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THE GIFT OF
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Cornell University
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The original of tliis book is in
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 2631 83
HUGHES' PATENT REVERSING
BIOPICTOROSCOPE.
A revelation In Clne=
matographs.
Bar Piatoa
Plunger.
Film gently
Irawn down.
N ;strack,there-
>re films not
injured.
V perfect move-
ment.
"steady Sunk
Film Cage.
F_icker reduced
to a minimum.
The Film Cage or Trap has an entirely new
and novel arrangement.
Films registered in cage without moving either this or the lens. All accomplished
while film is running. This enables any number of pictures being centred accurately
and instantly in the cage and on the screen exactly in the same place ; also
REVERSES THE FILM,
producing great fun. Same film kept on screen as long as desirable.
ADJUSTABLE SPROCKET WHEEL,
A valuable addition to start registering Film in cage.
Coloured Scenic Effects.
"Tc?prSed"by-"' Mr. Hughes' FILM TINTER.
Beautiful Blending of Colours— a Secret Process Absolutely Transparent.
Flickering Reduced to a Minimum. ,
Sunk film (jage. Tilms last a lifetime. The value of these improvements cannot
be over-estimated by the cinematographist. Without exception this is the
Chief of Cinematographs.
Grandly Illustrated Cinematograph List. Price 6d. ; Postage 2d.
Illustrated Film List^ 7d. post free.
W. C. HUGHES, Specialist in Optical Projection
(Over 30 Years' Reputation),
Brewster House, 82, Mortimer Road, Kingsland, London, N.
HUbrniiiS' SiMPIiEX
CERTAIN ACTION PATENT
OXYGEN GENERATOR.
The defects hitherto found in many Oxygen Generators are now
remedied. No complicated parta.
Automatic release. Action positive.
Separate retorts done away with.
Filled in a few minutes, and, if re-
quired, a fresh generating retort can
be replaced while it is working.
Note. — The lamp is detachable from
the chain, an important feature of this
invention. Should the automatic chain
that carries the lamp by any means go
wrong (which is not at all likely), with
this arrangement the lamp can be
moved higher up the tube by hand,
where a fresh part can be exposed to
its heat, and so go on generating the gas. No failure Can arise.
Price Complete - £6.
FURTHER IMPROVEUEMTS. ACTION POSITIVE.
The only perfect Oxygen Gas Generator extant.
This used with one of Mr. Hughes' Safety Ether Saturators will, with
properly constructed jet, give a very powerful light under full pressure.
New Auto=Qenerator of Oxygen Qas, produced by
OXYLITH.
No Heating. Quick to Produce.
Very suitable for Tropical Climates.
This new model offers great advantage to
produce oxygen. Oxylith is made only in
France and cannot be substituted for any
other chemical. The manipulation is exactly
the same as in the Acetylene Generator.
By putting the Oxylith in contact with the
water the Oxygen is produced immediately.
The generator is constructed purposely on
cientific principles. The apparatus is rigid,
and maintains a cool temperature. The
pressure and the capacity are sufficient to
vork any limelight jet for at least 2 hours.
The apparatus is very simple to work, and
'ives perfect results. It is exceedingly
portable, and a useful appliance for working
vith an Ether Saturator, and a Chamber
let at full pressure, or ordinary house gas
with a Blow-through Safety Jet.
PRICE £4 10s.
W. C. HUGHES, Specialist in Optical Projection,
BBEWSTEB HOUSE, 82, MOETIMEK £OAD, EINGSLANS N.
OPTICAL LANTERNS & SLIDES.
MR. HUGHES, Specialist (establislied over 30 years), does
the largest business in above of any otlier firm in tiie
world. Being a legitimate manufacturer, he gives the
very best at the cheapest possible rate.
Note. — Nearly 4,000 Pamphengos Lanterns have been sold. 60,000
Slides and Effects Stocked.
Triples* Biunial Lanterns, and perfected Cinematographs
are a revelation in optical projection.
Pamphengos
Specially constructed Eussian iron lantern
body, elegant brass fronts sliding outforcbemi-
cal experiments, 4i in. best double condenser^,
bigb-class portrait combination front lens, 2| in.
diameter, crucial definition, rack and pinion,
double milled heads, stop and flasher, including
best Pamphengos Lamp, giving 12 ft. brilliant
pictures at 33 ft. from screen, 9 ft. at 24 ft. from
screen. Price, in case, £4 10^.
The £4 4s. PAMPHENGOS reduced to £3 5s.,
giving 12 ft. at 24 ft. from screen, 9 ft. at 18 ft.
Hundreds of Testimonials.
RIGHT
ilP-TO-DATE
EVERY
IMPROVE-
MENT.
r/f£ xflr BMumst large demonstration hall are worth visiting.
Grandly Illustrated Catalogue, 160 Original Engravings of Lanterns, Grand Effects,
&c., &c., 6cl. ; postage 3d. 60,000 Slide List, 6cl. ; postage 3d.
Grandly Illustrated Cinematograph Xi«£, 6d, ; postage 2d, Ditto
I Film Xist, 6id,
50 Beantifnlly Coloired laiteri Slides loaned for Ss. ; qnaitity cheaper.
W. C. HUGHES,
Brewster House, 82, MORTIMER
ROAD, KINOSLAND, LONDON, N.
(Specialist over 30 Years Established.)
HUGHES' SPECIAL BIDNIAL
With Solid Brass Telescope Draw
Tubes, and three sets of first-class Lenses,
double combinations for different distances
Price dS13 13Sm (net price). ,
This is the greatest
value ever ofFered.
Handsome polished Mahogany
body (lined with iron). 4in.
Condensers, elegant solid brass
fronts, registering screws, dia-
phragm shutter for rolling curtain
effect, Maiden dissolving tap,
and two blow-through safety jets.
£13 13s.
With 4iin. Condensers,
£14. 14s.
Triple Lanterns,
£20 10s. and £22 10s
Mahogany Brass-fronted Biunials, £7 10s. and £6 lOs.
(Cheapest and Best Extant.)
HUGHES' NEW CENTURY
MAGNUM MIXED GAS JET.
With Improved Light cut-off. Approximately 2,000 Candles.
On Double Plunger, no fear of gases popping. Incomparable.
After exhaustive ex-
periments the most re-
liable and perfect Jet
yet made.
NOTE.
Further improve-
ments on the Hem-
mings' safety principle.
Burns with great ease.
Powerful and brilliant
Light. Ihe Gases
cannot turn back,
having special safety
chambers, therefore less
liable to reflex action.
A pure white light suitable either for an Ether Saturator or gases under pressure.
A iVIAGNiFICENT JET. HIGHLY FINISHED.
Scientifically constructed, giving finest results. Price, including tray and sub-
stantial lime turner, £3 lOs. Price with ditto, without cut-off, £2 10s.
W. C. HUGHES, Specialist in Optical Projection,
BREWSTER HOUSE 82, MORTIMER ROAD, KINCSUND LONDON N.
Established over SO Years,
STREET CINEMATOGRAPHS,
OR OUTDOOR THEATRE.
A Palpable Hit!
Still a Great Success I !
Either Winter or Summer.
GEEATEST MONET TAKER OF
THE CENTUEY.
Takes Standard Sized Film.
HUGHES' New Patent
PHOTO-ROTOSCOPE.
Acetylene Street
Cinematograph.
Portable, Unique. Fourteen people can see at one time, £12 128.
HUGHES' STREET CINEMATOGRAPHS.
Twenty People can see at once. A tremendous success. Price £21 10s.
complete. DUPLEX ditto, for 40 people, £38 IDs.
HUGHES' LONG RANGE
LECTURER'S ELECTRIC LANTERN.
A Tery substantial
and superior Lantern
Large sized mahog-
any body lined with,
iron, extra solid brass
front, with il in.
Condensers, mount-
ed in brass screw
cells, large front
3 l-16th in. diameter
front Lenses which
can be either an Sin.
9in., lOin., 12in.,
Uin., orlSin. focus
lens, mounted in
brass tubes, sliding
into a substantial
rackwork mount,
with double pinions.
Complete with ''Ju-
bilee" Hand -Feed
Arc Lamp in case,
all best quality.
Price £18 10s.
This Lantern is all
that is desired for show-
ing slides in large hails
at long distances where
the electric cur-
rent is available.
No. 2 ditto, cheaper form, with Mahogany Body, Brass Front,
&c., complete with Arc Lamp, 2in. diameter Lenses and 4in.
double Condensers, £^ 9s.
W. C. HUGHES, Specialist in Optical Projection,
BREWSTER HOUSE, 82, MORTIMER ROAD, KINCSLAND LONDON N.
Established over 30 Yrars.
HUGHES' PATENT BIJOU
ENLARGING LANTERN.
D . ???:*^"jl"'i"" Condensers the si«e of Negative.
Portability, Perfection, and Rapidity. Splendid Results.
Superior Mar ginal Definition.
DOUBLE PLANO-CONVEX CONDENSERS.
*m. diameter ..SO 8 6 1 6iD. diameter . . £1 IS o
14in. „ 13 9 7in. „ • o 2 n
^in ..0 19 9 1 Sin. „ ;; 2 17 6
Bin. diameter ... £i lO
Pi ices of Hughes' Patent Kectangular Condensers,
8ix6i
6Jx4J
5 x4
4ix3J
6
£7 15
5 5
3 15
2 5
IMo Photographer Should be Without one.
Theonly Perfect
Enlarging
Lantern for
results. Fitted
with Hughes'
new pattern
Paraphengos
Lamp. Slide
Holderarranged
to suit parts of
the larger sized
Negatives. The
body and front
lens extend by
means of solid
brass tubes.
Instead of Circular Condensers, Rectangular or Square, reduces the Lant«rn
considerably, and gives finer definition than any other. Perfect combustion and
a pure white light. This instrument is scientifically constructed, and not the
common commercial article sold for cheapness.
Sixbi, £21; 6^x43, £14 11a.; 5x4, £8 15s.; 4^x3^, £7 15s.
HUGHES' MOTO BIJOU
LIVING PICTURE CAMERA
For Standard Sized Films.
The latest and most approved Camera for
amateur Photography. Can be used as a
Camera and as a Printing Machine.
SIMPLICITY,
THEREFORE
, PERFECTION.
The adjustable Shutter enables the opera-
tor to alter the slot from 3in. to >^in. opening
to suit subject. Most carefully and scientific-
ally constructed.
PRICE REDUCED TO £12 12. Lenses extra.
HUGHES' MOTO BIJOU MAGAZINE CAMERA, for taking 500 to 1000
lengths of Films. Price £35. A Magnificent Instrument, has taken the most
perfect Negatives.
HUGHES' COMPIETE DEVELOPING & FIXING APPARATUS FOR
FILMS. The most simple and effective. Price £6 10s.
GRAHOLY ILLUSTHATEO CATALOBUE of Biorascope, Photo Rotoscope, PoBpshow
Cameras, OevBloping Apparatus, ic.,Sc., post free, 6d., postage 2d.
Hughes' Instructive Essay on Cinematographs, M,
Brandly Illustrated Film List, Bid.
W. G. HUGHES,
Specialist, Brewster Honse,
M 82, Mortimer Bd., KINGSLANS, i-uiiuuii)
ESTABLISHED 30 YEARS. See preoeding^pages.
LONDON J.
NEW TEMPERANCE SLIDES.
Prepared in superior style by the United Kingddm Band of Hope Union.
Detailed JAst on Application.
LECTURE SETS AND STORIES.
THE FAMILY OF THE JACKS. 30 Slides. Beading, 9d.
A FAMOUS ORATOR: An Evening with J. B. GOUGH. 50 Slides. Reading,6d.
POPULAR PICTURES, CULLED FROM THE "BAND OF HOPE
REVIEW." 25 Slides. Beading, 6d.
GEMS FROM PICTURE LAND: PAGES FROM THE "BAND OF
HOPE REVIEW." 25 Slides. Beading, 6d.
A STORY OF FIFTY YEARS. 55 Slides. Beading, 6d.
A TEMPERANCE JOURNEY ROUND THE WORLD. 50 Slides.
Beading, 6d.
THE TEMPERANCE PICTURE GALLERY. 40 Slides. Beading, 6d.
THE TEMPERANCE SKETCH BOOK. 33 Slides. Beading, 6d.
A VISIT TO THE TEMPERANCE HOSPITAL. 21 Slides. Beading, 4d.
THE LITTLE CAPTAIN. 24 Slides. Beading, 6d.
HAVEN BAY. 34 Slides. Beading, 4d.
MOLLY AND MIKE, or PRAISE AFTER TEARS. 31 Slides. Beading, 4d.
LOTTIE LEE, or LITTLE MOTHER. 29 Slides. Beading, 3d.
PLUCKED FROM THE BURNING. 48 Slides. Beading, 4d.
DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS.
ABSTINENCE AND HARD WORK. 12 Slides. Beading, 6d.
ALCOHOL AND THE HUMAN BODY. 12 Slides. Beading, 2d.
THE W^ORSHIP OF BACCHUS, A GREAT DELUSION. 12 Slides.
Beading, 2d.
ANATOMICAL DIAGRAMS, showing effects of Alcohol on Stomach,
Liver, Kidneys, Heart, and Brain (coloured only). 6 Slides. Beading, Id.
POPULAR RECITATIONS.
TWO PICTURES OF SLAVERY. 5 Slides. Beading, id.
THE DEATH OF PRINCE WILLIAM. 6 Slides. Beading, Id.
THE DROVER'S STORY. 4 Slides, Beading, id.
SMOKING AND JOKING (humorous). 3 Slides. Beading, id.
JUDKIN'S FRIGHT (humorous). 4Slides. Reading, id.
1 ONLY take: A LITTLE WINE. 5 Slides. Beading, id.
DIP YOUR ROLL IN YOUR 0\VN POT. 6 Slides. Beading, id.
WHAT HAVE YOU DONE TO-DAY? 4 Slides. Beading, Jd.
BEWARE OF THE TRAP. 4 Slides. Beading, id.
JACK AND JILL. 2 Slides. Beading, id.
JUST A LITTLE DROP FOR JANIE. 6 Slides. Beading, id
"MOTHER, MUST I GO ? 6 Slides. Beading, id.
THE CAPTAIN'S WELL. 4 Slides. Beading, id.
WHAT THE TRAIN BROUGHT. 8 Slides. Beading, id.
THE PUBLICAN'S DREAM. 6 Slides. Beading, id.
THE WRECK OF THE SCHILLER. 6 Slides. Beading, id.
MOUNTAIN MARY. 6Slide». Rfeading, id.
THE INTERRUPTED WEDDING. 4 Slides. Beading, id.
ILLUSTRATED HYMNS.
A number of popular Temperance Bymns and Songs in very superior style. Each
tilide contains a portion of the Hymn, in large clear type, surrounded by an
attractive tablet design and suitable pictures. List on Application.
Prices : Plain, 12s. per doz. Well Coloured, 24s. Packing and Postage extra.
IiANTEBNS IN GREAT VARIETY, and all accessories at the most
moderate prices. Send for Catalogue.
SLIDES ON HIRE.— Well Coloured Slides, carefully arranged in Sets, suitable
for Complete Entertainments, with specially prepared Beadings and Attractive
Titles. Sets of 50 and upwards for 3s. ; 36 for 2s. 6d.
Special Terms to large Hirers. May be sent Cheaply and Safely by Post,
Lanterns and other Apparatus on Hire at the most Reasonable Prices.
Send for full Particulars to THE Thade Manager,
UNITED KINGDOM BAND OF HOPE UNION,
60, OLD BAILEY, LONDON, E.G.
MODERN MAGIC LANTERNS.
Dep6t for Hire and Sale of . .
LANTERNS & SLIDES.
The Oldest, Best, and Most Convenient
House to Hire from.
50 SLIDES LOANED FOR 3s.
Upwards of 120,000 Slides always in Stock.
Slides made from Prints, &c. ... Is. 6d. each, or 15s. per doz.
Slides made from Negatives ... 9d. each, or 8s. per doz.
EXPERT IN .
Animated Photographs -
AND
- - Lantern Exhibitions.
Finest Animated Photographs in the World.
1000 Up-to-date Films to Select from.
WRITE FOR SPECIAL CINEMATOGRAPH LIST, GRATIS.
DEPOT FOR OXYGEN (brin-s) AND
HYDROGEN GAS.
WRITE FOR LISTS, GRATIS.
1.— Lantern Slides and Apparatus List.
2. -Special Entertainment List.
3.— Cinematograph List.
From Telephone : 1728 Central.
H. LUSCOMBE TOMS,
52, Queen Victoria Street, LONDON, E.G.
(Established 1870.)
MODERN
MAGIC LANTERNS
A GUIDE TO
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE OPTICAL LANTERN.
FOR THE USE OF
ENTERTAINERS, LECTURERS, PHOTOGRAPHERS,
TEACHERS, AND OTHERS.
ILLUSTRATED.
SECOND EDITION.
REVISED THEOUGHOUT
By R. child BAYLEY, F.R.P.S.
(Editor of " Photography," &e.).
LONDON :
L. UPCOTT GILL, Bazaae Buildings, DEURT LANE, W.C.
(rOEMEELT OF 170, STEAND).
NEW TOEK :
CHAKLES SCEIBNER'S SONS, 153-157, FIFTH AVENUE.
A
Brier's Metallic Through
Bellows Passage
Regulator.
Gaugesi
4in., 37/6
2iin., 26/-
-6 5 \ -c -^f^l
Fine Adjustment Valves.
Tee
Connection.
Folding
Cylinder Stand.
Folding Lever Key
(Murray's Patent).
"B. P," Combination
Key.
Tor 4in. Cylinders, 4/-
„ 5iin. „ 5/- Blacked, 1/9 ; Plated, 2/- Blacked, 6/6 ; Plated, 7/6
THE SCOTCH & IRISH OXYGEN CO:, Ltd.
GliASOOlfir.
UseKil HdLndbooks.
SHADOW ENTERTAINMEIMTS.
And How to Work them : being Something about Shadows, and the way
to make them Profitable and Funny. By A. Patterson. Illustrated.
In paper, pHcel/-t by post 1/2.
AMATEUR ENTERTAINMENTS for Charitable and Other
Oblects :
How to Organise and Work them with Profit and Success. By Bobert
Gahthony. In paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2.
MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY FOR AMATEURS.
Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. By J. Eaton Feakn. In paper,
price 1/-, by post 1/2.
HOME PORTRAITURE.
For Amateur Photographers. Bein^ the result of many years' incessant
work in the production of Portraits "at home." By P. B. Salmon
(BiCHABD Penlake), Editor of The Photographic Aews. Fully Illustrated.
In cloth gilt, price 2/6, by post 2/9.
POPULAR PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING PROCESSES.
A Practical Guide to Printing with Gelatino-Chloride, Artigue, Platino-
type, Carbon, Bromide, CollodioChloride, Bichromated Gum.'and other
Sensitised Papers. By H. Maclean, F.E.P.S. Hlustrated. In cloth gitt,
price ZIb, by post 2/10.
London : L. UPCOTT GILL, Bazaar Buildings, Drury Lane, W.C.
Preface to the First Edition.
Some few months ago the writer was arrauging a limelighk
apparatus for advertising purposes, and was anxious to get a book
at a moderate price to place in the hands of the man, ignorant till
then of everything connected with the lantern, who was ta
work it. None of the existing books fulfilled his requirements,
being either too elaborate on the one hand, or on the other,
while suitable in most respects, limited to the goods of some one
firm of manufacturers. A similar want being felt again a few
weeks afterwards, this little book was put in hand, in the hopa
that it might be of use to others in a similar predicament.
It has been written on the assumption that the reader at the
outset knows nothing of the lantern or its technology ; terms that
he would not otherwise understand have therefore been explained t
and the illustrations have been selected to show the principlea
upon which the various pieces of apparatus work, rather than
the mere external appearance of any particular maker's product.
It should be hardly necessary to point out that it contains
nothing that is not to be moat probably found elsewhere, some-
where Or other, but care has been taken to point out those
cases where the author is unable to speak from his own
experience.
It only remains for him to express his thanks to those firms to.
whom he is indebted for the loan of cuts of special forms of
apparatus, and to Mr. R. R. Beard, who has been kind enough
to give him the aid of his great practical knowledge of the
limelight.
Another Edition having been called for, the opportunity
has been taken to bring the various Chapters once more right
up to date.
We may mention here that the credit of the experiments upon
steel cylinders, referred to on page 26, belongs to the Scotch and.
Irish Oxygen Co., of Glasgow.
R. 0. B.
411 you bave
to do
If you want to Buy, Sell, or Ex-
change ANY article of Private
Property quickly and to the best
advantage, is to send a short
notice of it to "The Bazaar,
Exchange and Mart," with
stamps or P.O. at Id, for 3 words.
You will get plenty of replies. If
you like you can have a private
number at the Office. For fur-
ther particulars get a copy of
the paper — of all Newsagents,
price 2d,
Offices:
BAZAAR BUILDINGS, DRURY LANE,
LONDON, W.C.
CONTENTS.
Chap.
I. Inteodttctoky
II. Oil Lamps
III. The Limelight
IV. Home-made Oxygen, Gas Holdees, &c.
Y. CoMPEEssED Gases
VI. Ethee, Incandescent Gas, Acetylene, &c
Vn. Jets
VIII. The Elbcteic Light
IX. The Lanteen Body
X. The Optical System
XI. The Sceeen and General Abeangembnts.
XII. The Manipulation op the Lanteen
XIII. Moving Slides and Effects
XIV. Lanteen Experiments
XV. The Lanteen-Spectroscope, -Polariscope,
AND -Microscope
XVI. Animated Lantern Pictuees
Page
1
5
11
18
25
35
40
46
53
62
69
75
80
85
93
102
THE ONLY HOUSE in LONDON for BIG BARGAINS
FILMS & CINEMATOGRAPHS,
BVBNTOQRAPHS, MATOQRAPHS, BIOSCOPES, &
ALL TYPBS OF ANIMATED PICTURE MACHINES.
WHICH ONE?
If you are going to buy a Cinematograph, you are thinking only —
WHICH ONE?
There is only ONE if you want the best : —
THE '^WALTURDAW ."
Just a Summary about the
" WAITURDAW " CINEMATOGRAPH.
" Best that Brains can devise.'' " Best that Sl(ill can construct."
■'Best that Money can buy." " All Parts Easily Accessible."
" Interchangeable Gate." " Automatic Shutter."
"Noiseless Action." " Easy Running."
' No Experts required to Operate." " Re-winds 2000 feet of Films."
" Moving Gate and Moving Light." " Solid Construction."
"Reproduces the Picture as it should be."
" You have it on approval."
^ REMEMBER OUR LENDING LIBRARY OF FILMS. ^^
The Largest in the XOortd, otJer 6000 Films.
Write for Catalogues and Lists to—
(UalKer, turner, Dawson ^ l)Owara,
3, DEAN ST., HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON, W.C.
Telegraphic Address: National Telephone:
Albertype, London. 4707 Holborn.
Modern Magic Lanterns.
CHAPTER I.
3ntrobuctor^.
The Optical or Magic Lantern, which has in the last
few years come so very largely into use, not only for the
purposes of education and amusement, but also for adver-
tising, for photographic enlarging, and has even been
Fig. 1. Magic Lantern and Screen.
pressed into the services of religion at more than one
London church, may be diagrammatically represented
by Fig. 1. This sketch represents the lantern reduced to
its simplest expression, and before proceeding to describe
in detail the many modifications of and additions to the
instrument which ingenuity during the past few years has
■ 2 MODEEN MAGIO LANTEENS.
effected, the names of the various parts and their functions
had best be pointed out.
In Fig. 1, A represents the lantern body, generally pro-
vided with a chimney, b. Inside this is placed a light, c,
in front of the Ught is a lens, known as a condenser, d, and
in front of the condenser again, and some little distance
from it, is another lens, called the objective, b. As close as
possible to the condenser and between it and the objective
is the slide, which is held between springs, in grooves, or in
some similar manner at p. The screen upon which the
pictures are thrown is shown at g. Here, then, are the
essentials of a magic lantern : —
A light.
A condenser, 1 These are sometimes spoken of as " the
An objective, J optical system " of a lantern.
A carrier or slide-holder.
A lantern body, which encloses the light, and which
retains the various other parts in their relative
positions.
The means of illumination is a point of primary import-
ance, and it is due to the rapid strides in this particular
which have been made during recent years especially, that
the lantern has increased so largely in popularity. The
various lights now in general use are oil lamps, the
limelight, and the electric light, the illuminating power
of which is in the same ratio as the above order, oil
(and incandescent electric lamps under some circumstances)
having the least, the electric arc lamp the most, and the
modifications of the limelight occupying an intermediate
place in this respect.
In buying a lantern the choice of the light is one of the
first considerations. If it is intended for use for photo-
graphic enlarging and for the exhibition of slides, etc., on
only a small scale, there are several forms of the oil lamp
burning petroleum which can be employed with advantage
in the direction of economy, both of trouble and money ;
especially if the user is Ukely to want the lantern where
house gas is not available and where there are difficulties in
the way of getting compressed gas. Where a considerable
size of picture is required, say anything over seven or eight
INTEODUOTOET. i
feet in diameter, a more powerful light than that given hy
a petroleum lamp becomes a necessity if a brilliant effect
is wanted, and one of the forms of the limelight must
be used, or the stiU more powerful arc lamp. What
form of hmelight, again, wiU depend to some extent
on the size of disc and illumination required. The "oxy- ,
calcium" light and the; "blow-through" or "safety" jet
can be used with success on discs up to twelve or fifteen I
feet in diameter, but for anything over this size what is
known as the mixed jet should be employed. But these
sizes are in aU cases the author's opinion only. Some
workers would be quite satisfied with less illumination than
that suggested above, and would consequently use a less
powerful light or a bigger disc ; others, on the other hand,
might wish for more illumination than he regards as
sufficient. In the last few years the use of acetylene gas
has come into prominence. For photographic enlarging,
and for general lantern work, where small discs only are
required, acetylene is very convenient. The colour of the
light is such that it has a powerful effect upon sensitive
papers, and the very small siiie of the flame renders the
optical system very efiicient. A small illuminant is im-
portant, as will be shown further on, and the compact flame
of acetylene renders it far more powerful in a lantern than, (
say, the comparatively large, yet equally bright, light of '
the Welsbach iacandescent gas. At the same time it is as
well to mention that acetylene is little or no use for larger
discs than about 8ft. It will be gathered from the fore-
going remarks that the brilliancy Of the picture depends
upon the size at which it is shown, and that, given the
same light in each case, the smaller the disc of light thrown
upon the screen the more brilliant it will be.
These two factors, the light and the size of the image,
are by no means, however, the only ones to be taken into
consideration. The function of the condenser is to divert
all the light that falls upon it, so that it passes through
the slide ; therefore, the more of the light that the con-
denser collects the more brilliant will be the image. The
objective is employed to bring the light proceeding through
the condenser and slide to a focus upon the screen, as wUl
a2
4 MODEEN MAGIC LANTEENS.
be explained hereafter ; and the brightness of the picture
depends also upon the proportion of the light passing
through the slide which the objective, or front lens as it is
often called, allows to pass. This will be best seen by-
reference to Fig. 2, which represents the optical system of a
lantern, and the course taken by the light in its passage to
the screen. The letters are the same as in Fig. 1, f being
the slide. Photographers will have no difficulty in under-
standing that if the lens, e, is one which would be described
as a " slow " one, it would not allow so great a proportion
of I the light to pass as a "faster" lens.
All these points have to be taken into consideration in
deciding what instrument to employ for any given work.
Fig. 2. The Optical System.
With good condenser and objective, probably the following
summary will be a sufficient guide : —
r For discs not exceeding eight feet in diameter, or for
' enlarging on bromide paper — a good petroleum lamp, an
■ acetylene burner, or an incandescent (Welsbach) gas light.
t*. For discs not exceeding twelve feet — an oxy-calcium or y
" blow-through" jet, which is besides preferable to the fore-
going for enlarging purposes, when circumstances permit.
For larger discs — the mixed jet or the electric arc light.
A lantern for all-round work, such as an amateur photo-
grapher would desire, is best fitted vrith a blow-through
jet, or, if this is impracticable, a three- or four-wick
petroleum lamp.
CHAPTER II.
Nearly all the old-fashioned lanterns in use before the
introduction of petroleum as an illuminant depended upon
sperm or colza burnt in an Argand lamp, the construction
of which can be gathered from Fig 3.
The wick in these lamps is cylin-
drical, with an air passage in the
centre as well as outside ; the tank
for the oil is seen at the back of the
figure, carrying in front of it the
silvered reflector.
The glass chimney for such lamps
should taper towards the top, and
the wick must be of loose cotton,
the compact wicks employed for petro-
leum being of no use whatever for
sperm or colza. Petroleum cannot
be employed in this form of lamp;
sperm is preferable to colza, and
much longer time must be given for
the wick to get saturated with oil
than in the case of petroleum. We
might add here, that it is not ad-
visable with any lamp to saturate
the wick before inserting it, as it is impossible to avoid
messing up the outside with oil by so doing, a thing
which should always be guarded against.
Fig. 3.
Old Type op Sperm
OR Colza Lamp.
6
MODERN MAGIC LANTEENS.
This type of lamp has long been obsolete in lanterns
intended for serious work, but possessing, as it does, many
disadvantages, it is nevertheless free from
some defects which are inherent in
modern forms. It needs a minimum of
If utj attention, is simple in constihiction, 'but
ft JT its illuminating power is of the very
E iTj] smallest kind ; still, as it is occasionally
fjBuijiijL met with, and as the
ff'^^^^^^V''f^%'^T^W^l^ precursor of modern
patterns, it is worthy of
mention.
The introduction of
petroleum, and the in-
vention of the Sciop-
ticon lantern by Mr.
Marcy,of Philadelphia,
improved these old-
fashioned illuminants
for the lantern dating
The Sciopiicon.
out of existence; modetn oil lamps
from what may be called the Sciopticon era.
The Sciopticon, Kg. 4, consisted of a reservoir for the oil,
out of the top of
which proceeded two
tubes, each carrying
a broad flat wick,
the edges of which
wicks werepresented
to the condenser ;
the tubes were in-
clined towards one
another at the top.
Surrounding the
wicks was a semi-
cylindrical metal
combustion or flame
chamber,terminating
in a chimney at the ^s- 5. theee-wick lamp.
top. One end of the combustion chamber was closed by a
metal lid carrying a small window for observing the flame ;
OIL LAMPS.
the other end, which went nest the condenser, was of glass.
The lamp and lantern were in this earliest form practically
one instrument, the combustion chamber acting as the
lantern body ; but the whole arrangement, although a very
great advance over anything that had gone before it,
possessed certain drawbacks, which have since been over-
come. One of these was the presence of a strip dovm the
middle of the disc which was not so brilliantly illuminated
as the rest, a de-
fect due to the use
of two wicks.
This and several
minor faults hav-
ing been removed,
we have the mo-
dern oil lantern
which is upon the
market in many
patterns, but all
of which bear un-
mistakable signs
of their parentage
by the Sciopticon,
although most of
them now have
three wicks, and
some four or even
five, and the lamp
generally is dis-
tinct from the lan-
tern body, which
was not the case vnth their predecessor. Fig. 5 repre-
sents the Optimus three-vdck lamp, introduced by Messrs.
Perken, Son, and Eayment. In this lamp four distinct
currents of air are made to impinge upon the flame,
the channels through which they pass being in a direct
line with the chimney ; the light given by this form is
very satisfactory.
Fig. 6 shows one of the very finest of the oil lamps con-
structed for lantern purposes, "The Pamphengos," by
Fig. 6. The Pamphengos.
8 MODBBN MAGIC LANTEBNS.
W, C. Hughes, of Kingsland. It is also based on the Seiop-
tioon, but embodies a number of improvements that place it in
the front rank as an illuminant when oil has to be employed.
The following directions for the use of oil lamps may be
taken, except where otherwise stated, as applying to all
patterns, and should receive careful attention if it is desired
to get the best result : —
The selection of the oil should not be left to mere chance,
nor half a pint of the cheapest "paraffin " got at the near-
est oilshop on the evening when it is required. Many of
the oils in the market, although perfectly safe in house-
hold lamps in which the reservoir is of porcelain or other
material which is a bad conductor of heat, are positively
dangerous in the optical lantern, where, from the very nature
of the instrument and the exigencies of construction, the
receptacle for the oil is bound to get, at any rate, warm.
The best crystal oil must be got from a reliable dealer. The
addition of a lump of camphor about the size of a wahiut to
each pint of oil has been recommended as making the light
whiter, but we have never been able to detect any improve-
ment in illumination by this means, over that got by the use of
the best " crystal " oil. The wicks should not be too long, and
of course not too short, a couple of inches longer than
necessary to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir is
ample ; before use they should be thoroughly dried. When
dry, the wicks, if new, must be trimmed with a pair of
scissors and replaced in the lantern, the reservoir filled
nearly full, whether the laUtern is wanted to burn for ten
minutes or two hours, and after the lapse of a minute or
two for the wicks to soak they should be lit and allowed to
burn for a quarter of an hour. A funnel should always be
used for filling, and the greatest care taken to avoid spilling
any of the oil about the lamp, as it is only by such precau-
tions that the unpleasant smell can be avoided. The
chimney is best kept off for the first minute, and put on
when the lamp is seen to be fairly alight.
When the new wicks have burnt for a short time, they
can be trimmed once more with a sharp pair of scissors, so
as to give a perfectly even flame ; this trimming can only be
roughly done before the edges have been charred by use.
OIL LAMPS. a
They should be trimmed each time before use, but only that
part which is quite burnt need be cut off.
"When the lamp is lit, it should be turned up fuUy at once,
and for the first few miautes must be watched, and turned
down a little as the lantern warms and the flame begins to
smoke, until it is seen to be burning regularly and steadily. To
avoid smell as much as possible, the lamp is never to be
allowed either to smoke or to bum below its maximum, the
greatest height of flame short of actual smoking being always
in use ; this will entail more or less constant attention,
but will obviate annoyance to the noses of the audience.
Another point which must be seen to, is that each of the
wicks is doing its fair share of the work. With two-wick
lamps this is the case when each is burning so high that
any increase in the height of the flame of either will cause a
smoke. With lamps possessing three or more wicks, the
inner wick or wicks should be in this condition ; the outer
ones are best a trifle lower.
When the chimney is adjustable in height, the lamp
should be removed from the lantern and the height of
chimney at which the light is at its best ascertained by ex-
periment ; when found, the point should be marked on the
chimney once for all. If, now, when uhe lamp is replaced in
the lantern, the height requires altering to get the best
result, it indicates that the air inlets are not sufficiently free.
This is not often the case ; in fact, as a general rule, the
inlets for the air receive more attention from the makers
than the outlet at the chimney, which is sometimes so con-
tracted as -to counteract the advantages gained by improved
inlets ; still, in good lamps, both matters are the subject of
careful study and experiment.
After a display, the lamp should be emptied of oil, the
wicks taken out, squeezed up in paper to free them from oil,
and put away until wanted again, and the metal parts of the
lamp washed with washing soda and warm water and dried.
If a little trouble in this way is taken with a petroleum
lamp, it can be used with almost an entire freedom from
smell, and the results will astonish those whose experience
of the oil lamp is gleaned from the greasy, messy abomina-
tions which, with a little inattention, they readily become.
10 MODEEN MAGIO LANTBRNS.
The best petroleum is cheap, and such lamps are the most
economical in use ; a three-wick lamp does not consume so
much oil as a four-wick for the same amount of light, but
the difference is immaterial.
It is almost unnecessary to add that the glass at one end
of the combustion chamber and the mirror at the other
must be kept clean and bright, or much light wiU be lost.
The mirror is sometimes hinged at the top ; it is also often
provided with a coloured glass window, but this, from its
small size, we have not found to be of much use.
The method of adjusting the position of the lamp in the
lantern is usually the same as that of the jet tray for lime-
light, and will be dealt with under that heading. In the
better form of lantern, the lamp slides ipto the body in
grooves, which will also carry a jet, if at any time it is
desired to substitute the limelight for the oil lamp.
Owing to the great heat which oil lamps emit, it is
necessary for the lantern body to be jacketted ; that is to
say, for the body to consist of two distinct shells, between
which is an air space. Even with this precaution the outer
casing, which is sometimes of wood, but more often of
Eussian iron, is almost sure to get very hot — far hotter, in
fact, than should be the case with the limelight or with an
arc lamp, but this is unavoidable.
CHAPTER III.
^be Ximeligbt.
The most popular of all lights for lantern purposes is one
or other form of what is known as the limelight. This
means of illumination was invented by Lieutenant Drummond
in 1826, and although it has been employed more or less
ever since, it has received its greatest impetus by the sale at
a moderate price of oxygen gas compressed into steel
cylinders, which are fairly portable.
The use of Limelight as an illuminant, as its name
implies, is based on the fact that, by directing a very
hot flame against a piece of Hme, the latter soon becomes
white hot, and emits a very brilliant light of great pene-
trative power. To achieve this, the flame must be of the
most intense character; ordinary house gas, spirit or
petroleum lamps are quite useless for heating the lime,
and recourse has to be had to flames in which oxygen gas
is employed, freed from the nitrogen, argon, or whatever
other diluent chemists may eventually decide to be present.
By the aid of this oxygen the combustion of most in-
flammable substances is rendered much more vigorous
and complete, and the heat emitted more concentrated and
Intense.
The instrument by which the flame is obtainbd and
directed against the Hme is known as a jet, and some idea
of its appearance may be gathered from Figs. 7, 8, and 9,
which represent the three types of jet in common use, the
oxy-calcium, the blow -through, and the mixed jets. Most
12
MODEEN MAGIC IiANTBKNS.
lanterns, whether provided with petroleum lamps or not,
have a couple of grooves running down their base inside,
about 4in. apart, in which slides the lamp when petroleum is
employed, or the tray when limelight is being used. This tray
Fig. 7. OXY-CALCHIM Jet.
Fig. 8. Blow-through Jet.
is shown in Pig. 8, in which a a are the edges which enter
the grooves ; b, a narrow, turned-up rim to stiffen the tray
and to retain any fragments of lime which may drop from
the jet ; and c, the pin which carries the jet itself. The tray
should slide easily in the grooves provided for it, but should
THE LIMELIGHT.
13
be incapable of being moved or "wobbled" from side to
side when in position, and the pin to carry the jet should be
rigid and smooth, that the jet may be easily adjusted on it.
Fig. 9. Mixed Jkt.
The jet shown in Fig. 10 is one devised by Mr. Gwyer,
and is one of the most powerful forms made. It is of the
mixed jet type, and can be used either with oxygen and
hydrogen, or with oxygen and an ether saturator, as
desired. It is claimed for this jet that the smallest
Fig. 10. OwTER's Mixed Jet.
■will yield 1500 candle power, and the largest 4000. Un-
fortunately, there is not at present any satisfactory manner
of measuring the candle power of lantern illuminants,
but its illuminating properties are enormous.
14 MODBBN MAQIO LANTEENS.
In the ordinary form of tray the jet is held by being slid
up or down on the pin of the tray and clamped by means of
the screw, s, Fig. 8. This arrangement, while it allows the
jet to be moved very readily and is simple and reliable, has
the disadvantages that the jet is supported by a point very
much behind its centre of gravity, the pin consequently
tending to lean forward, and that the operator who
manipulates the jet from behind has hold, as it were, of the
short end of a lever, the slightest movement of which dis-
places the front of the jet very considerably. The arrange-
ment also is very easily disturbed by an accidental touch
at the back of the jet ; but, in spite of these drawbacks, this
form of tray is most often met with, and if substantially
made and used with proper care will be found to answer
every purpose. , Mr. Andrew Pringle, a recognised authority
on lantern matters, uses in addition an arrangement of a
couple of jaws, which, when the jet has been adjusted in
position, grip it in front, and so help to keep it firm.
All jets are provided with a means of holding the lime for
the flame to play upon, and as the particular part of the
surface soon deteriorates and requires renewal, must have
also an arrangement for bringing a fresh portion of the lime
under the infliience of the flame. This in most cases is
effected as shown in Fig. 8, where a vertical spindle, d,
carries a little circular table, e, through the base of which
the spindle projects, the lime being generally a perforated
cylinder in shape, which is shpped over the pin or spindle
and rested on the table. This pin is sometimes made long
enough to carry two limes, one on the top of the other ; this
may be useful for long displays, but we ourselves cannot
recall a time when it would have been a convenience. The
lime pin is connected at its base by means of bevel wheels,
F F, with another spindle, which ends in a milled head, g,
near the taps at the back of the jet ; the pin, however,
while turning with the wheels, is free to move up or down ;
ajid is indeed compelled to do so when the wheels revolve,
on account of a spiral thread which is cut upon it,
which engages in pins attached to the bracket carrying
the spindle. By this simple contrivance, which is not easily
indicated in the diagram, but which can be comprehended
THE LIMELIGHT.
15
in a moment on looking at a jet, by turning the milled head
G, Fig. 8, the lime pin, and with it the lime, not only revolves,
but at the same time moves up or down, so that a pencil
held upon the side of the Hme would describe a spiral hne
around it. The handiest form of screw for doing this is one
which raises the hme at least a quarter of an inch for each
complete revolution. A defect some forms of jet possess is
to be found in the fact tha,t the screw is such a fine one that
when the hme has been turned completely round, the jet is
playing upon practically the same place on the hme as
that at which it started.
In some forms of jet, which now have almost gone out of
use, a flat disc of lime was employed instead of a cylinder,
as shown in Fig. 11. In this case the lime simply revolved
R
■CI
Fig. 11. Blow-through Jet with Lime Disc.
(I|^
upon a central axis, each portion of a revolution sufficing to
bring a fresh part of it before the flame.
The Umes for hmeUght should be turned true, not only as
regards their outer smrface, but the hole through the centre
should be central also, since if it is not, the distance between
the jet and the hme will vary as it is turned. As this
distance is an important factor in getting the most light
which a jet is capable of giving, it foUows that if one position
of such a hme is correct, on turning it, the distance is altered
and the light diminished. In this connection, we may observe
that what are known as " Excelsior " hmes are as a rule better
shaped than their rivals, the "Nottingham " hmes, although
for the mixed jet the latter are preferable when well formed.
Limes are often spoken of as ha^d or soft, and these two
16 MODEBN MAGIC LANTEENS.
kinds may be considered as most suitable for different forma
of jet. The soft limes mcandesce at a lower temperature, but
are not so lasting as the harder ones ; for this reason they
should be used for the oxy-alcohol and blow-through types
of jet; while the harder Umes, of which the Nottingham
is an example, are used to best advantage in the intense heat
of the mixed jet. The " Newtonian" limes, which are sup-
plied by Messrs. Newton and Co., of 3, Fleet Street, E.G.,
possesses certain advantages over the above-mentioned, in
that they are turned and bored with great accuracy, and are
far less affected by exposure to the air.
All hmes, except at the time of using, must be carefully
protected from moisture, and consequently from the
atmosphere. They are generally supphed, packed in pow-
dered lime, in hermetically sealed tins or bottles, and under
such conditions will keep for a considerable time. When
once the case has been opened, however, they begin to
deteriorate unless special care is taken to protect them. Mr.
Hepworth recommends that each lime should be dipped in
melted parafGin wax or beeswax, half-way, and then allowed
to cool. When the wax is firm, the Ume should be held by
the waxed portion, and its other half immersed ; and when
the waxen coating is solid, the Umes wrapped up separately
in paper and stored away until required. This is said to
protect them perfectly from the action of air, and
the coating is peeled off very readily when the lime
is wanted for use, provided that the wax in which they were
dipped was only just above its melting point and no hotter.
Most dealers in lantern requisites supply tubular cases of
brass with a screw lid, which are capable of holding six Umes,
one on the top of another, and these are handy for storing
purposes, the contents of a tin being transferred to them
as soon as it is first opened. The Newtonian Umes just
mentioned are sold separately, wrapped in thin paper, and
packed in a tin tube with sliding Ud : a means of storing
which is satisfactory with this partiotilar make of Ume,
but one which we should not recommend for others. It
must be remembered that Umes are really qmcklime, and
that with exposure to the air they slake — that is, they
absorb moisture, swell, and fall to pieces ; and that a lime
THE LIMELIGHT. 17
is not used to the best advantage after its surface has lost
its initial hardness.
If a Ume is taken from its case, put into the lantern, and
the jet turned full on it at once, the probabilities are
that it will crack and be rendered useless. This is only
what might be expected when it is borne ia mind how
unevenly it is heated, one side being exposed to one of the
fiercest flames known, the other to the cold air rushing to
supply that flame. For this reason Umes before use should
be heated by being put in an oven, on the hob, or exposed to
the coal gas or hydrogen flame in the lantern, and turned
round occasionally, for an hour or two before- they are
wanted.
When a Ume is required for use, the hole through it will
most likely be found to be fiUed with the powdered Ume in
which it was packed. This should be got out by tapping the
Ume gently on a hard surface, and no attempt must be made
to force it on the Ume pin while the hole is clogged up, as
by so doing the powder is only rammed more tightly together
and the Ume for the time being made useless.
Mr. B. G. Wood some years ago introduced what he called
a Ume shield — a little cylindrical piece of thin metal which
surrounded the Ume, with an opening where the jet was
directed against it ; this serves the useful purposes both of
protecting the Ume from draughts, keeping it warm, and of
protecting the condenser from an accidental reflection of
the flame upon it from a pitted or otherwise uneven Ume.
It can be seen in Fig. 7 surrounding the Ume and connected
with the fixed portion of the jet, the Ume being free to
revolve within it.
From time to time substitutes for Ume have been proposed,
but as none of them have ever come into anything like
general use — a fact accounted for by all of them possessing
one or more disadvantages rendering them inferior to lime
itself — anything more than an allusion to them is out of
place here.
CHAPTER IV.
1bome«»mabe ©yi^Qen, (Bae Ibol&ers, jBtc,
Before the introduction of compressed gases and the use
of steel cylinders had rendered the purchase and transmission
of forty feet of oxygen from London to John o' Groats as easy
and as cheap as the forwarding of, say, a churn of milk for
the same distance, lantemists were compelled to use either
the delicate, expensive, and rapidly-ruined gas bag, or the
anything but portable pneumatic gas holder. As both of
these forms are stiU in use to some extent, and as the
latter, at any rate for certain purposes, can stiU hold its own,
a word as to their use wiU not be out of place. At the same
time, we can appropriately bracket with these forms, of
apparatus the manufacture of oxygen at home.
Gas bags, which are generally wedge-shaped, are made, at
least the better qualities are, of a
stout fabric bag enclosed in anothex
of a close-textured twill, between
which is a third bag of thin sheet
india-rubber (Fig. 12). The outlet of
the bag, a brass stopcock, is fixed in
the middle of the edge formed by
theaouteangleof thebag. This stop-
cock, in the case of bags used to re-
tain oxygen made from potassium
chlorate, rapidly becomes corroded
by chlorine, which is generally present in small quantity in such
gas, unless care is taken to get rid of it (see page 23), which
Fig. 12. A Gas Bao.
HOME-MADE OXYGEN, GAS HOLDBES, ETC. 19
should always be done. The wedge-shaped bag, when being
filled, is allowed to lie freely on the table, but when the gas is
being used, is inserted between pressure boards (Fig. 13), the
upper one of which is weighted
to the requisite degree to expel
the gas. Weights are placed
at the extremity of the board,
against the shelf provided to
prevent them slipping down,
and may vary in amount from
a half - hundredweight to
three or even four times that
amount. For most purposes,
where a moderate size of disc
is required, which in these
Fig. 13. Double Pressure Boards days wiU probably be the
only case in which gas bags
are used at all, a single 56 lb. weight will be sufficient
to commence with on a fuU beig, being supplemented with
another when the bag is more than half empty. When
using oxygen from a bag with house gas there is very little
danger of the latter entering the oxygen bag and forming
with its contents an explosive mixture, since the pressure
in the gas mains is but slight. It must be borne in mind,
however, that if at any time the two gases were mixed in a
bag, the result would in all probability be an explosion
which might endanger Ufe and hmb. This is far more likely
to occur when a mixed jet is being worked with both gases
in bags (this form of jet cannot be used with house gas
taken direct from the mains to the lantern, on account of
insufficient pressure), and the pressure in the two bags is not
equal. To get over the difficulty of maintaining the pressure
in two sets of bags and boards equal, double pressure boards
were invented, in which the same weights are employed to
press down the two bags. When this form is used, the apex
of the boards at a. Fig. 13, which when the bags are full is
raised, must be lowered by folding in the strut b before the
top board has sunk so low as either to over turn the entire
frame or to cause the weights to slide off. By the use of pres-
sure boards longer than the bags this can also be prevented.
B 2
20
MODEEN MAGIC LANTEENS.
Gas bags are at tlie best evils, which in some oases perhaps
are still necessary ones. Where portability is not important
they yield the palm, or as much of it as is left them, to the
pneumatic gas holder, which may take the form either^of
Figs. 14 or 15. Fig. 14 represents a gas holder which^is
virtually a model of the huge miscalled "gasometers " which
are so striking a feature of the landscape in most towns.
The diagram suf&ciently indicates its construction : a is a
cylinder, the top of which
must be perfectly gas-tight,
and must carry the stopcock
B, which acts as the inlet and
outlet for the gas ; c is a
similar cylinder without a
stopcock, a little larger than
A, which carries two or
more uprights with pullies,
over which pass cords from
A to the counter weights d.
In holders of any size, the
space inside the smaller
cylinder is filled, to a large
extent, by an empty metal
drum, as shown in the
figure, to avoid the neces-
sity for so large a bulk of
water. To charge this gas
holder, o is filled to within
an inch or two of its top
with water, and a, with its
open end downwards, immersed until the stopcock, which
must be kept open while depressing a, is under water. Before
use it should be seen that the counterbalance weights, d, are
just sufScient to aUow a to move up or down with perfect
freedom while the stopcock b is open. As soon as a is com-
pletely immersed, the cock may be connected with the oxygen
apparatus from which the holder is to be filled. As the
oxygen enters it will gradually raise the upper cylinder ; the
supply must be turned off before the bottom edge of the
latter is within an inch or two of the surface of the water.
Fig. 14. Gas Holder
op THE "Gasometer" Type.
HOME-MADE OXYGEN, GAS HOLDEES, ETC.
21
To use the gas, the jet can be connected with b by india-
rubber pipe, or a second stopcock can be fitted to the upper
cylinder as the gas outlet. Weights must be placed on the
flat top of A until the desired
1^
Fig. 15. A Gas Holder.
pressure is obtained. Small
gas holders of this pattern are
easily constructed of galva-
nised iron and will last a life-
time. We have seen a very
efficient one made of two of
the large cylinders in which
paint is supplied. Another
form of gas holder is shown
at Kg. 15, in which a is the
inlet and outlet for the gas ;
B, a stopcock which is opened
during the filling of the holder
to allow the displaced water
to escape ; c, a pipe through
which water, under more or less pressure, is supplied to
drive out the gas when it is required for use.
One or other of these forms of gas holder are still largely
used where the limelight is constantly wanted in the same
place, as, for instance, in theatres, in photographic enlarging
establishments, etc.
Oxygen gas is generally prepared in small quantities by
heating together in an iron vessel a mixture of chlorate of
potassium and oxide of manganese. Both these compounds
should be fairly pure, it being particularly important that
the manganese oxide is not adulterated in any way; the
presence of, for example, carbon in any form in it being most
dangerous. The cheapest (and worst) form of generator
takes the form of a conical sheet-iron or copper vessel, which
is very difficult to properly clean, and is unprovided with
any safety-valve arrangement. Mr. Chadwick, to whom
lanternists are indebted for many ingenious and practical
improvements, has introduced two forms, either of which
are much more suitable. One of these is shown in Mg. 16.
In this, the handle at the top being pulled over, the bell-
shaped top, which, like the rest of the apparatus, is of cast
22
MODEEN MAGIC LANTEENS.
iron, rtjmoves. A prepared cake of manganese oxide
and potassium chlorate is introduced, the top [put on, the
handle replaced, and the gas lit at the Bunsen burner, which
is enclosed in the hollow part un-
derneath (only the stopcock is
visible in the figure) ; gas rapidly
comes off until, in a quarter of an
hour or less, the cake is exhausted,
and may be replaced by another.
In case of any excess of pressure
in the vessel, the springs at the
side allow the lid to rise and the
gas to escape. The cakes are
made by mixing four parts of
manganese oxide to one part of
the powdered chlorate, enough
water being added to just moisten
the mass, which is then filled into
a mould. The cakes are allowed
to dry, when the bottom of each
is coated with a thin paste of
manganese oxide and water
to prevent it sticking to the
retort. The use of the cakes entirely prevents the choking
up of the retort with the decomposed oxygen mixture, the
bye-product coming away in a mass just as the cake was
inserted. We recently saw one of these working in con-
junction with a large gas holder of the type shown in Fig. 14.
It had been in use for many years, making oxygen for
enlarging purposes, without the slightest hitch. Another
form designed by Mr. Chadwick has a weighted Ud at the
end, which acts when necessary as a dead-weight safety
valve.
For oxygen making, as we said before, the manganese
oxide should be got from a reliable source. The chlorate is
best bought ready powdered if to be made up into cakes as
above described ; if to be used loose, the crystals should be
employed (it is best not to attempt to powder it oneself), and
the manganese used should be the granulated form. Both
ingredients should be carefully picked over for scraps of
Fig. 16. Oxygen Eetout.
BOME-MADB OXYQEN, QAfi HOLDBBS, RTO.
23
cork, straw, etc. When the cakes are not employed, two
parts by weight of chlorate to one of manganese are those
we used in the days when oxygen was not so readily obtain-
able. Some workers, however, prefer three, or even four parts
of chlorate.
Whatever retort is used, a gas stove is the most con-
venient way of heating it ; the heat should be left on until
at least four cubic feet of oxygen have come off per pound of
chlorate. This is mentioned because the emission of gas is
often irregular, ceasing almost and then coming off with full
force again.
When the gas is to be received in a bag, it should be
washed by allowing it to bubble up, as shown in Fig. 17,
through a Woolff's bottle containing a fairly strong solution
of caustic soda, which will last for several operations, and
then through an empty flask to remove as much as possible
of the water. This washing is not necessary when a
pneumatic holder is to be employed. When no more gas is
coming off, the stopcock on the bag should be closed and the
tube immediately disconnected between the retort and the
first bottle ; if this is not done at once and before the retort
is allowed in any degree to cool, the liquid in the flask will
be sucked back and an explo-
sion of steam in the retort is
sure to ensue. There should
be no fear of this in any but
the most incompetent hands,
which latter had best leave
limelight alone altogether.
When a gas bag has got hard
through cold, it should be
warmed a little before filling
to soften it. If this is not done
the bag will rapidly perish.
In filling a bag with oxy-
gen the sequence of operations should be as follows : —
(1) Having connected the retort and flasks as shown,
and having the empty bag with its stopcock open and
tube ready to connect to the last flask, apply heat to
the retort until gas bubbles off freely.
Hg. w.
Apparatus for Makinq tint
Washing Oxygen.
24 MODEBM HAGIO LANTEKNS.
(2) When on applying a glowing match to the open end
of the tube it is relit, showing that the air has been
driven out of the apparatus by the oxygen, connect
the pipe from the bag with the flask.
(3) When gas has finally ceased to come off, close the
stopcock, disconnect the retort from the flask at once,
and then remove or extinguish the source of heat.
It is so unUkely that hydrogen gas will ever require to be
made, its place being supplied by alcohol or oxygen and
ether, that no apology is necessary for the omission here of
any details upon the subject.
CHAPTER V.
Compteeaeb (Baeee.
Most lanternists nowadays use the compressed oxygen,
and in some cases compressed coal gas also. The gas is
supplied in steel cylinders, such as shown in Fig. 18, into
which it is forced by powerful pumping machinery until it
reaches a pressure of 1,800 lb. per square inch, or 120
atmospheres. The extraordinary strength of these cylinders
can be best understood when it is pointed out that the
Fig. 18. Gas Cylinder.
weight of one to hold 10 cubic feet of gas is not more than
15 lb., and the outside dimensions for this capacity 4 inches
in diameter and 19 or 20 in length.
It might be supposed at first sight that such things must
be essentially of a dangerous nature, but when the large
number of cylinders in constant use all over the world is
taken into consideration, the almost entire immunity from
accident should beget confidence in reasonable minds.
Still, as there is the potentiality of a great deal of mischief
in a charged cylinder, they should not be treated with
unnecessary violence.
26 MODEBN MAQIO IiANTEBNS.
The ajnount of knocking about which a charged cylinder
can actually stand, if properly made and annealed, is sur-
prising. Mr. Murray, the engineer to the Brin Oxygen
Co., in his book on compressed gases, narrates how they
have for experimental purposes been dropped vertically from
a height of 35 feet two or three times in succession, crushed
with a 15-ton blow, and finally bent into a bow form;
on testing them after this treatment they were found to
contain the full quantity of gas. To secure the degree of
safety indicated by this, the cylinders must not only be well
made of suitable steel, but inasmuch as the physical struc-
ture of the steel becomes gradually altered, they must from
time to time be annealed, a process which restores them to
their original condition as far as strength is concerned. It
is therefore advisable, if buying a cylinder, or bottle as it is
sometimes called, to get a new one from a reliable maker,
and one which has been properly tested. The gas com-
pressing firms themselves let out cylinders on hire, which
can be relied upon, for those who do not wish to buy one
outright.
Inasmuch as the gas in these cylinders is at a very high
pressure, and the pressure required in the lantern is hardly
a hundredth part of this, means have to be taken to reduce
the pressure of the gas in its passage from the bottle to the
jet. The best method of doing this is by employing what
is known as a regulator, a little instrimient which wiU
deliver the gas imiformly at any pressure desired until the
cylinder is empty, although the pressure in the bottle is
constantly decreasing as the gas is consumed. There are
several forms of regulator on the market ; the first to be
introduced, and one which is stiU extremely popular, is that
known as Beard's, after its inventor. Brier's and Clark-
son's are also well-known patterns. Broadly speaking, the
principle upon which these regulators are made is the same,
and can be understood best on reference to the Kgs. 19
and 20, which illustrate the construction of the Beard
regulator. The cylinder has the regulator screwed into its
orifice, and the outlet f being closed, the gas is turned on
and passes into the bellows o, expanding them and tighten-
ing up the spring s. As the top, d, of the bellows rises
OOMPEESSED GASES.
27
with the pressure of the gas it gradually closes the valve i,
by mean of the system of levers seen at l, and so cuts off the
supply of gas. As the gas is used at the jet, the spring
forces D down again until the valve reopens and allows the
bellows once more to receive a supply from the cylinder, and
so on. The pressure at which the regulator delivers the
gas, as generally supplied, is about that of 12 inches of
water, but it can be varied by varying the strength of the
springs. Where both oxygen and hydrogen are used in
Fig. 19. Beard's Eegulatob,
Exterior,
Fig. 20.
Beard's Begulator,
Interior.
cylinders, separate regulators should be employed for each,
the hydrogen regulator never being attached to the oxygen-
bottle, and vice versa. When using the regulator, the gas
can be adjusted by the jet taps, and if required they can be
turned completely off, which, if no regulator were employed,
would result in bursting or blowing off the tube.
In addition to a regulator, those who use cylinders habit-
ually will find a pressure gauge very useful, as showing at
a glance the amount of gas the cylinder contains. The
28
MODEBN MAGIO IiANTEBKS.
pressure gauge is shown at Pig. 21. These gauges are
made upon the principle of the "Bourdon" steam gauge,
in which a tube closed at one end, and having a somewhat
flattened or elliptical cross section, and bent into an almost
circular form, is connected with the cylinder of gas. The
outer margin of the circle of the tube being of greater area
than the inner, a pressure from within tends to straighten
the tube, and the extent of this straightening is shown by
the index finger, which is connected with the free, that is
the closed end. There are other forms
of gauge in the market, but the
principle in them is the same as in the
' ' Bourdon. " When buying a pressure
gauge a thoroughly reliable one should
be bought or none at all. Messrs.
Schaeffer and Budenberg are perhaps
the best known and most reliable
makers of all forms of pressure
gauge, and one of their construction
may be relied upon to be both safe and
accurate. A dangerous form of
accident which has occurred more than
once is the bursting of an inferior
gauge, and the blowing out of its
face. Any danger from such a cause
is avoided by getting a first-class gauge
from a good maker, and by taiing
care when using it not to turn
Fig. 21. Pressure Gauge, the gas on suddenly or with a jerk,
so as to put the severe strain of a
pressure of perhaps many atmospheres upon the internal
mechanism all at once, but to open the valve very slowly
and cautiously, watching for the first indication of move-
ment on the index as a sign that the gas is passing into the
gauge.
Pressure gauges are usually
scales, one reading from to
and the other from to 10, the
corresponding with 10 of the other.
graduated with two
140, or thereabouts,
120 of the one scale
The smaller divisions
COMFBESSED GASES. 29
are atmospheres (an atmosphere is taken as a pressure
of 15 lb. to the square mch) and at a pressure of 120 atmos-
pheres a " 10-foot " bottle contains 10 feet of gas, whioh is
read off direct on the other scale. If the cylinder is a 20-
foot or 40-foot, the number of cubic feet indicated on the
gauge must be multipUed by 2 or 4 respectively ; if a
12-foot, by li, and so on, multiplying in each case by the
number of times 10 feet are contained in the nominal
capacity of the charged cylinder. In this way the contents
of the cylinder can be gauged. Those who do not care to
incur the expense of a gauge can ascertain roughly how
much gas the cylinder contains by weighing it. Liasmuch
as 12 cubic feet of oxygen gas weigh about a pound
avoirdupois, if the weight of the cylinder empty is known,
the difference in ounces between that weight and its weight
when it contains an unknown amount of oxygen must be
multiplied by 3 and divided by 4, the result being the
number of cubic feet of oxygen it contains.
For example : A cyUnder which when empty weighs
25 lb. 14 oz. is found to contain a certain amount of oxy-
gen making it weigh 27 lb. 8| oz. It is required to know
how much of the gas it contains. On subtracting 25 lb.
14 oz. from 271b. 8J ozs., we get 25| oz. Multiplying
25| by 3 and dividing by 4, the result is 19g — the number
of cubic feet of gas the cylinder contains. This may be
taken as a rough guide, but too much dependence should
not be placed on information got by means of an operation
where a very slight mistake may greatly mislead. In the
case of coal gas, no useful indication of the amount of the
contents of a cylinder can be got by weighing.
Gauges, like regulators, must not be used indiscrimi-
nately for oxygen and hydrogen, and on turning the gas
into them it must be done gently as already said, on no
account with anything like a jerk. With this end in view,
indeed, the general custom now is almost to close the
entrance to the gauge, only leaving the minutest hole
through which the gas can but gradually force its way, no
matter how suddenly it may have been turned on.
With a view to prevent the filling of a bottle which might
contain some hydrogen with oxygen, or vice versa, and the
30
MODEBN MAOIO IiANTBBNB.
interchange of fittings, the screw threads at the mouth of
the oxygen cylinders are of a different pitch to those for
hydrogen ; in consequence, fittings made for an oxygen
cylinder cannot be screwed into one made to contain hydro-
gen, nor is the reverse of this possible. To distinguish the
cylinders, those intended for the reception of oxygen are
usually painted black, those for hydrogen bright red, and
this nile should apply not only to the cylinders themselves,
but also to the painted portions of the gauges, regulators,
and jet taps. If, in addition to this, black rubber tubing is
used for oxygen and red for hydrogen, the connections
will become far clearer, and any alterations necessary in
them, however complicated the system, will be made with
little chance of mistake.
The gas com be used direct from the cylinders to the jet
without the intervention of any regulator, but this is not
advisable, and unless absolutely necessary should not be
attempted. If, however, circumstances necessitate such a
course, all regulation of the supply of gas must be done at
the valve of the cylinder itself,
the taps at the jets being
left full on ; on no account must
the jet tap be turned off.
If this were done the pressure
in the cylinder would rapidly
accumulate behind the jet, and
the tubes would be blown off,
or, if tied on, burst. Where
the regulation has to be
done at the cyUnder, a form of
screw-down valve in which
the adjustment can be regu-
lated to a nicety will be found
a convenience, one of these is
shown in Fig. 22. Biunial and
triple lanterns necessitate the
use of regulators on the cylinders.
Cylinder valves are worked by means of a key, which
is generally of the form used by piano tuners, Fig. 23, or of
a plain lever pattern. Fig 24. The lever key, while handy
Fig. 22. Fine Adjustment Valte.
COMPKESSED GASES.
31
for tttmmg on and adjusting the flow of the gas, possesses
the drawback that its powerful leverage in turning off the
gas may cause injury to the valve seating ; to obviate this
Fig. 23. Piano Kbt.
c
3»
Fig. 24. Levek Key.
COPYRIGHT
Fig. 26. BftlN's HlNQED Letek Ket.
Messrs. Brin have introduced a hinged lever key, Fig. 25,
which can be used as a lever key for opening the valve, but
which when applied to close the valve folds up into the
piano key form.
It should be hardly necessary to point out that cylinders
in use should be prevented from rolling about, they are
most convenient when held erect in a box with firm
footing, if simply leaned up against anything they should
be tied.
No oil or other lubricant should on any account be
allowed to come into contact with the cylinder valves or
fittings, and when cylinders are used in the vertical position
care must be taken to prevent grit or dirt of any kind falling
into the valve opening.
When a cylinder of gas is obtained, unless it is going
to be used at once, the valve should be tested for leakage
by plunging it under the surface of water, when, if there
is a leak, bubbles of gas wiU manifest themselves. An
efficient but not so cleanly method consists of moistening
the finger with saliva and making a slight film or babble
over the mouth of the valve. If there is a leakage the
bubble will be distended.
32
MODEEN MAGIC LANTEENS.
Pressure gauges and regulators are often screwed together
and used as one fitting, as shown in Fig. 26, a very convenient
Kg. 26. Combined Eegulator and Gauge.
method. If no regulator or other fitting is used on the
cylinder, a nipple will be required to which to attach the
tube (Fig. 27). Eubber tubes are
best simply slipped over the metal
tubes to connect them, and not tied
in any way, but to do this they
must be a good fit, that is, not too
loose. If tied, and from any cause
the pressure becomes excessive,
they will burst, whereas if only
slipped on they will simpLy be
blown off.
The rubber tubing should be
fairly stout, so as not to be likely
to form " kinks," and should not be of the cheapest quality.
A very good kind can be obtained at about sixpence per
4
Fig. 27. Nipple.
OOMFBESSED QASEB. 33
foot, red or black. Latterly a piping formed by convolu-
tions of a co:?rugated iron strip has been put upon the
market, which, where the gas has to be led any distance, is
excellent. It can be got in any length, with unions fitted
to its ends, at very Uttle if anything more than the cost
of good rubber tube, and if one or two of the audience
chance to stand on it, it does not collapse at once and put
the Ught out, as rubber would. The rubber tube formed on
an iron wire spiral is best avoided.
Coal gas if kept in a cylinder any length of time greatly
deteriorates, attacking the steel and forming with it a viscous
liquid known as iron carbonyl. The presence of this in the
gas is manifested by a rapid blackening or reddening of the
lime which lessens the illumination, and by a blocking up of
the nipple of the jet. The amount of iron taken by this means
from the substance of the bottle is not sufficient to materially
weaken it, but the compound is annoying in the way abote
indicated, and clogs up the cylinder valve.
The railway companies having thrown difficulties in the
way of the carriage of cyUnders of compressed gas, since one
or two recent accidents , the stipulations which the Midland
Company make for this service are given, as typical of the
nature of such regulations generally. The sender has to sign a
form stating that he certifies "that the consignment com-
plies with the conditions that the cyUnder or cylinders must
be of wrought iron, or of mild steel of the best quality, con-
taining not more than 0'25 per cent, of carbon, thoroughly
annealed after manufacture, of sufficient strength, and
efficiently tested." This should be stipulated when pur-
chasing the cyhnder, upon the seller of which should be
thrown the responsibility of supplying an article with suoh
a guarantee. The company also require that the cylinder
shall be securely protected by being —
(1) Encased in closely plaited hemp or coir ; or
(2) fixed in ordinary wooden box vrithout Ud, but with
rope handle ; m
(3) loose in ordinary wooden box, with lid secured by
strap ; or
(4) efficiently protected by closely- woven wickerwork, the
valve of the cylinder not to project beyond the wickerwork.
34 HODEBN UAQIO LANTEBNS.
The company also disclaim all responsibility, risk, liability,
and the duties of common carriers as far as this traffic is
concerned. Cylinders are carried both by passenger and
goods trains, but in both cases have to be paid for, as the
companies decline to recognise them as passengers' luggage.
The various forms of protection mentioned above can now
be procured from several of the firms supplying lantern
requisites.
CHAPTEE VI.
jetber, 3ncant)escent (5as, Hcet^lene, etc.
The oxy-calcium light is not sufficiently powerful for the
largest displays, and a substitute for coal gas enabling the
mixed jet, with its intense illuminating powers, to be used,
was sought for and to a great extent found in oxygen con-
taining as much as possible of ether vapour. If oxygen gas
is passed over a large surface of the volatile fluid, ether, it
picks up a quantity of that substance in the form of vapour,
and when saturated vyith it the two form an inflammable
but non-explosive gas, which can be burned in place of
hydrogen ; when the oxygen only contains a fraction of the
requisite amount of ether, it forms a powerful explosive
mixture.
The apparatus for saturating the gas with ether, or with
benzoline vapour, which has been used as a substitute, is
knovm as a saturator, a general idea of the arrangement for
the use of which can be gathered from Fig. 28, in which
the arrangement is shown very diagrammatically. The
actual designs differ from one another very considerably ;
but in principle they may be regarded as constructed on the
lines shown. Only one cylinder, b, and regulator, f, are
required in such a case, the oxygen on leaving it being
taken in two directions — in one case along the tube a to the
oxygen tap of the jet, in the other along b to the saturator
c, whence it emerges by d to the hydrogen tap. One of the
difficulties earlier inventors met with was due to the rapid
cooling of the ether by its evaporation, which, since the
o2
36 MODERN MAGIC LANTEENS.
lower the temperature the less volatile the fluid, soon led
to the oxygen passing over without picking up sufficient
vapour. The earlier patterns usually ignored this difficulty,
leaving the operator to warm the saturator with hot water,
a hot brick, or even a lamp, but later patterns utilise the
waste heat from the jet by enclosing the saturator with the
jet itself in the lantern. The introduction of one or two
forms of saturator which appear to stand the most irrational
treatment without exploding, and which possess other ad-
vantages, brought this type of apparatus into a considerable
Fig 28. Abhangement for Usino Ether Vapour.
degree of favour with skilled operators, in whose hands
they give excellent results.
The ether saturator is not, however, a form of illumi-
nation which any but skilled lanternists should attempt.
Quite apart from the safety or otherwise of the various
forms of saturator now readily obtainable, ether, an ex-
tremely volatile fluid, the vapour of which forms an
explosive mixture with air, in inexperienced hands may
be most dangerous, as has been shown at the terrible
accidents at the Paris Bazaar and elsewhere, due not to
the defects of the saturator, which worked well enough,
ETHEE, INCANDESCENT GAS, ACETYLENE, ETC. 37
but to ignorance on the part of the operator aa to the
dangers of ether, which is best left alone.
In the last few years the incandescent, or Welsbach,
light has come into prominence as an illuminant. The
nature of this light is too well known to need a descrip-
tion here, but it is as well to point out that it is by
no means so efficient as many people would think. The
large size of the luminous area causes a very great waste
of light, and it is often necessary to have the burner at
anything but the best distance from the condenser for
Fig. 28a. Acetylene Gas Generator for Lantern Worr.
illuminating purposes, in order to avoid the image of the
network of the mantle being seen upon the screen. A
simple form of lantern fitting for this light can be got Jor
a few shillings from any lantern dealer. The light answers
better for enlarging than for showing slides, for which
latter purpose only very small discs can be satisfactorily
lit by its means.
Acetylene is another new form of illuminant, also well
fitted for small discs and for enlarging. It possesses the
great convenience of being available without any other gas
supply, the lanternist making the gas as required. For
this purpose a piece of apparatus, shown in JPig. 28a, and
38 , MODERN MAGIC LANTBBNS.
known as a generator, is required. It is not very costly
the pattern shown, which will suffice with one charging
for about a couple of hours, being priced at 25s." There
are several forms of generator on the market, the Incanto,
made by Messrs. Thorn and Hoddle, of No. 1, Tothill
Street, Westminster, S.W., being one of the best. Calcium
carbide, a greyish substance, which must be kept per-
fectly dry until wanted, is the material from which the
gas is made, it being only necessary to wet the carbide
with water to cause it to give off gas. For this purpose
a charge of carbide is put in a receptacle in the top of the
generator provided for the purpose, and the lid securely
fastened. The water in the generator on reaching the
Fig. 28b. Burner for Acetyj.ene Gas.
carbide causes the acetylene to be liberated, and the gas
is stored up in the apparatus until required for use. As
the generator fills the carbide is lifted out of the water,
and the evolution of acetylene ceases ; as the gas is used
the carbide is automatically lowered and again wetted,
causing more gas to be given off.
The generator is connected in the usual way with the
burner, Fig. 28b. This has to be of a special type, but
is simple enough in construction, and cheap. The acety-
lene burns like ordinary gas, but with a very small
intensely white and hot flame. Care must be taken to
prevent the escape of acetylene into the room, as its smell
is very offensive, and it makes a powerful explosive with
air. The latter is not a very positive danger, as its smell
acts as a safeguard, giving an unmistakable warning of its
ETHEB, INOANDSSCEMT QAB, AOEXYLENE, ETC. 39
presence long before there is any chance of acetylene being
present in sufficient quantity to explode.
For those who only want a small display at home, or for
enlarging purposes, this new illuminant will be found in
every way admirable. It is of little use for discs over six
feet in diameter if brilliance is required, but below this it
forms a capital, safe, and convenient light, and should
prove very popular amongst amateurs.
CHAPTER Vn.
3ets.
Jets may be divided into three broad divisions, the oxy-
calcium, the blow-through, and the mixed, to v^hioh we have
already referred (pp. 12 and 13, Figs. 7, 8, and 9). The
various features which these jets possess in common have
been considered ; it only remains to discuss those points in
which the types diifer. The oxy-calcium, as being the
simplest and the one which yields the least amount of light,
will be first dealt with.
The oxy-caloium jet, as it is generally styled (Kg. 7),
should be called more properly the oxygen-alcohol jet, since
all limehght jets would reasonably come under the title oxy-
calcium, meaning one employing oxygen and lime. This form
of the limelight does not give anything like so much light as the
blow-through jet, or stiU more as the mixed jet, but is never-
theless a simple and convenient iUuminant, and one much
more brilliant than any oil lamp. It consists of a cylindrical
reservoir, from which a pipe leads to the front of the jet and
terminates in an upright tube containing a cotton wick.
Just behind this is the lime pin. The oxygen is supplied by
means of a tube which is fixed under the reservoir, and
which passes along close to the other tube and bends round
in front of it, terminating in a nozzle. The reservoir is filled
with methylated spirit, the wick-holder being filled with
straight lengths of the loose cotton wick supplied for the
purpose, which should not be packed too closely together, and
the ends of which should stand out about a quarter of an
JETS. 41
inch above the top of the wick holder. A soft lime having beer
put upon the pin and the lamp hghted, when it is seen that
the flame is burning properly, the oxygen can be turned slowly
on until the best light is produced. With this, as indeed with
all jets, it will be found that on turning on the oxygen there is
apoint beyond which the hght, instead of gettingmorebrilUant,
positively decreases with the increase of oxygen. This is due
to the rush of cold gas, more than is required for the purposes
of combustion, which cools the flame. When, therefore, a jet
is burning badly, it should be seen that it is not getting too
much oxygen, nor, for the matter of that, too little either.
The form of the oxy-alcohol light, shown in Fig. 7, was
designed by Mr. E. G. Wood, and is more elaborate than
many oxy-calcium jets, but the principle in all is the same.
In this case the lime is provided with a shield, which
protects it from the currents of cold air in the lantern, and
the wick chamber is annular or ring-shaped, the oxygen
passing up the centre and being blown into the middle of
the flame. This Hme shield can be apphed to any other
form of limelight, and its use is advocated by some, who
maintain that more light is obtained with than without it.
The blow-through jet is often spoken of as the " safety,"
and sometimes as the "separate," jet, because, as originally
designed (shown diagrammatically in Fig. 29), the two gases
being kept in separate tubes throughout and only mixed in
the flame itself, by no mischance could either tube contain
Fig. 29. Early Form Fig. 30.
OP Blow-through Jet. Blow-through Jet.
a mixture of the two gases. Blow-through jets at the
present time are usually constructed in the manner shown in
Fig. 30, where it will be seen that the jet of oxygen is blown
right into the middle of the coal-gas flame. Such a jet is as
little likely to allow of any mixture in it as Fig. 29, but when
42 MODERN MAGIO LANTERNS.
the oxygen nozzle is withdrawn further into the jet, or, what
comes to the same thing practically, when a nozzle is fitted
to the jet, as shown in Fig. 31, the mixture of the gases is
effected very much better, and the light emitted from the
lime is proportionately increased, but a danger,
or rather an inconvenience, is experienced. If
in such a jet as Kg. 31 the oxygen be turned
completely off, the coal gas will to a certain
extent make its way into the oxygen tube, and
when that gas is turned on again the mixture
in that tube wiU cause a slight explosion or
Fig. 31. " pop," putting out the light and startling the
Blow-through audience, although nothing more serious will
WITH Nozzle, result. Such an occurrence can be prevented
by turning the oxygen not quite but nearly off,
so that just a faint blue bead in the fiame indicates that it
is still passing.
In this form of jet the coal gas or hydrogen is always in
large excess of the oxygen, and the area of lime heated is
much larger than with the mixed jet. On the other hand, a
light powerful enough for everything but the largest displays
can be obtained with a blow-through jet, together with an
almost complete guarantee against mishap.
To use the blow-through jet, the lime should be adjusted
' about half an inch from the gas orifice, but not clamped
there, and the hydrogen lighted and turned full on. (We
might mention here that the hydrogen and oxygen pipes and
taps should be distinguished both by colour and by having
the words Oxygen and Htdeogen engraved on them, or,
better still, the handles of the taps should be different in
shape, telling the operator by the feel alone of which he has
hold.) The oxygen must now be slowly turned on until any
increase in its amount ceases to cause the light to increase.
When no more light can be obtained by adjustment either
of the hydrogen or oxygen, the Ume should be moved slightly
nearer to or further away from the jet until the position is
found where the light is most brilliant. When this is
ascertained, the holder should be clamped there once and
for all. To turn the jet out, the oxygen should first be
cut off, and then the hydrogen lowered.
JETS.
43
As the jet plays upon the lime it gradually " pits " it, and
the lime must from time to time be turned. Large wings of
burning hydrogen should not be allowed to play each side of
the lime, as such a course is wasteful, and they may be
directed against the condenser and damage it ; they also
help to heat the lantern unnecessarily.
The mixed jet, which yields the most intense light of any,
is shown in Fig. 9. As its name implies, the gases are
mixed before being burnt at the nipple, and to this end the
two tubes terminate in a chamber below the nipple itself.
The nature and form of this chamber have been the subject
of many and careful experiments by the Eev. Hardwich,
Mr. Lewis Wright, and others, and the outcome of their
work has resulted in the form shown in section in Fig. 32.
The chamber, which is here shown, is filled up with a series
of circular discs, each alternate disc having a central hole, and
the others a ring of smaller perforations, the discs being sepa-
rated by rings. These discs are shown by the side of the
chamber in the figure. Such a chamber ensures the gases
being most thoroughly mixed, and when burnt in this con-
dition the most intense heat and consequent light is produced.
As with the blow-
through jet, the hydro-
gen should first be
turned on and lit,
then the oxygen ad-
ded slowly until the
best light is obtained.
K the jet should roar,
the gas should be
regulated until it
ceases to do so ; with
some jets this cannot
be done. In this case
the roaring is a sign
that the gas passage
in the nipple is not perfectly smooth, and this is best
remedied by the maker. To extinguish the jet, the oxygen
is first turned off and then the coal gas, the tubes on
no account being detached until the light is out. Should
Tig. 32. Mixing Chamber.
44 MODEEN MAGIO LANTERNS.
anything go wrong, the oxygen should at once be turned off.
The roaring may also be caused by the lime being at an
unsuitable distance from the nozzle, or from it being pitted,
in which cases the remedies are obvious.
It will be found that with this form of jet the lime will
require turning nearly every minute ; with a blow-through
this is not so frequently necessary. The correct distance
between the Ume and the nozzle of a mixed jet is about one-
eighth of an inch. It is possible to use a mixed jet with the
coal gas supply drawn direct from the main, but it is not at
all advisable to attempt this, two cylinders should invariably
be used.
Mr. Pringle is the inventor of an attachment to the jet, in
which in addition to the usual two taps two more are fitted
in the middle of the gas tubei, actuated from the back of
the lantern by means of a rod and bevel wheels. These taps
being left open, and the jet adjusted in the usual manner, if
it is required to turn it out for a little while, it can be done
with the knob, which turns the oxygen completely off and
leaves a little coal gas passing to keep the jet alight. When
the light is wanted again the knob is turned back and the
jet is once more burning properly without having to be
readjusted, as would be the case had it been extinguished in
the usual way by means of the taps used for adjustment.
This "cut off," as it is called, is also handy for lowering
the light a little when necessary, since both gases are cut
off in proportion.
The form of mixing chamber shown in Fig. 32 does not
answer when an ether saturator is used in place of coal gas,
on account of the danger of a light passing back into the
saturator and causing an explosion. For this purpose, there-
fore, a jet is employed in which the mixing chamber is
packed with pumice or other material designed to act on the
same principle as the gauze in the miner's Davy lamp, and
to prevent any flame passing through it.
The mixed jet yields a much more concentrated spot of
light than the blow-through — an advantage optically. This is
due to the smallness of the flame, which cannot be increased
with advantage. A feature of all jets is that by increasing
the bore of the nipple the amount of light is not increased
JETS. 45
unless the pressure is greater also, and even then only
within certain limits, a point being soon reached beyond
which such increase becomes both wasteful and noisy.
It wiU be noticed that the jet plays upon the lime at an
angle, and the amount of this angle affects to a great extent
the amount of illumination. If the nozzle is at a very slight
angle to the hme, that is, if it is nearly vertical, much of its
heating power will be lost, if the angle is too great the
shadow of the nozzle will be thrown upon the condenser.
CHAPTER VIU.
Zlic jeiectric Xigbt
The electric light haa been applied to the lantern both in
the form of the incandescent and of the arc lamp. In the
former case, with a
view to keep down
the size of the light-
emitting surface, a
special type of in-
candescent lamp has
been invented and
supplied by the Edison
bwan C6., which is
shown in Fig. 33.
In this it will be seen
that the filament, as
the little carbon
thread which emits
the light is termed,
is in the form of a
closely coiled helix.
Such lamps are made
usually either of 50 or
100 candle-power, and
Fig. 33. Incandescent Lamp FOB THE Lantehn. t^^ Ught being very
concentrated, as much
can be got out of a 50 candle-power lamp of this kind
as out of a very much more powerful petroleum lamp.
THE ELEOTBIO LIGHT. 47
"Where a very intense light is desired, one of these lamps
can be " overrun," that is to say, can be put on a circuit of
greater pressure than that for which the lamp is intended.
The Ught emitted increases in a very rapid ratio, 'and soon
becomes as bright as any limelight jet, but the life of the
lamp is much shortened, a new one being required much
sooner than would otherwise be the case. This overrun-
ing is most conveniently done by the use of what is known
as a variable resistance, shown in Fig. 34. By moving the
handle A to the right, the coils are gradually taken out of the
Fig. 34. Diagram op the Conseciions fob
Incandescent Lamp and Variable Besistance,
circuit, and in consequence more current passes through
the lamp, with the result that the light emitted increases,
becoming at the same time much whiter in colour. Neither
this nor the arc light can be run except at a prohibitive cost
from batteries, but where the current is laid on they are
convenient.
A neat form of holder for these lamps is a plain socket
in which slides a brass tube attached to the stem of the
lamp, the lamp being held at any elevation, as shown in
48
MODEEN MAGIO LANTERNS.
Fig. 36. HOLDEK FOB
Incandescent Lamp.
Kg. 35, by the screw s. The holder shown in Fig. 35
Bhould be secured by screws to a board cut to slide in
the grooves in the lantern, so as to be readily centered. In
Fig. 84 (a diagram of the connections for the incandescent
lamp), the variable resistance, b, can
be dispensed with if the lamp is only
to be run at its normal brilhancy, in
favour of a fixed resistance, or if the
current is supplied at the pressure re-
quired by the lamp the resistance can
be done away with altogether. The
connections with the mains are shown
at c c.
y |TT| V The arc lamp is, however, the form
jl I of electric light which seems pecu-
~f/ liarly adapted for projection purposes,
' / since it fulfils two important conditions,
a most intense light vrith the smallest
possible area. The arc lamp is so
called because the light is caused by the
current passing across an air space or arc between two carbon
points, which are, by it, heated to a great brilhancy. The arc
has first to be "struck," that is, the carbons must touch each
other when the current is first switched on, and have then to
be separated to the required distance to form the arc. As
the light is emitted the carbons gradually burn away, the
positive at about twice the rate of the negative ; means
have, in consequence, to be provided to keep their ends, or
poles, at an uniform distance apart, so that the arc may be
maintained.
Arc lamps may be divided into two classes, according to the
way this uniform distance is maintained — automatic when
the current itself actuates or regulates the "feed " of the
carbons, and "hand fed" when this is done by the
operator. Both kinds are made in a convenient form for the
lantern, but as hand-fed lamps do not require much atten-
tion from the lanternist, who is, moreover, on the spot to
give them that little, and as they are much cheaper and less
Ukely to get out of order, they are to be preferred. Fig.
36 is a simple type of automatic lamp, the "Scissors," by
THE EIiEOTEIO LIGHT.
^9
Borland, of Leeda, it is also made for hand feed ; several
other patterns are on the market which space precludes us
from describiag. Of hand-fed lamps, that made by Messrs.
Eoss, Limited, of 111, New Bond Street, London, will be
Fig. 36. The " Scissors " Adiomatio Arc Lamp.
found most satisfactory. It has all the adjustments neces-
sary, and is shown in Fig. 37. The upper is the positive
carbon, which is ^gradually fed down by the large milled
nut seen at the back of the lamp, the lower carbon at the
same time being brought up to meet it.
To get the best light the end of the negative carbon should
be a little nearer the condenser than the other, and the
arc should not be too long. If too long, a flame will be
seen to play round it; if too short, it will probably "sing."
"When the carbons have burned for a little time it will be
seen that while the negative has come to a rounded point
in shape, the positive has a little bowl or crater at its end,
and it is from the inside of this crater that the most intense
light is emitted. It is for this reason that the arc lamp for
50
MOSEBN MAOIO IiANTEBMS.
lantern Iphirposes fgenerally ■ hadfi itd Carbons out'of thq
vertical 'and the negative carbon slightly in front of the,
other, since by such an ar-
rangementfthe crater becomes,
as it were, tipped on one side,
so as to present its interior
towards the condenser. This
will be best seen from Fig.
38, in which a is the posi-
tive, B the negative carbon,
o the crater, and d the
condenser. When the cur-
rent supplied is not con-
tinuous, but alternating, it
Fig. 37. BOSS Electric Arc Lamp, will not be found SO con-
venient for lantern purp9ses
— the lamp will sing, and no crater will be. formed;
it is not, therefore, in such a case necessary to distinguish
■/j'l7:
Fig. 33. The Electric Arc.
between positive and negative carbons, the current rapidly
alterna/ting from positive to negative and back again.
Carbons are sold in various ^izes, known by their diameter
in millimetres, and are either solid or 'cored, the latter con-
taining a core or pith, as it were, of a carbon softer than the
outside. The positive carbon should be cored, the negative
THE ELBOTEIO LIGHT. 61
solid. In getting carbons- for lantern purposes, the best
quality, not necessarily the highest priced, •' shbuld h6
obtained, since they are not an expensive item, laiid- the
regular and quiet burning of the lamp and absenciB
of sputtering depend upon their t[uality. Exceiitrically
cored carbons have been lately introduced for v?ofk on
alternating current circuits. - ■
With arc lamps, what is called a resistance has', to '''be
employed. This is generally a series of coils of pMtiiidid
Fig. 39. Diagram of the Connections for an Arc Lamp.
or manganin wire, through which, as well as through the
lamp, the current passes. The size of the resistance must
depend on the pressure of the current supplied, and for
this purpose an electrician should be consulted. Fig. 39
shows the way the switch and resistance should be con-
nected up ; it is immaterial whether the resistance is inter-
posed between the negative or the positive terminal and the
lamp. In the figure, the positive and negative terminals
of the lamp are marked + a and — a respectively, the
current is taken from the two terminals + b and — b ; o is
the switch, d the resistance, and b the arc. A variable
resistance is shown in the figure, but if a suitable amount of
d2
52 MODEEN MAGIC LANTERNS.
resistance is introduced, the power of varying it is not
required, at any rate, under ordinary circumstances.
The most suitable wires for use with the lantern are
what are known as twin silk-covered flexible, in which the
two are insulated with rubber and silk, and twisted to-
gether. Each main wire or lead is made up of a bundle
of fine wires to give the whole flexibility ; for the lamps
usually employed in the lantern, each lead should have a
carrying capacity equal to a solid wire of 4: b.w.G.
CHAPTER IX.
^be Xantern Bo^i^.
The various illuminants for use in the lantern having
been considered, tlie body of the lantern, vfhich is required
to out off all stray light which would otherwise reach the
screen or the eyes of the audience, and which serves to hold
the various parts in their relative positions, next demands
attention.
In the case of oil lamps, the body is sometimes a part
and parcel of the lamp itself, but more often is a metal
case in which the lamp slides. The best material for the
purpose is Eussian iron for the box portion, a b. Fig. 1,
and brass for the tubes h h, which carry the lens. In
many of the more modern forms of lamp the lamp itself
carries its chimney, which emerges through a hole in the
top of the lantern, and the body of the lantern is brought
down nearer to the lamp and so made more compact.
For dissolving views with petroleum lamps, the two lanterns
are placed side by side. The better class of instruments in
which oil lamps are used, have bodies made of mahogany
with brass fronts, and are fitted so that the lamp can be
drawn out, and the usual tray and jet substituted when lime-
light is required. In such a case the lantern should have
an inner lining of iron separated from the woodwork by an
air space, to prevent the wood from getting hot.
Lanterns for limelight and for the electric arc should
always be made in this way. They should be provided
with a door on both sides as well as an opening at the
54 > MODERN MAGIC LANTEENS.
back by which to introduce the illuminant, and a curtain
should hang loosely round the back of the lantern, and
cut off the stray light which would otherwise escape
thence into the room. The doors are usually provided
with a little window glazed with red or blue glass, so
that the working of the lamp can be observed. These
windows are not of much use, most operators preferring
to look at the naked light itself, but they might be made
more suitable by being both larger and glazed with, say, a
deep red and blue, or a very dark neutral-tinted glass. This
becomes a necessity with the arc Urip, which cannot be
watched through the usual windows at all. With the arc
lamp care must be used that at no time either carbon
holder or other part conveying current is brought into
contact with the metal lining of the lantern body.
The base of the lantern is best a perfectly flat board, with
an arrangement such as that shown in Fig 40, by which
the entire apparatus can be tilted up or down. The base
should be stood for
use upon an equally
flat surface, bearing
in mind that the
slightest motion of
the lantern will be
Fig. 40. Tilting Stand fob the Lantern. enormously magni-
fied upon the screen.
The holes by which air is admitted to the lantern are best
placed at the bottom of each side, and with oil lamps
especially should be of ample size, and must be seen to be
perfectly free. Nothing helps so much to keep a lantern
cool and in the best working order as a regular and ample
current of air passing right up through it, but not a draught
or irregular one which may endanger the condenser.
For all ordinary purposes a single lantern is sufBcient.
It is much the easiest to work, has less to get out of order,
and is less expensive both in prime cost and in working.
For photographic slides, for enlarging, and for scientific
demonstrations it is all that is required. When, however, that
gradual melting of one picture into another known as
dissolving is desired, two lanterns, which when placed one
THE LANTBEN BODY. ,55
above the other are known as a bmnial (Fig 41), are necessary.
The dissolving is effected with hmelight by turning one
jet down and the other up, with lamps, by moving a notched
screen befor? one of the lanterns and simultaneously remov-
Fig. 41. A BiUNlAi. Lantern.
ing a similar screen from the other ; as shown in Fig. 42, a a
being the objectives of the two lanterns. For what are
called effects, in which sunhght fades into moonlight, build-
ings are illuminated, curtains roll up or down to display or
cover up the picture, and similar things, two, and often three
lanterns are employed, the latter being knowi;i. as a triunial.
Much work is often lavished on these stmctures, in the
shape of bright brass rods and fittings, rendering them mopt
costly luxuries ; but essentially they should consist of three
lanterns, each possessing in itself the most desirable features
of an efficient single lantern, the only really necessary extra
56
MODEBK MAGIO LANTEBNS.
Fig. 42. DlSSOLYER FOR OIL LAMPS.
being in the case of the limelight, which is invariably
employed with them, a dissolver or tap for simultaneously
lowering one light and raising the other. They should be
so built that one lantern
can be separated from
the rest and used by it- ,
self when necessary. The
fronts of these must,
moreover, be fitted in such
a manner that they can be
inclined one to the other,
and so adjusted that the
picture shown by each
lantern falls in exactly
the same place upon the
screen.
The lantern front should
consist of a stout brass
plate securely clamped to the woodwork by its four corners,
carrying on one side of itself the condenser and on the other
the receptacle for the slides or for the slide-carrier, and a
telescopic tube which bears at its end the objective.
Immediately in front of the con-
denser is a gap, open at both sides
and sometimes at the top, in
which the slide to be shown is
inserted. Slides are used in two
forms, the slide pure and simple,
Kg. 43, composed of two glasses,
each 3^ inch by 85 inch, bound to-
gether by their edges, or this slide
is mounted in a wooden frame.
Kg. 44. In the latter case it is
held in the lantern by two springs,
one of which is shown in Kg. 1,
which press it up against the
lantern front. To show dissolving views and effect slides
properly, they should always be mounted, and a brass
runner with a stop inserted in the gap of the lantern. The
mount must then be carefully adjusted, so that when the
Fig. 43.
An Unframed Slide,
Sfohed.
Aj
THE LANTEEN BODY.
57
mounted slide is inserted and pushed right up to the stop,
the picture is exactly in the required position on the screen.
The unmounted slides are held in what is called a
carrier, of which there are many patterns. The simplest
Hg. 44. A Framed Slide.
form of carrier is shown in Fig. 45. This consists of
two horizontal strips of wood held apart by two vertical
pieces; on the inner sides of the longer pieces are
I^g. 46. Simple Form of Carkieb.
grooves along which a slide 3i x 3i will slip. This form
has been improved by making the length of it such that on
pushing a second slide in until the finger is stopped by the
58
MODERN MAQIO LANTEENS.
wood of thfe carrier, the first slide is in the 'oentre of the
opening. In some forms the grooves are bigger, and a frame
holding two slides can be pushed backwards and forwards
as shown in Fig. 46. This has the drawback that the slides
are inserted and taken out from alternate sides of the lan-
tern. In the simpler pattern the slides are put in at one
side and taken out
at the other, a more
convenient method,
but still not so good
as one by which they
are manipulated en-
tirely from one side.
This is the case
with the Eclipse
carrier, one of the most ingenious devices of the many which
lanternists owe to Mr. E. E. Beard. The Eclipse carrier, which
is shown in Eig. 47, consists of a frame with a brass runner
carrying the slide. The runner being pulled out, the slide
is put on'it and pushed into the lantern, after which the runner
Fig. 46. A Slide Carriek.
Fig. 47. The Eclipse Carrier.
is again withdrawn and a second slide inserted. On pushing
this into position, it is superimposed lon the first, so that the
two pictures are seen mixed up on the screen, the first being
withdrawn onpirlling the runner out once more' io put' the;
next slidfe in, ,when the' second ' springs up into' the exact
position OGCTjpied; by the, first,.with a little click. 'The means
THE LANTEEN BODY. 59
by which' this is effected is extremely simple, and the only
drawback the carrier possesses is one in common more or
less with all others — that it does not deal weU with slides
which vary much in thickness. This difficulty has been sur-
mounted in one form of the carrier shown in Fig. 45, by the
introduction of two springs which keep the' slides pressed up
against one side of the groove, and so prevent one slide over-
lapping the other when pushed through,, the- grooves being
made sufficiently wide to accommodate the thickest glass
likely to be met with ; this is due to Mr. Chadwick.
Other forms of carrier are those in which the slides are
actuated by a tape travelling over pulleys ; those , having a
shutter which cuts off. all light while changing a slide ; a
third variety made by Messrs. Archer, of Liverpool, has a
screen of matt Celluloid by which the picture is partially
obscured during changing, which is done by one movement
of a lever.
A carrier, although apparently a simple and unimportant
part of the lantern outfit, .is, as regards, the smoothness. and
success of an exhibition* one of the most vital spots. A case
occurs to us where the regularity of a display was ruined
while the operator was engaged in extracting a slide stuck
in the carrier in consequence of a piece of its binding having
become loosened. In the presence of an audience such
a mishap should be impossible, the slides should pass
through in an even and unbroken succession. To secure
this, nothing is so effectual as the simple push-through
carrier, shown in Fig. 45, provided it has springs as men-
tioned, and provided that the groove at the bottom is just
so deep that the centre of a 3| x 3^ slide comes in the centre
of the opening, the top groove being fully one-eighth deeper
than this. "When this is the case, slides of varying thick-
ness and height can be passed through without any over-
lapping, and without the, smadler --islidfis. faUipg backward or
forward or the bigger ones jamming.
A point generally neglected, bht in the case of a public
display a great safeguardia'gaiinst accident, is' the provision of
some arrangement ' by whioh'the slide in the carrier, just
before it is passed) into the lantern, can be seen, :sb that the
eperator may be able tq tell by a glance whether i<t is in the
60
MODERN MAGIC LANTEENS.
proper position. Slides, for a reason to be given hereafter,
have to be inserted upside down, and as the most careful
lanternists are but mortal, a time is sure to come when a
slide gets in the right way up, and the picture on the
screen is upside down, a fact which is first conveyed to the
attention of the lanternist by the sight of the screen. This
could very well be guarded against by some arrangement by
which the slide can be seen in position, but before it enters
the lantern.
The tube which carries the objective should be provided
with at least one telescope joint, so that lenses of different
focus can be used. As a rule the tubes are made to suit
lenses of about 6-in. focus, but should certainly be able to
carry a 9- or even a 12-in. lens. The draw motion should be
smooth, but not too easy, the lens being held with sufficient
firmness to admit of final focussing with the rack and
pinion with which it is provided, without the slightest
motion of one tube in the other.
On the design of the lantern body depends to a great
extent its portability. The usual form is not a particularly
Fig. 48. The Boss Limelight Lantern.
portable one, but with a little modification this desirable
feature can be largely introduced ; the popularity and con-
venience of the limelight having led to a very great
decrease in the size and cumbersomeness of lanterns. This
is seen to its greatest extent in Pig. 48, which represents
THE IiANTEEN BODT. 61
Eoss' new Limelight Lantern, in which a number of novel
features of considerable ingenuity are introduced. The
lantern body in this pattern is reduced to the very smallest
compass, and the whole apparatus is very rigid. It has
the advantage, too, that a biunial can easily be constructed
by the very simple plan of putting one lantern on the top
of another, nothing further being required beyond a few
simple fittings to connect them and the dissolving taps.
There are other patterns obtainable also, in which compact-
ness has been carried almost, if not quite, as far as in this,
and with no loss of efficiency.
CHAPTER X.
^be ©ptical Si^stem.
We have considered the light and the mechanical portions
of a lantern, and have intentionally reserved the most
important part of all — i.e., the lenses by which the image of
the slide is thrown upon the screen, until last. The optical
system consists of the condenser, the function of which is
not to condense the light upon the slide, but to divert the rays
from the lamp so that the margins of the slide as well as
the centre shall be illuminated by rays which can reach
the objective, and the latter itself which is used to secure a
sharp and brilliant picture.
That the purpose of the condenser is really what we
have said can be seen on reference to Fig. 49, in which are
Fig. 49. Diagram showing the Lantern, but without Condensers.
sketched the arrangements of a lantern and screen minus
the condenser. It is evident, since light under ordinary
conditions travels in straight lines, that the only direct hght
which can fall on the screen d from the light a, will be that
THE OPTIOAIi SYSTEM.
63
enclosed by the lines ee and pp passing through the centre
of the slide b. The rays q g h h which reach the edge of
the slide would, if allowed by the tube of the lens, travel as
indicated by the dotted lines. In Fig. 50 we have the same
Fig. BO. Diagram showino the Function Op the Condenseii.
arrangement again, but in this case the condenser, j, has been
introduced. The effect is not to condense any greater
amount of light upon the centre of the slide, but to bend
down, as it were, the rays a g h h, so that they not only pass
through the slide but reach the objective. It will also be
obvious from this that it is important that the focus of the
Fig. 6L Condensers.
condenser for the , rays from the light shall be somewhere
about the position of the objective.
Condensers in the simplest form are merely double convex
lenses, as shovni in a (Kg. 51.) These are never to be
met with now except in toy lanterns, and have been sup-
64
MODBBN MAGIO LANTEBNS.
planted by the form shown in b, in which two lenses are
employed, both with one convex and one plain surface, the
convex sides facing one another, and almost in contact. This
is an excellent form of condenser for all ordinary purposes,
if well made, and is met with far more often than any other
pattern. At c is another very good condenser known as
Hersohel's, which is also often fitted to lanterns, and answers
in practice as well as b ; it is often made with the meniscus
or concavo-convex lens a little smaller than the other, and the
double convex lens has its inner curve flattened, in which form
it is known as Gravett's. d is one of the forms suggested
for a triple condenser, or one made of three lenses. Of
these forms the triple is unquestionably the best, getting
nearer to the light, and therefore (see Kg. 52) trans-
mitting more of it through the slide.
It will be seen from Mg. 52 that the amount of light
which falls upon a condenser, and which may be roughly
considered as the
amount available for
illuminating the slide,
depends upon the
diameter of the con-
denser and the distance
at which it must be
from the lamp, for it
is obvious that a con-
denser at A would re-
ceive more light than
one of the same size at
B, since in the first case
not only wiU the rays
EE FP fall upon it which
fell upon B, but it will embrace g Q h h. Certain practical
considerations, particularly the danger of having the thick
glass of a lens too near the light and the consequent heat,
prevent the general use of condensers of such a size and
focus as to make the angle at c more than about 70 degrees.
For the usual photographic slide with a circular mask a
condenser of 4 inches diameter vrill be found large enough,
but if slides with very large masks with square corners are
to be shown, such a size will not be found sufficient, and
Fig. 62.
SlAGKAM TO SHOW THAT THE NeABEK THE
Condenser is to the Source ov Light,
THE more Light it Beceites.
THE OPTICAL SYSTEM. 65
a 4| inch will be wanted. In getting a condenser, two
points should have attention : the glasses should be mounted
quite loosely in their brass rings so as to rattle when shaken,
if not, when expanded with the heat of the lamp they will
most likely break, and the lenses themselves should be as
thin as possible at their edges. The slide should be as near
to the condenser as the carrier will allow. For photographic
enlarging, condensers will be required of a size dependent
upon that of the negative from which the enlargement is to
be made ; for good illumination its diameter should be at least
an inch longer than the diagonal of the negative.
The objective for projection purposes is, in the cheapest
lanterns, what is called a plano-convex (a, Fig. 53), or a
meniscus (b and c), but these are not at all to be desired.
Fig. 53. Lantern Objectives.
especially in those of short focus ; for anything over 10 inches
they are frequently very satisfactory. With the introduction
of the rapid modern dry-plate in photography, however, the
necessity for the very " quick " lenses for portraiture has
largely disappeared, and portrait lenses as used by photo-
graphers answer all the requirements of the average lantemist
admirably, and are frequently to be met with at a very low
price. This lens, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 53, d, was
yie invention of Professor Petzval; and it or its modifications
in the hands of Dalhneyer are excellent for projection. Several
opticians now make special lantern lenses, based more or less
upon this pattern, one or two of which we have used at one
time or another with satisfaction. This type not only allows
a large amount of light to pass, but it also possesses a very
flat field, a quality the nature of which must be explained.
66 UODEBN MAQIC LAKTEBNS.
The function of the objective can be seen from Fig. 53a,
where the paths of three of the rays from the lowest part
of the slide only are shown, to avoid confusion, coming to a
focus on the screen at g. "With many lenses the rays which
pass through the centre of the slide would not under such
circumstances come to a focus also upon the screen, but at
some point further off than it, say at h. The further the
rays from the centre, the nearer to the lantern would be the
point at which they will come to a focus; in fact, to obtain a per-
fectly sharp picture with such a lens, the screen itself would
have to be concave, like the inside of a saucer. Such a lens
would be said to have a curved field, and a lens free from
this defect a flat field. In selecting a lens for use in the
lantern it should always be tried in the lantern itself, and a
Fig. eSA. Diagram to illustbatb the Function of the Objectite.
slide should be used of such a kind as to give a good idea
of the defining power of the lens or its capabihty of re-
producing on the screen the details of the sUde with sharp-
ness. As good a test slide as any for the purpose is made
by enclosing a piece of open muslin or fine net between a
couple of glasses 85 by 85 and binding it up Hke an ordinary
lantern slide. Such a subject put in the carrier and
focussed as sharply as possible will give an excellent idea of
the powers of the objective.
Another matter of great importance is the focal length of
the objective, since upon this depends the position of the
THE OPTICAL SYSTEM. 67
lantern and screen for a given size of disc. Perhaps the most
useful length is 6 in., which has the advantage of being that
of a large number of the portrait lenses which are so suitable
for the purpose. The effect of the focal length of the lens
on the size of the disc is best expressed by saying that, with the
lantern and screen in any one position, the shorter the focus of
the objective the bigger the disc, and vice versa, the difference
in diameter being in exact proportion to their focus ; thus a
lens of 12-in. focus gives a disc just half the size of that
obtained with a lens of 6-in. focus at the same distance.
It follows, of course, from this that to obtain always the
same size of disc on the screen, the further the lantern is
from the screen the longer the focus of the lens necessary.
The 12-in. lens above mentioned would give, with a distance
of 24 feet between the lantern and screen, a disc the same
size as would be obtained with the 6-in. objective at 12 feet
distance.
To ascertain the focus of a lens in inches required to
get a given size of disc at a given distance off, the
distance in feet must be multiplied by three* and divided
by the diameter of the disc in feet. Thus — "What lens is
required to give a 15-ft. disc at a distance of 40 feet?
Multiplying 40 by 3 we get 120, which, divided by 15
gives us 8. The lens, required is therefore one of 8-in.
focus.
This rule may be reversed to find out the size of disc which
would be obtained — that is to say, by multiplying the distance
in feet by 3* and dividing by the focus of the lens in inches.
For example : we have a 6-in. lens, how large will the disc be
at a distance of 50 feet ? Multiplying 50 by 3 we get 150,
and dividing by 6 the result tells us the disc will be 25 feet in
diameter.
In the same way, to discover the distance at which the
lantern must be placed to give a disc of a given size with a
given lens, the diameter of the disc in feet is multiplied by
the focus of the lens in inches and divided by three.* We
need hardly give another example.
* Three i> taken as the effective diameter of the ordinary slide. If slides
are used of any other size the diameter of their opening in inches must be
Bubstitnted for " Oiree " in the calculations.
E 2
68
MODERN MAGIO LANTERNS.
For those who do not care to calculate out for themselves,
the following table, abridged from Mr. Lewis Wright's
standard work on optical projection, is given. The table is
calculated for slides of the usual size.
Diameter of disc
Focus
Focus
Focus
Focus
Focus
in feet.
4i inches.
6 inches.
8 inches.
10 inches.
U inches.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
ft. in.
9
13 6
18
24
30
36
12
18
24
32
40
48
15
22 6
30
40
50
60
18
27
36
48
60
72
20
30
40
63 4
66 8
80
Before leaving the subject of the lenses, a word on their
proper preservation can hardly be out of place. They are
best kept out of the lantern itself except when required for
use. The condenser should immediately before use be
dusted with a clean, soft handkerchief, as also should the
objective. In unscrewing the lenses of the latter, care
should be used to take only one out at a time, and to make
sure it is screwed into its proper place before removing the
other. In dusting them, they should be dusted, and not
breathed on, scrubbed, and polished as if they were the knob
of a door. It is a good plan, whenever possible, to get the
condensers warmed a little before putting them into the
lantern for use.
CHAPTER XI.
^be Screen anb (Beneral Hrrangements.
Given a lantern of first-class power, good slides, and plenty
of gas, the brilliancy of the display can be made or marred
by the nature of the screen itself upon which the pictures
are thrown.
One arrangement of lantern screen and audience is that
shown in Pig. 54, the dots representing the audience. In
this case the screen should be as opaque as possible ; since
it is wanted to reflect as much as possible of the light falling
upon it ; in fact, the finest screen imaginable under these
circumstances consists of a smooth plaster wall well white-
washed. This is not often obtainable, and the lanternist has
to put up with a substitute, in the form generally of some
kind of sheeting. "When this is the case the stouter and
whiter the sheet the better, since it will reflect more light.
If it must have any seams in it they should run horizontally
rather than vertically, and will probably show their
presence, and, incidentally, the advantage of an opaque
screen, by appearing whiter and more brilliant than the rest.
The size of the screen and its position depend largely upon
circumstances. It should on no account be hung too high ;
nothing is more unpleasant than craning back the neck for
some time to gaze at a sheet right above one's head ; for this
reason it should be as far in front of the audience as possible.
Screens are also made of canvas faced with a glossy-white,
surfaced paper. These cannot be folded, and consequently
are not so portable in large sizes, and are more expensive.
70
MODEBN MAQIO LANTERNS.
They will roll up into a fairly small compass, however, and
give a better result than can be obtained with any sheet ;
moreover, they do not want stretching, but merely to be hung
from their roller with a weighted rod along the bottom. In
large sizes, such screens have a tendency to bend, the edges
Fig. 64. AKKANGEMENT OF LANTERN, AUDIENCE, AND QPAqUB SCKEEN.
stretching more than the centre, which after a time may
render them almost useless.
In spite of its many drawbacks, therefore, the sheet re-
mains the sheet anchor of the lanternist, possessing, as it
does, portability together with an excellent flat surface and
a fair amount of reflecting power. It should be provided
with rings or eyelets, which must be securely stitched to its
edges every foot apart, by which it is hung and stretched.
THE SOEEEN AND OENEBAIi AERAKQEMENTS.
71
A frame is the most generally useful means of stretching
a small sheet, say one not exceeding 8 feet square, but
above this size the frame, no mattei* how much it may take
to pieces for packing up and carrying, is a bulky affair, and it
is better to rely upon ropes. The method of stretching the
sheet with ropes is shown in Fig. 55, in which a is the sheet
suspended from its two top corners by the rope b b, which
passes over two puUeys in the ceiling (which must be further
apart than the width of the sheet itself),' and thence is
fastened to the floor. Stout string is then tied to the top
corners and laced backwards and forwards through the holes
Hg. 66. Method op Lacinq Up Lantern Scbeen.
in the sheet and round the rope until the bottom corners are
reached, from whence the string must pass to the floor as
shown. While it is important to stretch the sheet sufficiently
to make its surface quite flat, more tension than is necessary
to effect this must not be employed, or, no matter how well
the eyelet holes are stitched to the sheet, they will soon
become loosened and tear off, bringing, it is most likely, some
of the sheet with them. The method of lacing described
may also be applied with advantage to the stretching of a
sheet on a frame, allowing, as it does, each side of the sheet
to be fastened with one piece of string and a single knot.
72
MODERN MAGIO LANTBBNS.
The arrangement of lantern and screen just described is
most suitable for a large audience, where a disc of several
feet in diameter is desired ; to show sUdes to twenty or
thirty people, a far more convenient plan, and one which will
give in general more satisfaction, is that of Kg. 56. Here
the screen is between the audience and the lanitern, and
should be on a much smaller
scale to give the best effect.
In many private houses are
to be found two rooms
separated by folding doors
(Fig. 56) F F. Such a place is
admirably suited for this
arrangement, the spectators
occupying one room, the lan-
tern the other, and the screen
being placed in the opening
of the doors. A thin sheet,
especially if wetted, makes
a good screen for this pur-
pose, but one much better
in every way, if its size is
not considered a drawback,
can be made of tracing
paper or cloth. This can be
obtained in 5-ft. widths,
possibly larger, and is easily
stretched and fastened over
a light wooden frame with
drawing pins. With an oil
lantern with a disc of about
4 ft. 6 in. in diameter on
such a screen a result of the
most brilliant nature is
obtained, and the slides are
seen to much greater advantage than they would be if
shown reflected on an ordinary sheet with twice that
amount of enlargement.
A method of displaying slides for advertising purposes
we have seen carried out with great success is shown
Pig. 68.
Arrangement of Lantern,
Audience, and Translucent Screen.
THE SCBEEN AND 6ENEBAL ABBANGEMENTS.
73
in Fig. 57. The lantern, a, in this case is inside a
room, the window of which, freed from sash frames and
hars, is occupied by a blind of tracing cloth, b, which can be
drawn down for the occasion, the fittings being those of the
ordinary roller blind, o o. The screen is protected by a
weather-board, d. The slides are alternately photographs
of stage and other beauties, and subjects more immediately
connected with the wares of the firm employing the lantern.
For such a purpose a blow-through or oxy-calcium jet gives
ample illumination ; in fact, excellent results can be got with
Fig. B7. Lantern Used fob Advertising.
the use of a good petroleum lamp. If the window looks out on
to a street brightly lit with the electric light, the direct light
from the lamp-posts must be cut off, or the light in the lantern
considerably increased, if brilliant results are wanted.
For teaching purposes, a large sheet of plain white card-
board, or a sheet of drawing paper stretched on a board
with drawing pins, makes a convenient screen for a small
class. The smaller the screen the brighter the light, and
in consequence, the less need there is to darken the class-
room. For many purposes it will be found that all that is
necessary is to stand the screen where the direct light from
the window does not fall upon it, for the diagrams, etc.,
which would be the class of subject oftenest shown under
such conditions, to be easily visible in daylight.
74 MODERN MAGIC LA.NTEBNS.
A detail which may be mentioned here is that of the
means of communication between the lanternist and lecturer
when separated in a large hall. Some people use an electria
bell, some a reading lamp with a little red glass window
which can be uncovered, others an ordinary bell, or they
give a slight tap to indicate when another slide is wanted. Any
of these methods can be employed, but it is advisable, when
possible, to use one .which shall not attract the attention of
the audience ; for this reason an electric bell, without the
bell itself, giving, therefore, a slight buzzing soimd instead
of a ring, will be found best.
Owing to various accidents, the London County Council
turned their attention to the use of the limelight in places
of public entertainment, and laid down a number of regu-
lations, the most important of which runs : — " That proper
" tanks be provided, placed in ventilated, brick-built cham-
' ' bers, fitted with iron doors and frames ; that the hydrogen
' ' and oxygen gases be placed in separate chambers ; that
"the screws to the holders of each gas be of different
"diameters; and that flexible iron tubing with screw con-
" nections be used." There are a number of very stringent
rules applying to kinematograph exhibitions, which vary
considerably with different local authorities. They should
always be ascertained beforehand in the case of public
shows.
The regulations themselves, in the opinion of most experts,
are anything but satisfactory, that which insists upon the
vse of flexible iron tubing in place of india-rubber being
positively dangerous if fijJly acted upon. That clause
dealing with the scrSws of the gas holders is a wise precau-
tion, and is now universally adopted ; and it is no doubt
an excellent thing to have the gas cylinders outside the
place of meeting. On the other hand, insistence upon the
storage of oxygen, even when in a pneumatic holder, in
"ventilated, brick-built," etc., is vexatious, when it is
remembered that the gas in such a form is perfectly
harmless. Still, those who use the limelight in public,
within the jurisdiction of the London County Council, have
got to submit to the regulations vmtil they are amended, and
bad better, therefore, Imow exactly what it is they require.
CHAPTER Xll.
Zbe flDanipuIation of tbe Xantern.
When the screen and lantern have been erected in their
proper positions, the adjustment of the one to the other has
to be taken in hand.
The first point to receive attention should be that J;he
position of the screen is such that it is exactly at right
Fig. 68. DlAOBAH SHOWING THE CORRECT POSITION OF THE SCREEN.
angles to the axis of the lantern. This is shown in Fig. 58, in
which A is the axis of the lantern, that is, an imaginary line
drawn from the centre of the condenser, through the centre
of the objective, meeting the screen b b at the point o ; the
angles b c a should all be right angles. If they are not — that
76 MODBEN MAGIC LANTEEN8.
is, if the screen has the position indicated by one or other of
the dotted lines, the pictures thrown upon it will be dis-
torted. It will he seen from this that if the lantern is tipped
up or down the screen must not be vertical. The same re-
marks apply with equal force to the turning of the lantern
to one side or the other.
Having seen about this, the lantern can be lit up, when,
if limelight is to be used, the light will have to be centred,
that is, adjusted until the brightest part of the lime is in
the axis of the lantern, and is also, at the focus of the
condenser. (Oil lamps are not provided with a means of
centering the light, as its position is invariable, and is or
•-. Fig. 69. Photographs op the Screen with
THE JET In and Out op Position.
should be adjusted by the maker.) To do this, the jet having
been lit and the oxygen turned on, a slide must be put into
the lantern, and disregarding for the moment whether its
illumination is even or not, focussed upon the screen, after
which it can be taken out without disturbing the focussing.
The chances are that the circle of light upon the sheet will
now resemble either a, b, c, d, or e, Fig. 59, which indicate
respectively that the light is too high (a), too low (b), too
much to the right (o), or to the left (d). This must be cor-
rected by slackening the screw which holds the jet in position
on the tray pin, and finally clamping it again when the disc
presents the appearance denoted by e. When this is the
THE MANIPULATION OF THE LANTEEN. 77
case, the light is centred, and must then be adjusted as
regards its distance from the condenser. This is done by
sliding tray and all in the grooves of the lantern until the
disc is evenly and brightly illuminated all over (f) ; the
correct position is easily found. The carrier should then be
adjusted so that its opening occupies the centre of this disc,
and if it can be clamped in that position when found, so
much the better. This being done, it is useful to put a slide
once more into the carrier, and with the rack and pinion
motion of the lens midway, i.e., neither fully in nor fully
out, to focus it with the sliding adjustment only. If this is
not done, it may be found that it is impossible to focus
each slide sharply with the rack and pinion because it is at
the end of its travel.
The sUdes demand the next attention. If practicable it
will be found an excellent plan to tie them up in a paper
parcel and put them in a warm oven for a short time. If
this cannot be done they may be warmed by being placed
in an open grooved box before the fire, or even allowed to
remain, separated, in a warm room for a httle while. Unless
this is done, there will be a great likelihood in the intense
heat of the hmelight or electric light of the deposition of
moisture on the cold slide when put into the lantern. The
slides when this is the case are said to "sweat," it is pain-
fully obvious on the screen, and will spoil completely an
exhibition which is in all other respects first-class.
The slides must be arranged in the order in which they
are required. For this purpose they are often kept in
grooved boxes, but this way may lead to mistakes. The
most careful lanternist may have his attention distracted
for a moment, and in the obscurity may take a slide from
any part of the box instead of the next in order, and so get
them disarranged and make one of those slight but annoying
hitches which mar what should be the regularity which leads
to success. For this reason we prefer to have the slides
piled up in stacks of about thirty, only one of which shall be
within reach at a time, there is then no possibility that any
sHde but the next in order can be picked up by accident.
Another important detail is the proper marking of the
slides. There has been for many years every possible
78 MODEBN MAGIO LANTEBNS.
diversity in this respect, but it is now getting customary for
slides to be marked on the lines laid down by the Photographic
Club a few years ago, this should always be done. The
marking consists of indicating the two top corners of the
sUde by two spots, which are best white on a black back-
ground, or black on a white one, as shown in Fig. 43. Not
only must they indicate the top of the slide, but they must
act as a guide to the face of the slide, which has to go next
the condenser. To ascertain this, the slide should be held
up in front of a piece of white paper in the position in which
it is intended to be seen upon the screen, that is to say, with
any inscription it may contain reading the right way round
and not backwards. The two spots, which may conveniently
be cut out of stamp-paper with a punch or pair of scissors,
should then be stuck on the two top corners of that side of
the sUde facing the observer. In putting slides into the
carrier, they must be put in upside down for reasons pointed
out before (chapter X.), and when to be seen by reflection on
an opaque screen of any kind (Fig. 54) the spotted side must
go next the condenser ; when shown on a translucent screen
(Fig. 66) the spotted side of the slide must be turned away
from the condenser. If this is not attended to, the piotiure
as seen wiU be reversed from left to right, and any lettering,
names over shop doors, and the like, will read backwards.
The slides should always be rubbed over with a clean
duster before being shown, any dust or jBnger marks upon
them will be enormously magnified on the screen. For this
reason they should be held by one corner on putting them
into the carrier and not fingered all over.
During an exhibition of slides the room should be kept as
dark as possible. This seems so obvious as not to require
mention, but the writer has often seen the brilliancy and
beauty of a display spoilt by the amount of stray light about
the room, proceeding both from the ordinary lights which
were only turned down and neither quite nor almost ex-
tinguished, as they should have been, and from the back of
the lantern itself. Another cause of failure is to be found in
a rickety lantern-stand. We have a lively recollection of an
exhibition of shdes in which the lantern-stand, though firm
enough in itself, was mounted on a platform of floor boards
THE MANIPULATION OP THE LANTEEN. 79
insufficiently provided with supporting joists, in consequence
the exertions of the lanternist in putting a fresh slide into
the carrier were sufficient to make the picture on the screen
wobble up and down quite a foot. Minor matters are the
following : —
(1) Do not omit to turn the lime, from time to time.
(2) Keep the audience away from the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the screen ; they wiU see better and like
it better, although as a rule they will not keep off of
their own accord.
(3) Make sure there is ample gas for the display, even if
accidentally prolonged a little.
(4) Never allow the audience to see the bare screen
illuminated with the full light of the lantern, all slides
will look duU and heavy after so doing.
(5) The gas, if in bags, should be kept where it cannot
be meddled with; if in cylinders, where they cannot
roll or fall.
(6) Be particularly careful never to put a slide in
upside down or wrong way round, unless they are
those of a friend who is present and who neglects to
spot them.
(7) Never leave a lime in the lantern after use. If done
with throw it away, do not let it fall to pieces and
fill the lantern with dust.
CHAPTER XIIL
riDoving SUbee ant> lEffects.
Undeb this title fall a large number of more or less
elaborate devices intended to enhance the beauty or realism,
or both, of projected pictures. Almost all effects require at
the least two lanterns, some needing three and even more.
There are a few, however, which can be exhibited by means
of a single lantern, and these will be considered first.
It is difi&cult to assign a reason for the decadence of
lantern exhibitions which has undoubtedly taken place in
the last few years. Signs of it are seen even in displays
confined to plain photographic shdes, the average of which
is in quality markedly inferior to what it was ten, or even
five years since. But in "effects," the falling-off has been
very much more marked, and of displays such as used to be
given at the Polytechnic and elsewhere, there are now none.
It is to this change of fashion, or whatever else it may be
called, that we must look for the origin of a certain amount
of contempt felt by many lanternists for "effects," due
doubtless to the substitution for the old displays, of inferior
slides with bungling and incompetent exhibitors. The
popularity of the photographic slide, which does not lend
itself, or rather which has not been adapted to " effects " as
much as is possible, has something to do with the matter.
Still, as many of these illusions are among the finest things
that can be shown with the lantern, are marvels of
ingenuity and skill, and are still popular with some
audiences, they cannot be altogether ignored.
MOVING SLIDES AND EFFECTS. 81
The panoramic slide, as its name implies, is one which
depicts a wide expanse of scenery, the shape of the picture
being long and narrow; the slide is gradually pushed
through the lantern, only a portion of it being seen at any
one time. A modification has been suggested, to get over
the hability to breakage inherent in such lengthy slides, in
the shape of a roU of transparent film, bearing the picture,
which is gradually wound off one roller on to another, as in
the photographic roll-holder and the kinematograph.
Lever slides are constructed of two separate glasses, one
fixed in the frame, the other capable of being partially
revolved while in the lantern by means of a lever. A
favourite subject for these is a cow standing in a pool, the
cow, minus its head, and the pool being painted on the fixed
glass. The cow's head being on the movable glass, on
shifting the lever, the cow appears to lower her head to
drink. Other subjects for this class of slide, which is best
adapted for juvenile audiences, are children see-sawing,
cobblers nailing, drummers, etc. In lever slides, as indeed
in all slides where more than one glass is employed, the
picture must be on the two inner surfaces, which are as close
together as practicable, without touching, otherwise it will
not be possible to get the two into focus at the same time.
Slipping sUdes, which also are more suitable for children's
entertainments, are hkewise constructed of more than one
glass. In these, however, one of the glasses slides along in
front of the other, and either covers and uncovers some part
of the scene in so doing, or removes some portion and
substitutes something else.
Tinters consist of coloured glasses which can be slipped over
in front of the objective, so as to give any particular slide a
general colour. They are most effective with slides of
statuary and similar subjects blocked out so as to stand out
against a black background, and in using them care should
be taken that the tint is not too deep^ a frequent error.
Of all types of mechanical slide, however, the ohromatrope,
as it is called, is the highest. In this, two circular glasses
bearing geometrical designs are rotated in opposite direc-
tions while ia the lantern. One design crossing another in
this way can be made most effective, and it will be foimd
p
82 MODEBN MAQIO LANTEENB.
difficult to realise what the combined result of any two
geometrical designs so revolving will be. Very fine patterns
resembling "watered" silk can be got by mounting fabrics
such as netting, muslin, etc., with a clear and well-defined
thread, in such a revolving arrangement, taking care, to
secure the best result, that the two fabrics shown together
are similar.
Eevolving slides, on the principle of the chromatrope, are
made having such things as windmills with revolving sails,
acrobats spinning round on a trapeze, fish swimming in a
globe, bees round a hive, etc., for their subjects ; and can be
obtained from most dealers.
The various slides alluded to above can all be shown by
means of a single lantern, but those now to be mentioned
require at least a biunial ■ for their exhibition. With such
an instrument the number of combinations, effects, etc., that
can be obtained is almost unhmited. The simplest of these
is the curtain slide, in which the picture on the screen is
shown with a curtain round it, as if it were on the stage of
a theatre. A balcony or verandah slide is sometimes used
in place of the curtain ; the scene then appears to be viewed
from the interior of a room, looking out over the balcony.
In these and similar effects, the curtain or balcony, as the
case may be, is projected by means of one of the lanterns,
the other being used to throw the usual slides in the blank
space left for that purpose in the " curtain " sUde. It
should be borne in mind that this entails the use of a great
deal of gas, as both lanterns have to be kept going all the
time.
Some forms of carrier are so made that the screen is
dimmed by means of ground glass or celluloid while a slide
is being changed, and in another it is entirely darkened by
an opaque curtain, which appears to come down and mask
one picture, rising afterwards and revealing the fresh slide.
Such a carrier, with a cujtain or border slide of any kind in
the other lantern, would no doubt give a pleasing effect.
Akin to these are snow and rain effects. These are
obtained by means of a slide in which a roll of opaque
material is gradually unwound through the lantern. Tor
snow, the fabric is pierced with little holes ; for rain it is
MOVING SLIDES AND EFFECTS. 83
marked with fine lines. In both these cases the effect is
improved if the slide is not inserted in the lantern in a
perfectly horizontal manner, but is slightly incliaed, so as to
give the idea of a httle wind. It is important, moreover, if
the illusion is to be of the best, that the light in the lantern
showing the rain or snow slide shall not be too powerful ;
especially is this the case with the rain. The writer
remembers seeing a lantern display in which a poor waif,
seated on a doorstep, was exposed to what was intended to
be a shower of rain. Owing to the operator having, if any-
thing, a brighter light in the " rain " lantern than the other,
the shower suggested nothing so much as one of white hot
knitting-needles, and the effect on the audience was any-
thing but what was intended.
Moonlight effects are obtained by means of a biunial
lantern and two shdes, the subjects upon each being
absolutely identical as regards outline, but one can be very
much more vigorous than the other. With photographic
shdes, which are much the best for the purpose, this
difference can easily be obtained. The first slide, intended
to depict the daylight view, can be made in the usual way,
with the usual amount of density and contrast. The second
slide, however, should be exposed for a little under the
suitable time, and should be developed with a view to
getting plenty of contrast, rather than what a photographer
would describe as a soft result. This second sUde must
then be treated with a bath of a deep blue aniline dye, so
as to give it that blue tint usually associated with moonhght
views. Any lights which it is intended shall appear in it,
such as gas-lamps, illumined windows, stars, the moon
itself or its reflection on the water, must then be carefully
picked out so as to leave the slide bare where it is intended
these shall be. The two slides being then most carefully
registered, the dayhght picture is first shown, and gradually
dissolved into the moonlight one.
Such effects can be multiplied almost without limit, by
having accurately registered slides and plenty of assistance.
The nmnber of lanterns required rarely exceeds three in the
most elaborate displays, since in nearly every case the effect
at any one time is obtained by the two lanterns, leaving the
F 2
84 MODEBN MAGIC LANTEENS.
third free for the introduction of a fresh change or addition
to what is already on the screen. Space ■wUl not admit of
our going more at length into the matter of these effects,
whieh, at one time the only use to which the lantern was
put, have now been to no smaU extent superseded by what
some people would regard as less frivolous displays.
CHAPTER XIV.
Xantern fiyperimente.
The form of lantern described in the foregoing pagea
is in itself suitable for many experiments, but, with cer-
Fig. 60. Lantern for Experimental Purposes.
tain modifications, can be employed to render visible to a
large audience a far greater number. The chief alteration
86 MODEBN MAGIC LANTERNS.
required is the removal of the tubes carrying the objective,
80 that objects much thicker than the usual slides can be
inserted, and the provision in consequence of some other,
kind of support for the front lens. A method of effecting
this is shown in Kg. 60.
Such a lantern will admit of the insertion of cells of
liquid, test tubes, galvanometers, and many other pieces of
apparatus. The number of scientific experiments which can
be shown in a lantern of this class is legion, but we can only
give as examples one or two that can be performed.
The development and fixation of a photographic plate can
be shown by the use of a tank, as shown in Fig. 61. A
chloride or lantern plate should be employed, both on account
of its superior transparency and of its lower sensitiveness
to light, the developer
being ferrous oxalate.
The plate is exposed un-
der a negative in the
ordinary way, and is
then placed in the tank,
care being taken that the
image on the plate is up-
side down. The plate
should be protected from
Fig. 61. TANKy "" "* actinic light by the inser-
, tion of a piece of ruby
glass between the condenser and the tank before the experi-
ment commences. When the plate is in position it can be
focussed, a strip of wood being inserted so as to hold the
back of the plate in contact with that glass of the cell which
is furthest from the lantern. Unless the wood is weighted
it will probably float up when the developer is poured in,
and the success of the experiment will be marred. When
the plate is thus held in position and focussed, the developer
must be carefully poured in with the help of a frmnel, no
splashing being allowed to take place. When all the plate
is protected by the developer the ruby glass may be re-
moved, the deep orange tint of the solution being a sufficient
protection with a slow plate. The image will be seen
gradually to grow up on the originally plain opalescent
LANTEBN EXPEBIMEMTS.
plate. "When development is complete, the ruby glass
shovild be again inserted, the tank withdrawn and emptied,
the plate rinsed in slightly acidulated water, then in plain
water, and restored to the empty tank replaced in the
lantern. This is now filled with fixing solution, which will
be seen to dissolve gradually the unaltered silver salts in
the film, leaving the finished transparency, if all has gpne
well, in full brilliancy on the screen, when the ruby glass
can be finally withdrawn. This experiment is a very
striking one, and is not difficult to perform, but it should be
rehearsed once or twice before being attempted in public, a
remark which applies to all demonstrations of a like nature.
It is often convenient to be able to show upon the screen
the presence of currents of electricity set up by one means
or another ; this is easily done. At any of the shops which
supply working jewellers, such as are to be found in the
neighbourhood of Clerkenwell, little compasses with glass
Fig. 62. Lantern Galtanomkikr.
sides, which when mounted are often worn on watch
chains, etc., can be purchased for a few pence. One of
these can be easily made into a fairly sensitive galvano-
meter by mounting it in a wooden block, as shown in
Fig. 62. Bound the block should be wound some turns of
silk-covered copper wire, bb, Kg. 62; twenty or thirty
turns of No. 30 B W G wire will answer most require-
ments, though more can be used if necessary, the two
ends of the wire being brought out to two terminals, d d,
on the end of the block. A little bar magnet, o, which can
88 MODBEN MAGIC I/ANTEENB.
be made by magnetising a piece of knitting-needle, should
be arranged on the top of the block, so that the needle of
the compasa is just held horizontal when no current is
passing through the^ wire. The magnet should not be too
near or too strong, or the sensitiveness of the galvanometer
will be impaired.i The block being inserted in the lantern,
the binding screws connected with the source of the current
by wires, and the compass focussed sharply on the screen,
when a current passes the needle will be deflected ; owing
to the degree of magnification of the image on the screen,
such a galvanometer possesses a considerable degree of
sensitiveness.
With the help of the tank shown in Fig. 61, such
experiments as precipitation, reactions resulting in change of
Diagram showing the Use op an Erecting Prism.
colour or appearance in solutions, as well as demonstrations
of capillary attraction, pressures of liquids, etc., can be
exhibited. In some of these experiments it is highly desir-
able that the image upon the screen shall be the right
way up, while at the same time it is impossible to invert the
objects themselves in the lantern. When this is the case
an erecting prism has to be employed. This is shown at A,
in Kg. 63. They are very convenient in some cases, but
always entail a considerable loss of hght.
The greeting prism consists of a block of glass, having its
sides cut to a suitable angle to one another. It is fitted on
close in front of the objedtive, the course of the rays being
then as represented diagrammatically in the figure. One
form of erecting prism is shown in Fig. 64 ; this is known as
LANTERN EXPEBIMENT8.
89
Zentmayer's. The principle is the same as in the other, which
is the more usual pattern, the modification in shape being
made with the idea of using the whole of the prism right up
to the apex, which
cannot be done when
the angle at A is a
right angle. Some
lecturers prefer the
Zentmayer pattern,
but Mr. Lewis
Wright, an authority
to whom we have already referred, recommends the use
of a prism midway between the two forms depicted.
In Fig. 65 is shown diagrammatioally the arrange-
ment of the lantern and objective for throwing upon the
Fig. 64. Zentmatek Erecting Prism.
A, u_
r 1
"-D XT'---.---'''''^ m ' TO SCREEN "~
iil^^^^^^^\a^f
1 .^^-^ '-
' V
v
Fig. 65. Arrangement op the Lantern for showing Opaque Objects.
screen images of opaque objects. Lanterns constructed for
this purpose, with the tendency to describe everything
90 MODEEN MAGIO LANTEBNB.
appertaining to a lantern by some long Greek name, are often
called Aphengescopes. It is a useful device occasionally for
demonstration purposes, but owing to the very great loss
of light, can only be employed with limelight or with the
electric arc, and then is never Very satisfactory. In Fig. 65
the source of light is shown at b, and the condensers at
CO, the object, which is placed at d, having its imagu
focussed upon the screen by means of the objective, e.
There is no need to get a special lantern for the purpose,
as a box is easily arranged to cEtrry the objective at one end
and to receive the nozzle of the lantern in the direction
shown. Such a box should have its interior lined with black
paper, or better, with black velvet. The back can be ar-
ranged to carry the objects it is desired to exhibit, access
being obtained by the side a, which is closed with a curtain.
When the Aphengescope i,s being used, and, indeed, in a
large number of other cases, it will be found that, unless
steps are taken to prevent it, harm will very frequently occur
from delicate instruments or inflammable substances being
exposed to the intense heat concentrated upon them by the
condenser. To obviate this, what is known as an alum cell
is employed. This is an arrangement similar to that shown
in Fig. 61 ; in fact, the same cell can be employed for
either purpose, as required. It is filled with a cold saturated
solution of alum, which must have been carelully filtered so
as to be quite free from dust or other floating particles. The
solution will in course of time get fairly hot, but while allow-
ing nearly all the light to pass, it will absorb the heat, which
would otherwise be doing harm. In the absence of the alum
solution, plain water can be employed. It is not quite so
efficient, but is satisfactory enough for most purposes.
Another arrangement of the lantern for demonstration
purposes is that shown diagrammatically in Fig. 66, as
employed for vertical projections, as they are called. The
beam of light from a, as it leaves the condenser, b, falls
upon a mirror, fp, placed at an angle of 45 degrees
with the horizontal, from which it is reflected vertically
upwards. The table, d d, upon which the object to be
projected is placed, is immediately over the mirror, while
above it is placed the objective, e, bearing above it again a
LANTEBN EXPEEIMENTS. 91
reflector, o, which once more directs the beam in a hori-
zontal direction to the screen. For most purposes such
an arrangement can be fixed up at very little expense to
answer all requirements except where great brilliancy and
orispness of definition is desired. The bottom mirror can be
a piece of the usual silvered plate glass, the top one is best
of the thinnest silvered glass procurable, as if not, the
Fig. 66. Arrangement op Lantern for Vertical Projections.
secondary reflection, that from the surface of the glass it-
self, may become troublesome. It will be seen that the two
component lenses of the condenser have to be separated, one
remaining in the usual position in front of the lEuminant,
and the other immediately beneath the table carrying the ob-
ject to be projected. With this arrangement of the apparatus
many experiments, such as those showing crystallisation,
etc., can be performed. For this purpose a glass dish with
an even flat bottom is required. This is placed upon the
92
MODERN MAQIO IiANTBKNs.
table, D, of the apparatus, and contains the solution to be
used. One of the best of these is sodium sulphate, a satu-
rated solution of which should be placed in the tray, and a
crystal of the salt added, crystallisation at once taking pleiice.
The decomposition which takes place when an electric
current passes through certain liquids can also be shown
upon the screen without much difficulty. For this purpose
an incandescent lamp, the filament of which has broken, and
which is therefore of no further use for lighting purposes,
makes a very good decomposing cell, a suggestion due to
Mr. T. Bolas, to whom I am also indebted for the design of
the simple galvanometer just described. The point at which
it was sealed off should be carefully
scratched with a file and broken off so
that air is admitted, or better still, the
point of a blowpipe flame should be di-
rected against a spot close to the sealing,
until the glass has softened and admitted
air. The lamp can then be cutoffas shown
in Fig. 67, the filament removed, and the
two platinum wires left to act as the
electrodes: Any of the ordinary forms of
lamp holder wiU answer to
mount the cell thus construc-
ted, being fitted for that pur-
pose on a slab of wood with
terminals for convenience in
connecting up. If a little
water slightly acidulated
with sulphuric acid be poured into such a cell, and the
current from three or four Bunsen batteries passed through
it, bubbles of gas will be seen given off from each of the
electrodes. The reversing prism should be employed to show
this, as otherwise the bubbles will appear to descend on
the screen instead of ascending.
Space precludes the mention of a number of other
experiments which are better shown by means of the
magic lantern than in any other way, but many of these
will occur to the reader as he gradually learns the power
and adaptability of the instrument.
Fig. 67.
Decomposing Cell Constrdcted
OP AN Incandescent Lamp.
CHAPTEE XV.
^be Xantcrn*»Spectroscope, ^ipolariscopc,
ant) ^HDlcroscope.
All of the experiments hitherto mentioned have been con-
cerned only with the projection of apparatus, pictures, etc.,
in the light of the lantern, without any of the beauty derivable
from brilliant colouring. With the lantern polariscope and
with the spectroscope, the projected images possess a fresh
charm by reason of the beautiful colours they assume, in
which colours Ke, in fact, their chief interest.
Any detail as to the principles upon which the spectroscope
is based would be out of place here, and we must refer the
reader in search of information on that head to one of the
many books on the subject ; merely mentioning that the
object of the instrument is to split up and render separately
visible the hght of various colours which, when blended
together, would without its aid be regarded as a single-
coloured light, and not as a mixture of many tints. The,
simplest form of apparatus for projecting the spectrum
consists of a slit, which may be a slide made of blackened
card, having in its centre a vertical opening 1 inch high
and tW of an inch wide, together with a prism. This arrange-
ment is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 68. A glass
prism will do, and is, indeed, for ordinary purposes, best,
but for certain reasons many prefer a prism-shaped bottle
containing carbon bisulphide. In Fig. 68, a is the source
of hght, B the condenser, c are lenses used to concentrate
94 MODEBN MAQIO LANTBENS.
and render parallel the rays of light, d is the cardboard
with the slit, e the objective, and p the prism, the screen
being beyond the latter in the direction indicated by the
lines of light. The slit being placed in position, it must be
f ocussed upon the screen in the usual way ; too great a
degree of enlargement should not be attempted, or the
illumination will be feeble. When focussed, the lantern
must be turned round bodily until its position with refer-
ence to the screen is as it would be if the latter were placed
across the right-hand bottom corner in Fig. 68, apd the
prism placed in front of the objective as shown. - A little
Fig. 68. Akranqement op Apparatus for Projecting the Spectrum.
adjustment will be necessary to get the best result ; for
this reason the arrangements should all be made, and the
prism put into its place before the audience are present.
The best position for the prism to occupy is that in which
it bends aside the beam of light the least, and this should
be found as nearly as possible by experiment. If all has
been properly arranged, the beam of light from the lantern
will be found to be split up in its passage through the
prism, and to be widened out into a band of coloured
light, one end of which is red, and the other violet, with
the other colours in between these two extremes. This
band is the spectrum.
By inserting in the path of the beam" as it emerges from
the objective, coloured glasses or stained gelatine films, the
THE LANTEBN-SPEOTEOBOOPE, -POLABISCOPE, ETC. 95
absorption of such media can roughly be shown. Solutions
of various substances can also be employed, using for the
purpose a cell similar to that shown in Fig. 61. Solutions
of potassium permanganate, of potassium bichromate, of
many of the aniline dyes, etc., give interesting results when
shown in this manner. With glass or stained films the
absorption is better shown if the coloured material is in
contact with the slit itself, covering, say, the lower half of
it. A sharp Hne upon the screen will then be seen to
divide the spectrum into two distinct parts, the upper one
being the spectrum of the light employed after it has passed
through the coloured film, the lower one simply the spec-
trum of the light itself.
An interesting experiment consists of saturating a sheet
of white paper with a solution of quinine sulphate in water
rendered slightly acid with sulphuric acid. The paper,
should be allowed to dry, and then be mounted on a sheet
of card side by side with a similar piece of paper which has
not imdergone the treatment with quinine, in such a way
that the two papers are separated by a straight line rtmning
right across the card. If now a very bright spectrum be
thrown upon such a card, so that the upper half of the band
of colours falls on the plain paper, and the other on that
treated with quinine, it will be seen that a greater length of
spectrum at the violet end is visible on the latter than on the
former. It will most likely be necessary, in order to show
this distinctly, to cover up all the spectrum between the
blue and the red, as otherwise the briUianoy of that portion
will drown the darker violet, and the experiment be less
striking. This is shown better with the electric arc than
with limelight, although with care it can be very plainly
demonstrated even with the latter.
The experiment can be elaborated by interposing, in the
path of the beam of light, a glass cell containing the solution
of quinine. This will at once alter the appearance of the
spectrum, which will then appear no longer on the one paper
than on the other, but on the other hand the solution itself
will exhibit a very beautiful blue fluorescence. Various
other substances can be used in place of the quinine with
varying results.
96 MODBBN MAGIC LANTEENS.
A more expensive arrangement for the projection of
spectra, but one which possesses the great advantage that
the whole of the apparatus is in one straight line with the
screen, consists of the employment of a group of prisms, as in
a direct vision spectroscope. Such a series of prisms, when
interposed in the path of a beam of light, disperse the rays
passing through them, without refracting them. The whole
Fig. 69. Lens and Prisms forming a Direct Vision Spectroscope
apparatus then takes, in plan, the form shown in Fig. 68,
but with the lens and prisms e and f. Fig. 69 taking the
place of E and f in Fig. 68.
While on the subject of the spectrum, we might mention
a form of Newton's disc for use in the lantern, which shows
in a very distinct manner how, by the admixture of light of
the various colours of the spectrum, we once more get white
light. It consists of a circular disc of glass painted as
brilliantly as possible with
colours resembling those of
the spectrum, the different
tints being laid on in ra
diating wedge-shaped sec-
tors ; the disc is provided
with a pulley and band by
Newton's Disc for Lantern Use. which it can be rapidly
rotated (Fig. 70). To ex-
hibit it effectively, the disc must be inserted as a slide in
the ordinary lantern, and its image projected on the screen
and focussed. The room should be perfectly dark, and the
illumination of the disc the brightest possible. While
stationary the image of the disc on the screen presents, of
course, a magnified image of the original disc with all its
THE IiANTBBN-SPEOTBOSCOPB, -POIiABISCOPB, ETC. 97
colours brightly shown ; but as soon as it is rapidly rotated
the colours blend, with the result, if the disc be a good one,
that the image on the screen is a simple white circular patch
of light. By covering over some one or more of the colours
on the disc with black paper, and then rotating it, it can be
shown that the absence of any of the colours gives the
blended images a colour, the white image only resulting
when all the tints are mingled.
The lantern polariscope is, as its name implies, an instru-
ment designed to exhibit objects on the screen by means
of polarised light. To do this the beam of light, before it
falls upon the screen, has to pass through two pieces of
Fig. 71. POLAKiscopE Atiaohmemt (Blbow Form).
apparatus known respectively as an analyser and a polariser.
Fig. 71. These may be similar in construction, since they
could be used the one for the other indiscriminately were it
not that, for mechanical reasons, the polariser is generally
larger than the analyser ; but, as a general rule, in the more
expensive instruments the polariser is constructed of glass,
and the analyser of Iceland spar, in the form known as a
nicol prism. With the aid of this apparatus many experi-
ments can be performed, one or two of which we mention.
Shdes made of selenite and other suitable substances,
frequently quite colourless in themselves, yield magnificently
coloured images when projected by means of the polariscope.
98 MODEEN MAGIO LANTBENS.
Geometrical designs, butterflies, etc., are built up of pieces
of the substance in question, mounted up as slides, and
are obtainable through the dealers. A more satisfactory
method with many people will be to make them them-
selves, the operation not being a very difficult one,
consisting, as it does, of a building up of the design on
a glass slide with pieces of mica cemented together with
Canada balsam. Crystallised benzoic acid, saUcine, etc.,
also give very beautiful projected images with polarised
light.
Slabs of glass held in a clamp in such a way that, while
the image of the glass is on the screen, stress can be set up
within the glass by means of a screw, exhibit in a very
clear manner the changes set up by the stress which the
polariscope reveals — changes which in no other way can
be rendered visible.
Anderton's stereoscopic lantern, introduced a few years
ago, is an example of an ingenious application of polar-
ised light, with a view to enabling an audience to see
the image on the screen stereoscopically or in relief. In
order to effect this it is essential that two distinct images
shall be seen by the two eyes, the two slides for the purpose
being made from two negatives taken from different stand-
points, side by side, so that one differs from the other by
seeing a little more round one side or the other of the object.
The two slides, which in all other respects are identical, are
shown simultaneously upon a screen, the surface of which
is composed of metallic foil, by means of a biunial lantern.
After leaving the objective, the light from each of these
lanterns passes through a polariser, these polarisers in the
two lanterns being so arranged that the planes of polarisa-
tion are at right angles to one another. Each observer is
provided with a little pair of analysers mounted like opera-
glasses, but in each of which the analysers are arranged
with reference to each other as are the polarisers in the
lanterns, the effect of which is thaS only one of the blended
pictures on the screen is seen with one eye, and the other
picture with the other eye. The result, on viewing the two
images on the screen through such an apparatus, is to
eliminate from the field of view of one eye the picture from
THE IiANTEEN-MICEOSOOPE.
99
one lantern, and from tlie other eye that from the other ; the
brain combining the two pictures so as to give the impres-
sion of the objects standing out in relief, as in nature.
All optical lanterns are virtually lantern microscopes, as a
moment's consideration will make clear. The slide, whatever
it may be, is the object, an enlarged image of which is
projected upon the screen. Hence there are many things
which, needing only a small degree of magnification to
render their details plain, can be exhibited without the aid
of any further apparatus whatever. The writer had an
opportunity a Uttle time since
of looking over a large number
of what appeared at first sight
to be very carefully drawn and
beautifully coloured lantern
slides of sections of various
animal tissues, healthy and
diseased, interesting more es-
pecially to veterinary surgeons.
These turned out, on more care-
ful examination, to be the actual
preparations themselves, the
vessels of which had been injected with various colouring
matters, the whole tissues stained to show as far as possible
their structure, and then mounted up as slides ; and very
beautiful they were, while their value for educational purposes
was almost immeasurable. Such slides in the lantern were
magnified thirty or forty diameters without difficulty.
This is the simplest form of lantern microscope, but it is
of course limited in its powers, and for greater magnifica-
g2
Fig. 72.
Microscope for Table and
Lantern Use.
100 MODBEN MAQIO LANTEBN8.
tions it can be replaced by a slightly modified form of
compound microscope, which is attached in front of the
condenser of the usual lantern. In Fig. 72 a simple form
of compound microscope is shown, which can in a few
moments be removed from the stand on which it has served
as a table microscope and placed on the lantern nozzle,
as shown in the top right-hand figure. The objectives of
various powers can be slipped into the racked mount, those
most commonly supplied being 1- and 2-inch powers. An
additional lens as a supplementary condenser is some-
times fitted between the chief condensers and the object,
and when properly adjusted this much improves the
illumination.
The real difficulty in microscopic projection has always
been the proper illumination of the object. Lantern micro-
scopes cannot be expected to yield as bright images on the
screen as ordinary lanterns showing slides vrith but a fraction
of the magnification. In consequence, the operator's attention
should be given to the proper adjustment of the light and con-
densers. The light concentrated on the small surface of the
slide will soon make it very hot unless prevented by means
of an alum trough (see p. 84) ; this in micro-projection should
never be omitted, or it will lead to the ruin of the slides.
The sUdes in the simpler forms of lantern microscope are
fitted in wooden frames like ordinary lantern slides, only
these frames are smaller. Frames can be obtained one end
of which takes out to receive the usual size of microscope
slide, for use in the lantern. These are a convenience, but
it is decidedly preferable to have a microscope attachment
with the usual form of plain sliding stage, so that the slides
can be used direct without any further mounting. This is
the case with the instruments shown in Figs. 72 and 73.
Too great a degree of magnification should not be attempted
until the management of the lantern with low powers has
been thoroughly mastered. A 1-inch objective will' be
found the most powerful which can be used in the ordinary
way with satisfactory results, both as regards illumination
and other quaUties. On changing the objective the position
of the jet should be altered until the best fighting is secured,
as it will be found that lenses of different powers require the
THE LANTBEN-MICEOSCOPS,
101
jet to be at different distances to yield the brightest images.
Great care rmist also be exercised to keep the centres of the
whole of the apparatus, jet, condensers, and objective in a
perfectly straight line. When these various points have
received attention it will be found that a large number of
objects, parts of insects, sections of wood of different kinds,
vegetable and animal tissues, etc., can be easily shown
on such a scale as to be seen well by a la,rge roomful of
people.
A more elaborate form of lantern microscope is that
shown in Kg. 73. "With this instrument far more can be
Fig. 78. The Lantern Microscope.
done than that to which we have alluded, but for details
as to its manipulation larger works must be consulted.
CHAPTER XVI.
animateb lantern pictures.
In the beginning of 1896 a novelty in lantern work was
first shown in London in the form of Mr. Birt Acres'
Kinetic Lantern, as it was then called, by which street
scenes and other moving objects were displayed, on the screen
in motion with a fidelity which was very remarkable.
Almost immediately afterwards a number of other inventors
were in the field with instruments for performing the same
operation, and animated lantern pictures under aU sorts of
Greek and Latin names were quite the sensation of the
moment.
The principle underlying all suoh projections is that
known as "the persistence of vision." When an image
falls upon the retina of the eye, no matter for how short a
time, provided it is sufficiently brilliant to excite the sensa-
tion of vision at aU, the result is not a mere momentary
impression, but one more or less prolonged. It seems to
take an appreciable time before the sensation of seeing has
again departed. Hence, if a series of pictures lq rapid
succession are allowed to fall upon the eye, provided the
interval between each is sufficiently short in duration, the
pictures combine into one continuous impression. If we
look at a rapidly revolving wheel, the spokes no longer
appear as single objects, but merge iato a semi-transparent
disc. If a briDiant point of light is rapidly revolved, it
appears no longer as a point, but as a circle. These and
the Aerial Graphoscope of Mr. Eric Stuart Bruce, in which
the lantern pictures are thrown upon a whitened lath
ANIMATED LANTEBN PIOTUEES. 103
revolving at a high rate of speed, and so appearing as a
partially opaque screen only, are all examples of the em-
ployment of the principle of persistence of vision. The
Kinetescope of Friese Greene, which Edison's machine,
subsequently introduced and far better known, resembled
at any rate in principle, contained the germ which led to
animated lantern pictures. A long film of celluloid coated
with a sensitive material was passed through a special form
of camera, stopping several times a second, while a shutter
uncapped the lens, and registered an exposure upon it.
In this way upon development a long negative was obtained
consisting entirely of a string of pictures one after the other
all taken from the same standpoint, but each differing from
its neighbours, when the subject was a moving one, by
having the moving object in a slightly different position.
From such a negative it was a comparatively easy matter
to make a positive transparency, and this when illuminated
from behind, and lOoked at through a similar arrangement
to that used for taking the negative, is the Kinetescope
in outline. The eye blends the individual pictures seen
one after another into one continuous view, in which the
moving objects actually appear to move, and the fidelity
with which every motion is registered is very surprising.
For lantern work it became necessary to run the film in
the same way through a lantern, stopping it rapidly, and
when so stopping uncovering the lens so that one picture
after another might faU upon the screen. It must be borne
in mind that in the lantern the images are enlarged up
enormously; aU the defects are magnified in the same
way, and the defects become very much greater than when
the film is simply to be seen as a transparency. This wiU
be realised better when we mention that for convenience
in the photographic and other operations, each individual
picture on the film is not usually much larger than one
and a half square inches.
Space prevents us from describing at any length the many
instruments in the market for showing animated pictures
upon the screen, known as the Biograph, the Kinemato-
graph. etc., etc. They are all alike in principle. A
long band of film is passed between the lens and
104 MODBEN MAGIO LANTEBNS.
condenser. As each picture comes exactly opposite the
lens the film is stopped, the lens uncapped for the picture
to faU on the screen, then capped, and the film moves on
for the next picture to be shown in the same way, the
whole cycle of operations not taking much more than a-
tenth to an-eighth of a second. In some the shutter is dis-
pensed with, and reliance is placed upon the rapidity of the
movement of the film from one picture to the next to mask
such movement from the eye, the duration of such a moving
picture being but a very smaU proportion of that of the
stationary picture. It is necessary in aU of them for the
film to be stopped while its image is thrown upon the
screen, and then moved on.
Practically speaking, an instrument which will project
the pictures can with slight modifications, or with none at
all, be used for taking them, although, as a rule, a special
form of camera is employed for the purpose.
The film is perforated on both sides with holes at a
regular distance from each other. This perforation has
to be most perfectly done to register, as upon it
the perfection of the image when seen on the sheet
depends very largely. Teeth or pins in the apparatus
engage in the perforations, and so convey the film along
its path.
The standard size of film is about Ig inches wide, the
dimensions of the image which is projected being 1| inch
wide by ginch high. In the Lumi6re film there are two
perforations, one on each side, for each picture. In the
Edison film there are four perforations on each side. Some
forms of apparatus are so made that the finished film is
wound up on a spool after use. Before it can be shown
again, however, it has to be rewound, as the wrong end for
commencing is outwards when it has been wound up after
going through the lantern. Very amusing results are some-
times obtained by putting films through the lantern back-
wards. There is in such case a great likelihood of damaging
the film, and it should not be resorted to without fully
understanding the risks which are run, since these long
films are expensive.
The apparatus for taking the picture, as we have already
ANIMATED LANTEBN PIOTUEES. 105
pointed out, is very similar to that employed for projecting
thetn. The spool of film is run through the camera, stopped,
aji exposure made, and it is then passed on until the whole
length, or such part of it as may be required, is exposed.
Development is effected by winding the film on a drum
or spool, so that the sensitive surface is entirely exposed,
and immersing this in a trough of developer, of water, or of
the fixing solution. Printing may be carried out either hj
means of a special apparatus, or, as is the case with the
Lumiere Cinematograph, by the actual projecting and
exposiug arrangement. In the latter the negative is again
wound through the machine, but this time a length of film
coated with a lantern slide emulsion is in contact with it.
The lens of the instrument is removed, and at a suitable
distance in front of the negative film a light is placed.
The two fihns, the negative and the undeveloped trans-
parency, are run into separate receptacles. The latter is
developed, fixed, and washed in the ordinary way, and is
then ready for projection.
Little need be said as to the precautions to be observed,
and the routine to be followed ia working the animated
pictures in the lantern, since most of the information
already given as regards lanterns generally applies equally
to these. In selecting an iastrument attention should be
given not only to the smoothness and freedom from vibra-
tion and movement on the screen with which it works, but
also to the treatment the film itself undergoes in passing
■through the instrument. Fihns cost money, as we have
said before, and in some of the machines we have seen, the
films have got sadly scratched and knocked about with only
a few exhibitions. In examining an apparatus with a view
to seeing whether it works without vibra.ti^n, a film should
be employed which is known to be free from this defect it-
self. If the camera has trembled during exposure the film
wiU register this movement, and there is a likelihood that
when the picture is seen on the screen the spectator might
imagine the vibration, really due to camera movement in
the first place, to be due to imperfections in the projecting
apparatus which it does not possess.
The most unpleasant feature about a display of animated
106 MODERN MAGIO LANTBaNS.
photographs is undoubtedly the flicker, from which no
instrument up to the present is absolutely free. This is due
to some extent to the use of the shutter, by which means the
eye is looking alternately at a brilliantly lit picture and a
darkened screen, and it is doubtful whether such a defect
can ever be perfectly cured. True, the shutter has been
done away with, but even this does not absolutely remedy
the defect. Some of the vibration is undoubtedly due to the
fact that both lantern and camera are usually actuated by
the hand. In the Biograph, one of the latest forms of in-
strument, an electric motor takes the place of the hand
movement, and the circular twist of such an apparatus is
obviously less likely to cause vibration than the recipro-
cating movement of the hand in turning a wheel.
The instrument is at present quite in its earliest stages of
development and there is no doubt that time wUl effect
many improvements in details. The principle is one which
it is almost surprising was not applied to lantern work
before, although the extreme rapidity of the modern dry
plate has undotibtedly rendered the problem which in-
ventors had to solve much easier during the last three or
four years. The mechanism required is not of a very
elaborate character, and although it necessitates very fine
workmanship, it wLU not be long before the best form of
apparatus will be obtainable at prices which will no doubt
lead to an enormous extension in its use.
[antern * =
[enses
Highest Quality only.
(PATENT).
Ttese lenses are specially
constructed for use with
the Optical Lantern and are
not intended for Photo-
graphic purposes. They
will be found to give a
perfectly achromatic image,
combined with an absolutely
flat field, and great bril-
liancy of definition. The
enlargements upon the
Screen are perfectly true
to the original, free from
all distortion, and well de-
fined throughout, whilst the
equality of illumination
obtained is a remarkable
feature.
Each Lens supplied with a
rack and pinion
movement.
Diameter
of front
com-
bination.
Diameter
of back
com-
bination.
Back
focus.
Equiv.
focus.
Price.
No. 1 Lantern Lens
No. 2 Do.
No. 3 Do.
No. 4 Do.
No. 5 Do.
Inches.
14
11
11
3
Inches.
f
f
3i
Inches.
54
Inches.
5
6
8
10
12
£ s. d.
4
5
7 5
910
12
Condensers.
Diameter 34in.
4in.
44in.
Sin.
Double..
£3 10
£4
£5
£6 10
Triple ..
£4 12 6
£5 5
£6 7 6
£8 5
For use with first-class Objectiyes. Made to formulae calculated for the con-
centration of the greatest possible amount of light, and carefully corrected. The
glass employed is the finest obtainable, and free from any striae or similar defects.
It is specially annealed, and — with ordinary care— mii not crack.
For particulars of CINEM/VTOGRAPH LENSES and PHOTO-
GRAPHIC LENSES and CAMERAS, see Illustrated Catalogue,
free on application.
J. H. DALLMEYER, Ltd.,
OPTICAL MANUFACTORY, 25, NEWMAN ST., LONDON. W.
NEWTON & CO., ^ ^VJoVr"'
Scientific Instrument iVlal(ers
To His Majesty the King.
NEWTON & OO.'S Lanterns and Slides arenow
used by the Royal Society, the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, the Royal Dublin Society, the
Science and Art Department, the Royal College t
Science (South Kensington), the Universities
Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dubl
etc., the principal Public Schools, many of tl
County Councils, and the principal foreign U
versitiee, Colles:es, and Scientific Institutions.
THE
"NEWTONIAN"
LIMELIGHT and . . .
ELECTRIC LANTERNS
Have been adopted as the
Official Patterns by the
Admiralty, the War De-
partment, and the London
School Board.
Acetylene fitted to the above, complete
.£3 I OS.
PATENT
H
Demonstrator's" Lantern,
FOR LIMELIGHT
OR ELECTRIC.
With Prism for Erecting:, and
for Vertical Projection.
PRICE £10 10s.
The most simple
and efficient Single
Lantern yet con-
structed forgcneral
scientific work.
NEW CATALOGUE
of Lanterns, Pro-
jection Apparatus,
and Slides, Post
Free, 6 Stamps,
bo e
3 B
INDEX.
Abaorption, to show, 94
Acetylene, 37
Advertising with the lantern, 72
Aerial graphoscope, 102
Alum cell, 89
Anderton's stereoscopic lantern,
98
Animated lantern pictures, 102
Aphengescope, 89
Archer's carrier, 59
Arc lamps, 48
lamps, resistances for, 51
Audience, arrangement of, 70, 72
B.
Bags for gas, 18
Beard's carrier, 58
regulator, 26
Binnial lantern, 55
Blow-through jet, 12, 41, 42
Body of the lantern, 53, 60
Bottles for gas, 25
C.
Cakes for making oxygen, 22
Calculations for objectives, 67
Candle-power of jets, 13
of iacandescent electric light,
46
Carbons for arc lamps, 48
Carriers for slides, 57
Ceil for electrical decomposition,
92
Centreing the light, 76
Chadwick's oxygen retort, 21
Chimneys, adjusting, 9
Chlorate of potash, 22
Chromatrope, 81
Coal-gas, deterioration of, 33
Compressed gases, 25
Condenser, function of, 3, 62
Connections for arc lamps, 51
Corrugated iron gas pipe, 33
County Council Regulations, 74
Crystallization, to show, 91
Curtain slides, 82
Curvature of the field, 66
Cut off for jets, Pringle's, 44
108
INDEX.
Cylinders for gas, 25
contents of, to ascertain, 29
fine adjustment valve for, 30
gauges for, 27
nipples for, 32
regulations, re carriage of, 33
regulators for, 26
strength of, 25
valve-keys for, 30
valves, to test, 81
Decomposition, to show, 92
Developing in the lantern, 86
Dlssolver for oil lamps, 55
Double-wick lamps, 6
E.
Eclipse slide-carrier, 58
Edison-Swan incandescent lamp,
46
Effects, 80
Electric light arc lamps, 48
incandescent, 46
Erecting prism, 88
Ether, 35
Excelsior limes, 15
Fluorescence, to show. 95
Focus of objectives, 66
G.
Galvanometer, lantern, 87
Gas-bags, 18
pressure boards for, 19
Gases, compressed, 25
Gas holders, 20
home-made oxygen, 18, 21
Gauges for cylinders, 27
Gravatt's condenser, 64
Gwyer's jet, 13
Hersohell's condenser, 64
Holders for oxygen, 20
niuminant, necessity for a small, 3
Incandescent electric light, 46
gas light, 37
Ineanto acetylene generator, 37
J.
Jets, 11, 40
angle to the lime of, 45
light yielded by, 44
to centre, 76
Keys for cylinder valves, 30
Einematograph, 102
films for, 103
Kinetesoope, 103
L.
Lamps, oil, 5
Lantern, Andertou's stereoscopic,
98
animated, 102
body, 53
choice of, 2, 4
design of, 60
developing in the, 86
exhibitions, general hints on,
79
experiments, 85
for opaque objects, 89
for vertical projections, 90
front, 56
galvanometer, 87
microscope, 99
parts of, 2
polariscope, 97
slides, standard size, 56
INDEX.
109
Lantern, epectrosoope, 93
the optical system of, 4
for advertising, 72
biunial, 55
for limeligrht, 53
portable, 60
single, 54
tilting stand for, 54
Lenses, preservation of, 68
Lever slides, 81 i
Lights, comparison of powers of,
2, 4
electric arc, 48
electric incandescent, 46
to centre, 76
Lime discs, 15
adjustment of, 14
" Excelsior," 15
pitting of, 13
" Newtonian," 16
"Nottingham," 15
preservation of, 16
shield, 17
substitute for, 17
M,
Manganese oxide, 22
Manipulation of oil lamps, 8
Marking slides properly, 77
Microscope, 99
Mixed jet, 13, 43
Moonligbt effects, 83
Mounted slides, 57
Moving slides, 80
N.
" Newtonian " limes
Newton's disc, 96
Nipples for cylinders, 32
" Nottingham " limes, 15
Objectives, calculations for, 67
curvative of field in, 66
forms of, 65
Oil lamps, 5
directions for using, 8
Opaque objects, showing, 89
Optical system, 4, 62
Optimus lamp, 7
Oxyalcohol light, 41
Oxycaloium jet, 12, 40
Oxygen apparatus, 21
home-made, IS
mixture, 22
to wash, 23
P.
Packing cylinders, 33
Pamphengos lamp, 7
Panoramic slides, 81
Paris Bazaar, fire at, 36
Pneumatic gas-holders, 20
Polariscope, 97
Portable lanterns, 60
Precautions when using gauges, 2f
Preservation of limes, 16
Pressure-boards, 19
Pringle's attachment, 44
Prism for erecting, 88
E.
Railway regulations re oylinderi
33
Bain effects, 82
Regulations, County Council, 74
Regulator for, 26
and gauge combined, 32
Resistances for arc lamps, 51
Revolving slides, 82
Ross arc lamp, 49, 50
limelight lantern, 60
Rubber tubing, 30, 32
S.
Saturators, 35
Sciopticon lantern, 6
" Scissors " arc lamp, 48
Screens, 69
to suspend, 71
110
INDEX.
Sheets for lantern work, 70
Shield for the lime, 17
Slides, carriers for, 57
curtain, 82
frames for, 57
lever, 81
moving, 80
panoramic, 81
preparing for exhibition, 77
proper marking of, 77
revolving, 82
slipping, 81
sweating of, 77
the chromatrope, 81
Smells with oil lamps, 9
Snow and rain effects, 82
Spectroscope, 93
Spotting for slides, 56
Stereoscopic lantern, 98
Substitutes for limes, 17
Tank for lantern experiments, 86
Teaching, the lantern in, 73
Thome and Hoddle's acetylene
apparatus, 37
Tilting stand for lanterns, 54
Tinters, 81
Treble wick lamps, 7
Triunials, effects with, 82
Tubing of gas, 30, 32
Valve, fine adjustment, for
cylinders, 30
Vertical projections, 90
W.
Washing oxygen, 23
Welsbaoh light, 37
Wires for eleotrio light, 52
Z.
Zentmayer erecting prism, 88
London : L. Upcott Gill, London & County Printing Works, Bazaar Buildings, W.C
INDEX
To the Practical Handbooks
Published by L. Upcott Gill, London, and
Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York.
ART. PAOK
CHnRCHES, Old Eno-
USH 6
Dksiqning, Harmonic 7
Old Violins 14
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mental 11
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AMUSEMENTS.
Bazaars and FANcr
' Fairs S
Card Games . . 4, 5, 6, 11,
14,15
conjcrino „.. 5, 14
Entertainments ..5,7,14
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Pool 12
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Books 10
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Stock Records .... 4, 11, 14
GARDENING.
Alpine 3
Beoonias 4
PAGE
Book of Gardening. . 9
Bulbs ^. 4
Cactus „ 5
Carnations 5
Chrysanthemums 6
Cucumbers 7
Dictionary of Gar-
dening 8
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Gardening in Egypt.. 8
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Greenhouse Con-
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Home Gardening 8
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Perennials 9
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HOME.
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PAGE
Polishes and Stains
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Woodworking 4, 10, 12, 15
Workshop Make-
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Aquaria _ 3
Birds' Eggs 4
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Naturalists' Direc-
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Cats 5
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OuineaPigs „.._ 9
Mice «... 10
Pigeons 12
Babbits 13
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Cycling ;■ 7
Ferreting 8
Game Preserving 8
LawnTf,nnis I. 10
Sailing 4, 10, 15
Skating ....„ 14
Trapping 14
Wild Sports 15
Wrestling 15
SEAFARING.
Boatbuilding 4
BoatSailing 4
Sailing Tours „ 13
SeaLife 13
SeaTerms 13
Yachting Yarns 10
TOURING.
Friesland Meres 8
Route Map 7
Seaside Watering
Places 13
Welsh Mountaineer-
ing _ io
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Fool, Games of. Describing Various English and American Pool Games, and
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Solo ISrhlst. Its Whys and Wherefores. A Progressive and Clear Method
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Sporting Books, Illustrated. A Descriptive Survey of a Collection of
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Taxidermy, Practical. A Manual of Instruction to the Amateur in Collect-
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Yamp, Houir to. A Practical Guide to the Accompaniment of Songs by the
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Vegetable Culture for Amateurs. Containing Concise Directions for the
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Ventriloquism, Practical. A thoroughly reliable Guide to the Art of
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Violin School, Practical, for Home Students. Instructions and Exercises
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Yiyarlnm, The. Being a Full Description of the most Interesting Snakes,
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ment. By Eev. G. C. Bateman. Beautifully Illustrated. In doth gilt, price
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War Medals and Decorations. A Manual for Collectors, with some
account of Civil Rewards for Valour. By D. Hastings Irwin. Third Edition,
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the Medals, Clasps, and other Decorations in connection with various Wars
and Events up to November, 1903. Beautifully Illustrated. In cloth gilt, price
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Whippet and Bace-Dog, The : How to Breed, Bear, Train, Eace, and
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Whist, Bridge : Its Whys and Wherefores. The Game taught by Reason
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W^hist, How to Vrin at Bridge. A Popular and Practical Guide to the
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ISThlst, Solo: Its Whys and Wherefores. A Progressive and Clear Method
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Wild Sports in Ireland. Being Picturesque and Entertaining Descriptions of
several visits paid to Ireland, with Practical Hints lilcely to be of service to the
Angler, Wildf owler, and Yachtsman. By John Bickerdtke, Author of " The
Book of the All-Round Angler," cfcc. Beautifully illustrated from Photographs
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WindOTw Ticket Writing. Containing full instructions on the Method of
Mixing and using the Various Inks, &c., required, Hints on Stencilling a.^
applied to Ticket Writing, together with Lessons on Glass Writing, Japanning
on Tin, &c. Especialliy written for the use of Learners and Shop Assistants.
By Wm. C. Scott. In paper, price 1/-, by pbst 1/2.
Wire and Sheet Gauges of the W^orld. Compared and Co;npiled by
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Wood Carving for Amateurs. Full instnictions for producing all the
different varieties of Carvings. SECOND EDITION. Edited by D. DENNING.
In paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2.
Workshop makeshifts. Being a Collection of Practical Hints and
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Wrestling. A Practical Handbook upon the Catch-hold and Graeco-Roman
Styles of Wrestling ; a splendid system of Athletic Training. By Percy Lono-
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