It 
is said that mummy cases were made from the wood of this plant. 
There are 11 genera enumerated by Lindley, including 188 species. 
Examples—Cordia, Varronia. 

Order 126.—Boracinace&, the Borage or Bugloss Family. 
(Monopet. Hypog.) Calyx persistent, with 4-5-divisions (figs. 770, 
771). Corolla gamopetalous, hypogynous, usually regular (figs. 321, 
p. 206; 322, p. 207), 5- rarely 4-cleft ; wstivation imbricated (figs. 
770, 771 pp). Stamens inserted on the corolla, equal in number to 
its segments, and alternate with them (fig. 771 ¢). Ovary usually 
4-lobed, quadrilocular (fig. 771 0); ovules 4, each attached to the 
lowest point- of the ovary, amphitropal; style simple, basilar (figs. 
437, p. 247; 771 s), (terminal in Ehretiez and Heliotropiex) ; stigma 
simple or bifid. Fruit (fig. 772) consisting of 2 to 4 distinct achenia 
(succulent and consolidated in Ehretiez). Seed exalbuminous, or with 
thin albumen ; radicle superior; cotyledons plano-convex (fig. 772). 
—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with terete stems, alternate, rough, exsti- 

2N 


546 ' BORAGINACES. , 


pulate leaves, and flowers generally in scorpioidal (gyrate) cymes (fig. 
274, p. 185). On account of the asperities in the leaves, the plants 
have sometimes been called Asperifolic. The order is divided into 
three sub-orders :—1. Boraginex (figs. 770-772), with a basilar style, 


Fig. 770. Fig. 771. Fig. 772. 


4lobed ovary, achenium-like fruit, and exalbuminous seeds ; natives 
chiefly of temperate climates. 2. Ehretieze, with a terminal style, a 
quadrilocular, concrete ovary, a succulent fruit, and usually albumi- 
nous seeds; natives of tropical countries. 3. Heliotropiez, with a 
terminal style, an entire or 2-lobed ovary, a dry fruit separable into 
four achenia, and exalbuminous seeds; natives partly of temperate, 
and partly of warm climates. There are 60 known genera and nearly 
650 species. £xamples—Borago (or Borrago), Anchusa, Echium, 
Myosotis, Cynoglossum, Ehretia, Heliotropium. 

The plants of the order are generally mucilaginous and emollient. 
Some are astringent. Nitrate of potash exists in some, and imparts 
coolness to the water in which they are steeped. Borago officinalis, 
Borage, has been used for its mucilaginous emollient properties, as a 
remedy in pectoral affections ; and with wine, water, lemon, and sugar, 
its leaves form an ingredient in what is called cool-tankard. Attached 
to the stamens in this plant, and others of the order, are scales, which- 
may be considered as abortive stamens, formed by dilamination (fig. 
344, p. 217). Anchusa tinctoria supplies alkanet root, which is used 
as a reddish-brown dye. Some of the species of Heliotropium (as H. 
peruvianum) are distinguished by their fragrant odour. The leaves of 


Figs. 770-772. Organs of fructification of Anchusa italica, to illustrate the natural order 
Boraginacez., Fig. 770. Diagram of the flower, with five imbricated divisions of the calyx, 
five imbricated segments of the corolla, five stamens, and a 4-lobed ovary. Fig. 771. Ver- 
tical section of the flower. c, Hairy calyx. p p, Corolla. e, Stamens inserted into the 
corolla. aa, Staminal appendages or corolline scales. 0, 4-lobed ovary, two of its divi- 
sions cut through vertically. s, Basilar style. Fig. 772. One of the carpels (acheenia) cut 
yertically. p, Pericarp separable from the seed. t, Spermoderm or integuments of the 
seed. e, Embryo with superior radicle and plano-convex cotyledons. , 


SOLANACEA. 547 


Mertensia (Lithospermum) maritima have the taste of oysters, and 
hence it is called the Oyster-plant in Scotland. Myosotis palustris (fig. 
274, p. 185) is the true Forget-me-not. Miss Strickland remarks 
that the banished and aspiring Henry of Lancaster appears to have 
been the person who gave to this plant its emblematical and poetical 
meaning, by uniting it in his exile with the initial letter of his watch- 
word, ‘ Souveigne-vous de-moy.’ 

Order 127.—Sonanacea, the Nightshade Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx inferior, 5- rarely 4-partite, persistent (fig. 774 c). 
Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, with the limb 5- rarely 4-cleft, 
regular, or somewhat unequal, deciduous ; estivation plicate or im- 
bricated (fig. 773). Stamens inserted on the corolla (fig. 774 e), 
equal in number to the corolline segments, and alternate with them 
(fig. 773) ; anthers with longitudinal or porous dehiscence (fig. 774 e). 
Ovary usually 2-celled (fig. 774 0), sometimes 4-5- or many-celled ; 
ovules indefinite ; style continuous ; stigma simple (fig. 774 s). Fruit 
with 2, 4, or more cells, rarely unilocular ; either a capsule dehiscing 


(tog) 
ee 4 


Fig. 773, 


e a 


g ~. 


é 
1 


Hat 


Fig. 777. Fig. 778. Fig. 774. Fig. 776. 


in a septicidal or circumcissile manner, and having a double dissepi- 
ment parallel to the valves, or a berry (figs. 775, 776) with the pla- 


Figs. 778-778. Organs of fructification of Solanum tuberosum, the Potato, to illustrate 
the natural order Solanacez. Fig. 773. Diagram of the flower, with five divisions of the 
calyx ; five plicate segments of the corolla, five stamens, and a 2-celled ovary with poly- 
spermous placentas. a, Axis. Fig. 774. Vertical section of the flower. c, Calyx. pp, 
Lower part of the corolla. e, Stamens, with porous dehiscence of the anthers. 0, Bilo- 
cular ovary, polyspermous. s, Style and stigma. Fig. 775. Fruit baccate. Fig. 776. 
Horizontal section of the fruit, showing the seeds and placenta. Fig. 777. The seed. 

Fig. 778. Vertical section of the seed. ¢, Integument (spermoderm) of the seed. , Fleshy 
perisperm (albumen), e, Embryo, which is curved and excentric, with the radicle next 
the hilum. 


548 SOLANACEA. 


centas adhering to the dissepiment, or a nuculanium with 5 or more 
nucules. Seeds 00; embryo straight (rectembryee), or curved (curvem- 
bryee) (fig. 778), often excentric, lying in fleshy albumen ; radicle next 
the hilum.—Herbs or shrubs, with alternate leaves. Natives of most 
parts of the world, but abundant in the tropics, in which the mass of 
the order exists, in the form of the genera Solanum and Physalis.. 
There are 69 known genera and 1025 species enumerated. The order 
has been divided into two sub-orders. 1. Solanez ; Isomerous flowers 
with a valvate or induplicato-valvate sestivation ; inflorescence extra- 
axillary ; innocuous or doubtfully poisonous. Examples — Solanum, 
Capsicum, Lycopersicum, Physalis, Cestrum, Habrothamnus, Nolana. 
2. Atropez ; Isomerous flowers or nearly so, with a more or less im- 
bricate vestivation ; inflorescence extra-axillary ; narcotic poisons causing 
dilatation of the pupil. Examples—Atropa, Mandragora, Nicotiana, 
Datura, Hyoscyamus. 

The plants of this order often possess narcotic qualities. These are 
sometimes developed in a great degree, so as to render the plants very 
poisonous ; at other times they are obscured by the prevalence of nu- 
tritious and starchy matter. Some of the species are entirely inno- 
cuous. In some instances, certain parts of the plant have poisonous 
narcotic properties, while other parts are innocuous, and are used as 
articles of diet. These facts will be illustrated by a consideration of 
different genera and species. We commence with the species in the 
sub-order Solanew. Solanum Dulcamara, Bitter-sweet, or woody Night- 
shade, has diaphoretic properties. A decoction of the twigs is used in 
various cutaneous diseases. The scarlet berries are not poisonous ; 
five pounds weight given in the course of ten days did not produce 
poisonous effects. The black berries of Solanum nigrum are used by 
the garrison in the Island of Ascension to make pies. Solanwm tube- 
rosum, the Potato (fig. 109, p. 48), produces nutritious starchy tubers. 
Solanwm Melongena yields the Aubergine or Brinjal, an edible fruit. 
8, laciniatum, the Kangaroo apple, is eaten in Tasmania. Solanum 
ovigerum produces the fruit called Egg-apple. Solanwm vescwm, the 
Gunyang of Australia, is used as a potato. In the genus Solanum the 
anthers open by pores. The fruit of different species and varieties of 
Capsicum supply Cayenne-pepper, and what are called Chillies. Chilli 
is the Mexican name for all the varieties of Capsicum. They are 
natives of the East and West Indies, and of other hot climates. Cap- 
sicum annuum is the species commonly noticed, but of it there seem 
to be numerous varieties, which by many are reckoned species. Thus, 
C. frutescens is a shrubby plant which, along with C. fastigiatum, sup- 
plies the variety called Bird-pepper ; C. baceatum has a globular fruit, 
and furnishes Cherry- or Berry-capsicum. In Capsicums irritant pro- 
perties prevail, without any narcotic action, Their acridity is owing 
to an oleaginous substance called Capsicin. Cayenne-pepper is used 


SOLANACEA., 549 


chiefly in the form of tincture as a rubefacient and stimulant, espe- 
cially in cases of ulcerated sore throat. It acts on the stomach as an 
aromatic condiment, and, when preserved in acetic acid, it forms Chilli 
vinegar. The species of Physalis are remarkable for their accrescent 
calyx (fig. 304, p. 200). The fruit of some, such as P. peruviana, 
Peruvian Winter Cherry, is eaten. P. edulis is the Cape Gooseberry, 
The fruit of Lycopersicwm esculentum is the edible Tomato or Love- 
apple. 

We shall now notice some of the species belonging to the poisonous 
sub-order Atropew. Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade or Dwale, is 
a highly poisonous plant. All parts of the plant are narcotic. |The 
fruit is a dark brownish-black shining berry, which often proves attrac- 
tive to children, The leaves are the parts used in medicine, and from 
these an extract is prepared. The watery extract is best made in 
vacuo, but the alcoholic extract is probably the best. Belladonna is one 
of our most active indigenous poisons. It owes its properties to the 
presence of an alkaloid called Atropia, which exists in the plant in 
combination with malic acid. Belladonna is used medicinally to allay 
pain and spasmodic action, to cause dilatation of the pupil, and as a 
prophylactic against scarlatina. Mandragora officinalis (Atropa Man- 
dragora), Mandrake, acts as a stimulant on the nervous system, and 
its forked root was long celebrated for its properties in this respect. 
It is the ONT (Dudaim) of the Bible. Its root is easily made to 
assume the human form, and hence has arisen the stories of the 
plant shrieking when torn out of the ground. By the Arabs the plant 
is called Tufah-al-Sheitan, or Devil’s Apple. Narcotic properties exist 
in the species of Ayoscyamus, more especially in H. niger, Henbane, a 
biennial plant, with dingy-yellow flowers, exhibiting beautiful purple 
reticulations, hairy viscous leaves, and a bilocular operculate capsule 
(fig. 555, p. 307). The leaves yield by expression a large quantity of 
juice, whence an extract is prepared. A tincture of Henbane is often 
used in place of laudanum, on account of not causing constipation. It is 
employed in medicine to procure sleep and allay pain, and it acts also 
in dilating the pupil. The narcotic properties seem to be owing to an 
easily decomposed alkaloid called Hyoscyamia. An empyreumatic oil is 
obtained from the plant, which is an energetic narcotic poison. The 
roots of the plant have sometimes caused poisoning by being mistaken 
for parsnips. Many species of Datura are powerfully narcotic. D. 
Stramonium is the Thorn-apple, so called on account of its prickly 
capsule. Its leaves and seeds are used medicinally as narcotics, their 
qualities being due to an alkaloid called Daturine. They are pre- 
scribed as anodynes and antispasmodics, in the form of powder, ex- 
tract, and tincture, and the leaves are smoked in cases of asthma. 
Datura Tatula and Metel, sanguinea, ferox, and fastwosa, have similar 
properties, The seeds and leaves of Datura alba, white-flowered 


550 SOLANACEZ—OROBANCHACEA. 


Datura, are used in India as sedative and narcotic. Several species 
of Micottana furnish Tobacco. That chiefly used in Europe is procured 
from N. Tabacum, a plant naturally inhabiting the hotter parts of 
North and South America. I¢ is an annual plant, attaining a height 
of six feet, having dingy-red infundibuliform flowers (fig. 319, p. 206) 
and viscid leaves. The leaves are the officinal part, and their active 
properties depend on a peculiar oily-like alkaloid called Nicotina. 
They are employed in the form of infusion, tincture, and wine. 
Tobacco is an energetic narcotic poison. Its oil, which is inhaled 
and swallowed in the process of smoking, is one of the most deadly 
known poisons. The Hottentots are said to kill snakes by putting a 
drop of it on their tongues: the death of these reptiles is said to take 
place instantaneously. It is employed medicinally as a sedative, and 
its depressing action is useful in cases of hernia. Its depressing action 
is indicated by its effect on the cerebral functions and on the heart. 
The flavour and strength of tobacco depend on climate, cultivation, 
and the mode of manufacture. That most esteemed by the smoker is 
Havannah tobacco; but the Virginian is the strongest. It is said 
that small Havannah cigars are prepared from the leaves of Vicotiana 
repanda ; East Indian, Latakia, and Turkish tobacco, from N. rustica, 
and fine Shiraz tobacco from N. persica. 

Order 128.—ORoBANCHACEA, the Broom-rape Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx divided, persistent, inferior. Corolla monopetalous, 
hypogynous, irregular, usually bilabiate, persistent ; eestivation imbri- 
cated. Stamens 4, didynamous, Disk fleshy. Ovary free, 1-celled, 
composed of two carpels which stand fore and aft (antero-posterior), 
with 2 or more parietal placentas; ovules 00; style 1; stigma 
2-lobed, each of the lobes belong half to each carpel. Fruit capsular, 
enclosed within the withered corolla, 1-celled, 2-valved. Seeds 00, 
minute; embryo very minute, at one fend of fleshy albumen.— 
Herbaceous parasitical plants, having scales in place of leaves. They 
are natives of Europe, more especially the southern parts, and of Asia, 
North America, and the Cape of Good Hope. Authors give 14 
genera and 125 species. Hxamples—Orobanche, Lathrea. 

The properties of the plants of the order are, in general, astrin- 
gency and bitterness. Some have been used as tonics, and as applica- 
tions to indolent ulcers. The species of Orobanche are called Broom- 
rapes, on account of the ravages they are supposed to commit on the 
Broom tribe. They attach themselves to the roots of various plants, 
and are hence called Root-parasites. Different species infest and 
injure different tribes of plants. Thus, Orobanche Rapum is parasitical 
upon Broom and Furze; 0. ramosa, upon Hemp ; 0. rubra, upon com- 
mon Thyme; 0. minor, upon red Clover; 0..Hedere, upon the Ivy ; 
O. elatior and arenaria, upon different species of Composite, as Cen- 
taury and Milfoil. The stems of Orobanches have a large central 


OROBANCHACEZ—SCROPHULARIACEA, 551 


cellular portion, surrounded by numerous fibro-vascular bundles, 
which are arranged in a circle without any medullary rays. Tubers 
exist at the lower part, whence subterranean buds are developed. 
Sometimes the fibro-vascular bundles of the plants, to which the 
Broom-rapes are attached, are found ramifying in the substance of the 
parasite. Lathrea squamaria, Tooth-wort, is parasitical upon the 
roots of Hazels, Cherry-laurels, and other trees. Epiphegus virginiana, 
Beech-drops, has been used in powder as an application to cancerous 
sores. In conjunction with Arsenious acid it is supposed to have 
constituted the specific known in North America under the name 
of Martin’s Cancer Powder. | 

Order 129.—ScropHuLaRiaces, the Figwort Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx divided into 4 or 5 parts, unequal, persistent, inferior 
(fig. 312 ¢, p. 203). Corolla monopetalous, more or less irregular 
and bilabiate (fig. 312 p, p. 203), or personate (fig. 325, p. 207), 
sometimes spurred or saccate at the base ; zstivation imbricate. In 
the bud, the flowers are regular (fig. 336, p. 211). Stamens usually 
4, didynamous (figs. 376, p. 225; 378, p. 227), rarely 5, sometimes 
2; anthers bilocular, or unilocular by abortion or adhesion. Ovary 
free, 2-celled ; ovules usually 00; style simple ; stigma 2-lobed, rarely 
entire. Fruit capsular, rarely fleshy, dicarpellary, 2-celled (cells 
antero-posterior) (fig. 541, p. 304), 2-4-valved, opening by septicidal 
or loculicidal dehiscence, rarely by pores (fig. 558, p. 308) or lids, 
the dissepiments becoming finally loose in the centre (fig. 542, p. 
304). Placentas attached to the dissepiment, and sometimes in the 
mature fruit becoming central. Seeds definite or 00; embryo straight 
or slightly curved, included within fleshy albumen.—Herbs, under- 
shrubs, or shrubs, with opposite, whorled or alternate leaves. They are 
found generally distributed over the globe, both in cold and warm 
regions. The order has been divided by Bentham into three sec- 
tions :—1. Salpiglossidez, sstivation of corolla plicate or imbricate, 
2 posterior lobes outside. 2. Antirrhinez, corolla bilabiate, esti- 
vation imbricate, the posterior lip outside the anterior one. 3. Rhin- 
anthez, eestivation of corolla imbricate, the two lateral lobes, or one 
of them, placed outside. Many of the Rhinanthez, such as Euphrasia, 
Rhinanthus, and Melampyrum, are said to be root parasites. There 
are 183 known genera and about 1800 species. vamples—Schiz- 
anthus, Salpiglossis, Calceolaria, Verbascum, Antirrhinum, Scrophu- 
laria, Pentstemon, Mimulus, Digitalis, Veronica, Rhinanthus, 
Melampyrum. 

The plants of the order are usually scentless, or at all events not 
aromatic. They are acrid and slightly bitter, and some of them are 
sedative and poisonous. Some of the plants of the order belong to 
the tribe of Root-parasites. This is particularly the case with species 
of Euphrasia, Rhinanthus, Bartsia, Melampyrum, and Pedicularis, 


552 SCROPHULARIACEA:—LABIATA. 


These parasites differ from Broom-rapes in having green leaves, and 
they seem to be apparently independent after they have acquired a 
certain degree of development. The species of Mimulus have a bila- 
mellate stigma, the two lamelle of which are irritable, and close when 
irritated. The movements of the stigma are probably in some way 
connected with self-fertilisation. One of the species, Mimulus luteus, 
has become naturalised in many parts of Britain, as in the neighbour- 
hood of Edinburgh, on the shores of the Clyde, the Isle of Skye, 
Perthshire, etc. Jimulus moschatus is cultivated on account of its 
musk-like odour. The most important medicinal plant of the order 
is Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove, the leaves and seeds of which are 
employed in the form of powder, tincture, and infusion. The leaves 
have a bitter taste, which they retain when carefully dried. In large 
doses they act as a narcotico-irritant poison, and in small doses they 
are used as sedative of the circulation, and diuretic. Their continued 
use causes great slowness of the pulse, and hence their employment in 
diseases of the heart and in hemorrhages, such as hemoptysis. In 
dropsical cases, especially those connected with diseased heart, Digi- 
talis is extensively used. Its active properties are due to the presence 
of a crystalline principle called Digitalin. Several other species of 
Digitalis, such as D. levigata, grandiflora, lutea, and tomentosa, have 
similar properties. The leaves of Scrophularia nodosa, knotted Fig- 
wort, have irritant qualities, and have been used as emetic and 
cathartic remedies. In the form of ointment and fomentation, they 
have been applied to diseases of the skin and tumours. The woolly 
leaves of Verbascwm Thapsus, Great Mullein, are emollient and slightly 
narcotic. They have been used in some pectoral affections. The 
species of Melampyrum are called Cow-wheat, in consequence of being 
relished by cows. Euphrasia officinalis, Eye-bright, or Euphrasy, was 
formerly used in cases of ophthalmia. Some of the species of Linaria 
and Calceolaria are used for dyeing. Linaria vulgaris exhibits what 
Linnzus called Peloria (pp. 369, 374), by the flowers being 5-spurred 
in place of 1-spurred, and thus becoming symmetrical. Gratiola offici- 
nalis, Hedge-hyssop, is bitter and acrid, and is said to enter into the 
composition of the Kan médicinale, so much vaunted as a remedy for 
gout. This was formerly called Gratia Dei, on account of its efficiency 
as a medicine. In over-doses it acts as a poison. According to 
Haller, it renders by its abundance some of the Swiss meadows useless 
as pastures. The leaves of Veronica officinalis are bitter and astrin- 
gent, and are sometimes used as tea. 

Order 130.—Lapiatm (Lamiacee of Lindley), the Labiate 
Family. (Monopet. Hypog.) Calyx tubular inferior, regular or bila- 
biate, persistent (figs. 780, 782 c). Corolla monopetalous, hypogy- 
nous, bilabiate ; upper lip entire or bifid, lower 3-lobed (figs. 324, p. 
207 ; 780, 781). Stamens 4 (fig. 779), didynamous (fig. 781 ¢), 


LABIATA. 553 


sometimes 2 by abortion, inserted into the corolla, and alternate with 
the lobes of the lower lip ; anthers 2-celled, or 1-celled by abortion, 


ly 


wel iiveg, 


Fig. 779. Fig. 782. Fig. 783. 


or by absorption of the septum (fig. 365, p. 223); connective some- 
times large and distractile (fig. 365 c, p. 223). Disk fleshy. Ovary 
free, deeply 4-lobed (figs. 436, p. 247; 779); ovules 4; style 1, 
basilar (figs. 436, p. 247; 781 s); stigma bifid (fig. 781 s), usually 
acute. Fruit consisting of 1-4 acheenia, enclosed within the persistent 
calyx (figs. 436, p. 247; 782). Seeds erect (fig. 783); albumen 
either 0, or in small quantity ; embryo erect (fig. 783 ¢); cotyledons 
flat ; radicle inferior——Herbs or undershrubs, with tetragonal stems, 
opposite exstipulate leaves, and cymose inflorescence, the flowers 


Figs. 779-783. Organs of fructification of Lamium album, to illustrate the natural order 
Labiate. Fig. 779. Diagram of the flower, with the pentamerous calyx; pentamerous 
corolla, having two lips, the‘upper lip being formed of two united petals, the lower of three; 
four stamens, in consequence of one being undeveloped, and four divisions of the ovary. 
Fig. 780. Entire flower viewed laterally. ¢, Five-cleft calyx. ¢, Tube of the corolla. 1s, 
Upper lip of two petals, lM, Lower lip of three. s, Style. Fig. 781. The flower cut 
vertically. c, Calyx. , Corolla. e, Didynamous’stamens. s, Style and bifid stigma. 0, 
Ovary. Fig. 782. Fruit (a tetrachenium) cut vertically, showing the carpels, two of which 
have been removed. c, Persistent calyx. g, Fleshy disk or gland. 7, Gynobasic receptacle 
bearing the style, s, which is basilar, ¢.e. arises from the lower;part of the carpels. 0, Two 
carpels, which form achenia when ripe. Fig. 783. A carpel cut vertically. , Pericarp. 
t, Integument of the seed. e, Embryo erect with inferior radicle. 


554 . LABIATA, 


being often in verticillasters. Linnewus looked upon the fruit as 
naked seeds, and hence included many of the plants in the order 
Gymnospermia of his Didynamous class. They are natives chiefly of 
temperate regions. Authors mention 120 genera, including 2500 species. 
Ezxamples—Mentha, Salvia, Melissa, Lamium, Teucrium, Scutellaria. 
The plants of this order are in general fragrant and aromatic, and 
none of them are poisonous or injurious. Scarcely any are used for 
ordinary food, although many form grateful condiments. Their leaves 
contain receptacles of volatile oil, and many of them furnish a 
stearoptin resembling camphor. Medicinally, many of them are used 
ascarminatives. The species of Mentha yield volatile oils. M. Piperita, 
Peppermint, is used as a powerful diffusible stimulant in cases of colic 
and gastrodynia. The oil is procured by distillation with water, and, 
when dissolved in rectified spirit, it forms the essence of Peppermint. 
Mentha viridis, Spearmint, is used in the same way as Peppermint ; 
while M. Pulegium, Penny-royal, is employed as a pectoral and anti- 
spasmodic. Lavandula vera (L. spica, officinalis, and angustifolia of 
authors) yields the best oil of Lavender ; while L. lat¢folia furnishes 
Spike-oil. Lavandula Stoechas of the south of Europe also supplies 
oil, Like the other volatile oils of the Labiatz, oil of Lavender con- 
sists of a fluid oil, or Eleoptin, and a solid crystalline substance, or 
Stearoptin, analogous to camphor. Lavender is a tonic, stimulant, 
and carminative. The flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis, Rose- 
mary, furnish an oil which has similar properties. It is used much 
in perfumery, and enters into the composition of Eau de Cologne. It 
is reputed as possessing efficacy in encouraging the growth of hair and 
in curing baldness. The admired flavour of Narbonne honey is 
ascribed to the bees feeding on the flowers of this plant. Oils of the 
same nature are procured from Origanwm vulgare, Wild Marjoram, 0. 
Majorana, Sweet Marjoram, Origanum Dictamnus, Dittamy of Crete, 
Melissa officinalis, common Balm, and Marrubium vulgare, white Hore- 
hound. Some consider the Hyssop of Scripture, 318, Esobh, as being 
Hyssopus orientalis (H. officinalis, var. angustifolius) ; but Royle looks 
upon it as one of the Caper plants (Capparis wgyptiaca). Plectranthus 
graveolens of some, Pogostemon suavis or P. Patchouly of others, is the 
Patchouli plant of the East Indies, which is used as a perfume. It 
is called in India puché pdt. It yields a volatile oil of a yellowish- 
green colour. Lycopus virginicus, Bugle-weed, and L. ecuropeus, 
Gipsy-wort, are used as astringents and sedatives. Many Labiates, 
such as Thyme (Zhymus), Mint (Mentha), Sage (Salvia), Basil (Ocy- 
mum), Savoury (Satureia), etc., are used as culinary vegetables, more 
particularly to flavour sauces and dishes. The species of Salvia are 
distinguished by having only two stamens in consequence of the abor- 
tion of the rest, and by their distractile connective, which separates 
the anther lobes (fig. 365, p. 223). In the outer coat of the achenes 


LABIATA-—VERBENACE&. 555 


of the species of Salvia there are spiral cells, the fibres of which, like 
those of the seeds of Collomia, uncoil when moistened with water, and 
form an interesting microscopic object. Salvia offcinalis, common 
sage, has been used in the form of tea as astomachic. What are 
called Sage-apples, are galls produced, by the puncture of insects, on 
Salvia pomifera, The roots of Ocymum tuberosum are said to be escu- 
lent. Hyptis membranacea, one of the Brazilian Labiates, attains the 
height of 20 or 30 feet. 

Order 131.—Verprnacea, the Vervain Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx tubular, persistent, inferior. Corolla monopetalous, 
tubular, hypogynous, deciduous, limb usually irregular ; zstivation 
imbricated. Stamens usually 4, didynamous, rarely equal, sometimes 
2, Ovary free, 2-4-celled; ovules usually 4, erect or pendulous, 
anatropal or amphitropal ; style 1, terminal ; stigma bifid or entire. 
Fruit nucamentaceous or baccate, composed of 2 or 4 achzenia united, 
Seeds 1-4; albumen 0 or fleshy ; embryo straight ; radicle either in- 
ferior or superior.—Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs, with opposite or 
alternate, exstipulate leaves. The order has been divided into three 
sub-orders :—1. Myoporinez, anthers 2-celled, seed pendulous, radicle 
superior, seeds albuminous, leaves alternate ; natives of the southern 
parts of America and Africa, and of Australia. 2. Verbenex (fig. 
258, p. 178), anthers 2-celled, seed erect, radicle inferior, seeds exal- 
buminous, leaves opposite ; natives both of the tropical and temperate 
regions of America, and found also in Asia and in Europe. 3. Sela- 
ginee, anthers 1-celled, seed pendulous, radicle superior, seeds albu- 
minous, leaves in alternate fascicles, or sub-opposite, narrow ; natives 
chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope, but some are European. There 
are 75 known genera and upwards of 800 species. Examples—Myo- 
porum, Avicennia, Verbena, Vitex, Tectona, Selago, Globularia. 

Many of the plants of the order are fragrant and aromatic, some 
are bitter, tonic, and astringent, others are acrid. None of them 
occur in the British Pharmacopeeias. Aloysia citriodora, Sweet-scented 
Verbena or Lemon-plant, is commonly cultivated for its fragrance. 
In the leaves Dr. Murchison has noticed peculiar glands containing 
oily matter. The species of Avicennia have adventitious roots like 
the Mangrove. The bark of Avicennia tomentosa is used in Brazil for 
tanning. Tectona grandis is the Teak-tree of India, the wood of which 
is very hard and durable, and is used for shipbuilding. The trunk of 
the tree in Eastern forests sometimes attains a height of two hundred 
feet, and its leaves are twenty inches long by sixteen broad. Cleroden- 
dron leaves when bruised are employed to kill vermin on cattle in India, 
The twigs form toothpicks. Clerodendron Thomson, and its variety 
Balfourianum, are beautiful climbing plants in hot-houses, on account of 
the contrast between their scarlet flowers and white calyx. Myoporum 
platycarpum of Australia exudes a saccharine matter from its stem. 


556 ACANTHACE. 


The fruit of several species of Vitex is acrid and aromatic. Some 
species of Lantana and Stachytarpheta are used for tea. The Vervain 
(Verbena officinalis) was a sacred plant among the Greeks, and received 
the name of fego8ordévy, holy-wort. It was also looked upon by the 
Druids with superstitious reverence. The Verbenas of gardens are 
chiefly varieties of Verbena Chamedrifolia. 

Order 132.—AcantHace®, the Acanthus Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx with 4-5 divisions, equal or unequal, occasionally 
multifid, or entire and obsolete, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, 
hypogynous, usually irregular, with the limb ringent or bilabiate, or 
rarely unilabiate, sometimes nearly equal, deciduous. Stamens in- 
serted on the corolla, usually 2, sometimes 4, didynamous, the shorter 
ones being occasionally sterile ; anthers 1-2-celled, with longitudinal 
dehiscence. Disk glandular. Ovary free, 2-celled ; placentas adher- 
ing to the axis; ovules 2 or more in each cell, curved; style 1; 
stigma 2-lobed, rarely entire. Fruit a 2-celled capsule, dehiscing by 
2 elastic valves, in a loculicidal manner. Seeds 2 or many in each 
cell, sometimes solitary, roundish, attached to hard, persistent, hooked 
or subulate ascending processes of the placenta ; testa loose ; albumen 
0; embryo curved or straight; cotyledons large, leafy; radicle 
cylindrical, next the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or shrubs, with 
opposite, exstipulate, simple leaves, and bracteated flowers; 2 or 3 
large leafy bracts accompanying each flower. They abound in tropical 
regions. The order has been divided into three tribes :—1l. Thun- 
bergiez, with the placental processes in the form of a hard cup, sup- 
porting the seed. 2. Nelsoniez, with the placental processes contracted 
into a papilla, bearing the seed, which is small and pitted. 3. Acan- 
thieze, with the placental processes hooked. There are 168 genera, 
according to authors, and about 1500 species. Hxamples—Thun- 
bergia, Nelsonia, Acanthus, Justicia, Ruellia. 

The plants of the order have mucilaginous and bitter properties 
in general, but they are not put to important uses. The leaves of 
Acanthus mollis, with their sinuated lobes, gave origin to the capital 
of the Corinthian pillar, The plant has emollient qualities. The 
seeds of Acanthodium spicatum have beautiful spiral cells in their 
episperm (page 7). The style of Ruellia (Goldfussia) anisophylla ex- 
hibits a peculiar irritability ; its curved stigmatic apex becoming 
gradually straightened, so as to come into contact with the hairs of 
the corolla upon which the pollen is scattered. A deep-blue dye, 
called Room, is obtained in Assam from a species of Ruellia. A 
similar dye in China is procured from a species of Justicia. Many of 
the species of Justicia, Ruellia, and Aphelandra, are cultivated for their 
showy flowers. Andrographis paniculata, a native of India, is em- 
ployed as a pure bitter tonic, under the name of Kariy4t or Creyat. 
Meninia turgida of Cochin-China has febrifuge properties. 


LENTIBULARIACEAI—PRIMULACEA. 557 


Order 133.—LentTIBULARIACEs, the Butterwort Family. (Mono- 
pet. Hypog.) Calyx inferior, divided, persistent. Corolla monopeta- 
lous, hypogynous, irregular, bilabiate, usually spurred. Stamens 2, 
inserted into the base of the corolla, and included ; anthers monothecal, 
‘sometimes contracted in the middle. Ovary free, composed of 2 car- 
pellary leaves, unilocular ; ovules 00, anatropal ; placenta free, central ; 
style 1, very short; stigma bilamellar. Fruit, a 1-celled capsule, 
dehiscing transversely, or by an apicilar cleft. Seeds numerous, 
minute, exalbuminous; embryo sometimes undivided; radicle next 
the hilum.—Aquatic or marsh herbaceous plants, with radical leaves, 
which are sometimes compound, and bear little bladders or ampullee, 
Flowers often on scapes. They are found in all parts of the world, 
and abound in the tropics. There are 3 genera, including about 130 
Species. ELxamples—Utricularia, Pinguicula. 

The plants of the order have no properties of importance. The 
name of Butterwort, given to the species of Pinguicula, may be de- 
tived from the property of giving consistence to milk. Others say 
that it has reference to the greasy appearance of their foliage, 
Linneus declares that the solid milk of the Laplanders is prepared 
by pouring it warm and fresh from the cow over a strainer on which 
fresh leaves of Pinguicula have been laid. Of the four British species, 
one (P. grandiflora) is peculiar to Ireland, and another (P. alpina) is 
peculiar to Scotland. The leaves, of Pinguiculas secrete a viscid fluid, 
which detains insects. They also curl inwards at the margin (p. 383). 
Utricularias, Bladderworts, are so called on account of the utricles or 
bladders connected with the leaves (p. 100). In the interior of these 
vesicles a mucous fluid is found along with cellular projections in the 
form of hairs. Utricularia nelumbifolia grows in the water which 
-collects-in the bottom of the leaves of a large Tillandsia in Brazil. 
It sends out runners and shoots, and often in this way unites several 
plants of Tillandsia. The leaves are peltate, and more than three 
inches across, while the flowering stem is two feet long. 

Order 134.—Primutacrm, the Primrose Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx 5- rarely 4-cleft (fig. 296, p. 197), inferior or half 
superior, regular, persistent (figs. 785 ¢; 787). Corolla monopetalous 
(fig. 320 p, p. 206), hypogynous (fig. 785), rarely perigynous, with 
the limb 5- rarely 4-cleft, sometimes 0 (fig. 642, p. 367). Stamens 
inserted on the corolla, equal in number and opposite to its segments 
(figs. 784, 785). Ovary free (figs. 785, 786 0), rarely adherent to 
the base of the calyx, 1-celled ; ovules 00, usually amphitropal ; style 
1 (fig. 785 s) ; stigma capitate (fig. 785). Fruit a capsule, opening 
with valves (fig. 787), or with a lid (fig. 554, p. 307). Seeds nume- 
rous, peltate (fig. 788), attached to a free central placenta (fig. 787); 
embryo straight (fig. 790), enclosed within fleshy albumen, and lying 
across the hilum (fig. 789).—Herbaceous plants, with leaves usually 


558 PRIMULACEA, 


opposite, and frequently radical, exstipulate; flowers on simple or 
umbellate scapes. They are natives chiefly of temperate and cold 
regions in the northern hemisphere ; some occur in elevated situations 
in warm countries. Authors notice 20 genera, including 200 species. 
Examples—Primula, Androsace, Soldanella, Glaux, Trientalis, Ana- 
gallis, Samolus. é 
None of the plants of this order occur in the British Pharmacopeeias, 
but few of them have any important medicinal properties. Acridity pre- 
vails more or less in the order, They are cultivated as showy garden 


Fig. 789. Fig. 788. 


Fig. 784. Fig. 785. Fig. 787. Fig. 786. Fig. 790. 


annuals and perennials. All the fine forms of Auricula are derived 
from the yellow Primula Auricula, a native of the Swiss Alps. The 
British species of Primula are P. veris, the Cowslip, the flowers of which 
are said to be narcotic ; P. elatior, the Oxlip ; P. vulgaris, the Primrose ; 
P. farinosa, the Bird’s-eye Primrose; and P. scotica, the Scottish Primrose. 
The garden Polyanthus is a variety of the Primrose. The species of 
Cyclamen, or Sowbread, have large tuberous-like partially subterranean 
stems, with acrid properties, and their English name is derived from 
the circumstance of their being eaten as food by wild boars. In them, 
as well as in the species of Dodecatheon, the petals are reflexed. The 
flowers of the species of Anagallis are meteoric (p. 263), and their 
-seed-vessel is a pyxidium (fig. 554, p. 307). They are said to be 
acrid, and to cause inflammation of the mucous membrane. Anagallis 


Figs. 784-790. Organs of fructification of Primula elatior, illustrating the natural order 
Primulaces. Fig. 784. Diagram of the flower, with five imbricate divisions of the calyx. 
five segments of the corolla, five stamens opposite the corolline segments, and five car- 
pellary leaves, surrounding a free central placenta. Fig. 785. Vertical section of the 
flower. c, Inferior calyx. p, Monopetalous corolla. e, Stamens attached to the corolla, 
o, Superior ovary. s, Style with capitate stigma. Fig. 786. Ovary cut vertically, to show 
the free central placenta covered with ovules. s, Base of the style. Fig. 787. Vertical 
section of the fruit. f, Pericarp. p, Placenta, with numerous seeds, some of which have 
been detached. Fig. 788. Peltate amphitropal seed separated. h, Hilum. Fig. 789. 
Seed cut vertically. t, Integuments (spermoderm). h, Hilum, yp, Fleshy perisperm 
(albumen). e, Transverse embryo lying across the hilum. Fig. 790. Embryo with coty- 
ledons and radicle, 


PLUMBAGINACEAI—PLANTAGINACEZE. 559 


arvensis is called Poor-man’s Weather-glass, or Shepherds’ Weather- 
glass. By Lord Bacon it is called Nincopipe. Trientalis europea is 
the only British plant belonging to the Linnean class Heptandria. 
It is slightly acrid. In Samolus Valerandi, Brook-weed, the calyx is 
partially adherent to the ovary, and in Glaux maritima the corolla is 
abortive, and the calyx becomes coloured (fig. 642, p. 367). 

Order 135.—Piumpacinace®, the Sea-pink Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx tubular,’ persistent, sometimes coloured ; sstivation 
plaited. Corolla monopetalous, or pentapetalous, regular. Stamens 5, 
hypogynous when the corolla is gamopetalous, attached to the base of 
the petals when they are separate. Ovary free, 1-celled ; ovule soli- 
tary, pendulous from a funiculus which arises from the bottom of the 
cell (fig. 517, p. 291) ; styles 5, seldom 3 or 4, each bearing a subu- 
late stigma. Fruit a utricle. Seed pendulous ; spermoderm simple ; 
embryo straight, in the axis of mealy albumen ; radicle superior.— 
Herbs or undershrubs, with alternate or fasciculate exstipulate leaves, 
somewhat sheathing at the base ; flowers panicled or capitate. They 
inhabit the sea-shores and salt marshes chiefly in temperate regions. 
There are two tribes of this order :—1. Plumbaginex, with a syn- 
petalous corolla and connate styles. 2. Statice, with a pentapetal- 
ous corolla and distinct styles. Authors mention 10 genera and 200 
species. Hxamples—Plumbago, Statice, Armeria. 

Some of the plants are acrid, others have tonic qualities. Arme- 
ria maritima, Thrift, or common Sea-pink, grows both on the sea- 
shores and on the top of the highest Scottish mountains. Its inor- 
ganic chemical ingredients are said to vary in these positions (p. 132). 
In Armeria the funiculus curves over the foramen of the ovule in a 
young state, but slips off at the period of fecundation, and allows an 
ovular process to proceed from the exostome towards the placenta. 
In this genus also the scaly bracts unite so as to form an inverted 
cylindrical sheath below the heads or shortened panicles of flowers. 
The root of Statice caroliniana is said to be one of the most powerful 
vegetable astringents. Pluwmbago ewropea has been employed for the 
relief of toothache, and has hence been called Toothwort. Its root is 
so acrid that it is used in Roumelia for causing issues. Administered 
internally in small doses it is said to be as effectual an emetic as 
Ipecacuanha. Some of the species of this genus act as vesicants. 

Order 136.—PLANTAGINACEs, the Ribwort Family. (Monopet. 
Hypog.) Calyx 4-parted, persistent, sestivation imbricate. Corolla 
monopetalous, hypogynous, scarious, persistent, with a 4-parted limb. 
Stamens 4, inserted into the corolla, and alternate with its segments ; 
filaments long, filiform, folded inwards in the bud’; anthers dithecal, 
versatile. Disk inconspicuous. Ovary free, 2-4-celled ; ovules soli- 
tary, or in pairs, or 00; style simple, capillary ; stigma hispid, simple, 
rarely bifid. Fruit an operculate capsule enclosed within the per- 


560 PLANTAGINACEH—NYCTAGINACEA. 


sistent corolla. Seeds sessile, peltate, or erect ; spermoderm mucila- 
ginous; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen, transverse; radicle 
inferior.—Herbs, which are often stemless, with radical ribbed leaves, 
and spiked hermaphrodite flowers, or solitary unisexual ones. The 
species are chiefly found in temperate and cool regions. There are 
3 genera noticed by Lindley, including about 50 species. Examples 
—Plantago, Littorella. 

“The plants of this order are frequently bitter and astringent. 
Their mucilaginous seeds are sometimes used as demulcents. Plantago 
maritima is found both on the sea-shores and on the top of the highest 
mountains in Scotland. Its inorganic constituents are said to differ 
in these localities (p. 132). Plantago major, Way-bred, is said to 
follow the footsteps of man in his migrations. Its spikes are used for 
feeding birds. Sometimes the bractlets become large, and at other 
times they assume a verticillate appearance. The seeds of Plantago 
decumbens, a native of Egypt, N.W. India, and the Canary Islands, 
are used to form a demulcent drink in diarrhea. They are called 
Ispaghtl seeds, or Spogel seeds. 


Sub-class [V.— MonocHLamMyDE&. 


Corolla wanting ; a calyx, or what is called a simple perianth, 
present ; flowers sometimes Achlamydeous. This sub-class includes 
the Apetalous orders of Jussieu, and many of his Diclinous irregular 
orders. It corresponds to the Apetale and Gymnosperme: of Endlicher. 


Section AA—ANGIOSPERMZ. 


Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous plants, having their seeds 
contained in an ovary, and fertilised by the action of the pollen on a 
stigma, It is the Apetalous division of Endlicher’s Acramphibrya. 


Order 137.—Nycracinacea, the Marvel of Peru Family. (Apet. 
Hypog.) Perianth tubular, coloured, contracted in the middle, be- 
coming indurated at the base (fig. 792); limb entire, or toothed and 
deciduous ; eestivation plicate (fig. 791). Stamens definite, hypogy- 
nous (fig. 792 ¢); anthers dithecal (fig. 793). Ovary superior, 1- 
celled ; ovule solitary, erect; style 1; stigma 1 (figs. 792, 794); 
Fruit a caryopsis, enclosed within the enlarged persistent tube of 
the perianth (figs. 537, p. 302; 795, 796). Embryo peripherical 
(figs. 618, p. 341; 796 e); albumen farinaceous ; cotyledons foliace- 
ous ; radicle inferior (figs. 796, 797).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with 
opposite, often unequal, sometimes alternate leaves, and involucrate 
flowers (figs. 791,792). They are natives principally of warm regions. 


NYCTAGINACEA. 561 


Authors notice 19 genera, including 117 species. Hxamples—Mirabilis 
(Nyctago), Boerhaavia, Pisonia. 
The plants of the order have in general purgative qualities. Mira- 


Fig, 791. Fig. 792. Fig. 793, Fig. 794. 


bilis Jalapa was at one time considered the Jalap-plant, in place of 
Exogonium Purga, one of the Convolvulacese. M. dichotoma is the 
Marvel of Peru, which is commonly cultivated in gardens. It is 


Fig. 796. 


called in the West Indies “ four o’clock flower,” on account of opening 
its blossoms at that hour in the afternoon. Some of the species of 
Pisonia present a peculiar arrangement of the vascular bundles of the 
woody stem, which resembles in appearance that of Endogens. 


Figs. 791-797. Organs of fructification of Mirabilis Jalapa, illustrating the natural order 
Nyctaginacez. Fig. 791. Diagram of the flower, with an imbricated involucre, five divi- 
sions of the perianth, five alternate stamens, and a unilocular ovary. Fig. 792. Lower 
part of the flower cut vertically. 7, Involucre. c, Base of the perianth, green and swollen 
around the ovary. ¢, Part of its coloured tube. ¢, Lower part of the filaments. 9s, Part of 
the style. 0, Ovary, with its erectovule. Fig. 793. Stamens, with convex swelling at the 
base of the filaments. Fig. 794. Style and stigma, Fig. 795. Fruit enclosed by the 
persistent and indurated base of the ‘perianth. Fig. 796. The same cut vertically. i, 
Involucre. c, Perianth. jf, Pericarp. , Perisperm. e¢, Curved peripherical embryo, sur- 
rounding mealy albumen. _—‘Fig. 797. Horizontal section of the fruit. ¢, Perianth. ¢, 
Integument of the seed with the pericarp. , Perisperm. 1, Radicle. co, Cotyledons. 


20 


562 AMARANTHACEAI—CHENOPODIACE. 


Order 138.—AMARANTHACES, the Amaranth Family. (Apet. 
Hypog.) Perianth 3-5-partite, hypogynous, scarious, persistent, usually 
with two bractlets at the base. Stamens hypogynous, either 5 and 
opposite the segments of the perianth, or double that number, distinct 
or united, sometimes partly abortive ; anthers either dithecal or mono- 
thecal. Ovary superior, single, 1-celled; ovules solitary or several, 
amphitropal, hanging from a free central funiculus ; style 1, or 0; 
stigma simple or compound. Fruit a utricle or a caryopsis, rarely 
baccate. Seeds lentiform, pendulous ; testa crustaceous ; embryo peri- 
pherical ; albumen farinaceous ; radicle next the hilum.—Herbs and 
shrubs, with simple, opposite, or alternate exstipulate leaves ; flowers 
in heads or spikes, usually hermaphrodite. They are natives of tropi- 
cal and temperate regions. There are 45 known genera and ‘400 
species. ELxamples—Amaranthus, Achyranthes, Celosia, Deeringia, 
Gomphrena. 

The plants are principally mucilaginous and demulcent. Many of 
them are known in cultivation, such as Amaranthus hypochondriacus, 
Prince’s-feather ; A. caudatus, Love-lies-bleeding ; Celosia cristata, 
Cockscomb ; Gomphrena globosa, Globe-amaranth. Amaranthus Blitum, 
A, oleraceus, Chusan Han-tsi, and other species, are used as pot-herbs. 
In the Cockscomb the flowers form at the apex a peculiar crest of 
flattened or fasciated peduncles (fig. 251, p. 174). 

Order 139.—CuENopopiaces, the Goosefoot Family. (Apet. 
Perigyn. and Hypogyn.) Perianth deeply divided, sometimes tubular 
at the base, persistent, without bracts ; estivation imbricate. Stamens 
inserted into the base of the perianth or hypogynous, opposite to its 
segments, and equal to them in number, or fewer (fig. 643, p. 367). 
Ovary single, superior, or sometimes cohering to the tube of the peri- 
anth, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, attached to the base of the cell ; style 
2-4-parted ; stigmas simple. Fruit membranous, indehiscent, enclosed 
in the calyx, sometimes fleshy. Seed erect or resupinate ; embryo 
curved around farinaceous albumen, often like a horse-shoe, or spiral or 
doubled together without albumen ; radicle next the hilum.—Herbs 
or undershrubs, with alternate, sometimes opposite, exstipulate leaves, 
and hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers. They are found in almost 
all parts of the world, but do not abound in the tropics. Most of the 
plants are inconspicuous weeds. There are 70 known genera and 450 
species, Hxamples—Chenopodium, Salicornia, Salsola, Atriplex, Beta, 
Basella. 

Many of the plants of this order are used as esculent pot-herbs, 
such as Spinacia oleracea, Spinage, Beta vulgaris, Beet, and var. cam- 
pestris, Field Beet or Mangold Wurzel, Atriplex hortensis, Garden 
Orach, Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, English Mercury. The seeds of 
the last are used in the manufacture of shagreen. The seeds of Cheno- 
podium Quinoa are used as food in Peru, under the name of petty rice. 


CHENOPODIACEZ—PHYTOLACCACEAX—POLYGONACEH. 563 


The plant grows at a great elevation. Its leaves are used for spinage. 
They contain much starch and oil, combined with a bitter substance 
which appears to reside in the integuments. Chenopodium erosum is 
Australian spinach. C. tomentoswm is the tea plant of Tristan d’Acunha 
and Inaccessible Island. Many of the plants of the order grow in 
salt marshes, and are called Halophytes (@Ag, salt, and gurév, a plant). 
They yield a quantity of soda. Among them may be enumerated 
species of Salicornia, Salsola, Halimocnemis, and Kochia. Beet-root 
yields a large quantity of sugar. Ambrina anthelmintica yields a vola- 
tile oil, which is used in the cure of worms. Anabasis Ammodendron, 
Saxaul, is a peculidr leafless shrub of Khiva. Some of the Chenopo- 
diums have a very fetid odour. The genus Atriplex has polygamous 
flowers, and was placed by Linneus in his class Polygamia. 

Order 140.—PuytoLaccacza, the Phytolacca Family. (Apet. 
Perigyn.) Perianth 4-5-partite. Stamens usually perigynous, inde- 
finite, or equal to the segments of the perianth, and alternate with 
them. Ovary of 1 or several carpels, distinct or combined ; ovule 1 
in each carpel, ascending or erect ; styles equal to the carpels in number, 
terminal or lateral; stigmas simple or divided. Fruit fleshy and dry, 
indehiscent, sometimes samaroid. Seeds solitary, erect or ascending ; 
embryo straight or curved; albumen mealy or 0; radicle next the 
hilum.—Undershrubs or herbs, with alternate, entire leaves, which are 
often dotted. They are natives both of tropical and warm countries, 
and are found in America, Asia, and Africa. The order has been 
divided into two tribes :—1. Phytolacceze, with ascending seeds, em- 
bryo curved round mealy albumen, and exstipulate leaves. 2. Peti- 
veriex, with an erect seed, exalbuminous straight embryo, and stipulate 
leaves. There are 20 known genera, including about 84 species. Zz- 
amples—Phytolacca, Rivina, Petiveria. 

There is frequently much acridity in the plants of this order, and 
some of them act as irritant emetics and purgatives. The succulent 
fruit of Phytolacca decandra, common Poke, yields a red juice. It has 
been used as a remedy in cases of chronic syphilitic pains, and it pos- 
sesses also emetic and purgative qualities. The plant is said to yield 
much potash. Petiveria alliacea is the Guinea-hen-weed, so called on 
account of these animals being fond of it. 

Order 141.— Potyconacr#, the Buckwheat Family. (Apet. 
Hypog. and Perigyn.) Perianth inferior (fig. 798 ¢c), divided, often 
coloured ; sestivation imbricate (fig. 799). Stamens definite, inserted 
into the bottom of the perianth (fig. 798, ee, et) ; anthers with longi- 
tudinal dehiscence. Ovary free (fig. 798 0), usually formed by 3 car- 
pels, unilocular ; ovule solitary, orthotropal (fig. 454, p. 254) ; styles 
and stigmas equal to the carpels in number (fig. 798 s). Fruit a nut, 
usually triangular, naked or covered by the persistent perianth (fig. 
295, p. 196). Seed erect; albumen farinaceous ; embryo antitropal, 


564 POLYGONACEA. 


generally on one side (fig. 800), sometimes in the axis of the albumen ; 
radicle superior (fig. 800)—Herbaceous, rarely shrubby plants, with 
alternate, stipulate, or exstipulate leaves, and often unisexual flowers. 
They are found in almost all parts of the world, more especially in the 
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. They grow in fields, 
waste-grounds, ditches, mountains, etc. ‘The order has been divided 


Fig. 798. 
into two tribes :—1. Polygonex, with loose flowers, embryo usually 
abaxial (fig. 617, p. 341), ochreate stipules (fig. 147, p. 82). 2. 
Eriogonez, with involucrate flowers, embryo axial, leaves generally 
exstipulate. Authors enumerate 33 genera, including 500 species. 
Examples—Polygonum, Rumex, Rheum, Eriogonum. 

The plants of this order have astringent and acid properties ; some 
of them are purgative, and a few are acrid. Their astringency depends 
on the presence of tannin, and their acidity chiefly on oxalic acid. 
The root (or rhizome) of Polygonum Bistorta, Bistort, so called on 
account of its double twist, contains much tannin, some gallic acid, 
and starch, and is a powerful astringent. The leaves of P. Hydropiper, 
Water-pepper, are acrid and vesicant. P. tinctoriwm yields a blue dye. 
The fruit of P. aviculare is emetic and purgative. P. cymoswm, on the 
Himalaya, is used as spinach, under the name of Pullop-bi. P. 
Sieboldt, in Japan, supplies a green crop for cattle. The fruit of Fago- 
pyrum esculentum, F. tataricum, and other species of Buckwheat, are 
used as food. The plants are cultivated in some northern countries. 
The leaves of Rumex acetosa, Common Sorrel, and of &. Acetosella, 
Sheep’s Sorrel, are acid and astringent. The roots of Rumex aquaticus, 
Water Dock, R. Hydrolapathum, Great Water Dock, and of other 
species, are used as astringents and alteratives, while those of R&. 


Figs. 798-800. Organs of fructification of Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonum Fagopy- 
rum), to illustrate the natural order Polygonacez.. Fig. 798. Vertical section of the 
flower. cc, Perianth. ¢e, Outer stamens, which are introrse. ci, Inner stamens, which 
are extrorse.- a, Glandular appendages. 0, Ovary with its erect ovule, g. s, Styles and 
stigmas. Fig. 799. Diagram of the flower, showing five divisions of the imbricate 
perianth, stamens opposite the divisions, with glands and triangular unilocular ovary. 
Fig. 800. Seed cut vertically, showing the embryo with its superior radicle curved at one 
side of mealy albumen. 


POLYGONACEAS. 565 


alpinus, under the name of Monk’s-rhubarb, were formerly employed 
as purgatives. One of the most important plants of the order is the 
Rhubarb-plant. The officinal Rhubarb is the root of Rhewm officinale 
of Baillon. It was discovered in south-eastern Thibet, and it is also 
said to grow in various parts of western and north-western China, 
whence the supplies of Rhubarb are derived. The extent of country 
from which Rhubarb of one kind or another is actually collected, 
according to Christison, stretches from Ludak, in 774° east longitude, 
to the Chinese province of Shen-si, 29° farther east, and from the 
Sue-chan mountains, in north latitude 26°, nearly to the frontiers of 
Siberia, 24° northward. The best Rhubarb is said to come from the 
very heart of Thibet, within 95° east longitude and 35° north lati- 
tude, five or six hundred miles north of Assam. The following are 
the species of Rheum said to yield Rhubarb :— 


. Rhewm officinale, Baillon, the true officinal rhubarb-plant. 

. Rheum palmatum, L. At one time considered the rhubarb-plant. 

. Rheum undulatum, L., which yields much of the French rhubarb. 

Rheum compactum, L. Another species yielding French rhubarb, and 
often cultivated in Britain for its acid petioles. 

Rheum Emodi, Wall. This species yields a kind of Himalayan rhubarb. 
Its petioles are used for their acid properties. 

. Rheum rhaponticum, L. Used in France and Britain in the same way as 

the fourth species. 

. Rheum hybridum, Murr. Much cultivated in Germany for its root, and 

in Britain for its stalks. 3 

. Rheum Webbianum, Royle. A Himalayan species. 

. Rheum spiciforme, Royle. Another Himalayan species. 

10. Rheum Moorcroftianum, Royle. Another Himalayan species. 

ll. Rheum crassinervium, Fisch. A Russian species. 

12. Rheum leucorhizum, Pall. A Siberian and Altai species, said to yield 

imperial or white rhubarb. 
13. Rheum Caspicwm, Fisch. A Caspian and Altai species. 
14, Rheum Ribes, L. An Affghanistan and Persian species. 


All these species grow in the cold parts of the world, as on the Altai 
mountains, in Siberia, Thibet, North of China, and on the Himalayan 
range. The rhubarb procured from one or more of these species is 
known in commerce under the names of Russian or Turkey, Chinese 
or East Indian, and English rhubarb. Rhubarb contains raphides of 
oxalate of lime (p. 11), along with tannin, gallic acid, resin, and a 
peculiar yellow-coloured principle called rhabarberin, which seems to 
be identical with chrysophanic acid. Raphides form from 35 to 40 
per cent of Turkey rhubarb, and give rise to its grittiness. These 
crystals are less abundant in the other varieties of rhubarb. Rhubarb 
is employed medicinally as a cathartic, astringent, and tonic, in the 
form of powder, pill, extract, tincture, wine, and infusion. The stalks 
of Rheum nobile are eaten in Sikkim, Coccoloba wifera, Seaside-grape, 
so called from the appearance of its fruit, yields an astringent sub- 
stance called Jamaica Kino. 


m0 NM OD MO PWDH 


566 BEGONIACEA—LAURACEA. 


Order 142.—Brcontacea, the Begonia Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Perianth coloured, having usually 4 divisions in 
the male flowers, and 5 or 8 in the female, some being smaller than 
others ; estivation imbricate. Stamens 00, distinct, or united into 
a solid column; anthers collected in a head, dithecal, with a thick 
connective and longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary adherent to the tube 
of the perianth, winged, 3-celled, with three placentas meeting in the 
axis ; ovules 00, anatropal; stigmas 3, sessile, 2-lobed, somewhat 
spirally twisted. Fruit a membranous, triangular, winged capsule, 
dehiscing below in a loculicidal manner. Seeds 00, minute ; testa thin 
and reticulated ; albumen 0; embryo oblong; radicle next the hilum. 
—Semi-succulent, herbaceous plants and undershrubs, with alternate 
oblique leaves, having large scarious stipules. They are sometimes 
called Elephant’s-ear, from the form of the leaves. They are natives 
of warm countries, as the East and West Indies, and South America. 
The stomata on the lower side of the leaves of many of the species of 
Begonia are arranged in clusters, and exhibit a beautiful appearance 
under the microscope. ‘Their leaves and young stems are acid, and 
have been used for tarts. Their roots are astringent and slightly 
bitter. Begonia obliqua is said to have purgative roots, and it is some- 
times called wild rhubarb. Begonias have a great tendency to become 
viviparous. B. gemmipara of the Himalaya has gemme in the axils 
of the stipules. There are 42 genera and 170 known species. Ezx- 
amples—Begonia, Casparya. 

Order 143.— Lauracea, the Laurel Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth with 4 or 6 divisions, which are usually in 2 rows (figs. 
801, 802), the limb sometimes obsolete ; eestivation imbricate (fig. 802). 
Stamens perigynous, definite, often twice as many as the divisions of 
the perianth, and arranged usually in two rows; those of the inner 
row (often three) being frequently sterile (staminodia), (fig. 803 ¢s). 
while those of the outer (often six in number) are fertile (figs. 802, 
803 ef); if the inner stamens are fertile they are extrorse, while the 
outer are introrse ; filaments of the inner row often with glands at 
their base (figs. 357, p. 222; 8049); anthers 2-4-celled, cells open- 
ing by longitudinal valves (figs. 357, p. 222; 805). Ovary superior, 
unilocular (fig. 803 0) ; ovule ‘solitary, pendulous (fig. 803); style 
simple; stigma obtuse (fig. 803 s). Fruit baccate- or drupaceous, 
naked, or covered by the enlarged perianth (fig. 806) ; peduncle of the 
fruit sometimes becoming fleshy. Seed solitary, pendulous ; albumen _ 
0; embryo inverted (fig. 807 ¢); cotyledons large, plano-convex, pel- 
tate near the base ; radicle very short, superior ; plumule conspicuous 
—Trees, with exstipulate, alternate, rarely opposite leaves ; sometimes 
twining, parasitic, and leafless herbs or undershrubs. They are natives 
chiefly of the tropical regions of Asia and America. Few are found 
in Africa. The order has been divided into two sub-orders :—1. 


LAURACEA. 567 


' 


Laurez, true Laurels, trees with leaves. 2. Cassythex, Dodder-laurels, 
climbing parasitic plants without leaves. There are 56 known genera 
and 470 species, Examples—Laurus, Cinnamomum, Persea, N ectandra, 
Tetranthera, Cassytha. : 

a 


ig. 804. Fig. 805. 


The plants of this order are in general aromatic and fragrant. 
Many of them yield volatile and fixed oils, others furnish camphor, 
and others have bitter and tonic barks. Some supply useful timber. 
Laurus nobilis is the Victor’s-laurel, the leaves of which were used to 
crown the conquerors in battle and in the Olympic games. It is 
probably the ns, Herach, of the Bible. It is often called Sweet-bay, 
and is quite distinct from the common Bay, or Cherry-laurel (Cerasus 
Lauro-cerasus), both as regards structure and properties. It does not 
yield any hydrocyanic acid. The leaves and fruit are used medicinally 
as aromatic stimulants. The leaves contain a volatile oil, and the dark- 
coloured fruit yields, by expression, an odoriferous concrete oil of a 


Figs. 801-807. Organs of fructification of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Laurus Cinnamomum), 
to illustrate the batural order Lauracex. Fig. 801. Flower entire, with 6-divided peri- 
anth. Fig. 802. Diagram of the flower, with six imbricate divisions of the perianth ; 
stamens in two rows, the outer six introrse, the inner three extrorse ; glandular disk, and 
unilocular ovary. Fig. 803. The flower cut vertically. c, The perianth. ef, Fertile 
outer stamens with valvular introrse dehiscence, es, Sterile inner stamens with glandular 
bodies. 0, Monothecal ovary with pendulous ovule. s, Style and obtuse stigma. Fig. 804. 
Stamen separated. /, Filament with two glandular bodies, gg, at its base. a, Anther 
with valves. Fig. 805. Anther viewed separately, showing its mode of dehiscence from 
below upwards by four longitudinal valves. Fig. 806. Fruit, which is succulent and 
partially enclosed in the persistent perianth. Fig. 807. The fruit deprived of the peri- 
anth, and cut vertically. p, Pericarp. t, Integument of the seed. e, Embryo, 


568 LAURACES. 


green colour, called Oil of Bays. Ati is the only species found in Europe 
in a wild state. Camphora offcinarum (Laurus Camphora), a native 
of China, Japan, and Cochin-China, is the Camphor-tree. Many plants 
supply a kind of Camphor, but the common camphor of the shops 
is the produce chiefly of this tree. All parts of the tree supply it, but 
it is obtained principally from the wood by distillation and subsequent 
sublimation. It is used in medicine as a sedative antispasmodic, in 
the form of mixture and tincture. The Borneo camphor has been 
noticed under the natural order Dipterocarpace: (p. 451). Sassafras 
officinale (Laurus Sassafras) is an American tree, the root, wood, and 
flowers of which have been used in medicine. The root is prescribed 
in Britain as an aromatic stimulant and diaphoretic. It contains a 
volatile oil. A kind of Sassafras oil is procured from Nectandra cym- 
barum (Ocotea amara) on the Casiquiare river in S. America, Cinnamo- 
mum zeylanicum (Laurus Cinnamomum) is the true Cinnamon-tree, 

cultivated in Ceylon. It attains the height of 30 feet. The bark of 
the tree constitutes the cinnamon of commerce, the pro3p, Kinamédn, of 
the Bible. The young twigs about three years old furnish the best 
cinnamon, as first noticed by Sir Robert Christison many years ago. 
The bark yields by distillation an oil, which is at first of a yellow 
colour, but soon assumes a reddish hue. The ripe fruit yields 
a concrete oil, called cinnamon-suet. The root yields camphor. 
Cinnamon is administered as a tonic, stomachic, and carminative. 

The importation of cinnamon into Britain i in 1872 was 1,071,461 lbs. 

The leaves of the Cinnamon-tree are more or less acuminated ; they 
have three principal ribs, which come into contact at its base, but do 
not unite ; its young twigs are not downy, and its leaves have the 
taste of cloves. Cinnamomum Cassia or aromaticum (Laurus Cassiu) 
is doubtfully considered to be the chief source of the Cassia lignea, or 
Cassia-bark of commerce, the mp, Aiddah, of the Bible. It differs 
from the true cinnamon in many particulars. Its leaves are oblong- 
lanceolate ; they have three ribs, which coalesce into one at the base ; 
its young twigs are downy, and its leaves have the taste of cinnamon. 
Cassia-bark is imported from Canton through Singapore. In 1872 
the shipments were 10,195,200 lbs., valued at £267,703. It yields 
a yellow volatile oil called Oil of Cassia. Both the bark and oil are 
administered as aromatic stimulants. It is probable that Cassia buds, 
which consist of the flowet-bud (perianth and ovary), are the produce 
of the Cassia-bark tree. They are chiefly used in confectionery, and 
they have the flavour and pungency of Cassia. Malabar Cassia 
appears to be the produce of another species of Cinnamomum, perhaps 
C. eucalyptoides, Nectandra Rodici, a large tree 60 feet high, found 
in British Guiana, yields a bark known as Bibiru or Bebeeru-bark. 
The wood of the tree is imported for shipbuilding, under the name 
of Green-heart. The bark was used by Dr. Rodie, who detected the 


LAURACEAS—MYRISTICACEA. 569 


existence of an alkaloid called Bebeerine (Bibirine.) Dr. Douglas 
Maclagan obtained it pure, and found along with it another alkaloid 
called Nectandrine. Sulphate of Bebeerine is used as an antiperiodic, 
The cotyledons of the seed contain much starch, and are used for food. 
The cotyledons of WV. Puchury are imported from Brazil under the name 
of Puchurim beans or Sassafras nuts. Persea gratissima (Laurus Persea) 
yields a pear-shaped succulent fruit called Avocado or Alligator-pear, 
or Subaltern’s-butter. It contains a fixed oil, The clove nutmegs 
of Madagascar are produced by Agathophyllum aromaticum, and Bra- 
zilian nutmegs are the produce of Oryptocarya moschata,  Benzoin 
odoriferum is the Spice-wood or Fever-bush of North America. The 
inner bark of Oreodaphne opifera yields a large quantity of volatile oil. 

Order 144..-Myristicacem, the Nutmeg Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Perianth trifid, rarely quadrifid, in the female 
deciduous ; zestivation valvate. Stamens 3-12; filaments combined 
into a cylinder; anthers united or distinct, dithecal, extrorse, 
dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary free, composed of one or more car- 
pels, unilocular ; ovule solitary, erect, anatropal; style very short ; 
stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit succulent, 1-celled, 2-valved. Seed 
solitary, usually covered by a laciniated arillus ; embryo small, ortho- 
tropal, at the base of ruminate albumen; cotyledons foliaceous ; 
radicle inferior.—Trees with alternate, exstipulate, entire, not dotted 
leaves. Natives of the tropical regions of Asia and America. There are 
5 known genera and between 30 and 40 species. Zxample—Myristica. 

Acridity and aromatic fragrance are the properties of the order. 
The most important plant is Myristica officinalis (AL moschata, fragrans, 
or aromatica), a tree attaining a height of 30 feet (50-60 feet in the 
Banda Islands), found in the Moluccas, and cultivated in many tropical 
countries. The fruit is drupaceous, and opens by two valves when 
ripe, displaying the beautiful reticulated scarlet arillus which. consti- 
tutes mace. Within this is a thin, hard, dark-brown, glossy shell, 
covering the kernel, which is the nutmeg of the shops. The tree 
begins to bear when 8 years old, and is in its prime at 25 years, 
and continues to bear fruit until 60 or even 80 years old. A good 
tree will yield annually 2000 fruits. In 1871 the produce of the 
Banda Islands amounted to 1,080,933 lbs. By expression nutmegs 
yield a concrete oil called Adeps Myristicw, or sometimes erroneously 
oil of mace. A volatile oil is also procured by distillation. Mace is 
an arillode or additional covering of the seed commencing at the exos- 
tome (p. 328). It has a fine crimson hue, and yields a fatty matter 
and volatile oil, resembling those of the nutmeg. A variety produces 
ivory-coloured mace. Nutmeg and mace are used medicinally as 
aromatic stimulants and condiments. In large doses they have a 
narcotic effect. The fleshy part of the fruit is used as a preserve. 
The kernels of Myristica tomentosa are also used as aromatics, under 


570 PROTEACEA—ELAAGNACEA:. 


the name of wild or male nutmegs. The bark of many plants of the 
order yields an acrid juice, which is sometimes of a crimson colour. A 
red pigment is furnished by Pyrrhosa tingens. 

Order 145.—Protzacza, the Protea Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth more or less deeply 4-divided ; estivation valvate. Stamens 
perigynous, 4 (1 sometimes sterile), opposite the segments of the 
perianth ; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 
single, superior, unilocular ; ovules single or in pairs, anatropal or 
amphitropal ; style simple ; stigma undivided, discoid. Fruit dehis- 
cent or indehiscent. Seed exalbuminous, sometimes winged ; embryo 
straight ; cotyledons 2 or more; radicle inferior, next the hilum.— 
Shrubs or small trees, with hard, dry, opposite or alternate, exstipulate 
leaves. They are natives principally of Australia and the Cape of 
Good Hope. In general they occur in land unfit for cultivation, 
and seldom attain to a large size. The order has been divided 
into two sections :—1. Nucumentacez, with nucumentaceous indehis- 
cent fruit. 2. Folliculares, with follicular dehiscent fruit. Lindley 
mentions 46 genera, including 654 species. £xamples—Protea, Per- 
soonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Banksia, Dryandra. 

The plants of this order have no medicinal properties of import- 
ance. They present great diversity of appearance, hence the name of 
the order, and they are cultivated for their handsome habit and the 
peculiarity of their flowers. The clustered cone-like heads of the 
flowers of Banksias have a remarkable appearance. In Grevillea the 
style is at first bent downwards, and the discoid stigma is enclosed 
within the upper part of the perianth, where the anthers are placed ; 
but after the pollen has been scattered, the stigma is emancipated, 
and the style rises upwards. The fruit and seeds of a few plants of 
the order are eaten, and the wood is used for economical purposes. 
Guevina Avellana yields nuts, which are sold in Chili under the name 
Avellano, Protea mellifera is called Sugar-bush, on account of the 
honey furnished by its flowers. Leucadendron argenteum is the Silver- 
tree or Witteboom of the Cape. The bark of Protea grandiflora, 
called Wagenboom, is used by the Cape settlers in diarrhea. It 
attains a height of 8-14 feet, and its wood supplies fuel at Simon’s 
Town. Grevillea robusta is called Silver-oak. Macadamia ternifolia 
yields an edible fruit. 

Order 146.—ELa#acnacea, the Oleaster Family. (Apet. Diclin, 
and Perigyn.) Flowers usually unisexual, rarely hermaphrodite. 
Male flowers amentaceous, with 2-4 leaves forming the perianth ; 
stamens 3, 4, or 8; anthers nearly sessile, dithecal, introrse, and 
dehiscing longitudinally. In the female and hermaphrodite flowers, 
perianth tubular, persistent, with an entire or 2-4-toothed limb. 
Disk fleshy. Ovary superior, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, ascending, on a 
short funiculus, anatropal; style short; stigma simple, subulate, 


ELZAGNACEA—PENAACEA—THYMELAACEAS. 571 


glandular. Fruit a crustaceous acheenium, enclosed within the en- 
larged succulent perianth. Seed ascending; embryo straight, sur- 
rounded by thin fleshy albumen ; cotyledons fleshy ; radicle inferior. 
—Trees or shrubs, with alternate or opposite, entire, or exstipulate 
leaves, which are often covered with scurfy scales (fig. 87, p. 32). 
They are found in all parts of the northern hemisphere. They have 
no marked medicinal properties. The fruit of some is eaten. Hippo- 
phaé rhamnoides, Sea Buckthorn, is furnished with sharp spines, and 
forms a good hedge near the sea. Its fruit is eaten, and has been 
used as a preserve, although it is said: by some to have narcotic quali- 
ties. The plant yields a yellow dye. The fruit of Elwagnus parvifolia 
is eaten. Its flowers are highly fragrant, and abound in honey, 
which is esteemed as a remedy for malignant fevers in some parts of 
Europe. There are four known genera and 20 species. Lxamples— 
Elzagnus, Hippophaé. 

Order 147,—Prnzacea, the Sarcocol Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth coloured, salver-shaped, with a 4-lobed limb, and with two 
or more bracts at its base, persistent. Stamens perigynous, either 4 
or 8, alternate with the lobes of the perianth ; anthers dithecal, in- 
trorse. Ovary superior, 4-celled ; ovules usually in pairs, collateral, 
anatropal, ascending or suspended; style simple ; stigmas 4. Fruit a 
4-celled, 4-valved capsule, Seed erect or pendulous ; testa brittle ; 
hilum with a fungus-like aril; nucleus a fleshy mass, without dis- 
tinction of albumen or embryo.—Shrubs, with opposite, entire, ex- 
stipulate leaves. They are found at the Cape of Good Hope. They 
have no known properties of importance. The gum-resin called Sar- 
cocol is said to be produced on the perianth of Penwa Sarcocolla and 
other species. There are two sections of this order :—1. Penxes, 
estivation valvate, stamens 4, connective fleshy, ovules ascending. 
2. Geissolomex, estivation imbricate, stamens 8, connective not 
fleshy, ovules suspended. There are 6 known genera and 21 species. 
Examples—Penzea, Geissoloma. 

Order 148.— TuymeLaacea, the Daphne Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth tubular, coloured, 4- rarely 5-cleft, inferior ; occasionally 
with scales in its orifice ; estivation imbricate. Stamens perigynous, 
definite, often 8, sometimes 4 or 2, and then opposite the segments of 
the perianth ; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 
free, 1-celled ; ovule suspended, anatropal (fig. 462, p. 257); style 
1; stigma undivided. Fruit either nut-like or drupaceous. Seed 
solitary, pendulous ; albumen 0, or thin and fleshy ; embryo straight ; 
cotyledons plano-convex, or somewhat lobed and shrivelled ; radicle 
superior.—Shrubby, rarely herbaceous plants, with alternate, or oppo- 
site, entire, exstipulate leaves. Natives of various parts of the world, 
both in warm and temperate regions, There are two sections of the 
order :—1. Daphnex, with hermaphrodite or rarely unisexual flowers, 


572 THYMELHACEE—AQUILARIACEA—CHAILLETIACES. 


and plano-convex cotyledons, 2. Hernandiex, with polygamous flowers, 
and lobed and shrivelled cotyledons. Authors enumerate 40 genera, 
including 300 species. Hxamples—Daphne (Thymela), Edgeworthia, 
Passerina, Pimelea, Gnidia, Lagetta, Exocarpus, Hernandia, Inocarpus. 
The bark of many of the plants is acrid and irritant, the fruit is 
often narcotic. The bark of the root, as well as that of the branches 
of Daphne Mezereum, Mezereon, is used in decoction as a diaphoretic 
in cutaneous and syphilitic affections. In large doses it acts as an 
irritant poison, causing hypercatharsis ; and, when applied externally, 
it acts as a vesicant. It contains a neutral crystalline principle 
called Daphnein. ‘The succulent fruit is also poisonous. The barks 
of Daphne Gridium, D. alpina, D. Cneorum, D. pontica, and D. Laureola, 
Spurge-laurel, have similar properties. The berries of Daphne Lawreota 
are poisonous to animals (except birds), The bark of Dirca patustris, 
North American Leatherwood, is used for cordage ; its young twigs are 
made into ropes and baskets. It abounds near San Francisco and in 
the valley of the Mississippi. Its fruit is said to be narcotic. The 
bark of many of the plants is made into ropes and paper (fig. 119, p. 
57), The inner bark of Lagetta lintearia (Daphne Lagetta), when cut into 
thin pieces after maceration, assumes a beautiful net-like appearance, 
whence it has received the name of Lace-bark. The bark, young 
leaves, and seeds of Hernandia, are slightly purgative. The seeds of Ino- 
carpus edulis have the taste of chestnuts, and are eaten when roasted. 
Order 149.— AquitaRiacem, the Aquilaria Family. (Apet. 
Perigyn.) Perianth coriaceous, imbricate or tubular, limb 4-5-lobed ; 
eestivation imbricate. Stamens usually 10 fertile, alternating with 10 
sterile, in the form of petaloid scales, sometimes 8 or 5 ; filaments in- 
serted into the orifice of the perianth, often united ; anthers dithecal, 
with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, ovate, compressed, 2-celled ; 
ovules 2, suspended, anatropal; stigma usually sessile, large and 
simple. Fruit a pyriform, sessile, or stipitate 2-valved capsule, or 
drupaceous and indehiscent. Seeds 2, one on each placenta, pen- 
dulous ; albumen 0 ; cotyledons fleshy, hemispherical ; radicle straight, 
superior—tTrees, with alternate or opposite, entire, stalked, and ex- 
stipulate leaves. They are natives of the tropical regions of Asia. 
They have no known medical properties. Agquilarza ovata and Agal- 
lochum furnish a fragrant wood called Eagle-wood, or Aloes-wood. It 
is probably the p*Snx or mbnx, Ahalim or Ahiloth, the trees of Aloes 
or Lign-Aloes, of the Bible, yielding an aromatic perfume. It has 
been considered a cordial by some Asiatic nations, and has been pre- 
scribed in Europe in gout and rheumatism. There are 7 genera 
noticed, including 12 species, Lxcamples—Aquilaria, Gyrinopsis. 
Order 150.— Cuartuettacem, the Chailletia Family. (Apet. 
Perigyn.) Perianth 5-parted, with an incurved valvate sestivation. 
Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, 5 inner fertile opposite 


CHAILLETIACEA—SAMYDACEZ—HOMALIACEA. 573 


the segments of the perianth, 5 outer sterile, petaloid, usually with 
~glands at their base ; anthers ovate, versatile, dithecal. Ovary free, 
2-3-celled ; ovules twin, pendulous ; styles 2-3, distinct or combined ; 
stigmas capitate or obscurely 2-lobed. Fruit dry, 1- 2- or 3-celled. 
Seeds solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous; embryo thick ; cotyledons 
fleshy ; radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs, with alternate, stipulate 
leaves, and axillary peduncles, often cohering to the petiole. They 
are natives of the warm parts of Africa and South America, The 
fruit of Chailletia toxicaria is said to be poisonous ; it is called Rats- 
bane in Sierra Leone. There are 4 genera and 10 species known. 
Examples—Chailletia, Tapura. ; 
Order 151.—Samypacra, the Samyda Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth 4-5-divided, usually coloured inside; estivation somewhat 
imbricate. Stamens inserted into the tube of the perianth, 2, 3, or 
4 times as many as its divisions, either all fertile, or the alternate 
ones sterile, shorter and fringed ; filaments monadelphous at the base ; 
anthers erect, ovate, 2-celled. Ovary free, l-celled; ovules 00, at- 
tached to parietal placentas, semi-anatropal ; style 1, filiform ; stigma 
capitate or slightly lobed. Fruit a coriaceous, unilocular, 3-5-valved 
capsule, partially dehiscent. Seeds 00, fixed irregularly on the pulpy 
inner surface of the valves, with a fleshy arillus and a hollowed 
hilum ; embryo large, in the midst of oily or fleshy albumen ; cotyle- 
‘dons ovate, foliaceous ; radicle pointing to the extremity remote from 
the hilum.—tTrees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, stipulate leaves, 
usually having pellucid, round, or linear markings. Natives of tropi- 
cal regions, chiefly in America. Some of the species of Casearia are 
bitter and astringent. A decoction of the leaves of Casearia Lingua, 
called by the Brazilians Cha de Frade and Lingua de Fin, is also used 
internally in inflammatory disorders and malignant fevers. There 
are 6 known genera and 82 species. Examples—Samyda, Casearia. 
Order 152.—Homatiacz#, the Homalia Family. (Apet. Perigyn.) 
Perianth funnel-shaped, with 5 to 15 divisions, and having usually 
alternating petaloid segments, and glands or scales in front of the 
outer divisions. Stamens perigynous, either single or in parcels of 3 
or 6, alternating with the outer divisions of the perianth; anthers 
dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary partly adherent to the 
tube of the perianth, 1-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal, pendulous, 
attached to 2, 3, or 5 parietal placentas ; styles 3-5, simple, filiform, 
or subulate. Fruit either baccate or capsular. Seeds small, ovate ; 
embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen, cotyledons leafy; radicle 
superior—Trees or shrubs, with alternate leaves, having deciduous 
stipules. Many look upon the petaloid divisions of the perianth as 
true petals, Lindley puts this order in his Cactal alliance, and con- 
siders it as allied to Loasacee; others include it in Samydacee. It 
contains tropical plants, which do not possess any important properties. 


574 SANTALACEA—LORANTHACEA,. 


Authors mention 9 genera, including 32 species. £xamples— Homa- 
lium, Nisa. 

Order 153.— SantaLaces, the Sandal-wood Family. (Apet. 
Epigyn.) Perianth superior, 4-5-cleft ; estivation valvate. Stamens 
4.5, opposite the segments of the perianth, and inserted into their 
bases. Ovary coherent, 1-celled ; ovules 1-4, pendulous from the apex 
of a central placenta; style 1; stigma often lobed. Fruit nut-like or 
drupaceous, Seed solitary; embryo minute, in the axis of fleshy 
albumen ; radicle superior.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate or 
nearly opposite exstipulate leaves. Found in various parts of the 
world, as Europe, Asia, America, and New Holland. Authors 
give 20 genera, including 200 species. Examples—Santalum, Osyris, 
Thesium. ; 

Some are astringent, others yield fragrant wood. Santalum album, 
and other Indian and Polynesian species, yield Sandal-wood, which is 
used both medicinally and as a perfume. Some think the Almug or 
Algum trees of the Bible are Santalum album, while others refer them 
to Pterocarpus santalinus, the Red Sandal-wood of India (p. 480). The 
seeds of some of the plants of the order are eaten. The species of 
Thesium seem to be root-parasites. The large seeds of Pyrularia oleifera, 
Buffalo-tree, or Oil-nut, yield a fixed oil. Santalum Persicari is a 
dwarf kind of Australian Sandal-wood. The bark of the root fur- 
nishes an amylaceous food. 

Order 154.—LoranTHAces, the Mistleto Family. (Apet. or Mono- 
pet. Epigyn.) Calyx arising from a tube, or rim, which some regard as 
an expansion of the pedicel, often bracteated. Petals (or according to 
others, sepals) 4-8, distinct, or more or less united ; eestivation valvate. 
Stamens equal in number to the petals, and opposite to them ; fila- 
ments more or less united to the petals ; anthers 1- 2- or many-celled 
(p. 222). Ovary unilocular, adherent to the calycine tube or the ex- 
panded pedicel ; ovules with a naked nucleus, erect or suspended (figs. 
450, 451, p. 253); style filiform or 0; stigma simple. Fruit succu- 
lent, crowned by the calyx, 1-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous; em- 
bryo straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons either minute 
or numerous ; radicle superior.—Shrubs usually parasitical, with oppo- 
site or alternate, fleshy exstipulate leaves. Many of the plants have 
showy flowers, which hang from the trunks and branches of trees in 
the equinoctial parts of Asia and America. Some occur in temperate 
regions. Genera, 13; species, about 450. Examples—Loranthus, 
Viscum, Myzodendron. 

Disputes have taken place as to the structure of the flowers in 
this order, some considering the petals as being in reality sepals, and 
regarding the calycine rim as being an expansion of the pedicel only. 
The wood of some of the plants is arranged in separate wedges, and 
their vessels are either annular or scalariform. The fruit contains a 


LORANTHACEA—ARISTOLOCHIACEZ. 575 


viscid matter, like bird-lime, by means of which the seeds adhere to 
trees. The seeds in germinating send their radicles into the plant to 
which they are attached, and grow afterwards as true parasites, select- 
ing certain chemical ingredients in preference to others. The bark is 
usually astringent. Griffith has carefully described the nature of the 
parasitism of those plants. He states that in Loranthus the ripe seeds 
adhere firmly to the substance on which they are applied by means of 
their viscid coating, which hardens into a transparent glue. In two 
or three days after application, the radicle curves towards its support, 
and as soon as it reaches it, becomes enlarged and flattened. By 
degrees a union is established between the woody system of the para- 
site and stock, after which the former lives exclusively on the latter, 
the fibres of the sucker-like root of the parasite expanding on the 
wood of the support. Before this occurs the parasite is nourished by 
its own albumen, which is gradually absorbed. ‘“‘ As soon as the 
young parasite has acquired the height of one or two inches, when an 
additional supply of nourishment is perhaps required, a lateral shoot 
is sent out, which is, especially towards the point, of a green colour. 
This at one, or two, and subsequently at various points, adheres to the 
support by means of sucker-like productions, which are precisely 
similar in structure and mode of attachment to the original seminal 
one.” The fibres of the parasite never penetrate beyond their original 
attachment ; in the adult the sucker-bearing shoots frequently run to 
a considerable distance. “I have seen,” says Mr. Griffith, “such 
shoots which had taken their course along a decayed branch become 
replaced, and return in quest, as I may express it, of a part capable of 
affording some nourishment.” Viscum album, Mistleto, was called by 
the Druids the Mistleto of the Oak, on which, however, it is rarely 
found parasitic. It grows well on the apple-tree. The formation of 
the ovule in the Mistleto, according to Schleiden, is described at 
p. 253. Loranthus tetrandrus is used in Chili to dye black. 

Order 155.—AnrisToLocHiace&, the Birthwort Family. (Apet. 
Epigyn.) Perianth adherent, tubular, 3-cleft (fig. 809), regular, or 
sometimes very irregular (fig. 808) ; zestivation valvate or induplicate. 
Stamens 6-12, epigynous, distinct or gynandrous (fig. 811). Ovary 
inferior, 3-6-celled (figs. 810, 812); ovules 00 (fig. 810), anatropal, 
horizontal ; style simple, short; stigmas radiating, 3-6 (fig. 811 s). 
Fruit dry or succulent, 3-6-celled (fig. 813). Seeds (fig. 814) numer- 
ous ; embryo very minute, at the base of fleshy albumen (fig. 815) ; 
cotyledons inconspicuous ; radicle next the hilum (fig. 816).—Herbs 
or shrubs, often climbing, with alternate, simple, often stipulate leaves, 
and solitary axillary flowers. Found in abundance in the warm regions 
of South America, and growing also in the temperate and cold regions 
of Europe, Asia, and America. There are 5 known genera and 180 
species. Hxamples—Asarum, Aristolochia. 


576 ARISTOLOCHIACE. 


The plants of the order are generally bitter, tonic, and stimulant. 
Some are acrid, and act as emetics. The leaves of Asarum curopeum 
are used as an acrid emetic under the name of Asarabacca. The roots 
appear to have greater activity than the leaves. The powdered root 


Fig. 810. 


Fig. $12. Fig. 813. Fig. 816. 


and leaves enter into the composition of cephalic snuffs, which cause 
sneezing by their irritation, and are used in cases of headache and 
ophthalmia. An active crystalline substance, called Asarin, exists in 
the plant. Asarum canadense, Wild Ginger, or Canada Snake-root, is 
used as a spice in Canada. The shrubby species of Aristolochia have 


Figs. 808-816.— Organs of fructitication of Aristolochia Clematitis, to illustrate the natu- 
ral order Aristolochiacez. Fig. 808. Flower entire, consisting of an inferior ovary, and a 
superior, irregular, funnel-shaped perianth. o, Part of the perianth adherent to the ovary. 
t, Part of the tube of the perianth, with a swollen portion at the base, enclosing the anthers 
and stigma. 1, Limb of the perianth prolonged laterally in a tongue-like form. Fig. 
809. Diagram of the flower, showing three divisions of the perianth, six anthers, and six 
cells of the ovary. Fig. 810. Lower part of the flower cut vertically. o, Ovary with 
numerous ovules, s, Radiating stigma. a, Anthers. c, Swollen part of the tube of the 
perianth. Fig. 811. s, Stigma with the anthers adhering to the column in pairs. 0, Sum- 
mit of the ovary. c, Swollen part of the tube of the perianth. Fig. 812. Horizontal sec- 
tion of the six-celled ovary. Fig. 813. Ripe fruit. Fig. 814, Angular seed. Fig. $15. 
Seed cut vertically. t, Integument thickened near the chalaza. ‘p, Fleshy perisperm. ¢, 
Minute embryo. Fig. 816. Embryo separated, with cotyledons and radicle. 


BALANOPHORACEZ —CYTINACEA—RAFFLESIACE. 577 


a peculiar arrangement of vascular bundles in their wood. There are 
no concentric zones, but a number of separable wedges (p. 60). The 
name of Birthwort, given to Aristolochias, depends on their supposed 
action on the uterus, Some of them are used as emmenagogues. The 
root of Aristolochia Serpentaria, Virginian Snake-root, is a stimulant 
tonic. The plant is a native of the United States. It was formerly 
used as an antidote to snake-poison. It is now employed occasionally 
as a tonic diaphoretic. Aristolochia longa, rotunda, and Clematitis, 
were celebrated in ancient times as uterine remedies. The roots of 
many of the species have a strong aromatic taste. Those of ‘Aristo- 
lochia anguicida are said to stupify snakes. 

Order 156.—BaLanoPHoraces, the Balanophora Order. (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers usually unisexual, male flowers conspicuous, with an 
entire or 3-5-lobed perianth ; estivation valvate ; stamens usually 
3-5, distinct or united. Female flowers minute, with a superior peri- 
anth, sometimes bilabiate ; ovary 1-celled ; styles 2 ;.ovule solitary, 
pendulous. Fruit a 1-celled, l-seeded nut. Seed albuminous ; em- 
bryo amorphous and lateral. Root-parasites, without leaves, and 
having peculiar fungus-like stems, bearing spikes of flowers, which are 
either on naked or scaly peduncles. Hooker considers the order as 
allied to Halorageaceze.—The plants grow on the roots of Dicotyle- 
donous trees, chiefly on the Andes and Himalayas. Some are found 
in Africa and Australia. Some of the plants are astringent, and have 
been employed as styptics. Cynomorium coccineum, commonly known 
as Fungus melitensis, grows in Malta and Sardinia, and was long cele- 
brated for arresting hemorrhage. Genera, about 15; species, 37. 
Examples—Balanophora, Cynomorium, Sarcophyte, Helosis. 

Order 157.—Cyzinacz#, the Cistus-rape Family.  (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers perfect, or moncecious ; perianth 3-6-parted, supe- 
rior ; anthers sessile, opening by longitudinal dehiscence ; ovary 1- 
celled ; ovules numerous, attached to parietal placentas. Fruit suc- 
culent, unilocular. Seeds embedded in pulp, with or without albu- 
men ; embryo amorphous Root-parasites, having a fyngus-like aspect, 
with the flowers either solitary or in clusters at the end of scaly 
peduncles. They are parasitic upon the roots of Cistus, some suc- 
culent Euphorbiacez, and other plants. They are found in the south 
of Europe and in Africa. Cytinus hapooistig is said to contain gallic 
acid. Genera, 4; species, 7. Examples—Cytinus, Hydunora. 

Order 158. — Rarruzsiacea, the Rafflesia Family.  (Apet. 
Diclin.) Perianth 5-10-parted with a ring or a circle of scales (calli) 
on the throat; anthers 2- or many-celled, distinct or united, with 
porose dehiscence, and supported on a column ; ovary l-celled, with 
parietal placentas, to which numerous ovules are attached. Fruit inde- 
hiscent, Seeds with or without albumen ; embryo a uniform undivided 
body.—Parasitic on species of Cissus, in the East Indies, and on legu- 

2P 


578 NEPENTHACEAI—DATISCACEA, 


minous plants in South America. The species of Raffesia are gigantic 
parasites, the perianth being sometimes three feet in diameter, and 
capable of holding twelve pints of fluid. Raflesia Patma is em- 
ployed in Java as an astringent and styptic. The flower of 2. 
Arnoldi sometimes weighs more than 14 lbs. It is parasitic on the 
roots of Cissus angustifolia. Genera, 4; species, 16. Examples— 
Rafflesia, Sapria, Brugmansia, 

Order;159. Nepentuaces, the Pitcher-plant Family. (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers dicecious. Perianth 4-parted, inferior ; zestivation 
imbricated. Male flowers: stamens united in a solid central column ; 
anthers about 16, forming a sphericalihead, extrorse, and with longi- 
tudinal dehiscence. Female flowers: ovary free, four-cornered, 4- 
celled ; ovules 00; stigma sessile. Fruita 4-celled, 4-valved capsule, 
with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00, ascending, very minute, fusi- 
form, with a loose testa ; nucleus less than the seed, suspended by 
the chalaza; embryo in the midst of fleshy albumen; cotyledons 
plano-convex ; radicle pointing to the hilum.—Herbs, or half-shrubby 
plants, with alternate leaves, slightly sheathing at the base, having a 
foliaceous petiole, which forms an ascidium at its extremity, with the 
lamina in the form of a lid (fig. 200, p. 95). Natives of swampy 
ground in the East Indies and China. The greater part are found in 
Borneo and the Malay Archipelago, one in India, one in Ceylon, one 
in Madagascar, one in the Seychelles, one in tropical Australia, Ne- 
penthes Wardit of Percival Wright is found in the Seychelles, on ex- 
posed mountain peaks, at a height of 2500 feet. N. Kennedyana is the 
tropical Australian species. They have no known properties. The 
pitchers have been found to contain in solution salts of potash, soda, 
lime, or magnesia, as well as malic and citric acid. Spiral vessels 
abound in all parts of the pitcher plants ; and the woody bundles are 
without concentric zones. Genus, 1; species, 30. Hxample— 
Nepenthes. ; 

Order 160.—Datiscace#, the Datisca Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Male flowers: perianth 3-4-divided. Stamens 
3-7; anthers linear, membranous, dithecal, with longitudinal dehi- 
scence. Female flowers: perianth adherent, 3-4-toothed. Ovary 
inferior, unilocular ; ovules 00, anatropal, attached to 3 or 4 parietal 
placentas ; styles as many as the placentas. Fruit a 1-celled capsule, 
opening at the apex. Seeds 00, strophiolate, with a reticulated sper- 
moderm ; albumen 0; embryo straight ; cotyledons very short ; radicle 
pointing to the hilum.— Herbaceous branched plants or trees, 
with alternate exstipulate leaves. They are scattered over North 
America, various parts of Asia, and the south-eastern part of Europe. 
Some of the plants are said to be bitter, and others, as Datisca canna- 
bina, have purgative qualities. Lindley mentions 3 genera and 4 
species. Hxamples—Datisca, Tetrameles, Tricerastes. 


EMPETRACEA—EUPHORBIACEA. 579 


Order 161.—Emprrracea, the Crowberry Family. (Apet. 
Dickin.) Flowers unisexual. Perianth bud-like, consisting of per- 
sistent imbricated scales, in 2 or 4 alternating rows, the inner row 
often petaloid. Male flowers: stamens 2-3, equal in number to the 
scales in each row, and alternating with the innermost, hypogynous ; 
anthers roundish, dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Female 
flowers: ovary free, seated on a fleshy disk, 3- 6- or 9- celled ; ovules 
solitary, anatropal, ascending ; style 1; stigma with as many radii as 
there are ovarian cells. Fruit a nuculanium, seated within the per- 
sistent perianth, with 2 or more 1-seeded pyrenes. Seeds solitary in 
each nucule, ascending; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen; 
radicle inferior.—Heath-like shrubs, with alternate or somewhat ver- 
ticillate, evergreen, exstipulate leaves. They inhabit chiefly Europe 
and North America, By some this order is placed in an alliance with 
Celastraceze, Aquifoliaceze, and Olacacee. The order has also some 
affinity with Ericacee. The fruit of some is slightly acid. Hmpetrum 
nigrum, the black Crowberry, is common on the mountainous and 
northern parts of Europe. The fruit is watery, and very slightly. 
acid and astringent. Genera, 3; species, 4. ZExvamples—Empetrum, 
Corema. 

Order 162.—EvupuHorpiacem, the Spurge Family. (Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual, sometimes enclosed within an involucre (fig. 817). 
Perianth lobed, inferior (figs. 346 c¢, p. 218; 349 c, p. 219), with 
various glandular or petaloid, scaly, internal appendages (figs. 346 p a, 
p. 218 ; 439, p. 248); sometimes the flowers are naked (fig. 818). 
Male flowers (fig. 817 fm fm): stamens definite or 00, distinct (fig. 
818) or monadelphous (fig. 346, 1, p. 218), or polyadelphous (fig. 349, 
p. 219); anthers bilocular (fig. 362, p. 223 ; fig. 358, p. 222), some- 
times with porous dehiscence (fig. 355, p. 222). Female flowers 
(figs. 439 f f, p. 248; 817): ovary free, sessile or stalked, 1-2-3- or 
many-celled (fig. 819); ovules solitary or twin, suspended ;: styles 
equal in number to the cells (figs. 346, 2, p. 218 ; 819 s), distinct or 
combined, sometimes 0 ; stigmas several, or 1 with several lobes. 
Fruit usually tricoccous (figs. 543, p. 304; 549, p. 305), with the 
cocci separating in an elastic manner, and opening by 2 valves (figs. 
820, 821), or indehiscent and fleshy. Seeds solitary (fig. 822) or in 
pairs, suspended, often arillate (fig. 549 g g, p. 305); embryo en- 
closed in fleshy albumen (fig. 579, p. 329); cotyledons flat (fig. 605, 
p. 339) ; radicle superior (fig. 823).—Trees, shrubs, and herbs, often 
abounding in acrid milk, with opposite or alternate, often stipulate 
leaves, sometimes none. Some look on this order as apetalous, with 
a tendency to develop a corolla, while others consider it polypetalous, 
with a tendency to have the corolla suppresséd. In European plants 
of the order there are usually no petals present, but in those of 
tropical countries the corolla is frequently well marked. In the 


580 EUPHORBIACEA, 


Euphorbias of Britain there is an evident involucre, surrounding a 
number of achlamydeous male and female flowers, which by Linneus 
were looked upon as merely stamens and pistils, and hence the plants 
were put by him in Dodecandria in place of Moneecia (p. 220). 
The flowers in Euphorbiaceze vary much in the number of their parts, 
as may be seen in figs. 644-649, p. 368. Sometimes the general 
penduncle or rachis becomes flattened and leaf-like (fig. 250, p. 178), 
The inflorescence is occasionally amentaceous, as in the division 


le Y : 
Fig, 817. Fig. 818. Fig. 819. 


Scepacee, which is described by some as a distinct order. The plants 
of the order abound in warm regions, especially in Equinoctial 
America, where they occur as trees or bushes, or lactescent herbs, and 
often present the appearance of Cactacese, from which their milky juice 
at once distinguishes them. They are also found in North America and 
in Europe. In Britain there are 3 genera and 17 species. There are 
about 180 known genera and about 3000 species. Examples— 
Euphorbia, Hippomane, Hura, Acalypha, Croton, Jatropha, Ricinus, 
Phyllanthus, Buxus. 

The plants of this order are acrid and poisonous, in some instances 
furnished with stinging hairs. These properties reside especially in 
their milky juices, which are contained in laticiferous vessels (fig. 68, 


Figs. 817-823. Organs of fructification of Euphorbia palustris, to illustrate the natural 
order Euphorbiacez. Fig. 817. Inflorescence, with the involucre, i 7, opened and spread 
out, to show the position of the male and female flowers, which it encloses. g g, Glands 
(glandular lobes) alternating with‘the divisions of the involucre. bb, Membranous amine, 
or bracts, at the base of the flowers. jm, fm, Achlamydeous male flowers, consisting of a 
single stamen, supported on a pedicel, to which it is attached by an articulation. ff, 
Achlamydeous female flower in the centre; the ovary and styles supported on a long 
pedicel. Fig. 818. Achlamydeous male flower separated. 0, Bract. , Pedicel. f, Fila- 
ment articulated witl the pedicel. g, Anther. Fig. 819. Female flower. , Summit of 
the pedicel which supports it. c, A flattened portion of the pedicel, which some call a 
perianth. ov, Tricoccous ovary. s, Styles and stigmas. Fig. 820. One of the cocci 
(carpels), c, separated, and seen on its inner surface. g, The seed seen across the opening 
by which the nourishing vessels enter. Fig. 821. A coccus separated, after dehiscence 
and expulsion of the seed. Fig. 822. Seed separated. Fig. 823. Seed cut vertically. 
t, Integument (spermoderm). p, Perisperm (fleshy albumen). ¢, Embryo with flat_cotyledons 
and a superior radicle. 


EUPHORBIACEA. 581 


p. 21), in which the movements of Cyclosis were observed by Schultz 
(p. 146). In many cases the elaborated sap contains caoutchouc 
and resin. The acrid ‘properties of the order are also found in the 
sii many of which yield oils, both of a bland and of ay irritating 
nature. ; 

The milky juice of many species of Euphorbia is caustic, and has 
been used for destroying warts and causing vesication. At other 
times the juice has been used for its purgative and emetic properties. 
The root of Euphorbia Ipecacuanha has been employed as a substitute 
for Ipecacuan. The resinous substance called Euphorbium is pro- 
cured from Euphorbia resinifera, a native of Morocco. It is a leafless 
plant like a Cactus, attaining a height of six or more feet. The stem 
is fleshy and quadrangular, and on its angles are produced at intervals 
spines which represent stipules. The resin is a powerful irritant, 
and has been used as a vesicant. It causes great irritation of the 
mucous membrane when applied to the nostrils and eyes, and it acts 
as a cathartic when taken internally. Many species of Euphorbia 
yield resins of a similar nature. The juice of Hippomane Mancinella, 
Manchineel, is very acrid and poisonous. When applied to the skin 
it excites violent inflammation, followed by ulceration. The juice of 
Hura crepitans, Sand-box-tree, or Monkey’s dinner-bell, is also very 
acrid. The fruit of this tree is composed of numerous 1-seeded cocci, 
which, when dry, separate from each other with great force. Mer- 
curtalis perennis, and annua, produce vomiting and purging. 

Many important medicinal oils are furnished by the plants of this 
order. Castor-oil is expressed from the seeds of Ricinus communis 
(Pala Christi), a plant with peltate-palmate leaves (fig. 161, p. 88), 
which is found native in Greece, Africa, and the Hast Indies, and is 
cultivated in the West Indies, as well as in North and South America. 
In the temperate and more northern parts of Europe the plant is a 
herbaceous annual, of from three to eight feet high ; in the more 
southern parts it becomes shrubby, and even attains a height of twenty 
feet ; while in India it is often a tree thirty or forty feet high. The 
best oil is got by expression from the seeds, without heat, and is called 
cold-drawn Castor-oil. It is entirely soluble in alcohol, and, by the 
action of hyponitrous acid, it is converted into a solid yellow sub- 
stance called Palmin. The oil acts as a mild laxative. Besides this 
comparatively bland oil, there exists in the seed a powerfully cathar- 
tic constituent, which remains behind when the oil is expressed, and 
which is destroyed or evaporated under the process of ebullition. 
Croton-oil is obtained by expression from the seeds of Croton Tighwm 
(Tiglium officinale), an Indian and Asiatic shrub. It acts as an irri- 
tant purgative in the dose of one drop. In large doses it is a dan- 
gerous poison. When applied externally it produces pustules. Other 
species of Croton, as C. Pavana and Rowburghit, yield a purgative oil. 


| 


582 EUPHORBIACEZ. 


Croton Malambo yields a tonic bark. The oil procured from the seeds 
of Euphorbia Lathyris, Caper-spurge, has cathartic properties, and so 
has that procured from the seeds of Jatropha Curcas (Curcas purgans), 
Physic or purging-nut, Jatropha multifida, and Hura crepitans, The 
fatty matter obtained from the seeds of Stillingia sebefera, the Tallow- 
tree of China, is used for making candles ; the plant also yields a 
bland oil. The roots of Zuphorbia pilosa and palustris are used as 
purgatives, aid are said to have been useful in hydrophobia. eoit- 
lera tinctoria (Mallotus Philippinensis) is a small tree which grows in 
Abyssinia, the Indian Peninsula, Philippines, and Australia. The 
ruby-like glands on its tricoccous fruit are brushed off, and constitute 
the powder known in Bengal as Kamale, which is administered for 
tape-worm. 

Cascarilla is the bark of Croton Eleuteria, and of other species of 
Croton. It acts as a tonic and stimulant. When burned it gives 
out a musky odour, and is often used in pastilles. The bark of an- 
other species of Croton (C. Pseudo-china, or nivewm), a native of the 
West Indies and Mexico, is known by the name of Copalchi bark, 
and used as a tonic. The bark of Buxus sempervirens, Box-tree, is 
said to be alterative, and its leaves have bitter and purgative quali- 
ties. Its wood is much used for wood-engraving. The tree is the 
Hebrew wn, Teashur. The hard wood called African Teak or 
African Oak is the produce of Oldjieldia Africana. In the root of 
Janipha Manihot (Manihot utilissima), a shrub about six feet high, 
extensively cultivated in tropical countries, there is much starchy 
matter deposited, usually along with a poisonous narcotic substance, 
which is said to be hydrocyanic acid. The latter can be removed by 
washing, or it can be driven off. by roasting, and then the starch is 
used in the form of Cassava bread. There are two varieties of the 
Cassava or Manioc plant; one (called sometimes Janipha Leflingit) 
having a. spindle-shaped root, brown externally, about six ounces in 
weight, which contains amylaceous matter, without any bitterness, 
and is used as food under the name of Sweet Cassava; another, 
called Bitter Cassava, having a knotty root, black externally, and 
sometimes 30 lbs. in weight, which is bitter and poisonous, and 
requires to be rasped and washed thoroughly before the amyla- 
ceous matter can be used. From the starch of the bitter Cassava, 
Tapioca is prepared by elutriation and granulating on hot plates. 
Manihot starch is sometimes imported into Europe under the name 
of Brazilian Arrow-root. The milky sap of Euphorbia phosphorea is 
said to emit a peculiar phosphorescent light. That of Siphonia elas- 
tea contains much caoutchouc, and supplies the bottle India-rubber. 
Hevea brasiliensis is the Para rubber-tree. Aleurites laccifera fur- 
nishes gum-lac in Ceylon. The seeds of Aleurites triloba, the candle- 
nut tree, yield by expression an oil, which is purgative, and is also used 


URTICACEAE, 583 


as artists’ oil. Crozophora tinctoria supplies a purple dye called 
Turnsole, which becomes blue on the addition of ammonia. The 
seeds of a few species of Alewrites, Anda, and Omphatea, are edible. 
Order 163.—Urricacea, the Nettle Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual (figs. 824, 826), usually in cymes or polygamous, 
or collected into catkins or heads. Perianth usually divided (fig. 
826).. Stamens definite, inserted into the perianth ; filaments some- 
times curved in estivation (fig. 825). Ovary superior (figs. 827, 


Fig, 827. ‘ Fig. 829. 


828), 1-celled; ovule solitary, erect (fig. 828), orthotropous ; style 
simple or with a capitate or penicillate stigma (fig. 828). Fruit an 
achene (fig. 460, p. 257), or a drupe (fig. 460, p. 257), naked or sur- 
rounded by the persistent, sometimes accrescent, perianth. Seed soli- 


Figs. 824-830. Organs of fructification of Urtica urens, to illustrate the natural order 
Urticacez. Fig. 824. Bud of the male flower, viewed from above. Fig. 825. Stamen 
taken from the bud of the male flower, with the elastic. incurved filament, and the anther 
bent down before dehiscence. Fig. 826. Male flower expanded. c, Perianth with four 
-divisions. eee¢e, Four hypogynous stamens, thrown back by the elasticity of the fila- 
ments, with the anthers burst. pr, Abortive rudiment of the central pistil. Fig. 827. 
Female flower. c, Perianth with four unequal segments, the two exterior ones being very 
small, o, Unilocular ovary. s, Sessile stigma. Fig. 828. Pistil cut vertically, to show 
the direction of the erect ovule, 0. pp, Parietes of the ovary. s, Stigma. Fig. 829. Seed 
eut vertically, parallel to the cotyledons. ¢, Integument (spermoderm). %, Hilum. 9, 
Perisperm. e, Embryo straight, with the radicle superior. Fig. 830. Seed cut perpen- 
dlicularly to the cotyledons. ¢, Integument. hf, Hilum. », Perisperm, e, Embryo. 


584 URTICACEZI—CANNABINACEA,. 


tary, erect, suspended, albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo straight, 
axile ; radicle superior (figs. 829, 830).—Herbs, shrubs, or under- 
shrubs, with stipulate leaves, which are usually hispid or scabrous, 
sometimes with stinging hairs; juice watery. The plants of this order 
are found both in temperate and in tropical regions. They belong 
mainly to the latter. Weddell says that 8 species are common 
to the Old and New World ; 289 are natives of the former, and 187 
of the latter. The Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago have the 
' greatest number of species; then come Madagascar, the proximate 
African islands, Peru, and Bolivia, New Grenada and Ecuador. There 
is a greater abundance on islands than on continents. Genera, 43 ; 
species, about 500, Hxamples—Urtica, Boehmeria, Parietaria. 

There are 3 species of British nettles, Urtica dioica, U. wrens, and 
U, pilulifera. The last has capitate female flowers, hence its specific 
name. Various species of Urtica, Nettle, such as U. dioica, wrens, 
pilulifera, stimulans, urentissima, and Laportea crenulata of Northern 
India, have stinging hairs (fig. 91, p. 34). The young shoots of the 
common nettle are sometimes used like spinach or greens. Urtica 
cannabina and tenacissi¢ma furnish fibres fit for cordage. Bohmeria 
nivea supplies fibre for the Chinese grass-cloth, and the Rheea fibre 
of Assam ; and Bahmeria Puya gives the Pooah or Puya fibre of Nepaul 
and Sikkim. In Nettles and Pellitories the elastic filaments turn 
the anthers back with elasticity, and cause the scattering of the 
pollen (p. 283). Specimens of tree-nettle were measured by Back- 
house in Australia, and found to be 18, 20, and 21 feet in circum- 
ference. Their sting is very severe, causing violent inflammation. 
According to Mr. Macarthur, the stem of a specimen of Urtica 
(Laportes) gigas, in Australia, was 42 feet in circumference at a 
foot from the ground. The stem in some cases gradually tapered up- 
wards, without a branch, to 120 or 140 feet, the trunk then dividing 
into a regularly-formed wide-spreading head. 

Order 164,—CanNnaBINACE&, the Hemp and Hop Family. (Apet- 
Diclin.) Flowers dicecious, males in racemes or panicles. Perianth 
herbaceous, 5-sepalous'; estivation imbricate. Stamens 5, opposite 
the sepals; filaments erect and filiform; anthers dehiscing longi- 
tudinally. Female flowers in a strobilus or glomerulus ; perianth 
formed by a bract enclosing the ovary. Ovary 1-celled; style ter- 
minal or 0; stigmas 2;.ovules solitary, pendulous; fruit: indehis- 
cent, seed suspended ; embryo exalbuminous, hooked or spiral, coty- 
ledons incumbent, radicle superior.—Herbaceous plants, sometimes. 
twining, with watery juice, scabrous, stipulate, usually opposite and 
often glandular leaves. The plants have been long cultivated. They 
occur chiefly in northern temperate regions. Genera, 2; species, 3. 
Examples—Cannabis, Humulus. 

Cannabis sativa, an annual herbaceous plant, native of Western 


CANNABINACEA—ULMACE, 585 


and Central Asia, but cultivated in temperate and tropical regions, is 
the source of the valuable fibre called Hemp ; what are usually called 
Hemp seeds are in reality fruits. A variety, called Cannabis indica, is 
used in India for producing intoxication. It is also employed medi- 
cinally in the form of extract, as an antispasmodic and anodyne, in 
cases of tetanus and neuralgia. The properties of the hemp plant 
appear to be much modified by climate. The Indian variety has a 
marked resinous varnish, called Churrus, on its leaves. What is 
called Bhang in India consists of the dried larger leaves and fruit, 
while Gunjah or Ganja is the whole plant dried after flowering, and 
the Haschisch or Qinnab of the Arabs is composed of the tops and 
tender parts of the plant dried. Hemp is probably the Hebrew ww, 
Shesh. The strobili of the female plants of Humulus Lupulus con- 
stitute hops, the bitterness of which resides in the resinous glandular 
scales surrounding the fruit, and to which the name of Lupulinic 
glands, or Lupulin, has been applied. The latter name is also given 
to the bitter principle of the hops. Hops are employed as a tonic and 
narcotic, in the form of extract, infusion, and tincture. Their tonic 
properties depend on their bitterness. A pillow stuffed with hops is 
a popular means of procuring sleep. The twigs of hops have been 
used to adulterate Sarsaparilla. ‘ 

Order 165.—Uxmacea, the Elm Family. (Apet, Diclin.) Flowers 
hermaphrodite or unisexual, fascicled. Perianth single, inferior ; 
stamens definite, inserted on the perianth; filaments erect; ovary 
superior, 1-2-celled ; styles 2. Ovules solitary, anatropous. Fruit 
indehiscent, a samara or drupe, 1-2-celled. Seed solitary, pendulous, 
usually exalbuminous; embryo straight or curved, cotyledons leafy, 
-radicle superior ; juice watery.—Trees or shrubs with alternate rough 
leaves, and deciduous stipules; chiefly natives of the northern and 
mountainous parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Genera, 9 ; species, 
about 60. There are two sub-orders:—1. Ulmes, true Elms, ovary 
2-celled, fruit a samara. Hxamples—Ulmus, Planera, Holoptelea. 2. 
Celtideze, Tree-nettles, ovary 1-celled; fruit a drupe. Hxamples— 
Celtis, Sponea, Trema. 

Several species of Elm are cultivated for timber. Ulmus cam- 
pestris, English or small-leaved Elm, rarely produces fruit in this 
country. It often attains a height of 70 to 90 feet, with a diameter 
of 4 to 5 feet. Its wood is compact and durable under water, and 
it has been used for sleepers on railways, and for wooden pavements. 
Tts inner bark is bitter, mucilaginous, and astringent. Ulmus mon- 
tana, the Mountain, Wych, or Scotch Elm, produces fruit freely in 
this country, but its wood is inferior to that of the English Elm. 
The bark of Ulmus fulva, the red or slippery Elm, a tree of central 
and northern United States, is used as a demulcent. Celtis occi- 
dentalis, the Nettle-tree, or Sugar-berry, has a sweet drupaceous fruit. 


586 MORACEA. 


Order 166.—Moracera, the Mulberry, Fig, and Bread-fruit Family. 
(Apet. Diclin.) Flowers unisexual. Male flowers with a 3-4-parted 
calyx or 0; stamens usually isostemonous, opposite the calyx seg- 
ments, inserted at the base, usually 4; filaments thread-like, often 
with inflexed estivation. Female flowers with imbricate persistent 
perianth, either with 3-4 sepals, or 4-5 cleft, or 0. Ovary usually 
l-celled ; styles 1-2; ovule solitary, micropyle superior. Fruit an 
achene, drupe or utricle; albumen fleshy or 0; embryo curved or 
straight, axile ; radicle superior.—Trees, or shrubs, or herbs, some- 
times climbing, with milky juice, and alternate stipulate leaves. 
There are two sub-orders :—1. Morex, the Mulberries and Figs, with 
flowers in heads, spikes, or catkins; fruit a sorosis or syconus ; seed 
pendulous ; embryo hooked; albumen fleshy; natives both of tem- 
perate and tropical climates. Hxamples—Morus, Ficus, Sycomorus, 
Dorstenia. 2. Artocarpex, Bread-fruits, with flowers in dense heads ; 
fruit usually a sorosis; seed erect or pendulous, with a variable 
quantity of albumen; embryo straight. Natives of tropical climates, 
Examples—Artocarpus, Antiaris. Genera, 46 ; species, about 230. 

The common Fig is the Fruit of Ficus Carica, nxn (Teenah) of 
the Old Testament, and otx% of the New Testament. It consists of a 
succulent hollow receptacle, enclosing numerous single-seeded carpels 
(fig. 267, p. 180), and is called a syconus (p. 316). The fruit is 
demulcent and laxative, and is used for cataplasms. Many other 
species of Ficus yield edible fruits. The plants belonging to the Fig 
tribe are generally remarkable for the adventitious roots which they 
send out from the stems. One of the most celebrated in this respect 
is Ficus indica, the Banyan (pp. 39, 360). Many of the species can 
live suspended in the air for a long time. A specimen of Ficus aus- 
tralis grew in this way in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh for up- 
wards of twenty years (p. 127). Ficus (Urostigma) religiosa is the 
Pippul-tree, or sacred Fig of India. Ficus (Urostigma) elastica is an 
Indian tree which supplies a large quantity of caoutchouc ; so also do 
Ficus Radula, elliptica, and prinoides, Peculiar clusters of raphides 
are found in the cellular tissue of some of them (fig. 39, p. 11). The 
milky juice is not in all instances bland and innocuous ; it occasion- 
ally has acrid qualities, Ficus Sycomorus (Sycomorus antiquorwm) is 
probably the Sycamore of the Bible, the npw (shikmim) of the Old 
Testament, and the suzomogéa of the New. The wood of the tree is said 
to be very durable. Morus nigra supplies the common black Mulberry, 
which is an anthocarpous fruit, composed of numerous succulent 
flowers, forming a sorosis (fig. 571, p. 316). The Mulberry is probably 
the cvxcwsvos, or Sycamine-tree of the New Testament. The white 
Mulberry, a less esteemed fruit, is the produce of Morus alba. Both 
of these mulberries are sub-acid. Their leaves are the favourite food 
of silkworms, The root of the white Mulberry is anthelmintic. Dor- 


MORACEA, 587 


stentas have a slightly concave broad receptacle, bearing numerous 
flowers (fig. 266, p. 180). D. Contrayerva, D, Houstont, and D. bra- 
siliensis furnish the Contrayerva-root of commerce. The officinal part 
is the root-stock, which is used as a stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic. 
Broussonetia papyrifera is the Paper-mulberry, ‘so called on account of 
being used in China and Japan in the manufacture of a kind of paper. 
It is called Crape-paper, and is prepared by pounding the bark, steep- 
ing it in water, then mixing it with glue, and taking it up with a 
mould of Bamboo-screen of the size required. The yellow dye-wood 
called Fustic is the produce of Maclura (Broussonetia) tinctoria. 

The Artocarpus section is important as regards its uses. <Arto- 
carpus incisa, the Bread-fruit tree, supplies an amylaceous fruit, which 
furnishes an abundant supply of food in tropical countries. The pro- 
perties of this tree are thus enumerated by Hooker :—The fruit serves 
for food ; clothes are made from the fibres of the inner bark; the 
wood is used for building houses and making boats; the male catkins 
are employed as tinder; the leaves for table-cloths and for wrapping 
provisions in ; aud the viscid milky juice affords birdlime. .A. integri- 
folta is the Jack or Jaca, the fruit of which attains a large size, some- 
times weighing thirty pounds, and is inferior in quality to the Bread- 
fruit. In both instances the fruit is a sorosis, consisting of numerous 
flowers on a common axis, which becomes succulent. The milky juice 
of many of the Artocarpus tribe supplies caoutchouc, and in some 
instances it is used as a substitute for milk. This is the case with 
the juice of Brosimum (Galactodendron) utile, which is called Palo de 
Vaca, or the Cow-tree, in Demerara. The wood of Brosimum Aubletii 
(Piratenera guianensis) is called Snake-wood, or Letter-wood, in Deme- 
rara, and is used for articles of furniture. Specimens sent by Dr. 
Campbell from Demerara have been beautifully manufactured in Scot- 
land. The seeds of many of the Artocarpus tribe are eaten. Brosi- 
mum Alicastrwm yields Bread-nuts, which, when boiled or roasted, are 
nutritious and agreeable articles of food. While the juice of some is 
nutritive, that of others is highly poisonous. Thus Antiaris toxicaria 
is the source of the famous poison called Bohun-Upas or Upas-Antiar, 
by the Javanese, and which is said to owe its properties to the pre- 
sence of a peculiar principle called Antiarin, which causes muscular 
paralysis, Another Upas poison, called Upas-Tieuté, has already been 
noticed under the order Loganiacem, as being the produce of a species 
of Strychnos. The bark of Antiaris saccidora, a gigantic tree, having 
a trunk 18 feet in circumference at the base, is used for forming sacks. 
These bags are formed by separating the bark entire from the wood 
throughout the whole extent, with the exception of a small portion at 
one end. The wood is then removed from the interior, a part being 
left with the bark attached to form the bottom of the sack. The tree 
is common in the jungles near Coorg, and the sacks made from it are 


588 CERATOPHYLLACEA'—PODOSTEMACEA—STILAGINACEA. 


in general use among the villagers for carrying rice. Cecropia peltata 
is the Trumpet-wood, so calléd on account of the hollowness of its stem 
and branches, which are used for wind instruments. The fibrous bark 
of the tree is used for cordage. 

Order 167.—CErRATOPHYLLACES, the Hornwort Family. (Aypet. 
Diclin.) Flowers unisexual. Perianth inferior, 10-12-parted. Male 
flowers : stamens, 12-20; anthers sessile, bilocular. Female flowers : 
ovary free, 1-celled; ovule solitary, pendulous, orthotropal ; style 
filiform, oblique ; stigma simple. Fruit a 1-celled indehiscent nut, 
terminated by the hardened style. Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbu- 
minous ; cotyledons 2, but apparently 4; radicle inferior.—Aquatic 
submersed herbs, with verticillate leaves cut into filiform lobes. They 
are found in ditches in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America. 
The affinities of the order are still obscure. Some authors consider 
it as allied to Lythracez, others to Chenopodiacez, while Lindley puts 
it in his Urtical alliance. Its properties are unimportant. There is 
only 1 genus, including about 6 species. Hxample—Ceratophyllum. 

Order 168.— Popostrmaces, the Podostemon Family. (Apet. 
Monoclin.) Flowers naked, or with a more or less perfect perianth, 
bursting through an irregularly lacerated spathe. Stamens hypogy- 
nous, definite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers dithecal, 
with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary free, 2-3-celled ; ovules numer- 
ous, anatropal, attached to a fleshy central placenta ; styles or stigmas 
2 or 3. Fruit slightly pedicellate, capsular, 2-3-valved. Seeds 00; 
embryo exalbuminous, erect.—Herbaceous, branched, floating plants, 
with capillary, or linear, or lacerated, or minute and imbricated leaves, 
Natives chiefly of South America, and of the islands to the east of 
Africa. They flower and ripen seed under water, and their ashes furnish 
salt. The affinities of the order are uncertain. Some authors put it 
among the Monocotyledons. Genera, 21; species, 100. Zxamples— 
Podostemon, Lacis. 

Order 169.—S8r1Lacinaces, the Stilago Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Perianth 2-3- or 5- partite. Male flowers: sta- 
mens 2 or more, arising from a swollen receptacle ; filaments capillary ; 
anthers innate, 2-lobed, with a fleshy connective and vertical cells 
opening transversely. Female flowers: ovary free, 1-2-celled; ovules 
2, anatropal; stigma sessile, 3-5-toothed. Fruit drupaceous. Seed 
solitary, suspended ; embryo in fleshy albumen; cotyledons leafy ; 
tradicle superior—Trees or shrubs, with alternate, stipulate leaves. 
Natives chiefly of the East Indies. Some yield edible fruits, others 
are used as potherbs. The position of this order in the natural system 
is obscure. Lindley places it in the Urtical alliance, others consider 
itias allied to the Amentiferous orders. There are 5 known genera and 
about 22 species. Examples—Stilago, Antidesma. 

Order 170.—Monimracea, the Monimia Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 


MONIMIACEA—ATHEROSPERMACEEZ—LACISTEMACEE. 589 


Flowers unisexual. Perianth somewhat globose, in one or more rows, 
divided at the border. Male flowers: stamens indefinite, covering the 
whole interior of the perianth ; filaments often with 2 scales at the 
base ; anthers dithecal, with longitudinal dehiscence. Female flowers : 
ovaries several, superior, enclosed within the tube of the perianth, each 
with 1 style and 1 stigma; ovule solitary, pendulous, anatropal. Fruit 
consisting of several acheenia, enclosed within the enlarged perianth. 
Seeds pendulous ; embryo at the end of copious fleshy albumen ; radicle 
superior.—Trees or shrubs, with opposite exstipulate leaves. They 
are natives chiefly of South America and Australia. The bark and 
leaves are aromatic and fragrant. The succulent fruit of some is eaten. 
Boldoa fragrans (Peumos, or Ruizia fragrans) is a branching aromatic 
tree of Chili, the leaves of which contain an essential oil, The leaves 
are used as stimulant and tonic. The bark is used by tanners and the 
fruit is eaten. There are 8 known genera and about 40 species. 
Examples—Monimia, Boldoa. 

Order 171. — ATHEROSPERMACES, the Plume-nutmeg Family. 
(Apet. Diclin.) Flowers unisexual. Perianth tubular, divided at the 
top into several segments,*in 2 rows, the inner often petaloid, and 
accompanied in the female flowers with a few scales, Male flowers: 
stamens 00, inserted in the bottom of the perianth ; filaments with 
scales at the base ; anthers 2-celled, with valvular dehiscence. Female 
flowers : ovaries usually 00 ; ovule solitary, erect ; style simple, lateral 
or basilar; stigmas simple. In some flowers, though rarely, stamens 
and pistils are found, and in that case the stamens are fewer, and arise 
from the orifice of the perianth. Fruit consisting of achenia, with 
persistent, ultimately feathery styles, enclosed within the tube of the 
perianth, Seed solitary, erect ; embryo small, at the base of soft fleshy 
albumen ; radicle inferior.—Trees, with opposite, exstipulate leaves, 
found in Australia, and in some parts of South America, They are 
generally fragrant. The bark of Atherosperma moschatum, a native of 
Australia, resembles Sassafras in flavour, There are 3 known genera 
and 4 species, according to Lindley. Hxamples — Atherosperma, 
Laurelia. 

Order? 172. —Lacistemace#, the Lacistema Family. (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers polygamous. Perianth in several narrow divisions, 
-covered by an enlarged bract. Stamen 1, hypogynous; anther having 
2 cells, which are separated by a thick 2-lobed connective, and which 
dehisce transversely. Disk fleshy. Ovary superior, 1-celled ; ovules 
several, anatropal, attached to 2-3 parietal placentas; stigmas 2-3, 
nearly sessile. Fruit a unilocular 2-3-valved capsule, with loculicidal 
dehiscence. Seed usually, by abortion, solitary, suspended, with a 
fleshy arillus ; spermoderm crustaceous ; embryo in fleshy albumen ; 
cotyledons flat ; radicle cylindrical, superior.—Small trees or shrubs, 
with simple, alternate, exstipulate leaves, and amentaceous flowers, 


* 


590 CHLORANTHACEA—SAURURACE—PIPERACEA. 


‘They are natives of the warm parts of America, Their properties are 
unknown. There are 2 genera and 6 species. Example—Lacistema. 

Order 173.—CutorantHacrs, the Chloranthus Family.— 
(Achlamyd. Monoclin. or Diclin,) Flowers bisexual or unisexual, with a 
supporting scale. Perianth 0. Stamens definite, lateral, and if more 
than 1, connate; anthers monothecal, with longitudinal dehiscence, 
each adnate to a fleshy connective. Ovary unilocular; ovule solitary, 
pendulous, orthotropal; stigma sessile, simple. Fruit drupaceous, 
indehiscent. Seed pendulous ; embryo minute, at the apex of fleshy 
albumen ; cotyledons divaricate; radicle inferior, remote from the 
hilum.—Herbs or undershrubs, with jointed stems, opposite, simple, 
stipulate leaves, sheathing petioles, and spiked flowers. Natives of 
the warm regions of India and America. Some of them, as Chloran- 
thus officinalis, are aromatic and fragrant, and have been used as stimu- 
lants and tonics. There are 4 known genera and 16 species. Zxample 
—Chloranthus. 

Order 174.—SavruRAcr#, the Lizard’s-tail Family. (Achlamyd.) 
Flowers bisexual. Perianth 0, a scale or bract supporting the 
flowers. Stamens 3-6, clavate, hypogynous, persistent; filaments 
slender ; anthers 2-celled, continuous with the filament, with a thick 
connective separating the lobes, dehiscence longitudinal. Ovaries 
3-4, distinct, with 1 ascending orthotropal ovule, and a sessile recurved 
stigma, or united so as to form a 3-4-celled pistil, with several ovules 
and 3-4 stigmas. Fruit either consisting of 4 fleshy indehiscent nuts, 
or a 1-3-4-celled capsule, dehiscing at the apex, and containing a few 
ascending seeds. Seeds with a membranous spermoderm ; embryo- 
minute, lying in a fleshy vitellus, outside of hard mealy albumen at 
the apex of the seed.—Herbs growing in marshy places, with alter- 
nate, stipulate leaves, and spiked flowers. Natives of North America, 
India, and China. Their properties are said to be acrid. There are 
4 known genera, according to Lindley, and 7 species. Hxamples— 
Saururus, Houttuynia. 

Order 175.—Prperacem, the Pepper Family. (Achlamyd.) 
Flowers 3. Perianth 0, flowers supported on a bract. Stamens 2- 
3-6, arranged on one side or all round the ovary; anthers 1- or 2- 
celled, with or without a fleshy connective ; pollen roundish, smooth. 
Ovary solitary, free, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal ; stigma 
simple, sessile, rather oblique. Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent, 
unilocular. Seed erect; embryo in a fleshy vitellus outside the albu- 
men, and at the apex of the seed.—Shrubs or herbs, with articulated 
stems, leaves opposite (sometimes alternate by abortion of one of the 
pair of leaves), or verticillate, exstipulate or stipulate, and spiked or 
racemose flowers. Natives of the hottest quarters of the globe. 
Common in South America and India. The wood is often arranged 
in wedges, with medullary rays, but without concentric zones. There 


. 


PIPERACEZ—SALICACEA, 591 


are 21 known genera and upwards of 600 species. Exramples— 
Piper, Artanthe, Peperomia. 

The plants of the order have pungent, acrid, and aromatic proper- 
ties. Most of them contain an acrid resin, and a crystalline principle 
called Piperin, in which their active qualities reside. Some are nar- 
cotic and astringent. The dried fruiting spikes of Piper (Chavica) 
oficinarum, an Indian creeper, constitute Long-pepper ; Chavica Rov- 
burghii, a plant of Malabar, Ceylon, Eastern Bengal, and the Philip- 
pines, also supplies Long-pepper. The dried unripe fruit (drupes) of 
Piper nigrum constitute Black-pepper, a climbing plant common in 
the East Indies. The ripe fruit, when deprived of its outer fleshy 
covering by washing, forms the White-pepper of the shops. These 
peppers are hot aromatic condiments, and they are used medicinally 
as tonic, stimulant, febrifuge, and stomachic. The fruit of Piper 
Cubeba (Cubeba officinalis), a climbing plant of Java and other Indian 
islands, is the medicinal Cubeb-pepper, which is used extensively i in 
arresting discharges from mucous membranes. It contains a resin, a 
volatile oil which is very active, and a peculiar principle called Cube- 
bin. African Cubebs, or West African Black-pepper, is the fruit of 
Piper (Chavica) Clusii. The substance called Matico or Matica con- 

~~-~sgists of the leaves and unripe fruit of Piper angustifolium (Artanthe 
elongata), a shrub which grows in the moist woods of Bolivia, Peru, 
Brazil, New Grenada, and Venezuela. It possesses aromatic, fragrant, 
and astringent qualities. It has been particularly recommended for 
checking hemorrhage, a property which seems, in part, to be a me- 
chanical one, depending on the structure of the leaf, which abounds 
in tannin. Piper (Artanthe) lanceefolium also yields Matico. The root 
of Macropiper methysticum is the Kava of the South Sea Islanders, 
which is used by them for preparing a stimulating beverage. The 
leaf of Betel-pepper (Chavica Betle) is chewed with the Areca nut in 
the East, as a means of intoxication. One of the forms of the aroma- 
tic drug called Jaborand: is referred to the genus Piper, while others 
are said to belong to the genus Pilocarpus, one of the Rutaceez. The 
leaves have sudorific and sialogogue properties, and they appear to be 
a very active medicine. 

Order 176. — Sazicacea, the Willow Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers dicecious, in catkins, each with a membranous bract. Male 
flowers, with a glandular disk ; stamens 2 or many; anthers innate 
(basifixed), with longitudinal dehiscence ; ovary I-celled; placentas 
2, parietal ; ovules many, erect, anatropal. Fruit a capsule, 1-celled, 
Q-valved. Seeds comose ; embryo erect, exalbumizous ; radicle infe- 
rior.—Found in woods in temperate and cold regions. Willows grow 
in damp places throughout the northern hemisphere, and also in the 
temperate parts of South America and South Africa. None are 
found in Australia or the Pacific islands. Poplars grow in Europe 


592 SALICACEH—MYRICACE, 


as well as in North America and the northern parts of Africa. Genera, 
2; species, 180. Lxamples—Salix, Populus. 

The bark of many species of Willow, such as Salia Caprea, alba, Rus- 
selliana, fragilis, pentandra, vitellina, purpurea, and Helix, yields a neu- 
tral crystalline bitter substance called Salicin, which is employed as a 
febrifuge and tonic. The bark also possesses astringent qualities from 
the presence of tannin. Salicin assumes a carmine-red tint when moist- 
ened with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. Salix fragilis yields 
asaccharine exudation. Various species of Willows (osiers) are used for 
basket-making, while others are employed in forming charcoal. Salix 
babylonica is the Weeping-willow. Its specific name is founded on the 
supposition that it was the species on which the Israelites hanged their 
harps by the waters of Babylon, The word p'27y, Orebim, in the Bible 
is doubtfully translated Willows. Populus alba is commonly called 
the Abele, while P. tremula is the Aspen, and P. fastigiata and dilatata 
the Lombardy Poplar. The buds of Populus nigra and balsamifera 
are covered with a resinous exudation, to which the name of Tacama- 
hac has been given ; it is said to be diuretic and antiscorbutic. The 
leaves and bark of some Poplars secrete a saccharine substance, which 
has been termed Populine. Salix arctica and polaris extend to the 
arctic regions, and form the most northern woody plants. Salix her- 
bacea, a small creeping Willow, occurs abundantly on the Scotch 
mountains. The downy matter surrounding the seeds of Poplars and 
Willows is used for. stuffing pillows and cushions, as well as for the 
manufacture of a kind of paper. 

Order 177.—Mynricacea, the Gale Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers moncecious or dicecious, in catkins. Male flowers achlamyde- 
ous: stamens 2-16, sessile, in the axil of a scale ; filaments united at 
the base ; anthers innate, extrorse. Female flowers in catkins ; ovary 
l-celled, with hypogynous scales; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal. 
Fruit drupaceous, often with a waxy secretion, and with fleshy adher- 
ent scales ; embryo exalbuminous ; radicle superior.—Shrubs or trees, 
with scattered unjointed branches, scaly buds, alternate, simple, often 
serrated leaves, usually odoriferous. Natives both of tropical and of 
temperate regions, They are found chiefly in North America, at the 
Cape of Good Hope, and on the mountains of Asia and Java. Genera, 
3; species, about 30. Hxamples—Myrica, Comptonia. 

The species of Myrica are aromatic, and yield resinous and oily 
matter. Myrica Gale is the Gale, Scotch Myrtle, or Bog-myrtle, which 
is common in marshy grounds and damp heaths in Britain. The 
fruit of Myrica cerifera, called Wax Myrtle, or Bay Myrtle, or Candle- 
berry, yields a greenish-coloured wax, which is used for candles, The 
drupaceous fruit of MMyrica sapida, a native of Nepaul and China, is 
eaten. The leaves of Comptonia asplenifolia, Sweet Fern, contain 
peculiar glands, 


CASUARINACEH—BETULACEH—PLATANACES. 593 


Order 178.—Casvarinacea, the Beef-wood Family. (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers moneecious or dicecious, bracteated. Males in spikes : 
stamen 1; filament lengthening; anther dehiscing longitudinally. 
Females in capitula: ovary 1-celled, ovules 2; fruit consisting of 
winged achzenia, collected into a cone; seed erect; radicle superior. 
—Australian trees or shrubs, with filiform branches, bearing mem- 
branous toothed sheaths in place of leaves. They are found also in 
India, the Indian Archipelago, and Madagascar. Genus, 1; species, 
about 20. Hxample—Casuarina, 

The species of Causwarina (Cassowary-tree) yield excellent timber, 
called Beef-wood, from its having some resemblance to raw beef. 
What is called the She-oak in Australia is C. quadrivalvis. In the 
integument of the seeds of Casuarinas there are numerous spiral cells. 

Order 179.—Berrunacea, the Birch Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers moncecious, in catkins. Male flowers borne on scales, which 
are sometimes verticillate, so as to form a perianth : stamens 4 or 2; 
anthers innate (basifixed), Female spikes pendulous: ovary 2-celled ; 
ovules solitary, pendulous, anatropal ; fruit membranous, indehiscent, 
forming a sort of cone ; seeds pendulous, exalbuminous ; embryo with 
a supeior radicle——Amentiferous trees with alternate stipulate leaves, 
stipules deciduous. Natives of temperate and cold regions in Europe, 
Asia, and America, and extending to the Arctic and Antarctic regions. 
Genera, 2; species, about 35. Zxamples—Betula, Alnus. 

The species of Betula, Birch, have astringent and resinous barks. 
The oil from the bark of the common Birch (Betula alba and glutinosa) 
gives the peculiar odour to Russia leather. In North America the 
bark of the Canoe Birch (Betula papyracea) is used for making boats. 
A saccharine matter exists in the sap of the Birch. Betula lenta is 
the Black Birch of America, and is called Mountain Mahogany on 
account of the beauty and hardness of its timber. The bark of B. 
Bhajapalira is used in India to form paper. Alnus glutinosa, common 
Alder, grows well in muddy ground on the banks of rivers. Its 
charcoal is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. In Kamtschatka 
the bark of Alnus incana is used in the preparation of a kind of 
bread. 

Order 180.—Pxiatanacez, the Plane Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers in unisexual globose catkins or capitula. Male flowers covered 
by scale-like bracts; stamen 1, with scales. Female flowers with a 
l-celled ovary: style thick and subulate; ovules solitary or in pairs, 
suspended, orthotropal. Fruit consisting of compressed clavate nuts, 
terminated by recurved styles; seeds 1-2, pendulous, albuminous ; 
embryo with an inferior radicle.—Trees with alternate, palmate, and 
stipulate leaves. Natives chiefly of temperate regions, as the 
Levant and North America. Genus, 1; species, about 6. Example 
—Platanus. ; 


2Q 


594 CUPULIFERA OR CORYLACEA, 


Platanus orientalis, the Oriental Plane, has broad palmate leaves, 
resembling the Sycamore, which is often erroneously called the Plane 
in Scotland. Some say that this is the Sycamore of the ancients. 
Platanus occidentalis and P. acerifolia are also cultivated as showy 
trees, under the name of Planes. 

Order 181.—CuPuLireR2 or Coryviaces, the Nut Family. (Apet. 
Diclin.) Flowers amentaceous (fig. 259, p. 178) or aggregate, unisexual. 
Male flowers, with 5-20 stamens attached to scales (fig. 831). 
Female flowers geminate on a bract (fig. 832). Ovary surrounded by 
a coriaceous involucre or cupula (figs. 833, 835), crowned by the 
remains of a persistent perianth or disk, 3- or more celled; styles 2 
(fig. 835) ; ovules 2 or 1, pendulous. Fruit a glans (fig. 281, p. 191; 
836). Seeds usually solitary (figs. 834 ; 580, p. 330), exalbuminous ; 


uk J 
Fig. 834. Fig. 835. 


embryo with a superior radicle (fig. 837).—Trees or shrubs with alter- 
nate, stipulate, and often feather-veined leaves (fig. 149, p. 83), found 
chiefly in temperate regions ; some extend to warm countries. Genera, 


Figs. 831-887. Organs of fructification of Corylus Avellana, the Hazel, to illustrate the 
natural order Cupuliferze or Corylacez. Fig. 831. Male flower separated from the catkin 
(amentum). e, Scale or bract bearing the stamens, a, with their dithecal anthers, Fig. 
832. Female flower, ff, in a very young state, with its involucre, 4. Fig. 833, Female 
flower more advanced. 4, involucre opened to show the ovary, 0, covered by the perianth 
or disk, c. s, Two styles. Fig. 834. Female flowerycut longitudinally, to show the two 
loculaments with a pendulous ovule in each, Fig. 835. Female flower more advanced. 
c, Perianth. s, Styles. Fig. 886. Ripe fruit, f, enveloped in its involucre or bracts, 4. 
Fig. 837. Seed separated. ¢, Integument, half of which is removed to show the exalbu- 
minous embryo, ¢. +, Superior radicle. 


CUPULIFERZ OR CORYLACEA—JUGLANDACEA. 595 


12; species, about 260. Examples—Corylus, Carpinus, Fagus, Cas- 
tanea, Quercus, 

The Hazel-nut, with its involucral appendage, is the produce of 
Corylus Avellana. The bark of Quercus pedunculata (Robur), the 
common Oak, contains much tannin, and is used as an astringent. 
Another British species, Q. sessiliflora, having sessile fruit, is believed to 
yield the best timber. In the wood of Q. peduwnculata there are 
numerous medullary rays (silver-grain), (fig. 117, p. 54), while in that 
of Q. sessiliflora,¢Durmast, it is said there are scarcely any visible. 
There is some doubt as to the existence of more than one species in 
Britain, and no permanent characters have been established. Babing- 
ton mentions three species. It has been stated that 2000 well-grown 
oaks, equal to 3000 loads of timber, were required to build a seventy- 
four gun-ship. The acorn-cups of Quercus AZgilops, Valonia or Balonia 
Oak, under the name of Valonia, are used by dyers. Oaks are liable 
to the attacks of insects, whose punctures give rise to the formation 
of galls. These excrescences occur on the buds, bark, and leaves. 
The medicinal galls are the produce of Quercus infectoria, a native of 
Asia Minor, and the best are imported from Aleppo. They are 
caused by punctures from the ovipositor of the Diplolepis (Cynips) 
Galle-tinctoriz, Blue galls are those which still contain the young 
insect in their interior, while white galls are those from which it has 
escaped. In medicine they are employed as powerful astringents, and 
in the arts they are used for dyeing, tanning, and forming ink. The 

‘bark (epiphloeum) of Quercus Suber constitutes cork (fig. 118, p. 54). 
The bark of Quercus tinctoria is called Quercitron, and yields a yellow 
dye. Quercus Ilex, Evergreen Oak, is commonly cultivated in gar- 
dens. The Oak, noe, Allon of the Bible, is said by some to be Quercus 
4éyilops. The Beech-tree (Fagus sylvatica), the Horn-beam (Carpinus 
Betulus), and the Spanish Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris or vesca), belong 
to this order. Fagus Forstert is the Evergreen Beech‘of South America, 
found at Tierra del Fuego. A species of Beech (F. antarctica) is 
found in the antarctic regions. 

Order 182.—JucLanDacza, the Walnut Family. (Apet. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Male flowers amentaceous: perianth membranous, 
Oblique, irregularly-lobed, with a scaly bract. Stamens definite or 
00; filaments short, free ; anthers dithecal, erect. Female flowers in 
terminal clusters, or in loose racemes, with separate or united bracts : 
perianth single or double, the outer 3-5-parted, inner, when present, 
in minute separate pieces. Ovary adherent to the perianth, 1-celled ; 
ovule solitary, erect, orthotropal (figs. 452, 453, p. 253); styles 1-2, 
very short; stigmas 2-4, fringed or sessile, discoid and 4-lobed. Fruit 
a drupe, sometimes with an adherent involucre ; endocarp bony, 2- 
valved or valveless, 2-4-celled at the base, and l-celled at the apex, 
with partial dissepiments. Seed exalbuminous, 2-4-lobed, with a 


596 - JUGLANDACEA—CONIFERA, 


membranaceous testa; embryo large; cotyledons fleshy, oily, and 
sinuous ; radicle superior.—Trees with alternate, pinnated leaves, 
having neither dots nor stipules. They are chiefly natives of North 
America, There are 5 genera, according to authors, and 28 species. 
Examples—Juglans, Carya. 

While the plants belonging to this order yield edible oily nuts, 
their bark is often acrid, and there is frequently bitterness and 
astringency in the coverings of their fruit and seed. The seeds of 
Juglans regia, common Walnut, yield a bland oil, which may be used 
as a substitute for olive-oil. Carya alba yields the American Hickory- 
nut. Purgative and resinous properties prevail in some of the plants. 
The timber of many of the trees is valuable. That of the Black 
Walnut (Juglans nigra) has a fine dark brown colour when polished. 


Section B.— GyMNosPERMz, 


Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous plants, with an Exogenous 
structure as regards their stems and organs of vegetation, but differ- 
ing from Exogens in having naked ovules, which are fertilised by the 
direct application of the pollen to the foramen, without the inter- 
vention of stigma, style, and: ovary. Flowers unisexual. Their 
woody tissue is marked by the presence of disks (figs. 49, 50, p. 17). 
They are included in Lindley’s class of Gymnogens, and Endlicher’s 
Gymnospermous division of Acramphibrya. 


Order 183.—Contrsra, the Cone-bearing Family. (Achlamyd. 
Dichn.) It includes the orders Pinacex, Taxacese, and Guetaces of 


Fig. 838, Fig. 839, Fig. 840. Fig. 841. 


Lindley. Flowers unisexual. Male flowers monandrous or monadel- 
phous: stamens collected in a deciduous amentum, about a common 


Figs. 838-844. Organs of fructification of Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Fir, to illustrate the 
natural order Conifere. Fig. 838. Collection of male ‘catkins, c, clustered round a com- 
mon axis. f, Leaves. 0, Terminal buds, with young leaves and scaly sheaths. Fig. 839. 
Male flower, or the two-lobed anther, separated. Fig. 840. Three collections of female 
flowers, or young cones, ¢, at the extremity of a branch., Fig, 841. A scale detached 
from one of these young cones, and seen on the exterior. 6, Bract. e, Scale. oo, Summit 
of the naked ovules. = Fig. 842. Scale of a young cone seen on the inside, c, The scale, 


CONIFERZ, 597 


rachis (fig. 838) ; anthers 1-2 or many-lobed, with longitudinal dehis- 
cence, often terminated by a scaly crest (fig. 839). Female flowers in 
cones (figs. 572, p. 317; 840), sometimes solitary: ovary none, its 
place being supplied by the flat scales of the cones, arising from the 
axil of membranous bracts (fig. 841); ovules naked, usually in pairs 
on the face of the scales (figs. 520, p. 292; 841, 842 0 0), inverted 
or erect; style 0; stigma 0. Fruit a cone (figs. 217, p. 105; 572, 
573, p. 317), or a solitary naked seed (fig. 538, p. 302). Seed 
with a hard crustaceous integument, sometimes winged (fig. 843) ; 
embryo in the midst of fleshy oily albumen (fig. 844) ; sometimes more 
than one embryo; cotyledons 2, or many and verticillate (fig. 844) ; 


7 z 
Fig. 842. Fig. 843. 


radicle next the apex of the seed, organically connected with the albu- 
men.—Trees or shrubs, with branched, usually resinous trunks, the 
wood marked with circular disks (figs. 49, 50, p. 17), the leaves 
usually narrow, rigid or acerose, entire (fig. 162, p. 88), sometimes 
fascicled, and with a scaly sheath at their base (fig. 838 0). They are 
found in various parts of the world, both in cold and hot regions. 
‘They abound in the temperate regions of Europe and America, and 
many occur in Australia. They also grow on the tropical mountains 
of Asia and America. Some genera of Conifers, as Araucaria, Phyl- 
locladus, Microcachrys, and Arthrotaxis, are peculiar to the southern 
hemisphere. The following attain their maximum to the south of 
the tropics :—Callitris, Podocarpus, and Dacrydium. Dammara has 
one species in each hemisphere. 

The order is a very extensive one, and has been divided into the 
following sub-orders :— 


1. Abietinee, Fir and Spruce: fertile flowers in cones, with 1 or 2 inverted 


4, The point by which it is attached to the axis of the cone. 00, The two naked inverted 
ovules. m, Their upper opening or foramen to which the pollen is applied. The foramen was 
formerly described erroneously asa stigma. Fig. 843. A scale froma mature cone. e, The 
scale. %, Point of insertion. g, One of the winged seeds ; the other having been removed. 
Fig. 844. The seed cut longitudinally. u, Base of the wing. ¢, Integument. , Perisperm 
(albumen). e, Polycotyledonous embryo. Near the radicle are the remains of two other 
abortive embryos. 


598 CONIFERZ. 


ovules at the base of each scale (fig. 520, p. 292) ; embryo in the axis of fleshy 
and oily albumen, di- or poly-cotyledonous. The following are divisions of 
this tribe :— 


A. Scales 2-seeded, seeds adnate to the scale, and at length separating from 
it; anthers bilocular. 
a. Scales with a thickened apophysis, which is either entire or dimidiate. 
Pinus.—Leaves in twos, threes, fours, or fives. 
b. Scales without an apophysis. 
* Leaves solitary. S 
Abies, Picea, Tsuga. 
** Leaves fasiculated. 
Larix, Cedrus. 


B, Scales 1-seeded, seed adnate to the scale, and not separating from it, 
anthers multilocular. 
Araucaria (Hutassa). 
C. Scales 1- or many-seeded, seeds free, anthers bi- tri- or multi-locular. 
Di a, Cunninghamia 


g 


2. Cupressinese, Cypress, and Juniper; anthers 3-5, rarely 2; ovules erect ; 
fruit either an indurated cone (fig. 578, p. 317), with 4 decussate scales, 
or fleshy with the scales connected and forming a galbulus (fig. 574, p. 317) ; 
seeds 2-3-winged, rarely apterous ; embryo dicotyledonous ; leaves opposite 
or whorled. Zxzamples—Cupressus, Juniperus, Thuja, Taxodium, Callitris, 
Libocedrus, Fitzroya. 

8. Taxinee, Yew (fig. 128, p. 63) ; anthers usually bilocular, with longitudinal 
dehiscence ; fertile flowers, solitary, terminal ; ovule solitary, sessile in the 
centre of a fleshy disk, when in fruit forming a sort of drupe (fig. 538, p. 
302) ; testa fleshy ; embryo dicotyledonous. Hxamples—Taxus, Podocar- 
pus, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus, Salisburya, Torreya, Cephalotaxus. 

4. Gnetacee, Joint-fir; male flowers with a perianth, anthers uni- or quadri- 
locular, opening by a short cleft ; ovules with a projecting process formed 
from the secundine, which is exserted through the open exostoma in the form 
of a filiform tube, which expands into a stigma-like disk (endostome) ; seed 
solitary ; embryo at the apex of fleshy albumen ; radicle superior ; stems 
jointed ; zones of wood, often separated by marked cellular circles (fig. 122, 
p. 61). Examples—Guetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia. ; 


The order embraces about 33 genera and 300 species. Zuccarini enume-: 
rates 216 species of Coniferee—inithe northern hemisphere 165, and 
in the southern 51, some species being common to both hemispheres. 
The plants of this order furnish valuable timber, and yield various. 
important products, such as turpentine, pitch, and resin. The various 
kinds of Pine, Fir, Spruce, and Cedar, belong to this family. Zutassa 
(Araucaria) excelsa is the Norfolk-island Pine, famed for its size and 
for its wood. Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea is another large tree in 
the order. Its trunk sometimes attains a height of 450 feet. Abzes 
Douglasit, the Douglas-Fir, yields excellent timber. Cedrus Libani 
is the Cedar of Lebanon, the Ms, Eres, of the Bible. Cedrus 
Deodara is the Deodar or Himalayan Cedar. The name is said to be 
derived from Deva, a deity, and Dara, timber. Hooker considers the 
cedar of Lebanon, the Deodar, and the Atlantic cedar to be varieties of 


CONIFER. 599 


one species. By exudation, and partly by the aid of heat, the plants 
of this order yield various kinds of turpentine, resin, tar, and pitch. 
Common turpentine is procured from Pinus sylvestris, the Scotch Fir, 
Pinus Pinaster, the Cluster-Pine, and var. maritima, Bourdeaux Pine, 
Pinus palustris, Swamp Pine, and Pinus Teda, Loblolly or Frank- 
incense Pine. Oil of turpentine is obtained from it by distillation. 
Venice turpentine and Strasburg turpentine are the produce of Larix 
europea, the Larch, and Abies Picea (Abies or Picea pectinata), the 
Silver Fir, while Canada Balsam is collected from Abies or Picea bal- 
samea, Balm of Gilead Fir, and A. canadensis, Hemlock Spruce. 
Dammara australis, the -Kawrie-pine of New Zealand, yields a hard 
resin, and so does JD. orientalis, the Amboyna Pitch-tree. Callitris 
quadrivalvis (Thuja articulata), the Arar-tree, supplies a solid resin 
called Sandarach or Pounce, which is used to strew over manuscripts. 
Thus, or Common Frankincense, is yielded by Pinus palustris and 
Pinus Teda. Burgundy pitch is procured from Abies excelsa (Pinus 
Abies), the Norway Spruce. Pinus Pumilio gives Hungarian balsam. 
Pinus pinea, the Stone Pine (fig. 518, p. 292), is the source of Car- 
pathian balsam. Essence of Spruce, used in making Spruce-beer, is 
got by boiling in water the leaves of the Scotch Fir (Pinus syl- 
vestris) (fig. 572, p. 317), the Black Spruce (Abies nigra), and other 
species. A kind of Manna is procured from the Larch and from the 
Cedar of Lebanon. The Bark-bread of the Norwegians is prepared 
from the inner bark of Pinus sylvestris. The bark of the Larch is 
astringent, and has been used for tanning, as well as in bronchitic 
affections. Common tar is procured by the destructive distillation 
of the stems and roots of coniferous trees. It is used as an ointment in 
skin diseases, and is largely employed in shipbuilding, and for the preser- 
vation of fences. These various kinds of resin and pitch are used for 
stimulating and healing plasters, while the oil of turpentine (oleum 
terebinthine) is employed medicinally as a stimulant, diuretic, cathar- 
tic, and anthelmintic. The vapour of tar has been recommended in 
affections of the chest. The succulent cones (fig. 574, p. 317) (com- 
monly called berries) of Juniperus communis, Common Juniper, and 
the oil procured from them, are used medicinally as diuretics. The 
oil enters into the composition of the spirituous liquor called 
Hollands. The young branches and leaves of Juniperus Sabina, - 
Savin, contain an active volatile oil, which is used as an anthelmintic 
and emmenagogue. In large doses it acts as a violent irritant poison. 
The wood of Juniperus Bermudiana furnishes Pencil Cedar. J. Vir- 
giniana, the Red Cedar, yields a rubefacient oil. Thaja occidentalis 
is the common Arbor-vite of gardens. Thuja orientalis is also in 
cultivation. Cupressus sempervirens, common Cypress, yields a durable 
wood, which is supposed to be the Gopher-wood, 153 (Gopher) of the 
Bible. Podocarpus Totarra and Dacrydium taxifolium both supply 


600 CONIFERAA—CYCADACEA. 


good timber in New Zealand. Taxus baccata, the Yew, is a valuable 
timber tree. It yields resin, and its leaves and seeds are said to be 
narcotico-acrid. Salisburya has remarkable cuneate leaves, and the 
fruit of S. adiantifolia, the Ginko, is said to be eatable. Gnetum urens 
has singular stinging hairs within the episperm or outer integument 
of the seed. Welwitschia is a remarkable plant from the West Coast 
of Africa. It is not more than one foot high, and its stem is often 
four feet in diameter. The only leaves produced are the two coty- 
ledons, which last during the life of the plant, probably more than 
100 years, and they increase so as to become six feet in length and 
two or three in width. The peduncles are short, and bear terminal 
catkins with scarlet imbricated bracts, each covering a flower. 
Dr. W. R. M‘Nab considers that in the male flowers of this remark- 
able plant we have a close approach to the angiosperms, the axis of 
the flower ending in a mass of tissue, which in the female flower is 
the terminal ovule ; while in the female flower we have the truly 
gymnospermous condition, there being no carpels, but. a terminal 
ovule, the modified end of the axis of the flower, with a single ovular 
integument,—the pollen-grains being applied directly to the nake 
nucleus. ‘ 

Order 184,—Cycapacea, the Cycas Family. (Achlamyd. Diclin.) 
Flowers unisexual. Males collected into cones, the scales bearing on 
their lower surface 1-celled anthers, which are united often in sets of 
two, three, or four. Females consisting of naked ovules, placed at 
the base of flat scales, or beneath peltate ones, or seated on the mar- 
gins of altered leaves. Seeds hard and nut-like, sometimes with an 
external spongy coat; embryos 1 or 2, suspended in a central cavity ; 
albumen fleshy or mealy ; cotyledons unequal ; radicle superior, hav- 
ing a long cord-like prolongation, by which the embryo is suspended. 
—tTrees or shrubs, with cylindrical trunks, usually simple, sometimes 
dichotomous, marked with the scars of the leaves, and in many 
respects having the aspect of Palms (fig. 519, p. 292). The internal 
structure is more or less distinctly that of dicotyledons. Pitted tissue 
and spiral vessels occur. The leaves are pinnate, and their vernation 
is sometimes circinate, resembling ferns. The seeds of Macrozamia 
spiralis, called Burrawary, are considered poisonous, causing vomiting 
and stupor. The Plant is called in Sydney “ Native Palm,” and the 
leaves are used on Palm-Sunday. The seeds, when steeped in water 
for several days, and then roasted, are said to lose their poisonous 
qualities. The plants of this order are found in the temperate and 
warm regions of America and Asia, as well as at the Cape of Good 
Hope. There are 7 genera, according to authors, and 50 species. 
Lxamples—Cycas, Zamia, Dion, Encephalartos, Macrozamia, Stan- 
geria, Bowenia. 

The Cycadaceous family yields much starchy matter, along -with 


CYCADACEA——HYDROCHARIDACEAL, 601 


mucilage. From the stems of Cycas revoluta (fig. 519, p. 292) and 
C. circinalis a kind of Sago is made. A clear insipid mucilage also 
exudes from them, which hardens into a transparent gum resemb- 
ling tragacanth. Dion edule yields a kind of arrow-root in Mexico. 
Zamia pumila, and other species in the West Indies, supply an 
amylaceous matter, which has been sold as Arrow-root. The Bread- 
tree is a name applied by the Hottentots to various species of 
Encephalartos. 


Crass II.—MonocorrLeponss, Juss. ENnDoGEN#, DC. ENDOGENS AND 
Dictyocens, Lindl. Ampuisrya, End. 


In this great class the plants have a cellular and vascular system, 
the latter consisting partly of elastic spiral vessels (fig. 53, p. 17). 
The woody stem (as in Palms, fig. 134, 1, p. 68) is usually more or 
less cylindrical, simple, and unbranched. There is no true separ- 
able bark, no concentric zones, and no true pith (figs. 131, 132, p. 
65). The wood is endogenous, z.¢. increases by additions, which first 
tend towards the centre, and then curve outwards in an interlacing 
manner (fig. 133, 2, p. 66) towards the circumference, where much 
hard ligneous matter is deposited, so as to make the exterior the 
hardest part. The development of the stem usually takes place by a 
single central and terminal bud ; occasionally lateral buds are pro- 
duced (fig. 134, 2, p. 68), and at times the stem is hollow. The 
leaves are usually parallel-veined (figs. 150, p. 83 ; 188, p. 90; 210, 
p. 99). The parts of the flower are arranged in a ternary manner 
(fig. 637, p. 365), and they are often petaloid (fig. 284, p. 92), 
sometimes scaly or glumaceous. The ovules are contained in an 
ovary, and are fertilised by the application of the pollen to the 
stigma. The embryo has one cotyledon (fig. 600, p. 336), and the 
germination is endorhizal (fig. 626, p. 355). 


Sub-class I. —PETALOIDEA. 


Flowers having usually a perianth consisting either of verticil- 
late leaves, which may sometimes be séparated into calyx and corolla, 
and are often coloured (petaloid), or of a few whorled scales. Occa- 
sionally the perianth is abortive. 


a, EPIGYNE.—Ovary inferior, Flowers usually hermaphrodite, 


Order 185.—HyprocuaRiDAce#, the Frog-bit Family. (Mono- 
Epigyn.) Flowers spathaceous, unisexual, rarely §. Perianth with 
a 6-partite limb, the 3 outer segments herbaceous, and equivalent 
to the calyx, the 3 inner petaloid, and equivalent to the corolla. Sta- 
mens definite or indefinite, epigynous. Ovary inferior, 1- or many- 


602 HYDROCHARIDACEH—ORCHIDACEA, 


celled ; ovules 00, anatropal, frequently attached to parietal placentas ; 
stigmas 3-6. Fruit dry or succulent, indehiscent, uni- or multi-locu- 
lar. Seeds numerous, exalbuminous ; embryo straight, radicle remote 
from the hilum.—Floating or aquatic plants, with parallel-veined 
leaves, sometimes spiny. Chiefly found in Europe, Asia, North 
America, and Australia. The plants of this order are not remark- 
able for their properties. Some are mucilaginous and astringent.. 
Vallisneria spiralis (figs. 249, p. 173; 513, p. 283) is a dicecious 
plant, the male flowers of which, at the time of flowering, are 
detached from the mud of the water in which they grow, and 
float on the surface. At the same time the female flower develops 
a long spiral peduncle, by means of which it reaches the surface 
of the water, so as to allow the application of the pollen (p. 283). 
Vallisneria and Anacharis exhibit under the microscope the rotation 
of protoplasm in their cells. The order has been divided into two 
tribes :—1. Vallisneriez, ovary 1-celled. 2. Stratiotese, ovary many- 
celled. There are 10 known genera, according to authors, including 
20 species. Ewamples—Vallisneria, Udora, Anacharis (Elodea), Stra- 
tiotes, Hydrocharis. 

Order 186.—OrcHIDACEs, the Orchis Family. (Mono-Epigyn.) 
Flowers bisexual. Perianth adherent, herbaceous, or coloured, with 
a 6-partite limb (fig. 846 pe, pt), the segments being arranged in 2 
rows ; exterior row (fig. 845 ce), called the calyx (although Lindley 
says it is more properly the corolla, the true calyx or calyculus being 
usually abortive), consisting of 3 segments (rarely 2 by adhesion), the 
odd one of which is often next the axis by a twisting of the ovary ; 
interior row (fig. 845 ci), called the corolla (regarded by Lindley as 
petaloid stamens), consisting usually of 3 segments (very rarely 1), the 
odd one of which is called the labellum or lip (fig. 317, p. 205). This 
labellum (figs. 845, 846, 847 7) frequently differs from the other divi- 
sions of the perianth, assuming remarkable forms, being lobed, spurred 
at the base, or furnished with peculiar appendages, which are some- 
times derived from the stigma. It is sometimes divided-by contrac- 
tion, so as to exhibit three distinct portions, the lowest being the 
hypochilium (i7é, under, and xe/Aos, lip) ; the middle, the mesochilium 
(400s, middle) ; and the upper, the epichilium (é7/, upon or above). 
Stamens 3, epigynous, united in a central column along with the 
style ; the two lateral stamens are usually abortive (fig. 846 ss), the 
central one opposite the odd exterior segment being fertile (fig. 846 e) ; 
but at times the two lateral are fertile, and the central one is abortive ; 
anthers 1-2-4-celled (fig. 848) ; pollen powdery or cohering in definite 
(fig. 854) or indefinite waxy masses (pollinia) (figs. 849, 853; 387, 
p. 230), which often adhere by a caudicle (fig. 853 c) to a gland con- 
nected with the beak (rostellum) of the stigma. This gland is some- 
times naked, at other times in a sac or pouch (bursicula). Ovary 


ORCHIDACEA. 603 


inferior, l-celled (fig. 850), composed of 6 carpels, of which 3 only 
are placentiferous (Lindley); style incorporated with the column 


Gu-s--pe-® 


Phen 


Fig. 848. 


Fig. 951. Fig, 852. Fig, 854. Fig, $53. 


Figs. 845-851. Flower of Spiranthes autumnalis, to illustrate the natural order Orchida- 
cee, Fig. 845. Flower after the ovary has twisted on itself, seen laterally. o, Ovary 
with the adherent perianth. ce, Outer divisions of the perianth, called by some calyx, and 
by Lindley corolla. ci, Inner divisions of the perianth, called by some the corolla, and 
considered by Lindley as petaloid stamens. 1, The labellum or lip, being the lower of the 
three inner segments. Fig. 846. Diagram of the flower in the young state, before the: 
twisting of the ovary has taken place. a, The axis of the spike of flowers. pe, pe, pe, 
Outer perianth. pi, pi, Two divisions of the inner perianth. 1, Third division of the inner 
perianth, in this state placed next the axis. ¢, Fertile anther. ss, Two abortive anthers. 
or staminodia. o, Ovary. Fig. 847. Summit of the flower cut vertically. o, Inferior 
ovary with parietal ovules, g. 1, Labellum or lip. s, Stigma. a, anther. Fig. 848. 
Anther separated. Its inner surface shown with its two cells. Fig. 849. Granular pol- 
len-masses taken from the anther. Fig. 850. Horizontal section of the ovary, with three 
parietal placentas bearing numerous ovules. Fig. 851. A seed separated, with its exter- 
nal reticulated integument, ¢. Fig. 852. Embryo of Aceras anthropophora deprived of 
its integuments. Fig. 853. Pollen-masses (Pollinia) of Orchis maculata, with the grains. 
united in little conical masses. c, Caudicle terminated by the retinaculum and glands. 
Fig. 854. The conical masses which the pollen-grains form by their cohesion. 


604 ORCHIDACEA. 


(gynostemium, yvv4, pistil, and orjuwy, stamen); stigmas a viscid 
hollow space in front of the column (fig. 847 s), communicating directly 
with the ovary by an open canal. The upper part of the united stigmas 
is often extended into a beak-like process (rostellum). Placentas 3, 
parietal (figs. 553, p. 306; 850). Fruit a capsule, opening by 3 or 6 
valves, rarely fleshy, and indehiscent. Seeds 00, very minute, with a 
loose reticulated spermoderm (fig. 851), exalbuminous ; embryo solid, 
fleshy (fig. 852) ; large radicle next the hilum. (See a full description 
of the morphology of the flower of an Orchis at p. 373.)—Perennial 
herbs or shrubs, with fibrous or tubercular roots (fig. 101, p. 41), 
either no stem or a pseudo-bulb, entire, parallel-veined often sheathing 
leaves, and generally showy, attractive flowers. Sometimes buds are 
produced on the margins of the leaves (fig. 231, p. 118). They are 
natives of almost all parts of the world, but they abound in moist 
tropical regions. They are not found in the Arctic regions, nor in 
very dry climates. Some are terrestrial, and others are epiphytic. 
The former are commonly seen in temperate climates, the latter in 
warm regions. Disa grandiflora is found on Table Mountain at an 
elevation of 3582 feet. The only known locality for it is in a marshy 
hollow, near the eastern extremity of the summit, where it is abun- 
dant, among rushes; on the margins of small pools and streamlets, in a 
black boggy soil. Two rare species of Disa are also found there, 
Dz ferruginea and tenwifolia.. Oncidium nubigenum grows on the 
Andes, near Quito, at an elevation of 14,000 feet above the level of 
the sea, Epidendrum frigidwm occurs in Columbia at an elevation 
of 12,000 to 13,000 feet (mean temperature 46°), and is covered with 
asort of varnish. Authors enumerate 400 genera, including above 
3000 species ; of these, 17 genera and 38 species are British. Ex- 
amples—Stelis, Liparis, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Stanhopea, Vanda, 
Orchis, Ophrys, Listera, Arethusa, Neottia, and Cypripedium. 

The plants of this order are well distinguished by the peculiar 
forms of their flowers, their remarkable lip, gynandrous stamens, and 
pollen-masses. Their flowers often resemble insects, as butterflies, 
moths, bees, flies, and spiders; or birds, as doves and eagles; or 
reptiles, as snakes, lizards, and frogs. The colours and spots on the 
perianth sometimes give the appearance of the skins of quadrupeds, as 
the leopard and tiger. These resemblances are often indicated in the 
generic and specific names. The labellum, in some instances, displays 
peculiar irritability (p. 387). 

Mucilaginous properties occur in many of the plants of ‘this order. 
Some are aromatic and fragrant ; others are antispasmodic and tonic. 
The tuberous roots of some yield a nutritious substance called Salep, 
which consists chiefly of bassorin, some soluble gum, and a little 
starch. The following orchids yield Salep :—Orchis mascula, O. papilt- 
onacea, O, Morio, 0. militaris, O. coriophora, and O. longicrwris, as well 


ORCHIDACEA—ZINGIBERACEA OR SCITAMINEA. 605 


as Eulophia herbacea and campestris. Salep forms an article of diet 
fitted for convalescents, when boiled with water or milk. Orchis mas- 
cula is supposed to be the “long purples” of Shakspeare. The roots 
of Aplectrum hyemale contain a very glutinous matter, and hence the 
plant is called in America Putty-wort. The fleshy pod. like fruit of 
Vanilla planifolia, and V. aromatica, and other species, constitutes the 
substance called Vanilla, which is used in confectionery, and in 
flavouring chocolate. It contains an oil and much benzoic acid. 
Vanilla comes into the markets chiefly through France. In 1872 
nearly 60,000 Ibs. of Vanilla were imported into that country. A kind 
of Vanille called Chica in Panama is procured from a species of 
Sobralia. A blue colouring matter has been found in some of the 
Orchids, The odour of many of them is very fragrant; sometimes 
it is oppressive ; at other times, as in Malachadenia clavata, it is very 
fetid, resembling carrion. 

Order 187.—ZincrBERAcEs# or Scrraminea, the Ginger Family. 
(Mono-Epigyn.) Perianth superior, in 2 whorls ; outer (calyx) tubu- 
lar, 3-lobed, short ; inner (corolla) tubular, elongated, 3-parted, seg- 
ments nearly equal. Stamens in 2 whorls; outer sterile, petaloid, 
having the appearance of a 3-parted corolline whorl, with the inter- 
mediate segment (labellum) larger than the rest, and often 3-lobed, 
sometimes the lateral segments are inconspicuous or nearly abortive ; 
inner stamens 3, the two lateral being abortive, the intermediate one 
opposite the labellum, fertile ; filament not petaloid, often prolonged 
beyond the anther ; anther 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary 
3-celled, or imperfectly so; ovules several, anatropal, attached to a 
placenta in the axis ; style filiform; stigma dilated, hollow. Fruit 
usually a 3-celled capsule, sometimes baccate. Seeds roundish or 
angular, sometimes with an arillus; embryo enclosed in a vitellus’ 
(the remains of the embryo-sac), surrounded by farinaceous albumen, 
which is deficient near the hilum.—Herbs with a creeping rhizome, 
and simple sheathing leaves, having parallel veins proceeding from the 
midrib to the margin. The flowers arise from membranous spa- 
thaceous bracts. Natives of tropical countries, By far the greater 
number inhabit various parts of the East Indies; some are found in 
Africa, and a few in America. They form a part of the singular Flora 
of Japan, Authors mention 31 genera and 250 species. Zxamples 
—Zingiber, Curcuma, Amomum, Hedychium, Renealmia. 

Plants often with showy flowers, having aromatic stimulant pro- 
perties, which reside chiefly in their rhizome or root, and in their . 
seeds. Some yield starchy matter. The rhizome of Zing giber officinale 
(Amomum Zingiber) constitutes the Ginger of commerce, which is 
imported from the East and West Indies. In the young state the 
rhizomes are fleshy and slightly aromatic, and they are then used as 
preserves ; while in a more advanced state, the aroma. is fully deve- 


606 ZINGIBERACEZ OR SCITAMINEA, 


loped, their texture is more woody, and they are then fit for ordinary 
ginger, When dried, after immersion in hot water, they form Black 
ginger; when simply dried jin the sun, after being cleaned, they 
receive the name of White ginger. The rhizome contains an acrid 
resin and volatile oil, starch and gum. It is used as a tonic and car- 
minative, in the form of powder, syrup, and tincture. The kinds of 
ginger in the market are Jamaica (the best), Cochin, Bengal, and 
African. Curcwma longa, a native of Hastern Asia, furnishes Turmeric, 
This consists of the branches of the rhizome, or root-stock. Its 
powder is lemon-yellow, and it is used as a dye-stuff. It contains 
starch, an acrid volatile oil, and a yellow colouring matter called 
Curcumin. It is employed medicinally as an aromatic carminative, 
and, as a condiment, it enters into the composition of curry-powder. 
The root-stock of Alpinia officinarwm, a Chinese plant, constitutes the 
Galangal root of commerce, which has the same properties as ginger. 
A, Galanga also supplies a similar rhizome. They have been used by 
the Indian doctors in cases of dyspepsia and in the treatment of 
coughs. Various “species of Amomwm, Elettaria, and Renealmia, 
appear to furnish the Cardamoms of the shops, which consist of the 
oval trivalvular. capsules containing the seeds. lettaria Cardamomum 
is the source of Malabar Cardamoms. The plant grows in the moun- 
tain forests of North Canara, Coorg, and the Wynaad, on the Malabar 
coast, from 2800 to 5000 feet above the level of the sea. The fruit 
is ovoid and three-sided. The Malabar name for the plant is 
Elettari. A variety, formerly called E. major, grows in Ceylon. 
Amomum Cardamomum supplies the round Cardamoms of Java, 
Sumatra, and Siam. A. xanthioides is the wild or bastard Carda- 
mom of Siam; while Amomum aromaticum is the Bengal Cardamom.. 
Amomum maximum, another Java species, furnishes a kind of Carda- 
mom. The seeds of these plants are used as aromatic tonics and 
carminatives. Their active ingredient is a pungent volatile oil. 
Grains of Paradise are the seeds of Amomum Melequeta, Melegueta 
Pepper, and have the same properties as Cardamoms. The plant is 
widely distributed in tropical West Africa. It is also cultivated in 
Demerara. East Indian Arrow-root is procured in part from Curcwma 
angustifolia, and a similar kind of starch is yielded by Curcuma 
Zerumbet, C. leucorhiza, and Alpinia Galanga. 

Order 188.—MaranTace® or CANNACES, the Arrow-root Family. 
(Mono-Epigyn.) Perianth superior, in 2 whorls ; outer (calyx) 3-lobed, 
short; inner (corolla) tubular, elongated, 3-parted, segments nearly 
equal. Stamens in 2 whorls ; outer sterile, petaloid, irregular, resemb- 
ling a tubular trifid corolla, with one of the lateral segments different 
from the others ; inner petaloid, 2 sterile, and 1 lateral fertile; fila- 
ment of the latter petaloid, entire, or 2-lobed ; anther on the margin 
of the filament, 1-celled, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary 3-celled, 


MARANTACEZ OR CANNACEZ—MUSACES, 607 


rarely 1-celled ; ovules solitary and erect, or numerous and attached 
to the axis ; style petaloid or swollen ; stigma either the naked apex 
of the style, or hollow, hooded, and incurved. Fruit a 3-celled cap- 
sule, or baccate, 1-celled and l-seeded. Seeds round, without arillus : 
embryo straight, in hard, somewhat:floury albumen, without a vitellus 3 
radicle lying against the hilum (fig. 626, p. 355).—Herbaceous plants, 
with tuberous rhizomes, and leaves and flowers, similar to those of the 
Ginger Family, They are natives of tropical America and Africa; 
several are found in India; none are known in a wild state beyond 
the tropics. Authors enumerate 9 genera, including 164 species. 
Examples—Maranta, Canna, Phrynium. 

The plants of the order contain much starch in the rhizomes and 
roots. They are destitute of aroma. Arrow-root is the produce of 
the tuberous rhizomata of Maranta arundinacea and M. indica. The 
former grows in the tropical parts of America and in the West Indian 
Islands ; the latter in Bengal, Java, and the Philippines. The best 
West Indian arrow-root comes from Bermuda, Its globules are much 
smaller and less glistening than those of tous-les-mois or of potato starch. 
Amylaceous matter of a similar kind is produced from other species 
of Maranta, as well as from species of Canna. Tous-les-mois is the 
produce of Canna coccinea, C, Achiras, C, edulis, etc. Hanbury thinks 
that the name of this kind of starch is a corruption of Touloula, a 
Carib designation of Canna, The seeds of Cannas are round and 
black, and are commonly known under the name of Indian shot. 
They have been used as a substitute for coffee. Calathea zebrina, 
Zebra plant, is so called from the peculiar variegation of its leaves, 
which have a velvety aspect. Barnéoud states that the two outer 
verticils of the flowers in Cannas are always developed, one after the 
other, precisely like the calyx and corolla; while the verticil, some- 
times called petals, is really metamorphosed stamens, and hence its 
irregular aspect. 

Order 189.—Musacza@, the Banana Family. (Mono-Epigyn.) 
Perianth 6-cleft, adherent, petaloid, in 2 whorls, more or less irregular. 

_ Stamens 6, inserted on the middle of the segments of the perianth, 
some usually abortive ; anthers linear, dithecal, introrse, often with a 
membranous petaloid crest. Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; ovules numer- 
ous, anatropal ; style simple; stigma usually 3-lobed. Fruit either a 
3-celled capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence, or succulent and indehis- 
cent. Seeds sometimes surrounded by hairs; testa usually crusta- 
-ceous ; embryo erect, in the axis of mealy albumen ; radicle touching 
the hilum.—Plants without true aerial stems, or nearly so, having 
shoots proceeding from subterranean root-stocks, which form spurious 
stems, composed of the sheathing leaf-stalks. Veins in the limb of the 
leaf parallel, and proceeding in a curved manner from the midrib to 
the margin (fig. 150, p. 83). Flowers bursting through spathes. 


608 MUSACEA—IRIDACEA, 


Natives of warm and tropical regions. Species of Strelitzia are found 
in 8, Africa, and of Ravenala in Madagascar. There are 5 known 
genera and 21 species. Hxamples.—Musa, Strelitzia, Ravenala. 

The plants of this order furnish a large supply of nutritious fruit, 
and their leaves afford valuable fibres. Spiral vessels abound in 
them. Musa sapientum and Cavendishii furnish different kinds of 
Banana, while I paradisiaca yields the Plantain. These fruits in 
their ripe state contain much starchy matter. From their spurious 
stems the fibres of the spiral vessels may be pulled out in such quantity 
as to be used for tinder. The ribbon-like fibre in these vessels is 
composed of several threads united together (pleiotracheze) (fig. 53, 
p- 17). The produce of the Banana is of great value to the inhabit- 
ants of warm countries. The same extent of ground which in wheat. 
would only maintain two persons, will yield sustenance under the Banana 
to fifty. It has been estimated that a Banana plant in one year will 
produce 3 bunches of fruit, each weighing 44 lbs. Musa textilis yields 
a kind of fibre which is used in India in the manufacture of fine 
muslins ; Manilla Hemp is also the produce of this plant. The woody 
tissues of many species of Musa is used for manufacture in warm 
climates. The young shoots of the Banana are used as a culinary 
vegetable. The juice of the fruit and the lymph of the stem of Musa. 
are slightly astringent and diaphoretic. The succulent interior of the 
stem of an Abyssinian species, Musa Ensete, is eaten ; its fruit is dry 
and full of seeds. Urania or Ravenala speciosa is the Water-tree 
of the Dutch, or the Traveller's tree of Madagascar, so called on 
account of the great quantity of water which flows from its stem or 
leaf-stalk when cut across. The juice of the fruit of Urania is used 
for dyeing. 

Order 190.—Ir1pacea, the Iris or Flower de Luce Family. (Jfono- 
Epigyn.) Perianth adherent, 6-parted, coloured, in 2, often unequal 
whorls (figs. 855, 856). Stamens 3, epigynous, opposite the outer 
segments of the perianth (figs. 855, 856 ¢ e); filaments distinct or 
monadelphous ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse. Ovary inferior (fig. 856 0), 
3-celled ; ovules numerous (fig. 856 g), anatropal; style 1; stigmas 3, often 
petaloid (fig. 856 s), sometimes bilabiate, Fruit a 3-celled, 3-valved 
capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence (fig. 544, p. 304). Seeds numerous ; 
embryo enclosed in horny or fleshy albumen ; radicle next the hilum 
(fig. 857).—Herbs, rarely undershrubs, with rhizomes or underground 
corms, having their leaves often equitant or distichous, and their flowers. 
spathaceous. Natives chiefly of warm and temperate regions, They 
abound at the Cape of Good Hope. The Crocus occurs only in Europe 
and Asia. There are 55 known genera and 550 species. Examples 
—hris, Sisyrinchium, Witsenia, Gladiolus, Ixia, Crocus. 

Some of the plants have fragrant and stimulant, and some acrid, 
rhizomes and corms; others yield dyes. The root-stock of Iris ger- 


IRIDACEA:, 609 


manica, I, pallida, and I, florentina yield orris root, which has a pleasant 
odour like violets, and an acrid taste, depending on the presence of 
a volatile oil. It is imported from Leghorn, Trieste, and Mogador. 
Orris-root is used chiefly for giving a pleasant odour to the breath, 
and in perfumery and tooth-powder. Orris-root starch is used for 
hair-powder. Crocus sativus, the n373 (Karcom) of the Old Testament, 
furnishes the colouring material called Saffron. It consists of the 
stigmata, which have a fine deep-orange colour. These stigmata are 
either dried in the loose state, forming Hay Saffron, or compressed 


‘ 
mm 


Fig. 856. Fig. 857. 


into masses, constituting Cake Saffron. The yellow colouring ingre- 
dient is Polychroit, which possesses the property of being totally 
destroyed by the action of the solar rays, and of forming blue tints 
when treated with sulphuric and nitric acid. Saffron contains an active 
volatile oil, and it has been used in the form of tincture and syrup, as 
an emmenagogue and antispasmodic. The stigmata of Crocus autwmnalis ' 
and ©. odorus also supply saffron, The roasted seeds of Zris pseuda- 
corus have been used as a substitute for coffee. - 


Figs. 855-857. Organs of fructification of Iris germanica, to illustrate the natural order 
Tridacez. Fig. 855. Diagram of the flower, showing six divisions of the perianth in two 
verticils, three extrorse stamens, and the 3-celled capsule with numerous ovules. a, Posi- 
tion of the axis of inflorescence. Fig. 856. Vertical section of the flower. ce, Outer divi- 
sions of the coloured perianth. ci, Inner divisions of the perianth. ¢, Tube of the perianth 
attached to the ovary. o, Inferior 3-celled ovary. g, Numerous anatropal ovules. ¢ e, 
Stamens. ss, Petaloid stigmas. Fig. 857. Seed separated and cut longitudinally. ¢, 
Integuments (spermoderm). p, Perisperm. e, Embryo enclosed in the perisperm. m, 
Micropyle (foramen), : 

2k 


610 BURMANNIACEA—HAMODORACEE—DIOSCOREACE. 


Order 191.—BurManniacem, the Burmannia Family. (Mono- 
Epigyn.) Perianth coloured, tubular, 6-cleft, the three outer segments 
(calyx) often keeled at the back, the three inner (petals) minute. 
Stamens 3, inserted in the tube of the perianth and opposite its inner 
segments, sometimes with 3 alternating sterile filaments; anthers 
dithecal, opening transversely, with a fleshy connective. Ovary in- 
ferior, either 1- or 3-celled, in the latter case the cells opposite the 
outer segments of the perianth ; ovules 00; style simple ; stigmas 3. 
Fruit a’ 1-3-celled, 3-valved capsule, crowned by the persistent peri- 
anth. Seeds 00, minute, striated.—Herbs, with radical leaves and 
bisexual flowers. Natives of moist grassy places in tropical regions. 
They have no properties of importance. Apostasia is placed by some 
in this order, while by others it is put in a distinct order—Apo- 
STASIACEHZ. There are about 13 known genera and 40 species.- 
Examples—Burmannia, Apteria, Apostasia ? 

Order 192—Hzmoporace#, the Blood-root Family. (Mono- 
Epigyn.) Perianth petaloid, more or less woolly, 6-cleft. Stamens 
inserted on the perianth, either 3, and opposite the inner segments of 
the perianth, or 6; anthers introrse. Ovary inferior, usually 3-celled, 
rarely 1-celled; ovules 1-2 or numerous; style simple; stigma un- 
divided. Fruit a 3-valved capsule, sometimes indehiscent. Seeds 
either definite or 00, sometimes peltate; embryo in cartilaginous 
albumen.—Herbs with fibrous roots, equitant distichous leaves, and 
bisexual flowers. They are found in various parts of the world, more 
especially in the warm parts of South America, at the Cape of Good 
Hope, as well as in North America and Australia. Lindley mentions 
13 genera and 50 species. Hxamples—Heemodorum, Anigosanthus, 
Vellozia, Barbacenia. 

The plants receive the name of Blood-root, from the red colour of 
their roots, which are used for dyeing. Vellozias, Tree Lilies, give a 
decided feature to the vegetation of the mountains of Minas Geraes in 
Brazil. Their trunks are covered by the withered remains of the 
leaves, and their branches are dichotomous, and bear tufts of leaves 
at the extremities. The outer surface of their stems is covered thickly 
with numerous adpressed rootlets. 

Order 193.—Drtoscorzaces, the Yam tribe. (Mono-Epigyn.) 
Flowers unisexual. Perianth in 6 divisions. &. Stamens 6, 
inserted into the base of the perianth ; anthers introrse, with longi- 
tudinal dehiscence. 9. Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; ovules 1-2, ana- 
tropal ; style bifid; stigmas undivided. Fruit a compressed trilo- 
cular capsule, with 2 cells, sometimes abortive, occasionally fleshy 
and indehiscent. Seeds compressed, winged or wingless, in the suc- 
culent fruit, ovate; embryo small, near the hilum, lying in a large 
cavity of cartilaginous albumen—Twining shrubs, with large epigeal 
or hypogeal tubers, alternate, sometimes opposite, slightly reticulated 


DIOSCOREACE:—AMARYLLIDACEA. 611. 


leaves, and small, spiked, bracteated flowers. Natives chiefly of 
tropical countries ; a few only found in temperate regions. There are 
6 genera, according to authors, and 100 species. Examples—Dioscorea, 
Tamus. 

Although farinaceous matter exists in the tubers of many species, 
yet there is a prevalent acridity throughout the order. Various 
species of Dioscorea, as D. alata, sativa, and aculeata, produce the 
tubers called Yams, which are used in warm countries as a substitute 
for the potato. The growth of yams is very remarkable. A tuber 
of D. alata, 1 lb. in weight, was planted at Madras in June, and 
lifted at the end of nine months, when the weight was found to be 
274 Ibs. Testudinaria Elephantipes is the Tortoise plant of the Cape, 
or Elephant’s-foot, so called on account of its peculiar shortened and 
thickened stem (p. 65). Tamus communis, Black Bryony, is common 
in hedges in England. It produces red succulent fruit, and has a 
large root, which is acrid. This acridity does not extend to the young 
suckers, which may be eaten with impunity. The acridity of the order 
sometimes manifests itself in purgative qualities, 

Order 194.—AMARYLLIDACER, the Amaryllis Family. (Mono- 
Epigyn.) (Fig. 275, p. 186.) Perianth petaloid, regular, 6-cleft, the 
outer segments overlapping the inner. Stamens 6, inserted in the 
perianth, sometimes cohering by the dilated bases, and forming a kind 
of cup ; occasionally there are additional sterile stamens, which some- 
times form a corona above the tube of the perianth ; anthers introrse. 
Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; ovules 00, anatropal; style 1; stigma 3- 
lobed. Fruit either a 3. celled, 3-valved capsule, with loculicidal 
dehiscence, or baccate. Seed with a thin or thick, or black and 
brittle spermoderm ; albumen fleshy ; embryo nearly straight ; radicle 
next the hilum. —Usually bulbous plants, sometimes with fibrous 
roots ; leaves ensiform, with parallel veins ; flowers spathaceous ; stem 
sometimes woody and tall. Natives chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope, 
but species are found in Europe, East and West Indies, South America, 
and Australia, Lindley enumerates 68 genera and 400 species, and 
he divides them into 4 tribes :—1, Amaryllez, bulbs, flowers without 
a corona. 2. Narcissez, bulbs, flowers with a corona. 3. Alstré- 
meriez, fibrous roots, outer segments of the perianth different in form 
from the inner. 4. Agavez, fibrous roots, both segments of the 
perianth alike. Ezamples—Amaryllis, Galanthus, Crinum, Narcissus, 
Alstrémeria, Agave. 

The bulbs of many plants of this order have narcotic poisonous 
qualities. Some of them act as emetics, others are used in the pre- 
paration of a kind of intoxicating spirit. The tough fibres of some 
are used for flax. The root of Hemanthus toxicarius is poisonous. 
The flowers of the Daffodil (Narcissus pseudo-narcissus) are also said to 
be poisonous. The fibres of Agave americana, American Aloe, constitute 


612 AMARYLLIDACEAA—HYPOXIDACEA:—BROMELIACEA. 


Pita flax. This plant does not flower often, but when flowering 
begins it proceeds with great rapidity and vigour. Its roots are 
sometimes used to adulterate Sarza. Its juice is fermented so as to 
form an intoxicating beverage. Agave Saponaria is used in Mexico 
for washing. The bulbs of Narcissus poeticus, N. Jonquilla, N. odorus, 
N. pseudo-narcissus, N, Tazetta, and of some species of Pancratium, are 
emetic. The Guernsey Lily is also reputed poisonous. Some Alstré- 
merias are diuretic. In Alstrémerias (fig. 275, p. 186) the leaves are 
twisted, so that what should be the upper surface becomes the lower. 
In Narcissus the corona or crown of abortive filaments projects beyond 
the flower; while in Pancratium the dilated filaments of the fertile 
stamens unite together, and are included within the perianth. Many 
ornamental garden plants belong to the order. Some have supposed 
that Sternbergia lutea is the Lily of the fields referred to by Christ. 
The snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) and the snowflake (Leucojum vernum) 
belong to this order. 

Order 195.—Hypoxtpacr, the Hypoxis Family. (Mono-Epigyn.) 
Perianth petaloid, superior, usually 6-parted, regular. Stamens 6, 
inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth, filaments dis- 
tinct ; anthers introrse. Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; ovules numerous, 
amphitropal ; style simple ; stigma 3-lobed. Fruit indehiscent, some- 
times succulent, 1-2-3-celled. Seeds 00, with a lateral hilum and a 
beaked caruncle ; testa black, and crustaceous ; embryo straight, in 
the axis of fleshy albumen ; radicle remote from the hilum.—Herba- 
ceous and usually stemless plants, with tuberous and fibrous roots, 
radical plaited leaves, and simple or branched scapes. Natives of 
warm countries. Some have bitter roots, others have edible tubers. 
There are 5 known genera, including 60 species. Haamples—Hypoxis, 
Curculigo. 

Order 196.— Brometiacea, the Pineapple Family. (Jono- 
Perigyn.) Perianth tubular, 6-divided, in 2 verticils; outer whorl 
(calyx) persistent, more or less adherent to the ovary ; inner petaloid, 
marcescent or deciduous, with imbricated estivation. Stamens 6, 
inserted into the base of the segments of the perianth ; anthers in- 
trorse. Ovary either free or partially adherent, 3-celled ; ovules 00, 
anatropal; style single; stigma 3-lobed or entire, often twisted. 
Fruit capsular or succulent (figs. 280, p. 190 ; 570, p. 316), 3-celled. 
Seeds 00; embryo minute, curved or straight, lying in the base of 
mealy albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Stemless or short-stemmed 
plants, with rigid, channelled leaves, which are often spiny at the 
margin, and are covered with scurfy matter. Natives of the warm 
parts of America chiefly. There are 30 genera, according to authors, 
and 170 species. Examples—Bromelia, Ananassa, Tillandsia, Bona- 
partea. 

The plants of this order are all more or less epiphytic, being able 


BROMELIACE4—LILIACEA. 613 


to grow without any direct attachment to the soil. In hothouses 
they are frequently kept suspended in moistened moss. Some of the 
Tillandsias are hung from balconies in South America as air-plants. 
Tillandsia usneoides has the appearance of the Beard-moss (Alec- 
toria jubata, a British tree-lichen), and is used for stuffing cushions, 
etc. The plant has been called Tree-beard, Old-man’s-beard, or. 
Black Moss, The leaves of 7il/andsias frequently contain much water 
in their hollowed-out bases. The fruit of Ananassa sativa is well known 
as the Pine-apple or Ananas (fig. 280, p. 190). It is an anthocarp- 
ous fruit, consisting of numerous flowers and bracts united together, 
and becoming succulent. The fruit is more or less acid in the wild 
state, but when cultivated it becomes sweet and highly aromatic. 
The fibres of the leaves are used in the manufacture of fine muslins. 
The woody fibres of many Bromelias are used in manufactures. Bro- 
melia Pinguin is used as a vermifuge in the West Indies. Its ovaries 
do not combine into one mass, and therefore illustrate well the forma- 
tion of the Pine-apple. The crown of the Pine-apple consists of the 
leaves arising from the prolonged axis (fig. 570, p. 316 f) 


b. Hypocyn#£,—Ovary superior, Flowers usually hermaphrodite, 


Order 197.—Litiace#, the Lily Family. (Mono-Perigyn. and 
Mono-Hypog.) Flowers usually bisexual. Perianth coloured, in 2 
rows, regular, with 6 divisions (figs. 283, 284, p. 192; 858, 859). 
Stamens 6 (fig. 637, p. 365), perigynous, inserted into the segments 


Fig. 858. Fig. 859. Fig. 860. Fig. 861. 


of the perianth (figs. 283, p. 192; 858, 860); anthers introrse (fig. 
860 ¢). Ovary free, 3-celled (fig. 859) ; ovules 00; style 1; stigma 
simple or 3-lobed (figs. 283, 284, p. 192; 860s). Fruit 3-celled, 


Figs. 858-861. Organs of fructification of Scilla autumnalis, to illustrate the natural 
order Liliacez. Fig. 858. Flower seen from above. ce, Outer verticil of the perianth 
(calyx). ci, Inner verticil of the perianth (corolla). Fig. 859. Diagram of the flower, 
showing three outer and three inner leaves of the perianth, six alternating stamens in two 
rows, and three carpels of the ovary with, the ovules. Fig. 860. Vertical section of the 
flower. cc, Perianth. e, Stamens. 0, Ovary. . s, Style and stigmas. g, Ovules attached 
to a placenta in the axis. Fig. 861. Seed separated and cut lengthwise. ¢, Integument. 
p, Perisperm. e, Embryo. 


614 LILIACEA. 


either succulent or dry and capsular. Seeds numerous, packed one 
above the other in 1 or 2 rows (fig. 860); embryo in the axis of 
fleshy albumen (fig. 861).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with bulbs (figs. 
224-226, p. 115), or tubers, or aborescent stems, or rhizomes (fig. 
107, p. 47); leaves not articulated, usually narrow, with parallel 
veins. They are found both in temperate and tropical climates. In 
warm regions some of them are arborescent, as in the case of Drace- 
nas ; others are very succulent, as species of Aloe. The order has not 
been sufficiently defined, and there are still many differences of opinion 
as to its limits. Under it are included by some the following tribes :— 


1. Tulipez, Tulip tribe : bulbous plants, segments. of perianth scarcely adherent 
in a tube, testa pale and soft. 

. Hemerocallidez, Day-lily tribe : bulbous plants, with a tubular perianth, testa 
pale and soft. 

. Scillez or Allie, the Squill and Onion tribe: bulbous (figs. 224-226, p. 115), 
with the testa black and brittle. ° 

. Anthericez or Asphodelee, Asphodel tribe: not bulbous, roots fascicled (fig. 
100, p. 41) or fibrous, leaves not coriaceous nor permanent. 

. Convallaries, Lily of the Valley tribe: stem developed as a rhizome or tuber 
(fig. 107, p. 47). 

. Asparagez, Asparagus tribe: stem usually fully developed, arborescent, in 
some cases branched, leaves often coriaceous and permanent. 

. Aloinee, Aloe tribe: stem usually developed, arborescent, leaves succulent. 

. Aphyllanthez, Grass-tree tribe : having a rush-like habit and membranous im- 
bricated bracts. 

. Conantherez, Conanthera tribe: stemless herbs of Peru and Chili, with the 
perianth more or less adherent, ovary being partially inferior. 

. Wachendorfiex, Wachendorfia tribe: ovary superior, flowers triandrous, leaves 
somewhat equitant ; allied to Hamodora, 

. Eviospermez, Eriospermum tribe: stemless plants of South Africa; seeds 
covered with long silky hairs. 

. Aspidistree, Aspidistra tribe : Japanese and Asiatic plants ; stemless ; leaves 
radical ; flowers in spikes, resembling Aracee. 

13. Ophiopogonew, Ophiopogon tribe: Indian and Japanese plants ; stemless 

tufted herbs, sheathing leaves, simple scapes, ovary sub-adherent. 


oC APN DMD OD BP WH wD 


ee 
Db FE oS 


Lindley enumerates 155 genera, including 1250 species. Hxamples— 
Tulipa, Lilium ; Hemerocallis, Phormium ; Scilla, Allium ; Antheri- 
cum, Asphodelus ; Convallaria ; Asparagus, Dracena; Aloe; Aphyl- 
lanthes, Xanthorrhea; Conanthera; Wachendorfia ; Eriospermum ; 
Aspidistra ; Ophiopogon. 

Many of the plants of this order are showy garden flowers, such as 
Tulips, Lilies, Fritillaries, Day-lilies (Hemerocallis), Tuberoses (Polian- 
thes tuberosa), and Dog-tooth-violets (Erythronium Dens-canis),etc, Some 
of them are used medicinally as purgatives, stimulants, emetics, and 
diaphoretics. Some yield valuable fibres, others supply resinous matter. 
The bulb of Scilla or Squilla (Urginea) maritima supplies the officinal 
squill, The plant grows on the sandy coasts of the Mediterranean. 
Its bulbs vary in weight from half-a-pound to four or five pounds. In 
their fresh state they are very acrid. They contain a bitter crystalline 


LILIACEA. 615 


principle called Scillitina. Squill is used medicinally in the form of 
powder, vinegar, syrup, and tincture, as an emetic, diaphoretic, expec- 
torant, and diuretic. The drug called Aloes is the inspissated juice 
of the leaves of various species of Aloe, as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrina, 
indica, rubescens, arabica, lingueformis, and Commelini. It is imported 
under the names of Socotrine,; East Indian or Hepatic, Barbados, 
Cape and Caballine Aloes. It contains a substance called Aloin, 
which some regard as its active principle. Aloes is used medicinally 
as a cathartic, acting chiefly on the large intestines and on the rectum. 
Aloe dichotoma is an arborescent species of South Africa, 30 feet high 
and 12 feet in girth ; it is called Kokerboon or Quiver-tree. Baker 
thinks that the species of Aloe are probably only indigenous in Southern 
and Eastern Africa. Aloe vulgaris is, however, widely distributed in 
the East and West Indies, where it is cultivated as the source of 
Barbados aloes, Aloe Barbere is a tall Kaffrarian species. The bulb 
of Allium sativwm, Garlic, is used as an irritant, stimulant, and 
diuretic. It is the DW (shoom) of the Bible, the cxégodov of the 
Greeks, The bulb of Allium Cepa, the Onion, the bya (betzal) of the 
Bible, is used in the same way as garlic, and so is the bulb of Allium 
Porrum, the Leek, the -yn (chatzir) of the Bible (figs. 224, 225, 
p. 115). Some suppose that the leek is a cultivated form of Allium 
Ampeloprasum. Besides the Onion and Leek, several species of Allium, 
under the names of Chive (A. Schenoprasum), Shallot (A. ascalonicum), 
and Rocambole (A. Scorodoprasum), are used as articles of diet. These 
plants contain free phosphoric acid, and a sulphuretted oil which is in 
a great measure dissipated by boiling or roasting. In the Oregon and 
Missouri districts of North America the bulb of Gamassia esculenta, 
Gamass or Squamash, is also employed in a similar manner. It is 
called by the Indians Biscuit-root. The turios or young shoots sent 
up from the underground stem of Asparagus officinalis (fig. 129, p. 64) 
are the parts employed in cooking. The bulbs of species of Lilium, 
found in the east of Siberia, are eaten like potatoes. Fibres are pro- 
cured from Phormium tenax, New Zealand Flax, and from the species 
of Yucca, Adam’s Needle (fig. 255, p. 176). Dracena Draco, and other 
species, yield an astringent resin called Dragon’s-blood. The Dracenas 
often branch in a dichotomous manner, and attain a large size. The 
Grass-tree of New South Wales, Yanthorrhea Hastile, gives a peculiar 
feature to the vegetation of that country. It yields a yellow gum-like 
substance. The base of the inner leaves of some Grass-trees is used 
as food. Some of the Lilies have bulbils or bulblets in the axils of 
their leaves (fig. 230, p. 117). In the Crown-Imperial there is a 
nectariferous depression in the base of the segments of the perianth 
(fig. 333, p. 209). Liliwm chalcedonicwm is said to be the Lilies of: 
the field, ro xgive rov dygov, mentioned in Scripture. Dr, Tristram 
suggests that Anemone coronaria, one of the Ranunculacee, is 


616 MELANTHACE. 


probably the plant referred to. Hyacinthus orientalis is the common 
cultivated Hyacinth, of which the Haarlem florists had at one time 
upwards of 2000 varieties. The mania for Tulip bulbs was formerly 
carried to a great extent, and the price given for approved kinds was 
enormous. Many hundred varieties of tulips are known. Cordyline 
australis, the Ti of New Zealand, and C. Banksii, yield fibres. 

Order 198.—Mutanruacea, the Colchicum Family. (Mono- 
Perigyn.) Perianth petaloid, in 6 pieces, which are sometimes slightly 
coherent, usually involute in zstivation. Stamens 6; anthers usually 
extrorse. Ovary 3-celled ; ovules numerous ; style 3-parted ; stigmas, 
3, undivided. Fruit a 3-celled capsule, with septicidal or loculicidal 
dehiscence. Seeds with a membranous spermoderm ; albumen dense 
fleshy ; embryo very minute.—Plants with bulbs, tubers (fig. 110, 
p. 48), or fibrous roots, having parallel-veined leaves, sheathing at the 
base. The flowers are sometimes polygamous. They are natives of 
various parts of the globe, but are most abundant in northern countries, 
The order has been divided into three sub-orders :—1. Veratrez or 
Melanthes, rhizome fibrous, dehiscence of capsule septicidal, flowers 
frequently unisexual. 2. Colchicee, rhizome bulbous, dehiscence 
septicidal, 3. Uvulariew, rhizome bulbous or fibrous, dehiscence 
loculicidal. There are 34 known genera and 130 species. Examples 
—Melanthium, Asagrea, Veratrum, Tofieldia, Narthecium; Col- 
chicum ; Uvularia. 

The plants of the order have in general poisonous properties. Many 
are acrid, purgative, and emetic, and some are narcotic. Among the 
medicinal plants of the order, the most important is Colchicum autum- 
nale, Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus. It is found in England 
and Ireland, and in the greater part of Middle and Southern Europe. 
On the Swiss Alps it ascends to 5500 feet. The corm (fig. 110, 
p. 48) and the seeds are the officinal parts. They contain a peculiar 
alkaloid called Colchicin, which seems to be analogous to Veratrine. 
Colchicum in large doses acts as a narcotico-acrid poison. In medi- 
cinal doses, in the form of extract, vinegar, tincture, and wine, it is 
used in the cure of gout and rheumatism. It is sedative, cathartic, 
and diuretic. Colchicum variegatum, according to Planchon, is pro- 
bably the true Hermodactyle of the Greek and Arabian physicians, 
who used it for diseases of the joints. The rhizome of Veratrum album, 
the White Hellebore of the Greeks, is an irritant narcotic poison, its 
properties being due to the presence of an alkaloid called Veratrine. It 
has been used as an emetic and purgative, especially in mania, and it 
has been administered as a remedy for gout. Cevadilla is the fruit of 
Asagrea officinalis, a native of Mexico, The fruit and seeds contain 
-the alkaloid veratrine, in combination with a peculiar fatty acid called 
cevadic or sabadillic acid. Cevadilla or Cebadilla is used in cases of 
neuralgia and rheumatism. 


SMILACEA—TRILLIACEAL. 617 


Order 199.—Sminacra, the Sarsaparilla Family. (Mono-Perigyn. ) 
Flowers bisexual or polygamous. Perianth petaloid, 6-parted. 
Stamens 6, inserted into the base of the perianth, rarely hypogynous, 
Ovary free, 3-celled ; cells uni- or multi-ovulate ; ovules orthotropal ; 
styles usually 3-cleft; stigmas 3. Fruit globular and_ succulent. 
Seeds with fleshy, cartilaginous albumen ; embryo very small ; usually 
distant from the hilum.—Herbs or undershrubs, often climbing, with 
netted-veined leaves. Natives of the temperate and tropical regions 
of Asia and America. There are 6 known genera and upwards of 
120 species. Hxamples—Smilax, Philesia. 

Mucilaginous and demulcent properties prevail throughout the 
order. The root of various species of Smilax constitutes the Sarsa- 
parilla or Sarza of the pharmacopceias. Linneeus considered Smilax 
Sarsaparitla, a native of the United States, as the plant which fur- 
nished Sarsaparilla, but recent observers state that this is not the 
case. The following are enumerated as sources whence Sarsaparilla 
of various kinds is derived :— 


. Smilax officinalis, found in woods near the Rio Magdalena in Columbia. It 
furnishes Jamaica Sarza, which is the best in the market. 

. Smilax medica, native of the Mexican Andes. It is thought to furnish Vera 
Cruz Sarza. ° : 

. Smilax syphilitica, found in Brazilian Guiana. It in part supplies Brazil and 
Lisbon Sarza. 

. Smilax cordato-ovata, a Brazilian species. Brazil Sarza in part. 

. Smilax papyracea, a Brazilian species. Probably the source of the Para 
Sarza. : 

. Smilax Brasiliensis, a Brazilian species. Brazil Sarza. 


DB oF WOW DY HF 


The officinal part is the roots which come off from the rhizomes. The 
roots are mucilaginous, bitterish, and slightly acrid. They contain 
mucilage, starch, oil, resin, and a crystalline principle called Pariglin 
or Smilacin. Sarsaparilla is used in decoction and infusion, as a tonic 
and alterative; in cachectic and syphilitic cases. Srmilax China, a 
native of China, Japan, and India, yields the Tuber Chinz or China- 
root. The tubers are used as a remedy in syphilis. The root of 8. 
Pseudo-China, from the United States, is also used. The genus 
Astelia is by some included in this order, while by others it is put in 
a separate order,—AsTELiE#, The plants have grass-like leaves, and 
in habit they resemble‘ Tillandsias, They are found in New Zealand, 
Tasmania, and South America. They yield fibres. Astelia Solandri 
is the Tree-flax of New Zealand, A. Banksti, A. Cunninghamit, and 
A, trinerots, also yield fibres. 

Order 200.—Tritiiaces, the Trillium Family. (Mono-Perigyn.) 
Flowers usually bisexual. Perianth in 6, sometimes 8 divisions, 
coloured or herbaceous. Stamens 6, 8, or 10; filaments subulate ; 
anthers linear, with a prolonged connective. Ovary free, 3- 4- or 5- 
celled ; styles as many, distinct ; ovules 00, anatropal, Fruit succu- 


618 GILLIESIACE4—PONTEDERIACEZ—XYRIDACEA. 


lent, 3- 4- or 5- celled. Seeds 00; embryo minute, in fleshy albumen. 
The order may be considered as a tribe of Smilacez. It sometimes 
receives the name of Parideze.—Natives of the temperate parts of 
Europe, Asia, and America. Some of them are more or less acrid, 
others are narcotic. The rhizome of Trillium cernwum is used as an 
emetic. The juice of the berries mixed with alum gives a blue 
colouring matter. Paris quadrifolia, Herb Paris, is narcotic. There 
are about 10 known genera, and upwards of 30 species. Hxamples— 
Trillium, Paris. 

Order 201, —GILLiEstaces, the Gilliesia Family. (Mono-Peri gyn. 
Perianth 6-parted, sometimes "5 -parted by cohesion of two of the 
pieces, in a double row; the outer, petaloid or herbaceous ; the 
inner, smaller, and more coloured ; estivation twisted. Stamens in a. 
double series ; outer whorl sterile, in the form of a 6-toothed urceolate 
body, or of scale-like bodies, one of which forms a sort of labellum ; 
inner whorl of six stamens, of which three are sometimes sterile. 
Ovary superior, 3-celled ; style 1; stigma simple. Fruit a 3-celled, 
3-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, at- 
tached to the axis; spermoderm black and brittle; embryo curved 
in the midst of fleshy albumen.—Herbs with tunicated bulbs, grass- 
like leaves, and umbellate spathaceous flowers. Natives of Chili. 
Their properties unknown. The description of the flower is in 
accordance with Arnott’s view, and differs from that of Lindley, who 
considers the perianth as bracts, and the outer verticil of stamens as 
the perianth, There are 2 genera and 5 species, Exvamples— 
Gilliesia, Miersia, 

Order 202.—PonTEDERIACEA, the Pontederia Family. (Mono- 
Perigyn.) Perianth tubular, coloured, 6-parted, more or less irregu- 
lar ; estivation circinate. Stamens 3-6, perigynous ; anthers introrse. 
Ovary free, or slightly adherent, 3-celled ; ovules numerous, anatropal ; 
style 1; stigma simple. Fruit a 3-celled, 3-valved: capsule, with 
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds 00, attached to a central axis ; testa 
membranous ; hilum small ; embryo straight, in the axis of somewhat 
mealy albumen ; radicle next the hilum.—Aquatic or marsh plants 
with sheathing, “parallel- veined leaves, which are sometimes cordate or 
sagittate, and have inflated petioles. The flowers are spathaceous. 
They are natives of North and South America, East Indies, and ' 
Africa. Their properties are unimportant. There are 6 genera, 
according to Lindley, and 30 species, Lxamples—Pontederia, Lep- 
tanthus. 

Order 203. —Xyrrpacea, the Xyris Family. (Mono-Perigyn.) 
Perianth 6-parted, in two verticils; the outer glumaceous, the inner 
petaloid. Stamens 6, 3 fertile, inserted into the claws of the inner 
perianth ; anthers extrorse, Ovary single, 1-celled; ovules 00, 
orthotropal, attached to parietal placentas; style trifid; stigmas 


JUNCACEAIA—PALMA. 619 


obtuse, multifid or undivided. Fruit a I1-celled, 3-valved capsule. 
Seeds numerous ; embryo on the outside of mealy albumen, remote 
from the hilum.—Herbs having a sedge-like aspect, with radical 
leaves, equitant and sheathing at the base, and scaly heads of flowers. 
Natives chiefly of tropical regions, having no important properties. 
There are about 7 genera and 72 species. Hxamples—Xyris, Abol- 
boda, Philydrum ? 

Order 204.—Juncacza, the Rush Family. (Mono-Hypo-Perigyn.) 
Perianth 6-parted, more or less glumaceous. Stamens 6, inserted into 
the base of the segments, sometimes 3, and opposite the outer seg- 
ments; anthers 2-celled, introrse. Ovary 1-3-celled ; ovules 1, 3, or 
many in each cell, anatropal; style 1; stigmas generally 3, some- 
times 1. Fruit a 3-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence, some- 
times indehiscent. Seeds with the testa neither black nor crustaceous ; 
embryo very minute, near the hilum, within fleshy or cartilaginous 
albumen.—Herbs with fasciculated or fibrous roots, hollow, grooved, 
or flat leaves, with parallel veins. In rushes the green shoots which 
act as leaves are often terete ; they are either barren or bear flowers. 
They often have stellate cellular tissue in their interior, and they are 
sometimes twisted in a spiral manner (fig. 190, p. 91). They are 
natives chiefly of the colder regions of the globe. Many species of 
Juncus are used for making the bottoms of. chairs, mats, etc., and the 
central cellular tissue forms the wicks of rushlights. In Sussex the 
manufacturers of rush fabrics use Juncus glaucus, hard Rush, J. 
effusus, soft Rush, J. conglomeratus, hollow Rush. All the three are used 
for mats; the last two for chair bottoms. Prionium Palmita, Pal- 
mite, is a remarkable aquatic Juncaceous plant of South Africa. It 
has a very thick stem, and is from 5 to 10 feet long. There are about: 
8 known genera and upwards of 130 species, Hxvamples—Juncus, 
Luzula. 

Order 205.—Patm4, the Palm Tribe. (JMono-Perigyn.) Flowers. 
bisexual or wnisexual, or polygamous. Perianth 6-parted in a double 
row (fig. 867) ; 3 outer (calyx) fleshy, or leathery and persistent (figs. 
862 ce, 866 c), 3 inner (corolla) often larger (figs. 862 ci), and 
sometimes deeply connate. Stamens 6 (figs. 863, 867), rarely 3, 
sometimes 00, inserted into the base of the perianth. Ovary free, 
1-3-celled, usually composed of 3 carpels, which are more or less com- 
pletely united (fig. 865) ; ovules 1-3. Fruit drupaceous, or nut-like 
(fig. 866), or baccate, often with a fibrous covering. Seed with carti- 
laginous or horny albumen (fig. 616, p. 341), which is often ruminate 
(fig. 593, p. 333), or furnished with a central or lateral cavity ; em- 
bryo small, cylindrical, or flat, in a cavity of the albumen, remote 
from the hilum (figs.‘593, p. 333 ; 616, p. 341).—Arborescent plants 
(fig. 134, 1, p. 68), with simple, rarely branched trunks, marked 
with the scars of the leaves, which are terminal, pinnate, or fan- 


620 PALMA, 


shaped, with plicate vernation, parallel simple veins, and often spiny 
petioles. Flowers on a terminal, often branched spadix, enclosed in 
a l-or many-valved spatha. A single spadix of Alfonsia amygdalina 
has been known to produce upwards of 200,000 flowers. Natives of 
tropical regions chiefly, and imparting to them much of their botanical 
physiognomy. Most of them have unbranched stems, attaining some- 


Fig. 865. Fig. 866. Fig. 867. 


times a height of 250 feet, and sending out clusters of large leaves, from 
the axil of which bunches of flowers proceed. Although the flowers 
are small, still the inflorescence, taken collectively, has often a most 
imposing aspect. Humboldt describes their effect on the landscape 
in glowing colours, and Martius has illustrated the order by splendid 
delineations. Linneeus called them the Princes of the Vegetable 
Kingdom. There are about 180 known genera and upwards of 500 
species. Martius estimates the known species at 582, of which 91 
have fan-shaped leaves. They have been divided by him into various 
tribes, depending chiefly on the nature of the ovary, ovules, and fruit ; 


Figs. 862-866. Organs of fructification of Areca Catechu, Betel-nut Palm, to illustrate 
the natural order Palme. Fig. 862. Unexpanded flower-bud. ce, Outer division of the 
perianth. ci, Inner perianth. Fig. 863. Diagram of the flower, showing the two verticils 
of the perianth, the six stamens, and three abortive carpels. u, The position of the axis of 
inflorescence in reference to the flower. Fig. 864. A flower deprived of its perianth, in 
which the stamens, e, are partly abortive, while the ovary, 0, is developed. s, Stigma. 
Fig. 865. Diagram of the last flower, showing the double perianth, the partially abortive 
stamens, and the 3-celled ovary. a, Axis of inflorescence. Fig. 866. Fruit, f, surrounded 
at its base by the persistent perianth, c. Fig. 867. Flower of Chamezrops humilis, Euro- 
pean Fan-Palm, seen from above, There are six divisions of the perianth, six stamens, and 
the ovary. 


PALMA, 621 


and sections are formed according as the leaves are pinnate or flabelli- 
form, and the stems are spiny or not. The following are the tribes :— 
1. Arecinez, the Betel-nut tribe. 2. Lepidocaryinez, the Sago tribe. 
3. Borassinex, the Palmyra Palm tribe. 4. Coryphinex, the Talipot 
and Date tribe. 5. Cocoinex, the Coco-nut tribe. Lxamples—Areca, 
Euterpe, Caryota ; Lepidocaryum, Calamus, Sagus; Borassus, Lodoi- 
cea ; Corypha, Livistona, Phoenix ; Cocos, Elais, Acrocomia ; Phyte- 
lephas. . 

The properties of the plants of this order are very various. In 
the countries in which they grow they are used for supplying food, 
and for forming habitations. The fruit of some is eatable, while that 
of others is extremely hard. Many supply oil, wax, starchy matter, 
and sugar, which is fermented so as to form an intoxicating beverage. 
Their fibres are employed for ropes, and the reticulum surrounding 
their leaves is sometimes manufactured into brushes. : 

The Palm of the Bible, sn, Tamar, seems to be Phenix dactylifera, 
Date, the drupaceous fruit of which supplies food to many of the in- 
habitants of Arabia and Africa. Cocos nucifera (fig. 134, 1, p. 68), the 
Coco-nut Palm, is one of the most useful, supplying food, clothing, 
materials for houses, and utensils of various kinds, ropes and oil. Her- 
bert says, “‘ The Indian nut alone is clothing, meat and trencher, drink 
and cann, boat, cable, sail and needle, all in one.” The sugar pro- 
cured from it is called Jagery, and is fermented so as to form arrack. 
The fibrous part of its fruit is manufactured into Coir-rope. The 
wood of the Coco-nut Palm is known by the name of porcupine wood. 
The terminal bud of the Coco-nut Palm, as well as that of Huterpe 
montana, the Cabbage Palm, are used as culinary vegetables, The 
Double Coco-nut of the Seychelles Islands is produced by Stevensonia 
Sechellarum. Verschaffeltia splendida is another Palm of these islands. 
The palm-oil imported from the west coast of Africa is obtained by 
bruising the fruit of Elais guineensis and melanococca, The oil-bearing 
palms are in the tribe Cocoinee. The Betel-nut is the produce of 
Areca Catechu, and from it an extract is prepared of an astringent 
nature resembling Catechu. This Areca is an elegant palm, 40-50 
feet high, and 20 inches in circumference. It grows in the East 
Indies and in Indo-China. The powdered nut is used for tapeworm. 
The seeds or nuts form an ingredient in the Eastern masticatory called 
Pan or Betel, and which seems to owe its stimulating properties to 
the leaves of the Piper Betle. Sago, and starchy matter allied 
to it, are obtained from many Palms, It is contained in,the cellular 
tissue of the stem, and is separated by bruising and elutriation. Fine 
Sago is said to be procured from Metroxylon leve, a native of Borneo 
and Sumatra, Sagus Rumphii or farinifera, a native of Malacca, and 
Saguerus Rumphii or saccharifer, which is found in the eastern islands 
of the Indian Ocean. After the starchy matter is washed out of the 


622 PALMZ—COMMELYNACEZ:. 


stems of these Palms, it is then granulated so as to form sago. A 
single tree, it is said, will yield 500 to.600 pounds. The last-men- 
tioned Palm also furnishes a large supply of sugar. Sago, as well as 
sugar and a kind of Palm-wine, are procured from Caryota wrens, The 
date-sugar of Bengal is the produce of Phenix sylvestris. Ceroaylon 
Andicola yields wax, which forms a coating over its trunk. Copernicia 
certfera, Carnahuba Palm, is another wax palm. Its trunks are im- 
ported into Britain, and have been used for veneering. It is much 
used in the northern parts of Brazil, as at Aracaty, for thatch, hats, 
packsaddles, stakes, and palisades. The wax is procured by shaking 
the leaves, which have a glaucous bloom. Each leaf will yield fifty 
grains. Acrocomia aculeata is called Prickly-pole on account of the 
large black prickles on its stem. A reddish resinous matter is yielded 
by Calamus Draco (Demonorops Draco), one of the Rattan Palms, which 
have flexible climbing stems. It grows in Sumatra and Borneo. 
The resin is one of the substances called Dragon’s-blood (the 
xwéPaers of Dioscorides), and is used for colouring. The whalebone- 
like bristles which surround the base of the leaves of some species of 
Sagus and Saguerus are used for brushes. The thinner stems of 
Palms, as of Calamus Scipionwm and Rotang, are used as canes, under 
the name of Rattans. Calamus Rudentum, the Cable Cane, a native 
of the East Indies, Cochin-China, and the Moluccas, grows sometimes 
to the length of 500 feet. Sabal umbraculifera is the Fan-Palm or 
Bull-Palm of the West Indies. The fruit of Attalea funifera is known 
by the name of Coquilla-nuts, and its hard pericarp is used for making 
umbrella-handles, etc. Leopoldinia Piassaba supplies a fibre used in 
manufacture under the name of Piassaba. The hard albumen of 
Phytelephas macrocarpa is used in the same way as ivory. Hence the 
plant is called the Ivory Palm. The spatha of Manicaria saccifera 
comes off in the form of a conical cap, and is used as a covering for 
the head in the West Indies. Chamerops humilis is the only Euro- 
pean species of Palm. It is able to stand the climate of this country 
with slight protection during winter. A specimen in the Edinburgh 
Botanic Garden has lived in the open air for about 50 years. It is 
covered with matting during winter. The Doom-palm of Egypt 
(Hyphene thebaica) has a trunk which divides in a dichotomous 
manner. Its pericarp is used as food, and has the taste of ginger- 
bread. <Acrocomia sclerocarpa is the Macahuba-palm of Brazil. 
Mauritia vinifera is the Buriti-palm, the stem of which, when perfor- 
ated, yields a reddish juice, having the taste of sweet wine. Areca 
sapida isa Palm of New Zealand, and is the most southern repre- 
sentative of the family, extending to 38° 22” §, lat. 

Order 206.—ComMELYNACEa, the Spider-wort Family. (Mono- 
Hypogyn.) Perianth in 2 verticils; outer (calyx) herbaceous and 
tripartite ; inner (corolla) petaloid, tripartite or trifid. Stamens 6 or 


ALISMACEZ—BUTOMACE, 623 


fewer, hypogynous, some of them occasionally abortive or deformed ; 
anthers introrse. Ovary 3-celled ; ovules few in each cell; style 1 ; 
stigma 1. Fruit a 2-3-celled, 2-3-valved capsule, with loculicidal 
dehiscence. Seeds often in pairs, with a lateral and linear hilum ; 
embryo pulley-shaped, antitropal, in a cavity of fleshy albumen, remote 
from the hilum.—Herbs with flat narrow leaves, which are usually 
sheathing at the base. Natives chiefly of warm climates. Some have 
fleshy rhizomes, which are used for food. Tradescantias, Spider-worts, 
have moniliform staminal hairs, in which a microscopic movement of 
protoplasmic granules is seen (fig. 246, p. 153). Genera, 17; species, 
264, Examples—Commelyna, Tradescantia, Mayaca. 

Order 207.—Atismacra&, the Water-plantain' Family. (Mono- 
Hypog.) Perianth in 6 divisions and 2 verticils ; outer whorl usually 
herbaceous ; inner usually petaloid ; sometimes the perianth is want- 
ing. Stamens definite or 00, hypogynous ; anthers introrse or extrorse. 
Ovaries, 3, 6, or more, distinct or united ; ovules erect or ascending, 
solitary or in pairs; styles and stigmas equal to the number of car- 
pels. Fruit of several dry, indehiscent carpidia. Seeds 1-2 in each 
carpel, exalbuminous. (fig. 621, p. 342) ; embryo straight, or curved 
like a horse-shoe ; radicle next the hilum.—Plants growing in flowing 
or stagnant water, usually with a creeping rhizome, parallel-veined 
leaves, and hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers. Natives both of 
tropical and temperate regions. The limits of the order are not well 
defined. It has been divided into two sub-orders :—1, Alismez, inner 
perianth petaloid, anthers introrse, embryo curved or hooked. 2. 
Juncagines, inner perianth herbaceous, sometimes perianth 0, anthers 
extrorse, embryo straight, plumule coming through a slit in the em- 
bryo (fig. 600, p. 336), They have few important properties. Some 
are acrid, others have'eatable rhizomes. Various Brazilian Sagittarias 
are very astringent ; their expressed juice being employed in the pre- 
-paration of ink. There are 10 known genera and about 50 species, 
Examples—Alisma, Sagittaria ; Triglochin, Scheuchzeria, Triuris. 

Order 208.—Butomacea, the Flowering-rush Family. (Mono- 
Hypog.) Perianth of 6 parts, in 2 verticils (fig. 415, 2, p. 238) ; 
outer usually herbaceous ; inner petaloid. Stamens definite (fig. 415, 
2, 0, et, p. 238), or 00, hypogynous. Ovaries, 3, 6, or more, distinct 
.or united, 1-celled (fig. 415); ovules 00; stigmas simple, as many 
as the carpels. Fruit consisting of several follicles, which are either 
distinct (fig. 427, p. 243) and beaked, or combined. Seeds 00, minute, 
attached to the whole inner surface of the pericarp (fig. 428, p. 243), 
-exalbuminous ; embryo often curved like a horse-shoe ; radicle next 
the hilum.—Aquatic plants, often lactescent, with parallel-veined 
leaves, and frequently umbellate flowers. They are chiefly found in 
northern countries, and some of them have acrid and bitter properties, 
Butomus umbellatus, Flowering-rush, is the only British plant in the 


624 PANDANACEA. 


class Enneandria of Linneus. Authors give 5 genera, including 8 
species, Examples—Butomus, Limnocharis. 


-¢e. IncomPLeta&.— Flowers incomplete, often unisexual, without a proper 
pertanth, or with a few verticillate scales, 


Order 209.—Panpanaces, the Screw-pine Family. (Fig. 98, 
p. 39.) (Mono-Hypog.) Flowers unisexual or polygamous, covering 
the whole of the spadix. Perianth 0, or a few scales. Male flowers : 
stamens numerous ; filaments with single anthers, which are 2-4-celled. 
Female flowers: ovaries l-celled, united in parcels ; ovules solitary or 
numerous, anatropal ; stigmas sessile, equal to the carpels in number. 
Fruit either fibrous drupes collected into parcels, or berries. Seeds 
solitary in the drupes, numerous in the berries; embryo at the base 
of fleshy albumen ; radicle next the hilum—Trees or bushes, some- 
times with adventitious roots (fig. 134, 2, p. 68), long, imbricated, 
amplexicaul leaves, usually with spiny margins and backs. Natives 
of tropical regions. The order is subdivided into two sections :—1. 
Pandanez, undivided leaves and no perianth. 2. Cyclanthes, fan- 
shaped or pinnate leaves, flowers with a few scales. There are 25 
genera, according to authors, and 85 species. Zxamples—Pandanus, 
Freycinetia ; Cyclanthus, Carludovica, Nipa. 

The flowers of some of the plants are fragrant, and their seeds 
are sometimes used as food. The juice has in some instances astrin- 
gent properties. In the stem of the Screw-pines fibro-vascular bundles 
occur, containing woody tubes, scalariform and spiral vessels. Cells. 
are also seen on the outside containing large prismatical crystals. 
The species of Pandanus are remarkable for their aerial roots, with 
large cup-like spongioles, These roots are sent out regularly from all 
parts of their stems, and appear like artificial props (fig. 134, 2, p. 
, 68). Their spermoderm has numerous raphides. Their leaves are 
arranged in a spiral manner in three rows, and in their aspect they 
have some resemblance to those of the pine-apple—hence the name 
Screw-pine. The appearance of the fruit may also have given origin 
to the name. Pandanus Candelabra is the Chandelier-tree of Guinea, 
and is so called on account of its mode of branching. The Pandani 
are called Vacoas in Mauritius and Rodrigues. They abound in 
these islands, reycinetia Banksti is the Kie-Kie, or Screw-pine of 
New Zealand. The fleshy bracts called Tawhara are eaten by the 
natives ; they are also made by the colonists into a luscious jelly, like 
strawberries. The leaves are used in basket-making. Panama hats 
are made from the leaves of Carludovica palmata, In 1869 these were 
exported from Santa Martha to the value of £34,579. Some of these 
hats sell from £4 to £10. Species of Nipa yield a kind of wine from 
their spadices. The Atap of India is the fruit of N. fruticans, 


ARACEA, 625 


Order 210.—ARacE&, the Arum Family. (Mono-Hypog.) Flowers 
generally unisexual, rarely bisexual, enclosed within a spathe, and 
usually on a spadix (fig. 260, p. 178), having male flowers at its 
upper part, female below, and abortive flowers between them (fig. 
260, 2, p. 178). Perianth either 0, or in the % flowers rudimentary 
and scaly. Stamens definite or 00, hypogynous; anthers extrorse. 
Ovary free, 1-3- or more celled ; ovules solitary or numerous ; style short 
or 0; stigma simple. Fruit succulent or dry, indehiscent, one-celled, 
very rarely three-celled ; seeds one or several ; embryo in the axis of 
fleshy or mealy albumen, sometimes with a lateral cleft for the 
plumule; radicle usually next the hilum.—Herbaceous or shrubby 
plants, often with tubers or creeping rhizomes, leaves sheathing at the 
base, and having parallel or branching veins (fig. 260, 1, p. 178). 
They occur in dry and marshy places, and in lakes in various parts of 
the world, abounding in the tropics. The order has been divided 
into four sub-orders:—1. Arinez, Cuckoo-pint tribe (fig. 260) ; 
naked flowers with a spadix and spathe, § 9, anthers sessile, ovules 
several, fruit succulent, seeds pulpy. 2. Typhinez, Bulrush-tribe ; 
marsh or ditch plants, with nodeless stems, flowers 4 9, with a scaly 
or hairy perianth, arranged on a spadix, without a spathe, anthers 
wedge-shaped on long filaments, ovule solitary, fruit dry, seed with 
adherent pericarp. 3. Acores, Sweet-flag tribe; flowers §, having 
usually a scaly perianth, arranged on a spathaceous spadix, ovules 1 or 
more, fruit a berry. 4. Pistieze, or Lemnex, Duckweed tribe ; flowers 
4 9, naked, enclosed in a spathe without a spadix, ovary 1-celled, ovules 
2 or more, fruit membranous or capsular. The order includes 60 
genera and 286 species. Examples—-Arum, Caladium, Colocasia, 
Calla; Typha, Sparganium; Acorus, Orontium, Pothos; Pistia, 
Lemna. ' 

The general property of the order is acridity. Sometimes the 
plants are dangerous irritant poisons. In some instances the rhizomes 
yield much starchy matter, and when boiled or roasted are used as 
substitutes for yams, under the name of Coco. The starch may be 
separated and used as Arrow-root. Thus, Portland Sago is prepared 
from the rhizome of Arum maculatum, common Cuckoo-pint, or 
Wake-Robin.  Dieffendachia seguina (Caladium seguinum) is called 
Dumb-cane, on account of the swelling of the tongue caused by 
chewing the plant. Many of the plants of this order give out heat in 
a marked degree during flowering (p. 259). Some send out aerial 
roots, by means of which they climb upon trees. Aonstera, (Tornelia) 
deliciosa has perforated leaves (p. 81); it yields an edible fruit. Sym- 
plocurpus fotidus, Skunk-cabbage, has a very disagreeable odour. Its 
thizome and seeds have been used as antispasmodics, Richardia 
africana, with its white spathe, is commonly cultivated under the 
name of Aithiopian Lily. The root-stock of Acorus Calamus, Sweet- 

28 


626 ARACEH—NAIADACEA OR POTAMEA. 


flag, has an aromatic odour, combined with a bitterish acrid taste. 
It has been used as a stimulant and tonic. In Typha latifolia, Great, 
Reed Mace, the pollen is abundant and easily collected, and from its 
inflammable nature has been used as a substitute for the Lycopodium 
spores. The rhizomes of Typha Shuttleworthii, called Gortong, is 
used by the Murray natives near Swanhill, Australia, as food. The 
young shoots of T. latifolia and angustifolia are eaten by the Cossacks 
like asparagus. The large, fleshy, amylaceous rhizomes are eaten by 
the Kalmucks. Examples of large Araceze are seen in Godwinia gigas 
from Nicaragua, the root-stock of which weighs 5-6 lbs., the leaf- 
stalk being 10 feet high, and the spathe 2 feet long, on a stalk 3 feet 
high ; also in Archemone Hookert, Dracontium asperum from Brazil, and 
Corynophallus Afzelii from western tropical Africa. Lemnas, Duck- 
weeds, are common in ditches in temperate regions. Their flowers 
are very simple, one male, and the other female, without a perianth, 
enclosed in a membranous bag ; their roots are simple, covered with a 
sheath, Colocasia esculenta, and other species, have edible corms, 
which are called Eddoes and Cocoes in the West Indies. Pistia 
Stratiotes floats in lakes in tropical countries, 

Order 211.—Narapacra or Poramea, the Naias or Pondweed 
Family. (Mono-Hypog.) Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual. Pe- 
rianth of two or four herbaceous or scaly pieces, often deciduous, 
sometimes 0. Stamens definite, hypogynous. Ovary free, of one or 

more carpels ; ovule solitary; style 1 or 0; stigma 
) entire, rarely 2-3 parted. Fruit dry, 1-celled, usually 


¢ indehiscent. Seed solitary, erect, or pendulous, exal- 
L.¢ buminous ; embryo straight or curved (figs. 582,583, 

p. 331), usually with a lateral slit for the plumule 

(fig. 868) ; radicle large (figs. 595, p. 334; 868).— 
Plants living in fresh and in salt water, having cellular leaves with 
parallel veins and inconspicuous flowers. They are found in various 
parts of the world. They have no properties of importance. Zostera 
marina is used in the dried state for stuffing mattresses, and has been 
recommended for hospitals. Ouvirandra (Hydrogeton) fenestralis has 
peculiar skeleton-like leaves, It is the lace-plant or lattice-plant of 
Madagascar. Its rhizome is used for food under the name of water- 
yam (ou, yam, and rano, water). Aponogeton distachywm, a Cape 
aquatic, has grown well for many years in the open pond of the Edin- 
burgh Royal Botanic Garden. Caulinia fragilis is one of the plants in 
which Protoplasmic Rotation has been observed. There are 20 
known genera and upwards of 90 species. Examples—N: aias, Zanni- 
chellia (fig. 601, p. 337), Potamogeton (fig. 145, p. 81), Ruppia, Zostera. 


Fig. 868. Embryo of Zostera, in the natural order Naiadaces. ce, Cotyledon. 1, Radicle. 
b, Lateral swelling connected with the radicle. f, Slit for the plumule, which lies in a 
cavity of the very large radicle, ; 


T 
Fig. 868. 


RESTIACEZA—-CYPERACEZ. 627 


Order 212.—Restiacez, the Restio or Cord-rush Family. 
(Mono-Perigyn). Flowers frequently unisexual. Perianth gluma- 
ceous, sometimes 0. Stamens definite, perigynous, when two or 
three in number opposite the inner glumes; anthers usually 1- 
celled. Ovary 1- or more celled, sometimes composed of several car- 
pels; ovules solitary, pendulous; styles and stigmas 2 or more. 
Fruit capsular or nucumentaceous. Seeds pendulous; embryo lenti- 
cular, outside mealy albumen, remote from the hilum.—Herbs or 
undershrubs, with narrow simple leaves or none, naked or sheathed 
culms, and spiked or capitate, bracteated flowers. They are found 
chiefly in America and Australia. They have few properties of 
importance. The tough wiry stems of Willdenovia teres and some 
Restios are used for making baskets and brooms. riocawlon septan- 
gulare is a native of Britain, being found in the Isle of Skye, as well 
as in the West of Ireland. In Brazil there exist branched Hrriocau- 
lons six feet high. In 1764, Linneus described only 5 species of 
Eriocaulon in all the world, while Gardner collected in Brazil 100 
species. The Diamond districts of Brazil are great centres of Erto- 
caulons. There are, according to Lindley, 36 genera and 372 species. 
Examples—Restio, Centrolepis, Eriocaulon. 


Sub-class II.—GLUMIFERA. 


Flowers glumaceous, consisting of bracts or scales, which are 
imbricated, and. not arranged in true verticils. 


Order 213.—Cyprracem, the Sedge Family. (Mono-Hypog.) 
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, generally without a perianth. 
Each flower furnished with a solitary bract (glume or scale). These 
bracts are imbricated upon a common axis, and the lowermost are 
often empty. Occasionally they enclose two or three opposite mem- 
branous bracts or glumes. In the female flower of Carex the two 
inner bracts receive the name of Perigynium (fig. 332, p. 209). Sta- 
mens hypogynous, definite, 1-12; anthers dithecal, o 
innate. Ovary 1-celled, often surrounded by hypogynous 
bristles (sete), which are probably abortive filaments ; 
ovule erect, anatropal; style single, 2-3-cleft ; stigmas 
undivided, sometimes bifid. Fruit a crustaceous or bony 
achenium or nut (fig. 615, p. 341); embryo lenticular, | 
enclosed within the base of fleshy or farinaceous albumen vs 
(fig. 615 ¢, p. 341) ; plumule inconspicuous (fig. 869).— Fig. 869. 
Grass-like herbs with fibrous roots. Their stems are solid, often with- 
out joints, sometimes creeping (fig. 108, p. 48), frequently angular. 

Fig. 869. Embryo of Carex depauperata, separated to show the structure of that body 
n the natural order Cyperacex. 1, Radicle. ca, Ootyledon. f, Slit for the plumule, 


628 CYPERACEAi—-GRAMINE. 


The leaves are narrow, and their sheaths are entire, not slit. They 
are found in all quarters of the globe, and in various localities, from 
the sand on the shore to the tops of the mountains. Many of them 
occur in marshy ground. Genera, 110; species, 2000. Hxvamples— 
Cyperus, Eriophorum, Scirpus, Fuirena, Cladium, Schcenus, Scleria, 
Elyna, Carex. 

None of the plants of the order possess important medicinal quali- 
ties. The creeping stems of Carex arenaria, disticha, and hirta, are 
diaphoretic and demulcent, and have been used under the name of 
German Sarsaparilla. Cyperus Papyrus (Papyrus antiquorum) is the 
Papyrus of the Nile, the cellular tissue of which was used in the manu- 
facture of paper. Cyperus syriacus, found in Sicily and on the plains 
of Sharon, etc., differs from C. Papyrus in having its leaves and floral 
clusters drooping all round the top of the stalk, in place of being erect 
and bending to one side like a plume. Some say that the word xo 
(géme) in the Bible, translated Bulrush, is either the Papyrus or a 
species of Cyperus. The word ny (aroth) has been translated Paper- 
Reeds. The species of Eriophorum are called Cotton-grass, on account 
of the woolly-like substance which is attached to the base of the ovary. 
Some species of Cyperus have tubers at the lower part of their stems, 
which are used as food. The roots of Cyperus longus have been used 
as bitter and tonic remedies, while those of C. odoratus are aromatic. 
C. esculentus is probably the ins (achu) of the Bible, translated flag. 
Some species of Scirpus are used for making chair-bottoms. In South 
America Scirpus lacustris is used for making balsas or boats. Isaiah 
speaks of vessels of bulrushes on the waters. Species of Gahnia yield 
fibres in New Zealand. Some of the Carices, with their creeping 
stems, tend to bind together the loose sand on the sea-shore. 

Order 214.—Graminras, the Grass Family. (Mono-Hypogyn.) 
Flowers usually § , sometimes unisexual or polygamous ; 1, 2, or more 
(some occasionally abortive), attached to a common axis, and enclosed 
within bracts, the whole together forming a locusta or spikelet (figs. 
327-330, p. 208 ; 870-872). The outer imbricated bracts are called 
glumes (empty glumes); they are usually 2 (figs. 870, 871 ge gt), 
sometimes 1, rarely wanting, and often unequal. They are either 
awned (aristate) or awnless (muticous). The bracts enclosed within 
the glumes are called pales, glumelle, or flowering glumes ; they im- 
mediately enclose the stamens, are usually 2, the lower being simple, 
and the upper being formed of 2 united by their margins (fig. 871 pe 7). 
The innermost set of bracts consists of two or three hypogynous scales 
(squamule, glumellule, or lodicule), which are either distinct or com- 
bined, forming a sort of perianth (fig. 873 p), and are sometimes want- 
ing. Stamens hypogynous, 1-6 or more; anthers dithecal, versatile 
(figs. 331, p. 209; 369, p. 223; 873 e). Ovary simple (fig. 873 0) ; 
ovule ascending, anatropal ; styles 2 (fig. 873) or 3, sometimes united ; 


GRAMINEA, 629 


stigmas feathery or hairy (fig. 446, p. 251, 873 ss). Fruit a caryopsis 
(fig. 563, p. 310). Seed incorporated with the pericarp 3 embryo len- 


» Fig. 873. Fig. 874. Fig. 875. 


ticular, lying on one side of farinaceous albumen (fig. 591, p, 333) ; 
near its base (figs. 874, 875) ; endorhizal in germination (fig. 105, 


Figs. 870-875. Organs of fructification of Avena sativa, common cultivated Oat, to 
illustrate the natural order Gramineex. Fig. 870. Spikelet of the Oat. a, Axis of inflores- 
cence orrachis. ge, Exterior or lower glume. gi, Inner or upper glume. ff, Inferior 
fertile flower. fa, Two upper abortive flowers. Fig. 871. The same spikelet with the 
envelopes separated to show the internal parts. aa, Axis of inflorescence. ge, Outer 
glume. gi, Inner glume. pe, Outer palea of the fertile flower with its awn (arista). pi, 
Inner palea, cleft, at the apex, and apparently formed by two united. e, Three stamens.’ 
o, Pistil consisting of the ovary and two styles. fa, Two abortive flawers. Fig. 872. 
Diagram of the spikelet. ge, Outer glume. gi, Inner glume. pe, Outer palea with awn ; 
the inner palea being opposite. e, Stamens. o, Pistil. 11, Scales or lodicule. fs, fs, 
Barren flowers. Fig. 873. Fertile flower deprived of glumes and pale. e, Three stamens 
with versatile cleft anthers. p, Scales (squame or Jodicule) partially united. o, Ovary 
ultimately forming the grain, which consists of pericarp and seed combined. ss, Two styles 
with feathery stigmas. Fig. 874, Vertical seetion of the Caryopsis (fruit or grain), with 
the upper portion cut off. ¢t, Integuments of the caryopsis and of the seed united. pp, 
Perisperm. ¢, Embryo.’ r, Radicle. ca, Cotyledon. /f, Slit corresponding to the plumule, 
Fig. 875. Embryo separated, r, Radicle. ca, Cotyledon. f, Slit corresponding to the 
plumule. 


630 GRAMINEA. 


p. 42).—Herbaceous plants, with cylindrical, hollow (fig. 130, p. 64), 
and jointed stems, called culms ; alternate leaves, with a split sheath, 
and a membranous expansion at the junction of the petiole and blade, 
called a ligule (fig. 210, p. 99), the collections of flowers (locustz) 
being arranged in spikes, racemes, or panicles. 

Discussions have arisen as to the true nature of the palex in 
grasses. Brown thinks that the upper palea is composed of two 
parts united, while the inferior palea is the third part. The arrange- 
ment is thus trimerous. Mohl, on the other hand, states that the 
inferior palea is not on a level with the other, and is in fact a bract 
from which the other is developed. From their alternate position, 
the parts of the flowers of grasses are in general looked upon as bracts, 
rather than as parts of a true perianth. The following may be given 
as a general view of the parts of the flower :— 


1. Outer envelope : One or two flowerless or empty glumes, enclosing or subtending 
one or more flowers, with distinct insertions on a common axis. When one 
glume is suppressed it is the exterior or lower. 


2. Inner envelope: One or two flowering glumes or palex, covering a unisexual 
or bisexual flower. Inner or upper palea sometimes suppressed. This 
palea (valve) consists usually of two confluent valves, as shown by two ribs 
equidistant from the axis. Hence this envelope is, according to some, a ter- 
nary perianth. 

8. Squamule (scales,” lodicule, or glumellule) occur within the last envelope, 
and at the base of the ovary. These are by some considered as the true 
perianth. 


Grasses are found in all quarters of the globe, and are said to form 
about #, part of known plants. In tropical regions they sometimes 
assume the appearance of trees. They generally grow in great quantity 
together, so as to receive the name of social plants. The order has 
been divided into numerous sections, founded on the number of flowers 
in a spikelet, their hermaphrodite, unisexual, or polygamous nature, 
the number and form of the different sets of bracts, and the nature of 
the fruit. Genera, 250; species, about 4500. Examples—Oryza, 
Zea, Phalaris, Panicum, Stipa, Agrostis, Arundo, Echinaria, Chloris, 
Avena, Bromus, Festuca, Bambusa, Lolium, Triticum, Hordeum, 
Nardus, Rottboellia, Andropogon, Saccharum. 

This is one of the most important orders in the vegetable king- 
dom, whether we regard it as supplying food for man or herbage for 
animals: To the former division belong the nutritious cereal grains, 
as Wheat, Triticum vulgare, and the varieties spring wheat, F’. estivum, 
and winter wheat, T. hybernum; Triticum Spelta, spelt, which is npp3 
(Kussemeth) of the Bible, translated Rye; T. compositum, Egyptian or 
mummy wheat (p. 348) ; Oats, Avena sativa ; Barley, Hordewm vulgare, 
and its variety H. hexastichum Bere or Bigg ; Rye, Secale cereale ; Rice, 
Oryza sativa ; Maize or Indian Corn, Zea Mays ; Guinea-corn, Sorghum 


GRAMINEA, 631 


vulgare; and Millet, Panicum miliaceum, jn, dockhan of Scripture — 
To the latter division belong pasture grasses, as Rye-grass (Lolium), 
Timothy-grass (Phlewm), Meadow-grass (Poa), Cock’s-foot-grass (Dac- 
tylis), Sweet-Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum), Fescue (Festuca), Dog’s-tail- 
grass (Cynosurus). The grains of many other grasses are used for food. 
Zizania aquatica supplies a kind of rice in Canada; Setaria germanica 
yields German millet. The grains of Sorghum vulgare (Andropogon 
Sorghum) have been sent to this country from India under the name 
of Durra. Phalaris canariensis is the source of the common Canary 
seed. The cereal grains have been so extensively distributed by 
man, that all traces of their native country are lost. They seem to 
be in many instances examples of permanent varieties or races kept 
up by cultivation. Their grain or caryopsis contains a large amount 
of starch (figs. 35, 36) and gluten. The grasses used for fodder in 
some parts of the world attain a large size, such as Anthistiria 
australis, the Kangaroo-grass of Australia, called also Satin-grass ; 
Tripsacum dactyloides, the Gama-grass of Mexico; Gynerium argen- 
teum, the Pampas-grass of the Cordilleras, and Festuca flabelloides 
(Dactylis ccespitosa), the Tussac-grass of the Falkland Islands. Some 
of these are five or six feet in height, and are, nevertheless, sufficiently 
delicate to be used for the food of animals. The Tussac has been 
introduced into this country, and it thrives well in peaty soils within 
the influence of the sea spray. Elymus condensatus is the Bunch- 
grass of California, an excellent early fodder plant in Britain. The 
rhizome of Triticum repens, Couch-grass or Quitch-grass, 7. junceum, 
and Cynodon Dactylon, are used for mucous discharges from the bladder. - 

Sugar is a valuable product obtained from many grasses. It 
has been procured in Italy from Sorghum saccharatum, sweet Sorgho ; 
in China, from Saccharwm sinense; in Brazil, from Gynerium saccha- 
roides ; in the West Indies, from Saccharum violaceum ; and in many 
other parts of the world, from 8S. offcinarum. The last two are com- 
monly known as Sugar-cane, and they are generally considered as 
varieties of a single species, Saccharum offcinarum, which is now 
widely spread over various parts of the world, and has a stem from 6 to 
12 feet high. Six or eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant 
yield one pound of raw sugar. The import of unrefined sugar into 
Great Britain in 1874 amounted to nearly 14 millions of cwts. 
Sugar is imported from British West Indies and Guiana, Mauritius, 
British East Indies, Java and Philippine Islands, Cuba, Porto-Rico, 
and Brazil, etc. 

Some grasses have a very agreeable fragrance. This has been re- 
marked in Anthoxanthum odoratum, which is hence called sweet-scented 
vernal grass, and is said to impart the odour to new-made hay. This 
odour has been referred to the presence of benzoic acid. A fragrant 
oil is procured from some species of Andropogon, as A. citratus, Lemon- 


632 GRAMINEZ. 


grass, and A, Calamus aromaticus, which seems to be the m3p (kaneh), or 
Dv Mp (kaneh bosem), the Sweet-cane of the Bible. A. Schananthus 
yields Tons oil, called also oil of ginger-grass or of Geranium. A. mur- 
catus, Cuscus or ’Vetivert, yields a fragrant oil, used medicinally in India. 
A, Nardus yields citronella oil. Grasses contain a large quantity of 
siliceous matter in their stalks. This is deposited so as to form part 
of their structure, and in some cases it accumulates in the joints. 
The tabasheer in the joints of Bambusa arundinacea, the Bamboo, and 
of Melocanna bambusoides, is composed of silica. This is one of the 
tree-like branching grasses, which sometimes attains a height of fifty 
or sixty feet. It shoots up with great rapidity. In the Edinburgh 
Botanic Garden the young shoots attain a height of thirty or forty 
feet in a few months; and the late superintendent (Mr. W. M‘Nab) 
measured, during a long summer day, a growth of the young stem to 
the extent of nine inches. In Borneo the Dyaks use Bamboos for 
floors, beds, temporary houses, bridges, pegs for climbing lofty trees 
in order to get beeswax, baskets, fish-traps, hencoops, bird-cages, 
aqueducts, water-vessels, cooking utensils, jars and dishes of various 
sorts. The leaves and young shoots of the Bamboo are eaten; the 
leaves serve as fodder for horses, also for covering the tops of houses, 
and for stuffing cushions; the split stems serve as floor mats; the 
fibres are used for cordage and paper. Bamboos rarely flower and 
produce seed. Most of the species of Bamboo have ‘hollow stems, 
which often attain a diameter of many inches. Gardner mentions a 
large species of Bamboo (B. Tagoara) having a stem 18 inches in 
circumference, and attaining a height of 50 to 100 feet. The touch- 
paper of the Chinese is made from a variety of Bamboo, by beating 
the young shoots flat, steeping them in a lime-pit for a month, and . 
then washing and drying. A kind of paper is made from the Bamboo 
in India. Its young shoots are used as pickles. The hollow stems of 
some reeds in warm climates supply refreshing water to travellers. 
Dendrocalamus strictus is called the male Bamboo, Lygewm Spartum, 
Alpha-grass, and Macrochloa tenacissima, Esparto, yield fibres which 
are used for making paper and mats. 

The stems of some grasses run under ground, and form a sort of 
network, which is useful in consolidating the sand of the sea-shore. 
Elymus ‘arenarius and Ammophila (Psamma) arenaria constitute the 
Bent and Marram of the British shores. This tendency to creep under 
ground renders some grasses, such as Triticum repens, Couch-grass, 
difficult of extirpation. The grains of some grasses are used for orna- 
ments. Beads are made from those of Cota Lachryma, commonly 
called Job’s-tears, from their form and hardness. A few grasses, as 
Bromus purgans and catharticus, have purgative properties ; and one, 
Loliwm temulentum (infelix loliwm), Darnel-grass, is said to be poison- 
ous, but this has not been proved, if we judge by the experiments of 


GRAMINEA. 


634 GRAMINES. 


Dr. John Lowe and Mr. Stephen Wilson. Some suppose that it is 
the (dua, tares, of Scripture. The grains of Rye, and other grains, 
are liable to a disease called Ergot, depending on the attack of a fun- 
gus which alters the texture of the ovary, and makes it assume an 
elongated spurred form. The Ergot of Rye, or spurred Rye, has a 
peculiar effect in promoting the contraction of the uterus, and is on 
this account used in medicine. Ergoted rye, when regularly used 
for food, has the effect of causing what has been called convulsive and 
gangrenous ergotism, the former disease being distinguished by insen- 
sibility and convulsions, ending in death ; the latter by dry gangrene, 
which attacks the fingers and toes, causing sloughing of these parts, 
and sometimes proving fatal by exhaustion. The poisonous effects of 
Ergot are attributed to the presence of a fixed oil. 

Mr. A. Stephen Wilson states (Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., 1874) that 
in the case of Wheat, Barley, and Oats, fertilisation takes place before 
the anthers are visible outside. After this process has taken place the 
filaments ‘are rapidly elongated. In the case of Rye, the anther, in its 
immature state, extends almost the whole length of the palea (flower- 
glume) before it discharges its pollen. 

In figure 876, 1, 3, 7, are represented the florets of Oats, 
Wheat, and Barley, before fertilisation with the short stamens, and at 
5, the floret of Rye with elongated stamens; while at 2, 4, 8, are 
shown the florets of Oats, Wheat, and Barley, after fertilisation, and 
at’6 that of Rye; d marks the point where the spontaneous discharge 
of pollen takes place. 

Mr. Wilson states that in Wheat, Oats, and Barley, the fertilisa- 
tion is more complete than it is in Rye, because in the former the 
dehiscence of the anther takes place inside the floret, where in general 
neither wind nor rain can carry away the pollen from the vicinity of 
the stigma; whereas in Rye the dehiscence takes place after the 
elongation of the stamens, and thus a quantity of the pollen falls out- 
side the floret. 


Fig. 876, illustrating the organs of reproduction of Cereal grains. 1, Floret of Oats, 
showing a floral glume (palea), bicuspidate at the summit, with a long, bent, and twisted 
awn arising from below the summit; stamens short, near the base. 2, Same, with the 3 
stamens elongated, after fertilisation, and 2 feathery styles or stigmas. 8, Floral glume of 
Wheat before fertilisation. 4, Ditto after fertilisation. 7, Floral glume of Barley before 
fertilisation. 8, Ditto after fertilisation. 5, Floret of Rye before fertilisation. 6, Ditto 
after fertilisation. In 2, 4, 6, and 8, @ marks the point where spontaneous discharge of 
pollen takes place. 7 


CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 635 


Sus-Kinepom II.—Cryrrocamovus PLANts. 


Flowerless Plants, having sexual organs, and producing spores, but having 
neither stamens, nor pistils, nor seeds. 


‘Cuass_ III.—AcoTYLEDoNES, Juss. CELLULARES AND Mono-cryptocamMa, DC. 
THALLOPHYTA AND ACROBRYA, Endlich. THALLOGENS AND AcROGENS, Lindl. 


The plants belonging to this Class are in some instances composed 
entirely of cellular tissue; in other instances both cells and vessels 
are present. The vascular tissue in the higher orders consists partly 
of closed spiral and scalariform (fig. 64) vessels. Many of them have 
no true stem nor leaves. The woody stem, when present, consists of 
simultaneous vascular bundles, which increase in an acrogenous man- 
ner (p. 70). The stem of Tree-ferns (which illustrates this class) is 
unbranched, more or less uniformly cylindrical, hollow in the interior, 
and marked by the scars of the leaves (fig. 135, p. 71). Stomata 
occur in the epidermis of the higher divisions. Leaves, when present, 
have frequently no true venation, at other times the venation is 
forked. There are no flowers, and no distinct stamens nor pistils. 
Reproduction takes place by the union of cells of different values, 
some representing the male element, and called Antheridia, others 
the female, and called Archegonia (p. 265), by means of which 
germinating bodies called spores are formed (fig. 594, p. 334). The 
spore may be considered as acellular embryo which has no cotyledons, 
and germinates from any part-of its surface, being heterorhizal (p. 334, 
fig. 629, p. 356). (For a full account of Cryptogamic reproduction 
see pages 266-281.) 


Sub-class I—Acrocena, AUTHEOGAM OR CoRMOGEN&, 


Acotyledons, having usually distinct stems and leaves (fronds), 
stomata, a certain amount of vascular tissue, and sporangia or thecze 
(spore-cases), containing spores. This sub-class corresponds in a great 
measure with the division of Cormophyta, called Acrobrya by End- 
licher, and with the Foliosee or Altheogamz of De Candolle, and 
Angiospore of other authors, The Antheridia contain ciliated 
antherozoids or spermatozoids, and the spore in germination forms a pro- 
thallus on which Archegonia are produced, which are fertilised by the 
spermatozoids. Equisetums and Ferns have only one kind of spore, 
and are called Isosporous (#o0¢, equal), while Marsileas and Lycopods 
have two kinds of spores (microspores and macrospores), and are 
called by some Heterosporous (éregos, diverse). The microspores have 
a minute imperfect prothallus, with an antheridial cell containing 


636 EQUISETACES. 


numerous spermatozoids ; the macrospores form a more or less rudi- 
mentary prothallus, with one or more Archegonia. Ferns have a 
monoicous' prothallus ; Equisetums have a dioicous prothallus—a 
small one forming Antheridia, a larger Archegonia. In Ophioglossums, 
which some authors put as an order distinct from ferns, the prothallus 
is not green, is produced under ground, and bears both Antheridia 
and Archegonia. 


Order 215.—Equiseraces, the Horse-tail Family. Stem 
striated, hollow, usually branched, containing much silica in its com- 
position, articulated, the joints being separable, and surrounded by a 
membranous toothed sheath, formed by scales, which are equivalent 
to leaves (fig. 139, p. 73). There are no true leaves, green-coloured 
branches, having a straight vernation, occupying their place; some 
stems are barren, others fertile. The cuticle exhibits a longitudinal 
series of stomata. A spiral structure is observed in some of the 
vessels. The stems are also traversed by air canals (fig. 140, p. 74). 
Reproductive organs collected into cones; spore-cases (thece or spo- 


Fig. 878. Fig. 879, Fig. 880. 


rangia) attached to the lower surface of peltate polygonal scales (fig. 
877), and opening by an internal longitudinal fissure (fig. 878) ; 
spores in the form of rounded cells, surrounded by 4 elastic, club- 
shaped, hygrometric filaments or elaters (figs. 879, 880), formed by 
the breaking up of the outer coat of the spore in a spiral manner. 
The spore in germinating produces a green prothallus, on which 
Antheridia (containing spermatozoids) and Archegonia are formed, the 
latter producing the leafy stems.—Plants with simple or branched 
stems, the branches being jointed and placed in whorls at the articu- 
lations of the stem, each whorl consisting of as many branches as 
there are teeth in the sheath. Found in ditches, lakes, and rivers, 
in various parts of the world. In South America, Gardner measured 


Figs. 877-880. Reproductive organs of Equisetum, to illustrate the natural order Equi- 
setaceze, Fig. 877. A peltate or polygonal scale, e, taken from the terminal cone-like 
fructification of an Equisetum. c, Thece or spore-cases arranged in a verticil on the under 
surface of the scale. p, Stalk by which the scale is attached to the axis. Fig. 878. ¢, 
Spore-case seen on ifS inner surface, with the slit or opening by which the spores are dis- 
charged. Fig. 879. A spore, s, with four clavate filaments rolled up in a spiral man- 
ner around it. Fig. 880. Spore, s, with the filaments, which are clavate at their ex- 
tremities, unrolled. These filaments or elaters are hygrometric, and move about under the 
influence of moisture. 


EQUISETACEAI—FILICES, 637 


an Equisetum fifteen feet high, and three inches in circumference at 
the lower part of the stem. There is only 1 known genus, compre- 
hending about 25 species. Example—Equisetum. 

' From the quantity of silicic acid contained in them, some of the 
‘species of Lguisetum are used in polishing mahogany. An analysis of 
them is given at page 131. The spiral filaments which surround 
their spores are interesting objects under the microscope, exhibiting 
marked movements according to the moisture or dryness of the atmo- 
sphere around them. The stomata are arranged in lines on the 
cuticle. In Equisetum hyemale, often called Dutch Rushes, the sili- 
ceous stomatic apparatus is well seen after the action of nitric acid on 
the stem. There are regular rows of tubercles of a siliceous nature, 
in each of which is a transverse fissure, and at the bottom of the 
fissure a stoma is placed, with its opening at right angles to that of 
the tubercle. Each portion of the stoma has a pectinated (comb-like) 
appearance. The distinctions between the species of Equisetum are 
founded on the nature of the fertile and barren stems, the number of 
strize or furrows, and the number of teeth at the articulations. 

Order 216.—Fitices, the Fern Family. Stem, a rhizome (fig. 
881), which creeps along or under the surface of the ground, emitting 
descending roots and ascending fronds (leaves), or which rises into 
the air so as to form an acrogenous trunk (fig. 135, p. 71). This 
trunk (stipe) is of nearly uniform diameter, often hollow in the interior, 
marked on the hard outer rind by the scars (cicatrices) of the leaves, 
and contains vascular bundles of woody, dotted, and scalariform 
vessels, which are enclosed in hard tissue, and are arranged in an 
irregular manner (fig. 136, p. 71). Ferns have a continuous woody 
cylinder in their stem. The stem of many tree-ferns is composed of 
a mass of parenchyma traversed by vascular bundles of scalariform 
tissue, which form a closed circle separating the medulla in the in- 
terior from the cortex of the exterior. The tissue of this vascular 
cylinder is entirely destitute of medullary rays, but it is penetrated by 
large meshes, through which pass the vascular bundles that supply the 
fronds, and which invariably rise from the inner surface of the cylinder. 
Sometimes the trunk is dichotomous (fig. 137, p. 72). The outer 
fibrous covering is formed by the bases of the leaves, and is thicker 
at the lower than at the upper part of the stem. The leaves (fronds) 
have a circinate (gyrate) vernation (fig. 881 /' f"); their veins are 
generally of ‘equal thickness, and either simple or dividing in a forked 
manner (fig. 882), or somewhat reticulated, and occasionally stomata 
occur. Reproductive organs consist of spore-cases (thece, spo- 
rangia), which arise from the veins on the under surface of the fronds 
(figs. 881 f””, 882 s, 883), or from their margin. Spore-cases, either 
stalked, with the pedicel passing round them in the form of an elastic 
ring (fig. 884), or sessile and destitute of a ring. The theca some- 


638 FILICES. 


times arise from the surface of the frond, while at other times they 
spring from below, having a cuticular covering in the form of an 
indusium or involucre (fig. 882). The clusters of thece are called 
sori (fig. 883). The margin of 
the frond sometimes is folded 
so as to cover the thece, and 
at times the whole frond is 
converted into clusters of 
thecee. The spores when sown 
give rise to a prothallus (pro- 
thallium), which bears anther- 
idia and archegonia (p. 280). 
The antheridia are in the 
under surface of the prothallus, 
and consist of cellular papille, 
having a central cavity. This 
cavity contains free cellules, 
within each of which there is 
a ciliated spiral filament or 
spermatozoid. These cellules 
are discharged by a rupture at 
the apex of the antheridium. 
The spiral filaments then burst. 
the cellules, and being set free 
reach the cellular body con- 
taining the embryo-germ, or 
archegonial cell, embedded in 
the substance of the prothallus. The archegonia are larger than the 
antheridia, and present a canal leading to the germ-cell, which canal 
remains closed till the period when the spermatczoid is matured. 
After fertilisation the archegonial cell enlarges, develops numerous 
cellules, and forms the true sporangiferous frond of the fern.—Ferns 
abound in moist insular climates. They characterise the New 
Zealand Flora. They are elegant leafy plants, occurring chiefly in 
moist insular climates, and abounding in the tropical islands. In 
mild and warm climates they occur in the form of large Tree-ferns, 


Fig. 881. Fig, 884. 


Fig. 881. Rhizome of Scolopendrium vulgare, with several fronds (leaves), f’, f", f/f", 
in different degrees of development. In f’ and f”, the circinate or gyrate vernation is seen. 
In f’”, the linear transverse sori or clusters of thece are seen, having the appearance of 
dark lines on the lower surface of the frond. Figs. 882-884. Frond and fructification of 
Lastrea (Nephrodium), to illustrate the natural order Filices. Fig. 882. Part of the 
frond seen on the lower surface. p, Two pinne covered with sori, s, having an indusium. 
rv, Rachis or central stalk of the frond. Fig. 883. One of the sori or clusters of thece cut 
vertically, m, The vein bearing it. i, Indusium or fold of the frond covering it. c¢, Thece 
or sporangia (spore-cases). Fig. 884. One of the thece separated at the period of dehis- 
cence. a, Incomplete annulus or ring, which is elastic, and causes transverse dehiscence 
of the theca. , Stalk of the theca. s, Spores discharged. 


FILICES. 639 


fifty to sixty feet high, which give a character to the landscape. The 
theca of ferns has been looked upon as a modified leaf, having the 
same gyrate or circinate development as the frond. Leaves have 
occasionally been produced in place of thece. The prothallus of 
Pteris serrulata is said to produce occasionally fronds without the 
agency of archegonia. This case is similar to the formation of adven- 
titious buds or leaves. Ferns having the thece on the back of the 
frond, and furnished with an elastic ring or band, are called dorsiferous 
and annulate ; while those having no thecal ring are exannulate. 
The order has been divided into several sub-orders :— 


1. Gleicheniew, Gleichenia tribe.—Sori dorsal, sporangia (thece or capsules), 
opening vertically, surrounded by a broad transverse complete ring (annu- 
lus), no indusion (involucre), vernation circinate. 

2. Polypodiex, Polypody tribe.—Sori dorsal, sporangia pedicellate or sessile, dis- 
tinct, annulate, ring vertical, usually incomplete, bursting irregularly and 
transversely, involucre marginal, dorsal, or 0, vernation circinate. 

8. Hymenophyllex, Filmy Fern tribe.—Sori marginal or dorsal, involucre 
2-valved, sporangia nearly sessile, distinct, annulate, ring horizontal, complete, 
occasionally oblique, bursting lengthwise, vernation circinate. 

4. Osmundex, Royal or Flowering Fern tribe.—Sporangia 2-valved, dorsal, or 
forming a separate stalked mass (an altered frond), distinct, with « short 
horizontal and more or less incomplete ring, opening across the apex, no in- 
volucre, vernation circinate. 

5. Schizeze, Schizea tribe.—Sporangia 2-valved, opening along the side, crowned. 
by a complete opercular ring, vernation circinate. 

6. Marattier, Marattia tribe.—Sporangia united in mass (synangia), exannulate, 
opening irregularly by a cleft on one side or by a pore at the apex, vernation 
circinate. 


7. Ophioglossez, Adder’s-tongue tribe.—Sporangia collected into a spike, formed 
at the base of an altered frond, exannulate, 2-valved, vernation straight. 
They have a pale underground prothallus, bearing antheridia and archegonia. 


The generic characters of Ferns are founded on the position and 
direction, covered or uncovered nature of the sori, as well as on the 
venation. There are 240 genera, including upwards of 2600 species. 
Examples — Gleichenia ; Polypodium, Aspidium, Lastrea, Asplenium, 
Adiantum, Pteris, Davallia, Woodsia, Cyathea ; Hymenophyllum, 
Trichomanes ; Schizea, Aneimia, Lygodium; Osmunda; Danza, 
Marattia, Angiopteris ; Ophioglossum, Botrychium. 

. Few of the Ferns are used medicinally. They are in general 
demulcent and astringent. Some yield food. The rhizome of Lastrea 
(Aspidium) Filix-mas, Male shield-fern, has been used as a vermifuge, 
especially in cases of tapeworm. It contains starch, gum, saccharine 
matter, tannin, green fixed oil, and resin. Its properties are ascribed 
to the fixed oil. The rhizome has been used for tanning, and its 
ashes contain much carbonate of potash. Cyathea medullaris, Ponga - 
of New Zealand, furnishes a gum used as a vermifuge. The syrup called 
Capillaire, and certain pectoral mixtures, are prepared from Adiantum 


640 MARSILEACE OR RHIZOCARPEZ—LYCOPODIACES. 


pedatum (Canadian Maiden-hair), and A. Capillus Veneris (true 
Maiden-hair). The rhizome of Pieris esculenta is used as food in 
Australia, and that of Marattia alata in the Sandwich Islands. Many 
other species of Ferns are esculent. The stems and leaf-stalks of 
Ferns are often covered with scales, and with woolly matter ; Davallia 
canariensis is called Hare’s-foot Fern on this account, and Cibotiwm 
Barometz receives the name of Scythian or Tartarian-lamb, because, 
when prepared in a particular way, it resembles that animal. 

Order 217,—MarsILEAcEs, or RuizocarPrs#, the Pepperwort 
Family (p. 279). Stem wanting. Leaves often stalked, with the 
lamina divided into three or more wedge-shaped pieces ; sometimes the 
lamina is abortive; vernation circinate. Reproductive organs near 
the root or along the petiole, enclosed in an involucre. At the base 
of the leaves or petioles stalked sporocarps are formed, which are 2-4- 
celled or 2-4-valved ; they contain antheridia (microspores) and spor- 
angia in separate cavities (fig. 504, p. 279), or there may be separate 
sporocarps for antheridia and archegonia (fig. 505, p. 279). The 
spore forms a prothallus bearing one or more archegonia.—Creeping 
or floating plants, found in ditches and pools in various parts of the 
world, more especially in temperate climates. They are not put to 
any important use. Marsilea Macropus or Salvatrix is the Nardoo plant 
of Australia, the sporocarps of which have been used as food by 
travellers in that country. There are 4 genera and upwards of 40 
species. Examples—Marsilea, Pilularia, Salvinia, Azolla. 

Order 218—Lycopopiacea, the Club-moss Family (p. 278). 
Stems creeping or corms ; annular vessels in the axis. Leaves imbri- 
cated, more or less setaceous, sometimes subulate. Sporangia, axillary 
and sessile, 1-3-celled, opening by valves or indehiscent ; often of two 
kinds. One, round, reniform or crescentic, consisting of antheridian 
cells, with spermatozoids ; the other, called oophoridium (aor, an egg, 
and pogew, I bear), of a roundish or tetrahedral form, opening by two 
valves, and enclosing four large spores capable of germinating ; ; these 
spores contain an internal prothallus on which archegonia are formed. 
In Lycopodium we. meet with one kind of theca containing numerous 
small spores ; while in Selaginella there are microspores or antheridia 
(figs. 498, 499, p. 278) at the upper part of the cone-like fructifica- 
tion (fig. 497, p. 277) ; while at the lower part there is a sporangium 
containing macrdspores (fig. 501, p. 278), producing a prothallus 
bearing archegonia, which are fertilised by the spermatozoids of the 
antheridia from the interior of the microspores. The fertilisation of 
Lycopodium has not been fully ascertained. In Isoetes the two kinds 
of reproductive bodies are embedded in the substance of the base of 
the leaf. Isoetes is put by many in a distinct order, IsOETACES, 
Quillwort Family. They differ from Lycopods in their habit, and in 
their stem, which is a perennial, woody caudex increasing by annual 


LYCOPODIACEA—MUSCI OR BRYACEA, 641 


growths.—They are moss-like plants, intermediate between ferns and 
mosses, and in some respects allied to cone-bearing plants. They 
abound in warm, moist, insular climates. A species of Selaginella 
from Jamaica has a green hue during the day, and turns white to 
the eye at night. There are 6 genera and about 200 species. 
Examples—Lycopodium, Selaginella, Isoetes. 

Some of the Lycopodiums are emetic and cathartic. The powdery 
matter in the thece is inflammable, and has been used as a substitute 
for sulphur, under the name of Lycopod or vegetable brimstone. 
The minute spores of Lycopodiwm clavatum, in the form of a yellow 
powder, are shaken out of the sporangia, and are used externally for 
dusting excoriated surfaces, and putting in pill-boxes to prevent the 
mutual adhesion of pills. Church has found Potassium Phosphate in 
large quantity in the ash of Lycopodium gigantewm. Two or three 
species of Selaginella, as S. convoluta and involvens, coil up into a ball 
during the dry season, and unroll during the wet season. They 
have been called resurrection plants. 

Order 219.—Musc1, or Bryace#, the Moss Family. Plants 
having a distinct axis of growth, often giving off branches or innova- 
tions ; no vascular system. Leaves minute and imbricated (fig. 885 /), 
entire, or serrated ; sometimes with condensed cells in the form of 
ribs or nerves. Reproductive organs of two kinds :—1. Antheridia 
(figs. 402, p. 233; 494, p. 277), cylindrical or fusiform stalked bags, 
containing minute cells with spermatozoids (fig. 402, 3, p. 233), and 
mixed with empty jointed filaments or paraphyses (ragégvorc, an off- 
set), 2. Urn-shaped sporangia (figs. 887 ; 495, p. 277), enclosed at 
first within a calyptra (x@Avarea, a cover or veil), which is ultimately 
carried up with them (fig. 886 c), leaving often a sheath (vaginula) 
round the bottom of the fruit-stalk. These spore-cases (fig. 885) 
are supported on a stalk or seta, which has leaves at its base, called 
perichetial leaves (eg/, around, and va/rn, flowing hair, foliage) ; on 
removal of the calyptra, the theca is found to consist of a case with 
an operculum or lid (fig. 887), which, when it falls off, shows the 
mouth of the um either naked or crowned with a peristome (ze¢/, 
around, and ordéu«, mouth), consisting of one or more rows of teeth 
(in number, four, or a multiple of four), distinct, or united in various 
ways (fig. 887 p). In the centre of the theca is a columella (fig. 
888 c), and the bag formed between it and the parietes of the theca 
contains spherical cells called spores (fig. 888, s). In some cases the 
operculum remains persistent, and the theca opens by four valves. At 
the base of the theca there is occasionally a fleshy protuberance at 
one side, called a struma, or a swelling of the seta, called an apophysis 
(darégiiors, excrescence), (fig. 888 a). The calyptra is sometimes split 
on one side (dimidiate), at other times it is entire (fig. 886 c) or split 
into short clefts all round its base (mitriform), Between the teeth of 

2T 


642 MUSCI OR BRYACEA. 


the peristome and the edge of the theca an elastic ring or annulus is 
formed ; and occasionally a horizontal septum or epiphragm (ggayua, 
a partition), extends across the mouth of the theca. The sete are 
sometimes twisted, and so are the teeth of the peristome. The spore 
of mosses when germinating forms a confervoid prothallus, from which 
a leafy axis arises bearing antheridia and archegonia, from the latter 


Fig, $85. Fig. 886. Fig. 887. | 


of which, after fertilisation, the sporangiferous axis proceeds (figs. 494- 
496, p. 277).—Mosses are either erect or creeping, terrestrial or 
aquatic plants, found in all moist countries, extending from the arctic 
to the.antarctic regions. They abound most in temperate climates. 
Spruce met with few mosses in the Amazon and Rio Negro districts. 
He did not find Funaria hygrometrica there, although it is a very 
generally distributed moss. They are among the first plants which 


Figs. 885-888. Figures to illustrate the natural order Musci. Fig. 885. Funaria hygro- 
metrica slightly magnified. /, Leaves, those connected with the seta being called peri- 
chetial. w, Urn-like theca, sporangium or spore-case supported on a long twisted stalk 
or seta, p. c, Calyptra, which exists on one of the thece, and has fallen from the other. 
ov, Operculum or lid. Fig. 886. Theca of Encalypta vulgaris. u, Theca or spore-case. 
¢, Mitriform entire calyptra. 0, Operculum or lid. s, Top of the seta. The calyptra is 
transparent, and the operculum and theca are seen through it. Fig. 887. The same 
theca, u, with the calyptra removed. 0, Operculum detached, showing the peristome, p, 
with its sixteen cilia or teeth. Fig. 888, Very young theca of Splachnum cut longi- 
tudinally. a, Apophysis or swelling of the seta at the base of the theca. c, Central colu- 
mella. s, Cavity or bag between the columella and the walls of the theca, containing spores. 
The integument of the theca is formed of different cellular layers ; the first, ¢, forms the 
epidermis, and is thickened at the summit to form the operculum; there are then two 
intermediate layers, which ultimately form the teeth of the peristome ; and lastly, an inner 
integument, s, which forms the parietes of the spore-bearing cavity. 


MUSCI OR BRYACEZ—HEPATICA, 643 


appear on newly-formed islands. In speaking of the morphology of 
mosses, Lindley states that the calyptra may be considered as a con- 
volute leaf, the operculum another, the peristome one or more whorls 
of minute flat leaves, and the theca itself as the excavated distended 
apex of the seta. Ina specimen of Tortula fallax, which I received 
from the late Mr. E. Quekett, leaves are produced at the top of the 
seta in place of the spore-case, Dusting-brooms, called silk brooms, 
are made in Sussex from Polytrichum commune, : 

Mosses have been divided according as their sporangia are ter- 
minal (acrocarpi, dxgos, at the top, xagrés, fruit), or on short 
lateral branches (cladocarpi, xAdéos, a branch), or from the axil of 
leaves (pleurocarpt, rAeueéy, side) ; according as the operculum is adhe- 
rent or not; and according as the mouth of the theca is naked, or has 
a single or double peristome, aploperistomi (da260s, single), and diplo- 
peristomi (diAéos, double). Divisions have also been adopted, founded 
on the position of the antheridia and archegonia, etc. There are 3 
sub-orders :—1. Bryez, urn mosses; cespitose mosses, urn-shaped 
sporangia, with calyptra, usually an operculum ; peristome with or 
without teeth, central columella, no elaters. 2. Sphagnese, bog-mosses ; 
aquatic plants, with spirally imbricated leaves, clustered branches, 
spiral cells, operculum, but no peristome. 3. Andra, split-mosses ; 
cespitose mosses, sporangia bursting vertically into 4 valves, central 
columella, spores without elaters. Genera, 130; species, 2500. British 
genera, 110; species about 570. Examples— Phascum, Gymnos- 
tomum, Splachnum, Orthotrichum, Dicranum, Bryum, Funaria, 
Polytrichum, Hypnum ; Sphagnum ; Andrea. 

Order 220.—HeEpatica, the Liverwort Family. Plants having 
an axis which either bears cellular leaves (fig. 889) or is leafless, and 
is bordered by a membranous expansion or thallus. Stomata are found 
in the epidermis of some. The reproductive organs are—1. Antheridia 
(fig. 490, p. 276), which are either embedded in the frond (fig. 489, 
p. 275) or situated on rounded sessile and stalked receptacles (fig. 
488, p. 275). 2, Archegonia (fig. 492, p. 276), either inclosed in 
involucres and solitary (figs. 493, p. 277 ; 889 ¢ <), or occurring at the 
edge of the frond, or on the lower side of stalked peltate expansions 
(figs. 448, p. 251; 491, p. 276). Thece or sporangia, having no 
operculum, opening irregularly, or by four valves (fig. 889). Spores 
(fig. 594, p. 334) often mixed with spiral filaments called Elaters 
(fig. 890). Heterorhizal in germination (fig. 629, p. 356).—Terrestrial 
plants, found in damp places, or inhabiting water; some having a 
moss-like appearance. They are natives both of cold and warm 
climates, and are generally distributed over the globe. 

The order has been divided into three sections :—1. Marchantiezx, 
Liverworts: thecz collected in heads, bursting irregularly, no oper- 
culum, spores with elaters. 2. Jungermanniez, Scale-mosses: thecs 


644 HEPATICA—LICHENES. 


solitary, opening by four valves, no operculum, spores with elaters. 
3. Anthocerotee: thece pod-like, 
2-valved, a central columella with 
elaters. 4. Riccies, Crystalworts : 
thece solitary, decaying so as to 
allow the spores to escape, no oper- 
culum, no elaters (fig. 447, p. 251). 
Many of the Hepatice produce 
gemme or buds (fig. 488, p. 275), 
which are developed on the frond 
in the form of cup-shaped recep- 
tacles, and ultimately fall off so as 
to become distinct plants. Mar- 
chantia hemispherica has been re- 
commended in dropsical cases. 
There are, according to Lindley, 73. 
genera and about 700 species. 
Examples—Marchantia ; Jungermannia ; Anthoceros ; Riccia. 


Fig. 889. Fig. 890. 


Sub-class I].—Ampuicama, THALLOGEN®, CELLULARES. 


Acotyledons composed entirely of cellular tissue, having no distinct 
axis, nor leaves, nor stomata, propagated by means of spores, which 
are often enclosed in asci. The sub-class corresponds to Endlicher’s 
division of Thallophyta, and includes the Amphigame of De Can- 
dolle and the Gymnospore of others. 


Order 221.—LicuEnzs, the Lichen Family. Plants forming a 
thallus, which is either foliaceous, crustaceous (fig. 891), or pulveru- 
lent ; these different forms depending on the mode in which the cells are: 
developed and combined. The reproductive organs appear on the frond 
in the form of protuberances of various kinds (fig. 892 ¢ »), consisting 
of an outer layer of thick-walled roundish cells, more dense than the 
tissue of the thallus, and of a different colour (fig. 893 cc), and of an 
internal medullary layer (fig. 893 cm), with paraphyses and sporangia 
lying perpendicularly to the outer layer cc. The ‘fructification gradu- 
ally projects more from the surface, and either remains covered with 
the outer layer, or bursts through it. When it remains closed, there 
is a nucleus in the centre. When the fructification bursts through the 


Figs. 889, 890, Organs of fructification of Jungermannia Tamarisci, to illustrate the 
natural order Hepatic. Fig. 889. f, Branches covered with imbricated leaves, arranged 
in a distichous manner. Two of the branches bearing thece, supported on stalks which 
arise from an involucre at the base. i%, Involucres. ec, Thece closed in the young state. 
¢’, Thece opening by four valves to discharge the spores and elaters. Fig. 890. 7, Recep- 
tacle bearing elaters, e, or spiral filaments, one of which shows the double spiral fibre. 
5, Free spores, 


LICHENES. 645 


cortical or outer layer, it expands in the form of shield-like discs, called 
apothecia (d064x, a repository), or patellee (figs. 891 s, 892 a), (patella, 
hollow disk), or linear expansions called lirelle (lira, a furrow). 
Sometimes the cortical matter forms a border round the fructification, 


Fig. 891. Fig. 893. 


at other times it grows up in the form of a stalk, so as to give rise to 
a podetium (voiic, a foot). The young thece (asci) contain spores, 
varying from 4 to 8 (fig. 449, p. 251), or from 12 to 16. Occasion- 
ally the spores are in sets of two (fig. 449, 2, p. 251). Separated 
cells of the medullary layer, of a green colour, called gonidia (yévy, 
generation, and «doc, resemblance), or gongyli, are considered as 
another kind of reproductive organ. There are also capsular bodies 
called spermogones, containing minute linear cells or spermatia, which 
are often supported on stalks or sterigmata (fig. 475, p. 268). 
Besides these, pycnides (fig. 476, p. 268), or bodies like spermogones 
occur, containing spore-like cells, called stylospores (figs. 473, 474, 
p. 268). Lichens bearing fructification in cavities of the thallus, and 
opening by a pore on the surface, are called angiocarpous, while those 
which have the fructification expanded in the form of a shield-like 
scutellate, cup-shaped, or linear thallus, are called gymnocarpous. 
The order has been*divided into four sections :— 


1. Hymenothalamee (juyjy, a membrane, Oddduos, a receptacle) : shields open, ° 
discoid, permanent, nucleus bearing the sporangia on its surface (fig. 891). 


Figs. 891-893. Organs of fructification of Parmelia Acetabulum, to illustrate the natural 
order Lichenes, section Hymenothalamez. Fig. 891. t, Thallus of the Lichen. s, Apo- 
thecia in the form of shields in different degrees of development. Fig. 892. Apothecium, 
a, cut vertically and magnified in order to show the layer, tp, formed by the union of thece 
and paraphyses. Fig. 893, A small portion of the apothecium much more magnified, 
showing, cm, the central medullary layer. cc, The cortical layer. tt, Thece in different 
degrees of development. p, Paraphyses. 


646 LICHENES. 


2. Gasterothalames (yaorip, a belly): shields either closed always, or opening 
by bursting through the cortical layer of the thallus, the nucleus containing 
the deliquescing or shrivelled sporangia. 

38. Idiothalamece (7510s, peculiar) : shields closed at first, opening afterwards, con- 
taining free spores in a nucleus composed of the gelatinous remains of the 
paraphyses and sporangia. . 

4, Coniothalames (xévis, powder), pulverulent lichens ; shields open, without a 
nucleus, cavity filled with free spores. 


Lichens are found in all quarters of the globe, adhering to stones, 
rocks, trees, etc. They derive much of their nourishment from the 
atmosphere. They have the power of acting on hard rocks, so as to 
disintegrate them ; and many of them contain much inorganic matter 
in their composition. They all grow in the air ; none are found sub- 
mersed. Genera, 60; species, 2400. Examples—Urceolaria, Umbili- 
caria, Lecidea, Cladonia, Parmelia, Cetraria, Roccella, Evernia. 

The Thallus of Lichens is composed of a filamentous tissue called 
hypha (94, a weaving), the filaments of which are usually colourless, 
and of green, yellow, blue, or brown cellules, called gonidia (vévos, off- 
spring), which vary as regards their character and situation. They 
contain either chlorophyll or a colouring matter called phycochrome 
(gixos, seaweed, xed, colour), which distinguishes an entire group 
of the lower alge. The hypha forms the principal part of the thallus. 
It may be in a filamentous form, or it may be developed as fronds of 
considerable extent. Lichens are connected with Algze on one hand 
by means of some of the Collemacez, and with Fungi on the other by 
the inferior genera of Pyrenocarpei. Of late a singular hypothesis has 
been brought forward by Schwendener to the effect that Lichens are 
not autonomous plants, but are composed of a true algal and a para- 
sitic fungus. Each lichen is supposed to be an algal-type, which has 
become the fost of a parasitic fungus growth; the Lichen-gonidia 
being alge, and the Lichen-thallus (the hypha), a parasitic fungus. 
This theory is illustrated by Nostoc, an independent algal, which 
may either continue so, or it may become the host of a parasitic 
fungus, and by it be converted into a Collema, or what is usually 
called Lichen.* This view is not adopted by our best fungologists. 
(For a detailed account of the reproductive process in’ Lichens, see 
p. 268. 

ae furnish articles of food and important dyes. Cetraria 

- islandica, commonly called Iceland Moss, contains a nutritious matter 
called Lichenin, or Lichen-starch. There exists in it a bitter principle 
also, to which the name Cetrarin has been given. The plant is used 
as a demulcent and tonic, in the form of decoction or jelly. This 
Lichen occurs in northern regions, as Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, 
and Scandinavia, on the mountains of Britain, and other parts of 


* See a paper by Mr. Crombie, in Popular Science Review, July 1874, See also Grevillea, 
1873, and Ann. des Sc. Nat. 5 ser. xvii. 


LICHENES—FUNGI. 647 


Europe, also North America and the Antarctic regions. It is used as 
a tonic. By the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid on it, 72 per 
cent of grape sugar is procured. Oladonia rangiferina is a Lichen 
upon which the Reindeer feeds. Several species of Gyrophora con- 
stitute the Tripe de Roche, on which Franklin and his companions 
subsisted for some time. Many other Lichens, such as Sticta pul- 
monaria, Lung-wort or oak-lungs, and species of ZLecanora, furnish 
articles of food. Roccella tinctoria from the Canaries, RB. fuciformis, 
R. hypomecha, furnish valuable dyes, under the name of Orchil or 
Archil. The dye procured from them, and from other Lichens, is 
called Litmus. Lecanora tartarea supplies the dye called Cudbear. 
Parmelia parietina contains a yellow colouring matter called Parietin 
or Chrysophanic acid. Some species of Variolaria contain a large 
quantity of oxalate of lime. Some plants of the order are aromatic. 
Order 222.—Funer, the Mushroom Family. (Hysterophyta of 
Endlicher.) The plants belonging to this order consist of cells, some- 
times round, sometimes elongated in the form of filaments, either 
placed closely together or separated. They are variable in their con- 
sistence, being soft or hard, fibrous or gelatinous, fleshy or leathery. 
They never contain green gonidia like Lichens, and they rarely grow 
in water. There exists a vegetative system called spawn or mycelium 
(wixns, fungus), formed of elongated, simple, or articulated filaments, 
concealed within the matrix, or expanded over its surface, from 
which varied forms of fructification proceed. The mycelium occurs 
in a filamentous, a membranous, a tubercular, or a pulpy form. The 
reproductive organs consist of spores or spherical cells (usually 4, or 
some multiple of 4), which are either attached to the cellular tissue, 
and supported often on simple or branched filamentous processes (figs. 
896, 898) called sporophores (orogé, a spore, and gogéw, I bear) or 
basidia (Géo1s, a base); or are contained in theca (theca, a sac), 
cystidia (xvori¢, a bladder), or asci (aoxés, a bag), (fig. 896 ¢), accom- 
panied with bodies called antheridia and paraphyses. The sporophores 
sometimes end in delicate cells bearing the spores, and called sterig- 
mata (or4grywa, a support). In the Agarics or Mushrooms, which 
are among the best known fungi, there is observed first a roundish 
protuberance on the mycelium. This swelling is called the volva or 
wrapper, and it~gradually enlarges, containing in its interior what 
appears afterwards as the agaric, with its reproductive bodies. When 
the volva is ruptured, the fully-formed agaric is seen, consisting of an 
upper rounded portion called the pileus or cap (fig. 894 ¢ c), sup- 
ported on a stalk or stipes (fig. 894 p). On its under surface is 
situated the hymenium (iu%v, membrane), or the part where the spores 
are produced (fig. 894 h), covered at first by a thin membrane called 
a veil (indusium or velum), which is ultimately ruptured ; and when 
the rupture takes place at the edge of the pileus, an annulus or ring 


648 FUNGI. 


is left on the stipes (fig. 894 aa). The hymenium, or the part on 
which the organs of reproduction are placed, consists in the agaric 
of cellular plates, lamellz, or gills, radiating from the centre (fig. 
894’). In other genera of Fungi (fig. 897) it consists of tubes or solid 


Fig. 895. Fig. 897. 


Fig. 896, Fig. 898, 


columns, or fleshy or gelatinous matter. Sometimes the hymenium 
is on the upper surface of the fungus.—Cellular plants, often growing 
on decaying organic matter, generally very fugacious, and presenting 
various colours. They are found in all parts of the world. 

The following are the divisions usually recognised, as defined by 
Berkeley :— 


1. Hymenomycetes (ou7jv, a membrane, and mixys, a fungus) : Hymenium naked, 
spores in sets of four (fig. 895 b), and borne on distinct sporophores (figs. 
894, 896), as seen in Mushrooms. 


2. Gasteromycetes (yaoryjp, a.belly) : Hymenium enclosed in a membrane (peri- 
dium), spores as in section 1 (figs. 897, 898) ; as seen in Puff-balls. 
3. Coniomycetes (xévs, powder): Flocci of the fruit obsolete or mere peduncles, 


Figs. 894-898. Figures to illustrate the natural order Fungi. Fig. 894. A cluster of 
plants of Agaricus campestris, Mushroom in different stages of development. yp, Stipe or 
stalk. ccc, Pileus, hat orcap. v, Velum or indusium, which unites the pileus and stipe, 
and when ruptured forms the annulus or ring, aa. h, Lamelle or gills radiating from the 
centre on the under surface of the pileus, and bearing the hymenium or receptacle of the 
spores. Fig. 895. Hymenium seen from above, the spores, b, being scattered over it in 
sets of four (quaternary). Fig. 896. A small portion of the Hymenium much magnified 
and viewed laterally. h, Its tissue composed of cells. 0, Basidia or sporophores bearing 
the spores ; one of these is figured separately, bearing a large number of spores. c, Cystidia 
or thecee, Fig. 897. A small portion of the pileus of Clathrus cancellatus, in the form of 
a sort of network. The Hymenium covers its inner surface, and is seen following the con- 
tour of the lacunz, JJ, of the network. Fig. 898. Hymenium much more highly magnified 
to show the particular form of the basidia, 0. s, Spores. 


FUNGI. 649 


spores single, often partitioned, and on more or less distinct sporophores ; 
as seen in the Rust and Bunt of Corn. 


4. Hyphomycetes (S¢dw, I weave): Thallus floccose, spores naked, often septate ; 
as in Gymnosporous Moulds, Mildews. 


5. Ascomycetes (doxés, a bag) ; (Discomycetes, dicxos, a disk) : Sporidia (spores) 
contained often in sets of eight in asci or tubes ; as in Morels and Truffles. 


6. Physomycetes (gUca, a bladder): Thallus floccose, spores surrounded by a 
vesicular veil or sporangium ; as in common bread-mould, 


Under these sections Berkeley enumerates about 600 genera, includ- 
ing about 5000 species, Lxamples—Agaricus, Polyporus, Hydnum, 
Clavaria; Phallus, Geaster, Bovista, Craterium, Nidularia; Bac- 
tridium, Torula, Uredo, Aicidium ; Ceratium, Tubercularia, Botrytis, 
Penicillium ; Helvella, Peziza, Tuber, Erysiphe, Onygena; Phy- 
comyces, Mucor. 

The plants of this order deserve attention, whether we regard 
their esculent or their poisonous qualities, or the destruction which 
they cause by their parasitic growth. In this country the chief 
species eaten are Agaricus campestris, the common Mushroom, Agari- 
cus Georgit, Morchella esculenta, and other species of Morel, Tuber 
cibarium, and estivum, Truffle. In foreign countries, as in France, 
Italy, Germany, and Russia, some Fungi are used as food, which 
have acted as poisons in this country. The process of cooking, as 
well as the climate, may have some effect in modifying their qualities. 
Agaricus procerus is eaten abroad ; but a case of poisoning from it has 
been known to occur in Edinburgh. In Rome it is stated that the- 
yearly average of taxed mushrooms, from 1837 to 1847, was between ° 
60,000 and 80,000 pounds weight. The finest mushroom is said to 
be the Agaricus Prunulus. Amanita muscaria is a poisonous species, 
which is used as a means of intoxication in Kamtschatka. It is said 
to give this property to the urine of those who eat it. It is not easy 
to distinguish between edible and poisonous Fungi. It has been said 
that the latter are often highly coloured, have scales or spots on their 
surface, tough watery flesh, and grow in clusters on wet ground, and 
often in the shade; while the former are seldom highly coloured, 
generally white or brownish, rarely show scales or spots, have brittle 
fiesh, and grow solitary in dry pastures, not in the shade. The true 
field ‘mushroom grows in pastures, has dark purple brown spores, has 
a perfect encircling clothy colour, and gills which do not touch the 
stem, and a top with an overlapping edge. Berkeley says that, as 
regards ordinary mushrooms, a good indication is the bright rosy tint 
of the gills, and the absence of any yellow stain when bruised. In 
some cases Fungi form a staple article of food. Darwin states that 
the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego live upon a globular fungus of a 
bright yellow colour (Cyttaria Darwinzi), found on the bark of the 
beech. Many species of Boletus are used as food in Western Aus- 


650 FUNGI 


tralia, according to Drummond. Mylitta australis is known in 
Australia as Native Bread. Hygrophorus pratensis is the Hereford- 
shire truffle. Fistulina hepatica is called Vegetable Beefsteak. Hirneola 
(Exidia) Auricula Jude, Jew’s-ear, has been used as an astringent. 
Large quantities of Fungi are eaten by the Chinese under the name of 
Hiang-Kwan, and have some medicinal or dietetic properties assigned 
to them. The Polypori or Boleti are generally preferred by them to 
Agarics.* 

Some Fungi are limited to certain kinds of decaying matter. 
Many species of Onygena are found only on the dung, feathers, and 
hoofs of particular animals. Peculiar species of Mycoderma are deve- 
loped in vinegar, in yeast, ‘and in flour. The rapidity with which 
Fungi sometimes grow is remarkable. Ward noticed Phallus impudi- 
cus shoot up three inches in the course of twenty-five minutes, and 
attain its full elevation of four inches in an hour anda half. Bovista 
gigantea, in a single night, has increased from the size of a pea to that 
of a melon. The force also with which they expand has been shown 
by their raising pavements under which they had been developed. 
Some?Fungi, as Agaricus oreades, cocctneus, and personatus, are deve- 
loped in a centrifugal manner, forming fairy rings. Certain species 
of Agaricus give out a sort of phosphorescent light. This has been 
remarked in Agaricus olearius, Agaricus Gardnert, and some species of 
Agaric from the Swan River. A similar kind of light is produced by 
species of Rhizomorpha, which occur in coal-mines (p. 389). Polyporus 
“fomentarius forms amadou, and it, as well as P. betulinus, have been 
‘made into razor-straps. Caps are also made from Amadou ; and this 
material is used in Hungary for making waistcoats and for caulking 
boats. Pietra fungata of Italy is a mass of earth bound together by 
fungus spawn. 

The diseases caused by Fungi are numerous (pp. 399-402). Blight, 
mildew, rust, and smut, are diseases of grain due to the attacks of 
Fungi. Dry-rot is owing to the presence of Merulius lacrymans and 
vastator, and Polyporus destructor, the mode of preventing which has 
been already alluded to (p. 401). The disease called ergot, which 
attacks Rye and other grasses, is produced by Claviceps purpurea, 
Oidium Tuckert has caused much destruction in vineyards. The various 
moulds which occur on bread, cheese, preserves, and fruits, are plants 
of this extensive order. Penicillium glaucum is one of the most 
common moulds, occurring on organic substances, on books, etc. A 
species of Racodiwm is found in low cellars, as at the London docks. 
Some Fungi are produced on living animals. Thus, the disease called 
muscardine in the silkworm is produced by Botrytis Bassiana. Cer- 
tain wasps in the West Indies are affected by a similar disease. A 


*See Fred. P. Smith’s contributions to the Materia Medica and Natural History of 
China. 


FUNGI—-CHARACEA. 651 


disease in silkworms caused by a fungus, Cladosporium (Pleospora) her- 
barum, is called gattine, being a corruption of catkin, from the 
appearance presented, in the same way as the name muscardine is 
given from the fancied resemblance to a little cake, or a kind of pas- 
tille, which the dead caterpillars resemble. Spheria sinensis, a cele- 
brated Chinese drug, grows on a caterpillar; Spheria Robertsii is 
developed on the larva of Hepialus virescens in New Zealand; and 
Spheria Taylort on an Australian caterpillar. Spheria sobolifera, ento- 
morhiza, militaris, and others, also grow on animals. Particular kinds 
of mould sometimes grow on the mucous membrane of birds. Some 
mycodermatous Fungi are connected with certain cutaneous and other 
diseases in the human species. Thus, cellular filaments called Porri- 
gophytes are found in the crusts of Porrigo favosa, Mentagraphytes in 
those of Mentagra or Sycosis menti, and Aphthaphytes in Aphthe. 
These are all forms of mould. The following analysis of Puff-balls 
(Lycoperdon gigantewm) is given by Professor Church. Ash contains 46 
per cent of Phosphoric acid and 35 per cent of Potash. These 
elements exist in small quantities in the soil, but are largely accumu- 
lated in plants, It is therefore inferred that the Puff-ball receives its 
phosphorus and potash from the stores already accumulated in the 
higher plants. Fresh Puff-balls contain 90 per cent water, 54 per cent 
albuminoids, 2 per cent cellulose, and about 4 per cent ash. When 
the water is driven off, the nitrogenous elements (albuminoids) con- 
stitute 66 per cent of the residue. The spores of the Puff-ball, 
when swallowed in large quantities, have given rise to severe diarrhoea. 

Order 223.—CHaracra, the Chara Family. Aquatic plants, 
with tubular jointed stems and verticillate branches. (fig. 244, p. 152) ; 
stem formed either by a single tube or by several parallel tubes sur- 
rounding a central one. Reproductive organs of two kinds (fig. 486, 
p. 274) :—1. Antheridia of a rounded form called globules, sessile in 
the branches, consisting of 8 valves, which cover confervoid filaments, 
each joint of which contains a spermatozoid bearing 2 cilia (fig. 403, 
p. 234; fig. 487, p. 274). 2. Oval nucules or axillary sporangia, 
formed by a large central cell (spore) with 5 elongated cells wound 
spirally round it, surmounted by a corona of 5 teeth. The nucules, 
after being fertilised by the globules, fall off and germinate, forming 
new plants,—The plants are found in all parts of the world, especially 
in temperate regions. Genus, 1; species about 40, of which 16 are 
British, Example—Chara (including Nitella). 

The Chare grow in stagnant water. Some have the stem 
encrusted with carbonate of lime, which renders them brittle. In the 
unencrusted Nitellas, the movement of rotation in the protoplasmic 
contents of the tubes is well seen (fig. 245, p. 152). Some of the 
calcareous Charas are used for polishing plate. The Charas have 
frequently a peculiarly fetid odour, especially when decaying, and their 


652 ALG OR HYDROPHYTA. 


presence is said to give rise to malaria. Occasionally they communi- 
cate their odour to the water of reservoirs, and render it unpleasant. 
It is of importance for Water Companies to see that Charas do not 
exist in the streams which supply the water for their reservoirs. 
Order 224.—Atcam, or Hypropuyta, the Seaweed Family. 
Cellular plants, found both in salt and in fresh water. Fronds com- 
posed of variously formed, often elongated, cells, which are either 
simple or branched filaments, continuous or articulated, separate, or 
combined in different ways (fig. 29), so as to constitute fronds of 
various kinds (fig. 899). Growth takes place by the division of cells, 
or by cellular prolongations, in the form of lateral branches. Repro- 
ductive organs consist of spores (figs. 467-470, p. 265), which are 
contained in mother-cells or perispores (-reg/, around, and ozogd, seed), 


Fig. 899. Fig. 902. Fig. 903. 


or sporocarps (xagqés, fruit). These are sometimes congregated to- 
gether in receptacles of different sorts (figs. 899 ¢ c, 900). The 
spores occasionally divide into 3 or 4 cells, constituting tetraspores 
(rerecs, four), (fig. 482, p. 273). In addition to spores or sporocarps 
(fig. 902 sp), there are antheridia, consisting of minute cells, with 
spermatozoids in their interior. In some of the simplest Alga, the 
whole plant is concerned in producing new individuals by division of 


Figs. 899-903. Frond and organs of reproduction of Fucus serratus, to illustrate the 
natural order Algz. Fig. 899. The entire plant much diminished in size. f, Frond com- 
posed of cells, so united as to form a flat expansion. ¢c, Conceptacles at the extremities 
of the frond, containing the organs of reproduction. Fig. 900. Extremity of the frond 
covered with conceptacles. Fig. 901. Vertical section of a conceptacle, c, with its inner 
surface covered with spores (sporocarps), paraphyses, and antheridia. t, The superficial 
cellular tissue of the frond, in which the conceptacle is buried. o, Foramen by which the 
conceptacle opens externally. Fig. 902. Spore, sp, covered with its perispore or sporo- 
carp, p. f, Filaments or paraphyses, by some called antheridia. Fig. 903. Spore, s, sepa- 
rated and deprived of its perispore or outer covering. 


ALG OR HYDROPHYPTA. 653 


the parent cells into 2 or 4. In others there is a union of 2 fila- 
ments, and a passage of certain granular particles (endochrome) from 
the one to the other, ending in the formation of the spore. This 
process is termed conjugation, and is one of great interest. It has 
been observed in some of the Confervacee and Diatomacee. In certain 
cases the terminal cell of the filament is that in which a spore is 
formed without any conjugation, and in these cases the spore is fre- 
quently provided with ciliary processes, which exhibit for a time 
spontaneous movements (figs. 467-470, p. 265); hence called zoo- 
spores. In the higher Algz, the sporocarps containing 2, 4, or more 
reproductive cellules, are united together in conceptacles along with 
antheridia containing phytozoa or spermatozoids (figs. 901, 902), and 
archegonia, containing cells to be fertilised. The antheridia and 
archegonia are either on the same or on different plants. 

In place of a single natural order, Algze should be looked upon as 
an alliance of several orders. They have been divided as follows :— 


1. Melanosporee (uéAds, black), or Pheosporee (gaiés, dusky), or Fucacex 
(Pixos, a seaweed) : plants of an olive-green or olive-brown colour, and cellu- 
lar or filamentous structure; growing in the sea (sea-wrack) ; cells often 
united by gelatinous matter (fig. 29, p. 8), and often forming a broad ex- 
pansion (thallus) supported on a stalk; reproductive organs consisting of 
sporocarps and antheridia (fig. 484, p. 273), contained in conceptacles opening 
externally (fig. 483, p. 278 ; 901), which are united on club-shaped expan- 
sions or receptacles situated at the end, on margins of the fronds (figs. 899, 
900). In germinating, the nucleus bursts the epispore or outer covering of 
the spore, and sends out filamentous processes. Spores dark coloured. 

2. Rhodospores (féd0v, the rose), or Choristosporei (xwpiords, separated), or 
Floridez (flos, a flower, from the fine colour): rose or purple coloured sea- 
weeds, with fronds formed of a single row of articulated cells, or of several 
rows of cells combined into a flat expansion ; reproductive organs of 2 kinds, 
monecious or dicecious ; sporangia in the substance of the frond or in con- 
ceptacles ; spores red or red-brown, rounded and often in fours (tetraspores); 
antheridia containing motionless antherozoids ; a special tube called tricho- 
gynium (@¢ié, hair), passing from the antheridia to the sporangia, and thus 
effecting fertilisation (figs. 482, 485, p. 273). ; ; 

8. Chlorosporee (xAwpés, green): plants growing either in the sea, or in fresh 
water, or in damp situations ; filamentous or membranaceous, or shapeless ; 
usually of a grass-green colour; reproductive organs consisting of green 
moving spores furnished with cilia, or of spores fertilised by antherozoids 


(figs. 479, 480, pp. 271, 272). 


In the olive, red, and green, Algz, Sorby found at least 12 different 
colouring matters distributed very differently, in such a manner as to 
connect, and yet to distinguish, the different groups very character- 
istically. (See Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 1873.) 


4, Vaucheriee (named after Vaucher): green Alge, with single filaments not 
septate, producing 2 kinds of reproductive cells, and ciliated spores, not the 
result of reproduction (fig. 478, p. 269). 

5. Saprolegnier (campés, putrid) (fig. 481, p. 278) : colourless aquatic filamentous 


654 ALG OR HYDROPHYTA. 


plants, growing on decaying organic matter, having moving zoospores, and 
sporangia, containing round oogonia (see p. 272). 


6. Conjugate (so called from. union of cells), or Synsporeae (cvv, together) : 
fresh-water Algz, with septate cellular tubes containing green matter, often 
arranged in spirals, reproduction by union of the contents of 2 cells (fig. 
471, p. 266). It includes the sub-tribe Desmidiez. 


7. Diatomaces (dia, through, or réuve, I cut, in allusion to the mode of division) : 
inhabiting still waters and moist places; fronds consisting of frustula or 
fragments, which are either angular or cylindrical, siliceous and brittle, 
united by a gelatinous sort of substance; propagated by the division of 
parent cells into two halves, which become more or less completely detached, 
and form new individuals (fig. 472, p. 267). Conjugation also takes place 
in the same way as in the Conjugate. 


Besides these tribes, there are others specially noted by authors as 
doubtful ; among these are included Oscidlatortew :—aquatic plants with 
moniliform filaments, which have a wavy motion, propagating by self- 
division ; Nostochinew :—composed of moving filaments, immersed in a 
gelatinous matter ; Palmellacee :—composed of more or less rounded 
cells in a gelatinous matrix, illustrated by the plant seen in Red-snow ; 
Volvocinee, composed of numerous cells or zoospores, which move 
about in water. Authors enumerate 350 genera, including above 
2500 species. ELxvamples—Fucus, Sargassum, Laminaria, Padina, 
Ectocarpus ; Ceramium, Delesseria, Rhodymenia, Chondrus; Ulva; 
Vaucheria; Saprolegnia ; Conferva, Desmidium ; Diatoma; Oscilla- 
toria; Nostoc; Palmella, Protococcus ; Volvox. 

The plants of the order are widely distributed over the globe, 
being found in salt and fresh water, in moist places, as on damp rocks 
and stones, and the glass and pots of hothouses, and even in hot 
springs. Sometimes they present collectively the appearance of green 
slime. They derive nourishment chiefly from the medium in which 
they grow; and the root-like processes with which some of them are 
provided seem to be merely for the purpose of fixing them. Some of 
the species are very gigantic, others very minute, requiring the aid of 
the microscope for their detection. The lowest members of the order 
approach very nearly to the lowest tribes of animals, and it is difficult 
to draw a line of demarcation. Many species now considered vegetable, 
such as Corallina officinalis and many Diatomacee, are figured as 
animals by Ehrenberg. There are interesting movements connected 
with the cells of many Algee, such as Oscillatoria and Nostoc. Some 
of the species found in the ocean have conspicuous stems, which 
sometimes present the appearance of zones in their interior (p. 75). 
Among the large-stemmed species may be noticed Durvillea utilis 
and Lessonia fuscescens, Scytosiphon (Chorda) Filum attains in the 
British seas a length of 30 or 40 feet, while Macrocystis pyrifera 
in the Pacific ocean reaches the length of 500 to 1500 feet. Some 
of the Laminarias of Britain have stalks of considerable size. Sar- 


ALG OR HYDROPHYTA. : 655 


gassum bacciferum, the Gulf-weed, is found floating in great quan- 
tities on each side of the equator in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian 
oceans. Protococcus nivalis and viridis occur in red and green 
snow. The red and, green colours of certain lakes and seas are 
attributed to species of Trichodesmium and Spherozyga. According to 
Dr. Hooker, Diatomacee are found in countless numbers between the 
parallels of 60° and 80° S., where they give a colour to the sea, and 
also to the icebergs floating on it. The death of these bodies in the 
South Arctic ocean is producing a submarine deposit, consisting entirely 
of the siliceous particles which entered into the composition of these 
plants. Conferva crispa, called Water-flannel, forms beds of entangled 
filaments on the surface of water. Species of Tyndaridea also occur 
in thick green patches. Hydrodictyon utriculatum, Water-net, has the 
appearance of a green net, composed of filaments which’ enclose pen- 
tagonal and hexagonal spaces. Achiya prolifera, and other Saproleg- 
niew, are developed occasionally on living animals, such as on the gills 
of the gold-fish and of trout, as well as on dead flies and other organic 
matter. Certain organisms have been detected in the human stomach 
which appear to belong to this order. One of these is called Sarcinula 
ventricult by Goodsir, and was ejected by vomiting in a case of 
pyrosis. It consists of square cells united together in sets of four, and 
propagating by division. It is probably an anomalous condition of a 
mould-fungus. 

The plants of this order supply a quantity of gelatinous matter, 
and many of them are used for food. Kelp is obtained by the burn- 
ing of Seaweeds, and iodine is procured from them. Spherococcus 
(Chondrus) crispus, Carrageen or Irish Moss, supplies a nutritious 
article of diet ; so does S. Lichenoides, Ceylon Moss. Rhodymenia pal- 
mata, Dulse, Alaria esculenta, Iridea edulis, young plants of Laminaria 
digitata and saccharina, Tangle, as well as various species of Porphyra, 
Laver, and Ulva, Green Laver, are esculent. The edible swallows’- 
nests of the East are said to be formed of a species of Galidiwm. 
Spherococcus cartilagineus, var. setaceus, is used in China as a substi- 
tute for these nests. Agar-agar is a seaweed of a similar kind. 
Nostoc edule is used in China as an article of food. The use of burnt 
seaweed, in cases of scrofulous swellings, has been superseded by the 
discovery of iodine, the active ingredient. Plocaria (Gigartina) Hel- 
minthocorton, under the name of Corsican Moss, was formerly used as 
4 vermifuge. 


656 GRAMINEA. 


ADDITIONAL REMARKS on the Frrtinisation of GRAMINES, 
in continuation of the statements at page 634 :— 


Dr. Hermann Miller, in his work entitled “‘ Die Befruchtung der 
Blumen durch Insekten,” has the following remarks :— 

“The whole family of Graminez consists of plants with very 
marked wind-flowers. I have repeatedly seen, however, a small dip- 
terous fly, Melanostoma mellina L., occupied with its mouth on the 
anthers of different species (Anthoranthum odoratum, Poa annua, 
Festuca pratensis), probably consuming pollen grains which had re- 
mained sticking in them. Many Graminew are protogynous. For 
example, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Alopecurus pratensis, Nardus stricta, 
Oryza clandestina is remarkable for its kleistogamous (xAeorés, closed, 
ydwoc, wedding) flowers. 

“In Secale cereale (Rye) the flowers have the anthers and stigmas 
matured simultaneously ; they open widely, and allow both sexual 
organs freely to project. Cross-fertilisation can thus be effected 
through the wind on the most extensive scale. 

“Tn Triticum vulgare (Wheat) the flowers, the stamens, and stig- 
mas are likewise simultaneously matured ; they only half open them- 
selves, and that for only a quarter of an hour, again hermetically to 
close. The opening takes place suddenly, with immediate and com- 
plete scattering of the pollen, about a third part of which goes into 
the same flower, and two-thirds are carried out by the emerging 
anthers. Cross-fertilisation by the wind can thus take place, only to 
a much more limited extent. Self-fertilisation, according to Delpino’s 
experiments, produces good fruit. Since each flower remains open 
for only a quarter of an hour, while the blossoming lasts four days, 
only a very small number of the flowers are open at once. 

“In Hordeum vulgare or hexastichum (6-rowed Barley or Bere) the 
flowers of the two middle rows never open ; those of the four outer 
rows behaving in the same way as the flowers in Wheat. 

“While the flowers in H. vulgare are all hermaphrodite, in H. 
distichum (2-rowed Barley) only those of the two middle rows are so, 
and remain closed and fertilise themselves. Among these, however, 
a few exceptionally occur with slightly open flowers, thus affording 
the chance of cross-fertilisation by the purely male flowers of the 
four marginal rows.” 


PART I. 


GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY, OR THE DISTRIBUTION OF 
PLANTS OVER THE GLOBE. 


——+— 


In this department of Botany we treat of the manner in which plants 
are affected by climate and station, and the mode in which they are 
distributed over the globe, and we endeavour to investigate the 
conditions under which particular families, or species of plants, are con- 
fined to certain zones of latitude and altitude. It is asubject of great 
interest, and one which cannot be prosecuted with success until the 
vegetation of the globe is more fully known. So long as there are 
vast tracts of continents unexplored by botanical travellers, the facts 
upon which Botanical Geography is founded must be imperfect. 


I.—EPIRRHEOLOGY, OR THE INFLUENCE oF Various EXTERNAL 
AGENTS on Piants. 


It is a matter of common observation, that the localities and soils 
in which plants grow vary much. Thus, some species grow in the 
shade, while others thrive best in full exposure to light; some grow 
in mountainous or alpine districts, while others prefer the plains ; some 
are found in dry, others in marshy places; some are submersed in 
lakes or in the sea; while others live on muddy banks, or on sandy 
shores. The plants growing on a granitic or micaceous soil differ 
frequently from those found on trap, limestone, or sandstone. It is 
equally well known that climate exercises a powerful influence on 
vegetation, modifying the Floras in different regions of the globe. 
Some plants are fitted to bear the rigour and duration of an arctic 
winter, with a moderate summer heat, others require the heat and 
light of the torrid zone; and between these two extremes there are 
all varieties of gradation. Thus vegetation extends over the whole 
globe, from one pole to the other—from the summit of the highest 
mountains to the bosom of the ocean. Notwithstanding this general 
diffusion of plant-life, there are a few spots in which it has not been 
detected, such as the' hot sands of Africa, and some of the Antarctic 
Islands. Each zone may be said to have its own peculiar vegetable 


2U 


658 EPIRRHEOLOGY. 


features, the number of species being found to increase as we approach 
the equator, and to decrease as we retire from it. Palms, Bananas, 
Tree Ferns, and Orchideous Epiphytes, are chiefly confined to the 
tropics ; Cruciferous and Umbelliferous plants are found in temperate 
regions; some Coniferous and Amentiferous plants flourish in more 
northern countries ; while Saxifrages and Lichens extend to the arctic 
regions. In warm regions are found those fruits which are so neces- 
sary for the well-being of the inhabitants; in temperate climates 
chiefly, occur the cereal grains for the food of man, and the green 
pastures for the nourishment of cattle ; and in the arctic regions, the 
Lichen, on which the reindeer feeds, grows luxuriantly. 

The number of known species of plants amounts to upwards of 
100,000, including about 10,000 genera. - The following is an esti- 
mate of the known species of plants on the globe at different dates :— 


Linnaeus ... 1753 ... 5,323 Phanerog. 615 Cryptog. 5,938 
Persoon ... 1807 ... 19,949 —~ 6,000 — 25,949 
Steudel ... 1824 ... 39,684 — 10,965 — 50,649 
Steudel ... 1841 ... 78,000 _— 13,000 — 91,000 
Steudel 1844 80,000 _— ie; 000 = — 965, 000 


In 1846, ile gave the following estimate of known genera 
and species :— 


Thallogens ‘ P . 939 Genera, 8,394 Species. 
Acrogens : 4 310 — 086 — 
Rhizogens ; ‘ 210 — 530 — 
Endogens ‘ . 1,420 — 13,684 — 
Dictyogens 2 5 : 7 — 268 — 
Gymnogens : 37 210 — 
Exogens .. - 6,191 — 66,225 — 
Total ‘ - 8,935 92,920 


Much yet remains to be done in regard to the Floras of India, China, 
Africa, Australia, and South America. Meyen conjectures that the 
total vegetation of the globe may be about 200,000 species. 

The distribution of species over different quarters of the globe is 
regulated by various external agents, the study of which is termed 
Epirrheology (éiggew, I flow on the surface). These agents are chiefly 
temperature and moisture, and the nature of the soil. The effects 
produced on plants by increase or decrease of light, and by changes in 
the state of the atmosphere, have not been sufficiently determined. 


1.—Errects oF TEMPERATURE. 


The effects of this agent must be considered both as regards its 
latitudinal and its altitudinal ranges. In proceeding from the equa- 
tor to the poles, or in ascending from the surface of the ocean to the 
summit of a lofty mountain, there is a gradual decrease of temperature, 


DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE. 659 


and, at the same time, marked changes in the nature of the vegetation. 
The scale of atmospherical temperature serves as a scale for the pro- 
gress of vegetation, As regards the latitudinal distribution of heat, 
the globe has been divided into eight regions, four northern and four 
southern—viz., a tropical region, from the equator to the limits of the 
tropics in each hemisphere ; subtropical, between this and 40° of lati- 
tude ; temperate, between 40° and 60° of latitude ; arctic and antarctic, 
beyond 60° of latitude. 

_ Each species of plant is adapted to thrive best between certain 
limits of temperature. These limits do not necessarily coincide with 
any definite parallels of latitude ; for it is well known that the climate 
of different places in the same latitude is very different. It is of im- 
portance, therefore, to ascertain the mean temperature of the year, but 
particularly of different seasons. By drawing lines through different 
places where the mean annual temperature is the same, Humboldt 
established a series of isothermal (700s, equal, and éégum, heat) lines in- 
tersecting the parallels of latitude. These lines run in curves, which 
rise in their course from the eastern coast of America towards western 
Europe, and sink towards the south in the interior of the continent— 
and that so quickly, that Scotland lies in the same isothermal line as 
Poland, and England as Hungary. It is clear, therefore, that the 
isothermal lines in the higher latitudes do not, by any means, corre- 
spond with the parallels of latitude. At the equator, however, these 
lines coincide more nearly. Much depends upon the temperature of 
the different seasons. Thus, a place which has a very cold winter 
and a very warm summer, may be in the same isothermal line with 
one in which the temperature of both these seasons is moderate, and 
plants which succeed well in the one may not grow in the other. 
Cherry-laurels and other Evergreens, which grow well in the open 
air in England, will not stand the winter of places on the continent in 
the same isothermal line. It is necessary, in determining the geogra- 
phical distribution of plants, to take into account the mean summer 
and the mean winter heat, and, better still, the mean monthly tem- 
peratures, The distribution of temperature among the different months 
of the year is of importance, especially in reference to the heat and 
duration of the summer months; for many plants protected by a 
covering of snow are enabled to bear rigorous winters, provided the 
summer be hot enough, and of sufficient duration. Lines passing 
through places having the same mean summer temperature are called © 
isotheral (‘0os, equal, and dzgog, summer) ; those passing through places 
with an equal mean winter temperature, are isocheimal (efu«, winter- 
cold). The isocheimal lines in the interior of continents bend con- 
siderably towards the south. In the interior of continents, the 
isotheral lines, though doubtless bending considerably to the north, 
follow more closely the parallels of latitude. Many circumstances 


660 DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE. 


conspire to influence the temperature of countries. Insular and coast 
climates are more equable, from the effect of the sea in preventing the 
atmosphere from being much heated during the day, and much cooled 
during night. In the interior of vast continents the extremes of tem- 
perature are often great. Winds have a powerful effect on climate. In 
China, the north-east monsoon brings great cold in February. The 
state of a country as regards forests has a decided effect on the tem- 
perature. In different quarters, the nature of the exposure also, 
whether to the east or west, north or south, and the intervention of 
elevated ranges of mountains, materially affect the temperature. 

In determining the limits of distribution in the vegetable king- 
dom, we must know the mean monthly and the mean daily tempera- 
ture during those periods when vegetation is active. We must ascertain 
the number of days which a plant requires to produce successively its 
leaves, flowers, and fruit, and we must estimate the mean temperature 
during that period. The conditions which define the limits of a plant 
require that we should know at what degree of temperature its vege- 
tation begins and ends, and further, the sum of the mean temperatures 
during that time. Adanson first stated, that by adding the mean tem- 
perature of each day from the commencement of the year, it was found 
that when the sum reached a certain figure the same phenomena of 
vegetation were exhibited, such as leafing and flowering. “Boussin- 
gault afterwards promulgated the statement, that if we multiply the 
number of days (the length of time the culture of a summer plant 
endures) by the mean temperature of this time, the product will be the 
same in all countries and in all years. Thus, if a plant, he says, has 
taken 20 days to ripen its seeds from the period of flowering, and the 
mean temperature during these 20 days has been 50°, it will be found 
that the heat received by the plant has been 1000°. The same sum 
may be given by a greater amount of heat during a smaller number of 
days. Lucas says that at Arnstadt, which is 897°4 French feet above 
the level of the sea, and has a mean temperature of 46°6 F., winter 
Rye requires an average temperature of 48°1 F. during 105 days, in 
all 5048°, to bring it into flower; from the flowering to the ripening 
53 days, with a mean temperature of 63°°4, in all 3360%2 ; altogether 
the duration of the vegetation of Rye amounts to 158 days, with a 
mean temperature of 53°, the sum of this being 8466°°9. Again, win- 
ter Wheat requires for flowering 129 days, with a mean temperature 
of 50°°6, in all 65274; from flowering to ripening 53 days, with a 
mean temperature of 63°, in all 3339°. The total duration of the 
vegetation of Wheat is thus 182 days at Arnstadt, with a mean tem- 
perature of 54°, which makes a total of 9828°. Wheat requires a 
higher mean temperature than Rye to bring it into flower; it there- 
fore blossoms on an average 24 days later, and consumes 6527°-4 
of heat, while Rye only requires 5048°. From the flowering to the 


TEMPERATURE IN RESPECT TO ALTITUDE. 661 


maturation, Wheat and Rye require nearly the same length of time and 
the same amount of heat. Boussingault’s law has been somewhat 
modified by Alphonse De Candolle, who has pointed out many sources 
of error to be avoided. It is difficult to fix the time which is to be 
taken into account ; the temperature of the soil requires to be attended 
to; low temperatures, and especially all below 32°, or perhaps 35°, which 
do not excite the phenomena of vegetable life, should be left out of the 
calculation ; and the thermometric measurements should be made by 
observations on the plants themselves, and not merely on the air. By 
attention to these points, he thinks that useful and accurate conclusions 
may ultimately be arrived at relative to the temperature required for 
the performance of vegetable functions. 

Temperature, in “ite hypsometrical (U-bos, altitude, and pérgor, 
measure) relation, or as regards its altitudinal range, requires to be 
considered, In ascending into the atmosphere, a decrease of tem- 
perature is observed, which varies in its amount at different stages of 
ascent. The following table shows the temperature at different 
heights in the equatorial and temperate zones— 


Height Equat. Zone. Temp. Zone. 
in feet. Lat. 0°—10° Lat. 45°—47° 
0 5 81°50 F. Mean. 53°°60 F. 

3,197 - 71 24 ‘5 41 ‘00 
6,394 ‘ 7 64 °40 i 31 '64 
9,591 ‘ 57 ‘54 3 23 36 

12,789 ci ‘ 5 44 60 

15,985 ‘ 87 °70 


Taking an average, it may be said that there is a fall of 1° in the 
thermometer for every 340 feet of ascent. Prof. Forbes states that 
543 feet of ascent give a difference of 1° of the thermometer in the 
boiling point of water. The elevation at which constant frost takes 
place is called the snow-line or line of perpetual congelation. Its 
limit does not exactly correspond with the height at which the tem- 
perature is equal to 32° F. The following table, by Buchan, gives the 
height of the snow-line above the sea (in feet) at ‘different latitudes -— 


N. Lat. Height. N. Lat. Height. 
Spitzbergen . . . 78° 0) Mountains of ae 138° 14,065 
Sulitelma, Sweden . 67°5' 8,835 | Purace. . 4) SPO 15, 381 
Kamtschatka . . 59°80’ 5,249 
Vaslnerhias Ws America 56° 80’ 3,510 
Altai .. 50° 7,034 8. Lat. Height. 
Alp . ... . 46° 8,885 | Nevados of Quito . 0° 15,820 
Caucasus . . . . 48° 11,063 | Arequipa, Bolivia . 16° 17,717 
Pyrenees . . . 42° 45' 8,950 | Paachata, Bolivia . 18° 20,079 
Rocky Mountains . 43° 12,467 | Portillo, Chili . . 388° 14,713 
North Himalaya 29° 19,560 | Cordilleras, Chili . 42° 30' 6,010 
South Himalaya . 98° 15,500 | Magellan Strait . . 58°30' 3,707 


The decrease of temperature on ascending mountains regulates, in a 


662 DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY MOISTURE AND SOIL. 


great measure, the nature of the plants which grow at different heights. 
The same changes take place as have been shown to occur in proceed- 
ing from the equator to the poles, The following observations made 
on the growth of certain trees on the Grimsel, show the relation 
between height and latitude :— 


Lat. On the Grimsel. 

Beech, which extends to 60° grows about the height of 3000 feet. 
Oak ” ” 61° ” ” ” 2600 ,, 
Fruit Trees ,, S052, 

Hazel om *9 64° ” ced ” 3400 LE) 
Norway Spruce >, 67° 40" ,, a 4s 5000 ,, 
Scotch Fir ,, s, 70° 95 35 sy 6000 ,, 
Birch 53 », 70°40’ ,, ee 35 6400 ,, 


2.—EFFECTS OF MoIstURE. 


The absolute and relative quantity of moisture in the air has a 
decided effect on the distribution of plants. Nothing checks vegetation 
more than extreme dryness. Hence the barrenness of those hot sandy 
deserts which exhibit only an arid waste, without a single blade of grass 
to relieve the eye of the weary traveller. In warm and dry climates, 
succulent plants occur, with hard epidermal coverings, capable of resist- 
ing the effects of evaporation and transpiration. Among these may be 
noticed Cactacez, Mesembryaceze, Euphorbias, and some of the Aloe 
tribe. In the districts of Australia, where a dry climate prevails, many 
plants, such as Proteas, Banksias, and leafless Acacias, have hard and 
dry foliage, capable of enduring much drought without injury. In warm 
climates the effect of the dry season on vegetation is very remarkable. 
This season may be said to correspond with our winters. In some 
parts of South America, where no rain falls for eight months of the 
year, the leaves during the dry season fall, buds are developed in their 
axils, and it is only when the wet season arrives that the trees become 
clothed with verdure, and the herbage appears, Forests appear to 
keep up the humidity of the atmosphere in a country, and thus have 
a powerful influence on the climate, 


3.—Errects oF Sort, Lieut, AND OTHER AGENTS. 


The physical localities in which plants grow vary considerably. 
These variations are connected with the dryness and moisture of the 
soil, as well as with its mechanical and chemical composition. Some 
plants are fitted to grow in water, others in marshes ; some grow in 
peaty soil, others in sandy soil. Thurmann has endeavoured to show 
that the nature of the soil, whether siliceous, clayey, calcareous, or 
saline, has an effect in modifying the vegetation. Prof. E. Forbes 
states that in Lycia he could easily distinguish the serpentine from 


DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY MOISTURE AND HEAT. 663 


the limestone, not merely by their geological characters, but also by 
the disposition of the arborescent vegetation, On the serpentine, 
usually pines only grew, and never in thick forest masses, but scat- 
tered ; whereas the limestone bore thick clustered oaks and a luxu- 
riant underwood, with now and then clumps of lofty pines. In the 
low countries near the sea, the serpentine was marked by Senecio 
squalidus, a little Erophila, and Cheilanthes odora ; while on the lime- 
stone, Acrostichum lanuginosum was a conspicuous fern. Some of the 
rare alpine plants of Scotland grow on serpentine. A crumbling mica- 
ceous soil favours the growth of alpine species in Britain. Lichens 
seem to be often associated with special kinds of rocks. 

Alphonse De Candolle has recently promulgated the following 
views in regard to the distribution of plants in connection with heat 
and moisture :—The present distribution of plants over the globe 
depends on two principal factors—1. The phenomena of distribution 
in other geological epochs than our own. 2. The physical condition, 
temperature, moisture, etc., now existing. The climate in any region 
now-a-days may bé the same as that which prevailed elsewhere at a 
remote period. The vegetation of the Mediterranean region, as we 
now know it, once extended as far as Paris, and the present Arctic and 
Alpine floras were once spread over a large extent of Europe. The 
flora of the tropics once extended as far as London, as proved by the 
fossils of the tertiary epoch. De Candolle establishes five groups of 
plants according to their physical requirements. 

1. Megatherms (uéyéc, great, dégun, heat), plants requiring a large 
amount of heat and moisture. Megathermal plants at the present day 
exist in the tropics, in the plains, and in the hot damp valleys, as far as 
the 30th parallel. Mean temperature never below 86° F.,* and moisture 
never deficient. The fossil predecessors of existing Megatherms are much 
more widely diffused than their descendants. In a very early period 
they were distributed all over the globe, but since the commencement of 
the tertiary epoch they have been concentrated more and more in the 
equatorial regions. The species of this epoch vary in different regions 
of the globe. They consist mainly of woody plants and climbers, with 
persistent leaves. Epiphytes abundant in the forests. Such orders as 
Anonacez, Ternstroemiacee, Guttiferee, Aristolochiacez, and Piperacee, 
are amongst the most characteristic plants. 

2. Xerophiles, or Xerophilous plants (Zegés, dry, piAéw, I love), a 
group of plants requiring as much heat, but less moisture. At the pre- 
sent day such plants thrive in the hot and dry regions between 20th to 
25th and 30th to 35th degrees of latitude, z.¢. in the dry regions extend- 
ing from California and Texas to Mexico, from Senegal to Arabia and 

* Not a few of the temperatures which follow, as given by De Candolle and Schouw, 


now require revision, and we hope that some meteorologist will soon adequately discuss 
the subject from the most recent observations. 


664 DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY MOISTURE AND HEAT. 


the Indies, in South Australia,”"at the Cape of Good Hope, and the 
dry portions of La Plata, Chili, Peru, and the Andes. Xerophilous 
plants occur likewise in Brazil, the Mediterranean region, some parts of 
India, China, etc. At the present day they are more widely distri- 
buted than the Megatherms. In this group are included many Com- 
posite, Labiate, Boraginacese, Liliacee, Palms, Myrtles, Euphor- 
biacese, etc. The most characteristic orders are—Zygophyllacee, 
Cactaceze, Mesembryanthemacex, Cycadacez, and Proteacex. Suc- 
culent plants abound—Cacti in America, Euphorbias in Aftica, Mes- 
embryanthemums at the Cape. The history of the fossil plants of 
these districts is very imperfectly known. 

3. Mesotherms (uéooc, middle, and ééguy, heat), requiring a mo- 
derate degree of heat (mean annual temperature 59° to 68° F.) with a 
moderate degree of moisture. This division includes the majority of 
Mediterranean plants, plants of Northern India at low eleyations, 
plants of China, Japan, California, the Southern States of America, 
the Azores, and Madeira (including always the mountain plants of 
those districts), the plains of Chili, Tasmania, and New Zealand. 
Mesotherms are also met with on the lower slopes of tropical moun- 
tains. They include many plants with evergreen foliage, Laurels, 
Magnolias, Campanulas, Cistuses, many Leguminosee, Composite, 
Cupuliferee, Labiate, and Cruciferee. Analogous forms existed in the 
early tertiary period in Spitzbergen and North America, while the floras 
of Japan and of the United States were probably nearly identical. 

4, Microtherms (:xe6c, small, and eu, heat), requiring com- 
paratively little heat (mean annual temperature, 57° to 32° F.) 
Species of our European plains and of the Alps, those of Asia, between 
the Caucasus and the Himalayas, those of North America, 38° and 
40° north, and between 60° and 66° of the Southern Hemisphere, 
plants of Chili, Cape Horn, Kerguelen Land, and the mountains of 
New Zealand. Herbaceous perennials abound, deciduous trees and coni- 
fers. The ground now covered by Microthermal plants was previously 
occupied by Mesotherms and Megatherms, which were extinguished by 
the glacial epoch. 

5. Hekistotherms (jxsoroc, very , little, dégu, heat). Plants of 
arctic and antarctic regions, and upper portions of mountainous or 
temperate regions. They can bear a continued period of darkness, 
either from being covered with snow, or from their nearness to the 
poles, where daylight is absent for many months.’ Mosses, Lichens, 
Coniferze, Caryophyllaceze, Rosaceze, Saxifragacese, are well represented. 

6. Megistotherms (uéysoros, greatest, 62gun, heat). Plants requiring 
an extreme degree of heat (more than 86° F. mean annual tempera- 
ture). This is not geographical, Algse, Ferns, and Lycopods of the 
coal period may have been their representatives in former ages, as 
the Algze of hot springs are now-a-days. 


f 


BOTANICAL LOCALITIES OR STATIONS. 665 


The following is a division of plants according to the botanical 
stations or physical localities in which they grow, whether placed 
there by nature or by art :— 


A.—Plants growing in Water, whether Salt or Fresh. - 


1. Marine plants, such as Seaweeds, Lavers, etc., which are either buried in 
the ocean, or float on its surface: also, such plants as Ruppia and Zostera, grass- 
wrack. In the Sargasso Sea there are floating meadows of Sargassum bacciferum, 
gulf-weed. This sea extends from 22° to 36° north lat., and from 25° to 45° west 
long. from Greenwich, and extends over 40,000 square miles. 

2. Maritime or saline plants. These are plants which grow on the border of 
the sea, or of salt lakes, and require salt for nourishment, as Salicornia, glasswort, 
Salsola, saltwort, Anabasis. Such plants are often called Halophytes (Gs, salt, 
and guréy, a plant). Under this head may be included littoral and shore plants, 
such as Armeria, sea-pink, Glaux, sea-milkwort, and Samolus, brookweed. 

8. Aquatic plants, growing in fresh water, either stagnant or running; as . 
Sagittaria, arrowhead, Nymphoea, water-lily, Potamogeton, pondweed, Subularia, 
awlwort, Utricularia, bladderwort, Stratiotes, water-soldier, Lemna, duckweed, 
Pistia, Confervee, Oscillatorie, and Ranunculus fluitans. Some of these root in 
the soil, and appear above the surface of the water; others root in the soil, and 
remain submersed, while a few swim freely on the surface without rooting 
below. 

4, Amphibious plants, living in ground which is generally submerged, but 
occasionally dry, as Ranunculus aquatilis and sceleratus, Polygonum amphibium, 
Nasturtium amphibium. The form of the plants varies according to the degree 
of moisture. Some of these, as Limosella aquatica mudwort, grow in places 
which are inundated at certain periods of the year ; others, such as Rhizophoras 
mangroves, and Avicennias, form forests at the mouths of muddy rivers in tropical 
countries. 


B.—Land Plants which Root in the Earth and Grow in the Atmosphere. 


5. Sand plants ; as Carex arenaria, Psamma arenaria, Elymus arenarius, 
and Calamagrostis arenaria, which tend to fix the loose sand, Plantago are- 
naria, Herniaria glabra, Sedum acre, biting stonecrop. 

6. Chalk plants ; plants growing in calcareous and cretaceous soils, as some 
species of Ophrys, Orchis, and Cypripedium. 

7. Meadow and pasture plants ; as some species of Lotus, bird’s-foot trefoil, 
a great number of grasses and trefoils, the daisy, dandelion, and buttercups. 

8. Plants found in cultivated ground. In this division are included many 
plants which have been introduced by man along with grain; as Centaurea 
Cyanus, corn blue-bottle, Sinapis arvensis, common wild mustard, Agrostemma, 
corn-cockle, several species of Veronica and Euphorbia, Lolium temulentum, 
Convolvulus arvensis, Cichorium Intybus ; also plants growing in fallow ground, 
as Rumex <Acetosella, Carduus nutans, Echium vulgare, Artemisia campestris, 
and Androsace septentrionalis. In this division garden weeds are included ; such 
as Groundsel, Chickweed, Lamium amplexicaule, Chenopodium album, and 
urbicum. 

9. Rock or wall plants ; Saxifrages Wall-flower, Linaria Cymbalaria, Draba 
muralis, species of Hieraciwm and Sedum, Asplenium Ruta muraria, and some 
lichens and mosses. 

10. Plants found on rubbish heaps, especially connected with old buildings. 
Some of these seem to select the habitations of man and animals on account of 
certain nitrogenous and inorganic matters which enter into their composition. 


666 BOTANICAL LOCALITIES OR STATIONS. 


Among them may be noticed, Nettles, Docks, Borage, Henbane, Xanthiwm. 
Here, also, have been placed some plants immediately connected with the habita- 
tion of man, such as Racodium cellare, a fungus found on wine casks. Some 
plants, as Sempervivum tectorum, select the roofs of houses. 

11. Plants growing in vegetable mould ; such as bog-plants, or those growing 
on wet soil, so soft that it yields to the foot, but rises again ; and marsh plants, 
growing in wet soil, which sinks under the foot and does not rise. To the former 
class belong such plants as Pinguicula alpina and Primula farinosa ; to the 
latter, such as Menyanthes, bogbean, Comarum, Bidens cernua. 

12. Forest plants, including trees which live in society, as the Oak, the Beech, 
Firs, etc., and the plants which grow under their shelter, as the greater part of 
the European Orchises, some species of Carex and Orobanche. Some plants 
especially grow in pine and fir woods, as Linnea borealis, and some Pyrolas. 

18. Plants of sterile places, found in barren tracts, by roadsides. This is a 
heterogeneous class, and contains many plants of uncertain characters. Under it 
are included the plants of uncultivated grounds, as those found in moors, where 
Calluna vulgaris, common heather, and various heaths, Juniper, Andromeda, 
and some species of Polytrichum occur. 7 

14. Plants of the thickets or hedges, comprehending the small shrubs which 
constitute the hedge or thicket, as the Hawthorn and Sweet-brier ; and the herba- 
ceous plants which grow at the foot of these shrubs, as Adoxa, Wood-sorrel, 
Violets ; and those which climb among their numerous branches, as Bryony, 
Black Bryony, Honeysuckle, Traveller’s Joy, and some species of Lathyrus. 

15. Plants of the mountains, which De Candolle proposes to divide into two 
sections : 1. Those which grow in alpine mountains, the summits of which are 
covered with perpetual snow, and where, during the heat of summer, there is a 
continued and abundant flow of moisture, as numerous Saxifrages, Gentians, Prim- 
roses, and Rhododendrons. 2. Those inhabiting mountains on which the snow 
disappears during summer, as several species of Snap-dragon, among others the 
Alpine Snap-dragon, Umbelliferous plants, chiefly belonging to the genus Seseli, 
meadow Saxifrage, Labiate plants, etc. 


C.—Plants Growing in Special Localities, 


16. Parasitic plants, which derive their nourishment from other vegetables, 
and which, consequently, may be found in all the preceding situations ; as the 
Mistleto, species of Orobanche, Cuscuta (Dodder), Loranthus, Rafflesia, and 
numerous Fungi. 

17. Pseudo-parasitic plants, or Epiphytes, which live upon dead vegetables, as 
Lichens, Mosses, etc., or upon the bark of living vegetables, but do not derive 
much nourishment from them, as Hpidendrwm, Aerides, and other Orchids, as 
well as Tillandsia, Bromelia, Pothos, and other air-plants. 

18. Subterranean plants, or those which live under ground, or in mines and 
caves, almost entirely excluded from the light, as Byssus, Tuber cibariwm, Trufiles, 
and some other Cryptogamic plants. 

19. Plants which vegetate in |hot springs, the temperature of which ranges 
from 80° to 150° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ; as Vitex Agnus-castus, and seve- 
ral Cryptogamous plants, as Ulva thermalis, the hot-spring Laver. 

20. Plants which are developed in artificial infusions or liquors, as various 
kinds of Mucor, causing mouldiness. 

21. Plants growing on living animals ; as species of Spheria and Sarcinula 
and various other Fungi and Alga. 

22. Plants growing on certain kinds of decaying animal matter ; such as 
species of Onygena, found on the hoofs of horses, feathers of birds, etc., some 
species of Fungi, which grow only on the dung of animals, and certain species of 
Splachnum. 


EFFECTS OF LIGHT, CLIMATE, AND SEASON. 667 


Light is an agent that has a powerful influence on plants, as re- 
gards their vigour, irritability, secretions, and colour. Hence, in 
those regions where the light is intense, the vegetation presents cer- 
tain peculiarities, The luxuriance and greenness of the leaves, the 
nature of the woody matter deposited, of the fruit produced, and of 
the secretions formed, are all influenced in some degree by the inten- 
sity of the sun’s rays. Little is known in regard to the effects of in- 
creased or diminished atmospheric pressure on plants. Humboldt 
believed that vegetation was influenced by the amount of atmospheric 
pressure. Further research has not corroborated his suppositions. 
The effects of the atmosphere have been studied chiefly as regards 
dryness and moisture, and the mixture of certain gases with it, 
especially in the vicinity of manufacturing towns (page 159). 

' The effects of climate and season on the leafing, flowering, and 
fruiting of plants, may be seen in the case of some species which are 
found distributed over various countries in Europe. Berghaus has 
made an extensive series of observations on the subject. The Lilac 
(Syringa vulgaris), according to him, unfolds its leaves at Naples, in 
latitude 41°, during the first half of the month of January; near 
Paris, in latitude 49°, on the 12th March. The Elder unfolds its leaves 


At Naples : : ; : January 1-15. 
At Paris ‘ ¢ r F February 14, 
In England : : : March 8. 
At Upsal ‘ , : March 1-8. 
The Beech unfolds its leaves 
At Naples ‘ ‘ é ' End of March. 
In England : : , ‘ 1st May. 
At Upsal ; Beginning of May. 


In regard to flowering, Bagi states that in the middle lati- 
tudes of Europe and North America, it is generally four days later 
for each degree of latitude towards the north. The same plants 
flower at Zurich 6 days later than at Parma; at Tiibingen, 13 days 
later ; at Jena, 17; at Berlin, 25; at Hamburgh, 33 ; at Greifswald, 
36 ; and at Christiania, no less than 52 days later than at Parma. In 
the Berlin district, an elevation of 1000 feet renders vegetation 10 to 
14 days later: so also in regard to fruiting. The wheat harvest 
begins 


At Naples. i In June. 

In Central Germany 5 3 : July. 

In the South of England . : August. 
Ripe Cherries are to be had 

At Naples : , First days of May. 

At Paris . : ; End of June. 

In Central Germany : . Do. 


In the South of England 22d July. 


668 AGENTS IN THE DISSEMINATION OF PLANTS. 


II.—DisseMINATION OF PLANTS. 
1.—AGENTS EMPLOYED IN THEIR DISSEMINATION. 


Some plants are disseminated generally over the globe, while 
others are confined within narrow limits. De Candolle says that no 
phanerogamous plant is a cosmopolite in an absolute sense. Some 
extend over more than one-third of the earth’s surface, but none ap- 
pear to compass the whole earth. ‘Some of the common weeds in 
Britain, such as Chickweed, Shepherd’s-purse, and Groundsel, are 
found at the southern extremity of South America. Lemna minor 
and trisulca, 'Convolvulus sepium, Phragmites communis, Cladium 
Mariscus, Scirpus lacustris, Juncus effusus, and Solanum nigrum, are 
stated by Meyen to be common to Great Britain and Australia. 
Nasturtium officinale, and Samolus Valerandi, are very extensively 
diffused, and they may be almost reckoned cosmopolites. They are 
both natives of Europe, and they occur, the former near Rio Janeiro, 
the latter at St. Vincent. Trisetum subspicatum is a grass having a 
range from Tierra del Fuego to Greenland ; Drimys Winteri, Winter's 
bark, extends in South America over 5000 geographical miles. Many 
European plants are found in the antarctic regions. Potentilla 
anserina, Epilobium tetragonum, Oxalis corniculata, Hymenophyllum 
Wilsoni, Galium Aparine, Urtica dioica, Chenopodium album, and 
Cynodon Dactylon, are very widely distributed. The lower the degree 
of development the greater seems to be the range. Some Crypto- 
gamic plants, as Lecanora subfusca, are found all over the world. 
Man has been instrumental in diffusing widely culinary vegetables, 
such as the potato and the cereal grains, as well as many other plants 
useful for food and manufacture. Corn plants, such as Barley, Oats, 
Rye, Wheat, Spelt, Rice, Maize, and Millet, are so generally culti- 
vated over the globe that almost all trace is lost of their native 
country. They can arrive at perfection in a great variety of circum- 
stances, and they have thus probably a wider geographical range than 
any other kind of plant. As regards these plants, the globe may be 
divided into five regions—the region of Rice, which may be said to 
support the greatest number of the human race; the region of 
Maize ; of Wheat; of Rye; and lastly, of Barley and Oats. The 
first three are the most extensive, and Maize has the greatest range 
of temperature. The grains extending farthest north in Europe 
are Barley and Oats. Rye is the next, and is the prevailing 
grain in Sweden and Norway, and all the lands bordering on the 
Baltic, the north of Germany, and part of Siberia. Wheat follows 


DISTRIBUTION OF CEREAL GRAINS. 669 


Rye; it is cultivated in the middle and south of France, England, 
part of Scotland, part of Germany, Hungary, Crimea, and the 
Caucasus. We next come to a district where wheat still abounds, 
but no longer exclusively furnishes bread,—rice and maize becoming 
frequent. To this zone belong Portugal, Spain, part of France, Italy 
and Greece, Persia, Northern India, Arabia, Egypt, the Canary 
Islands, etc. Wheat can be reared wherever the mean temperature of 
the summer, for a period of at least three or four months, is above 55°. 
It succeeds best on the limits of the sub-tropical region. In the Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula the cultivation of Bere extends to 70° north lati- 
tude, Rye to 67°, and Oats to 65°. The cultivation of Rice prevails 
in Eastern and Southern Asia, and it is a common article of subsist- 
ence in various countries bordering on the Mediterranean. Maize 
succeeds best in the hottest and dampest parts of tropical climates. 
It may be reared as far as 40° north and south latitude on the Ameri- 
can continent on the western side, while in Europe it can grow even 
to 50° or 52° of latitude. It is now cultivated in all regions in the 
tropical and temperate zones, which are colonised by Europeans. 
Millet of different kinds is met with in the hottest parts of Africa, in 
the south of Europe, in Asia Minor, and in the East Indies. Henslow 
gives the following table to show the range of Wheat and Barley (Bere), 
and the mean temperature required for them :— 


Lat Winter Summer Annual 

Mean, Mean. Mean. 

624 Feroe . : 39°. » DIP” 3 . 45° 

70 Lapland . : 22,~=« . 46. . 82 ( Barley (includ- 
674 Russia. 5 9 46. . 82 ( ing Bere ?) 
574 Siberia. ; Oo. . 60. . 82 

58 Scotland . 36—C«(S . 57 » 46 )) 

64 Norway . 23 i . 59. . 39 

62 Sweden . Z 23 F bo, 39 | 

603 Russia. i 4 . 60. rae 

30, Cate. 2. OF . + Ss a5 hee 
22 Macao. : 64 . 82 . 73 

22 Rio Janeiro. 68. ay HS? x . 74 

23 Havanna 2 als 82 2k 

21 Bourbon : 71 a 180! 3 77) 


Winds, water, and animals are also instrumental in disseminating 
plants. Many seeds and fruits with winged and feathery appendages 
are easily wafted about ; others are carried by rivers and streams, and 
some can be transported by the ocean currents to a great distance, 
with their germinating powers unimpaired. 


670 GENERAL AND ENDEMIC DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 


2.—GENERAL AND ENDEMIC DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. 


While some plants are generally diffused, it is found that the 
different quarters of the globe are each characterised by more or less 
distinct floras. Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, 
and Australia, may be regarded as separate provinces of the vege- 
table kingdom, possessing species, genera, and families of plants, 
which give to each division its distinctive features. Humboldt and 
Bonpland, in their travels in equinoctial America, did not see an 
exogenous plant which was found equally in the New and the Old 
World ; the only plants which they discovered common to both being 
some grasses and sedges. Among 4160 species met with in New 
Holland by Brown, 166 only were to be found in Europe. 

Some plants live in society, occupying exclusively large tracts of 
ground, from which they banish all other vegetables. These are 
called by Humboldt Socal plants. They give a peculiar feature to 
the countries and districts in which they grow. To this class belong 
many species of Seaweed in the ocean ; Cladonias and Mosses in the 
waste levels of Northern Asia ; Grasses (Bamboos), and some Cactuses, 
Mangroves, and Avicennias in tropical countries ; Ferns in the South 
Sea Islands; Banksia speciosa in Australia; Cinchonas in certain 
parts of South America; Coniferous trees and Birches in the Baltic 
and Siberian plains. 

Some plants are very much restricted in their distribution over 
the globe ; a few are confined to single localities, while others have 
a limited latitudinal range. The species of the genus Erica, Heath, 
which extend from northern regions to the Cape of Good Hope, are 
scattered over a surface very narrow compared to its length ; in other 
words, while their latitudinal range is great, their longitudinal range 
is very much restricted. Calceolarias occur chiefly on the western 
side of the Cordilleras of Chili. Lobelia Dortmanna is found princi- 
pally in the western countries of Europe. Camellias are also limited 
in longitudinal direction, so also Phalangium bicolor and’ Raymondia 
pyrenaica. Arbutus Unedo, Erica mediterranea, and Dabeocia poli- 
folia, whose chief seat is in the Pyrenees and the mountains of 
Asturias, migrate in a north-westerly direction, and appear in Ireland. 
It is said that Azaleas, Rhododendrons, Magnolias, Vacciniums, 
Actas, and Oaks, which form prevailing genera on the east of the 
Rocky Mountains, scarcely appear on the western side. Epacridacee 
are confined to Australia; Cinnamon, Cloves, and Nutmeg, are the 
produce of the Indian Archipelago; Gentians and Saxifrages form a 
characteristic feature of the European Alps; Bejarias and Cinchonas 
of the Peruvian Cordilleras ; Schizanthuses of Chili ; Polemoniacez of 
California and Oregon ; yellow and brown Papilionacez of Australia ; 


ORIGINAL VEGETATION OF THE GLOBE. 671 


Dionza muscipula is limited to a small area in Carolina ; Cephalotus 
follicularis is found in the bogs near King George’s Sound, Australia ; 
Lodoicea Seychellarum is found only in the rocky islets of Seychelles ; 
Disa grandiflora is a rare orchid peculiar to Table Mountain at the Cape 
of Good Hope ; Pringlea antiscorbutica is peculiar to Kerguelen’s Land, 
and a few other antarctic islands; and Phyliea arborea is peculiar to the 
Tristan d’Acunha group of islands. It is said that Origanum Tourne- 
fortii is found only in a small island in the Grecian Archipelago. The 
vegetation of islands removed from continents presents often peculiar 
features, the ocean acting as a barrier to the dissemination of plants. 
The island of St. Helena was originally inhabited by a most peculiar 
vegetation, although its productions now are completely changed by 
the destruction occasioned by goats, and by the introduction of Euro- 
pean and other plants, especially fruit trees. Such may also be said 
of the plants found in the Sandwich Islands, the Society Islands, and 
the Canaries. The island of Madeira has 672 Phanerogamous plants, 
of which 85 are peculiar to it. 


3.—CONJECTURES AS TO THE MODE IN WHICH THE HARTH Was 
ORIGINALLY CLorHED WITH Pants. 


It is an interesting question to determine the mode in which 
the various species and tribes of plants were originally scattered over 
the globe. Various hypotheses have been advanced on the subject. 
Linnezus entertained the opinion that there was at first only one 
primitive centre of vegetation, from which plants were distributed 
over the globe. Some, avoiding all discussions and difficulties, sup- 
pose that plants were produced at first in the localities where they 
are now seen vegetating. Others think that each species of plant 
originated in, and was diffused from, a single primitive centre, and. 
that there were numerous such centres situated in different parts of 
the world, each centre being the seat of a particular number of species ; 
they thus admit great vegetable migrations, similar to those of the 
human races. Those who adopt the latter view, recognise in the dis- 
tribution of plants some of the last revolutions of our planet, and the 
action of numerous and varied forces which impede or favour the dis- 
semination of vegetables at the present day. They endeavour to 
ascertain the primitive floras of countries, and to trace the vegetable 
migrations which have taken place. Daubeny says that analogy 
favours the supposition that each species of plant was originally 
formed in some particular locality, whence it spread itself gradually 
over a certain area, rather than that the earth was at once, by the 
fiat of the Almighty, covered with vegetation in the manner we at 
present behold it. The human race arose from a single pair, and the 
distribution of plants and animals over a certain definite area would 


672 DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 


seem to imply that the same was the general law. Analogy would 
lead us to believe that the extension of species over the earth originally 
took place on the same plan on which it is‘conducted at present when 
a new island starts up in the midst of the ocean, produced either by 
a coral reef or a volcano. In these cases the whole surface is not 
at once overspread with plants, but a gradual progress of vegetation 
is traced from the accidental introduction of a single seed, perhaps of 
each species, wafted by winds, or floated by the currents. The re- 
markable limitation of certain species to single spots on the globe 
seems to favour the supposition of specific centres. Professor E. 
Forbes says, the hypothesis of the descent of all the individuals of a 
species, either from a first pair or from a single individual, and the 
consequent theory of specific centres being assumed, the isolation of 
assemblages of individuals from their centres, and the existence of 
endemic or very local plants, remain to be accounted for. Natural 
transport, the agency of the sea; rivers, and winds, and carriage by 
animals, or through the agency of man, are insufficient means in the 
majority of cases. It is usual to say that the presence of many 
plants is determined by soil or climate, as the case may be; but if 
such plants be found in areas disconnected from their centres by con- 
siderable intervals, some other cause than the mere influence of soil 
or climate must be sought to account for their presence. This cause 
he proposes to seek in an ancient connection of the outposts or isolated 
areas with the original centres, and the subsequent isolation of the 
former through geological changes and events, especially those depend- 
ent on the elevation and depression of land. Selecting the flora of the 
British Islands for a first illustration of this view, Professor Forbes 
calls attention to the fact, well known to botanists, of certain species 
of flowering plants being found indigenous in portions of that area, at 
a great distance from the nearest assemblages of individuals of the 
same species in countries beyond it. Thus, many plants peculiar in 
the British flora to the west of Ireland, have the nearest portion of 
their specific centres in the north-west of Spain ; others confined with 
us to the south-west promontory of England, are, beyond our shores, 
found in the Channel Isles and the opposite coast of France ; the vege- 
tation of the south-east of England is that of the opposite part of the 
continent ; and the Alpine vegetation of Wales and the Scotch High- 
lands is intimately related to that of the Norwegian Alps. The great 
mass of the British flora has its most intimate relations with that of 
Germany. He believes, therefore, that these isolated outposts were 
formerly connected together by chains of land, and that they have 
been separated by certain geological convulsions. Islands may be 
considered as the remains of mountain chains, part of the flora of 
which they still exhibit, and the farther they are from continents the 
more likely are the plants to be peculiar. 


DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE GLOBE, 673 


In speaking of the floras of comparatively small (and usually volcanic) 
islands in the midst of the ocean, and at a distance from continents, 
Dr. Hooker remarks :—‘‘ They are rich in Ferns, Mosses, and other 
flowerless plants, and they possess many evergreen, but comparatively 
few herbaceous plants, and fewer or no indigenous annuals. Plants 
which are herbs on continents often either themselves become shrubby 
on islets, or are represented by allied species that are shrubby or 
arborescent. Species are few in proportion to genera, and genera in 
proportion to orders. The mountains, however lofty, present few 
alpine or sub-alpine species ; and the total number of species is usually 
small compared with what continental areas of equal size and similar 
conditions contain. The floras of islands all display an affinity with 
one another, or with certain continents ; as is shown by Madeira, the 
Azores, and Canaries, containing many plants in common that are not 
found on any continent ; by the Canarian flora being in the main a 
Mediterranean one; the St. Helena being an African, and so on.” 
The conclusions he comes to are as follows :— 


1. The Flora of no oceanic island is an independent one; in all cases it is 
quite manifestly closely allied to some one continental Flora, and however distant 
it may be from the mother continent, and however much it may approximate to 
another continent, it never presents more than faint traces of the vegetation of 
such other continent. Thus the Azores, though 1000 miles nearer to America 
than Madeira is, has not even so many American types as Madeira has. St. 
Helena, though 1000 miles nearer to South America than is any part of the 
African coast, contains scarcely any plants that are even characteristic of America ; 
and Kerguelen’s Land, though far more distant from Tierra del Fuego than it is 
from Africa, Australia, or New Zealand, is almost purely Fuegian in its Flora. 

2. The Floras of all these islands are of a more temperate character than those 
of the mother continents in the same latitude; thus, Madeira and the Canaries 
have a Mediterranean Flora, though they are respectively 5° and 10° south of the 
principal parallel of the Mediterranean region ; the affinities of the St. Helena 
Flora are strongly South African ; and the Flora of Kerguelen’s Land, in lat. 48°, 
is what we might expect to meet with in Fuegia, were the American continent 
produced southward to lat. 60°. : 

3. All contain many and great peculiarities, distinguishing them from the 
continental Floras ; and these admit of the following classification :— 

a. Plants peculiar to the islands and betraying no affinity with those of the 
mother continent, as the Laurels, etc., of Madeira and the Canaries and Azores ; 
the arborescent Composite of St. Helena, and the Kerguelen’s Land Cabbage. 

B. They contain certain genera that are very different from those of the 
mother continent, but are evidently allied to them; and others but slightly 
different. They contain species that are very different from, but allied to, those 
of the mother continent; and others that are but slightly different from con- 
tinental ; and they contain varieties in the same categories. 

4. As a general rule, the species of the mother continent are proportionally 
the most abundant, and cover the greatest surface on the islands. The peculiar 
species are rarer, the peculiar genera of continental affinity are rarer still ; whilst 
the plants having no affinity with those of the mother continent are often very 
common, in the temperate islands especially—at least under the conditions which 
the island vegetation now presents, : 

2X 


674 DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 


5. Indigenous annual plants are extremely rare or absent; but recently 
introduced annuals are very abundant in those islets that have been frequented 
by man. 


The hypotheses advanced to account for the stocking of an oceanic 
island with plants from a continent are the transport of seeds by 
currents, winds, or animal agencies, or that these islands in bygone 
ages formed a part of the continent from which they have now been 
severed. Hooker looks upon the floras as the remains of plants of 
an old geological epoch, the congeners of which are seen in the tertiary 
fossil flora. We have seen that Edward Forbes adopted this view of 
continental extension and subsequent separation of insular portions. 
Hooker favours the view of trans-oceanic migration, coupled with 
Darwin’s theory of the derivative origin of species. By this means he 
accounts for many continental species and genera being represented on 
an island by similar but not identical species and genera; for the 
graduated series of forms extending from variety to genus; for the 
absence of whole tribes from the islands ; for the limited floras and 
the fewness of the species in proportion to the genera. 

Important changes have taken place in the Floras of islands by 
the agency of man. Thus St. Helena, according to Burchell, had 45 
indigenous species, of which 40 were peculiar to the island. Now 
all is changed. The island, when discovered 360 years ago, was 
wooded. The introduction of goats in 1513 destroyed the vegetation. 
In 1709 the native ebony (Melhania melanoxylon) still existed, and was 
used to burn lime. It is now extinct. Plants introduced by General 
Beatson from Europe, Africa, and Australia, now thrive well. The 
original native vegetation had its affinity with the Flora of South Africa. 

The regions of the globe, as regards their vegetable productions, 
are related either in the orders, the genera, or the species of plants which 
they produce. By Orders (Hinds remarks) the most distant or general 
resemblances are established, constituting analogy. One family may 
occupy the place of another in certain regions. Thus, the Mesen- 
bryaceze of South Africa are represented in America by Cactaces ; 
and in the south of Europe only by a few species of Sempervivum 
and Sedum. The Ericacez of the Cape are represented in Australia 
by Epacridacee. By Genera, a closer approximation is established— 
that of affinity. The Cistuses of Spain and Portugal are represented 
by the Helianthemum of the north of Europe; and the genera of 
Abies and Pinus, in arctic and temperate regions, have their repre- 
sentatives in the genera Araucaria, Ephedra, and Dammara of the 
south. By Species, the most perfect accordance of characters is 
established. 

Meyen states that the species of a genus, and genera, and natural 
orders, proceed from a point, and range themselves round it in concen- 
tric circles, or spread out from it like rays in all directions; or are 


DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE GLOBE. 675 


distributed in belts of greater or less. breadth, which are parallel to 
the meridians, or to the parallels of latitude. A genus or family 
predominates in certain regions, and attains its maximum there, while 
in others it is at its minimum. Hence, regions are distinguished by 
the names of plants which attain their maximum there. Palme, Mu- 
sacez, Piperaceze, and Scitaminex, attain their maximum in the torrid 
zone, although representatives of them extend to high latitudes, or 
to the temperate zone. Thus, the Palm called Chamzrops humilis is 
found in 49° north latitude. The Ericaceze of the old world have their 
maximum in the south of Africa, A single form, Calluna vulgaris, 
common Heather, is predominant in the north ; and a shrubby species, 
Erica arborea, represents the order in the south of Europe. Acacias 
attain their maximum in Australia, while Acacia heterophylla re- 
presents the family in the Sandwich Islands. The Lauracez of the 
tropics have Laurus nobilis as their representative in Europe. The 
Myrtacez of the tropics are represented in Europe by Myrtus com- 
munis. As regards species, Trientalis europea has a representative 
form in America, T. americana ; Cornus suecica occurs in Europe, C. 
canadensis in Canada; Empetrum nigrum, in Arctic regions, has E. 
rubrum, to take its place in the Antarctic; Pinguicula lusitanica, 
in the Northern hemisphere, has P. antarctica, resembling it, in the 
Southern ; Aucuba japonica of Japan is represented in the Himalaya 
‘by Aucuba Himalaica. 


4—DIstRIBUTION OF PLANTS CONSIDERED PHYSIOGNOMICALLY 
AND STATISTICALLY. 


The distribution of plants over the globe may be considered either 
Physiognomically, as regards the prevalence of certain vegetable forms 
which give a general character to the landscape of a country ; or Sta- 
listically, as regards the numerical proportion which different groups 
bear to each other, or to the whole known plants. 

PHYSIOGNOMY OF VEGETATION.— Some families of plants, on 
account of their form, aspect, and locality, particularly engage the 
attention not only of the botanist, but of every observer of nature. 
They are called Physiognomic plants. Their difference is connected 
with various external circumstances of climate. In prosecuting this 
department of botanical geography, we shall specify some of those 
vegetable forms which give a character to the landscape. This 
has been done more especially by Meyen, who gives the following 
Series :— 

1. Gramineous or Grassy Form. This is illustrated in northern countries by 
meadows and pastures. The cereal grains also have a great influence on the aspect 


of countries. Under this form are included Cyperacee, Restiacex, and Juncaces. 
In the torrid zone some arborescent forms occur, as Bamboo ; and along with 


676 PHYSIOGNOMY OF VEGETATION. 


these are associated Sugar-cane and Rice. Barley is an extra-tropical form, while 
Carex extends to cold regions. 

2. Scitamineous Form. This includes the Ginger, Arrow-root, and Plantain 
families, some of which attain a large size. They contribute to give a character to 
the torrid zone. 

8. Pandanus or Screw-pine Form. A tropical form illustrated by Screw-pines- 
and Draceenas. 

4. Pine-apple Form. Illustrated by the Bromeliaceze of warm climates. 

5. The Agave or American Aloe Form. Chiefly tropical and sub-tropical. 

* 6. The Palm Form. Under this are included also the Cycadaceous family. 
They give a character to the hotter regions of the globe. Some of the Palms 
are social, as the Date and Coco-nut. Chamerops humilis represents this form in 
Europe. 

7. Filical or Fern Form. ‘True Ferns, in an especial manner, affect the land- 
scape in tropical and warm regions, 

8. Mimosa Form. This includes Leguminous plants in general. The finely- 
cut foliage of some has a resemblance to Ferns. Modifications of this form occur 
both in warm and cold regions. Acacias in Australia give a peculiar feature 
to the landscape. 

9. Coniferous Form. The Abietinez are characteristic of northern regions,. 
and the Cupressinee of southern. 

10. The Protea, Epacris, and Erica Forms. These forms supply the place of 
Coniferz in the southern hemisphere. The Protea and Epacris forms occurring in 
Australia, and the Erica form at the Cape of Good Hope. 

11. Myrtle Form. Some of these, such as Melaleuca and Eucalyptus, charac- 
terise Australian scenery ; others, as Guavas, are tropical. 

12. Forms of Dicotyledonous trees. Some with broad and thin leaves, as 
Birch, Alder, Poplar, Oak, Lime, Elm, Beech, and Horse-chestnut, giving a 
character to the physiognomy of the colder half of temperate climates ; while 
others, with thick, leathery, and showy leaves, as Olives and Laurels, are charac- 
teristic of warmer climates ; and a third division, with large, beautiful leaves, 
Cecropia, Artocarpus, and Astrapea, abound in the hottest climates. 

13. Cactus Form. This form is developed chiefly in America, especially in 
Brazil. 

. 14 Form of Succulent plants. Seen in the Mesembryace of South Africa. 

15. Lily Form. This includes Liliacese, Amaryllidaces, and Iridacee. Modi- 
fications of this form occur in warm and temperate climates. 

16. Forms of Lianas or Climbing-plants. These forms are chiefly tropi- 
cal, and are illustrated by Passion-flowers, Paullinias, Aristolochias, and Bauhi- 
nias. 

17. Pothos Form. This is a tropical form, and is illustrated by various species 
of Aracez. 

18. Orchideous Form. This is seen in the splendid Epiphytes of warm 
climates. Terrestrial species chiefly occur in cold zones. 


aA ie Leaked Both these forms characterise cold regions chiefly. 


Besides the forms of plants, it is found that the prevalent colours 
sometimes give a character to the vegetation. White or pale-coloured 
flowers are said to be more abundant in northern latitudes than in the 
tropics, and in alpine situations they are of more frequent occurrence 
than on the plains. The xanthic series of colours, Hinds states, is 
abundant within the tropics in the autumn, on the plains over the 
mountains. The flowers of the cyanic series, especially intense blues. 


STATISTICS OF VEGETATION, 677 


and violets, delight in the clear skies of sub-tropical regions. Hinds 
gives the following tabular view of the relative proportion of colours : 


Cyanic. Xanthic. White. 
Central America . . . Tee og BOs He a. 
Sandwich Islands . oh MDE st nas MBLs ey Lake rae 
Alashka@. 6 x a Re  e DO 3s BE ee Be 11 
Califormia: 2: soa. Ae DD ae ge Ol eS 6 
New Guinea . . . . 2.12. . 2. «2. @]. . . dB 
Hong-Kong . ... .138. . a 20 e.g ae 10 


Geyer says that vivid colours mark the basaltic plains of Upper 
Oregon ; blue and purple, eastward ; scarlet with golden-yellow, west- 
ward ; glaucous green reigns in the herbage over the plains; deep 
saturated green in the valleys. 

Statistics OF VEGETATION.—The number of known vegetable 
families differs in different latitudes. In examining the distribution 
of the great classes of the Vegetable Kingdom, it will be found that 
certain relative numerical proportions have been ascertained. It is 
not easy to estimate the proportion which Cryptogamous bear to 
Phanerogamous plants. From data already given it may be estimated 
that the proportion for the whole world is as 1 to 7. This proportion 
varies in different regions ; the Cryptogamous plants increasing in 
their proportion in the northern parts of the temperate zone. Ferns 
are to known Phanerogamous plants as 1 to 20. This proportion is 

‘least in the middle of the temperate zone, and becomes larger towards 
the equator, and towards the poles. Ferns, however, attain their 
absolute maximum at the equator, and their absolute minimum in the 
arctic zone. At North Cape there are only four species of Ferns 
found, and yet their proportion to Phanerogamia is 1 to 7 there; and 
in Greenland 1 to 10 (Meyen). Humboldt says that in the torrid 
zone Monocotyledons are to Dicotyledons as 1 to 6; in the temperate 
zone, as 1 to 4; and in the arctic zone as 1 to 3. Monocotyledons 
increase in proportion to Dicotyledons as the latitude becomes higher. 
Some natural orders are very generally diffused, as Leguminose, Mal- 
vacee, Ranunculaceze, Caryophyllacese, Cruciferee, and Umbellifere. 
Cellular plants have also a wide range, and so have aquatics. Jun- 
cacee, Cyperaceze, and Graminez, increase in proportion to all the 
Phanerogamous plants, as the latitude becomes higher; while Resti- 
aces, Leguminose, Euphorbiacee, and Malvacez, decrease. Crucifere, 
Umbelliferze, and Composite, are highest in their proportion in the 
temperate zone, diminishing towards the‘ equator and the poles. Hinds 
gives the following statement as to certain families which are almost 
exclusively confined to one of the six great divisions of the globe :— 


In Europe—Globulariacex a section of Selaginacez, Ceratophyllacem. 
In Asia—Dipterocarpacex, Aquilariacese, Camelliacee, Moringacee, Stilagin- 
acer. 


678 LATITUDINAL RANGE OF VEGETATION. 


In Africa—Bruniacee, Brexiacez, Belvisiacex, Penxacex. 

In North America—Sarraceniacez. 

In South America—Rhizobolacee, Monimiacer, Simarubacee, Vochysiacee, 
Calyceracee, Escalloniacee, Humiriacer, Lacistemacer, Papayacee, Gilliesiacer, 
Gesneracez. 

In Australia—Tremandracex, Epacridacese, Goodeniaces, Stackhousiacew, 
Brunoniacez. 

He also gives the following list of natural orders, as prevailing in the 
northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere :— 

In the northern hemisphere the following natural orders abound or are pre- 
dominant :—Aceracee, Aurantiacer, Artocarpee a section of Urticacee, Amen- 
tifere, Berberidacex, Boraginacez, Caryophyllacer, Cistacese, Cruciferze, Conifere,. 
‘Campanulacer, Caprifoliaceze, Dipsacacex, Eleagnacee, Fumariacee, Grossulari- 
acez, Hypericacee, Hippocastanee a section of Sapindacee, Hamamelidacex, 
Magnoliacer, Onagracee, Orobanchacer, Papaverace, Rosacex, Ranunculacex, 
Rutacez, Resedacex, Saxifragacer, Umbelliferze, Vacciniaceze, ‘Alismacen. 

In the southern hemisphere the following natural orders are predominant :— 

Atherospermaces, Cactacez, Crassulacee, Capparidace, Diosmez a section of 
Rutacez, Dilleniacee, Geraniacez, Heliotropez a section of Ehretiacez, Myrtacee, 
Melastomacee, Mesembryacese, Myoporinese a section of Verbenacee, Malpighi- 
aces, Oxalidaces, Pittosporaceee, Polygalaceze, Proteaceze, Scaevoles a section of 
Goodeniaceze, Spigeleee a section of Loganiacee, Stylidiaceee, Amaryllidacex, 
Hemodoracere, Iridacez, Restiacez. 
It is sometimes difficult to tell in what division of the globe a family 
may be said to be chiefly represented, inasmuch as the species and 
genera are nearly equal in different countries. When a, group of 
plants occurs only in one of the six great divisions of the globe, it is 
said to be monomic (wévoc, one, and vowés, a region). Thus, Vochy- 
siacee, being confined to South America, is a monomic family ; and 
Cliffortia, whose shrubby species are all indigenous to South Africa, is 
a monomic genus. Again, a natural family, common to all the 
divisions, is polynomic; and so also genera, as Viola or Ranunculus. 
If restricted to two or more divisions, the groups are dinomic, trinomic, 
etc. Aceracez, found in Europe, Asia, and North America, are 
trinomic. 


. 


5:—Puyto-GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION oF THE GLOBE. 


The subject will be considered in two points of view:—l. In 
respect to the horizontal or latitudinal range of vegetation ; and 2. 
In respect to its vertical or altitudinal range. 


LATITUDINAL RANGE OF VEGETATION. 


Various attempts have been made to divide the globe into zones 
or kingdoms, founded on the characters impressed upon them by the 
nature of the vegetation. Willdenow, Treviranus, De Candolle, 
Schouw, and Meyen, have each proposed arrangements. Those of 
Schouw and Meyen chiefly deserve attention. 

Schouw, in his divisions, proceeds on the principle of the predomi- 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 679 


nance of certain characteristic forms or families of plants. His 
system is founded on the three following requisites: —1. That at 
least one-half of the known species of plants of that part of the earth, 
constituting a botanical region, should be peculiar to it. 2. That one- 
fourth part of the genera of the region should be peculiar to it, or at 
least should have so decided a maximum as to be only represented in 
other regions. 3, That individual families should either be peculiar 
to the region, or at least reach their maximum in it. The regions 
are divided into provinces according to minor differences in the vege- 
tation ; one-fourth of peculiar species, or some peculiar genera, being 
sufficient to form a province. 


Schouw’s Phyto-Geographic Regions, 


1. The Region of Saxifragacez and Musci, or the Alpine Arctic Flora 
(Wahlenberg’s Region)—This region is characterised by the abundance 
of Mosses and Lichens, the presence of Saxifragacez, Gentianacez, 
Caryophyllaceze, Cyperaceze, Salices ; the total absence of tropical 
families ; a notable decrease of the forms peculiar to the temperate 
zone ; by forests of Fir and Birch; the small number of annual 
plants, and the prevalence of perennial species ; and finally, a greater 
liveliness in their simple colours. In this region there is no cultiva- 
tion. The region is divided into two provinces :—1. The province of 
the Carices, or the Arctic Flora, which comprehends all the countries 
within the polar circle, with some parts of America, Europe, and Asia, 
which are to the south of it, more especially Lapland, the north of 
Russia, Siberia, Kamtschatka, New Britain, Canada, Labrador, Green- 
land, and the mountains of Scotland and Scandinavia. Kane in his 
Arctic Explorations gives a list of plants collected on the western coast 
of Greenland, 73° to 80° N. Among the interesting plants may be 
noted Ranunculus Sabini, Hesperis Pallasii, Vesicaria arctica, Arenaria 
arctica, Potentilla frigida, Pedicularis Kanei, Diapensia lapponica, and 
only one fern, Cystopteris fragilis. In latitude 82° N., on the east side 
of Smith’s Sound, Dr. Bessel gathered Draba alpina, Cerastium alpinum, 
Leontodon Taraxacum var., and Poa flexuosa. In the Iceland Flora 
Babington enumerates 467 Phanerogams, the great bulk of the species 
Scandinavian, and all but 62 British, There are 3 purely Arctic 
species, Gentiana detonsa, Pleurogyne rotata, and Epilobium lati- 
folium ; Bellis perennis (the daisy) is a great rarity ; it was only once 
found. In Spitzbergen there are 117 Phanerogamous plants, and 50 
Cryptogamous. In Nova Zembla and Waigatsch Island the Phanerogams 
amount to 146, and the Cryptogams to 144. 2. The province of 
Primulacee and Phyteumez, or the Alpine Flora of the south of Europe, 
which embraces the flora of the Pyrenees, Switzerland, the Tyrol, 
Savoy, the mountains of Greece, the Apennines, and probably the 


680 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


mountains of Spain. Polar regions, mean temperature, 2° to 41° F.; 
mountains in the south, 21° to 37° F. 


2. The Region of Umbelliferze and Cruciferz, including the North- 
European and North-Asiatic Flora (Linneeus’s Region).—These orders 
are here in much greater number than in any other region. Rosacee, 
Ranunculacex, Fungi, Amentiferse, and Conifers, are likewise very nume- 
rous ; the abundance of Carices, and the fall of the leaves of almost all the 
trees during winter, form also important features of this division. It 
may be separated into two distinct provinces :—1, The province of the 
Cichoracee, which embraces all the north of Europe not comprehended 
in the preceding region, namely, Britain, the North of France, the 
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, and the greater 
part of European Russia. 2. The province of the Astragali, Saline 
plants, as Salsola and Salicornia, and Cynarocephale, which in- 
cludes a part of Asiatic Russia, and the countries about the Caucasian 
and Altai mountains. Mean temperature, 29° to 46° F. The culti- 
vated plants are—Rye, Barley of different kinds, Oats, Wheat and 
Spelt, Maize, Millet, the Potato, Buckwheat, Apple and Pear, Quince, 
Cherry, Plum, Apricot, Peach, Mulberry, Walnut, Vine, Gooseberry 
and Currant, Strawberry, Cucumber and Melon, Cabbage, Mustard, 
Pea, Bean, Beet, Spinach, Carrot, Flax, Hemp, Trefoils and Vetches, 
Rye-grass, etc. 


3. The Region of Labiate and Caryophyllacez, or the Mediterranean 
Flora (De Candolle’s Region).—It is distinguished by the abundance 
of the plants belonging to these two orders. Composite, Galiacez, 
Boraginacez, also occur in considerable quantity. Some tropical fami- 
lies are also met with, such as Palms, Laurels, Aracex, Anacardiacex, 
grasses belonging to the genus Panicum (millet), and some, as Cyperacez, 
Solanaceze, Malvaceze, Leguminosze, Urticaceze, and Euphorbiacee in- 
crease. The forests are composed chiefly of Amentiferze and Conifere, 
as birches, oaks, firs, etc, ; the copses, of Ericaceze (the heath tribe) 
and Anacardiace, as the mastich, We meet in this region with a 
great number of evergreen trees. Vegetation never ceases entirely, 
but verdant meadows are more rare. Schouw divides this region into 
five provinces :—1. The province of the Cistuses, including Spain and 
Portugal. 2. The province of the Salvize and Scabiose, the south of 
France, Italy, and Sicily. 3. The province of the Shrubby Labiate, 
the Levant, Greece, Asia Minor, and the southern part of the Cauca- 
sian countries. 4. The Atlantic province, the north of Africa. 5. The 
province of Semperviva, the Canary Isles, and probably also the Azores, 
Madeira, and the north-west coast of Africa ; many Sempervivums, 
and some Euphorbias with naked and spiny stems, particularly charac- 
terise this province. Erica arborea, Vaccinium maderense, and Pinus 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 681 


eanariensis, are found here. Among the plants of the Mediterranean 
flora, requiring both a warm summer and a warm winter, may be 
enumerated Oleander, Aloe, Chamezrops humilis, Phoenix dactylifera, 
Capparis, Ceratonia Siliqua, Cyclamen Clusii, Ornithogalum arabicum, 
arborescent species of Dianthus, several Ferns; and of cultivated 
plants, Ricinus communis, Egg-plant, Hibiscus esculentus, Capsicum, 
Acacia Farnesiana, Phaseolus Caracalla, Sterculia platanifolia, and 
Schinus Molle. Of 596 species inhabiting Madeira and Porto Santo, 
108 are endemic ; and of the 108, 28 are common to Madeira and the 
Azores. Of the Azorean species, 4-5ths are European, and may have 
been carried by man. Of the remaining 5th, nearly the whole are 
peculiar to the Azores or to the Archipelago of the Atlantic islands, 
which includes also Madeira and the Canaries. Mean temperature, 
55° to 73° F. Cultivated plants are the same as in the second region, 
with the addition of Rice, Guinea Corn, Italian Millet, Fig, Almond, 
‘Orange and Lemon, Water Melon, Olive, Cotton. Rye and Buck- 
wheat are only cultivated in the mountainous regions. 


4. The region of Asters and Solidagos, or the Flora of the northern 
part of North America (Michaux’s Region).—This is marked by the great 
number of species belonging to these two genera, by the great variety 
of Oaks and Firs, the small number of Cruciferze and Umbelliferze, 
Cichoraceze and Cynarocephale, the total absence of the genus Erica, or 
heath, and the presence of more numerous species of Vaccinium, or 
whortleberry, than are to be met with in Europe. It comprehends the 
whole of the eastern part of North America, with the exception of what 
belongs to the first region. It has been divided into two provinces :— 
1.'That of the south, which embraces the Floridas, Alabama, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Georgia, and the Carolinas, 54° to 72°. 2. That of the 
north, which includes the other States of North America, such as Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania, New York, etc. Mean temperature, 9° to 59° F. 
In the northern districts, down to the parallels of 55° or 50°, there is 
no cultivation. South of this line the cultivation is the same as in 
the second region. Maize is cultivated to a greater extent in North 
America than in Europe. 


5. The region of Magnolias, or the southern North American 
Flora (Pursh’s Region).—This comprises the most southern parts of 
North America, between 36° and 30°. The tropical forms which show 
themselves more frequently than on a similar parallel of the old con- 
tinent, are the chief feature in the vegetation. Thus we meet with 
Anonaceze, Sapindaces, Melastomaceze, Cactaceze, and Zingiberacex. 
This region has fewer Labiate and Caryophyllace than occur in cor- 
responding latitudes in the Old World. It presents more trees with 
fine blossoms, and shining, sometimes pinnated, leaves, as Magnolia, 


682 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


Tulip-tree, Horse-chestnut, Robinias or False Acacias. Among other 
plants may be mentioned the following :—Illicium floridanum, Pavia 
flava, Cassia Tora and C. Marilandica, Kalmia hirsuta, Opuntia vul- 
garis, Halesia tetraptera, Laurus caroliniensis, L. Sassafras, Carya 
aquatica, Liquidambar styraciflua, Carpinus americanus, Castanea 
americana, Pinus Teeda, Chamerops Palmetto. Mean tempera- 
ture, 59° to 73°. The same plants cultivated as in the third region. 
Rice is much cultivated. In the southern district the Sugar-cane is 
productive ; and in the eastern districts Cotton is grown to a great 
extent. Dr. Hooker says that the Indian mountains and islands are 
the true centres of Magnolias. 

The Californian and Oregon districts, in the west of North America, 
and extending farther north than Region 5, have a marked Flora, 
which requires to be more fully explored. Many showy Polemo- 
niacee are found here; also Eschscholtzia californica, species of 
Platystemon, Nemophila, Gilia, Collinsia, Clarkia, Bartonia, and 
Eutoca. Many interesting Coniferze also occur, such as Abies Dou- 
glasii, Pattoniana, Picea nobilis, amabilis, grandis, lasiocarpa, Pinus 
Lambertiana, Sabiniana, insignis, Jeffreyi, ponderosa, monticola, cali- 
fornica, Fremontiana, Coulteri, flexilis, muricata, tuberculata, Libo- 
cedrus decurrens, Thuja gigantea, Sequoia gigantea, Juniperus deal- 
bata and occidentalis, Castanea chrysophylla. In the upper Oregon 
districts Geyer enumerates Umbelliferee, Scrophulariacee, Asphodelee, 
Polemoniaceze, Boraginaceze, Vacciniacee, Ranunculacee, Crucifere, 
Onagracez, Rosacee, Polygonacese, Labiate, Caryophyllaces, Com- 
posite, Graminez, species of Mahonia, Lewisia, Geranium, Ribes, Lo- 
belia, Clintonia, Pentstemon, Camassa, Horkelia, and Eriogonum. The 
bulk of the wood in upper Oregon is composed of Pinus ponderosa, 
and along with it occur Abies balsamea, canadensis, Douglasii, nobilis, 
and alba. In the basaltic plains of upper Oregon, Geyer says there 
are no Papaveraces, Urticacer, Violacese, Vitaceze, Solanacex, Jas- 
minaceee, Amaranthaceee, Eleagnacez, Oxalidacese. In Vancouver’s 
Island there are many interesting Pines and Oaks, also Rhododendron 
macrophyllum. 


6. The Region of Ternstrocemiacee and Celastracez, or the Chinese 
Japanese Flora (Kempfer’s Region).—This region is as yet too little 
known to enable us to determine accurately its characteristic features. 
It embraces the eastern temperate part of the old continent, namely, 
Japan, the north of China, and Chinese Tartary, between lat. 30° and 
40° north. Its vegetation appears to occupy a middle place between 
that of Europe and that of North America, approaching more to the 
tropical than to the European. It has an affinity to the Indian Flora, 
as shown by the occurrence of Bananas, Palms, Zingiberacese, Ano- 
nace, Sapindaces, and Cycadacee. The genera Camellia, Thea 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 683 


Citrus, Rhamnus, and Lonicera, are abundant. Among the more 
characteristic species are Eriobotrya japonica the Loquat, Cryptomeria 
japonica, Salisburya adiantifolia, Pseonia Moutan, Anemone japonica, 
Stillingia sebifera the Tallow-tree, Camphora officinalis, Azalea sinensis, 
Wistaria sinensis, Gossypium religiosum, Enkianthus quinqueflorus, 
Cymbidium sinense, Pinus sinensis, P. Jeziensis, Juniperus rigida, J. 
chinensis, Podocarpus Nageia, and species of Biota. Sciadopitys 
verticillata, Thuiopsis dolabrata, Torreya nucifera, Cephalotaxus dru- 
pacea. Mean temperature, 54° to 68°. The cultivated plants are— 
Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Millet, Buckwheat, Apple and Pear, 
Quince, Plum, Cherry, Apricot, Peach, Loquat, Orange and Shaddock, 
Melon, Tea, Hemp, Paper-Mulberry, Cotton, and False Sago. 


7. The Region of Zingiberaceze, or the Indian Flora (Roxburgh’s 
Region).—-Zingiberacee here are much more numerous than in America, 
as well as Leguminose, Cucurbitacez, and Tiliacez, although in a less 
degree. It comprehends India east and west of the Ganges, the 
island of Ceylon and the south-eastern Peninsula, to the height of 
4500 to 5500 feet above the level of the sea. The Coco-nut, Man- 
gosteen, Turmeric, Cinnamon, Cotton, Indigo, Clove, and Pepper, are 
abundant. In the island of Ceylon we meet with Salvadora persica, 
Feronia Elephantum, Thespesia populnea, Chloroxylon Swietenia, 
Schleichera trijuga, and Borassus flabelliformis. The south of China 
and Cochin-China may be considered as a distinct region. It partly 
resembles that of India, but contains many peculiar plants. In the 
island of Formosa occurs Fatsia papyrifera, the Rice-paper plant ; near 
Hong Kong are found Chirita sinensis, Rhodoleia Championi, Arun- 
dina sinensis, Spathoglottis Fortuni, Cunninghamia sinensis, Olea 
fragrans, Campanula grandiflora, Brassica chinensis, Enkianthus reti- 
culatus, Litchi and Longan fruits, Ficus nitida, Bamboo, and Orchids. 
Mean temperature, 66° to 83° F. The cultivated plants are—Rice, 
Coco-nut, Tamarind, Mango, Ginger, Cinnamon, Mangosteen, Peppers, 
Indigo, Cotton, Coffee, Bananas, Guava, Orange and Shaddock, Sugar- 
cane, Cloves, Turmeric. 


8. The Region of Tree Rhododendrons, the Emodic Region, or the 
Mountains of India (Wallich’s Region)—This comprises the Alpine 
region south of the ridge of the Himalaya. It includes Sirmore, Gur- 
wal, Kamaon, Nepaul, and Bhotan, to a height of from 5000 to 12,000: 
feet’ above the level of the sea. Some tropical plants grow in the 
lower parts of the region. Extra-tropical, more especially European 
forms, make their appearance. Deodar, Pinus excelsa, P. Webbiana, 
and other Conifere, are met with. Abies Smithiana reaches 10,000 
feet on the Himalaya. Some European species occur in these high dis- 
tricts, for instance, Ranunculus sceleratus, Nasturtium officinale, Vero- 
nica Anagallis, and Polygonum amphibium. Chamerops Khasyana, 


684 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


species of Oak, Dammar, Rhododendron, Berberis, Primula, etc., also 
occur. Mean temperature, 37° to 66° F. Some European grains and 
fruit are cultivated, along with Mountain Rice. 


9. The Region of the Asiatic Islands, Polynesian Flora (Rein- 
wardt’s Region).—This includes the mountainous districts of the islands 
between the south-eastern Peninsula and Australia, to the height of 
5500 feet above the level of the sea. Mean temperature, 66° to 84° 
Orchids, Ferns, and species of Ficus abound, along with some Austra- 
lian forms. In the Flora of Sumatra we meet with Rafflesia Arnoldi, 
Dryobalanops Camphora, Sagus levis, Stagmaria verniciflua, Rhodo- 
dendron Malayanum (top of Sugar-loaf Mountain, Bencoolen, about 
3000 feet), Vaccinium Sumatranum, Elodea Sumatrana, Millingtonia 
Sumatrana, Hedychium Sumatranum, and numerous Begonias. The 
cultivated plants are those of the Indian region (7) ; also, Bread-fruit, 
Cassava, Nutmeg, Camphor, Papaw, Dammar, Paper-Mulberry, and 
Cotton. 


10. The Region of Upper Java (Blume’s Region).—This embraces 
those districts of the island of Java and the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago which have an elevation of 5000 to 12,000 feet above 
the level of the sea. Extra-tropical forms ocour, and the Flora has 
some resemblance to that of the Emodic region. Ternstrcemiacezx, 
Thibaudias, and forests of Podocarpus and Oaks characterise the region. 


11. The Polynesian or Oceanic Region (Chamisso’s Region).— 
This includes all the islands of the Pacific Ocean within the Tropics. 
The plants are allied to the Asiatic and Australian Floras. Among 
the plants of this region may be mentioned Artocarpus incisa, Tacca 
pinnatifida the Pia, which yields a kind of Arrow-root, Cocos nucifera, 
Lodoicea seychellarum, Jambosa malaccensis the Ohiaai, and many 
species of Arum, Dioscorea, Musa, and Ficus. The genera Dissocheta, 
Orophea, Pterisanthes, Arthrophyllum, and Visenia, occur in this 
region. In the Sandwich Islands, belonging to the Hawaiian group, 
nearly one-third of the vegetation is composed of Ferns. There are 
three Palms, the Coco-nut and two species of Livistona. The rest of 
the flora consists of Myrtles, Grasses, Sedges, Mimosez, and Arums. 
Acacia heterophylla, called Koa, yields durable timber. The root of 
Draczena terminalis, called Ki, is eaten, The fruit of Physalis pubes- 
cens is used ; also the fruit of Pandanus odoratissimus, called Lahala ; 
that of Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, the Ulei; that of Morinda citri- 
folia, the Noni; and that of Morus indica, the Kilica. Colocasia 
esculenta, the Kalo, is used as a vegetable. Cloth is made from 
Broussonetia papyrifera and Boehmeria albida, cordage from Paritium 
tiliaceum, water-flasks from Lagenaria vulgaris; and Macropiper 
methysticum is the great remedy for diseases. Peculiar Composite, 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 685 


Lobeliaceze, Goodeniacew, and Cyrtandrese, are met with in those 
islands. Mean temperature, 73° to 83°. The cultivated plants are— 
Bread-fruit tree, Coco-nut, Double Coco-nut, Yams, Plantain, Cabbage- 
Palm, Paper-Mulberry, Taro, Kava. 


12. The Region of Amyridacez, or of Balsam trees, Arabian flora 
(Forskal’s Region)—This comprehends the Persian or ‘Arabian Flora, 
especially the south-western part of the highlands of Arabia or Yemen. 
In this region are many trees yielding gums and balsamic resins, as 
species of Mimosa, Acacia, Balsamodendron, Boswellia. There are 
many Indian forms in this region. Cultivated plants are—Maize, 
Millet, Date-palm, Coco-nut, Fig, Apricot and Peach, Plum, Apple, 
Quince, Vine, Coffee-tree, "Tamarind, Papaw, Sugar- cane, ‘Ginger, 
Cotton, and Indigo. 


13. The Desert Region (Delile’s Region)—This includes Northern 
Africa, to the south of the mountains of Atlas, between lat. 30° and 
15° N., and the northern part of Arabia. Phoenix dactylifera, or the 
Date-palm, and Cucifera thebaica, or Doom palm, are found here. 
Mean temperature, 73° to 86° F. Cultivation is confined to the 
valley of the Nile and the Oases. We meet with Guinea Corn, 
Wheat and Barley, and the South European and Indian grains. 


14, The Region of Tropical Africa (Adanson’s Region).—This 
includes that part of Africa lying between the parallel of 15° and the 
tropic of Capricorn, or between the northern and southern. limits of 
periodical rains, with the exception of Abyssinia and the unknown 
countries of the interior. The Flora of the western part of this region 
is characterised in part by Adansonia, or the Baobab, one of the 
largest known trees. We also meet with the Elais guineensis, a palm 
which furnishes oil. Other characteristic plants are Sarcocephalus 
esculentus and Schmiedelia africana. Vogel noticed, near Cape Coast 
Castle, Arachis africana, Bignonia tulipifera, Euphorbia drupifera, 
Hibiscus populneus, and Blighia sapida the Akee. Species of Sorghum, 
Sterculia acuminata the Kola nut, Physostigma venenosum the Calabar 
bean, belong to this region. Welwitsch mentions species of Rhipsalis, 
Monodora, Vellozia, Begonia, Rafflesia parasitic on Caesalpiniez, a tree 
Umbellifer and Welwitschia mirabilis the Toumbo. The vegetation 
of Guinea and Congo is a mixture of the Floras of Asia and America, 
though most resembling the former. The eastern part of the region, 
including Madagascar, has a peculiar Flora, distinguished chiefly by 
the genera Danais, Ambora, Dombeya, Dufourea, Didymomeles, and 
Senacea, Tanghinia, Ouvirandra, Urania, and Buddleia. There are 
many peculiar genera, but few species. Mean temperature, 72° 
to 86°. Cultivated plants: Maize, Rice, Guinea Corn and Millet, 


686 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


Yams, Cassava, Banana, Mango, Papaw, Pine-Apple, Cashew, Tama- 
rind, Coffee, Sugar, Cotton, Ginger, Cardamoms, Earth-nut, Oil-Palm, 
Tobacco. 


15. The Region of Cactaceze and Piperacex (Jacquin’s Region).— 
This embraces Mexico, New Grenada, Guiana, and Peru. These 
natural orders are here predominant, both as regards the number of 
species and the individual plants. Tropical orders are abundant. 
Murichi or Ita Palm, Phytelephas or Ivory Palm, and Victoria regia, 
are found in this region. Seemann states that the Isthmus of Panama 
is characterised in part by the leaves of the plants being covered with 
hair and tomentum, by the abundance of greenish, yellow, and white 
flowers, and by the numerical superiority of Leguminose, Melastom- 
aces, Composite, Cinchonacer, Orchids, and Ferns. Anona Cheri- 
molia yields the Cherimoyer, a famous Peruvian fruit. Mean tem- 
perature, 68° to 84°. Cultivated plants : Maize, Guinea Corn, Cassava, 
Yams, Batatas, Arracacha, Arrow-root, Plantain, Mango, Custard- 
Apple, Guava, Coco-nut, Papaw, Avocado-Pear, Pine-Apple, Cashew, 
Tamarind, Granadilla, Vine, Indian Fig, Jambos, Chocolate, Vanille, 
Coffee, Sugar, Capsicum, Cochineal-Cactus, Cotton, Earth-nut. 


16. The Region of the highlands of Mexico (Bonpland’s Region). 
—-This embraces the districts which have an elevation of more than 
5000 feet above the level of the sea. Many European plants are 
cultivated here, as well as Maize. Picea religiosa, Pinus apulcensis, P. 
Hartwegii, P. Montezume, and Taxodium distichum, are found ; also 
species of Mirabilis, Cheirostemon, Dahlia, Zinnia, and Lopezia. 
Mean temperature, 67° to 79° F. 


17, The Region of Cinchonas, or Medicinal Barks, Andes Flora 
(Humboldt’s Region).—This comprises a part of the elevated regions 
or Cordilleras of South America, included in the torrid zone, the Andes 
from 5000 to 9000 feet. The Cinchona belongs exclusively to this 
region, and forms its principal feature. In the higher regions the 
Potato and Quinoa are cultivated, as well as some European grains 
and fruits. Ceroxylon Andicola, the Wax-Palm, also occurs in this 
region of the Andes. In the lower districts Maize and Coffee are 
still cultivated. Mean temperature, 59° to 68°. 


18. The Region of Escalloniz and Calceolariz (Ruiz and Pavon’s 
Region).—It embraces the highest parts of South America, or that 
portion of the chain of the Andes which extends from 9000 to 18,000 
feet of elevation, Besides the plants mentioned, we meet with alpine 
plants, as Saxifrages and Gentians, and species of Draba, Arenaria, 
Carex, Lobelia, and Salvia, Espeletia, Aster, also Drimys Winteri, 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 687 


Junci, and Carices, besides some European genera belonging to the 
orders Gramineew and Cichoracew, such as Bromus, Festuca, Poa, 
Apargia, and Hypocheris. Mean temperature, 34° to 59° F 


19. The West ‘Indian Region (Swartz’s Region).—This includes 
the whole district of the Great and Little Antilles. Bananas, Plan- 
tains, Mangos, Guava, Avocado-Pear, Tamarind, and many other 
useful plants, are met with. The Flora is intermediate between that 
of Mexico and the northern parts of South America. Ferns and 
Orchids prevail. Many tropical fruits are met with, such as 
Mango, Guava, Avocado-Pear, and Custard-Apple. Mean tempera- 
ture, 59° to 79° F. Cultivated plants the same as those in the 
fifteenth region. 


20. Region of Palme and Melastomaces—It embraces Brazil and 
that part of South America which lies to the east of the chain of the 
Andes, between the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The vege- 
tation is very luxuriant. Vellozia and Lichnophora give a decided 
feature to the vegetation of some of the mountainous parts. Here, 
also, numerous large peculiar species of Eriocaulon occur. Species of 
Croton, Dorstenia, and Heliconia, tall grasses, arborescent Solanums, 
Vernonias, and large Composite, species of Ficus, Laurus, Lasiandra, 
Solandra, and Fuchsia, are also met with. In place of the few 
mosses and lichens which cover the trunks and branches of forest 
trees in temperate climes, in Brazil they are bearded from the roots 
to the very extremities of the smallest branches with Ferns, Aracez, 
Tillandsias, Cactuses, Orchids, Peperomias, Gesneras, and Bignonias. 
Mean temperature, 59° to 84° F. Same plants cultivated as in the 
fifteenth region. 


21. The Region of Arborescent or Shrubby Composite, Extra- 
tropical South American Flora (St. Hilaire’s Region).—The great 
number of arborescent Composite, and of plants belonging to the 
order Calyceracez, forms the chief feature of this Flora, which ap- 
proaches in a remarkable manner to that of Europe, whilst it differs 
entirely from the floras of Chili, the Cape, and Australia, This 
region comprehends the lower part of the basin of La Plata, and the 
plains which extend to the west of Buenos Ayres and Chili, between 
the Tropic of Capricorn and latitude 40° south. The Flora of Chili 
approaches that of Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zea- 
land, in Goodenia, Araucaria, Proteacee, Gunnera, Ancistrum. In 
many respects the flora resembles that of the mountainous districts, 
in the presence of Calceolarias, Escallonias, species of Weinmannia, 
Buddlea, and Campanula. Araucaria imbricata, the Banksian or 
Chili Pine, is a hardy Conifer of this district, extending on the Chilian 


688 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


Andes from 37° to 40° §. lat. Thuja chilensis occurs on the moun- 
tains of south Chili. In this region we also meet with Thuja tetra- 
gona the Alerse of Chili, and Podocarpus chiliana. Araucaria brazil- 
jana is found on the mountains near Rio Janeiro in the province of 
St. Pauls. Mean temperature, 59° to 74° F. European plants form 
here objects of culture. Wheat, the Vine, and the Peach are widely 
extended. 


22. The Antarctic Region (D’Urville’s Region).—This includes the 
countries near the Straits of Magalhaens, Tierra del Fuego (Fuegia), 
and the Falkland Islands. There is a considerable resemblance be- 
tween the vegetation here and what is seen in the north temperate 
zone. Polar forms display themselves in the species of Saxifrage, 
Gentian, Arbutus, and Primrose, and other European genera. There 
is also a resemblance between the plants of this region and those 
of the mountains of South America, of Chili, the Cape, and Aus- 
tralia. In Fuegia, the Evergreen Beech, Fagus Forsteri, which 
never sheds its coriaceous foliage, is a very prevalent tree; also the 
Deciduous Beech, Fagus antarctica, the leaves of which change colour 
and fall, and Drymis Winteri. These three trees occupy exactly the 
same position in Fuegia that the Birch, Oak, and Mountain Ash, do 
in Scotland. The vegetation of Fuegia includes a number of British 
plants, although 106 degrees of ocean roll between, and some of the 
species in question inhabit no intermediate latitudes. The genera are 
in a great measure identical with those of Britain. Fuegia is the 
native place of the Fuchsia. In the Falkland Isles there are about 
120 flowering plants, consisting chiefly of those found on the moun- 
tains of Fuegia, and on the arid coast and plains of Patagonia. Grasses 
and Bolax glebaria, the Balsam-bag (one of the Umbelliferse), form 
the chief botanical features. Bolax glebaria forms hard hummocks 
4 feet high and the same diameter, which give out a balsamic resin- 
ous smell. Their form and occurrence on this barren soil has given 
rise to the name of Misery-balls. Dactylis cespitosa, the Tussac-grass, 
appears, Hooker remarks, like a forest of miniature Palms. It forms 
hillocks about 6 feet high, and 4-5 in diameter, some of the blades 
of grass being 6 feet long; and supplies excellent fodder. Among 
shrubby plants may be noticed Veronica elliptica and decussata, Chilio- 
trichum amelloides, Empetrum rubrum, and Pernettia empetrifolia. 
Of Ferns, Lomaria alpina and L. magellanica are found. Lichens 
abound, and the Usnea melaxantha forms a miniature shrubbery on 
the rocks. In the islands farther south Mosses and Lichens form the 
chief flora. Among the plants found on the antarctic islands of 
Tristan d’Acunha, Inaccessible, and Nightingale Islands, are the fol- 
lowing :—Cardamine hirsuta, Sonchus oleraceus, Hypochaeris glabra, 
and Apium graveolens (European plants), Nertera depressa, Chev- 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 689 


reulia stolonifera, Lagenophora Commersoni, Gnaphalium pyramidale, 
Phylica arborea, the tree of the islands, which sometimes attains a 
height of 20 feet, with a diameter of 12-18 inches; Chenopodium 
tomentosum, known as the tea plant, having strongly-scented leaves, 
of which a decoction is made and drunk with milk and sugar; Pelar- 
gonium australe var, acugnaticum, Empetrum medium, Acena San- 
guisorba, Hydrocotyle capitata, Carex insularis, Spartina arundinacea, 
Dactylis cespitosa (Tussac-grass), Lomaria magellanica (robusta), L. 
alpina, L. Boryana, Lycopodium insulare. Mean temperature, 41° to 
46° F. No cultivation. 


23. The Region of Mesembryanthema and Stapelize, South African 
Flora (Thunberg’s Region).—These two genera, as well as the Ericez 
(Heaths), are very abundant. The latter family is found in greater 
quantity here than anywhere else. The region embraces the southern 
extremity of Africa, from the tropic of Capricorn to the Cape Coast. 
Tridaceze, Pelargoniums, Aloinese, Bruniacese, and Selaginacese, and 
various Gnaphaliums and Helichrysums, occur in this region. Pachy- 
lepis cupressoides and P. juniperoides are Cape Conifers. Thalictrum 
caffrorum and Conium africanum are South African species. On 
Table Mountain at the Cape, peculiar species of Disa are found. 
Many European grains and fruits are in cultivation along with Sor- 
ghum caffrorum and Convolvulus Batatas. In Natal, where the moun- 
tains rise to nearly 10,000 feet, Krauss distinguishes a coast or forest 
region where species of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Ficus, Tabernemontana, 
Zygia, and Pheenix reclinata, are found ; a hilly pasture region, with 
species of Acacia, Aloe, Euphorbia, Andropogon, and tropical Legu- 
minosx, Labiate, Acanthaceze, and Scrophulariacee ; a mountainous 
region with species of Podocarpus, Ixia, Hypoxis, Watsonia, also 
Ferns, Oyperacee, Orchids, Proteacez, and Geraniacee. Mean 
temperature, 54° to 73° F. Cultivated plants: European kinds of 
grain, fruit, and vegetables; also Batatas, Plantains, Tamarind, 
Guava, and Shaddock. 


24, The Region of Epacridacee and Eucalypti, or Australian 
Flora (R. Brown’s Region).—It comprehends the temperate parts of 
Australia beyond the tropics, with the Island of Tasmania or Van 
Diemen’s Land. Besides the plants whence it receives its name, it is 
characterised ‘by the orders Stackhousiacese and Tremandracez, and 
by the presence of a great number of Proteacee, Myrtacex, Sty- 
lidiaceze, Restiacew, Diosmese, Casuarines, and Acacias. Araucaria 
(Eutassa) excelsa, the Norfolk Island Pine, forms one of the features 
of the region. It is one of the most peculiar Floras, but the vegeta- 
tion is not profuse; the number of Australian species is probably 
10,000, Baron von Mueller makes the following observations on the 


2Y 


690 SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 


flora of Australia :—“ The flora of Australia approaches in its tropical 
portion to the plants of India, and in its extra-tropical portion to 
those of South Africa. The flora may be divided into a western, 
southern, eastern, and Tasmanian flora. In the western districts 
Leguminose and Proteacee predominate, forming one-fourth of the 
entire vegetation. Ferns and Grasses are rare. In the southern 
flora, Composite and Leguminose abound along with Salsolas, Myo- 
poracee, Halorageacese, Caryophyllacee, and Crucifere. The genus 
Mesembryanthemum is here seen as a connecting link with the South. 
African flora; Nitraria with the Siberian flora; Crantzia with the 
North American flora. In the eastern flora, Proteaceze and Epacri- 
dacee are found, with fewer Composite than in the south, and a 
larger number of Ferns and Grasses than in the western district. 
On Brisbane mountains, near Moreton Bay, we meet with Araucaria 
(Eutassa) Bidwillii, the Bunya-Bunya, and in the same district 
Araucaria (Eutassa) Cunninghami, the Moreton Bay Pine. The 
Tasmanian flora is an insular one. Ferns abound, Goodeniacee are 
scarce, Loranthacee and Ceesalpiniee are wanting. Plants are 
found belonging to the natural orders Stackhousiacee, Tremandracex, 
Proteacese, Stylidiacee, Myrtaceze, Restiacee, Diosmez, Casuarin- 
aces, and Mimosee. In south Australia, Composite form 1-8th of 
the whole vegetation; Composite and Leguminose form together 
one-third of the whole of the Dicotyledons. Nearly 100 of the 
plants now growing wild have been introduced from Europe and the 
Cape. The introduction of European culture is changing the aspect 
of Australia as well as its climate. Rain now falls where none did 
before. The flora of South Australia has been divided into two 
marked forms, that of the Grass-land and that of the Scrub. Grass- 
land resembles European pastures. Along with it there are associated 
light park-like forests of Eucalypti, with their smooth stems robbed 
of their outer bark, standing at regular intervals, and their crowns 
never in contact with each other. In poorer soil Casuarinas grow, 
also gummiferous Acacias, as A. retinoides and pycnantha, and species: 
of Bursaria, and Grevillea, along with occasional Melaleucas or Lep- 
tospermums, especially in the beds of rivers dried up in summer. 
The Scrub shows no turf; a few scattered Stipas and Neurachnes 
constitute the only grasses. There is profusion of bushes and small 
trees. The plants have a heath-like foliage or vertically-placed leaves, 
and their colour is of a dead blue-green.in general. The Palm forms 
which occur in Australia are species of Livistona, Seaforthia, and 
Corypha. In the British colonies of Australia the European grains 
and fruits are cultivated. In Norfolk Island, which may be connected 
with the Australian flora, Araucaria (Eutassa) excelsa, the Norfolk 
Island Pine, grows to a great size. Van Diemen’s Land contains 10 
Coniferze endemic to the island, according to Hooker. These are Cal- 


SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. 691 


litris australis, Oyster-Bay Pine, 50-70 feet high ; C. Gunnii, native 
Cypress, 6-10 feet ; Arthrotaxis selaginoides, A. cupressoides, ‘and A. 
laxifolia ; Microcachrys tetragona, 15-20 feet ; Podocarpus alpina, P. 
Lawrencii ; Phyllocladus asplenifolia, celery-topped or Adventure Bay 
Pine, 50-60 feet ; Dacrydium Franklinii, Huon Pine, 60 to 100 feet 
high, with a diameter of 2 to 8 feet. The banks of the Huon river 
are clothed with the loftiest and most valuable timber-trees of the 
colony. Sir John Ross measured some trees 180 feet high and 28 in 
circumference. One tree was shown to him which exceeded 200 feet 
in height, and was 38 feet in circumference about 3 feet from the 
ground.” The European plants of the Australian Alps, according to 
Mueller, are :—Turritis glabra, Sagina procumbens, Alchemilla vul- 
garis, Veronica serpyllifolia, Carex pyrenaica, O. echinata, C. canescens, 
C. Buxbaumii, Botrychium Lunaria. In the Gipps’ Land morasses 
Lysimachia vulgaris grows. Mean temperature, 53° to 73°. In the 
British Colonies the European kinds of grain and fruit are cultivated. 


25. The Region of New Zealand (Forster’s Region).—This Flora, 
besides the plants peculiar to New Zealand, as Phormium tenax, 
New Zealand Flax, comprehends several others which belong to 
the extremities of America, Africa, and Australia. We find in 
these islands Corypha australis, the Australian or Southern Palm, 
Tree Ferns, and Dracenas, forests of Conifer, and many Myrtacez. 

The New Zealand Coniferze consist of Dammara australis (Kaudi, 
Cowdie, or Kauri Pine), Podocarpus spicata (Mai or Matai), P. ferru- 
ginea (Miro or Maira), P. Totarra, P. dacrydioides (Kaikatia), P 
excelsa (Kahika), and others ; also Dacrydium cupressinum (Rimu or 
the Dimon Pine), D. Colensoi, D. laxifolium, and Phyllocladus tricho- 
manoides (Tauehaha). Many European plants are cultivated. The 
known flora of New Zealand amounts to about 1900 or 2000 species, 
of which 730 are flowering plants, thus making Phanerogams to 
Cryptogams nearly as 2 to 3. The Phanerogamous flora of New 
Zealand shows a large amount of absolutely peculiar or endemic 
plants, which are said by Hooker to amount to 507 species,.and to 
constitute more than 2-3ds of the whole. Among the orders to which 
the endemic species belong may be noticed Coniferze, Scrophulariaces, 
Epacridaceee, Composite, Araliacew, Umbellifere, Myrtacee, and 
Ranunculacee. The remaining 1-3d ‘of the flora is thus analysed by 
Hooker :—193 species are Australian, 89 are South American, 77 
species common to both these countries, 60 are European, and 50 are 
species of the Antarctic Islands, Fuegia, etc. Among the peculiar 
genera of New Zealand are enumerated Anisotome, Hoheria, Phor- 
mium, Carmichelia, Tupeia, and Alseuosmia. In New Zealand there 
are of European species 60 Phanerogams, 50 Mosses, 13 Hepatice, 
45 Alge, 50 Fungi, and 100 Lichens. The species of Veronica form 


692 MEYEN’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES. 


an important feature in the flora, from their number, their beauty, 
and ubiquity, and from many forming large bushes. The flora of the 
Auckland group and Campbell’s Island may be considered as a con- 
tinuation of that of New Zealand, differing only in being more typi- 
cal of the antarctic regions. In the Auckland group the country is 
generally covered by Pteris esculenta, Leptospermum scoparium 
(Manuke or Tea-tree), Phormium tenax, and Cordyline stricta. We 
also meet with Vitex littoralis, Knightia excelsa (Rewa-Rewa), species 
of Metrosideros (M. robusta, or Rata), the Kauri Pine, Cyathea deal- 
bata, Areca sapida, and numerous Ferns. Some European plants, as 
Cardamine hirsuta, Montia fontana and Callitriche, are found. ‘The 
woods consist of 4 or 5 species of trees or large shrubs, which are 
enumerated by Hooker in the order of their abundance. 1. Metrosi- 
deros lucida. 2. Dracophyllum longifolium. 3. Panax simplex. 4. 
Veronica elliptica. 5. Coprosma foetidissima. Under the shade of 
these, near the sea-beach, about 15 different Ferns grow abundantly, 
the most remarkable of which is Aspidium venustum. Mean tempera- 
‘ture between latitude 34° and 36° south, from 61° to 63°. Many of 
the European plants are cultivated.* 


Meyen divides the latitudinal range of vegetation into zones, taking 
for his basis the three ordinary divisions of the torrid, the temperate, 
and the frigid zone, and subdividing each hemisphere into eight 
smaller zones. 


Meyen’s Phyto-Geographical Zones. 
A.—TORRID ZONE. 


1. Equatorial Zone.— This extends 15° on both sides of the 
equator, and has a mean annual temperature of 784° to 824° F. The 
forms characteristic of this zone are chiefly Palme, Musacez, arbores- 
cent Graminez, Pandanus, Scitamineze, Orchids, and Lianas (gigantic 
twining plants, such as Aristolochias) ; besides plants belonging to the 
orders Malvaces, Anonaces, Anacardiaceew, Artocarpese a section of 
Urticacese, Lecythidaces, Malpighiaces, Sapindaces, Cesalpinies a 
section of Leguminose, Cedrelacese, and many others. 

2. The Tropical Zone.—This reaches from the 15th degree on each 
side of the equator to the tropics, in 23° latitude. Mean temperature 
734 to 783°. Summer temperature, 804° to 86°; winter tempera- 
ture in the eastern coast countries, 59°. Besides many equatorial 
forms, as Palms, Musaceex, Scitamines, Meliacex, Anonacee, Sapin- 
dacew, Orchidacez, Aracez, and Lianas, there are in this zone Tree- 
ferns, and plants belonging to Convolvulacee, Melastomacez, and 
Piperaces. 


* Coloured delineations of Schouw’s Phyto-Geographic Regions are given in W. and A. K. 
Johnston’s Physical Atlas. 


MEYEN’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES, © 693 


B.—TEMPERATE ZONE. 


3. Sub-tropical Zone.—This extends from the tropics, 23° to 34° 
of latitude. Mean temperature 624° to 714°; summer temperature, 
734° to 824°. There are many tropical fruits in this region. The 
winters are mild, and vegetation is green throughout the year. In 
the northern division of the zone, Palms and Bananas grow on 
' the plains. The Date-palm, Doom-palm, Chamerops Palmetto, many 
succulent Mesembryacee and Crassulacese, arborescent Euphorbias, 
Camellia, Thea, Aucuba, and Magnolias, are met with. In the southern 
division are Proteacer, Myrtaces, Epacridaces, Ericacee, many Com- 
positze, Diosmeze, Zamias, and Cactaceze. 

4, The warmer Temperate Zone.—It embraces the space between 
34° and 45° of latitude, including the southern part of Europe, Asia 
Minor, north of China, and Japan. Mean temperature, 534° to 624°. 
Summer temperature in North America,‘77° ; in Europe, 754° to 68°; 
in Eastern Asia, 824°; Winter temperature in the New World, 444° 
to 324° ; in Europe, 50° to 343°; in Eastern Asia, 263°. Many sub- 
tropical forms occur. Evergreen Dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, 
Cistuses, many species of Ericacese, Lauracez, and Myrtaces, and the 
Vine, are met with. In some parts of the zone, Solidagos and Asters, 
Magnolias and Smilacex, abound ; while in others there are represent- 
atives of the Mimosa form, Myrtaceze and Proteaces. 

5. The cooler Temperate Zone.—This includes a belt from 45° to 
58° latitude. Mean temperature, 43° to 534°. Minimum summer 
temperature on the West Coast, 564° ; in the interior of the Continent, 
68°; minimum winter temperature in the interior of Europe, 14°. 
England, the north of France, and Germany, supply the characteristics 
of the vegetation of this zone. It embraces the region of Umbellifere, 
and Crucifere of Schouw. Meyen selects plants having a more marked 
physiognomic effect, such as ordinary Dicotyledonous trees, along with 
Abietinex, and heaths covered with Calluna vulgaris. 

6. The Subarctic Zone.—This reaches from 58° latitude to the 
arctic circle, 66°. Mean temperature, 394° to 43°. Summer tem- 
perature in the New World, 664°; in the Old World, 602° to 68°; 
Winter temperature of the former, 14° ; of the latter (Western Europe), 
242; of the interior of Russia, 104° to 14°. It is characterised by 
Firs and Willows in the northern hemisphere. 


C.—FRIGID ZONE. 


7. The Arctic Zone.—This extends from the Arctic circle, 66° to 
72°, Mean temperature, 284° to 32°, and towards the eastern and 
continental portions, far below the freezing point. The Birch, and 
some Conifer, may be said to characterise this zone. We meet 
also with representatives of the genera Andromeda, Myrica, Alnus, 
Rhododendron, and Salix. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN ALTITUDES. 


694 


Meven’s ComPaRATIVE EXHIBITION OF THE DIFFERENT ZONES, WITH 


THE CoRRESPONDING REGIONS AS GIVEN BY Dr. Masters. 


The elevations and temperatures are here given in round numbers, 


. F es seueueg 
098-18 000°9T 4s suleqg jo wowey 9 
obo | 0001 { . SSiq pue é 
5 SUIOg - 9aT], Jo worsay| 000% 
: : sor 
2047.89 | 000‘BT 000° A ie ete sa ona 000% 
soory, stu 
289 00001 : 000°% 000% { aa TUE 0009 
‘ seer], snouopeys: 
ag | 0008 000% | 000% | 000% (aa snotipjoog Jo worse | 000°8 
09 0009 ‘ 000% 000‘9 000°8 ‘SIaJTMON Jo uOLsey 
000% | 000'0T 
ot =| 000% 000° coos | 0009 0008 Oooo | “BIpuepopoyy Jo woray | 00‘ZT 
ofee-sf1¢ | 000% 000‘ | coos | ooo'9 | 0008 | ooo‘ot | O00%CT | “SateH ouIdTY Jo woISou | o00'FT 
000% 000% 000‘9 000‘s 000‘0L 000‘8E 000‘FT 000‘9T 000°9T 
‘rapun fete “Bop m1) 
pur fez | f8e-.26 | .cr-.6e | .bo-.8h | of9ot9 | 02-569 | <Gl-of84 | 098-264 WOH Weep 
(21809 
aed Aq) |. = 
suolgey |OUTT-Moug| me 
ayy JO orng) 94} WoIy 3 vee somog — | OU} WIT 
~wisdmy, | 98@%sC | ego | txv9 | 0-99 | sean | orto | oFe.ee | feaT | 8F0 987 age ge aay yeas 
¥ 
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loyeradumapjeyereduey| ‘Teordory “Tent { eet SeuoZz 
“pod | ‘ormory |ororeqng) Jefoop | tous | -qug ‘eordory, | -oyenbg | {ou} Jo soweyy 


ALTITUDINAL RANGE OF VEGETATION, 695 


8. The Polar Zone,—This includes all lands from 72° to 82° lati- 
tude. The mean temperature of one point in this zone, viz. Melville 
Island, is 14°. In the Old World, the mean temperature is 164°. 
Summer temperature of the New World, 374°, and of the Old, 384°; 
Winter temperature, —28° in the New, and —2}° in the Old World. 
No trees nor bushes in this zone. Some Saxifrages, Ranunculi, 
Potentillas, species of Draba, Dryas, Parrya, and Phippsia, and 
numerous Oryptogamic plants, as Lichens, prevail in it. 


ALTITUDINAL RANGE OF VEGETATION. 


Under this head we consider the changes produced in the physiog- 
nomy of vegetation on ascending mountains. It has reference to the 
distribution of plants in an altitudinal or hypsometrical point of view. 
This geographical range is best seen in the high mountains of tropical 
countries, where all gradations are met with, from the heat of the 
torrid zone to the cold of the frigid zone. Humboldt, in describing 
South American scenery, remarks :—‘‘In the burning plains, scarce 
raised above the level of the Southern Ocean, we find Bananas, Cyca- 
dace, and Palms in the greatest luxuriance ; after them, shaded by 
the lofty sides of the valleys in the Andes, Tree Ferns ; next in suc- 
cession, bedewed by cool misty clouds, Cinchonas appear. When lofty 
trees cease, we come to Aralias, Thibaudias, and myrtle-leaved Andro- 
medas ; these are succeeded by Bejarias abounding in resin, and 
forming a purple belt around the mountains. In the stormy regions 
of the Paramos, the more lofty plants and showy flowering herbs 
disappear, and are succeeded by large meadows covered with grasses, 
on which the Llama feeds. We now reach the bare trachytic rocks, on 
,, Which the lowest tribes of plants flourish. Parmelias, Lecidias, and 
Leprarias, with their many-coloured sporules, form the flora of this 
inhospitable zone. Patches of recently fallen snow now begin to cover 
the last efforts of vegetable life, and then the line of eternal snow begins.” 

On the mountains of temperate regions the variety is rather less, 
but the change isnot less striking. ‘We begin to ascend the Alps, 
for instance, in the midst of warm vineyards, and pass through a 
succession of oaks, sweet-chestnuts, and beeches, till we gain the 
elevation of the more hardy pines and stunted birches, and tread on 
pastures fringed by borders of perpetual snow. At the elevation of 
1950 feet the vine disappears; and at 1000 feet higher the sweet- 
chestnuts cease to grow ; 1000 feet farther, and the oak is unable to 
maintain itself; the birch ceases to grow at an elevation of 4680, and 
the spruce fir at the height of 5900 feet, beyond which no tree appears, 
The Rhododendron ferrugineum (the Rose of the Alps) then covers 
immense tracts, to the height of 7480 feet, and Salix herbacea creeps 
200 or 300 feet higher, accompanied by a few Saxifrages, Gentians, 


696 


and Grasses, while Lichens and Mosses struggle up to the imperishable 
barrier of perpetual snow.” 

On the Andes, at 13,000 to 15,000 feet, Humboldt found woolly 
species of Culcitium and Espeletia (C. nivalis, rufescens, reflexum, 
and E. grandifiora and argentea), Sida pichinchensis, Ranunculus 
nubigenus, Myrrhis andicola, and Fragaria aretioides ; and at 15,770 
he detected Saxifraga Boussingaultii. The late Professor Jameson 
of Quito also reported on the Flora of the Andes. On the Himalaya 
‘of Sikkim Dr. Hooker observed five belts of vegetation :—1. Palms and 
Plantains ; 2. Oaks and Laurels; 3. Pines; 4. Rhododendrons and 
Grass ; 5, Rock and Snow. These belts are seen in proceeding from 
the bed of the Ratong up to the summit of Mon Lepcha and other 
mountains. Mr. New has given a notice of the Subalpine flora of 
Kilima Njaro, a mountain in Eastern Africa, 3°°8 lat., rising to the 
height of 20,000 feet, or nearly 5000 feet above the snow-line. The 
Flora is essentially that of the Cameroons. 1. Inhabited district : 
Plantain, Bananas, and Maize. Thermometer ranges from 59° F. to 
85° F. 2. Thick Jungle. 3. Gigantic trees covered with moss. 
Herbaceous vegetation, chiefly European, Docks and Stinging Nettle. 
Vines abound. Frost at night. 4. Verdant hills with pasturage of 
clover. 5. Heath.. 6. Bare hills. 7. Everlasting snow. Near the 
snow 20 plants were gathered, including species of Adenocarpus, Heli- 
chrysum, Artemisia, Bleria, Ericinella, Bartsia, Protea, and Gladiolus. 

Desmouslins, in his Flora of the Pyrenees, mentions the limits of 
the following Alpine species :— 

French Feet. 


ALTITUDINAL RANGE OF VEGETATION. 


French Feet. 


Cochlearia pyrenaica 5500 to 6000 


Parmelia chrysoleuca . 


5400 to 9000 


Herniaria pyrenaica 3000 to 7500 s cartilaginea, 

Astragalus depressus 7500 to 8400 elegans, _ cinerea, 

Vicia pyrenaica . 8500 badia 9000 
Pedicularis pyrenaica . 9000 Lecidea geographica » 9000 
Anictangium ciliatum . 8400 Umbilicaria cylindrina 6000 to 9000: 


Massot gives the following limits of ligneous plants on the Canigou 
in the Pyrenees, which rises to the height of 9136 feet :— 


Feet. Feet. 
Cultivation of Olive . . 1878 | Lonicera Xylosteum . 5134 
Abundant cultivation of Vine . 1804 | Corylus Avellana . so 
Euonymus europzeus a5 Fagus sylvatica 5324 
Acer monspessulanum | 2296 | Limit of cultivation of Potato ; ; 
Attempted cultivation of Vine . 2460 Rye harvest in the begin- 
Sarothamnus scoparius a ning of September ‘s 
Alnus glutinosa . . . 2624 | Amelanchier vulgaris ~ 
Castanea vesca . . : 35 Populus tremula. . 5380 
Rye harvest middle of aly zi an Pyrus Aucuparia . 6029 
Cornus sanguinea . é s Pinus Picea J 6396 
Nex Aquifolium 3240 | Sambucus racemosa . 6768: 
Prunus spinosa 3444 | Pinus Abies 7921 
Crategus Oxyacantha 4100 | Genista purgans oe 9 
Rubus fruticosus 4336 | Rhododendron ferrugineum . - 83382 
Pyrus Aria . 5134 


ZONES OF ALPINE VEGETATION, 697 


The following table by Mr. Moggridge shows the zones of Coni- 
ferze from the Mediterranean to the crest of the Maritime Alps; the 
lowest and highest elevations are given in feet :— 

Lowest. Highest. 


Pinus Pinea . . ‘ _ 1046 
P. maritima ; ; 1 _, 4143 
P. halepensis A : é _ 2760 
Cupressus sempervirens 2 ‘i _— 2300 
Juniperus pheenicea : . ss _ 4000 
Pinus sylvestris 3 : . ; 1977 5100 
Abies excelsa : ; . 1800 3100 
A. pectinata i z 1900 3600 
Taxus baccata . : ‘ _— 2650 
Larix europea F : . : 3500 5500 
‘Pinus Cembra ‘ . : . 4500 5150 
Juniperus communis : a i — 6300 


The starting points from the coast embraced the line from Monaco 
to Ventimiglia. 

In central and southern Europe the proportion of Monocotyledons 
to Dicotyledons, which is as 1 to 4 in the ‘plains, decreases with the 
elevation on dry mountain slopes, till at the height of 8526 feet it 
isas 1 to 7. Moist mountain slopes favour Monocotyledons, the pro- 
portion on them being as 1 to 3. 

The following table shows the height at which corn and trees 
grow in different quarters of the globe :— 


Boe Frigid 
Torrid Zone. Temperate Zone. Tone: 
2 ee ze Se ps 
Mountains 
Andes, of Mexico, Caucasus, Pee, Alps, Lapland, 
0° Lat. 20° Lat. 42° 30° 462 67°—70° 


Inferior limit of per-} 15 900 feet. 13,478 9,900 8,400 8,220 8,300 
petual snow 


Upper limit of trees 10,800, ,, 12,000 6,700 7,020 6,000 1,500 


Distance between 
Naa ea tvatigurt 3 4,400 ,, 1,478 3,200 1,380 2,220 1,800 


isisince  beimees ts B60), 8,780... ~~ 4,200 2,700 
snow and corn . 
In the Himalaya, the upper limit of trees on the south side is marked 
by Quercus semecarpifolia, at 11,500 feet, and on the north side by 
Betula alba, at 14,000 feet. The Birch also forms the limit on the 
Caucasian mountains. On the Pyrenees and Alps, the limit of trees 
is marked by Coniferse ; on the Pyrenees, by Pinus uncinata ; on the 
south side of the Alps, by Larix europsa, the Larch; and on the 
north side, by Abies excelsa. In Lapland the Birch forms the upper 
limit of trees. The upper limit of shrubs is determined by the Rho- 
dodendrons in the Old World, on the Pyrenees at 8312 feet, and on 
the Alps at 7480; and by Bejarias on the Andes, at the height of 
13,420 feet. On the south side of the Himalaya, Juniperus, Salix, 


698 ZONES OF ALPINE VEGETATION. 


and Ribes, form the upper limit of shrubs, at 11,500 feet; on the 
north, Genista versicolor ascends to 17,000 feet. 

The following have been given by some authors as the zones of 
Alpine vegetation :— 


1. Region of Lowland cultivation. Its extent of elevation is at the spot where 
the prevailing cultivated plants of the latitude cease to be productive. In 
mount Aitna, it rises to 3300 feet ; on Teneriffe to nearly 3000 (zone of 
vines), It embraces two zones of the Cactus and Euphorbia in the Canaries, 
In Madeira it embraces two regions of Spix and Martius ; the region of tro- 
pical plants reaching to 700 feet, and the region of the vine, fruit, and corn, 
to 2300. In Norway, Sweden, and Finmark, it is narrow. In the Carpa- 
thians it rises to 1500 feet. ‘Within the tropics it is a broad and import- 
ant region. On the Andes, at Quito, it only ceases at 5009 or 6000 feet. 

2. Region of Woods. A magnificent region in all Alpine districts, and well charac- 
terised on the Andes and Himalaya. In the Andes it reaches to 10,800 feet, 
and is characterised by Escallonia myrtilloides, Aralia avicennifolia, and Dry- 
mis Winteri ; on the mountains of Mexico to 12,000 feet, and is marked by 
Pinus Montezumez. Humboldt notices this region in Teneriffe. In Atna it 
extends to 6200 feet; in the Canaries to 4080; in Madeira (region of 
chestnut) to 2950. In Lapland it extends to 800 feet; in Finmark 70° 
north latitude to 730. ‘ 

3. Region of Shrubs. Region of Retama (Spartium nubigenum) in Teneriffe. On 
the Pyrenees and Mont Blanc, it is extensively covered, to about 8500 feet, 
with Rhododendrons. In the Andes, about Quito, it reaches 13,000, and is 
conspicuous for its Bejarias and shrubby Composite. In Madeira it embraces 
Kuhl’s regions of Spartium and Heath. On the Mountains of Lapland it 
attains from 2000 to 3000 feet, and is characterised by Betula nana, Vaccin- 
nium, and Salix. In Finmark its limits are 1100. As Rhododendron hirsutum 
and ferrugineum succeed the arborescent region of the Swiss Alps, and R. 
ferrugineum that of the Pyrenees, so does R. Lapponum succeed the Conifers 
in Lapland, and R. caucasicum on the Caucasus. 

4, Region of Grasses. These predominate in certain Alpine situations, and in cer- 
tain parallels of latitude. In South Shetland, none of the islands exhibit 
any Phanerogamous vegetation, with the exception of straggling grass. In 
Melville Island, 75° north latitude, the proportion of grasses to Phanerogamous 
plants is 1 to 5; in Great Britain, 1 to 123. In the Andes the region is 
traced to Paramos, and occupies a space of 13,000 to 14,500 feet; here are 
large cattle farms. In the!Himalaya a fine greensward is often seen at 14,600 
feet. In Teneriffe, it is distinguished by Humboldt. On the Swiss Alps, 
Poa annua exists at an elevation of 7400 feet. 

5. Region of Cryptogamous plants. This is well marked in many places. Colonel 
Hall, on Chimborago, under the Equator, at nearly 16,000 feet, found Draba 
aretoides, and Culcitium rufescens ; still higher, a moss, which) may be con- 
sidered as having attained the highest limit on the globe at which vegetable life 
exists. lLichens are the latest plants met with in ascending Teneriffe, the 
Himalaya mountains, and the Alps. 


In the mountains of the torrid zone, the following regions are 
described by Meyen, corresponding to the zones given in his latitudinal 
range of vegetation (page 692) :— 

1. The region of Palms and Bananas, extending from the level of the sea to 1900 
feet of altitude, It corresponds to the Equatorial zone. 


2. Region of Tree Ferns, and species of Ficus, extending from 1900 feet to 3800. 
(Tropical zone.) 


ZONES OF MARINE VEGETATION. 699 


8. Region of Myrtacez and Lauracee, extending from 3800 to 5700 feet. (Sub- 
tropical zone.) . 

4, Region of Evergreen Dicotyledonous trees, extending from 5700 to 7600 feet. 
(Warm Temperate zone.) 

5. Region of Deciduous Dicotyledonous trees, extending from 7900 to 9500 feet. 
(Cool Temperate zone.) This is: not always well marked in the Tropical and 
Equatorial zones, owing to want of sun and deficiency in moisture. 

6. Region of Conifer, the Pine and Fir, extending from 9500 to 11,400 feet. 
(Sub-arctic zone.) On the Cordilleras of the Andes this zone is marked by 
Escallonias. On the Scandinavian mountains and the Himalaya, Birches also 
occur. 

7. Region of Alpine Shrubs or of Rhododendrons, extending from 11,400 to 
13,300 feet. (Arctic zone.) On the Andes the .zone is characterised by 
Bejarias, and on the Himalaya by Willows, Junipers, and species of Ribes. 

8. Region of Alpine Plants and Lichens, extending from the upper limit of shrubs 
to the snow-line at 15,200,feet. (Polar zone.) Lichens abound in this region. 
The Alpine herbs are mostly perennial. They are protected during winter 
by a covering of snow. Their flowers are often large and beautiful. 


Zones of Marine Vegetation. 


The ocean, as well as the land, possesses its vegetable forms, 
which vary according to their position, surrounding medium, relative 
degrees of pressure, and exposure to light. Harvey has observed that 
some seaweeds seem to be unaffected by circumstances of this nature, 
and are found equally abundant under opposed latitudes and in 
extremes of temperature. The lower we descend in the scale of marine 
vegetation the better is this illustrated. Some seaweeds, Harvey 
remarks, are cosmopolitan or pelagic, as species of Ulva and Entero- 
morpha, which are equally abundant in high northern and southern 
latitudes, as they are under the equator and in temperate regions. 
Codium tomentosum, Ceramium rubrum, C. diaphanum, species of 
Ectocarpus, and several Conferve, have a range nearly as wide. Plo- 
camium coccineum and Gelidium corneum are common to the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans; Rhodymenia palmata, the common Dulse of 
Britain, is found at the Falkland Islands and Tasmania. Fucus 
tuberculatus extends from Ireland to the Cape of Good Hope ; Fucus 
vesiculosus occurs on the north-west coasts of America, and on the 
shores of Europe; while Desmarestia ligulata is found in the north 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as well as at the Cape of Good Hope and 
Cape Horn. Many Diatomacee are distributed from pole to pole, 
and are found in the lowest depths of the ocean. In the antarctic ocean, 
Hooker found Diatoms constituting a bank which stretched 200 miles 
north from the base of Victoria Barrier, at an average depth of 1800 feet. 

Lamouroux has estimated the marine Alge as ranging from 5000 
to 6000, which, he has shown, are distributed in various regions, 
Their distribution is much influenced by the degree of exposure to 
light, as well as by the motion of the waves, Great depths of the 
ocean are observed to exercise an influence on marine vegetation, 


700 ZONES OF MARINE VEGETATION. 


similar to that which high mountains have on land plants. Some 
species, as the Laminariz, are confined to the colder regions of the 
sea, while others, as the Sargassa, are only found where the mean 
temperature is considerable. The colour of Alga may be regarded 
as being in a measure indicative of their depth of growth, the Alge of 
green colour being generally found either in fresh water or in the shal- 
lower parts of the sea; the olive-coloured Algz abound most between 
tide-marks ; those of a red colour occur chiefly in the deep and dark 
parts of the sea. 

Marine vegetation is found to vary both in its horizontal and 
vertical range. This difference is less decided than that which is 
observable amongst land plants, owing probably to the greater uni- 
formity of the ocean’s temperature. The ocean has been divided into 
the following provinces of marine vegetation:—1. The Northern 
Ocean, from the Pole to the 60th parallel of north latitude. 2. The 
North Atlantic, between the 60th and 40th parallels, the province of 
the species of Fucus proper. 3. The Mediterranean, which is a sub- 
region of the warmer temperate zone of the Atlantic, lying between 
the 40th and 23d northern parallels, 4. The tropical Atlantic, in 
which Sargassum abounds. 5, The Antarctic American regions from 
Chili to Cape Horn, and the whole circum-polar ocean south of 50° of 
latitude. 6. The Australian and New Zealand province. 7. The 
Indian Ocean and Red Sea. 8. The Japan and China seas, besides 
certain provinces in the Pacific. 

Forbes remarks of the vertical range, that one great marine zone 
lies between high and low water mark, varying in species according to 
the nature of the coast. This zone is generally uniform throughout 
the northern hemisphere. A second zone begins at low-water mark, 
and extends to a depth of 7 to 15 fathoms. The first of these, or the 
littoral zone, has been divided into sub-regions, in which certain marine 
species are found to prevail. 1. The sub-region of Fucus canalicu- 
latus. 2. The sub-region of Lichina, 3. The sub-region of Fucus 
articulatus, F. nodosus, and Corallina officinalis. 4. The sub-region 
of Fucus serratus. The second or Laminarian zone includes the great 
Tangle sea-weeds and deep-water Fuci. The lowest forms of marine 
vegetation are alone met with in the deepest waters. 

Marine vegetation is equally various in its latitudinal or horizontal 
range. In the North Sea and the British Channel Chorda Filum is 
found to constitute beds of 15 to 20 miles in length, and about 600 
feet in breadth. Sargassum bacciferum constitutes the Gulf-weed of 
the Atlantic. The Sargasso sea occupies the eddy caused by the 
revolution of the Atlantic current, and extends over aspace of 260,000 
square miles. There are two principal banks of Gulf-weed ;—one, the 
largest, extending from 25° to 36° of north latitude, and a little west 
of the meridian of Fayal ; the other, a short way west of the Bahamas, 


ZONES OF MARINE VEGETATION. 701 


between the 22d and 26th degrees of latitude. The Gulf-weed has 
never been found attached, but always floating. In that state it is 
healthy, pushing out new fronds, but no fructification .has been seen. 
Harvey conjectures that it may be a pelagic variety of Sargassum vul- 
gare, in the same way as the variety sub-ecostatus of Fucus vesiculosus 
has never been found attached, but growing in salt marshes. The 
Macrocystis pyrifera, and the Laminaria radiata’ are remarkable for 
the size and extent of their range. Immense green meadows of the 
Macrocystis are met with in every latitude. It requires a mean depth 
of 6 or 9 fathoms. Many specimens have been seen 300 feet long. 
Hooker estimated some, in a strait between the Crozet Islands, at 
700 feet. It girds the globe in the southern temperate zone, but not 
in the tropics nor in the northern hemisphere. The tribe Fucoidese 
are met with in abundance towards the poles, in which regions they 
are observed to attain their greatest bulk, diminishing and ceasing as 
they approach the Equator. Cystoseirez follow a course in the higher 
latitudes of the southern hemisphere similar to the Fucoidee. Hooker 
remarks that throughout all latitudes the two tribes Fucoidee and 
Cystoseireee form the prevailing marine vegetation, and that the 
genera of north cool zones are represented by others. in the south. 
The genera Fucus and Himanthalia, in the north, are represented by 
D’Urvillea and Sarcophycus in the south ; so also the genera Cysto- 
seira and Halidrys of the former are represented by Cystophora and 
Scytothalia in the latter. Laminarias inhabit the antarctic ocean, and 
stretch northwards to the Cape of Good Hope. The red, green, and 
purple Lavers of the British seas are found at the Falkland Islands. 
Lessonia, with a stem 10 feet long and 12 inches in circumference, 
and its fronds 2-3 feet long and about 3 inches broad, is found in im- 
mense masses off the Patagonian regions. D’Urvillea utilis is another 
large antarctic Seaweed, which, along with Lessonias, is often found 
at the Falkland Islands, formed by the surf into enormous vegetable 
cables, several hundred feet long, and thicker than the human body. 
The stems of Lessonia, when washed ashore, look like dead’ wood. 
Of the strictly antarctic marine plants, Hooker has identified 1-5th 
with those of Britain. In the north-west American Sea we meet with 
the remarkable Nereocystis, consisting of a very long thread-like stalk 
bearing a large vesicle and fronds ; while in the Australian and New 
Zealand regions we have the peculiar genera of Cystophora, Hormo- 
sira, Lansburghia, and others. At Vancouver's Island Laminarias occur 
of large size. Nereocystis Lutkiana has a stipe attaining the length 
of 300 feet, and Alarie have fronds 20-30 feet long. Georgetown, 
Tasmania, according to Harvey, is a good locality for Alge—all 
attaining a large size; Dasyas 2-3 feet long; Polysiphonia Hookeri 
even longer; Griffithsia setacea and G. corallina, nearly 2 feet long : 
Callithamnions, covering a large sheet of cartridge paper; a single 


702 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 


plant of Laurencia dasyphylla supplied 20-30 good-sized specimens ; 
Mertensia and Claudia, large, but rare. 

Species which are found abundantly in one sea may be scarcely 
present in another. This is seen in the difference between the 
marine vegetation of the Red Sea as compared with that of the 
Mediterranean, and that of the Mediterranean as contrasted with the 
Atlantic. The genera Sargassum and Caulerpa of the Red Sea are 
represented in the Mediterranean by very few, and those distinct, 
species. The genus Fucus, which is common in the Atlantic, is 
almost entirely wanting in the Mediterranean. Many Floridex 
which abound in the open seas do not adorn the rocks in the Medi- 
terranean. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 


The climate of Britain is influenced by its geographical position, 
and the form and elevation of its surface, The climate is warmer 
than that of other places in the same parallel of latitude. Its most 
striking feature is the absence of extremes, either as regards cold or 
heat. It is, generally speaking, mild and damp. The eastern coasts 
partake more of the continental climate, while the western experience 
the insular or more equable climate. While the winters are mild, the 
heat of the three summer months, June, July, and August, in which 
the growth and ripening of crops take place, is by no means great, 
being very little above that due to the latitude. The heat of these 
months is most important. It should be noticed that the day and 
night may be both mild during these months, and thus give rise to a 
high average temperature. But the important thing is to have high 
temperature during the day, even although the nights are cool. The 
mean temperature varies from 46° to 52° F. Some of the mountains 
tise to the height of about 4400 feet, and there is a fall of 1° of 
the thermometer for every 250 or 260 feet of ascent. Mr, Alexander 
Buchan gives the rate of decrease as 1° for about every 300 feet of 
ascent. The number of Phanerogamous species of plants amounts to 
about 1600, while the Cryptogamous are probably about 6000. 

In considering the distribution of British plants as regard areas, 
Watson divides Britain (excluding Ireland and the Channel Islands) 
into 18 provinces, or groups of counties, which together constitute the 
basin of a principal river, or have some other physical peculiarity in 
common. In each of these provinces he notices the heights attained 
by the loftiest mountains. The details connected with those pro- 
vinces are given in his Cybele Britannica. Many of the British 
species appear to have been introduced, and some appear to have 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 703 


little claim to be included in the flora. Hence Mr. Watson dis- 
tinguishes— 


1. Native species, apparently aboriginal, such as Corylus, Calluna, Bellis, 
Teesdalia. : 

2. Denizen species, doubtfully native, although maintaining their habitats 
without the aid of man, as Aconitum, Pxonia, Viola odorata, Impatiens noli-me- 
tangere. 

3. Colonist species, ot weeds occurring in cultivated land and about houses, 
perhaps owing their presence to the operations of man, as Adonis, Papaver, 
Githago. 

4, Alien species, originally introduced, although now more or less naturalised, 
as Sempervivum, Mimulus, Hesperis, Camelina. 

5. Incognite, or species reputed British but requiring confirmation, as Ranun- 
culus gramineus, Gentiana acaulis, Tussilago alpina, Echinophora spinosa. 


According to the nature of the localities in which British plants 
grow, they have been thus divided by Watson :— 


1. Pratal, plants of meadows or rich and damp grass lands, as Geranium 
pratense. 
. Pascual, plants of pastures and grassy commons, as Trifolium repens. 
. Ericetal, plants of moors and heaths, as Calluna and Erica. 
. Uliginal, plants of swamps and boggy ground, as Drosera and Pinguicula. 
. Lacustral, immersed or floating plants, as Subularia aud Nymphea. 
. Paludal, plants of wet marshy ground, as Typha. 
. Inundatal, plants of places liable to be inundated in wet weather, as. 
Nasturtium terrestre. ; 
8. Viatical, plants of roadsides and rubbish heaps, as Lamium album and 
Urtica dioica. 
9, Agrestal, plants of cultivated ground, as Papaver. 
10. Glareal, plants of dry exposed ground, chiefly gravel or sand, as Orni- 
thopus and Sedum acre. 
11. Rupestral, rock and wall plants, as Cotyledon and Asplenium Ruta- 
muraria. 
12. Septal, hedge plants, as Bryony. 
18. Sylvestral, plants of woods, as Paris. % 
14. Littoral, plants of the sea-shore, as Statice and Convolvulus Soldanella. 


SATO OUP O9 DO 


Taking a general view of the distribution of British flowering 
plants and Ferns (excluding the Hibernian and Sarnian species), 
Watson recognises the following types :— 


1. British type—species widely spread over Britain—found in all or nearly alt 
the 18 provinces, and forming more than one-third of the British species, such as. 
Alnus glutinosa, Betula alba, Corylus Avellana, Salix caprea, Rosa canina, Loni- 
cera Periclymenum, Hedera Helix, Sarothamnus scoparius, Calluna vulgaris, 
Ranunculus acris, Cerastium triviale, Potentilla Tormentilla, Trifolium repens, 
Stellaria media, Lotus cornieulatus, Bellis perennis, Senecio vulgaris, Carduus. 
palustris, Leontodon Taraxacum, Myosotis arvensis, Prunella vulgaris, Plantago 
lanceolata, Polygonum aviculare, Urtica dioica, Potamogeton natans, Lemna 
minor, Juncus effusus, Carex panicea, Poa annua, Festuca ovina, Anthoxanthum 
odoratum, Pteris aquilina, Polypodium vulgare, Lastrea Filix-mas. 

2. English type—species chiefly or exclusively found in England, and decreas- 
ing in frequency northwards, constituting about 1-5th of the whole flora, as 


704 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 


Rhamnus catharticus, Ulex nanus, Tamus communis, Bryonia dioica, Hottonia 
palustris, Chlora perfoliata, Sison Amomum, Moenchia erecta, Linaria Elatine, 
Ranunculus parviflorus, Lamium Galeobdolon, Hordeum pratense, Alopecurus 
agrestis, Ceterach officinarum, besides very local plants such as Cyperus longus 
and Cicendia filiformis. 

3. Scottish type—species chiefly prevalent in Scotland or the north of Eng- 
land, forming about 1-20th of the flora, as Empetrum nigrum, Rubus saxatilis, 
Trollius europzus, Geranium sylvaticum, Trientalis europea, Habenaria albida, 
Haloscias scoticum, Mertensia maritima ; also Primula farinosa, Goodyera repens, 
Corallorhiza innata, and Saxifraga Hirculus, which are comparatively limited in 
their distribution and partial in their localities, and which form a sort of inter- 
mediate type ; besides some very local plants such as Arenaria norvegica, Primula 
scotica, and Ajuga pyramidalis, 

4, Highland type—species either limited to the Scottish Highlands or extend- 
ing to the mountains of the north of England and Wales; a more boreal flora 
than the last, the species being especially limited to the mountains or their 
immediate vicinity, and forming probably about 1-15th of the flora, as Azalea 
procumbens, Veronica alpina, Alopecures alpinus, Phleum alpinum, Juncus 
trifidus, Sibbaldia procumbens, Erigeron alpinus, Gentiana nivalis ; to these may 
added the following, which, however, descend also lower, Salix herbacea, Silene 
acaulis, Saxifraga stellaris, Oxyria reniformis, Thalictrum alpinum, Luzula spicata, 
Juncus triglumis, Rubus Chamemorus, Epilobium alsinifolium, Draba incana, 
Dryas octopetala, Alchemilla alpina, Arenaria norvegica, Primula scotica ; like- 
wise some very local species, as Lychnis alpina and Oxytropis campestris. 

5. Germanic type—species chiefly seen in the east and south-east of England 
(bounded by the German ocean eastward)—forming about 1-15th or 1-20th of the 
flora, as Frankenia levis, Anemone Pulsatilla, Reseda lutea, Silene noctiflora, Silene 
conica, Bupleurum tenuissimum, Pimpinella magna, Pulicaria vulgaris, Lactuca 
Scariola, Halimus pedunculatus, Aceras Anthropophora, Ophrys aranifera, Spartina 
stricta ; also very local plants, such as Veronica verna, ; 

6. Atlantic type—species found in the west and south-west of England and 
Wales, having a tendency to the western or Atlantic parts of the island—forming 
about 1-15th or 1-20th of the flora, as Sinapis monensis, Matthiola sinuata, 
Raphanus maritimus, Sedum anglicum, Cotyledon Umbilicus, Eufragia viscosa, 
Pinguicula lusitanica, Euphorbia Peplis and E. Portlandica, Scirpus Savii; also 
more limited species, as Sibthorpia europza, Erica vagans, E. ciliaris, Physosper- 
mum cornubiense, Polycarpum tetraphyllum, Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, Cynodon 
Dactylon. 

7. Local or doubtful type—species which cannot be referred to any of the 
preceding types, as Potentilla rupestris, Lloydia serotina, confined to peculiar 
mountains in Wales, Draba aizoides and Cotoneaster vulgaris, found on the rocky 
coasts of Wales very locally, Draba muralis and Hutchinsia petrea; also Erio- 
caulon septangulare, found in the Isle of Skye, and formerly included under Wat- 


son’s Hebridean type. 


The following are the 18 provinces, with their included counties, 
into which Britain is divided by Watson :— 


. Peninsula—Cornwall, Devon, Somerset. 

. Channel—Dorset, Wilts, Isle of Wight, Hants, Sussex. 

Thames—Kent, Surrey, Berks, Oxford, Bucks, Middlesex, Herts, Essex. 

Ouse—Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Huntingdon, Northampton. 

Severn—Gloucester, Worcester, Warwick, Stafford, Salop, Hereford, Mon- 
mouth. 

South Wales—Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Pembroke, Cardigan, Brecon, Radnor. 

North Wales—Montgomery, Merioneth, Caernarvon, Denbigh, Flint, Anglesea. 


NO gus sopont 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 705 


8. Trent—Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Notts, Derby. 
9. Mersey—Cheshire, Lancashire. 

10. Humber—York. 

11. Tyne—Durham, Northumberland. 

12. Lakes—Westmoreland, Cumberland (Isle of Man). 

13. West Lowlands—Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton, Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew. 

14, East Lowlands—Berwick, Roxburgh, Peebles, Selkirk, Haddington, Edin- 
burgh, Linlithgow. 

15. East Highlands—Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan, Stirling,” Perth, Forfar, Kin- 
cardine, Aberdeen, Banff, Moray (including Nairn, Elgin, and the north- 
east of Inverness). 

16. West Highlands—Dumbarton, Argyle, Inverness, westward of Loch Ericht, 
Isles adjacent from Arran to Skye. 

17. North Highlands—-Ross and Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness. 

18. North Isles—Hebrides, Orkney, Shetland. 


Under these are included 38 sub-provinces, of .which 18 are in 
South Britain, 10 in Mid-Britain, and 10 in North Britain. 

As Mr. Watson does not include Ireland nor the Channel Islands 
in his work on the Distribution of British Plants, the following 
remarks on the Floras of these divisions of the kingdom are added :— 

The Flora of Ireland has -been specially reported on by Dr. D. 
Moore and Mr. A. G. More in their Cybele Hibernica. The mean 
annual temperature of Ireland is 50° Fahr. The mean summer tem- 
perature is 2° lower than that of Great Britain, while the mean winter 
temperature is 2° higher. The Flora is remarkable for the occurrence 
of plants characteristic of the west and south of Europe, a list of 
which is given in noticing Forbes’s Pyrenean Flora (p. 708). Besides 
these there are plants which point to a former connection with North 
America, such as 


Spiranthes gemmipara (Roman- Sisyrinchium anceps. 
zoviana). ' Eriocaulon septangulare. 
Naias flexilis. | 
Of plants belonging to Watson’s Atlantic type, the following may 
be given as examples :— 


Matthiola sinuata. Euphorbia portlandica. 
Cotyledon Umbilicus. Alisma natans. 

Crithmum maritimum. Scirpus Savii. 

Rubia peregrina. Rhynchospora fusca. 
Pinguicula lusitanica, Asplenium lanceolatum. 
Euphorbia Paralias. Adiantum Capillus-veneris. 


Of Watson’s Germanic type there are few representatives. Among 
them are :— 


Turritis glabra. | Cynoglossum montanum. 
Lythrum hyssopifolia. ! Orchis pyramidalis. 
Monotropa Hypopitys. | Stratiotes aloides. 


The mountains in Ireland reach about 3400 feet above the level 
22 


706 GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY. 


of the sea. Among the plants belonging to Watson’s Highland type 
are the following :— 


Thalictrum alpinum. Saxifraga nivalis. 

Draba incana. ——— oppositifolia. 

Silene acaulis. Saussurea alpina. 

Dryas octopetala. Salix herbacea, 

Rubus Chamemorus, Allosorus (Cryptogramme) 
Alchemilla alpina. crispus. 

Saxifraga stellaris, Polystichum (Aspidium) Lon- 
— aizoides. chitis. 


Watson’s Scottish and intermediate types are represented by such 
plants as :— 


Trollius europzus. Haloscias (Ligusticum) scoticum. 
Drosera anglica, Lobelia Dortmanna. 

Alsine verna. Andromeda polifolia. 

Potentilla fruticosa, Pyrola secunda. 

Rubus saxatilis, Carex filiformis. 

Saxifraga Hirculus. Polypodium Phegopteris. 


Moore estimates the flowering plants and ferns of Ireland at 1000 ; 
and the following are given as the plants which occur in Ireland with- 
out reaching Great Britain :— 


Saxifraga Geum. Dabeocia polifolia. 
rad hirsuta. Pinguicula grandiflora. 
umbrosa. Spiranthes Romanzoviana 

——— elegans. (gemmipara). 
——— Andrewsii. Neotinea intacta. 
_ hirta. Sisyrinchium anceps. 
—_— affinis. Potamogeton longifolius. 
Tnula salicina, —————  sparganifolius. 
Erica Mediterranea. Naias flexilis. 

Mackaiana. Carex Buxbaumii. 
Arbutus Unedo. Asplenium acutum. 


The Sarnian, or Channel Island Flora, has been examined by Pro- 
fessor C. C. Babington, and described in his Flora Sarnica. In gene- 
ral the flora may be said to resemble more that of the coast of France 
than that of the southern counties of England. Nearly all the species 
appear to be natives of the north-western parts of France. Babing- 
ton enumerates about 850 species of flowering plants and ferns as 
occurring in the islands. Among the plants rare in England, or 
specially characteristic of the Channel Islands, the following may be 
mentioned :— 


Ranunculus ophioglossifolius. Helianthemum polifolium. 
Erucastrum incanum. Erodium moschatum. 


Sinapis Cheiranthus. Hypericum linarifolium. 
Matthiola sinuata, Anthrolobium ebracteatum. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 707 


Lotus angustissimus. Orobanche cerulea, 
hispidus. — barbata. 
Polycarpon tetraphyllum. Linaria Pelisseriana. 
Bupleurum aristatum. Salvia clandestina. 
Centaurea Isnardi. Armeria plantaginea. 
Cicendia filiformis. Spiranthes estivalis. 


Scirpus pungens, 


The Alpine vegetation of Great Britain is best illustrated on the 
Scottish mountains. Among these may be noticed the Breadalbane 
range, embracing such mountains as Ben Lawers, Craig-Chailleach, 
Meal Ghyrdy, Ben More; and also the high mountains on the shores 
of Loch Lomond, such as Ben Lomond and Ben Voirlich. Another 
rich Alpine district is Clova, in Forfarshire, embracing the mountains 
which surround Glen Dole and Glen Fee, as well as those around 
Caenlochan, the highest of which is Glass Meal. The third important 
Alpine district as regards rare plants is Braemar. In that district 
occur Ben-muich-dhui, Lochnagar, Cairngorm, Benabourd, Ben Avon, 
Breriach, Cairntoul, and the mountains around Glen Callater and 
Glen Ceander. 

In visiting these Scottish mountains, we, in the first instance, pass 
through the region of the common plants of the country, and reach 
the moorland district, abounding in peat, and where such plants as 
heather, heath, and Myrica Gale form the characteristic vegetation. 
The zone of lowland cultivation ends with Pteris aquilina, which ex- 
tends to 1000-1200 feet above the level of the sea. Above this 
we come to the regions of Alpine and Arctic plants. In the ascent 
we meet with the following plants :— 


Malaxis paludosa. Betula nana. 
Galium boreale. Saxifraga oppositifolia. 
Linnea borealis. Asplenium viride. 
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. Polystichum Lonchitis. 
Antennaria dioica. Lycopodium annotinum. 
Rubus Chamzeniorus. : Carex aquatilis. 
Cornus suecica, Veronica serpyllifolia, va7. humifusa. 
Tofieldia palustris. Polypodium alpestre. 
Polygonum viviparum. Sedum Rhodiola. 
Alchemilla alpina. Plantago maritima (alpine form). 
Saxifraga aizoides. Thalictrum alpinum. 
hypnoides. Dryas octopetala. 
Oxyria reniformis. Woodsia hyperborea. 
Epilobium alpinum. Botrychium Lunaria. 
Saxifraga stellaris. Alopecurus alpinus. 
Juncus triglumis. Phleum alpinum. 
Epilobium alsinifolium. Hieracium alpinum, and varieties. 
Vaccinium uliginosum. Draba incana. 
Potentilla maculata (Salisburgensis). Carex atrata. 
Pyrola secunda. - capillaris. 
- rotundifolia. Saxifraga nivalis. 


Sesleria czrulea. Carex pulla (vesicaria, var. alpigena). 


708 GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY. 


Cerastium alpinum. 
latifolium. 
Veronica saxatilis. 
- alpina. ; 
Solidago Virgaurea (dwarf form). 
Saussurea alpina. 
Sonchus alpinus. 
Erigeron alpinus. 
Poa alpina. 
Silene acaulis. 
Lychnis alpina. 
Bartsia alpina. 
Juncus castaneus. 
Salix reticulata. 
lapponum. ' 
Sadleri. 
Astragalus alpinus. 
Oxytropis campestris. 


Cystopteris montana. 
Juncus biglumis. 
trifidus. 
Gentiana nivalis. 
Cherleria sedoides. 


Sibbaldia procumbens. 


Myosotis alpestris. 
Carex rariflora. 
rupestris, 


vaginata. 
frigida. 
Cerastium trigynum. 
Silena maritima. 
Sagina nivalis. 
Alsine rubella. 
Saxifraga rivularis. 
Carex lagopina. 


Vahlii (alpina). 


On the summits of some of these mountains the following plants 
are met with :— 


Luzula arcuata, 
Saxifraga cernua. 


Luzula spicata. 

Armeria maritima (alpine form). 
Cochlearia officinalis, var. alpina. Andrea (several species). 
Gnaphalium supinum. Trichostomum Januginosum. 
Carex rigida. Gyrophora (several species). 
Draba rupestris. Cetraria nivalis. 

Salix herbacea. Lecidea (several species). 


Edward Forbes followed Watson in his views of distribution, and 
promulgated a theory in regard to the origin of the flora of Britain. 
He considers the vegetation of Great Britain and Ireland as composed 
of several floras, which are to be reckoned outposts separated by 
geological changes from more extended areas. The following five 
floras, according to him, make up the vegetation of Britain and 
Treland :— 


1. A west Pyrenean flora (Iberian or Asturian type), confined to the moun- 
tainous districts of the west and south-west of Ireland, characterised by botanical 
peculiarities, which depend on the presence of a few prolific species belonging to 
the families Saxifragacese, Ericacez, Lentibulariacee, and Crucifere. The nearest 
parts where these plants are native is the north of Spain. The species are Saxi- 
fraga umbrosa, 8. elegans, 8. hirsuta, 8. Geum, S. hirta, 8. affinis, Erica Mac- 
kaiana, E. mediterranea, E. ciliaris, Dabeocia polifolia, Arbutus Unedo, Pinguicula 
grandiflora, Arabis ciliata, Sibthorpia europea, Euphorbia hyberna, Simethis 
bicolor, Trichomanes radicans. 

2. A flora in the south-west of England and south-east of Ireland (Armorican 
type), which is intimately related to that of the Channel Isles and the neighbour- 
ing coast of France (Brittany and Normandy). This is Watson’s Atlantic type. 
In the Channel Isles we have such peculiar plants ag Ranunculus ophioglos- 
sifolius, Sinapis Cheiranthus, Erucastrum incanum, Arthrolobium ebracteatum, 
Linaria pelisseriana, Echium violaceum, Orchis laxiflora, Gymnogramme lep- 
tophylla, etc. Again, in the south-west of England, we meet with Helianthemum 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 709 


polifolium, Tamarix gallica, Hypericum linarifolium, Oxalis corniculata, Corrigiola 
littoralis, Physospermum cornubiense, Lobelia urens, Scilla autumnalis, Trichonema 
Columne, etc. While in the south-east of Ireland the following plants connect 
the flora with that of Devonshire and Cornwall :—Matthiola sinuata, Senebiera 
didyma, Linaria Elatine, Sibthorpia europea, Erica vagans, Cicendia filiformis, and 
others. 

3. The flora of the south-east of England, where the rocks of the Cretaceous 
system are chiefly developed, and in which many species occur common to this 
district and the opposite coast of France. This corresponds nearly to Watson’s 
Germanic type. Among the characteristic plants may be noticed, Thlaspi per- 
foliatum, Linum perenne, Genista pilosa, Inula Conyza, Centaurea Calcitrapa, 
Phyteuma orbiculare, Gentiana Pneumonanthe, several species of Verbascum, 
Salvia pratensis, Ajuga Chamepitys, and many chalk Orchids. 

4, An alpine flora (Boreal or Scandinavian type), developed chiefly on the 
mountains of Scotland, and also partially on those of Cumberland and Wales. 
‘The species found on the latter are all, with the exception of Lloydia serotina, 

‘inhabitants also of the Scotch Highlands. The Scotch alpines all occur in Scandi- 
navia, where they are associated with numerous additional species. This flora 
corresponds nearly to Watson’s Highland type. It is represented in Shetland by 
Avenaria norvegica, and in Orkney by Primula scotica. It is largely developed on 
the Scottish Alps. 

5. The general flora of the British islands, identical with that of central and 
western Europe, and which is called a Germanic flora. It corresponds to Watson’s 
British, English, and Scottish types. It is a flora which overspreads many local 
floras throughout Europe, and gives a general character to the vegetation by the 
presence of such common species as Bellis perennis, Primula vulgaris, Ranunculus 
acris, R. Ficaria, Cardamine hirsuta, and our most common trees and shrubs. 
Certain species are more limited in their distribution, and characterise particular 
districts. Some are limited to the eastern counties of England, others occur in 
Scotland and England, and not in Ireland. Certain species flourish best on lime- 
stone, others in sandy soils. 


There are in Britain a few sporadic plants, which are met with 
only in one or two localities. Thus Oxytropis campestris is limited 
to a single rock in Glen Fee, Clova ; Lychnis alpina to a small alpine 
summit, Little Gilrannoch in Clova, and Hobcarten Fell in Cumberland ; 
Astragalus alpinus to a rock in Glen Dole, Clova, and to Little Craig- 
indal, a mountain in Braemar ; Saxifraga cernua to the summit of 
Ben Lawers ; Carex lagopina to the summit of Lochnagar and Cairn- 
toul, Aberdeenshire ; Carex Grahami to a rock in Glen Fee, Clova ; 
Carex frigida and Salix Sadleri to rocks above Loch Ceander, at the 
head of Glen Callater, Braemar ; Phyllodoce caerulea to the Sow of Atholl ; 
Saxifraga cespiton to rocks on Ben Avon, Braemar ; Carex Buxbaumii 
+o Harbour Island, Lough , Neagh; Potentilla rupestris to Craig 
Breidden, Montgomeryshire ; Neotinea intacta, Castle Taylor, Galway ; 
Spiranthes gemmipara, Bantry Bay; Epipogium Gmelini, Todston, 
Delamere Forest ; Cypripodium Calecolus, Castle Eden Dene ; Lloydia 
serotina, Snowdon ; Eriocaulon septangulare to the Isle of Skye in 
Scotland, and to Connemara in Ireland. The last-mentioned plant 
belongs to an American genus, and is supposed by some to have 
migrated from the New World. 


710. GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY. 


Forbes endeavours to prove that the specific identity, to any 
extent, of the plants of one area with those of another, depends on 
both areas forming, or having formed, part of the same specific centre, 
or on their having derived their vegetable population by transmission, 
through migration, over continuous or closely contiguous land, aided, 
in the case of alpine floras, by transportation on floating masses of 
ice. According to him, “the oldest of the floras now composing the 
vegetation of the British isles, is that of the mountains of the west 
of Ireland. Though an alpine flora, it is southernmost in character, 
and is quite distinct as a system from the floras of the Scottish and 
Welsh Alps. Its very southern character, its limitation, and its 
extreme isolation, are evidences of its antiquity, pointing to a period 
when a great mountain barrier extended across the Atlantic from 
Treland to Spain. The distribution of the second flora, next in point 
of probable date, depended on the extension of a barrier, the traces of 
which still remain, from the west of France to the south-east of 
Britain, and thence to Ireland. The distribution of the third flora 
depended on the connection of the coast of France and England 
towards the eastern part of the channel. Of the former existence of 
this union no geologist doubts. The distribution of the fourth, or 
alpine flora of Scotland and Wales, was effected during the glacial 
period, when the mountain summits of Britain were low islands, or 
members of chains of islands, extending to the area of Norway 
through a glacial sea, and clothed with an arctic vegetation, which in 
the gradual upheaval of those islands and consequent change of 
climate, became limited to the summits of the new-formed and still 
existing mountains. The distribution of the fifth, or Germanic flora, 
depended on the upheaval of the bed of the glacial sea, and the con- 
sequent connection of Ireland with England, and of England with 
Germany, by great plains, the fragments of which still exist, and 
upon which lived the great elk, and other quadrupeds now extinct. 
The breaking up or submergence of the first barrier led to the destruc- 
tion of the second ; that of the second to that of the third ; but the 
well-marked epoch of migration of the Germanic flora indicates the 
subsequent formation of the straits of Dover and of the Irish Sea, as 
now existing. 

“To determine the probable geological epoch of the first or west- 
Trish flora—a fragment, perhaps with that of north-western Spain, of 
a vegetation of the true Atlantic—we must seek among fossil plants 
for a starting-point. This we get in the flora of the London clay, or 
Eocene, which is tropical in character, and far anterior to the oldest 
of the existing floras. The geographical relations of the Miocene sea, 
indicated by the fossils of the crag, give an after-date certainly to the 
second and third of the above floras, if not to the first. The epoch of 
the red or middle crag was probably coeval with the second flora ; that 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 711 


‘ 

of the mammaliferous crag with the third. The date of the fourth is 
too evident to be questioned ; and the glacial region in which it flour- 
ished is to be regarded as a local climate, of which no true traces, as 
far as animal life is concerned, exist southwards of the second and 
third barriers. This was the newer Pliocene epoch. The period of 
the fifth flora was that of the post-tertiary, when the present aspect 
of things was organised. Adopting such a view of the relations of 
these floras in time, the greatest difficulties in the way of changes of 
the earth’s surface and destruction of barriers, deep sea being found 
where land (probably high land) was, are removed when we find that 
those greater changes must have happened during the epoch imme- 
diately subsequent to the Miocene ‘period ; for we have undoubted 
evidence that elsewhere, during that epoch, the Miocene sea-bed was 
raised 6000 feet in the chain of Taurus, and the barriers forming the 
westward boundary of the Asiatic Eocene lakes so completely anni- 
hilated, that a sea several hundred fathoms deep now takes their pro- 
bable place. The changes required for the events which are supposed 
to be connected with the peculiar distribution of the British flora are 
not greater than these.. The distribution of endemic animals, espe- 
cially that of the terrestrial mollusca, seems to support these views.” 

D’Archiac says that in a botanical point of view it would perhaps 
be desirable to determine whether the external circumstances under 
which these five floras of Great Britain now live, such as latitude, alti- 
tude, temperature, winds, humidity or dryness, exposure, nature of the 
soil, greater or less distance from the coast, etc., are altogether insuffi- 
cient to explain their different characters. We know that plants have 
very different geographical limits. Thus there are some which we 
meet with over an extent of 25° in latitude, and much more in longi- 
tude, while others occupy only zones extremely restricted in both 
senses; it would therefore be useful to study the five British floras 
in this point of view. The radiation of plants from a centre is by no 
means satisfactorily proved ; and it may be asked, for example, What 
is the original centre from which the species common to North America 
and southern Europe could have radiated? D’Archiac thinks that 
inconvenience arises from an attempt to give an account of facts 
hitherto inexplicable in our science, by drawing from’ another science 
suppositions made, as it appears, with the sole view of these explana- 
tions, and for which there is no sufficient authority. Proofs drawn 
from geology must rest on more certain data, he thinks, than those 
which have been adduced by Professor Forbes. 

On ascending lofty mountains in Britain, there is a marked 
variation in the nature of the vegetation. On Ben-muich-dhui, which 
attains an elevation of upwards of 4296 feet, Watson gives a full list 
of the species observed in succession. On leaving the plants of the 
low country we find Myrica Gale, extending on this mountain to 1400 


712 GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY. 


feet, and in succession we come to the upper limits of the following 
species :—Erica cinerea, Pinus sylvestris, Carex pauciflora, Pedicularis 
sylvatica, at 1838 feet ; Tofieldia palustris, Erica Tetralix, at 2370 
feet ; Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, Thalictrum alpinum, Vaccinium Vitis- 
Idea, Hieracium alpinum, Juniperus communis var. nana, at 2660 feet ; 
Potentilla Tormentilla, Calluna vulgaris, at 2690 feet ; Azalea pro- 
cumbens, Armeria maritima, Cochlearia groenlandica, Arabis petrea, 
Rubus Chamzmorus, Epilobium alpinum, E. angustifolium, Vaccinium 
uliginosum, Sibbaldia procumbens, Saxifraga stellaris, Alchemilla 
alpina, Empetrum nigrum, Juncus trifidus, Cnaphalium supinum, and 
on the summit Silene acaulis, Carex rigida, Luzula arcuata and L. 
spicata, Salix herbacea. Other lofty mountains, as Ben Lawers, 3984 
feet, Ben Nevis, 4406 feet, exhibit similar changes in the vegetation. 

Examples of the altitudinal limits of some alpine species are given 
below :— 


Lower Upper Lower Upper 

Limit. Limit. Limit. Limit. 

Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 

Thalictrum alpinum . 1050 38900 | Cornus suecica . . 1750 2850 
Draba rupestris 3700 3900 | Gnaphalium supinum . 1400 4000 
incana ‘ . 2000 3300 | Erigeron alpinus . . 2450 2700 
Thlaspi alpestre . 2400 | Saussurea alpina . - 2000 3500 
Arabis petrea =. 2000 3200 | Apargia Taraxaci . - 2300 3000 
Cochlearia greenlandica . 0 38900 | Hieracium alpinum - 1850 3000 
Silene acaulis 1250 4296 | Mulgeditm alpinum . 2200 2850 
maritima : 0 3300 | Vaccinium uliginosum 1500 3300 
Lychnis alpina. 3200 | Phyllodoce cerulea * 2700 
Alsine rubella. 2550 3900 | Azalea procumbens - 1850 3550 
Sagina nivalis : ; 3900 | Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi 2850 
procumbens 3800 — alpina . 1850 2700 
Cherleria sedoides . "2550 3900 | Gentiana nivalis . . 2500 3000 
Sagina saxatilis . - 1950 2700] Bartsia alpina . 1800 3000 
Cerastium alpinum 2550 3900 | Veronica alpina . . 2500 3600 
latifoliuni 3000 3750 saxatilis . 2200 2700 
———trigynum 2700 humifusa 2000 3700 
Astragalus alpinus ‘ 2700 | Myosotis alpestris . 8100 3000 
Oxytropis campestris. 2100 | Armeria maritima. 4000 
Dryas octopetala . 2500 2700} Plantago maritima 1350 
Potentilla maculata - 1500 2700 | Oxyria reniformis . 800 3000 
Rubus Chamemorus . 1750 3300 | Empetrum nigrum : 3000 
Sibbaldia procumbens . 1500 4000 | Salix lapponum - 1050 2550 
Alchemilla alpina . 450 4000 | —— lanata. 2 . 2400 2700 
Epilobium alpinum 1400 3900 reticulata « 2550 3300 
alsinifolium . 800 2900 Sadleri : 3300 

Sedum Rhodiola . é 3900 herbacea 1850 4350 
Saxifraga cernua . . 8750 3984] Betula nana. d 1650 2700 
= rivularis 3000 3600 | Tofieldia palustris - 1050 2550 
———— nivalis . - 2000 3800 | Luzula arcuata , 4296 
———— hypnoides 1200 3700 spicata. - 1600 4296 
— oppositifolia . 950 3900 | Juncus trifidis . 2000 4100 
stellaris - 1400 3900 castaneus . . 2400 3000 

cespitosa . 3800 biglumis . . 2700 3300 

— aizoides 3 3000 triglumis . . 1750 2700 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 


Lower Upper 
Limit. Limit. 
Feet. Feet. 
Carex rupestris  . 2100 2700 | Poa laxa A 
Vahlii : . 2400 2550 | Alopecurus alpinus 
—— lagopina . ‘ 3700 | Phleum alpinum . 
—— rigida ‘ . 1850 4296) Aira alpina . 
—— Persoonii . ‘ 3600 | Sesleria caerulea : 
—— aquatilis . - 900 3300 | Lycopodium annotinum 
—— pula. . 2550 3150 ————— alpinum 
—— atrata . 2500 3800] Asplenium viride . a 
——. vaginata . 2400 3600 | Polystichum Lonchitis . 
—— capillaris . . 1700 2700 | Cystopteris montana 
—— rariflora . . 2400 3000 | Allosorus crispus . 
frigida ‘ 3300 | Polypodium alpestre 
Poa alpina . . 2500 3000 | Woodsia hyperborea 
— Balfourii , : 3000 | Pteris aquilina 


713 


Lower Upper 
Limit. Limit. 
Feet. Feet. 
3000 3600 
2100 3600 
2100 3600 
2700 3900 
2700 
2700 
3600 
2850 
3300 
8000 
3000 
2000 3000 
2700 
1950 


Considering British plants in climatic or ascending zones they are 


divided by Watson into— 


J. Agrarian Recion—limited generally by the Pteris aquilina, 


and indicating the region of Corn cultivation. 


In the High- 


lands it may be said to extend as high at least as 1200 feet. 


It is subdivided into three zones :— 


1. Infer-agrarian Zone—embracing all the country southward from 
the Dee and Humber, except the mountainous parts of Wales, 
and the higher hills and moors in the provinces of the Severn 
and Peninsula (including.Gloucester, Worcester, Warwick, Staf- 
ford, Hereford, Monmouth, Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset). 
Some of the peculiar species are Clematis Vitalba, Rubia pere- 
grina, Cyperus longus, Erica ciliaris, Sibthorpia europea, and 


Scilla autumnalis. 


2. Mid-agrarian Zone—all the low grounds, clear from the mountains, 
situate between the entrance of the Clyde and Tay on the north, 
and those of the Humber and Dee on the south, also probably a 
narrow coast-line of the East Highlands, extending from Perth 


to Aberdeen, and possibly even to Inverness, 


Also a narrow 


belt extending round the hills of Wales. Rhamuus catharticus 
and Frangula, Tamus communis, Bryonia dioica, Acer cam- 
pestre, Ulex nanus, Viburnum Lantana, Euonymus europeus, 
and Cornus sanguinea, occur in this zone, but are not restricted 


to it. There is no Clematis. 


3. Super-agrarian Zone—coast-line and low plains and moors in the 
north and ‘north-west of Scotland, where alpine plants descend 
to the sea-shore ; suieh as Thalictrum alpinum, Draba incana, 
Saxifraga oppositifolia, Arctostaphylos alpina, and Dryas octo- 
petala. Also other parts where the elevation of the ground leads 
to the production of the same species, or of such plants as Arcto- 
staphylos Uva-Ursi, Saxifraga stellaris, Alchemilla alpina, 
Tofieldia palustris, Juncus triglumis. Also tracts of slight 
elevation in the proximity of high mountains, upon which a 
corresponding flora prevails. At its lower limits appear Ilex, 
Corylus, Quercus, Fraxinus, Lonicera, Crategus and fruticose 


Rubi. 


1 


714 GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY. 


II. Arctic Recron—characterised by the absence of Corn cultivation. 


1. Infer-arctic Zone—this has its terminal line at the limit of Erica 
Tetralix. 

2. Mid-arctic Zone—space above the limit of Erica Tetralix, and 
within or below that of Calluna vulgaris. In this zone most of 
the rare alpine plants are found, such as Saxifraga nivalis, 
Gentiana nivalis, Erigeron alpinus, Astragalus alpinus, Veronica 
alpina, Alopecurus alpinus, etc. 

3. Super-arctic Zone—above the limit of Calluna, characterised by 
Saxifraga cernua and rivularis, and Luzula arcuata. 


These six climatic zones are thus presented in a tabular form :— 


I. AGRARIAN REGION. 


1. Infer-agrarian Zone—Clematis, Rubia, Cyperus longus. 
2. Mid-agrarian Zone—Rhamuus catharticus without Clematis. 
3. Super-agrarian Zone—Pteris aquilina without Rhamnus, etc. 


II. Arcric Recron. 


4. Infer-arctic Zone—Evica Tetralix without Pteris. 
5. Mid-arctic Zone—Calluna vulgaris without Erica. 
6. Super-arctic Zone—Salix herbacea without Calluna. 


The Marine Frora of Britain, with the exception of such plants 
as Zostera, Zannichellia, and Naias, is Cryptogamic, and does not pre- 
sent very definite zones of distribution. Cryptogamic plants in general 
can endure great vicissitudes of climatal conditions. Species of Ulva, 
Enteromorpha, and other genera, seem to be universally distributed - 
from pole to pole. There are, however, Algz of a higher type which 
are more limited, and the diffusion of which is determined by lines 
of coast and depth of water. British marine vegetation presents two 
well-marked types according to Forbes, a southern and a northern. 
The genera Padina and Halyseris have their northern limit on the 
south coast of England, where they are rare. The genera Cystoseira, 
Sporochnus, Cutleria, and certain species of Sphacelaria, Mesogloia, 
Rhodymenia, Gigartina, and Dictyota, mark out a southern region, 
including the British Channel and part of the east coast, the Bristol 
Channel, and the south and west of Ireland; while the presence 
of Odonthalia dentata, Rhodymenia cristata, R. lycopodioides, and 
Fucus Mackaii, characterise a northern flora, on the coasts of Scot- 
land, the north of England and of Ireland. 

On the shores of Britain, Dr. Greville remarks, it is easy to’ per- 
ceive that some species, as Gelidium corneum, Phyllophora rubens, 
and Spheerococcus coronopifolius, become more plentiful and more 
luxuriant as we travel from north to south ; and, on the other hand, 
that Ptilota plumosa, Rhodomela lycopodioides, Rhodymenia soboli- 
fera, and several others, occur more frequently and in a finer state as 
we approach the north. Odonthalia dentata and Rhodymenia cristata 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. 715 


are confined to the northern parts of Great Britain, while the species 
of Cystoseira, Fucus tuberculatus, Halyseris polypodioides, Rhody- 
menia jubata, R. Teedii, Microcladia glandulosa, Rhodomela pinas- 
troides, Laurencia tenuissima, Irideea reniformis, and many others, 
are confined to the southern parts. The proportion of the different 
marine plants on the shores of Britain are as follows :—Melanosperme 
1-5th, Rhodospermez 3-8ths, and Chlorospermez 1-4th of the whole. 

Dickie, in speaking of the British Alge which have a southern 
type, says that they may be classed under three heads—1l. Those 
confined to the southern parts of Great Britain and Ireland ; 2. Species 
of a more extensive range, which extend to the north of Ireland and 
south-west of Scotland ; and 3. Those found abundantly in the south 
of England, and ranging along the western coasts of both islands as 
far as Orkney and Shetland. The species comprehended under these 
three heads, and amounting to at least 20, seem to be absent from a 
certain part of the east coast of Scotland. A considerable portion of 
them re-appear in Shetland and Orkney. He thinks that the appear- 
ance of southern forms of Algz, at the extreme northern parts, is to 
be attributed to the influence of the Gulf Stream as regards tempera- 
ture. 

British Algz are variously distributed, some in deep, others in 
shallow water. Laminaria digitata only extends to the low line of 
ebb during stream tides ; L. saccharina flourishes along an inner belt, 
partially uncovered during the ebbs of the larger neaps ; Fucus ser- 
ratus and F, nodosus thrive in a zone still less deeply covered by 
water, and which even the lower neaps expose ; F. vesiculosus occurs 
in a zone higher still, altering its form as it goes farther inland; F. 
canaliculatus also rises high on rocky beaches. If land-springs escape 
from the beach there may be found an upper terminal zone of Con- 
fervee mixed with Ulva latissima, Porphyra laciniata, and Entero- 
morpha compressa. In the lake of Stennis at Stromness, Orkney, 
there occur at the part where the sea enters, specimens of Fucus 
nodosus and vesiculosus in their ordinary form, along with Halidrys 
siliquosa. A little farther in, where there is more fresh water, 
Halidrys and Fucus nodosus disappear; F. vesiculosus becomes 
stunted, its air-bladders being altered or disappearing ; and ultimately 
it becomes narrowed like the Conferve, and altogether loses its usual 
aspect. 

7 The British marine plants, according to Forbes, are distributed in 
depth or bathymetrically in a series of zones or regions which extend 
from high-water mark down to the greatest explored depths. The 
first or littoral zone is that tract which lies between high and low 
water marks, and therefore is very variable in extent according to the 
amount of rise and fall of the tides. It has been divided into sub- 
regions characterised by the prevalence of certain marine species. 


716 ACCLIMATISING OF PLANTS. 


1. The sub-region of Fucus canaliculatus. 2. The sub-region of Lichina, 
3. The sub-region of Fucus vesiculosus, F. nodosus, and Corallina offici- 
nalis. 4. The sub-region of Fucus serratus. The littoral zone is 
succeeded by narrow belts of such Seaweeds as Himanthalia lorea, 
Conferva rupestris, Laurencia pinnatifida, Chondrus crispus, and C. 
mammillosus. The second or Laminarian zone commences at low- 
water mark, and extends to a depth of from 7 to 15 fathoms. Here 
we meet with the great Tangle Seaweeds and deep water Fuci. 
Species of Laminaria, Rhodymenia, and Delesseria, are found in an 
upper sub-region of this zone. In the lower sub-region they are rare, 
and are succeeded by the coral-like Nullipore. The zones below them 
are entitled the Coralline zone, extending from 15 to 50 fathoms, and 
the region of the deep sea corals from 50 to beyond 100 fathoms, 
These zones do not exhibit any conspicuous vegetable forms ; they are 
characterised by the presence of certain animals. 

ACCLIMATISING OF PLants.—It is commonly supposed that by 
length of time plants may be rendered fit to endure a climate which 
they could not stand in the first instance. It has been said that by 
slow degrees tender plants may become acclimatised to cold climates. 
Such a view, however, is totally inconsistent with the facts of the 
case. Hach species of plant naturally bears a certain range of tem- 
perature, and it is impossible to extend that range. Many plants 
originally placed in greenhouses, and subsequently planted out, are 
held up as cases of acclimatisation. Aucuba japonica, coming from a 
warm climate, was at first treated in this country as a stove-plant, 
and was afterwards planted out, and was found to endure the climate, 
but no change was made in the constitution of the plant. It was 
capable from the first of enduring the cold of this climate. Apono- 
geton distachyum, an aquatic from the Cape, was cultivated long in 
the stoves of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. A specimen was acci- 
dentally thrown into the open pond, where it has continued to live 
and flower for many years. The constitution of the plant is unaltered. 
It was able to bear a certain range of temperature, but cultivators 
were not aware of this in the first instance. Its roots are deep in the 
mud of the pond, which is supplied by springs. Plants sent from 
warm countries, and supposed to be delicate, are often quite hardy, 
inasmuch as their native locality has been high on the mountains. 
Such is the case with Araucaria imbricata from Chili, and with some 
Nepaul and Japan plants. Again, take the Potato, the Dahlia, Helio- 
trope, and Marvel of Peru, which have been long cultivated in Britain, 
and it will be seen that they are not in the slightest degree more 
hardy than when first introduced ; they are injured by the frost just 
as easily as at first. 

It is of importance to define accurately what is meant by saying 
that a plant suits a particular climate. It is not enough that it lives 


ACCLIMATISING OF PLANTS. ralvg 


and sends forth leaves; it must be also able to produce flowers and 
seeds, and to elaborate the peculiar secretions and products on which 
its qualities depend. The seeds of Indian Hemp have been sent to 
this country, and the plant has grown well, even to the height of ten 
feet, with thick stems, vigorous leaves, and abundance of flowers ; but 
they do not produce the churrus, a resinous matter which renders the 
plant valuable in India as a medicinal agent. Summer heat is 
wanting to enable the plant to perform all its functions. Such is also. 
the case with Rhubarb, which, as regards the size and vigour of the 
plant, thrives in the climate of Britain, but the root does not produce 
a medicinal agent of the same quality as that grown in Chinese 
Tartary. - 

Something may be done by the art of the gardener to render half- 
hardy species of plants less tender. In this climate the great risk in 
such cases is frequently not so much the degree of cold, as the accession 
of it at the time when the plants cannot resist it, in consequence of 
being full of sap. Attention, therefore, should be paid to bringing 
the plants into as dry a state as possible at the beginning of winter. 
Lindley remarks that the only means of effecting this consists in 
thoroughly drained soil and an elevated situation—the first preventing 
a plant from filling itself with moisture during winter or overgrowing 
itself in summer, so as to enable it to ripen its wood ; and the latter 
securing it from the action of those early frosts in autumn, or those 
late frosts in spring, which are so pernicious even to our own wild 
trees. In an elevated situation, a plant also escapes the risk of being 
stimulated into growth by a few days’ warmth, succeeded by nipping 
colds, which so often occurs in our variable climate. 


PART IV. 


FOSSIL BOTANY OR VEGETABLE PALAZONTOLOGY. 


—_+— 


Tue history of vegetation could not be considered complete unless we 
endeavoured to give some account, however brief, of the plants which 
existed on the earth in its primeval state, during the extended geo- 
logical epochs which elapsed before the establishment of the present 
order of things. This subject is alike interesting to the botanist and 
the geologist. It has sometimes been called Geo-Botany, and is an 
important section of Oryctology (éguxrés, dug out), or Paleontology 
(warasés, ancient, dvra, beings). “Geology,” Phillips says, “ would 
never, perhaps, have escaped from the domain of empiricism and con- 
jecture, but for the innumerable testimonies of elapsed periods and 
perished creations, which the stratified rocks of the globe present in 
the remains of ancient plants and animals. So many important 
questions concerning their nature, circumstances of existence, and 
mode of inhumation in the rocks, have been suggested by these in- 
teresting reliquize, and the natural sciences have received so powerful 
an impulse, and been directed with such great success to the solution 
of problems concerning the past history of the earth, that we scarcely 
feel disposed to dissent from the opinion, that without fossil Zoology 
and Botany there would have been no true Geology.” The stratified 
crust of the globe is full of these monuments of vanished forms of life. 
They are of various kinds, are in different states of preservation, and 
occur very unequally in rocks of different kinds and ages. The 
remains of ancient vegetation are very abundant in the Coal-measures, 
the important combustible material derived from them, and which is 
vegetable matter in an altered form. 

The vegetation of the globe, during the different stages of its 
formation, has undergone very evident changes. The farther we 
recede in geological history from the present day, the greater is the 
difference between the fossil plants and those which now occupy 
the surface. At the time when the coal-beds were formed, the 
plants covering the earth belonged to genera and species not recog- 
nised at the present day. As we ascend higher, the similarity 
between the ancient and the modern flora increases, and in the latest 


MODE OF PRESERVATION OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 719 


stratified rocks we have in certain instances an identity in species and 
a considerable number of existing genera. At early epochs the flora 
appears to have been uniform, to have presented less diversity of 
forms than at present, and to have been similar in the different 
quarters of the globe. The vegetation also seems to indicate that the 
nature of the climate was different from that which characterises the 
countries in which these early fossil plants are now found. 

Fossil plants are by no means so easily examined as recent species. 
They are seldom found in a complete state. It is very rare to find 
any traces of the flowers, The parts of fossil plants are usually 
separated from each other, and it is very difficult to ascertain what 
are the portions which should be associated together so as to com- 
plete a specimen. Specimens are sometimes preserved, so that the 
anatomical structure of the organs, especially of the stem, can be 
detected by thin microscopic slices placed under the microscope. 

The mode in which plants are preserved in a fossil state may be 
referred to four principal classes :—1. Casts of the plants from which 
all the original substance and structure have been removed subsequently 
to the burial of the plants, and the greater or less induration of the rocks 
in which they are entombed. Such casts are occasionally hollow, but 
more frequently they are filled with the amorphous substance of the 
rock which has been forced into the cavity, and which exhibits, often 
with remarkable minuteness, the external aspects of the original speci- 
men. 2, Carbonisation; in which the original substance of the 
plant has been chemically altered and converted into coal. All trace 
of the form of the original plant is generally lost, as is the case with 
the extensive beds of coal; but frequently, when the organism has 
been buried in a bed of clay, the external appearance is faithfully 
preserved, as in the ferns and other foliage found in the shales of the 
QCoal-measures. 3. ‘Infiltration; in which the vegetable tissues, 
though carbonised, retain their original form from the infiltration of 
some mineral in solution, chiefly lime or silex, which has filled the 
empty cells and vessels and preserved their original form. This 
mode of preservation occurs in the calcareous nodules in coal-beds, in 
the remarkable ash-beds discovered by Mr. Wiinsch in Arran, and 
generally in the secondary rocks. 4. Petrifaction; in which the 
structure is preserved, but the whole of the original substance has 
been replaced, atom for atom, by an inorganic substance, generally 
lime, silex, or some ore of iron. This is the condition of the beautiful 
fossils from Antigua, and of many stems and fruits from rocks of all 
ages in Britain. Silicified stems have been observed in various parts 
of the world, with the structure well preserved. 

It is rare to find the organs of reproduction in such a state of 
preservation as to furnish distinct characters. It is chiefly from the 
fragments of stems, and the impressions of leaves, and some fruits, 


720 CHARACTERS OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 


that the fossil botanist can draw conclusions. Besides this, fossil 
vegetables, thus reduced to some of their insulated organs, scarcely 
ever present them in such a state of preservation as to allow them to 
be studied in all their constituent parts. Sometimes the internal 
structure of the stem can be traced, and by examination under the 
microscope the nature of its woody tissue may be determined. In 
this way some fossilised woods have been referred to the Coniferous , 
tribe, in consequence of the presence of punctated woody tissue 
(figs. 904-907). Fossil woods have been shown by chemical: tests to 
contain portions of vegetable tissue, cemented into a mass by silica. 
In some cases the vessels and cells are separately silicified without 
being united into a compact mass. In these instances the wood breaks 
down easily. At times the internal structure is obliterated, and it is 
only from the external configuration, the nature of the outer covering, 
and the scars of the leaves, that any conclusions can be drawn. The 
leaves often furnish important and valuable characters, and, in the 
case of fossil ferns, their form, divisions, and venation, supply distin- 
guishing marks. The leaves, however, are generally isolated, and are 
rarely found in connection with the stems. Thus, the separation of 
the different parts of the plant, and, in most cases, their imperfect 
state of preservation, are great obstacles to the determination of fossil 
plants by,a comparison with those which now exist on the earth. 
Before, then, endeavouring to compare a fossil vegetable with living 
vegetables, it is necessary to put together, with as much exactness as 
possible, according to the parts preserved, and the general data of 
vegetable anatomy and organography, the portions of the plant under 
examination ; to contrast these portions with the other organs of the 
same plant, searching for their points of attachment, their forms and 
vascular connections, being guided generally by traces of structure 
rather than by exterior form; and by endeavouring to reconstruct a 
vegetable by bringing together all fragments from the same fossil beds, 
which may belong to the same plant. The connection of the different 
parts of the same plant is of the greatest importance in vegetable 
paleontology, as from their fragmentary nature many difficulties arise. 
These difficulties are increased as we go back to the earliest geological 
epochs, for the farther they are removed from the present state of 
things, the greater are the differences between the fossil and living 
plants. Dr. Hooker remarks, that the knowledge of recent botany 
required to throw light upon the study of fossil plants, and the origin 
of coal, must be both varied and extended. ‘Some acquaintance with 
systematic botany is the first requisite; through this alone can any 
approximation to the living affinities of the fossil be obtained. It 
should embrace not only a knowledge of the principal groups, or 
natural orders under which all plants are arranged, but a familiarity 
with vegetable anatomy ; for when the stem or trunk alone is preserved 


CHARACTERS AND ARRANGEMENT OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 721 


which is often the case, a minute examination of its tissues is the sole 
method of determining its position in the Natural series. There must 
also be some general ideas of the vegetation both of the tropics and 
cooler latitudes, of mountain-chains, table-lands, valleys, and estuaries ; 


aerii | 
A 
PCOS = 
Salah : 
eee Bo toeg rar 
o re 
ane Bao tonen el 98 
rogue Soll 2 Beigel 
Nee, acta 
IMOGIOD' Peto) Pes) bora bale) 
ep pls kere 
An B sialg : 
Fig. 905. Fig. 906. Fig. 907. 


more especially of countries characterised by equable, and by excessive 
or extreme climates, as compared with continents, and of humid and 
desert districts; in short, of all the complex associations with, or 
dependence of botanical characters upon, surface, soil, and climate, 
which the globe presents.” 

Many of the fossil plants of the tertiary or recent strata may be 
referred to genera at present existing, and merely present specific dif- 
ferences ; such as pines, elms, beeches, maples, etc. Those of the 
secondary strata may, in general, be referred to known families, but 
in most instances require the formation of new genera; while those 
of the older strata, in numerous instances, cannot be classed in exist- 
ing families, and must constitute new groups. From all the investi- 
gations of fossil botanists, however, it appears that the same great 
types existed in a former state as at the present day, viz. Thallogens, 
Cellular Cryptogams, Acrogens, Vascular Oryptogams, Monocoty- 
ledons, and Dicotyledons (including Angiosperms and Gymnosperms). 
The relative proportion of these classes, however, has been dif- 
ferent from that of the present day, and the predominance of certain 
forms has given characters to the vegetation of different epochs. 

Brongniart gives the following division of fossil plants :— 


1, Amphigenous Cryptogamous Plants, Cellular Cryptogams, or Thallogens, 
which he subdivides into two classes, Fungi and Alge. 


Figs. 904-907. The structure of wood in recent Coniferz, to illustrate the appearances 
presented by some fossil woods. Fig. 904. Transverse section of a piece of Coniferous 
wood, of the natural size, Fig. 905. A section of the same wood seen under the 
microscope. The medullary rays and woody tubes seen without any large porous vessels, 
Fig. 906. Longitudinal section of the same, in the direction B c, magnified. A medullary 
ray seen crossing the woody tubes, which are marked by discs, in one or more rows. 
Fig, 907. Section of the same in the direction a 8, perpendicular to the medullary rays, 
which are seen at intervals between the woody fibres. 


3A 


722 NOMENCLATURE OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 


2. Acrogenous Cryptogamous Plants, comprehending two classes, Musci and. 
Filicales ; the latter‘being divided into five families—Ferns, Marsileacee, Chara- 
cee, Lycopodiacer, and Equisetacez. 


3. Dicotyledonous Phanerogamous Plants, of which he enumerates the several 
families, indicating the characters which show their affinity to the same families 
of living vegetables. 


4, Monocotyledonous Plants. ' 


When the analogy between a fossil and a living plant is such that 
the difference is not greater than occurs among the individuals in- 
cluded in a species of the living genus, then the fossil and living plant 
may be considered identical, and the epithet of fossil is applied to the 
name of the plant. If, on the other hand, the fossil presents distinct 
specific characters, but does not differ more from living species than 
these species differ among themselves, then it is looked upon as a 
new species of the genus, as Alnus primeva, Quercus Lignitum, 
Ulmus Bronnii, and Pinus Paleostrobus. If the differences are well 
marked, but at the same time the organ which represents them is not 
of sufficient importance to induce the belief that the plant differs from 
others of the genus in all its essential organs, then the termination 
ites is added to the name of the genus. Thus, Lycopodites is a genus 
of fossil plants allied to Lycopodium, apparently not differing, so far 
as known, in essential and important parts; so also Zamites is a 
genus allied to Zamia, Thuites to Thuia, Taxites to Taxus. If a 
fossil plant, although presenting several essential characters of a family, 
yet differs in the fossilised organ from all the known genera of the 
family, as much or more than these genera do among themselves, then 
it is to be considered as a new genus different from those actually 
existing. This will be seen in many of the coal fossils, as Sigillaria 
and Lepidodendron. 

The rocks of which the globe is composed are divided into two 
great classes, those which contain fossil remains, and which are called 
Fossiliferous, and those having no such remains, and which are 
designated Non-fossiliferous or Azoic (a, privative, and Cwm, life). 
The igneous unstratified rocks, included under the names of Granitic 
and Trappean, show no appearance of animal or vegetable remains. 
Trap rocks, however, have in some cases covered or enclosed vegetable 
structures, and these are found in an altered condition. Thus, in Antrim, 
near the Giant’s Causeway, deposits containing vegetable remains occur 
interstratified with basaltic rocks. These remains are of miocene age, 
and have been referred to coniferous plants, beeches, oaks, plane-trees, 
etc. Plants of the same kmd have been discovered in a simi- 
lar position by the Duke of Argyll in the island of Mull. In trap 
rocks near Edinburgh, lignite with distinct structure has also been 
detected. Several beds of ash formed into solid compact rock by in- 


FOSSILIFEROUS FORMATIONS. 723 


filtrated carbonate of lime occur in the north-east of Arran, which 
contain numerous stems, branches, and fruits of carboniferous plants. 
These represent the remains of successive forests which grew on this 
locality, and were one after the other destroyed by the ash showers 
poured forth from a neighbouring volcano during its intermittent 
periods of activity. ; 

Fossil remains are extremely rare in certain rocks, which, from the 
changes they have undergone, were denominated by Hutton metamor- 
phic. These include Gueiss and Mica-slate, which are stratified rocks 
subsequently altered by the effects of heat, having been so completely 
metamorphosed that the traces of organisms have been nearly obliter- 
ated. Nevertheless, recognisable traces of plant and animal remains 
have been found in what were recently thought to be azoic rocks. 
The absence of organic remains in rocks, however, is not always 
sufficient to enable us to state that these rocks were formed before 
animals or vegetables existed. 

The stratified rocks which contain fossils have been divided into 
three great groups, the Paleozoic (rdéAwios, ancient, and Cw%, life), 
the Secondary, and the Tertiary ; or into Paleozoic and Neozoic (veés, 
young, @w%, life) groups, the latter, including the Mesozoic (s0¢s, 
middle) and the Cainozoic (xasvés, fresh). The formations included 
under these are exhibited in the following table, taken from Lyell’s 
Manual of Geology :—. 


. Recent. 

Post Pliocene. 

. Newer Pliocene. 
Older Pliocene. 
Upper Miocene. 
Lower Miocene. 


Upper Eocene. | 
| 
| 


Post Tertiary. 


Pliocene. Tertiary 


: or 
ens Cainozoic. 
. Middle Hocene. 

. Lower Eocene. 

10. Maestricht Beds, 

11, White Chalk. 

12. Chloritic Series. 

13. Gault. 

14. Neocomian. 

15. Wealden. 

16. Purbeck Beds. 5 
17. Portland Stone. Secondary 
18. Kimmeridge Clay. L or 
19, Coral Rag.’ Mesozoic. 
20. Oxford Clay. 

21. Great or Bath Oolite. 
22. Inferior Oolite. 

23. Lias. p 

24. Upper Trias. 

25. Middle Trias. Triassic. 
26. Lower Trias. 


Eocene. 


$0 OMT SUR go bo pt 


|. Neozoic. 


+ Cretaceous. 


+ Jurassic. 


. 


724 FOSSIL GENERA AND SPECIES. 


27. Permian. Permian. ) 

28. Coal Measures. ae 

29. Carboniferous limestone. * Carboniferous. 

30. Upper 

31. Middle } Devonian. Devonian. aus 

. aie r or Paleozoic. 
34, Toyer t siturian, Silurian. Paleozoic. 

aA as } Cambrian. Cambrian. 

oe Vpper { Laurentian Laurentian. 


The plants found in different strata are either terrestrial or aquatic, 
and the latter exhibit species allied to the salt and fresh water 
plants of the present day. Their state of preservation depends much 
on their structure. Cellular plants have probably in a great measure 
been destroyed, and hence their rarity ; while those having a woody 
structure have been preserved. The following enumeration has been 
compiled from Schimper’s Tratté de Paléontologie Végétale. It is only 
an approximation to the number of fossil plants described in the 
various formations, as it includes many species said to be doubtful, 
and many which are known merely by fragments of stems, or leaves, 


fruits, ete.—the affinity of which cannot be accurately determined at 
present :— 


Silurian. : % 17 Jurassic. 510 
Devonian . G _ 57 Cretaceous ‘ 236 
Carboniferous Limestone 146 Eocene. 4 586 
Coal-measures . : 566 Miocene . 2467 


Permian, l Pliocene P ; 215 
Magnesian Limestone, and > 238 

Lower Red Sandstone, 
Triassic. " ‘ 


93 Total . - 5181 


The following is a general statement of the number of fossil genera 


and species belonging to the different classes and sub-classes of the 
vegetable kingdom :— 


Genera, Species. 

DicoTYLEDONES—Dialypetalee é ; 200 1397 
Gamopetale - : 77 350 

———--—  Apetale Angiosperme A 75 941 
Gynnospermese : : 89 680 
MonocotyLeponrs—Petaloidez ; 51 285 
——_————_——  Glumifere : 11 94 
ACOTYLEDONES—Acrogene . 7 184 973 
= -—— Thallogene . 53 411 


ORDERS OF FOSSIL PLANTS. 


Class I.—DrIcoTYLEDONEs. 
1. Thalamifore. 


725 


Ranunculacez. Nympheacee. Byttneriaceze. Sapindacee. 
Magnoliaceze. Cruciferse. Tiliacece. Vitaceer. 
Anonacez. Cistaceze, Ternstroemiaceze. Pittosporacez. 
Menispermacez. Violaces. Malpighiacez. Zygophyllacee. 
Berberidacez. Malvace. Aceracez. Xanthoxylaceex. 
2. Calyciflore, Polypetale. 
Celastraceze. Burseraces, Melastomacez. Saxifragaces. 
Hippocrateacez. Leguminosee. Myrtacez. Hamamelidaces. 
Rhamnacee. Rosaceee. Halorageacese. Umbellifere, 
Anacardiacen, Combretaces. Crassulaceze. Araliaces. 
Cornacee. 
3. Calycifiore, Gamopetale. 
Caprifoliacese. | Rubiacez. | Valerianaces. | Composite. 
Vacciniaceze. 
4. Corollifioree. 
Ericacez. Oleacese. Bignoniacez. Solanacese. 
Aquifoliaceze. Asclepiadaceze. Convolvulaceze. Scrophulariacez. 
Sapotacee. Apocynacez. Cordiaceee. Verbenacez. 
Myrsinacee, Gentianacee. Boraginacee. 
5. Monochlamydew, Angiospermec. 
Nyctaginacese. Thymeleaces. Euphorbiacee. Myricacez. 
Chenopodiacese. Samydacez. Urticacez. Casuarinaceze. 
Polygonacez. Homaliacee. Ulmaceze. Betulacee. 
Lauracee. Santalaceze. Moraceee. Platanacez. 
Proteacez.- Loranthacee. Monimiacez. Corylacez. 
Elzagnaces. Aristolochiacee. Salicaceee. Juglandacez. 
6. Monochlamydece, Gymnospermece. 
Coniferze. | Cycadacez. 
Class II.—MonocoryLEDONES. 
1. Petaloidec. 
Hydrocharidacez. | Iridacee. Smilaceze. Typhacez. 
Zingiberaceze. Amaryllidacez. Juncacer Aracee. 
Marantacee. Bromeliacese. Palmee. Naiadacee. 
Musacez. Liliaceze. Pandanacez. 
2. Glumifere. 
Cyperaceee. | Graminez. 
Class III.— AcoTyLEeDoNEs. 
1. Acrogene. 
Equisetacez. Rhizocarper. Musci. 
Filices. Lycopodiacez. Hepatice. 
2. Thallogence. 
Lichenes. | Fungi. | Characeze. | Alga. 


726 FOSSIL PLANTS IN DIFFERENT STRATA. 


Foss PLants in DirFERENT Srrata.—tThe plants in the strati- 
fied rocks are either of a marine, fluviatile, lacustrine, or terrestrial 
nature, according to the state of the globe at the period of their depo- 
sition. The condition of the strata as regards fossils may depend in 
some measure on the depth at which they were deposited under the 
waters of the globe. The state of preservation depends much on the 
nature of the plant in regard to its anatomical structure. Cellular 
plants, which are easily destroyed, have in a great measure disap- 
peared, while plants which resist well the decomposing action of water 
and other agents, suchas ferns, occur in great abundance. In the 
Silurian system, the fossils consist chiefly of invertebrate animals. 
Lignite has been detected by Hugh Miller in the Old Red Sandstone 
of the north, and has been referred to some coniferous plants by Nicol. 
In the Carboniferous system fossil plants occur in vast quantity. 
With the Paleozoic series one great epoch in the Rock formations was 
concluded, and a change took place so as to usher in the Secondary 
series. In the Triassic system the fossil remains are few and local, 
while in the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems they are much more 
numerous, With the Secondary series of strata a general condition 
of the globe ended, and a new one commenced with the Tertiary strata. 
In these we meet with fossil remains nearly resembling or identical 
with the existing races. The names given to the groups indicate 
this. In the Eocene group (4a¢, dawn, and xouvés, fresh) we meet 
with a certain proportion of living shells. In the Miocene (ueiw, 
less) the number of living species increases, although still less in 
number than the extinct ones; while in the Pliocene (+A¢/wv, more) 
the recent shells outnumber the extinct ones. The differences between 
the organic contents of one system and another are in proportion to 
the interval of geological time elapsed between them ; and the older 
the rocks the more are the fossils distinct from the plants of the 
present day. The systems of organic life have been adjusted to the 
condition of land and sea. 

The number of fossil plants known to M. Adolphe Brongniart, in 
1836, was 527. In 1845, Goeppert and Bronn stated the number 
to be 1792; Unger, in 1850, described 2421; while Schimper, in 
1874, enumerates upwards of 5000. When we consider that of the 
130,000 plants which may be supposed to constitute the present Flora 
of the globe, a large proportion consists of cellular plants, which 
would disappear in the process of fossilisation, it would seem that the 
total number of known fossil species bears a considerable proportion 
to those now existing. 

It is impossible in a short treatise like this to allude to many 
of the fossil species of plants. It will be sufficient to indicate some 
of the more important genera, and to give an account of their struc- 
ture and conformation. 


REIGN OF THE ACROGENS. 727 


Brongniart, from the investigation of the several geological for- 
mations, has arrived at the conclusion that three distinct periods of 
vegetation can be established. In the most ancient periods there is a 
predominance of acrogenous cryptogamous plants (Ferns, Lycopodiacez, 
Equisetacez, and their allies) ; later, the predominance of gymnosper- 
mous dicotyledons (Cycadacez and Coniferz) ; and, in the last place, 
the appearance and predominance of angiospermous plants, both 
dicotyledons and monocotyledons. These differences led Brongniart 
to recognise three long periods of vegetable growth, which he terms 
the reign of the Acrogens, the reign of the Gymnosperms, and the 
reign of the Angiosperms, as indicative of the successive predominance 
of each of these three great divisions of the vegetable kingdom, 
rather than the complete exclusion of the others. Each of these 
three kingdoms is commonly subdivided into many periods, during 
which traces of the same family and genera are discoverable. These 
periods comprehend many epochs, during which vegetation does not 
appear to have undergone any notable changes. Materials are often 
wanting to establish precisely these subdivisions, either from a want 
of accuracy in determining the exact geological position of beds en- 
closing vegetable impressions, or because the division of the various 
species in the different beds of the same formation has not been care- 
fully established. Brongniart proposes the following general division 
of the fossil kingdom :— 


I. Reren oF THE ACROGENS. 
CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN PERIODS. 


During these periods there seems to be a predominance of Ferns, a great 
development of Lycopodiacer, arborescent forms of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, 
Gymnosperms allied to Araucaria, and anomalous Gymnosperms, as Néggerathia. 


II, Reien oF THE GYMNOSPERMS. 
TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS. 
Here we meet with numerous Coniferee and Cycadacez, while Ferns are less 
abundant, 
III. REIen oF THE ANGIOSPERMS, 


CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PERIODS, 


This is characterised by the predominance of Angiospermous Dicotyledons, a 
class of plants which constitute more than three-fourths of the present vegetable 
productions of the globe, and which appear to have acquired a predominance from 
the commencement of the Tertiary formations. These plants appear sparingly 
even at the beginning of the chalk formation in Europe, but are more abundant in 
this formation, as developed in North America. 


Schimper divides Brongniart’s Reign of Acrogens into two :—1. 
The Reign of Thallassophytes or of Cellular Cryptogams, especially 


728 FLORA OF THE PRIMARY OR PALASOZOIC PERIOD. 


Marine alge ; including the lower Permian, Silurian, and Cambrian 
rocks. 2. The Reign of Vascular Cryptogams. 

Williamson thinks that these divisions of Brongniart cannot be 
adhered to. He finds that there are fossil plants which show an 
evident transition from the Vascular Cryptogams to the Gymnosperm- 
ous Exogens, and that these divisions cannot be separated as regards 
fossil plants. He suggests the division of Vascular Cryptogams into 
two :—-1. An Exogenous group, including Lycopodiacerw, Equisetaceze, 
and the fossil Calamitacee. 2. An Endogenous group, containing the 
Ferns. The former uniting the Cryptogams with the Exogens through 
the Cycadaceze and Conifers ; and the latter linking them with the 
Endogens through the Palme. 


I.—FLORA OF THE PRIMARY OR PALAOZOIC 
PERIOD. 


Reien or AcCROGENS. 
(According to BRoneNrIART.) 


In this period Acrogens and Gymnosperms are found to have 
existed simultaneously, the former predominating over the latter in 
number and size. The number of the Fern family, the great develop- 
ment of the Lycopodiacez and Equisetacex, are the most prominent 
characters of this epoch. Other anomalous families belonging to the 
Gymnosperms are also met with, which differ from actually existing 
orders. 


Fiona OF THE SILURIAN AND CamBrian Systems.—In the 
lower Paleozoic strata the plants which have been detected are few. 
In the Silurian and Cambrian systems we meet with the remains of 
ancient marine plants, as well as a few terrestrial species. Even in 
the still older Laurentian rocks, if the remarkable structure known as 
Hoxoon canadense be considered, as it generally is, an animal, the ex- 
istence of contemporary plants may be inferred, inasmuch as without 
vegetable life animals could not obtain food. In the Lower Silurian 
or Grauwacke, near Girvan, Hugh Miller has found a species resem- 
bling Zostera in form and appearance. In the Lower Old Red 
Sandstone of Scotland, he has detected Fucoids, a Lepidodendron, 
and Lignite with a distinct Coniferous structure resembling that of 
Araucaria, besides a remarkable pinnate frond. In the middle Old 
Red of Forfarshire, as seen in the Arbroath pavement, he has col- 
lected specimens of a peculiar plant, bearing organs which resemble 
in appearance small receptacles of Nelumbium, besides a Fern with 
reniform pinnz and a Lepidodendron ; while, in the Upper Old Red, 
near Dunse, a Neuropteris, like N. gigantea of the Coal-measures, 


FOSSIL FLORA OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 729 


and a Calamite have been discovered by him. In the Old Red Sand- 
stone rocks at Oporto, Bunbury detected Pecopteris Cyathea, P. 
muricata, and Neuropteris tenuifolia—ferns allied to those of the 
Coal-measures. A still more extensive and varied land flora of 
Devonian age (or Erian, as he calls it) has been described and illus- 
trated by Principal Dawson from the rocks of that period occurring 
in Canada; and during a recent visit to Britain he has correlated 
many of the fragments collected by Miller, Peach, and ‘others, with 
the American species he has described. The following are some of 
the fossil plants from beds older than the Carboniferous system :— 
Prototaxites Logani, Dadoxylon ouangondianum, Calamites transi- 
tionis, Asterophyllites parvulus, Sphenophyllum antiquum, Lepido- 
dendron Gaspianum, Lepidostrobus Richardsoni, L. Matthewi, Psilo- 
phyton princeps, P. robustum, Selaginites formosus, Cordaites Robbii, 
C. angustifolius, Cyclopteris Jacksoni. 

Fossit Fiona oF THE CARBONIFEROUS SystEM.—The Carboni- 
ferous period is one of the most important as regards fossil plants. 
The vegetable forms are numerous and uniform throughout the whole 
system, whether exhibited in the Old or the New World. The im- 
portant substance called Coal owes its origin to the plants of this 
epoch. It has been subjected to great pressure, and hence the 
appearance of the plants has been much altered. It is difficult to 
give a definition of Coal. The varieties of it are numerous. There 
is a gradual transition from Anthracite to Household and Parrot 
Coal, and the limit between Coal and what is called bituminous shale 
is by no means distinct. Coal may be said to be chemically-altered 
vegetable matter interstratified with the rocks, and capable of being 
used as fuel. On examining thin sections of coal under the micro- 
scope, we can detect vegetable tissues both of a cellular and vascular 
nature. In Wigan cannel coal vegetable structure.is seen throughout 
the whole mass. Such is likewise the case with other cannel, parrot, 
and gas coals. In common household coal, also, evident traces of 
organic tissue have been observed. In some kinds of coal punctated 
woody fibre has been detected, in others scalariform tissue, as well as 
cells of different kinds. Sporangia are also occasionally found in the 
substance of coal, as. shown by Mr. Daw in that from Fordel; and 
some beds, like the Better bed of Bradford, are composed almost 
entirely of these sporangia, embedded in their shed microspores, as 
has been recently shown by Huxley. The structure of coal in different 
beds, and in different parts of the same bed, seems to vary according’ 
to the nature of the plants by which it has been formed, as well as 
to metamorphism. Hence the different varieties of coal which are 
worked. The occurrence of punctated tissue indicates the presence of 
Coniferze in the coal bed, while scalariform vessels point to Ferns and 
their allied forms, such as Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. The ana- 


730 FOSSIL FLORA OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


tomical structure of the stems of these plants may have some effect 
on the microscopic characters of the coal produced from them. «In 
some cannel coals structure resembling that of acrogens has been 
observed. A brownish-yellow substance is occasionally present, which 
seems to yield abundance of carburetted hydrogen gas when exposed : 
to heat. 

Unger enumerates 683 plants of the Coal-measures, Schimper men- 
tions 566, while Brongniart notices 500. Of the last number there 
are 6 Thallogens, 346 Acrogens, 135 Gymnosperms, and 13 doubtful 
plants. This appears to be a very scanty vegetation, as far as regards 
the number of species. It is only equal to about 1-20th of the num- 
ber of species now growing on the surface of the soil of Europe. 
Although, however, the number of species was small, yet it is pro- 
bable that the individuals of a species were numerous. The propor- 
tion of Ferns was very large. There were between 200 and 300 
enumerated, The following are some of the Cryptogamous and Phane- 
rogamous genera belonging to the flora of the Carboniferous period :— 
Cyclopteris, Neuropteris, Odontopteris, Sphenopteris, Hymenophyl- 
lites, Alethopteris, Pecopteris, Coniopteris, Cladophlebis, Senftenber- 
gia, Lonchopteris, Glossopteris, Caulopteris, Lepidodendron (Lepido- 
strobus, Lepidophyllum), Lyginodendron (Dictyoxylon), Knorria, 
Ulodendron, Halonia, Psaronius, Sigillaria and Stigmaria, Cala- 
mites, Asterophyllites, Sphenophyllum, Néggerathia, Peuce, Dadoxy- 
lon, Araucarioxylon, Trigonocarpus. 

Ferns are the carboniferous fossil group which presents the most 
obvious and recognisable relationship to an order of the present day. 
While cellular plants and those with lax tissues lose their characters 
by the maceration to which they were subjected before fossilisation 
took place, ferns are more durable, and retain their structure. It is 
rare, however, to find the stalk of the frond completely preserved 
down to its base. It is also rare to find fructification present. In 
this respect, fossil Ferns resemble Tree-ferns of the present day, the 
fronds of which rarely exhibit fructification. Hooker states that of 
two or three kinds of New Zealand Tree-ferns, not one specimen in a 
thousand bears a single fertile frond, though all abound in barren ones. 
Only one surface of the fossil Fern-frond is exposed, and that gener- 
ally the least important in a botanical point of view. Fructification 
is sometimes evidently seen, as figured by Corda in Senftenbergia. 
Mr. Carruthers has recently detected the separate sporangia of Ferns 
full of spores in calcareous nodules in coal. These have the elastic 
ting characteristic of the Polypodiacex, and in their size, form, and 
method of attachment, they are allied to the group Hymenophyllex. 
The absence of fructification presents a great obstacle to the determi- 
nation of fossil Ferns. Circinate vernation, so common in modern 
Ferns, is rarely seen in the fossil species, and we do not in general 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 731 


meet with rhizomes. Characters taken from the venation and forms 
of the fronds are not always to be depended upon, if we are to judge 
from the Ferns of the present day. There is a great similarity 
between the carboniferous Ferns of Britain and America. In the 
English Coal-measures the species are 140. The preponderance of 
Ferns over flowering plants is seen at the present day in many 
tropical islands, such as St. Helena and the Society group, as well as 
in extra-tropical islands, as New Zealand. In the latter, Hooker 
picked336 kinds in an area of a few acres; they gave a luxuriant 
aspect to the vegetation, which presented scarcely twelve flowering 
plants and trees besides. An equal area in the neighbourhood of. 
Sidney (in about the same latitude) would have yielded upwards of 
100 flowering plants, and only two or three Ferns. This Acrogenous 
flora, then, seems to favour the idea of a humid as well as mild and 
equable climate at the period of the coal formation—the vegetation 
being that ‘of islands in the midst of a vast ocean. 

Among the Ferns found in the clays, ironstones, and sandstones 
of the Carboniferous period, we shall give the characters of some by 
way of illustration. Sphenopteris («gqv, a wedge, and wrégsc, a fern) 
has a bi-tripinnatifid frond, pinne narrowed atthe base (cuneate), not 
adherent to the rachis, lobed, veins generally arranged as if they radi- 


Fig. 908. 


ated from the base (fig. 908). In Pecopteris (wéxw, I comb), the 
frond is pinnatifid or bi-tripinnatifid (often pectinate), pinnze adnate 


Fig. 908. Sphenopteris Henninghausii, a;fern of the Carboniferous system. Fig. 909. 
Pecopteris aquilina, another fern. Fig. 910. Neuropteris Loshii, another fern. 


732 FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


to the rachis, sometimes confluent, a strong primary vein reaching the 
apex, the secondary veins being nearly straight, simple, or forked, 
rarely pinnate, sori rounded at the end of the secondary veins (fig. 
909). In Neuropteris (vedgov, a nerve) the frond is pinnate or bi- 
pinnate, pinne sub-cordate at the base, distinct from the rachis, 
strong primary vein vanishing towards the apex, secondary veins 
oblique, arched, repeatedly dichotomous (fig. 910). Lonchopteris has 
its frond multi-pinnatifid, and the leaflets more or less united together 
at {the base; midrib is distinct, and the veins are reticulated. 
Cyclopteris has simple orbicular leaves, undivided or lobed at the 
margin, the veins radiating from the base, with no midrib. Schizo- 
pteris resembles the last, but the frond is deeply divided into numerous 
unequal segments, which are usually lobed and taper-pointed. Caulo- 
pteris and Psaronius are names given to the stems of Tree-ferns found 
in the coal-fields, Tree-ferns appear to have existed in Britain during 
the deposit of the coal strata, and to have occupied an important 
place in the flora. The stems of these ferns are included under the 
genus Caulopteris. The fronds have not been found attached ; but it 
is probable that some of the fronds found in the Coal-measures have 
been connected with these stems. Prof. W. C. Williamson says that 
the number of fossil ferns has been needlessly multiplied, and he 
includes the entire series of four petioles and stems found in the Coal- 
measures under the name Rachiopteris. These petioles belong, no 


Fig. 11. 


Pecopteris, Sphenopteris, etc. The way in which the vascular bundles 
in the four stems are arranged, are, he says, represented by the letters 
H, T, V, and X. Asa general rule the secondary bundles are given 

Fig. 911. Lepidodendron crenatum, with the scars of the leaves onits stem. It belongs 


to a family of plants apparently intermediate between Conifers and Lycopodiacez. Fig. 
912. Lepidodendron elegans, with its dichotomous trunk and linear acute leaves. 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 733 


off from that part of the primary one which happens to be nearest 
the secondary rachis to be supplied. 

Fossil plants, allied to Lycopodiums, also occur in the Coal- 
measures, Brongniart believes they are more abundant in the ancient 
beds than in the superior beds of the greater part of the coal for- 
mation. These have been included under the genera Lycopodites, 
Selaginites, and Lepidodendron (Aewic, a scale, and dévégov, a tree), 
(figs. 911,912). The last mentioned appear to occupy an intermedi- 
ate place between Coniferze and Lycopodiacee. Their leaves are 
arranged in the same manner as some of 
the Conifers, and their scars are similar. , 
Their branches bifurcate like Lycopodiaces. | 
They oecur in the form of dichotomous | 
trunks, 20 to 45 feet high, with linear or / 
lanceolate leaves (fig. 912), like those of 
some species of Lycopodium and Eutassa. 
Schimper enumerates 59 species of Lepido- 
dendron, all arborescent and carboniferous. | 
The stem consists of a thin cuticle, a double 
cellular zone, a vascular cylinder, and a pith. Le 
The vascular cylinder consists of polygonal 
tubes marked with lines, while the pith is 
composed of fusiform cells. The stems are 
marked with rhomboid and orbicular scale- 
like scars (fig. 911). Their conelike fruit | 
occurs in a fossil form, called Lepidostrobus 
(fig. 913). It consists of a central axis |, Sue 
bearing scales, which cover sporangia. In \: Sy 
the interior of these there are spores con- eae 
sisting of 3 or 4 angular sporules. There uaa 
is asingle sporangium on each scale, and all the sporangia are filled with 
microspores. In Lepidostrobus we do not meet with two kinds of spores. 

In Triplosporites, another Lycopodiaceous plant, there is a single 
sporangium on each scale. The sporangia in the upper portion of the 
cone contain microspores, while those at the lower part have macro- 
spores, in the same way as occurs in the genus Selaginella (p. 278). 
Flemingites is another fruit of the same kind. It is a cone with a 
double series of small sporangia on each scale. The sporangia of 
Flemingites occur sometimes abundantly in coal (Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Edin., xxi. 187). It is conjectured that in some cases the mass of 
the coal is formed by sporangia of plants allied to Ferns and Lycopods. 
The various forms of Lepidophyllum are said to be the leaves of 


Fig. 913. Lepidostrobus ornatus, after Lindley and Hutton, from the Bensham coal- 
seam of the Jarrow colliery, showing central axis with leaflets. It is the fructification of a 
Lepidodendron, 


734. FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


Lepidodendrons. Professor W. C. Williamson, who has examined 
with great care the fossil carboniferous Flora, has detected in many 
of the plants an apparent exogenous mode of formation in the stem. 
According to him the stem of a Lepidodendron consists of a central 
medullary axis containing scalariform vessels and cells. It is sur- 
rounded by a narrow ring of a similar nature, but arranged in 
vertical lamine radiating from within outwards. The lamine are 
separated by cells, arranged like the medullary rays of an Exogen. 
From the outer cylinder vessels go to the leaves. Outside the woody 
zone there is a cortical portion, formed by parenchymatous and 
prosenchymatous cells. The whole is covered by an epidermis, con- 
sisting of a cellular layer, then a bast layer, and finally a superficial 
cellular layer. The outer epidermal covering is often removed, and is 
sometimes converted into coal. The stem increases in a more or less 
exogenous manner, while the cortical portion retains all the characters 
of Lepidodendroid plants. Williamson thinks that there is an evident 
transition from the vascular Cryptogams to the Gymnospermous Exo- 
gens, and that they cannot be separated. There are some difficulties 
in deciding on the exogenous development of a fossil stem. To deter- 
mine this properly, we require to demonstrate the existence of Cambium 
cells, and it is not easy to do so in fossilised plants. Care is also re- 
quired in pronouncing on the mode of development, seeing that the 
thick stems of cellular plants, such as seaweeds, sometimes exhibit 
concentric circles, and the same thing occurs in the succulent roots of 
some annual and biennial plants. The beautiful microscopical pre- 
parations made by Professor Williamson certainly show in many 
instances marked zones with rays. Full details of his researches are 
given in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, illustrated 
by excellent plates. 

The slender terminal branches of Lepidodendron are known under 
the name of Lycopodites. Ulodendron (#Ay, wood, and 6dévdgor, 
tree) is a genus nearly allied to Lepidodendrons. Hugh Miller 
states that Ulodendron minus, found in ferruginous shale in the 
Water of Leith, near Colinton, exhibits beautiful sculptured scars, 
ranged rectilinearly along the stem. The surface is covered with 
small, sharply-relieved obovate scales, most of them furnished with 
an apparent midrib, and with their edges slightly turned up. The 
circular or oval scars of this genus are probably impressions made 
by a rectilinear range-of aerial roots placed on either side. When 
decorticated, the stem is mottled over with minute dottings, arranged 
in a quincuncial manner, and its oval scars are devoid of the ordinary 
sculpturings. Bothrodendron (8éégos, a pit or depression) is a decor- 
ticated condition of Ulodendron. Halonia appears also to be a species 
of Lepidodendron. The scars of Ulodendron, and the tubercles of 
Halonia, are probably the remains of special organs, such as cones. 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 735 


Stigmaria (oriywo, a mark or impression) is a fossil genus, the 
species of which abound in the Coal-measures. They occur generally 
in the bed called the Underclay. Stigmaria ficoides (fig. 914) is the 
common species. It sends forth grooved and pitted branches, which 
divide dichotomously, and extend 20 to 30 feet. Slender processes 
are given off, which appear to have been hollow (fig. 914), These 
processes (called fistular roots) form an entangled mass traversing the 


Fig. 914. "Fig. 915. 
argillaceous lower bed in every direction. In Stigmarias three tissues 
are met with,—vascular tissue forming the inner part of the cylinder, 
ligneous forming the wood, and cellular tissue forming a broad cortical 
zone, as well as the central portion or pith, Stigmaria is apparently 
a thick rhizome, having a large medulla, surrounded by a cylinder 
of scalariform vessels, and with a mass of cortical parenchyma sur- 
rounding the whole. Rootlets proceed from the pits on the sides of 
the rhizome, each containing a small bundle of scalariform vessels 
having its origin in the vascular cylinder. In the structure of its 
stem it agrees, according to some, with Cycads, and with certain 
fleshy Euphorbiaceze and Cactacee. According to Williamson, Stig- 
maria has a pith surrounded by a thick woody zone, containing two 
distinct sets of primary and secondary medullary rays, the former 
going direct to the bark. In what are called decorticated stems of the 
Lepidodendroid plants, the more central axial portion (medulla, wood, 
and thin layers of inner bark) have disappeared through decay ; the bast 

Fig. 914. Stigmaria ficoides; a branch giving off fistular leaves, which traverse the 


underclay in all directions. Fig, 915. Sigillaria pachyderma ; showing fluting of the 
stem, and the scars of the leaves. 


736 FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


layer of the bark has arrested the destruction of the entire cylinder, 
and formed the mould into which inorganic materials have been intro- 
duced. In Stigmaria, however, the woody cylinder is usually pre- 
served, probably owing to its more tenacious character. Some think 
that the stores of fossil fuel in England and America are mainly due 
to the presence of this plant. Stigmaria ficoides has been shown to 
be the rhizome and roots of a Sigillaria. Specimens of the latter have 
been discovered standing erect, and connected with Stigmarias. Stig- 
maria ficoides abounds in the underclay of a coal seam, sending out 
numerous roots from its tubercles, and pushing up its aerial stem in 
the form of a fluted Sigillaria. 

Sigillaria (sigillum, a seal) is another plant which appears to have 
aided in the formation of coal. It occurs in the form of compressed 
stems, attaining a height of 40 to 50 feet, and a breadth of 5 feet. 
The stems are fluted longitudinally, and marked at regular intervals 
by single or double scars (hence their name), the remains of the leaf 
insertions (fig. 815). Some suppose Sigillarias to be allied to Tree- 
ferns, others to Conifer. Brongniart says they resemble Zamia 
integrifolia, and appear to predominate in the middle and superior 
beds of the coal formations. Some consider them as intermediate 
between Ferns and Cycads. Their foliage has not been accurately 
determined, some conjecturing that it consisted of Neuropteris, others 
of long linear leaves, called Cyperites. They have a medullary sheath 
in the shape of apparently isolated bundles, and vessels interme- 
diate between true spiral and scalariform. The stem of Sigillaria is 
fluted in a longitudinal manner, like a doric column, and has a suc- 
cession of single scars, which indicate the points of insertion of the 
leaves. When the outer part of the stem separates like bark, it is 
found that the markings presented by the inner surface differ from 
those seen externally. This has sometimes given rise to the erroneous 
supposition that they belong to different genera, King says, that if 
in imagination we delineate a channelled stem of any height between 
12 and 100 feet, crowned with a pendent fern-like foliage, furnished 
with wide-spreading thickly-fibrilled roots, and growing in some 
densely-wooded swamp of an ancient Mississippi, we will then have 
formed a tolerably close restoration of a Sigillaria vegetating in its 
true habitat. The fructification consists of small sporangia, like that 
of Flemingites, borne on the bases of the leaves, and this indicates an 
acrogenous plant allied to Lycopods. 

Calamites (xcér.amos, a reed), a reed-like coal fossil plant, occurs 
in the form of jointed fragments, originally cylindrical and hollow, 
but now crushed and flattened (fig. 916). The stem is ribbed and 
furrowed (fig. 917), articulated and septate. It consisted of a cortical 
portion now converted into coal, of a medulla, at first solid and then 
fistular, surrounded by a woody cylinder of scalariform vessels. The 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS System. ‘737 


medulla penetrated this cylinder by a series of wedges, which were 
continued to the outer portion of the stem by their cellular laminz. 
The appendicular organs (leaves) were produced in whorls. Williamson 
considers the structure of the medullary and ligneous zones as resembling 
that of the stem of an exogen of the first year. On making a longi- 


Fig. 916. Fig. 917. 


tudinal tangential section of the stem, the woody zones show alter- 
nating parallel bands of vascular and cellular tissue. The bark con- 
sists of a thin layer of parenchyma. It is smooth outside, and does 
not present ridges or furrows. The ligneous cylinder of Calamite, as 
it increases in size and age, exhibits less and less of the Calamitean 
peculiarities seen in young stems; the external part becoming unsul- 
cated. In a Calamitean plant, called by Williamson Calamopitus, 
canals pass from the medullary cavity, horizontally to the bark, 
below the nodes (infranodal). Calamites give off subterranean 
branches from rhizomes as well as slender appendages from the 
aerial stem, arranged in verticils at the nodes. Williamson puts 
Calamites in his order Calamitacez, allied to Equisetacez, but differing 
in having cryptogamic reproduction connected with an exogenous de- 
velopment of the stem. Schimper considers Calamites as having an 
analogy with Equisetum in their fructification. He regards them as 
fossil Equisetacee. Annularia and Sphenophyllum are considered as 
establishing a passage from the Equisetaceze to the Lycopodiacez. 
Some gigantic fossil Equiseta had a diameter of more than 12 centi- 
metres, and a height of 8 to 10 metres. The branches, which adorned 
the higher part of them in the form of a crown, are simple, have at 
their extremity a spike of the size of a pigeon’s egg, and are organised 
exactly like the spikes of living Equiseta. There is also a resem- 
blance between them as regards their rhizomes. Dr. W. R. M‘Nab 
has examined the Equisetum stem, and contrasted it with that of Cala- 
mite, and he has come to the following conclusions :—That the stem 
of Equisetums differs but little in construction from that of Calamites : 


Fig. 916. Calamites Suckovii, composed of jointed striated fragments having a bark. 
Fig. 917. Calamites canneformis, giving off roots. 


3B 


738 FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


that in both Equisetums and Calamites the fibro-vascular bundles are 
but poorly developed: that the mass of tissue (woody wedges’ of 
Williamson) forming the most important part of the stem consists of 
the small fibro-vascular bundles, with the addition of a large quantity 
of thickened parenchyma and prosenchyma (sclerenchyma of Met- 
tenius): that the sclerenchyma is part of the cortical tissues, and 
not a portion of the fibro-vascular bundles: that there is no evidence 
of any growth having taken place in the fibro-vascular bundles com- 
parable to that observed in Dicotyledons ; but that if the stems of 
Calamites increased in diameter it was by additions to the cortical 
tissues, and not to those of the fibro-vascular bundles: that the 
pointed ends of the Calamite stem (indicating that the embryonic 
parts did not enlarge) lead to the conclusion that circumferential 
growth did not take place, but that the stem, when it attained its 
maximum diameter close to the base, remained cylindrical. 


zB 


SS 
MZ, 
aN 


Za 
Naa 
i 


aes 


CE eesti ety! 


Fig. 919. 4 

In Spitzbergen, in rocks of the Carboniferous epoch, there have 
been found Calamites radiatus, Lepidodendron Veltheimianum, Sigil- 
laria distans, Stigmaria ficoides, and ferns apparently the same as 
those found in the Carboniferous epoch in Europe. Some species, as 
Sigillaria Malmgreni, 8. Canneggianna, and Lepidodendron Wilkii, 
seem to be peculiar to Bear Island. 

In the family Calamitaceee we have the genera Equisetites and 
Calamites. Some also place in this family the genera Asterophyllites, 
Sphenophyllum (fig. 918), Annularia (fig. 919), and Volkmannia, 
Annularia may be a link between Equisetacese and Ferns, and Sphe- 
nophyllum a link between Lycopodiacee and Ferns. Williamson 


Fig, 918..Sphenophyllum dentatum, one of the dubious forms of the Carboniferous 
system, perhaps allied to Salisburya Fig. 919. Annularia brevifolia, a coal plant of 
doubtful affinity, placed by some among the Calamitacez. 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 739 


considers Asterophyllites as having a general affinity with Lycopo- 
diacez and not with Equisetacese. He finds its parallel in the present 
flora in Psilotum triquetrum. It is also allied to the fossil plant 
called Sphenophyllum (fig. 918), Asterophyllites Dawsoni, formerly 
called Volkmannia Dawsoni, has a peculiar triquetrous vascular axis. 

True Exogenous trees exist in the Coal-fields both of England and 
Scotland, as at Lennel Braes and Allan Bank, in Berwickshire, High- 
Heworth, Fellon, Gateshead, and Wide-open, near Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, and in quarries to the west of Durham; also in Craigleith 
quarry, near Edinburgh, and in the quarry at Granton. In the latter 
localities they lie diagonally athwart the strata, at an angle of about 
30°, with the thicker and heavier part of their trunks below, like 
snags in the Mississippi. From their direction we infer that they 
have been drifted by a stream which has flowed from nearly north- 
east to south-west. At Granton one of the specimens exhibited roots. 
In other places the specimens are portions of stems, one of them 6 
feet in diameter by 61 feet in length, and another 4 feet in diameter 
by 70 feet in length. These Exogenous trees are Gymnosperms, hav- 
ing woody tissue like that of Coniferee, Wesee under the microscope 
punctated woody tissue, the rows of disks being usually two, three, 
or more, and alternating (figs. 906, 907). They seem to be allied in 
these respects to Araucaria and Eutassa of the present flora. Dadoxy- 
lon or Pinites (Araucarioxylon) Withami is one of the species found 
in Craigleith quarry ; the concentric layers of the wood are obsolete ; 
there are 2, 3, or 4 rows of discs on the wood, and 2-4 rows of small 
cells in the medullary rays. Along with it there have also been found 
Dadoxylon medullare, with inconspicuous zones, 2, 3, and 4 rows of 
discs, and 2-5 series of rows of cells in the rays. Pissadendron an- 
tiquum (Pitus antiqua), having 4-5 series of cells in the medullary 
rays, and P. primevum (Pitus primzva), with 10-15 series of cells 
in the medullary rays, occur at Tweedmill and Lennel Braes in 
Berwickshire. 

Sir Robert Christison states—“ Seven fossils, all apparently belong- 
ing to the Pine tribe, and either to the same species, or to two closely 
allied to one another, have been uncovered since 1826 in the sandstone 
of Craigleith quarry. Six are stems of great trees, and one is a longi- 
tudinally split section of a large branch, or possibly of another stem. Por- 
tions of all seven have been traced as still preserved in Collections, and 
have been subjected more or less to examination. Of one, the greatest 
of all, about 36 continuous feet, from 12 to 14 feet in girth, have been 
removed in large fragments to the British Museum, and will be pieced 
and erected there. Another, found in 1830, is now partly in the 
Botanic Garden, and has been supplemented by other portions from 
the Museum of Science and Art, so as to make a nearly perfect fossil 
stem 30 feet in length. A third, nearly 9 feet in girth, has been sliced 


740 FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 


and polished, to show its structure on the great scale, and will be 
exhibited in the British Museum, the Edinburgh Museum, and the 
Edinburgh Botanic Garden. 

“The composition of all these great fossils is substantially the 
same. The great mass of each consists of carbonate of lime, carbonate 
of magnesia, carbonate of protoxide of iron, and free carbon, the pro- 
portions varying in different parts of the same fossil. The iron-car- 
bonate and charcoal vary most in their amount. The charcoal, which 
is left after the action of diluted acids, sometimes without any other 
insoluble residuum, seems to form three per cent of the mass, unless 
when collected, as it often is, in cavities. This charcoal contains 
only about 34 per cent of incombustible ash. 

“The surface of the fossils is covered with a shining coat of very 
bituminous caking coal, which, on the principal part of the stem, 
varies from only a 20th to a 10th of an inch in thickness, but 
at the lower end of that now at the British Museum, it increases 
to two inches and a half. This coaly covering contains only 4, 
3, 2, and sometimes only 1:1 per cent of mineral matter, which is 
not the same as the fossilising matter of the included wood, but is 
chiefly siliceous in nature, being at least insoluble in acids. The 
crust is not altered bark, for bark could not fail to undergo, in part 
at least, fossilisation by the material which has fossilised the wood. 
Moreover, the coaly crust is found round fragments and on broken 
points where bark could never have existed. 

“The rock of the quarry is a very pure quartzy sandstone, hard, 
tough, and quite free from earthy carbonates or iron. But for some 
feet around the fossils, and also here and there throughout the quarry, 
where there is no fossil near, the rock has quite a different appearance, 
has a higher density, is more sharp-edged, much tougher, and harder 
to pulverise, and becomes yellow under exposure to the air. These 
changes are owing to the siliceous particles of the sandstone being 
bound together by carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and car- 
bonate of protoxide of iron, forming together from 10 to 38 per cent 
of the rock, and bearing much the same relation in proportion to each 
other as in the mineral material of the fossils,—consequently derived 
from the same fluid which fossilised them. 

“Thus the interesting fact is presented of these great trees and 
the rock in which they are embedded having been both similarly 
mineralised, so to speak, by the same fossilising fluid, while there is 
between them a thin uniform coating of bituminous coal, which has 
refused admission to any of the fossilising agents. After rejecting 
various theories to account for this exemption, the only one which 
stands the test of facts is, that a part of the process of fossilisation 
consists in a slow process, analogous in its results to the destructive 
distillation of wood, the result of which is charcoal left behind, 


FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 741 


and bitumen gradually forced outwards, and collected on the exterior 
surface. 

“The charcoal which remains in the stems renders their minute 
internal structure singularly distinct when a thin transparent slice is 
placed under the microscope. Longitudinal woody bundles, transverse 
medullary rays, crowded cells of the longitudinal fibres cut crosswise, 
are all seen most characteristically ; and in one specimen two inches 
in breadth the boundaries and whole structure of five annual layers 
of wood are displayed characteristically, even to the naked eye. On 
the polished surface of one of the great stems, too, the eye can easily 
trace many annual rings for long distances.” 

Sternbergia is considered by Williamson as a Dadoxylon, with a 
discoid pith, like that seen now-a-days in the Walnut, Jasmine, and 
Cecropia peltata, as well as in some species of Euphorbia and in some 
Conifers. Sternbergia approximata is named by him Dadoxylon 
approximatum. Hooker has shown from the structure of Trigono- 
carpus, a not uncommon fruit, that it is a coniferous fruit, nearly 
allied to Salisburya. Néggerathia, and a few other plants, such as 
Flabellaria and Artisia, are referred by Brongniart to Cycadacez. 
Flabellaria borassifolia, according to Peach, has leaves like Yucca. 
Néggerathia has pinnate leaves, cuneiform leaflets, sometimes fan- 
shaped ; the veins arise from the base of the leaflets, are equal in size, 


sZ 
ey 


=x 
st 


Vasni 


Si 


ent 


Fig. 920. Fig. 921. 


Fig. 920. Cardiocarpum Lindleyi,’collected by C. W. Peach, near Falkirk, a peculiar fossil 
‘of the Coal-measures, supposed to be the fruit of Antholithes. Fig. 921. Pothocites 
Grantoni. a, Spike natural size, 6, Portion of the spike magnified. vc, Perianth 4-cleft. 
magnified, 


742 STATE OF THE GLOBE AT THE COAL EPOCH. 


and either remain simple or bifurcate, the neuration or venation being 
similar to that of some Zamias. 

A fossil plant called Antholites has been found in the coal-mea- 
sures. It appears to be a spike of flowers, having a calyx and linear 
petals. Mr. Peach has recently found that the fruit called Cardio- 
carpum is the produce of this plant (fig. 920). It may possibly be a 
Monocotyledon. Mr. Peach has also found a peculiar fossil fern near 
Edinburgh, which presents the characters of the genus Staphylopteris 
of Lesquereux. 

In the bituminous shale at Granton, near Edinburgh, Dr. Robert 
Paterson discovered in 1840 a peculiar fossil plant, which he called 
Pothocites Grantoni (fig. 921). It is a spike covered by parallel 
rows of flowers, each apparently with a 4-cleft perianth. It was sup- 
posed to be allied to Potamogeton or Pothos, more probably to the 
latter. In that case it must be referred to the natural order Aracez. 
Pothocites has been recently found by Mr. Etheridge near West 
Calder, and by Mr. Bennie at Corstorphine, near Edinburgh. Lygino- 
dendron (Adyioc, wicker-work) is a peculiar coal fossil discovered by 
the Rev. Mr. Landsborough in Ayrshire, and described by Mr. Gourlie. 
Its impression consists of rounded narrow twigs, which cross each 
other like the parts of an osier basket. Lyginodendron (called also 
Dictyoxylon by Williamson) is probably allied to Lycopods, It has a 
stem composed of pith, wood, and bark. The parenchymatous pith is 
surrounded by an irregular vascular cylinder, which breaks up into 
bundles, separated by medullary parenchyma. Before this, however, 
the true ligneous zone appeared as a narrow vascular ring, with radiat- 
ing vertical lamina, separated from each other by large cellular rays. 
A bark exists in the circumference formed of two cellular layers, and 
a third composed partly of parenchyma and partly of prosenchyma. 
Two species are described by Williamson, Lyginodendron Oldhamia - 
and D. Grievii. 

It may be remarked, in general, that the Carboniferous flora is 
uniform, or nearly so, in all parts of the globe where carboniferous. 
fossils have been obtained—viz. the whole of western, northern, and 
eastern Europe, North America, from Alabama to Melville Island, 
various districts of Asia, Eastern Australia, and Van Diemen’s Land, 
and probably the Asiatic Islands. 

As fossils in the coal formation consist principally of ferns and their - 
allies, conjectures have been made as to the climate of the globe at that 
epoch. Ferns of the present day thrive best in a moist insular climate, 
and many of them occur in tropical climates. Hence Brongniart conjec- 
tures that at the coal epoch the surface of the earth consisted of a series 
of islands in the midst of a vast ocean, and that the temperature was 
higher generally than that of the present day. In the forests of these 
islands lofty Lepidodendrons would occur, with their delicate and 


STATE OF THE GLOBE AT THE COAL EPOCH. 743 


feathery fronds; Sigillarias, with their fluted stems and enormous 
matted roots; Calamites, with their singular branches; Tree-ferns 
and Coniferous plants, resembling the Norfolk Island Pine, and 
towering a hundred feet above the rest of the forest. He also thinks 
that the immense deposits of carbon at that epoch warrant the con- 
clusion that the air contained a large amount of carbonic acid. These 
conclusions are, of course, mere hypotheses. In regard to the.tem- 
perature, it may be remarked that there is no evidence, from the 
nature of the flora, of a marked increase of temperature at the coal 
epoch. In New Zealand, which is in a latitude the same as that of 
a great part of Europe, a very large proportion of the vegetation con- 
sists of Acrogenous plants. Ferns and their allies, in that country, 
cover immense districts, replacing the grasses of other countries, 
and giving a marked character to all the open land. Some of the 
ferns attain a height of 30 or 40 feet, and occur in groups. Hemitelia 
capensis, a Tree-fern found at the Cape, was also seen by Gardner, 
at an elevation of 6000 feet, on the Organ mountains, thus showing 
a capability of enduring a great range of climate, and. warning us 
against hasty conclusions on the subject of the temperature of the 
world at the coal epoch. 

Dr. Hooker thinks that the prevalence of ferns may be regarded 
as a probable evidence of the paucity of other plants, and the general 
poverty of the whole flora which characterised the formation. He is 
led to these conclusions from observing the mode in which the ferns 
in Van Diemen’s Land and New Zealand monopolise the soil, choking 
plants of a larger growth on the one hand, and admitting no under- 
growth of smaller species on the other. In New Zealand he has col- 
lected 36 kinds of ferns on an area not exceeding a few acres; they. 
gave a most luxuriant aspect to the vegetation, which presented 
scarcely a dozen flowering plants and trees besides. 

Some have supposed that the plants of the coal-fields have been 
drifted into basins, others that they grew in the spots where they are 
now found. Beaumont thinks that all the plants which are now 
converted into coal grew in swampy islands, covered with a luxuriant 
vegetation, which accumulated in the manner of peat-bogs ; that those 
islands having sunk beneath the ocean, were there covered with sand, 
clay, and shells, till they again became dry land, and that this opera- 
tion was repeated in the formation of each bed of coal. The occur- 
rence of stems of trees in an erect state (fig. 922) appeared to him 
to confirm the view that the trees were in situ. Ansted says, that 
although many trees are found in the Coal-measures in an erect or 
highly-inclined position, there is no reason for believing that they 
grew on the spot where they are met with, He rather thinks that 
they have been caught or stopped in their passage down a rapid stream, 
and, like the snags in some of the great American rivers, have been 


744 FLORA OF THE PERMIAN EPOCH. 


detained till the lower portion was firmly embedded in the rapidly 
forming sandstone. The embedding of stems in strata of sandstone 
is similar to what Gardner saw near the mouth of the Rio San Fran- 
cisco, where coco-nut trees were found with their stems immersed to 
the depth of 50 feet or more in the embankment of sand which 
stretches along the shore. Phillips remarks, that the condition of 


| 


‘ sin 
Au ll 
a 


4 an 
l) | 


in i M ih 


fH fa 
my 


Fig. 922. 


the plants which compose the coal, the general absence of roots, the 
fragmentary state of the stems and branches, the dispersed condition 
of the separable organs, all confirm the conclusion that the plants 
have been swept down from the land on which they grew by watery 
currents, often repeated, and deposited in basins and large estuaries 
of the sea, or, perhaps rarely, in lakes of fresh water. 

Fuora oF THE PsrMiaAN Epocu.—The nature of the 
vegetation during the Permian period, which is associated with 
the Carboniferous, under the reign of Acrogens, has not been 
positively determined. Brongniart has enumerated the fossils in 
three different localities, which he refers doubtfully to this period. 
1. The flora of the bituminous slates of Thuringia, composed 
of Algz, Ferns, and Conifere. 2. Flora of the Permian sandstones of 
Russia, comprehending Ferns, Equisetacex, Lycopodiacer, and Noég- 
gerathiz. 3. Flora of the slaty schists of Lodéve, composed of Ferns, 


Fig. 922. Vertical stems of fossil trees, Calamites chiefly, found in the Coal-measures of 
Treuil, near Saint Etienne. 


FLORA OF THE SECONDARY PERIOD. 745 


Asterophyllites, and Conifer. The genera of Ferns here met with 
are also found in the Car- 
boniferous epoch; the 
Gymnosperms are chiefly 
species of Walchia (figs. 
923, 924) and Noégeger- & 
athia (the latter is sup- 
posed. by Schimper to be a 
Cycad) ; Lepidodendron 
elongatum, Calamites gi- 
gas, and Annularia flori- 
bunda, are also species of 
this period. Goeppert has 
given an account of the 
plants of the Permian 
formation. Among other 
plants he enumerates the 
following : — Equisetites ( E 

contractus, Calamites Suc- Fig. 923. 

kowi, OC. leioderma, Astero- 

phyllites equisetiformis, A. elatior, Huttonia truncata, H. equiseti- 
formis, many species of Psaronius one of the filicoid plants, Hymeno- 
phyllites complanatus, Sphenopteris crassinervia, Sagenopteris tenia- 
folia, Neuropteris imbricata, and many other species of these genera ; 
several species of Odontopteris, Callipteris, Cyclopteris, Dioonopteris, 
Cyatheites, Alethopteris, Néggerathia, Cordaites, Anthodiopsis, Dicty- 
othalamus, Calamodendron, Arthropitys ; besides species of Sigillaria, 
Stigmaria, and Lepidodendron. Various fruits are also mentioned, 
under the names of Rhabdocarpus, Cardiocarpus, Acanthocarpus, 
Trigonocarpus, and Lepidostrobus. 


II. —FLORA OF THE SECONDARY OR MESOZOIC 
PERIOD. 


BRoNGNIART’S REIGN oF GYMNOSPERMS, 


In the Carboniferous period the Acrogenous Cryptogams were 
found to predominate, while the Gymnospermous Dicotyledons were 
less numerous. In this reign, on the other hand, the Acrogens are 
less numerous, and the Gymnosperms almost equal them in number, 
and ordinarily surpass them in frequency. 

Figs. 923, 924. Walchia piniformis Sternb., a common species in the Permian rocks of 


Europe. Fig. 923, Plant with leaves and fructification. Fig. 924. Fructification, 
natural size. 


746 REIGN OF THE GYMNOSPERMS. 


The reign of the Gymnospermous Dicotyledons is divided into two 
periods: the first, in which the Coniferee predominate, while the 
Cycadaceze scarcely appear; the second, in which the latter family 
preponderates as regards the number of species, and the frequency and 
variety of generic forms. Cycadacez (figs. 925, 926) occupied a more 
important place in the ancient than in the present vegetable world. 
They extend more or less from the Triassic formation up to the 


Fig. 926. 


Tertiary. They are rare in the Grésbigarré or lower strata of the 
Triassic system. They attain their maximum in the Lias and 
Oolite, in the latter of which 60 species have been enumerated, and 
they disappear in the Tertiary formations. Schimper thinks that 
Trigonocarpum (15 species), Rhabdocarpum (24 species), Cardiocarpum 
(21 species), Carpolithes (9 species), and Cycadinocarpus (6 species), 
are all fruits of Cycadez. Many supposed fossil Cycads are probably 
Conifers. It is important to notice that in an existing Cycad called 
Stangeria paradoxa the vernation of the leaf-divisions is involute and 
inflexed, and the veins of the pinnz rise from a true midrib and fork, 
characters which are more commonly met with in Ferns. 

In Brongniart’s Vosgesian period, the Grésbigarré, or the Red 
Sandstones and Conglomerates of the Triassic system, there is a change 


Fig. 925. Cycas revoluta, one of the species of Cycas of the present flora of the globe, 
with its scale-like stem and pinnate fronds, Fig. 926. Encephalartos (Zamia) pungens, 
one of the Cycadacee at present existing on the globe. 


FLORA OF THE TRIAS AND LIAS EPOCH, 747 


in the flora, Sigillarias and Lepidodendrons disappear, and in their 
place we meet with Gym- 
nosperms, belonging to the 
genera Voltzia, Haidingera, _,. 
Zamites (fig. 927), Ctenis, 
ARthophyllum, and Schizo- 
neura (fig. 928). Species of 
Neuropteris, Pecopteris, and 
other acrogenous coal genera 
are still found, along with 
species of Anomopteris and 
Crematopteris, peculiar Fern- 
forms, which are not found in | 
later formations. Stems of 
arborescent Ferns are more 
frequent than in the next 
period, 

In the Lias the essential 
characters of the flora are the 
predominance of Cycadacee, ; 
in the form of species of Cycadites, Otozamites, Zamites, Ctenis, 
Pterophyllum (figs. 929, 930), and Nilssonia, and the existence 


” Fig. 928. 


among the Ferns of many genera with reticulated vernation, such as 
Camptopteris and Thaumatopteris, some of which began to appear at 


Fig. 927. Zamites. Leaf of a fossil Cycad. Fig 928. Schizoneura heterophylla, one 
of the fossil conifere of the Triassic system. 


748 FLORA OF THE OOLITIC EPOCH. 


the Keupric epoch. Coniferous genera, as Brachyphyllum, Taxodites, 
Palissya, and Peuce, are found. y 


In the Oolitic epoch the flora consists of numerous Cycadaceze and 
Coniferee, some of them having peculiar forms. Schimper enumerates 


Fig. 982. 

Fig. 929. Paleozamia pectinata (Zamia pectinata of Brongniart, and of Lindley and 
Hutton), a pinnati-partite leaf of a fossil Cycad. Fig. 930. Pterophyllum Pleiningerii, 
leaf of a fossil Cycadaceous plant. Fig. 931. Brachyphyllumgmammillare, a Coniferous 


genus of the Oolitic System, Yorkshire, Fig. 932. Equisetum columnare, a fossil species 
of the Oolite of Yorkshire. 


FLORA OF: THE OOLITIC EPOCH. 749 


96 Ferns, 61 Cycads, and 14 Conifers. The distinctive characters of 
this flora are, the rarity of Ferns with reticulated venation, which 
are so numerous in the Lias, the frequency of the Cycadaceous genera 
Otozamites and Zamites, which are most analogous to those now 
existing ; of a‘remarkable group presenting very anomalous structure 
in their organs of reproduction, to which Mr. Carruthers has given 
the name of Williamsonia, and the diminution of Ctenis, Ptero- 
phyllum, and Nilssonia, genera far removed from the living kinds ; 
and lastly, the ‘greater frequency of the coniferous genera, Brachy- 
phyllum (fig. 931), and Thuites, which are much more rare in the 
Lias. In the Scottish Oolite at Helmsdale Miller has detected about 
60 species of plants, including Cycadacee and Conifer, with detached 
cones, and Fern forms resembling Scolopendrium. He also discovered 
a species of Equisetum (fig. 932), and a Calamite which is a connect- 
ing link between the Oolitic and Carboniferous epochs. 

There is an absence of true coal-fields in the secondary formations 
generally ; but in some of the Oolitic series, as in the lower Oolite at 
Brora, in Sutherlandshire, and the Kimmeridge clay of the upper 
Oolite, near Weymouth, there are considerable deposits of carbon- 
aceous matter, but the vegetable remains are only in the state of im- 
perfect lignite ; some suppose that the Brora coal was formed chiefly 
by Calamites columnaris. In the sandstones and shales of the Oolitic 
series, especially in the lower Oolite of the north of England, as at 
Whitby and Scarborough, as well as in Stonesfield slate, the Portland 
Crag of the middle, and the Portland beds of the upper Oolite, nume- 


Fig. 933. Fig, 934, 


rous fossil plants are found. Peuce Lindleyana is one of the Coniferee 
of the lower Oolite. Beania is a Cycadaceous fossil from the Oolite 
of Yorkshire. Araucarites spherocarpus is found in the inferior Oolite. 
The upper Oolite at Portland contains an interesting bed, about a foot 
in thickness, of a dark brown substance, containing much earthy 


Fig. 933. The Dirt-bed of the island of Portland, containing stumps of fossil Cycadacee in 
anerect position. Fig. 934. Cycadoidea megalophylla (Mantellia nidiformis of Brongniart), 
a subglobose depressed trunk, with a concave apex, and with the remains of the petioles 
disposed in a spiral manner, the markings being transversely elliptical, It is found in the 
Oolite of the Island of Portland, in a silicified state. 


750 FLORA OF THE CRETACEOUS EPOCH. 


lignite. This is the Dirt-bed, made up of black loam, which, at some 
far distant period, was penetrated by the roots of trees, fragments of 
whose stems are now found fossilised around it. These consist of an 
assemblage of silicified stumps or stools of large trees, standing from 
1-3 feet from the mould. Most of them are erect, some slightly in- 
clined, and the roots remain attached to the earth in which they grew 
(fig. 933). They appear to resemble Cycadacew. One of these is 
Mantellia nidiformis (fig. 934). Carpolithes conica and Bucklandia 
are fruits found in the Oolite. Some look upon them as fruits of palms. 

The flora of the Wealden epoch is characterised in the south of 
England by the abundance of the fern called Lonchopteris Mantellii, 
and in Germany by the predominance of the Conifer denominated 
Abietites Linkii, and the presence of Araucarites Pippingfordiensis, as 
well as by numerous Cycadacez, such as species of Cycadites, Zamites, 
Pterophyllum, Mantellia, Bucklandia, and a remarkable genus having 
a fleshy fruit, and related to the ordinary Cycadacee’ as Taxus is to 
the other Coniferee, which has been described under the name of 
Bennettites. In the Wealden at Brook Point, Isle of Wight, Cycads 
have been detected allied to Encephalartos. Their fruit has been de- 
scribed by Carruthers as Cycadeostrobus. There are several species. 
Mantell has found 40 or 50 fossil cones in the Wealden of England. 
The remains are those of land plants. The Wealden fresh-water for- 
mation terminates the reign of Gymnosperms. 


JIL—FLORA OF THE TERTIARY OR CAINOZOIC 
PERIOD. 


(Including the Cretaceous Epoch.) 
Broneniarr’s REIGN or ANGIOSPERMS. 


This reign is characterised by the appearance of Angiospermous 
Dicotyledons, plants which constitute more than three-fourths of the 
present vegetable productions of the globe, and which appear to have 
acquired the predominance from the commencement of the Tertiary 
epoch. These plants, however, appear even at the beginning of the 
Cretaceous period. In this reign, therefore, Brongniart includes the 
upper secondary period, or the Cretaceous system, and all the Tertiary 
period. The Cretaceous may be considered as a sort of transition 
period between the reign of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. 


The Creraczous (chalk) period is characterised by the Gymno- 
spermous almost equalling the Angiospermous Dicotyledons, and by the 
existence of a considerable number of Cycadacez, which do not appear 
in the Tertiary period. The genus Credneria is one of the character- 


FLORA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 751 


istic forms. In this period we find Alge represented by Cystoseirites, 
Confervites, Sargassites, and Chondrites ; Ferns by peculiar species of 
Pecopteris and Protopteris; Naiadacee by Zosterites; Palms, by 
Flabellaria and Palmacites; Cyacadaceew, by Cycadites, Zamites, 
Microzamia, Fittonia, and Bennettites ; Conifer, by Brachyphllum, 
Widdringtonites, Cryptomeria, Abietites, Pinites, Cunninghamites, 
Dammarites, Araucarites; and Angiospermous Dicotyledons, by 
Comptonites, Alnites, Carpinites, Salicites, Acerites, Juglandites, and 
Credneria. In the Gault of Folkestone a cone allied to that of 
Sequoia gigantea has been detected. Carruthers thinks that the con- 
iferous vegetation of the highlands of the upper Cretaceous system had 
a facies similar to that now existing in the mountains in the west of 
North America, between the 30th and 40th parallel of latitude. With 
the chalk, Ansted says, we close, as it were, one great volume of the 
history of animated creation. Everything up to this point belongs to 
the past ; everything on this side of it may be ranked among indica- 
tions of the present. New forms, new types of organisation, corre- 
sponding to different habits and altered circumstances, now replace 
those which have passed away. The conditions under which animals 
and vegetables lived were changed, and a new epoch commenced upon 
the earth. At the base of the Tertiary period, there is a Fucoidean 
epoch, characterised by deposits rich in Alge of a very peculiar form, 
belonging to the genera Chondrites and Munsteria. No land plants 
have been found mingled with these marine species. 

The TERTIARY series of Rocks are well seen in the south of Europe, 
Asia, and America. In Britain the tertiary deposits are met with in the 
London clay, in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, the Suffolk and 
Norfolk Crag, and in the Till of the Clyde. The London clay contains 
numerous fruits belonging to many hundred species of plants. The first 
tertiary land of which we have knowledge seems to have been richly 
clothed with plants. The strata are, generally speaking, rich in fossils. 
The stems and leaves appear to be-those of Dicotyledons, little differ- 
ing from the plants of the present day (figs. 935-939). In the brown 
coal of this series, the structure of the wood is evident, and distinctly 
exogenous (figs. 935-937), and there are often associated with it leaves 
of Poplars, Elms (fig. 938), Oaks, Beeches, Maples, Hazels, Birches, 
and other forest trees. The fossil plants of the Isle of Sheppey have 
been examined by Bowerbank, and have led to the determination of 
several hundred species of plants, all of them extinct, and all resem- 
bling those of warmer climates :—fruits of Nipadites (Pandanocarpum), 
a fossil plant, allied to Nipa, one of the Pandanacee ; Hightea, a five- 
seeded fruit, probably Malvaceous ; also the fruit of a Proteaceous 
plant, and of species allied to. Canna, Cucumber, and the Leguminose 
and Conifers of the present day. To some of them the names of 
Cupanoides, Wetherellia, Cucumites, and Mimosites, have been given. 


752 FLORA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 


In some of the tertiary formations there occur pieces of wood, which 
present the structure of that of Pepper-plants and of Palms (figs. 940, 
941), and there are also leaves which have the flabelliform appearance 


rin 
il 


iu 
INNA 


Sees 


Fig. 938. Fig. 939. 


of Palm leaves, included under the name of Palmacites (fig. 942). 
Specimens allied to Chara are also found, with their fructification 
denominated Gyrogonites. 

The Tertiary period is characterised by the abundance of Angio- 


Figs. 935-937. Structure of ordinary Dicotyledonous stems, to illustrate the appearances 
presented by some tertiary fossil woods. Fig. 935. Portion of a Dicotyledonous (Exo- 
genous) stem cut transversely. Natural size. Fig. 936. Section of the same magnified, 
to show the occurrence of large porous vessels. The ordinary Dicotyledons differ in this 
respect from Conifer. . Fig. 937. Longitudinal section of the same in the line a B, per- 
pendicular to the medullary plates, showing woody tissue and large pitted vessel, and the 
rays appearing here and there among the woody tissue. Fig. 938. Leaf of fossil Elm of 
the middle Tertiary epoch. Fig. 939. Leaf of Comptonia acutiloba, an Amentiferous 
plant of the same epoch. 


FLORA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 753 


spermous Dicotyledons and of Monocotyledons, more especially of 
Palms. By this it is distinguished from the more ancient periods. 
Angiosperms at this period greatly exceed Gymnosperms. Cycadaceze 
are yery rare, if not completely wanting, in the European Tertiary 
strata, and the Conifer belong to genera of the temperate regions, 


Fig. 941. 


In the lower Tertiaries, Carruthers has found a fossil Osmunda, In 
the Tertiary beds some of the Pines are found. The Cupressinez 
occur in the Tertiary beds only. Taxodiese are represented by 
Sequoia in the Cretaceous and Kocene shale. Peuce australis of Van 
Diemen’s Land and P. Pritchardi of Ireland are Tertiary plants. 
Isoetes is mentioned by Schimper as a Tertiary genus. Although the 
vegetation throughout the whole of the Tertiary period presents pretty 
uniform characters, still there are notable differences in the generic 
and specific forms, and in the predominance of certain orders at dif- 
ferent epochs. In the Eocene formation, the fossil fruits of the Isle 
of Sheppey increase the number of Phanerogamous plants, only a 
small proportion of which have as yet -been described. This is an 
exceptional locality, and is perhaps an example of the effects of cur- 
rents in conveying exotic plants from remote climates. 
The Eocenz epoch in general is characterised by the predomi- 
nance of Algz and marine Naiadacez, such as Caulinites and Zosterites ; 


Fig. 940. Section of a recent Palm stem, to show its structure. The dark dots marking 
vascular bundles in the midst of cellular tissue. Fig. 941. A portion of the same magni- 
fied, to show the vascular bundles. Fig. 942. Palmacites Lamanonis (Flabellaria litigiosa). 
Leaf of a Monocotyledon resembling a Palm. 


3¢ 


754 FLORA OF THE EOCENE AND MIOCENE EPOCHS. 


by numerous Conifers, the greater part resembling existing genera 
among the Cupressinexw, and appearing in the form of Juniperites, 
Thuites, Cupressites, Callitrites, Frenelites, and Solenostrobus ; by the 
existence of a number of extra-European forms, especially of fruits, 
such as Nipadites, Leguminosites, Cucumites, and Hightea ; and by 
the presence of some large species of Palm belonging to the genera. 
Flabellaria and Palmacites. Unger says that the Eocene flora has 
resembled in many respects that of the present Australian vegetation. 
He gives the following genera as occurring at the Eocene epoch :— 
Araucaria, Podocarpus, Libocedrus, Callitris, Casuarina, Pterocarpus, 
Drepanocarpus, Centrolobium, Dalbergia, Cassia, Ceesalpinea, Bauhinia, 
Copaifera, Entada, Acacia, Mimosa, Inga. Amber is considered to 
be the produce of many Conifers of this epoch, such as Peuce succini- 
fera or Pinites succinifera, and Pinus Rinkianus. It occurs in East 
Prussia in great quantity, and it is said that many pieces of fossil 
wood occur there, which, when moderately heated, give out a decided 
smell of amber. Connected with these beds are found cones belonging 
to Pinites sylvestrina and P. Pumilio, Miocene species nearly allied 
to the living Pinus; others to Pinites Thomasianus and P. brachy- 
lepis. Goeppert contrasts the present flora of Germany and that of 
the Amber epoch as follows :— 


German Flora. Amber Flora. 


Cryptogamez ‘ 6800 60 
Phanerogamee . 3454 102 
Cupuliferze r 12 10 
Ericacee 23 24 


In the Lower Eocene of Herne Bay, Carruthers found Osmundites 
Bowkeri. Berkeley has detected in amber fossil fungi, which he has 
named Penicillium curtipes, Brachycladium Thomasinum, and Strepto- 
thrix spiralis. Some Characez are also met with, as Chara medica- 
ginula and C. prisca, with a fossil called Gyrogonites, the nucule or 
the fructification of these plants. Carpolithes ovatus, a minute seed- 
vessel, occurs in the Eocene beds of Lewisham. It is probably allied 
to the sporangium of a fern. Another small fruit, of a similar nature, 
called Folliculites minutulus,. occurs in the Bovey Tracey coal, which 
belongs to the Tertiary beds. 

The most striking characters of the MiocENE epoch consist in the 
mixture of exotic forms of warm regions with those of temperate cli- 
mates, Unger says that it resembles that of the southern part of 
North America. Thus we meet with Palms, such as species of Fla- 
bellaria and Pheenicites, a kind of Bamboo called Bambusium sepul- 
tum, Lauracez, as Daphnogene and Laurus ; Combretacex, as Getonia 
and Terminalia ; Leguminosz, as Phaseolites, Desmodophyllum, Doli- 


FLORA OF THE MIOCENE EPOCH. 755 


chites, Erythrina, Bauhinia, Mimosites, and Acacia—all plants having 
their living representatives in warm climates; Echitonium, Plumiera, 
and other Apocynaces of equatorial regions, and Steinhauera, a Cin- 
chonaceous genus; mingled with species of Acer (Maple), Ulmus 
(Elm), (fig. 936), Rhamnus (Buckthorn), and Amentiferous forms, 
such as Comptonia (fig. 938), Myrica, Betula (Birch), Alnus (Alder), 
Quercus (Oak), Fagus (Beech), Carpinus (Hornbean), all belonging to 
temperate and cold climates. The statements as to the occurrence of 
Pinus sylvestris and Betula alba among the Miocene fossils have not 
been founded on complete data. It is by no means easy, even in the 
present day, to distinguish fragments of dried specimens of Pinus 
Pumilio from those of P. sylvestris, and from a great many other 
Pines. The difficulty is still greater in fossils, There are a very 
small number of plants belonging to orders with gamopetalous corol- 
las. As connected with the Miocene epoch, we may notice the leaf- 
beds found at Ardtun, in the island of Mull, by the Duke of Argyll. 
Above and below these beds basalt occurs, and there are peculiar tuff- 
beds alternating with the leafy deposits. These tuff-beds are either of 
volcanic origin, or are a conglomerate stratified deposit, altered in a 
metamorphic manner. The beds are associated with chalk and flints. 
The leaves are those of plants allied to the Yew, Rhamnus, Maple, 
Plane, and Alder, along with the fronds of a peculiar Fern, and the 
stems of an Equisetum. The genera are Taxites or Taxodites, Rham- 
nites, Platanites, Alnites, Filicites, and Equisetum. In the leaf-beds 
at Bournemouth Mr. Wanklyn detected several ferns. One is called by 
him Mertensites, and shows distinct venation and fructification. Fos- 
silised wood was found in the Arctic Regions by Captain M‘Clure. 
At the. N.W. of Banks’ Land he found trees with trunks 1 foot 7 
inches in diameter. 

The Arctic fossil flora (Miocene), according to Heer, amounts to 
162 species: Cryptogamia, 18 species, of which 9 are large ferns ; 
Phanerogamia, Conifer, 31; Monocotyledons, 14 ; Dicotyledons, 99. 
Among the Conifere are— Pinus M‘Clurii, Sequoia Langsdorfii, 
Sternbergii, and Couttsie, Taxodium dubium, Glyptostrobus Euro- 
“ peeus, Thuiopsis Europea. Among leafy trees are—Fagus Deuca- 
lionis, Quercus Olafsoni, Platanus aceroides, willows, beeches, Acer, 
Otopteryx, tulip-tree, walnuts, Magnolia Inglefieldi, Prunus Scottii, 
Tilia Malmgreni, Corylus M‘Quarrii, Alnus Kefersteinii, Daphnogene 
Kannii probably one of the Lauracez ; and among Proteacese ? Mac- 
Clintockia and Hakea. In Greenland are found species of Rhamnus, 
Paliurus, Cornus, Ilex, Cratzgus, Andromeda, Myrica, Ivy, and Vine. 
From the flora of Spitzbergen, in the Miocene epoch, we may conclude 
that under 79° N. lat. the mean temperature of the year was 41° 
Fahr., while at the same epoch that of Switzerland was 69°°8 Fahr., 
judging from the analogy of floras. It appears that for each degree of 


756 FLORA OF THE PLIOCENE EPOCH. 


latitude the mean temperature has fallen 0°9 F. From this it fol- 
lows that at Spitzbergen, at.78° N. lat., the mean temperature was 
41°-9 Fahr ; in Greenland, at 70°, it was 49°] Fahr. ; and in Iceland 
and on the Mackenzie, in lat. 65°, it was 52°7 Fahr. At the 
Miocene epoch the temperature was much more uniform, and the 
mean heat diminished much more gradually in proportion as the 
pole was approached. The isothermal line of 32° Fahr. fell upon 
the Pole, while now it is situated under 58° N. 

In speaking of the Polar flora of former epochs, Heer says, “‘ Every 
plant executes a slow and continuous migration. These migrations, 
the starting-point of which is the distant past, are recorded in the 
rocks ; and the interweaving of the carpets of flowers which adorn our 
present creation retraces them for us in its turn, For the vegetation 
of the present day is closely connected with that of preceding-epochs; 
and throughout all these vegetable creations reigns one thought, which 
not only reveals itself around us by thousands upon thousands of 
images, but strikes us everywhere in the icy regions of the extreme 
north. Organic nature may become impoverished there, and even 
disappear when a cold mantle of ice extends over the whole earth ; 
but where the flowers die the stones speak, and relate the marvels of 
creation ; they tell us that even in the most distant countries, and in. 
the remotest parts, nature was governed by the same laws and the 
same harmony as immediately around us.” 

The flora of the PLIocENE epoch has a great analogy to that of 
the temperate regions of Europe, North America, and Japan.’ We 
meet with Coniferee, Amentiferze, Rosacee, Leguminose, Rhamnacee, 
Aceracese, Aquifoliaceze, Ericacee, and many other orders. There is 
a small number of Dicotyledons with gamopetalous corollas. The 
twenty species with such corollas recognised by Brongniart are referred 
to the Hypogynous Gamopetalous group of Exogens, which in the 
general organisation of the flowers approach nearest to Dialypetale. 
In this flora there is the predominance of Dicotyledons in number and 
variety ; there are few Monocotyledons and no Palms. No species 
appear to be identical, at least with the plants which now grow in 
Europe. Thus the flora of Europe, even at the most recent geological 
epoch of the Tertiary period, was very different from the European 
flora of the present day. 

Taking the natural orders, which have at least four represent- 
atives, Raulin gives the following statement as to the Tertiary flora 
of Central Europe. The Eocene flora of Europe is composed of 128 
species, of which 115 belong to Algze, Characes, Pandanaces, Palme, 
Naiadacee, Malvacee, Sapindacem, Proteacer, Papilionacee, and 
Cupressines. The Miocene flora has 112 species, of which 69 be- 
long to Alge, Palme, Naiadaces, Apocynaces, Aceraces, Lauracee, 
Papilionacez, Platanacew, Quercinee, Myricacee, and Abietinee. 


. 


FLORA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD IN EUROPE. 757 


The Pliocene flora has 258 species, of which 226 belong to Algw, 
Fungi, Musci, Filices, Palme, Ericacee, Aquifoliacez, Aceracer, 
Ulmaceer, Rhamnacex, Papilionacer, Juglandacee, Salicacese, Quer- 
cine, Betulaces, Taxaceze, Cupressinee, and Abietinese. The Eocene 
species are included in genera which belong at the present day to 
inter-tropical regions, comprising in them India and the Asiatic islands 
of Australia. Some are peculiar to the Mediterranean region. The 
aquatic plants, which form almost one-third of the flora, belong to 
genera now peculiar to the temperate regions of Europe and of North 
America, or occurring everywhere. The Miocene species belong to 
genera, of which several are found in India, tropical America, and the 
other inter-tropical regions, but which for the most part inhabit the 
sub-tropical and temperate regions, including the United States. Some 
of the genera are peculiar to the temperate regions. The aquatic 
genera, poor in species, occur everywhere, or else solely in the temper- 
ate regions, The Pliocene species belong to genera which almost all 
inhabit the temperate regions either of the old continent or of the 
United States. A few only are of genera existing in India, Japan, 
and the north of Africa, These various floras, which present succes- 
sively the character of those of inter-tropical, “gub- tropical, and tem- 
perate regions, seem to indicate that central Europe has, since the 
commencement of the Tertiary period, been subjected, during the suc- 
cession of time, to the influence of these three different temperatures. 
It would appear, then, Raulin remarks, that the climate of Europe 
has during the Tertiary period gradually become more temperate. 
This may proceed either from a displacement of the earth’s axis, or 
from the gradual cooling of the earth, or from a different proportion 
of land and water. 

Brown coal occurs in the upper Tertiary beds, and in it vegetable 
structure is easily seen under the microscope. Goeppert, on examin- 
ing the brown coal deposits of northern Germany and the Rhine, 
finds that Coniferee predominate in a remarkable degree. Among 300 
specimens of bituminous wood collected in the Silesian brown coal 
deposits alone, only a very few other kinds of Exogenous wood occur. 
This seems remarkable, inasmuch as in the clays of the brown coal 
formation in many other places leaves of deciduous Dicotyledonous 
trees have been found ; and yet the stems on which we may suppose 
them to have grown are wanting. The leaves have been floated away 
from the place where they grew by a current of water, which was not 
powerful enough to transport the stems. The coniferous plants of 
these brown coal deposits belong to Taxineze and Cupressinez chiefly. 
Among the plants are Pinites protolarix and Taxites Ayckii. Many 
Conifere exhibit highly compressed very narrow annual rings, such 
as occur in those of northern latitudes. Goeppert has described a 
trunk, or rather the lower end of a trunk, of Pinites protolarix, dis- 


758 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 


covered in 1849 in the brown coal of Laasan in Silesia. It was found 
in a nearly perpendicular position, and measured more than 32 feet in 
circumference. Sixteen vast roots ran out almost at right angles from 
the base of the trunk, of which about four feet stood up perfect in 
form, but stripped of bark. Unfortunately the interior of the stem was 
almost entirely filled with structureless brown coal, so that only two 
cross sections could be obtained from the outer parts, one sixteen inches, 
the other three feet six inches broad. In the first section Goeppert 
counted 700, in the second 1300 rings of wood, so that for the half- 
diameter of 54 feet, at least 2200 rings must have existed. As there 
is every reason to believe that the rings were formed in earlier ages 
just as the annual zones are now, this tree would be from 2200 
to 2500 years old. Exogenous stems in lignite are often of great 
size and age. In a trunk near Bonn, Néggerath counted 792 
annual rings. In the turf bogs of the Somme, at Yseux near 
Abbeville, a trunk of an Oak-tree has been found above 14 feet in 
diameter. 

We have thus seen that the vegetation of the globe is represented 
by numerous distinct floras connected with the different periods of 
its history, and that the farther back we go the more are the plants 
different from those of the present day. There can be no doubt that 
there have been successive deposits of stratified rocks, and successive 
creations of living beings. We see that animals and plants have 
gone through their different phases of existence, and that their remains 
in all stages of growth and decay have been embedded in rocks super- 
imposed upon each other in regular succession. It is impossible to 
conceive that these were the result of changes produced within the 
limits of a few days. Considering the depth of stratification, and the 
condition and nature of the living beings found in the strata at various 
depths, we must conclude (unless our senses are mocked by the pheno- 
mena presented to our view) that vast periods have elapsed since the 
Creator in the beginning created the heavens and the earth. How 
far it may be possible in the future to correlate the history of the 
earth inscribed on its rocky tablets and deciphered by the geologist, 
and that short narrative which forms the introduction to the Sacred 
Volume, it is difficult to say. At present there are no satisfactory 
materials for such a correlation ; but one thing is certain, that both 
Revelation and Geology testify with one voice to the work of a Divine 
Creator. 

When we find animals and plants of forms unknown at the pre- 
sent day, in all conditions as regards development, we read a lesson 
in regard to the history of the earth’s former state as conclusive as that 
which is derived from the Nineveh relics (independent of Revelation) 
in regard to the history of the human race. There is no want of har- 
mony between Scripture and geology. The Word and the Works of 


ye 
WORKS ON FOSSIL BOTANY. 759 


God must be in unison, and the more we truly study both, the more 
they will be found to be in accordance. Any apparent want of corre- 
spondence proceeds either from imperfect interpretation of Scripture 
or from incomplete knowledge of science. The changes in the globe 
have all preceded man’s appearance on the scene. He is the charac- 
teristic of the present epoch, and he knows by Revelation that the 
world is to undergo a further transformation, when the elements shall 
melt with fervent heat, and when all the present state of things shall 
be dissolved, ere the ushering in of a new earth, wherein righteousness 
is to dwell, ; 


On the subject of Fossil Botany the following works may be con- 
sulted :— 


Argyll, Duke of, on Tertiary Leaf Beds in the Isle of Mull, Journ. Geol. Soc., 
May 1851. Balfour, on Vegetable Organisms in Coal, Trans. R.S.E., vol. xxi. ; 
Paleontological Botany, 1872. Bennett, on the Structure of Torbane Hill Mineral 
and other Coals, Trans. R. Soc. Ed., vol. xxi. p. 173. Binney, E. W., on Cala- 
mites and Calamodendron, Paleontographical Society’s Memoirs, 1868. Bower- 
bank, Fossils of the London Clay. Brongniart, Histoire des Végétaux Fossiles, 
1828-1844 ; Observations sur la Structure interieure du Sigillaria, etc., in Archives 
du Museum, i. 405; Exposition Chronologique des Periodes de Végétation, in 
Ann. des Sc. Nat., 3d series, Bot. xi. 285. Carruthers, on Gymnospermatous 
Fruits from the Secondary Rocks of Britain, Journ. Bot., Jan. 1867; on the 
Structure of the Stems of the Arborescent Lycopodiacex of the Céal Measures, 
Month. Microsc. Journ. i. 177; on The Cryptogamic Forests of the Coal Period, 
April 1869 ; on the Structure and Affinities of Sigillaria and Allied Genera, Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., Aug. 1869; on some Fossil Coniferous Fruits, Geol. Mag., 
vols. iii. vi. ; On Beania, a new genus of Cycadean Fruit, from the Yorkshire 
Oolites, Geol. Mag., vol. vi. ; on Plant-remains from the Brazilian Coal-beds, with 
Remarks on the genus Flemingites, Geol. Mag., vol. vi. ; on the Fossil Cycada- 
ceous Stems from the Secondary Rocks of Britain, Linn. Trans., xxvi. 675. 
Christison on Fossil Trees of Craigleith, Proc. R.S.E., 1873. Corda, Beitrige zur 
Flora der Vorwelt, Prag. 1845. Cotta, Dendrolithen. Dawson, on Vegetable 
Structures in Coal, Quarterly Journal Geological Society, 1860; on the 
Pre-Carboniferous Flora of New Brunswick and Eastern Canada, Canadian 
Naturalist, May 1861; on the Flora of the Devonian Period in North-Eastern 
America, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Nov. 1862 ; on an Erect Sigillaria and a Car- 
polite from Nova Scotia, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond. ; on Calamites, Ann. 
Nat. Hist., 4th ser., vol. iv. 272; on the Varieties and Mode of Preservation of 
the Fossils known as Sternbergie, Canadian Naturalist ; Acadian Geology, 1868. 
Ettinghausen, Beitrige zur Flora der Vorwelt in Abhandlungen der Geolog. Reich- 
sanstalt, Vienna, 1851. Forbes, on the Vegetable Remains from Ardtun Head, 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. vii. Giebel, Paleontologie. Goeppert, Die 
Gattungen der Fossilen Pflanzen, Bonn, 1841; Monographie des Fossilen Coni- 
feren, 1850; Systema Filicum Fossilium, Nova Acta, xvii. ; Ueber die Fossilen 
Cycadeen, Breslau, 1844; Erliuterung der Steinkohlen-Formation ; Die Fossile 
Flora der Permischen Formation, in Paleontographica, von Meyer, Cassel, 1864 ; 
Beitrage zur Kenntniss Fossilen Cycadeen, Breslau. Grand d’Eury, on Calamites 
and Asterophyllites, Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. iv. 124. Harkness, on Coal, 
Edin. Phil. Jour., July 1854. Heer, Flore Fossile des Regions Polaires, 1869, 
transl. Ann. Nat. Hist., 4th ser., p. 61. Hooker, on some Minute Seed-vessels 
(Carpolithes Ovulum, Brongniart) from the Eocene beds of Lewisham, Proceed. 


760 WORKS ON FOSSIL BOTANY. 


Geol. Soc., 1855 ; Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period, in Mem. of Geol. Sur- 
vey, ii. ; on a New Species of Volkmannia, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., May 
1854. King, on Sigillaria, etc., in Edin. New Phil. Journal, xxxvi. Lesquereux, 
on the Coal-Measures of America, Silliman’s Journal, 1863. Report of the Trial 
as to the substance called Torbane Mineral or Torbanite. Lindley and Hutton, 
Fossil Flora. Our Coalfields, by a Traveller under ground. Lowry, Table of the 
Characteristic Fossils of Different Formations. Nicholson, on the Occurrence of 
Plants in the Skiddaw Slates, Geol. Mag., vol. vi. Paterson, Description of 
Pothocites Grantoni, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. i. Penny Cyclopedia, vol. vii., 
Coal Plants. Pictet, Manual of Paleontology. Quekett, on the Minute Structure 
of Torbane Hill Mineral, Journ. Microsc. Sc., 1854. Raulin, Flore de l'Europe 
pendant la Période Tertiaire, in Ann. des Sc. Nat., 3d ser., x. 193. Redfern, on 
the Nature of the Torbane Hill and other Varieties of Coal, Brit. Assoc. Liver- 
pool, 1854. Saporta, Etudes sur la Végétation du Sud-Est de la France 4 
YEpoque Tertiaire, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, ser. 4, tome xvi. 309, xvii. 
191, xix. 5; ser. 5, tome iii. 5, iv. 5. Schimper, Traité de Paléontologie Végé- 
tale, 3 vols. 8vo, with folio plates. Tate, on the Fossil Flora of the Mountain 
Limestone Formation of the Eastern Borders, in connection with the Natural His- 
tory of Coal (in Johnston’s Eastern Borders). Unger, Genera Plantarum Fos- 
silium ; Chloris Protogea ; Le Monde Primitive (a work which contains picturesque 
views of the supposed state of the earth at different geological epochs). William- 
son, on the Structure and Affinities of the Plants hitherto known as Sternbergia, 
Sept. 1851 ; on a New Form of Calamitean Strobilus, from the Lancashire Coal 
Measures, Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, vol. iv., 3d series ; on the Structure 
of the Woody Zone of an Undescribed Form of Calamite, Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. 
Manchester, vols. iv. and viii., 83d series; on Zamia gigas (Williamsonia gigas), 
Linn. Trans. xxvi. 663 ; on the Organisation of Fossil Plants of the Coal-Measures, 
Phil. Trans. R.8.L., vols. 161-164. Witham, on the Structure of Fossil Vege- 
tables. M‘Nab, Dr., on the Structure of Calamites,.Ed. Bot. Soc. Trans., vol. xi. 
p. 487. Yates, on Zamia gigas, Proceed. Yorkshire Phil. Soc., Aspril1847. Besides 
geological treatises such as those of Ansted, Beudant, Jukes, Lyell, and others. 


APPENDIX. 


—+—. 


J.—On Tue Us oF THE Microscore IN BoTanicaL ResEARCHES. 


Tue Microscope is a most important instrument in education, and it 
is essential for the due understanding of the structure and physiology 
of plants. The study of the microscopical structure of organised 
bodies is termed Histology (iorés, a web or tissue, and Adyos, discourse). 
Dr. Carpenter remarks :—“‘ The universe which the microscope brings 
under our ken seems as unbounded in its limit as that whose remotest 
depths the telescope still vainly attempts to fathom. Wonders as 
great are disclosed in a speck of whose minuteness the mind can 
scarcely form any distinct conception, as in the most mysterious of 
those nebulz whose incalculable distance baffles our hopes of attaining 
a more minute knowledge of their constitution. And the general 
doctrines to which the labours of microscopists are manifestly tending, 
in regard to the laws of organisation and the nature of vital action, 
seem fully deserving to take rank in comprehensiveness and import- 
ance with the highest principles yet attained in physical or chemical 
science. It is by pursuing, by the aid which the microscope alone 
can afford to his visual power, the history of the organic germ, from 
the simple and homogeneous form which seems common to every kind 
of living being—either to that complex and most heterogeneous 
organism which is the mortal tenement of man’s immortal spirit, or 
only to that humble Protophyte or Protozoon, which lives, and grows, 
and multiplies, without showing any essential advance upon its em- 
bryonic type, that the physiologist is led to the grandest conception 
of the unity and all-comprehensive nature of that creative design, of 
which the development of every individual organism, from the lowest 
to the highest, is a separate exemplification, at once perfect in itself 
and harmonious with every other.” 

The microscope (mimeés, small, and oxoréw, I see) is an instrument 
for enabling the eye to see distinctly objects which are placed at a 
very short distance from it, or to see minute objects that would other- 
wise be invisible. It has been used with great success in the 
examination of vegetable structure. To it we are indebted fora 
knowledge of the various vessels and cells which enter into the com- 


762 LENSES OF VARIOUS KINDS. 


position of the different parts of plants, of the circulation of fluids, 
and of ciliary movements, as well as for the facts connected with the 
development of the embryo. It is an instrument, however, which 
requires to be used cautiously ; and the conclusions drawn from it 
ought to be carefully weighed, more especially when the observations 
have been made with high magnifying powers. 

Lunsres.—Before proceeding to notice the construction of simple 
and compound microscopes, it will be advantageous to notice the 
different kinds of lenses used, and the sources of error which require 
to be guarded against in their preparation. The chief forms of lenses 
used are the double-convex (fig. 943, 4), with two convex faces ; plano- 

Z conver (fig. 943, 3), with one face flat 
and the other convex; double-concave 
(fig. 943, 2), with two concave faces ; 
and plano-concave (fig. 943, 1), with 
one flat and one concave face. Some- 
times, also, a meniscus (fig. 943, 5) is 
used, with a concave and a convex face, 
and a sharp edge, and a concavo-convew (fig. 943, 6), with a concave 
and convex surface and flat edges. Convex lenses with sharp edges 
cause parallel rays to converge ; while concave lenses with flat edges 
cause them to diverge. The lenses used in microscopes are chiefly 
convex—the concave lenses being employed to make certain modifica- 
tions in the course of the rays passing through convex lenses, whereby 
their performance is rendered more exact. The magnifying power of 
a single lens is inversely as its focal length. The principal focus is 
the point to which parallel rays converge after refraction. The focal 
distance of a double convex lens is half that of a plano-convex lens, 
having the same curvature. In the use of ordinary lenses there are 
sources of error from the form of the lens and the nature of the 
material of which it is made. When parallel rays fall on a double- 
convex or a plano-convex lens, they are brought to a focus at a certain 
distance from the lens; but it is found that no lens with a spherical 
surface can bring the rays of light to the focus at one point. Hence 
arises what is called spherical aberration. In this kind of aberration 
the rays which pass through the lens near its circumference are 
brought to a focus nearer to the lens than those which pass through 
near the centre, hence the objects at the circumference of the field of 
the microscope are not in focus at the same time as those in the 
centre. Moreover, the different coloured rays of which white light 
is composed are unequally refrangible, the violet rays having the 
greatest and the red rays having the least degree of refrangibility ; a 


ZY 


Fig. 943. Different kinds of lenses—1, Plano-concave. 2, Double-concave. 3, Plano- 
convex. 4, Double-convex. 5, Meniscus. 6, Concavo-convex. 3, 4, 5, are sharp-edged 
lenses, and cause convergence. 1, 2, 6, are flat-edged, and cause divergence. 


SIMPLE AND COMPOUND MICROSCOPES, 763 


leng therefore breaks up a ray of white light into its constituent 
colours, so that a colourless object appears coloured. This is termed 
chromatic (xeéuc, colour) aberration. To remedy these defects certain 
combinations of glasses have been adopted, so that the light traversing 
one lens through the centre may pass through near the margin of 
another. The confusion produced by these aberrations may be greatly 
lessened by diminishing the pencil of light ; for instance, by employing 
a stop or diaphragm, which lessens the aperture of the lens and cuts 
off the peripheral rays. In lenses of low power, such as are used in 
the simple dissecting microscope, these aberrations do not cause much 
confusion. It is only when high powers are required that these 
abérrations must be done away with. The invention of Wollaston’s 
doublet with two lenses, and Holland’s triplet with three, was with the 
view of diminishing, as far as possible, these aberrations. They were 
aplanatic (a privative, rAavéw, I wander), i.e. they remedied spherical 
aberration, but coloured images were still produced. Their lenses were 
constructed of the same kind of material; and it was found that in 
order that lenses might present the object uncoloured, 
or be what is called achromatic (a, privative, and ypauc, 
colour), it was necessary to use two glasses of different 
refractive power. Achromatic lenses, or such as are nearly 
free from chromatic aberration, are constructed by placing 
together glasses of different dispersive powers, and of |\j 
different forms. The usual achromatic lens consists of [iM 
a double-convex lens, made of plate or crown glass, and ~ _ 
a plano-concave, made of flint-glass (fig. 944), fitted 
accurately to it, and cemented by Canada balsam. 
Microscorss are of two kinds+Simple and compound. By the 
Simple Microscope objects are viewed through a single lens, or through 
two or three lenses placed together, so as to form doublets or triplets. 
The glass is arranged so that it can be brought over the object, and 
adjusted, by means of a rack and pinion, or by some other contrivance, 
to its exact focal distance—the object, when opaque, being seen by 
light thrown from above, and when transparent, by light transmitted 
from below. This instrument, when used with single lenses or 
doublets, is the best for ordinary botanical investigations, more especi- 
ally for dissections. The combination of three lenses approaches too 
near the object to be easily used. A very high power may be obtained 
by doublets formed of plano-convex glasses, or by means of the lenses 
termed Coddington’s or periscopic, consisting of two hemispherical 
lenses,: cemented together by their plane faces, having a stop between 
them, or rather having a groove in the whole sphere filled with 
opaque matter. The chief objections to the simple microscope are 


Fig. 944. u, An achromatic and aplanatic lens, consisting of a double-convex lens of 
plate-glass, and a plano-concave of flint-glass. b, Section of the plano-concave lens. 


764 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE. 


the fatigue attendant on long-continued investigations, and the small 
field of view. In the simple microscope, glasses of the following 
focal lengths may be employed—viz., 1} inch, 3, 4, 4; and, if very 
minute objects are to be examined, of 1-1 0th, 1-30th, or 1-40th ofan inch. 

For examining minute plants, such as Diatomacee and Desmidi, 
during an excursion, it is useful to have a simple microscope similar 
to that represented in fig. 945. It consists of a Wollaston’s 
doublet, fixed in a round plano-concave brass disc (fig. 945, 1, a), 


LL 
Fig. 945. 2 


attached to a small brass handle (fig. 945, 1, 6). For ordinary botanical 
purposes a lens magnifying 65 to 70 diameters is enough; but the 
lenses may be procured with a power of 150 to 220 diameters, On 
the plane side of this brass disc there is a ring of silver (fig. 945, 1, ¢), 
in which a thin piece of glass is fixed, also supported by a brass 
handle, which acts as a spring, so as to keep the two rings in contact. 

Fig. 945 represents Dr. Gairdner’s portable simple’ microscope. In 1 there is given a 
front view of the instrument, showing the posterior silver ring, c, enclosing a piece of thin 
glass, separated and turned aside from the disc, a, containing the doublet, to which the 
eye of the observer is applied. 2 exhibits a lateral view of the instrument, with the screw, 


d,sby means of which the handles are separated or approximated, so as to bring the object 
into focus. 


COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 765 


In the handle of the first-mentioned disc there is a screw (fig. 945, 2, 
d), which passes through it, and by the motion of which the two 
handles can be separated or allowed to come close to each other. By 
this means an exact focal distance can be obtained. A drop of fluid 
containing Diatoms, or any minute object, is placed on the outside of 
the thin glass in the silver ring, and it is then covered by a similar 
piece of thin glass, which adheres by means of the fluid. The object 
being brought into focus, as in fig. 945, 2, the observer can distinguish 
the characters of the microscopic plant, so as to determine whether it 
is necessary to take specimens home for more careful examination by 
the compound microscope. 

In the Compound microscope there are two sets of lenses—the one 
called the object-glass or objective, the other the eye-piece or ocular. The 
first receives the rays from the object, and bringing them to new foci, 
forms an image, which the second treats as an original object, and mag~- 
nifies it just as the single microscope magnified the object itself. The 
image is inverted, but this may be remedied by making the rays pass 
through another set of lenses in the tube of the microscope, called an 
erector. In the construction of the object-glasses, great care is taken 
to render them achromatic. Those made by the most eminent Lon- 
don makers consist of two or three compound lenses, which cannot be 
used separately, but are fixed together in a tube. In the case of high 
powers, the object-glasses are also provided with an adjustment for 
the thickness of the glass covering the object to be viewed. This ad- 
justment makes up for the refraction caused by the passage of light 
through thin glass of different thickness, and is accomplished by 
altering the distance between the outer and middle pairs of lenses in 
the object-glass. This adaptation is especially necessary in the case 
of a glass with a large angle of aperture. The eye-piece, also, must 
be so formed as to be free from error. That used is called Huyghens’, 
and consists of two plano-convex lenses with their plane sides towards 
the eye, and placed at a distance apart equal to half the sum of their 
focal lengths, with a diaphragm inserted midway between the lenses. 
In this eye-piece, the lens next the eye is called the eye-glass, the 
other the field-glass. By the Huyghenian or negative eye-piece the 
object is seen inverted. The Ramsden or positive eye-piece consists 
of two plano-convex glasses, with the convex surfaces directed towards 
each other ; by it objects are seen erect, and it is often used as a 
micrometer eye-piece, that is, for measuring objects. The eye-pieces 
supplied with the best microscopes are usually three, and they are so 
constructed, that, with each of the object-glasses, they give a certain 
amplification of the object, the powers being in the proportion of 1, 2, 
and 38, or 1, 14, and 24. In the best microscopes there is also an 
achromatic condenser or eclairage, through which the light reflected 
from the mirror passes. The amplification by means of an eye-piece 


766 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE, 


in the compound microscope enables us to use an object-glass of a 
lower power than would otherwise be necessary. The compound 
microscope, when well constructed, gives a flat and colourless picture 
of the object, with clearness of definition. The observer can use it 
for a length of time with less fatigue than when employing the simple 
microscope. Weak eye-pieces and strong object-glasses are to be re- 
commended. The eye-piece does not add either clearness or distinctness 
to the object, and when it is very powerful the field of view becomes 
too small to take in the whole image formed by the object-glass ; for 
the magnitude of the field of view and the strength of the illumina- 
tion diminishes according to the magnifying power of the eye-piece 
employed. The lower powers are of use in searching for the object 
to be examined, which may thus be more easily found by a higher 
power. For the lower power a linear amplification of from 20 to 50 
diameters, and for a higher power a linear amplification of from 300 
to 500 diameters at most, will give a sufficiently wide range of powers. 
The powers are increased 
by a more powerful eye- 
piece or object-glass, or by 
both, or by lengthening 
the tube of the microscope. 
In examining vegetable 
structures, an instrument 
magnifying 150 to 200 
diameters is usually suffi- 
cient ; but in some instan- 
ces higher powers are re- 
quired. Achromatic object- 
lenses of 14, 3, and 4 of an 
inch focal length are recom- 
mended as the most essen- 
tial; and two eye-pieces 
should be provided, one of 
\ about 14 and the other of 
4} 24 inches in length. The 
instrument should have 
both a coarse and a fine 
adjustment; and it is of 
importance that it should 
: = be made to incline or to 
Fig. 946. stand vertical, A movable 
stage is also useful, and a 
spring-holder to fix the objects on the stage, so that the different parts 
of the object may be viewed without being touched by the fingers. 
Fig. 946. Ordinary compound microscope. 


COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 767 


In figure 946 a compound microscope is represented. The stand or 
base consists of a strong tripod, a, supporting two upright pillars, bb, 
between the upper parts of which an axis works. This carries the 
whole of the optical parts of the instrument, which can be adjusted to 
any inclination, horizontal, vertical, or intermediate. The stage, d e, 
is firmly attached to the axis, as is also the double mirror, f The 
triangular bar, g, has a rack on its posterior part, which is worked by a 
pinion, the milled heads of which are seen at h h. The body, ¢, 
screws firmly into the arm, j ; the achromatic object-glasses are screwed 
into the body atm; the Huyghenian eye-piece slides into the other 
end of the body. The mirror is plane on one side, and concave on the 
other, and is fitted with a universal movement, so as to be inclined 
in any desired position. The milled heads, h h, by being revolved, 
raise or lower the body, 7, and constitute the coarse adjustment ; the 
fine adjustment is effected by turning the milled head, p. The object 
to be examined is placed on the stage, d, and retained in the required 
position by the sliding piece, e. The quantity of light admitted through 
the instrument may be modified by the diaphragm, r, which consists 


Fig. 947. 
Fig. 947. Hartnack’s (Oberhauser’s) student’s microscope. 


768 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 


of a plate of brass with four apertures of different diameters, made to 


Fig. 949. 
revolve on a central pin or axis fixed to the bottom of the stage. 


Figs. 948 and 949 represent Gruby’s portable compound microscope one-half its real 
size. Fig. 948. The instrument in its case. Fig. 949. The instrument mounted. A full 
description is given by Dr. Bennett in the Edinburgh Monthly Medical Jowrnal for December 
1846. 


COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 769 


Provision is also made for adding a polarising apparatus. In addition 
to the four holes mentioned as needed to admit the requisite amount 
of light, the diaphragm is furnished with a fifth hole, into which a 
Nicol’s prism may be screwed, forming the polariser ; the analyser being 
screwed into the upper part of an adapter previously to its being 
attached to the body, 7. The polariser is mounted on a double tube, so 
as to be capable of being evolved by turning a large milled head at the 
bottom. A condensing lens for illuminating opaque objects may be 
fitted into the hole at the corner of the stage ; it is so arranged that 
it can be used in any required position or angle. Among the objects 
often: furnished with the microscope is a plate of selenite, which, 
if laid under many animal and vegetable structures while being ex- 
amined by polarised light, will cause them to assume beautiful colours. 
By means of a Binocular microscope objects may be seen in relief. 
Very good microscopes for students are made by Smith and Beck in 
London, and by Nachet and Hartnack in Paris. One of the latter 
is shown in figure 947. The figure is one-fourth of the real size of 
the instrument. The body consists of a telescope tube eight inches 
in length, held by a split tube three inches long. It may be elevated 
or depressed by the hand by a cork-screw movement, and this con- 
stitutes the coarse adjustment. It is attached to a cross-bar and pil- 
lar, at the lower portion. of the latter of which there is a fine adjust- 
ment screw. The stage is three inches broad and two and a half 
inches deep, with a circular diaphragm below it. The base of this 
portable instrument is loaded with lead so as to give it steadiness. 
A similar instrument is made by Nachet, in which there is a broader 
stage and a broader base, as well as a means of inclining the body of the 
instrument. The following are the magnifying powers, in diameters 
linear, of Nachet’s compound achromatic microscope for students :—* 


OBJECTIVES OcuLars (EYE-PIEcEs). 
(OBJECT- - 
GLASSES) 1 2 3 
“4 70 90 140 
3 190 250 400 
5 280 360 600 


As a portable compound microscope is sometimes wanted by a student, 
Dr. Bennett has given the accompanying figures of one recommended 
by Gruby of Paris. In fig. 948 the instrument is shown in its Case, 


* The price of the instrument, with all these powers, is 190 francs, exclusive of duty and 
carriage ; without No. 2 ocular, and No, 5 objective, it is 150 francs. 


3D 


770 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 


and in 949 it is mounted. The woodcuts are exactly one-half the real 
size, and give a good idea of the instrument, a detailed description of 
which is not required. In fig. 950 a representation is given of one of 
Smith and Beck’s microscopes for students. A is the brass stand, sup- 
ported firmly on three feet, and having two upright flat cheeks, to the 
top of which the stage-plate, d, is fixed. Into the stage-plate is 
screwed an upright round tube, 

to which is attached an open 
tube, g, in which the body of 
the instrument, fh, slides. By 

moving the body up and down 
in this tube, the coarse adjust- 
ment is effected, and when the 
instrument is brought near to 
the object on the stage-plate, 

d, a finer adjustment is made 

by means of the screw with the 

milled head, ¢, which either 

raises or depresses the part by 

which g is attached to the up-- 
right tube. The mirror is re- 

presented at 6, supported on 

trunnions, and capable of mo- 

tion upwards or downwards, so 

as to reflect the light on the 

object placed on the stage- 

plate ; cis the diaphragm or 

stop, or perforated plate attached to the stage, with the view of 
shutting off the extreme rays of light. The object-glass or objective 

is placed at the lower end of the instrument, f, and the eye-piece or 

ocular at the upper part, h. 

In fig. 951 a diagram is given to explain the mode in which the 
compound microscope acts. In this figure, o is the object, above 
which is seen the triple achromatic object-glass or objective, consisting 
of three achromatic lenses, which are combined in one tube ; ¢c is the 
eye-piece or ocular, consisting of two plano-convex lenses, one at ¢, 
being the eye-glass, and the other at c, the field-glass. Three rays of 


Fig. 950. 


Fig. 950. Smith and: Beck’s compound microscope for students. A, brass stand, sup- 
ported on three feet ; b, mirror supported on trunnions ; c, diaphragm ; d, stage-plate on 
which the object is placed ; e, screw with milled head for fine adjustment ; g, brass tube in 
which the body of the instrument is moved, so as to effect the coarse adjustment ; f, the 
object-glass or objective; h, the eye-piece or ocular. Fig. 951. Diagram to show the 
mode in which the compound microscope acts. O, an object, with three rays of light from 
its centre, and three from each of its ends; ec, eye-piece, consisting of two plano-convex 
lenses—one at e, the eye-glass, the other at c, the field-glass ; 6, diaphragm ; a, the point 
where an image would be formed if the rays were not made to converge by the lens ¢. 


MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS, 71 


light are represented as proceeding from the centre of the object, and 
three from each end of it. These rays, if uninterrupted, would form 
an image of the object at a, but owing to the interposition of the 
field-glass c, they are refracted so as to converge and meet at b, 
where the diaphragm is placed to intercept all light except what is 
necessary for the formation of a perfect image. The image formed at 
b is viewed as an original object by the observer through the eye- 
glass e. 

Microscopic APPARATUS.—In measuring the size of microscopic 
objects, a micrometer (wineds, small, and mérgov, a measure) is em- 
ployed. The stage micrometer consists of a piece of glass, ruled with 
fine lines by means of a diamond point, at some known distance apart, 
such as the rtcth, or rsvth, or réscth of an inch. A mode of ascer- 
taining the magnifying power of the compound microscope is founded 
on the assumption that the naked eye sees most clearly and distinctly 
at the distance of ten inches. If a divided scale be placed on the 
stage, and distinctly seen magnified through the instrument, let a rule 
be held at ten inches’ distance from the right eye, while the observer 
uses, at the same time, his left eye in looking at the other scale 
through the microscope, and let the rule be gently moved so that it is 
seen to overlap or lie by the side of the magnified picture of the other 
scale,—a comparison as to how many of its known divisions corre- 
spond with a number of those on the magnified scale will indicate 
the magnifying power. Upon a similar principle a pair of compasses 
may be substituted, whose points being placed on the stage are sepa- 
rated till they cover or mark off so many spaces as magnified by the 
instrument. If they cover one magnified space, and correspond to 2, 
3, or more, known spaces on the rule, then the instrument is said to 
magnify 2, 3, or more times linear that known space. If roth of an 
inch is found to cover 2 inches on the rule, the instrument magnifies 
200 times ; if 3 inches, 300 times ; if 4 inches, 400 times, and so on. 
In this way is determined the magnifying power of any combination 
of lenses, and the scale which is magnified is called a stage-micrometer. 
The size of objects may be measured by placing them directly on this 
micrometer ; but it is obvious that they cannot under high powers be 
brought into focus at the same time as the lines of the micrometer. 
An instrument called the eye-piece micrometer is therefore generally 
used. It consists of a fine scale, ruled on glass, and placed in the 
focus of the upper glass of the eye-piece. The value of each space of 
the eye-piece micrometer varies with the magnifying power of the 
object-glass which is placed on the microscope ; e.g., suppose we look 
at rdvoth inch space of the stage micrometer with a magnifying power 
of 250 diameters, and find that the space thus magnified extends over 
5 spaces of the eye-piece micrometer, the value of each space of the 
latter will obviously be scccth inch when a power of 250 diameters is 


772 MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS. 


used. If a lower object-glass were taken—e. g., one which magnifies 
50 diameters, it would then be found that the resoth inch space of 
the stage micrometer is equal to only one space of the eye-piece 
micrometer, so that, with this magnifying power, each space of the 
latter indicates z¢octh inch, These calculations have to be made for 
the magnifying powers of every microscope. When an object is to be 
measured, the stage micrometer is removed, and the object, placed on 
a slide and covered in the usual manner, is brought into focus, say, 
with a power of 250 diameters. If the object extends over 5 spaces 
of the eye-piece micrometer, its breadth would evidently be reco inch. 
In using the eye-piece micrometer, the marked side of the glass is 
put undermost. Hartnack’s eye-piece micrometer is the best. With 
this instrument, when using -a magnifying power of 500 or 600 
diameters, we can estimate distances from svvoth to réssth of an inch 
with tolerable precision. Other kinds of eye-piece micrometers are 
also employed, such as the cobweb micrometer, where, by the motion 
of a delicate screw, fine wires, extended across the field of vision, can 
be separated from each other to known distances. 

In delineating minute structures, it is useful to have the image 
thrown on paper by means of a camera-lucida, or small prism, which 
can be easily attached to the microscope. The microscopist sometimes 
uses a compressorium, for the purpose of applying pressure to objects 
whilst they are under examination ; troughs for holding such plants as 
Chara, which are to be seen in water; while various instruments for 
the dissection and examination both of animal and vegetable struc- 
tures are indispensable accessories. In testing the power of an in- 
strument, certain objects are used, in which peculiar markings occur, 
which can only be properly seen by a fine instrument. Either artifi- 
cial or natural objects may be chosen as test-objects. The former have 
been prepared by Nobert, a Konigsberg optician, and consist of glass 
plates, on which are ruled, with a diamond, systems of a hundred lines, 
which, 10 by 10, approach closer together and are finer, according to 
a definite standard. With most instruments only the 6th and 7th 
systems can be distinctly made out to be composed of separate lines. 
Superior instruments reach the 8th and 9th. No instrument has yet 
reached the 10th system, with its component lines. The best test- 
objects are the natural ones, as being regular and uniform in their 
markings, such as the scales of Podura plumbea or common Spring- 
tail, of Lepisma saccharina or sugar-louse, and the minute markings 
of the Diatomacez, as Pleurosigma Hippocampus. Certain markings 
oceur in these test-objects, which can only be seen properly by good 
microscopes. 

Microscopic Manipunation.—In viewing objects under the 
microscope they must be placed on slips or slides of glass, which 
should be of a uniform size, not less than three inches by one ; and 


MICROSCOPIC MANIPULATION, 773 


they should be covered with round or square pieces of very thin 
glass, doth to rtcth of an inch thick. The slides ought to be made 
of thin plate-glass, and the covers of very thin crown or plate glass. 
In examining recent vegetable structures, it is best to moisten 
them with water, When the parts are dry, thin sections may be 
made either by means of slicing instruments or by a sharp knife. 
Many dry objects are well seen when immersed in Canada balsam. 
To preserve objects in a moistened state, the substances used 
are alcohol, a mixed solution of salt and alum and corrosive sub- 
limate, water containing a small quantity of creasote (five drops 
to the ounce), and glycerine. The objects, in such instances, are 
placed in shallow glass cells, or they are laid on the slides and covered 
with thin glass, which is cemented by means of japanner’s gold size, 
or black japan varnish. The methods of procedure are afterwards 
described. 

In proceeding to use the microscope it is necessary to have a 
variety of tools and apparatus to aid in preparing objects for investi- 
gation. These may be arranged beside the observer in such a way 
that they shall be always within his reach.* A small tray or box, 
with divisions, containing a pair of needles in handles (such as are 
used: for crotchet needles), a sharp knife or razor, a section-knife 
(such as- that invented by Valentine, and which bears his name), 
scissors, and a pair of sharp or fine needle-pointed forceps, about three 
inches long, are among the most essential instruments required. Glass 
slides may be arranged also upon the same tray for common use, and 
the thin glasses for covers should be kept in a small box by themselves. 
In manipulating the object to be examined certain re-agents are re- 
quired. These are:—1. Distilled water. 2. Methylated alcohol un- 
diluted, and also diluted in the proportion of about 1 part to 10 of 
distilled water ; it is the best preserving agent ; it removes colour and 
also air, 3. Ether, which dissolves resins, fats, and oils. 4. A 
solution of liquor potasse diluted to about 1 to 20; it swells up, 
and sometimes separates membranes of cells and tubes when they 
exist in condensed layers. 5. A solution of iodine in iodide of potas- 
sium of the following strength—namely, 1 grain of iodine to 3 grains 
of iodide of potassium, and an ounce of distilled water. 6. Chromic 
acid diluted in the proportion of about 1 to 30 or 40 of distilled water. 
The last two re-agents chiefly act by colouring the cell-walls or the 
contents of the cells. 7%. Sulphuric acid. 8. Oil, such as the finest 
of that obtained from coal, and known as mineral ‘oil, is to be recom- 
mended for examining and preserving objects. It does not become 
rancid, nor has it any affinity for oxygen. For the examination of 
pollen and spores there is nothing better. 9. One part of dry calcium 


* The following details are partly condensed from Schacht’s Treatise on the Microscope, 
and from the works of Hannover, Quekett, Jabez Hogg, and Beale. 


774. MICROSCOPIC RE-AGENTS, 


chloride and 3 of water make also an excellent solution for preserving 
objects which do not contain starch. 10, Glycerine is the best pre- 
servative agent for cells containing starch. 11. Solution of Canada 
balsam (see Preservation of Microscopic Objects, page 783); and 12. 
Turpentine, are most useful re-agents and preservative materials for 
many dry preparations. 13. Nitric acid, used for separating cells. 14. 
Dilute hydrochloric acid may also be found useful in removing deposits 
of carbonate of lime. 15. Pyroligneous acetic acid. 16. A solution 
of carbonate of potass or soda. These sixteen substances should be 
arranged in stoppered glass bottles (excepting the Canada balsam, 
which should be placed in a corked bottle), fitting into a stand or 
box, so as to be of easy access; and small camel’s hair brushes, 
pipettes, and glass rods, should be arranged beside these bottles, in 
order to apply the fluid to the object. Lastly, the student should 
provide himself with a small note-book of good drawing-paper, on 
which he ought constantly to practise the delineation of the forms or 
outlines of the objects seen, and he should endeavour to colour them 
also when required, 

Numerous other requisites and appliances will suggest themselves 
during the course of investigations, and especially such as will secure 
cleanliness of the object, and of everything used in the research. 1. 
One who has any regard for his instrument will never suffer it or its 
lenses to be handled by those unaccustomed to their use. 2. The 
microscope, when not in use, must be kept under cover, generally 
under a glass shade. It should never be exposed in a chemical 
laboratory. 3. Its lenses must be cleansed when necessary by soft 
wash-leather, or a cloth which is used only for that purpose. The 
cloth best adapted for this purpose is old and frequently washed 
linen. 4, A separate cloth of a coarser kind is to be used for drying 
and wiping the slides and covers. 5. Covers of a middle size, from 
concave disks, such as watch-glasses, up to the size of a wine-glass 
without the stem, or other bell-shaped jars, are also required to 
protect the objects, if it is necessary to leave them for any length 
of time. 

The microscope is used to best advantage in a room which re- 
ceives its light from the north or west, or both. The light which is 
reflected from a white and motionless cloud opposite to the sun is the 
best that can be obtained. If gas-light is to be used, it ought to be 
softened by passing it through a blue glass shade before reaching the 
mirror ; but for exact: observation, daylight is always to be preferred. 
When observations are made at night a sperm-oil lamp is used, and 
the light is transmitted to the mirror through a plano-convex lens, 
called a condenser. To correct the unpleasant glare attendant on the 
reflected light from an ordinary mirror, Mr. Handford makes a mirror 
of thin concave glass, three inches in diameter, the back rendered 


DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE MICROSCOPE. 775 


white by plaster of Paris, This is mounted on brass, and fitted over 
the frame of the ordinary silvered mirror, thus not requiring the 
latter to be removed. The advantage is, that the whole rays reflected 
from the surface of plaster of Paris are brought into one focus, together 
with those reflected from the surface of the glass, and thus an equal 
and brilliant light is, produced. In viewing opaque objects, the light 
is thrown by the condenser directly on the object, and sometimes a 
metallic speculum, called a Lieberkuhn, is connected with the object- 
glass, by means of which an additional supply of light is obtained. 
In conducting microscopic observations great steadiness of the in- 
strument is required, which should accordingly be set upon a very 
firm and sufficiently large table, so that all the apparatus hitherto 
mentioned shall be within reach of the observer. It is proper also to 
begin the examination of objects with the lower magnifying powers, 
and to pass gradually from them to the use of the higher powers. 
By such means a far larger portion of the object is seen, and a more 
correct idea is obtained of the relations of the parts when considered 
as a whole. Object-glasses, varying from 30 to 50 diameters, are the 
best to begin with. The eye-glass of lowest power, that is, the longest 
one of the series, is also the one which ought generally to be used 
in the first instance, and as {long as the power can be increased by 
object-glasses of greater magnifying power, any more powerful eye- 
piece should not be used, for it must be remembered that the eye- 
piece merely magnifies an image produced by the object-glass. If, 
therefore, there be any defect in the image, it is magnified by the 
eye-piece. 


Directions by Smith and Beck for using the Compound Microscope. 


Before using the microscope, see that the mirror, object-glass, and 
eye-piece, are free from dust :—a little soft wash-leather should be 
used in cleaning these. The instrument should be placed on a steady 
table to avoid vibration. The best position for examination by day- 
light is with the window to the left hand, and the back partly turned 
toward the window, so that the light may fall directly upon the 
mirror, and not upon the observer’s face. At night, when a lamp is 
used, a shade should be placed if possible before the lamp, so as to 
screen the eyes from its glare. The nearer the observer can approach 
the window by day, and the closer the lamp can be brought towards 
the mirror at night (say from fifteen to twenty inches), the better ; as 
all the light that can be obtained is required for high magnifying 
powers ; and if too intense for some objects, can be easily modified by 
the mirror. When the microscope has a joint to the stand, it should 
generally be used with the body in an inclined position—at an angle 
of about 45°, this being much more convenient for the observer, and 


776 ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 


not so liable to injure the eye by overstraining it. The management 
of light, either natural or artificial, is of the greatest importance in 
microscopic observations. Ths may be regulated by altering the position 
of the mirror under the stage; the proper adjustment of which will soon 
be acquired by a little practice and observation. In adjusting the 
microscope for use, first place it in its proper position, and screw or 
slide on a low-powered object-glass, then look through the tube, and 
incline the mirror towards the light, moving it about until a clear bright 
light zs seen. The object may then be placed upon the stage and the 
focus adjusted by the rack movement. In examining any fresh object 
the lowest magnifying power should be first used, as a larger portion 
of it can be thus viewed at once, and a better general idea of its form, 
colour, etc., obtained. Afterward the higher powers may be employed, 
in order to reveal its minute structure. 

In viewing very delicate transparent objects, as fossil infusoria, 
thin vegetable and animal tissues, blood and milk globules, etc., a 
good clear light should be used, but the mirror should be inclined on 
one side more than usual, that the object may appear less brightly cllumi- 
nated. This is what is termed “oblique illumination ”—the rays of 
light being reflected from the mirror, through the object, in an oblique 
direction, by which many delicate markings may be observed on some 
objects which could not be distinguished before, and the outline also 
rendered more distinct. 

In examining opaque objects, a low magnifying power should be 
used, and the light thrown wpon the object by means of the “ Con- 
denser,” which should be placed within two inches of it, and so 
arranged that a small circle of bright light may be seen upon the spot 
to be examined. When viewing objects in a drop of water, or 
examining a drop of any other liquid, a slip of thin glass should 
always be laid over it ; otherwise the liquid will evaporate, and con- 
densing on the object-glass, will render it dim. 

Sources oF Errors or OBSERVATION.—Extraneous or accidental 
objects may be present, and may be derived from various sources. 
Thus, water too long used may bring before the eye both plants and 
animals of the lowest forms, which otherwise would not have been 
present. Fresh water is absolutely necessary. Particles of dust, or 
fibres from the cloths used in cleaning the glasses, may also add to 
the confusion. These consist, generally, of fibres of paper, linen, 
woollen, cotton, or silk fabrics, or minute hairs from the brushes used 
in manipulation. Air-bubbles are almost invariably a source of con- 
fusion to the microscopic observer in his first attempts ; but once seen 
and studied, they no longer distract the attention, and the microscopist 
soon gets into the habit of disregarding their presence. When seen 
by transmitted light they generally appear in the form of circles of 
larger or smaller diameter, with a dark rim surrounding them ; while 


CAUSES OF ERRORS, Vit 


with reflected light their rim appears white. Pressure under a 
glass cover may cause them to assume very irregular shapes, but pos- 
sessing the same properties in their margin or outline in their be- 
haviour with the light. It is also necessary to become familiar with 
the appearances of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life, such, 
for instance, as the common forms of infusoria ; also the yeast, and such 
like plants; and the different forms of mould. A peculiar motion, 
known as “ Brownian motion,” is also a phenomenon which must be 
recognised. It is peculiar to all very small particles when they float 
in a very thin fluid medium. It is well seen in the fine granules of 
milk when mixed with water, and in the milky juices of plants. 
A magnifying power of 400 or 500 diameters is the best for this ob- 
servation. The eye itself is a source of deception, inasmuch as the 
phenomena known as “ musce volitantes” appear as if they were 
objects seen by the microscope. These are described as follows by 
Dr. W. Mackenzie in his Treatise on the Eye :— 

“The vision of objects on the surface or in the interior of the eye 
has attracted attention, chiefly in relation to a symptom to which the 
name of musce volitantes has been given. Any spectrum or visual 
appearance which is apt to impose on the mind, and lead one to think 
that flies are moving before the eye, is called a musca volitans (fig. 
952). . 
, The condition comprehends those sensations which arise from— 
1. The layer of mucus and tears on the surface of the cornea; 2. 
Corpuscles between the external surface of the cornea and the focal 
centre of the eye; 3. Corpuscles between the focal centre of the eye 
and the sensitive layer of the retina. 

“ In hanging the head over the microscope, especially if one is 
affected with catarrh at the time, the globules, by gravitating to the 
centre of the cornea, not unfrequently appear to the observer so as to 
impede his view of the object, till by the act of nictitation he clears 
them away. In telescopic observations, also, the muco-lacrymal 
spectrum is apt to prove a source of annoyance. Thus, in looking at 
the sun through a tinted glass, the observer may be unable to dis- 
tinguish the spots on that body, being perplexed by what seems the 
reflection of some part of his own eye interposed between it and the 
sun. This is caused by the layer of mucus and tears on the surface 
of the cornea, 

“ Tf one looks at the flame of a candle two or three feet distant, 
or at the sky, through a hole made in a blackened card with the point 
of a fine needle, or through a convergent lens of short focus, such as 
the eye-glass of a compound microscope, on steadily regarding the 
luminous field presented to view, four sets of spectra will be seen 
(fig. 952), independent of the muco-lacrymal spectrum. The most 
remarkable appears nearest to the eye, and consists of twisted strings 


778 CAUSES OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS. 


of minute pearly globules, hung across the field of view (fig. 952 a). 
The second in point of remarkableness, and the farthest of the four 
from the eye, consists of watery-like threads, destitute of any globular 
appearance, and depending chiefly from the upper part of the field 
(fig. 952). I call the former the pearly spectrum, and the latter the 
watery spectrum. In two distinct planes, between those occupied by 
these two spectra, float two 
sets of globules, not aggre- 
gated into threads, but insu- 
lated. These constitute what 
I call the ‘insulo-globular 
spectra, The individual glo- 
bules of the set farther from 
the eye, being hazy and ill- 
defined, may be compared in 
appearance to small grains of 
sago (fig. 952 ¢). The globules 
of the set nearer to the eye 
are clear in the centre, ex- 
teriorly to which they present 
a sharp black ring, and still 
more exteriorly a lucid cir- 
cumference (fig. 952 d). 
Fig. 952. These four sets of spectra 
never mingle with one ano- 
ther, so as to change the order in which they stand before the eye; 
but the pearly spectrum always appears the nearest ; then the sharply- 
defined insulo-globular ; then the obscurely defined globules ; and 
farthest away the watery threads. 

“ Almost every eye, even the most healthy, and which has never 
attracted the possessor’s attention by musce volitantes, exhibits the 
pearly spectrum, on being directed towards a luminous field, through 
a fine pin-hole, the eye-glass of a compound microscope, or 4 convex or 
concave lens of short focus. I have given it the same name of the 
pearly spectrum, from its resemblance to a string of pearls. Prevost 
had already called it apparence perlée, or simply perles, 

“The lines of the pearly spectrum are hung across the field of 
vision as often transversely as vertically. On first directing the eye 
towards the luminous field, in one or other of the methods just men- 
tioned, perhaps only a very few small pearly globules are perceived ; 
but after steadily regarding it for a short time, numerous strings of 
them are discovered, generally twisted in different forms, and present- 
ing a variety of knots, loops, and agglomerations. Sometimes they 


‘ Fig. 952. Four sets of spectra, which are apt to cause errors in observations with the 
microscope. 


FOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF MICROSCOPE. 779 


are so numerous as to form an extensive shower or cloud. The pearly 
threads are of different lengths ; some of them very short, others 
stretching across the whole field. Not unfrequently some of them end 
abruptly in a sort of bulb. The globules or pearls forming the threads 
or rosaries’seemed joined together merely by apposition, without being 
contained in any tube. Sometimes, however, the globules are rather 
indistinct, and then the threads approach to a tubular appearance. 
The globules are always in single rows. They appear destitute of any 
nucleus. They are not all of one diameter, but are all smaller than 
the globules of the insulo-globular spectra. I have not satisfied myself 
that all the pearly threads occupy the same plane, although it is very 
evident that they are behind the insulo-globular spectra. 

“That portion of the pearly spectrum which appears in the centre 
of the field of view has but little real motion, less perhaps than the 
watery spectrum which is seen beyond it. Both partake, of course, 
in the motion of the eyeball ; and this gives to both a wide apparent 
motion. But if the field be examined towards its circumference, or if 
the eye be suddenly rotated upwards, other pearly spectra appear, 
which it is difficult or impossible for the observer to bring directly 
before him ; and which, when he succeeds in some measure in doing 
so, quickly subside again out of view, partly by a real motion of their 
own, partly by a wide apparent motion, owing to their obliquity in 
respect to the axis of vision. It is these last spectra, chiefly, which 
produce the pearly muscz volitantes.” 

There are also various optical phenomena caused by refraction, and 
which are necessary to be attended to. They depend, for the most 
part, upon a bad adjustment of the focus, or illumination of the object. 
The appearances are also most frequently associated with an increase 
of the magnifying power, and especially with the use of powerful eye- 
glasses. Large grains of potato-starch, pollen-grains, the thickened 
substance of woody tubes, and the cells of cartilage, are among the 
most common objects which exhibit such optical phenomena, which 
consist in a feeble and generally yellowish colouring of the edges of 
the objects when seen with particular foci. 

FocaL ADJUSTMENT oF THE Microscopr.—The regulation of 
this adjustment is based on the fact that the microscope can only 
afford a view of one surface of an object at any given time, so that 
nothing is distinctly seen which lies above or below such a focal plane 
at that time; and the more flat the field of vision, the clearer and 
better will be the view of objects in that plane if the adjustment is 
correct. The more perfect the object-glass, and the greater the angle 
of aperture,* the more exact is this focal plane, and the more sensitive 


* The angle of aperture is that made by two lines from opposite ends of the aperture of 
the object-glass with the point of focus of the lens. A glass with a large angle of aperture 
shows objects clearly. The angle varies usually from 50° to 100°. Many glasses, however, 
are made with a much higher angle. Ross makes glasses of 170° of angular aperture. 
These are useful for observing minute organisms, such as Diatoms. 


780 MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS, 


is the instrument to any small alteration of focus. The focal adjust- 
ment is made and varied by what is called a fine adjustment screw ; 
and the accurate adjustment of the object is judged of by the sharp- 
ness of the delineation of the image, as well as by the fineness and 
clearness of the outline. An experienced microscopic observer always 
uses the instrument with his finger and thumb grasping the fine 
adjustment screw, and would not be content. with his observation, 
although it was limited to a mere peep of the object, unless he had 
made the fine focal adjustment for himself. 

PREPARATION AND SELECTION OF OBJECTS FOR EXAMINATION. 
—Opaque objects require merely to be made smooth or level on one 
side, and to be fixed on the other. If the object is to be viewed by 
transmitted light, a section or slice sufficiently thin must be procured, 
a common sharp scalpel or razor are the instruments to use. The object 
must be moistened with water, and sometimes it is advisable to make 
the section under water. If the object is very small it may be em- 
bedded in solid paraffin (an ordinary paraffin candle), by melting it 
and pouring it over the object, and allowing it to cool; or it may be 
embedded in gum arabic in the following manner :—Make a cone of 
blotting paper about the size of the end of the finger, half fill it with 
a solution of gum as thick as possible, place the piece of tissue in the 
gum, and then set the cone in a vessel containing three or four times 
its bulk of rectified spirit for an hour or so, in order that the spirit 
may remove the water from the gum. Lastly, expose the cone to 
the air in a warm place, until the gum is hard enough to be cut. In 
making the sections wet the knife with water, and lay the sections 
in water to remove the adherent gum. A small piece of tissue may 
also be supported for the purpose of section between two slices of 
carrot or cork. Sections should be made in various directions, so that 
a correct knowledge may be obtained of the relation of the component 
parts. Maceration in water, and tearing the parts asunder with fine 
needles, are the best methods for obtaining the ultimate tissues of 
plants. Thin glass plates to cover the object under the microscope 
must be invariably used. They keep the object moist, they prevent 
the object-glass from being covered with vapour, and so rendered 
obscure ; and, lastly, they produce a slight pressure, by which the 
elementary parts of the substance may become separated from each 
other, so as to lie on one plane. The thin covers are not absolutely 
necessary where very low powers are used. In placing the object 
on the stage care must be taken not to bring it in contact with 
the object-glass of the instrument. It is also to be remembered 
that, in a compound microscope, the image is inverted, and that, 
consequently, the object is moved in a direction contrary to that of 
the image. 

The following list of tissues to be examined by the student of 


MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 781 


Vegetable Histology is taken from the preparations used in the micro- 
scopical demonstrations given to the pupils of the Botanical Class in 
the University of Edinburgh :— 

Cellular Tissue.—Seaweeds, Confervee, Moulds and other Fungi; 
Lichens, Liverworts, pith of Elder and of the Rice-paper plants 
(Fatsia and Auschynomene), outer bark as of the Cork and of Ele- 
phantipes, succulent roots, stems, and fruits as Orange and Lemon. 

Schultze states that,by means of nitric acid and phosphate of potash, 
the cells of plants, young or old, hard or soft, may be isolated from 
one another so as to, give single cells, free and distinct, for microscopic 
examination. Protoplasm in the cellular tissue of young roots is well 
shown by the action of carmine or magenta. 

Nucleated Cells, — Scales of Onion, Vinegar plant, ripe fruit of 
Strawberry, Smut, ovules or very young seeds ; covering of ovary of 
Orchis mascula and maculata, shows bi-nucleated cells. 

Independent Cells.—Red-snow plant (Protococcus nivalis), Yeast 
plant (Torula), Chlorococcus vulgaris (yellow powdery matter on trees). 

Thickened Cells—Shell of Coco-nut, stone of Peach, Cherry and 
Nut, seed of Ivory-Palm and Date, gritty matter of Pear, scales of 
Cone. The thickening process in cells is seen in the rootlets of Mar- 
chantia (Liverwort). 

Pitted or Porous Cells,—Pith of Elder, stem of Common Balsam, 
outer covering of seeds of Gourd and Almond, Pith of Rosa tomen- 
tosa. 

Spiral Cells,—Leaves, stems, and aerial roots of many Orchids, 
rootlets of Oncidium, leaves of Pleurothallis ruscifolia and racemi- 
flora, leaf of Sphagnum, episperm of seeds of Collomia, Acanthodium, 
Calempelis scaber, Lophospermum, and Cobea, pericarp of Salvia, 
Isoetes lacustris. 

Reticulated Cells—Inner lining of anthers of Silene maritima and 
Pinguicula vulgaris ; Pith of Rubus odoratus and of Erythrina ; leaf 
of Sphagnum. 

Annular Cells—Inner lining of anther of Cardamine ‘pratensis ; 
stem of Opuntia. 

Stellate Cetls.—Centre of leaves of Juncus conglomeratus and other 
rushes, the transverse septa in petiole of Banana and Plantain ; petiole 
of Sparganium ramosum, Potamogeton, stems of many aquatic plants, 
inner lining of anther of Armeria. 

Ciliated Cells—Spores of Vaucheria and some Fuci. 

Filamentous Cells,—The structure of many Fungi. 

Pollen Cells,—Anthers of Tulip, Lily, Passion-flower and Mallow 
(echinated), Acacia (cells united in fours), Zamia, Cycas, Tropeolum, 
Gloxinia, Colocasia, Sherardia arvensis, Mimulus moschatus, Juncus, 
Linum, Scorzonera hispanica, Tragopogon porrifolius, pollinia of As- 
clepias and Orchids. 


782 MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 


Pollen Tubes—CEnothera, Antirrhinum, Hibiscus, Linaria, Gesnera, 
Crocus. 

Embryonic Cells.—Orchis, Listera, Hippuris, Euphrasia, Draba. 

Spores or Reproductive Cells—In COryptogamous plants, Ferns, 
Mosses, Lichens, Alge, and Fungi, Zygnema when conjugating. 

Cells with Siliceous Covering. — Diatoms, cuticle of grasses, 
Equisetum. 

Cells encrusted with carbonate of Lime.—Chara. 

Epidermal Cells—Leaves of Hyacinth, petals of Pelargonium, 
Apple, Duckweed, Hellebore, and Digitalis. 

Hairs.—On leaves, and in pappus of Composite, Cotton (twisted), 
articulated hairs on leaves of Goldfussia and Alstroemeria ovata, pap- 
pus of Trichinium, moniliform hairs on stamens of Tradescantia, stel- 
late hairs of Deutzia, Viburnum Opulus, Ivy, Hollyhocks, and Fatsia 
papyrifera, peltate hairs of Malpighia urens, glandular hairs of Nettle, 
Loaza, Chinese Primrose, Drosera, and Dionsa, branched hairs Ver- 

‘ bascum, forked Apargia hispida, Alyssum, stalked cruciate hairs Arabis 
sinensis, clubbed hairs on filament of Verbascum nigrum, capitate 
hairs of Scrophularia nodosa, beaded hairs Mirabilis Jalapa. 

Glandular Cells—Sweet-Brier, Passiflora lunata, Ice-plant, Lilac, 
Cinchona, lupuline glands of Hop, Rhamuus, Rottlera, Aloysia, Mentha, 
in Pitchers of Nepenthes, and Sarracenia. 

Scaly Cells—Ferns, as Polypodium sepultum, Niphobolus, Ceterach, 
and Nothochlena levis, scales of Hippophie, Begonia, Olive, and 
Eleagnus. 

Starch in Cells—Potato, Arrow-root, Cereal grains, Bean and Pea, 
Habenaria bifolia, rhizome of Florentine Iris, 

Raphides—Hyacinth, Rhubarb, Arum, Colocasia, Onion, Squill, 
Balsam, Cactus, Lemna trisulca, Ficus (cystoliths), Aloe, Banana, 
petal of Ornithogalum, bark of Salisburya adiantifolia, leaves of . 
Dieffenbachia seguina (biforines), spheeraphides, or globular clusters of 
raphides, seen in the parenchyma of the leaf of the tea-plant. 

Atr-Cells and Lacune.— Rush, Sparganium ramosum, Papyrus, 
Limnocharis Plumieri, Hippuris (mare’s tail), Nymphea, and other 
aquatic plants. 

Oil-Cells—Rind of Orange and Lemon, leaves of Hypericum 
and Myrtaceze. 

Chiorophytl-Cetls.—Mosses, Vallisneria, Anacharis, Chara, Green 
Seaweeds. 

Colour-Cells—Leaf of Rottlera tinctoria, petals of Pelargonium 
and Geranium, Strelitzia. One way of preparing the petal of Pelar- 
gonium is by immersing it in sulphuric ether for a few seconds, and then 
allowing the fluid to evaporate. Another mode is simply to dry the 
petal, immerse it for an hour or two in spirit of turpentine, and then 
put it up in new Canada balsam. 


MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 783 


Stomata.—Cuticle of Leek, Hyacinth, Begonia, Oleander, Lilium, 
Equisetum, Box, Gasteria, Marchantia, Crinum, Yucca, Billbergia, 
Mistleto, Hellebore, Ivy. 

Antheridia and Archegonia. —Prothallus of Ferns, Mosses, Fucus, 
Marchantia, spermatozoids in Ferns and Chara. 

Conjugating Cells,—Zygnema nitidum, Tyndaridea, Cylindrocystis, 
Desmidiez. 

Vascular Tissue.—Young stems of herbaceous plants. 

Spiral Vessels—Canna bicolor, Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Banana 
and Plantain, Cactus, Hyacinth, Asparagus, Balsam, Strelitzia, 
branching spirals in Mistleto, Long-leek, and Anagallis, Compound 
spirals in Water-lily and Lilium candidum ; a loose spiral in stalk of 
Horsetails (Equisetum). 

Annular Vessels—Opuntia vulgaris, Leek, Equisetum maximum. 

Dotted or Pitted Vessels—Sugar-Cane, Nepenthes, Willow, Ash, 
Bramble, Clematis Vitalba, Papaver somniferum, Balsam. Tylosis 
in pitted vessels of Walnut, Hazel, Vine, Oak, Bignonia. 

Reticulated Vessels——Garden Balsam. 

Scalariform Vessels—Rhizomes and stalks of fronds of Ferns, 
Polystichum, Osmunda, Asplenium, Cheilanthes, Pteris. 

Laticiferous Vessels.— Ficus elastica, Euphorbia, Tragopogon, 
Chelidonium, Lactuca, Isonandra Gutta, Dandelion. 

Woody Tissue.—Stems of trees, inner bark especially of plants 
yielding useful fibres, as Flax, Jute, Hemp, Boehmeria, Lace Bark 
tree, Cuba Bast ; root of Elder, Cabbage. 

Punctated Woody Tissue.—Stems of Coniferze when cut parallel to 
medullary rays, Pinus, Abies, Wellingtonia (Sequoia), Araucaria, fossil 
stems, Cycas, [llicium, Daphne Mezereum ; and with spirals in Yew. 

Ovules and Embryo.—Crucifere, Chelidonium, Cactus (shows 
branched funiculus), Passion-flower (dicotyledonous embryo) ; Orchids 
and Lilium (monocotyledonous). 

Seeds.—Papaver somniferum, Gentiana lutea, Eccremocarpus scaber, 
Lepigonum marinum,} Sphaenogyne speciosa, Erica cinerea, Calluna 
vulgaris, Oxalis rosea. 

PRESERVATION oF Microscopic OpsEects.—The following ap- 
paratus is required—viz., glass-slides ground at the edges, and of the 
requisite standard size, 1 by 3 inches, with circular glass covers ; 
preserving agents, cement, and turn-table for mounting and making 
cells. Among the preserving media for vegetable substances are—a 
solution of chloride of calcium, glycerine, copal varnish, mineral oil, 
Canada balsam, Pyroligneous acid. .Some recommend the use of 
arsenic in preserving objects. Make a saturated solution of arsenious 
acid in boiling water, allow it to cool, and then filter. Then take of 
this solution one ounce, of glycerine one ounce, and of gum arabic one 
ounce ; allow this to stand for three weeks, and then filter through 


784 PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS. 


cambric. Among the cements used for vegetable objects are the fol- 
lowing :—Asphalte, japanner’s gold size, black japan sealing-wax 
varnish, Robinson’s liquid glue, gum mastic and caoutchouc dissolved 
in chloroform. Objects are put up (i.e. preserved) either as dry or as 
wet objects. For dry objects, the oils and the Canada balsam are the 
preservative materials, but they are not suited for wet objects. Before 
mounting objects in Canada balsam they must be perfectly clean and 
free from moisture. The moisture is got rid of by immersing them in 
rectified spirit for an hour or so; the spirit is then removed by placing 
the tissue for a few minutes in turpentine or oil of cloves in a watch- 
glass or on a slide. Both of these agents, owing to their high re- 
fractive index, render tissues transparent. In this respect clove oil is 
more powerful than the turpentine, and therefore it is preferred when 
great transparency is desirable. When the tissue is sufficiently clari- 
fied, a drop of Canada balsam solution is placed on a slide, the tissue 
is transferred to it, the cover-glass applied and gently pressed down 
in order to flatten the tissue. The balsam soon dries, so that the 
cover-glass is permanently fixed. The solution of Canada balsam is 
thus prepared :—Place the ordinary kind obtained from the shops in a 
saucer, cover it with blotting-paper to protect it from dust, place it 
near the fire for some days, until the balsam is so dry that it becomes 
as hard as ice when tt cools, Dissolve this perfectly dried balsam in 
chloroform, or turpentine, or benzole (the latter is to be preferred), 
and keep it in a corked bottle. The solution ought to be as thin as 
milk. The mounting of objects in this solution of dried balsam has 
quite superseded the old method of mounting objects in undried 
balsam with the aid of heat. The solution of chloride of calcium is 
adapted for the preservation of wood and leaves, and for most kinds of 
isolated tissue. The colouring matter in the cells, however, is always 
more or less altered by it, while grains of starch, if present, swell up 
and can scarcely be recognised. The strength of the solution is one 
part of lime to three of water. Glycerine is used in equal parts 
mixed with camphor water, which prevents the tendency to mildew. 
The chlorophyll and the grains of starch remain unchanged, and the 
laminz of the starch appear more beautiful after a few hours’ immer- 
sion in the glycerine solution. Canada balsam and copal varnish are 
used for the preservation of dry and fossil woods. Thin sections 
should be made, and treated as above directed. If the entire structure 
of any exogenous wood is required to be examined, the sections must 
be made both in the transverse or horizontal, and in the longitudinal 
or vertical direction. The vertical section, made parallel to the 
medullary rays, or, in other words, along the course of them, shows 
the nature of these cellular rays, which proceed horizontally from the 
centre, enclosed between the layers of woody fibres, and which are 
known to the cabinetmaker as the silver grain of the wood. In coni- 


PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS. 785 


ferous trees, as the pine, this section shows also the beautiful puncta- 
tions on the walls of the fibres. The tangential-vertical section is a 
slice across the ends of the medullary rays, and exhibits the form and 
arrangement of the cellular tissue in them. The cells of the rays are 
seen projecting between the fibres of the wood. These vertical 
sections show the form, size, and connections of the woody tubes and 
the spiral, reticulated, and dotted vessels, In endogenous trees hori- 
zontal and vertical sections are also required. Peat wood requires to 
be digested in a strong solution of carbonate of soda, and fossil woods 
which have been converted into carbonate of lime should be digested 
in dilute hydrochloric acid (1 of acid to 20 of water). 

Schleiden gives the following method of preserving minute struc- 
tures for the microscope. Upon a glass slide of the common form two 
narrow slips of paper are gummed, of a thickness proportioned to the 
object, and at a distance which is regulated by its size. Between 
these the object is laid in a drop of solution of chloride of calcium 
(60 grains to half-an-ounce of water). A thin slip of glass, sufficient’ 
to cover the object and paper slips, is put on; the slips 
are gummed, and the thin glass applied to its place, 
where it is retained by the gum drying. The whole 
may be secured by pasting a long slip of paper over 
all, with a hole for the object. The method has the 


advantage of preventing all running in, which is so apt © 


to happen when asphalte varnish is employed. Chloride 
of calcium, being deliquescent, never dries up, and, if 
evaporation takes place, water is easily introduced at 
the open sides of the thin glass. The points to be 
attended to are—l, that the paper between the glasses |.oo. oeus 
be thick enough to prevent much pressure on the | orcno. 
object, and not so thick as to allow it to float about or 
fall out at the side; 2, that the drop of solution be not —_—Fig. 953. 

too large, but covering the object, and yet not reach- 

ing the paper. Glycerine may be used in place of chloride of calcium 
in cases where the objects are very delicate, or contain chlorophyll or 
albumen. 

Small specimens for the microscope, such as Diatoms and Desmidiex, 
and many small Seaweeds, as well as vegetable tissues, are put up on 
slides (fig. 953), in the centre of which there is a circular cavity formed 
by a layer of asphalte,* and covered by a circular piece of thin glass. 

Fig. 953. Glass slide for microscopic preparations, 3 inches long and 1 inch broad. In 
the centre is a ring of asphalte, forming a cell to contain fluid ; the object marked by a + 
in the centre is covered by a circular piece of thin glass fitted to the asphalte rim. The 


name of the object is often written on the glass, but perhaps it is preferable to write the 
name on coloured paper, and attach it to the glass by isinglass or fine bookbinder’s glue. 


* Prepared asphalte is better than gold size or black japan varnish, as it dries more 
rapidly, and is less liable to run. It can be procured from opticians. 


3 E 


786 PREPARATION OF CELLS. 


The asphalte is applied by means of a hair pencil, the slide being 
placed on a turn-table (fig. 954), which has circular marks on it corre- 
sponding to the required dimensions of the cavity. The depth of the 
cavity can be varied according to circumstances, by putting one or 
more layers of asphalte. After the thin glass cover is put on, it is luted 
carefully with asphalte. The cavity is filled with distilled water, weak 
pyroligneous acid, alcohol, diluted glycerine, 
a very weak solution of creazote (one drop 
to the ounce of distilled water), or some 
other fluid. When specimens are very 
minute the asphalte cell is not required ; 
the thin glass is applied at once to the slide, 
a drop or two of the fluid being inserted 
along with the specimen. In the case of 
some dry preparations, as pollen-grains and 
the fine-lined Diatoms, no fluid whatever 
is required, but precautions must be taken 
b against the access of damp. Canada balsam 
is useful in some instances, The specimen 
is laid on a slide, then a drop of the solution 
of Canada balsam is put on it, and the thin 
glass above all. It is then set aside to dry, 
and ultimately a rim of asphalte is made 
round the margin of the glass cover. Canada 
balsam is well fitted for many Diatoms, and for thin sections of 
woods. In putting up woods, the specimen is placed in the centre 
of the slide, a drop of turpentine is insinuated below it, with a camel- 
hair pencil, in order to expel the air; a solution of Canada balsam is 
then applied, and the same procedure is followed as above. 

To MAKE CELLS, AND TO FIX THE THIN GLass Covers.—The 
cells are made either round or square by thin layers of cement, according 
to the depth required. Perhaps the round ones are neater, but they 
require circular pieces of glass for covers, and by the aid of the turn- 
table (fig. 954) the roundness of the mounting can be made with perfect 
accuracy. The cover is laid gently down, so as to float on the solution 
in which the object lies, and by pressing carefully on the cover, the 
superabundant fiuid is made to pass out by the edges, and may be 
taken up by blotting paper. A thin layer of asphalte, or gold size, 
may be placed round the edge, which will gradually harden and 
completely seal up the preparation. 

Fig. 954. Turn-table for making the circular rim of asphalte ; b, a piece of mahogany; d, a 
circular piece of brass, which can be moved round by the hand, and has two brass springs 
on its surface for holding a glass slide firm. In the centre of the brass disc are circular 
markings fitted for the size of asphalte cells required. These marks being seen through the 


slide laid above them, guide the hand in making the circular asphalte rim, the brass disc 
being turned round during the application. 


Fig. 954, 


FOSSIL SECTIONS. 787 


On preparing fossils for microscopic examination, Mr. Alexander 
Bryson remarks :—* 

The usual mode of proceeding in making a section of fossil wood is 
simple, though tedious. The first process is to flatten the specimen to 
be operated on by grinding it on a flat Jap made of lead charged with 
emery or corundum powder. It must now be rendered perfectly flat 
by hand on a plate of metal or glass, using much finer emery than in 
the first operation of grinding. The next operation is to cement the 
object to the glass plate. Both the plate of glass and the fossil to be 
cemented must be heated to a temperature rather inconvenient for the 
fingers to bear. By this means moisture and adherent air are driven 
off, especially from the object to be operated on. Canada balsam is 
now to be equally spread over both plate and object, and exposed again 
to heat, until the redundant turpentine in the balsam has been driven 
off by evaporation. The two surfaces are now to be connected while 
hot, and a slow circular motion, with pressure, given either to the 
plate or object, for the purpose of throwing out the superabundant 
balsam and globules of included air. The object should be below and 
the glass plate above, as we then can see when all the air is removed, 
by the pressure and motion indicated. It is proper to mention that 
too much balsam is more favourable for the expulsion of the air-bubbles 
than too little. When cold, the Canada balsam will be found hard and 
adhering, and the specimen fit for slitting. This process has hitherto 
been performed by using a disc of thin sheet-iron, so much employed by 
the tinsmith, technically called sheet-tin. The tin coating ought to be 
partially removed by heating the plate, and when hot rubbing off much 
of the extraneous tin by a piece of cloth. The plate has now to be 
planished on the polished stake of the tinsmith, until quite flat. If 
the plate is to be used in the lathe, and by the usual method, it ought 
to be planished so as to possess a slight convexity. This gives a 
certain amount of rigidity to the edge, which is useful in slitting by 
the hand; while by the method of mechanical slitting, about to be 
described, this convexity is inadmissible, The tin plate, when mounted 
on an appropriate chuck in the lathe, must be turned quite true, with 
its edge slightly rounded and made perfectly smooth by a fine-cut file. 
The edge of the disc is now to be charged with diamond powder. This 
is done by mingling the diamond powder with oil, and placing it on a 
piece of the hardest agate, and then turning the disc slowly round ; 
and holding the agate with the diamond powder under ‘a moderate 
pressure against the edge of the disc, it becomes thoroughly charged 
with a host of diamond points, becoming, as it were, a saw with 
invisible teeth. In pounding the diamond some care is necessary, as 

* On an improved Method of preparing Siliceous* and other Fossils for Microscopic 


Investigation, with a description of a uew Pneumatic Chuck, By Alex. Bryson, in Edin. 
N. Phil, Journal, N. &., iii. 297. 


788 PREPARATION OF FOSSIL SECTIONS 


also a fitting mortar. The mortar should be made of an old steel die, 
if accessible ; if not, a mass of steel, slightly conical, the base of which 
ought to be 2 inches in diameter, and the upper part 1} inch. A 
cylindrical hole is now to be turned out in the centre, of #ths of an inch 
diameter, and about 1 inch deep. This, when hardened, is the mortar; 
for safety it may be annealed to a straw colour. The pestle is merely 
a cylinder of steel, fitting the hollow mortar but loosely, and having 
a ledge or edging of an eighth of an inch projecting round it, but 
sufficiently raised above the upper surface of the mortar, so as not to 
come in contact while pounding the diamond. The point of the pestle 
ought only to be hardened and annealed to a straw colour, and should 
be of course convex, fitting the opposing and equal concavity of the 
mortar. The purpose of the projecting ledge is to prevent the smaller 
particles of diamond spurting out when the pestle is struck by the 
hammer. 

Mr. Bryson has contrived an instrument for slitting fossils. The 


Fig. 955. 


instrument is placed on the table of a common lathe, which is, of 
course, the source of motion. (Fig. 955.) It consists of a Watt’s 
parallel motion, with four joints, attached to a basement fixed to the 
table of the lathe. This base has a motion (for adjustment only) in 
a horizontal plane, by which we may be enabled to place the upper 


Fig. 955. Mr, Bryson’s instrument for slitting fossils. 


FOR THE MICROSCOPE. 789 


joint in a parallel plane with the spindle of the lathe. This may be 
called the azimuthal adjustment. The adjustment, which in an 
astronomical instrument is called the plane of right ascension, is given 
by a pivot in the top of the base, and clamped by a screw below. This 
motion in right ascension gives us the power of adjusting the perpen- 
dicular planes of motion, so that the object to be slit passes down from 
the circumference of the slitting-plate to nearly its centre, in a perfectly 
parallel plane. When this adjustment is made accurately, and the 
slitting-plate well primed and flat, a very thin and parallel slice is 
obtained. This jointed frame is counterpoised and supported by a 
lever, the centre of which is movable in a pillar standing perpendicu- 
larly from the lathe table, Attached to the lever is a screw of three 
threads, by which the counterpoise weight is adjusted readily to the 
varying weight of the object to be slit and the necessary pressure 
required on the edge of the slitting-plate. 

The object is fixed to the machine by a pneumatic chuck. It 
consists of an iron tube, which passes through an aperture on the 
upper joint of the guiding-frame, into which is screwed a round piece 
of gun-metal, slightly hollowed in the centre, but flat towards the 
edge. This gun-metal disc is perforated by a small hole communicat- 
ing with the interior of the iron tube. This aperture permits the air 
between the glass plate and the chuck to be exhausted by a small air 
syringe at the other end. The face of this chuck is covered with a 
thin film of soft India-rubber not vulcanised, also perforated with a 
small central aperture. When the chuck is properly adjusted, and 
the India-rubber carefully stretched over the face of the gun-metal, 
one or two pulls of the syringe-piston is sufficient to maintain a very 
large object under the action of the slitting-plate. By this method 
no time is lost ; the adhesion is made instantaneously, and as quickly 
broken by opening a small screw, to admit air between the glass plate 
and the chuck, when the object is immediately released. Care must 
be taken, in stretching the India-rubber over the face of the chuck, 
to make it very equal in its distribution, and as thin as consistent 
with strength. When this material is obtained from the shops, it 
presents a series of slight grooves, and is rather hard for our pur- 
pose. It ought, therefore, to be slightly heated, which renders it 
soft and pliant, and in this state should now be stretched over the 
chuck, and a piece of soft copper wire tied round it, a slight groove 
being cut in the periphery of the chuck, to detain the wire in its place. 
When by use the surface of the India-rubber becomes flat, smooth, 
and free from the grooves which at first mar its usefulness, a specimen 
may be slit of many square inches, without resort being had to 
another exhaustion by the syringe. But when a large, hard, sili- 
ceous object has to be slit, it is well for the sake of safety to try 
the syringe piston, and observe if it returns forcibly to the bottom 


790 PREPARATION OF FOSSIL SECTIONS, 


of the cylinder, which evidences the good condition of the vacuum of 
the chuck. 

After the operation of slitting, the plate must be removed from 
the spindle of the lathe, and the flat lead Jap substituted. The 
pneumatic chuck is now to be reversed, and the specimen placed in 
contact with the grinder. By giving a slightly tortuous motion to 
the specimen, that is, using the motion of the various joints, the 
object is ground perfectly flat when the length of both arms of the joints 
is perfectly equal. Should the leg of the first joint on the right hand 
side be the longer, the specimen will be ground hollow; if shorter, it 
will be ground convex. But if, as before stated, they are of equal 
length, a perfectly parallel surface will be obtained. 

In operating on siliceous objects, I have found soap and water 
quite as speedy and efficacious as oil, which is generally used ; while 
calcareous fossils must be slit by a solution of common soda in water. 
This solution of soda, if made too strong, softens the India-rubber on 
the face of the pnuematic chuck, and renders a new piece necessary ; 
but if care is taken to keep the solution of moderate strength, one 
piece of India-rubber may last for six months. The thinner and 
flatter it becomes the better hold the glass takes, until a puncture 
occurs in the outer portion, and a new piece is rendered necessary. 

The polishing of the section is the last operation. This is per- 
formed in various ways, according to the material of which the organ- 
ism is composed. If siliceous, a lap of tin is to be used, about the 
same size as the grinding Jap. Having turned the face smooth and flat, 
a series of very fine notches are to be made all over the surface. This 
operation is accomplished by holding the edge of an old dinner-knife 
almost perpendicular to the surface of the lap while rotating ; this 
produces a series of criddies, or slight asperities, which detain the 
polishing substance. The polishing substance used on the tin lap is 
technically called lapidaries’ rot-stone, and is applied by slightly 
moistening the mass, and pressing it firmly against the polisher, 
care being taken to scrape off the outer surface, which often contains 
grit. The specimen is then to be pressed with some degree of force 
against the revolving tin ap or polisher, carefully changing the plane 
of action by moving the specimen. in various directions over the 
surface. 

To polish calcareous objects, another method must be adopted, as 
follows :— 

A lap or disc of willow wood is to be adapted to the spindle of the 
lathe, 3 inches in thickness, and about the diameter of the other 
laps (10 inches), the axis of the wood being parallel to the spindle of 
the lathe, that is, the acting surface of the wood is the end of the 
fibres, or transverse section. 

This polisher must be turned quite flat and smoothed by a plane, 


PREPARATION OF DIATOMS. 791 


as the willow, from its softness, is peculiarly difficult to turn. It is 
also of consequence to remark that both sides be turned so as that the 
lap, when dry, is quite parallel. This fap is most conveniently adapted 
to the common face chuck of a- lathe with a conical screw, so that either 
surface may be used. This is made evident when we state that this 
polisher is always used moist, and, to keep both surfaces parallel, must 
be entirely plunged in water before using, as both surfaces must be 
equally moist, otherwise the dry will be concave, and the moist sur- 
face convex. The polishing substance used with this dap is putty 
powder (oxide of tin), which ought to be well washed to free it from 
grit. The calcareous fossils being finely ground, are speedily polished 
by this method. To polish softer substances a piece of cloth may be 
spread over the wooden lap, and finely levigated chalk used as a 
polishing medium. 

In all instances slides should be labelled with the name, locality, 
and date, and they should be numbered and catalogued, so that they 
may be easily referred to when put up in cases, such as that shown in 
fig. 956, or in cabinets.* 

The Diatomacee being either free, or attached to Alge, etc., dif- 
ferent modes must be resorted to for collecting them. Those which 
are attached require only (either at the time or after being dried) to 
be rinsed gently in fresh water to get rid of the sand or mud, and salt 
if any, and then placed in a small saucer in boiling water, with a few 
drops of nitric or muriatic acid. The cuticle being corroded, the 

‘Diatoms fall to the bottom, the floating Algz are taken out with a 
glass rod, and the residue washed. This step is merely preparatory 
to that of burning or boiling the objects. If the Diatoms be free, 
they should, as far as possible, be gathered free from sand or mud, 
by skimming the surface of the pond or pool with an iron spoon; but 
as much mud and sand may still be mixed with them, they ought to 
be afterwards placed in a saucer in a little water, and exposed to the 
sun for a day‘or two. A tumbler or hand-glass will prevent too much 
evaporation. Diatoms, if recently gathered and alive, will come to the 
surface of the sediment, or water, or both, and this affords an easy 
‘ mode of separating certain species. They may now be skimmed off 
with a small spoon, or, what is preferable, a camel’s hair pencil, and 
removed to clean water ; and this process is to be repeated till the mud 
is got rid of entirely. As for preparing the specimens, they may be 
either burned, or boiled in nitric acid. For the isolated Diatoms,f as 
Navicula, Pleurosigma, Cocconeis, etc., boiling is preferable; but for the 

*In making sections of minute objects, such as Diatoms, they are mixed with. 
plaster of Paris and mucilage, and then the whole is sliced by means of a sharp razor. 
Small pieces of wood are sometimes put into a slit in a cork, and then the whole sliced. | 

+ By free Diatoms are meant those that are not parasitical. By isolated or solitary 


Diatoms are meant those not connected nor cohering together into threads or plates, or by 
a stipe, tube, or gelatine. 


792 PREPARATION OF DIATOMS. 


others, as Synedra, Fragilaria, Melosira, Meridion, etc., if one wishes 
to have a few frustules cohering together to show their habit, then 
burning must be adopted, as the acid separates them joint by joint, and 
valve from valve. This is accomplished by arranging the specimens 
in the centre of a glass slide, and laying them on a thin iron slide, and 
placing the whole within a little iron tray, closed in the form of a 
slipper, to exclude ashes. This is exposed to the fire till the slide is 
ted hot, The slide is now allowed to cool, and the specimen is ready 


Fig. 956. 


for being covered either with or without the intervention of balsam. 
The latter is called dry mounting, and is best accomplished by making 
a ring of asphalte, and following the same process as for liquid mount- 
ing, but without liquid. When nitric acid is to be used, the cleaned 
Diatoms are put into a large-sized test tube of German glass, with as 
little water as possible, and about one part of nitric acid to four of 
water. After being boiled for two or three minutes over a spirit-lamp, 
the Diatoms must be allowed to subside, and as much liquor as possible 
poured off, with any fragments of vegetable matter floating in it. This 


Fig. 956. A case for containing slides after being prepared. There are three divisions, 
each containing twelve slides, two of which are shown projecting above the lower division 
of the box, the lid being hollowed to receive them. Numbers corresponding to those on 
the slides are fastened on the partitions at the sides of the grooves which retain the slides, 
On the front of the box a notice of the numbers contained in it should be fastened. Corre- 
sponding numbers, with full particulars as to the preparations, ought to be entered in a 
book, which serves as a catalogue, in which there should be first a numeral progressive 
series, and then an alphabetical register for genera. Card boxes for holding 24 slides are 
made by Smith and Beck, and others, price one shilling each. They are excellent for form- 
ing a general collection. Cabinets are also made for slides, consisting of drawers half-an- 
inch deep (including the bottom) divided so as to hold 30, 40, or 50 slides all on their back - 
the drawers being slightly bevelled at their divisions on one side, so that the slides may be 
tilted up by pressing them down. Cases such as that in Figure 956 may be placed on their 
ends, like books on a shelf, so as to keep the slides horizontal, and prevent the object from 
gravitating to one side of the disc. 


SLIDES AND COVERS. 793 


boiling sometimes suffices, but it is always preferable to add some of 
the strong acid, and boil the whole again for a few minutes, so as to 
dissolve any vegetable or animal substances remaining. As the 
siliceous covering is very thin, and easily broken by a sudden change 
of temperature, care must be taken in washing away the acid, either 
to use boiling water or to allow the Diatoms in the test-tube to cool. 
When a sufficient supply of pure distilled water can be easily got, it 
alone ought to be used for washing them ; but, when that is not the 
case, ordinary water may be employed for the first washing, but the 
after washings must be all made with distilled water until the acid is 
got rid of. After being thoroughly washed, the Diatoms are kept ina 
small test-tube with some distilled water. In taking the specimens 
from the test-tube, in order to put them on the slide, a pipette or 
dropping-tube is employed, having a bore of about ssth to goth of an 
inch at its lower end. 

Mr. Jackson remarks that it is desirable that no object submitted 
to higher power than a quarter-inch objective of 75° aperture should 
ever be mounted under a cover thicker than rivth of an inch ; if the 
aperture exceeds 120°, the best thickness for the cover is z¢cth of an 
inch.* Glass of this thickness can easily be cut with a good writing 
diamond, when laid on a piece of plate glass.f To clean the covers 
it is recommended to put them in strong sulphuric acid for a day or 
two, and then wash them repeatedly with water ; after that to place 
them, a few at a time, on a tightly-stretched clean cambric handker- 
chief, and to rub them very gently with another handkerchief on 
the finger. They should then be removed to a clean box, with 
forceps, and carefully kept from dust and from contact with the 
fingers. The covers should be sorted according to their thickness, 
and this is done at once by Ross’s “lever of contact,” which consists 
of a long slender index, having a projecting touch near the centre 
of motion, which is kept in‘contact with a plane surface by means of 
a spring. When a piece of glass is inserted under the touch, the. 
index points to the thickness on a graduated are. The thickness 
may also be measured in the usual way by placing a fragment in the 
pliers, with the edge upwards, under the microscope, armed with an 
inch object-glass and an eye-piece micrometer. } 

Works on THE Microscopr.—the following works may be con- 
sulted by the student :—Carpenter, The Microscope and its Revelations ; 


* On account of the brittleness of the glass, covers thinner than 1-140th or 1-150th of 
an inch are, in the hands of most manipulators, practically useless, as they break by the mere 
wiping or mounting, and glass 1-150th of {an inch is not too thick either for Smith and 
Beck’s 1-5th object-glass with 100° of aperture, or Ross’s 1-Sth with 156° of aperture ; but 
when dry mounting is adopted, the object ought to be arranged on the under side of the 
cover, thus bringing it as near the lenses as possible, 

+ Quekett on the Microscope. 2d Hdit. p. 265. 

{ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, i. 141. 


794 


WORKS ON THE MICROSCOPE. 


Schacht, The Microscope and its Application to Vegetable Anatomy 
and Physiology, translated by Currey ; Hannover on the Construction 
and Use of the Microscope, edited by Professor Goodsir ; Beale, How 
to work with the Microscope ; Hogg on the Microscope ; The Quarterly 
and Monthly Microscopical Journals; Griffith and Henfrey, Micro- 
graphical Dictionary ; Pritchard’s Microscopic Illustrations ; Robin, 
Du Microscope et des Injections; Dippel, das Mikroscop ; Gosse, 
Evenings at the Microscope ; Lankester’s Half-hours at the Microscope, 
illustrated by Tuffen West; Lewis on Seaside Studies; Prichard on 
Infusoria ; Woodward on Polarised Light ; Griffith’s Elementary Text- 
book on the Microscope. 


Ross’s Microscoprs 1n 1855—OBsEcTIVES AND PRICES. 


Object Glasses, Angle of Magnifying Powers, with Prices 
Focal Length. Aperture. Four Eye-pieces. 7 
A B Cc D| £ s. 
2 inches 12 degs. 20 30 40 60} 2 0 
Linch 16° 5; 60 80 100 120] 3 0 
Ls 22 |, 60 80 100 120] 310 
ee 65, 100 130 180 220] 5 5 
iy 85, 220 350 500 620] 5 5 
rime 125 ,, 220 350 500 620] 7 10 
de 55 135, 320 510 700 910] 10 0 
a 130 ., 400 670 900 1200] 11 0 
1s 150 ,, 400 670 900 1200] 12 0 
Tz » 170: 5 650 $00 1250 2000/18 0 
GuNDLACH’s ACHROMATIC OBJECT GLASSES. 
Linear Magnifying’Power | Angl 7 
No. Fosi. aah ee ape Price. 
In. A B Cc £3. d. 
00 aA 14 22-832 10 deg} 110 0 
0 13 20 30 45 15/1 7 6 
1 1 30 45 «65 20 ,,/1 5 0 
2 3 65 90 120 36 4,:| 1° 5 0 
3 4 90 125 170 50 ,,)/1 5 0 
4 4 188 185 250 80 ,, | 115 0 
ae F : ; 4 275 375 500 150 ,,|2 5 0 
64 Without correction | 7s 450 625 830 165 ,,|/3 5 0 
6B With correction . ds 450 625 830 165 ,,|4 0 0 
78 Immersion with cor- 
rection ‘ ds 600 8385 1200 175 ,,/4 0 0 
8 Immersion with cor- 
rection vz | 900 1250 1700 |175 ,,|6 6 0 


COLLECTING AND DRYING OF PLANTS. 795 


List oF tHE Princrpat Microscopz Maxers.—Ross, Powell and 
Lealand, Smith and Beck, Crouch and Baker, in London; Adie, 
Bryson, in Edinburgh ; Field, Parkes, in Birmingham; Dancer, in 
Manchester ; King, in Bristol; Nachet, Hartnack, in Paris; Schiek, 
Pistor, in Berlin: Ploesl, in Vienna. 


IL—On CoLiectine AND EXAMINING PLANTS, AND ON THE 
Formation of A HERBARIUM. 


INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS,—In examining the characters of 
plants, with a view to classification, the chief instruments required are 
a lancet-pointed knife, a small pair of forceps, and a lens from } to 1 
inch focus. With the view of holding the object steadily the blades 
of the forceps may be made so as to be fastened by a sliding button. 
In more minute examinations, the simple or compound microscope must 
be called into requisition. In selecting specimens, care should be 
taken to have the plants in a perfect state, or with all the character- 
istic parts present. The entire plant should be taken when practicable ; 
when that is not the case, then those parts should be taken on which 
the generic and specific characters are founded. The roots should 
always be carefully washed at the time the plants are gathered. In 
most cases, particularly in specimens of Umbellifere, Leguminose, 
Composite, Rosx, etc., it is of importance that both flowers and fruit 
should be preserved. In the case of Willows the young shoot, with 
its fully developed leaves, as well as the male and female flowers, are 
requisite. In Rubi, specimens of the young shoots must be taken. 
When bulbs or tubers exist, they should be preserved, either in an 
entire or split condition ; and when there is much mucilaginous matter 
in them, they may be enveloped in small pieces of paper, so as to 
prevent them from adhering to the drying paper. In the case of 
Ferns, two fronds are necessary to make a perfect specimen, showing 
both surfaces, along with a portion of the rhizome. Entire specimens 
of Graminez and Cyperaces should be collected ; these, when long, 
may be bent into one or more folds, corresponding to the size of the 
paper on which they are to be fastened, the folds being temporarily 
retained by small slips of paper having slits in the centre. No bad 
specimens ought to be preserved. 

In taking up the roots of plants, a small Digger or trowel is used, 
7 or 8 inches long (fig. 957) ; the spud 24 inches long, 24 inches wide 
at the top, narrowing gradually to 2 inches at the bottom, the lower 
angles slightly rounded. It should be sufficiently strong to resist 

considerable force in digging out plants from the crevices of rocks. 
The iron portion, which unites the spud to the handle, should be par- 
ticularly attended to in this respect. This spade is put into a leather 
sheath, and fastened by a strap round the waist, the spade itself being 


796 COLLECTING AND DRYING OF PLANTS. 


attached to the strap by a long string. A japanned tin box or Vaseu- 
lum is required for the reception of specimens. This should be of 
sufficient length to receive a plant of the full size of the herbarium 
paper ; it ought to be convex on both sides (fig. 958) ; and its capacity 


o—_ 


Fig. 957. Fig. 959. 


may vary according to the wish of the collector. In long excursions 
where productive localities are visited, it will be found that a vasculum 
20 inches long, by 8 or 9 inches wide, and 5 deep, is not too large; 
and when it is made of thin tin it is by no means heavy. At one 
end a good sized thickish handle should be 
placed, and it is necessary to have wires fixed 
at each end (a) so as to receive a strap for 
fastening the vasculum on the shoulders, 
The lid of the vasculum should be large, and 
is best secured by a wire which slips into a 
tin sheath, and so constructed as not to be 
liable to slip out when the box is held by 
the handle. The specimens should be put 
into the box in a uniform manner—the flower 
at one end, and the roots at the other; and 
care should be taken to have the former 
(which should be the end where the handle is) 
always kept on the higher position when 
carried on the shoulders, For mosses and 
some Alpine species of plants, a small box 
Fig, 960, may also be carried in the pocket. In col- 
lecting. minute aquatic plants, as Des- 

midiez and Diatomaces, it is necessary to have small glass bottles, 
or test tubes, fitted in a small case. The corks should be num- 
bered to facilitate notes being taken at the time of the locali- 


Fig. 957. Form of spade or digger. Fig. 958. Form of Vasculum or botanical box. Fig. 
959. Form of Field-book for drying specimens of plants. Fig. 960, Small field-book with 
thin mahogany boards outside, which are brought together by leather straps, 


DRYING PAPER AND BOARDS. 797 


ties in which the specimens were collected. Many plants will not 
bear transport ; their flowers fall off easily, and they are so delicate 
that their foliage becomes shrivelled. This is the case with the flower 
of Trientalis europea, Rubus Chamemorus, and Veronica saxatilis, 
and with some delicate Ferns. In such instances it is best to put 
them at once into paper. This is managed by having a small Field- 
book (fig. 959), which may be put into the pocket or suspended round 
the neck, secured by straps, so as to give pressure, and with an oil- 
cloth covering which may be used in wet weather. This field-book may 
be made with two thin mahogany boards on the outside. 

A convenient field-book, used by students in Edinburgh, is repre- 
sented by fig. 960. It is made of two mahogany boards, about nine 
inches long by five broad, containing from 12 to 24 parcels of paper, 
each parcel consisting of four sheets, the back of the parcels being 
covered with strips of leather or cloth. The boards may be rendered 
firm by being made each of two thin layers of crossed wood fastened 
together in the way afterwards noticed when speaking of large boards. 
Two narrow leather straps pass through two holes in one margin of 
each of the boards, and also through slits in the leather-covered backs 
of the parcels of the paper, a, so as to prevent them from falling out 
when the field-book is opened. In the case of one of the boards, the 
two straps also pass through perforations in its other margin, 6, and 
under these another strap is passed for the purpose of suspending the 
field-book round the neck. The two small straps pass through grooves 
in the margin of the other board, ¢, and are thus buckled so as to 
apply pressure. 

The Paper for drying should be moderately absorbent, 18 inches 
long by 11 broad, and arranged in parcels containing not less than four 
sheets. The paper which is generally used in Scotland is of consider- 
able thickness, absorbs moisture rapidly, but does not become too 
moist, and dries easily. A very thin kind of paper, called crown tea-~ 
paper, is used for holding very delicate plants, which cannot be easily 
transferred from one paper to another during drying. After being 
carefully laid out in the folds of this paper, they are placed between 
the sheets of drying paper, and when the paper is changed they are 
transferred at once in their thin cover without being disturbed. This. 
plan is useful in the case of such plants as Myriophyllum, Callitriche 
autumnalis, and other aquatics, as well as Viola lutea, whose petals 
collapse if removed i in the ordinary way, after a day’s pressure. 

In order that pressure may be given, Boards are requisite. These 
should be exactly the size of the drying paper. Some of them are 
used for outside boards, and these ought to be from 4 to } of an inch 
thick. Others are inside boards, about % of an inch thick. The out- 
side boards are often made double—each double board being composed 
of two thin ones, the grain of the one crossing that of the other (as in 


798 BOTANICAL PRESS. 


the case” of the field-boards already mentioned), closely glued together, 
and firmly secured by small screws along the edge, at intervals of 
three inchés. ‘They may be rounded on their outer margins, For 
every two reams of drying paper not less than ten boards should be 
procured ; two of which are for the outside and eight for the inside. 
Sheets of stout pasteboard are also useful for packing up the plants as 
they become dry. The pressure is best applied, on a botanical excur- 
sion, by means of a rope put crosswise round the boards and paper, 
and tightened by a rack-pin. This is much better than straps, which 
are apt to give way, and are with difficulty replaced during an excur- 
sion. In other circumstances, pressure is best applied by means of 
heavy weiglits.:4The pressure ought not to be less than 100 Ibs. 
This is preferable to a screw-press, in which the pressure is not kept 
up while the plants are losing their moisture. In order to allow free 
ventilation, and thus to dry plants more rapidly, Mr. Twining recom- 
mends, instead of boards, frames made of crossed bars, with spaces 


Fig. 962. 


between them ; the surface applied to the paper being flat,—the others 
being ribbed by means of prominent cross bars, so as to leave a venti- 
lating space between the one frame and the other (figs. 961 and 962). 
By an apparatus consisting of eight of such inner frames, and two 
outer frames of a stouter nature, so as to bear pressure, the plants as 
well as the paper may be dried rapidly. The apparatus, with paper 
and plants firmly strapped, is suspended in a draft of air coming 
through a partially closed window, or on the branch of a tree in sun- 
shine ; and it is said that desiccation of the plants and paper is 
accomplished in four days. By the use of artificial heat in an open 
and airy place, as, for instance, by being placed before the fire, the 
drying may be accomplished in twenty-four or forty-eight hours. Mr. 
Twining, when in Switzerland, first pressed the plants tightly for 
twenty-four hours, and then piled them properly in the frame-work 
apparatus, which was hung up in the hot air of a drying-room, and in 
twenty-four hours more they were ready for packing, the paper also 

Fig. 961. Frames formed of; cross-bars, for,pressure and ventilation. }Fig. 962. Side 


view of frames. One of the frames, a, seen laterally, with its cross bars forming projections ; 
two of these frames, b and ¢, appear together, so as to‘allow ventilation between them. 


MODE OF DRYING PLANTS. 799 


which contained them being perfectly dry and bibulous.* Henslow 
recommends that, with the view of ventilating plants during drying, 
holes should be made in the ordinary boards at regular intervals, and 
that two of the inner boards should always be placed together, sepa- 
tated by flat cross-bars, which may either be fastened to the boards 
by liquid glue prepared from shell lac, or may be kept loose, and in- 
serted when required. A complicated apparatus is suggested by M. 
Gannal, the particulars of which are given in the Botanical Gazette, 
ii. 55 ; and there also another mode of drying is described, in which 
plants, after having been kept in a press for a few hours, are exposed to 
the sun, or placed on astove or in an oven, in an apparatus called the 
Coquette. This consists of two open covers made of strong iron-wire 
network fastened into frames made of light iron rod, pressure being 
applied by straps or ropes, as already mentioned. The open frames 
allow the moisture to escape freely. Sheets of tin may be employed 
to separate the different layers of plants in process of drying, so as to 
hinder the humidity of one from reaching the other, or the inequalities 
of the larger from injuring the smaller and more delicate. In the case 
of plants with strong stems, they must either be split, or a sandbag, 
of the same size as the boards, used so as to equalise the pressure. 
Process or Dryinc.—The plants when collected are to be placed 
on the drying paper. In doing this a parcel of not less than four sheets 
is put on one of the outside boards; then the specimens are laid out 
carefully, preserving as far as possible their natural habits, and laying 
out the leaves and other parts. Another parcel of drying paper is then 
placed above these, and the same process is repeated with other speci- 
mens until twelve such parcels have been placed together. Then one 
of the inner boards is laid down, and other layers of paper and speci- 
tnens are applied, until the whole parcel is of sufficient size to be 
subjected to pressure. After twelve hours’ pressure, in most instances, 
the paper is changed, the moist paper being hung up to dry ; and in 
. transferring the specimens from the wet to the dry paper, a large pair 
of surgeon’s forceps is used. The interval elapsing between the 
changing of the paper may be increased or diminished according to the 
nature of the plants and the state of the weather. In the course of 
eight or ten days, ordinary specimens will be so dry as to require only 
very slight pressure, with a moderate circulation of air. Some very 
dry plants, as grasses, may require only one changing. Succulent 
plants, such as Sedum and Sempervivum, continue to grow, however 
much submitted to pressure, and the ordinary methods of desiccation 
already indicated. In order to dry these plants completely and rapidly, 
it is necessary to kill them, by immersion in boiling water for five or ten 
minutes—some recommend the use of a solution of arsenic as a means of 


* See a description and drawing of this apparatus in Botanical Gazette, ii, 59, See also 
drawing of drying apparatus in Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1861, p. 76. 


800 MODE OF DRYING PLANTS. 


killing them. The plants thus dealt with are then placed upon a cloth 
and left to drain for some time, after which they must be carefully 
placed between the folds of the drying paper, not forgetting to lay out 
properly any of the parts which the water may have disarranged. 
Orchideous plants are sometimes put into warm paper, and changed 
frequently, with the view, if possible, of preserving their colours by 
the rapidity of drying. Scarification has sometimes been adopted with 
the view of allowing the juice to flow out rapidly. Motley recom- 
mends that Orchids should be put into weak spirit for one or two 
nights, and then dried. In the case of some thick-headed plants, as 
Thistles, the capitula must either be cut, or they must be crushed 
between paper, by temporary pressure from the foot; this treatment 
must also be applied to such plants as Eryngium maritimum and the 
Holly. Sometimes the flower, or parts of the flower, may be separated 
advantageously during drying, by the insertion of small pieces of 
blotting-paper. At the time the specimens are laid out on the drying 
paper, a label should be inserted with the date of collecting, the name 
of the station, its elevation above the sea (if it can be ascertained), 
and any remarks as to soil or geological structure that may be known. 
In the course of long excursions, it is necessary to devote every now 
and then some time to the proper arranging and tallying of the speci- 
mens. On this subject Greville says, ‘“ Half-a-day, therefore, at least, 
in the middle of the week, say the morning of every Wednesday, till 
two o’clock, should be appropriated to the preservation and arrange- 
ment of your plants ; anda part or the whole of every Saturday should 
invariably be set apart for the same purpose, in order that they may 
not be injured by remaining untouched on the Lord’s Day.” With 
the view of transporting dried plants securely in wet weather, it is 
useful to have a supply of oil-cloth to cover them. 

Mosses may be collected in excursions in tufts, and dried by mode- 
rate pressure at first. They can afterwards be separated, moistened, 
and dried with greater pressure. They ought to be gathered in fruc-. 
tification. In preserving minute Mosses, Dr. C. Miiller takes clear 
tale, splits it into thin layers, and cuts it into oblong pieces of proper 
size. Then, with a penknife, he splits one of these pieces, from one 
of the narrow sides, half-way through, so that it may be opened to 
admit the object and then close by its elasticity, the unsplit end 
serving as a holder. A drop of water is introduced into the slit with 
the object. When laid aside it dries, and may be rendered fit for 
microscopic examination by dipping in water. Lichens sometimes 
require to be taken with the rocks or stones to which they are 
attached, and they may be merely wrapped up in paper. Seaweeds 
must be washed with fresh water before being laid out. The more 
delicate kinds are floated out on pieces of stiff paper, and afterwards 
dried by moderate pressure. In preserving fungi, such as Agarics, 


SPECIMENS. FOR. HERBARIUM. 801 


etc., a thin slice is taken from the centre, extending from the top of 
the pileus to the base of the stipe. This is dried separately to show 
the gills or pores, etc, The inner cellular portion of the pileus and 
stipe is then removed, and these parts are dried so as to give 
the form. Travellers visiting foreign countries (although not botan- 
ists) will find it an easy matter to preserve Mosses, Lichens, and Sea- 
weeds in a state fit for after-examination. In the case of Seaweeds, 
it is necessary to avoid such specimens as are in a state of decay. 
Those which are taken should be spread out in the shade to dry, 
without washing them with fresh water, and when quite dry, packed 
loosely in a box. Many species are found thrown upon the beach, 
and the pools in the rocks at low water are often filled with excellent 
specimens. The stems of the larger Algz are often covered with 
parasitic species, which should be dried without separation. 

When the specimens (whether Phanerogamous or Cryptogamous) 
are fully dried, they are then selected for the herbarium, and are fas- 
tened upon fine stiff paper, fit for writing upon, 17 inches by 104. 
In large herbaria, which are constantly consulted, the best way of 
securing the specimens is by means of fine thin glue ; the plants, after 
the glue is put on them, being made to adhere to the paper, by pres- 
sure between folds of drying paper. Some use gummed paper, others 
use thread or narrow ribbon, by means of which the specimens are 
sewed to the paper. Some put more than one species on a sheet. 
There may be as many specimens of the species as you choose, more 
especially from different localities. Put single specimens near one 
side of the herbarium sheet, and not in the middle; change the side 
on the alternate sheet. By this means one being on the right side of 
the sheet, another on the left, a third near the top, and a fourth near 
the bottom, the whole will be flat and not bulge up in the middle. 
Fasten any loose parts with the strips of gummed paper; strap down 
the main stem in all cases, unless it is covered with hair, in which case 
strips are superfluous. Write the name of the plant near the lower 
right-hand corner of the half-sheet, and in some convenient spot near 
the specimen itself, the habitat, etc. If printed or written tickets are 
put on, let them be pasted (not glued) upon the lower right-hand 
corner. Plants of certain families, as Composite, are more particu- 
larly exposed to the ravages of insects. Hence, all plants after being 
dried should be brushed over with an alcoholic solution of corrosive 
sublimate.* This treatment has the inconvenience of discolouring 


* The solutions recommended are :— 


I. Methylated spirit . : es a 1 gallon. 
Corrosive sublimate .. z A a Oe 4 02. 
Carbolic acid é . A me 4 : 4 02. 

or 
Il. Rectified spirit of wine a . - a . 16 fluid oz. 
Corrosive sublimate. ji 5 . 5 7 6 drachms. 
Creasote oy Les i : . 40 drops. 


3F 


802 CASES FOR HERBARIUM. 


them more or less completely, and making them assume a light brown 
tint ; but there can be no hesitation between the alteration of their 
colour and the complete destruction with which they are menaced, if 
not submitted to the above manipulation ; some recommend cyanide 
of potassium to destroy insects. In herbarium-presses camphor is em- 
ployed to prevent the attack of insects, The specimens must be kept 
dry, and frequently examined, and when insects are present, they 
must be retouched with the solution already indicated. Dry fruits, 
specimens of wood and bark, large roots, lichens and minute Alge 
on rocks or stones, or other specimens which cannot be preserved 
in a herbarium, may be either placed in drawers, in glazed cases, or 
in glass jars. 

The size of the wooden case for the herbarium must of course de- 
pend on the extent of the collection. In a private collection it is 
better to have numerous small cases, which are easily removed at 
pleasure along with the specimens. This should be particularly at- 
tended to by medical students, and others, who have the prospect of 
going abroad, and who may wish to transport their collections to 
foreign countries. In such instances the cases should be strongly 
made, and should be not more than four feet high, with two rows of 
drawers. These drawers are made open in front, and should slide 
freely in the case. In the Edinburgh University Herbarium, the 
size of the drawers or trays is—depth (inside measurement) 4 inches, 
length 19 inches, and breadth 114 inches. The size of the trays should 
of course correspond to that of the herbarium paper. Some collectors 
have peculiar fancies in regard to the size of their herbarium. Thus 
a valuable collection of Cryptogamic plants, grasses, sedges, rushes, 
etc., left by Menzies to the Edinburgh Botanic Garden has the fol- 
lowing dimensions :—Height of the mahogany cases 30 inches, breadth 
in front 284, from front to back 11; depth of the trays (inside mea- 
surement) 44 inches, length 94, breadth 6. 


SpEcIMENS In A Moist Stare.—In preserving fresh specimens 
of fruits, and the other parts of plants, the best mode is to put them 
into a saturated solution of salt and water. They can thus be sent 
home from foreign countries in jars or barrels. In making a museum 
of such specimens, they are put into glass jars, the sizes of which 
should be regular—4, 8, 12, and 16 inches high, with a diameter 
varying according to the size of the specimen. The glasses may be 
filled with the following solution, which is nearly the same as that 
used by Goadby, and which seems to answer well in most instances :— 


Bay salt . F . 3 7 7 : ‘ 4 ounces, 
Burnt alum . ‘ ‘ F ‘ ; d 2 ounces. 
Corrosive sublimate , ; : 7 i . 5-10 grains. 


Boiling water i : : : ‘ : 2 2 quarts. 


SPECIMENS IN A MOIST STATE. 803 


Dissolve and filter the solution. Alcohol is often used, but it usually 
makes all colours alike brown. It is useful for delicate specimens 
which are required for dissection. Pyroligneous acetic acid diluted 
with from 3 to 5 parts of water is also very generally employed. 
Specimens, however, in the acid are apt to become pulpy and brittle 
after a few years, so as not to admit of being handled; most colours 
are altered by it. Before being put in jars, fresh specimens should 
be kept for a month or more in the solution, so 
as to allow any colouring matter and other impuri- 
ties to be separated, otherwise the preparation will 
become obscure, and require to be re-adjusted. The 
mouth of the glass jars may be conveniently covered 
with India rubber, or, in the case of glasses of small 
diameter, with a watch glass secured by sealing wax, 
or by circular glass covers cemented by a lute com- 
posed of resin 1 part, wax 2 parts, and vermilion 1 
part. The glass cover on the top of the jar may be 
either luted or held in its place by a metallic ring 
(fig. 963 a@), which is fitted carefully to it, and 
covers a portion of the glass lid. Two grooves may 
be made on the inner side of the rim at the top of 
the jar for holding a piece of whalebone, to which 
the specimen may be attached by means of a thread, as seen in the 
figure. In the case of dry preparations, the metallic ring answers 
well. 

It is difficult to keep the solution of salt in the preparation jar. Sir 
Robert Christison says :—‘“ The most effectual method, when the mouth 
of the jar does not exceed 2 or 24 inches in diameter, is to have a 
space half-an-inch or more at the top of the fluid, to clean and dry 
the top of the jar thoroughly, to drop melted sealing-wax on the upper 
surface of the top, so as to form a uniform ring over it, to place over 
the mouth a watch-glass of such size as to cover the whole lip, and 
even to overhang it a little, to press this gently down with one finger, 
and to fuse the wax between the top of the jar and the watch-glass, 
by moving a large spirit flame around the edge.” Where the mouth 
of the jar is large, then a round flat piece of glass may be used, or 
sheet caoutchouc. The latter, after being gently heated, is stretched 
moderately, not strongly, by one, or still better, by two persons, while 
a third secures round the neck two or three folds of stout twine as a 
temporary ligature. A stout thin cord is then drawn steadily and 
tightly round three or four times above the former, taking care that 
the caoutchouc is not cut, and that the turns of the twine lie regularly 
above each other ; and finally, that a secure knot is made, 


Fig. 963. Jar for holding wet or dry preparations, the glass cover at the top being held 
in its place by a metallic ring. 


804. HINTS AS TO ALPINE TRAVELLING. 


. SEEDS, when sent from abroad, should be collected perfectly ripe 
and dry, and if possible kept in their entire seed-vessels. Small seeds 
may be folded in cartridge paper, and should be kept in a cool and 
airy place during transport. Large seeds and oily seeds, which lose 
their germinating power speedily, are best transported in earth. A 
box about 10 inches square, with the sides ? of an inch thick, answers 
well. In this may be put alternate layers of earth and seeds, the 
whole being pressed firmly together. Living plants are best trans- 
ported in Wardian cases, and seeds or fruits may also be scattered in 
the earth of the cases, Bulbs and rhizomes not in a state of vegeta- 
tion, cuttings of succulent plants, as aloes and cactuses, and the pseudo- 
bulbs of Orchideous plants, may be put into a box or barrel with dry 
moss, sand, peat, or sawdust. 


Hints as to the Preparations to be made for Alpine Travelling, particu- 
larly in Switzerland, partly taken from. Will’ “Wanderings on the 
High Alps,” 


A botanical trip for six weeks in Switzerland, including the 
expense of going and coming, need not cost more than twelve shillings 
a-day. In a pedestrian tour the traveller must be as lightly equipped 
as possible ; at the same time he must so provide as to have a change 
of dress in case of wet weather. The Botanist must send his heavy 
portmanteau and his drying paper, with boards, ropes, and rack-pin, to 
different points by railway or post. During his alpine rambles he will 
find that he can only carry his box, spade, field-book, alpenstock, and 
light waterproof. His knapsack, while he is botanising, must be carried 
by a porter. He should, however, be prepared on an emergency to 
carry all his alpine baggage with him, more especially when passing 
from one station to another by some beaten track, where few plants are 
to be expected. A large party will find it convenient and economical 
to hire a horse for the conveyance of their knapsacks. 

The articles required are as follows :— 

A light waterproof knapsack, which will bear rough usage, about 
14 inches long, 10 inches broad, and 34 inches deep, with two light 
straps at the top to hold a very light waterproof, and a stout leather 
handle by which to carry it, if necessary. The straps for the shoulders 
should be broad. One of the shoulder straps should end in a ring, and 
a hook should be fastened on the lower edge of the knapsack to receive 
it. By this contrivance the knapsack is easily taken off. The whole 
apparatus ought not to weigh above 2 Ibs. 

Good shoes, large, so as to allow for the swelling of the feet, the 
soles from 3ths to #ths of an inch thick, studded with stout nails, not 
too thickly. They should be worn with gaiters, so as to keep out dust, 
stones, etc, 


HINTS AS TO ALPINE TRAVELLING. 805 


Soft woollen socks, such as those made in Shetland. Of these two 
or three pairs are required. 

A shooting coat, a waistcoat, and trousers of flannel, or of 
shepherd’s plaid, the two former being double-breasted. Flannel 
should always be worn next the skin on account of rapid changes of 
temperature on the glaciers and in the valleys. 

A light wide-awake hat, with strings or elastic band. In very hot 
weather the action of the sun on the forehead and temples may be 
diminished by a thick roll of white muslin round the hat. 

A light waterproof of silk; one may be got weighing only six 
ounces. 

The contents of the knapsack should not weigh more than 6 or 7 
Ibs. They should consist of two spare thin merino shirts, three or 
four pairs of socks, well run in heels and toes, a very thin pair of 
trousers or drawers for change, two pocket handkerchiefs, and a pair 
of light shoes; materials for mending—as needles, thread, worsted, 
tape, buttons, bits of cloth and flannel ; also string, soap, sponge, 
brush and comb, and tooth-brush ; oiled-silk, lint, and bandages ; 
ordinary medicine—as compound rhubarb pills, opium, and sugar of 
lead and opium pills, tartar emetic, lard and sticking-plaster ; a small 
quantity of note-paper, ink, and pens; a large knife, furnished with 
a corkscrew, gimlet, and saw; lucifers; a pair of dark spectacles, 
and a dark veil, and warm gloves and muffitees. There may be also 
added a journal, a thermometer, compass, clinometer, whistle, and a 
small telescope. A flask and drinking-cup will also be of service, and 
a common coarse blouse, which can be procured in Switzerland for two 
francs. For travelling on glaciers a few screws, about ths of an inch 
long, with large double-pointed heads, are useful. Wills procured 
them at Chamouni. These are screwed into the sole, three or four 
being enough for each shoe. 

For glacier work, stout ropes, thicker than a window-sash cord 
are required, 10 to 15 feet for each person, and an ice hatchet. An 
alpenstock, 6 feet in length, is of essential service. A good map is 
also of great value. The botanist must also have a small tin box, 10 
or 12 inches in length, and about 4 deep; a small spade, in a 
leathern case, fastened round his waist, and a small field-book for 
drying plants,-made of thin wooden boards, 8 or 9 inches long, and 
about 5 inches broad, and containing drying paper, about 1 or 14 inch 
deep. The plants gathered must be transferred to larger drying paper 
at different stations, and must then either be carried by a porter, or 
sent by conveyance of some sort. 

It is by no means necessary to have guides in every part of the 
Alps of Switzerland. For instance, Mr, Wills says, that none are 
required for the Col de Balme, the Téte Noire, the Col de Vose, the 
Great St. Bernard, the Gemmi, and the Grimsel. In wandering, 


806 DIRECTIONS TO COLLECTORS 


however, among the high mountains, it is always safe to take a guide. 
Wills suggests that the best way is to secure a good guide at starting, 
and keep him during the whole tour. He costs about five or six 
francs a day. 


Directions to Collectors visiting Foreign Countries, condensed from 
Hooker’s Kew Miscellany, Vol. IX., pp. 214-219. 


A Botanist visiting a foreign country should make as perfect a 
collection as possible of all the plants, neglecting no species, and pre- 
serving specimens of every kind, more especially such as seem to be 
confined to certain localities. The arborescent plants, trees of every 
description, are to be sought for and collected in flower and in fruit ; 
cones and larger acorns, and other kinds too large for the hortus siccus, 
are to be preserved apart from the foliage, and notes made of the 
locality, height, bulk of the trunk, etc. In proportion as mountains 
are ascended, the vegetation will be found to change, and to become 
more interesting and more peculiar. Particular notice should be taken 
of the heights at which different plants grow, and of those plants 
which are found nearest to the limit of perpetual snow. Care should 
be taken to preserve the collections from wet and damp. They may 
require to be opened occasionally, and exposed to a dry air or artificial 
heat. Seeds should be collected, and transported in the way already 
noticed. Objects of interest as regards economic botany should be 
collected ; such as articles of food, clothing, ornament, medicines, 
resins, dye-stuffs, samples of woods, particularly those good for carpentry 
and cabinet work. Varieties and abnormal forms of species should be 
sought for and preserved, attention being paid to differences in habit, 
and in the form of leaves and flowers in the same species at different 
periods of growth and in different conditions of growth. A comparison 
should be instituted between the flowers of different regions, as of the 
plains, swamps, and of different heights and exposures on the moun- 
tains, as well of different geological districts, as granite, limestone, etc. 
The times of leafing and flowering of bushes and trees, etc., should be 
noticed. When the vegetation seems unusually retarded or accelerated, 
the temperature of the surface soil and at three feet deep should be _ 
ascertained, wherever possible. The collector should, as soon as pos- 
sible, make himself acquainted with the names of the more common 
and conspicuous plants of the district he traverses, by consulting any 
works which may have been written regarding it. The plants which 
affect waysides or the tracks of man and animals should be noticed, 
and the effect of clearing away forests and of burning grass land on 
the subsequent vegetation should be attended to. The transport of 
seeds by man and animals is a subject of great interest, which should 
not be neglected. Care should be taken to ticket the specimens, so 


IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 807 


that there may be no difficulty in determining their localities after- 
wards. Notes as to elevation (if above 2000 feet of the sea level), 
dates, name of district, and any other information, should be attached 
to the specimens to which they refer. A collector cannot be too care- 
ful in regard to these matters, Ascertaining the temperature of the 
trunks of evergreen and deciduous trees, and of the soil at their roots, 
is a subject of importance, The temperature of the soil at various 
depths during winter should be recorded ; also the temperature of the 
air and water between the under surface of melting snow-beds and the 
subjacent dormant vegetation, with the view of determining the causes 
of the rapidity with which plants germinate and blossom after the 
disappearance of snow from alpine situations,* 


* For fuller details, see instructions by Sir Wm. Hooker and Dr. Hooker, in Kew Miscel- 
luny, vol, ix. pp. 214-219. 


GLOSSARY 


OR 


EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THE TERMS USED ‘IN 
BOTANICAL WORKS. 


—~+— 


A, alpha, privative of the Greek, placed before a 
Greek or Latin word, indicates the absence of 
the organ; thus, aphydlus, leafless, acaulis, 
stemless. 

ABAXIAL or ABAXILE, not in the axis, applied to 
the embryo when out of the axis of the seed. 

ABIOGENESIS, same as HETEROGENESIS, aname 
for so-called spontaneous generation from in- 
organic matter. 

ABNORMAL, deviating from regularity or from 
the usual form of structure. 

ABORTION, suppression of an organ, depending 
on non-development. 

ApRupt, ending in an abrupt manner, as the 
truncated leaf of the Tulip tree ; abruptly-pin- 
nate, ending in 2 pinnae, in other words, pari- 

innate ; abrupily-acuminate, a leaf with a 
broad extremity from which a point arises. 

ABSCISSION, cutting off, applied to the separa- 
tion of the segments or frustules of Diatoms. 

ACAULIS or ACAULESCENT, without an evident 
stem. 

ACCRESCENT, when parts continue to grow and 
increase after flowering, as the calyx of Phy- 
salis, and the styles of Anemone Pulsatilla. 

AccrETE, grown together. ‘ 

AccuMBENT, applied to the embryo of Cruciferz, 
when the cotyledons have their edges applied 
to the folded radicle. 2 

ACEROSE, narrow and slender, with a sharp 
point. ; 

ACHENE or ACHANIUM, a monospermal seed- 
vessel which does not open, but the pericarp 
of which is separable from the seed. 

ACHLAMYDEOUS, having no floral envelope. 

ACHROMATIC, applied to lenses which prevent 
‘chromatic aberration, z.e. show objects with- 
out any prismatic colours, 

AcicuLar, like a needle in form. 

AcIcuLus, a strong bristle. : 

AcINAcIFoRM, shaped like a sabre or scimitar. 

Acinus, one of the pulpy drupels forming the 
fruit of the Raspberry or Bramble. 

AcTINENCHYMA, cellular tissue, having a star- 
like or stellate form. 

AcoTYLEDONOUS, having no cotyledons. 

Acrocarrl, Mosses having their fructification 
terminating the axis. 


ACROGEN and AcROGENOUS, increasing at the 
summit, applied to the stems of ferns, which 
have a vascular cylinder penetrated by 
bundles of vessels belonging to the fronds ; 
and stems marked by the scars of the fronds. 

ACULEUS, a prickle, a process of the bark (not of 
the wood), as in the Rose; Acudeate, furnished 
with prickles. 

ACUMINATE, drawn out into a long point. 

ACUTE, terminating gradually in a sharp point. 

ADELPHOUS or ADELPHIA, in composition, 
means union of filaments. 

ADHERENT, united, adhesion of parts that are 
normally separate and in different verticils, 
as when the calyx is united to the ovary. 

ADNATE, when an organ is united to another 
throughout its whole length, as the stipules in 
ae and the filament and anther in Ranun- 
culus. 

ADPRESSED or APPRESSED, closely applied to a 
surface, as some hairs. 

ApuNcus, crooked or hooked. 

ADVENTITIOUS, organs produced in abnormal 
positions, as roots arising from aerial stems. 

FESTIVAL, produced in summer. 

ESTIVATION, the arrangement of the parts of 
the flower in the flower-bud. 

AFFINITY, relation in all essential organs. 

Acamous, the same as Cryptogamous. 

ALA, a wing, applied to the lateral petals of a 
papilionaceous flower, and to membranous 
appendages of the fruit, as in the Elm, or of 
the seed, as in pines. 


-ALBuMEN, the nutritious matter stored up with 


the embryo, called also Perisperm and Endo- 
sperm. 

ALBURNUM, the outer young wood of a Dicoty- 
ledonous stem. 

ALGOLoGy, the study of Seaweeds. 

ALSINACEOUS, a polypetalous corolla, in which 
there are intervals between the petals, as in 
Chickweed. 

ALTERNATE, arranged at different heights on 
the same axis, as when each leaf is separated 
by internodes from those next to it. 

ALVEOL&, regular cavities on a surface, as in 
the receptacle of the Sunflower, and in that 
of Nelumbium which is called 4 lveolate. 


810 


AMENTUM, a catkin or deciduous unisexual 
spike ; plants having catkins are A mentt- 
Serous. 

Amnios, the fluid or semi-fluid matter in the 
embryo-sac. 

AMORPHOUS, without definite form. 

AMPHISARCA, an indehiscent multilocular fruit 
with a hard exterior, and pulp round the 
seeds, as seen in the Baobab. 

AMPHITROPAL, an ovule curved on itself, with 
the hilum in the middle. 

AMPLEXICAUL, embracing the stem over a large 
part of its circumference. 

AmpPuLta, a hollow leaf, as in Utricularia. 
ANALOGOUS, when a plant strikingly resembles 
one of another genus, so as to represent it. 
ANASTOMOSIS, union of vessels; union of the 

al ramifications of the veins of a leaf. 

ANATROPAL or ANATROPOUS, an_ inverted 
ovule, the hilum and micropyle being near 
each other, and the chalaza at the opposite 
end ; raphe present. 

ANCEPS, two-edged. 

ANDRECIUM, the male organs of the flower. 

ANDROGYNOUS, male and female flowers on the 
same peduncle, as in some species of Carex. 

ANDROPHORE, a Stalk supporting the stamens, 
often formed by a union of the filaments. 

ANEMOPHILOUS, applied to plants fertilised by 
the agency of wind. 

ANER, male or stamen, in composition, Azdro 
and Androus. 

ANFRACTUOSE, wavy or sinuous, as the anthers 
of Cucurbitacez. 

ANGIENCHYMA, vascular tissue in general. 

ANGIOCARPOUS, applied to Lichens having 
fructification in cavities of the thallus and 
opening by a pore. 

ANGIOSPERMOUS, having seeds contained in a 
seed-vessel. 

Anciosporous, Cryptogamic plants having 
spores contained in a theca or sporangium. 

ANISOS, in composition, means unequal. 

ANISOSTEMONOUS, stamens not equal in number 
to the floral envelopes, nor a multiple of them. 

ANNOTINUS, a year old. 

ANNULUS, a ring, applied to the elastic rim sur- 
rounding the sporangia of some Ferns, also to 
a cellular rim on the stalk of the Mushroom, 
being the remains of the veil. 

ANTERIOR, same as zzferior, when applied to 
the parts of the flower in their relation to the 
axis, part of a flower next the. bract or in 
front. 

ANTHELA, the cymose panicle of Juncacez. 

ANTHER, the part of the stamen containing 
pollen. 

ANTHERIDIUM, male organ in Cryptogamic 
plants, frequently containing moving fila- 
ments. 

ANTHEROZOA, moving filaments in an antheri- 

ium. 

ANTHESIS, the opening of the flower. 

ANTHOCARPOUS, applied to multiple, poly- 
gyneecial, or confluent fruits, formed by the 
ovaries of several flowers, 

ANTHoDIuM, the capitulum or head of flowers 
of Composite plants. 

ANTHOPHORE, a stalk supporting the inner floral 
envelopes,and separating them from the calyx. 

ANTHOS, a flower, in composition, Azzho; in 
Latin, Flos, 


GLOSSARY. 


ANTHOTAXIS, the arrangement of the flowers 
on the axis. 

Anrticus, placed in front of a flower, as the li 
of Orchids ; Anthere Antica, anthers whic! 
open on the surface next the centre of the 
flower ; same as /utrorse. 

ANTITROPAL, applied to an embryo whose 
radicle is diametrically opposite to the hilum. 

APERISPERMIC, without separate albumen ; same 
as Exalbuminous. 

APETALOUS, without petals, in other words, 
monochlamydeous. 

APHYLLOUS, without leaves. 

APICAL, or APICILAR, at the apex ; often applied 
to parts connected with the ovary. 

APICULATE, having an apiculus. 

ApicuLus or APICULUM, a terminal soft point 
springing abruptly. 

APLANATIC, applied to lenses in which spheri- 
cal aberration is corrected. 

APOCARPOUS, ovary and fruit composed of nu- 
merous distinct carpels. 

ApopHysis, a swelling at the base of the theca 
in some Mosses. 

APpoTHEciuM, the rounded shield-like fructifica- 
tion of Lichens. 

APTEROUS, without wings. 

ARACHNOID, applied to fine hairs so entangled 
as to resemble a cobweb. 

ARCHE, in composition, means beginning. 

ARCHEGONIUM, the young female cellular organ 
in Cryptogamic plants. 

ARCHISPERMS, another name for gymnosperms, 

ARCUATE, curved in an arched manner like a 


ow. 

AREOLATE, divided into distinct angular spaces, 
or Aveola. 

ARILLUS and ARILLODE, an extra covering of 
the seed, the former proceeding from the 
placenta, as in Passion-flower, the latter from 
the exostome, as in the Mace of Nutmeg. 

ARISTA, an awn, a long-pointed process, as in 
Barley and many grasses, which are called 
Avistate, 

ARMATURE, the hairs, prickles, etc., covering 
an organ, 

ARTICULATED, jointed, separating easily and 
cleanly at some point. 

ASCENDING, applied to a procumbent: stem, 
which rises gradually from its base ; to ovules 
attached a little above the base of the ovary; 
and to hairs directed towards the upper part 
of their support. 

Ascrpium, a pitcher or folded leaf, as in Ne- 
penthes. 

Ascus, a bag, applied to the thecz of Lichens 
and other Cryptogams, containing sporidia or 
spores. 

ASPERITY, roughness, as on the leaves of Bora- 
ginaceze. M 

ATRACTENCHYMA, tissue composed of spindle- 
shaped cells. 

Arropous or ATROPAL, the same as Ortho- 
tropous. 

AuRICULATE, having appendages, applied to 
leaves having lobes op leaflets at their base. 

Awn and Awnep, see Avista and Aristate. 

AxiIL, the upper angle where the leaf joins the 
stem. 

AXxILE or AxIAL, belonging to the axis. 

AXILLARY, arising from the axil of a leaf. 

Axis, is applied to the central portion of ‘the 


GLOSSARY, 


young plant, whence the plumule and radicle 
are given off, and the name is given in general 
to the central organ bearing buds; in Grasses, 
the common stem of a locusta. 


Bacca, berry, a unilocular fruit, having a soft 
outer covering, and seeds immersed in pulp. 
All such fruits are called Baccaze. 

Bacu.irorM, applied to rod-like bodies in the 
reproductive organs of Sphzroplea. 

Bavausta, the fruit of the Pomegranate. 

BarsaTe, BearDeD, having tufts of hair-like 
pubescence. 

Bark (cortex), the outer cellular and fibrous 
covering of the stem; separable from the 
wood in Dicotyledons. 

Barren, not fruitful, applied to male flowers, 
and to the non-fructifying fronds of ferns. 

Basa or Basiar, attached to the base of an 
organ. 

Basrp1um, a cell bearing on its exterior one or 
more spores in some Fungi, which are hence 
called Basidtosporous. 

Bast or Bass, the inner fibrous bark of Di- 
cotyledonous trees, 

BATHYMETRICAL, measurement of depths at 
which plants grow in the ocean. 

BepeGuar, a hairy excrescence on the branches 
and leaves of Roses, caused by an attack of 
a Cynips. 

BIDENDATE, having two tooth-like processes. 

BIFARIOUS, in two rows, one on each side of 
an axis. A 

Bir1p, two-cleft, cut down to near the middle 
into two parts. 

Biror1NE, a raphidian cell with an opening at 
each end. 

BILAMELLAR, having two lamellz or flat divi- 
sions, as in some stigmas. 

Brirocutar, having two loculaments. 

BINATE, applied to a leaf composed of two 

- leaflets at the extremity of a petiole. 

Biocenesis, the production of living cells 
from previously existing cells of a similar 
nature. 

Brparous, applied to cymose inflorescence 
when the first axis gives rise to two bracts, 
from each of which a second axis proceeds, 
and so on; thus the inflorescence is Dicho- 
tomous. 

BirarTITE, cut down to near the base into two 

arts, 

Buinwére, a compound leaf divided twice in 
a pinnate manner. 

BipPINNATIFID, a simple leaf, having lateral 
lobes with divisions extending to near the 
middle, the lobes being also similarly divided. 

BipPINNATIPARTITE, differing from bipinnatifid 
in the divisions extending to near the mid- 


rib. 
BipLicaATE, doubly folded in a transverse man- 


ner. 

BrrorosE, having two rounded openings. 

Bis, twice, in composition, Bz. 

BIsERRATE, or duplicate-serrate, when the 
serratures are themselves serrate. 

BrsEXuAL, male and female organs in the same 
flowers. 

BITERNATE, 2 compound leaf divided into 
three, and each division again divided into 
three. 

BITTEN, same as Premorse. 


811 


Brapzg, the lamina or broad part of a leaf, as 
distinguished from the petiole or stalk. 

BLANCHING, see E¢iolation. 

BLeTTiInG, is the change of the pulp from 
green to brown, as occurs in the Medlar after 
being pulled and kept for some time; the 
fruit from being austere thus becomes soft 
and edible. 

Bote, the trunk of a tree. 

BoTHRENCHYMA, dotted or pitted vessels, with 
depressions on the inside of their walls. 

BRACHIATE, with decussate branches. 

Bract, a leaf more or less changed in form, 
from which a flower or flowers proceed ; 
flowers having bracts are called Bracteated. 

BRACTEOLE or BRACTLET, a small bract at the 
base of aseparate flower in a multifloral in- 
florescence. 

Bryotocy, the study of Mosses; same as 
Muscology. 

Buts, an underground bud covered with fleshy 
scales. 

Bu.sit or BULBLET, separable buds in the axil 
of leaves, as in some Lilies. 

BuLzous-BaSED, applied to hairs which are 
tumid at the base. © 

Bysso1p, very slender, like a cobweb, 


ee falling off very early, as calyx of 

oppy. 

Casious, with a fine pale blue bloom. 

CasPITOSE, growing in tufts. 

CALATHIFORM, hemispherical or concave, like 
a bowl or cup. 

CaLATHIUM, same as Capitudum and Antho- 
dium. 

CALCAR, a spur, a projecting hollow or solid 
process from the base of an organ, as in the 
flowers of Larkspur and Snapdragon ; such 
flowers are called Calcarate or spurred. 

CALCEOLATE, slipper-like, applied to the hollow 
petals of some Orchids, also to the petals of 
Calceolaria. A 

CALLosITy or CALLUS, a leathery or hardened 
thickening on a limited portion of an organ. 

CALYCIFLOR#, a sub-class of Polypetalous 
Dicotyledons having the stamens attached 
to the calyx. 

CatycuLus or CaLicutus, an outer calycine 
row of leaflets, giving rise to a double or 
calyculate calyx. 

CaryprTRa, the outer covering of the sporangium 
of Mosses. 

CALYPTRIMORPHOUS, applied to pitchers or as- 
cidia having a distinct lid. 

Catyx, the outer envelope of the flower ; when 
there is only one envelope, it is the calyx. 

CamsBium, mucilaginous cells between the 
bark and the young wood, or surrounding 
the vessels. 

CAMPANULATE, shaped like a bell, as the flower 
of Hare-bell. z 

CAMPULITROPAL or CAMPYLOTROPAL, a curved 
ovule with the hilum, micropyle, and chalaza 
near each other ; no true raphe. 

CAMPYLOSPERM, seeds with 
folded laterally. 7 

CANALICULATE, channelled, having a longi- 
tudinal groove or furrow. 

CANCELLATE, latticed, composed 
alone, or lattice-like cells. 

CaPILiary, filiform, thread-like or hair-like. 


the albumen 


of veins 


812 


CaPITAaTE, pin-like, having a rounded summit, 
as some hairs. 

Caritu.uo ; head of flowers in Composite. 

CapREOLATE, having tendrils. 

CarRIFICATION, the ripening of the Fig, by 
means of the wild fig or Caprificus. 

Capsuta Crrcumscissa, same as Pyxis or 
Pyxidium. 


CapsuLe, a dry seed-vessel, opening by valves, 


teeth, pores, or a lid. 


CARCERULUS, a fruit consisting of several 1-2-: 


seeded indehiscent carpels cohering by a 
common style round a common axis; as a 
Mallow and Tropzolum. 

Carina, keel, the two partially united lower 
petals of papilionaceous flowers. 

CaRINAL, applied to zstivation when the carina 
embraces the other parts of the flower. 

CarnosE, fleshy, applied to albumen having a 
fleshy consistence. 

Carpet or Carprpium, the leaf forming the 
pistil, Several carpels may enter into the 
composition of one pistil. 

, CARPOLOGY, the study of fruits. 

CARPOPHORE, a stalk bearing the pistil, and 
raising it above the whorl of the stamens, as 
in Lychnis and Capparis. 

Carros, fruit, in composition Carfo. 

CaRUNCULA, a fleshy or thickened appendage 
of the seed. 

Caryopsis or Carropsis, the monospermal 
seed-vessel of Grasses, the pericarp being 
incorporated with the seed. 

CassIDEous, shaped like a helmet. 

CaTKIN, same as Amentum. 

CauDATE, having a tail or feathery appendage. 

CauDEx, the stem of Palms and of Tree-ferns. 

CauDIcLE, Caupicuta, the process supporting 
a pollen-mass in Orchids. 

CAULESCENT, having an evident stem. 

CAULICLE, CAULICULUS, a stalk connecting the 
axis of the embryo and the cotyledons. 

CauLis, an aerial stem. 

CELLULOsE, the chemical substance of which 
the cell-wall is composed. 

CENTIMETRE, a French measure, equal to 
0.3937079 British inch. 

CENTRIFUGAL, applied to that kind of inflo- 
essence in which the central flower opens 

rst. 

CENTRIPETAL, applied to that kind of inflores- 
cence in which the flowers at the circumfer- 
ence or base open first. 

CERAMIDIUM, an ovate conceptacle having a 
terminal opening, and with a tuft of spores 
arising from the base ; seen in Alge. 

CERATIUM, a siliqueeform capsule, in which'the 
lobes of the stigma are alternate with the 
placenta, as in Glaucium and Corydalis. 

CEREAL, applied to Wheat, Oats, Barley, and 
other grains. 

Cernvous, pendulous, nodding. 

Cuarry, covered with minute membranous 
scales. 

Cuavaza, the place where the nourishing vessels 
enter the nucleus of the ovule. 

CuLamys, covering, applied to the floral en- 
velope, in composition Chlamydeous. 

CHLOROPHYLL, the green colouring matter of 
leaves. 

CHLOoROs, green, in composition Chloro. 

Cuorisis or CHORIZATION, separation of a 


GLOSSARY. 


lamina from one part of an organ, so as to 
form a scale or a doubling of the organ; it 
may be either transverse or collateral, 


| Caroma, colour, in composition, Chrom.” 


CuHRomoGeN and CHROMULE, the colouring 
matter of flowers. 

Curysos means yellow like gold, in composi- 
tion Chryso. 

CicaTRICULA, the scar left after the falling of 
aleaf; also applied to the hilum or base of 
the seed. 

Cixta (Cilium), short stiff hairs fringing the 
margin of a leaf; also delicate vibratile hairs 
of zoospores ; cz/iaze, with cilia. 

CinencHYMA, laticiferous tissue, formed by 
anastomosing vessels. 

CircinaTE, rolled up like a crozier, as the 
young fronds of Ferns. 

CIRCUMSCISSILE, cut round in a circular man- 
ner, such as seed-vessels opening by a lid. 

so Ar the periphery or margin of 
a leaf. 

Cirrus, a tendril, or modified leaf in the form 
of a twining process. 

CIsTOLITH, an agglomeration of raphides 
(Sphzraphides) suspended in a sac by a 
tube, as in Ficus elastica. : 

CLADENCHYMA, tissue composed of branching 
cells. : 

CLapocarprl, mosses producing sporangia on 
short lateral branches. 

CLanoprosis, the fall of branches as in Thuja, 
Taxodium, Glyptostrobus and Tamarisk. 

Crapos, a branch, in composition Clado. 

CLATHRATUS, latticed like a grating. 

CLavATE, club-shaped, becoming gradually 
thicker towards the top. 

Caw, the narrow base of some petals, corre- 
sponding to the petiole of leaves. 

CLEFT, divided to about the middle. 

CuInaNDRiuM, the part of the column of 
Orchids bearing the anther. 

CLINANTHIUM, the common receptacle of the 
flowers of Composite. 

Curngz, a bed, in composition C/z, used in re- 
ference to parts on which the floral organs 
are inserted. 

Cioves, applied to ‘young bulbs, as in the 

nion. 

CLypEATE, having the shape of a buckler. 

Coccrpium, a rounded conceptacle in Algae 
without pores, and containing a tuft of 
spores, : 

Coccus and Coccum, applied to the portions 
composing the dry elastic fruit of Euphor- 
biaceze. 

Cocuiear, a kind of zstivation, in which a 
helmet-shaped part covers all the others in 
the bud. 

CocHLEariForM, shaped like a spoon. 

C@LosPERMA, seeds with the albumen curved 
at the ends. 

ConerentT, cohesion of part in the same ver- 
ticil, as sepals, petals, or stamens. 

CoLEorRHIZzA, a sheath covering the radicles of 
a monocotyledonous embryo. 

COLLATERAL, placed Hae ue side, as in the 
case of some ovules. 

CoLLENcHYMA, the inter-cellular substance 
which unites cells. 

Co.tum, neck, the part where the plumule and 
radicle of the embryo unite, 


GLOSSARY. 


CoLrencuyma, tissue composed of wavy or 
sinuous cells. 

CoLuMELLA, central column in the sporangia 
of Mosses ; also applied to the carpophore of 
Umbelliferz. 

Cotumn, a part in the flower of an Orchid sup- 
porting the anthers and stigma, and formed 
by the union of the styles and filaments, 

Coma, applied variously to tufts of hairs, to 
bracts occurring beyond the inflorescence, 
and to the general arrangement of the leaf- 
bearing branches of a tree, etc. ‘ 

CommissurRE, union of the faces of the two 
achenes in the fruit of Umbelliferz. 

Comose, furnished with hairs, as the seeds of 
the Willow. : 

Compounb, composed of several parts, as a 
leaf formed by several separate leaflets, or a 
pistil formed by several carpels either sepa- 
rate or combined. 


ComPRESSED, flattened laterally or lengthwise. | 


CoNCEPTACLE, a hollow sac containing a tuft 
or cluster of spores. 

ConpbucTING Tissug, applied to the loose cellu- 
Le pase in the interior of the canal of the 
style. 

ConpupLicaTE, folded upon itself, applied to 
leaves and cotyledons, 

Cong, a dry multiple fruit, formed by bracts 
covering naked seeds. 

CoNnENCHYMA, conical cells, as hairs. 

CoNFERVOID, formed of a single row of cells, 
or having articulations like a Conferva. 

ConFLUENT, when parts unite together in the 
progress of growth. 

Conip14, peculiar spores in Fungi, which re- 
semble buds. 

ConjuGaTE spirals, when whorled leaves are 
so arranged as to give two or more generat- 
ing spirals running parallel to each other; 
according to the number of leaves in the 
whorl, the spirals are bijugate, trijugate, 
quinquejugate, etc. 

ConJuGATION, union of two cells, so as to de- 
velop a spore. 

CoNNATE, when parts are united even in the 
early state of development; applied to two 
leaves united by their bases. 

Connective, the part which connects the an- 
ther lobes. 

CoNNIVENT, when two organs, as petals, arch 
over so as to meet above. 

ConTORTED, when the parts in a bud are im- 
bricated and regularly twisted in one direc- 
tion. 

ConvoLuTE or CoNVOLUTIVE, when a leaf in 
the bud is rolled upon itself. 

CorALLINE, like Coral, as the root of Corallor- 
hiza. 

CorcuLum, a name for the embryo. 

Corp, the process which attaches the seed to 
the placenta. ‘ 

CorpDaTE, heart-shaped, a plane body with the 
division or broad part of the heart-next the 
stalk or stem. 

CorpiForM, a solid body having the shape of a 
heart. 

Coriaceous, having a leathery consistence. 

Corm, thickened underground stem, as in the 
Colchicum and Arum. 

CorMoGEN#, having a corm or stem. . 

Cornu, a horn ; _Corneous, having the consist- 


813 


ence of horn; Bicornis or Bicornute, having 
two horns. 

Coro. a, the inner envelope of the flower. 

CoroLiiFLor#, Gamopetalous (Monopetalous) 
Exogens, with hypogynous stamens. 

Corona, a corolline appendage, as the crown 
of the Daffodil. 

CoRRUGATED, wrinkled or shrivelled. 

CorTEx, the bark ; Cortical, belonging to the 
bark ; Corticated, having a bark. 

Cortina, the remains of the veil which con- 
tinue attached to the edges of the pileus in 
Agarics, 

Coryms, a raceme in which the lower stalks 
are longest, and all the flowers come nearl: 
to a level above ; Corymbiferous or Corymb- 
ose, bearing a corymb, or in the form of a 
corymb. 

CosTA, a rib, applied to the prominent bundles 
of vessels in the leaves; Costate, provided 
with ribs. 

CoTyLEpDoN and CoTyLEpons, the temporary 
leaf, leaves, or lobes, of the embryo ; insome 
cases the Cotyledons are persistent, as in 
Welwitschia. 

CRAMPONS, a name given to adventitious roots 
which serve as fulcra or supports, as in the 


Vy: 

Cramochny: the fruit of Umbelliferze, com- 
posed of two separable achenes or mericarps. 

CRENATE, having superficial rounded marginal 
divisions. 

CRENATURES, divisions of the margin of a cre- 
nate leaf. 

CREST, an appendage to fruits or seeds, having 
the form of a crest. : 

Crisp, having an undulated margin. 

Crown oF THE Root, the short stem which is 
at the upper part of the root of perennial 
herbs. 

CruciForM and CrvuciATE, arranged like the 
parts of a cross, as flowers of Cruciferz. 

CrustTaceous, hard, thin, and brittle ; applied 
to those Lichens which are hard and expanded 
like a crust. 

CryPTOGAMOUS, organs of reproduction ob- 
scure. 

CryYPTos, inconspicuous or concealed, in com- 
position Cryo. 

CucuL.aTE, formed like a hood. 

CuLM, stem or stalk of grasses. 

CuNEIFORM or CuNEATE, shaped like a wedge 
standing upon its point. 

Cuputa, the cup of the acorn, formed by 
aggregated bracts. 

CuRVEMBRYE&, plants with the embryo curved. 

Cusris, a long point large at the base, and 
gradually attenuated ; Cusfzdate, prolonged 
into a cuspis, abruptly acuminate. 

CuTIcLE, the thin layer that covers the epider- 
mis. 

CyaTuIFoRM, like a wine-glass; concave, in 
the form of a reversed cone. 

CycLocEns, applied to Dicotyledons with con- 
centric woody circles. 

Cyctosis, movement of the latex in laticiferous 
vessels. 

CYLINDRENCHYMA, tissue composed of cylind- 
rical cells. 

CymsiForm, shaped like a boat. 

Cyne, a kind of definite inflorescence, in which 
the flowers are in racemes, corymbs, or umbels, 


814 


the successive central flowers expanding 
first ; Cyzose, inflorescence in the form of a 
cyme. 

CyNARRHODUM, fruit consisting of a hollow 
inferior receptacle containing numerous 
achenes, as in the Rose. 

CypsELa, inferior monospermal indehiscent fruit 
of Composite. 

Cystipia, sacs containing spores; a kind of 
fructification in Fungi. 

Cystocarp, the fully-formed fructification of 
Floridez, a tribe of Red Seaweeds. 

CysTo.itH, a cell, containing numerous crys- 
tals (raphides), as in leaf of Ficus. 

CyTos-ast, the nucleus of a cell. 

CyToBLASTEMA, mucilaginous formative matter 
of cells, called also Protoplasm. 

CyTocENEsis, cell-development. 

Cytos, a cell, in composition Cyzo. 


D#DALENCHYMA, entangled cells. 

Deca, ten, in Greek words, same as the Latin 
Decem ; as decandrous, having ten stamens ; 
decagynous, having ten styles. 

Decibvous, falling off after performing its 
functions for a limited time, as calyx of 
Ranunculus. 

Decipuous Trees, which lose their leaves 
annually. 

Decimetre,‘the tenth part of a metre, or ten 
centimetres. 

DeciinaTE or DECLINING, directed downwards 
from its base ; applied to stamens of Amarylhs. 

DeEcompounD, a leaf cut into numerous com- 
pound divisions. 

DeEcorTICATED, deprived of bark. 

DeEcuMBENT, lying flat along the ground, and 
rising from it at the apex. 

DecurreEnT, leaves which are attached along 
the side of a stem below their point of inser- 
tion. Such stems are often called Winged. 

DEcussATE, opposite leaves crossing each other 
in pairs at right angles. 

DepupticaTIon, same as Choriszs. 

DeriniTe, applied to inflorescence when it 
ends ina single flower, and the expansion of 
the flower is centrifugal; also when the 
number of the parts of an organ is limited, as 
when the stamens are under twenty. 

DEFLEXED, bent downwards in a continuous 
curve. 

DerouiaTion, the fall of the leaves. 

DEGENERATION, when an organ is changed 
from its usual appearance and becomes less 
highly developed, as when scales take the 
place of leaves. 

DEHISCENCE, mode of opening of an organ, as 
of the seed-vessel and anther. 

DeEtrotp, like the Greek A in form, properly 
applied solely to describe the transverse 
section of solids. 

DeEnTATE, toothed, having short triangular 
divisions of the margin. The term is also 
applied to the superficial divisions of a gamo- 
sepalous calyx and a gamopetalous corolla. 

DeEnTIcuLATE, finely-toothed, having small 
tooth-like projections along the margin. 

DeEprESSED, flattening of a solid organ from 
above downwards. 

DeETERMINATE, applied to definite or cymose 
inflorescence. 

Dextrorss, directed towards the right. 


GLOSSARY. 


DIACHANIUM, same as Cremocarf, fruit com- 
posed of two achenes. 

DiacuymMa, the parenchyma of the leaf. 

DIADELPHOUS, stamens in two bundles, united 
by their filaments. 

DiALYCARPOUS, pistil or fruit composed of dis- 
tinct (separate) carpels. 

DIALYPETALOUS, corolla composed of separate 
petals. 

DIALYsEPALOUS or DIALYPHYLLOUS, calyx 
composed of separate sepals. 

DicHLAMYDEOUS, having calyx and corolla. 

DicHoGamous, stamens and stigmas of the 
same flower, not reaching maturity at the 
same time. 

Dicuotomous, stem dividing by twos, 

Dicuotomous Cymg, a kind of definite in- 
florescence in which the secondary axes come 
off in pairs, each ending in a single flower; 
the same kind of division goes on through the 
tertiary and quaternary axes, etc. 

Dic.inous, unisexual flowers, either monceci- 
ous or dicecious. 

Dic ceeanesees) embryo having two cotyle- 

ons. 

DicryocEenous, applied to monocotyledons 
having netted veins. 

Dipymovs, twin, union of two similar organs. 

Dipynamous, two long and two short stamens. 

DiciTaTE, compound leaf composed of several 
leaflets attached to one point. 

Dicynous, having two styles. 

DiLaMINATION, same as Deduplication and 
Chorisis. 

Dimerous, composed of two pieces. 

DimriviaTE, split into two partially, as the 
calyptra of some Mosses ; or completely, as the 
lobes of the anther in Salvia. 

Dimorpuic, having two forms of flowers, differ- 
ing in size and development of the stamens 
and pistils, as in Primula and Linum. 

Dimorruous, when similar parts of a plant 
assume different forms. 

Dicecious, or Diorcous, staminiferous and pis- 
tilliferous flowers on separate plants. 

Diccious_y-H ERMAPHRODITE, hermaphrodite 
flowers having only one of the essential 
organs perfect in a flower. 

DipLEcoLoBe&, cotyledons twice folded trans- 
versely. 

Dievoos, double, in composition Dzplo. 

DipLoPeRIsTOMI, Mosses with a double peri- 
stome. 

DipLosTEmonous, having a double row of 
stamens, which are thus often double the 
number of the petals or sepals. 

DieLotecia, an inferior, dry, 1-many-celled 
seed-vessel, usually opening by valves or by 
pores, as in Campanula. 

Dirrerous, having two wings. 

Dis, twice in composition, Dz, same as Latin 
Bis or Bi; as disepalous, havin g two sepals, 
dispermous, two-seeded. 

DisciFrorm, and Discorp, in the form of a disc 

or flattened sphere ; discoid pith, divided in- 
to cavities by discs. 

Disco1p, also applied to the flosculous or tubu- 
lar flowers of Composite. 

Discs, the peculiar rounded and dotted mark- 
ings on coniferous wood. 

Disk, a part intervening between the stamens 
and the pistil in the form of scales, a ring, 


GLOSSARY. 


etc. ; it is connected with the receptacle or 
torus. 

DisPErmous, having two seeds. 

DIssEcTED, cut into a number of narrow divi- 
sions, 

DissEPIMENT, a division in the ovary; ¢7xe, 
when formed by edges of the carpels ; false, 
when formed otherwise. 

DIssiLiENT, applied to fruit which bursts in an 
elastic manner. 

DisticHous, in two rows, on opposite sides of 
a stem. 

DIsTRACTILE, separating two parts to a dis- 
tance from each other. 

DiTHECAL, having two loculaments. 

DivaricaTING, branches coming off from the 
stem at a very wide or obtuse angle. 

Dopveca, twelve; in Latin, Duodecim. 

Dopecacynous, having twelve pistils. 

DopEcanpRous, having twelve stamens. 

DoLasriForM, shaped like an axe. 

Dorsat, applied to the suture of the carpel 
which is farthest from the axis. 

DorsiFERous, applied to Ferns bearing fructi- 
fication on the back of their fronds. 

Dorsum, the back, the part of the carpel which 
is farthest from the axis. 

DovusLe FLower, when the organs of repro- 
duction are converted into petals. 

Drups, a fleshy fruit like the cherry, having a 
stony endocarp. Drufels, small drupesaggre- 
gated to form a fruit, as in the Raspberry. 

Dumosg, having a low shrubby aspect. 

Duramen, heart-wood of Dicotyledonous trees. 

Dynamis, power, in composition means supe- 
riority in length ; as didywamtous, two stamens 
longer than two others. 


E or Ex, in composition corresponds to alpha, 
privative ; as ebracteated, without bracts ; 
exaristate, without awns ; edentate, without 
teeth ; ecostate, without ribs. 

EcuHINATE, covered with straight slender 
prickles, like an Echinus. 

EvaTers, spiral fibres in the spore-cases of 
Hepatica. A 

Exureticat, having the form of an ellipse. 

EMARGINATE, with a superficial portion taken 
out of the end. 7 

Emprvo, the young plant contained in the seed. 

Empryo-sups, nodules in the bark of the beech 
and other trees. : 

EmprvyoceEny, the development of the embryo 
in the ovule. . 

Empsryococy, the study of the formation of the 
embryo. 

Empryo-sAc or EMBRYONARY-SAC, the cellular 
bag in which the embryo is formed. 

EMBRYOTEGA, a process raised from the sper- 
moderm by the embryo of some seeds during 
germination, asin the Bean. : 

Enpeca, in Greek, eleven ; in Latin, Undecim. 

Enpecacynous, having eleven pistils. 

EnpeEcanprous, having eleven stamens. 

Enpocar?, the inner layer of the pericarp next 
the seed. . 

EnpocuromgE, the colouring matter of cellular 
plants. . 

ENDOGEN, an inward grower, having an endo- 
genous stem. : . nf 
Enpon, within or inwards, in composition 

Endo. : 


815 


EnpoPH_Leum, the inner bark or liber. 

Enpopteura, the inner covering of the seed. 

ENDORHIZAL, numerous rootlets arising from 
a common radicle, and passing through 
sheaths, as in endogenous germination. 

ENDOSMOSE, movement of fluids inwards 
through a membrane. 

Enposrerm, albumen formed within the em- 
bryo-sac. 

EnpDosporous, Fungi having their spores con- 
tained in a case. 

EnpostomgE, the inner foramen of the ovule. 

ENpDOoTHECcIUM, the inner coat of the anther. 

ENERVIS, without veins. 

EnnEA, nine; in Latin, Novem.” 

Ennegacynous, having nine pistils. 

ENNEANDROUS, having nine stamens. 

EnsiForM, in the form of a sword, as the leaves 
of Iris. 

Entire (zzteger), without marginal divisions ; 
(tntegerrimus), without either lobes or mar- 
ginal divisions. 

Envevores, FLorALt, the calyx and corolla. 

Epi, upon, in composition means on the outside 
or above, as eficarp, the outer covering of 
the fruit ; epigynous, above the ovary. 

EpisastT, an abortive organ in the Oat, sup- 
posed to be the rudiment of a second coty- 
ledon. 

EPICALYx, outer calyx, formed either of sepals 
or bracts, as in Mallow and Potentilla. 

Epicarp, the outer covering of the fruit. 

EpIcHILiuM, the label or terminal portion of the 
strangulated or articulated lip (labellum) of 
Orchids. 

EpicoROLLINE, inserted upon the corolla. 

EpipeRmIs, the cellular layer covering the ex- 
ternal surface of plants. 

EPiGEAL, above ground, applied to cotyledons. 
Epicone, the cellular layer which covers the 
young sporangium in Mosses and Hepatice. 
Epicynous, above the ovary, and attached to 

it. 

EPIPETALOUS, inserted upon the petals. 

EpipHRracm, the membrane closing the orifice 
of the thecze of some Mosses, as Polytrichum. 

EPIPHYLLOUS, growing upon a leaf. 

EpipHyYTE, attached to another plant and grow- 
ing suspended in the air. 

EPIRRHEOLOGY, the influence of external agents 
on living plants. 

EpisPERM, the external covering of the seed. 

Epispore, the outer covering of some spores. 

EQuiTANT, applied to leaves folded longitudi- 
nally, and overlapping each other without 
any involution. 

ERECT, applied to an ovule which rises from 
the base of the ovary ; also applied to innate 
anthers. 

Eros, irregularly toothed, as if gnawed. 
ERuMPENT, prominent, as if bursting through 
the epidermis, as seen in some tetraspores. 
Errio, the aggregate drupes forming the 

fruit of Rubus. 

ENOEATION, blanching, losing colour in the 
dark. 

EXALBUMINOUS, without a separate store of 
albumen or perisperm. 

EXANNULATE, without a ring, applied to some 
Ferns, as Botrychium and Ophioglossum. 

ExcENnTRIC, removed from the centre or axis ; 
applied to a lateral embryo. 


816 


Exciru.us, a receptacle containing fructifica- 
tion in Lichens. 

EXcURRENT, running out beyond the edge or 
point. 

ExinTINE, one of the inner coverings of the 
pollen grain. 

Exo, in composition, on the outside. 

ExoGEn, outside grower, same as Dicotyledon. 

ExoruiZAL, radicle proceeding directly from 
the axis, and afterwards branching, as in 
Exogens. 

Exosmose, the passing outwards of a fluid 
through a membrane. 

Exosporous, Fungi, having naked spores. 

ExosTome, the outer opening of the foramen 
of the ovule. 

ExoTHEcIuM, the outer coat of the anther. 

EXSERTED, extending beyond an organ, as 
stamens beyond the corolla. 

EXsTIPULATE, without stipules. 

ExTINE, the outer covering of the pollen-grain. 

EXxTRA-AXILLARY, removed from the axil of the 
leaf, as in the case of some buds. 

ExTroRSE, applied to anthers which dehisce 
on the side farthest removed from the pistil. 
ExvTiveE, applied by Miers to seeds wanting 
the usual integumentary covering, as in 

Olacacez. 


FALCATE or FatcirorM, bent like a sickle. 

Fase AXES OF INFLORESCENCE, an elongated 
axis produced by the union of several single- 
flowered axes, which are joined together by 
their extremities. 

FARINACEOUS, mealy, containing much starch. 

FASCIATION, union of branches of stems, so as 
to present a flattened riband-like form. 

Fascicve, a shortened umbellate cyme, as in 
some species of Dianthus. 

FastiGiATe, having a pyramidal form, from 
the branches being parallel and erect, as 
Lombardy Poplar. 

FaveELta, a kind of conceptacle in Algz. 

Fave .ip1a, spherical masses of spores, usually 
contained in sacs called capsules. 

FEATHER-VEINED, a leaf having the veins 
passing from the midrib at a more or less 
acute angle, and extending to the margin. 

FENESTRATE, applied to a replum or leaf with 
openings in it, compared to windows. 

FerTILe, applied to pistillate flowers; and to 
the fruit-bearing frond of Ferns. 

ee eer tissue, composed of spiral 
cells. 

Fisrous, composed of numerous fibres, as some 
roots. 

FIBRO-VASCULAR TISSUE, composed of vessels 
containing spiral and other fibres. 

Fp, in composition, cleft, cut down to about 
the middle. 

FILaMeEnt, stalk supporting the anther. 

apr teas a string of cells placed end to 
end. 

FitirorM, like a thread. 

FimpriaTED, fringed at the margin. 

Fissiparous, dividing spontaneously into two 
parts by means of a septum. 

Fissure, a straight slit in an organ for the dis- 
charge of its contents. 

Fistutous, hollow, like the stem of Grasses. 

FLABELLIFORM, fan-shaped, as the leaves of 
some Palms. 


GLOSSARY. 


FLAGELLUM, a runner, a weak creeping stem 
bearing rooting buds at different points, as in 
the Strawberry. 

FLExvosE or FLExvous, having alternate cur- 
vations in opposite directions ; bent in a zig- 
zag manner. 

FLocc1, woolly filaments with sporules in Fungi 
and Algz. 

FLoccose, covered with wool-like tufts. 

Fiorar Envecopes, the calyx and corolla. 

FLoscutous, the tubular florets of Composite. 

Fortation, the development of leaves. 

Fouioa, same as Phylla and Sefala. 

Fo.ticte, a fruit formed by a single carpel, de- 
hiscing by one suture, which is usually the 
ventral. 

Foor, French, equal to 1‘07892 foot British. 

ForameEn, the opening in the coverings of the 
ovule. 

FoveaTE or FovgotatE, having pits or depres- 
sions called fovez or foveolz. 

FovitLa, minute granular matter in the pollen- 


rain. 

Fronp, the leaf-like organ of Ferns bearing 
the fructification ; also applied to the thallus 
of many Cryptogams. 

FRONDOSE, applied to Cryptogams with folia- 
ceous or leaf-like expansions. 

FRusTuLes, the parts or fragments into which 
Diatomaceze separate. 

FRUTEX, a shrub ; Fruticose, shrubby. 

Fucacious, evanescent, falling off early, as the 
petals of Cistus. 

Futvous, tawny-yellow. 

Funicutus, the umbilical cord connecting the 
hilum of the ovule to the placenta. 

FurcatTE, divided into two branches like a two- 
pronged fork. ‘ 

FuRFURACEOUS, scurfy or scaly. 

Fusirorm, shaped like a spindle. 


Ga.sutus, the polygyncecial confluent succu- 
lent fruit of Juniper. 

Ga.Ba, applied to a sepal or petal shaped like 
a helmet ; the part is called Ga/eate. 

Gamo, in composition, means union of parts. 

GAMOPETALOUS, same as Jfonopetalous, petals 
united. 

GAMOPHYLLous and GAMOSEPALOUS, same as 
Monopfhylious and Monosepalous, sepals 
united. 2 

GEMINATE, twin organs combined in pairs, 
same as Binate. 

Gemma, a leaf-bud ; Gemmation, the develop- 
ment of leaf-buds. 

GeEmmMIFEROUS, bearing buds. 

GEmMIPAROUS, reproduction by buds. 

GEMMULE, same as Plumule, the first bud of 
the embryo. 

GENICULATE, bent like a knee. 

GERMEN, a name for the ovary. 

GERMINAL VssICcLE, a cell contained in the 
embryo sac, from which the embryo is de- 
veloped. 

Garner the sprouting of the young 
plant. 

GiBBosiITy, a swelling at the base of an organ, 
such as the calyx or corolla, as in Dielytra. 
Gissous, swollen at the base, or having a dis- 
tinct swelling at some part of the surface. 

GLaBrous, smooth, without hairs. 

GLAND, an organ of secretion consisting of cells, 


GLOSSARY. 


and generally occurring on the epidermis of 

plants. 

GLanputar Hairs, hairs tipped with a gland, 
as in Drosera and Chinese Primrose, 

Gans, nut, applied to the Acorn and Hazel- 
nut, which are enclosed in bracts. 

Graucous, covered with a pale-green bloom. 

GuosuLe, male organ of Chara. 

Gtocuip1aTE, barbed, applied to hairs with two 
reflexed points at their summit. 

GLOMERULUS, a rounded, cymose inflorescence, 
as in Urtica. 

Giossotoey, explanation of technical terms. 

Giumaczous, of the nature of glumes. 

Gung, a bract covering the organs of repro- 
duction in the spikelets of Grasses, which are 
hence called Glumiferous. 

GLUMELLE and GLUMELLULE, a name applied 
to the palea or fertile glume of a Grass. 

GoNnGYLI, same as Gonidia. 

Gonip1A, green germinating cells in the thallus 
of Lichens. 

Gonos and Gonz mean offspring; used in 
composition. 

Gonus or Gonum, in composition, means either 

’ kneed or angled ; in the former case the a is 
short,.in the latter long : Polygénum, many- 

eed; Tetragdnuznz, four-angled. ; 

GralIn, caryopsis, the fruit of Cereal Grasses. 

Cains of pollen, minute cells composing the 
pollen. 

GRANULES, minute bodies varying greatly in 
size, having a distinct external shadowed 
ring or margin, the external edge of which is 
abrupt. 

GRANULATED, composed of granules. 

Grumous, collected into granular masses. 

Gymnocarpous, Lichens having fructifications 
in the form of a scutellate, cup-shaped, or 
linear thallus. 

GyMNocEN, a plant with naked seeds, ze. 
seeds not in a true ovary. 

Gymnos, naked, in composition Gyzno. 

GyMNosPERMOUS, plants with naked seeds, z.e. 
seeds not in a true ovary, as Conifers. 

GymnosporE, a naked spore ; Gymnosporous, 
having naked spores. 

Gymnostomt1, naked-mouthed, Mosses without 
a peristome. 

GYNANDROPHORE, a column bearing stamens 
and pistil, 

GyYNANDROUS, stamen and pistil united in.a 
common column, as in Orchids. 

Gyne, female, and Gyn, Gynous, and Gyno, 
in composition, refer to the pistil or the 
ovary. b 

Gynizus, the position of the stigma on the 
column of Orchids. 

GynoBasg, a central axis, to the base of which 
the carpels are attached. 

Gynaciu, the female organs of the flower. 

GynopHorE, a stalk supporting the ovary. 

GyNosTEGIuM, staminal crown of Asclepias. 


GynostTeEmium, column in Orchids bearing the 


organs of reproduction. 
GyRATE, same as Circinate. _ 
GyRaTIon, same as Rotazion in cells. 


Hast of a plant, its general external appear- 
ance. : 

Hatopuy Tes, plants of salt marshes, contain- | 
ing salts of soda in their composition. 


817 


Hastare, halbert-shaped, applied to a leaf 
with two portions at the base projecting more 
or less completely at right angles to the blade. 

Hau.m, dead stems of herbs, as of the potato. 

Haustortum, the sucker at the extremity of 
the parasitic root of Dodder. 

Heap. See Capitulum. 

HEART-woop, same as Duramen. 

HEKIsTOTHERMS, plants requiring a very small 
amount of heat, as arctic and antarctic plants. 

HELICOID cyme, in which the flowers are 
arranged in a continuous helix or spiral, 

‘round a false axis. 

HELico1pat, having a coiled appearance like 
the shell of a snail, applied to inflorescence. 
Hemet, the upper petaloid sepal of Aconitum. 

Hemi, half; same as Latin Sew. 24% 

Hemicarr, one of the achenes forming the cre- 
mocarp of Umbelliferze. 

Hepra, seven ; same as Latin Septem. 

Hepracynous, having seven styles. 

HeEpranprous, having seven stamens. 

Hers, a plant with an annual stem, opposed to 
a woody plant. 

HERBACEOUS, green succulent plants which die 
down to the ground in winter ; annual shoots ; 
green-coloured cellular parts. 

HERMAPHRODITE, Stamens and pistil in the same 
flower. 

HEsperipium, the fruit of the Orange, and 
other Aurantiaceze. : 

HETERACMY, another name for Dichogamy. 

HETEROCEPHALOUS, composite plants having 
male and female capitula on the same plant. 

Hererocysts, peculiar cells forming large 
germs in Nostochinee, differing from spor- 
angia and spores. 

HETERODROMOUS, spirals running in opposite 
directions. 

HETERGcluM, applied to potata fungus, 
meaning that part of its life is passed on some 
other host than the potato. 

HETEROGAMOUS, Composite having herma- 
phrodite and unisexual flowers on the same 
head. : 

HETEROGENESIS, another name for so-called 
spontaneous generation, in which living cells 
are supposed to be produced by inorganic 
matter. 

HETEROMORPHIC, having different forms of 
flowers as regards stamens and pistils, and 
these forms being necessary for fertilisation, 
as in Primula. 

HETEROPHYLLOUS, presenting two different 
forms of leaves. 

HETERORHIZAL, rootlets proceeding from vari- 
ous points of a spore during germination. 

HETEROS, dissimilar or diverse ; in composition, 
Hetero. 

HETERosPorovS, Cryptogamic plants, having 
both microspores and macrospores on the 
same individual, as in Selaginella. 

HETEROTROPAL, ovule with the hilum in the 
middle, and the foramen and chalaza at op- 
posite ends. 


| HEXxA, six ; same as Latin Sex. 


HeExacynous, having six styles. 


| HEXANDROUS, having six stamens. 


Hiv, the base of the seed to which the pla- 
centa is attached, either directly or by means 
of acord. The term is also applied to the 
mark at one end of some grains of starch. 


G 


818 


Hirsute, covered with long stiff hairs. 

Hisprp, covered with long very harsh hairs. 

HistocGenetic, applied to minute molecules, 
supposed to be concerned in the formation of 
cells. 

Hisrotocy, the study of microscopic tissues. 

Hotosericeous, covered with minute silky 
see, discovered better by the touch than by 

- sight. 

Homopromous, spirals running in the same 
direction. 

Homocamous, Composite plants having the 
flowers of the capitula all hermaphrodite. 

Homoceneous, having a uniform structure or 
substance. 

Homomorpuic, when the pistil is fertilised by 
the pollen from its own flowers ; this is self- 
fertilisation. 2 

Homos and Homotos, similar, in composition 
Homo. 

Homorropat, when the slightly curved em- 
pee has the same general direction as the 
seed, 

Horotocicat, flowers opening and closing at 
certain hours, 

HoumIFusg, spreading along the ground. 

HYALINE, transparent or colourless; applied by 
Barry to the part where the cell-nucleus 
appears. 

Hysrip, a plant resulting from the fecundation 
of one species by another. 

HyMeEnioM, the part which bears the fructifica- 
tion in Agarics. 2 

HypanTuopiuM, the receptacle of Dorstenia, 
bearing many flowers. 

Hypua, the filamentous tissue in the thallus 
of lichens. 

Hypuasma, a web-like thallus of Agarics. 

Hypo, under or below, in composition Hyg. 

Hyrocarpocean, plants producing their fruit 
below ground. 

Hyrocuitium, the lower part of the labellum 
of Orchids. 

HypocraTerirorm, shaped like a salver, as 
the corolla of Primula. 

Hypocear or Hypocsous, under the surface 
of the soil, applied to cotyledons. 

HES NOUs inserted below the ovary or 
pistil. 

 Hyrotuatvus, the mycelium of certain Ento- 
phytic Fungi, as Uredines. 

HyrsomeETRICAL, measurement of altitude. 

HysTerantuous, when leaves expand after 
the flowers have opened. 

Hysteropuyta, a name applied to Fungi. 


Icosanpria, having twenty stamens or more 
inserted on the calyx ; /cosandrous, having 
twenty stamens. 

Icos1, twenty; in composition Jcos. 
Latin Viginti. 

ImpricaTE or IMBRICATED, parts overlying 
each other like tiles on a house. Jsbricated 
@stivation, the parts of the flowér-bud alter- 
nately overlapping each other, and arranged 
in a spiral manner. 

ImPari-PINNATE, unequally-pinnate, pinnate 
leaf ending in an odd leaflet. 

INARCHING, a mode of grafting by bending two 
growing plants towards each other, and caus- 


Same as 


ing a branch of the, one to unite to the |’ 


other. 


GLOSSARY. 


INARTICULATE, without joints or interruption 
to continuity. 

Incu, French, is equal to 1.06578 inch 
British. 

INcISED, cut down deeply. 

INCLUDED, applied to the stamens when enclosed 
within the corolla, and not pushed out beyond 
its tube. 

IncumBENT, cotyledons with the radicle on 
their back. 

INDEFINITE, applied to inflorescence with centri- 
petal expansion; also to stamens above 
twenty, and to ovules and seeds when very 
numerous. 

INDEHISCENT, not opening; having no regular 
line of suture. 

INDETERMINATE, applied to indefinite inflores- 
cence. 

Inp1GENovs, an aboriginal native in a country. 

INDUPLICATE or INDUPLICATIVE, edges:of the 
sepals or petals turned slightly inwards in 
estivation. 

Inpusium, epidermal covering of the fructifica- 
tion in some Ferns. 

Inpurive, applied by Miers to seeds having the 
usual integumentary covering. 

INERMIS, unarmed, without prickles or thorns. 

INFERIOR, applied to the ovary when it is 
situated below the calyx; and to the part of 
a flower farthest from the axis. 

INFLORESCENCE, the mode in which the flowers 
are arranged on the axis. 

INFUNDIBULIFORM, in shape like a funnel ; as 
seen in some gamopetalous corollas. 

InNnaTE, applied to anthers when attached to 
the top of the filament. 

Innovations, buds in Mosses. 

INTERCELLULAR SPACE, same as Lacuna, 

INTERFOLIAR, between two opposite leaves. 

INTERNODE, the portion of the stem between 
two nodes or leaf-buds. 

INTERPETIOLAR, between the petioles of op- 
posite leaves ; as the stipules of Cinchona. 
INTERRUPTEDLY-PINNATE, a pinnate leaf in 
which pairs of small pinnz occur between the 

larger pairs. 

INTERSTAMINAL, an organ placed between two 
stamens. 

INTEXTINE, one of the inner coverings of the 
pollen-grain. 

InTINE, the inner covering of the pollen-grain. 

INTRORSE, applied to anthers which open on the 
side next the pistil. 

INVERTED, applied to the embryo when the 
radicle points to the end of the seed opposite 
the hilum. 

InvoLuceEL, bracts surrounding the partial 
umbel of Umbelliferae. 

INVoLUCRE, bracts surrounding the general 
umbel in Umbelliferze, the heads of flowers in 
Composite, and in general any verticillate 
bracts surrounding numerous flowers. It is 
also used in the same sense as the Indusium 
of Ferns. 

INVOLUTE or InvotuTivE, edges of leaves 
rolled inwards spirally on each side, in esti- 
vation. 

IRREGULAR, a flower in which the parts of any 
of the verticils differ in size. : 
IsocHEIMAL or IsOcHEIMONAL, lines passing 
through places which have the same mean 

winter temperature. 


GLOSSARY. 


Isocuomous, branches springing from the same 
plant, and always at the same angle. ~ 

Isomeric, applied chemically to substances 
which, though differing in qualities, have the 
same elements in the same proportions. 

IsomErous, when the organs of a flower are 
composd each of an equal number of parts. 

Isos, equal, in composition /so. 

Isosporous, cryptogamic plants producing a 
single kind of spore, as ferns. 

Isosremonous; when stamens and floral enve- 
tore have the same number of parts or mul- 
tiples. 

IsoTHERAL, lines passing through places which 
have the same mean summer temperature. 
IsoTHERMAL, lines passing through places which 

have the same mean annual temperature. 


Jornincs, the places where the parts of the stem 
are attached to each other ; the nodes. 

Joints, spaces between the knots or nodes or 
joinings. 

Juca, a name given to the ribs on the fruit of 
Umbelliferz. 


Jucum, a pair of leaflets ; yugaze, applied to the | 


pairs of leaflets in compound _ leaves; 
unijugate, one pair ; bijugate, two pairs ; and 
so on, : 


KEEL, same as Carina. 

KLEIsToGamous, applied to certain grasses in 
which fertilisation is effected in closed flowers. 

Kwottep, when a cylindrical stem is-swollen 
at intervals into knobs. 


LaBeEL, the terminal division of the lip of the 

- flower in Orchids. 

LaBELLuM, lip, one of the divisions of the inner 
whorl of the flower of Orchids. This part is 
in reality superior as regards the axis, but 
becomes inferior by the twisting of the ovary. 

LasiaTe, lipped, applied to irregular gamo- 
petalous flowers, with an upper and under 
portion separated more or less by a hiatus or 


gap. 

LAcINIATED, irregularly cut into narrow seg- 
ments. 

Lacinu ta, the small inflexed point of the petals 
of Umbelliferze. ‘ 

LacteEscEntT, yielding milky juice. 

Lacuna, a large space in the midst of a group 
of cells. 

Lavicatus, having a smooth polished appear- 
ance. 

Lavis, even. . ; 

LaMELLA, gills of an Agaric, also applied to 
flat divisions of the stigma. » 

Lamina, the blade of the leaf, the broad part 
of a petal or sepal. 

LANCEOLATE, narrowly elliptical, tapering to 
each end. 

Lanucinous,. woolly, covered with long flexu- 
ous interlaced hairs. : 

LATERAL, arising from the side of the axis, not 
terminal. : ops 

Larex, granular fluid contained in laticiferous 
vessels. 7 

LaTIcIFEROUS, anastomosing vessels ¢ontain- 
ing latex. 7 

LatiserT#, Cruciferous plants having a 
broad replum in their silicula, 


819 


Lecorropar, shaped like a horse-shoe, as 
some ovules. 

Lecumg, a pod composed of one carpel, open- 
ing usually by ventral and dorsal suture, as 
in Pea. 

LenTIcEL, a small process on the bark of the 
Willow and other plants, whence adventitious 
roots proceed. 

se, in the form of a doubly-convex 
lens. 

LepipoTE, covered with scales or scurf; Zepis, 
a scale. 

Lianas or LIANEs, twining woody plants. 

Lier, the fibrous inner bark or endophloeum. 

LIEBERKUHN, a metallic mirror attached to the 
objective of a microscope for the purpose of 
throwing down light on opaque objects. 

LicNINE, woody matter which thickens the 
cell-walls. 

Lisunane, strap-shaped florets, as in. Dande- 

10n. 

LIGULE, a process arising from the petiole of 
grasses where it joins the blade. 

Licu.irLor#, Composite plants having ligu- 
late florets. 

Limp, the blade of the leaf; the broad part of 
a petal or sepal; when sepals or petals are 
united, the combined broad parts are de- 
nominated collectively the limb. 

Ling, the r2th part of an inch; Lize, French, 
is equal to 0.088815 inch British. 

Lingzar, very narrow leaves, in which the 
length exceeds greatly the breadth. 

Lire :ta, sessile linear apothecium of Lichens, 

Lose, large division of a leaf or any other 
organ; applied often to the divisions of the 
anther. 

LocuticiDAL, fruit dehiscing through the back 
of the carpels. 

Locutus or LocuLaMENT, a cavity in an 
ovary, which is called zzzlocular when it has 
one cavity, dz/ocular with two, and so on. 
The terms are also applied to the anther. 


‘Locusta, a spikelet of grasses formed of one or 


several flowers, 

Lopicute, a scale at the base of the ovary of 
Grasses. 

Lomentum and LomENTACEovs, applied to a 
legume or pod with transverse partitions, each 
division containing one seed. 

LuNATE, crescent-shaped. 

LyrRaTE, a pinnatifid leaf with a large terminal 
lobe, and smaller ones as we approach the 
petiole. 


Macropopous, applied to the thickened radicle 
of a monocotyledonous embryo. 

Macros, large, in composition Macro. 

Macrosporanaia, cells or thece containing 
macrospores. 

Macrospores, large spores of Lycopods. 

Matpicuiaceous Hairs, peltate hairs, such as 
are seen in’ Malpighiacez. 

ManicaTe, applied’ to scales surrounding a 
stalk like a frill, and easily removed. 

MAaRCESCENT, withering, but not falling off 
until the part bearing it is perfected. 

MarGINATE, applied tocalyx, same as Obsolete. 

MASKED, same as Personate. 

Maru, a term sometimes used for crop; an 
agricultural term. 


820 


Marrutta, the fibrous matter covering the 
petioles of Palms. 

Mepuv ta, the cellular pith. 

Meputtary Rays or Piatss, cellular pro- 
longations uniting the pith and the bark. 

MeEpDuLLary SHEATH, sheath containing spiral 
vessels surrounding the pith in Exogens, 

MEGASPORANGIA, same as Macrosporangia. 

MEGATHERMS, or MACROTHERMS, plants re- 
quiring a high temperature. 

ARSE TINE, plants requiring extreme 

eat. 

MEIosTEMoNous or MiosTEMoNOUS, the sta- 
mens less in number than ,the parts of the 
corolla. 

MeEmBrANAcEOUS or Mempranous, having 
the consistence, aspect, and structure of a 
membrane. 

Meniscus, a lens having a concave and a con- 
vex face, with a sharp edge. 

MSE NSE tissue composed of rounded 
cells. 

Menricarp, single-seeded portion of a fruit 
composed of several monospermal carpels, 
which separate from each other when ripe ; 
as in Borage, Labiate, and Umbellifere ; 
also the separate monospermal portion of a 
Lomentum. 

MeriTHAL, a term used in place of internode ; 
applied by Gaudichaud to the different parts 
of the leaf. 

Mesocarp, middle covering of the fruit. 

MEsocuILiuM, middle portion of the labellum 
of Orchids. 

MEsoPHLeuM, middle layer of the bark. 

MEsopHyYLtuM, the parenchyma of the leaf. 

Mesos, the middle, in composition Meso. 

MEsosPeERM, applied to a covering of the seed 
derived from the secundine. 

EES) plants requiring a moderate 

eat, 

METAsPERMS, another name for Angiosperms. 

METRE, equal to 39.37079 inches British. 

MICROMETER, instrument for measuring micro- 
scopic objects. 

rs Gees the opening or foramen of the 
seed. 

Micros, small, in composition Micro. 

Microsporancia, cells or thecz, containing 
microspores. : 

Microspores, small spores of Lycopods, pro- 
ducing antheridia. 

MicroTHERMs, plants requiring asmall amount 
of heat. 

MILLIMETRE, equal to 0.03937079 English 
inch, or 25.39954 millimetres equal to an 
English inch. 

Mirrirorm, shaped like a mitre, as the calyp- 
tra of some Mosses. 

Mo vecuce, an exceedingly minute body in 
which there is no obvious determinate ex- 
ternal circle or internal centre. 

MonabELpuous, stamens united into one 
bundle by union of their filaments, 

Monanprows, having one stamen. 

Monemsryony, having a single embryo. 

Moniu1Form, beaded, cells united, with inter- 
ruptions, so as to resemble a string of beads. 

Monocarric, producing flowers and fruit once 
during life, and then dying. 

MonocuLamypgous, flower having a single 
envelope, which is the calyx. 


GLOSSARY. 


Monoc.inous, stamens and pistils in the same 
flower. 

MonocotTyLeponous, having one cotyledon in 
the embryo. : i 
Moncecious, or Monoicous, stamens and pis- 
tils in different flowers on the same plant. 
MonoGYNecIAL, applied to simple fruits, 

formed by the pistil of one flower. 

Monoeynovs, having one pistil or carpel, also 
applied to plants having one style. 

MoNOPETALOUS, same as Gamopetalous. 

Monopuy..ous, same as Gamophyllous. 

Monos, one, in composition Mono and Mon, 
as Monandrous, one stamen; sometimes 
applied to the union of parts into one, as 
Monopetalous, meaning combined petals; 
same as Latin Unus. 

MownosEpa_ous, same as Gamosepalous. 

Monospermous or MonosPErMAL, having a 
single seed. 

MonoruEcaL, having a single loculament. 

Monstrosity, an abnormal development, 
applied more especially to double flowers. 

MorpHo oey, the study of the forms which the 
different organs assume, and the laws that 
regulate their metamorphoses. 

Mucro, a stiff point abruptly terminating an 
organ; Mucronate, having a mucro. 

Mucus, definite, peculiar matter forming a 
covering of certain seaweeds. 

MUuLTICOSTATE, many-ribbed. 

MuttIF1p, applied to a simple leaf divided 
laterally to about the middle into numerous 
portions ; when the divisions extend deeper 
it is Multipartite. 

MuttTILocurar, having many loculaments. 

MoutTIPLe, applied to anthocarpous or polygy- 
neecial fruits formed by the union of several 
flowers. 

Moricare, covered with firm, short points, or 
excrescences. 

ee aga like bricks in a wall; applied to 
cells. 

Muscotoey, the study of Mosses. 

Moticus, without any pointed process or awn. 

Myce .ium, the cellular spawn of Fungi. 


NAKED, applied to seeds not contained’in a 
true ovary; also to, flowers without any 
floral envelopes. 

Naprirorm, shaped like a turnip. 
NATURALISED, originally introduced by arti- 
ficial means, but become apparently wild. 

Navicuvar, hollowed like a boat. 

NEcTARIFEROUS, having a honey-like secre- 
tion ; applied to petals having depressions or 
furrows at their base, which contain a sweet 
secretion. 

NECcTARY, any abnormal part of a flower. It 
ought to be restricted to organs secreting a 
honey-like matter, as in Crown Imperial. 

Nemea, from Nema, a thread, applied by 
Fries to cryptogams in allusion to the ger- 
mination by a protruded thread, without 
cotyledons. . 

NERVATION or NEURATION, same as Venation. 

NeETTED, applied to reticulated venation ; also 
covered with raised lines disposed like the 
threads of a net. 

Niripus, having a smooth and polished surface. 

Nong, the part of the stem from which a leaf- 
bud proceeds ; a joining. 


GLOSSARY. 


Noposs, having swollen nodes or articulations. 

Nopu ose, applied to roots with thickened 
knots at intervals. 

Nosovoey, vegetable, the study of the diseases 
of plants. 

NororuizE&, radicle on the back of the coty- 
ledons, as in some Cruciferz. : 

Nuctegus, the body which gives origin to new 
cells ; also applied to the central cellular por- 
tion of the ovule and seed. 

Nucuxanium, applied to the fruit of the Med- 
lar having nucules; some also apply this 
term to the Grape. 

Noucu te, hard carpel in the Medlar, also one 
of the parts of fructification in Characez. 

Nucumentaceous, Cruciferee having a dry 
monospermal fruit. 

Nut, properly applied to the glans, but also 
applied to any hard nut-like fruit, as in Carex 
and Rumex. 


Os, in composition, means reversed or con- 
trariwise. 

OxscomprEssED, flattened in front and behind, 
not laterally. 

OxscorDaTE, inversely heart-shaped, with the 
divisions of the heart at the opposite end from 
the stalk, 

Os.ona, about # as long as broad; elliptical, 
obtuse at each end. 

OsovaTE, reversely ovate, the broad part .of 
the egg being uppermost. 

OssoLeTE, imperfectly developed or abortive : 
applied to the calyx when it is in the form of 
arim, 

Ostusg, not pointed, with a rounded or blunt 
termination. 

OsvoLuTE, margins of one leaf alternately 
overlapping those of the leaf opposite to it. 
Ocurea or OcrEa, boot, applied to the sheath- 

ing stipule of Polygonacez. 

Ocranprous, having eight stamens. 

Octo, eight, in composition Oct. 

Octocynous, having eight styles. 

Ccium and CEcious, in composition, have 


reference to the position of the reproductive |’ 


organs, as Axdracium, the staminal organs ; 
Diecious, stamen and pistil in different 
flowers. 

OFFICINAL, sold in the shops. 

OFFSET, same as Profagulum. 

OLERACEOUS, used as an esculent potherb. 

OLIGANDROUS, stamens under twenty. 

Ouicos, few or in small number ; in composi- 
tion Oligo and Olig. 

OvicosPrERMous, plant having few seeds. 

OMPHALODE, the central point of the hilum, 
where the nourishing vessels enter. 

Ooconta, equivalent to Archegonia in Fungi. 

OopuHoRIDIUM, organ in Lycopodiacez contain- 
ing large spores. 

OosPoRANGIA, spore-cases in some Algze. 

OosporE, a fertilised spore in Fungi. 

OpaguE, dull, not shining. 

OPERCULUM, lid, applied to the separable part 
of the theca of Mosses ; also applied to the 
lid of certain seed-vessels ; Oferculate, open- 
ing by a lid. M 

OprosiTE, applied to leaves placed on opposite 
sides of a stem at the same level. 

ORBICULAR, rounded leaf with petiole attached 
to the centre of it. 


821 


OrcGanoceEny, the development of organs, in- 
cluding their primitive condition and their 
gradual evolution. 

OrGANoGRAPHY, the description of the organs 
of plants. 

OrTHOPLOCE#, Cruciferee having conduplicate 
cotyledons. 

OrTHOS, straight ; in composition Ortho, same 
as Latin Rectus. é 

OrTHOSPERM«, seeds with the albumen flat on 
its inner face. 

ORTHOTROPAL and OrrHoTrRopous, ovule 
with foramen opposite to the hilum ; embryo 
with radicle next the foramen, and hence in- 
verted. 

Osmosg, the force with which fluids pass 
through membranes in experiments on exos- 
mose and endosmose. 

Ovat, elliptical, blunt at each end. 

Ovary, the part of the pistil which contains 
the ovules. 

Ovarte, shaped like an egg, applied to a leaf 
with the broader end of the egg next the 
petiole or axis ; Ovate-lanceolate, alanceolate 
leaf, which is somewhat ovate. 

OveENCHYMaA, tissue composed of oval cells. 

OvuLe, the young seed contained in the ovary. 


Paina, applied to the surface of the leaf, or 
any flat surface. 

PaLZonTOo.ocy, the study of Fossils, 

PALOPHYTOLOGY, the study of Fossil plants. 

PaLaTE, the projecting portion of the under 
lip of personate flowers. 

Patea or PALE, the part of the flower of 
Grasses within the glume; also applied to 
the small scaly laminz which occur in the 
receptacle of some Compositz. 

Paveaceous, chaffy, covered with small erect 
membranous scales. 

PaLMaTE and PaLMATIFID, applied to a leaf 
with radiating venation, divided into lobes to 
about the middle. 

PALMATIPARTITE, applied to a leaf with radi- 
ating venation, cut nearly to the base in a 
palmate manner. 

PanpbuRiForM, shaped like a fiddle, applied to 
an oblong leaf, with a sinus on each side 
about the middle. 

PANICLE, inflorescence of Grasses, consisting 
of spikelets on long peduncles coming off in 
a racemose manner. 

PANICULATE, forming a panicle. 

PANsPERMISM, development of cells from germs 
introduced from the atmosphere. 

PaPILIONACEOUS, corolla composed of vexillum, 
two alz, and carina, as in the Pea. 

PaPiILttaATED and PapiLtosE, covered with 
small nipple-like prominences. 

Pappus, de hairs at the summit of the ovary 
or achene in Composite. They consist of 
the altered calyx. Pafgose, provided 
with pappus. : 

Para, eside or in place of; often used in com- 
position. 

ParaPuysEs, filaments, sometimes articulated, 
occurring in the fructification of Mosses and 
other Cryptogams; also applied by some 
authors to abortive petals or stamens. 

PaRASITE, attached to another plant, and deriv- 
ing nourishment from it. 

PARENCHYMA, Cellular tissue. 


822 


PaRIETAL, applied to placentas on the wall-of 
the ovary. 

PaRI-PINNATE, a compound pinnate leaf, end- 
ing in two leaflets. 

PARTHENOGENESIS, production of perfect seed 
with embryo, without the application of 
pollen. 

ParTITE or ParTeEp, cut down to near the 
base, the divisions being called Partitions. 
PaTeEtLa, rounded sessile apothecium of 

Lichens. 

PATENT, spreading widely. 

PaTuo.ocy, Vegetable, same as Nosology. 

ParTuLous, spreading less than when patent. 

PEcTINATE, divided laterally into narrow seg- 
ments, like the teeth of a comb. 

PepATE and PEDATIFID, a palmate leaf of 
three lobes, the lateral lobes bearing other 
equally large lobes on the edges next the 
middle lobe. 

Penick, the stalk supporting a single flower ; 
such a flower is Pedzcellate. 

PEDUNCLE, the general flower-stalk or floral 
axis. Sometimes it bears one flower, at 
other times it bears several sessile or pedi- 
cellate flowers. 

PrLacic, growing in many distant parts of 
the ocean. 

PELLicLe, the outer cuticular covering of 
plants. 

PELoria, a name given to a teratological phe- 
nomenon, which consists in a flower, which 
is usually irregular, becoming regular; for 
instance, when Linaria, in place of one spur, 
produces five. ” 

PELTATE, shield-like, fixed to the stalk by a 
point within the margin; Zeltaze hairs, at- 
tached by their middle. 

PENDULOUS, applied to ovules which are hung 
from the upper part of the ovary. 

PENICcILLATE, pencilled, applied to a_tufted 
stigma resembling a camel-hair pencil, as in 
the Nettle. 

PENNI-NERVED and PENNI-VEINED, the veins 
disposed like the parts of a feather, running 
from the midrib of the leaf to the margin. 

Penta, PEenTe, five; same as Quingue in 
Latin. 

PENTAGONAL, with five angles having convex 
spaces between them. 

PEnTacynous, having five styles. 

PENTAMEROUS, composed of five parts; a pen- 
tamerous flower has its different whorls in 
five, or multiples of that number. 

PzenTanprous, having five stamens. 

PENTANGULAR, with five angles and five flat 
faces between them. 

Pero and Prpontpa, the fruit of the Melon, 
Cucumber, and other Cucurbitacez. 

Per, when placed before an adjective, some- 
times gives it the value of a superlative, as 
perpusillus, very weak; at other times it 
mieans through, as Zerfoliate, through the 

eaf, 

PERCURRENT, running through from top to 
bottom. 

PrRENNIAL, living, or rather flowering, for 
several years. 

PERFOLIATE, a leaf with the lobes at the base, 
united on the side of the stem opposite the 
blade, so that the stalk appears to pass 
through the leaf. 


GLOSSARY. 


Pert, around ; in Latin, Circa. 

PERIANTH, a general name for the floral enve- 
lope ; applied in cases where there is only a 
calyx, or where the calyx and corolla are 
alike. 

PericarP, the covering of the fruit. 

PERICHATIAL, applied to the leaves surround- 
ing the fruit stalk or seta of Mosses. 

PERicLapiuM, the large sheathing petiole of 
Umbelliferze. 

PERICLINIUM and PERIPHORANTHIUM, the in- 
volucre of Composite. 

PERIDERM, a name applied to the outer layer 
of bark. 

Peripium, the envelope of the fructification in 
Gasteromycetous Fungi. 

PERIGONE, same as Perianth. Some restrict the 
term to cases in which the flower is female or 
pistilliferous. It has also been applied to the 
involucre of Jungermanniez. 

PERIGYNIUM, applied to the covering of the 
pistil in the genus Carex. 

Pericynous, applied to corolla and stamens 
when attached to the calyx. 

PERIPHERICAL, applied to an embryo curved so 
as to surround the albumen, following the 
inner part of the covering of the seed. 

PeErisPErM, the albumen or nourishing matter 
stored up with the embryo in the seed. 

PerisPorE, the outer covering of a spore; the 
mother-cell of spores in Algze. 

PERISTOMATIC, cells surrounding a stoma, as 
in Ceratopteris. 

PERISTOME, the opening of the sporangium of 
Mosses after the removal of the calyptra and 
operculum. 

PeERITHECIUM, a hollow conceptacle in Lichens, 
containing spores, and having an opening at 
one end. 

PERSISTENT, not falling off, remaining attached 
to the axis until the part which bears it is 
matured. 

PrrsonaTE, a gamopetalous irregular corolla 
having the lower lip pushed upwards, so as to 
close the hiatus between the two lips. 

PertusE, having slits or holes. 

PERuL#, the scales of the leaf bud. 

PETALOID, like a petal. 

PErTALs, the leaves forming the corolline whorl. 

PETIOLATE, having a stalk or petiole. 

Periotg, a leaf-stalk ; Petzolude, the stalk of a 
leaflet in a compound leaf. 

PHALANGES, applied to stamens divided into 
lobes, like a partite or compound leaf. 

PHANEROGAMOUS, having conspicuous flowers. 

PHANEROS and PHeNos, conspicuous ; in com- 
position, Phaxero and Pheno. 

PHANOGAMOUS, same as Phanerogamous. 

PHLEBOIDAL, applied to moniliform vessels. 

soc ts a name applied in composition to the 

ark. 

PHORANTHIUM, applied to the receptacle of 
Composite. 

Puorus, PHorum, and Puorg, in words de- 
rived from the Greek, are used as termina- 
tions, meaning, that which bears ; equivalent 
to the Latin Herus and Fer. 

PHRAGMA, transverse division or false dissepi- 
ment in fruits. 

Prycocuromg, colouring matter in Lichens and 
in the lower Algz. 

Puyco.oey, the study of Alge or Seaweeds. 


GLOSSARY. 


Puyvivarigs, the leaflets forming the involucre 
of Composite flowers. 

PHYLLopIvM, leaf-stalk enlarged so as to have 
the appearance of a leaf. 

Puy topy, change of an organ into true leaves. 

PuyLto1, like a leaf. 

PuyYLLoLosEA, cotyledons green and leafy. 

Puy .oprosis, the fall of the leaf. 

Puy iotaxis, the arrangement of the leaves 
on the axis. 

Puy.tium, leaf, in composition Phyllo and 
Phyllous ; in Latin Folium. 

PuysioGNomy, general appearance, without 
reference to botanical characters. 

Puysio.ocy, Vegetable, the study of the func- 
tions of plants. q 

PuyToGENEsIs, the development of the plant. 

PuytoGrapny, the description of plants. 

Puyrotoey, the study of plants. 

PuytTon, a name given by Gaudichaud to the 
simple individual plant, as represented by a 
leaf. In words derived from the Greek, 
Phyton and Phyto mean plant. 

PuyTozoa, moving filaments in the antheridia 
of Cryptogams. 

PILEORHIZzA, a covering of the root, as in 
Lemna. 

Pixevs, the cap-like portion of the Mushroom, 
bearing the hymenium on its under side. 

Piose, provided with hairs; applied to pappus 
composed of simple hairs. 

ean tissue composed ‘of tabular 
cells. 

Pin-zvep, applied to the flower of Primula, 
having long styles with stigma visible at the 
top of the floral tube. 

Pinna, the leaflet of a pinnate leaf. 

PINNATE, a compound leaf having leaflets ar- 
ranged on each side of a central rib. 

PINNATIFID, a simple leaf cut into lateral seg- 
ments to about the middle. 

PINNATIPARTITE, a simple leaf cut into lateral 
segments, the divisions extending nearly to 
the central rib. 

Pinnuces, the small pinnz of a bipinnate or 

___ tripinnate leaf. 

Pistit, the female organ of the flower, composed 
of one or more carpels; each carpel being 
composed of ovary, style, and stigma. 

PisTILLATE, and PISTILLIFEROUS, applied to a 
female flower or a female plant. 

Pistivuipium, the female organ in Crypto- 


ams. 

PEACENTA, the cellular part of the carpel bear- 
ing the ovule. 

PiacenTary, a placenta bearing numerous 
ovules. 

PLACENTATION, the formation and arrange- 
ment of the placenta. 

Puatys, large or broad ; in composition Platy ; 
in Latin Lazus and Late. 

Pizi0n, several, incomposition Plezo ; in Latin 
Pluri. 

PLEIOTRACHE#, spiral vessels with several 
fibres united. 

Pienus, when applied to the flower, means 
double. 

PLEURENCHYMA, woody tissue. 

PLEUROCARPI, Mosses with the fructification 
proceeding laterally from the axils of the 
leaves. a 

PLEURORHIZE#, Cruciferous plants having the 


823 


radicle of the embryo applied to the edges of 
the cotyledons, which are called A ccumbent. 
Puicate and Piicative, plaited or folded like 


a fan, 

P.Lumosg, feathery, applied to hairs having two 
longitudinal rows of minute cellular pro- 
cesses. 

PLuMUuLE, the first bud of the embryo, usually 
enclosed by the cotyledons. 

Puurt in Latin words means several. 

PiuriLocutar, having many loculaments. 

PopETium, a stalk bearing the fructification in 
some Lichens. , 

Popocarp, a stalk supporting the fruit. 

Popocynium, a stalk supporting an ovary. 

Poposrerm, the cord attaching the seed to the 
placenta. . 

Pocon, beard; in Latin Barba. 

POLLARD-TREES, cut down so as to leave only 
the lower part of the trunk, which gives off 
numerous buds and branches. 

PoL.en, the powdery matter contained in the 
anther. 

PoLLEN-TUBE, the tube emitted by the pollen- 
grain after it is applied to the stigma. 

Poxuinia, masses of pollen found in Orchids 
and Asclepiads. 

PoLYADELPHOUS, stamens united by their fila- 
ments so as to form more than two bundles. 

PoLyanprous, stamens above twenty. 

Porycarpic, plants which flower and fruit 
many times in the course of their life. 

PoLycoTYLEDONOUS, an embryo having many 
cotyledons, as in Firs. 

PoLyEmBRyONY, having more than one em- 


ryo. 

PotyGamous, plants bearing hermaphrodite as 
well as male and female flowers. ' 

PoLyGyneciAL, applied to multiple fruits 
formed by the united pistils of many flowers. 

Potycynous, having many pistils or styles. 

PoLyMORPHOUS, assuming many shapes. 

PoLyPETALOUS, a corolla composed of separate 
petals. 

PoLypuyLuous, a calyx or involucre composed 
of separate leaflets. 

Potys, many, in composition Poly; in Latin 
Multus. 

PoLysEPALous, a calyx composed of separate 
sepals. : 

POLYSPERMAL, containing many seeds. 

Poms, a fruit like the Apple and Pear. 

Porgs of the leaf, same as Stomata. 

Porous VESSELS, same as Pitted or Dotted 
vessels, 

Porrect, extended forwards. 

Posterior, applied to the part of the flower 
placed next the axis; same as Superior. 

Posricus, same as Lxtrorse; applied to 
anthers. 

Poucu, the short pod or silicle of some Cru- 
ciferze. 

Pous, Popos, a foot or stalk, in composition 
Podo; in Latin Pes, Pedis. 

PR#FLORATION, same as “4 stivation, 

PRAFOLIATION, same as Vernation. 

PremorsE, bitten, applied to a root or rhizome 
terminating abruptly, as if bitten off, 

PRICKLES, hardened epidermal appendages, of 
a nature similar to hairs. 5 

Priming, the outer coat of the ovule. 

PrimorpiL, the first true leaves given off by 


824 


the young plant ; also the first fruit produced 
on a raceme or spike. 

Primorpiac UTRrIcce, the lining membrane of 
cells in their early state. 

FS SUE ACHES: tissue composed of prismatical 
cells. 

Process, any prominence or projecting part, 
or small lobe. 

Procumsent, lying on the ground. 

Pro-EmsBryo, cellular body in ovary, from 
which the embryo and its suspensor are 
formed. Sometimes Pro-embryo is used for 
Prothallus. 

Pro.tFerous, bearing abnormal buds. 

Pro.iFIcaTION, axis prolonged beyond the 
flower, bearing leaves, and ending in an 
abortive flower-bud ; seen in Rose and Geum. 

Prone, prostrate, lying flat on the earth. 

PropaGuLuM, an offshoot, or germinating bud 
attached by a thickish stalk to the parent 
plant. 

ProsencuyMa, fusiform tissue forming wood. 

PROTANDROUS, or PROTERANDROUS, stamens 
reaching maturity before the pistil. 

PROTHALLIUM, or PROTHALLUS, names given 
to the first part produced by the spore of an 
acrogen in germinating. 

ProtoGynous, or PROTEROGYNOUS, 
reaching maturity before the stamens. 

Protopiasm, the matter which seems to be 
concerned in the early formation of nuclei 
and cells. ‘ 

Prutnose, covered with a coarse granular 
secretion, as if dusted. 

PsEupo, false ; in Latin, Spurius. 

Psevpo-Bu Ls, the peculiar aerial stem of many 
epiphytic Orchids. 

PsreupDosPERMous, applied to plants bearing 
single-seeded seed-vessels, sick as Ach 
resembling seeds. 

PTreRIpoGRAPHIA, a treatise on Ferns. 

Prerocarpous, having winged fruit. 

Pusescence, short and soft hairs covering a 
surface, which is hence called Pubescent. 

PULVERULENT, covered with fine powdery 
matter. 

PutvinaTE, shaped like a cushion or pillow. 

Puxvinus, cellular swelling at the point where 
the leaf-stalk joins the axis. 

Puncrartep, applied to the peculiar dotted 
woody fibres of Conifera. 

Putamen, the hard endocarp of some fruits. 

Pycnipe, a papilleform or wart-like minute 
cellular reproductive body in the thallus of 
Lichens. 

PyREN#, stony coverings of the seeds in the 

edlar. 

Pyripium, same as Pome. 

Pyrirorm, pear-shaped. 

ecg and Pyxipium, a capsule opening by a 
id. 


pistil 


eee in composition, means four times. 

UADRIFARIOUS, in four rows. 

QuanriFID, four-cleft, cut down into four parts 
to about the middle. 

QuanpRIJUGATE, having four pairs of leaflets. 

ieee eae, having four loculaments. 
UADRIPARTITE, divided deeply into four 


parts. 
QuartTinE, the fourth coat of the ovule, which 
often is changed into albumen. 


GLOSSARY. 


QuaTERNATE, leaves coming off in fours from 
one point. 

Quinary, composed of five parts, or of a mul- 
tiple of five. 

QuinaTE, five leaves coming off from one 
point. * 

Quincunx, when the leaves in the bud are five, 
of which two are exterior, two interior, and 
the fifth covers the interior with one margin, 
and has its other margin covered by the ex- 
terior. Quincuncial, arranged ina quincunx. 

QuINQUE, in compound words means five. 

QurnquEFin, five-cleft, cut into five parts as 
far as the middle. 7 

QuinquELocuLakr, having five loculaments. 

QuINQUEPARTITE, divided deeply into five 


parts. 
QuinTINE, the fifth coat of the ovule, other- 
wise called the embryo-sac. 


Race, a permanent variety. 

Racrmg, cluster, inflorescence in which there is 
a primary axis bearing stalked flowers. 

RacemosE, flowering in racemes. 

Racuis, the axis of inflorescence ; also applied 
to the stalk of the frond in Ferns, and to the 
common stalk bearing. the alternate spikelets 
in some Grasses. 

RapianT, applied to flowers which form a ray- 
like appearance, as seen in Umbellifere and 
in Viburnum, etc. 

RapiaTE, disposed like the spokes of a wheel ; 
also applied to the florets of the ray or cir- 
cumference of the capitula of Composite. 

Rapicaz, belonging to the root, applied to 
leaves close to the ground, clustered at the 
base of a flower stalk. 

Rapic eg, the young root of the embryo. 

Raptus, the ray or outer part of the heads of 
Composite flowers. 

Ramat, belonging to the branches. 

RameEnTa, the scales or chaff of Ferns. 

RamoseE and Ramous, branched. 

Rapue, the line which connects the hilum and 
the chalaza in anatropal ovules. 

RapuIpEs, crystals found in cells, which are 
hence called Raphidian. 

RECEPTACLE, the flattened end of the peduncle 
or rachis, bearing numerous flowers in a 
head ; applied also generally to the extremity 
of the peduncle-or pedicel. 

RECLINATE, curved downwards from the hori- 
zontal, bent back up. 

RECTEMBRYE4, the embryo straight in the axis 
of the seed. 

REcTINERVIS and RECTIVENIUS, straight and 
parallel veined. 

RECTISERIAL, leaves disposed in a rectilinear 
series. 

RECURVED, bent backwards. 

REpDUPLICATE, edges of the sepals or petals 
turned outwards in zstivation. 

ReEcMa, seed-vessel composed of elastic cocci, 
as in Euphorbia. 

REGULAR, applied to an organ the parts of 
which are of similar form and size. 

RELIQUI#, remains of withered leaves attached 
to the plant. 

RENIFORM, in shape like a kidney. - 

REPANDy having a slightly undulated or sinuous 
margin, 


GLOSSARY. 


RepLum, a longitudinal division in a pod, 
formed by the placenta, as in Cruciferee. 

TES UFINARE, inverted by a twisting of the 
stalk. 

RETICULATED, netted, applied to leaves having 
a network of anastomosing veins. 

RetiFors, like network. 

RerTinacuum, the glandular viscid portion at 
the extremity of the caudicle in some pollinia. 

Retinervis and Retiventus, having reticu- 
lated veins. 

RETRoRSE, turned backwards. 

Retuse, when the extremity is broad, blunt, 
and slightly depressed. 

REVOLUTE and ReEvo.utive, leaf with its 
edges rolled backwards in vernation. 

Ruiza, in words derived from the Greek, means 
root. 

RHIZANTH, same as Rhizogen. 

Rurzocarp, applied to Marsilea, as producing 
spore-cases on root-like processes. 

RHIZOGEN, a name applied to such plants as 
Baesia, which consist of a flower and root 
only. 

RuizoME, a stem creeping horizontally, more 
or less covered by the soil, giving off buds 
above and roots below. 

RuizoTaxis, the arrangement of the roots. 

RuHomBoID, quadrangular form, not square, 
with equal sides. 

Rictus, the throat or chink in personate flow- 


ers. 

RINGENT, a labiate flower, in which the upper 
lip is much arched. 

Root-stock, same as Rhizome. 

Rosaczous, applied to corollas having separate 
sessile petals like the Rose. 

RosETTE, leaves disposed in close circles form- 
ing a cluster. 

RosTELLuM, a peculiar body in Orchids, often 
cup-shaped, bearing the glands of the pollen- 
mass, with its viscid balls attached. 

RostraTE, beaked, having a long sharp point. 

RotatTE, a regular gamopetalous corolla with 
a short tube, the limb spreading out more or 
less at right angles. 

RotaTion or GyRATION, a peculiar circulation 
of the cell sap, seen in Hydrocharidacez, 
Characez, etc. : 

RuDIMENTARY, an organ in an abortive state, 
arrested in its development. 

Rucosg, wrinkled. 

RuMINATE, applied to mottled albumen. 

RUNCINATE, a pinnatifid leaf with a triangular 
termination and sharp divisions pointing 
downwards, as in Dandelion. 

Ruwnenr, a prostrate shoot rooting at the end; 
a stoton. 


BAEC forming a sack or bag, seen in some 

etals. 

sicrrrate, like an arrow, a leaf having two 
prolonged sharp-pointed lobes projecting 
downwards beyond the insertion of the 
petiole. 

SALVER-SHAPED. See Hyfocrateriform. 

Samara, a winged dry fruit, as in the Elm. 

Sarcocarp and SARCODERM, the mesocarp of 
the fruit, having become succulent. 

SARCOLOBE#, cotyledons thick and fleshy, as 
in Bean and Pea, 

SARMENTUM, sometimes meaning the same as 


825 


Flagellum, or runner, at other times applied 
to a climbing stem which supports itself by 
means of others, as in Vine. 

Scaprous, rough, covered with very stiff short 
hairs; Scabrizscudus, somewhat rough. 

SCALARIFORM, vessels having bars like a ladder, 
seen in Ferns. 

ScanDENT, climbing by means of supports, as 
on a wall or rock. 

Scars, a naked flower-stalk, bearing one or 
more flowers arising from a short axis, and 
usually with radical leaves at its base. 

Scarious, having the consistence of a dry 
scale, membranous, dry, and shrivelled. 

Scuizocarp, dry seed-vessel splitting into two 
or more 1-seeded mericarps. 

Scion, the young twig used as a graft. 

SEUEEOSEN) the thickening matter of woody 
cells, 

ScosiForM, in the form of filings, or like fine 
sawdust. 

Scosina, the flexuose rachis of some Grasses. 

Scorpio1Dat, like the tail of a scorpion, a pe- 
culiar twisted cymose inflorescence, as in 
Boraginacez. 

Scorpior1p CymMgE, flowers arranged alternately 
or ina double row along one side of a false 
axis, the bracts forming a double row omthe 
other side ; bracts often wanting. a 

ScroBICULATE, pitted, having small {depres- 
sions. 

ScuTE Late, like a shield. 

ScuTELLUM, a sort of apothecium in Lichens. 

SEcUND, turned to one side. 

Secunping, the second coat of the ovule 
within the primine. 

SEGREGATE, separated from each other. 

SELF-FERTILISATION, pistil fertilised by the 
pollen of the stamens in the same flower. 

Sem, half, same as the Greek Hemi. 

SEMIFLOSCULOUS, same as Ligulate. 

SEMINAL, applied to the cotyledons, or seed- 
leaves. 

SEPAL, one of the leaflets forming the calyx. 

SEPTATE, divided by septa or partitions. 

SEPTEM, seven, in Greek Hedia. 

SEPTENATE, organs approaching in sevens; a 
compound leaf with seven leaflets coming off 
from one point. 

SEPTICIDAL, dehiscence of a _seed-vessel 
through the septa or edges of the carpels. 

SEPTIFRAGAL, dehiscence of a ‘seed-vessel 
through the back of the loculaments, the 
valves also separating from the septa. 

SEPTULATE, having spurious transverse dissepi- 
ments. . 

SEPTUM, a division in an ovary formed by the 
sides of the carpels. 

Sericgous, silky, covered with fine, close- 
pressed hairs, 

SERRATE or SERRATED, having sharp processes 
arranged like the teeth ofa saw. Suzserrate, 
when these are alternately large and small, 
or where the teeth are themselves serrated. 

SERRATURES, pointed marginal divisions ar- 
ranged like the teeth of a saw. 

SERRULATE, with very fine serratures, 

SEsqul, in composition, means one and a half. 

SESSILE, without a stalk, as a leaf without a 
petiole. © 

SETA, a bristle or sharp hair; also applied to 
the gland-tipped hairs of Rosacez and 


826 


Hieracia; and to the stalk bearing the 
theca in Mosses. . 

Sreracrous and SeTiForm, in the form of 
bristles. 

SETIGEROUS, bearing seta. 

SETOSE, covered with seta. 

Sex, in Latin, six; same as Greek Hera. 

SHEATH. See Vagina. 

Sivicuca or SILIcEg, a short pod with a double 
placenta and replum, as in some Cruciferz. 

SiLicuLos, bearing a silicula. 

Sr1riqua, a long pod similar in structure to the 
silicula. 

S1LiqU£FoRM, fruit like a siliqua in form. 

SiLiquos@, bearing a siliqua. 

SIMPLE, not branching, not divided into sepa- 
rate parts; Simple fruits are those formed 
by one flower. 

SinisTRORSE, directed towards the left. 

SINUATED, the margin having numerous large 
obtuse indentations. 

Sinvous, with a wavy or flexuous margin. 

SLASHED, divided by deep and very acute in- 
cisions. 

Sopoes, a creeping underground stem. 

Social Piants, such as grow naturally in 
groups or masses. 

Sorepia, powdery cells on the surface of the 
thallus of some Lichens. 

Sorosis, acompound or polygyncecial succulent 
fruit, such as Breadfruit and Mulberry ; also 
applied by some to the fructification in 
Alaria, containing pyriform stipitate spores. 

Sorus, a cluster of sporangia in Ferns ; applied 
also to fructification in Alaria, containing 
pyriform stipitate spores. 

Spapix, a succulent spike bearing male and 
female flowers, as in Arum. 

SpaTHAcEous, having the aspect and membran- 
ous consistence of a spathe. 

SpaTHE, large membranous bract covering 
numerous flowers. : 

SPATHELL4, another name for the glumellz of 
Grasses. 

SpaTHULATE, shaped like a spathula, applied 
to a leaf having a linear form, enlarging sud- 
denly into a rounded extremity. 

Spawn, same as Mycelium, 

Speciric CHARACTER, the essential character 
of a species. 

SPERMATIA, motionless spermatozoids in the 
spermogones of Lichens and Fungi. 

SPERMATOzOIDS, moving filaments contained 
in the antheridia of Cryptogams ; called also 
phytozoa and antherozoids. 

SPERMODERM, the general covering of the seed. 
Sometimes applied to the episperm or outer 
covering. 

SPERMOGONE, a microscopic conceptacle in 
Lichens, containing reproductive _ bodies 
called Spermatia; also _a conceptacle con- 
taining fructification in Fungi. : 
PH/ERAPHIDES, globular clusters of raphides, 
as in Ficus. 

SPH SRaNCHY MA, tissue composed of spherical 
cells, 

Spike, inflorescence consisting of numerous 
flowers sessile on an elongated axis. 

SPIKELET, small cluster of flowers in Grasses. 

Spine or THorN, an abortive branch with a 
hard sharp point. f 

SPINESCENT or SpiNnosE, bearing spines. 


GLOSSARY. 


Sprrav VESSELS or SprrorpEA, having a spiral 
fibre coiled up inside a tube. 

SPIRILLUM, same as Sfermatozoid. 
SprroLoBE#, Cruciferze having the cotyledons 
folded transversely, the radicle being dorsal. 
SPONGIOLE or SPONGELET, the cellular extre- 

mity of a young root. 

Sporapic PLantTs, confined to limited local- 
ities. 

SPORANGIUM, a Case containing spores. 

Spore, a cellular germinating body in Crypto- 
gamic plants. 

Sroripium, a cellular germinating body in 
Cryptogamics containing two or more cells 
in its interior. 

SporocarP, the involucre or ovoid-sac con- 
taining the organs of reproduction in Mar- 
sileacez. 

SPoROPHORE, a stalk supporting a spore. 

SporopuHores, filamentous, processes support- 
ing spores in Fungi. 

Sporozorp, a moving spore furnished with cilia 
or vibratile processes. 

Spur, same as Calcar. 

Squama, a scale ; also applied to bracts on the 
receptacle of Composita, to bracts in the in- 
florescence of Amentiferz, and to the lodicule 
of Grasses. 

SQUAMOSE, covered with scales. 

SQUARROSE, covered with processes spreading 
at right angles or in a greater degree. 

Sracuys and StTacuya, in Greek words signify 
a spike. 

Sramen, the male organ of the flower, formed 
by a stalk or filament and the anther con- 
taining pollen. 

STAMINATE and STAMINIFEROUS, applied to 
a male flower, or to plants bearing male 
flowers. 

STAMINODIUM, an abortive stamen. - 

STAMINopy, change of an organ into stamens. 

STANDARD, same as Vextllum. 

STELLATE or STELLIFORM, arranged like a 
star. 

SreRiGMATA, cells bearing naked spores ; also 
cellular filaments bearing spermatia and stylo- 
spores, in the Spermogones and Pycnides of 
Lichens. 

STERILE, male flowers not bearing fruit. 

Sticuip1a, pod-like receptacles containing 
spores. 

SticHous at the termination of words means 
a row, as adistichous, in two rows. 

Sticma, the upper cellular secreting portion of 
the pistil, uncovered with epidermis ; St7g- 
matic, belonging to the stigma. . 

StImuLus, a sting, applied to stinging hairs 
with an irritating secretion at the base. 

Stipz, the stem of Palms and of Tree-ferns ; 
also applied to the stalk of Fern-fronds, and 
to the stalk bearing the pileus in Agarics. 

STIPEL, a small leaflet at the base, of the pinnz 
or pinnules of compound leaves. 

STIPITATE, supported on a stalk. 7 

SripuLary, applied to organs occupying the 
place of stipules, such as tendrils. 

STIPULATE, furnished with stipules. 

Srieu.e, leaflet at the base of other leaves, 
having a lateral position, and more or less 
changed either in form or texture. 

Sto.on, a sucker, at first aerial, and then turn- 
ing downwards and rooting. 


GLOSSARY. 


StotoniFerous, having creeping runners 
which root at the joints. 

Sroot, a plant from which layers are pro- 
pagated, by bending down the branches so 
as to root in the soil. 

Stomares and Sromata, openings in the 
epidermis of plants, especially in the leaves. 
STRANGULATED, contracted and expanded ir- 

regularly. 

STRAP-SHAPED, same as Ligudate; linear, or 
about six times as long as broad. 

SrtA, a narrow line or mark. 

STRIATED, marked by streaks or striae. 

Srricose, covered with rough, strong, ad- 
pressed hairs. . 

StTriPEs, a name given to the Vitte of Umbel- 
liferze, 

STROBILUS, a cone, applied to the fruit of Firs 
as well as to that of the Hop. 

STROPHIOLE, a sort of aril or swelling on the 
surface of a seed. 

Struma, a cellular swelling at the point where 
a leaflet joins the midrib; also a swelling 
below the sporangium of Mosses. 

Sturose, having a tuft of hairs. 

STYLE, the stalk interposed between the ovary 
and the stigma. 

Sryopop, an epigynous disk seen at the base 
of the styles of Umbelliferze. 3 

STYLosporeE, a spore-like body borne on a 
sterigma or cellular stalk, in the Pycnides of 
Lichens. 

Sus, in composition, means a near approach 
to, as sub-rotund means nearly round. 

SusErous, having a corky texture. 

Susicutum, same as Hypothallus. 

SUBTERRANEAN, underground, same as Hy- 
pogeal. 

SuBULATE, shaped like a cobbler’s awl. 

Succisus, abrupt, as it were cut off, same as 
Premorse. 

Surrruticose, having the characters of an 
undershrub. 

Sutcare, furrowed or grooved. 

Superior, applied to the ovary when free from 
the calyx ; to the calyx when it is attached to 
the ovary ; to the part of a flower placed next 
the axis. 

SuPERVOLUTE or SUPERVOLUTIVE, a leaf rolled 
upon itself in vernation. 

Surcutus, a sucker, a shoot thrown off under- 
ground, and only rooting at its base. 

SUSPENDED, applied to an ovule which hangs 
from a point a little below the apex of the 


ovary. 

Socpet on: the cord which suspends the em- 
bryo, and is attached to the radicle in the 
young state. 

SuTuRAL, applied to that kind of dehiscence 
which takes place at the sutures of the fruit. 
Sutures, the part where separate organs unite, 
or where the edges of a folded organ adhere ; 
the ventral suture of the ovary is that next 
the centre of the flower; the dorsal suture 

corresponds to the midrib. 

‘Syconus, a multiple or polygyncecial succulent 
hollow fruit, as in the Fig. 

Sympois. Seep. 412. 

SymMETRY, applied to the flower, has refer- 
ence to the parts being of the same number, 
or multiples of each other. — 

Syn, in composition, means united. 


827 


Synacmg, stamens and pistils reaching ma- 
turity at the same time. 

SYNANTHEROUS, anthers united. 

SYNANTHOS, flowers united together. 

Syncarrous, carpels united so as to form one 
ovary or pistil. 

SYNGENESIOUS, same as Synantherous. 
SynocHREATE, stipules uniting together on 
the opposite side of the axis from the leaf. 
Synsporous, applied to Algze which propagate 

by conjugation of cells. 


TAPHRENCHYMA, pitted vessels, same as Both- 
renchyma, 

TAp-ROOT, root descending deeply in a tapering 
undivided manner. 

Taxonomy, principles of the classification of 
plants. : 

TEGMEN, the second covering of the seed, 
called also Exdopleura. 

TEGMENTA, scales protecting buds. - 

TENDRIL. See Cirrus. 

TERATOLOGY, study of monstrosities and pecu- 
liar morphological changes. 

TERCINE, the third coat of the ovule, forming 
the covering of the central nucleus. 

TERETE, nearly cylindrical, somewhat tapering 
into a very elongated cone, the transverse 
section nearly circular. 

TERNARY, parts arranged in threes, 

TERNATE, compound leaves composed of three 
leaflets. 

TesTA, the outer covering of the seed; some 
apply it to the coverings taken collectively. 
TESTICULATE, root having two oblong tuber- 

cules. 

TETRA, in Greek words four; in Latin Quater 
or Quadri. 

TETRADYNAMOUS, four long stamens and two 
short, as in Cruciferae. 

TETRAGONOUS, or TETRAGONAL, having four 
angles, the faces being convex. 

TeTRAGYNousS, having four carpels or four 
styles. 

TETRAMEROUS, composed of four parts; a 
flower is tetramerous when its envelopes are 
in fours, or multiples of that number. 

TETRANDROUS, having four stamens. 

TETRAPTEROUS, having four wings. 

TETRAQUETROUS, having four angles, the faces 
being concave. 

TETRASPORE, a germinating body in Alge 
composed of four spore-like cells; but also 
applied to those of three cells. 

TETRATHECAL, having four loculaments. 

THALAMIFLORAL, parts of the floral envelope 
inserted separately into the receptacle of 
thalamus. 

THALAMUS, the receptacle of the flower, or the 
part of the peduncle into which the floral 
organs are inserted. 

THALLOGENS or THALLOPHYTES, plants pro- 
ducing a thallus. 

THALLUS, cellular expansion in Lichens and 
other Cryptogams, bearing the fructification. 

THECA, sporangium or spore-case containing 
spores. 

THECAPHORE, a stalk supporting the ovary. 

TuEcAsporRous, applied to Fungi which have 
the spores in thecz. 

Tuorn, an abortive branch with a sharp point. 

Turoat, the orifice of a gamopetalous flower. 


828 


THRUM-EYED or THUMB-EYED, flowers having 
short styles, where the stigma does not appear 
at the upper part of the tube of the corolla, 
as in Primula. 

Tuyrsus, a sort of panicle, in form like a bunch 
of grapes, the inflorescence being definite. 

TIGELLUus, the young embryonic axis. 

TorsE is equal to 1.94904 metres or 6.39459 
English feet.’ 

ToMENTOSE, covered with cottony, entangled 
pubescence, called somentum. 

Torutoss, presenting successive rounded swell- 
ings, as in the moniliform pods of some 
Crucifere. 

Torus, another name for thalamus ; sometimes 
applied to a much-developed thalamus, as in 
Nelumbium. 

TRACHEA, a name for spiral vessels. 

TRACHENCHYMA, tissue composed of spiral 
vessels, 

TRANSPIRATION, the exhalation of fluids by 
leaves, etc. 

Treis, three ; Tris, thrice, in composition 777. 

TRIADELPHOUS, stamens united in three bundles 
by their filaments. 

Trianprous, having three stamens, 

TRIANGULAR, having three angles, the faces 
being flat. . 

TRICHOPHORE, cellular body supporting the 
Cystocarp in some Floridez. 

TRICHOGYNIUM, a hair-like process in Floridez, 
surmounting a cell, which after fertilisation 
becomes a cystocarp. 

TRICHOTOMOUS, divided successively into three 
branches. 

Tricoccous, formed, by three elastic monosper- 
mal carpels. 

TRICOSTATE, three-ribbed, ribs from the base. 

TricuspipaTE, having three long points or 
cuspides. s 

TRIDENTATE, having three teeth. 

TRIFARIOUS, in three rows, looking in three 
directions. 

Tririp, three-cleft, a leaf divided into three 
segments which reach to the middle. 

TRIFOLIATE or TRIFOLIOLATE, same as Ter- 
nate. When the three leaves come off ‘at 
one point the leaf is ternately-trifoliolate ; 
when there is a terminal stalked leaflet and 
two lateral ones it is pznnately-trifoliolate. 

Triconous, having three angles, the faces being 
convex. 

TriGynous, having three carpels or three styles. 

TRIJUGATE, having three pairs of leaflets. 

TRILOCULAR, having three loculaments. 

TRIMEROUS, composed of three parts ; a tramer- 
ous flower has its envelopes in three or 
multiples of three. 

Trimorpuic, three forms of flowers in one 
species, each on a different plant, and having 
stamens and pistil ; there are three lengths of 
stamens, of which two lengths are in each 
flower ; and there are three lengths of styles 
differing in each form of flower, not associ- 
ated with stamens of corresponding length. 

TrIneRvis, having three ribs springing to- 
gether from the base. 

Triacious, or TRIo1Cous, a species producing 

. hermaphrodite, staminate, and_pistillate 
flowers on three separate individuals. 

Triaiciousty-HERMAPHRODITE, same as Tri- 
morphic. 


GLOSSARY. — 


TripaRTITE, deeply divided into three. 

TRIPINNATE, a compound leaf three times 
divided in a pinnate manner. 

TRIPINNATIFID, a pinnatifid leaf with the seg- 
ments twice divided;in a pinnatifid manner. 

TRIPLICOSTATE, three ribs proceeding from 
above the base of the leaf. 

Triquetrous, having three angles, the faces 
being concave. 

TRISTICHOUS, in three rows. 

TRITERNATE, three times divided in a ternate 
manner. 

TROPHOSPERM, a name for the placenta, 

TRUNCATE, terminating abruptly, as if cut off 
at the end. 

Tryma, drupaceous fruit like the Walnut; a 
superior x-celled 1-seeded fruit, with a 
coriaceous or fleshy epi- and mesocarp; a 
stony 2-valved endocarp with partitions on 
inner concave surface, as in Walnut. 

Tuper, a thickened underground stem or 
branch, as the potato. 

TUBERCULE, the swollen root of some terrestrial 
Orchids. 

TuseErovs, applied to roots in the form of tuber- 
cules, 

Tusuvar, applied to the regular florets of the 
Compositz. 

TUBULAR-BELL-SHAPED, applied to a campanu- 
late corolla, which is somewhat tubular in its 


‘orm. 

TunIcaTED, applied to a bulb covered by thin 
external scales, as the Onion. 

TuRBINATE, in the form of a top. 

Turio, a young shoot covered with scales sent 
up from an underground stem, as in Aspara- 


S. 

TyLosIs, development of irregular cells in the 
interior of pitted vessels, seen in many 
exogenous trees, as Walnut, Oak, and Elm. 

Type, the perfect representation or idea of any- 


oa 2 7 . 7 
Tyricat, applied to a specimen which has emi- 
nently the characteristics of the species, or to 

a species or genus characteristic of an order. 


Umez1, inflorescence in which numerous stalked 
flowers arise from one point. 

UMBELLULE, a small umbel, seen in the com- 
pound umbellate flowers of many Umbelli- 


ere. 

UmpiicaTE, fixed to a stalk by a point in the 
centre. 

Umpizicus, the hilum or base of a seed. 

Umpo, a conical protuberance on a surface. | 

UmBonaTE, round, with a projecting point in 
the centre, like the boss of an ancient shield. 

UmBRACULIFEROUS, in the form of an expanded 
umbrella. 

UncinaTE, provided with an wxcus or hooked 
process. 

UNDvECcIM, eleven; in Greek, Exdeca. 

Uncuts, claw, the narrowed part of a petal; 
such a petal is called Unguzculate. 

UnI, in composition, one, same as Greek Mono. 

UNICELLULAR, composed of a single cell, as 
some Algze. 

UNILATERAL, arranged on one side, or turned 
to one side. , 
UniLocuar, having a single Zocudus or cavity. 
UnIPARoUS, a cymose inflorescence in which 

the primary axis produces one bract, and 


GLOSSARY. 


from the axil of this a second axis arises, 
and so on in succession; a false axis is thus 
formed. 

Uniparous, scorpioidal cyme. See Scorpioid. 

UNISEXUAL, of a single sex, applied to plants 
having separate male and female flowers. 

URcEOLATE, urn-shaped, applied to a gamo- 
petalous globular corolla, with a narrow 
opening. 

UstTuLATE, blackened. 

UTRICLE, a name for a thin-walled cell, or for 
a bladder-like covering. 

Urricu.us, applied to a kind of fruit like the 
achene, but with an inflated covering ; also to 
the persistent confluent perigone of Carex; 
in Alga applied to a loose cellular envelope 
containing spores. 


Vacina, sheath, lower sheathing 
some leaves. 

VALLECULA, an interval 
the fruit of Umbellifere. 

VALVATE, opening by valves, like the parts of 
certain seed-vessels, which separate at the 
edges of the carpels. 

VaLvaTE EsTIVATION, when leaves in the 
flower-bud are applied to each other by their 
margins only. 

VALVATE VERNATION, when leaves in the 
Jeaf-bud are applied to each other by their 
margins only. 

Va.ves, the portions which separate in some 
dehiscent capsules. A name also given to the 
parts of the flower of grasses. ° 

VASCULAR TISSUE, composed of spiral vessels 
and their modifications. 

VASIFORM TISSUE, same as Dotted vessels. 

Veins, bundles of vessels in leaves. 

VELuM, veil, the cellular covering of the gills of 
an Agaric in its early state. 

VELUTINOUS, having a velvety appearance. 

VENATION, the arrangement of the veins. 

VENTRAL, applied to the part of the carpel 
which is next the axis. . 

VENTRICOSE, swelling unequally on one side. 

VerRMICULAR, shaped like a worm, or having 
worm-like movements. . 

VeERNATION, the arrangement of the leaves in 
the bud. : 

VERRUCOSE, covered with wart-like excre- 
scences. Sata 

VERSATILE, applied to an anther which is at- 


portion of 


etween the ribs on 


829 


tached by one point of its back to the fila- 
ment, and hence is very easily turned about. 

VERTICIL, a whorl, parts arranged opposite to 
each other at the same level, or, in other 
words, in a circle round an axis. The parts 
are said to be Vertictllate. 

VERTICILLASTER, a false whorl, formed of two 
nearly sessile cymes placed in the axils of 
opposite leaves, as in Dead-nettle. 

VESICLE, another name for a cell or utricle. 

VESSELS, tubes with closed extremities. 

VEXILLARY, applied to zestivation when the vex- 
illum is folded over the other parts of the 
flower. 

VEXILLUM, standard, the upper or posterior 
petal of a papilionaceous flower. 

VIGINTI, twenty, same as Greek Jcosz. 

ViLLous, covered with long soft hairs, and 
having a woolly appearance. 

Vircate, long and straight like a wand. 

Viscous, clammy, like bird-lime. 

VITELLUS, the embryo-sac when persistent in 
the seed. , 

Vit, cells or clavate tubes containing oil in 
the pericarp of Umbelliferze. 

Viviparous, plants producing leaf-buds in 
place of fruit. 

VouuBILE, twining, a stem or tendril twining 
round other plants. 

VoLva, wrapper, the organ which encloses the 
parts of fructification in some Fungi in their 
young state. 


WHORLED, same as Verticillate. 
Wines, the two lateral petals of a papilionaceous 
flower, or the broad flat edge of any organ. 


XANTHOPHYLL, yellow colouring matter in 
plants. 

XanTHuos, yellow, in composition Yamntho. 

XEROPHILOUS, plants requiring a hot and dry 
climate. 

XYLEM, woody tissue. 

XyLocarpous, fruit which becomes hard and 
woody. 


ZoopPuiLous, applied to plants which are fer- 
tilised by the agency of insects. 

ZoosPORE, a moving spore provided with cilia ; 
called also Zoosferm and Sforozoid. ° 

ZYGOSPORE, compound spore formed by con- 
jugating cells in Fungi. 

ZOOTHECA, a cell containing a spermatozoid. 


830 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. 


ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS.* 


‘THE names of Authors are abridged in Botanical works by giving the first letter or 
syllable, etc.—Thus, L. stands for Linneus ; DC. for De Candolle ; Br. for Brown; 
Lam. and Lmk. for Lamarck ; Hook. for Hooker ; Hook. fil. for Hooker junior ; 
Lindl. for Lindley ; Arn. for Arnott ; H. and B. for Humboldt and Bonpland ; 
H. B. and K. for Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth ; W. and A. for Wight and 
Arnott ; Benth. for Bentham ; Berk. for Berkeley ; Bab. for Babington, etc. 


The Symbol oo or 00 means an indefinite number ; in the case of stamens it 
means above 20. 

© means Monocarpic, flowering and fruiting once during life; duration 
uncertain, 

O © or A. means a Monocarpic annual plant ; flowering and fruiting within 
the year and then dying. 

6 ©© © © or B. means a biennial plant ; flowering and fruiting in the 
second year. : 

zf A or P. means a perennial plant ; Rhizocarpic. 

5 means a woody plant. 5 means an undershrub. 

h 5 or Sh. means a shrub; 5 means a Tree under 25 feet; T. or 5 a Tree 
above 25 feet. 

~ means a climber; ) turning to the left ; ( turning to the right. 

O = Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral ; Pleurorhizez. 

O || Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal ; Notorhizez. 

O> Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal ; Orthoploces. 

O |j || Cotyledons plicate or folded, radicle dorsal ; Spirolobee. 

O || Il || Cotyledons biplicate or twice folded, radicle dorsal ; Diplecolobez. 

% Hermaphrodite flower, having both stamens and pistil. 

$ Male, staminiferous, staminate, or sterile flower. 

Q Female, pistilliferous, pistillate, or fertile flower. 

& 2 Unisexual species, having separate male and female flowers. 

&-¥ Moneecious species, having male and female flowers on the same plant. 

& :2 Dicecious species, having male and female flowers on different plants. 

3 & 2 Polygamous species, having hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers on the 
same or different plants. 

! Indicates certainty as to a genus or species described by the author quoted. 

? Indicates doubt as to the genus or species, 

O Indicates absence of a part. 

v. v. sp. or v. v. Vidi vivam spontaneam, indicates that the author has seen a 
living native specimen of the plant described by him. 

v. v., Vidivivam cultam, indicates that he has seen a living cultivated specimen. 

v. $. sp. or v. s. Vidi siccam spontaneam, indicates that he has seen a dried 
native specimen. 

v, ». . Vidi siccam cultam, indicates that he has seen a dried cultivated specimen, 

v. in h. Vidi in Herbario ; seen in Herbarium. 


* For further remarks on Abbreviations and Symbols, see page 412. 


ABAXILE or abaxial, 


342 
Abbattichim, 495 
Abbreviations and 

symbols, 412, 830 
Abele, 592 
Aberia, 440 
Abies, 599 
Abietineze, 597 
region of, 676 
Abietites, 750 
Abiogenesis, 15 
Abnormal roots, 39 
Abolboda, 619 
Abruptly pinnate, 93 
Abrus, 479 
Absinthium, 52r 
Absorption of fluids, 

X21, 124, 142 
Acacia, 96, 482 
Acalypha, 580 
Acanthacee, 556 
Acanthodium, 556 
Acanthus, 556 
Acaules, 44 
Acclimatising, 716 
Accrescent, 200 
Accumbent, 112, 340 
Aceracez, 458 
Achenium, 309 
Achimenes, 541 
Achlamydez, 560 
Achlamydeous or 

naked flowers, 192, 


367 
Achlya, 272, 655 
Achras, 53% 
Achromatic, 763 


Acids, Organic, 170 
Acinaciform, go 
Aconite, fruit of, 312 
Aconitum, 427 
Acorez, 625 
Acorn, 315 
Acorus, 625 
Acotyledonous, 334 
Acotyledonous germi- 
nation, 357 
embryo, 265, 335, 


362 
Acotyledons, 635 
—- leaves of, ror 
— phyllotaxis of, 107 


INDEX. 


on ee 


Acotyledons, root of, 
43 

—— spore of, 334 

—— symmetry in, 365 

Acrobrya, 70, 635. 

Acrocarpi, 643 

Acrocomia, 622 

Acrogenous or Acoty- 
ledonous stem, 70 

Acrogens, 635 

—— course of sap in, 


14 
Actzea, 427 
Actinenchyma, 4 
Aculei, 32 
Acuminate, 89 
Adam’s Needle, 615 
Adansonia, 449 
Adanson’s floral re- 

gion, 685 
Adder’s Tongue, 639 
Adherent, 98, 224, 246 
Adhesion, 98, 173, 

365, 369 
Adiantum, 639 
Adnate, 98, 224 
Adoxa, 511 
Adventitious, 116 
Adventitious root, 39, 


336, 
fEcidium, 649 
figle, 455 
Aerial leaf-buds, 114 
Aerial root, 38 
“Bsculus, 459 
4Estivation, 193 
Aktheogame, 635 
éthiopian Lily, 625 
—— Pepper, 430 
f&thophyllum, 747 
/Ethusa, 
Affinity, 674 
Africa Noxthern, flora 
of, 685 
— South, flora of, 


689 2 
—— Tropical, flora 

of, 685 
Agallochum, 572 
Agamous, 212 
Agar-agar, 655 
Agarics, phosphore- 

scent, 389 
Agaricus, 649 
Agathophyllum, 569 


Agathotes, 540 

Agave, 611 

Agavez, 611 

Age of trees, 360 

Agelza, 476 

Aggregate fruits, 310 

Agrarian region in Bri- 
tain, 773 

Anabin’ and Ahaloth, 


alls 13 


Air in germination, 345 
Air-plants, 127, 141, 
613 


Aizoon, 500 
Ajowan, 508. 
Alabastrus, 193 

le or wings, 205 
Alangiacez, 510 
Alaria, 655 
Albumen, 327, 331 
Albumin, vegetable, 166 
Albuminous, 332 
Alburnum, 55 
Alder, 593 
Aldrovanda, 441 
Alethopteris, 745 
Aleurites, 582 
Alfonsia, 626 
Alga, 652 
Algz of the chalk, 751 
Alge, reproduction of, 


269 
Algaroba Bean, 481 
Algum - trees, 480, 


574, 
Alhagi, 479 
Alhenna, 487 
Alismacez, 623 
Alkaloids, 170 
Allamanda, 537 
Alliez, 614 
Alligator pear, 569 
Allium, 615 
Allon, 595 
Allspice, 487, 492 
mond, 312, 485 
Almug-tree, 480, 574 
Alnus, 593 
Aloes, 615 
Aloes-wood, 572 
Aloineze, 614 
Aloysia, 555 
Alpine-Arctic flora, 
679 


Alpine plants of Bri- 
tain, their limits, 7x2 
—— vegetation of 
Great Britain, 707 
—— travelling, prepa- 
ration for, 804 
—— vegetation, zones 
of, 698 
Alpinia, 606 
Alps, Maritime, range 
of trees on, 697 
Alsinaceous corolla, . 
205 
Alsinez, 445 | 
Alsodez, 440 
Alsodeia, 441 
Alstonia, 537 
Alstrémeria, 61z 
Alternate, 103 
Alternately-pinnate, 93 
Alternation of parts of 
flowers, 192. 
Altingiacez, 504 
Altitudinal range of 
vegetation, 698 
Alumina in soils, 135 
Amadou, 650 
Amanita, 649 
‘Amaraataces: fruit of, 
310 
Amaranthacez, 562 
Amaranthus, 562 
Amaryllidaceze, 61 
Amber, 754 
Atop Pitch-tree, 


‘Arba: 563 
Amenta, 190 
Amentifera, fossil, 758 
Amentum, 178 
American "Aloe, 611 
Amherstia, 478 
Ammi, 508 
Ammonia, source of 
nitrogen, 127 
Ammoniac, 507 
eae manures, 


Ammophila, 632 
Amnios, 253, 326 
Amomum, 605 
Ampelidez, 460 
Ampelopsis, 462 
Amphigame, 644 
Amphitropal, 256, 342 


832 


Ampulla, 38, 100 
Amygdalex, 483 
Amygdalin, 167 
Amygdalus, 485 
Amyridacez, region of, 
685 
Amyridez, 475 
Anabasis, 563 
Anacardiacez, 473 
Anacharis, 602 
—— rotation in cells 
of, 153 
Anacyclus, 520 
Anagallis, 315, 558 
—— fruit of, dehis- 
cence of, 307 
Analogy, 674 
Anamirta, 430 
Ananassa, 613 
Anastatica, 437 
Anastomosis of vessels, 


ar 
Anatropal, or Anatro- 
pous, 256, 330 
Anchusa, 546 
Anda, 583 
Andes flora, 686, 696 
Andira, 480 
-Andrea, 643 
Andreecium, 212 
Andrographis, 556 
Andromeda, 527 
Androphore, 219 
Andropogon, 631 
Androsace, 55: 
Androspores, 270 
Anemia, 639 
Anemonez, 426 
Anemophilous, 284 
Anethum, 508 
Anfractuose, 223 
Angelica, 507 
Angienchyma, 16 
Angiopteris, 639 
Angiospermous, 326 


Angiospermous_ dico- 
tyledons of the 
chalk, 751 


Angiospermous flower- 
ing plants, fertilisa- 
tion in, 294 

Angiosperms, fossil, 
reign of, 750 

Atigiosporze, 635 

Angostura, 469, 

— false, 538 

Angustiseptz, 436 

Anigosanthus, 610 

Anise, 508 

Anisostemonous, 215 

Annual plants, 359 © 

Annular rings, 251, 361 

— vessels, 19 

Annularia, 738 

Annulate ferns, 639 

Annulated root, 40 

Anomopteris, 747 

Anonacee, 429 

Antarctic region, 688 

Anterior, applied to 
the parts of a flower, 
195 


INDEX. 


Anthemis, 520 
Anther, 216, 220 
—— abnormalities, 
226 
—-— appendages, 224 
—— colour of, 226 
—— coverings of, 220 
—— dehiscence of, 225 
—— lobes, form of, 222 
Anthericez, 614 
Anthericum, 614 
Antheridia, 234, 263, 
267, 278 
Antherozoids, 234, 265 
Anthemis, 520 
Anthesis, 193 
Anthistiria, 63x 
Anthocarpous, 309, 316 
Anthocerotez, 644 
Anthocyane, 391 
Anthodium, 180 
Antholites, 742 
Anthotaxis, 172 
Anthoxanthine, 391 
Anthoxanthum, 631 
Anthriscus, 507 
Antiaris, 587 
Antica, 226 
Antidesma, 588 
Antilles, flora of, 687 
Antirrhinez, 551 
Antirrhinum, capsule 
of, 315 
Antitropal, 347 
Aperispermic, 343 
Apetalz, 560 
Apetalous, 367 
Apex of fruit, 302 
—— of ovule, 253 
Aphelandra, 556 
Aphthaphytes, 651 
Aphyllanthez, 614 
Apiacez, 505 
Apicilar, 246, 303 
Apiculate, 302 
Apios, 480 
Aplanatic, 762 
Aplectrum, 605 
Aploperistomi, 643 
Aplostemonous, 215 
Aplotaxis, 520 
Apocarpous, 238, 309 
—— dehiscent fruits, 


372, ‘i . 
—— indehiscent fruits, 


309 
Apocynacez, 536 
— fossil, 755 
Apocynum, 537 
Aponogeton, 626 
Apophysis, 641 
Apostasia, 610 
Apostasiaceze, 610 
Apothecia, 268 
Apparatus for drying 

plants, 795 
Apoenacale: organs, 


3o 

Appendiculate, 
218 

Apple, 314, 485, 486 

Appressed, 111 


210, 


Apricot, 311, 485 
Apteria, 610 
Aquatic plants, 655 
Aquifoliaceze, 599 
Aquilaria, 572 
Aquilariacez, 572 
Arabian flora, 685 
Arabin, 163 


“Aracez:, 625 


Arachis, 480 
Araliacez, 509 
Arar-tree, 599 
Araucaria, 598 
Araucarioxylon, 739 
Araucarites, 749 
Arborescent, 46 
Arbor-vitz, 599 
Arbutus, 527 
Archangelica, 507 
Archegonium, 265, 267 
Archemone, 626 
Archil, 647 
Archisperms, 292 
Arctic fossil flora, 755, 
Arctic Region in Bri- 
tain, 71 
Arctic zone, plants of, 


9. 
pees 520 
Arctostaphylos, 527 
Ardisia, 313, 531 
Ardtun Leaf-beds, 755 
Areca, 621 
Arecinez, 621 
Arethusa, 604 
Argel, 536 
Arillode, 329 
Arillus, 328 
Arinez, 625 
Arista, 629 
Aristolochia, 577 
fertilisation of, 287 
Aristolochiacea, 575 
Aristotelia, 450 
Armeria, 559 
Armorican flora 

Britain, 708 
Arnatto or Annatto, 


of 


439 

Arnica, 521 

Aroth, 628 
Arracacha, 507 
Arrow-root, 607 

—— starch, 163 
Artanthe, 591 
Artemisia, 521 
Arthrotaxis, 597 
Artichoke, 520 
Artificial system, 406 
Artisia, 741 
Artocarpus, 587 
Asafcetida, 507 
Asagrea, 616 " 
Asarabacca, 576 
Asarum, 576 
‘Ascending’ axis, 44, 334 
Ascending sap, 144 
Asci, 267 

‘Ascidia, 100 
Asclepias, 536 
Asclepiadaceze, 534 
—fertilisation of, 286 


Asclepiadaceee, fruit 
of, 312 
Ascomycetes, 649 
Ascus, 251 
Ash, 533 
—— fruit of, 312 
Ash of plants, 129, 167 
Asimina, 429 
Asperula, 512 
Asphodelee, 614 
Aspidium, 639 
Aspidosperma, 537 
Asplenium, 639 
Assimilation, 124 
Astelia, 617 
Asteliez, 617 
Aster, 520 
Asteracez, 517 
Asterophyllites, 738 
Asters, Region of, 681 
Astilbe, 504 
Astragalus, 479 
Asturian type in Irish 
flora, 708 
Atap, 624 
Atherospermacez, 589 
Atlantic province, 680 
Atractenchyma, 4 
Atriplex, 562 
Atropa, 549 
Atropez, 548 
Atropous, 255 
Attalea, 622 
Attar of Roses, 486 
Aubergine, 548 
Aucklandia, 520 
Aucuba, 510 
Aurantiacee, 453 
Auricula, 558 
Auriculate, 89, 339 
Australian flora, 689 
Australian Spinach, 56 
Autumn Crocus, 616 
Avena, 630 
Avenia, 83 
Averrhoa, 465 
Avicennia, 555 
Avocado Pear, 569 
wn, 224 , 
Axil, 108, 335 
Axil of leaf, 82 
Axile, or Axial, 341 
Axile placentation, 243 
eae 82, 98, 108, 


174 
ASS ascending, 44,334 
—, descending, 37, 
334 
—, arrangement of 
flowers on, 172 
Azalea, 527 
Azolla, 640 
Azorella, 509 
Azores, plants of, 680 
Azotised products, 166 


BasBut bark, 482 
Bacca, 313 
Baccate, 313 
Bactridium, 649 
Baculiform, 272 
Bael, 455 


Balanophoracez, 577 
Balausta, 314, 492 


Balm, 554 
Balm of Gilead, 475, 


599 
Balonia, 595 
Balsam, bursting of 
seed-vessel of, 15 
—— of Peru, 480 
—— of Tolu, 480 
— of Umiri, 460 
—— trees, Region of, 


685 
Balsam, bog, 509 
Balsamifluz, 504 
Balsaminacez, 464 
Balsamodendron, 475 
Bamboo, 632 
Bambusa, 632 
Bambusium, 754 
Banana, 608 
Baneberry, 427 
Banisteria, 458 
Banksia, 570 
fruit of, 152, 312 

Banyan, age and size 

of, 360 

Baobab, 449 

Baphia, 482 
- Baptisia, 480 

Barbacenia, 610 

Barbadoes Cherry, 458 
Gooseberry, sor 
Barbed hairs, 32 
Barberry, 430 
— fertilisation 


of, 


83 
Bark, 50, 56, 76, 512 
Bark-bread, 599 
false, in endo- 

gens, 65 
Barley, 630 
Barosma, 467 
Barringtoniex, 490 
Bartsia, 551 
Basal placenta, 257 
Base of fruit, 302 
Base of ovule, 253 
Basella, 562 
Bases, organic, 170 
Basidia, 269 
Basil, 554 
Basilar, 247 
Bassia, 535 
Bassorin, 163 
Bast or Bass, 450 
Bastard-Cedar, 460 
Bast-layer, 57 
Batatas, 544 
Bauera, 504 
Bauhina, 478 

ay, 567 
ca learel, 486 
Bay-Myrtle, 592 
Bdellium, 475 
Bean, 479 
Bean-caper, 466 
Beania, 749 
Bearded, 2 
Bearded filament, 217 
Beaumontia, 537 


Beaver-tree, 429 


INDEX, 
Bebeeru, 568 Black Birch, 593 
Beech, 595 —— Bryony, 61 
Beech-drops, 551 —— Cummin, 428 
Beet, 562 — Whortleberry, 526 
Beet-sugar, 164 Bladder-nut, 472 
Begass, 164 — Senna, 480 
Begonia, 566 —— wort, 557 
Begoniacez, 566 Blade of leaf, 82 


Belladonna, 549 
Bellis, 520 
Bell-shaped, 198, 205 
Bengal hemp, 480 
Bennettites,750 
Ben-nuts, 483 
Ben-oil, 483 
Bent or marram, 632 
Benzoin, 529, 569 
Berberidacez, 430 
Berberin, 430 
Bere or Bigg, 630 
Bergamot, 455 
Bergia, 443 
Berried, 313 
Berry, 313 
Bertholletia, 492 
Berzelia, 504 
Beta, 562 
Betel-nut palm, 621 
Betel-pepper, soz 
Betula, 593’ 
Betulacez, 593 
Betzal, 615 
Bhang, 585 
Biennial, 359 
Bifid, 202, 248 
Bifurcate, 223, 248 
Bignoniacez, 540 
Bijugate, 92, 104 
Bikhor Bish, 427 
Bilabiate, 207 
Bilateral, 248 
Bilamellar, 249 
Bilberry, 526 
Billardiera, 466 
Bilobate, 249 
Bilocular, 222, 241 
Bindweed, 544 
Binomial system of 
nomenclature, 406 
Biogenesis, 15 
Biparous cyme, 183 
Bipartite; 87, 202, 248 
Bipinnate, 92 
Bipinnatifid, 87 
Bipinnatipartite, 87 
Birch, 593 
Bird lime, 530 
Birds, agency in fer- 
tilisation, 290 
Birthwort, 577 
Biscuit-root, 615 
Bisexual, 212 
Bistort, 564 
Biternate, 93. 
Bitter almond, 485 
—— apple, 496 
—— sweet, 548 
— wood, 430 
Bivalvular, 303 
Bixacez, 439 
Bizarres, 445 
Black Alder, 472 


Blaeberry, 526 
Blanching, 397 
Bleeding, or flow of 


sap, 144 
Blessed Thistle, 520 
Bletting, 322 
Blighia, 459 
Blight, 399 
Blood-root, 434, 610 
Bloom of Grapes, 168 


Blume’s Floral Re- 
gion, 684 
Boards for pressing 


plants, 798 
Bocagea, 429 
Boehmeria, 584 
Boerhaavia, 561 
Bog-bean, 540 
—— mosses, 643 
—— myrtle, 592 
Bolax, 509 
Boldoa, 589 
Boletus, 649 
Bolivaria, 532 


| Bombacez, 448 


Bombax, 449 
Bonapartea, 612 
Bone-earth, 138 
Bones as a manure, 139 
Bonnetia, 452 
Bonpland’s Floral Re- 
gion, 686 
Boopis, 517 
Borage, 546 
Boraginacee, 545 
—— fruit of, 31x 
Borassinez, 621 
Boronia, 467 
Boswellia, 475 
Botanical box, 796 
— spade, 796 
—— terms explained, 


809 
Botany Bay Kino, 491 
Bothrenchyma, or 
Taphrenchyma,6, 20 
Bothrodendron, 734 
Botnim, 474 
Botrychium, 639 
Botrytis, 650 
Bottle Gourd, 496 
Bourdeaux Pine, 599 
Bovista, 650 
Bowenia, 600 
Box-tree, 582 
Brachychiton, 449 
Brachyphyllum, 748 
Bractez, 189 
Bracteoles, 177, 189 
Bractlets, 177, 189 
Bracts, or floral leaves, 
172, 1 
— arrangement of, 


190, 


3H 


833 


Bracts, coloured, 189 
—— empty, 189 
—— phyllotaxis of, 
189 
—— _ viviparous, 
proliferous, 191 
Bramble, 312, 485 
Branches, 112 
—~ arrested, 119 
Branching of trees, 45 
Branchlets, rr2 
Brassica, 437 
Brassicacez, 434 
Brayera, 486 
Brazil-nuts, 492 
— wood, 481 
Brazilian flora, 687 
Bread-fruit, 316, 587 
—— nuts, 587 
—— tree, 601 
Brexia, 504 
Brinjal, 548 
Britain, distribution of 
plants in, 702 
British plants, 
ities of, 703 
—— types of, 703 . 
— sporadic species 


or 


local- 


709 
Brocoli,, 437 
Bromelia, 612 
Bromeliacez, 612 
Bromus, 632 
Brongniart’s division 
of fossil plants, 721, 


727 
Brookweed, 559 
Broom, 480 
Broom-rape, 550 
Brosimum, 587 
Broussonetia, 587 
Brown coal, 757 
Brown’s floral Region, 
689 
Brownian corpuscles, 


293 
Brucea, 469 
Bruniacez, 504 
.Brunoniacez, 522 
Bryacez, 641 
Bryonia, 494 
Bryony, 496 
Bryophyllum, 499 
Bryson’s _ instrument 

for slicing fossils, 

788 
Bryum, 643 
Buchu, 468 
Buck-bean, 540 
— eye, 459 
Bucklandia, 504, 750 
Buckthorn, 472 
Buckwheat, 564 
Bud, arrangement of 

leaves in the, 112 


‘Budding, 109, 325 


Buds, leaf, ro’ 

—— abnormal, 40 
—— adventitious, 117 
— embryo, 116 
— flower, 193 

—— latent, 112, 117 


834 


Buds, on grasses, 358 
——on leaves, 118, 


35: 
—— separable, 357 
—— suppression 


368 

Buffalo-tree, 574 
Bugle-weed, 554 
Bugloss, 545 
Bukkum-wood, 482 
Bulb, 114 
— pseudo, 47 
—— naked, 115 
— scaly, 115 
— solid, 116 
—— tunicated, 115 
Bulblets or bulbils, 117 
Bulbochzte, 270 
Bull-palm, 622 
Bulrush, 625 
Bunch-grass, 631 
Bunias, 435 
Bunium, 507 
Bunt, 399 

» 520 


of, 


Burdoc! 

Burgundy pitch, 599 
Bunti-palm, 622 
Burmanniacez, 610 
Bursaria, 466 
Burseracez, 475 
Bush, 46 

Butea, 480 

Butter of Cacao, 450 
— of Canara, 457 
— tree of Park, 531 
Butomacez, 623 
Butomus, 623 - 
— fruit of, 312 
Butterfly-weed, 536 
Butter-nuts, 453 
— of plants, 168 
— tree, 531 
Butterwort, 557 
Buxus, 582 
Byttneriacezx, 449 


CABBAGE, 437 
— fruit of, 315 
— palm, 621 
— tree, 480 
Cable-cane, 622 
Cabomba, 432 
Cabombez, 432 
Cacao, 450 
Cactacez, 500 
— Region of, 686 
Caducons, 199, 211 
Cesalpinia, 478, 481 
Cesalpiniez, 481 
Czsarea, 463 

ein, 514 
Cajuput, 497 
Calabar bean, 329, 481 
Calabash-tree, 541 
Caladium, 625 
Calamander wood, 528 
Calamites, 736 
Calamodendron, 745 
Calamus, 622 
Calandrinia, 446 
Calathea, 607 
Calathium, 182 


INDEX. 


Calcar, 198 
Calcarate, 198, 202 
Calceolaria, 551 
—— Region of, 686 
Calceolate, 207 
Calcophyllum, 514 
Caliculate, 190, 198 
California and Oregon 
flora, 682 
Calla, 625 
Callitriche, 493 
Callitris, 599 
Calluna, 527 
Calonyction, 545 
Calophyllum, 456 
Calotropis, 536 
Calumba, 430 
Calvary plants, 479 
Calycanthacez, 487 
Calyceracee, 515 
Calyciflorze, 214 
Calyciflore Gamope- 
talz, 510 
Calycifloree Polypeta- 
le, 470 
Calycine hairs, 197 
Calyptra, 641 
Calyptrate, 199 
Calyptrimorphous, too 
Calystegia, 544 
Calytrix, 491 
Calyx, 191, 195, 198 
—— degenerations in, 
196, 198 
Cambium, 56, 75 
Cambogia, 456 
Camellia, 453 
Camel’s-thorn, 479 
Camera-lucida, 772 
Campanula, style of, 
290 
Campanulacee, 524 
Campanulate, 205 
Campeachy-wood, 482 
Camphor, 169 
Camphora, 568 
Campion, 445 
Camptopteris, 747 
Camptotropal, 255 
Campylosperme, 506 
Campylotropal, 255, 
330 
Camwood, 482 
Canada Balsam, 599 
— Rice, 631 
Canarium, 475 
Canary Islands, flora 
of, 680 
Canary-seed, 631 
Candleberry, s92 
Candle-nut-tree, 582 
Candle-tree, 54: 
Candollea, 428 
Cane-sugar, 164 
Canella-bark, 439 
Canellacez, 439 
Canker, 399 
Canna, 607 
Cannabis, 584 
Cannabinacez, 584 
Cannacez, 606 
Canoe-birch, 593 


Caoutchouc, 170, 537 
Cape Gooseberry, 549 
Caper-spurge, 582 
Capers, 438 
Capillaire, 639 
Capitate hairs, 32 
Capitula, 182, 191 
Capitulum, 180, 182 
Capoeira, 346 
Capparidacee, 437 
Caprification, 264 
Caprifoliacez, 510 
Capsicum, 548 
Capsule, 315 
Carapa, 460 
Caraway, 508 
Carbon in plants, 126 
Carbonate of potash 
and soda as a man- 
ure, I 
Carbonic acid decom- 
posed by aquatics, 
158 


5 
Carbonic acid given off 
by flowers, 259 
Carboniferous fossils, 


729 . 
Cardamoms, 606 
Cardiocarpum, 746 
Cardoon, 520 
Carduus, 520 


. Carex, 628 


Carica, 497 
Carices, province of, 


79 
Carina or Keel, 205, 506 
Carinal, 195 
Carludovica, 624 
Carnahuba palm, 622 
Carnation, 445 
Carob-tree, 481 
Carpel, 235, 238, 239, 


303 
Carpels, number and 
position of, 238 
— analogy to leaves, 


235 

Carpolithes, 746, 750 

Carpology, 308 

Carpophore, 240, 305, 
3II 

Carrageen, 655 

Carrion flowers, 536 

Carrot, 507 

Carthamus, 520 

Cartilaginous albu- 
men, 333 

Carya, 596 

Caryocar, 453 

Caryophyllacee, 444 

—— Region of, 680 

Caryophyllaceous cor- 
olla, 204 

Caryophyllus, 49x 

Caryopsis, 311 

Caryota, 622 

Caruncules, 329 

Cascarilla bark, 582 

Casearia, 573 

Case for microscopic 
slides, 792 

Casein, vegetable, 166 


Cashew, fruit of, 310, 


473 
Casparya, 566 
Cassava, 582 
Cassia, 478, 481 
— bark and buds, 


5' 
Cassipourea, 488 
Cassowary-tree, 593 
Cassytha, 567 
Cassythez, 567 
Castanea, 595 
Castor-oil, 58x 
Casuarina, 593 
Casuarinacez, 593 
Catechu, 482 
Catha, 471 
Cathartocarpus, 481 
—— Fistula, fruit of, 


308 
Catingas in Brazil, 123 
Catkin, 178, 190 
Caudate, 310 
Caudex, 44 
Caudicle, 229 
Caulescent, 44 
Caulicle, 334 
Cauliflower, 437 
Caulinary, 97 
Cauline, 362 
Cauline leaves, ror 
Caulinia, 626 
Caulis, 44 
Caulopteris, 732 
Cavernous tissue, 81 
Cayenne-pepper, 548 
Ceanothus, 472 
Cecropia, 588 
Cedar, 598 
Cedars, age and size 
of, 360 
—— cone of, 317 
Cedrelacez, 460 
Cedrus, 598 
Celandine, 433 
Celastracez, 471 
——, Region of, 682 
Celery, 507 
Cell development, z3 
—— germ, 275 
—— nucleus, 9 
Cells, 3, 7, 241 
—— contents of, 8 
—— endosperm, 293 
—— epidermal, 27 
—— functions of, 13 
—— movements in, 
ISI 
— of ovary, 299 
—— prepared for 
microscopic prepa- 
rations, 786 
Cellular, 3 
Cellular plants, propa- 
gation of, 14 
Cellular tissue, 3 
Cellulares, 638, 644 
Cellulose, 1, 8 
Celosia, 562 
Celtideze, 585 
Celtis, 585 
Centaurea, 520 


Centrifugal, 175 
Centripetal, 175 
Centrolepis, 627 
Cephaelis, 513 
Cephalanthus, sz12 
Cephalotaxus, 598 
Cephalotez, 503 
_ Cephalotus, 503 
Ceradia, 521 
Ceramium, 654, 
Cerasin, 163 
Cerastium, 445 
Cerasus, 486 
Ceratium, 649 
Ceratonia, 478 
Ceratophyllacez, 588 
Cerbera, 537 
Cereal grains, distribu- 
tion of, 668 
— — fertilisation in, 
113, 284 
Cereals, albumen of, 
B33 3 
Cereus, sor 
Ceroxylon, 622 
Cestrum, 548 
Cetraria, 646 
Cevadilla, 616 
Ceylon flora, 683 
Ceylon moss, 655 
Chzrophyllum, 507 
Chailletiaceze, 572 
halaza, 255, 329 
Chalk fossils, 750 
Chalmugra or Cia 
mugra, 440 
Chamzlauciez, 490 
Chameerops, 622 
Chamisso’s floral Re- 
gion, 684 
Chamomile, 520 
Chandelier-tree, 624 
Channel Island flora, 
706 
Chara, 651 
Chara, carbonate of 
lime in, 132 
rotation in, 152 
Characez, 651 
fossil, 754 
—— reproduction in, 


274 
Charcoal as a manure, 


139, 
Charianthus, 489 
Chatzir, 615 
Chavica, 591 
Cheirostemon, 449 
Chelbenah, 507 
Chelidonum, 433 
Chemical agents, ef- 

fects on movements 

of plants, 387 
Chemical composition 

of plants, 124 
— composition of 

soils, 134 


INDEX, 


Cherry, double flower- 
Ing, 236 
—— laurel, 486 
Chervil, 507 
Chestnut, 595, 
Chestnut, fruit of, 3:2 
Chian Turpentine, 474 
Chick-pea, 479 
Chickweed, 444 
Chicory, 522 
Chili-nettle, 493 
Chillies, 548 
Chimaphila, 527 
himonanthus, 487 
China bark, 513 
—— root, 617 
Chinese flora, 682 
—— grass-cloth, 58. 
Chinanthus, 533 7 
Chiretta, 540 
Chironia, 539 
Chive, 615 
Chlenaceze, 451 
Chloranthaceze, 590 
Chloranthus, 590 
Chlorophyll, 12, 168, 
258, 390 
Chlorosporez, 653 
Chloroxylon, 460 
Chocolate, 450 
Chondodendron, 430 
Chondrites, 751 
Chorda, 654 
Chorisation, 371 
Chorisis, 210, 365 
Choristosporei, 653 
Christison on fossil 
trees, 789 
Christmas rose, 427 
Christ’s-thorn, 473 
Chromatic aberration, 


763 
Chromatometer, 390 
Chromogen, 392 
Chrysanthemum, 521 
Chrysobalanez, 483 
Chrysophanic acid, 


647 
Chrysophyll, 392 
Chrysophyllum, 532 
Chrysosplenium, 504 
Churrus, 585 
Chusan Han-tsi, 562 
Cibotium, 640 
Cicatrices on ferns, 


72 
Cicatricula, 82 
Cicatrix, 95 
Cichoracez, 519 

—— province of, 680 
Cicuta, 508 

Cilia, 204, 205, 235, 


265 
Ciliated hairs, 33 
Cimicifuga, 427 
Cinchona, 512 
glands, 35 

Cinch fossil, 755 


124 
Chenopodiacez, 562 
Chenopodium, 562 
Cherimoyer, 430 
Cherry, 321, 486 


Cinchonas, or Medi- 
cinal barks, Region 
of, 686 : 

Cinenchyma, 21 


Cinenchymatous, 146 
Cinnamodendron, 439 
Cinnamomum, 568 
Cinnamon, 568 
Circaea, 493 
Circinate, r10, 339 
Circular, 194 
Circulation of fluids in 
Plants, 124, 142, 147 
Circumscissile, 226, 307 
Circumscription of 
leaf, 82 
Cirrus, 97, 120 
Cissampelos, 430 
Cissus, 46x 
Cistacez, 439 
Cistuses, province of, 
680 
Cistus-rape, 577 
Citron, 454 
Citrus, 454 
Cladenchyma, 4 
Cladium, 628 
Cladocarpi, 643 
Cladonia, 647 
Cladosporium, 651 
Classes, essential char- 
acter and nomencla- 
ture, 411 
— of plants, 405 
Classification, artificial 
and natural, 406 
—— systems of, 405, 
418, 422 
Clavaria, 649 
Clavate, 217 
— hairs, 32 
Claviceps, 650 
Claw, 2or 
Claytonia, 446 
Clearing-nut, 539 
Cleft-grafting, 325 
Clematidez, 426 
Clematis, 427 
Cleome, 438 
Clerodendron, 555 
Clianthus, 479 
Climate, effect of, on 
flowering, 667 
Climbing plants, 385 
Clinandrium, 230 
Clinanthium, 173 
Clintonia, 525 
Close interbreeding, 
prevention of, 286 
Ciosing of flowers, 262 
Clove, 491 
Clove pink, 445 
Clover, 479 
Cloves, 114, 358 
Club-moss, 640 
Club-mosses, embryo- 
geny in, 278 : 
Clusiacez, 456 
Cluster-pine, 599 
Cnestis, 476 
Coal epoch, climate of, 


742 
—— flora of, 743 
Coal-measures, plants 


Ot, 730 
Coal of Humus, 134 


835 


Coal, sporangia in, 729 
Cobea, 542 

Coca, 457 

Cocci, 306 
Coccoloba, 565 
Cocculus, 430 
Cochlearia, 437 
Cochleariform, 202 
Cochineal-Cactus, 502 
Cockscomb, 173, 562 
Cocksfoot-grass, 631 
Cocoa, 450 
Cocoa-plums, 485 
Cocoinez, 621 

Coco, 621, 625, 
Coco-nut, 621, 291 
— albumen of, 


333 
Ccelosperme, 506 
Coffea, 514 
Cohesion, 365, 369 
Coiling of tendrils, 385 
Coir-rope, 621 
Coix, 632 
Colchicez, 616 
Colchicum, 616 
Coleorhiza, 42, 336 
Coleseed, 437 
Collateral, 257 
Collecting hairs, 33 
Collectors in foreign 
countries, directions 
to, 806 
Collemacez, 646 
Collenchyma, 8 
Collomia, 542 
—— spiral cells in 
seeds of, 327 
Collum, 38, 334 
Colocasia, 625 
Colocynth, 496 
Coloquintida, 496 
Colouring matters, 171 
Colours, complement- 
ary, 396 
— of flowers, 393 
—— in natural orders, 


395 
Gcleenchyme: 4 
Colt’s foot, 520 
Columbine, 202 
Columella, 304 
Columelliacez, 532 
Columna, 219 
Columnea, 541 
Colutea, 480 
Colza, 437 
Combretacez, 488 
— fossil, 754 
Commelynacez, 622 
Commissure, 311 
Composite, 517 
—— fruit of, 310 
—— arborescent, Re- 

gion @f, 687 
Compound, 235, 239 
—— leaves, 85, 9r 
Compressed, 330 
Compressorium, 772 
Comptonia, 592 
Conantherez, 614 
Conceptacles, 268 


836 


Concrete oils, 167 
Condenser, 765 
Conducting tissue, 236 
Conduplicate, 111, 193, 


339 
Conenchyma, 4 
Cones, 179, 190 
— spirals in, 105 
Conferva, conjugation 
of, 21 
—— reproduction of, 


272 
Conferve, 655 
Conia, 508 
Conidia, 267 
Coniferze, 596 
— fertilisation in, 
291 
— fossil, 746 
— fruit of, 317 
— of chalk, 751 
Coniomycetes, 648 
Coniothalamez, 646 
Conium, 508 
Conjugate, 266, 654 
Conjugation, 653 
Connaracee, 476 
Connate, 100 
Connective, 221, 224 
Connivent, 197 
Conservatory, 349 
Conservatory, Ward’s 
portable, 160 
Contorted, 40 
Contortive, 111, 193 
Contrayerva, 587 
Convallariez, 614 
Convergent, 84 
Convolute, 111, 194, 


339 
Convolvulaceze, 542 
Convolvulus, 544 
Copaifera, 482 
Copaiva, 482 
Copalchi bark, 582 
Copper-coloured trees, 


392 
Copper in plants, 132 
Coptis, 427 
Coquilla-nuts, 622 
Coral-flower, 479 
Corallina, 654 
Coralline, 40 
Corchorus, 450 
Corculum, 335 
Cordate, 89, 203 
Cordiaceze, 545 
Cordilleras, flora of,686 
Cord-Rush, 627 
Cordyline, 616 
Corema, 579 
Coriander, 508 
Coriariaceze, 470 
Cork, 58, 595 
Cony layer of bark, 
5 
Corm, 48, 115 
Cormogene, 638 
Cornaceze, 509 
Corn-plants, ‘distribu- 
tion of, 668 
Cornus, 510 


“INDEX. 


Corona, 209 
Corolla, 199, 200 | 
—— irregularities in, 
211 
Corolliflorz, 526 
Corollifloral, 214 
Corolline appendages, 
210 : 
—— hairs, 34, 201 
Coronet, 210 
Coronilla, 48x 
Corpuscles of Brown, 
293 
Correa, 467 
Corrigiola, 499 
Corrugated, 193, 203 
Corsican Moss, 655 
Cortical system, 56 
Corydalis, 434 
Corylacez, 594 
Corylus, 595 
Corymb, 178 
Corymbiferz, 518 
Corynophallus, 626 
Coryphinez, 621 
Coscinium, 430 
Costate, 84 
Cotton, 16, 33, 448 
Cotton-grass, 628 
Cotyledon, 500 
Cotyledons, 1o1, 331, 
45,33) 
ae folding of, 339 
— of Welwitschia, 


338 
—— verticillate, 338 
Couch-grass, 631 
Couratari, dehisence 
of fruit of, 307 
Coverings of the seed, 
326 
Cowbane, 508 
Cowberry, 526 
Cowitch, 480 
— hairs of, 33 
Cow-plant, 536 
Cowslip, 558 
Cow-tree, 537, 587 
Cow-wheat, 532 
Cranberry, 526 
Cranes-bill, 462 
Crassula, 499 
Crassulacez, 499 
—— fruit of, 312 
Craterium, 649 
Credneria, 750 
Cremocarp, 305, 312 
Crenate, 86 
Crescentia, 541 
Crescentiez, 540 
Cress, 436 : 
—— fruit of, 315 
Crested, 20r 
Crests, 224 
Cretaceous flora of 
England, 709 
Cretaceous fossils, 
750 
Creyat, 556 
pene 611 
Tisp, 90, 203 
Crithmum, 507 


Crocus, 609 

— seed of, 329 _ 

Crops, nutritive “pro- 
ducts of, 167 

—— rotation of, 133 

Crosses, 297 

Croton-oil, 58x 

Crowberry, 579 

Crowfoot, 426 

Crown grafting, 325 

Crown Imperial, 615 

Crown of the root, 37, 
46, 113 

Crozophora, 583 

Cruciferze, 306, 434 

—— divisions of, 340 

—— fertilisation in, 
28 


4, 
Region of, 686 
Cruciferous corolla, 


205 
Cryptocarya, 569 
Cryptogamic repro- 

duction, organs of, 


233 
Cryptogamous, 171 
—— plants, 635 
—— — , fertilisation 
in, 266 
—— —, pistillidia, 
250 
—— —— spores, 258 
Crystals in cells, 10 
Crystalworts, 644 
Ctenis, 747 
Cuba Bast, 448 
Cubeba, sor 
Cubeb-pepper, 59x 
Cuckoo-pint, 625 
Cucullate, 250 
Cucumber, 495 
—— squirting, 343 
Cucumis, 494 
Cucumites, 751 
Cucurbitacez, 314, 494 
Cudbear, 171, 647 
Culm, 44 
Cultivation, effect on 
organs of the flower, 
374 
Cumin, 508 
Cuneate, 89 
Cunninghamia, 598 
Cunoniez, 503 
Cupania, 459 
Cupanoides, 751 
Cupressinez, 598 
Cupula or cup 190, 
31r 
Cupulifere, 594 
Curcas, 582 
Curculigo, 612 
Curcuma, 606 
Currant, 313, 502 
— of Australia, 528 
Currants or Corinths, 


462 
Curved radicle, 340 
Cuscuta, 545 
Cuscuteze, 544 
Cuscus or 
632 


Kuskus, 


Cusparia, 468 
Cuspidate, 202 
Cuspis, 202 
Cusso, 486 
Custard-apple, 429 
Cutch, 482 
Cuticle, 25 
Cyenis series of co- 
ours, 393 
Cyathea, 639 
Cycadacez, 600 
—— fertilisation in, 
291 
— fossil, 746 
—— of chalk, 751 
Cycadeostrobus, 750 
Cycadinocarpus, 746 
Cycadites, 750 
Cycas, 601 
Cyclamen, 558 
Cyclanthee, 624 
Cyclanthus, 624 
Cyclogens, 53 
Cyclosis, wae 
Cydonia, 486 
Cylindrenchyma, 4 
Cytinacez, 577 
Cymbiform, 202 
Cyme, 182 
Cyme, biparous, 183 
— contracted bi- 
parous, 184 
—- contracted scor- 
pioid, 187 
——- dichotomous, 183 
—— helicoid, 185 
—— racemose 
parous 
—— scorpioid, 185 
—— trichotomous, 183 
—— uniparous, 183, 
Cynanchum, 536 
Cynara, 520 
Cynarocephale, 518 
Cynarrhodum, 310 
Cynodon, 631 
Cynoglossum, 546 
Cynomorium, 577 
Cynosurus, 631 
Cyperaceze, 687 
Cyperus, 628 
Cypress, fruit of, 317 
Cypsela, 320 
Cyrtandrez, 540 
Cyst, 12 
Cystidia, 268 
Cystocarp, 272 
Cystolith, 10, 12 
Cytisus, 478, 481 
Cytoblast, 13 
Cytoblastema, 8 
Cytogenesis, 13 
Cyttaria, 649 


uni- 


Daseocia, 527 
Dactylis, 632 
Dadoxylon, 739 
Dedalenchyma, 4 
Dezmonorops, 622 
Daffodil, 611 
Dahlia, 374 
Dalbergia, 478 


Dammara, 599 
ammar resin, 451 

Dampiera, 52 

Danza, 639 

Dandelion, sar 

Daphne, 572 

Daphnez, 577 

Dardar, 467 

Darkness, effect on 
flowers, 263 

—— in germination, 


34 
Darlingtonia, 433 
insects in pit- 

chers of, 384 
Darnel-grass, 632 
Date, 311 
Date-palm, 621 
Datisca, 578 
Datiscaceze, 578 
Datura, 549 
Daucus, 507 
Davallia, 640 
Day-lily, 614 
Deadly-nightshade, 


549 . 
De Candolle’s classi- 
fication, 418 * 
—— floral Region, 680 
Decandrous, 216 
Decayed leaves, co- 
lours of, 392 
Deciduous leaves, 83 
Declinate, 228 
Decompound, 92 
Decurrent, too 
Decussate, 102 
Deduplication, 
365, 372 
Definite, 257 
—— inflorescence, 175, 
182 
—— stamens, 216 
Defoliation, 123 
Degeneration, 
365, 369 
Degradation, 368 
Dehiscence, 225, 303, 


210, 


210, 


305 ‘ 
Dehiscent fruits, 303, 
309, 312 
Delesseria, 654 
Delile’s floral Region, 


685 
Delima, 428 
Delphinium, 427 
—— fruit of, 312 
Dendrobium, 604 
Dentate, 86 
Deodar, 598 
Depressed, 330, 
Descending axis, 334 
sap, 144, 146 
Desert Region, 685 
Desmidiez, 654 
--— reproduction of, 


269 
Desmodium, 377, 482 
Detarium, 477 
Determinate Inflores- 
ence, 175 
Deutzia, 490 


INDEX. 


Dextrin, 163 
Dhak tree, 480 
Dhoom pitch, 451 
Diachenium, 311 
Diachyma, 80 
Diadelphous, 218 
Dialycarpous, 309 
Dialypetalous, 203 
Dialysepalous, 196 
Diandrous, 216 
Dianthus, 445 
Diapensiez, 542 
Diastase, 165 
Diataxis, 406 
Diatomacez, 654 


| Diatoms, preparation 


of, 791 
—— reproduction of, 
269 
Dicentra, 434 
Dichlamydeous, 192 
Dichogamous plants, 
fertilisation of, 286 
Dichopetalum, 509 
Dichotomous cyme, 


I 

Diclinous, 367 
Dicotyledonous, 334 
-—— embryo, 336, 362 
—— germination, 356 
—— plants, symmetry 


in, 364 
Dicotyledons, leaves 

of, 

107 
—— root of, 41 
Dicranum, 643 
Dictamnus, 467 
Dictyogens, 60r 
Dictyoxylon, 742 
Didymocarpez, 540 
Didynamous, 228 
Dieffenbachia, 685 
Dielytra, 434 
Diervilla, 511 
Digestion of plants, 


100 
phyllotaxis of, 


156 
Digestive fluid in 
pitchers, 384 
Digger for plants, 
790 
Digitaliform, 206 
Digitalis, 552 
—— fruit of, 315 
Digitate, 93 
Digitipartite, 87 
Dilamination, 210, 371 
Dill, 508 
Dilleniacez, 428 
Dimerous, 363 
Dimorphic, 212, 285 
— plants, fertilisa- 
tion in, 284 
— sporangia, 278 
Dicecious, or dioicous, 
212, 273, 367 
—— plants, 
tion in, 284 
Diceciously - hermaph- 
rodite, 285 
Dioicous, 212 


ip 
fertilisa- 


Dion, 60x 
Dionea, 441 
—— muscipula, irrita- 
bility in, 380; 
Dioscorea, 611 
Dioscoreaceze, 610 
Diosma, 467 
Diospyros, 528 
Diphylleia, 43x 
Diplecolobez, 435 
Diploé, 80 
Diploperistomi, 643 
Diplostemoneus, 215 
Diplozygiz, 506 
Dipsacacee, 515 
—— fruit of, 310 
Dipterix, 480 
Dipterocarpacez, 451 
Dipterocarpus, 451 
Dirca, 572 
Disa, 604 
Dischidia, 536 
Disciform, 53 
Discoid, 53 
Discomycetes, 649 
Discs, 17, 268 
Disease, potato, 398, 
402 
Disease, vine, 403 
Diseases of plants, 397 
—— of plants caused 
by insects, 402 
Diserneston, 507 
Disk, 234 
Dissected, 87 
Dissemination of plants 
668 


Dissepiment, 241 
— spurious, 244 
Dissilient, 306 
Distichous, 103 
Distractile, 224 
Distribution of plants 
from centres, 672 
Dithecal, 222 
Dittany, 468, 554 
Divergent, 84, 197 
Divi-divi, 481 
Dockhan, 631 
Dodder, 544 
—— spiral embryo of, 


340 
— suckers of, 40 
Dodecandrous, 216 
Dodecatheon, 558 
Dodonea, 459 
Dogbane, 536 
Dog’s-tail grass, 631 
Dog-tooth violet, 614 
Dolabriform, 90 
Dombeya, 450 
Doom-palm, 622 
Dorema, 507 
Dorsal, 340 
Dorsiferous ferns, 639 
Dorstenia, 181, 310, 


5°7 
—— fruit of, 317 
Dotted vessels, 20 
Double coco-nut, 621 
Double flowers, 214, 
236, 369 


r 


837 


Draba, 435 

Draczena, 615 

Dracontium, 686 

Dragon’s- blood, 615, 
622 

Draining, 347 

Drimys, 429 

Droseracez, 441 

—— irritability in, 380, 


382 
Drosophyllum, 441 
Drupacez, 483 
Drupe, 311 
Drupels, 312 
Dryandra, 570 
Drying oils, 167 
— paper, 797 
—— plants, mode of, 


799 
Dryobalanops, 451 
Dry rot, 141, 401, 650 
Duckweed, 626 
Ducts, closed, 19 
Dudaim, 549 
Dudresnaya, _repro- 

duction in, 273 
Duguetia, 429 
Dulse, 655 
Dumb-cane, 625 
Dumose, 46 
Duramen, 55 
Durian, 449 
Durmast, 595 
Durra, 631 
Durvillea, 654, 70r 
D’Urville’s Region, 

O6 e 
Dust-brand, 399 
Dutch-rushes, 637 
Dwale, 549 


EAGLE-wooD, 572 
Ear-cockles, purples 
or pepper-corn, 403 
Earth-nut, 312, 507 
Ebenacee, 528 
Ebony, 528 
Ebracteated, 189 
Ecballium, 496 
Eccremocarpus, 540: 
Echinate, 284 
Echinocactus, 502 
Echites, 537 
Echium, 546 
Ectocarpus, 654 
Eddoes, 686 
Edible nests, 655 
Egg-apple, 548 
=—— plant, 495 
Ehretia, 546 | 
Elaborated sap, 144 
Elzagnacez, 570 
Eleagnus, 571 
Elzocarpez, 450 
Elzodendron, 471 
Elaia, 533 
Elais, 621 
Elaphrium, 476 
Elaterium, 496 
Elaters, 643 
Elatinaces, 443 
Elder, 511 


838 


Elecampane, 520 

Elemi, 475 

Elephant’s-foot, 611 

Elettaria, 606 

Elm, 585 

—— fruit of, 31 

Elodea, 456, 602 

Elymus, 631 

Elyna, 628 

Emarginate, 89, 202 

Embryo, acotyledon- 
ous, 335 

— buds, 116 

— curved or amphi- 
tropal, 342 

—— dicotyledonous, 


337 

—— erect or homotro- 
pal, 342 

— fixed, 109 

— formation of, 330 

—— inverted or anti- 
tropal, 341 

—— macropodous, 336 

— monocotyledon- 
ous, 336 

—— of coco-nut, 333 

—— plant, 298 

—— plants, parts of 


334 
—— polycotyledonous, 
8 


33: 

—— position and form 
of, 340 

—— sac, 253 

—— sac of Yew, 292 

Embryogenic process 
in gymnospermous 
flowering plants, 291 

—— process in angio- 
sperms, 294 

Embryonal cell, 276 

Embryonal corpuscles 
in coniferous seeds, 


332 : 
Embryonal _ vesicles, 


293 
Embryonary sac, 332 
Embryotega, 329 
Emetin, 513 - 
Emodic Region, 683 
Empetracee, 579 
Empetrum, 579 
Empty bracts, 189 
Emulsin, 166 
Encephalartos, 601 
Endemic plants, 670 
Endlicher’s classifica- 
tion, 419 
Endocarp, 300 
Endochrome, 266 
Endogenz, 601 
Endogenous or monoco- 
tyledonous stem, 64 
— plants, course of 
sap in, 148 
Endophleeum, 57 
Endopleura, 327, 328 
Endorhizal, 42, 356 
Endosmometer, 143 
Endosmose, 15, 142 
Endosperm, 293, 332 


INDEX. 


Endospermic albumen, 


332 
Endostome, 254 
Endothecium, 220 
English Mercury, 562 
Enneandrous, 216 
Ennobling, 325 
Ensiform, 90 
Entire, 86 
Entephyac fungi, 400 
Envelopes, floral, 192 
— functions of, 258 
Eocene flora, 753 
— flora of Europe, 

ae 
Epacridacez, 527 
—— Region of, 689 
Epacris, 528 
Ephedra, 598 
Ephemeral, 262 
Epiblast, 337 
Epiblema, 26, 38 
Epicalyx, 189, 198 
Epicarp, 300 
Epichilium, 602 
Epidendrum, 604 
Epidermis, 26 
—— appendages of, 30 
—— of leaf, 79 
— papille of, 30 
— silica in, 28 
-—— special functions 

of the, 36 
—— wax on, 28 
Epigeal, 356 
Epigynous, 213, 246 
— disk, 235 
Epilobium, 493 
Epimedium, 43 
Epipetalous, 213 
Epiphagus, 55: 
Epiphleeum, 57 
Epiphragm, 642 
Epiphytes, 39, 14r 
Epirrheology, 657 
Episperm or testa, 


32 

Epithelium, 26, 236 
qual, 86 

Equally pinnate, 93 

Equisetaceze, 636 

— embryogeny in, 
281 

Equisetites, 745 

Equisetum, 637 

— fossil, 748 

— silica in, 131 

Equitant, 112, 340 

Erect, 224, 257, 330, 
342 

Eres, 598 

Ergot, 400 

—— of rye, 634 

Erica, 527 

—— fertilisation 
289 

Ericacez, 526 

Ericez, province of, 


in, 


68 
Eriobotrya, 486 
Eriocaulon, 627 
Eriogonez, 564 


Eriolzna, 450 
Eriophorum, 628 
Eriospermez, 614 
Eryngium, 507 
Eryngo, 507 
Erysiphe, 649 
Erythrza, 540 
Erythrina, 479 
Erythrinum, 614 
Erythrophyll, 391, 392 
Erythroxylacez, 457 
Escallonia, 503 
Escalloniex, Region 
of, 686 
Eschscholtzia, 433 
Essences, 168 
Essential characters of 
classes, 411 
— oils, 168 
—— organs, 192 
—— organs, Phanero- 
gamous plants, 264 
—— organs of repro- 
duction, 212 
Eteerio, 312 
Etiolation, 162 
Eucalypti, Region of, 
68 


Eucalyptus, 491 
Eugenia, 491 
Eulophia, 605 
Euonymus, 471 
Eupatorium, 520 
Euphorbia, 581 

—— fertilisation of, 


287 
Euphorbiacee, 579 
—— fruit of, 315 
Euphrasia, 551 
Euphrasia, fertilisation 
in, 290 
European palm, 622 


| Euryale, 432 


Euryangium, 508 

Eutassa, 598 

Euterpe, 621 

Eutoca, 542 

Evening Primrose, 492 

Evergreen Beech, 595 

—— leaves, 83 

—— Oak, 595 

Evernia, 646 

Exalbuminous, 332 

Exannulate ferns, 639 

Excentric, 56 

Excrescences, 116 

Exhalation, 121 

Exidia, 650 

Exintine, 230 

Exogene, 425 

Exogenous or Dicoty- 
ledonous stem, 49 

—— fossil stem, 758 

—— stem, anomalous, 
60 

—— stems, course of 
sap in, 144 

ar ae in 

elds, 73 
— Wascalae bundles, 


coal- 


53 
Exogonium, 544 


Exorhizal, 41, 357 
Exosmose, 15, 142 
Exostemma, 513 
Exostome, 254 
Exothecium, 220 
Expansion of flowers, 


174 
Exserted, 227 
Exstipulate, 97 
External or extra- 

rius embryo, 340 
Extine, 230 
Extra-axillary, 116, 

174 
Extrorse, 226 
Eye-bright, 582 
Eye-piece of micro- 

scope, 765 
Eyes of Potato, 47 
Ezrach, 567 


FaBAceEsé, 476 

Fagopyrum, 564 

Fagus, 595 

Pay: Rings, 401, 
650 

Falkland Islands, flora 


1°) > 
Fall of leaves, 123 
Families, 410 
Fan-Palm, 622 
Farinaceous or mealy 
albumen, 333° 
Fasciated, 117 


‘| Fascicle, 184 


Fascicled leaves, 369 
Fasciculate, 40, 107 
Fat oils, 167 

Fatsia, 509 

Faux, 204 
Feather-veined, 86 
Fecundation, 264 

in cryptogams, 


2 


in phanerogams, 


201 

Fenestrate, 82, 316 

Fennel, 507 

— flower, 428 

Ferns, 637 7 

—— embryogeny in, 
281 

—— in coal measures, 
730, 

Feronia, 455 

Fertile, 368 

Fertilisation, 264 — 

—— agency of birds 
in, 290 

—— by insects, 284 

—— heteromorphic, 
285 

— homomorphic, 
285 

—— in angiospermous 
flowering plants,.294 

—— in Aristolochia, 
287 

— in cereal grains, 
284 

—— in conifere and 
cycadacez, 291 


Fertilisation in crypto- 
gamous plants, 266 
—— in dichogamous 

plants, 286 
—— in Erica, 289 
— in Euphorbia, 287 
— in Euphrasia, 290 
— in Fumariacez, 
ae 
—— in gymnosperms, 


291 
— inj kidney-bean, 
288 


—~ in moneecious, 
dicecious, and dimor- 
phic plants, 284 

in orchidaceze 
and asclepiadacez, 
286 

— in Parnassia, 286 

—in phanerogams, 
281 

in Polygala, 289 

—— in Primroses, 285 

-— in Pringlea, 284 

- in Rhinanthus 
crista-galli, 290 

—in Scrophlularia- 
cezand Labiate, 289 

— in sea-pink, 291 

— object of, 330 

— self, 284 

Ferula, 507 

Fescue, 631 

Festuca, 632 

Fever-bush, 569 

Feverfew, 520 

Fevillea, 494 

Fibre in spiral ves- 
sels, 18 

Fibrils, 38 

Fibrin, vegetable, 166 

Fibro-cellular tissue, 6 

Fibrous root, 40 

tubes, 16 

Fibro-vascular tissue, 
7 - 

Ficoidez, 500 

Ficus, 586 _ 

Field-book, 796 

—— for drying plants, 

6 


79 
Fig, 181, 310, 317, 586 
—— marigold, 500 
Figwort, 552 
Filament, 216 
Filbert. See Hazel, 
311-595 
Filices, 637 
Filmy fern, 639 
Fimbriated, zor 
Finochio, 507 
Fir, 597 
— cone of, 317 
Fissiparous, 267 
separation of cells, 


14 

Fissures, 86 
Fistular, 100 
Fitches, 427 
Fitzroya, 598 
Fixed embryos, 109 


INDEX. 


Fixed oils, 167 

Flabellaria, 741 

Flacourtia, 440 

Flag, 628 

Flagellum, 113 

Flakes, 445 

Flax, 16, 463 

— New Zealand, 
16 

— Pita, 16 

Fleshy cotyledons, 33 

—— leaves, colours of, 


392 bi Be 
— or cartilaginous, 


333 

Fleerkea, 465 

Flora’ of Paleozoic 
period, 728 

— of Polynesia, 684 

—— of Secondary or 
Mesozoic period, 745 

—,of Tertiary or 
Cainozoic ‘ period, 


750 

Floral axis, 173 

— calendar, 261 

— envelopes, 192 

— envelopes, de- 
velopment of, 211 

— envelopes, func- 
tions of, 258 

— leaves, ror, 189 

— watch or clock, 
262 

— whorls, - inner, 


2Ir 

Floras of Britain, their 
origin, 710 

— of islands, 673 

Flor de coco, 389 

Florets, 187 

Florida, Mississippi, 
and Carolina, flora 
of, 681 

Floridez, 653 

—— reproduction in, 
273 

Flower, arrangement 
on the axis, 172 

—— bud, 193 

Flower, position of its 
parts, 195 

Flowering, 359 

—— ash, 533 

— mode of accele- 
rating, 261 

—— period of, 26x 

— plants, fertilisa- 
tion in, 282 

sh, 623 

Flowerless plants, 266 

Flowers, double, 369 

—— causes of want 
of symmetry, 365 

— effect of light 
and darkness on, 
263 

Flowers, movements 
in, 386 

— odours of, 396 

—— transformation 
of parts of, 369 


Fluid, absorption and 
circulation of, 142 
in exogenous 
plants, course of, 146 

—— in plants, rate of 
movement, 154 

—— matter in endoge- 
nous plants, 148 

— special move- 
ments of, 151 

Fluorine, 132 

Flute grafting, 325 

Foliaceous, 197, 339 

Foliar, 362 

Foliola, 86, 91, 195 

Follicle, 312 

Folliculites, 754 

Food of plants, 124 

— value of certain 
matters for, 167 - 

Fool’s Parsley, 508 

Foramen, 254 

Forbes’ flora of Bri- 
tain, 708 

Forbidden fruit, 454 

Forget-me-not, 547 

Forked, 223, 237 

— style, 248 

Fork-veined, 84, 85 

Fornasinia, 481 

Forskal's floral Region, 
685 


Forstera, 523 
Forster’s floral Region, 


OL 
Fossil acrogens, reign 
of, 728 
—— botany, 718 
—— botany, works on, 


5 

a ioe of carboni- 
ferous system, 729 

flora of Silurian 
and Cambrian sys- 
tem, 728 

—— genera and spe- 
cies, 724 

—— plants, determina- 
tion of, 720 

—— plants in different 
strata, 726 


-—— plants, mode of 


preservation, 719 
— plants, nomencla- 
ture of, 722 
— plants, number of, 


726 : 

—— plants of Chalk 
Epoch, 750. 

—— plants, orders of, 
725 . 

—— plants, sections of, 
7°7 : 

— plants, their 
classes, 721 

Fossiliferous forma- 
tions, 723 

—— strata, 723 

Fothergilla, 504 

Four o'clock flower, 


561 
Fovilla, 232 


r 


839 


Foxglove, 552 
Fox-grapes, 462 
Fractions in phyllo- 
taxis, 104. 
Frames for 
plants, 798 
Francoacez, 503 
Frankeniacez, 443 
Frankincense, 475, 599 
— Pine, 509 
Frasera, 540 
Fraxinella,%468 
Fraxinus, 533 
Free central placenta, 


drying 


243 ; 

French berries, 472 

Freycinetia, 624 

Freziera, 453 

Friar’s-balsam, 529 

Fringes of Passion- 
flower, 209 

Fritillary, 614 

Frog-bit, 601 

Frogsmouth, or Snap- 
dragon, dehiscence of 
fruit of, 308 

Frond, 637 

Fruit, 298 

—— apocarpous, 309 

— chemical compo- 
sition of, 321, 322 

—— classification of, 


319 
—— contents of, 321 
—— dehiscent, 303 
—— dialycarpous, 309 
— effect of grafting 
on, 283 

—— indehiscent, 303 
— monogynecial, 


309, 

—— multiple or an- 
thocarpous, 309 

— parts which form 
it, 293 

— period required 
for ripening, 322 

— polygynecial, 
309 

— seedless, 319 

— simple, 309 

— indehiscent syn- 
carpous, 313 

— tabular arrange- 
ment of, 318 

— winged, 311 

Fruiting, 320, 359 

Frustule, 267 

Frutex, 46 

Fruticose, 46 

Fruticulus, 46 + 

Fucacez, 653 

—— reproduction in, 
273 ; 

Fuchsia, 493 

Fuegia, flora of, 688 

Fuirena, 628 

Fullers’ Teazel, 515 

Fumariacee, 434 

Fumitory, 434 

—— fertilisation in, 290 

Funaria, 643 


840 


Fungi, 647 

— alternation 
generation'in, 399 

—— colour of, 390 

— entophytic, 400 

— germination of, 


of 


357 Naver 
— luminosity in, 
38 
— parasitic, 141 
— on fruits, 400 
— fossil, 754 
reproduction in, 


26: 

resting spores of, 
402 

Fungoid disease, pre- 
vention of, 4or 

Fungus melitensis, 577 

Funiculus, 252, 256 

Funnel- shaped, 198, 
205 

Furcate venation, 84, 


5 
Fusiform, 16, 40 


Gap, 508 

Gahnia, 628 

Gairdner’s _ portable 
microscope, 764 

Galacez, 503 

Galactodendron, 587 

Galangal-root, 606 

Galanthus, 611 

Galbanum, 507 

Galbulus, 317 

Gale, 592 

Galeate, 197 

Galiex, 512 

Galipea, 468 

Galls, 403 

Gama-grass, 631 

Gamassia, 615 

Gambeer, 514 

Gamboge, 456 

Gamogastrous, 239 

Gamopetalous, 205,206 

Gamophyllous bracts, 


190 
Gamosepalous, 196 
Gangrene, 399 
Garcinia, 456 
Gardenia, 512 
Garlic, 615 
Garryacez, 510 
Gases, effect on plants, 
159 
Gasteromycetes, 648 
Gasterothalamez, 646 
Gattine, 651 
Gaudichaudia, 458 
Gaura, 493 
Geaster, 649 
Gelidium, 655 
Geissolomez, 571 
Gemmation, 110 
Gemmule, 334 
Genera and orders, 410 
Geniculate, 217 
Gentian, 539 
Gentianacez, 539 
Genus or kind, 410 


INDEX. 


Geoffroya, 480 

Geographical botany, 
657 | 

Geraniacez, 462 

—— fruit of, 315 

Germanic flora in Bri- 
tain, 709 

Germ-cell, 275, 282 

Germen, 235 

Germination, 344, 350, 
354, 372 

— acotyledonous, 
335) 357 

— dicotyledonous, 


35' 
—— effect of rays of 
light on, 346 


— monocotyledon- 
ous, 354 

—— requisites for, 
345 


— time required for, 


357 
Gesneracez, 541 
Geum, 486 
Gibbous, 202 
Gigartina, 655 
Gillia, 542 
Gilliesia, 618 
Gilliesiaceze, 618 
Gills, 648 
Ginger, 605 
Ginger-grass, 632 
Ginko, 600 
Ginseng-root, 509 
Gipsy-wort, 554 
Glabrous, 33 
Gladiolus, 608 
Glands, 34 
—— lenticular, 36 
—— nectariferous, 35 
—— vesicular, 36 
Glandular hairs, 33 
— woody tissue, 17 
Glans, 311 
Glaucium, 433 
Glaux, 558 
Gleicheniez, 639 
Globe-amaranth, 562 
Globularia, 555 
Globule, 234, 274 
Glochidiate hairs, 32 
Glomerulus, 187 
Glossary, 809 
Glossology, 406 
Gloxinia, 541 
Glucose, 165 
Glume, 191, 208 
Glumelle, 208 
Glumiferz, 687 
Glutin, 166 
Glycyrrhiza, 479 
Gnetacex, 398 
Gnetum, 60 
Godoya, 470 
Godwinia, 686 
Goldfussia, 290, 556 
Gomphia, 470 . 
Gomphocarpus, 536 
Gompholobium, 481 
Gomphrena, 562 
Gongyli, 645 


Gonidia, 269, 626 
Gonolobus, 536 
Goodeniacez, 522 
Gooseberry, 313, 502 
Goosefoot, 562 
Gopher-wood, 599 
Gorachand, 481 
Gordonia, 452 
Gossypium, 448 
Gortong, 626 

Gourd, 314, 496 
Gouty-tree, 449 
Grafting, 323 

— effects of, 323, 


325 
—— Knight’s theory 

of, 325 
Grains of Paradise, 606 
Graminez, 628 
Granules of chloro- 

phyll in cells, 151 
—— of latex, 145 
—— of pollen, 231 
Grape, 313, 461 


—— sugar, 165 
Grasses, fertilisation 
of, 656 


— flowers of, 208 

—— seed of, 341 

Grass-trees, 615 

—— of Parnassus, 455 

Gratiola, 552 

Greek Valerian, 542 

Greenheart-tree, 568 

Greenland, fossil plants 
of, 758 

Green Laver, 655 

—— snow, 655 

Greffe des charlatans, 


323 
Grenadilla, 498 
Grevillea, 570 
Grewia, 451 
Grossulariacee, so2 
Ground-nut, 480 
Gruby’s portable com- 
; Pound microscope, 
7 
Guaiacum, 466 
Gualtheria, 527 
Guano, 137 
Guarana, 459 
Guatteria, 429 
Guava, 492 
Gueldres Rose, 511 
Guernsey-Lily, 612 
Guettarda, 512 
Guilandina, 481 
Guimauve, 447 
Guinea-corn, 630 
Guinea-hen-weed, 563 
Gulf-weed, 655, 700 
Gum-Arabic, 163, 482 
Gum-Dragon, 480 
Gun, effect of alkalies 
on, 164 
Gum-lac, 582 
Gum-tree, 491 
Gunnera, 493 
Gunyang, 548 
Gutta-percha, 170, 531 
Guttiferz, 456 


Gymnema, 536 

Gymnocarpous, 645 

Gymnosperme, 596 

Gymnospermous, 252, 
326 


flowering plants, 
fertilisation in, 291 
Gymnosperms, fossil, 


745 
Gymnosporee, 644 
Gymnostomum, 643 
Gynandrous, 213, 220 
Gynerium, 631 
Gynizus, 238, 250 
Gynobase, 247 
Gynocardia, 440 
Gyneecium, 212, 235 
Gynophore, 240 
Gynostegium, 534 
Gynostemium, 220 
Gypsum as a manure, 


139, 
Gyration, 151 
Gyrinopsis, 572 
Gyrocarpez, 489 
Gyrogonites, 752, 754 
Gyrophora, 647 


HaBROTHAMNUS, 548 
Heemanthus, 611 
Hematoxylon, 478, 
481 
Hemodoracez, 610 
Hemodorum, 610 
Hagenia, 486 
Haidingera, 747 
Hairs, 30 
—— calycine, 199 
circulation 
fluids in, 37 
— collecting, 


of 


33) 


247 

— corolline, 34, 201 
—— form of, 30 

— glandular, 33 
— in Aristolochia, 


287 
—— irritable and irri- 
tant, 33 
— on calyx, 197 
— on filament, 217 
on style, 237, 247, 
290 
radical, 34 
—— ramentaceons, 32 
— stellate, 31 
Hakea, 570 
Halesia, 529 
Half-equitant, 112 
Half-inferior, 246 
Half-superior, 246 
Halimocnemis, 563 
Halonia, 734 
Halophytes, 563 
Halorageacez, 493 
Haloragis, 493 - 
Hamamelidacez, 504 
Hamelia, 512 
Hand-plant, 449 
Hepler 506 
Hare-bell, 524 
Hare’s-foot fern, 640 


Hartnack’s' —micro- 
scope, 767 * 
— student’s micro- 
scope, i 
Haschisch, 585 
Hastate, 89, 203 
Haulm, 44 
Hawthorn, 314 
Hazel, fruit of, 311 
— nut, 595 
Heart’s-ease, 441 
Heart-wood, 55 
Heat during flowering, 
259, 288 
Heather, 527 
Heaths, 526 
Hedera, 509 
Hedge-hyssop, 552 
Hedyotis, 512 
Hedysarum, 478, 481 
Heer on Polar fossil 
plants, 756 
Heimia, 487 
Hekistotherms, 664 
Heliamphora, 433 
Helianthemum, 439 
Helianthus, 521 
Helicoid, 185 
Helictereze, 448 
Helicteres, capsule of, 


315 
Heliotrope, 546 
Heliotropiez, 546 
Hellebore, fruit 

312 
Helleborezx, 427 
Helosis, 577 
Helvella, 649 
Helwingia, 509 
‘Hemerocallidez, 614 
Hemicarps, 311 
Hemlock, 508 
Zee errs 599 

emp, 584 
Hen and Chickens 

Daisy, r9z 
Henbane, 549 
— dehiscence of fruit 

of, 307 
pyxidium of, 


of, 


315 
Henna, 487 
Hepatice, 643. E 
—— reproduction in, 


274 
Heracleum, 506 
Herbaceous, 50, 197 
Herbarium cases, 802 
formation of, 795 
—— paper, 801 
Herbs defined, 46 
Hermannia, 450 
Hermaphrodite, 212 
Hermodactyle, 616 
Hermandiezx, 572 
Hesperidium, 314 
Heterocephalous, 518 
Heterochromous, 517 
Heterodromous, 106 
Hetercecium, 402 
Heterogenesis, 15 
Heteromorphic, 285 


INDEX. 


Heterorhizal, 43, 357 
Heterosciadez, 506 
Heterosporous, 635 
Heterotropal, 256 
Heuchera, 504 
Hevea, 582 
Hexagonienchyma, 3 
Hexandrous, 216 
Hiang-Kwan, 650 
Hiatus, 206 
Hibbertia, 428 
Hibernacula, 110 
Hibiscez, 447 
Hibiscus, 448 
Hickory, 596 
Hidden-veined, 83 
Hieracium, 520 
Hightea, 751 
Hilum, 253, 329° 
Himalayan flora, 683, 
696 


Hinged dehiscence, 226 
Hippocratez, 471 
Hippomane, 581 
Hippophaé, 571 
Hippuris, 493 
Hiptage, 458 
Hirzea, 458 
—— fruit of, 31 
Hirneola, 650 
Hirsute, 33 
Hirtus, 33 
Hispid, 33 
Histogenetic 
cules, 13 
Histology, 761 
Hog-plum, 474 
Holland’s triplet, 763 
Holly, 530 
Hollyhock, 447 
Holoptelea, 585 
Homaliacez, 573 
Homochromous, 517 
Homodromous, 106 
Homologues of ten- 
drils, 120 
Homomorphic, 285 
Homotropal, 342 
Honeysuckle, srx 
Honkeneja, 445 
Hook-climbers, 386 
Hooked hairs, 32 


mole- 


Hooker on insular 
floras, 673 

Hooker’s __ classifica- 
tion, 423 

Hop, 585 


—— fruit of, 317 
Hordeum, 630 
Horehound, 554 
Hornbeam, 595 
Hornwort, 588 
Horny albumen, 333 
Horse-chestnut, 459 
Horse-radish, 437 
Horse-radish tree, 483 
Horsetails, 281, 636 
Hottentot’s Fig, 510 
Houseleek, 499 
Houttuynia, 590 
Hoya, 536 
Hudsonia, 439 


Hugonia, 465 
Humboldt’s floral Re- 
gion, 686 
Humiriacez, 460 
Humulus, 585 
Humus, 126, 134 
—— coal of, 134 
Hungarian balsam, 599 
Hura, 581 
Husk, 312 ~ 
Huyghenian eye-piece 
or ocular, 765 
Hya-hya, 537 
Hyacinthus, 616 
Hybridisation, 297 
Hybrids, 297, 409 
—— nomenclature of, 


409 
Hydnocarpus, 440 
Hydnora, 577 
Hydnum, 649 
Hydrangee, 503 
Hydrastis, 428 
Hydrocera, 464 
Hydrocharidacez, 601 
Hydrocharis, 602 
Hydrochloric acid gas, 
effect on plants, “160 
Hydrocotyle, 506 
Hydrocyanic acid, 170 
Hydrodictyon, 655 
Hydrogen in plants, 126 
Hydrogeton, 626 
ae, 542 
ydropeltis, 432 
Hydrophyllaceze, 542 
Hydrophyta, 652 
Hygrophorus, 650 
Hymenza, 481 
Hymenium, 647 
Hymenomycetes, 648 
Hymenophyllez, 639 
Hymenophyllites, 745 
Hymenothalamez, 645 
Hyoscyamus, 549 
Hypanthodium, 181 
Hypecoum, 434 
Hypericacez, 458 
Hypha, 269, 646 
Hyphene, 622 
Hyphomycetes, 649 
Hypnum, 643 
Hypocarpogean, 344 
Hypochilium, 602 
Hypocotyledonary, 41 
Hypocrateriform, 205 
Hypogeal, 356 
Hypogynous, 212 
Hypoxidacee, 612 
Hypoxis, 612 
Hypsometrical tempe- 
raturés, 661 
Hyptis, 555 
Hyssop, 554 
— of Scripture, 438 
Hyssopus, 554 
Hysterophyta, 647 


IcacINA, 453 
Iceland Moss, 646 
Ice plant, 500 
Idiothalamez, 646 


841 


Ignatia, 538 

lex, 530 
llicineze, 529 
Illecebreze, 4g9 
Illicium, 429 
—— capsule of, 315 
Imbibition, 124 
Imbricated, 110, 194 
Impatiens, 464 
Impari-pinnate, 93 
Impregnation, 291 
Inarching, 324 
Included, 227 
Incumbent, ‘340 
Indefinite inflores- 

cence, 174, 181 
— stamens, 216 
—— vascular bundles, 


53 

Indehiscent fruits, 303, 
309, 313 

Indeterminate, 174 

India-rubber, 582 

Indian Archipelago, 
flora of, 684 

—— arrow-root, 606 

—— corn, 630 

—— cress, 465 

— cress, fruit of, 311 

— fig, 500 

— flora, 683 

— hemp, 585 

—— shot, 607 

—— tobacco, 525 

Indigo, 171, 480 

Indigofera, 480 

Induplicate, 1x2, 193 

Indusium, 632 

Inenchyma, 6 

Inferior applied to 
ovary and flower, 
195, 246 

Inflated, 198, 200 

Inflorescence, 17, 172 

— compound defi- 
nite, 186 

— compound inde- 
finite, 181 

—— determinate, defi- 
nite, or terminal,175, 
182 

— diagrams to illus- 
trate types of, 187 

—— indefinite or axil- 
lary, indeterminate, 
174, 176° - 

—— mixed, 186 

— tabular view of, 


18 

Infundibuliform, 205 

Innate, 224 

Inocarpus, 572 

Inorganic compounds, 
124 

— constituents of 
plants, 128 

—— matters, iron ab- 
sorbed, 132 

——- tabular view of, 


129 
Insectivorous plants, 
382 


842 


Insects, diseases of 
plants caused by, 
403 

—— fertilisation by, 
284 

—— in Darlingtonia 
and Nepenthes, 384 

—— in fertilisation of 
orchids, 286 

—— in pitchers, 384 

—— pollen carried by, 
28, 

Insular floras, 673 

Integer, 86 

Integument, general, 25 

Integuments, 326 

— ovular, 253 

Interbreeding, pre- 
vention of close, 286 

Intercellular spaces, 7 

— passages or 
canals, 7 

Interfoliar, 98 

Internal membrane of 
seed, 327 

— or intrarius em- 
bryo, 340 

Internodes, 45, tor 

Interpetiolary, 98 

Interruptedly pinnate, 


93... 

Intextine, 230 

Intine, 230 

Intrarius, 340 

Introrse, 226 

Inula, 520 

Inulin, 163 

Inverted, 257, 341 

Involucel, 190 

Involucre, 190 

Involute, 111 

Todine, 10, 132 

Tonidium, 441 

Ipecacuan, 513 

— glands of, 35 

Tpomeea, 544 

Treland, flora of, 705 

Iridacez, 608 

Tridzea, 655 

Tris, 609 

Irish Moss, 655 

Iron in plants, 132 

Tronwood, 528 

Irregular monopeta- 
lous or gamopeta- 
lous corollas, 206 

——-polypetalous corol- 
las, 205 

—— stamens, 283 

Irritability, 374, 383 

—— of Dionza and 
Drosera, 380 

—— of twining plants 
and tendrils, 385 

Irritable hairs, 33 

Irritant hairs, 33 

Isatis, 437 

Isertia, 512 

Isocheimal lines, 659 

Isoetacez, 640 

Isoetes, reproduction 
of, 278 


INDEX. 


Isle of Sheppey, fossil 
plants of, 751 
Ispaghil, 566 
Isomeric, 166 
Isonandra, 531 
Isosporous, 635 
Isostemonous, 215 
Isotheral lines, 659 
Itea, 504 
Ivory Palm, 622 
Ivory, vegetable, 333 
Ivy, 509 
Ixia, 608 


JABORANDI, 59% 
Jack fruit, 316 
Jacob's ladder, +542 
Jacquinia, 531 
eee 621 
alap, 544 
Jamaica pepper, 492 
Janipha, 582 
Japan Lacquer, 474 
Japanese flora, 682 
Jars for holding pre- 
parations, 803 
Jasminacee, 537 
Jasmine, 532 
Jateorhiza, 430 
Jatropha, 582 
Java, upper Region of, 
68. 


4 
Jerusalem artichoke, 
52r 
Jessamine, 532 
Jew’s Ear, 650 
Jew’s-mallow, 450 
Job’s-tears, 632 
Jonquille, 112 
Juglandacez, 595 
Juglans, 596 
Jujube, 473 
Juncacee, 619 
Juncaginez, 623 
Juncus, 619 
Jungermanniez, 643 
—— reproduction of, 


274 P 
qigeee fruit of, 317 
uniperus, 599 
Jussiza, 493 7 
Jussieu’s classification, 


4 
Justicia, 556 
Jute, 450 


KmprFer’s floral Re- 
gion, 682 

Kalmia, 527 

—— fertilisation of, 


283 
Kamalo, 582 
Kandelia, 488 
Kaneh, 632 
Kaneh-bosem, 632 
Kangaroo apple, 548 
—— grass, 631 
Karcom, 609 
Kat, 471 
Kava, 591 
Kawrie-pine, 599 
Keel, 205 


Keg-fig, 528 
Kelp, 655 
Kerguelen Island cab- 
bage, 437 
Kernel, 326 
Kiddah, 568 
Kidney bean, fertilisa- 
tion in, 288 
Kie-kie, 624 
Kigelia, 54 
Kind or genus, 410 
Kinic acid, 170 
Kinnabaris, 622 
Kino, 480 
Kirschenwasser, 486 
Kishuim, 495. 
Kleistogamous, 656 
Knots, 116 
Knotwort, 498 
Kochia, 563 
Kokerboon, 615 
Kola, 449 
Kombe poison, 537 
Koochla, 538 
Koosht, 520 
Kousso, 486 
Krameria, 442 
Kumquat, 455 
Kussemeth, 630 
Kwei-hwa, 533 


LaBeELLuM or lip, 205 
Labia, 206 
Labiatee, 552 
fertilisation 


in, 
289 
fruit of, 311 
—— Region of, 680 
Labiate, 198, 206 
Labiatiflore, 519 
Laburnum, 479 
Lace-bark, 572 
Lace-plant, 626 
Laciniz, 7, 198 
Laciniated, 87, 201 
Lacis, 588 
Lacistema, 590 
Lacistemacez, 589 
Lacquer, 474 
Lactuca, 522 
Lactucarium, 522 
Lacunz, 13 
Ladanum, 439 
Lagenaria, 496 
Lagerstrémia, 487 
Lagetta, 572 
Lamb’s Lettuce, 515 
Lamelle, 249, 648 
Lamiacez, 551 
Lamina, 201 
— of leaf, 82 
Laminaria, 654 
—zone of, in Britain, 
716 
Lamium, 554 
Lanceolate, 89 
Lancewood, 430 
Langsat, 460 
Lansium, 460 
Lantana, 556 
Laportea, 584 
Larch, 599 


Larch, cone of,’ 317 

Lardizabala, 431 

Larix, 599 

Larkspur, 427 

Lasiandra, 489 

Lasiopetalum, 450 

Lastrea, 639 

Latent, 112, 117 

Lateral, 108, 247, 340 

—— applied to the 
parts of a flower, 
195 

dehiscence, 226 

Latex, 21, 745. 

—— granules in, 145 

Lathreea, 551 $ 

Lathyrus, 48 


Laticiferous vessels, 
21, 145 

—— —— movements 
in, 145 


Latisepte, 436 

Latitudinal range of 
vegetation, 678 

Lattice-plant, 686 

Lauracez, 566 

— fossil, 754 

—— Region of, 699 

Laurelia, 589 

Laurus, 567 

Laurustinus, 511 

Lavender, 554 

Laver, 655 

Lavoisiera, 489 

Lawsonia, 487 

Layering, 113 

Leaf, 79 

—— arrangement, ror 

—— climbers, 386 

—— the type of all 
parts of the flower, 


172 

Leaf-buds, 108, 335 

—— aerial, 114 

—— anomalies of, 116 

— axillary, 108 

—— extra-axillary,117 

—— lateral, 108, 112 

— subterranean, 114 

transformations 
of, 116 : 

Leafless acacias, 96 

Leaflets, 86, 91 

Leaf-stalk, 94 

Leafy bracts, 189 

Leather-wood, 572 

Leaves of acotyledons, 
IOI 

—— aerial, 79 

—— analogy of car- 
pels to, 235 

— anomalous forms 
of, 99 i 

—— arrangement in 
the bud, rz 

— arrangement on 
the axis, roz 

—— buds on, 118, 358 

—— calycine, 195 

——cauline, ror 

— clustered or fas- 
cicled, 369 


Leaves, colouring’mat- 
ter of, 392 

— compound, 85, 86, 
9r 

— deciduous, 83, 123 

—— diseases of, caused 
by insects, 40: 

— effect of Lgaltop 
chloric and sulphur- 
ous acid gas on, 160 

—— effect on the at- 
mosphere, 121, 157 

—— evergreen, 83, 123 

exhalation of, 121 

fall of, 123 

—— floral, ror, 189 

forms of, 85 

— functions of; raz 

— general summ: 
of conformation of, 
93 


of dicotyledons, 
I00 

— of monocotyle- 
dons, tox 

— primordial, 
335 - 

—— propagation 
118 


ror, 


by, 


radical, ror 

—— ramal, ror 

—— seminal, roz, 339 

—— simple, 85, 86 

—— skeleton, 79 

spiral, gt 

— spiral arrange- 
ment of, 103 

—— structure of, 79 

— submerged, 79, 81 

— succulent, go 

transpiration of, 

I2z r 

vascular system 
of, 79 

— venation of, 83 

Lebonah, 475 

Lecanora, 647 

Lecca-gum, 533 

Lechea, 439 

Lecidea, 646 

Lecotropal, 255 

Lecythidez, 491 

Lecythis, 492 

Ledum, 527 

Leea, 461 

Leek, 615 

-Legume, 
ous, 312 

or pod, 312 

Legumin, vegetable, 
166 


Jomentace- 


Leguminosz, 476 

— fertilisation in, 289 

fossil, 754 

fruit of, 312 

Lemnez, 625 

Lemon, 314, 454 

Lemon-grass, 631 

Lemon-plant, 558 

Lenses, 762 

— for microscope, 
762 


INDEX, 


Lentibulariaceze, 557 
Lenticels, 36 
Lenticular glands, 36 
Lentisk, 474 
Leontice, 431 
Leopard’s-bane, 521 
Leopoldinia, 622 
Lepidium, 435 
Lepidocaryine, 621 
Lepidocaryum, 622 
Lepidodendron, 733 
Lepidophyllum, 730 
Lepidostrobus, 733 
Lepidote, 3: 
Lepis, 3z 
Lepistemon, 544 
Leptanthus, 618 
Leptolena, 452 
Leptosiphon, 542 
Leptospermum, 491 
Leschenaultia, 523 
Lessonia, 654 
Letterwood, 587 
Lettuce, 522 
Leucodendron, 570 
Leucojum, 612 
Leucopogon, 528 
Leycesteria, 511 
Lianas, 45 
Lias, flora of, 747 
Liber, 57 
Libocedrus, 598 
Lichenes, 644 
Lichenin, or Lichen- 
starch, 646 
Lichens, fertilisation 
of, 269 
— Region of, 679 
Lid, 199, 232, 307 
Life of plants, dura- 
tion of the, 359 
Light, as affecting plant 
distribution, 667 
— effect of different 
rays on the colours 
of plants, 390 
—— effect of rays on 
germination, 246 
— effect of rays on 
plants, 159 
— effect on flowers, 
258, 263 
—— effect on growth 
of plants, 354 
—— effects on respira- 
tion of plants, 156 
—— effect of, on sensi- 
tive plants, 376 
Lign Aloes, 572 
Ligneous stem, 50 
—— tissue, 16 
Lignin, 9, 165 
Lignum-vite, 466 
Ligulate, 207 
Ligule, 99 
Liguliflorae, 519 
Ligustrum, 534 
Lilac, 533 
Liliacez, 613 
Lilies of the field, 615 
Lilium, 615 
Lily of the fields, 612 


Lily of the valley, 614 
im! aoe 5 

—— of calyx, 1 

—— of leaf, 82 ? 

Lime, 455 

Lime in plants, 132 

— in soils, 135 


— phosphate and 
sulphate of, as ma- 
nures, 139 


Lime tree, 450 

Limnanthacez, 465 

Limnanthes, 465 

Limnocharis, 624 

Limonia, 454 ' 

Linacez, 463 

Linaria 582 

Linden-tree, 450 

Lindley’s _ classifica- 
tion, 420 

Linear, 88, 203 

Linen, 16 

Ling, 527 

Linnza, 511 

Linnzus’ artificial sys- 
tem, tabular view of 
classes and orders 
of, 414 

— floral Region, 680 

Linnean artificial sys- 
tem, 413 

—— system, 
tion of, 264 

— system, terms of, 


founda- 


‘i: 21 
Linseed oil, 464 


Lip, 198, 205 

Liparis, 604 

Lipped, 206 

Liquidambar, 504 

Liquid manures, 140! 

Liquiritia, 479 

Liquorice, 479 

Lirelle, 645 

Liriodendron, 429 

— fruit of, 312 

Lissanthe, 528 

Listera, 604 

—— fertilisation in, 288 

Litchi, 459 

Lithospermum, 547 

Litmus, 627 

Littoral zone of Bri- 
tain, 715 

Liverwort, 643 

—— reproduction of, 


274 
Lizard’s tail, 590 
Loasacez, 493 
Lobed, 87 
Lobeliacez, 525 
Loblolly Pine, 599 
Localities of plants, 
668 


Loculament, 225, 242 
Loculicidal, 304 
Locust, 179 
Locust-tree, 48r 
Lodiculze, 208 
Lodoicea, 621 
Loganiacee, 537 


Logwood, 481 


843 


Lolium, 631 
Lombardy Poplar, 592 
Lomentacez, 436 
Lomentaceous legume, 
312 
Lomentum, 312 
Lonchopteris, 732 
London clay, fossils 
of, 751 
Longan, 459 
Long purples, 605 
Lonicereze, 512 
Loosestrife, 487 
Loquat, 486 
Loranthacez, 574 
Loranthus, 575 
Lote-bush, 473 
Lotus, 478 
—— bean, 432 
—— tree, 458 
Love-apple, 549 
Love-lies-bleeding, 
562 
Lucerne, 479 
Lucuma, 531 
Luffa, 496 
Luhea, 450 
Luminosity of plants, 
389 3 
Luminous fungi 
coal-mines, 389 
Lung-wort, 647 
Lupinus, 479 
Lupulin, 585 
Lurp, 497 
Luzula, 619 
Lychnis, 445 
Lychnophora, s2r 
Lycoperdon, 651 
Lycopersicum, 549 
Lycopod, 64x 
Lycopodiaceze, 640 
reproduction 


in 


in, 


27 
Lycopodites, 733 
Lycopodium, 641 
Lycopus, 554 
Lygeum, 632 
Lyginodendron, 742 
Lygodium, 639 
Lymphatic, 33 
Lyrate, 87 
Lythracez, 487 
Lythrum, _trimorphic 
flowers of, 285 


Masa, 5 
Macadamia, 570 
Macahuba-palm, 622 
Mace, 328, 569° 
Mackinlaya, 509 
Maclura, 587 
‘Nab, Dr. W. R., on 
Calamites, 737 
Macrochloa, 632 
Macrocystis, 654, 701 
Macropiper, 59x 
Macropodous embryo, 


33! 
Macrosporangia, 278 
Macrospores, 278, 640, 
Macrozamia, 600 


844 


Madder, 514 
Madeira, plants of, 681 
Madhuca tree, 53 
Madia, 521 
Mesa, 531 
Magalhaensand Tierra 
del Fuego flora, 688 
Magnolia, fruit, 312 
Magnoliacez, 428 
Magnolias, Region of, 
8x 


6 
Mahogany, 460 
—— fruit of, 315 
Mahonia, 432 
Maiden-hair, 640 
Maize, 630 
— fruit of, 31 
Malachadenia, 605 
Male Shield-fern, 639 
Malesherbia, 497 
Malic acid, 170 
Malicorium, 314 
Mallotus, 582 
Mallow, 446 
Malpighiacez, 457 
Malvaceze, 446 
Mammee apple, 457 
Manchineel, 58x 
Mandragora, 549 
Mandrake, 549 
Manganese in plants, 

132 
Mangifera, 473 
Mango, 311 
Mangold-wurzel, 562 
Mangosteen, 457 
Mangrove, 7488 
Manicaria, 622 
Manihot, 582 
Manilla hemp, 608 
Manioc, 582 
Manna, 443, 479, 533) 

99 


—— in seaweeds, 165 
Mantellia, 750 
Manure, application of. 
136 
Manures, comparative 
value of, 137 
Manuring with green 
crops, 140 
—with sea-weeds, 
140 
Manzanita, 527 
Maple, 458 
—— sugar, 164 
Maranta, 607 
Marantacez, 606 
Maraschino, 486 
Marattia, 640 
Marattiez, 639 
Marcescent, 200, 211 
Marcgraavia, pedun- 
Cular pitchers of, 290 
Marceravia, 452 
Marchantia, 644 
Marchantieze, 643 
— reproduction of, 
274 


INDEX. 


Mare’s-tail, 493 
Margaric acid, 168 
Marginate, 198 
Margosa, 460 
Marine flora of Britain, 
714 
—— vegetation, zones 
of, 699 
Marjoram, 554 
Marking-nut, 474 
Marmalade, 531 
Marrubium, 554 
Marsdenia, 536 
Marsh Mallow, 447 
— trefoil, 540 
Marsilea, 640 
Marsileacez, 640 
— reproduction of, 
279 
Martynia, 541 
Marvel of Peru, 560 
Mask-like, 207 
Mastich, 474 
Maté, 530 
Matico, 59x 
Mattulla, 32 
Maturation of the peri- 
carp, 319 
— of the seed, 343 
Mauritia, 622 
Mayaca, 623 
May-apple, 428 
Meadow grass, 631 
— saffron, 616 
Mealy, 333 
Mechoacan-root, 544 
Meconic acid, 170 
Meconopsis, 433 
Medicago, 479 
Medick, 479 
Mediterranean flora, 
680 
Medlar, 314 
—— of Surinam, 531 
Medullary rays, 50, 59, 


75 
—— sheath, 53, 75 
Megacarpeea, 435 
Megasporangia, 278 
Megaspores, 278 
Megatherms, 663 
Megistotherms, 664 
Melaleuca, 491 
Melampyrum, 551 
Melanosporee, 653 
Melanthacez, 616 
Melanthium, 616 
Melastomacez, 489 
—— Region of, 687 
Melegueta _ pepper, 

606 
Meliacezx, 459 
Melilotus, 479 
Meliosma, 459 
Melissa, 554 
Melloca, 446 
Melocanna, 632 
Melon, 314, 495 
Memecylon, 489 
Meninia, 556 
Menispermacez, 430 
Mentagraphytes, 651 


Mentha, 554 
Mentzelia, 494° 
Menyanthee, 539 
Menziesia, 527 
Merenchyma, 3 
Mericarps, 312 
Merismatic division of| 
cells, 14, 267 
Merithalli, 362 
Mertensia, 547 
Merulius, 650 
Mesembryacez, 510 
Mesembryanthema, 
Region of, 689 
Mesembryanthemum, 
500 
Mesocarp, 300 
Mesochillium, 642 
Mesophlceum, 57 
Mesophyllum, 80 
Mesosperm, 327 
Mesotherms, 664 
Mesua, 457 
Metamorphic rocks, 
723 
Metamorphoses, vege- 
table, 362 
Metasperms, 292 
Meteoric flowers, 263 
Meteorological influ- 
ence on odours of 
plants, 396 
Metroxylon, 621 
Mexico and Guiana, 
flora of, 686 
Mexico, flora of 
Highlands of, 686 
Meyen’s phyto-geo- 
graphical zones, 692 
— zones, tabular 
view of, 694 
Mezereon, 572 
Michaux’s floral re- 
gion, 681 
Miconia, 489 
Microcachrys, 597 
Microgonidium, 270 
Micrometer, 771 
Micropyle, 329, 254 
Microscope, 761, 763 
— compound, 765 
— focal adjustment 
of, 779 
—— its uses, 761 
—— mode of using it, 


—— simple, 763 
— works on the, 793 
Microscopic apparatus, 


DTA: i s 

— manipulation, 772 

—— objects for exa- 
mination, 780 

—— objects, preserva- 
tion of, 783 

— observations, 
sources of error in, 


—— re-agents, 773 

—— test objects, 772 

Microscopical demon- 
strations, objects and 


illustrative tissues, 


78r 

Microscopical _ slides, 

— specimens in a 
case, 792 

— turn-table, 786 

Microsporangia, 278 

Microspores, 278, 640 

Microtherm, 664 

Miersia, 618 

Mignonette, 438 

Mikania, 521 

Mildew, 399 

Milk-tree, 537 

Milk-vessels, 2z 

Milk-wort, 44 

Millet, 63 

Mimosa, 482 

Mimosites, 751, 755 

Mimulus, 552 

Mimusops, 531 

Miners, 403 

Mint, 554 

Miocene. Arctic fossil 
flora, 755 

—— flora, 754 

—— flora of Europe, 
756 

Miostemonous, 215 

Mirabilis, 561 

Mistleto, 142, 571 

Mixed inflorescence, 


186 
Mock-apple, 496 
—— orange, 490 
Modecca, 497 
Moisture, effect - of, 
in distribution of 
plants, 662 
— in germination, 


Mallugo, 500 
Momordica, 494 
Monadelphous, 218 
Monandrous, 216 
Monembryony, 330 
Monetia, 534 
Moniliform, 217 
— root, 40 

— vessels, 20 
Monimia, 589 
Monimiacez, 588 
Monkey-bread, 449 
Monkey-pot, 307, 315, 


492 ; 
Monkey’s dinner-bell, 
8: 


58x 
Monkshood, 427 
Monk’s-rhubarb, 565 
Monocarpic, 359 
Monochlamydee, 566 
Monochlamydeous, 


192 
Monoclinous, 367 
Monocotyledones, 6or 
Monocotyledonous, 


334 
— embryo, 336, 362 
Monocotyledons, 
leaves of, ror 
—phyllotaxis of, ror 


Monocotyledons, root 
of, 42 

Moneecious or monoi- 
cous, 212, 273, 567 

— plants, fertilisa- 
tion in, 284 : 

Monogamia, 415 

Monogyneecial, 309 

Monopetalous, 203 

Monophyllous, 196 

Monosepalous, 196 

Monospermous, 309 

Monothecal, 222 

Monotropez, 526 

Montpellier Scam- 
mony, 536 

Monstera, 685 

Monstrosities of calyx, 
196 

of flowers, 172 

Montia, 446 

Montinia, 493 

Moon-plant, 545 

seed, 430 

Moracez, 586 

Mora wood, 481 

Morchella, 649 

Morel, 649 

Morina, 515 

Morinda, 514 

Moringacee, 482 

Morphia, 433 

Morphology, 362 

Morus, 586 

Mosses, 641 

leafy, 276 

— morphology of, 
643 : 

—— preparation of, 
800 7 

—— reproduction in, 


2 

Mountain Tobacco, 52x 

Mountains of Europe, 
flora of, 679 

Mouriria, 489 

Movements in cells, 
I51 

in flowers, 386 

in plants, 375 

—— in plants, causes 
of, 378 

Moving cells of vau- 
cheria, 269 

—— spores, 265 

Moxa, 521 

Mucor, 649 

Mucronate, 89 

Mucuna, 480 

Mucus, definite, 26 

Mudar, 536 

Mueller on fertilisation 
of grains, 656 

Mulberry, 316, 586 

Mull, Miocene flora 
of, 755 

Mullein, 552 

Multicostate, 84, 93 

Multifid, 87, 248 

Multijugate, 93 


Multilocular, 241, 299 
Multipartite, 248 


INDEX. 


Multiple, 309° 
——or Polygyncecial 
Fruits, 316 
Multiplication of parts 
of flower, 365, 370 
Mummy-cloth, 16 
Mummy-wheat, 630 
Munjeet, 514 
Munsteria, 752 
Muriform cellular tis- 
sue, 4, 
Musa, 608 
Musacez, 607 
Muscee volitantes, 777 
Muscardine, 650 
Musci, 642 
— Region of, 679 
Muscovado Sugar, 164 
Mushroom, 649 
—— family, 647 
Musszenda, 514 
Mustard, 437 
— tree, 534 
Mycelium, 357 
Mycoderma, 650 
Mylitta, 650 
Myoporinez, 555 
Myoporum, 555 
Myosotis, 547 
Myrica, 592 
Myricacez, 592 
Myricariz, 443 
Myriophyllum, 493 
Myristica, 569 
Myristicaceze, 569 
Myrobalans, 489 
Myrosin, 169 
Myrospermum, 480 
Myroxylon, 480 
Myrrh, 475 
Myrsinacez,. 53 
Myrtacez, 490 
—— Region of, 699 
Myzodendron, 574 


NABEE, 427 
Nachet’s achromatic 
microscope, 769 
Nadelholzer, 88 
Naiadacez, 686 
Naias, 686 
Naked, 252 
Nannari, 536 
Napiform, 40 
Narcissus, 611 
Nardoo-plant, 640 
Nardostachys, 515 
Narthecium, 616 
Narthex, 507 
Nascent, 211 
Naseberry, 531 
Nasturtium of  gar- 
dens, 465 | 
Natural grafting, 324 
—— selection, 407 
—— system, 406, 415 
Navicular, 202 
Nectandra, 568 
Nectaries, 209, 234, 369 
—— in Orchids, 288 
Nectariferous glands, 


35 


Nectarine, 485 

Needle trees, 88 

Nelsoniez, 556 

Nelumbium, 432 

Nelumbonez, 432 

Nemophila, 542 

Neottia, 604 

Nepenthacez, 578 

Nepenthes, 578 

—— insects in pitchers 
of, 384 

Nephelium, 459 

Nerd, or Nard, 515 

Nerium, 537 

Neroli oil, 454 

Nertera, 512 

Nervation, 83 

Netted veins, 84 

Nettle, 584 

—— fertilisation of, 283 

—— tree, 585 

Neurada, 485 

Neuropteris, 732 

Neuter, 368 

New Zealand Flax, 615 

— flora of, 691 

— spinach, 500 

Nicker tree, 481 

Nicotina, 550 

Nicotiana, 550 

Nidularia, 649 

Nigella, 427 

Night-flowering 
plants, 262 

—— Cereus, soz 

Nightshade, 548 

Nilssonia, 749 

Nincopipe, 559 

Nipa, 624 

Nipadites, 751 

Nisa, 574 

Nitella, 652 

Nitraria, 458 

Nitrogen in plants, 
12 

Nodes, 45, ror 

Nodules, woody, 116 

Nodulose, 

Noéggerathia, 741, 745 

Nolana, 547 

Nomenclature of 
classes, 411 

Norfolk Island pine, 


BOB ss 

North Asiatic flora, 
680 

North European flora, 
68 


oO 

Northern part of North 
America, flora of, 
681 


Norway spruce, 599 
Nosology, 397 
Nostoc, 646, 654 
Nostochinez, 654 
Notorhizez, 340, 435 
Nourishment of plants, 


124 
Noyau, 486 

Nuclei, 25: | 
Nucleoli, 25x 


Nucleus of a cell, 9 


845 


Nucleus or kernel, 253, 
326 

Nuculanium, 315 

Nucule, 251, 274 

Nucumentacez, 436 

Number of species of 
plants, 658 

Nuphar, 432 

Nut or glans, 311 

Nutmeg, 311, 328, 569 

Nutrition, requisites 
for, 125 

Nutritive organs, func- 
tions of, 124 

—— products of dif- 
ferent crops, 167 
ux vomica, 538 

Nyctaginacez, 560 

Nyctanthes, 532 

Nymphwzacez, 431 

Nymphza alba, seed 
of, 326 

Nyssa, 510 


Oak apples, 403 

—— lungs, 647 

—— spangles, 404 

Oaks and Firs, Region 
of, 680 

Oats, 630 

Obcordate, 89, 202 

Object-glass of mic- 
roscope, 765 

Objectives of Ross and 
Gundlach, 794 

Oblique, 86, 202 

Oblong, 89 

Obovate, 89 

Obsolete, 198 

Obvolute, rz2 

Oceanic Region, 684 

Ochnacez, 469 

Ochrea, 97 

Ochro, 448 

Ocotea, 568 

Octandrous, 216 

Octangular, 46 

Ocymum, 554 

Odours in natural or- 
ders, 396, 397 | 

— of flowers in fer- 
tilisation, 284, 288 
dogonium, repro- 
duction of, 270 

CGEnanthe, 508 

Cnothera, 493 

Offset, 113 

Oidium, 650 

Oil in seeds, 168 

—— in fruits, 321 

—— in vegetables, 167 

Oils in cells, 12 

Oily albumen, 333 

Olacaceze, 453 

Olax, 453 

Oldenlandia, 514 

Oldfieldia, 532 

Old-man’s-beard, 613 , 

Oleacez, 532 

Oleander, 537 

Oleaster, 570 

Oleic acid, 168 


846 


Olibanum, 475 
Oligaudidus 3x6 
Oligospermous, 312 
Olive, 533 
Omam, 508 
Omphalea, 583 
Omphalobium, 476 
Omphalode, 329 
Onagracez, 492 
Oncidium, 604 
Oncobez, 440 
Onion, 615 
Onobrychis, 479 
Onygena, 649 
Oogones, 272 
Oogonia, 268 
Oolitic flora, 748 
Oophoridia, 278 
Oosporangia, 272 
Oospore, 268 
Opening of flowers, 
262 
Operculate, 199, 232, 
307 : 
Operculum, 307 
Ophelia, 540 
Ophiocaryon, 459 
Ophioglossacez, 
production of, 28: 
Ophioglossez, 639 
Ophiopogonez, 614 
Ophrys, 604 
Opilia, 453 
Opium Poppy, 433 
Opoponax, 507 
Opposite, 102, 112 
Opuntia, 502 
Orach, 562 
Orange, 314, 454 
Orbicular, 87 
Orchid flower, section 
of (Darwin), 373 
Orchids, fertilisation 
of, by insects, 288 
— nectaries in, 288 
Orchil, 647 
Orchidacez, 602 
— dehiscence of 
fruit of, 306 
fertilisation of, 


re- 


2 
Orchideous, 205 
Order or family, 410 
Orders in northern 
hemisphere, 678 
— in southern hemi- 
sphere, 678 
—— restricted in dis- 
tribution, 677 
Orebim, 592 
Oregon flora, 682 
Oreodaphne, 569 
Organic acids, 127 
— bases, 170 
— compounds, 124 
—— constituents of 
plants, 125 
Organ-nut, 429 
Organogeny, 243 
Organography, 718 
Organs, compound, 25 
— elementary, x 


INDEX. 


Organs of nutrition or 
vegetation, 25 

— of reproduction, 
25, 171 

— of reproduction, 
functions of, 264 

— subordination in, 
value of, 416 

ee suppression of, 


5 

—— symmetry of, 363 
Oriental Plane, 594 
Origanum, 554 
Omus, 533 
Orobanchacee, 550 
Orris-root, 609 
Orthoploceze, 340, 435 
Orthotrichum, 643 
Orthotropal, 255, 330 
Orthotropous, 255 
Orthosperme, 506 
Oryza, 630 
Osbeckia, 489 
Oscillatoria, 654 
Osmose, 143 
Osmundez, 639 
Osyris, 574 
Otozamites, 749 
Ourari poison, 538 
Ouvirandra, 626 
Ovary, divisions 

240 
— or germen, 235 
— position of, 246 
Ovenchyma, 4 

vule, 235, 252 
—— coverings of, 253 
—— dehiscence of, 252 


in, 


—number in the 
ovary, 257 

— position in the 
ovary, 256 

Ovules of gymno- 


sperms, 292 

Oxalic acid, 170 

Oxalidaceze, 464 

Oxalis, movements in 
leaves of, 377 

Oxlip, 558 

Oxycoccus, 526 

Oxygen in plants, 126 

— absorbed by 
flowers, 258 

—— effect on colours, 
393, a 

—m_ germination, 
345 

Oyster-plant of Ame- 
rica, 522 


PaciFic IsLanps, flora 
of, 684 
Padina, 654 
Pederia, 512 
Pzonia, 427 
Paiophyll, 392 
Pakyoth, 496 
Palzontological 
tany, 718 
Palate, 207 
Palea, 208 
Palez of artichoke, 190 


bo- 


Palissya, 748 
Paliurus, 473 
Palma Christi, 58 
Palmacites, 752 
Palme, 619 
Palmate, 87 
Palmatifid, 87 
Palmellaceze, 654 
Palmite, 619 
Palm, dichotomous 
stem of, 69 
— oil, 621 
Palms of chalk, 75 
— phyllotaxis 
108 
—— Region of, 687 
— stem, formation 
of, 66 
Palo de Vaca, 587 
Palo de Velas, 541 
Pampas-grass, 631 
Panama hats, 624 
Panax, 509 
Pancratium, 612 
Pandanacez, 624 
Pandanocarpum,, 751 
Pandanus, 624 e 
Panduriform, 87 
Pangium, 440 
Panicle, 177, 208 
Panicum, 631 ~ 
Panspermism, 15 
Pansy, 441 
Papaveracez, 433 
Papaw, 314 
— tree, 497 
Papayacesz, 496 
Papayrolez, 440 
Paper mulberry, 587 
—— for drying plants, 


of, 


97 
reeds, 628 
Papilionaceous corolla, 


205 
Papillz of roots, 38 
—— of epidermis, 30 
Pappus, 199 
Papyrus, 628 
Para rubber, 582 
Paracorolla, 210 
Paraguay Tea, 530 
Paraphyses, 210 
Parasites, 40, 141 
Parasitic fungi, 141 
Parastemones, 210 
Pareira-brava, 430 
Parenchyma, 37, 80 
Pariglin, 617 
Paris, 618 
Paritium, 448 
Paridez, 618 
Parietal placenta, 242 
Parietaria, 584 
— fertilisation of, 283 
Parietin, 647 
Pari-pinnate, 93 
Parkia, 478 
Parmelia, 647 
Parmentiera, 541 
Parnassia, 455 
Parnassia, fertilisation 

of, 283, 286 


Paronychiacez, 498 
Paropsia, 497 
Parsley, 507 
Parsnip, 507 
Parthenogenesis, 265 
Partite, 86 
Partitions, 86 
Passifloraceze, 497 
Passion-flower, 498 
Pastilles, 529 
Pastinaca, 507 
Patchouly, 554 
Patella, 645 
Patulous, 197 
Paullinia, 459 
Pavia, 459 
Peach, 311, 485 
Pear, 314, 486 
Peas, 477 
Pecopteris, 731 
Pectic and pectosic 
acid, 164, 321 
Pectinate, 87 
Pectinated stomata, 
637, 
Pedaliez, 540 
Pedate, 87 
Pedatifid, 87 
Pedicel, 172 
Pedicellate, 172 
Peduncle, 172 
— fleshy, 310 
— hollow, 174 
Pedunculate, 172 
Peg-grafting, 325 
Pelargonium, 462 
Pellitory, 584 
—— of Spain, 520 
Peloria, 552 
Pelorisation, 372 
Peltate, 87, 250, 257 
Peltate hairs, 33 
Penzacez, 571 
Pencil-cedar, 599 
Penicillium, 650 
Penny-royal, 554 
Pentadesma, 456 
Pentagonal, 363 
Pentamerous, 363 
Pentandrous, 216 
Pentapetalous, 203 
Pentaphyllous, 197 
Pentasepalous, 197 
Penthorum, 500 
Pentstemon, 551 
Pepo or Peponida, 314 
Pepper, 591 
Pepper, Jamaica, 492 
Pepper-brand, 399 
Peppercorn, 403 
Peppermint, 554 
Pepperwort, 640 
Perenchyma, 10 
Perennial, 355 
Pereskia, 50x 
Perfoliate, 100 
Perianth, 193 
Pericarp, 298, 300 
—— maturation of the, 


Bt) g z 
Pericarpial coverings, 
326 


Pericheetial, 641 
Pericladium, 97 
Periderm, 58 
Perigone, 193 
Perigynium, 209 
Perigynous, 213, 246 
Periodical phenomena 
in plants, 263 
Perisperm or albumen, 
254, 327, 332 
Perispermic, 343 
Peripherical, 342 
Periploca, 536, 
Penspore, 335 
Peristomatic, 28 
Peristome, 641 
Perithecia, 268 
Peritropous, 257 
Periwinkle, 537 
Permian fossils, 744 
* Pernambuco-wood, 482 
Persea, 569 
Persian flora, 685 
Persimon, 528 
Persistent, 211, 248 
Personate, 207 
Persoonia, 570 
Pertuse, 8 
Perulz, 109 
Peruvian cherry, 549 
Petaline hairs, 201 
Petaloidez, 601 
Petals, 200 
— anomalies in, 209 
Petiolary, 98, 120 
Petiolate, 339 
Petiole, 82, 94 
Petioles, | anomalous 
forms of, 99 
Petiolules, 92 
Petiveriez, 563 
Petroselinum, 507 
Pettigrew’s views on 
circulation in plants, 


47 
Peumos, 589 
Peuce, 748 
Peziza, 649 
Phacelia, 542 
Phzeosporeze, 653 
Phalaris, 632 
Phallus, 650 
Phanerogamous, 171 
— plants, 425 ’ 
— plants essential 
organs of, 264 
— plants, fertilisa- 
tion in, 28: 
Pharbitis, 545 
Phascum, 643 
Phaseolezx, 478 
Phaseolites, 754 
Phaseolus, 481 
Philadelphaceze, 489 
Philesia, 617 
Philippodendron, 450 
Philydrum, 619 
Phillyrea, 533 
Phleum, 631 
Phlorizin, 166 
Phlox, 542 
Phoenicites, 754 


INDEX. 


107 

—— of bracts, 189 

— of dicotyledons, 
107 

— of monocotyle- 
dons, 107 

— of palms, 108 

— of pines, 108 

Physalis, 549 

Physie-nut, 582 

Physiognomic plants, 


75 

Physomyces, 649 
Physomycetes, 649 
Physostigma, 481 
Phytelephas, 622 
Phytochlor, 258 
Phyto-geographic Re- 

gions, 678 
Phytolaccaceze, 563 
Phytons, 109, 362 
Phytozoa, 265 
Phytozoids, 234 
Piassaba, 622 
Picea, 599 
Picotees, 445 
Picrzena, 469 
Picrotoxin, 430 
Pietra fungaia, 650 
Pig-nut, 507 
Pigs’-faces, soo 
Pileorhiza, 38 
Pileus, 647 
Pili, 30 
Pilocarpus, 467 
Pilose, 33, 199 
Pilularia, 640 
Pimenta, or Pimento, 


cee 
Pimpinella, 508 . 
Pinakenchyma,. 4 
Pinaster, 599 
Pinckneya, 513 
Pine-apple, 316, 613 


Pines, phyllotaxis of, 
108 


Pin-eyed, 212 
Piney resin, 451 
Piney tallow, 451 
Pinguicula, 383, 557 
Pinites, 739, 754, 757 
—— succinifera, 754 


Pink, 445 
Pink*root, 539 
Pinnate, 92 


- Pinnatifid, 86, 201 


Pinnatipartite, 87 
Pinus, 599 

Pinus fossil, 755 
Piper, 59 

Piperacez, 590 

—— Region of, 686 
Piratinera, 587 
Piscidia, 481 

Pisonia, 561 
Pissadendron, 739 
Pistacia or Pistachio- 
“nuts, 473 

Pisteze, 685 

Pistil, rg1, 211, 234 
—— mature, 298 
Pistillary cords, 240, 


252 
Pistillate, 368 
Pistillidium, 250, 265 
Pistilliferous, 212, 264, 


Pisum, 478 

Pita flax, 612 

Pitch, 598 

Pitcher, 383 

— of Cephalotus, 
504 : 

— of Darlingtonia, 


384 
— of Discidia, 504 
— of Marcgraavia, 
290 
—— of Nepenthes, 504 
—— of Sarracenia, 504 
—— plant, 578 
Pith, 50, 52, 75 
Pitted vessels, 20 
Pittosporacee, 465 
Pitus, 739 
Placenta, 240, 315 
— attachment of 
seeds to the, 329 
— axile, 243 
— central, 241 
—— formation of, 241 
—— free central, 243 
—— marginal, 241 
— parietal, 242 
Placentaries, 240 
Placentation, 243 
Plaited, 11 
Plane-trees, 594 
— of Scotland, 458 
Planera, 585 
Plante tristes, 262 
Plantaginaceze, 559 
Plantago, 560 
Plantain, 608 
Planting of trees, 78, 
136 
Platanaceze, 593 
Platanus, 594 
Platylobez, 436 
Platystemon, 433 
Plectranthus, 554 
Pleiotrachez, 18 
Pleospora, 651 
Plerandra, 509 


847 


Pleurenchyma, 16 
Pleurisy-root, 536 
Pleurocarpi, 643 
Pleurorhizez, 340, 435 
Plicate, rz 

Pliocene flora, 756 
Plocaria, 655 

Plum, 311, 485 
Plumbaginacezx, 559 
Plumbago, 559 
Plumose, 199 
Plumule and radicle, 


334 r . 
— or ascending axis, 


Pod, 312 

Podalyriez, 478 

Podocarp, 305 

Podocarpus, 599 

Podophyllum, 428 

Podosperm, 253 

Podostemacez, 588 

Podostemon, 588 

Pogostemon, 554 

Poison-elder, 474 

— ivy, 474 

— oak, 474 

—— sumach, 474 

—— vine, 474 

Poisoning plants in 
herbarium, 801 

Robons, effect of, on 
plants, 133 

Poke, 563 

Polar fossil flora, 756 

— zone, plants of, 


695. 

Polariser, 769 

Polemoniacea, 541 

Polianthes, 614 

Pollard-trees, 113 

Pollen, 216, 226 

—— application to the 
stigma, 282 

— carried by insects 
and wind, 284 

—— coverings of, 230 

—— duration of vita- 
lity of, 292 

—— grains, forms, and 
number of, 232, 282 

— granules, 231 

—— masses, 229 

— scattering of, 282 

—— tube, 233 

— tubes, extent to 
which they pene- 
trate, 295 

—— tubes in gymno- 
sperms, 293 

—— tubes, number of, 


233 

— utricle, 228 
Pollinia, 229, 286 
Polyadelphous, 219 
Polyandrous, 216 
Polycarpic, 359 
Polycarpon, 445, 499 
Polychroit, 609 
Polycotyledonous, 338 
Polyembryony, 331 


848 


Polygala, fertilisation 
of, 289 
Polygalacez, 441 
Polygamia, 563 
Polygamous, 212, 367 
Polygonacez, 563 
Polygonal, 330 
Polygonum, 564 
Polygyneecial, 309, 316 
Polynesian Region, 


684 
Polypetalous, 203 
Polyphyllous, 190, 196 
Polypodiez, 639 
Polyporus, 650 
Polysepalous, 196 
Polyspermous, 312 
Polystemonous, 215 
Polytrichum, 643 
Pomaderris, 472 
Pome, 314 
Pomee, 484 
Pomegranate, 313, 492 
Pompelmoose, 455 
Pondweed, 626 
Ponga, 639 
Pontederia, 618 
Pontederiacezx, 618 
Poor man’s weather 
glass, 262, 559 
Poplar, 592 
Poppy, 433 
— capsule of, 308, 
315, 
Populus, 592 
Porphyra, 655 
Porrigophytes, 651 
Portland dirt-bed, 749 
— sago, 163, 685 
Portugal Laurel, 486 
Portulacacez, 445 
Posterior applied to 
parts of a flower, 195 
Posticz:, 226 
Potalia, 538 
Potamee, 626 
Potamogeton, 626 
Potash and soda as 
manures, 138 
—— in plants, 132 
Potato, 313, 548 
— disease, 398, 4o2 
— eyes of, 47 
—— starch in, 162 
Potentilla, 486 
Potentillez, 484 
. Poteriez, 484 
Pothocites, 742 
Pothos, 625 
Pounce, 599 
Przfloration, 193 
Przfoliation, 110 
Preemorse, 47 
Prangos, 507 
Pretrea, 541 
Prickles, 32 
Prickly ash, 468 
—— pear, soz 
—— pole, 622 
Primary colours, 390 
— veins, 83 
Primine, 254 


INDEX. 


Primordial, 335 
Primordial leaves, 101 
Primrose, 558 
—— pin-eyed, 285 
thumb-eyed, or 
thrum-eyed, 285 
Primroses, fertilisation 
in, 285 
Primula, 558 
Primulacee, 557 
Prince’s feather, 562 
Pringlea, 437 
——  antiscorbutica, 
fertilisation in, 284 
Prinos, 530 
Prionium, 619 
Prismatical, 90 
Prismenchyma, 4 
Privet, 534 
Procumbent, 45 
Products and _ secre- 
tions of plants, 124, 
161 
—— azotised, 166 
—— resinous, 169 
Pro-embryo, 293 
Progression of sap, 124 
—— of sap, cause of, 


14 
Proliferous, 119 
—— bracts, 191 
—— plants, 357 
Propagation by graft- 
ing, 324 
—— by leaves, 118 
Propagulum, 113 
Prosenchyma, 4, 16 
Protandrous, 212, 286 
Protea, 570 
Proteacez, 570 
Prothallus of ferns, 294 
Protium, 475 
Protococcus, 655 
Protogynous, 212, 286 
Protoplasm, 8 
Pruning trees, 113 
Prunus, 485 
Psamma, 632 
Psaronius, 732 
Pseudo bulb, 47 
Pseudospermous, 303 
Psidium, 492 
Psychotria, 512 
Ptelea, 468 
Pteris, 640 
Pterocarpus, 480 
Pterophyllum, 747 
Ptychotes, 508 
Pubescent, 33 
Puccoon, 434 
Puchurim beans, 569 
Puff-balls, 651 
Pulse, 479 
Pulverised soil, 347 
Pulvinus, 94 
Pumpkin, 495 
Punica, 492 
Punctated woody tis- 
sue, 17 
Purples, 403 
Pursh’s floral Region, 
r 


Purslane, 445 
Putamen, 3or 
Putty-wort, 605 
Puya fibre, 584 
Pycnides, 269 
Pyrenz, 315 
Pyrenean flora of Ire- 
land, 708 
Pyrenees, flora of, 696 
Pyrenocarpei, 646 
Pyrethrum, 520 
Pyrolez, 527 
Pyrrhosa, 570 
Pyrularia, 574 
Pyrus, 486 
Pythagorean bean, 432 
Pyxidium, 315 


QUADRANGULAR, 46 
Saiiweare 223 
uadrijugate, 104 
Quadrilocular, 222, 
241 
Quadripartite, 198 
ene 488 
uamoclit, 544 
ene 254 
uassia, 469 
Quaternate, 93 
Quercitron, 595 
Juercus, 595 
uillaia, 486 
Quillaiez, 484 
Quill-wort, 640 
Quinate, 93 
Quince, 314, 486 
Quincuncial, 106 
—— estivation, 194 
Quincunx, 107 
Quinine, 513 
Quinoa, 562 
Quinquangular, 46 
Quinquecostate, 84 
Quinquefid, 87, 197 
Quinquepartite, 87, 
198 


OQ, 


Quintne 254 
uisqualis, 489 
Quitch-grass, 631 
Quiver-tree, 615 


RacEME, 177 
—— of capitula, 182 
Races, 407 
Rachiopteris, 732 
Rachis, 172 
Racodium, 650 
Radical hairs, 34 
———Jeayes, tor, 
Radicle, direction of 
the, 343 
—— or young root, 41, 


334 
Radicular merithral, 
362 
Radii, 180 
Radiola, 463 
Radish, 437 
Rafflesia, 578 
Rafflesiacez, 577 
Rain, coloured, 282 


Raisins, 462 


Ramal leaves, ror 
Ramentaceous, 32 
Rampion, 525 
Ramsden eye-piece or 
ocular, 765 
Ranunculacee, 426 
Ranunculez, 427 
Ranunculus, 427 
—— fruit of, 310 
Rape, 437 
Raphe, 256, 329 
Raphides, 11 
Raspberry, 312, 485 
Ratafia, 486 
Ratsbane, 573 
Rattan Palm, 622 
Rattoons, 164 
Ravenala, 608 
Rays of light, effect in 
germination, 346 
— effect on plants, 


354 
Reaumuria, 443 
Receptacle, 173, 180 
in composite, 


181 

of secretions, 12 

Reclinate, 110, 339 

Red cedar, 599 

—— gum, red robin, 
red rust, and red rag, 


399 

— snow, 654 

— whortleberry, 526 

Reduplicate, 193 

Reed mace, 686 

Region of Amyri- 
dacez, 685 

the Asiatic 
Islands, 684 

— of Asters and 
Solidagos, 68: 

— of Cactacez and 
Piperacez, 686 

—— of Cinchonas, 686 

— of Epacridacee 
and Eucalypti, 689 

— of Escalloniz and 
Calceolariz, 686 

—— of Highlands of 
Mexico, 686 

—— of Labiate and 
Caryophyllacez, 680 

—— of Magnolias, 681 

— of Mesembryan- 
thema and Stapelia, 


689 
—— of New Zealand, 


—— 9 


I 

os of Palme and 
Melastomacez, 687 

—— of Saxifrages and 
Mosses, 67: 

— of, Shrebby Com- 
posite, 687 

— of Ternstre- 
miacez, and Celas~ 
tracez, 682 

— of Tree Rhodo- 
dendrons, 683 

—— of Tropical Af- 
rica, 685 


Region of Umbelliferze 
and Cruciferz, 680 
—— of Zingiberacez, 

683 
Regma, 315 
Regular monopetalous 
or gamopetalous co- 
rollas, 205 
— polypetalous co- 
rollas, 204 
Reindeer Moss, 647 
Reinwardt’s fossil Re- 
gion, 684 
Renealmia, 606 
Reniform, 89 
Replicate, 110 
Replum, 244, 306, 315 
Representative plants, 


74 
Reproduction, essen- 
tial organs, 173, 211 
in Cryptogams, 


233, 266 
in phanerogams, 
264, 281 " 


—— in Vallisneria, 282 
Resedacez, 438 
Resinous glands, 35 
—— products, 16 
Respiration of plants, 
122, 155 
Respiratory process in 
plants, three views 
of, 158 
Restiaceze, 687 
Resting spores, 402 
Restio, 687 eB 
Restricted plants, as 
regards distribution, 


670 
Reticulated vessels, 19 
veins, 84 
Reticulum, 32, 97 
Retinaculum, 229 
Retuse, 89 
Revolute, 12 
Rhabdocarpum, 746 
Rhamnacez, 472 


Rhatany, 442 

Rheea fibre, 584 
Rheum, 565 

Rhexia, 489 
Rhinanthez, 551 
Rhinanthus _—_Crista- 


galli, fertilisation in, 


290 
Rhizanths, 142 
Rhizobola, 452 
Rhizocarpez, 640 
Rhizocarps, reproduc- 

tion of, 279 
Rhizogens, 37 
Rhizome, 47, 113 
Rhizomorpha, 650 
Rhizophoracez, 488 
Rhododendron, 527 
Rhododendrons, ,tree, 

Region of, 683 
Rhodolzena, 452 
Rhodoleia, 504 
Rhodosporez, 653 
Rhodymenia, 655 


INDEX, 
Rhubarb, 565 Rumex, 564 
Rhus, 474 Ruminated albumen, 
Ribes, 502 


Ribesiacez, soz 

Ribwort, 559 

Ricciez, 644 

Rice, 630 

Rice-paper, 53, 509 

Ricinus, 58z 

Rictus, 207 

Rimmon, 492 

Ringent, 198, 206 

Ripening of fruits, 321 

of seeds in gym- 
nosperms, 293 

Robinia, 479 ‘ 

Rocambole, 615 

Roccella, 647 

Rock-rose, 439 

Rohun bark, 460 

Root, 37 

—— abnormal, 39 

—— absorption by, 142 

—— adventitious, 39, 
336 

—— aerial, 39 

—— buds on, 40 


| —— climbers, 386 


—— covering of, 4o 

— crown of, 37, 113, 
146 

—— forms of, 40 

—— functions of, 43 

—— grafting, 324 

—— of acotyledons, 43 

— of dicotyledons 
or exogens, 41 

— of monocotyle- 
dons, 42 

—— parasitic, 142 

— stock, 47 

—— structure of, 38 

Rootlets, 336 

Rosa, 486 

Rosacez, 483 

Rosaceous corolla, 204 

Rose, 312 

—— apple, 492 

— fruit of, 310 

— of Jericho, 437 

Rosewood, 481 

Rosmarinus, 554 

Rosemary, 554 

Rostellum, ‘229 

Rotate, 206 

Rotation in cells, 152 

— of crops, 133 

Rottlera, 582 

Roxburgh’s floral Re- 
gion, 683 

Royal, or flowering 
fern, 639 © 

Royena, 628 

Rubee, 484 

Rubiacez, 511 

Rudimentary leaves, 
334 

Rue, 467 | 

Ruellia, 556 

Ruiz and Pavon’s floral 
Region, 686 

Ruizia, 589 


3 


| _ 333, 

| Runcinate, 87 

| Runner, 113 

| Ruppia, 626 

| Rush, 619 

| Rust, 141, 399 

| Rutaceze, 467 

Rye, 630 

— fruit of, 321 

| —— spurred Kye, or. 
Ergot of, 400 

Rye-grass, 631 


| SABAL, 622 ' 
| Sabiacez, 473 

: Sabicu, 482 

Saccate, 202 : 
Saccharine glands, 35 
Saccharum, 631 
Sack-tree, 587 
Safflower, 520 
Saffron, 609 
Sagapenum, 507 
Sage, 554 

| Sageretia, 473 
Sagittaria, 623 

. Sagittate, 89, 203 
Sago, 163, 601 

—— fruit of, 311, 
—— Palm, 621 

— Portland, 163 
Saguera, 621 

Sagus, 621 

Saintfoin, 479 

St. Helena, flora of, 


OTA a 
St. Hilaire’s floral 
Region, 68 
St. Ignatius’s Bean, 


538 
St. John’s Bread, 481 
—— wort, 455 
Sal, 45x 
Salacia, 471 
Salep, 605 
Salicaceze, 59r 
Salicin, 166, 592 
| Salicornia, 563 
Saline plants, province 
salts 

isburya, 600 

Salix, 592 
Salpiglossis, 551 
Salsafy, 522 
Salsola, 563 
Salsola and Salicornia, 

province of, 680 
Salvadoracese, 534 
Salver-shaped,. 205 
Salvia, 554 
Salvinia, 640 
Samadera, 469 
Samara, 317 
Samaroid Achzenium, 

3Ir 
Sambucus, 511 
Samolus, 558 
Samphire, 507 
Samydacez, 573 


849 


Sandarach, 599 
) Sandbox, fruit of, 315 
Sanguinaria, 434 
| Sanguisorbeze, 484 
| Sanicula, 506 
Santalacee, 574 
Sap ascending, 
146 
— changes in com- 
position of, 145 
—— circulation of, 124 
—— course of, in acro- 
genous plants, 148 
— elaborated, ,de- 
scent of, 146 
—— wood, 55 
Sapindacez, 458 
Sapodilla, 531 
Saponaria, 445 
| Saponine, 445 
Sapotacez, 530 
Sappan-wood, 482 
| Saprolegniez, 653 
— reproduction of, 


144, 


272 
Sapucaia-nuts, 492 
Saurauja, 452 
Sarcinula, 655 
Sarcocarp, 301, 312 
Sarcocolla, 572 
Sarcoderm, 327 
Sarcoleena, 452 
Sarcolobez, 476 
Sarcophyte, 577 
Sarcosperm, 327 
Sargassum, 654, 700 
Sarmenta, rat 
Sarmentum, 45 
Sarnian Flora, 706 
Sarracenia, 383 
Sarraceniaceze, 432 
Sarsaparilla, 617 
Sarza, 417 
Sasanqua Tea, 453 
Sassafras, 568 
Satin-grass, 632 
Satin-wood, 460 
Satureia, 554 
Saururacez, 590 
Saururus, 590 
Sauvagesiez, 440 
Savin, 599 
Savoury, 554 
Savoys, 437 
Saxifragacez, 502 
—— Region of, 679 
Scabiosa, 515 
Scabrous hairs, 32 
Scaevola, 523 
Scalariform vessels, 19 
Scale-mosses, 643 
Scales, 99, 104, 109, 

Igo, 20! 

—— of Pine-apple, 


190 
Scammony, 544 
Scandent, 45 
Scandinavian flora of 

Britain, 709 
| Scape, 173 
| Scar, 82, 95. 


Sandal-wood, 574 
I 


| Scarlet-runner,. 481 


850 


Scepacez, 580 
Scheuchzeria, 623 
Schinus, 474 
Schizaea, 639 
Schizanthus, 551 
Schizopetalon, 435 
Schizandra, 429 
Schizocarp, 306 
Schoenus, 628 
Schouw’s phyto-geo- 
graphic regions, 679 
Scilla, 614 
Scillez, 614 
Scions, 325 
Scirpus, 628 
Scitaminez, 605 
Scleranthez, 499 
Scleria, 628 
Sclerogen, 9 
Scolymus, 520 
Scorodosma, 507 
Scorpioid, 185 
Scorzonera, 522 
Scotch fir, 599 
—— myrtle, 592 
—— thistle, 520 
Scottish mountains, 
flora of, 707 
Screw-pine, 624 
Scrophulariacez, 551 
— fertilisation in, 
289 
Scurvy-grass, 437 
Scutellaria, 554 
Scythian or tartarian 
lamb, 640 
Scytosiphon, 654 
Sea Buckthorn, 571 
Sea-kale, 437 
Sea-pink, 559 
fertilisation of, 291 
Seaside grape, 565 
Sea-weeds, 652 
—— mannite in, 165 
—Mmanuring with, 


140 
Sebesten-plums, 545 
Secale, 630 
Secundine, 253 
Securidaca, 442 
Sedges, flowers of, 208 
Sedum, 499 
Seed, 298, 325 
—— composition 
the, 343. 
— coverings of, 326 
— dissemination of, 


of 


343 
— forms of, 330 
— maturation and 
functions of the, 343 
— modes of trans- 
porting, 348, 803 
—— number of, 344 
— of gymnosperms, 
293, 
—— position of, 330 
—— sowing of, 345 
——vitality of, 346, 350 
Seedless fruits, 319 
Selagineae, 558 
Selaginella, 640 


INDEX. 


Selaginella, colouring 
matter of, 392 

—— reproduction of, 
278 

Selaginites, 733 

Selago, 555 

Self-fertilisation, 284 

Semecarpus, 474 

Semi-anatropal ovule, 
256 

Semi-equitant, 340 

Seminal leaves, 339 

—— lobes, 339 

Seminude, 252, 326 

Sempervivum, 499 


-—— province of, 680 


Senebiera, 435 
Senecio, 520 
Senega or Seneka root, 


442 
Senegal gum, 163 
Senftenbergia, fructifi- 
cation of 730 
Senna, 482 
Sensitive plants, 376 
—— effect of anzesthe- 
tic agents on, 386 
—— effect of light and 
chemicals on, 377 
Sepals, 195 
—— forms and size of, 
197 7 
Septate, 234 
Septemfid, 87 
Septempartite, 87 
Septenate, 93 
Septicidal, 304 
Septifrugal, 305 
Septulatze, 436 
Septum, 222, 224, 241 
Sequoia, 598 
— fossil, 753 
Sericeous, 33 
Serrate, 86 
Sesamum, 541 
Sessile glands, 34, 35 
—— leaf, 82 
Sesuveze, 500 
Setaceous, 32 
Sete, 32, 250 
Setaria, 631 
Setose, 32 
Sexes of plants, 264 
Seychelles palm, 621 
Shaddock, 314, 454 
Shaked, 485 
Shallon, 527 
Shallot, 615 
Shamrock, 465, 479 
Shea butter, 53x 
Sheath, 336 
— medullary, 
—— of leaf, a a 
Sheathing bracts, 19x 
Sheep’s sorrel, 564 
She-oak, 593 
Shesh, 585 
Shifting crops, 134 
Shikmim, 586 
Shittah-tree, 482 
Shola, 53 
Shoom, 615 


Shorea, 451 
Short-styled, 285 
Shrubs, defined, 46 
Side grafting, 325 
—— saddle flower, 432 
Sideze, 447 
Sigillaria, 736 
Sileneze, 445 
Silica, 129, 131, 135 
Silicula, 315 
Siliculosze, 436 
Siliqua, 306, 315 
Siliquose, 436 
Silk cotton, 448 
—— plant, 536 
Silver fir, 599 
— grain, 59 - 
— oak, 570 
—— tree, 570 
Simarubacez, 468 
Simple leaves, 85 
Sinapis, 435 
Siphocampylos, 525 
Siphonia, 582 
Sissoo, 480 
Sisyrinchium, 608 
Sium, 507 
Size of trees, 360 
Skirret, 507 
Skorodon, 615 
Skunk cabbage, 625 
Sleep of plants, 375 
Slipper-like, 207 
Slips, 325 
Sloe, 486 
Smeathmannia, 497 
Smilacez, 617 
Smilax, 617 
Smith and Beck’s mi- 
croscope, 770 
Smut, 141, 399 
—— balls, 399 
Snake-gourd, 496 
— nut, 459 
— root, 448, 459 
—— wood, 538, 587 
Snowball, srz 
Snowberry, 512 
Snowdrop, 612 
—— trees, 529 
Snowflake, 612 
Soapwort, 458 
Soboies, 47, 113 
Soda in plants, 132 
Soil as influencing 
plant distribution, 


662 
Soil, mode of estimat- 

ing the nature of, 135 
—— pulverised, 347 
Soils, chemical compo- 

sition of, 134 
Solanaceze, 547 
Solanum, 548 
Soldanella, 558 
Solenostemma, 536 
Solid oils, 167 
SolaaEnss Region of, 

ir 


Sollya, 466 
Solomon’s seal, 47 
Solutions used for poi- 


soning and preserv- 
ing plants, 801, 802 
Sonchus, 520 
Sooranjee, 514 
Soot as a manure, 138 
Sorghum, 630, 632 
Sori, 638 
Sorosis, 316 
Sorrel, 564 
Souari-nuts, 454 
Sour-sop, 430 
South America, flora 
of highest parts of, 
686 


South American flora, 
extra-tropical, 687 
Southern wood, 521 
Sow-bread, 558 
Sowing of seeds, 345 
Soymida, 460 
Spadix, simple, 179 
Sparganium, 625 
Spatha or Spathe, 191 
Spathelle, r9z 
Spathodea, 540 
Spathulate, 89 
Spawn, 357 
Spearmint, 554 
Species, 406 
——number of known, 


405 i 
— and sub-species, 
definition of, 406 
— variation in, 407 
Specific names, 410 
Specimens preserved 
in a moist state, 802 
Spelt, 630 
Sperm cells, 281 
Spermacoce, 512 
Spermagones, 268 
Spermatia, 268 
Spermatozoa, 265 
Spermatozoids, 
265 
Spermoderm, 327 
Spherenchyma, 3 
Spheeria, 651 
Spheerococcus, 655 
Sphzeroplea, reproduc- 
tion of, 271 
Spheerozyga, 655 
Sphagnez, 643 
Sphenophyllum, 738 
Sphenopteris, 731 
Spherical, 284 . 
Spherical aberration, 
762 
Spice-wood, 569 
Spiderwort, 623 
Spigelia, 539 
Spike, 178 
—— compound, 182 
Spikelets, 179, 208 
Spikenard, 515 
Spinach, New, Zea- 
land, 520 
Spinacia, 562 
Spar: 562, 
Spindle tree, 328, 471 
Spines, 119 
Spireeeze, 484 


234 


Spiral cycles of leaves, 
Io: 


3 

leaves, g1 

—— twiners, 386 

—— vessels, 17 

Spirals in fir cones, ros 

Spirolobez, 435 

Spitzbergen, fossil 

__ plants of, 738, 755 

Splachnum, 643 

Spondias, 474 

Sponea, 585 

Spongioles, 38 

——— absorption by, 142 

Spontaneous genera- 
tion, 15 

Sporangia, 250 

in coal, 729 

Sporangiferous, 280 

Spore, compound, 268 

Spore of-acotyledons, 


Spores, 250 

moving, 265 

Spores of fungi, rest- 
ing, 402 

Sporidium, 335 

Sporocarp, 640 

Sporophores, 647 

Sprengelia, 528 

Spruce, 599 

— cone of, 317 

Spurges, 579 

Spurge-laurel, 572 

Spurious dissepiments, 


244 

Spurred, 198, 

rye, 400 
Squamz, xgo, 208 
Squamash, 615 
Squash, 495 

Squill, 624, 615 
Squirting cucumber, 


Staavia, 504 
Stachytarpheta, 556 
Stackhousiacez, 470 
Stagmaria, 474 
Stamens, 191, 212 
— abortive, 219 
— cohesion of, 227 
— development, 
structure, and form 
of, 214 
— irritable, 283 
— length of, 227 
—— long, .short, and 
medium, 285 
— of grasses, 224, 


656 
— position of, 212, 


215 
Staminal degenera- 

tions, 369 
Staminiferous, 

264, 368 
Staminodes, 219 
Stamminodium, 36, 227 
Standard, 205 , 
Stangeria, 600 
Stanhopea, 604 
Stapelia, 536 


212, 


INDEX, 


Saeae fertilisation 

of, 284 

—— Region of, 689 

Staphyleaceze, 472 

aera 429 

—— apple, 532 

Star-like, a 

Starch, ro, 162 

— .changed into 
sugar, 163, 260 

— in fruits, 321 

— in seeds, 163, 350 

Statice, 559 

Statistics of vegeta- 
tion, 677 

Stavesacre, 427 

Stearic acid, 168 

Stearin, 168 

Stearoptene, 169 

Steeping seeds, 140 

Stelis, 604 

Stellate, 206 

—— hairs, 31 

Stem, 44, 335 

—— acotyledonous or 
acrogenous, 49 

—— aerial, 46 

— anomalous exo- 
genous, 60 g 

—— creeping, 114 

— exogenous or di- 
cotyledonous, 49 

— herbaceous, 50 

hypocotyledon- 
ary, 41 

—— internal structure 
of, 49 

—— ligneous, 50 

— monocotyledon- 
ous or endogenous, 
49, 64 | 

—— parasites, 142 

—— protuberances on, 
46 

— special functions 
of, 75 

—— subterranean, 46 

Sterculiaceze, 448 

Sterigmata, 268 

Sterile, 227, 368 

Sternbergia, 612, 741 

Stevensonia, 621 

Sticta, 647 

Stigma, 235, 248, 282 

—— development, 290 

—— of Campanula, 290 

—— sensitive, 248 

—— structure and posi- 
tion of, 248 

Stigmaria, 734 

Stilago, 588 

Stillingia, 582 

Stings, 34 : 

Stinking rust, 399 

Stipe, 44 

Stipels, 99 

Stipitate, 180, 240 

— glands, 34 

Stipulate, 97 

Stipules, 82, 97 

— forms of, 99 

Stock, 44, 323 


Stomata, 28, 80 

— development and 
‘forms of, 29 

—— in anthers, 220 

—— number in square 
inch of surface, 30 

Stonecrop, 499 

Stone of fruit, 302 

Stone-pine, 599 

Storax, 529 

Stramonium, 549 

Strap-shaped, 207 

Stratiotes, 602 

Strawberry, 312, 485 

— fruit of, 310 

— tree, 527 


Strelitzia, 608 


Streptocarpus, cotyle- 
dons of, 338 
Strobilus, 179, 190, 317 
Strophanthus, 537 
Strophiolate, 329 
Strophioles, 329 
Struma, 95 
Strumose, 218 
Strychnia, 538 
Strychnez, 538 
Strychnos, 538 
Stupose, 33, 217 
Style, 246 
— feathery, 310 
— form and struc- 
ture of, 236, 247 
—— length of, 248 
— of Campanula, 290 
—— of Goldfussia, 290 
—— position of, 246 
Stylewort, 523 
Stylidiacez, 523 
Stylopod, 506 
Stylospores, 269 
Styphelia, 528 
Styracaceze, 529 
Styrax, 529 
Sub-arctic zone, plants 
of, 693 
Sub-classes, 411 
Suberic acid, 168 
Suberous layer, 58 
Sub-genus, 410 
Sub-orders, 410 
Subordination of cha- 
racters, 416 
Sub-species, 409 
Subterranean 
buds, rz. 
Subtronical zone, plants 
of, 693 
Subulate, 89, 216 
Succulent. fruits, 309, 
3II, 313 
leaves, go 
—— peduncle, 173 
Suckers, 114 
—— of Dodder, 4o 
Suffrutex, 46 
Suffruticose, 46 
Sugar, 164 
—— beet, 164 
— cane, 164, 631 
—— grape, 165 
—_ poet of, 164 


leaf- 


851 


Sugar in fruits, 321 

—— in seeds, 350 

—— manna, 165 

—— maple, 164 

— Muscovado, 164 

—starch changed 
to, 163 

Suke, 586 

Sulphates as a manure, 


13 
Sulphur showers, 282 
Sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, effect on plants. 
160 


Sulphurous acid gas, 
effect on leaves, 160 
Sumach, 474. .- 


Sumatra camphor, 451 


— flora of, 684 
Sumbul root, 508 
Sundew, 441 
Sunflower, 521 
Sun spots as affecting 
vegetation, 399 
Superior applied to the 
parts of a flower, 195 
Supervolute, 1zz 
Suppression of organs, 


395 
Supradecompound, 92 
Surculi, 114 
Surinam medlar, 531 
Suspended, 257, 330 
Suspensor, 253 
Sutural, 303 
Sutures, 224, 240 
Choe nest, 655 

wamp-pine, 599 
—— Sassafras, 429 
Swartzia, 478 - 
Swartz’s Region, 687 
Sweet bay, 567 - 
—— cane, 632 
— fern, 592 
— flag, 625 
— sop, 430 
—— vernal grass, 631 
Swietenia, 460 
Sycamine tree, 586 
Sycamore, 458 
—— fruit of, 311 
Sycamorus, 586 
Syconus, 361 
Sylhet varnish, 474 
Symbols, 412 
— and abbreviations, 

830 
—for number of 

parts of the flower, 

364, . 

—— for unisexual 

flowers, 367 
Symmetrical, 203 
Symmetry, 363 
—— causes of want of, 


365 
——in acotyledons, 365 
—— in Crucifere, 436 
—jin dicotyledons, 


364, 
— in  monocotyle- 
dons, 365 


852 


Symplocarpus, 625 
Symplocez, 529 
Synanthere, 517 
Synantherous, 227 
Synaptase, 166 
Syncarpous, 239 

— fruits, 313 

—— indehiscent fruits, 


333 
Syngenesious, 227 
Synochreate, 98 
Syringa, 490, 533 
System, Linnean, 413 
— natural, 415 
Systematic Botany, 
Taxonomy, classifi- 
cation of plants, 405 


TABASHEER, 131 
Tabernzmontana, 537 
Tacamahac, 592 
Tacsonia, 498 
Talauma, 429 
Talinum, 446 
Tallow-tree, 582 
Tamar, 621 


nin, 170 
Tansy, 521 
Taphrenchyma, 20 
Tapioca, 163, 582 
Tap-root, 40 
Tapura, 573 
Taraxacum, 521 
Tarragon, 521 
Tartarian lamb, 640 
Tartaric acid, 170 
Tawhara, 624 
Taxinee, 598 
Taxodium, 598 
Taxonomy, 405 
Taxus, 600, 634 
Tea, 452 
Teak-tree, 555 
Teak of Africa, 583 
Teashur, 582 
Teazel, 515 
Tecoma, 541 
Tectona, 555 
Teel seeds, 542 
Teenah, 586 
Tegmenta, 109 
Telegraph plant, 377 
Telfairia, 494 
Temperate zone cooler, 
plants of, 693 
— warmer, plants of, 
693 Sele! 
Temperature, altitudi- 
range of, 661 
— effects of, in the 
distribution of plants, 
658 


— requisite for ger- 
munation, 345 


INDEX. 


Temperature of plants, 
88 


3 
Tendril, 97, 120, 174 
—— bearers, 38 
— coiling of, 385 
— homologues of, 120 
Tephrosia, 480 
Teratology, 365’ 
cohesion and ad- 
hesion, 370 
—— multiplicationand 
chorization, 371 
Tercine, 254 
Terminal, 108 
—inflorescence, 175 
Terminalia, 489 
Terminology, 406 
Ternate, 93 
Ternstroeemiacez, 452 
—— Region of, 682 
Tertiary fossils, 751 
— flora of Europe, 


756 : 
Tesselated epicarp of 
sago, 311 
Testa, 327 
Testudinaria, 6x 
Tetracera, 428 
Tetradynamous, 228 
Tetragonal, 363 
Tetragonia, 500 
Tetrameles, 578 
Tetramerous, 363 
Tetrandrous, 216 
Tetranthera, 567 
Tetrapetalous, 203 
Tetraspore, 273, 335 
Tetratheca, 442 
Tetrathecal, 222 
Teucrium, 554 
Thalamiflore, 425 
Thalamifloral, 214 
Thalamus or Torus, 
174, 191 
Thallogena:, 644 
Thallogens, 44, 
635 
— root of, 37 ' 
Thallophyta, 44, 635, 


64. 
Thallus, 44 
Thaumatopteris, 747 
Thece, 250, 267 
Thecaphore, 240 
Theine, 452, 530 
Theobroma, 450 
Theophrasta, 531 
Thesium, 574 
Thistle, 520 
Thorns, rr 
‘Thorn apple, 54 
Thorough-draining, 


348 
Thrift, 559 
aes 
uites, 749 
Thuja, 599 
Thunbergiez, 556 
Thunberg’s floral Re- 
gion, 689 ~ 
Thus, 599 
Thyme, 554 


268, 


Thymeleacex, 571 
Thymus, 554 
Thyrsus, 184 

Ti, 616 

Tigellary, 82 
Tigelle, 334 
Tiglium, 58: 
Tiltaceze, 450 
Tillandsia, 613 | 
Timothy grass, 631 
Tinospora, 430 
Tissues, 1, 16, 17 


arra 


Tricerastes, 578° 
Trichadenia, 440 
Trichilia, 460 
Trichodesmium, 655 
Trichogynium, 272 
Trichomanes, 639 
Trichophore, 273 
Trichosanthes, 496 
Trichotomous cyme, 
183 
Tricoccous, 306 
Tricostate, 84 


ig of, 
23 
Tobacco, 550 
Toddalia, 468 
Tofieldia, 616 
Tomato, 549 
Tomentose, 33 
Tomentum, 33 
Tonka-bean, 480 
Tongue-grafting, 325 
Toothache-tree, 509 
Toothwort, 551, 559 
Tormentil, 48 
Tornelia, 625 
Torreya, 598 
Torrid zone, plants of, 


2 
Tortoise plant, 612 
Tortula, 643 
Torula, 649 
Torus, 174, 191 
Tous-les-mois, 607 
Towel-gourd, 496 
Toxicophleea, 537 
Trachez, 18 
Trachenchyma, 17 
Trachylobium, 482 
Tradescantia, 623 
—— rotation in, 153 
Tragacanth, 163, 479 
Tragopogon, 522 
Transpiration, 121 
Transudation, 15 
Transverse dehiscence, 
225, 307 7 
Trapa, 493 
Traveller’s tree, 608 
Tree-beard, 613 
Tree-ferns, 638 
—— Region of, 698 
Tree-lilies, 610 
Tree-nettle, 584 
Trees, branching of, 


45 
—— defined, 46 
—— on the Grimsel, as 
regards altitude, 662 
—— planting of, 78 
—— size and age of, 
360 
Trefoil, 479 
Trema, 585 
Tremandracez, 442 
Triadelphous, 219 
Triandrous, 216 
Triangular, 46, 330, 


ee 
Triassic fossils, 746 
Tribes, 238, 410 
Tribulus, 466 


x 55 
Trifid, 87, 197, 248 
Trifolium, 479 
Triglochin, 623 
Trigonal, 363 
Trigonocarpum, 746 
Trigonocarpus, 741 
Trigonous, 46 
Trijugate, 104 
Trilamellar, 249 
Trilliaceze, 617 
Trillium, 618 
Trilobate, 249 
Trilocular, 24x 
Trimerous, 363 
Trimorphic flowers of 
Lythrum, 285 
Triceciously-hermaph- 
rodite, 286 
Tripartite, 87, 198, 248 
Tripinnate, 92 
Tripinnatifid, 87 
Tripe de Roche, 647 
Tripetalous, 203 
Triplosporites, 733 
Triptilion, 520 
Triptolomea, 481 
Triquetrous, 46 
Trisepalous, 197 
Tristichous, 103 
Triternate, 93 
Triticum, 630 
Trivial names, 410 
Trixis, 520 
Tropzolaceze, 465 
Trophosperm, 253 
Tropical zone, plants 
of, 692 
Trochodendron, 429 
Truffle, 649 
Triuris, 623 
Trumpet-leaf, 432 
Trumpet-flower, 540 
Trumpet-wood, 88 
Truncate, 89, 198 
Truncus, 44 
ryma, 312 
Tsuga, 598 
Tube of calyx, 198° 
Tuber, 47, 114, 649 
— chine, 617 
Tubercular, 40 
Tubercularia, 649 
Tuberose, 614 
Tubular, 206 
Tubuliflore, 519 
Tulip, 614 
Tulipez, 614° 
Tulip-tree, 429 
Turbinate, 198 


Turio, 114 

Turmeric, 606 

Turneracez, 498 

Turnip, 437 

Turnsole, 58 

Turn-table Se micro- 
scopic preparations, 
786 


Turpentine, 599 
hian, 474 
Tussac-grass, 631 
Tussilago, 520 
Tutsan, 455 
Twining plants, 385 
— stems, 45 
Twisted, 40, 112 
—— estivation, 193 
Tylophora, 536 
Tylosis, 22 
Tyndaridea, 655 
Typha, 626 
Typhinez, 628 


Upora, 602 
Ugni, 492 
Ulex, 48 
Ullucus, 446 
Ulmacez, 585 
Ulmine, 134 
Ulmus, 585 
Ulodendron, 734 
Ulva, 655 
Umari, 480 
Umbel, 180 
Umbelliferze, 505 
fruit of, 312 
—— Region of, 680 
Umbellules, 180. 
Umbilical cord, 253 
Umbilicaria, 646 
Umbilicus, 329 
Umiri, 460 
Unazotised matter in 
plants, 167 
Uncaria, 514 
Uncinate hairs, 32 
Undershrub, 46 
Undulated, 90 
Unequally pinnate, 93 
Unguiculate, 201 
Unguis, 201 
Unicorn plant, 541 
Unicostate, 84, 92 
Unijugate, 92, 104 
Unilateral, 248 
—— inflorescence, 184 
Unilocular, 222, 242, 


299 
Uniparous cyme, 183 
Unipetalous, 203 
Unisexual, 212, 367 
Univalvular, 303 
Unlining, 371 
Unsymmetrical, 


364 
Upas Antiar, 587 
Upas Tieuté, 538 
Urania, 608 
Urceola, 537 
Urceolaria, 646 
Urceolate, 206 


203, 


Uredo, 649 


INDEX. 


Urginea, 614 
Urn-mosses, 643 
—— shaped, 206 
Urostigma, 586 
Urtica, 584 
Urticacez, 583 
Utricle, 3, 8, 228, 310 
Utricularia, 557 
Uva, 313 
Uvaria, 429 
Uvulariez, 616 


VACCINIACEA) 525 

Vacoa, or Baquois, 624 

Vagina, 82, 97, 337 

Vaginula, 64 

Vahea, 537 

Valerian, 515 

—— Greek, 542 

Valerianacez, 514 

Valerianella, 515 

Valleculee, 506 

Vallisneria, 602 

— reproduction in, 
282 

—— rotation in cells 
of, 152 

Valonia, 595 

Values of different or- 

416 


4. 

Vanilla, 605 
Varieties, 407 
Variolaria, 647 
Varnishes, 474 
Varronia, 545 
Vascular bundles 

acrogens, 71 
—— bundles in calyx, 


in 


197, by 
—— bundles in endo- 
gens, 67 


-—— bundles in exo- 


gems, 53 

—— tissue, 16 

Vasiform tissue, 20 

Vateria, 452 

Vaucheria, 269 

Vaucheriez, 653 

Vegetable brimstone, 
64z, 

—— ivory, 333 

marrow, 496 

—— wax, 168 

Vegetation, altitudinal 
range of, 695 

—— general pheno- 
mena of, 374 

— influenced by ex- 
ternal agents, 657 

—— of the globe, its 
origin, 67x 

Veinless, 83 | 

Veinlets, 84 

Veins, 83 

Velleia, 523 

Vellozia, 6z0 

Velum, 647 

Velutinus, 33 


Velvety, 33 

Venation, tabular ar- 
rangement of, 84 

Ventral, or outer su- 
ture, 240, 303 

Venus’s fly-trap, 380, 


44 
Veratrez, 616 
Veratrum, 616 
Verbascum, 551 
Verbena, 555 
Verbenacez, 555 
Verjuice, 46 
Vermiform vessels, 20 
Vernal grass, 631 
Vernation, 110 
Vernonia, 520 
Veronica, 552 
Verruce, 36 
Versatile, 224 
Verschaffeltia, 621 
Verticil, 102 
Vertical theory of 
wood formation, 76 
Verticillaster, 184 
Verticillate, 102 
Vervain, 556 
Vesicle, embryonal, 


293 
Vesicles, 2 
Vesicular, 200 
Vesicular glands, 36 
Vessels of plants, 16 
——laticiferous, move- 
ments in, 145 
Vetivert, 632 
Vexillary, 195 
Vexillum, or standard, 
205 
Viburnum, 511 
Victoria, 432 
Victor’s Laurel, 567 
Villi, 30 
Villous, 33 
Vinca, 537 
Vine, 460 
—— disease, 400, 403 
Violaceze, 440 
Violet, 440 
Virginia, | Pennsyl- 
vania, and New 
York, flora of, 68x 
Virginian Creeper, 462 
— Snake-root, 577 
Viscum, 575 
Vismia, 456 
Vitaceze, 460 
Vitality of seeds, 346 
Vitellus, 328 
Vitex, 556 
Vitte, 13 
Viviparous, 357 
Viviparous bracts, 191 
Vivianiacee, 463 
Vochysiacez, 488 
Volatile oils, 168 
Volkmannia, 738 
Voltzia, 747 
Volva, 647 


WACHENDORFIEZ, 614 


Wagenboom, 570 


853 


Wahlenberg’s floral 
Region, 679 
Wake-robin, 625 
Walchia, 745 
Wallflower, fruit of, 


315 

Wallich’s floral Re- 
gion, 683 

Walnut, 311, 596 

Ward’s cases, 160, 349 

Warts, 36, 224 

Water-beans, 432 

Water-chestnut, 493 

— dock, 564 

— dropwort, 508° 

— flannel, 655 

— hemlock, 508 

—— in plants, 167 

— lilies, 432 

— melon, 495: 

—— net, 655 

—— pepper, 443, 564 

— pitcher, .432 

— plantain, 623 

—— shield, 432 

— tree, 608 

Watson’s British floral 
provinces, 704 

— climatic or as- 
cending zones of ve- 
getation in Britain, 


733 

— division of areas 
of British plants, 7o2 

Wattle-trees, 482 

Wavy, 90, 203 

Wax-flower, 536 

— myrtle, 592 

—— palm, 622 

Wax, vegetable, 168 

Way-bred, 560 

Wealden flora, 750 

Weinmannia, 504 

Weld, 438 

Wellingtonia, 598 

Welwitschia, 600 

— permanent cotyle- 
dons of, 338 

West Indian Region, 


68 
Wetherellia, 751 
eat, 630 
—— barley, and oats, 
fertilisation of, 634 
—— nutritive . matter 
of, 166 
Wheel-shaped, 206 
ip-grafting, 325 
White Hellebore, 616 
Whorl, 102 
Whortleberry, 526 
Wig-tree, 474 
Wild-cotton, 536 
—— ipecacuan, 536 
Willdenovia, 627 
Williamson on cala- 
mites, 737 
— on the carbonifer- 
ous flora, 734 
Williamsonia, 749 
Willows, 592 


854 


Willow-strife, 487 
Wilson on fertilisation 
of wheat, oats, and 
barley, 634 
Wimble or peg graft- 
Ing, 325 
Winged fruits, 311 
Wings of corolla, 205 
Winter’s-bark, 429 
Winter cherry, 549 
—— green, 527 
Winterez, 429 
Wistaria, 479 
Witch-hazel, 504 
Witsenia, 608 
Woad, 437 
Wollaston’s doublet, 
763 


INDEX. 


Wood, durability of, 55 
—— formation of, 76 
Woodruff, 514 

Woody layers, 53 
—— nodules, 116 
Woodsia, 639 
Wood-sorre: 
Woolly, 33 
Woorali poison, 538 
Wormskioldia, 498 
Wormseed, 52 
Wormwood, 521 
Wrightia, 537 
Wukkum-wood, 482 
Wych elm, 585 


464 


XANTHIC series of co- 
lours, 393 


Xanthophyll, 391, 392 
Xanthorrhoea, 615 
Xanthoxylacezx, 468 
Xerophilous plants, 663 
Xylopia, 430 
Xyridacez, 618 


Yam, 611 

Yew, 600 

—— age of, 361 

— embryo sac of, 292 
—— fruit of, 317 
Yucca, 615 


ZAIT, 533 
Zamia, 600 
Zamites, 747 
Zannichellia, 626 


THE END. 


Printed by R. & R. Crank, Edinburgh, 


Zanthoxylacez, 468 
Zanzibar copal, 482 
Zea, 630 
Zebra-plant, 607 
— wood, 476 
Zieria, 467 
Zingiber, 605 
Zingiberacez, 605 
— Region of, 683 
Zizania, 631, 634 
Zizyphus, 473 
Zones of wood, 53 
Zoophilous, 284 
Zoospores, 265 
Zostera, 626 
Zosterites, 753 
Zygophyllacee, 466 
Zygospore, 268 


BALFOUR’S BOTANICAL 
WORKS. 


In one vol., Third Edition, royal 8vo, pp. 1117, with 1800 
Illustrations, price 21s. 


CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. 


Being an Introduction to the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. 


By J. HUTTON BALFOUR, MD., E.RS.,, 


Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Edinburgh, Regius 
, Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, and Queen’s Botanist 
for Scotland. 


(May also be had in two Parts, price 21s.) 


“Tn Dr. Balfour’s ‘ Class-Book of Botany, the author seems to have 
exhausted every attainable source of information. Few, if any, works 
on this subject contain such a mass of carefully collected and condensed 
matter, and certainly none are more copiously or better illustrated.” — 
Hooker's Journal of Botany. 


“Professor Balfour's ‘ Class-Book of Botany’ is too well and favour- 
ably known to botanists, whether teachers or learners, to require any 
introduction to our readers, It is, as far as we know, the only work 
which a lecturer can take in his hand as a safe text-book for the whole 
of such a course as is required to prepare students for our University 
or medical examinations, Every branch of Botany, structural and 
morphological, physiological, systematic, geographical, and palzonto- 
logical, is treated in so exhaustive a manner as to leave little to be 
desired. 

“The work is one indispensable to the class-room, and should be in 
the hands of every teacher.”—Wature. | 

“One of the best books to place in the hands of a student,”— 
Annals of Nat. History. 

“One of the most complete and elegant class-books on Botany 
which has been published. It contains all that a student may require, 
both in description and illustration.”—Lancet, 


BALFOURS BOTANICAL WORKS. 


Uniform with “Class-Book of Botany,” 
In one Vol, illustrated with four Lithographic Plates 
and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. 


Price 7s. 6d. 


INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
PALZONTOLOGICAL BOTANY. 


“Professor Balfour has published, in the form of a separate work, 
and with additions, that portion of his Class-Book of Botany which 
contains an introduction to fossil botany. The importance of the study 
of fossils, particularly in their relations to time and space, is now 
universally admitted as being essential to a thorough study of all the 
natural sciences; and geologists, especially, admit that, but for 
paleontology, their science would not have made such progress as it 
has ; and such a book as this must be considered as a valuable aid to 
the study. It, of course, presupposes acquaintance with botany pure, 
or the botany of the present time, for only he who is intimate with 
existing flora and fauna has a right to decide in regard to fossils, and 
is therefore intended only for advanced students in botany. On a 
work of this kind we cannot give a detailed criticism. We may 
mention, however, that Professor Balfour takes Brogniart’s division of 
the fossil flora into three great epochs :—1. The reign of acrogens; 
2. The reign of gymnosperms; and 3. The reign of angiosperms. 
The first should be particularly interesting to Edinburgh students, 
embracing, as it does, the silurian, carboniferous, and permian epochs ; 
the vicinity of our city being particularly rich in carboniferous fossils, 
which, moreover, belonging chiefly to the fern class, have a special 
value from their retaining their forms better than cellular plants, and 
the cellular portions of vascular plants. The portions of the book 
which refer to coal will also be found interesting by a Iarger circle of 
students than that composed merely of paleontological and botanical 
students. The fact that Professor Balfour is the author of this book is 
a sufficient guarantee of the excellence of its method, the accuracy of 
its information, and the lucidity of its style ; and we have no doubt 
that it will serve the purpose for which its author designed it—namely, 
of encouraging students to take up and peruse with enthusiasm the 
subject of fossil botany. We may add that, in point of typography 
and wealth of illustrations, it is equal, if not superior, to any book of 
the kind we have seen,” Edinburgh Courant. 


BALFOURS BOTANICAL WORKS. 


“ Although the literature of Paleontological Botany is very extensive, 
it consists either of costly and voluminous works or papers scattered 
widely through the Transactions of various Societies, none of which are 
adapted to the use of those students who wish to extend their study of 
general botany to this interesting but less known branch of the subject. 
From every point of view the study of the fossil flora of the globe 
must be of great interest ; it widens the field of the modern botanist ; 
it is absolutely essential to the geologist ; and to the general student it 
gives much information regarding the former history of the globe and 
the nature of its products. Take, for instance, Coal, and we find in 
Professor Balfour’s manual the following interesting information :— 


“« The Carboniferous period is one of the most important as regards 
fossil plants. The vegetable forms are numerous, and have a great 
similarity throughout the whole system, whether exhibited in the Old or 
the New World. The important substance called coal owes its origin 
to the plants of this epoch. It has been subjected to great pressure and 
long-continued metamorphic action, and hence the appearance of the 
plants has been much altered, It is difficult to give a definition of coal. 
The varieties of it are numerous. There is a gradual transition from 
anthracite to household and parrot coal; and the limit between coal 
and what is called bituminous shale is by no means distinct. Coal 
may be said to be chemically-altered vegetable matter, interstratified 
with the rocks, and capable of being used as fuel. On examining this 
section of coal under the microscope, we can detect vegetable tissues, 
both of a cellular and vascular nature. In Wigan cannel coal, vegetable 
structure is seen through the whole mass. Such is likewise the case 
with other cannel, parrot, and gas coals. In common household coal, 
also, evident traces of organic tissue have been observed.’ 


“ Very much more equally important and clearly-expressed informa- 
tion is given upon this interesting subject, and the general style of 
Professor Balfour’s whole work, although upon a little known ‘and 
perhaps not popularly attractive subject, is such as will be sure to 
awaken an interest in the real student. It is profusely illustrated 
with most admirable woodcuts, and two plates from the pencil of 
‘Mr. William Carruthers add greatly to the value of the book.”— 
Scotsman. 


“We can give Dr Balfour’s book a cordial recommendation to 
geological students, as it contains very much valuable matter, presented 
in a succinct and tabulated form, and it will prove interesting to the 
general reader both from the felicitous manner in which so difficult a 
subject is treated, and from the numerous woodcuts and excellent 
lithographs with “which the work is embellished.” Chemist and 
Druggist. 

3K 


BALFOUR’S BOTANICAL WORKS. 


In fep. 8vo, cloth, illustrated with 427 Wood Engravings, 
Price 3s. 6d. 


ELEMENTS OF BOTANY 


FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 


“This new work by Professor Balfour is perfectly distinct in its 
scope and object from the well-known ‘ Manual, and other works of the 
same author. Its object is to provide a text-book for candidates for 
school examinations and non-gremial examinations by the universities, 
While, therefore, elementary, it is thoroughly scientific ; while popular 
in one sense, it is very far removed from the vagueness of so-called 
popular handbooks. In the first part the structure and functions of 
plants and their organs are examined, and illustrated by woodcuts. The 
second part consists of classification, and here the technical terms are 
carefully and simply explained as they occur. One of the most admir- 
able features of the work is, that here, after describing each order, one 
of the most common weeds belonging to it, accessible to every student, 
is taken, and carefully illustrated in detail, to explain the distinctive 
characters of its class. At the end of each division a series of questions 
are appended, most valuable to the teacher and school lecturer, and not 
less so to the private student, to enable him to test his acquisition of 
the subject, and to point out the most important facts, A very com- 
plete glossary of scientific terms is appended. 

“When we recall the dry and dictionary-like manuals to which we 
were forced to have recourse in our younger days, to learn the Linnean 
system—as inviting to a boy as so many pages of Johnson’s Dictionary 
—we can but envy our juvenile successors with Professor Balfour for 
their instructor and mentor.” —The Contemporary Review. 


“We have before us another of those admirable elementary text- 
books of natural science which our foremost professors do not now 
disdain to compile for the young. Written in an admirably clear and 
simple style, profusely illustrated by woodcuts on nearly every page, 
and containing fewer words of six and seven syllables ending in ous 
than any other book on Botany which we ever remember to have read, 
it is exactly suited for scholastic purposes as a first book of natural 
science. It will also be found invaluable by any person who wishes 
to acquire the leading principles of Botany with the least trouble and 
in the most interesting way.”—Examiner. 


Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., &c. 


I. 


In crown 8vo, cloth, Fourth Edition, Price 5s. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
By the late Sir J. F. HERSCHEL. 
“An admirable manual of the whole science.”—BRiIvTIsH 
QUARTERLY REVIEW. 


“The book is a most fascinating one.”—-EDUCATIONAL 
TIMES. 


“It is utterly impossible to give an account of the immense 
amount of information so admirably and lucidly compressed 
in the Volume before us.”—-LonDON REVIEW. 


By the Same, 


IL. 
In feap. 8vo, cloth, Price 3s. 6d. 


METEOROLOGY. 


“ Contains a brief but elaborate survey of the whole domain 
of Meteorological Science.”—-BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW. 


“« As Text-Books for College and School use, on the subjects 
of which they respectively treat, there is nothing in the whole 
range of our Educational literature which can at all be com- 
pared with them.”—EDUCATIONAL TIMES. 


EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. 


Owen’s Paleontology. 


In 8vo, Second Edition, with Index and Glossary, and Illus- 
trated with nearly Two Hundred Wood Engravings, price 
10s. 6d. 


PALEONTOLOGY; 


Or, A systematic Summary of Extincr ANIMALS and their 
Geological Relations. 


By RICHARD OWEN, F-RS., Superintendent of the Natural 
History Department in the British Museum. 


“No one with any pretensions to science should be with- 
out Owen’s Paleontology.”—Lancer. 


“The Prince of Paleeontologists has here presented us with 
a most comprehensive survey of the characters, succession, geo- 
logical position, and geographical distribution, of the various 
forms of life that have passed away.’—MeEpiIcaL TIMES AND 
GAZETTE. 


“The volume cannot fail to be acceptable, both to the 
paleontologist and to the general reader. The former will 
welcome it as quite the best and most reliable handbook of 
his science that has yet appeared, and the latter will find in 
it a concise but comprehensive summary of the results as yet 
attained in this most interesting branch of physical investiga- 
tion.” —LITERARY GAZETTE. 


EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. 


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