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THE  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


TEXT-BOOK   SERIES 
Edited  by  PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D. 


TEXT-BOOK  IN  THE   PEINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  Eenbst  N.  Henderson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education  and 
Philosophy,  Adelphi  College. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

By  Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  of  Education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

TEXT-BOOK  IN  THE   HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D. 
SOURCE  BOOK  IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION.     For 
THE  Greek  and  Rohan  Period. 
By  Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D. 
STATE  AND  COUNTY  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION. 

Vol.    I.    Tbit-book  of  Principles.      In  Preparation. 

Vol.  II.     SouBOE  Book. 

By  Ellwood  P.  Cubbeblet,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education, 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  and  Edward  C.  Elliott, 

Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

STATE  AND  COUNTY  EDUCATIONAL  REORGANIZATION. 

By  Ellwood  P.  Cubbbelet,  Ph.D. 
A    HISTORY     OF    THE     FAMILY    AS     A    SOCIAL    AND 
EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTION. 
By    WiLLTSTiNE   GooDSELL,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

DEMOCRACY  AND  EDUCATION.     An  Introduction  to  the 
Philosophy  op  Education. 

By  John  Dewet,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Columbia 
University. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING. 

By  Geokge  R.  Twiss,  B.  So.,  Professor  of  the  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Education,  Ohio  State  University. 

THE   PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

By  Thomas  Albxandee,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Elementary  Edu- 
cation, George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers. 

A   HISTORY   OF  EDUCATION  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 
By  Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D.  In  Preparation. 


THE  PRUSSIAN 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 
THOMAS  ALEXANDER,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 
GEORGE  PEABODY   COLLEGE  FOR  TEACHERS 


Weto  got* 

THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1918 


All  rishts  reserved 
S 


COPYBIGBT,  1918, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 
Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  January,  19x8. 


I^otfaioal)  ^tess 

J.  S.  Cnshing  Go.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Go. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  tJ.8.A, 


PREFACE 

The  following  study  of  the  Prussian  elementary  schools  was 
made  during  the  year  and  a  half  preceding  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War.  In  setting  forth  the  facts  there  has  been  Uttle  at- 
tempt to  draw  any  conclusions.  We  believe,  however,  that  a 
careful  study  of  the  Prussian  school  system  will  convince  any 
imbiased  reader  that  the  Prussian  citizen  cannot  be  free  to  do 
and  act  for  himself;  that  the  Prussian  is  to  a  large  measure 
enslaved  through  the  medium  of  his  school ;  that  his  learning, 
instead  of  making  him  his  own  master,  forges  the  chain  by  which 
he  is  held  in  servitude ;  that  the  whole  scheme  of  Prussian  elemen- 
tary education  is  shaped  with  the  express  purpose  of  making 
ninety-five  out  of  every  hundred  citizens  subservient  to  the 
ruling  house  and  to  the  state. 

The  elementary  schools  of  Prussia  have  been  fashioned  so  as 
to  make  spiritual  and  intellectual  slaves  of  the  lower  classes. 
The  schools  have  been  used  almost  exclusively  to  establish  more 
firmly  the  HohenzoUern  upon  his  throne.  The  present  Emperor 
wrote  in  1889 :  "We  have  thought  for  a  long  time  of  making  use 
of  the  schools  in  combating  the  spread,  of  socialistic  and  com- 
munistic ideas.  .  .  .  The  schools  must  create  in  the  youth  the 
conviction  that  the  doctrines  of  socialism  are  contrary  not  only 
to  God's  decrees  and  Christian  moral  teaching,  but  in  reality 
incapable  of  application  and  destructive  both  to  the  individual 
and  the  state.  The  schools  .  .  .  must  impress  on  the  youth  how 
Prussian  kings  have  continually  taken  pains  to  better  the  condi- 
tions of  the  working  class  from  the  time  of  the  legal  reforms  of 
Frederick  the  Great  down  until  to-day."  ^ 

'  See  page  398  ff. ;  also  page  30  S. 


VI  PREFACE 

The  Prussian  elementary  school  is  the  best  in  the  world  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  upper  classes  of  Germany.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  lower  classes  it  is  the  worst  system,  for  it 
takes  from  them  all  hope  of  improving  their  condition  in  life. 
The  Prussian  method  of  education  has  produced  a  people  that 
moves  as  one  man  at  the  command  of  its  king.  The  result 
is  exactly  the  same  as  if  one  would  take  an  infant  and  teach  him 
only  one  word  to  be  used  in  response  to  all  situations  —  in  Ger- 
many this  word  is  "Fatherland." 

There  are  many  excellent  features  of  the  Prussian  school 
system ;  there  are  many  things  which  we  would  do  well  to  study 
carefully.  The  Prussian  king's  conception  of  education  for  the 
lower  classes,  however,  is  directly  opposed  to  everything 
American. 

We  wish  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  in  the  preparation 
of  this  study  to  the  following  workers  in  the  field  of  education : 
Dean  James  E.  Russell,  Teachers  College;  Dr.  Frederick  E. 
Farrington,  Headmaster,  Chevy  Chase  School,  Washington, 
D.C.,  and  formerly  Professor  of  Comparative  Education, 
Teachers  College ;  Dr.  Paul  Monroe,  Teachers  College ;  Mr.  John 
C.  Mills,  Kirksville,  Mo. ;  Mr.  Bolton  Smith,  Memphis,  Ten- 
nessee; Miss  Lula  O.  Andrews,  Professor  of  EngUsh,  George 
Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  Nashville,  Tennessee ;  and  to  a 
great  number  of  German  teachers  who  gave  much  of  their  time 
and  energy. 

The  Author. 


CONTENTS 


CHAFTEE 

1.  Development  of  the  Prussian  Volksschule 

2.  Administration  of  the  Prussian  Schools 

3.  General  Relationship  of  School  Systems    . 

4.  Statistics  of  the  Prussian  Elementary  Schools 

5.  School  Attendance 

6.  School  Management 

7.  School  Hygiene 

8.  Extracurricular  and  Benevolent  Activities 

9.  Preparation  of  the  Elementary  School  Teacher 

10.  Teachers'  Salaries 

11.  Teachers'  Pensions 

12.  Organization  of  the  Volksschulen  and  Courses  of  Study 

13.  Methods   of   Instruction  and    Organization    of   Subject 

Matter 

14.  General  Methods  in  German  Elementary  Schools     . 

15.  Religion 

16.  German—  Reading 

17.  Arithmetic  —  Geometry 

18.  History 

19.  Geography 

20.  Biology 

21.  Physics  and  Chemistry 

22.  Sewing 

23.  Cooking 

24.  Singing 

vii 


PAGE 

I 

54. 

79^ 

91 
104 
116 
126 
139 
1 59 
187 
213 
220 

257 
271 
286 
304 
349 
392 
429 

452 
475 
488 
496 
506 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAG" 

25.  Drawing Si4 

26.  Manual  Training .       •       •  5^4 

27.  Physical  Training 5^9 

28.  Conclusion 537 

Appendix — Bibliography SS7 


THE  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  I 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN   VOLKSSCHULE 

During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  there  were  a 
number  of  church  schools  in  Germany,  which  were  calculated  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  upper  classes  of  society  and  the  Middle 
needs  of  the  church.  At  a  somewhat  later  time,  in  the  *ses 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  there  grew  up  in  the  cities  of 
Germany  a  large  number  of  Latin  schools  and  German  schools, 
schools  in  which  German  was  used,  known  as  Schreibschulen, 
Rechenschulen,  or  Winkelschulen.  These  schools  of  the  latter 
type  were  called  into  existence  by  a  need  felt  by  the  rich  citizens 
of  the  larger  medieval  cities  for  the  instruction  of  their  children 
along  somewhat  more  practical  lines  than  the  mere  study  of 
Latin.  The  writing-schools  and  arithmetic-schools  were  the 
beginnings  of  the  later  citizen-schools  {Burgerschulen)  and  we 
can  see  therein  the  origin  of  the  Volksschule  of  to-day.  But  in 
the  lands  of  the  Brandenburgers  a  Volksschule,  in  the  present- 
day  sense  of  the  word,  scarcely  existed  at  that  time  even  in  the 
larger  cities,  and  most  certainly  not  in  the  country. 

The  Reformation  brought  a  change  in  Brandenburg  as  well 
as  in  other  parts  of  Germany.     The  leaders  of  the  reform  move- 
ment wanted  every  Protestant  child  to  receive  some  ^he 
training  in  the  catechism,  reading,  and  singing,  and  ^i^^-  ^ 
consequently  schools  had  to  be  established  for  this  pur-  sacristan- 
pose.    In  the  larger  villages  the  pastor  was  to  give  this  ^^°°^ 
instruction,  but  in  the  smaller  places  the  sexton  or  sacristan  was 
the  teacher,  and  hence  the  name  sacristan-schools.    And  just 


2  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

here  the  church  got  its  firm  hold  upon  the  elementary  schools, 
for  the  sacristans  or,  indeed,  the  pastors  became  the  future 
elementary  school-teachers.  The  sextons  or  the  pastors  re- 
ceived no  salaries  except  that  they  might  receive  some  articles 
of  food  or  fuel  from  the  parents  of  their  pupils.  At  that  time 
there  were  no  special  schoolhouses  and  the  living-room  of  the 
teacher  served  as  a  classroom.  These  sextons  were  generally 
uneducated  hand-workers,  with  no  professional  training  at  all, 
the  chief  requirements  being  piety  and  orthodoxy.  Teaching 
consisted  chiefly  in  giving  out  passages  of  Scripture  to  be  memo- 
rized, and  later  hearing  the  recital  of  these  passages. 

In  various  provinces  and  principalities  which  to-day  form  a 
part  of  Prussia,  there  were  school  regulations  dealing  with 
Volksschulen,  issued  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies. That  of  Pomerania  was  issued  in  1563.  Duke  Johann 
Georg  had  one  drawn  up  for  Brandenburg  in  1573 ;  the  Great 
Elector  issued  the  school  regulation  for  Cleve  in  1662  ;  and  still 
another  was  pubUshed  for  the  same  principality  in  1687.  Not 
much,  however,  was  accomplished  for  the  Volksschulen  in  Prussia 
in  a  practical  way  until  the  accession  of  Frederick  WilKam  I,  in 
1 7 13.  Previous  to  his  time  the  progress  of  theory  had  far  out- 
run practice,  and  though  many  school  laws  were  already  in 
existence,  very  few,  if  any,  were  in  successful  operation.  The 
schools  were  very  poor,  and  the  teachers,  without  much  prep- 
aration of  any  kind,  even  worse.  A  very  interesting  report  ^ 
of  the  examination  of  candidates  for  a  teaching  position  makes 
very  clear  what  kind  of  instruction  the  children  received  in  the 
German  schools  even  as  late  as  1729,  the  date  of  this  report. 

Five  applicants  reported  for  a  vacant  position,  with  whom  a  singing 
examination  was  undertaken  in  the  church  before  the  whole  community. 

I.  Martin  Ott,  shoemaker,  thirty  years  old,  sang  in  the  church: 
(o)  Christ  lag  in  Todesbanden;   (6)  Jesus,  mein  Zuversicht;   (c)  Sieh  hier 

'  Paulig,  Friedrich  I,  Konig  von  Preussen,  p.  278  ff. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE        3 

bin  ich,  Ehrenkonig.  Has  much  melody  to  learn ;  his  voice  could  be  better. 
He  read  Genesis  10 :  26 ;  spelled  verses  26-29.  The  reading  was  that  of  a 
beginner.  In  spelling  he  made  several  mistakes.  He  read  three  kinds  of 
handwriting,  fairly  weU.  He  answered  three  questions  based  on  general 
intelligence.  He  wrote  three  lines  of  dictation,  —  four  mistakes.  He  did 
not  know  anything  at  aU  about  arithmetic. 

2.  Jacob  Maehl,  weaver,  who  has  passed  fifty  years  on  earth,  sang: 
(a)  0  Mensch,  hewein;  (b)  Zieh'  ein  zu  deinen  Thoren;  (c)  Wer  nur  den 
liehen  Gott  Idssi  walten.  Melody  went  over  into  many  other  tunes ;  voice 
should  be  stronger;  squeaked  several  times.  He  read  Joshua  19:1-7, 
making  ten  errors ;  spelled  Joshua  18  :  23-26,  without  an  error ;  read  three 
different  handwritings  with  hesitation;  answered  questions  from  general 
knowledge,  in  which  he  gave  satisfaction.  He  wrote  three  Unes  of  dicta- 
tion, making  five  errors.    He  knew  nothing  of  arithmetic. 

3.  PhiUip  Hopp,  tailor,  already  an  old,  little,  infirm  man  of  sixty.  He 
sang  (a)  Ein  Ldmmlein  geht;  (b)  Mitten  wir  im  Leben.  He,  possessing  voice 
like  a  bawling  calf,  also  fell  into  the  wrong  tune.  He  read  Joshua  19 :  7-12 
poorly,  and  spelled  very  miserably ;  failed  on  all  three  questions  on  general 
knowledge;  attempted  to  read  three  different  handwritings  and  failed; 
wrote  only  three  words  of  the  dictation,  which  he  could  not  read  himself,  so 
we  refrain  from  speaking  of  it.  Arithmetic  was  unknown  to  him,  —  he 
counted  on  his  fingers. 

4.  Johann  Schiitt,  tinker,  has  wandered  fifty  years  on  this  earth,  sang 
the  following :  (a)  O  Ewigkeit,  das  Donnerwort;  (b)  Eine  ist  not;  (c)  Liebster 
Jesu,  wir  sind  hier,  with  considerable  applause.  Spelled  Genesis  10 :  13-18, 
not  at  all  badly.  In  the  catechism  one  noticed  that  he  was  not  in  good 
practice  in  some  parts ;  wrote  three  lines  of  dictation,  making  ten  mistakes. 
He  understood  only  addition  in  arithmetic. 

5.  Frederick  Loth,  under  officer,  forty-five  years  of  age,  made  a  cam- 
paign m  regiment  against  Sweden  and  thereby  lost  a  leg.  He  sang  the 
following:  {a)  Christ  lag  in  Todesbanden ;  (6)  Allein  Gott  in  der  Hoh';  pos- 
sessed strong  voice  without  melody;  read  slowly  three  handwritings.  He 
knew  the  catechism  and  did  fairly  well  on  four  questions  on  general  knowl- 
edge. In  three  lines  of  dictation  he  made  eight  errors.  He  knew  addition 
and  a  Uttle  subtraction. 

It  was  unanimously  felt  that  Jacob  Maehl  was  the  most  capable  in 
comparison  with  the  others,  especially  with  the  tinker,  who  was  not  to  be 
trusted,  since  he  tramped  about  the  country  a  great  deal,  or  with  the  officer, 
because  he  might  be  suspected  of  using  his  sword  too  severely  upon  the 


4  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

poor  youngster^,  which  might  cause  grievous  pain  to  the  sjrmpathizing 
mothers,  and  besides,  there  is  a  difference  to  be  made  between  rough  soldiers 
and  such  little  worms  (children).  The  pastor  had  a  vote  taken,  and  Maehl 
was  unanimously  elected.  After  the  vote  had  been  taken  the  decision,  to- 
gether with  the  necessary  warning  as  to  conduct,  was  announced  to  the  suc- 
cessM  candidate  and  he  was  also  informed  that  he  should  come  inunediately. 
Hereupon,  these  minutes  were  drawn  up  and  signed  with  the  blessing  of 
the  pastor  and  with  mutual  satisfaction  both  on  his  part  and  on  the  part 
of  the  community. 

After  Melanchthon's  death  the  Lutheran  church  and  doc- 
trines became  more  and  more  dogmatic,  even  more  so  than  the 
Pietism-  Roman  church  had  been  before  the  Reformation. 
Spener  and  This  period  of  dogmatism  continued  until  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  there  arose  3.  new  ref- 
ormation within  the  ranks  of  the  Lutherans.  This  new  move- 
ment was  known  as  pietism.  It  was  a  demand  for  the  expres- 
sion of  piety  and  devotion  in  individual  action.  Human  con- 
duct was  to  be  guided  by  inner  reverence,  devotion,  and  a  con- 
ception of  religion.  The  leaders  of  the  new  tendency  in  religious 
life  held  that  the  evils  of  the  day  were  due  to  the  poor  and  in- 
sufiBicient  training  which  the  children  received,  in  that  they  did 
not  know  or  understand  the  things  they  learned  in  school.  The 
pietists  insisted  on  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  religious  teaching  rather  than  a  mere  memorization. 
As  they  believed  in  religious  affairs  that  doctrine  and  practice 
should  be  united,  so  also  they  held  that  the  thing  and  the  object 
should  be  connected  in  the  schools.  Inasmuch  as  the  pietists 
believed  in  the  total  depravity  of  man,  it  devolved  upon  them 
to  provide  education  as  a  discipline  for  the  conduct  of  life.  And 
this  they  did,  providing  schools  especially  for  the  poor,  who 
were  very  much  neglected  during  this  century.  The  pietistic 
movement,  though  primarily  religious,  had  a  great  influence 
upon  elementary  schools  during  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  due  to  the  fact  that  up  to  this  time  all  elementary  edu- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE        5 

cation  was  predominantly  instruction  in  religion.  The  aim  of 
the  school,  according  to  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  pietists, 
was  a  living  knowledge  of  God,  which  would  produce  good 
citizenship. 

Jacob  Spener  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
pietistic  movement.  His  work,  however,  was  more  directly 
connected  with  the  church  than  with  the  school.  To  Spener 
was  due  the  general  practice  of  confirming  children  at  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  year.  It  is  true  that  the  confirmation  service 
had  existed  before  this  time,  but  imder  Spener's  influence  con- 
firmation came  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  closing  point  of  the 
education  of  all  children  who  did  not  intend  to  go  to  higher 
schools.  It  came  in  time  to  mark  the  end  of  the  compulsory 
education  period,  and  so  until  to-day  confirmation  and  leaving 
the  Volksschule  are  synchronous.  Religious  instruction  was  also 
benefited  in  that  a  definite  aim,  confirmation,  was  set  for  it. 
Spener's  method  of  teaching  the  catechism  was  different  from 
that  which  had  preceded.  Hitherto,  catechism  and  other  re- 
ligious work  had  been  merely  a  matter  of  memory,  —  learning  of 
words.  Spener  insisted  on  an  understanding  knowledge  of  all 
that  was  learned,  and  to  accomplish  his  end  he  developed  a  sys- 
tem of  questions  and  answers,  which  was  an  improvement  over 
the  old  method.  This  new  catechetical  method  had  also  an 
influence  on  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  the  other 
subjects. 

Still  greater  in  his  influence  upon  the  Volkssckulen  was  August 

Hermann  Francke,  born  in  1663.    He  became  a  professor  at  the 

University  of  Halle  in  1691,  and  at  the  same  time  „ 

,  Francke 

became  pastor  of  the  church  at  Glaucha.    The  "  ragged 

school"  or  orphanage  at  HaUe,  which  Francke  founded,  together 

with  a  number  of  other  types  of  schools,  exerted  a  great  influence 

over  the  development  of  the  German  Volksschule.    During  the 

century  following  a  large  number  of  orphanages  were  founded, 


6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

modeled  after  the  one  at  Halle.  The  chief  aim  of  such  schools 
was  the  development  of  Christian  character.  Religion,  as 
hitherto,  held  the  chief  place  in  the  curriculum.  Francke,  how- 
ever, held  that  other  subjects  were  equally  necessary  for  the  poor 
youths;  and  consequently,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary science,  geography,  history,  government,  and  hand- 
work were  each  given  a  place  in  the  curriculum.^ 

The  instruction  in  religion  in  the  typical  school  founded  by 
Francke  consisted  of  the  catechism,  and  passages  from  the 
Bible,  and  reading  of  the  Bible.  Catechism  work  was 
Vol^^chuie  the  most  important.  The  method,  briefly,  was  the 
recitation  of  the  Lutheran  catechism,  and  explanation 
of  it,  and  then  application  of  its  principles  to  the  daily  life  of  the 
children.  Almost  one  half  of  the  time  was  devoted  to  religion, 
and  in  some  schools  very  nearly  all  of  the  time  was  given  to  this 
subject.  However,  in  the  school  at  HaUe  an  equal  munber  of 
hours  was  devoted  to  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  singing 
as  was  given  to  religion.  The  method  in  reading  was  as  follows : 
The  teacher  began  by  writing  the  letters  on  the  board,  pro- 
nouncing the  name  of  each  letter,  and  having  the  children  re- 
peat them,  and  later  pick  out  the  same  letters  in  their  books. 
The  next  step  was  syllabication  and  spelling.  After  the  children 
had  practiced  reading  the  syllables  in  their  primers,  they  used 
their  catechism  books  for  further  exercise  of  this  nature.  The 
Bible  was  used  as  a  reader,  for  there  was  no  special  reading 
book.  Writing  was  also  considered  to  be  very  important,  but 
the  method  was  peculiar.  The  teacher  made  copies  for  the 
children  who  were  just  beginning,  and  the  children  would  simply 
write  over  the  letters  made  by  the  teacher.  In  1705  printed 
copies  were  furnished  by  the  teacher.  Guide  lines  were  also 
used  in  order  to  teach  the  children  to  write  straight.    Arithmetic 

1  Schmid,  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  III,  Schulordnungen  der  Francke'schen 
Stiftungen. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE        7 

was  begun  after  the  children  could  read.  The  four  fundamental 
processes,  numeration,  and  the  rule  of  three  was  the  course, 
though  sometimes  fractions  were  taught.  Later,  however,  de- 
nominate numbers,  i.e.  marks,  hundredweight,  etc.,  etc.,  were 
taught  in  order  to  show  the  value  of  arithmetic.  Examples  were 
solved  on  the  board,  at  least  one  example  a  day.  The  pupil 
would  solve,  describing  the  processes  as  he  went  to  the  listening 
class.  This  method  is  still  the  most  common  one  as  far  as 
board  work  is  concerned  in  the  schools  which  we  have  visited. 
Music  had  also  quite  a  place  in  the  schools  for  it  was  closely  con- 
nected with  singing  in  the  church.  Musical  notation  was 
taught  the  boys,  while  the  girls  learned  only  rote  singing.  The 
other  subjects  mentioned  in  the  Schulordnung  were  barely 
touched.  The  theory  and  practice  in  Francke's  school,  as  in 
others,  were  not  always  on  speaking  terms.^ 

Perhaps  the  greatest  service  of  Francke  to  the  German  school 
system  was  the  foundation  of  the  Seminarium  praceptorum,  the 
normal  training  school,  where  not  only  elementary  seminarium 
school-teachers  were  prepared,  but  also  where  students  prxcepto- 
entering  other  fields  could  obtain  pedagogical  training. 
This  Seminarium  at  HaUe  became  the  model  for  institutions 
for  training  of  elementary  teachers  throughout  all  Germany. 

Another  service  of  the  work  of  Francke  at  Halle  consisted  in 
the  issuance  of  a  school  regulation,  which  was  copied  in  many 
states  and  principalities  of  Germany.  Though  all  differed  some- 
what from  the  original  regulation  at  HaUe,  they  show  Francke's 
influence,  just  as  the  regulations  of  the  previous  century  showed 
the  influence  of  the  Schulmethodus  of  Gotha.  The  Schulord- 
nung of  the  schools  at  Halle  was  issued  in  1702,  that  of  Wal- 
deck  in  1704,  Saxony  in  1724,  Wiirttemberg  1728,  and  Prussia 
in  1736. 

1  Eckstein,  Die  Gestalkmg  der  Volksschule  durch  den  Prancke'schm  Pietismus, 
Leipzig,  1867. 


8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

It  is  very  difficult  to  say  just  exactly  what  the  results  of 
pietism  were.  At  least,  one  is  justified  in  saying  that  more 
general  education  was  provided  for  the  poor,  that  the 
liitism*  beginnings  of  teacher  training  were  begun  under  the 
■I  leader  of  the  movement,  and  that  the  method  of  teach- 
ing by  pure  memorization  received  a  setback,  though  to  no 
great  degree,  in  view  of  the  extent  to  which  it  is  still  employed 
in  Germany  to-day. 

Rousseau's  educational  theories  transplanted  on  German  soil 
gave  rise  to  a  movement  known  as  fhilanthropinism,  amove- 
Phaanthrop-  ment  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  forerunner  of 
"^*™  the  newer  pedagogy,  although  it  had  not  so  very 

much  direct  influence  upon  the  elementary  schools  of  the  time. 
The  period  of  childhood  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  was  one  of 
torture.  School  was  a  place  of  punishment.  Memorization 
was  almost  the  sole  method  of  instruction  and  the  rod  furnished 
the  chief  incentive. 

A  list  of  punishments  and  the  number  inflicted  during  a 

Conditions     Period  of  service  of  fifty-two  years,  has  been  left  us 

in  the  by  a  Swabian  elementary  school  teacher.*    It  is  an 

interesting  commentary  on  the  school  Kfe  of  the  time. 

Frederick  William  I  has  been  called  the  father  of  the  Prussian 
Volksschule.  He  was  deeply  imbued  with  the  conviction  that 
Frederick  Cultivation  of  mind  and  heart  was  the  firm  foundation 
WiUiam  I  Qf  jjjg  people's  happiness.  He  made  the  beginning  of 
this  foundation  on  which  the  elementary  school  system  in 
Prussia  rests  to-day.  The  schools  in  1713,  the  year  of  Frederick 
William's  accession  to  the  throne,  belonged  to  the  church,  and 
only  in  so  far  as  the  state  controlled  the  administration  of  the 
church  had  the  state  had  anything  at  all  to  do  with  the  schools. 
Up  to  this  time  the  chief  aim  of  the  school  and  its  work  had  been 
to  prepare  the  children  to  take  part  in  the  life  of  the  church. 
'  Strack,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volksschulwesens,  p.  27-5. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE        9 

Frederick  William  did  not  change  this  suddenly,  but  he  took  the 
first  step  in  making  the  elementary  school  an  institution  of  the 
state,  a  task  which  even  now  has  not  been  fully  completed. 
He  set  a  general  training  as  the  aim  of  the  Volksschule. 

Frederick  William  I  had  scarcely  ascended  the  throne,  when  he 
issued  the  first  general  school  law,  known  as  the  Reformierte 
Gymnasien-  und  Schulordnung  v.  24.  Oktober  1713}  It  was  in 
itself  not  complete,  but  was  enlarged  from  time  to  time  by 
various  edicts.  This  regulation  or  law  shows  very  distinctly 
the  influence  of  Francke  in  that  the  chief  weight  was  laid  upon 
education  such  as  would  make  the  children  pious  and  God- 
fearing. In  1 7 1 5  another  regulation  was  issued  which  established 
inspection  of  the  schools.  This  inspection  was  placed,  of  course, 
in  the  hands  of  the  clergy.  Clerical  supervision  was  by  no 
means  new  in  Germany.  Largely  as  a  result  of  this  law  it  came 
about  that  in  later  years  the  supervision  of  the  schools  lay  so 
largely  in  the  hands  of  the  local  pastors  and  the  superintendents. 
The  inspection  concerned  itself  chiefly  with  the  ability  and 
character  of  the  teachers  and  the  methods  employed. 
j  In  1 71 7  the  king  issued  a  general  compulsory  attendance  law. 
Parents  were  required  to  send  their  children  to  school  regularly 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  twelve.  The  tuition  for  compuisoiy 
each  pupil  amounted  to  five  Pfennige  a  week,  or  a  little  attendance 
more  than  one  cent  in  American  money.  The  term  of  com- 
pulsory attendance  extended  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year,  but 
in  reality  they  could  be  held  in  school  until  they  were  considered 
sufficiently  equipped  in  religion,  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic. Peculiarly  enough  the  termination  of  the  compulsory 
period  in  Prussia  to-day  is  not  set  at  any  definite  date,  but  ends 
with  confirmation,  or  at  the  time  when  the  school  and  church 
authorities  decide  that  the  child  has  acquired  sufficient  knowl- 
edge. I  This  point  is  commonly  accepted  to  be  at  the  end  of  the 
'■  Vormbaum,  Band  I,  210  ff. 


lO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

fourteenth  year.  It  only  goes  to  show  how  strong  the  hold  of 
custom  is  upon  the  schools.  ^  It  must  not  be  understood  that 
this  compulsory  school  regulation  was  fully  enforced  right  from 
the  very  start.  In  the  country  especially  it  was  not  enforced, 
first  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  parents,  although  the  law 
provided  for  such  cases,  and  second,  because  of  the  xmwilling- 
ness  of  the  patrons  (landlords)  to  support  the  schools.\  The 
king  had  the  soldiers  taught  in  order  to  increase  the  number  of 
those  who  could  read  and  write,  and  also  ordered  that  no  one 
should  be  confirmed  who  could  not  read.  These  regulations 
applied  to  all  Prussian  lands  except  Cleve.  The  schools  in 
Pomerania  were,  or  had  been,  neglected,  and  the  king  issued 
numerous  regulations  for  the  benefit  of  that  province.^  For 
the  most  part,  these  regulations  were  repetitions  of  earlier  ones 
during  his  reign,  but  Article  3  of  the  regulation  of  July  6,  1735, 
is  of  special  interest  in  that  it  says:  "Pastors  must  employ  no 
teacher  without  an  examination,  or  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
presiding  officer  (prcspositus)  of  the  synod."  This  was  indeed  a 
great  step  in  advance,  though,  to  be  sure,  the  requirements  of 
this  examination  were  not  very  severe.  In  another  regulation 
for  the  Pomeranian  schools,  in  1736,^  general  school  and  church 
conferences  were  ordered  for  every  three  years.  These  con- 
ferences were  to  discuss  the  conditions  of  the  schools  and  meas- 
ures to  be  taken  for  their  betterment.  They  determined  whether 
there  were  teachers  or  sacristans  in  all  communities,  and  whether 
the  teachers  had  been  examined.  Salaries,  methods  of  teaching, 
conditions  of  school  buildings,  and  the  teacher's  dwelling  also 
came  in  for  reports  and  discussion. 

The  schools  in  Pomerania  were  supported  according  to  the 

regulations  of  a  rescript  of  1737.     In  general,  the  teachers  were 

paid  out  of  funds  obtained  by  the  rent  of  common  lands  and 

tuition  fees.    Article  s  of  this  rescript  throws  an  amusing  light 

'  Ronne,  I.  TeQ,  p.  126  £E.  z  Ibid. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      ii 

on  the  social  condition  of  the  teacher.  It  is  as  follows :  ^  "  Only 
such  persons  shall  be  employed  as  teachers,  who  can  do  work 
outside  of  school  and  thereby  earn  something,  so 
that  they  will  not  become  entirely  a  burden  to 
the  community."  There  were  other  regulations  by  the  king 
which  affected  the  social  position  of  the  teacher.  In  1722 
Frederick  WUliam  decreed  that  the  only  handworkers  who  could 
be  employed  as  teachers  were  tailors,  weavers,  smiths,  wheel- 
wrights, and  carpenters.  Again,  in  the  "Declaration  of  May  2, 
1736,"  he  ordained  that  teachers,  who  also  followed  the  tailoring 
trade,  could  employ  no  more  than  two  helpers  and  could  make 
clothes  for  the  peasants  only.  Still  again,  in  a  rescript,  the  king 
ordered  that  outside  of  the  sacristan  and  teachers  there  should 
be  no  tailors  in  the  country  communities  at  all.  It  is  perfectly 
clear  from  such  regulations  that  it  never  occurred  to  any  one  that 
a  teacher  should  not  also  have  a  trade,  and  it  was  not  until  a 
long  time  after  this  that  the  country  teacher  was  made  inde- 
pendent of  outside  work.  At  that  time  a  teacher's  salary  was 
reckoned  in  tuition  fees,  income  from  the  trade,  wood  and  food 
furnished  by  the  community,  and  use  of  land,  the  latter  two 
of  which  items  survive  until  to-day. 

The  condition  of  the  schools  in  East  Prussia  was  particularly 
poor.  In  order  to  regulate  and  encourage  the  establishment  of 
new  country  schools  in  this  province,  Frederick  William  issued 
in  1736  the  Principia  Regulativa,  a  general  plan  for  the  foun- 
dation and  support  of  elementary  schools.**  The  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  law  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  associated  communities  shall  establish  and  support 
schoolhouses  just  as  they  do  parish  houses. 

2.  His  majesty  will  furnish  free  building  material.  Doors, 
windows,  and  stoves  will  be  provided  from  the  common  funds. 

'  Ronne,  I.  Teil,  p.  124  ff. 

2  Lewin,  Geschichte  der  Entwicklung  der  preussischen  Volksschule,  p.  SS  ff- 


12  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

3.  His  majesty  will  furnish  fuel  free,  which  the  communities 
must  deliver. 

4.  Every  church,  in  the  city  as  well  as  in  the  country,  shall 
pay  four  (4)  Thaler  ($3.00)  every  year  for  the  support  of  the 
teacher,  in  return  for  which  the  pastor  shall  require  the  teacher 
to  help  in  the  church  service,  that  is,  in  cleaning  the  church. 
The  praecentores  receive  no  part  of  the  four  Thaler,  which  are 
solely  for  the  maintenance  of  the  teacher. 

5.  Also  for  the  benefit  of  the  teacher  a  cow  and  a  calf,  a 
couple  of  swine,  and  some  poultry  are  kept  free  on  the  com- 
mons, and  some  hay  and  straw  are  furnished  free. 

6.  The  teacher  receives  a  M  or  gen  of  land  from  the  king.  .  .  . 
The  community  work  the  land  and  keep  it  in  good  condition. 

7.  The  teacher  also  receives  from  all  the  peasants  of  his  dis- 
trict one  fourth  Schefel  of  rye,  and  two  Metzen  of  barley  (one 
Scheffel  is  about  fifty-five  liters  or  sixteen  Metzen)  for  each  Hufe 
of  land  {Hufe  of  land  is  equal  to  seven  and  a  half  Hectars  or 
thirty  Morgen).  .  .  . 

8.  Every  pupil  from  the  age  of  five  to  twelve  pays  the  teacher 
yearly  fifteen  Prussian  Groschen  (forty-five  Pfennige). 

Thanks  to  Frederick  William's  increasing  efforts  the  actual 
conditions  of  the  schools  were  greatly  improved.  Before  his 
death  1160  new  elementary  schools  had  been  established  in  East 
Prussia  and  Littau.^  The  king  recognized  the  value  of  well- 
prepared  teachers  and  gave  hberal  support  to  every  institution 
which  undertook  the  training  of  teachers.  To  be  sure  the  num- 
ber of  trained  teachers  at  this  time  was  very  small,  and  it  is  due 
to  this  fact  that  the  Prussian  Volksschule  made  nothing  more  than 
a  solid  beginning  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  first  half  of  his  reign  Frederick  the  Great  did  very  little 
for  the  development  of  the  Volksschule,  simply  because  he  was 
too  busy  waging  wars  against  his  many  enemies.  In  the  latter 
^  Lewin,  Geschichte  der  Eniwicklung  der  preussischen  Volksschule. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      13 

half  of  his  reign  he  gave  much  encouragement  and  real  support  to 
the  elementary  schools.     Although  he  himself  was  a  freethinker, 
Frederick  wished  that  his  people  would  return  to  the  Frederick 
faith  of   their  fathers,  and   for  this  reason  he  en-  **  *'''^** 
couraged  the  work  of  Julius  Hecker,  who  worked  great  reforms  in 
behalf  of  elementary  education. 

Johann  Julius  Hecker,  born  at  Werden  in  1707,  took  up  the 
study  of  theology  at  Halle,  while  there  came  under  the  influence 
of  Francke,  and  became  so  much  interested  in  the  juuus 
latter's  pedagogical  reforms  that  he  entered  the  Semi-  decker 
narium  prceceptorum  and  afterwards  became  a  teacher.  It  was 
in  Halle  that  Hecker  became  acquainted  with  Semler's  Real- 
schule,  for  the  further  development  of  which  the  former  did  so 
much.  In  1739  Hecker  was  called  to  be  pastor  at  Berlin.  Aside 
from  his  pastoral  duties  he  found  time  to  improve  the  schools. 
He  established  four-grade  schools  in  which  almost  five  hundred 
children  were  trained  according  to  the  methods  which  Hecker 
had  learned  at  Halle.  In  1747  he  established  his  famous  Real- 
schule,  which  prospered  in  a  very  unexpected  manner  and  its 
influence  has  never  waned  since  that  time. 

But  Hecker  needed  capable  teachers  for  his  school,  and  being 
unable  to  obtain  suitable  ones,  he  recommended  to  the  king  that 
the  latter  establish  a  normal  school  for  the  training  of  elemen- 
tary teachers.  So  in  1748,  in  connection  with  the  Realsckule, 
Hecker  opened  his  school  for  teachers,  which,  of  course,  was 
modeled  after  the  training  school  of  Francke  in  Halle. 
Frederick  supported  the  institution  as  liberally  as  he  could,  and 
with  the  combined  efforts  of  monarch  and  schoolmaster,  a  very 
important  step  had  been  taken  in  the  training  of  teachers. 

Practically  no  progress  was  made  along  educational  lines  until 
peace  was  finally  made  in  1763.     The  condition  of  the  schools 
m  the  country  and  in  small  towns  was. wretched.    A  report^ 
'  Clausnitzer,  VolksschidpSdagogik  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  p.  58  fE. 


14  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

dealing  with  the  condition  of  the  schools  at  that  time  says: 
"That  the  country  schools  in  our  Mark  are  in  a  state  of  decay, 
none  can  deny.  That  great  injury  is  done  thereby,  that  the 
youth,  and  the  cause  of  the  king  and  the  nation  suffer,  is  plain. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  are  many  villages  in  which  only 
one  or  two  are  able  to  read  and  write,  so  that  the  regiments  can- 
not find  a  good  sergeant,  and  it  is  often  very  difficult  for  them 
to  understand  the  written  proclamations  of  the  district  adminis- 
trators. The  cause  of  this  decay  is  not  a  lack  of  regulations  and 
orders,  but  a  lack  in  their  execution.  .  .  .  The  officials,  noble- 
men, and  judges  receive  their  commands,  publish  them,  and  there 
the  matter  remains."  Then  the  writer  goes  on  to  give  other 
causes  of  poor  schools,  chief  among  them  being  the  incapacity 
and  immorality  of  the  teachers. 

Hecker  worked  out  a  school  law  for  the  regulation  of  the 
country  and  village  schools.  It  was  the  first  and  last  law  which 
General  Pmssia  has  had  that  touches  all  sides  of  the  question. 
Land-Schui-  It  appeared  in  1763.  We  have  not  space  to  give  the 
eg  emen  j^^  ^^  ^^  entirety,  but  we  recommend  it  to  those  in- 
terested, because  it  points  out  very  clearly  the  direction  which 
the  German  elementary  school  was  to  take  and  which  it  has 
taken.  The  topics  touched  upon  by  the  law  were  compulsory 
attendance,  school  year,  school  day,  school  fees,  discipline, 
teachers,  course  of  study,  methods,  and  school  supervision  and 
administration. 

By  the  new  law  the  principle  of  compulsory  attendance  was 
reasserted,  the  country  schools  were  taken  from  under  the  care 
Meaning  of  oi  the  nobility  and  put  under  the  protection  and  super- 
theLaw  vision  of  the  state;  the  supervision  of  the  schools 
was  to  be  exercised  as  before  by  the  clergy,  but  in  behalf  of  the 
state ;  the  whole  procedure  of  instruction  was  regulated  by  law, 
school  hours,  curricula,  and  schedules;  text-books  had  to  be 
approved  by  the  authorities  thereafter. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      1$ 


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i6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  law  was  a  model  for  its  age,  but,  unfortunately,  it  was 
not  enforced  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  because  the  communi- 
ties were  struggling  under  financial  burdens  already  too  heavy. 
The  state  itself  could  give  no  assistance.  Then,  again,  lack  of 
teachers  and  low  salaries  offered  great  obstacles  to  a  successful 
carrying  out  of  the  law.  Further,  the  nobility,  just  as  they  are 
to-day,  were  opposed.  In  Heppe  (vol.  3,  p.  37),  we  read  that 
the  state  of  ofl&cials  and  nobihty  wished  to  keep  the  peasant 
ignorant  and  uncultured,  so  that  he  would  be  that  much  the 
more  willing  to  work  the  fields  and  fill  the  coffers  of  his  lord. 
Beckdorff  {Jahrbilcker,  vol.  Ill,  p.  42  S.)  in  speaking  of  the  situa- 
tion says  that  the  intentions  of  the  king  and  the  Consistorium 
in  BerHn  were  baffled,  first,  by  the  unwillingness  of  the  nobihty, 
officials,  magistrates,  and  even  clergy  to  perform  their  duty; 
second,  by  a  lack  of  capable  teachers  and  of  normal  schools; 
third,  by  low  salaries ;  and  fourth,  by  the  wretched  conditions 
existing  in  the  school  buildings  or  rooms  in  which  the  classes 
were  held. 

The  Reglement  of  1763  was  for  the  evangelical  schools.  In 
1765  the  General-Land-Schul-Reglement  fur  Katholischen  Schulen 
School  ^^  Silesia  and  Glatz  was  issued,  but  it  was  no  more 

Reglement     joyfully  received  than  the  first  regulation  had  been, 

for  Catholic  ,  .  ,      ,      ,  ,     .  .     . 

Schools  in  to  which  the  latter  regulation  was  very  similar.  The 
suesia  176s  table  on  the  previous  page  is  the  schedule  of  the  village 
school  as  drawn  up  in  the  regulation,  which  is  printed  at  length 
in  V.  Ronne.^ 

In  this  Catholic  school  regulation  a  better  training  of  teachers 
was  demanded  in  that  the  teachers  were  required  to  attend 
normal  schools  whenever  possible.  Compulsory  school  attend- 
ance, free  tuition  for  poor  children,  higher  salaries,  and  better 
school  buildings  were  some  of  the  features  which  received  especial 
attention.  The  subjects  of  instruction  were  reUgion,  German, 
*  Das  Unterrichtswesen  des  prettssischen  Staates,  vol.  I,  p.  131. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      17 

singing,  writing,  arithmetic,  orthography,  history,  and  natural 
science.  This  is  one  of  the  first  times  that  the  subjects  known 
as  the  Realien,  which  include  geography,  history,  and  natural 
and  physical  philosophy,  were  introduced  into  the  elementary 
schools. 

The  prejudice  of  the  people  against  the  methods  used  and 
the  text-books  adopted,  the  poverty  of  the  parents,  poor  salaries, 
the  opposition  of  the  lower  classes  to  all  education, 
and  illy  prepared  teachers  were  the  causes  of  the  small 
success  which  this  regulation  attained. 

Upon  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  in  1772,  the  lands  which 
fell  to  the  share  of  Prussia  were  in  a  very  bad  state  educationally. 
There  were  practically  no  schools  at  all,  and  to  com-  improve- 
bat  the  influence  of  PoUsh  serfdom,  Frederick  the  mentof 
Great  ordered  that  schools  with  German  teachers  be  west 
established.  To  further  this  project,  Frederick  set  ^^^^ 
aside  a  fund  of  six  hundred  thousand  marks,  from  which  an  in- 
come of  thirty  thousand  marks  was  derived.^  This  income  was 
sufficient  to  establish  one  hundred  seventy  schools.  Since  there 
was  a  great  lack  of  teachers,  a  large  number  were  imported  from 
Saxony ;  but  to  create  a  supply  of  teachers  for  the  future,  a  num- 
ber of  normal  schools  were  established,  in  Dexen  in  1774,  in 
Minden  in  1776,  and  in  Halberstadt  in  1778.  In  spite  of  these 
efforts  there  was  still  a  lack  of  teachers.  To  overcome  the  want, 
Frederick  ordered  that  cripples  from  the  army  should  be  em- 
ployed as  teachers  and  sacristans  in  the  village.  The  Minister 
von  Zedlitz  opposed  filling  the  schools  with  cripples,  but  the 
king  insisted  that  the  old  soldiers  deserved  being  taken  care  of, 
inasmuch  as  they  had  risked  their  lives  for  their  coimtry.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  few  of  these  crippled  soldiers  were  fitted  for 
teaching,  but   Schleiermacher  ^   remarks    that  in  many   cases 

'  Bona-Meyer,  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  Padagogische  Schriften,  p.  22  ff. 
'  Ibid.,  p.  25. 


l8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

these  soldiers  made  good  young  Germans  out  of  the  youths, 
which  was  a  great  deal  more  than  many  teacher-tailors  and 
teacher-cobblers  accomplished. 

Frederick  the  Great,  as  many  of  his  successors,  adopted  the 
policy  that  it  was  unwise  to  educate  the  lower  classes  too  well, 
for  he  felt  that  it  tended  to  make  them  dissatisfied  with  exist- 
ing conditions.  In  a  letter  to  Minister  von  Zedlitz  in  1779,  he 
wrote  as  follows :  ^ 

It  is  well  that  the  teachers  in  the  country  instruct  the  young  in  religion 
and  morals,  and  they  must  not  depart  from  this  practice,  in  order  that  they 
may  remain  content  with  their  religion  and  not  become  Catholics,  since  the 
Protestant  faith  is  the  best,  much  better  than  the  Catholic.  Therefore, 
the  teachers  must  take  pains  that  the  people  retain  their  attachment  for 
religion,  and  educate  them  far  enough  that  they  neither  steal  nor  murder. 
Thievery  will  not  cease,  that  is  human  nature ;  for  naturally  all  people  are 
thieving.  ...  In  Lauenburg  and  Biiton  it  is  more  necessary  than  else- 
where to  give  the  children  a  better  type  of  education,  as  it  is  sadly  deficient 
there.  The  education  in  Altenburg  is  very  good  and  the  people  there  are 
orderly  and  well-behaved.  If  we  could  get  teachers  from  there  who  were 
not  too  expensive,  it  would  be  very  fine.  You  see  what  can  be  done  about 
that.  It  is  sufficient  in  the  flat  country  (northern  Germany),  if  the  people 
can  read  and  write  a  little ;  for  if  they  know  too  much,  they  rush  off  to  the 
cities  and  want  to  become  secretaries  or  clerks,  etc.  For  this  reason,  we 
must  so  arrange  the  instruction  of  the  youth  in  the  flat  country  that  they 
learn  that  which  is  most  necessary  for  their  knowledge,  yet  they  must  be 
taught  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  not  run  away  from  the  villages  but  re- 
main there  contentedly.  .  .  . 

FREDERICK. 

The  king  wished  the  training  of  the  youth  to  be  regulated 
according  to  the  needs  of  their  later  occupation  and  position  in 
life.  By  limiting  their  education,  it  was  practically  certain  that 
the  boys  and  girls  of  the  lower  classes  would  be  compelled  to 
follow  the  same  occupations  which  their  parents  followed,  and 
would  most  likely  remain  in  the  same  community.    Prussian 

'  Bona-Meyer,  p.  170. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      19 

kings  have  always  desired  that  all  their  subjects  belonging  to 
the  lower  classes  be  educated  to  a  certain  extent  and  "in  such 
a  way"  that  they  be  content  with  their  appointed  lot.  It  has 
been  by  the  method  of  instruction,  perhaps,  more  than  by  the 
content,  that  the  German  elementary  school  system  has  pro- 
duced the  tractable,  easily  managed  citizen. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  rationalistic 
movement,  which  came  to  Germany  from  England  by  way  of 
France,  began  to  crowd  back  the  pietistic  movement. 

_,.,..,  ,  ,      .         Rationalism 

The  rationausts  rejected  every  supernatural  revelation 
and  recognized  those  principles  of  faith  only  which  can  be  con- 
ceived of  by  human  reason,  such  as  belief  in  a  God,  virtue,  im-: 
mortality,  etc.  This  period  was  known  as  the  Enlightenment. 
The  philosophical  pedagogical  tendency  of  this  period  had  for 
its  purpose  the  free  and  natural  development  of  man.  Its  chief 
principle  was  to  bring  about  the  earthly  happiness  of  man.  Its 
representative  in  England  was  John  Locke ;  and  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  in  France.  In  Germany  the  adherents  of  this  move- 
ment were  called  philanthropinists,  among  whom  were  Basedow, 
Salzmann,  and  Campe.  They  strove  to  free  man,  and  youth  as 
well,  from  every  form  of  compulsion.  Hence  as  educators  they 
advocated  milder  discipline,  physical  training,  practical  and  use- 
ful subject  matter,  and  instruction  as  pleasing  and  attractive  as 
possible.  Frederick  the  Great,  under  the  influence  of  Voltaire, 
encouraged  these  pedagogical  and  religious  doctrines  in  every 
possible  way.  Among  the  philanthropinists  who  were  particu- 
larly active  for  educational  reform  in  Prussia  were  Minister  von 
Zedlitz  and  Eberhard  von  Rochow. 

Frederick  gave  von  Zedlitz  charge  of  the  educational  and 
religious  affairs  of  Prussia  in  1770.    Von  Zedlitz  had  studied  at 

Halle  and  while  there  had  come  under  the  influence  of  „  „.^ 

Zedlitz 

John  Locke,  upon  whose  treatise  on  education  he  had 

heard  lectures.    His  greatest  interest  lay  in  the  reform  of  the 


20  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

elementary  schools,'as  a  result  of  which  he  issued  a  school  law  for 
the  Duchy  of  Cleve  and  the  Mark  in  1772. 

According  to  the  regulation  all  children  were  to  attend  school 
from  five  or  six,  to  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age.  The  per- 
Reguiation  sonal  side  of  the  teacher  was  greatly  emphasized  and 
of  1772  discipline  was  made  much  milder.  The  physical  and 
moral  health  of  the  children  was  a  subject  of  greatest  concern 
to  the  teacher.  The  subjects  of  instruction  were  rehgion,  read- 
ing, writing,  music,  arithmetic,  and  nature  study.  The  schools 
were  frequently  inspected  and  supervised  by  the  inspectors,  who 
were  generally  clergymen.  The  chief  difference  between  this 
regulation  and  those  of  a  few  years  earlier  in  the  time  of  Hecker 
was  in  the  amount  of  emphasis  that  Zedlitz  laid  upon  the  spiritual 
qualifications  and  the  personaUty  of  the  teacher.  Teachers  were 
to  be  examined  in  content  and  in  method.  They  were  compelled 
to  exercise  a  greater  degree  of  mildness  toward  children,  and  to 
make  instruction  as  pleasant  as  possible.  In  the  course  of  study 
less  attention  was  given  religion  and  catechism,  while  more  time 
was  given  to  "sharpening  of  the  understanding,"  and  the  acquire- 
ment of  useful  and  practical  facts.  This  was  the  real  beginning 
of  the  introduction  of  the  Realien  into  Volksschulen. 

Eberhard  von  Rochow  did  more  effective  work  than  Zedlitz 
for  the  betterment  of  the  village  schools.  Rochow  had  been  an 
„    „   ^      officer  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  as  a  result  of  a 

von  Rochow 

wound  was  mcapacitated  for  further  service,  after 
which  time  he  devoted  himself  to  his  estates  in  the  vicinity  of 
Brandenburg.  Later  he  was  made  canon  of  the  cathedral  at 
Halberstadt,  where  he  materially  improved  the  Volksschulen&nd 
established  a  normal  school  which  still  stands  to-day.  He  did 
his  best  work,  however,  on  his  own  estates.  In  1771  there  was 
famine  and  pest  throughout  the  land ;  and  it  was  during  this 
time  of  distress  that  Rochow  saw  that  the  only  true  basis  of  help 
for  the  lower  classes  was  education  —  education  away  from  super- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      21 

stition  and  poverty  which  were  on  every  hand.  He  believed 
that  this  could  be  done  best  by  an  improvement  of  the  village 
schools. 

This  improvement  was  to  be  brought  about  in  several  ways. 
First  of  all,  he  demanded  that  a  rural  school  should  no  longer  be 
taught  by  artisans  and  ignorant  servants,  but  that  all 
teaching  positions  be  filled  by  theological  candidates  or  improve- 
young   men   who   had   enjoyed   a   good   education. 
Second,  the  teacher  should  receive  a  salary  of  at  least  three 
hundred  marks  a  year  in  addition  to  fuel,  dwelling,  garden,  and 
the  like,  in   order  that  he  could  devote   his   entire   time   to 
school  work.    Third,  the  schools  were  to  have  at  least  two 
classes  each.     Fourth,  the  schoolrooms  were  to  be  kept  clean, 
well  ventilated,  and  attractive.    And  fifth,  instruction  was  to 
be  free.    Rochow  wrote  the  first  German  reader,  the  "  Children's 
Friend,"  which  was  said  to  be  the  best  reader  for  children  ever 
written  up  to  that  time.^ 

Still  more  important  for  the  development  of  the  Volksschulen 
were  the  model  schools  which  Rochow  caused  to  be  established 
in  the  villages  upon  his  estates.  The  best  known 
school  thus  founded  was  the  one  at  Reckahn.  Rochow  a^R^ct^ 
had  published  a  book  entitled  "Instruction  for 
Country  School  Teachers."  It  so  fired  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
young  church  organist  of  Halberstadt,  Heinrich  Bruns,  who  had 
previously  been  Rochow's  secretary,  that  in  1773  he  offered  him- 
self to  Rochow  as  teacher  in  this  village  school  at  Reckahn. 
He  received  one  hundred  eighty  thalers  (540  M.)  yearly,  in  addi- 
tion to  dwelling,  garden,  and  supplies.  The  school  proved  to 
be  a  great  success  and  many  similar  ones  were  estabUshed. 
Bruns  was  so  successful  in  carrying  out  Rochow's  ideas,  that 
within  the  first  ten  years  of  the  school's  existence  more  than  one 
thousand  visitors,  among  whom  were  Basedow  and  Salzmann, 
*  Lewin,  Geschichte  der  Entwicklung  der  preussischen  Volksschule,  p.  125. 


22  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

had  journeyed  to  Reckahn  in  order  to  make  a  study  of  the 
system  and  methods  there  in  vogue. 

No  one  influenced  the  development  of  the  Prussian  elementary 
school  during  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  more  than 
did  Rochow.  He  was  called  the  Pestalozzi  of  Prussia.  His  in- 
fluence was  somewhat  lessened  after  the  death  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  due  to  the  deleterious  influence  of  Wollner,  who  came 
into  educational  prominence  in  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  II. 

/Of  the  many  proposals  which  were  advanced  by  von  Zedlitz, 
who  was  continued  as  Minister  for  two  years  under  Frederick 
^^g  William  II,  the  establishment  of  an  Oberschulkollegium 

Oberschui-    to  Control  the  entire  school  system  of  Prussia  was  the 

o  egium  ^^^^  ^^^  ^j^^^  ^^^  immediately  realized.  The  estab- 
lishment of  this  controlling  body  was  of  great  importance  for  the 
development  of  the  Prussian  school  system,  inasmuch  as  thereby 
the  schools  were  withdrawn  from  ecclesiastical  control,  and  school 
and  church  discipline  were  separated^  The  Oberschulkollegium 
stood  directly  under  the  king,  and  fo  it  were  given  the  entire 
control  and  management  of  the  whole  school  systeni^  Von 
Zedlitz  was  not  allowed  to  see  many  of  his  reforms  carried  out, 
for  he  was  removed  in  1788  and  succeeded  by  von  Wollner. 
He  was  the  leader  of  a  movement  antagonistic  to  the  Enlighten- 
ment and  Philanthropinism  of  the  early  and  middle  eighteenth 
century.  Immediately  on  becoming  Minister,  von  Wollner 
issued  a  religious  edict  which  was  intended  to  strengthen  the 
power  of  the  established  churches  and  which  made  it  almost  a 
crime  to  express  anything  but  an  orthodox  opinion. 

The  establishment  of  normal  schools  in  various  parts  of 
Prussia  was  one  of  the  important  things  which  Wollner  accom- 
Advanced  pHshed.  Also  during  his  ministry,  new  subjects  were 
steps  introduced  into  some  of  the  schools.    Boys  were  in- 

structed in  basketry  and  tree  and  bee  culture,  while  the  girls 
1  Ronne,  part  i,  pp.  76-77. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      23 

were  taught  sewing.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  the 
salaries  of  teachers  increased  greatly  before  the  end  of  Frederick 
William's  reign. 

In  spite  of  all  the  efforts  made  in  the  latter  half  of  School  Con- 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  Volksschulen  were  still  in  a  fhe°En/of 
wretched  condition.     Bassewitz  says  of  the  schools  in  '''«  ^'sJit- 

_,         ,      ,  ,  ■'  eenth  Cen- 

Brandenburg :  ^  tury 

The  condition  of  the  higher  and  lower  elementary  school,  both  in  the 
cities  and  rural  districts,  was  very  poor.  Outside  of  the  normal  school  in 
Berlin,  there  was  only  one  training  school  for  Lutheran  school-teachers 
in  the  electorate.  The  activity  of  the  teachers  —  scarcely  one  sixth  of 
even  the  most  meager  training  —  met  therefore  with  little  success,  as  later 
experience  demonstrated.  The  largest  munber  of  the  other  teachers  in 
the  flat  country  were  either  entirely  without  training,  except  the  few  who 
had  received  some  instruction  from  the  clergy,  or  were  selected  entirely 
from  invalids,  patch-tailors,  night  watchmen,  or  shepherds.  ...  It  was 
no  wonder  then  the  rural  youth  grew  up  without  training  or  religion,  and 
the  parents  lived  in  deep  ignorance  and  even  immorality.  ...  In  the 
towns  and  in  the  small  cities  the  conditions  were  little  better  than  in  the 
country.  Even  in  the  middle-sized  cities,  there  was  generally  only  one 
class  for  the  boys  and  girls  together.  The  city  authority  did  very  little 
for  the  improvement  of  either  schools  or  teachers.  Conditions  were  best 
where  candidates  in  theology  took  over  the  rectorship  of  the  so-called 
Latin  schools.  One  tried  first  this,  and  then  that,  for  the  improvement 
of  the  conditions  of  the  country  school-teacher,  but  all  to  no  purpose.  .  .  . 
Through  the  introduction  of  sUk-raising  an  effort  was  made  to  better  the 
economic  position  of  the  rural  teacher.  AU  rural  teachers  at  one  time  or 
another  occupied  themselves  with  the  silk  industry,  and  earned  ten,  twenty, 
or  thirty  Thalers  a  year,  and  sometimes  more. 

Even  as  late  as  1870  a  few  rural  teachers  were  engaged  in  rais- 
ing silk.^ 

^e  of  the  most  important  measures  in  the  history  of  the 
Prussian  Volksschule  was  the  AUgemeine  Landrechi  of  1794,  for 

I'     *  Thilo,  Preussisches  Volksschtdwesen  nach  Geschichte  und  Statistik,  Gotha,  1867, 
p.  SI  ff. 

'  Ibid.,  p.  SI. 


24  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

it  made  the  state  absolutely  supreme  in  educational  affairs. 
We  quote  some  of  the  provisions  of  this  code  which  deal  with  the 
secularization  of  school  affairs. 

Sections  i.  Schools  and  universities  are  state  institutions 
state  charged  with  the  instruction  of  the  youth  in  useful 

Institutions    information  and  scientific  knowledge. 

Section  2.  Such  institutions  may  be  founded  only  with  the 
knowledge  and  consent  of  the  state. 

Section  9.  All  public  schools  and  educational  institutions  are 
PubUc  under  the  supervision  of  the  state  and  are  at  all  times 

Schools         subject  to  its  examination  and  inspection. 

Section  10.  No  one  shall  be  denied  entrance  into  the  public 
schools  on  account  of  difference  of  religious  belief. 

Section  11.  Children  who  are  to  be  educated  in  another 
religious  faith  than  that  of  the  school  which  they  attend, 
cannot  be  compelled  to  take  the  religious  instruction  in  that 
school. 

Section  12.  The  common  schools,  which  are  devoted  to  ele- 
Lower  mentary  instruction,  are  under  the  direction  of  the  local 

Schools  authorities  of  each  locality,  which  authority,  however, 
must  always  consult  the  clergy  of  the  communtiy  to  which  the 
school  belongs. 

Section  13.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  pastor  of  every  community, 
both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country,  of  the  justices  and  courts, 
and  also  of  the  pohce  magistrates,  under  the  direction  of  the 
local  authorities  and  clergy,  to  take  over  the  inspection  of  the 
outer  organization  of  the  school  and  the  execution  of  the  adopted 
school  regulations. 

Section  14.  They  must,  in  connection  with  these  duties,  re- 
port to  the  civil  and  religious  authorities  all  deficiencies  and  irreg- 
ularities for  the  purpose  of  closer  investigation. 

Section  15.  The  civil  and  religious  authorities  must  respect 
the  regulations  issued  or  approved  by  the  state  and  must  not 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCEULE      25 

introduce  or  undertake  anything  of  their  own  accord  that  would 
be  contrary  thereto. 

Section  18.  Schoolhouses  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  church 
buildings. 

Section  22.  The  appointment  of  teachers  belongs  as  Appoint- 

,..,,.  mentof 

a  rule  to  the  avU  authority.  Teachers 

Section  24.  But  in  no  case  shall  a  teacher  be  ap- 
pointed, who  has  not  previously  passed  an  examination  and 
received  a  certificate  of  ability  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  office. 
Section  29.  Where  there  is  no  foundation  fund  for  the  com- 
mon schools,  the  support  of  the  schools  devolves  upon  all  the 
heads  of  families  of  each  community  without  distinc- 

,.    .  ■       .  ,      .  ,  ,.     .        .         Support  of 

tion  as  to  reugious  confession,  and  without  distinction  Teachers 
as  to  whether  they  have  children  or  not. 

Section  30.  If  several  common  schools  are  established  in  one 
locality  for  its  inhabitants  of  different  religious  confession,  then 
each  citizen  is  obUgated  to  the  support  of  the  school  of  his  re- 
ligious faith  only. 

Section  31.  The  amounts  raised,  which  consist  of  money  and 
supplies,  must  be  divided  equally  among  the  heads  of  famiUes 
according  to  their  wealth,  and  must  be  approved  by  the  civil 
authority. 

Section  32.  Consequently,  the  children  of  such  contributors 
are  forever  free  from  tuition. 

Section  34.   The  maintenance  of  school  buildings  and  school 
teachers'  dwellings  must  be  borne  by  all  the  patrons  of  Biuidings 
the  school. 

Section  43.  Every  inhabitant  who  cannot,  or  will  not,  furnish 
the  necessary  instruction  for  his  children  at  home,  is  compelled 
to  send  them  to  school  after  they  have  completed  their  fifth  year. 

Section  44.   Only  with  the  consent  of  the  civil  and  ^ 

-t-t  J  ■,,  ,  Compulsory 

religious  authorities  is  a  child  allowed  to  postpone  Attendance 
attendance  at  school.  .  .  . 


26  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Section  46.  Instruction  in  school  must  be  continued  until,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  pastor,  the  child  has  acquired  that  knowledge 
necessary  for  every  reasonable  man  in  his  walk  of  life. 

Section  47.  The  school  inspectors  are  required  to  see  that  the 
teachers  perform  the  duties  of  office  faithfully  and  zealously. 

Section  48.  It  is  their  duty,  with  the  aid  of  the  civil  authority, 
School  to  see  that  all  children  of  compulsory  school  age  are 

Inspectors     jjgpj.  j^  school,  if  necessary  by  force  and  by  punishment 
of  negligent  parents. 

Section  49.   The  local  pastor  is  obligated  to  aid  actively  in 
Inspection     accomplishing  the  purpose  of  the  school  not  only  by 
by  Local        inspection,   but   also   by  giving  instruction  to   the 
teacher  and  the  pupils. 

Section  50.  School  discipline  may  never  amount  to  mis- 
treatment, which  might  in  any  way  be  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  children. 

Section  51.  If  the  teacher  believes  that  by  the  lighter  punish- 
ments addiction  of  the  child  to  evil  and  corruption  cannot  be 
avoided,  he  must  then  make  a  report  to  the  civil  and  religious 
authorities. 

Section  52.  The  latter  must  then,  in  conference  with  the 
parents  or  guardians,  examine  the  matter  more  closely  and  adopt 
measures  necessary  for  improvement. 

Section  53.  But  in  no  case  may  the  limits  prescribed  for 
parental  discipline  be  exceeded. 

^  None  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  above  quoted  articles  were 
entirely  new,  but  the  General  Code  was  of  particular  value  be- 
cause it  restated  and  emphasized  several  principles 

Importance  ^  sr  tr 

upon  which  all  subject  legislation  regarding  the  Prus- 
sian Volksschule  is  based.  ,  The  most  important  of  these  prin- 
ciples were  that  the  schools  were  state  institutions,  that  educa- 1 
tion  was  compulsory,  and  that  the  community  was  responsible  i 
I  for  the  maintenance  of  its  schools. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      27 

Even  if  we  are  able  to  mark  here  and  there  steps  of 
progress  taken  during  the  reign  of  Frederick  WiUiam  II, 
there  was  nothing  accompUshed  of  vital  importance  which 
had  not  already  been  done,  unless  we  name  the  formula- 
tion of  educational  law  as  found  in  the  AUgemeinen  Land- 
recht. 

When  Frederick  William  II  died,  he  left  behind  to  his  young 
son  an  unenviable  heritage.  Prussia  was  then  tottering  and 
was  destined  to  become  shortly  almost  a  vassal  state  Prussian 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  Prussians  were  trusting  Discipline 
to  the  former  greatness  and  reputation  of  Frederick  the  Great's 
armies  to  save  them  from  the  all-destroying  hand  in  the  West. 
The  Prussian  discipline,  simplicity,  and  piety  of  earlier  days  had 
been  wiped  out,  partly  by  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  partly  by 
the  example  set  by  the  ruling  classes.  Ignorance,  desire  for 
luxury,  and  personal  gain  had  driven  ideals  of  duty  and  service 
and  ability  for  sacrifice  from  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The 
unity  between  the  masses  and  the  higher  classes  was  broken 
down,  and  consequently  patriotism  decreased  in  an  alarming 
degree. 

Frederick  William  III  was  very  different  from  his  father. 
Where  his  father  desired  only  splendor,  the  new  king  preached 
simplicity ;  where  the  father  insisted  upon  orthodoxy,  Frederick 
the  son  advocated  freedom  of  religious  belief.  Prussia  ^'^'^  ™ 
was  particularly  fortunate  in  this  time  of  stress  to  have  such  a 
man  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and  Prussia  was  still  more 
fortunate  in  the  fact  that  Louise  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  was  the 
wife  of  their  king,  for  her  example  in  womanly  virtues,  faithful- 
ness, and  patriotism  made  her  the  most  beloved  queen  that  ever 
graced  the  royal  throne. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  king's  reign  was  to  dismiss 
Wolhier  from  office  because  of  the  latter's  insistence  upon  ex- 
amination for  all  teachers  and  clergy  to  determine  their  ortho- 


28  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

doxy.    Von  Wassow  was  appointed  to  succeed  him.    The  king 
in  a  Kabinettsordre  of  1798  said : ' 

I  consider  that  the  school  system  in  my  whole  kingdom  is  a  subject 
which  deserves  general  attention  and  care.  Instruction  and  education 
make  the  citizen,  and  both  are,  as  a  rule,  intrusted  to  the  schools,  so  that 
their  influence  upon  the  welfare  of  the  people  is  of  greatest  importance.  This 
fact  has  long  been  acknowledged,  but' nevertheless,  we  have  given  that 
care  almost  exclusively  to  the  higher  schools  which  was  due  the  town  and 
country  schools,  not  only  because  a  very  large  majority  of  our  subjects 
are  in  need  of  such  training,  but  also  because  thus  far,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, nothing  at  all  has  been  done  for  them.  Therefore,  it  is  high  time  to 
provide  for  the  purposeful  education  and  instruction  of  the  children  of  the 
middle  and  peasant  classes. 

At  the  same  time  the  king  ordered  an  investigation  of  the 
schools  in  order  that  the  manner  and  means  of  their  reform 
could  be  determined. 

The  reports  ^  which  came  in  as  a  result  of  the  investigation 
gave  a  picture  of  conditions  in  the  schools  which  show  the 
Condition  schools  in  a  none  too  favorable  light.  In  Branden- 
ofthe  burg  there  were  two  thousand  two  hundred  forty- 

two  town  schools,  sixteen  hundred  seventy-three  of 
which  were  of  elementary  rank,  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
I.  Number  were  very  similar  to  the  country  school.  The  salaries 
were  wretched. 

Of  the  sixteen  hundred  fifty  teachers  only  one  hundred  ninety- 
five  received  more  than  three  hundred  marks   ($75)  a  year, 

Salaries  ^"^""^^^^^  hundred  fifty-five  received  less,  of  whom 
eight  hundred  sixty  had  yearly  salaries  of  less  than  one 
hundred  twenty  marks  ($30). 

Houses        Almost  all   schoolhouses  had   only  one  room,  in 

which  the  teacher's  family  generally  lived,  and  where 

frequently  the  teacher  carried  on  his  trade,  tailoring  being  a 

1  Keller,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Volksschulwesens,  p.  133  ff; 

'  Heppe,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volksschulwesens,  vol.  Ill,  p.  76  £E. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      29 

popular  handicraft  for  teachers.    In  this  respect  teachers  had 
not  improved  for  several  centuries. 

The  school  attendance  was  poor  everjrwhere.  There,  was  no 
school  at  all  in  summer  months,  and  in  winter  the  attendance 
was  exceedingly  irregular,  the  children  remaining  away  4.  Attend- 
from  school  for  weeks  at  a  time.  As  soon  as  the  chil-  ""=^ 
dren  were  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age,  the  parents  would  keep 
them  at  home  to  do  all  kinds  of  work  and  would  frequently  hire 
them  out  as  servants. 

Provision  for  the  education  of  girls,  as  has  always  been  the 
case  in  Germany,  was  the  most  wretched  of  all,  both  in  the  city 
and  in  the  country.  As  a  rule,  the  girls  of  all  sizes 
were  taught  as  one  group  regardless  of  their  ages  and 
ability.  Unless  the  wife  of  the  parish  sexton  instructed  the 
girls  in  sewing,  they  went  without  the  most  useful  subject  of 
instruction  in  the  present-day  curriculum,  if  we  except  German 
itself. 

IThe  establishment  of  "industrial"  schools  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  a  marked  step  in  advance.    There 
were  schools  in  which,  besides  the  ordinary  subjects,  „j^^^^ 
instruction  was  given  in  spinning,  knitting,  sewing,  trial " 
forestry,  gardening,  and  silk-raising.    Teachers  suit- 
able for  such  work,  as  well  as  proper  equipment,  were  lacking. 
The  condition  has  never  been  entirely  overcome. 

Another  type  of  popular  education  found  its  expression  in 
the  "garrison"  schools  which  had  been  established  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  century.  These  schools  had  been  estab-  ■■  Garrison" 
lished  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  soldiers  while  Schools 
serving  in  the  army.  Many  of  these  schools  became  permanent 
features  of  the  regiment's  life.  In  connection  with  these  schools 
there  can  be  detected  the  HohenzoUern  fear  that  the  people 
{das  Volk)  would  receive  an  education  of  too  wide  an  extent. 
It  came  about  that  the  teachers  of  some  "garrison"  schools 


30  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

became  ambitious  and  placed  the  goal  of  the  course  too  high. 
The  king  looked  on  this  with  disfavor  because  he  believed  that 
beyond  a  certain  point  education  for  the  masses  was  very  danger- 
ous. The  following  extract  from  a  circular  order  of  August  31, 
1799,^  will  illustrate  this  point. 

.  .  .  Inasmuch  as  I  have  taken  the  pains  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  inner  organization  of  some  "garrison"  schools,  I  find  that  many  have 
set  for  themselves  goals  which  involve  much  difficulty  in  reaching  and 
which  go  too  far  beyond  the  province  of  the  "garrison"  schools.  Even  if 
such  difficulties  were  overcome,  still  the  practical  student  of  men  cannot  be 
indifferent  to  the  results  which  are  bound  up  with  all  extremes  and  which 
would  in  the  case  of  a  too  wide  expansion  of  popular  instruction  militate 
more  than  anywhere  else  against  the  welfare  of  the  whole  people. 

True  enlightenment,  in  so  far  as  it  is  necessary  for  his  and  the  general 
good,  is  the  incontestable  right  of  that  person,  who,  in  the  walk  of  life  in 
which  fate  has  placed  him,  knows  his  relationships  and  duties  and  has  the 
abUity  to  satisfy  them.  Therefore,  to  this  purpose  the  instruction  in  all 
Volksschulen  should  be  limited.  The  time  which  one  applies  therein  to  a 
superficial  study  of  the  sciences  for  which  the  ordinary  man  has  little  use 
is  for  the  most  part  lost.  He  forgets  quickly  what  he  has  heard,  and  there 
remain  in  his  memory  only  incomplete  conceptions  out  of  which  false  con- 
clusions arise,  and  tastes  which  his  social  standing  does  not  allow  him  to 
satisfy,  and  which  only  make  him  discontented  and  imhappy.  [As  now,  a 
meagerly  educated,  contented  lower  class  was  the  wish  of  the  king.] 

Since  the  chief  purpose  of  the  "garrison"  schools  is  to  train  future 
soldiers,  it  is  only  necessary  to  teach  them  what  is  necessary  for  the  com- 
mon soldier,  vmder  officer,  and  sergeant  to  know  in  order  to  fill  their  places 
as  useful  and  contented  men.  Even  if  this  demand  seems  small,  it  is  not 
really  the  case,  if  it  be  entirely  satisfied.  I  demand  for  the  intellectual 
training  of  a  soldier  that  he  know  exactly  his  duties  as  a  man,  as  a  subject, 
and  as  a  soldier ;  that  he  be  taught  enough  of  the  dififerent  trades  which 
are  suited  to  his  position  in  life,  and  of  the  means  of  applying  this  knowledge, 
so  that  he  can  select  those  things  for  his  future  calling  which  correspond 
most  closely  with  his  mclinations  and  ability ;  and  that  he  can  read,  write, 
and  cipher  well  for  the  conduct  of  his  own  affairs  as  well  as  for  the  advance- 
ment to  the  position  of  under  officer  or  sergeant,  and  that  he  acqmre  the 

•  ZirManierordnung  vom  31,  August,  ijgg.    Ronne,  part  i,  p.  89  £E. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      31 

information  necessary  for  an  artisan.  A  soldier  fitted  out  with  these  quali- 
ties will  be  in  his  own  place  a  useful  servant  of  the  state,  and  likewise  a  happy 
man,  if  no  one  seeks  to  awake  in  him  a  striving  toward  higher  things.  The 
seed  of  discontent  with  one's  social  station  will  develop  in  that  degree  in 
which  one  expands  further  one's  scientific  training.  Only  a  few  men  in  the 
lower  classes  are  so  neglected  by  Nature  that  they  do  not  have  the  ability 
to  accomplish  more  than  their  social  position  or  calling  demands,  and  to 
raise  themselves  to  some  higher  position.  A  too  expansive  course  of  in- 
struction will  awaken  the  feeling  of  such  ability  in  them,  through  applica- 
tion of  which  they  would  easily  be  able  to  gain  for  themselves  a  much  more 
favorable  fate  than  that  of  a  common  soldier.  The  result  is  that  a  superficial 
acquaintance  with  the  sciences  generally  produces  a  disinclination  toward 
learning  a  trade.  The  innumerable  proofs  of  this  fact  which  the  larger 
schools  furnish  have  not  escaped  my  notice.  I  know  very  well  that  most 
of  the  sons  of  handworkers  and  artisans,  who  attend  these  schools,  even  if 
they  possess  only  average  ability,  choose  the  troubled  and  imcertain  career 
of  an  half-educated  scholar  rather  than  to  take  over  the  profitable  business 
of  their  father,  into  which  they  coidd  enter  with  ease,  and  in  which  they 
could  weE  use  the  information  acquired  in  school  not  only  for  their  own  good 
but  also  for  the  public  welfare. 

Pride,  conceit,  and  disinclination  to  physical  labor  are  usually  the 
sources  of  aU  such  foolish  resolves,  which  under  the  same  circumstances 
always  bring  the  same  results. 

Even  if  the  choice  of  a  future  calling  open  to  the  soldier  is  more  restricted, 
he  must  stiU  feel  unhappy  if  the  desire  (for  higher  things)  is  once  aroused  in 
him  and  he  is  unable  to  satisfy  it. 

The  teachers  of  some  "garrison"  schools  have  gone  so  far  in  their  well- 
intentioned  zeal  that  they  wish  to  expand  their  course  of  instruction  to  in- 
clude the  study  of  countries,  even  the  principles  of  mathematical  geography, 
world  history,  statistics,  international  relationships,  commerce,  and  the  like. 

This  instruction  may  be  so  superficial  that  the  greatest  part  is  lost,  as 
I  have  already  said,  and  serves  only  for  ranting  in  public  examinations.  It 
will  always  be  better  if  the  boy  pass  such  time  in  the  "industrial"  school 
and  earn  some  money,  with  which  he  can  lighten  his  parents'  burden,  and 
increase  his  own  ability  in  useful  handwork. 

Soldiers  and  under  officers  will  complete  their  day's  marches  without 
knowing  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  locality,  and  what  they  learn  in 
common  life  of  foreign  countries  will  be  a  good  substitute  for  the  geography 
which  is  now  removed.    To  what  end  would  one  desire  to  give  instruction 


32  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

concerning  international  relationships  to  those  who,  if  ordered  to  march, 
would  not  once  dare  ask  why  or  where?  What  good  will  it  do  the  soldier, 
who  must  exist  in  his  future  callmg  on  a  small  wage  acquired  by  hard  labor, 
if  one  shows  him  the  ways  whereby  he,  as  a  merchant,  would  be  able  to 
secure  for  himself  the  luxuries  of  life  by  means  of  easily  earned  money  and 
without  any  real  work  ? 

The  spirit  of  the  age  has  aroused  in  all  classes  of  society  an  tmceasing 
effort  to  raise  one's  self  above  one's  own  social  stratum,  or  at  least  to  extend 
its  pretensions  higher.  I  very  gladly  make  allowance  for  that  which  one 
must  accept  as  a  necessary  result  of  the  higher  value  of  things.  But  the 
evil  lies  deeper  and  it  must  be  strenuously  combated,  if  all  human  rela- 
tionships are  not  finally  destroyed.  I  will,  therefore,  see  that  in  all  Volks- 
schulen  such  instruction  be  introduced  that  will  instill  in  the  younger  genera- 
tion more  love  and  respect  for  the  trade  and  social  position  of  their  parents. 
I  hereby  make  it  the  duty  of  all  military  chiefs  not  to  lose  sight  of  this  point 
of  view. 

The  soldier  must  be  instructed  so  carefully  concerning  the  claims  which 
the  state  has  upon  his  services,  and  also  concerning  his  duties  and  obliga- 
tions, and  likewise  his  rights,  that  his  own  judgment  wUl  lead  him  to  be  con- 
tented with  his  lot  and  that  he  will  cease  as  far  as  possible  to  look  with  envy 
and  secret  hate  upon  his  superiors. 

Whoever  has  the  ability  to  write  a  good  text-book  with  this  end  in  view 
can  render  great  service  to  the  future  happiness  of  the  soldiers  and  can  be 
assured  of  my  most  earnest  gratitude.  I  would  desire  that  the  religious 
instruction  be  included  in  this  text,  and  that  after  the  discussion  of  the 
Ten  Commandments  all  civU  crimes  and  their  punishments  be  explained 
briefly  and  plainly  in  catechetical  form.  Such  a  book  would  in  itself  be  more 
useful  reading  for  the  soldier  than  all  the  devotional  books  and  would  fully 
supply  the  lack  of  all  popular  magazines  and  newspapers,  in  which  on  every 
page  one  observes  the  financial  speculations  of  the  publishers  more  than  any 
real  advantage  to  the  public,  and  through  which  only  a  hurtful  thirst  for 
reading  is  spread  among  the  common  people.  Since  the  preparation  of 
such  a  text  will  demand  more  time  and  thought  than  the  compilation  of 
any  other  previous  text,  I  must  express  the  desire  that  only  men  of  recog- 
nized popularity  and  practical  knowledge  of  affairs  give  time  to  it,  and 
thereby  bring  it  about  that  this  text  be  used  not  only  in  the  "garrison" 
schools,  but  also  in  the  town  and  country  schools. 

I  have  not  yet  mentioned  history,  and  only  wish  to  remark  that  it  should 
limit  itself  solely  to  the  most  important  national  events,  and  have  no  other 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      33 

purpose  than  to  awaken  patriotic  love  and  affection,  pride  in  the  deeds  of 
our  forefathers,  and  the  desire  to  emulate  them.  .  .  . 

As  important  as  the  establishment  of  "garrison"  schools  is,  the  benefit 
derived  therefrom  would  be  merely  partial,  if  industrial  schools  were  not 
connected  with  them  in  which  soldiers'  children  can  learn  their  future  trade 
and  be  enabled  by  small  earnings  to  compensate  their  fathers  for  the  time 
the  latter  must  pass  in  the  "garrison"  schools.  .  .  . 

Fredekick  William. 
Charlottenburg,  August  31,  1799. 

iNo  passage  in  the  history  of  the  Prussian  elementary  school 
states  so  clearly  the  attitude  of  Prussian  pohcy  toward  popular 
education.  It  aids  in  interpreting  the  methods  and  significance 
purposes  of  elementary  education  in  Prussia  and  Ger-  of  this 
many  to-day^'  The  common  man  must  have  a  limited 
amount  of  knowledge  only,  and  it  must  be  taught  him  in  such 
a  way  that  he  can  be  logically  content  with  his  lot  in  life  and 
may  not  look  with  envy  and  hate  upon  those  who  have  been 
born  in  higher  stations.  This  passage  epitomizes  the  difference 
between  the  ideals  of  Germany  and  America  with  reference  to 
the  common  people. 

In  Spite  of  the  efforts  made  by  the  Prussian  kings  during  the 
eighteenth  century  to  improve  the  elementary  schools, 
the  conditions  were  very  deplorable  at  the  opening  of  Jj^^jg"'**' 
the  nineteenth  century  before  the  Pestalozzian  move-  under 
ment  had  made  itself  felt  in  Germany.     Superintend-  influence 
ent  Oldekop,  in  writing  to  Secretary  Zerrenner  of  the 
Upper  Consistory  concerning  the  condition  of  the  schools,  said :  ^ 

Every  httle  hamlet  had  its  own  school  but  they  were  the  so-called 
"rotation-schools."  Only  in  the  parish  towns  did  one  find  permanent 
sacristans  and  teachers  and  real  schoolhouses.  In  almost  aU  other  places 
the  school  was  held  in  the  houses  of  villagers  and  the  location  of  the  school 
changed  every  week.  One  had  no  other  room  for  the  school  than  the  living- 
room  of  the  countryman,  in  which  during  school  time  were  to  be  foimd 
family,  children,  and  strangers,  who  carried  on  their  regular  occupations. 
1  Schumann,  Geschichte  des  Volksschulwesens  in  der  Altmark,  p.  439  ff. 

D 


34  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Whoever  had  the  school  in  his  house  fed  the  teacher.  The  latter  was  very 
frequently  a  cripple  incapable  of  hard  work,  and  generally  a  tailor.  The 
community  hired  him  usually  for  one  winter  only  and  gave  him  a  very 
miserable  salary,  frequently  but  three  Thaler s  (monthly),  and  in  addition 
to  that  treated  him  with  such  disrespect  and  lack  of  appreciation  that  the 
shepherd  was  more  honored  in  the  village  than  he.  The  demands  made, 
however,  upon  him  were  just  as  small.  If  he  could  read  but  poorly,  sing 
Uie  best-known  church  hymns,  repeat  the  five  articles  of  the  smaller  Lutheran 
tatechism,  and  could  write,  then  he  possessed  all  the  qualities  necessary  for 
a  good  teacher,  and  more  was  not  required  of  him.  For  at  that  time  people 
considered  school  attendance  a  minor  matter  with  which  one  might  fill  up 
the  tiresome  hours  of  winter.  No  one  thought  of  summer  school  at  all, 
while  winter  school  began  on  St.  Martin's  Day  and  ended  at  the  beginning 
of  Lent.  The  General  School  Code  of  1763  seemed  to  be  almost  forgotten, 
at  least  it  was  not  frequently  regarded.  So  it  was  in  our  whole  region 
(Brandenburg),  and  so  it  remained  until  1816,  when  a  new  period  in  the 
improvement  of  our  local  country  schools  began. 

Schumann,  in  commenting  on  the  conditions,  adds :  ^ 

There  are  plenty  of  examples  where  old  loafers  conducted  school  week 
about,  and  where  shepherds,  who  herded  flocks  in  summer,  taught  the 
youth  in  winter.  .  .  .  Such  teachers  naturally  gave  very  wretched  in- 
struction. After  the  children  had  laboriously  learned  to  read  by  the  old 
alphabet  method,  which  took  up  three  or  four  years'  time,  they  spent  a 
large  portion  of  their  remaining  time  in  school  reading  the  Catechism,  the 
Psalms,  and  portions  of  the  New  Testament.  .  .  .  Outside  of  this  work 
the  larger  part  of  the  time  was  given  up  to  memorization  of  the  Catechism, 
Psalms,  Biblical  passages,  and  church  hymns.  Since  the  necessary  atten- 
tion and  industry  for  such  deadening  work  was  often  lacking  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils,  the  rod  was  the  magic  wand  which  had  to  awaken  diligence 
and  open  the  doors  in  the  heart  and  mind  of  the  chUd  for  religious  training. 

School  work  usually  began  at  eleven  years  of  age.  The  pupil  was 
required  to  imitate  for  years  the  handwriting  of  his  teacher  without  learning 
to  read  what  was  written.  As  a  rule  girls  did  not  learn  to  write.  Arith- 
metic, but  only  mechanical  work  accordmg  to  set  rules,  was  taught  in  a  few 
schools  and  then  only  in  classes  for  which  a  special  fee  was  charged.  Only 
church  songs  were  sung,  for  folk  songs  were  considered  vulgar  and  not  fa> 
belong  in  the  school.  The  singing  was  largely  screaming. 
*  Schumann,  p.  440  S. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN   VOLKSSCHULE      35 

Frederick  William  III  (i  797-1840)  and  his  consort  Queen 
Louise  had  been  interested  in  the  Pestalozzian  movement  since 
the  beginning  of  their  reign,  but  owing  to  the  fearful  struggles 
in  which  Prussia  was  involved  and  to  the  depths  of  political 
anarchy  to  which  the  state  had  fallen,  little  of  good  had  resulted. 
After  the  close  of  the  unhappy  war  of  1806-1807,  and  the  defeat 
of  the  Prussian  armies,  the  leading  spirits  of  the  nation  and  the 
real  founders  of  Germany's  present  greatness  insisted  upon  a 
religious  moral  regeneration  of  the  German  people  and  a  revival 
of  the  national  feeling.  The  schools,  particularly  the  lower,  have 
been  responsible  for  this  revival,  which  has  been  the  most  re- 
markable political  transformation  of  the  past  one  hundred  years. 
)The  philosopher  Fichte,  in  his  "Address  to  the  German  Nation," 
pointed  out  that  an  entirely  different  system  of  education  was 
the  only  saving  means.  He  demanded  the  education  of  the 
nation  as  such,  the  education  of  all  classes,  the  high  and  the  low, 
a  German  national  education.  \  Fichte  emphasized  particularly 
love  of  country  —  hence  the  emphasis  upon  history  —  and  re- 
ligious and  moral  education  —  hence  the  importance  of  religion 
in  the  curricula  of  all  schools.  In  one  of  his  addresses  to  his 
people  he  said : 

It  (patriotism,  love  of  country)  is  not  the  spirit  of  quiet,  civil  devotion 
to  the  old  constitution  and  to  the  laws,  but  the  consuming  flame  of  that 
higher  patriotism,  which  enfolds  the  nation  as  the  mantle  of  the  Eternal, 
for  which  the  noble  will  gladly  sacrifice  themselves. 

Fichte  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  such  patriotism  was 
rare  and  that  this  spirit  of  sacrifice  for  the  sake  of  country  must 
be  instilled  in  the  hearts  and  mind  of  the  people  before  Germany 
would  take  a  high  place  in  the  councils  of  the  nations,  j 

In  1809  the  Prussian  educational  authorities  decided  to  send 
several  young  men  to  Yverdon  to  sit  under  Pestalozzi  and  to 
learn  his  methods  in  order  later  to  reorganize  the  schools  in 
Prussia.    Among  these  students  were  Marsch,  Rendschmidt, 


36  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Braun,  Steger,  and  Patzig,  who  after  their  return  to  Germany 
justified  the  hopes  of  the  government  in  every  respect. 

Before  the  return  of  the  young  men  who  were  studying  with 
Pestalozzi,  the  Prussian  government  appointed  Zeller,  an  asso- 
ciate of  Pestalozzi,  to  the  position  of  school  superintendent  in 
East  Prussia.    Among  the  important  reforms  due  to  his  activity 
was  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school  and  an  orphans'  school 
at   Konigsberg.    Later   he    established    a    Protestant    normal 
school  at  Karalene,  and  a  Catholic  normal  school  at  Braunsberg. 
The  work  in  East  Prussia  had  to  be  given  up  temporarily  upon 
the  opening  of  Napoleon's  campaign  against  Russia. 
Remarkable  civil  changes  had  taken  place  since  Jena.    The 
\  king,  under  the  influence  of  Stein,  Scharnhorst,  Gneisenau,  and 
Hardenberg,  granted  self-government  to  the  cities  and  freedom.  ^ 
This  had  an  immediate  effect  upon  the  schools.  V^In  1811,  "In- ! 
stfiSctions  for  tiie  formation  and  management  of  city  school  I 
\  deputations"  were  issued  and  these  instructions  form  to-day  the] 
i-basisof  the  administration  of  the  schools  in  cities.    Not  only  ^ 
I   in  the  cities  but  in  the  country  the  local  boards  were  given  in 
\  181 2  the  right  of  partial  control  of  school  affairs.^     By  the  par- 
\  ticipation  of  local  citizens  in  the  control  of  the  schools  '•  the 
interest  and  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  was  enormously  increased. 
I  In  1 81 7  a  special  ministry  for  religion,  public  instruction,  and 
medical  affairs  was  independently  estabhshed  and  put  on  equal 
footing  with  the  other  ministries.     Freiherr  von  Altenstein  was 
the  first  minister  and  held  office  until  his  death  in  1840.    The 
/organization  of  provincial  and  county  school  authorities  was 
contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  central  authority.       (See 

P-  S9-) 

Foremost  among  the  teacher  trainers  in  the  Pestalozzian 
sense  was  Wilhelm  Harnisch.    Trained  at  the  Plamann  Pestaloz- 
zian Institute  in  Berlin,  he  became  director  of  the  normal  school 
1  Von  Bremen,  pp.  317-536  S. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      37 

in  Breslau  in  1812  and  later  at  Weissenfels.  The  Pestalozzian 
idea  had  been  introduced  into  Prussia  at  a  time  when  the  main- 
tenance of  any  sort  of  public  institution  was  an  ex-  „ 

PestaIoZ' 

tremely  difl&cult  matter.  In  spite  of  all  the  odds  zianain 
against  them  we  find'a  great  number  of  men,  fired  with  j^^^^"^ 
the  spirit  of  von  Stein  and  Pestalozzi,  establishing  normal  schools 
and  turning  out  large  numbers  of  weU-trained  teachers.  In 
addition  to  the  names  already  mentioned  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant were :  Grassmann,  director  of  the  normal  school  in  Stet- 
tin ;  Moller,  director  of  the  normal  school  in  Erfurt ;  Diester- 
weg,  director  of  the  normal  school  in  Mors,  and  Vormbaum, 
director  of  the  normal  school  in  Petershagen.    Harnisch  says :  ^ 

All  these  men  and  others  are  to  be  reckoned  among  those  who  con- 
ceived the  Volksschulen  from  a  patriotic  standpoint,  who  wished  thereby  to 
raise  the  German  people,  .  .  .  and  to  furnish  the  Prussian  state  new  organs 
for  its  inner  life  and  outward  defense. 

They  were  not  merely  instructors,  they  were  not  mere  school- 
masters, they  were  educators  of  the  people.  Among  their  main 
tendencies  were  their  observation  and  respect  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  German  tongue  from  a  pedagogical  and  a  patriotic  stand- 
point, cultivation  of  music  for  the  benefit  of  community  life, 
drawing,  religion,  and  physical  education. 

The  Prussian  elementary  school  system  —  the  Volksschule  in 
the  present  sense  of  the  word  —  developed  rapidly  in  all  the 
provinces  of  the  kingdom.  The  normal  schools  founded  by  the 
Pestalozzians  were  for  the  most  part  responsible  for  the  remark- 
able change  in  the  Volksschulen.  In  181 2  there  were  only  seven 
normal  schools  in  Prussia,  while  in  1840  there  were  forty-six 
normal  schools  with  almost  three  thousand  young  students  soon 
to  enter  the  Prussian  schools. 

In  1826  regulations  were  issued  for  all  Prussia  to  control 
the  first  and  second  teachers'  examinations,  thus  putting  the 

'  Harnisch,  Derjetzige  Standpunkt,  p.  15. 


38  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

minimum  requirement  for  entrance  into  the  profession  upon 
„     ,  a  higher  plane.     These  regulations  are  the  basis  of 

Examina-      the  present  scheme  of  examination  described  m  a 

°"^         later  chapter.  

■  ( An  attempt  was  made  by  Suvern  and  Altenstein  in  1819  to 
pass  a  general  law  for  the  organization  of  all  the  schools  below 
,  the  universities.  ^  Their  plan  was  to  have  the  schools  arranged 
\  in  three  divisions :  the  general  elementary  school,  the  general 
icity  schools,  much  like  the  middle  schools  of  to-day,  andjthe 
Gymnasien.  Wvery  class  in  society  was  to  have  its  own  particu- 
lar school ;  each  religion  was  to  have  its  own  schools.  In  fact 
many  of  the  latter-day  forms  of  organization  were  proposed, 
but  due  to  the  reactionary  spirit  which  had  set  in,  the  scheme 
fell  through.  \Even  until  to-day  Prussia  has  no  general  school 
law.  Each  phase  of  the  system  is  controlled  by  special  regula- 
tions. ,  According  to  figures  collected  in  1824,*  the  ratio' of~tlie 
children  in  school  to  the  population  was  one  to  eight,  which  in- 
dicates a  rather  high  percentage  of  attendance.  In  1837  over 
eighty  per  cent  c^f  the  children  in  Prussia  attended  school.  How- 
ever, in  the  eastern  provinces  the  percentage  of  ilhteracy  ran  as 
high  as  41  per  cent.  In  1821  ^  there  were  21,885  teachers  in  the 
Volksschulen  of  Prussia,  with  an  average  annual  income  of  212 
Thalers  in  the  city,  and  90  Thalers '  in  the  country. 
(The  supervision  of  the  schools  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergyjTQl  children  of  five  years  of  age  were  com- 
pelled to  attend  school,  but  were  permitted  to  attend  schools 
of  their  own  confession.  Tuition  was  charged  in  the  Volks- 
schule,  amounting   to   six,  nine,  or  twelve  Pfennige  weekly.^ 

'  Eylert,  Charahterzugen  .  .  .  am  dent  Lehen  des  Konigs  von  Preussen,  Friedrich 
WUhelm  III,  part  3,  p.  378. 

2  Beckedorrf's,  Jahrbilcher  des  Preussischen  Volksschidwesens,  vol.  I,  part  i, 
PP-  72,  75- 

3  A  Thahr  is  three  marks  or  $.75.  *  Heppe,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  150-155- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      39 

The  subjects  of  instruction  were  religion,  reading,  arithmetic, 
and  the  elements  of  history,  geography,  and  natural  science. 
The  school  was  divided  into  three  sections  just  as  it  is  to-day. 
^  Frederick  William  IV  became  king  of  Prussia  in  1840.  In 
the  same  year  Altenstein  died  and  Eichhorn  became  Minister. 
At  this  time  a  sharp  contest  was  raging  between  the  conservatives 
and  the  radicals.  The  king  and  his  minister  were  fanatically 
conservative,  as  were  also  Harnisch,  Henning,  and  Kaweran 
(see  p.  36).  This  party  emphasized  religion,  patriotism,  and 
authority.  On  the  other  hand  the  rationalists,  whose  leader 
was  Diesterweg,  demanded  particularly  instruction  in  subjects 
which  serve  best  to  train  the  understanding  and  reasoning  power ; 
namely,  language,  arithmetic,  geometry,  drawing,  history,  and 
science,  while  they  neglected  religion.  In  1844  ^  Eichhorn  ordered 
a  shortening  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  Volksschule,  and  more 
time  given  to  religion  and  to  the  study  of  the  catechism.  He 
held  the  doctrine  that  the  Volksschule  was  an  institution  of  the 
church,  subordinate  to  it,  working  for  it  and  under  its  supervision. 
The  school-teacher  according  to  his  opinion  was  a  servant  of  the 
church;  the  clergy  were  the  superiors  of  the  school  and  the 
teacher.  , 

On  the  other  hand  Eichhorn  introduced  some  new  features 
into  the  curriculum  of  the  Volksschule  and  the  normal  schools. 
In  1842  he  emphasized  the  value  of  physical  training  in  all 
schools.  In  1845  sewing  for  girls  was  put  into  the  schools. 
Since  1819  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  pass  a  national  school 
law.  Each  province  was  allowed  to  regulate  its  own  school 
affairs  so  long  as  nothing  was  done  contrary  to  the  then  existent 
statutes.  In  the  province  of  Prussia  a  general  school  law  ^  was 
adopted  regulating  every  phase  of  the  external  organization  of 
the  schools  —  while  the  internal  affairs  of  the  school  were  left 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  administrative  county  governments. 
'■  Ronne,  part  i,  p.  649.  "  Von  Bremen,  p.  36  ff. 


40  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  order  to  suppress  the  rationalist  movement  the  authorities 
passed  an  order  by  which  not  only  should  teacher's  libraries  be 
supervised,  but  even  the  private  books  of  teachers  be  inspected 
that  any  rationalistic  literature  might  be  discovered.  This 
regulation  brought  on  a  great  struggle  between  the  central 
authorities  and  the  majority  of  the  teachers.  Diesterweg  was 
removed  from  his  position  as  head  of  the  normal  school  in  Berlin 
and  sent  into  retirement.  Eichhorn's  activities  were  soon  over, 
for  when  the  Revolution  of  1848  broke  out,  he  resigned  and  went 
into  private  life. 

The  new  Prussian  constitution  ^  was  issued  in  1850.  Articles 
20  to  26  of  the  constitution  established  some  very  important 
principles  relative  to  the  status  of  the  schools  and' of  the  teachers. 

Art.  20.    Eaiowledge  and  instruction  therein  is  free. 

Art.  21.  The  state  shall  make  sufficient  provision  for  the  training 
of  the  youth.  Parents  and  their  representatives  must  not  leave  their 
children  or  their  wards  with  the  instruction,  which  is  prescribed  for  the 
Volksscktden. 

Art.  22.  It  is  the  right  of  every  man  to  impart  instruction  and  to 
foimd  and  conduct  institutions  of  learning,  when  he  has  satisfied  the 
state  authorities  concerned  as  to  his  moral,  scientific,  and  technical 
fitness. 

Art.  23.  All  public  and  private  institutions  of  learning  are  under 
the  supervision  of  authorities  named  by  the  state.  The  public  teachers 
have  the  rights  and  duties  of  servants  of  the  state. 

Art.  24.  In  the  establishment  of  public  Volksschulen  confessional 
relationships  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration  as  far  as  possible.  The 
religious  organizations  concerned  conduct  the  religious  instruction  in 
the  Volksschule.  The  administration  of  the  external  afiairs  of  the  Volks- 
schule  is  incumbent  upon  the  community. 

The  state  appoints,  with  legal  participation  of  the  community,  the 
teachers  of  the  public  Volksscktden  from  the  number  of  those  qualified. 

Art.  25.  The  means  for  the  estabUshment,  support,  and  extension 
of  the  public  Volksschulen  are  raised  by  the  community,  and,  in  case  of 
proven  inability,  supplementarily  by  the  state.  .  .  .    The  state  assures 

^  Lewin,  Geschichk  der  Entwicklung  der  preussischen  Volksschide,  p.  250. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      41 

the  teacher  of  the  Volksschulen  a  fixed  salary,  commensurate  to  the  needs 
of  the  locality.    Instruction  is  given  free  in  the  public  Volksschulen. 

Art.  26.  A  special  law  will  regulate  the  entire  school  system. 
[This  law  has  never  been  issued.] 

In  addition  to  these  articles  the  School  Supervision  Law  ^  of 
1872  places  in  the  hands  of  the  state  the  supervision  of  all  public 
and  private  schools. 

1.  With  the  removal  of  regulations  of  contradictory  nature  in  the 
various  provinces  of  the  coimtry  the  supervision  of  all  public  and  private 
institutions  of  learning  devolves  upon  the  state.  Accordingly  all  officials 
intrusted  with  this  inspection  perform  their  duties  in  behalf  of  the  state. 

2.  The  appointment  of  local  and  district  school  inspectors  and  the 
definition  of  their  inspection  district  belongs  solely  to  the  state.  .  .  . 

3.  The  participation  in  school  inspection  belonging  to  the  communi- 
ties and  to  their  local  boards  remains  unaffected  by  this  law  as  well  as  does 
Article  24  of  the  Constitution  of  January  31,  1850. 

4.  The  Minister  of  Religious,  Educational,  and  Medical  Affairs  is 
commissioned  to  execute  this  law. 

In  1854  a  series  of  regulations,  three  in  all,  were  issued  by  the 
minister,  who  was  a  leader  of  the  religious-conservative  party. 
These  regulations  dealt  with  (i)  the  training  of  teachers  in 
Protestant  normal  schools ;  (2)  the  normal  preparatory  schools ; 
(3)  and  the  one-class  elementary  school  for  Protestant  children. 
The  general  tendencies  of  these  regulations  will  be  shown  when 
compared  with  those  of  1872,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  Volks- 
schule  in  Prussia  to-day. 

In  comparison  with  the  salaries  received  by  the  teachers 
thirty-five  years  before,  we  find  that  in  1858  the  actual  conditions 
had  improved  somewhat.  The  city  teachers  received  in  the 
latter  year  an  average  ^  aimual  income  of  about  275  Thaler  ($206), 
while  the  rural  teachers  had  an  average  income  of  about  200 
Thaler  ($150).  Of  course  in  addition  to  this  salary  the  teacher 
had  free  lodgings  and  some  provisions  in  the  way  of  fuel  and  food. 
>  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  pp.  1-2.  ^  Diesterweg,  Jahrbuch,  1858. 


42 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


We  find  interesting  statistics  dealing  with  the  Prussian  Volks- 
schulen  in  the  Statistischen  Nachrichten  uber  das  Elemenfarschul- 
wesen  in  Preussen  fur  die  Jahre  1862  lis  1864. 

There  were  in  1864,  25,120  public  elementary  schools  with 
38,053  classes,  34,803  male  teachers,  and  2016  women  teachers. 
Sixty-six  and  two  tenths  per  cent  of  the  schools  were  Protestant, 
32.6  per  cent  were  Catholic,  and  i  per  cent  were  Jewish.  Sixty- 
eight  per  cent  of  the  children  lived  in  the  country  and  over 
31  per  cent  in  cities. 

In  1864  the  population  of  Prussia  was  19,226,270,  of  whom 
17.9  per  cent  were  children  of  school  age,  in  actual  figures, 
3,457,301.  In  that  year  there  were  but  2,938,679  children  in 
public  elementary  schools,  leaving  518,622  children  who 
attended  private  schools,  the  higher  schools,  schools  for  orphans, 
or  who  were  not  in  school  at  all.  About  15,500  were  not 
regularly  enrolled.  Thirteen  per  cent  of  the  children  spoke 
Polish. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  range  of  salaries  paid. 
In  addition  to  the  cash  salary  received,  the  city  teachers 
had  free  lodgings  and  the  rural  teachers  received  food  and 
fuel. 


Salakv 

1.  50-100  Thalers 

■^.  IOO-I2S  Thalers 

3.  125-150  Thalers 

4.  150-180  Thalers 

5.  180-200  Thalers 

6.  200-250  Thalers 

7.  250-300  Thalers 

8.  300-350  Thalers 


PosrrioNS  Salary 

1926  g.  350-400  Thalers 

3673  lo.  400-450  Thalers 

4688  II.  450-500  Thalers 

6536  12.  500-550  Thalers 

3754  13-  550-600  Thalers 

6197  14.  600-650  Thalers 

374S  15.  650-700  Thalers 

2256  16.  Over  700       .     . 


PosmoNS 

1415 
79S 
492 
321 
174 
96 

S3 
172 


One  receives  another  view  of  conditions  in  Prussia  forty-five 
years  ago  by  a  comparison  of  the  iUiterates  among  the  army 
recruits  in  187 1  and  in  1906.^ 

'  Zentralblatter,  1873  and  1907. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      43 


Province 


Percentage  of  IiLrrERACY 


_  .  f  East  Prussia 
Prussia  I  West  Prussia 
Brandenburg        .    .     , 

Pomerania 

Posen , 

Silesia 

Saxony   

Schleswig-Holstein    .     , 
Hannover    .     .     .     .     , 
Westphalia      ... 
Hesse  Nassau       .     . 
Rhine  Province    .     . 
Kingdom 


1906 
0.05% 
0.04% 
0.01% 
0.02% 
0.06% 
0.02% 
0.03% 

1906 
0.00% 
0.01% 
0.01% 
o.os% 
o.oo% 

0.02% 


In  conclusion  of  the  historical  outline  we  give  a  translation  of 
the  General  Regulations  of  1872,  not  only  because  they  form  the 
basis  of  the  present-day  organization  of  the  Volksschulen,^  but 
also  because  they  reflect  the  educational  progress  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  up  to  that  date. 

1.  The  normal  types  of  Volksschulen  are  (a)  the  fully  graded  school, 
(J)  the  partially  graded  school,  and  (c)  the  xmgraded  (one-class)  school 
with  one  teacher  only,  who  may  divide  the  pupils  to  attend  half-day 
schools. 

2.  In  the  one-class  Volksschule,  containing  children  of  the  years  of 
compulsory  age,  the  pupils  are  taught  in  one  and  the  same  room  by  one 
teacher.  The  number  of  children  must  not  exceed  eighty.  The  pupils 
of  the  lower  section  are  to  receive  twenty  hours  of  instruction  a  week, 
but  thirty  hours  will  be  given  in  the  middle  and  upper  sections,  includ- 
ing gymnastics  for  boys  and  handwork  for  girls. 

3.  Half-day  Schools.  — Where  the  number  of  pupils  rises  above  eighty, 
or  where  the  schoolroom  is  not  sufficiently  large  for  even  a  less  number 
and  the  appointment  of  a  second  teacher  is  not  immediately  possible,  as 

1  Von  Bremen,  p.  644  ff. 


44  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

well  as  where  other  circumstances  make  it  necessary,  the  organization  of 
half-day  schools  may  be  resorted  to  with  the  sanction  of  the  authorities. 
There  shall  be  given  thirty-two  hours'  instruction  to  both  classes  per 
week,  or  sixteen  to  each. 

4.  Schools  for  Two  Teachers.  —  If  two  teachers  are  engaged  at  a  school, 
the  children  are  separated  into  two  rooms.  If  the  number  of  pupils  rises 
above  120,  the  opening  of  a  third  room  is  required;  the  lowest  grade  will 
then  have  twelve  hours'  instruction  per  week,  the  middle  twenty-four, 
and  the  highest  twenty-eight  hours. 

5.  Graded  Schools.  —  In  schools  of  four  or  more  grades  the  children  of 
the  lower  grades  are  to  receive  twenty-two,  the  middle  twenty-eight,  and 
the  upper  grade  between  thirty  and  thirty-two  hours'  instruction  per 
week. 

6.  Separation  of  the  Sexes  in  the  School.  —  In  graded  schools  of  more 
than  four  grades  it  is  desirable  to  separate  the  children  according  to  sex 
in  the  upper  grades,  but  in  schools  of  only  two  teachers  the  arrangement 
of  ascending  grades  without  regard  to  sex  is  preferable. 

7.  If  in  any  school  district  several  one-class  or  imgraded  schools 
exist,  a  consolidation  into  a  central  union  school  is  strongly  recommended. 

8.  Arrangement  and  Equipment  of  Schoolrooms.  —  The  schoolrooms 
must  be  large  enough  to  give  each  child  an  area  of  0.6  square  meter. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  room  light  and  airy,  that  it  have  good 
ventilation,  give  protection  against  bad  weather,  and  be  well  provided 
with  window  shades.  Desks  and  seats  should  be  in  sufficient  number, 
and  so  placed  and  arranged  that  all  the  chUdren  in  the  room  may  sit 
and  work  without  detriment  to  their  health.  The  desks  should  be  pro- 
vided with  inkwells.  To  the  proper  equipment  belongs  also  a  sufficient 
number  of  hooks  for  cloaks,  coats,  and  caps,  etc. ;  also  a  blackboard  on 
an  easel,  a  wall  blackboard,  a  platform  with  desk  that  may  be  locked,  a 
cupboard  for  storing  books,  copy  books,  crayon,  sponge,  etc. 

9.  Necessary  Appliances.  —  For  complete  instruction  there  are  re- 
quired :  (i)  A  copy  of  each  text-book  and  exercise  book  introduced  in  the 
school  (for  the  teacher's  desk) ;  (2)  a  globe ;  (3)  a  wall  map  of  the  home 
province  or  state;  (4)  a  wall  map  of  Germany;  (5)  a  wall  map  of  Pales- 
tine ;  (6)  some  pictorial  representations  of  geographical  scenery ;  (7)  al- 
phabets in  large,  bold  type  pasted  on  wood  slides  or  pasteboard  for  use 
in  the  primer  class ;  (8)  a  violin ;  (g)  large  ruler  and  compasses  for  use 
on  blackboards ;  (10)  an  abacus.  In  Protestant  schools  there  is  to  be 
added  (ii)aBibleand  (12)  a  copy  of  the  hynmal  used  in  the  parish  church. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCEULE      45 

For  schools  of  more  than  one  grade  these  appliances  are  to  be  multiplied 
adequately. 

10.  Lists  and  Registers.  —  The  teacher  is  required  to  keep  the  follow- 
ing books  and  registers :  (i)  a  book  devoted  to  school  chronicles ;  (2)  a 
list  of  pupils,  their  addresses,  etc. ;  (3)  a  book  of  progress,  showing  the 
subject-matter  taught  each  day ;  and  (4)  a  list  of  attendance,  punctuality, 
etc.  The  teacher  is  further  required  to  have  at  hand  always  the  course 
of  study  prescribed,  a  time-table,  and  the  distribution  of  subject-matter 
of  instruction  for  each  term. 

11.  Text-books  and  Exercise  Books. — The  appliances  required  of 
the  pupil  in  ungraded  schools  or  schools  of  two  teachers  are :  (a)  books, 
to  wit,  a  primer  or  a  reader,  a  book  of  problems  for  arithmetic,  a  song 
book,  and  the  books  required  for  instruction  in  religion;  (6)  exercise 
books,  to  wit,  a  diary,  a  copy  book  for  penmanship,  a  blank  book  for 
spelling  and  composition,  a  drawing  book  in  the  upper  grades ;  (c)  other 
appliances,  to  wit,  a  slate  with  pencil  and  sponge,  a  ruler,  and  com- 
passes. 

Pupils  of  graded  schools  may  be  required  to  provide  themselves  with 
brief  guides  for  nature  study  and  other  realistic  branches,  also  with  a 
copy  of  the  reader  arranged  for  ascending  grades,  as  well  as  with  an  atlas. 
For  each  separate  study  an  exercise  book  is  to  be  procured. 

12.  Grading  of  the  People's  School.  — The  school,  even  the  one-class 
school,  is  divided  into  three  sections  or  grades  in  accordance  with  the 
age  of  the  pupils  and  their  degree  of  progress.  In  a  school  of  four  classes 
the  middle  section  is  represented  by  two  classes.  In  schools  of  six  classes 
each  section  has  two  classes. 

13.  Subjects  of  Study  in  the  People's  School. — The  subjects  to  be 
taught  are:  Religion,  German  language  (speaking,  reading,  writing), 
arithmetic  and  the  elements  of  geometry,  drawing,  history,  geog- 
raphy, nature  study,  gymnastics  for  the  boys,  female  handwork  for  the 
girls. 


46 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


The  hours  of  instruction  in  ungraded  schools  for  the  separate 
subjects  are  as  follows  : 


Religion 

German  language  * 

Arithmetic,  geometry    .... 

Drawing 

Realistic  Studies  ^ 

Singing        

Gymnastics  —  Female  Handwork 
Total 


Lower  Section 


Houis 


4 
II 

4 


Middle  Section 


Hours 


S 

lO 

4 
I 
6 

2 
2 


30 


Upper  Section 


Hours 


30 


In  the  graded  schools,  the  distribution  is  as  follows : 


Lower  Section 


Middle  Section 


Hours 


Hours 


Upper  Section 


Hours 


Religion 

German  language  ^   .     .    .    . 

Arithmetic       

Geometry 

Drawing 

Realistic  studies 

Singing        

Gymnastics,  Girls'  Handwork 
Total 


4 
II 

4 


28 


4 
8 

4 
2 

6(8) 

2 

2 


30  (32) 


In  half-day  schools  and  in  schools  of  two  teachers  with  three 
grades,  changes  in  the  foregoing  time-table  may  be  made  in 
accordance  with  local  circumstances. 

1  German  language  includes  reading,  writing,  spelling,  grammar,  composition, 
and  literature. 

2  Realistic  studies  include  geography,  history,  elements  of  natural  history,  and 
natural  science. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      47 

Note.  —  Paragraphs  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  and  21  refer  to  matter 
and  method  of  religious  instruction.  The  subject  is  divided  into  sacred 
history,  Bible  reading,  church  calendar,  catechism,  hymns  and  prayers. 
Then  follow  the  rules  governing  the  other  branches  of  study. 

22.  German  Language.  —  Instruction  in  German  includes  all  exercises 
in  speaking,  reading,  and  writing.  The  latter  includes  penmanship, 
spelling,  grammar,  composition,  and  literature.  These  subjects  must 
in  all  grades  remain  in  organic  connection  {i.e.  be  correlated)  and  as 
far  as  is  possible  progress  in  uniform  steps. 

23.  Practice  in  Oral  Expression.  —  Practice  in  oral  expression  requires 
no  separate  instruction.  It  prepares  the  way  for  instruction  in  writing 
and  reading,  and  accompanies  it  in  its  further  development. 

The  simplest  and  best-known  objects  form  the  material  in  the  lower 
division,  the  pictures  in  the  middle,  and  the  reading  book  in  the  upper 
division. 

Its  formal  aim  is,  in  gradual  progression,  to  enable  the  pupil  to  pro- 
nounce correctly  and  clearly  each  single  word  and  to  give  free  expression 
to  his  thoughts  in  a  simple  sentence,  the  power  of  sure  and  correct  ex- 
pression in  compound  sentences,  avoiding  the  most  common  mistakes  in 
forms  of  words  and  formation  of  sentences,  and  lastly,  the  ability  to  re- 
produce freely  and  correctly  imparted  knowledge  and  to  arrange  and 
clearly  state  his  own  thoughts. 

24.  Instruction  in  Writing  and  Reading.  —  Instruction  in  writing  and 
reading  is  to  be  according  to  the  method  in  use  in  the  normal  school 
in  the  district.  The  spelling  method  of  learning  the  letters  is  for- 
bidden. 

The  aim  is,  in  the  lower  division,  to  enable  the  children  to  read  cor- 
rectly connected  reading  pieces  and  not  only  to  copy,  but  also  to  write  for 
themselves  short  sentences ;  in  the  middle  division,  to  read  whole  reading 
pieces,  in  prose  and  verse,  in  Latin  and  German  characters,  without 
stumbling  and  intelligently,  to  write  correctly  a  simple  dictation,  and  to 
reproduce  unaided  a  reading  piece  of  simple  form  and  content.  In  the 
upper  division  the  pupils  are  to  be  led  to  read  at  sight  easily  and  with 
expression  more  difficult  reading  pieces,  of  which  the  content  is  not  too 
remote  from  the  circle  of  their  ideas,  to  write  dictations  of  this  kind  with- 
out a  mistake,  and  to  reproduce  correctly  longer  reading  selections. 

Special  hours  are  to  be  assigned  for  penmanship  in  the  middle  and 
upper  divisions  of  a  school  with  one  or  two  teachers  and  in  the  middle 
classes  of  larger  schools ;  in  the  upper  classes  of  such  schools  it  can  take 


48  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  form  of  home  work.  The  aim  of  the  instruction  is  the  acquirement 
of  a  neat,  clear,  graceful  handwriting  in  all  work,  even  to  that  quickly 
written. 

The  results  of  a  good  instruction  should  be  plainly  visible  in  the  pupils' 
notebooks. 

To  be  recommended  as  context  of  the  copies  are  popular  proverbs  and 
good  and  appropriate  samples  of  business  letters  and  forms. 

25.  Instruction  in  German  Grammar.  —  In  the  upper  classes  of  schools 
with  several  classes  special  hours  are  assigned  to  instruction  and  practice 
in  German  grammar ;  in  the  schools  with  one  or  two  teachers  it  is  com- 
bined with  the  rest  of  the  language  instruction. 

The  aim  of  the  instruction  for  the  middle  grades  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
simple  sentence  and  the  simplest  rules  of  etymology ;  for  the  upper  divi- 
sion, the  compound  sentence  and  more  thorough  instruction  in  accidence 
and  formation  of  words. 

26.  The  Reading  Book.  —  The  groundwork  of  all  instruction  in  Ger- 
man is  the  reading  book.  Where  possible,  the  whole  book  is  to  be  worked 
through.  The  reading  book  is  not  only  to  further  the  attainment  of 
skiU  in  reading,  but  also  to  lead  to  the  understanding  of  the  contents  of 
the  piece.  The  pieces  are  so  to  be  selected  that  about  thirty  are  treated 
in  a  year. 

Suitable  poetical  pieces  (in  smaU  schools  particularly  the  texts  of 
songs)  are  to  be  committed  to  memory  in  all  three  divisions  after  they 
have  been  commented  on. 

In  the  upper  classes  of  larger  schools  the  reading  book  is  to  be  used 
to  give  the  children  examples  of  the  chief  works  of  patriotic  (popular) 
poetry,  and  some  information  about  the  national  poets,  but  only  those 
since  the  Reformation. 

The  selection  of  the  reading  book  to  be  introduced  is  to  be  made  from 
those  which  have  a  popular  character  and  which  by  the  whole  of  their 
contents  promote  the  educative  purpose  of  the  school.  And  among  these 
those  deserve  the  preference  which  are  correct  in  form,  and  in  the  historical 
and  scientific  selections  are  not  the  original  productions  of  the  editors, 
but  specimens  from  the  best  popular  works  of  the  great  writers  in  those 
branches  and  which  are  free  from  all  pohtical  and  religious  bias.  For 
schools  attended  by  children  of  different  denominations,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, only  those  reading  books  are  to  be  chosen  which  have  really  no 
denominational  character.  In  books  already  in  use  the  pieces  denomina- 
tional in  character  are  to  be  assigned  to  the  religious  instruction. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      49 

27.  Language  Instruction  in  Schools  Attended  by  Children  of  Different 
Nationalities.  —  With  regard  to  the  schools  in  which  the  children,  or 
some  of  them,  speak  another  language  than  German,  the  special  regula- 
tions issued  in  the  past  or  to  be  issued  in  the  future  are  to  be  put  in  force. 

28.  Instruction  in  Arithmetic.  —  In  the  lower  divisions  operations 
with  concrete  and  abstract  numbers  between  one  and  one  hundred  are 
learned  and  practiced ;  in  the  middle  division,  the  same  operations  with 
unlimited  niimbers,  also  problems  in  averages,  reduction,  and  the  simple 
rule  of  three;  the  arithmetic  for  the  upper  division  includes  fractions 
(for  which  suitable  preparation  must  be  made  in  the  other  divisions), 
their  apphcation  to  calculations  of  everyday  life,  and  a  thorough  treat- 
ment of  decimal  fractions. 

In  the  larger  schools  this  amount  is  extended  in  these  everyday  cal- 
culations to  problems  of  a  harder  kind,  in  decimals  to  the  extraction  of 
square  root. 

In  the  lower  division,  in  schools  with  only  one  or  two  teachers,  as  far 
as  possible,  jn  other  schools  regularly,  all  calculations  are  to  be  done 
mentally.  At  the  beginning  of  a  new  rule  in  aU  divisions,  mental  cal- 
culations precede  those  on  the  board.  In  practical  applications  the 
relation  to  everyday  life  is  always  to  be  kept  in  view;  consequently 
examples  with  large  and  many-figured  numbers  are  to  be  avoided^  and 
the  problems  made  to  correspond  to  the  actual  conditions  of  things. 

By  means  of  these  problems  the  pupils  are  to  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  existiag  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coinage. 

Arithmetic  is  to  be  regarded  in  all  divisions  as  practice  in  clear  think- 
ing and  correct  speaking.  Still,  the  ultimate  aim  is  to  enable  the  pupils 
to  solve  imaided,  surely  and  quickly,  the  problems  set  them. 

In  all  schools  the  instruction  is  to  be  based  on  a  collection  of  examples 
for  the  pupil,  to  which  the  teacher  has  the  key. 

29.  Instruction  in  Geometry.  —  The  set  portion  of  geometry  includes 
the  line  (straight,  equal,  imequal,  parallel),  the  angle  and  its  kinds,  tri- 
angles, quadrilateral,  regular  figures,  the  circle  and  its  aiding  lines,  and 
the  regular  soHds. 

In  larger  schools  lines  and  angles  are  more  fuUy  treated,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  equality  and  simiharity  of  figures  in  elementary  treatment. 

Instruction  in  geometry  is  to  be  connected  with  both  arithmetic  and 
drawing.  While  in  the  latter  the  pupils  learn  to  correctly  observe  and 
represent  the  forms  of  Unes,  surfaces,  and  solids,  in  the  former  they  learn 
to  operate  certainly  and  intelligently  with  their  measurements,  to  cal- 


so  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

culate  the  length  of  lines,  the  extent  of  surfaces,  and  the  volume  of 
soUds. 

30.  Drawing.  —  In  instruction  in  drawing  all  children  are  to  be 
occupied  simultaneously  and  similarly,  and  by  constant  practice  of 
hand  and  eye  are  to  be  so  trained  that  they  are  able,  with  the  help  of 
ruler,  scale,  and  compasses,  to  copy  pattern  figures  on  a  given  reduced 
or  magnified  scale  and  to  represent  geometrical  views  of  objects  of  simple 
shape  on  a  given  scale,  —  i.e.  the  furniture  of  the  room,  garden  surfaces, 
houses,  churches,  and  other  sohds  which  present  straight  edges  and  large 
surfaces. 

Where  this  end  is  attained,  specially  gifted  children  may  be  set  to 
draw  from  copies. 

A  special  regulation  is  issued  as  to  drawing  in  larger  schools. 

31.  Instruction  in  Realien.^  —  In  the  instruction  in  the  Realien  the 
reading  book  is  to  be  used  to  give  life,  completeness,  and  repetition  in 
the  material  which  the  teacher,  after  careful  preparation,  presents  orally 
and  through  direct  observation.  In  larger  schools  special  text-books 
may  be  used  as  well.  No  use  is  to  be  made  of  dictations;  forbidden, 
too,  is  the  purely  mechanical  committal  to  memory  of  dates,  lists  of  kings 
and  queens,  names  of  countries  and  towns,  mmibers  of  inhabitants, 
names  and  characteristics  of  plants,  mmibers  of  size  and  relations  in 
natiiral  science.  In  geography  and  nature  study  the  instruction  begins 
with  observation,  which  in  geography  is  attained  by  means  of  the  globe 
and  map ;  in  the  descriptive  sciences,  by  samples  of  the  objects  to  be 
discussed  or  by  good  illustrations ;  in  natural  science  (physics),  at  least 
in  the  larger  schools,  by  experiment. 

Throughout,  even  in  larger  schools,  the  material  is  to  be  gradually 
extended,  proceeding  from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult,  from  the 
nearer  to  the  remote. 

32.  History.  —  From  the  earlier  German  history,  and  from  the  earlier 
history  of  Brandenburg,  certain  biographies  are  to  be  selected ;  from  the 
time  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  Great  Elector  the  chain  of  such 
biographies  is  to  be  continued  unbroken.  So  far  as  the  children  are  able 
to  grasp  it,  the  chief  features  of  the  progress  in  civilization  are  also  to 
be  dealt  with. 

The  fullness  and  the  number  of  the  biographies  is  determined  by  the 

1  By  Realien  are  meant  the  branches  which  convey  knowledge  of  real 
things  —  actual  knowledge,  not  merely  the  form  of  knowledge. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE      51 

character  of  the  school  and  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  this  branch 
of  the  instruction. 

33.  Geography.  —  Geographical  instruction  is  to  begin  with  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  home  and  school;  it  then  deals  with  Germany,  and 
with  the  outlines  of  general  geography ;  shape  and  motion  of  the  earth, 
causes  of  day  and  night  and  of  the  seasons,  the  zones,  the  five  oceans,  the 
five  continents,  the  chief  states  and  cities  of  the  world,  the  greatest 
mountains  and  rivers. 

The  quantity  of  the  matter  wiU  be  determined  by  the  character  of 
the  school ;  but  in  working  out  a  course  of  studies  it  is  better  to  limit 
the  extent  than  to  sacrifice  the  clearness  of  the  instruction  and  to  allow 
it  to  degenerate  into  a  mere  list  of  names. 

34.  Object  Lessons  in  Natural  History,  Botany,  etc.  —  This  branch  of 
the  instruction  includes,  besides  a  description  of  the  structure  and  life  of  the 
human  body,  that  of  the  native  rocks,  plants  and  animals,  and  of  foreign 
ones,  the  chief  beasts  of  prey,  animals  and  plants  of  the  East,  those  culti- 
vated plants  of  which  the  products  are  in  daUy  use  in  our  country  (cotton 
plant,  tea  plant,  coffee  tree,  sugar  cane).  Of  native  objects,  those  are  to 
be  made  particularly  prominent  which  arouse  special  interest  (i)  through 
the  services  which  they  render  to  men  (e.g.  domestic  animals,  birds, 
silkworm,  com,  spinning  plants,  fruit  trees,  salt,  coal) ;  (2)  through  the 
harm  which  they  do  to  men  (poisonous  plants) ;  (3)  through  the  pecul- 
iarity of  their  life  or  way  of  living  (e.g.  butterflies,  trichinae,  tapeworm, 
bee,  ant). 

In  larger  schools  such  objects  may  not  only  be  increased  in  number, 
but  also  systematically  arranged  and  more  exhaustively  treated  as  to 
their  use  in  industry.  Everywhere  the  aim  of  the  instruction  should  be 
to  accustom  children  to  an  attentive  observation  and  to  bring  them  up 
to  a  thoughtful  consideration  of  nature. 

35.  Natural  Science.  —  In  this  instruction  in  a  school  with  only  one 
or  two  teachers  the  children  are  to  be  led  to  an  approximate  understand- 
ing of  those  phenomena  which  daily  surround  them. 

In  larger  schools  this  instruction  is  to  be  extended  to  include  the  most 
important  principles  of  the  equilibrium  and  movement  of  bodies,  of 
sound,  light,  heat,  magnetism,  and  electricity,  so  that  the  children  are 
able  to  explain  the  commoner  natural  phenomena  and  the  most  frequently 
used  machines. 

36.  Singing.  —  Hynms  are  to  be  practiced  alternately  with  popular 
songs.    The  aim  should  be  to  secure  that  each  child  can  sing  not  only  in 


52  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

chorus,  but  also  alone  correctly  and  surely,  and  that  when  he  leaves  the 
school  he  takes  with  him  a  sufficient  number  of  hymns  and  songs  (the 
words  of  the  latter  to  be  perfectly  known  by  heart)  as  a  lasting  posses- 
sion. 

37.  Gymnastics.  —  This  instruction  is  given  in  the  middle  and  upper 
divisions  two  hours  a  week,  according  to  the  regulation  of  October  8, 
1868.  It  is  desirable  that  a  preliminary  course  should  be  instituted  in 
the  lower  division. 

38.  Needlework.  —  Needlework  should  be  practiced,  where  possible, 
from  the  middle  division  upward  two  hours  a  week. 

The  General  Regulations  of  1872  have  reference  to  all  the 
Volksschulen,  not  merely  to  the  Protestant ;  the  Regulations  of 
1854  concerned  themselves  with  the  ungraded  school 
of'Se"'^''"  alone,  while  those  of  1872  considered  all  tjT)es  of 
Regulations  Volksschukfi.  The  General  Regulations  recognized  a 
and  1872  division  into  three  sections  even  in  the  ungraded 
school,  while  the  Regulations  of  1854  did  not.  The 
General  Regulations  gave  definite  instructions  concerning  school 
equipment,  material,  and  the  like.  The  Regulations  of  1854  did 
not  set  out  the  aims  of  the  Volksschule  clearly  as  did  those  of 
1872.  The  General  Regulations  condemn  pure  mechanical 
memorization  of  material ;  the  Regulations  of  1854  demanded  a 
great  deal  of  memorization  of  religious  subject  matter.  The 
amount  of  material  in  religion  was  limited  by  the  General  Regu- 
lations. The  sciences,  history,  and  geography  come  into  their 
own  again  under  the  new  regulations.  And  finally  the  General 
Regulations  emphasized  the  importance  of  a  national  (German) 
education. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  trace  further  the  development  of 
the  legal  status  of  the  Volksschule.  We  have  endeavored  to 
show  the  nationalistic  tendency  of  the  Volksschule,  that  it  has 
been  the  chief  means  of  unification  of  German  thought  and  feel- 
ing, that  subjects  and  methods  of  instruction  have  all  been 
pointed  toward  a  more  intense  patriotism  and  national  unity. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCEULE      53 

The  present  Emperor,^  in  order  to  combat  socialistic  principles 
rampant  in  Germany,  issued  the  following  order;  which  is,  in 
part: 

The  history  of  the  Fatherland  and  particularly  the  history  of  social 
economic  legislation  and  development  since  the  beginning  of  this  (19th) 
century  down  to  the  present  social-political  legislation,  is  to  be  so  treated 
as  to  show  how  the  Prussian  monarchs  have  always  considered  their 
special  mission  ...  to  further  the  physical  and  spiritual  welfarfe  of  their 
people. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  treat  here  the  legal  development  of 
the  Prussian  Volksschule  because  the  more  important  newer 
laws  and  regulations  have  been  cited  in  the  chapters  dealing 
with  the  organization  of  schools,  methods,  training  and  pajonent 
of  teachers,  and  other  topics  having  to  do  with  the  Volksschulen. 
*  Lewin,  p.  380.    ZentralUaU,  May,  1889. 


CHAPTER  II 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS 

Composition  of  the  Prussian  State 
Kingdom 
Province 
Administrative  County 

{Regierungsbezirk)  .      , 

District—      ^  City  Bhtnct  {Stadtkreis)     P*^*^' 
{Kreis)        \  County  District  (JLandkreis)  U,.LJ: 
'     Official  District 
{Amtsbezirk) 
Community 
(fiemeinde) 
(i)  City  {Stadtische  Gemeinde) 

(2)  Village  or  town  (Landliche  Gemeinde)      . 

(3)  Manor  (fiutshezirk)  6^-'»-H^  "^'^  "X 

The  above  outline  shows  the  administrative  divisions  of  the 
Prussian  kingdom.  The  whole  kingdom  is  composed  of  twelve 
provinces,  the  city  of  Berlin,  and  the  principality  of  Sigmaringen. 
Each  province  is  subdivided  into  administrative  counties 
(Regierungsbezirke) ,  usually  three  or  four  counties  in  each  prov- 
ince. There  are  thirty-six  such  counties  in  the  entire  kingdom. 
The  head  of  the  provincial  government  is  the  first  president  of 
of  the  province  (Oberprdsidenf) ,',  while  the  highest  ofl&cial  in  the 
administrative  county  is  county  president  {Regierungsprasident)i 
\  Each  administrative  county  is  divided  into  districts  {Kreise), 
either  city^istricts  (Stadtkreise)  or  country  districts  (Lm^ 
kreise),  the  mayor  and  the  council  being  the  chief  administrative 
authority  in  a  city  district,  and  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  dis- . 
trict  (Landrat)  being  the  head  of  a  country  district.    In  a  coun-" 

S4 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         $5 

'Mttry  district  we  find  a  further  subdivision  —  the  official  district 
/   or  jurisdiction  {Amtshezirk) ,  the  administrative  officer  of  which 
\   is  the  district  supervisor  (Amtsvorsteher) .    This  unit  of  adminis-    "^ 
\  tration  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  schools  except  in  matters  of  i 
jcompulsory  attendance., 

JA  city  district  is  generally  a  large  city  with  a  few  suburbs.! 
i  It  is  also  at  the  same  time  a  community.    A  country  district  is  ; 
composed  of  several  communities,  which  are  small  cities,  villages,  1 
and  majiors.  ]  A  glance  at  the  diagram  on  page  54  will  make 
the  matter  clear. 

This  brief  resume  of  the  political  organization  of  Prussia  is 
given  in  order  to  make  the  explanation  of  the  administration  of 
the  Volksschulen  a  little  more  clear,  because  for  almost  every 
governmental  unit  there  is  a  corresponding  school  authority. 
The  following  diagram  (page  56)  wiU  aid  in  reading  the  text 
dealing  with  the  administration  of  the  schools, 
frhe  Ministry  for  Religious  and  Educational  Affairs  {Mi- 
nisterium  fiir  geistlichen-und-Unterrichtsangelegenheiten)  is  the 
highest    administrative    authority    of    the    Prussian  f 

,       ,  „i  .         •    •  IT.  ...  „      Ministry 

school  system.    This  mimstry  had  its  origin  m  1787 
in  the  Oherschulkollegium,  which  was  dissolved  in  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  Prussian  state  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit.  \  In  1810 
r{Verordnung  of  October  27,  1810,  Von  Bremen,  p.  45)  a  special     ^ 
\  bureau  for  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  public  instruction  was  cre- 
ated under  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  and  all  institutions  of 
culture  and  learning  were  assigned  to  this  bureau.  \  In  i8i7j 
however ,^Trederick  William  III  removed  this  department  from    - 
the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  and  created  a  new 
j  portfolio,  known  as  the  Ministry  for  ReUgious,  Educational, 
and  Medical  Affairs    {Ministerium  fur  geistUchen-Unterrichts- 
und-Medizinalangelegenkeiten).     The   ministry  was  known  by 
this  name  until  1911,^  when  the  section  controlling  medical 
1  ZentrdUatt,  191 1,  p.  301  ff. 


56  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Diagram  op  Supervisory  Ofpicers  in  Prdssian  Elementary  Schools 


King 


Minister 


Undo- State  Secretary 


General  Director  of  Bureaus 
^ 1 


Directorof  Bureau 

for 

ffigher  Schools 


Director  of  Bureau  for 
Lower  ondMddleSchoob 


Councilors 


I  I 


M^t- 


Councilors 


Provincial 
School 
Board 


Administrative  County 

BmeautarLcmer,  Middle 

and  Private  Schools 


Director  of Bifeau 
fca-  Churches 


Assistants 


'■P'tX.'^ilr, 


U/H1M.^( 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         S7 

affairs  was  withdrawn  and  the  ministry  is  now  the  Ministerium 
fur  geistUchen  und  Unterrichtsangelegenheiten. 

The  ministry  regulates  the  school  system  and  church  affairs 
for  the  whole  kingdom,  issues  regulations,  prepares  laws,  and 
receives  j^ports  and  statistics  dealing  with  school 
affairs,   'it  has  the  deciding  voice  in  all  questions  Work  of  the 
which  concern  the  schools,  if  such  questions  carmot  **^^*^ 
be  settled  by  some  lower  authority.  | 

The  Minister  as  the  educational  head  is  responsible  to  the 
king  and  to  the  lower  legislative  house  in  Prussia.    The  occu- 
pant of  this  office  may  or  may  not  be  a  school  man,  jj^^^^  ^f     ^ 
for  the  office  is  political  in  character.  |  Among  the  the 
duties  of  the  Minister,  although  in  reality  the  work     ™^  *' 
is  done  by  secretaries, | are  the  following:   determination  of  the 
outward  form  of  the  schools;   making  of  courses  of  study  and 
curricula;    examinations   for   higher   schools;    final   approval 
of  text-books;    appointment  of  normal  school  teachers,  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  of  preparatory  schools  for  normal  training 
schools  (Praparandenanstalten) ,  and  district  school  inspectors; 
reappointment  of  discharged  teachers  or  teachers  who  have 
been  suspended;    appointment  of  foreign  exchange  teachers; 
and  the  approval  of  extraordinarily  long  leaves  of  absence. 
/  Next  to  the  Minister  is  an  under  state  secretary.    Below  this 
secretary  are  the  directors  of  the  various  bureaus  of  the  ministry 
and  in  these  bureaus  are  a  number  of  assistant  sec-  -Q^^g^ 
retaries  {Vortragende  Rate),  whose  duty  it  is  to  sub-  state  Secre- 
mit  to  the  minister  or  the  directors  reports  dealing  Assistant 
with   the   special   fields    assigned   to    them.    From  Secretaries 
time  to  time  the  Vortragende  Rate  visit  the  schools,  but  these 
visits  are  restricted  largely  to  the  higher  schools. 

I  The  ministry  has  three  bureaus ;  namely,  a  bureau  for  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  one  for  higher  schools,  and  one  for  the  lower 
school  system./  To  the  bureau  for  higher  schools  are  assigned 


S8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  affairs  of  the  higher  schools,  the  universities,  higher  techni- 
cal schools,  and  institutions  for  fine  and  industrial  arts.JTo 
Ministerial  the  bureau  for  lower  schools  belong  the  Volksschulen, 
Bureaus  ^fjg  middle  schools,  normal  schools,  normal  prepara- 
tory schools,  institutions  for  the  bhnd,  deaf,  and  dumb,  and 
matters  having  to  do  with  physical  training.  \The  technical 
school  system,  with  the  exception  of  those  mentioned  above, 
and  the  continuation  schools,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  minister 
of  commerce  and  industry.  {Erlass  von  3.  Sept.  1884,  Gesetz- 
sammlung,  1885,  p.  95.)   | 

Note.  —  Since  the  establishment  of  a  separate  ministry  of  education 
m  Prussia  there  have  been  fifteen  difiFerent  ministers  including  the  present 
one:  Freiherr  von  Altenstein,  1817-1840;  Eichhom,  1840-1848;  Graf 
Schwerin,  1848;  von  Ladenberg,  1848-1850;  von  Raumer,  1850-1858; 
von  Bethmann-Hollweg,  1858-1862 ;  von  Mtihler,  1862-1872;  Dr.  Falk, 
1872-1879;  von  Puttkammer,  1879-1881 ;  von  Gossler,  1881-1891;  Graf 
Zedlitz-Trutzschler,  1891-1892;  Dr.  Bosse,  1892-1899;  Dr.  Studt,  1899- 
1907  ;  Holle,  1907-1909 ;  Trott  zu  Solz,  1909-1917. 

The  special  bureau  for  the  lower  schools  was  created  in  1882.  The 
directors  of  this  bureau  since  then  have  been  De  la  Croix,  1882-1889; 
Dr.  Kugler,  1889-1892 ;  Dr.  Schwartzkopflf,  1892-1909 ;  Von  Bremen, 
1909-1917. 

The  Prussian  kingdom  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces  with 
their  capitals  at  Konigsberg,  Danzig,  Posen,  Breslau,  Stettin, 
Provincial  Berlin,  Magdeburg,  Schleswig,  Harmover,  Miinster, 
School  Cassel,   and   Coblenz.^,  In  each  province  there  is  a 

^  Provincial  School  Board  (Promnzialschulkollegium), 
which  has  its  offices  in  the  provincial  capital.  The  presiding; 
officer  of  the  ProvinzialschulkoUegium  is  the  president  of  the 
province  (Oberprasident)  and  is  not  a  school  man.  He  names 
the  members  of  the  examination  commissions  for  rectors  of 
Volksschulen^  and  middle  school  teachers,  interprets  ^alary  and 
pension  Wws,  and  at  the  direction  of  the  Miiuster  decides  cases 
dealing  with  compulsory  pensioning  of  elementary  teachers. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         59 

,-—  1^ 

I  The  Provincial  School  Board  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Provin- 

zialkonsistorium,  at  first  having  been  a  part  of  the  consistory, 
but  finally  in  1845  separating  entirely  from  it.,   Instructions 
issued  in  181 7  and  in  1825  concerning  the  duties  of  the  provincial    <■ 
consistories  still  hold  good  in  the  main  for  the  provincial  school 

boards^ [ 

^The  Provincial  School  Board  consists  of  seven  or  eight  mem- 
bers, although  sometimes  more.    i.The  memberslare:  j  the  presi- 
dent, who  is  always  president  of  the  province;   the 
director,  who  is  sometimes  the  president  of  the  ad-  the  Provin- 
ministrative  county  {Regierungsbezirk,  see  p.  60)  in  ^^  School 
which  the  board  sits,  while  at  other  times  there  may 
be  another  state  oflScial  or  a  school  man ;  and  six  or  more  mem- 
berS;;_j  Among  the  members   (not  including  the  president  or    C 
director)  one  finds  three  or  more  provincial  school  superintend- 
ents {Provinzialschulrdte) ,  and   several   secretaries  of   the   ad-  , 
mimstrative  districts,  who  have  also  the  duties  of  school  super- 
intendent for  their  respective  districts.^!  These  six  members 
are  all  school  men.    There  is  another  member,  the  attorney 
for  the  board,  who  is  not  a  school  man.     Each  member  has  his 
own  particular  duties  to  perform.  ^  Inspection  of  the  schools 
under  the  control  of  the  board  is  given  over  to  the  provincial 
school    superintendents    (Provinzialschulraie) .  I  These    superin- 
tendents are  always  school  men,  and,  as  a  rule,  have  been  directors 
of^some  form  of  secondary  schools.   ^Decisions  are  made  by  the  ^r 
(board  as  a  whole  and  are  never  left  to  a  single  member.  |  Papers 
and  letters  coming  to  the  board  are  recorded  by  number  in  a 
journal,  and  their  disposal  is  also  noted  in  the  same  book.    If 
such  documents  are  reports  which  are  intended  only  for  the 
authorities,  then  they  simply  go  into  the  records,  but  in  all 
other  cases  a  written  answer  is  given.    This  answer  is  copied 

*  This  latter  group  of  members  have  the  title  of  Regierungs-  und  Sckulrai.     See 
p.  61. 


6o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  filed,  while  the  original  is  signed  by  the  oflEice  and  sent  out. 
All  records  are  carefully  arranged  and  preserved  in  the  registrar's 
office. 

^  The  Provincial  School  Board  has  control  of  the  higher  schools 
{Gymnasien,  Realgymnasien,  Oberrealschulen,  und  hdhere  Mad- 
chenschulen),  normal  schools,  normal  preparatory^  schools, 
and  the  examination  commissions  for  these  schools.]  Likewise 
the  institutions  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  are  under  the 
supervision  of  this  board.  \  New  courses  of  study  and  material 
can  be  introduced  only  with  its  consent. 

In  Prussia  there  are  higher  schools  which  are  supported  entirely, 
by  the  state,  others  which  are  maintained  by  the  cities,  and  stillj 
others  founded  by  the  cities,  but  aided  by  the  state.]  The  Pro- 
vincial School  Board  controls  all  the  affairs,  both  financial  and 
educational,  of  the  first  t5T)e  of  school.  In  the  second  type 
the  financial  matters  are  controlled  and  the  teachers  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  from  the  official  Hsts.  Such  appointments, 
however,  must  be  approved  by  the  Provincial  School  Boards. 
In  schools  supported  entirely  by  the  state  there  is  no  inters 
: mediary  officer  between  the  director  of  the  school  and  theBosLTdJ 

This  is,  briefly,  the  form  of  the  Provincial  School  Board.  It 
has  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  elementary  schools,  except 
that  the  normal  schools  which  prepare  teachers  for  the  Volks- 
schulen  are  under  its  supervision.  \ 

Each  province  of  the  Prussian  kingdom  is  divided  for  admin- 
istrative purposes  into  administrative  counties  {Regierungs- 
Adminis-  bezirke).  Such  units  correspond  in  a  way  to  our 
trative  counties,  but  the  comparison  is  not  very  close.    The\ 

°"°^       I  county  is  the  unit  of  administration  for  the  lower 
schools  in  the  province,  each  province  being  divided  into  severalj 
administrative  counties.  \  For  example,  the  province  of  Pom- 
erania  is  divided  into  three  counties ;   namely,  Stettin,  Koslin, 
and   Stralsund.    The   county   government   has   usually   three 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         6i 

bureaus:    a  bureau  for  the  administration  of  internal  affairs  51 
{Prdsidial  Abteilung) ;   a  bureau  for  churches  and  schools  {Ab- 
teilung  fiir  Kirchen-  und  Schulwesen) ;  and  a  bureau  for  taxes, 
lands  and  forests  {Abteilung  jUr  Steuern,  Domanen,  und  Forsten).  \ 
j  The  bureau  for  churches  and  schools  has  control  of  the  Folfo- 
schulen,  the  middle  schools,  and  the  private  schools^J  It  is  com- 
posed of  seven  or  eight  members,  some  of  them  being  adminis-: 
trative  ofl&cials,  and  others  being  school  men,  each  with  the, 
title  of  Regierungs-  und  Schulrat,  county  superintendent   for 
.schools.     It  is  the  duty  of  these  superintendents  to  visit  the^ 
'  sdiools  and  exercise  general  supervision  over  them.     ', 
\  Instructions  issued  in  1817  and  ui  1825  concerning  Powers  and 
the  powers  and  duties  of  the  administrative  county  the  County 
in  school  matters  hold  good  to-day,  ;jalthough  some  ment™" 
slight  changes  have  been  made  and  its  duties  have 
been  somewhat  increased  by  more  recent  laws.    These  duties  are 
in  part  as  follows : 

1.  Approval  of  appointment  of  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools 
which  have  been  made  by  municipalities,  school  deputations,  or  any 
other  lower  authority  .^ 

2.  Granting  leaves  of  absence  to  the  extent  of  six  months  or  more. 

3.  General  supervision  of  public  school  property,  and  also  the  property 
of  private  fovmdations. 

4.  Supervision  of  official  acts  of  teachers ;  also  the  conduct  of  teachers 
outside  of  school  hovirs. 

5.  Supervision  and  administration  of  the  whole  elementary  school 
system,  including  the  middle  and  private  schools. 

6.  Supervision  of  all  financial  affairs  of  institutions  under  its  control. 

7.  Visitation  of  local  school  authorities  and  inspection  of  their  offices ; 
likewise  the  county  superintendents  (Regierungsschulrate)  must  visit 
the  school  assigned  to  them  and  make  reports  thereon.  Such  visits,  of 
course,  cannot  be  very  frequent  in  a  single  school,  owing  to  the  large 
number  of  institutions  assigned  to  the  supervision  of  one  man. 
'  In  Berlin  the  lower  schools  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  Provincial  School 

Board  of  the  province  of  Brandenburg. 

'  See  p.  171  for  the  method  of  appointment  of  teachers.     ^ 


62  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

8.  Introduction  of  new  text-books  and  courses  of  study. 

9.  Determination  of  vacations. 

10.  Instructions  to  principals  and  head  teachers. 

11.  Approval  of  any  fundamental  changes  in  the  organization  of  the 
school  systems  under  its  control. 

12.  Introduction  or  changes  in  salary  schedules.* 

In  short,  the  county  government  is  the  representative  of  the 
royal  ministry  in  the  several  administrative  counties,  the  bureau 
for  churches  and  schools  being  responsible  to  the  BerUn  author- 
ities when  the  lower  school  system  is  concerned.  '  Under  the 
administrative  county  (Regierung)  are  the  following  authorities : 

I.  Each  administrative  county  (Regierungsbezirk)  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  smaller  districts,  each  of  which  is  known  as  a 
Kreis.  [These  Kreise,  when  referred  to  as  a  part  of  the  school 
system,  are  called  school  inspection  districts  {Schulaufsichts- 
bezirke)!  and  the  term  will  be  used  in  this  sense.  An  admin- 
istrative county  is  generally  divided  into  twelve  inspection 
districts  (Kreise). '\  These  districts  are  separated  into  two  groups 
and  each  group  is  placed  under  the  general  supervision  of  a 
county  school  superintendent  (Regierungs-  und  Schulrat).\  For 
example,  the  administrative  county  KosHn,  in  the  province 
of  Pomerania,  is  divided  into  twelve  districts  (Kreise).  The 
districts  Koslin,  Colberg,  Stolp,  Lauenberg,  Shaue,  and  Rummels- 
burg  are  under  one  county  school  superintendent  {Regierungs- 
schulrat),  while  the  other  six  districts  of  the  county  are  imder 
another  superintendenL^C^  The  real  inspection  of  the  scho^i~ 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  "district  school  inspector"  (Kreisschul- 
\inspektor).  This  inspector  must  be  carefuUy  distinguished 
^m  the  Regierungsschulrat  or  county  school  superintendent./ 
The  latter  has  the  general  supervision  of  several  school  inspec- 
tion districts  (Kreise),  while  the  former  has  the  administration 

'  Von  Bremen,  Das  Schulunterhaltungsgesetz,  p.  139. 
^  See  p.  56  for  the  diagram  for  school  supervision. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         63 

and  inspection  in  one  or  part  of  one  inspection  district.    There 
are  two  t3^es  of  inspection  districts,  the  country  inspection 
district  {Landkreis)  and  the  city  inspection  district  (Stadtkreis). 
jln  a  city  inspection  district  there  is  more  than  one  district  school 
inspector,  since  as  a  rule  such  an  inspection  district  is  further 
subdivided  into  smaller  inspection  units,  each  of  which  has  its 
own  district  school  inspector   {Kreisschulinspektor).\    To  make 
the  matter  perfectly  clear,  let  us  take  an  example.    In  the 
province    of    Pomerania,    administrative    county    of    Koslin 
(Regierungsbezirk),    in   the   inspection   district   Koslin    (Kreis) 
there  are  five  inspection  units,  Koslin  I,  Koslin  II,  Koshn  III, 
Koslin  rV,  Koslin  V,  each  of  which  stands  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  district  school  inspector  (Kreisschulinspektor) .    In  each . 
fmspection  unit  within  a  district,  if  the  latter  be  subdivided  at  all, 
ijthere  are  a  number  of  estates,  villages,  towns,  and  perhaps  a  city. 
J  The  district  school  inspector  is  the  superior  of  local  school    t 
boards,  school  deputations,  local  inspectors,  principals  of  schools,  ; 
and  teachers  within  the  district,  or  that  part  of  it       .  7\ 

assigned  to  him.  ^e  exercises  supervision  over  the  of  the        /„ 
teaching  "personnel  and  school  attendance;  appoints  ^ll^^f' 
teachers    to    fill    unexpected    vacancies;    grants    to  Po<m£.f< 

teachers  within  his  district  leaves  of  absence  for  anything  le¥s  ~ 
than  fifteen  days;  may  inflict  fines  up  to  nine  marks;  and 
may  warn  teachers  who  in  any  way  neglect  their  duties.  IHe 
must  make  a  report  to  the  Regierung  of  his  visits  to  the  schools^ 
It  is  his  further  duty  to  see  that  the  laws  and  orders  issued  by 
the  higher  authorities  are  carried  out.  The  inspector  is  also 
required  to  visit  and  inspect  the  schools  of  his  district,  to  keep 
the  schools  supplied  with  materials  so  far  as  he  can  do  so  in 
accordance  with  the  existing  regulations,  and  where  this  is  not 
possible  he  makes  recommendations  to  or  requisitions  upon  the 
higher  authorities.  Among  the  special  duties  of  the  district 
school  inspector  are  the  following : 


64  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

1.  The  technical  direction  and  inspection  of  the  work  in  the 
schools. 

2.  The  final  fixation  of  courses  of  study  and  schedules. 

3.  The  holding  of  conferences  with  teachers  and  principals. 

4.  The  holding  of  school  examinations.^ 

Note.  —  The  following  are  the  instructions  for  the  Kreisschulinspektor 

in  the  Regierungsbezirk  Arnsberg.     (Sachse :  p.  5.     Verordnungen  betreffend 

das  Schtdwesen  im  Regierungsbezirk  Arnsberg,  1910.) 

,    ^     ,.  I.  The   district   school   inspector   exercises    the   school 

Instructions  .  .         ,,.,.. 

for  District         supervision  of  his  district.  .  .  . 

School  In-  2.  The  official  activity  of  the  inspector  covers  all  public 

spectors  ^^^  private  schools  or  institutions  of  learning,  which  come 

under  the  authority  of  the  county. 

3.  The  duty  of  the  inspector  consists  not  only  of  the  inspection  and 
care  of  the  schools  placed  under  his  charge,  but  also  of  the  supervision 
and  support  of  teachers  in  such  schools.  He  is  permitted  to  grant  leaves 
of  absence  up  to  two  weeks  in  cases  of  necessity.  .  .  . 

4.  Above  all  it  is  his  duty  to  work  actively  for  the  betterment  of  the 
schools  hand  in  hand  with  the  local  school  boards  whose  next  superior 
he  is  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  school. 

5.  For  this  purpose  he,  in  company  with  the  local  board,  must  in- 
spect each  school  of  his  district  at  least  once  a  year  and  conduct  a  thorough 
examination  of  its  work. 

6.  His  supervision  covers  the  whole  field  of  instruction  and  education 
in  the  school,  especially  with  reference  to  the  conduct,  attitude,  ability, 
and  results  of  the  teacher,  to  the  general  and  special  methods  employed, 
to  the  carrying  out  of  the  prescribed  course  of  study  and  schedules,  to 
school  materials,  to  the  position  and  progress  of  each  class  and  section, 
to  the  behavior  and  discipline  of  pupils,  and  to  school  attendance;  in 
short,  he  must  give  attention  to  the  regard  paid  to  all  regulations  per- 
taining to  the  elementary  schools,. 

'7-  The  inspector  must  also  take  note  of  the  external  affairs  of  the 
/school,  the  building  and  its  equipment,  and  the  dwelling  and  salary  of 
I  'the  teacher,  although  such  externals  lie  under  the  supervision  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  district  (ZflMj/oi),  or  other  civil  authorities. 

'  Dritte  Anweisung  zur  Ausfuhrung  des  Schulunterhaltungsgesetz  vom  z8  Juli,  igo6, 
(G.  S.  p.  335),  and  ZentralblaM,  1907,  p.  128. 


•f'-i'l 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         65 

8.  By  means  of  instruction  and  advice  he  must  immediately  take 
steps  to  correct  the  errors  and  deficiencies  which  he  has  noted.  In 
suitable  cases  he  must  call  the  attention  of  the  local  school  board  thereto. 
It  is  also  his  duty  to  remove  as  quickly  as  possible  all  difficulties  which 
may  exist  among  teachers,  school  boards,  and  other  parties,  and,  if 
necessary,  to  make  a  report  of  the  matter. 

9.  The  inspector  must  also  see  that  the  religious  instruction  is  im- 
parted according  to  plan  and  is  required  to  make  note  of  the  content  of 
such  instruction. 

(10.  It  is  his  duty  to  appeal  to  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  district  for  A 
interference  in  cases  where  he  (the  inspector)  has  not  been  able  to  elimi- 
nate irregularities  by  communication  with  the  local  authorities.    This 
apphes  especially  to  irregularities  in  school  attendance.  ] 

It.  Before  the  first  of  November  every  year  the  inspector  must  make 
a  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  schools  in  his  district.  .  .  . 

12.  The  inspector  is  required  to  advance  the  further  practical  and 
theoretical  training  of  his  teachers.  He  organizes  and  conducts  teachers' 
meetings,  and  supervises  teachers'  libraries  and  reading  circles.  .  .  . 

13.  It  is  his  especial  duty  to  concern  himself  with  the  normal  pre- 
paratory schools  of  his  district,  in  so  far  as  this  supervision  is  not  other- 
wise provided  for.  .  .  . 

14.  He  supervises  teaching  candidates  before  their  appointment,  gives 
notices  of  vacancies,  makes  proposals  as  to  appointments,  and  must  look 
out  for  supply  teachers  in  cases  of  temporary  suspension  of  school  work. 

15.  He  forwards  to  the  administrative  bureau  proposals,  requests,  and 
reports  of  teachers  and  school  boards,  which  he  himself  cannot  dispose 
of.  .  .  . 

16.  The  inspector  must  keep  a  journal  for  all  incoming  documents 
and  must  make  a  record  of  their  contents,  date,  and  disposal.  In  ad- 
dition he  keeps  a  general  record,  a  special  record  for  each  school,  a  per- 
sonal record  for  each  teacher,  a  record  of  teaching  candidates,  and  a 
record  of  pupUs  in  the  normal  preparatory  schools. 

/■■  .With  reference  to  the  external  affairs  of  the  school,  the  in- 
^^pector  goes  to  the  chief  magistrate  (Landrat)  of  the  district. 
(See  page  67.)     The  local  school  inspectors  are  under  the  super-  , 
vision  of  the  district  inspector,  from  whom  they  receive  instruc- 
tions, and  to  whom  they  make  reports.  ->,,       ;- ,    ',■!  J  ,, 


66 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


The  district  inspector  is  appointed  by  the  ministry.  Men 
are  chosen  for  this  office  who  have  had  professional  and  academic 
Types  of  training,  preferably  men  who  have  been  teachers  in 
Inspectors  normal  schools  or  principals  of  large  Volksschulen  or 
middle  schools.  The  office  of  district  inspector  is  not,  howeva:, 
always  filled  by  a  professional  man  who  can  devote  aU  of  his 
time  to  this  one  position.  In  most  cases  the  office  is  held  as  a 
part-time  position,  and,  in  a  large  majority  of  cases,  the  office 
is  occupied  by  a  clergyman.  Tin  large  cities  the  duties  of  the 
district  inspector  are  often  attached  to  those  of  the  city  school 
inspector,  who  is  an  official  of  the  city,  or  to  those  of  the  city 
school  superintendent  {Stadtschulrat) ;  m  country  districts  a 
clergyman  performs  the  duties  of  this  office  in  addition  to  his 
own  ecclesiastical  obligations.  This  situation  in  rural  communi- 
ties is  greatly  deplored  by  German  school  men,  whose  ideal  it  is 
to  have  all  such  positions  filled  by  trained  men  who  can  give  their 
entire  time  to  this  work. 

The  following  table  will  serve  to  show  how  many  inspector- 
ships are  held  as  part-  and  full-time  positions. 


L„. 


PART  AND  FULL-TIME  INSPECTORS  IN   GERMANY 


Year 

Paet-time 

Per  Cent 

FirLI.-TTMF. 

Per  Ceht 

igoi 

918 

74-S 

311 

25-5 

1902 

914 

74-3 

3I& 

2S-7 

1904 

936 

74-4 

316 

25.6 

1907 

941 

72.4 

331 

27.6 

1910 

goi 

71.2 

363 

28.8 

1912 

827 

67.8 

392 

32.2 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  number  of  inspectorships  has 
decreased ;  but  this  does  not  mean  that  the  amount  of  inspec- 
tion is  any  less,  for  while  the  part-time  inspectorships  fell  ofi 
91,  the  full-time  inspectorships  increased  81,  and  there  is  Kttle 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         67 

doubt  that  8i  full-time  inspectors  can  accomplish  more  than  91 
part-time  men. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  teachers  want  inspection 
by  trained  men.  First,  of  course,  because  a  professional  man 
is  a  better  inspector,  other  things  being  equal ;  second,  because, 
if  the  inspectorships  are  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  clergy, 
a  large  number  of  positions  affording  promotion  are  opened  up 
to  the  common  teacher.  The  question  of  supervision  by  the 
clergy  is  discussed  in  another  place.     (See  p.  68.) 

The  salary  of  the  district  school  inspector  is  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  length  of  service.     The  mininnmi  salary  is  3000  M., 
while  the  maximmn  is  6000  M.,  the  highest  salary 
being  reached  after  twenty-one  years  of  service.    An  the  in- 
allowance  is  also  furnished  for  expenses  incurred  in  ^^"^^ 
performing  the  duties  of  office. 

2.  The  Landrat  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  district  (Kreis) 
as  an  official  of  the  Regierung  has  also  the  right  to  visit  and 
inspect  the  schools.    He  is  not,  however,  concerned 

^  Landrat 

with   the  internal  affairs  of   the  schools,  but  only 
with  external  affairs,  buildings,  grounds,  etc.    In  case  he  has 
suggestions,  to  make,  he  confers  with  the  district  school  in- 
spector.    The  Landrat  has  no  disciplinary  authority  over  the 
teachers.^; 

3.  ^nSe  OrtsschuUnspektor ,  or  the  local  school  inspector,'  is 
the  next  superior  above  head  teachers  or  principals  (Rekioren) 
and  ordinary  teachers.  (TThe  local  inspector  has  the 
supervision  of  a  few  schools  only,  sometimes  those  mspektor 
of  several  small  communities,  sometimes  of  a  single  ^^^^^^ 
community    (Gemeinde)    which    contains    only    one 

school.  J  His  inspection  district  is  coiffined  to  the  limits  of  the 

parisS~or  civil  community,  or  to  several  communities,  in  case 

they  are  united  to  form  a  union  school  district.    (See  p.  69.)    This 

1  Min.  Erl.  of  June  12,  1847,  and  July  27,  1874. 


68  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

I  [office  in  small  places  and  in  the  country  is  held  by  a  clergyman 
''if'V  as  an  incidental  office,  or  by  the  principal  (Rektor)  of  a  school. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  duties  of  the  local  inspector  are  given 
over  to  the  district  school  inspector,  or,  if  the  school  has  six  or 
more  grades,  the  principal  exercises  the  duties  of  the  local  in- 
spector and  is  then  directly  responsible  to  the  district  inspector 
as  next  higher  official.  (  Thus,  in  a  city,  a  Volksschule  would 
be  administered  by  a  principal,  who,  although  he  has  no  such 
title,  is  the  local  inspector  of  his  school,  the  next  higher  super- 
visor being  the  district  school  inspector,  on  the  part  of  the  state, 
and  the  city  superintendent  (Stadtschulrat)  on  the  part  of  the 
city,  which  two  offices  are  generally  filled  by  one  man.j  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  local  inspectors  in  small  towns  and  in  the 
country  are  clergymen.  , 

It  seems  strange  to  us  in  America  to  have  school  inspection 
exercised  by  the  clergy,  but  it  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  early 
times  the  clergy  were  the  only  teachers  in  Germany;  indeed, 
the  privilege  to  teach  had  to  be  granted  by  the  church.  As 
the  two  professions  became  more  and  more  distinct,  the  clergy 
withdrew  from  the  office  of  teaching,!  but  retained  their  hold 
upon  schools,  by  reserving  to  themselves  the  right  of  super- 
vision and  inspection.  It  was  only  natural  that  the  clergy 
should  become  the  local  inspectors,  for  they  were  the  most  highly 
educated  persons  in  the  community,  and  they  have  continued 
so  until  to-day.  J  Teachers  had  to  have  some  sort  of  local  super- 
vision, and  consequently  this  work  was  intrusted  to  the  clergy. 
The  tendency  now  is  to  take  the  schools  more  and  more  from  the 
control  or  influence  of  the  church  and  have  all  the  supervising 
officers  appointed  from  the  trained  teaching  profession.  [  It  will 
be  a  long  time,  however,  before  an  entire  removal  of  the  clergy 
from  the  schools  takes  place  in  the  country.  In  the  large  cities 
of  Germany  the  clergy  have  nothing  to  "do  with  the  schools 
except  to  exercise  a  sort  of  supervision  over  the  content  and 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         69 

methods  in  the  courses  in  religion  given  in  the  various  types  of 

educational  institutions. 

The  duties  of  the  local  inspector  are  as  follows:  Duties  of 

the  Local 

1.  To  supervise  instruction  as  to  method  and  subject  matter.  Inspector 

2.  To  see  that  the  right  division  of  time  is  made  among  the  different 
subjects. 

3.  To  inspect  and  control  the  condition  of  the  school  buildings,  rooms, 
premises,  and  apparatus. 

4.  To  know  the  official  and  private  life  of  his  teachers.        / 

5.  To  suspend  instruction  in  cases  of  necessity. 

6.  To  grant  leaves  of  absence  up  to  three  days. 

7.  To  take  part  in  the  meetings  of  the  local  school  board. 

8.  To  make  report  of  his  work  to  the  district  school  inspector.  ' 

■  ^he  local  school  inspector  is  appointed  by  the  administrative 
county  (Regierung).  F  /. 

A  community  (Gemeinde),  either  city  or  rural,  forms  I  a  school   / 
corporation  (Schulverband)^,  that  is,  the  community,  when  acting 
in  the  capacity  of  school  corporation,  is  a  {Schuher- 
hani)  school  corporation,  union,  or  society.  '^    Several  i,and  or  - 

(towns,  villages,  or  manors  may  unite  to  form  a  union  :|*.°'i, 

\school  corporation  or  society,  "while  generally  a  city       ^  ."■ 

(Stadtgemeinde)  forms  a  school  corporatipn  o^  its  own.  The 
/Saaness  of  this  corporation  is  to  furnish  funds  fcr  the  support 
of  the  schools  and  to  administer  these  funds.  [The  local  civil 
authorities,  the  mayor,  town  or  city  council,  are  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Schulverband;  just  as  in  America  the  city  or  town 
authorities  may  control  school  property  and  levy  taxes,  j 

/in  cities)  the  administration  and  the  inspection  of  all  elementary 
scn6ol~'affairs,  except  those  rights  belonging  to  the  school         / 
school  corporation  or  community,  are  ini^usted  to  a  I'eputation  / 
school  deputation   {Schuldeputation)?    [This   deputation  is  re- 

'  Gesetz  betrefend  die  Unterhaltung  der  offentUchen  Volksschulen  vom  28  Juli,  1Q06. 
*  Schidunterhalkingsgesetz  vom  28  JuU,  igo6;  Anweisung  far  Ausfuhrung  dieses 
Cesekes  vom  6  November,  1907. 


70  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

sponsible  to  the  local  city  government,  and  to  the  district 
}  school  inspector,  who  as  the  representative  of  the  administrative 
Lcounty  (Regierung),  has  a  seat  in  this  body.  / 

The  deputation  has  not  the  same  nxmiber  of  members  in  all 
cities.  The  law  of  1906  says  that  the  deputation  shall  consist 
of:  from  one  to  three  members  of  the  administrative  or  ex- 
ecutive branch  of  the  city  government;  an  equal  mmiber  of 
members  of  the  city  council ;  at  least  an  equal  niunber  of  men 
acquainted  with  the  elementary  schools,  among  which  number 
there  shall  be  at  least  one  rector  or  teacher  of  a  Volksschule; 
the  oldest  Evangelical  pastor  in  service,  the  ranking  Catholic 
priest,  and  the  rabbi,  if  there  are  twenty  Jewish  school  children. 
The  community  may  increase  these  numbers  with  the  approval 
of  the  higher  authorities.  The  length  of  term  is  six  years.  Thei 
members  of  the  deputation  coming  from  the  executive  branch 
of  the  city  government  are  appointed  by  the  mayor ;  the  members 
from  the  council  are  elected  by  the  council ;  the  members  from 
the  teaching  body  are  elected  by  the  members  of  the  deputation 
already  chosen.  All  members  must  be  approved  by  theRegiemng. ' 
Duties  of  The  school  deputation  has  generally  the  following 

tte  School     duties :  ^ 

Deputation 

1.  To  supervise  all  matters  internal  and  external,  which  concern  the 
lower  schools,  except  the  levying  of  taxes,  controlling  school  funds,  exer- 
cising of  property  rights,  etc.,  which  are  reserved  to  the  city  authorities. 

2.  To  see  that  the  laws  concerning  schools  are  enforced. 

3.  To  see  that  the  teachers  perform  their  duties  faithfully  and  well. 

4.  To  enforce  the  attendance  laws. 

5.  To  see  that  an  ample  number  of  schools  are  available,  and  that 
they  are  kept  in  good  condition. 

6.  To  grant  leaves  of  absence  from  fourteen  days  to  six  months  in 
length. 

7.  To  create  new  classes,  teaching  positions,  and  schools,  as  far  as 
available  funds  permit. 

1  Dortmunder  Biirgerbuch,  1912. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         71 

8.  To  grant  teachers  permission  to  assume  outside  offices  or  duties 
outside. 

9.  To  assign  teachers  to  various  schools. 

10.  To  fix  school  precincts  so  that  each  school  may  have  its  correct 
quota  of  children. 

11.  To  draw  up  the  yearly  school  budget  before  the  city  council. 

12.  To  administer  the  income  and  expenses  within  the  limits  of  the 
budget  as  approved  and  to  render  accoimts  thereof  to  the  city  authorities. 

/13.  To  propose  candidates  for  teaching  positions  to  the  Regierung 
ffor  approval,  r- 

147^  To  decide  questions  dealing  with  children  who  desire  to  leave 
school  before  the  end  of  the  compulsory  period. 

15.  To  buy  teaching  material,  and  apparatus;  to  locate  new  school 
buildings ;  and  to  vote  repairs  and  new  schools. 

""  These  duties  and  rights  are  given  to  the  school  deputations 
,  by  the  Regierung  and  their  decisions  require  its  approval  unless 
*|the  Regierung  places  such  duties  without  reserve  in  the  hands  of 
the  deputation,  f 
(The  representative  of  the  school  deputation  who  visits  the 
schools,  inspects  the  class  work,  and  supervises  the  interna  of 
the  school  is  the  city  school  inspector  or  superintend-  city  School 
ent  (Stadtschulrat) ,  who  also  very  frequently  exercises  ^spector 
the  duties  of  district  school  inspector  for  the  Regierurig.j  The 
local  school  inspector  is  not  found  in  large  cities,  his  duties 
being  assumed  by  the  principals  of  the  schools  or  by  the  city 
inspector.  J  The  city  superintendent  {Stadtschulrat)  is  generally 
a  member  of  the  school  deputation.  |  In  smaller  cities  there  is 
no  city  superintendent,  and  in  such  cases  his  duties  belong  then 
either  to  the  district  school  inspector  or  to  the  local  inspector 
(Ortsschulinspektor).  I  In  Stettin,  a  city  of  a  quarter  of  a  million 
people,  there  are  two  city  school  superintendents,  the  one  super- 
vising the  upper  schools,  and  the  other  the  middle  schools  and 
a  few  of  the  Volksschulen,  the  latter  exercising  the  duties  of  a 
district  school  inspector,  and  iresponsible  both  to  the  city  and  to 


^ 


72  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  Regierung.  The  remainder  of  the  Volksschulen  of  Stettin 
are"  supervised  by  a  district  school  inspector,  though  his  duties 
are^very  similar  to  those  of  the  city  superintendent  in  this  case. 
)  In  cities,  school  commissions  may  be  organized  for  the  Volks- 
schulen. That  is,  for  each  separate  school,  or  small  number  of 
School  schools,  a  commission  may  be  established  by  the  city 

Commission  authorities  with  the  approval  of  the  Regierung  to  act  as 
patron  for  the  school. '  This  commission  is  responsible  to  the 
school  deputation.  It  is  composed  of  the  mayor  or  a  member 
of  the  executive  branch  of  the  local  goverrmient  named  by  the 
mayor;  the  local  school  inspector,  if  there  be  one;  the  local 
pastor,  the  rector,  or  the  head  teacher  of  the  Volksschule  con- 
cerned ;  and  several  members  elected  from  citizens  dwelling  in 
the  school  precinct.  The  two  latter  classes  of  members  are 
chosen  by  the  school  deputatioii.j'  I 

Although  the  duties  of  this  commission  are  not  the  same  in 
all  places,  the  following  are  typical :  ^ 

1.  To  supervise  the  discipline  and  management  of  the  school. 

2.  To  investigate  absences  from  school. 

3.  To  watch  over  the  conduct  of  the  children  outside  of  school. 

4.  To  care  for  poor  children  of  the  school. 

5.  To  effect  a  close  relation  between  home  and  school. 

6.  To  make  recommendations  concerning  the  school  to  the  school 
deputation. 

7.  To  carry  out  the  orders  which  it  may  receive  from  the  school 
deputation  and  the  Regierung. 

8.  To  manage  any  special  funds  belonging  to  the  school. 

9.  To  see  that  the  school  or  schools  are  as  well  equipped  as  the  other 
schools  of  the  city. 

10.  To  organize  school  kitchens;  to  provide  cheap  meals  and  sum- 
mer outings  for  the  children  and  evenings  for  parents. 

11.  To  advise  the  school  deputation  concerning  the  covurse  of  study. 

'  §  45-    Gesetz  betreffend  die  Unterhaltung  der  ofentlichen  Volksschulen,  1906. 
*  Dritte  Anweisung  fUr  die  Ausfiihrung  des  Schtdunterhaltungsgesetzes  von  1906, 
ZeniraMatt,  1907. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         73 

12.  To  grant  permission  to  teachers  to  give  private  lessons.  (This 
right  generally  is  given  by  the  school  deputation.) 

13.  To  attend  the  examinations  of  the  school. 

14.  To  make  recommendations  to  the  school  deputation  with  regard 
to  improvements,  repairs,  purchase  of  materials  or  apparatus. 

15.  To  regulate  the  use  of  schoolrooms  for  religious  instruction. 

I  In  rural  communities,  in  villages,  and  in  manors,  a  school 
board   (Schulvorstand),^  [represents^ the^  community \ in   school 
affairs^  As  in  the  cities,  the  local  government  (mayor 
and  town  council)  votes  the  money  for  the  schools.  Board  or  •/! 
exercises  the  property  rights,  makes  up  and  approves  ^/^''""^" 
the  yearly  budget,  and  conducts  other  financial  af- 
fairs, while  the  other  affairs  of  the  schools,  such  as  supervision 
and  inspection,  are  in  the  hands  of  the  local  inspector,  and  of 
the  school  board  create<lto  support  and  aid  the  local  inspector.} 
The  law  ^  reads :  " 

|In  a  rural  community,  which  forms  a  school  corporation  (see  p.  69)    r>cp 
of  its  own,  a  school  board  is  to  be  created  to  administer  those  affairs  of  the  Q-«, 

Volksschulen  which  are  not  reserved  to  the  local  civil  authorities.    , 

1—  — I  \ja 

I  This  school  board  is  composed  of : 

1.  The  president  of  the  community. 

2.  A  teacher  appointed  by  the  Regierung. 

3.  The  Protestant  pastor  and  the  Catholic  priest  oldest  in  service, 
and  the  rabbi. 

4.  Two  to  six  citizens  belonging  to  the  school  precincts  in  the  school 
corporation,  that  is,  the  community.  These  members  are  elected  by  the 
council  of  the  community,  and  must  be  approved  by  the  Regierung. 

The  chief  duties  of  the  school  board  are  as  follows :  ' 

I.  To  administer  the  funds  carried  on  the  budget,  the  current  ex- 
penses of  the  year,  and  the  property  set  aside  for  school  piurposes. 
'  It  a  country  community  contains  more  than  ten  thousand)  iohabitants,  it  may 

establish  a  school  deputation  such  as  are  found  in  cities,  though  this  is  not  generally 

done. 

^  §  47.    Schidunterhaltungsgesetz  vom  28  Juli,  igo6.    G.  S.,  p.  335. 
'  Von  Bremen,  Schidunterhaltungsgesetz,  pp.  225-226. 


74  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

2.  To  see  that  salary  schedules  are  according  to  law. 

3.  To  provide  materials,  apparatus,  and  repairs. 

4.  To  control  the  organization  of  the  Volksschulen. 

5.  To  see  that  the  buUdings  are  heated,  ventilated,  and  cleaned 
properly. 

6.  To  see  that  the  vacations  are  begun  and  closed  on  the  prescribed 
dates,  that  the  instruction  begins  and  ends  promptly,  and  that  the  build- 
ings are  opened  and  closed  punctually. 

7.  To  establish  good  relations  between  the  parents  and  the  school. 

8.  To  enforce  attendance  according  to  instructions  issued  by  the 
Regierung. 

9.  To  organize  lectures,  school  entertainments,  and  parents'  meetings. 

10.  To  supply  school  material  to  poor  children,  also  to  furnish  them 
breakfast,  shoes,  and  the  Uke,  if  necessary. 

11.  The  school  board  is  to  be  heard  so  far  as  local  conditions  affect 
the  fixing  of  vacations  and  hours  of  instruction.  In  other  matters  it  is 
left  to  the  local  or  district  school  inspectors  to  hear  the  school  board 
where  local  conditions  affect  final  decisions,  in  such  cases  as  kave  of  ab- 
sence for  pupils,  early  excuse  from  school  attendance,  and  demotion  of 
pupils. 

)  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  supervision  of  the  actual  teaching 
is  left  entirely  to  the  inspectors  except  in  so  far  as  such  inspection 
is  intrusted  to  the  principal.  / 

In  the  Volksschulen  in  large  cities  or  in  any  elementary  school 
with  six  or  more  grades,  the  head  of  the  school  is  called  Rekior 
1  (P'^iiicip^l),  provided  he  has  passed  the  examination 
for  this  position.  The  heads  of  other  schools  are 
known  simply  as  head-teachers  (Hauptlehrer),  and  as  such 
have  little  or  no  supervising  authority.  Thus,  in  country  schools 
the  principal  teacher  is  called  Hauptlehrer.  The  principal  very 
often  exercises  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  local  inspector,  as 
we  have  said  above.  '  The  duties  of  the  principals  arejliTgeneral, 
as  follows: 

'  Instruktionen  von  18 it;  Erlasse  vom  i  Jidi,  i88g;  25  Jtdi,  i8g2;  12  Jvli,  iSgs; 
25  Juli,  i8p4.  Dienstanweisung  fiir  die  Rektoren  in  Stettin.  Zentralblatt,  1894, 
p.  598  S. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         75 

1.  The  principal  is  the  responsible  head  of  his  school  and  the  superior 
of  the  teachers  employed  in  it.  Duties 

2 .  He  shall  direct  the  school  in  its  inner  and  outward  affairs,  of  the 
in  so  far  as  these  are  not  under  the  authority  of  some  other  of-  ^™"=iP^ 
ficial.    He  shall  take  care  that  the  general  and  special  regulations  concern- 
ing school  affairs  and  his  school  are  closely  followed  out  and  he  shall  see 
that  the  school  fulfills  its  purpose  in  respect  to  education  and  instruction. 

3^  The  principal  is  directly  subordinate  to  the  district  school  in-^ 
spector.  (In  this  case  the  district  school  inspector's  duties  are  exercised 
frequently  by  the  city  school  superintendent.)  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
principal  to  follow  the  latter's  instructions,  and  on  request  to  furnish 
him  information  about  all  affairs  concerning  instruction,  organization, 
discipline,  and  the  conduct  of  the  teachers  in  and  out  of  school.  It  is 
likewise  the  principal's  duty  to  report  to  the  inspector  everything  which 
advances  or  retards  the  aims  of  the  school.  1 

4.  To  report  to  the  inspector  the  circumstances  concerning  aU  inner 
and  outer  defi.ciencies  of  the  school ;  any  cases  of  neglect  or  impropriety 
of  teachers  inside  or  outside  of  their  official  duties ;  disregard  of  regula- 
tions dealing  with  school  attendance ;  all  inconveniences  which  he  him- 
self cannot  immediately  remedy. 

5.  To  hand  to  the  inspector  the  prescribed  lists  and  reports  at 
definitely  fixed  periods,  particularly, 

(a)  The  outUne  course  of  study  for  the  coming  year. 

(6)  A  statement  concerning  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  several 

classes  and  concerning  the  personal  condition  and  income 

of  aU  teachers  employed  in  the  school. 

6.  The  division  of  instruction  among  the  several  teachers  rests  with 
the  principal,  who  may  consider  reasonable  requests  (as  to  the  work  as- 
signed to  this  or  that  teacher)  in  so  far  as  this  can  be  done  without  any 
disadvantage  to  the  school.  The  principal  himself  has  to  give  at  least 
twelve  or  fourteen  hours'  instruction  a  week. 

7.  The  weekly  schedule  of  hours  must  be  posted  by  the  principal 
in  plenty  of  time  before  the  beginning  of  the  school  year.  Copies 
thereof  are  presented  to  the  district  school  inspector  and  the  school 
deputation.  The  district  school  inspector  and  the  school  deputation 
must  be  immediately  informed  of  any  necessary  changes  in  the  schedule. 

8.  The  principal  must  see  to  it  regularly  that  the  classbooks  as  well 
as  the  prescribed  reports  are  properly  kept  and  note  this  inspection  by 
means  of  a  mark  in  such  books  and  reports. 


76  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

9.  The  principal  is  allowed,  as  well  as  required,  to  visit  the  classes 
of  the  teachers  in  order  to  bring  about  a  uniform  process  of  instruction 
and  discipline  in  his  school,  and  in  order  to  acquaint  himself  system- 
atically with  the  condition  of  each  particular  class  and  with  the  actual 
compKance  with  the  course  of  study  and  the  weekly  schedule.  On  these 
visits  he  himself  may  take  charge  of  the  class  if  necessary  to  find  out  what 
he  wishes  to  know.  He  may  confer  with  the  teachers  concerned  in  re- 
gard to  his  observations,  after  the  class  is  over,  but  never  before  the  pupils. 
General  observations  are  to  be  brought  up  in  the  teachers'  meetings. 

10.  The  principal  supervises  the  teachers.  The  latter  must  obey 
his  instructions  in  all  official  matters.  The  principal  must  take  steps 
against  any  abuse  of  authority  or  neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  teachers. 
He  sees  that  teachers  begin  and  dose  their  classes  punctually,  that  they 
conduct  their  classes  according  to  schedule,  that  they  foUow  closely  the 
regulations  dealing  with  methods  of  instruction,  that  they  by  their  con- 
duct in  and  out  of  school  show  themselves  worthy  of  the  respect,  esteem, 
and  trust  which  their  calling  demands.  The  principal  is  not  allowed  to 
inflict  discipline  upon  the  teachers,  but  he  is  justified  in  warning  and 
advising  them  concerning  their  conduct. 

11.  He  shall  assist  the  teachers  to  the  best  of  his  ability  in  the  fulfill- 
ment of  their  duties  by  means  of  useful  advice.  The  principal  shall 
advise  teachers  as  to  further  education  for  their  calling. 

12.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  principal  to  install  new  teachers  in  office 
and  provide  them  with  instructions  concerning  the  scope  of  their  work. 
He  must  inform  the  school  deputation  or  the  school  board  and  the  dis- 
trict school  inspector  of  the  entrance  of  teachers  into  service  and  must 
send  the  district  school  inspector  a  detailed  report  of  the  teachers'  per- 
sonal afiairs ;  preparation,  career,  and  the  like. 

13.  The  principal  is  allowed  in  case  of  urgent  necessity  to  grant  leave 
of  absence  to  teachers  or  himself  for  three  days.  He  must  accept  re- 
quests for  longer  leaves  of  absence  and  forward  them  to  the  proper 
authorities.  (Further  instructions  as  to  longer  leaves  of  absence  and 
as  to  arrangement  for  substitute  teachers  are  issued  to  the  principab.) 
Provisional  cases  of  substitution  are  arranged  in  all  cases  by  the  prin- 
cipal. At  the  end  of  every  leave  the  teacher  must  report  in  person  to 
the  principal. 

14.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  principal  to  hold  a  teachers'  meeting  at  least 
once  a  month  in  order  to  consider  school  affairs,  to  exchange  experiences, 
and  to  give  and  receive  inspiration  for  better  work.    In  special  cases  the 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS         77 

principal  may  call  extraordinary  meetings.  The  meetings  are  held 
outside  regular  hours  and  are  presided  over  by  the  principal.  All  teachers 
are  required  to  attend  these  meetings.  The  order  of  the  day  in  these 
conferences,  to  which  every  member  of  the  teaching  staff  may  bring 
proposals,  is  announced,  when  possible,  two  days  before  the  meeting. 
Personal  affairs,  complaints  concerning  one  another  or  the  principal, 
do  not  belong  in  these  conferences.  A  majority  vote  decides,  the  prin- 
cipal's vote  deciding  in  case  of  a  tie.  If  the  decisions  reached  do  not 
seem  to  the  principal  to  be  consistent  with  the  regulations  of  the  authori- 
ties or  with  the  best  interests  of  the  school,  he  must  invite  the  decision 
of  the  district  school  inspector.  In  case  the  principal  rejects  a  subject 
brought  up  for  discussion  or  rejects  the  vote  and  the  teacher  who  in- 
troduced the  discussion  is  not  satisfied,  a  record  of  the  proceedings  is 
taken  down  by  a  teacher.  This  record  is  signed  by  the  principal  and 
the  recording  secretary. 

15.  Written  petitions  to  superiors  from  teachers  are  given  to  the 
principal  and  are  forwarded  to  higher  authorities  as  soon  as  possible, 
with  a  mark  to  show  he  has  read  them,  or  with  his  opinion  thereon,  if 
necessary. 

16.  In  cases  of  complaints  of  parents  against  teachers,  the  principal 
determines  the  facts  and  if  he  cannot  settle  the  matter  himself,  he  must 
carry  it  up  to  the  district  school  inspector. 

17.  The  principal  must  also  watch  the  matter  of  attendance  of  pupils 
closely.  It  is  likewise  his  duty  to  see  that  regular  rolls  of  every  class 
are  kept  by  the  several  teachers ;  to  inspect  the  keeping  of  class  books, 
and  to  effect  a  punctual  delivery  of  absentee  reports,  which  are  kept  and 
given  to  him  by  the  class  teachers. 

18.  At  the  request  of  a  parent  the  principal  may  grant  a  pupil  a  leave 
of  absence  up  to  eight  days,  after  he  has  convinced  himself  of  the  neces- 
sity thereof  and  after  he  has  conferred  with  the  class  teacher  concerned 
as  to  the  advisability  thereof.  The  class  teacher  must  be  informed 
immediately  by  the  principal  of  the  leave  of  absence  granted. 

ig.  The  principal  orders  promotion  of  pupils  after  conference  with 
the  teachers.  It  is  also  his  duty  to  see  that  the  regulations  controlling 
discharge  of  pupils  from  the  school  are  closely  observed.  Requests  for 
the  discharge  of  pupils  before  the  legal  age  are  forwarded  to  the  higher 
authorities,  by  the  principal,  together  with  the  facts  bearing  on  the  case. 
General  regulations  control  the  enrollment  and  transfer  of  pupils,  and 
cases  of  truancy. 


78  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

20.  The  principal's  activity  extends  to  all  phases  of  school  discipline. 
He  must  see  that  the  pupils  of  all  classes  become  accustomed  to  obedience, 
industry,  orderUness,  promptness,  and  decency.  He  must  also  endeavor 
to  influence  the  conduct  of  his  pupils  outside  the  school.  Likewise  it 
is  his  duty  to  effect  friendly  relations  between  school  and  home.  The 
principal  must  provide  for  supervision  of  the  pupils  during  recesses  and 
before  and  after  school.  It  is  further  the  principal's  duty  to  supervise 
punishments  which  must  be  infMcted  and  to  make  arrangements  so  that 
pupils  kept  in  after  school  are  not  left  without  supervision.  The  princi- 
pal is  to  prevent  any  abuse  of  the  disciplinary  power  on  the  part  of  the 
teachers. 

21.  The  physical  welfare  of  the  pupils  is  also  a  matter  imder  the 
principal's  care.  He  is  to  insist  on  the  teacher's  giving  attention  to  the 
eyes,  bodily  defects,  and  illness  among  his  pupils.  For  the  prevention 
and  control  of  contagious  diseases  the  principal  must  follow  regulations 
of  the  health  authorities  governing  these  matters. 

22.  It  is  the  further  duty  of  the  principal  to  watch  with  care  that  order 
and  cleanUness  prevail  on  all  school  premises,  that  the  classrooms  are 
carefully  and  regularly  aired,  and  that  the  seating  is  proper  for  the  dif- 
ferent classes.  He  must  also  see  that  the  prescribed  school  apparatus  is 
on  hand  and  that  it  is  well  taken  care  of.  He  is  to  report  to  the  school 
deputation  or  school  board  any  deficiencies  in  equipment  and  any  damage 
done  thereto.    A  record  of  all  school  property  is  also  kept  by  him. 

Such  is  the  administration  of  elementary  education  in  Prussia. 
Little  initiative  is  left  to  the  adnainistrative  ofl&cers  as  far  as  ex- 
„     ,   .        ternal  affairs  of  the  schools  and  school  management  are 

Conclusion  i        -r.         • 

concerned.  Practically  every  move  of  the  inspectors, 
superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  is  prescribed  by  school 
laws.  As  far  as  our  observation  has  caxried  us,  the  rigidity 
in  the  administration  and  management  of  the  schools  does  not 
at  all  kiU  originality  and  individuality  in  methods,  reforms,  and 
improvements,  which  cities  or  teachers  may  wish  to  undertake. 
Organization  in  the  Prussian  schools  merely  means  a  mechaniza- 
tion of  those  administrative  processes  which  should  be  as  nearly 
automatic  as  possible  to  insure  a  smoothly  running  machine. 
The  real  school  system  is  thoroughly  alive  and  growing. 


CHAPTER  III 
GENERAL  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

^  It  is  necessary  to  present  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  entire  public 
school  system  in  Germany  in  order  that  the  reader  may  receive 
a  clear  conception  of  the  Volksschule.  The  function  of  the 
Volksschule,  its  position  in  the  whole  educational  scheme,  and 
its  relations  to  the  various  other  parts  of  the  system  will  be 
briefly  indicated,  though  many  details  will  have  to  be  omitted 
for  the  sake  of  clearness.  ^ 

Each  of  the  twenty-six  German  federal  states  has  its  own 
school  system,  just  as  each  American  state  has  its  own  system. 
Since  Prussia  is  the  largest  and  most  populous  state,  ^    ntv  ix 
containing  about  two  thirds  of  Germany's  population  School 
within  its  borders,  a  study  of  the  Prussian  school  sys-    ^^  *™^ 
tem  will  afford  a  fair  idea  of  every  other  German  system.    As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  schools  in  all  the  other  states  are  organized 
in  much  the  same  way  as  those  of  Prussia.    As  might  be  ex- 
pected, there  are  many  minor  differences  among  so  many  inde- 
pendent states,  but  we  may  safely  take  the  Prussian  system  as 
typical  of  all. 

In  America  we  have  the  unit  system  of_  schools,  i.e.  one  type 
of  school  superimposed  upon  the  other.]  In  Prussia,  however, 
the  public  schools  are  organized  into  three  distinct  Parallel 
parallel  systems,  the  lower,  the  middle,  and  the  higher  Systems 
schools,  as  indicated  by  the  diagram  on  page  89.  These 
parallel  systems  have  arisen  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  different 
social  strata  which  exist  in  German  society,  j 

The  schools  of  the  lower  system  are  called   Volksschulen, 

79 


8o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  they  correspond  very  closely  to  our  public  elementary 
schools  in  that  the  course  is  eight  years  in  length  in  both.  As 
The  Voihs-  far  as  numbers  are  concerned,  the  Volksschulen  are 
schuien  -^y  {a,r  the  most  important,  since  over  90  per  cent 
of  the  children  of  school  age  are  enrolled  in  these  schools. 
They  take  the  children  at  the  age  of  six  and  keep  them  through- 
out the  compulsory  attendance  period.  Further  reference  to  the 
diagram  will  show  that  the  Volksschulen  are  paralleled  in  the 
elementary  classes  by  both  the  middle  and  the  higher  schools. 
This  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  our  American  elementary  and 
high  schools,  in  that  our  higher  schools  begin  where  the  elementary 
schools  leave  off,  while  in  Germany  all  systems,  lower,  middle, 
and  higher,  begin  with  the  primary  classes,  but  run  along  differ- 
ent lines  and  continue  upward  for  varying  numbers  of  years. 

The  aim  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  develop  efficient  Ger- 
man citizens,  —  to  give  boys  and  girls  moral  and  religious  train- 
ing,  to  furnish  them  with  that  general  fund  of  knowl- 
Voiks-  edge  every  intelligent,  independent  citizen  must  have, 

and,  above  all,  to  make  them  patriotic  members  of 
society.  The  Volksschulen,  as  well  as  the  middle  and  higher 
schools,  are  institutions  of  general  training,  and  in  themselves 
do  not  aim  to  prepare  for  any  definite  career ;  that  is,  they  do 
not  prepare  boys  and  girls  for  a  special  trade  or  calling.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  the  pupils  of  any  one  system  are  somewhat 
limited  to  particular  fields  of  work,  certain  walks  in  hfe  being 
closed  to  them,  because  they  have  not  had  in  school  those  sub- 
jects which  this  or  that  calling  presupposes.  For  example,  it 
would  be  impossible  for  a  boy  who  had  gone  through  the  Volks- 
schule  to  study  law,  because  he  has  had  no  Latin,  which  the 
study  of  law  presupposes. 

The  pupils  of  the  Volksschulen  are  children  of  day  laborers, 
peasants,  small  farmers,  waiters,  clerks,  porters,  truck  drivers, 
janitors,  lower  railway  employees,  blacksmiths,  locksmiths,  and 


GENERAL  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS       8i 


other  workers  of  this  order.     It  often  occurs,  however,  that  the 
children  of  higher  classes  attend  the  lower  schools,  _.    .,    , 

°  '   Pupils  of 

for  the  first  three  years,  especially  in  small  towns  the  Voiks- 
or  in  the  country  where  there  are  no  preparatory  ^"^  "  *" 
classes  for  the  higher  schools. 

The  child  remains  eight  years  in  the  Volksschule  and  his  train- 
ing is  altogether  general.    At  the  end  he  has  learned  to  read, 
write,  count,  and  sing;    he  has  gathered  something  „        . 
concerning  nature  and  the  daily  life  about  him ;  and  Nature  of 
has  been  taught  his  duties  toward  God  and  his  fellow     *   ""^^^ 
men.    When  this  is  done,  he  is  free  to  choose  his  work  within 
certain  fields.    As  a  rule  he  selects  some  trade  or  calling  and 
becomes  an  apprentice,  at  the  same  time  completing  his  educa- 
tion in  a  continuation  school,  or  in  some  kind  of  a  trade  school. 

In  Berlin  in  1908-09,  the  boys  and  girls,  who  had  Trades 
finished  the  Volksschulen  selected  the  following  vo-  pupSs^f  ' 
cations :  ^^  ''o?**- 

schulen 


VOCATIONS   ADOPTED 

BY    PUPILS    OF 
1908-09 

BERLIN    VOLKSSCHULEN, 

Boys 

GmLS 

1.741 
2,044 
4,192 

147 

1,136 

434 

151 

1,480 

201 

689 

251 

30 

6,851 

Day  labor 

I;347 

314 

Factory  work       

Technical  industry 

Art  trades        

Commerce  and  trade          

2,444 

Hotel  work 

Clerkship 

Trade  schools 

Hieher  schools          .         

147 
2,102 

Housework 

Art 

42 
26 

Civil  service 

12,469 

13,273 

82  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  table  shows  rather  clearly  the  walks  into  which  the  ele- 
mentary schools  turn  their  pupils.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  children  are  not  through  with  their  education  when  they 
have  finished  the  Volksschulen,  for  in  all  cities  over  ten  thousand 
population  the  pupils  of  the  elementary  schools  are  obliged  to 
attend  continuation  schools  to  fit  them  for  the  callings  which 
they  have  selected,  and  in  which  they  have  already  begun  their 
apprenticeship. 

The  middle  school  {Mittelschule)  is  an  extended  form  of  the 
Volksschule.  It  sets  higher  aims,  and  treats  each  subject  a  little 
Middle  more  intensively  than  in  the  lower  school.  The  course 
Schools  Qf  ^i^g  middle  school  offers  one  or  two  modern  lan- 
guages and  sometimes  Latin.  The  middle  school  system  exists 
in  large  cities  side  by  side  with  the  lower  and  higher  school 
systems,  yet  is  entirely  independent  of  them.  It  occupies  the 
middle  ground  between  the  lower  and  higher  schools.  The 
middle  schools  charge  a  tuition  fee,  though  this  is  smaller  than 
the  fees  charged  in  the  higher  schools,  while  the  Volksschulen 
are  entirely  free.  The  middle  schools  arose  out  of  a  need  felt 
by  some  of  the  parents  for  a  little  better  education  and  better 
social  surroundings  for  their  children  —  the  poorer  elements  of 
society  being  necessarily  eliminated  by  means  of  the  tuition  fee. 
The  middle  schools  are  attended  by  the  children  of  under  state 
ofl&cials,  small  shopkeepers,  small  independent  tailors,  skilled 
mechanics,  and  the  like,  —  in  a  word,  the  children  of  the  lower 
middle  class. 

To  every  one  of  these  statements  there  are  many  exceptions, 
very  much  depending  on  where  the  middle  school  is  located. 
Course  of  ^^^  what  kind  of  middle  school  it  is.  The  new  type 
a  Middle  is  a  nine-year  institution,  beginning  with  the  lowest 
primary  classes.  Many  middle  schools  have  only  a 
six-year  course,  which  is  built  up  on  the  first  three  years  of  the 
Volksschule;  others  have  a  three-year  course  superimposed  upon 


GENERAL  RELATIONSHIPS   OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS       83 

the  first  six  years  of  a  Volksschule.  In  small  cities  and  towns 
the  children  of  the  better  families  attend  the  Volksschule  for  the 
first  three  school  years  and  then  transfer  to  a  middle  or  higher 
school.  It  is  consequently  difl&cult  to  define  a  middle  school,  for 
this  institution  exists  in  all  possible  forms,  from  a  one-year 
course  to  a  ten-year  course.  In  all  forms,  however,  the  object 
is  to  give  a  little  better  and  more  extensive  course  of  instruction 
than  the  local  Volksschule  can  give. 

In  Prussia  there  are  1551  middle  schools  (1911),  including  both 
public  and  private  institutions  for  both  sexes.    In  addition  to 
these  schools,  there  are  also  middle  school  classes  uumberof 
organized  in  connection  with  the  Volksschulen.    In  Middle 
1911   there  were   255,527   pupils  enrolled   in   these 
schools,  while  there  were  over  six  and  a  half  milUons  in  the 
Volksschulen.    Thus  one  child  attends  the  middle  school  where 
twenty-six  attend  the  Volksschule. 

The  social  distinction  and  the  better  social  atmosphere  of  the 
middle  schools  make  them  preferable  to  the  Volksschulen.    The 
boy  who  has  attended  and  completed  the  full  middle 
school  needs  to  serve  only  one  year  in  the  army,  and  of  the 
he  is  exempt  from  attendance  at  compulsory  continua-  ^^^^^ 
tion  schools.    Further,  according  to  the  new  organiza- 
tion of  the  middle  schools,  the  transfer  to  the  higher  schools 
{Gymnasium,    Realgymnasium,    and    Oberrealschule)    is    made 
rather  easy,  whereas  it  is  almost  impossible  to  enter  the  higher 
schools  from  the  upper  classes  of  the  Volksschule.    Transfer  to 
the  higher  schools  is  possible  even  after  six  years  in  the  middle 
school,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  middle  school  offers  English, 
French,  and  Latin,  without  some  one  of  which  entrance  into  the 
higher   schools   is   impossible.    Pupils   who   have   attended   a 
middle  school  have  a  better  opportunity  for  securing  a  higher 
position  in'  life  than  have  the  pupils  of  the  Volksschulen.    The 
former^attain  the  more  desirable  positions  as  bookkeepers, 


84  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

merchants,  skilled  workmen,  mechanics,  and  school-teachers, 
and  in  general  reach  the  same  social  level  as  that  occupied  by 
their  parents.  The  transfer  from  one  stratum  of  society  to  an- 
other is  very  difficult,  although  possible. 

Parallel  with  the  Volkssckulen  and  the  middle  schools  we  find 
the  higher  schools,  duplicating  them  in  the  lower  classes,  but 
The  Higher  reaching  up  much  higher  and  having  a  far  broader 
Schools  scope.  The  diagram  on  page  89  makes  clear  the 
relations  of  these  three  systems  to  one  another.  Like  the 
middle  schools,  the  higher  schools  denote  a  social  distinction, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  attended  by  the  highest  and  best  classes. 
The  pupils  are  the  children  of  the  nobihty,  high  officials,  army 
officers,  rich  landowners,  the  larger  merchants,  manufacturers, 
and  teachers  in  higher  institutions.  There  are  also  children  of 
the  poorer  classes  in  these  institutions  frequently,  but  they  are 
out  of  place  socially.  , 

There  are  in  general  three  types  of  higher  schools,  the  Gym- 
nasium, the  Realgymnasium,  and  the  Oberrealschule.  They  are 
Types  of  ^^^  up  on  the  first  three  years'  work  of  the  Volks- 
Higher  sckule  or  a  preparatory  school  {Vorschulej,  which  is 
connected  with  a  higher  school  or  exists  expressly  to 
prepare  boys  for  the  higher  institutions.  Accordingly  the 
higher  schools  take  children  at  the  age  of  nine  and  educate  them 
until  they  are  eighteen,  since  the  course  in  all  these  schools  ex- 
tends over  nine  years.  The  Gymnasium  is  the  humanistic  school, 
still  retaining  Greek  and  Latin,  EngUsh  being  only  elective. 
The  Realgymnasium  has  no  Greek  in  its  course,  but  prescribes 
EngUsh  instead,  while  the  Oberrealschule  has  neither  Greek  nor 
Latin,  but  a  great  deal  of  French,  EngUsh,  and  science.  All  of 
these  institutions  prepare  for  the  universities.^ 

As  the  diagram  on  page  89  indicates,  there  are  other  types 
of  higher  schools  besides  those  mentioned.  Very  frequently  the 
1  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools. 


GENERAL  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  SCHOOL   SYSTEMS       85 

first  six  years  of  the  course  in  the  Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium, 
and  the  Oberrealschule  are  organized  into  schools,  giving  us  the 
Progymnasium,  the  Realprogymnasium  and  the  Real-  ^bbre. 
schule.    They  are  nothing  more  than  the  lower  six  ^ated 
years  of  the  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  and   the  Higher 
Oberrealschule,  respectively.    They  are  generally  found  ^^°°^^ 
in  cities  which  cannot  afford  the  full  type  of  higher  school,  or  in 
towns  where  there  is  a  large  demand  for  a  higher  school  for  boys 
who  wish  to  pass  the  one-year  volunteer  examination,  but  who  do 
not  wish  to  remain  longer  in  school.     It  goes  without  sa}dng  that 
a  pupU  can  transfer  from  the  abbreviated  type  of  higher  school 
to  a  full  higher  school  of  corresponding  nature  without  examina- 
tion. 

A  great  many  of  the  pupils  of  the  higher  schools  do  not  finish 
the  course  at  these  institutions,  but  leave  as  soon  as  they  have 
received  the  one-year  volunteer  certificate,  which  is  granted  at 
the  end  of  the  sixth  year  in  the  higher  schools  of  any  type,  pro- 
vided the  examination  for  this  certificate  is  successfully  passed. 
Boys  who  leave  the  higher  schools  at  this  time,  which  corresponds 
to  the  last  year  in  the  abbreviated  form  of  higher  schools  men- 
tioned above,  either  become  merchants,  druggists,  and  state 
officials,  or  they  enter  some  trade  or  technical  school.  Many  of 
them  leave  school  at  this  point  with  the  intention  of  becoming 
army  officers. 

We  are  concerned  here  principally  with  the  relation  of  the 

Volksschule  to  the  schools  of  the  other  systems.    The  schools 

of  the  higher  system  lead  to  the  universities,  the  Relation  of 

higher  technical  schools,  and  the  professional  schools.  ^^  Voiks- 

schule  to 
The  pupils  of  the  higher  schools  are  the  future  leaders  the  other 

in  Prussia,  the  future  lawyers,  doctors,  high  state  ^'^^°''^ 
officials,  bankers,  landed  proprietors,  railroad  directors,  univer- 
sity profess(»s,  and  army  officers. 
IWhat  chance  does  a  pupil  of  the  Volksschule  have  of  getting 


86  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

into  a  higher  school,  for  example,  a  Gymnasium?^  Practically, 
he  has  no  chance,  unless  he  enter  the  higher  school  at  the  age  of 
nine,  after  he  has  been  in  the  Volksschule  only  three 
from  L^wer  years.  At  this  point  the  transfer  is  easy  and  takes 
s* h^^^  place  frequently,  especially  in  small  towns  or  in  com- 
munities where  the  Gymnasien  have  no  preparatory 
departments.!  After  this  point  in  a  pupil's  career,  the  chances 
against  trafisfer  from  the  elementary  to  a  higher  school  are 
about  a  thousand  to  one.  There  is  nothing  in  the  law  to  pre- 
vent a  boy  who  has  completed  the  Volksschule  from  entering  a 
higher  school,  but  it  is  nearly  impossible,  on  account  of  the  lack 
of  foreign  language  training  which  the  boy  in  the  higher  school 
has  had  since  the  very  first  year  of  his  course.  Hence,  we  see 
that  if  a  boy  remained  eight  years  in  the  lower  school,  a  transfer  to 
the  higher  school  would  be  out  of  the  question,  since  he  would  be 
four  years  behind  in  his  foreign  language  work.  The  differences 
in  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  so  great  that  a  change  from 
one  system  to  another  is  quite  impossible  after  the  fourth  year. 
In  answer  to  this  question,  one  may  say,  then,  that  a  pupil  of 
the  elementary  or  lower  system  never  gets  to  the  higher  system, 
except  he  enter  the  first  year  of  the  higher  school,  —  the  fourth 
school  year.  He  never  gets  to  the  university  at  all,  unless  he 
does  so  by  private  instruction. 
A  pupil  can  go  from  the  Volksschule  to  the  university  in  a 
roundabout  way.  There  are  quite  a  number  of 
Volksschule  teachers  of  the  Volksschulen  who  have  passed  the 
^  V^^  leaving  examination  of  the  higher  schools,  which  ad- 

mits to  the  university.     These  teachers  have  finished 
the  Volksschulen  in  eight  years,  have  attended  the  normal  pre- 

^  From  reports  current  in  this  country  at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  this 
book,  it  seems  that  there  are  changes  contemplated  in  Prussia  looking  to  an  easier 
passage  from  the  lower  to  higher  schools.  The  Einheitsschide,  which  means  one 
school  in  the  lower  grades  for  all  classes  of  society,  seems  to  be  making  rapid  advance. 


GENERAL  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS       87 

paratory  school  for  three  years,  and  the  normal  school  for  three 
years.  After  finishing  the  normal  schools  and  while  teaching, 
they  have  studied  privately  and  passed  the  leaving  examination 
of  the  higher  schools,  being  finally  admitted  to  the  university. 

The  transfer  from  the  Volksschule  to  the  iniddle  school  is  not 
very  difficult,  because  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  very  much 
the  same  in  the  first  five  years  of  both  schools,  and 
transfer  is  possible  even  later  than  that,  though  it  en-  to'Sd  from 
tails  some  loss  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  from  S*!*^^.* 

1  Schools 

the  lower  school.  Accordmg  to  the  new  regulations 
reorganizing  the  middle  schools,  transfer  from  the  middle  schools 
to  the  higher  schools  is  made  much  easier  than  heretofore,  and 
is  possible  as  late  as  after  the  sixth  year  in  school.  For  example, 
a  boy  who  has  attended  the  middle  school  for  six  years  may 
transfer  into  the  sixth  class  (Untersekunda)  of  the  higher  school, 
thus  sacrificing  one  year's  time.  Though  the  transfer  has  been 
made  easier  still,  for  social  reasons  pupils  of  the  middle  school  do 
not  take  much  advantage  of  the  opportunity. 

The  Volksschulen  in  Germany  are,  therefore,  for  the  very  large 
under  class.  Class  hues  are  very  marked,  and  those  lower 
orders  of  society  which  send  their  children  to  the  classes  in 
Volksschulen  very  rarely  even  think  of  breaking  over  Germany 
into  the  forbidden  fields.  There  is,  furthermore,  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  the  quality  of  pupils  in  the  upper  schools  and  those  of 
the  lower.  The  lower  classes  unconsciously  admit  their  in- 
feriority in  their  attitude  to  the  ruling  ten  thousand,  and  they 
have  maintained  this  attitude  for  so  long,  that  they  are  now 
really  inferior,  mentally,  morally,  and  physically.  This  in- 
feriority may  often  show  itself  in  a  form  of  hatred  of  the  better 
classes,  or  in  an  uncouth  impudence  or  bravado,  but  it  is  never- 
theless an  acknowledged  inferiority. 

One  must  keep  this  in  mind  when  studying  the  Volksschulen, 
for  the  course  of  study  is  not  planned  with  any  other  thought  in 


88  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

mind  than  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  attend  these  schools  are 
to  be  the  day  laborers,  the  servants,  and  the  burden  carriers  in 
an  aristocratic  limited  monarchy.  There  are  no  other  chances 
for  these  under  classes.  In  America  a  boy  may  rise  as  high  as 
his  ability  fits  him  to  go.  In  Germany  a  child  is  bom  into  a 
class  and  stays  there. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  Volksschule  exists  in  many 
forms,  just  as  the  American  elementary  school  does.  Li  larger 
cities  and  towns  the  Volksschule  generally  has  six  or 
Fonns  of  Tooxe  grades.  A  school  with  eight  grades  is  probably 
^°hie  ^'^  ideal,  but  comparatively  few  such  schools  exist. 

The  quality  of  the  Volksschule  is  frequently  as  variable 
as  in  America. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the  number  of  school 
children  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Prussia,  separated  with 
regard  to  the  number  of  classes  in  the  schools  which  they 
attend.  The  statistics  on  pages  91-103  show  the  number  of 
Volksschulen  in  the  German  empire,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
pupils,  pupils  per  teacher,  average  salaries,  cost  per  pupil,  and 
the  like.  (See  also  chapter  on  The  Organization  of  the  Volks- 
schulen.) 

In  1911  in  Prussia  there  were  the  following  number  of  Volks- 
schulen and  children  in  attendance  thereon. 


PRUSSIAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEM » 


Age. 
21 

School 

16 

Year 

Service 

in 

the  Army 

20 

16 



19 

14 

18 

13 

17 

12 

'/   Lower      '\ 

• -Sfifiools  .,. 

1 

CO 

o 

1 
1 

•a 
a 

16 

11 

15 

10 

14 

9 

sfpd 

Q 

1 

■1 

A 

-O- 

CD 

13 

8 

1 

12 

7 

11 

6 

1 

1 

Franlcfort  or  AJtona 
1 
j  Plan  of 

Common  Foundation 

1 

10 

5 

9 

4 

8 

3 

Vorschule 
or 

7 

2 

6 

1 

\ 

^olkssc 

;hule 

'  After  Rein. 


90 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


TYPES  OF   VOLKSSCHULEN  IN  PRUSSIA  AND  CHILDREN  IN  THE 

VARIOUS  TYPES 


City 

CODHTEY 

Total 

Schools 

Pupils 

Schools 

Pupils 

Schools 

Pupils 

One-class  school    .    . 
Half-day  school    .    . 
Two-class  school  .    . 
Three-class  school     . 
Four-class  school  .    . 
Five-class  school   .    . 
Six-class  school     .    . 
Seven-class  school     . 
Eight-dass  school 

396 
59 
233 
334 
312 
27s 
827 
2050 
639 

13,942 

4,316 

22,261 

50,297 

74,769 

80,967 

402,250 

1,422,634 

^475,317 

33,175 
6,596 
4,246 

5,57° 

1,617 

901 

657 

759 

38 

650,536 
522,850 
480,620 
860,786 
383,626 

290,473 
294,174 

506,467 
'35,855 

13,571 
6,655 
4,479 
5,904 
1,929 
1,176 
1,484 
2,809 
677 

664,478 
527,166 
502,881 
911,083 
458,39s 
371,440 
696,424 
1,929,101 
511,172 

Total       .... 

5125 

2,546,753 

33,559 

4,025,387 

38,684 

6,572,140 

A  brief  study  of  this  table  shows  that  the  Volksschule  is  organ- 
ized in  widely  varying  fornas.  The  schools  of  a  few  classes  are 
generally  found  in  the  country,  while  the  schools  in  the  cities, 
where  more  money  is  available,  are  organized  chiefly  on  the 
basis  of  six  or  more  classes. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  only  to  set  forth  the  Volks- 
schule in  its  relation  to  the  other  schools  existing  by  its  side. 

^This  total  includes  11,288  children  who  are  enrolled  in  classes  or  grades  ad- 
vanced beyond  the  eighth. 

2  This  total  includes  1350  children  who  are  enrolled  in  classes  or  grades  advanced 
beyond  the  eighth. 


CHAPTER  IV 
STATISTICS  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS' 

The  birth  rate  has  decreased  very  rapidly  in  Germany  in  the 
last  thirty  years,  especially  within  the  last  ten  years.    The  de- 
crease has  been  more  rapid  in  the  cities  than  in  the  Effect  of 
country,  and  it  has  been  particularly  marked  in  the  Decrease  in 

.,.  r  1         1         1  ,        ,  .     ,  .   „  Birth  Rate 

famines  of  handworkers  and  others  mdustrially  em-  on  the 
ployed.  The  causes  for  this  decrease  are  the  same  as  ^'^^°°^^ 
in.  other  modem  countries,  except  that  the  decrease  has  been 
more  rapid  in  the  last  decade  in  Germany  than  in  any  other 
European  country.  The  birth  rate  in  Germany  is  still  much 
higher  than  in  France,  England,  or  America,  though  the  present 
tendency  is  alarming.  It  must  be  mentioned  that  the  death  rate 
has  also  decreased,  but  not  in  comparison  with  the  birth  rate.^ 
The  figures  on  the  following  page,  from  the  Schulstatistischen 
Blatter,  January  i6,  1913,  show  the  rate  of  the  decrease. 

The  number  of  children  in  the  Volksschulen  of  Prussia  in  190 1, 
1906,  and  191 1,  was  3,670,870 ;  6,164,398 ;  and  6,572,140  respec- 
tively.   The  increase  in  the  number  of  pupils  from  Effect  of 
1901  to  1906  was  8.7  per  cent,  while  the  increase  from  °5"®*®*'* 

Birtli  Rate 

igo6  to  191 1  was  only  6.61  per  cent.    A  very  large  on  Voiks- 
decrease  in  the  growth  of  Volksschulen  is  clearly  indi-  *<^''"'^" 
cated.    This  decrease  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  more  and 
more  children  are  going  every  year  to  the  higher  schools,  but 

'  The  figures  quoted  in  this  and  the  following  chapter  are  based  on  the  following 
sources  (j.j.) : 

1.  Siatistisches  Jahrbuch  des  deutschen  Reickes,  19 13. 

2.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  preussischen  Staat,  1913. 

3.  Vierieljahrshefie  zur  Statistik  des  deutschen  Reiches,  vol.  22,  1913. 

4.  Schulstatische  Blatter,  1912-1914. 

'  StatisHsches  Jahrbttck  des  deutschen  Reiches  (1913)  and  Statistisches  Jahrbuch 
}iir  den  preussischen  Staat  (1913). 

91 


92  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

BIRTH  AND  DEATH  RATE  IN  GERMAN  CITIES  IN  1875-6  AND  1910-H 


Per  1000  iNHABn-ANis 

Excess  of 

Births  Over 
Deaths 

Absolute  Decrease 

City 

Births 

Deaths 

1875-6 

1910-11 

187S-6 

1910-11 

1875-6 

1910-11 

Births 

Deaths 

Surplus 

Altona    .     .     . 

43-57 

23.19 

27.23 

16.16 

16.34 

7.03 

20.38 

11.07 

9-31 

Berlin     .     .     . 

44-65 

21.00 

31.22 

15-07 

13.43 

S.93 

23-65 

16.15 

7-50 

Breslau       .    . 

41.94 

27.26 

32.10 

19.80 

9.84 

7.46 

14-78 

12.30 

2.48 

Charlottenburg 

47-16 

18.90 

34-05 

II.3S 

13-I1 

7-SS 

28.26 

22.70 

5-56 

Elberfeld    .    . 

44-45 

24.51 

28.21 

12.75 

16.24 

11.76 

19.94 

15.46 

4-48 

Essen     .    .     . 

56.00 

31." 

28.87 

13.2& 

27-13 

17-83 

24.89 

I5-S9 

9.30 

Hannover  .     . 

38-32 

21.15 

20.72 

13.23 

17.60 

7.92 

17.17 

7-49 

9.68 

Chermutz  .     . 

S2-74 

27.89 

31.08 

16.39 

21.66 

11.44 

24.91 

14.69 

10.22 

Dresden     .    . 

37-53 

20.87 

24.88 

14.16 

12.65 

6.71 

16.66 

10.72 

5-94 

Hamburg 

40.57 

23-54 

24-97 

14.49 

15-60 

9.05 

17.03 

10.48 

6-5S 

Munich       .     . 

43.84 

22.97 

34-75 

15-93 

9.09 

7-04 

20.87 

18.82 

2.05 

Strassburg  .     . 

39-42 

23.21 

30.42 

16.33 

9.00 

6.88 

16.21 

14.09 

2.12 

Stuttgart    .    . 

44-08 

24.46 

27-53 

14.34 

16.55 

10.12 

19.62 

13-19 

6.43 

the  falling  off  in  the  birth  rate  ^among  the  working  classes  is  the 
chief  factor  in  producing  this  result.  German  statisticians 
estimate  that  the  number  of  children  in  the  Volksschulen  will 
reach  a  standstill  in  a  very  few  years.^  At  the  same  time  the 
number  of  Catholic  children  in  the  Volksschulen  has  increased 
very  much  more  rapidly  than  the  number  of  Protestant  children.^ 
There  are  two  reasons  for  this  apparently.  First,  the  Protestant 
children  attend  the  higher  schools  in  proportionately  greater 
numbers ;  and,  secondly,  the  birth  rate  is  considerably  higher  in 
Catholic  than  Protestant  families. 


SCHOOL  CHILDREN  OF  DIFFERENT  RELIGIOUS 

DENOMINATIONS 

1S86 

1891 

1896 

1901 

1906 

1911 

Protestant   .    . 
Catholic  .     .     . 
Jews   .... 
Others     .     .     . 

3,062,856 

1,730,402 

35,420 

9.569 

3,107,701 

1,766,835 

30,386 

11,554 

3,296,481 

1,901,013 

27,015 

12,317 

3,507,71s 

2,118,815 

24,022 

20,318 

3,724,547 

2,391,980 

22,211 

20,318 

3,871,902 

2,650,722 

19,96s 

29,551 

'  See  article  by  Dr.  Sachse  in  "  Verwaltung  und  Statistik,"  No.  3,  1913. 
'  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  prettssischen  Stoat,  1913,  p.  402. 


STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      93 

The  number  of  school  children  increased  35.8  per  cent  in  the 
twenty-five  years.  Protestant  children  in  the  Volksschtden 
increased  only  26.4  per  cent,  while  the  number  of  CathoUc  school 
children  increased  53.2  per  cent.  Not  only  did  the  CathoUc 
pupils  make  a  greater  relative  gain,  but  also  a  greater  absolute 
increase.  During  the  period  indicated  the  Protestant  children 
increased  809,046,  while  the  Catholics  increased  920,320.  The 
number  of  Jewish  children  has  very  rapidly  decreased  from 
35,420  to  19,965.  This  is  owing  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  Jews 
take  advantage  of  higher  education  wherever  possible,  even  if  it 
means  financial  sacrifice. 

The  Volksschule  is  the  school  of  the  people.    Nine  children 
out  of  every  ten  receive  a  common  school  education,  that  is, 
they  are  educated  in  the  Volksschulen.    The  other 
child  of  the  ten  goes  to  some  other  form  of  school.  K^berof 
In  all  Germany,  892  boys  from  each  thousand  attend  p^p'^s  in 

Various 


the  Volksschule,  27  attend  the  naiddle  school,  8  the  Types  of 

Public 
Schools 


Vorschule,  which  is  a  preparatory  school  for  the  higher  ^^^^^ 


schools,  and  73  receive  their  training  in  the  higher 
schools.  Among  the  girls  the  figures  are  923,  35,  o.i,  and  42 
respectively,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the  boys  receive  the 
benefits  of  higher  education  in  greater  numbers  than  do  the 
girls.  In  some  other  states  the  figures  vary  greatly  from  the 
average,  but  such  states  have  on  the  whole  comparatively  few 
inhabitants.  Bavaria  shows  a  very  high  proportion  of  children 
in  the  Volksschulen,  while  the  manufacturing  centers  like  Wurt- 
temberg,  Hesse,  Bremen,  Lubeck,  and  Hamburg  show  large 
numbers  in  the  higher  schools.  The  showing  of  Bavaria  is  reaUy 
as  good  as  the  others  in  regard  to  higher  education,  for  there  are 
compulsory  continuation  schools  with  three  years'  courses 
throughout  this  kingdom,  which  offsets  any  apparent  advantage 
of  the  other  states. 
The  total  expenditures  in  Prussia  in  191 1  for  Volksschulen, 


94  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

middle  schools,  and  higher  schools,  were  420,898,192  M., 
25,760,324  M.,  and  113,287,974  M.,  respectively,  with  a  total 
of  559,946,490  M.  Of  the  total  number  of  pupils 
tiSs'for  89.7  per  cent  were  in  the  Volksschulen,  2.9  per  cent 
Voiks-  jjj  tijg  middle  schools,  and  the  remainder,  7.4  per 

Middle  and  Cent,  Were  in  the  higher  schools.  As  for  the  relative 
School's  in  expenditures  on  these  three  types  of  schools,  it  is  found 
Prussia,  that  the  Volksschulen  got  75.2  per  cent  of  each  one 
thousand  marks  expended,  the  middle  schools  4.0  per 
cent,  and  the  higher  schools  20.8  per  cent. 

The  cost  of  a  pupil  of  the  Volksschule  for  one  year  is  64  M., 
or  less  than  $16,  while  pupils  in  the  middle  and  higher  schools 
cost  143  M.  ($34)  and  296  M.  ($70)  respectively.  In  other 
words,  it  costs  on  the  average  four  and  a  half  times  as  much  to 
educate  a  boy  in  the  higher  school  as  it  does  in  the  Volksschule, 
and  over  twice  as  much  as  it  costs  in  the  middle  school.  The 
causes  for  the  great  differences  lie  in  the  higher  cost  of  instruc- 
tion and  fewer  pupils  per  teacher.  Likewise  the  equipment  in 
the  higher  schools  is  more  expensive,  but  not  decidedly  so.  The 
chief  cause  is  the  small  numbers  in  the  classes  of  higher  schools. 
The  lower  schools  prepare  their  pupils  for  the  humbler  walks  of 
Ufe,  the  higher  schools  for  the  leadership  of  the  nation.  Never- 
theless, it  is  questionable  if  the  average  product  of  the  Gymnasium 
is  mentally,  morally,  and  economically  worth  as  much  more  than 
the  average  product  of  the  Volksschule  as  the  ratio  of  the  costs 
of  their  education  would  indicate  or  ought  to  indicate. 

The  total  expenditures  for  Volksschulen,  middle  schools,  and 
higher  schools  in  1911  in  all  Germany  were  877,561,848  M.  or 
Total  Ex-  $208,943,297.  One  begins  to  grasp  the  amount  ex- 
penditures pended  for  education  in  Germany  when  one  begins  to 
c  00  s  j,Qj^gider  the  numerous  other  types  of  education,  for 
example,  the  whole  system  of  continuation  training,  normal 
schools  for  teachers,  universities,  technical  schools,    the  most 


STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTAR-^  SCHOOLS      95 

expensive  tjT)es  of  instruction.  The  pupil  of  the  Volksschule 
costs  65  M.  a  year,  the  middle  school  pupil  112  M.,  and  the 
pupil  of  the  higher  school  288  M.  The  lowest  expenditure  of  all 
we  find  in  Lippe,  43  M.  yearly  for  an  elementary  pupil,  and  the 
highest  in  Hamburg,  123  M.  In  considering  the  averages,  it 
must  be  kept  in  mind  that  they  are  based  upon  the  number  of 
children  enrolled,  which,  for  the  lower  schools  in  Germany,  is 
the  same  as  the  number  of  children  of  legal  school  age  on  account 
of  the  rigid  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law,  and 
substantially  the  same  as  the  average  attendance.  The  cost  of 
the  school  child  in  America  is  on  the  average  much  less  than  in 
Germany,  though  in  some  states  as  much  or  more.  But  we 
find  no  black  pages  of  niggardly  expenditure  in  Germany  to  com- 
pare with  the  conditions  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  other 
Southern  states. 

The  total  number  of  elementary  public  schools  in  Germany 
in  1911  was  61,557,  with  10,309,949  pupils,  and  187,485  full- 
time  teachers.  Of  these  teachers  20.8  per  cent  were  statistics  of 
women,  which  shows  a  large  increase  over  the  figures  ^^  Voiks- 

,  schulen  in 

for    1901.    Some    states    have    almost    no    women  Germany 
teachers,  while  others  employ  a  rather  large  percent-  ^" '"" 
age  of  women.    The  average  number  of  children  per  teacher  is 
decreasing,  for  in  1901  there  were  61  pupils  for  each  teacher, 
in  1906  a  little  more  than  58,  and  in  191 1  fewer  than  55.    In  the 
cities  the  average  is  well  under  50,  for  example,  Liibeck  with  31, 
Hamburg  with  33,  and  Bremen  with  41,  while  in  some  of  the 
small  principalities  the  average  number  is  well  over  sixty.    The 
total  cost  of  the  Volksschulen  was  in  1911  $167,459,133,  of  which 
31.9  per  cent  was  borne  by  the  state.    In  the  larger  states  of 
Germany  the  state  aid  amounts  to  one  third  or  one  fourth  of 
the  total,  while  in  the  smaller  states  it  ranges  from  6.9  per  cent 
in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  to  86.8  per  cent  in  Anhalt. 
The  average  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  in  the  German 


96  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Volksschulen  is  55,  in  the  middle  schools  30,  in  the  preparatory 
40,  and  in  the  higher  18.6.  It  was  seen  above  that  the  pupil  of 
the  higher  school  cost  $70  per  year,  while  the  elementary  school 
pupil  cost  $16.  The  average  number  per  teacher  in  the  lower 
type  school  is  just  about  three  times  that  in  the  higher  school, 
so  this  may  be  noted  as  one  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  great 
difference  in  the  cost  of  educating  pupils  in  the  lower  and  in  the 
higher  schools. 

About  one  of  every  five  elementary  school-teachers  is  a  woman. 
In  Liibeck  the  women  hold  47.3  per  cent  of  the  positions ;  in 
Women  Alsace-Lorraine,  45.3 ;  in  Hamburg,  38 ;  in  West- 
Teachers  phalia,  38 ;  in  Berhn,  36 ;  in  Rhineland,  36.  In  other 
words,  in  densely  populated  manufacturing  districts  the  women 
are  employed  in  large  numbers,  in  the  first  place,  because  women 
prefer  the  cities,  and  second,  because  graded  systems  offer  more 
opportunities  for  the  employment  of  women  teachers  than  do 
one-  and  two-class  schools  in  agricultural  sections,  where  the 
management  is  hard  and  where  prejudice  is  stiU  strong  against 
"female  teachers."  For  example,  in  East  Prussia  only  9.9  per 
cent  of  the  teachers  are  women;  in  West  Prussia,  9.1;  in 
Pomerania,  10.3 ;  in  Posen,  7.2 ;  and  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
also  7.2 ;  while  in  the  smaller  principalities  the  percentage  is 
even  less.  In  the  middle  schools  there  is  a  large  percentage  of 
women,  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  middle  schools  are  generally 
in  large  cities,  where  women  are  more  largely  employed  as 
teachers  than  in  the  country.  In  the  thirty-three  Prussian 
cities  of  over  100,000  population,  the  percentage  of  women 
teachers  in  the  Volksschulen  is  32  per  cent,  about  the  same  as 
the  percentage  of  women  teachers  employed  in  the  middle 
schools.^ 

It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  the  average  number  of 
pupils  per  teacher  in  the   Volksschulen  was  about  55.    The 
^  Schulstatistische  BlUtter,  Jan.  16,  1913,  p.  2. 


STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      97 

average  number  in  each  class  in  Prussia  is  somewhat  less.    It 
has  not  been  possible  to  find  figures  for  all  Prussia  showing  the 

number  of  classes  with  less  than  thirty  pupils,  the    .^ 

number  with  between  thirty  and  forty  pupils,  and  so  w^ber  of 
on.    This  sort  of  statistics  would  give  us  a  much  PupUsper 
better  picture  of  real  class  condition  than  can  the  ever 
misleading  averages.    The  average  number  per  class  in  Prus- 
sian cities  of  over  100,000  is  49,  while  the  average  for  all  the 
Prussian  Volksschulen  is  51.*    In  some  cases  it  has  been  possible 
to  obtain  statistics  which  are  illustrative  of  conditions  in  rural 
districts,  if  not  in  the  cities.    According  to  the  statistical  infor- 
mation of  March  i,   191 2,  from  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 
there  were  98  pubKc  Volksschulen,  with  279  classes,  14,718  pupils, 
and  258  teachers.     On  the  average  there  were  53.3  pupils  per 
class  and  57.6  pupils  per  teacher.    The  actual  conditions  were 
as  follows : 


ONE-CLASS  SCHOOLS 


Number  of  Schools 

Range  js  Number  or  Chxldren 

3 

Fewer  than  20 1 

10 

21-30 

9 

31-40 

s 

41-50 

7 

51-60 

4 

61-70 

8 

71-80 

4 

81-90 

S 

91-100 

I 

116 

56 

Total  number  of  schools 

'  Schulstalistische  Blatter,  Jan.  16,  1913,  p.  2. 


98 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


TWO-CLASS  SCHOOLS 


Number  op  Schoois 

Number  of  Children 

Number  of  Teachers 

2 

2 

3 
3 
3 

I 

80-90 

go-ioo 

100-120 

1 21-140 

141-150 

158 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

14 

Total  schools 

THREE-CLASS  SCHOOLS 


Number  of  Schoois 

Number  of  Chudren 

Number  of  Teachers 

113 

2 

116 

2 

132 

2 

133 

2 

136 

2 

149 

2 

172 

3 

187 

3 

233 

3 

Total  Number  of  Schools  - 

-9 

FOUR-CLASS  SCHOOLS 


Number  of  Schools 

Number  of  Children 

Number  of  Teachers 

240 
230 
218 
219 
278 
280 

2 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 

Total  Schools  —  6 

STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      99 
SIX-CLASS  SCHOOLS 


Number  o;  Schools 

Number  op  Children 

Number  or  Teachers 

I 
I 
I 

203 
29s 
345 

3 
S 
4 

Total  Schools 

'  There  were  2  schools  with  seven  classes  with  364  and  518 
pupils,  and  5  teachers  and  7  teachers  respectively;  2  schools 
with  eight  classes,  each  with  8  teachers  and  553  and  570  pupils ; 
I  school  with  eleven  classes,  510  children,  and  10  teachers;  3 
schools  each  with  14  classes  respectively  753,  657,  and  602  chil- 
dren and  12,  14,  and  16  teachers;  i  school  with  21  classes,  943 
children,  and  22  teachers;  i  school  with  22  classes,  964  children, 
and  21  teachers.  The  14,871  school  children  were  divided 
among  279  classes  as  follows : 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUPILS  ACCORDING  TO  NUMBERS  IN  CLASSES 


Less  than  20  Pupils  in   3  Classes    1.0% 

71-80    Pupils  in 

30  Classes  10.7% 

21-30  Pupils  in  17  Classes    6.0% 

81-90    Pupils  in 

8  Classes    2.8% 

31-40  Pupils  in  36  Classes  12.9% 

91-100  Pupils  in 

4  Classes    1.3% 

41-50  Pupils  in  85  Classes  30.4% 

loi-iio  Pupils  in 

I  Class     0.03% 

51-60  Pupils  in  54  Classes  19.3% 

111-120  Pupils  in 

2  Classes  0.07% 

61-70  Pupils  in  38  Classes  13.6% 

over  120  Pupils  in 

I  Class     0.03% 

From  this  last  table  we  see  that  the  middle  50  per  cent  of  the 
classes  have  from  41  to  60  pupils,  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the 
classes  have  more  than  60  pupils,  and  about  20  per  cent  have 
less  than  40  pupils.  There  are  some  classes  with  90  and  one 
class  with  ii6(!)  in  it.  Such  conditions  are  not  at  all  scarce 
in  rural  sections  of  Germany,  though  the  average  never  shows 
what  the  extremes  are. 


lOO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

School  Maintenance  in  Prussia 

Before  the  enforcement  of  compulsory  school  attendance, 
schools  were  looked  upon  as  a  private  matter.  Education  was 
School  ^'^^  considered  then  a  matter  of  common  interest,  and 

Mainte-  the  costs  Were  laid  entirely  upon  the  shoulders  of  the 
Previous  to  parents,  although  the  church,  of  course,  gave  aid  in 
^""^  exchange  for  its  control  of  the  schools.    Tuition  was 

charged  in  aU  public  schools  and  in  this  way  the  schools  were 
supported.  While  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht  of  1794  declared 
the  schools  to  be  institutions  of  the  state,  it  laid  no  part  of  the 
burden  of  their  support  upon  the  state,  but  assigned  it  to  heads 
of  families  and  other  legally  and  economically  independent  per- 
sons dwelling  in  the  school  district,  whether  they  had  children 
or  not.  The  maintenance  of  the  public  Volksschulen  devolved 
upon  school  societies,  which  formed  their  own  corporations. 
These  school  societies  continued  until  the  passage  of  the  School 
Maintenance  Law  in  1906,  when  they  passed  out  of  existence. 
School  fees  were  the  chief  source  of  revenue  for  these  school 
societies.  The  remainder  of  the  school  expense  was  divided 
among  the  heads  of  families  according  to  their  financial  condi- 
tion. Schools  on  landed  estates  depended  upon  the  lords  of  the 
manor  for  their  support.  None  of  the  newly  acquired  Prussian 
provinces  had  school  laws  which  made  the  state  responsible  for 
the  costs  of  public  education.  In  fact,  in  most  of  the  provinces 
and  principalities  there  was  general  confusion  in  regard  to  the 
raising  of  school  moneys ;  part  was  levied  in  this  way,  part  was 
raised  in  that,  part  was  the  income  of  some  foundation,  and  so 
on.  There  was  continual  confusion  and  no  definite,  clear-cut 
policy  was  followed,  at  least  no  uniform  policy  for  the  whole 
kingdom.  The  Prussian  government,  of  course,  recognized  the 
faults  many  years  ago,  but  circumstances  involving  religious 
and  pohtical  questions  would  not  permit  an  easy  reorganization 


STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS    loi 

of  school  property  for  the  matter  of  raising  school  funds.  In 
1817  the  plan  of  giving  over  the  burden  of  school  maintenance 
to  the  civil  communities  was  discussed  and  was  embodied  in 
the  school  law  for  the  province  of  Prussia  in  1845.  Article  25  of 
the  constitution  of  1850  declared  that  the  means  for  the  support 
of  the  pubUc  schools  were  to  be  raised  by  the  civil  conmiunities, 
and  in  case  of  lack  of  funds  the  deficiency  was  to  be  made  up  by 
the  state.  Nothing  came  of  this,  however,  and  the  schools  were 
supported  as  before.  They  were  waiting  for  the  passage  of  a 
general  school  law,  which  has  not  yet  appeared,  although  laws 
covering  various  phases  of  the  school  administration  have  been 
passed.  Many  attempts  were  made  to  regulate  the  matter,  but 
all  such  efforts  failed.  In  1889  school  fees  were  abolished,  which 
was  one  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  state  aid  was  granted 
to  aU  political  communities  (Gemeinde).  State  aid  to  civil 
communities  was  later  limited  to  those  in  which  the  school  cor- 
poration employed  fewer  than  twenty-six  teachers. 

Previous  to  the  passing  of  the  School  Maintenance  Law  of 
1906,  the  legal  bases  of  state  aid  rested  (i)  upon  Article  26  of 
the  constitution  which  granted  aid  to  communities 
which  could  not  support  their  schools  alone ;  (2)  upon  Mainte- 
the  pension  law  of  1885  under  which  the  state  contrib-  ^^^^"^ 
uted  to  the  pensions  of  retired  teachers,  and  again  by 
the  Pension  Fund  Law  of  1893  ;   (3)  upon  the  salary  law  of  1897 
under  which  the  state  granted  support  in  payment  of  teachers' 
salaries  in  communities  employing  fewer  than  twenty-six  teachers, 
also  moving  and  traveling  expenses  for  teachers  and  perpetual 
grants  for  communities  which  lost  state  aid  through  changes 
brought  about  by  the  salary  law;    (4)  and  upon  the  Widows' 
and  Orphans'  Pension  Law  of  1899,  by  which  the  state  contrib- 
utes a  part  of  the  pension.    The  law  of  1906  affected  none  of 
the  foregoing  laws  mentioned.    This  law  took  away  the  obliga- 
tion of  school  maintenance  from  the  confessional  (sectarian) 


I02  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

school  societies  and  lodged  it  with  the  political,  civil  communi- 
ties. School  societies  were  abolished.  School  corporations 
(Verbande)  were  formed  in  their  stead.  Civil  communities  which 
previously  had  borne  the  costs  of  the  schools  continued  as  before. 
Under  the  new  law  the  state,  the  political  communities,  and  the 
lords  of  manors  are  responsible  for  the  support  of  the  schools. 
Outside  civil  communities,  other  school  corporations,  founda- 
tions, and  Jewish  school  "societies"  are  allowed  to  remain  in 
case  they  exist  under  special  provision,  and  they  too  are  made 
co-bearers  of  the  public  expenditures.  The  State  itself  assimies 
more  of  the  burden  than  heretofore.  State  aids  which  are  new  are 
as  follows :  (i)  5,000,000  marks  for  equalization  purposes  among 
poorer  corporations  which  have  suffered  by  changes  produced  by 
the  law ;  (2)  aids  for  poor  corporations  with  less  than  twenty-six 
teachers ;  (3)  building  aid  for  school  corporations  with  less  than 
eight  teachers ;  (4)  aid  for  school  corporations  in  establishing  a 
central  fund  where  there  are  more  than  twenty-five  teachers; 
(s)  establishment  of  new  positions  for  teachers ;  (6)  building  aid 
for  corporations  with  fewer  than  twenty-six  teachers.  Aid  in 
various  forms  as  mentioned  above  is  still  paid  by  the  state. 

Attention  is  now  called  to  the  actual  expenditures  for  the 

Prussian  elementary  schools.     The  burden  is  carried  by  the  two 

f  political  units :   the  state,  and  the  civil  community, 

Bearers  of    '      ,  .  ,  .  .         .       ,       ,  .        . 

School  Bur-    whicn,  acting  as  a  umt  of  school  organization  and 

^l^  administration,  forms  a  school  corporation  {Schuber- 
band).  Under  civil  communities  must  be  included 
landed  estates  or  manors  (Gutsbezirke)  and  other  school  cor- 
porations. As  a  rule  each  political  or  civil  community,  also 
landed  estate,  forms  its  own  school  corporation.  This  school 
corporation,  which  in  reality  is  the  civil  community,  is  respon- 
sible for  all  expenditures  for  schools  which  are  not  granted  by 
the  state.  The  state  contributes  in  Prussia  and  in  all  Germany 
about  one  third  of  the  total  expenditure.    The  reader  can  see 


STATISTICS  OF  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS     103 

readily  the  proportion  which  each  item  of  state  aid  receives. 
The  largest  items  are :  the  aid  for  teachers'  salaries,  the  basal 
salary  (Grundgehalt,  see  p.  199),  age  salary  increments,  and 
temporary  grants  to  poorer  communities  for  general  support  of 
the  schools.  On  the  side  of  the  local  conmiunity  almost  all  of 
the  money  is  given  by  the  regular  school  corporations,  that  is, 
by  the  community  itself. 

Over  four  fifths  of  the  total  expenditures  are  personal,  while 
material  expenditures  are  but  little  less  than  one  fifth.  Teachers' 
salaries  actually  constitute  the  biggest  item  of  expenditure  by 
amounting  to  about  70  per  cent  of  the  grand  total.  One  of  the 
other  items  is  worthy  of  attention,  the  total  cost  of  heating  and 
cleaning  ^buildings  and  the  salaries  of  janitors.  In  191 1  this 
amounted  to  $4,495,150,  which  to  Americans  seems  extremely 
low,  a  Httle  more  than  4  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure.  The 
causes  for  the  extremely  low  cost  of  heating  are  not  far  to  seek. 
In  the  first  place,  the  chmate  in  Prussia  is  much  milder  and 
more  regular  than  in  America  and  fuel  costs  are  therefore  much 
lower ;  second,  very  strict  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  is  prac- 
ticed; third,  the  ventilation  systems  are  seldom  connected 
organically  with  the  heating  systems ;  fourth,  most  of  the  schools 
ventilate  very  little  except  during  recesses  and  a  great  deal  of 
heated  air  is  thus  saved.  Strict  discipline  as  to  the  condition 
of  the  rooms  brings  the  cleaning  costs  to  a  minimum. 

The  Prussian  system  of  school  maintenance  recommends 
itself  in  that  no  community  suffers  because  of  lack  of  funds. 
Naturally  some  communities  are  richer  than  others,  and  can 
spend  more  money  on  schools  than  others,  but  no  town  or  village 
is  required  to  go  without  the  necessary  equipment  in  buildings, 
teachers,  or  in  any  other  essential.  If  a  corporation  is  too  poor 
to  pay  for  its  schools,  the  state  contributes  enough  money  to 
bring  them  up  to  the  required  standard,  without  overburdening 
the  taxpayers  of  any  particular  district. 


CHAPTER  V 

SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE 

Although  attempts  at  compulsory  attendance  had  been  made 
during  the  sixteenth  and  the  seventeenth  centuries,  no  great 
Develop-  success  resulted  therefrom.  Frederick  William  I  by 
Comp^Mry  ^^  ^^^^^  °^  September  28,  171 7,  took  the  first  defi- 
Attendance  nite  Step  in  this  direction  in  Prussia.  The  Edict 
reads  in  part : 

In  places  where  there  are  schools,  parents  shall  be  compelled  imder 
penalty  of  punishment  to  send  their  children  to  school  every  day  in  the 
winter,  and  once  or  twice  a  week  in  the  summer. 

Just  what  degree  of  success  this  regulation  met  with  is  not 
known.  The  General  Rural  School  Regulation  of  August  12, 
1763,  also  contained  sections  which  authorized  the  enforcement 
of  compulsory  attendance. 

Subsequently,  school  attendance  was  again  regulated  by  the 
Allgemeine  Landreckt  of  February  5,  1794,  which  is  stiU  in  effect 
except  for  some  nainor  changes.  Some  of  the  sections  of  this  law 
run  as  follows : 

§  43.  Every  citizen  who  cannot  or  wUl  not  provide  his  children  with 
the  necessary  instruction  at  home  is  compelled  to  send  them  to  school 
after  they  have  completed  their  fifth  year. 

§  44.  Only  by  the  consent  of  the  magistrate  and  the  clerical  school 
inspector  (now  the  local  inspector)  may  a  child  be  kept  out  of  school 
longer,  or  may  the  instruction  be  put  off  to  a  later  time  on  account  of 
local  difficulties  which  may  arise. 

§  46.  The  instruction  must  be  continued  imtU  the  child,  in  the  opinion 
of  his  pastor  (now  the  Kreisschulinspektor) ,  has  acquired  knowledge 
sufficient  for  any  reasonable  man  of  his  (the  child's)  position  in  society. 

104 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  10$ 

§  48.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  authorities,  with  the  aid  of  the  civil 
authorities,  to  see  that  all  children  eligible  for  school  according  to  the 
preceding  regulations  shall  be  compelled  to  attend  school;  if  necessary 
by  force,  or  by  punishment  of  the  negligent  parents. 

Likewise  in  the  Cabinet  Order  of  May  14,  1825,  compulsory 
attendance  was  extended  to  the  newly  acquired  provinces  in 
Prussia  and,  as  in  the  Allgemeine  Landrecht  of  1794,  attendance 
at  school  was  to  begin  after  the  completion  of  the  fifth  year. 
No  definite  termination  of  compulsory  attendance  was  fixed  by 
either  of  the  regulations  just  quoted,  except  that  a  child  was  to 
be  kept  in  school  until  he  had  acquired  that  knowledge  which 
was  considered  necessary  for  his  position  in  life. 

As  just  stated,  the  first  compulsory  attendance  laws  in  Prussia 
required  the  children  to  be  sent  to  school  at  the  completion  of 
the  fifth  year.  That  age  was  found  to  be  somewhat  g^^j^^jj 
too  young,  and  by  a  ministerial  decree  of  1862,^  the  of  Compui- 
administrative  counties  of  the  several  provinces  were  ^°^  ^^ 
allowed  to  postpone  enrollment  of  pupils  until  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  sixth  year.  Accordingly,  at  present  children  start  to 
school  in  Prussia  after  the  completion  of  the  sixth  year.  The 
child  does  not,  however,  enter  school  for  the  first  time  on  his 
sixth  birthday,  but  at  the  regular  enrollment  day  falling  nearest 
his  sixth  birthday.  In  provinces  where  children  are  enrolled 
once  a  year,  —  generally  about  April  first  or  after  Easter,  —  a 
child  must  be  enrolled,  if  he  has  already  completed  his  sixth, 
or  if  he  shall  have  completed  his  sixth  year  within  six  months 
after  the  regular  date  of  enrollment.  In  Dortmund,  in  West- 
phalia, the  law  reads  as  follows  :  * 

§  I.  Children  just  entering  the  compulsory  school  age  are  enrolled 
in  the  public  elementary  schools  once  a  year  only;  namely,  at  Easter, 
the  beginning  of  the  school  year. 

1  Min.  Erl.,  14  Jan.  1862,  Zentralblatt,  1862,  p.  121. 
'  Dorlmunder  Biigerhwh,  1912,  p.  152. 


lo6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  administrative  county  board  fixes  the  date  of  the  beginning  of 
the  school  year  and  of  the  enrollment. 

Children,  coming  from  other  communities,  who  are  of  compulsory  age, 
and  who  have  already  attended  school,  are  enrolled  at  any  time  in  the 
schools,  and  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  arrival. 

§  2.  At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year,  all  those  children  become  of 
compulsory  age,  who  up  tiU  then  have  completed  their  sixth  year,  or  will 
have  completed  it  before  October  i  of  that  year. 

In  districts  or  in  provinces  where  children  are  admitted  to  school  twice 
a  year,  children  under  six  are  enrolled  who  will  complete  their  sixth  year 
within  three  months  after  the  date  of  enrollment. 

The  local  police  make  up  the  lists  of  all  children  who  are  of 
school  age  and  transmit  these  lists  to  the  school  deputations  or 
Method  of  boards  about  two  weeks  before  the  day  of  enrollment. 
Enforce-       Notices  are  generally  posted  throughout  the  town 

ment  of  .fir,,  ,  .  ,      , 

Compuisoiy  announcmg  the  date  of  enrollment,  together  with  the 
^^^  law  governing  school  attendance  and  the  punishment 

which  may  be  inflicted  upon  parents  or  guardians  who  neglect 
their  duty.  Thanks  to  these  police  lists,  the  school  authorities 
know  exactly  what  children  are  to  be  expected,  and  if  such  chil- 
dren do  not  appear,  steps  may  then  be  taken  to  compel  their 
attendance.  Compulsory  attendance  means  that  all  children 
shall  take  part  in  the  instruction  in  all  subjects  taught  in  the 
Volksschulen,  except  that  Jewish  children  are  not  required  to  be 
present  at  school  when  instruction  in  religion  is  given.  Children 
of  Protestant  parentage  as  a  rule  are  enrolled  in  Protestant 
schools,  while  Catholic  children  are  enrolled  iij  Catholic  schools. 
No  child,  however,  may  be  excluded  from  a  school  on  account 
of  his  religious  adherence,  although  children  of  one  confession 
do  not  attend  a  school  of  another  confession,  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Note.  —  For  provisions  for  religious  instruction  of  children  of  differing 
creeds,  see  Chapter  XV,  p.  287. 

When  a  child  is  enrolled  in  a  school,  he  is  required  to  present 
a  certificate  of  baptism.    Unbaptized  children  of  Protestant 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  107 

parents  are  sent  to  evangelical  schools,  while  unbaptized  children 
of  Catholic  parents  go  to  CathoHc  schools.  ^  Children  of  eleven 
years  of  age  or  over  are  required  to  present  a  vaccination  cer- 
tificate.^ 

There  is  no  compulsory  attendance  law  for  the  whole  empire, 
but  each  state  has  a  law  of  its  own.  There  is  an  agreement 
between  the  states,  however,  that  no  citizen  of  the  empire  may, 
for  any  great  length  of  time,  keep  his  child  out  of  school  during 
the  compulsory  period.  As  in  Prussia,  compulsory  attendance 
in  most  of  the  states  begins  after  the  child  is  six  years  old.  In 
Wurttemberg  and  in  Lippe-Detmold  the  school  age  begins  one 
year  later. 

All  children  of  school  age  are  required  to  attend  the  Volks- 
schulen  and  partake  of  all  the  subjects  of  instruction,  unless  in 
other  schools  or  privately  educated,  and-  they  are  also 
required  to  take  part  in  school  festivals  and  excursions,  from  At- 
Corapulsory  attendance  also  includes  the  obligation  on  ***"  ""^^ 
the  part  of  parents  to  purchase  books  and  other  school  material 
for  their  children.  Exceptions  are  made,  however,  in  the  matter 
of  attendance,  there  being  both  total  and  partial  forms  of  exemp- 
tion. The  beginning  of  the  school  age  may  be  put  off  with  the 
consent  of  the  school  authorities,  if  the  child  lives  far  from  a 
school,  or  if  it  seems  best  to  keep  the  child  out  of  school  on 
account  of  his  health.  BUnd,  deaf,  or  dumb  children  are  not 
compelled  to  attend  regular  schools,  but  must  attend  special 
schools,  the  bHnd  being  required  to  attend  from  six  to  four- 
teen and  the  deaf  and  dumb  from  six  to  fifteen.  Children  of 
another  religious  faith  than  that  of  the  majority  of  the  school 
are  excused  from  the  religious  instruction,  if  they  can  prove 
that  they  receive  such  instruction  from  their  own  pastors  or  in- 
structors in  religion.  Children  without  a  rehgious  faith  are  not 
excused.    Jewish  children  may  be  excused  from  school  on  Satur- 

1  Min.Erl.,  September  27,  i88o.  ^  Vaccination  law  of  April  8,  1874. 


io8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

day  or  holidays  to  worship  in  the  sjTiagogue,  if  their  parents 
have  received  such  permission  from  the  authorities.  Otherwise 
they  must  attend  school.  Jewish  children  who  attend  school  on 
Saturdays  or  on  holidays,  however,  cannot  be  compelled  against 
the  will  of  their  parents  to  take  part  in  written  work.^ 

Children  may  be  excused  from  gymnastics  or  physical  training 
if  they  are  physically  weak  or  ill,  but  such  dispensation  requires  a 
doctor's  order.  A  child  is  excused  from  physical  training  for 
two  weeks  after  vaccination.  Children  are  also  sometimes 
not  required  to  attend  school  during  the  illness  of  parents 
who  are  too  poor  to  hire  a  nurse  or  secure  other  care.  Sick- 
ness, of  course,  removes  from  the  children  the  obligation  of 
attendance. 

The  compulsory  school  attendance  period  lasts  generally  eight 

years,  from  the  completion  of  the  sixth  year  to  the  completion 

of  the  fourteenth  year.    According  to  the  Order  of 

School  May  14,  1825,  no  definite  age  was  set  for  the  termina- 

Attendance    j-Jqjj  gf  ^jjg  compulsory  attendance,  but  the  child  was 

Dismissal  ^  •'  ' 

to  be  dismissed  from  school,  when,  in  the  opinion  of 
his  spiritual  adviser  (now  the  district  school  inspector)  he  had 
acquired  the  knowledge  necessary  for  his  position  in  Ufe.  There 
is  then  no  definite  age  for  the  termination  of  this  school  period, 
nor  is  the  child  necessarily  excused  from  attendance  by  the  mere 
fact  that  he  has  been  confirmed.  As  a  matter  of  actual  practice, 
dismissal  from  school  and  confirmation  occur  at  the  same  time, 
generally  at  Easter  or  in  the  October  following  the  completion 
of  the  fourteenth  year.  Dismissal  from  school,  however,  depends 
upon  the  school  authorities.  In  East  and  West  Prussia  dismissal 
takes  place  on  the  fourteenth  birthday.  In  Bavaria  the  com- 
pulsory period  runs  from  six  to  thirteen,  and  in  Wiirttemberg 
and  in  Lippe-Detmold  it  lasts  from  seven  to  fourteen.    As  a 

» Erl.  of  May  6,  1859;  April  4,  i868;  AprU  5,  1884,  pp.  323,  333,  and  346.  of 
these  years. 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  109 

general  rule,  the  German  child  must  go  to  school  from  the  age 
of  six  until  the  age  of  fourteen. 

When  the  child  leaves  the  school  he  receives  a  certificate  of 
dismissal  {Entlassungszeugnis  or  Abgangszeugnis),  and  once  this 
certificate  has  been  granted  the  child  is  no  longer  liable  for  com- 
pulsory attendance  in  the  Volksschule. 

The  following  passages  from  the  school  regulations  of  West- 
phalia* give  a  good  idea  of  the  manner  of  dismissal  from  a 
Volksschule. 

§  5.  Dismissal  from  the  public  Volksschule  takes  place  only  once  a 
year,  to  wit,  at  the  close  of  the  winter  semester  (April  i).  .  .  . 

§  6.  All  children  are  eligible  for  dismissal  at  this  time,  who  have  com- 
pleted the  fourteenth  year  or  will  complete  it  before  September  30,  of 
that  year,  provided  they  have  acquired  sufficient  knowledge  and  ability. 
If  the  latter  is  not  the  case,  the  compulsory  attendance  period  can  be 
extended  one  year  by  the  district  school  inspector. 

§  4.}  The  possession  of  sufficient  knowledge  and  abflity  (§6  above) 
is  determined  by  an  examination,  which  is  held  by  the  local  school  in- 
spector, or,  in  schools  directly  under  the  supervision  of  the  district 
school  inspector  by  the  latter.  This  examination  can  be  given  by  the 
principal. 

§  S-  If  the  examination  shows  sufficient  ability  on  the  part  of  the 
chUd,  dismissal  follows  either  by  the  local  inspector  or  the  principal. 

To  every  child  dismissed  a  certificate  of  dismissal  is  given  which  is 
signed  by  the  teacher,  the  principal  of  the  school,  and  the  local  in- 
spector. 

This,  with  what  has  been  said  previously,  gives  a  fair  idea  of 
the  enrollment  and  dismissal  of  children  in  elementary  schools 
in  Prussia,  and  also  in  all  Germany.  There  is,  however,  no 
set  rule  for  the  whole  empire,  and  in  fact  Prussia  itself  has 
by  no  means  a  uniform  system  in  respect  to  ages  of  enroU- 

'  Verordmmg  betreffend  Regelung  der  Schulpflicht,  Jan.  9,  1907.  Provinz  West- 
falen. 

'  Anweisung  zur  Aiisfuhrung  der  Verordnung,  belrefend  Regelung  der  Schulpflicht 
Jiir  die  Prownz  Westfalen,  vom  g  Januar,  igoy. 


no  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ment  and  dismissal,  this  matter  being  left  to  the  several 
provinces  to  regulate,  in  order  to  accommodate  their  own  local 
conditions. 

/  There  are  no  general  regulations  controlling  the  length  of  the 
leaves  of  absence  which  may  be  granted  pupils,  each  adminis- 
Leave  of  trative  county  regulating  this  to  suit  its  own  local  con- 
Absence  ditions.  In  general  a  teacher  may  grant  a  leave  of 
absence  up  to  three  days,  but  such  leaves  must  not  amount  to 
more  than  one  or  two  weeks  in  all  within  one  half  year.  The 
principal  of  a  school  may  grant  a  leave  of  eight  days,  while 
longer  leaves  must  be  granted  either  by  the  local  inspector  or 
by  the  district  school  inspector.  Such  leaves,  of  course,  are 
granted  only  after  the  pupU  has  shown  very  good  reasons  for 
absence. 

Absences  '■  Absences  from  school  may  be  excused  on  the  follow- 
andEn-        ing  grounds  only:    (i)  Leave  of  absence  granted: 

foTcement        /  \     T,  ^    ,         ,  .,  ,       /  \   .      ■, 

of  the  Com-  (2)  sickiiess  of  the  child ;  (.3)  mclement  weather  and 
puisory  Law  ^^^.^^^^  blockade ;  (4)  sickness  of  both  parents  at  the 
same  time. 

The  compulsory  law  is  enforced  in  many  ways  if  we  consider 
the  details  of  the  process,  but  in  general  the  following  course  is 
pursued.  Two  weeks  before  the  day  of  enrollment  each  school 
receives  a  list  of  all  pupils  of  school  age  in  the  district  belonging 
to  that  particular  school.  This  hst  is  prepared  by  the  police, 
and  when  new  children  move  into  the  district,  or  when  they  move 
away,  the  police  are  acquainted  with  the  fact  and  they  in  turn  in- 
form the  school  authorities.  When  the  school  term  begins,  the 
school  officials  check  off  on  this  list  the  names  of  children  who 
have  not  appeared,  and  then  return  the  list  to  the  police,  who 
investigate  the  matter. 

Each  teacher  is  required  to  keep  an  absentee  record  book 
{VersaumnisUste),  in  which  a  very  careful  record  of  attendance  is 
kept  along  with  absences  and  the  reasons  therefor  {i.e.  i,  fore- 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  ill 

noon;  — ,  afternoon;    +,  whole  day;    +.,  whole  day  with  per- 

mission ;  — .,  afternoon  with  permission ;  +,  whole  day  on  account 
of  sickness).  On  the  second  day  of  a  pupil's  absence,  the  janitor 
of  the  school  is  sent  to  see  why  the  child  does  not  appear,  and 
if  the  boy  is  playing  truant,  the  parents  are  warned  or  are 
fined.  If  necessary,  the  child  may  be  brought  to  the  school 
by  force. 

The  unexcused  absences  are  transferred  every  week,  every 
two  weeks,  or  every  month  by  the  teacher  from  the  absentee 
list  to  a  special  report  form,  and  this  is  transmitted  to  the  local 
school  inspector,  or  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  who  delivers 
such  report  to  the  local  poKce  authorities,  the  latter  proceeding 
forthwith  to  the  punishment  of  the  parents.  In  some  places  the 
school  commission  has  opportunity  first  to  investigate  the  case, 
and  then  to  warn  the  parents,  or  recommend  their  punishment 
to  the  poHce. 

The  penalties  are  either  a  warning,  a  money  fine,  or  imprison- 
ment. The  first  fine  is  usually  from  fifty  pfennigs  to  three  marks, 
that  is,  from  twelve  to  seventy-five  cents.  If  the  parents  cannot 
pay  the  fine,  they  are  sent  to  jail  for  a  period  of  from  six  hours 
up  to  two  days.  Money  accruing  from  such  fines  is  turned 
into  the  treasury  of  the  school  corporation,  and  utilized  to 
buy  books  for  poor  children,  or  used  to  support  the  school 
library. 

The  number  of  children  who  escape  school  in  Germany  is  very 
small ;  in  fact,  we  might  say  that  none  do.  Those  who  do  avoid 
the  law  are  generally  children  of  people  living  on  coastwise 
steamers  or  river  boats.  The  following  table  ^  shows  how  care- 
fully this  law  is  enforced  in  Prussia.  The  figures  are  for 
1871,  1891,  1901.  The  figures  for  1911  were  not  available 
for  this  item,  but  the  number  of  truants  was  no  doubt 
smaller. 

'  Lexis,  vol.  in,  p.  10. 


112 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


NUMBER  OF  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  IN  PRUSSIA  WHO  ARE 
ENROLLED,  EXCUSED,  OR  TRUANT 


FsussiA 

1871 

1891 

igoi 

Children  of  school  age 

1.  In  Volkssckiden    ....... 

Per  cent       

2.  In  other  schools 

Per  cent       

3.  Excused  temporarily 

Per  cent       

4.  Not  enrolled  on  account  of  crime    . 

Per  cent       

5.  Illegally  out  of  school 

Percent       

4,464,906 

3,900,655 

87.36 

222,211 

4.98 
312,219 
6.99 
9,038 
0.20 
20,783 
0.47 

5,401,566 

4,916,476 

91.02 

390,500 

7.23 

83,604 

1-55 
10,041 
0.18 

945 
0.02 

6,103,74s 

5,670,870 

92.91 

339,017 

5-SS 

82,638 

1-35 
10,672 
0.18 

548 
o.oi 

Thus  in  igoi  less  than  one  child  out  of  every  ten  thousand 
managed  in  one  way  or  another  to  escape  the  law.  This  high 
degree  of  efl&ciency  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law  is  due  to  the 
registration  by  the  police  of  all  children  bom,  of  every  change 
of  residence  even  for  the  very  shortest  periods  of  time,  and  to 
the  close  cooperation  between  the  school  and  the  police  authori- 
ties. There  are  never  questions  about  the  child's  age,  because 
every  child  is  registered  the  day  it  is  bom,  and  has  a  birth  cer- 
tificate which  is  also  registered,  and  which  must  be  shown  on 
demand  until  the  person  in  question  is  dead  and  buried.  We 
have  not  yet  learned  in  America  that  the  first  requisites  for  an 
efficient  compulsory  school  law  are  to  know  how  many  children 
there  are,  where  they  live,  and  their  exact  ages. 

Another  very  radical  difference  between  a  German  compul- 
sory education  law  and  those  of  some  of  our  states  is  that  in 
Germany  a  child  must  be  in  school  all  the  time  during  the  com- 
pulsory period,  unless  there  is  a  legitimate  excuse  for  absence, 
while  in  America  a  child  may  be  absent  from  school  a  certain 
part  of  a  year  during  the  compulsory  period,  without  being 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  113 

obliged  to  furnish  an  excuse,  or  without  being  compelled  to 
attend.  This  is  the  worst  phase  of  our  compulsory  education 
laws,  outside  of  the  non-enforcement  of  such  laws  as  we  have. 


Vacations  and  Holidays 

The  time  and  length  of  vacations  is  somewhat  variable  in  the 
different  parts  of  Prussia,  because  this  matter  is  arranged  by  the 
several  administrative  counties  and  provinces,  except  Regular 
that  the  Minister  of  Education  has  issued  orders,  fix-  Vacations 
ing  in  general  the  length  of  several  vacations  and  setting  a  limit 
for  the  total  number  of  school-free  days.  According  to  an  order 
of  March  19,  1904,  the  Minister  prescribed  that  the  total  num- 
ber of  days  of  vacation,  including  the  hoHdays  and  Sundays  fall- 
ing within  those  vacations,  should  be  hmited  to  seventy.  As  a 
rule,  the  Volksschulen  receive  a  vacation  of  ten  days  at  Christ- 
mas, twelve  days  at  Easter,  six  at  Whitsuntide,  and  six  weeks 
in  all  for  the  summer  and  autumn  vacations.  In  cities,  the 
summer  vacation  is  generally  a  httle  under  five  weeks,  coming 
either  in  July  or  August,  as  best  suits  local  conditions,  while  the 
autiman  vacation  of  less  than  two  weeks  comes  in  October. 
This  division  of  the  long  holidays  is  very  different  in  the  several 
provinces.  In  agricultural  districts  the  vacations  are  arranged 
so  as  to  fall  as  nearly  as  possible  in  harvest  time,  when  the 
children  can  best  be  employed  at  home.  During  the  harvest 
season,  and  even  throughout  the  whole  summer  term,  school 
sessions  are  of  ten.  held  only  in  the  morning,  leaving  the  pupils 
free  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day. 

The  following  school  calendar  of  Stettin  for  1913  gives  the 
general  plan  of  the  school  year  in  the  eastern  part  school 
of  Germany,  as  far  as  the  cities  are  concerned,  al-  Calendar 
though  the  calendar  for  country  districts  will  vary  somewhat 
from  this. 


114  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

VACATIONS  IN  STETTIN   VOLKSSCHULEN,   1913-1914 

Easter April  3-April  15 

Whitsuntide May  24-May  31 

Summer July  3-August  2 

Autumn October  5-October  16 

Christmas December  23-January  7 

Besides  the  vacations  indicated,  there  is  no  school  on  the 
Emperor's  birthday,  Sedan  Day,  and  primary  election  day  for 
other  the  Landtag.    The  schoolrooms  are  sometimes  used 

HoUdays  fgj.  voting  booths  on  election  day  for  the  Reichstag, 
and  in  such  cases  the  pupils  are  excused.  These  holidays  just 
mentioned  are  granted  in  addition  to  the  seventy.  Catholic 
schools  and  Catholic  children  have  also  a  number  of  feast  days 
free,  which  the  other  schools  do  not  have. 

Outside  of  the  vacations  and  holidays  mentioned,  and  Sun- 
days, of  course,  the  children  are  in  school  all  the  rest  of  the  year. 
Taking  seventy-five  (75)  days,  including  the  eleven  Sundays 
within  the  vacations  and  the  remaining  forty-one  Sundays, 
there  are  about  one  hundred  sixteen  days  in  the  year  when  the 
German  child  is  not  in  school.  This  leaves  a  total  ntmiber  of 
school  days  of  two  hundred  fifty  (250),  and  in  some  cases  the 
whole  number  is  larger  than  this.  New  York  City  has  only 
two  hundred  days  a  year,  and  the  average  number  of  school  days 
per  year  in  South  Caroliaa  is  not  much  more  than  one  hundred. 
The  number  of  weeks  per  school  year  in  Germany  and  New 
York  City  is  about  the  same,  forty-two  and  forty,  respectively, 
but  the  German  school  week  has  six  days,  while  the  school  week 
in  New  York  has  but  five.  In  a  child's  school  life  of  eight  years 
there  is  a  total  advantage  for  the  German  child  of  about  four 
hundred  school  days  over  the  child  of  New  York  City.  That  is 
a  difference  of  two  New  York  school  years.  The  reader  himself 
can  compare  the  length  of  the  German  school  year  with  condi- 
tions in  various  parts  of  America,  and  it  will  not  take  long  to 
find  one  reason  for  superiority  of  the  German  elementary  school. 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  115 

If  the  thermometer  registers  25°  C.  (77°  F.)  in  the  shade  at 
ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  school  work  on  that  day  must  be 
limited  to  four  hours  and  children  cannot  be  compelled 
to  come  to  school  again  in  the  afternoon.^    Since  on  Account 
schools  usually  begin  in  summer  at  seven  a.m.  on  such 
occasions  the  schools  will  be  dismissed  at  eleven  o'clock  a.m. 
The  "heat  vacation"  often  occurs  when  the  thermometer  reads 
less  than  77°  F.,  if  the  rooms  are  crowded  or  the  ceilings  are  low. 
The  principal  has  the  deciding  voice  in  such  matters  in  large 
cities,  while  the  local  school  inspector  decides  in  small  towns 
and  villages.    The  boys  and  girls  always  watch  the  thermometer 
very  closely  on  warm  summer  days,  hoping  for  an  extra  holiday. 
A  boy  said  to  me  one  day,  "I  wish  we  had  some  of  the  hot  days 
that  you  have  in  America." 

Note.  —  Since  this  section  on  holidays  and  vacations  was  written,  the 
Prussian  Minister  has  issued  another  regulation  regarding  vacations.'' 
In  part  it  reads  as  follows : 

''i.  The  entire  length  of  vacations,  including  Sundays  and  holidays 
falling  therein,  amounts  to  eighty  days  in  the  Volksschulen,  middle,  and 
higher  schools,  and  also  in  the  normal  schools.  Besides,  the  other  recog- 
nized holidays  and  feast-days  remain  free.  .  .  . 

"2.  The  length  and  time  of  the  various  vacations  for  all  types  of 
schools  within  the  province  or  smaller  units  are  determined  uniformly 
by  the  president  of  the  province,  in  connection  with  the  Provincial  School 
Board  and  the  administrative  county  board." 

•  Min.  Erl.  vom  24  August,  18(12.  2  Zentralblatl,  1913,  p.  826. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 

School  deputations,  as  a  rule,  issue  regulations  governing  the 
general  management  of  the  elementary  schools.  These  regula- 
tions are  much  the  same  in  all  large  German  cities,  although  the 
hours  of  beginning  and  closing,  morning  and  afternoon  sessions, 
and  the  like,  vary  according  to  local  conditions.  In  the  discus- 
sion of  the  management  of  the  schools,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
practically  nothing  is  left  to  the  discretion  or  decision  of  the 
principal  or  his  teachers,  who  have  merely  to  follow  the  rules 
laid  down  for  them.  To  an  American  it  is  scarcely  conceivable 
to  what  extent  even  the  minutest  details  of  school  management 
are  regulated  by  the  higher  authorities.  It  must  be  recognized, 
however,  that  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  teachers  are 
in  this  way  reduced  to  a  minimum,  thus  permitting  the  teacher 
to  give  the  greatest  amount  of  thought  and  attention  to  the 
actual  business  of  instruction. 

The  majority  of  Volksschulen  have  a  morning  session  only, 
though  there  are  very  few  school  systems  which  do  not  have 
School  some  few  classes  in  the  afternoon.    There  are,  of 

Sessions  course,  a  great  number  of  schools  which  have  both  a 
morning  and  an  afternoon  session,  but  it  is  invariably  true  that 
all  of  the  difficult  work  is  arranged  for  the  morning  hours,  the 
easier  subjects,  such  as  drawing,  music,  sewing,  and  physical 
training,  being  placed  in  the  afternoon  schedule. 

In  the  winter  semester,  from  October  to  April,  schools  having 
only  a  morning  session  begin  generally  at  eight  o'clock,  and  all 
classes  are  fmished  by  one  o'clock.  This  does  not  mean,  how- 
ever, that  all  the  pupils  come  at  eight  in  the  morning,  for  the 

'    ii6 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  117 

little  children  of  the  lower  section  often  come  at  nine  or  ten 
o'clock,  and  are  excused  sometinaes  at  twelve,  some- 
times at  one,  all  depending  upon  the  arrangement  of  Beginning 
the  weekly  schedide.    The  pupils  of  the  upper  sections  ^^.'^'''^"'*' 
may  come  at  nine  on  one  or  two  days  in  the  week,  or  Session 
may  be  excused  at  twelve,  if  they  have  work  in  the 
afternoon.    In  general,  the  children  are  free  in  the  afternoon. 

Eight  o'clock  seems  a  very  early  hour  to  begin  school  for 
little  children,  especially  in  northern  Germany,  where  the  winter 
days  are  extremely  short  and  generally  very  dark  and  dull.  Fre- 
quently school  begins  in  the  morning  with  lights,  for  without  them 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  children  across  the'  room. 
Many  of  the  little  fellows  seem  half  asleep  during  the  first  reci- 
tation, and  it  is  no  wonder,  for  they  have  come  to  school  when 
the  street  lamps  are  still  burning  and  there  is  scarcely  a  sign  of  day. 

In  the  cities  where  there  are  morning  and  afternoon  sessions, 
schools  usually  begin  at  eight  o'clock  and  continue 
imtil  twelve,  while  the  afternoon  session  lasts  from  Session 
two  until  four  o'clock.    The  children  of  the  lower  sec-    "  °°'* 
tion  rarely  have  classes  in  the  afternoon  even  in  the  double 
session  schools. 

During  the  summer  semester  the  schools  commence  even 
earlier,  the  classes  for  the  upper  sections  beginning  at  seven 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  remaining  until  twelve  and  some- 
times one  o'clock.  The  lower  section  does  not  come  until  eight 
or  nine.  In  some  country  schools,  instruction  begins  as  early 
as  six  o'clock  in  order  that  the  larger  pupils  may  be  through  with 
their  work  by  ten  or  eleven,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  help  the 
rest  of  the  day  in  the  fields. 

The  following  regulations  ^  indicate  the  manner  in  conduct  of 
which  the  children  are  supposed  to  conduct  themselves  ^^  ^"'''^ 

'^'^  to  and  from 

m  going  to  and  from  school  and  while  they  are  there ;  School 

'  Hildesheimer  Schulordnung. 


Ii8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

"i.  ...  By  the  time  the  bell  stops  ringing  all  pupils  must  be  as- 
sembled in  their  respective  classrooms. 

"2.  The  schoolhouses  are  opened  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the 
beginning  of  school.  The  children  go  immediately  to  their  rooms  and 
take  their  seats.  Loitering  in  front  of  the  building,  in  the  yard,  or  in 
the  corridors  before  the  beginning  of  instruction  is  not  permitted.  The 
children  must  move  quietly  and  decorously  inside  the  school  building, 
all  sorts  of  running  or  noise  on  the  stairs,  in  the  corridors,  or  classroom 
being  strictly  forbidden. 

"3.  The  signal  for  the  close  of  school  is  given  by  a  beH.  The  children 
leave  the  rooms  and  building  quietly  and  in  order.  They  are  to  refrain 
from  any  kind  of  misbehavior  on  the  way  to  or  from  school,  and,  es- 
pecially, it  is  forbidden  them  to  nm  recklessly  along  the  streets,  or  to 
block  the  sidewalks  by  walking  in  groups." 

There  is  considerable  tardiness  in  the  German  Volksschulen, 

but  no  attention  is  given  to  it  except  when  it  becomes  chronic 

with  a  pupil.    In  many  cases  tardinesses  are  not  even 

Tardiness 

recorded,  and  the  pupil  frequently  escapes  without  a 
reprimand.  Tardiness,  in  any  specific  chronic  case,  is  treated 
as  an  unexcused  absence,  and  this  probably  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  not  many  children  are  habitually  tardy,  because  the 
compulsory  attendance  law  is  rigidly  enforced. 

The  discipline  is  very  severe  in  some  respects,  but  in  general 
the  behavior  of  the  children  in  the  classroom  is  not  any  better 
^.   .  ,.         than  in  the  American  schools,  and  in  some  particulars 

Discipline 

not  so  good.  Naturally,  the  discipline  varies  with  the 
personaUty  of  the  teacher.  One  might  have  the  impression  that 
the  Volksschulen  are  disciplined  on  a  military  basis,  but  the  very 
reverse  is  the  impression  one  brings  away  after  a  visit. 

Whispering  is  universal ;  indeed,  no  attempt  is  made  to  stop 
it,  for  the  teachers  sanction  it,  except  when  they  themselves  are 
talking,  and  then  it  is  very  seldom  one  sees  a  child  whisper. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  teacher  stops  speaking,  there  is  usually 
a  great  deal  of  communication  among  the  pupils,  which  some- 
times amounts  to  disorder. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


119 


The  pupils,  in  their  attitude  toward  and  relations  to  the 
teacher,  are  always  deferential  on  the  surface,  although  „  ,  ^ 

,  '  °      Relations  of 

as  soon  as  the  teacher  s  back  is  turned,  one  often  sees  PupUs  to 
smirks  and  faces  which  are  far  from  respectful.    The  '^^"''*''* 
pupils  are  never  openly  impudent,  except  perhaps  in  facial  expres- 
sion, and  they  never  utter  a  disrespectful  word. 

When  a  teacher  enters  a  room,  the  children  must  rise,  and 
remain  standing  until  the  teacher  leaves  the  room,  or  until  they 
are  given  permission  to  be  seated,  in  case  the  teacher  remains 
in  the  room.  The  pupil  must  also  stand  when  he  is  addressed  by 
the  teacher.  When  a  girl  wishes  to  speak  to  her  teacher,  at  the 
desk  or  in  the  hallway,  she  must  drop  a  curtsy  before  beginning 
to  speak,  and  another  when  the  conversation  is  closed.  The 
boy  in  a  similar  case  must  make  a  very  deep  bow.  On  the 
street  the  children  greet  their  teachers  in  the  same  manner. 
When  a  boy  is  speaking  to  his  teacher  he  must  always  stand 
erect  with  his  heels  together  and  his  hands  at  his  side.  It  is  a 
sign  of  ill  breeding  for  a  boy  to  address  his  elders  with  his  hands 
in  his  pockets,  and  German  teachers  never  fail  to  remind  the 
youngster  of  any  such  shortcoming. 

The  children  in  general  are  afraid  of  their  teachers,  for  the 
German  teacher  is  very  dignified  and  authoritative.  The  pupils 
are  always  kept  at  a  good  distance  and  thoroughly  impressed 
with  the  dignity  and  superiority  of  their  teachers.  They  are 
frequently  so  afraid  that  they  cannot  recite  freely  or  feel  at  ease 
in  the  presence  of  their  teachers.  This  attitude  of  subjection 
on  the  part  of  the  children  is  not  always  obtained  by  a  mere 
show  of  dignity,  but  in  far  too  many  cases  by  shouts  and  blows. 

It  is  an  almost  universal  characteristic  of  the  German  teacher 
to  talk  very  loudly,  and  to  yell  when  excited ;  then,  if  shouts  do 
not  bring  the  desired  results,  to  use  his  hand  or  the  rod.  One 
would  not  believe  a  person  could  so  far  forget  himself  as  to  yell 
at  children,  but  when  we  say  yell,  we  use  it  advisedly,  for  the 


I20  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

teacher  uses  every  bit  of  lung  power  he  possesses.  While  on  the 
fourth  floor,  we  have  frequently  heard  recitations  being  held 
on  the  first.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that  all  German  teachers 
so  conduct  themselves,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  half  of  them 
have  the  habit  of  frightening  their  pupils  by  shouting  at  them. 

Corporal  punishment  is  not  forbidden,  and  is  rather  widely 
practiced.  "School  discipline  must  never  be  so  severe  as  to 
Corporal  amount  to  mistreatment  which  can  be  injurious  in 
Punishment  ^g  slightest  way  to  the  health  of  the  pupils."  ^  A 
teacher  may  be  fined  or  imprisoned,  or  both,  for  doing  bodily  in- 
jury to  a  pupil.  Cases  of  bodily  injury  are  very  rare  indeed, 
and  in  general  there  is  a  movement  in  Germany  to  do  away 
with  all  severe  forms  of  corporal  punishment. 

The  rod  or  ruler  is  still  used  in  a  great  many  schools.  In  fact 
this  means  of  persuasion  is  very  frequently  in  plain  view  in  the 
classrooms.  Whipping  is  rather  rare  in  cities,  but  the  country 
teachers  resort  to  it  very  frequently.  We  saw  one  boy  whipped 
in  a  hallway  before  all  the  children,  although  we  have  beien  told 
that  whipping  is  generally  done  in  private. 

Slapping  children  is  very  general.  Not  all  the  teachers  do  it, 
but  a  large  number  of  them  are  accustomed  to  the  practice. 
The  slaps  are  not  reserved  for  the  boys  alone,  for  the  girls  also 
receive  their  share.  We  recall  several  instances  where  three  or 
four  children  were  crying  at  one  time,  because  they  had  been 
slapped  or  yeUed  at.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  conditions  were  no 
better  when  there  were  no  visitors. 

There  are  other  forms  of  punishment,  all  of  which  are  known 
to  American  teachers,  such  as  standing  children  in  corners, 
standing  up  for  an  hour,  staying  in  after  school,  and  the  like. 
Teachers  are  permitted  to  keep  pupils  after  school,  provided 
they  remain  with  their  pupils  and  supervise  their  work.     Sitting 

•  Allgemeines  Landrecht.  Part  II,  Chap.  12,  Sec.  50.  Also  Kabinetts  Ordre  vom 
14  Mai,  1825.    Found  in  Heinze :  Im  Ami,  p.  213. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  I2i 

after  school  is  generally  limited  to  one  hour.  This  fonn  of  dis- 
cipHne  is  not  greatly  favored  by  the  teachers,  inasmuch  as  it 
entails  a  hardship  upon  the  instructor  himself. 

There  is  a  rest  period  or  recess  after  every  recitation.  Thus 
in  a  morning  session  of  five  periods,  there  would  be  four  recesses, 
five  minutes  generally  after  the  first  period,  twenty 
after  the  second,  ten  after  the  third,  and  twenty  again 
after  the  fourth.  Frequent  recesses  are  necessary  because  of  the 
length  of  the  recitations,  and  because  the  children  have  no  study 
periods  at  school. 

The  short  rests  are  used  for  airing  the  rooms  and  for  giving 
the  children  a  chance  to  move  around  either  in  their  classes  or  in 
the  court,  not  at  all  for  play.  The  long  recess  in  the  middle  of 
the  morning,  either  at  nine  or  at  ten  o'clock,  is  used  for  the 
second  breakfast.  Each  child  brings  with  him  a  piece  of  bread 
and  butter,  with  cheese  or  meat,  to  be  eaten  during  this 
recess.  If  the  weather  permits,  all  the  children  go  out  to 
the  playground  and  eat  their  breakfast.  They  walk  around 
four  or  five  abreast  under  the  supervision  of  their  teachers, 
never  breaking  ranks  except  to  get  a  drink  of  water  or  to  go 
to  the  toilet. 

It  is  peculiar  that  this  mid-morning  promenade  is  common  to 
all  schools  in  Germany,  and  the  direction  is  always  counter- 
clockwise. To  walk  the  other  way  would  be  a  thing  unheard  of. 
Two  American  boys  once  caused  a  riot  in  a  higher  school  by 
insisting  on  walking  in  the  other  direction. 

There  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  recess  periods  with- 
out play.  If  children  play  hard  for  fifteen  minutes,  the  recita- 
tion which  follows  must  suffer,  because  the  children  are  warm, 
tired,  and  in  no  frame  of  mind  to  concentrate  on  school  work. 
Recesses  seem  to  make  no  break  at  all  in  the  work  in  German 
schools,  and  it  is  no  doubt  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  children 
rest  during  these  periods. 


122  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  German  child  is  never  out  of  the  eye  of  some  teacher  from 
the  time  school  begins  until  it  closes.  Wherever  children  are, 
Supervision  there  is  always  a  teacher  whose  business  it  is  to  watch 
by  Teachers  Qyer  them.  At  recess  periods,  stairways,  halls,  and  all 
parts  of  the  building  are  assigned  to  different  teachers  who  must 
see  that  the  children  behave  properly  and  that  no  accidents 
occur.  The  same  teacher  is  not  always  on  duty,  of  course,  for 
this  work  of  supervision  is  divided  among  the  several  teachers, 
and  it  alternates  from  day  to  day.  One  reason  for  this  strict 
supervision  is  that  the  teachers  are  liable  for  damages  in  case 
children  are  injured,  and  it  can  be  proved  that  no  teacher  was  on 
duty. 

The  following  regulations  serve  to  show  how  minutely  the 
management  of  the  school  is  prescribed :  ^ 

i6.  Instruction  is  begun  and  closed  every  day  with  song  or 
Instnictioii  r^,  ,  ,  .,,,.. 

prayer.    The  teachers  must  be  very  prompt  with  the  beginning 

and  close  of  work. 

17.  Interruption  (visits  from  parents  or  other  persons)  are  to  be 
avoided  as  far  as  possible.  Also  correction-work,  fiUing  out  of  cards  and 
lists  (in  so  far  as  information  is  not  required  of  the  pupils)  and  other 
work,  which  would  shorten  the  recitation  time,  must  not  be  done  during 
the  recitation  time. 

18.  Home  work  is  to  be  divided  up  among  the  different  days  of  the 
week  according  to  such  a  plan  that  any  sort  of  overloading  be  avoided. 
Home  work  must  not  be  assigned  in  the  morning  for  the  same  afternoon. 
Home  work  for  the  lower  section  may  require  one  half  hour  daily,  an 
hour  for  the  middle  section,  and  an  hour  and  a  half  for  the  upper  section. 

20.  The  promotions,  which  take  place  every  Easter,  are  discussed  in 
special  conferences  under  the  direction  of  the  principal  and  with  the 
assistance  of  all  teachers  of  the  class,  as  well  as  of  the  teacher  of  the  class 
higher,  to  which  the  class  in  question  is  promoted.  In  doubtful  cases 
the  principal  decides  after  careful  examination.  As  a  rule  children  shall 
not  remain  longer  than  two  years  in  a  class. 

21..  Every  half-year,  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas,  each  child  receives  a 

*  Hildeshemer  Schulordnung,  1910. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  123 

report-card,  which  must  be  signed  by  the  parent  or  guardian  and  re- 
turned to  the  class-teacher  on  the  first  day  after  the  vacation. 

22.  Every  class-teacher  must  keep  the  following  records  for  purposes 
of  administration  and  instruction : 

(o)  A  roU  of  his  class  with  the  vocation  and  address  of  the  parents. 
(6)  An  absentee  list,  in  which  cases  of  absence  and  tardiness  are 
noted. 

(c)  A  course  of  study,  whose  regulations  serve  as  a  standard  for 

every  teacher. 

(d)  An  outUne  of  work  to  be  taken  up,  which  must  be  prepared 

before  the  beginning  of  each  half-year. 

(e)  A  report  {Lehrberichi) ,  in  which  the  work  finished  during  the 

week  must  be  noted. 

(J)  A  record,  in  which  every  half-year  the  marks  for  attendance, 
conduct,  industry,  order,  and  proficiency  in  all  the  different 
school  subjects  must  be  registered.  In  columns  designated 
"Remarks,"  the  necessary  information  concerning  the 
reasons  and  date  of  withdrawal  of  children  must  be  re- 
corded. 

(g)  A  record  for  pimishments  and  fines  {Strafverzeichnis). 

(fi)  A  daUy  schedule  and  inventory  of  school  property  in  the 
room.      Both  of  these  must  be  hvmg  up  in  the  room. 

(i)   A  record  of  school  equipment. 

23.  School  attendance  is  to  be  taken  every  day,  after  the  end  of  the 
first  period.  In  registration  of  absences  the  teacher  uses  the  prescribed 
designations. 

24.  Sickness  always  excuses  absences,  but  such  cases  must  be  re- 
ported to  the  class-teacher  by  word  of  mouth  or  by  letter  at  the  latest  on 
the  second  day  of  absence.  The  teacher  may  require  a  doctor's  certifi- 
cate in  regard  to  the  length  and  nature  of  the  iEness. 

25.  A  leave  of  absence,  which  must  be  obtained  in  advance,  is  re- 
quired for  all  other  absences.  Such  leave  is  granted  by  the  teacher  for 
not  more  than  three  days,  by  the  principal  up  to  fourteen  days,  and  for 
a  longer  time  by  the  Stadtschulinspektor. 

26.  If  circumstances  make  it  impossible  in  especially  urgent  cases 
to  obtain  the  leave  of  absence  in  advance,  it  must  be  obtained  immedi- 
ately after  the  first  day  of  absence  and  the  reasons  therefor  must  be 
presented  at  this  time.  At  aU  events  the  parents  must  be  accustomed 
to  asking  for  leave  of  absence  only  in  case  of  necessity. 


124  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

27.  If  the  parents  or  their  representatives  neglect  to  obtain  the  leave 
or  fail  to  give  notice  of  cases  of  illness,  such  absences  shall  be  considered 
as  unexcused,  and  shall  be  treated  as  such. 

28.  Continued  tardiness  of  pupils  will  be  considered  as  vinexcused 
absences,  in  case  the  fault  is  the  parent's  and  the  teacher's  warnings  have 
had  no  effect. 

29.  Just  as  soon  as  the  breaking  out  of  a  contagious  disease  (cholera, 
dysentery,  measles,  rash,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  smallpox,  spotted 
fever,  intermittent  fever,  typhoid,  contagious  inflammation  of  the  eyes, 
itch,  and  whboping  cough)  is  ascertained  by  the  doctor  in  a  household 
whose  children  attend  the  Volksschule,  the  parents  or  their  representatives 
are  obliged  to  inform  the  principal  thereof  as  soon  as  possible,  along  with 
the  doctor's  certificate  as  to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  Children  who 
suffer  from  one  of  the  diseases  named  above  are  excluded  from  school. 
Well  children  in  the  same  household  are  also  excluded,  if  in  their  house 
there  is  a  case  of  one  of  the  first  nine  diseases  mentioned.  It  must  be 
officially  certified  by  the  doctor  that  the  children  are  sufficiently  pro- 
tected from  danger  by  isolation.  Children  who  have  been  excluded  from 
school  for  reasons  mentioned  above  are  admitted  again  only  when  the 
doctor  certifies  that  the  danger  of  contagion  is  past,  or  the  customary 
time  for  the  course  of  the  disease  has  elapsed.  Six  weeks  is  considered 
the  regular  duration  of  scarlet  fever  and  smallpox;  four  weeks  for 
measles  and  rash. 

30.  Unexcused  absences  are  transferred  from  the  absentee  list  on  the 
first  and  fifteenth  of  every  month  and  handed  to  the  principal. 

31.  Withdrawal  from  school  is  allowed  ordinarily  only  at  the  close 
of  each  half  year,  Easter  and  Michaelmas.    In  order  that  the  names  may 

With-  be  struck  from  the  school  roU,  parents  are  required  to  inform 

drawals  the  principal  of  the  intended  withdrawal  several  days  before 

the  dose  of  the  term.  The  principal  gives  the  parents  a  certificate  of 
dismissal  and  the  teachers  are  notified  of  the  withdrawals.  The  en- 
rollment certificate  is  presented  at  the  time  of  withdrawal. 

32.  The  transfer  of  children  ui  the  Volksschide  from  one  school  ward 
in  the  city  to  another  is  allowed  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  half-year. 

Transfers  ^^^  ^'^^'^  '^^^  "^  ^^^  ^^^  parents  have  moved  to  another 

ward.  Still  in  order  to  bring  about  an  equalization  of  over- 
crowded classes  in  the  different  schools,  a  transfer  of  children  may  be 
arranged  by  the  principals,  with  the  consent  of  the  city  school  mspector. 
The  request  of  parents  for  transfer  is  to  be  laid  before  the  principal  of  the 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  125 

old  school,  and  the  request  for  enrollment  in  the  new  school  is  laid  before 
the  principal  of  the  latter.  In  both  cases  the  old  enrollment  certificate 
is  presented. 

For  the  purpose  of  keeping  watch  over  school  attendance,  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  school  which  the  child  leaves  must  inform  the  principal  of 
the  new  school  of  the  transfer  immediately. 

All  the  foregoing  details  show  to  what  extent  the  real  manage- 
ment of  the  school  has  been  removed  from  the  hands  of  the 

teachers.    The  most  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  such  a 

Conclusion 
system  is  that  it  works  well.    Teachers  know  precisely 

what  is  expected  of  them ;  there  is  no  shifting  of  responsibility ; 

and  the  school  runs  without   any  friction,  thus   allowing  the 

teachers  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  business  of  teaching. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

The  medical  and  sanitary  control  of  all  Volksschulen,  middle 
schools,  and  higher  girls'  schools  is  in  the  hands  of  the  district 
School  physicians.    These  physicians  must  inspect  the  sani- 

Physicians  t^j-y  ^nd  health  conditions  of  every  school  in  the  dis- 
trict, alternately  in  summer  and  winter,  at  least  once  in  every 
five  years.  Under  their  supervision  come  matters  relating  to 
school  architecture,  size  of  rooms,  ventilation,  lighting,  heating, 
cleaning,  seating,  toilets,  playgrounds,  gymnasiums,  drinking 
arrangements,  as  well  as  the  health  conditions  of  the  individual 
pupils.^  This  inspection  is  not  very  frequent,  but  in  most 
places  each  school  has  local  inspection  by  a  doctor,  and  the 
teacher  is  also  instructed  how  to  proceed  in  cases  of  obvious  ill- 
ness or  poor  health.  In  the  large  cities,  and  in  smaller  ones, 
too,  one  finds  school  doctors  assigned  to  particular  schools.  It 
is  these  physicians  who  have  most  to  do  with  the  matter  of 
hygiene  in  the  Volksschulen. 

It  is  the  school  physician's  duty  to  examine  each  child  upon 
the  child's  entrance  in  school  as  to  his  mental  and  physical  con- 

dition.  Children  who  are  deficient  in  any  way  are 
School  kept  under  the  strict  supervision  of  the  doctor  and  the 

teacher.  Such  examinations  are  always  conducted  in 
the  presence  of  the  children's  parents.  The  doctor  must  in- 
spect the  school  at  least  twice  every  half  year  and  acquaint  him- 
self with  the  hygienic  conditions  of  the  school  and  of  the  children, 
especially  of  those  children  who  have  been  under  medical  care. 

^Art.  94,  Dienstanwetsung  fiir  die  KreisUrzte  vom  23,  Mdrz,  igoi. 
126 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  127 

The  school  doctor  is  not  allowed  to  treat  the  children  whom  he 
has  examined. 

The  Germans  act  very  promptly  in  all  cases  of  sickness  of 
contagious  character  which  appear  in  any  community  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  schools.    A  child  who  has  the  faintest 
symptom  of  an  illness  is  examined  immediately  and  is  schools 
quarantined,  if  the  disease  proves  to  be  contagious.  g"^°^  . 
There  are  very  definite  regulations  governing  the  isola- 
tion period  of  such  diseases  as  measles,  smallpox,  scarlet  fever, 
and  typhoid  fever.     In  cases  of  epidemic  the  principal  can  close 
his  school  without  permission  from  any  higher  authority. 

Every  German  child  must  be  vaccinated  for  the  first  time 
before  his  second  birthday,  and  every  pupil  of  aU  public  and 
private   schools   must   submit  himself  to  a   second 

...  in    vaccination 

vaccmation  dunng  his  twelfth  year.  The  records  of 
vaccination  are  kept  by  the  police,  so  no  one  has  the  least 
chance  of  escape,  not  only  for  this  reason,  but  also  because 
the  vaccination  certificate  is  demanded  of  German  citizens 
very  frequently.  This  certificate  is  always  one  of  the  re- 
quired documents  before  aU  civil  service  examinations.  By 
strict  use  of  vaccination  smallpox  has  become  a  very  rare 
disease  in  Germany.  The  cases  that  do  occur  are  generally 
brought  in  by  persons  coming  from  some  of  Germany's  less 
sanitary  neighbors. 

There  is  a  great  movement  under  way  now  in  aU  Germany 
for  temperance.  No  one  thinks  of  prohibition,  although  there 
are  a  very  large  number  of  Germans  who  do  not  drink 

,  ,  Alcoholism 

alcohoUc  beverages  at  all.  Drunkenness  is  much  less 
common  in  Germany  than  in  any  other  European  country,  unless 
we  except  Turkey.  The  schools  and  private  societies  are  carry- 
ing on  a  vigorous  campaign  against  drunkenness  and  the  exces- 
sive use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  Time  is  taken  both  in  nature 
study  and  in  physiology  to  show  the  evil  effects  of  too  much 


128  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

alcohol  upon  the  human  body,  and  upon  the  economic  condition 
of  the  family  in  which  drunkenness  is  prevalent.  Children  of 
school  age  are  generally  allowed  only  a  moderate  use  of  beer  and 
a  Uttle  wine  occasionally.  There  are  many  parents,  however, 
who,  though  they  may  use  beer  and  wine  themselves,  do  not 
permit  their  younger  children  to  do  so.  Instruction  in  school 
concerning  alcohol  is  never  carried  to  the  fanatical  extremes  that 
it  is  sometimes  in  this  country. 

The  most  vigorous  health  campaign  in  Germany  concerns 
itself  with  tuberculosis  and  diseases  of  the  respiratory  tract;  all 
Tuberculo-  of  which  diseases  are  extremely  prevalent.  First  of  all, 
®'^  school  children  are  brought  up  not  to  expectorate  on 

the  sidewalks,  in  pubhc  buildings,  and  on  the  floor.  The  Ger- 
man people  have  been  educated  away  from  promiscuous  expec- 
toration, and  in  this  one  respect  we  Americans  can  learn  an 
important  lesson  from  them.  Training  in  the  schools  is  largely 
responsible  for  this  German  virtue.  Every  schoolroom,  every 
stairway,  and  every  corridor  has  a  spittoon  in  which  there  is  water. 
This  receptacle  is  emptied  every  day.  Both  teachers  and  pupils 
must  use  the  spittoons  for  purposes  of  expectoration ;  especially 
is  this  regulation  to  be  enforced  with  regard  to  children  who 
have  a  cough.  With  reference  to  the  injuriousness  of  collection 
of  dust,  attention  must  be  given  that  the  regulations  having  to 
do  with  the  removal  of  dust  from  rooms  by  some  damp  sub- 
stance are  rigidly  enforced.-' 

Not  only  are  precautions  taken  against  dust  and  spitting  in 
the  schools,  but  ample  provision  is  made  for  those  children  who 
Tuberctt-  ^^^^  attention  for  tubercular  troubles.  In  almost 
losis  every  town  there  is  a  free  clinic  or  provision  for  ex- 

amination for  children  and  persons  who  believe  them- 
selves to  be  afflicted  in  any  way  by  tuberculosis.  There  are  also 
a  great  many  homes  and  free  hospitals,  supported  both  by  state, 
*  Verfiigung  von  der  Regierung  zu  Diisseldorf,  1891. 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  129 

city,  and  private  funds,  for  the  treatment  of  tubercular  cases. 
(See  p.  147  ff.) 

It  is  the  ordinary  practice  in  Germany  to  locate  the  school 
as  near  the  middle  of  the  school  district  as  possible.  In  the 
cities  the  schools  are  located  most  frequently  on  streets  „   .^ 

^  -^  Fosibon  of 

which  do  not  have  much  traffic  and  where  there  is  as  BuUding 
little  noise  as  possible.  In  this  respect  a  great  many 
schools  we  have  visited  were  not  successful,  due  most  often  to 
the  fact  that  the  pavement  was  generally  of  cobblestones  and 
hence  extremely  noisy.  In  some  cities  where  asphalt  was  used 
there  was  little  or  no  noise  about  the  schools.  Sometimes  heavy 
trucks  and  carts  are  not  allowed  to  drive  near  schoolhouses 
during  school  hours.  In  the  country  schoolhouses  are  invariably 
located  in  villages,  never  out  in  the  open  fields  as  is  common  in 
America. 

The  school  site  is  always  selected  with  light  and  drainage  in 
mind.     Sites  are  avoided  where  there  are  lakes  or  graveyards 
which  might  in  any  way  pollute  the  drinking  water 
supply.    Likewise  schools  are  never  placed  close  to  ^f'^ate**'^ 
factories,  which  through  noise,  smoke,  odors,  or  dust 
could  militate  against  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  school. 

The  school  site  is  always  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the 
buildings,  including  the  schoolhouse,  the  well,  the  toilets,  and 
storehouse.  A  playground  must  also  be  provided.  As  a  rule 
the  playgroimd  is  large  enough  to  give  each  child  three  (3)  square 
meters  of  space  and  in  no  case  must  less  than  one  and  five 
tenths  square  meters  be  provided.  All  the  school  buildings  must 
be  so  placed  on  the  site  that  buildings  erected  on  neighboring 
property  cannot  interfere  with  the  light  and  ventilation  of  the 
school.  All  school  building  walls,  the  windows  of  which  are  used 
for  light  for  schoolrooms,  must  be  at  least  eight  meters  distant 
from  any  neighboring  building.  We  could  find  no  general  prac- 
tice when  it  came  to  the  direction  the  building  should  face,  but 


I30  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  windows  ordinarily  got  their  light  from  the  south  and  the 
west. 

The  one-class  school  is  the  rule  in  rural  sections  of  Germany. 
It  is  customary  that  the  school  building  in  small  towns  and 
„     ,  villages  have  several  rooms  for  the  teachers  in  addi- 

School-  tion  to  the  recitation  room  or  rooms.  Une  nnds  all 
houses  g^^^g  ^j  combinations  of  schoolrooms  and  lodgings.  A 
one-class  school  ordinarily  has  three  or  four  rooms  for  a  married 
teacher's  lodging,  in  addition  to  storerooms  and  a  kitchen. 
The  unmarried  teacher  receives  a  less  spacious  lodging.  The 
entrance  to  the  teacher's  lodging  is  separate  from  that  used  by 
the  children.  In  four  or  five  room  country  schools  there  are 
sometimes  lodgings  for  all  teachers,  then  again  for  only  a  part 
of  them. 

The  width  of  the  hallways  is  generally  rather  great  in  order 

to  accommodate  the  children  at  recess  time  in  rainy  weather, 

when  the  hallways  are  used  for  exercising.    This  is 

Et&Uwfiv 

especially  true  of  the  newer  buildings.  If  the  hall 
leads  to  several  rooms,  it  is  generally  two  and  a  half  (2.5)  meters 
wide. 

The  size  of  the  room,  with  reference  to  floor  space,  depends 
upon  the  number,  arrangement,  and  size  of  each  desk,  the  aisles, 
Size  of  S'lid  the  position  of  the  door  and  of  the  stove,  if  there 

Rooms  |3g  Q^Q  Ordinarily  in  a  one-class  school  there  cannot 
be  more  than  eighty  children  in  a  room,  and  in  a  school  with 
more  than  one  room,  not  more  than  seventy  pupils  are  allowed 
to  each  room.  The  commonest  dimensions  of  the  modern  Ger- 
man schoolroom  are  9  meters  long  by  6  meters  wide  by  4  meters 
high,  or  about  216  cubic  meters  of  air  space.  The  space  allowed 
each  seat  is  about  .5  meter  by  .7  meter.  The  room's  dimen- 
sions are  ordinarily  painted  on  the  wall  for  use  in  arithmetic. 
Such  rooms  are  supposed  to  accommodate  about  fifty  children, 
but  one  usually  finds  a  larger  number  than  that.     Rooms  of  these 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  131 

standard  dimensions  are  found  in  the  modern  buildings,  while 
rooms  of  any  size  and  description  are  common  in  all  of  the 
older  structures.  The  country  schoolrooms  are  as  varied  as 
they  are  in  America. 

The  first  row  of  seats  is  at  least  1.7  meters  from  the  front 
wall;  the  last  row  at  least  .3  meter  from  the  rear  wall;  the 
space  between  seats  and  the  window  wall  at  least  .4 

,.,,,.,  ,  .      Open  Space 

meter;  the  middle  aisles  are  at  least  .5  meter  m 
width;  the  space  between  the  seats  and  the  window  wall  is  at 
least  .6  meter.  The  teacher's  desk  is  ordinarily  placed  so 
as  to  give  a  good  view  of  the  children  and  the  door.  The 
stove  is  generally  near  the  wall  opposite  the  windows.  The 
minimum  distance  between  the  stove  and  the  nearest  seat  is 
.8  meter. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  schoolrooms  in  Germany  are  4 
meters  in  height;  the  minimum  is  3.20  meters.  The  height  of 
the  schoolroom  must  be  such  that  each  child  shall  Height  of 
have  at  least  2.5  cubic  meters  of  air  space.  The  dis-  ^°°™ 
tance  from  the  top  of  the  window,  to  the  floor  must  be  at  least 
one  half  the  width  of  the  room.  These  regulations  are  observed 
with  very  few  exceptions. 

The  lighting  system  in  all  modern  German  schools  is  uni- 
lateral, and  in  a  great  many  of  the  buildings  constructed  as 
much  as  forty  or  fifty  years  ago.  The  total  window 
surface  mUst  in  general  equal  one  fifth,  and  in  some 
cases  one  sixth,  of  the  total  floor  space  of  the  room.  The  left 
side  wall  is  usually  the  source  of  hght.  The  distance  between 
windows  is  never  more  than  1.2  meters.  The  window  sill  is  never 
less  than  one  meter  in  height,  and  the  windows  reach  as  near 
the  ceiling  as  possible.  Rooms  getting  light  from  the  north  ordi- 
narily have  windows  in  the  rear  of  the  room,  but  such  window 
space  is  not  reckoned  with  the  north  windows  in  getting  the 
proper  proportion  of  window  space. 


132  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  percentage  of  school  children  in  the  Volksschule  who 
have  weak  eyes  is  very  large.  We  have  been  unable  to  ascer- 
„     .  ^^  ,    tain  the  cause,  inasmuch  as  the  lighting  of  the  school 

Eyesight  of  '  it  a.      c 

School-  buildings  is  scientifically  correct  and  the  amount  ol 
chadren  ^^^^  ^^^-^  j^  rather  small.  It  is  our  opinion  that 
poor  food,  poor  ventilation  in  the  school,  and  poor  hghting  in  the 
home  are  largely  the  causes  of  the  great  number  of  children 
who  wear  glasses  and  have  weak  eyes.  The  teachers  are  always 
careful  to  seat  the  children  with  poor  eyesight  as  near  the  front 
of  the  room  as  possible.  The  community  very  often  provides 
free  optical  treatment  for  poor  children  and  even  provides 
glasses  if  necessary. 

Practically  all  German  schoolrooms  are  provided  with  arti- 
ficial light.  This  is  necessary  in  Germany  because  of  the  abnor- 
Difficuities  mally  great  number  of  cloudy,  foggy  days  in  winter, 
of  Lighting  especially  in  northern  Germany.  During  the  winter 
months  daylight  comes  very  late  in  the  morning  and  dusk  comes 
very  early  in  the  afternoon.  We  remember  that  frequently  on 
winter  mornings  we  were  unable  to  recognize  children  whom  we 
passed  on  the  way  to  school  owing  to  the  darkness.  It  was  also 
common  to  burn  the  hghts  in  the  schoolrooms  for  over  an  hour 
after  the  opening  of  school  and  sometimes  all  day  long.  Not 
only  is  the  lighting  problem  made  difficult  on  account  of  the 
shortness  of  the  day,  but  also  because  of  the  extreme  cloudiness 
which  prevails  in  Germany  in  winter.  In  Berlin  from  the  first 
of  October  to  the  first  of  April  there  are  rarely  ever  more  than 
three  hundred  hours  of  sunshine.  These  facts  may  have  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  prevalence  of  poor  eyes  among  the  Germans. 

The  walls  and  ceilings  are  generally  painted  or  treated  with  a 
preparation  that  will  not  come  off  easily.  The  walls  are  usually 
The  WaUs  light,  greenish  gray,  light  gray,  or  light  green.  Some- 
and  Ceilings  times  a  somewhat  darker  color  is  used  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  walls.    This  panel  is  generally  four  or  five  feet  high. 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  133 

In  other  cases  wood  or  beaver  board  is  used  as  wainscoting. 
The  ceiling  is  usually  white.  These  are  the  conditions  in  the 
better  schools.  In  a  very  large  number  of  schools  the  walls  are 
a  very  dingy,  unattractive  gray,  and  are  often  none  too  clean. 

The  blackboard  on  all  sides  of  the  room  in  German  schools  is 
practically  unknown.  There  is  always  a  blackboard  on  part  of 
the  front  wall.  (See  p.  44.)  The  teachers  do  not  seem  to  see 
the  advantage  of  much  blackboard  space.  This  is  due  to  the 
method  in  teaching.  In  the  Arbeitsschule  at  Dortmund,  where 
the  children  did  a  large  part  of  the  work,  the  teachers  felt  the 
need  of  more  board  space,  and  they  were  using  crayon  on  the  bare 
painted  waUs.    They  knew  what  they  needed,  but  could  not  get  it. 

One  of  the  worst  features  in  the  German  schoolhouses,  except 
in  the  new  ones,  are  the  floors.  They  are  usually  made  of  floor- 
ing five  or  six  inches  in  width.    Boards  of  such  width 

Floors 

have  a  tendency  to  warp  and  leave  cracks  which  serve 
for  accumulation  of  dirt  and  dust.  The  floors  are  often  very 
rough  and  tend  to  spHnter  badly.  These  conditions  are  very 
prevalent  in  rural  communities  and  in  older  buildings  of  the 
cities.  In  the  more  modern  school  structures  there  is  a  tendency 
to  do  away  entirely  with  wood  as  flooring  material,  particularly 
in  the  halls.  A  heavy  composition  flooring,  a  kind  of  linoleum, 
is  widely  used.  Hardwood  floors  are  also  very  popular  and  are 
treated  generally  with  linseed  oil  and  sheUac.  The  linoleum 
floor  is  perhaps  not  so  durable  as  the  wood,  but  can  be  cleaned 
easily,  and  is  warm  and  noiseless. 

The  ventilation  is  the  worst  sanitary  feature  of  the  German 
Volksschulen.  The  German  is  dreadfully  afraid  of  a  draft. 
He  desires  lots  of  fresh  air  while  he  is  outside,  but  Heating  and 
once  inside  the  windows  are  usually  kept  closed.  VentUation 
There  are  only  a  comparatively  few  schools  in  Germany  in 
which  the  ventilating  system  is  organically  connected  with  the 
heating  system.    In  the  country  schools,  stoves  are  the  uni- 


134  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

versal  method  of  heating  and  the  ventilation  is  entirely  by  means 
of  windows.  Without  exception,  unless  on  days  when  there  is 
no  heat  needed  and  the  windows  are  all  open,  the  air  is  ex- 
tremely bad  in  German  country  schools.  Many  days  we  have 
suffered  headache  and  nausea  from  being  compelled  to  sit  in 
rooms  that  were  unventilated.  Sometimes  there  was  a  little 
air  hole  at  the  top  of  the  room  and  one  at  the  bottom,  but  these 
were  usually  closed.  In  all  schools  the  windows  were  always 
thrown  open  between  classes,  that  is,  once  every  hour,  and  the 
rooms  were  thus  filled  with  fresh  air.  As  soon  as  the  classes 
reassembled,  however,  everything  was  usually  shut  up  tight 
and  in  ten  minutes  the  air  was  almost  as  bad  as  before.  In 
every  room  there  are  instructions  dealing  with  the  regulation  of 
the  windows  and  air  holes,  but  in  the  main  these  regulations  are 
disregarded.  Tilted  window  panes  are  rather  common  in  the 
schools,  by  use  of  which  fresh  air  can  be  obtained  without  caus- 
ing a  direct  draft  on  a  child  sitting  next  the  window.  We  may 
have  been  unfortunate  in  our  schools,  but  of  the  several  hundred 
visited  we  did  not  find  one  in  which  there  was  a  forced  draft 
system  of  ventilation.  The  gravity  system  of  ventilation  is 
used  in  quite  a  number  of  schools,  but  these  are  only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  total  number.  The  reason  for  a  great  deal  of 
the  poor  ventilation  is  that  it  saves  coal  and  fuel  to  use  vitiated 
air,  while  fresh,  warm  air  costs  a  large  amount  in  cold  weather. 

There  is  another  reason  for  bad  air  in  German  Volkssckulen 
which  would  be  apparent  only  to  one  who  has  to  endure  it  and 
Cleanliness  wonder  about  the  causes.  To  have  pure  air  the  chil- 
and  Bad  Air  ^j-gj^  j^^g^  ^g  clean.  In  the  rural  sections  of  the  Em- 
pire and  in  river  districts  there  are  a  great  many  people  who 
know  nothing  whatever  about  personal  cleanliness  when  it  comes 
to  baths.  Some  of  the  children  bathe  once  a  week,  but  most  of 
them  bathe  once  a  month  and  some  not  at  all.  The  outer  cloth- 
ing of  a  great  many  children  is  none  too  clean.    A  great  many 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  135 

children  bring  lunches  to  school  which  consist  of  cheese  and 
Wurst.  These  are  some  of  the  contributing  elements  in  the  bad 
air  so  prevalent  in  German  schools. 

Every  schoolroom  has  a  thermometer  hung  about  five  feet 
from  the  floor  on  the  wall  opposite  the  windows.    A  tempera- 
of   18°   C.    (65°   F.)   is  maintained.     In  the  newer  Tempera- 
schools  the  thermometer  is  in  an  opening  in  the  wall  *"® 
next  the  corridor  so  that  it  can  be  seen  by  the  janitor  without 
entering  the  room. 

Fully  eighty  per  cent  of  the  schoolrooms  of  Germany  are 
heated  by  stoves.  The  remainder  are  heated  by  steam,  hot  air, 
or  hot  water.  Ordinarily  one  never  sees  an  iron  stove 
in  the  schoolroom,  but  generally  the  large  tile  stoves, 
which  are  much  better  adapted  for  the  purpose,  because  they 
maintain  a  very  constant  heat  and  are  less  expensive.  These 
stoves  are  made  of  tile,  are  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and 
about  three  feet  square.  Once  such  a  stove  gets  warm,  it  stays 
warm  for  a  long  time,  and  the  temperature  is  very  even. 

The  seating  arrangements  in  most  German  schools  are  gener- 
ally poor.  Very  few  rooms  are  provided  with  individual  seats. 
In  the  higher  grades  there  are  generally  two  or  four 
children  at  one  desk,  but  very  frequently  eight  in  the 
lower  grades.  In  most  instances  the  back  of  the  seat  is  per- 
fectly straight  and  the  seat  is  at  right  angles  to  it  and  so  narrow 
that  it  supports  about  half  of  the  leg  between  the  knee  and  hip. 
The  tops  of  the  desks  are  in  the  main  satisfactory.  Very  few  of 
the  seats  can  be  raised.  The  seats  which  accommodate  four  or 
more  are  all  in  one  piece  and  are  just  a  bench  with  the  desk  top 
in  front.  It  can  easily  be  seen  how  difficult  it  is  for  the  boy  on 
the  inside  of  such  seats  to  get  out.  To  do  so  he  must  climb  over 
three  or  four  boys.  It  is  not  only  inconvenient,  but  it  takes 
lots  of  time.  On  account  of  not  being  able  to  raise  the  seat, 
the  children  on  the  inside  seats  can  never  stand  straight  while 


136  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

reciting.  There  are  a  great  many  patent  desks  in  Germany, 
but  school  boards  are  loath  to  spend  money  for  them.  It  was 
not  our  good  fortune  to  see  one  single  room  in  the  German  schools 
which  was  at  all  satisfactory  with  regard  to  seats.  We  have 
been  told  of  rooms  which  were  well  seated  and  have  no  reason 
'to  believe  that  such  is  not  the  case,  but  such  rooms  are  exceed- 
ingly rare. 

The  recitations  in  the  Volksschule  are  as  a  rule  forty-five  to 
fifty-five  minutes  in  length.  In  the  lower  classes,  although 
Hygiene  of  the  recitation  period  is  fifty  minutes  in  length,  the 
Instruction  character  of  the  work  is  changed  every  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  so  that  the  children  do  not  become  very  tired.  In  the 
upper  classes  the  whole  time  is  usually  taken  up  with  one  sub- 
ject. There  is  a  recess  period  between  each  recitation  varying 
Length  of  from  five  to  twenty  minutes.  No  violent  exercise  is 
^*y  allowed  during  recess  periods,  and  the  children  come 

back  to  the  next  recitation  really  refreshed.  There  are  no  study 
periods  in  the  Volksschulen,  where  there  is  a  teacher  for  each  class. 
This  necessitates  constant  recitation  periods  throughout  the 
school  day.  Since  a  large  part  of  the  work  calls  for  close  atten- 
tion and  much  memorization,  the  pupil  is  under  a  considerable 
strain  after  four  or  five  hours  of  such  work  and  shows  signs  of 
physical  fatigue.  The  lower  section  has  20-2  2  hours'  work  a  week, 
the  middle  section  28-30  hours,  and  the  upper  section  30-32  hours. 
From  the  two  upper  sections  this  means  five  hours  a  day  for  six 
days,  but  since  there  is  no  school  on  Saturday  and  Wednesday 
afternoons,  it  puts  more  than  five  hours'  work  on  some  days. 

In  summer,  that  is  from  Easter  until  after  the  October  vaca- 
tion, school  begins  at  seven  a.m.  in  the  majority  of  communi- 

Hours  of  ^^^^  ^"^^  '^^  ^^  '^^^^  ^y  twelve  or  one  o'clock,  while  in 
Beginning  winter  the  schedule  is  just  one  hour  later.  Some  coun- 
an  osing  ^^  schools  begin  in  summer  as  early  as  six  o'clock  in 
the  morning  for  the  larger  children,  who  may  be  needed  for 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  137 

help  in  the  harvest  fields.  These  children  are  excused  at  ten 
or  eleven  o'clock.  The  little  children  rarely  ever  come  at 
seven  o'clock,  but  generally  at  eight  or  nine.  The  beginning 
hour  in  many  cases  seemed  very  early  to  the  writer.  During 
the  first  recitation  the  little  children  were  so  sleepy  that  they 
did  little  else  than  yawn.  The  afternoons  are  free  for  the  ma- 
jority of  children.  If  there  is  an  afternoon  session,  there  are 
always  two  hours  between  that  and  the  morning  session.  Sub- 
jects such  as  drawing,  manual  training,  and  physical  training  are 
put  on  the  afternoon  schedule. 

When  the  temperature  in  the  shade  reaches  77°  F.  (25°  C.) 
by  ten  a.m.  the  schools  are  dismissed  for  the  remainder  Heat  Vaca- 
of  the  day.    The  temperature  rarely  goes  above  that  *'°°® 
mark. 

The  German  teacher  gives  particular  attention  to  the  posi- 
tion which  the  child  assumes  in  the  schoolroom.  Lounging  in 
seats  is  absolutely  never  seen,  and  when  the  child  . 
stands  to  recite,  he  stands  as  straight  as  he  possibly  during  Red- 
can.  He  keeps  his  shoulders  back,  his  chest  out,  and  °° 
his  hands  by  his  side.  The  military  spirit  which  pervades 
Germany  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  correct  physical 
attitude  in  the  classroom.  At  times  the  children  appear  al- 
most too  stiff,  but  even  that  is  preferable  to  careless  physical 
posture. 

The  teaching  methods  employed  in  the  Volksschulen  bring  it 
about  that  much  home  work  is  not  required.  The  children  in 
the  lower  section  have  practically  none;   the  middle  „ 

,      ,  ,  1     ,.  Homework 

and  upper  sections  rarely  have  more  than  a  half  or 
three  quarters  of  an  hour.  The  home  work  that  is  done  is 
always  easy,  either  solving  problems  which  have  been  explained 
in  class  as  far  as  the  methods  are  concerned,  or  in  writing  short 
essays  the  subject  matter  of  which  has  been  thoroughly  dis- 
cussed in  class. 


138  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

American  children  ordinarily  have  a  great  load  of  books  to 
carry  to  and  from  school  every  day.  This  custom  often  leads  to 
Carrying  of  evil  effects  On  the  spine  and  shoulders,  since  the  chil- 
Books  (jj-gu  usually  carry  them  under  the  arm,  and  generally 

under  the  same  arm.  The  German  child  never  has  as  many 
books  as  the  American  child,  and  almost  without  exception  he 
carries  them  in  a  satchel  on  his  back  held  in  position  by  straps 
which  go  over  the  shoulders  and  under  the  arms.  This  seems  a 
much  better  way  to  carry  books,  and  all  dangers  of  lateral  curva- 
ture of  the  spine  are  avoided. 

The  hygiene  of  the  special  subjects  of  instruction  is  men- 
Speciai  tioned  in  the  respective  chapters.  The  study  of 
Subjects  hygiene  itself  is  treated  in  a  separate  chapter,  as  are 
such  topics  as  swimming,  recreation  centers,  free  food,  and  the 
like. 

The  average  sanitary  condition  of  the  German  schools  is  far 
above  that  of  the  American  school,  but  in  no  case  are  the  con- 
ditions as  good  as  in  our  best  schools.     In  matters  per- 

Conclusion  ...  . 

taimng  to  seating  and  ventilation  the  German  schools 
are  distinctly  inferior;  toilet  facilities  are  poor;  and  heating 
systems  are  bad  in  at  least  sixty  per  cent  of  the  schools.  In  other 
respects  the  German  schools  are  rather  satisfactory.  As  far  as 
sanitary  theory  is  concerned,  the  Germans  are  preeminent,  but 
practice  lags  far  behind  on  account  of  lack  of  funds. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY 

One  would  get  a  very  false  impression  of  the  forces  at  work 
toward  the  education  and  uplift  of  the  lower  classes  in  Germany, 
if  one  thought  that  the  Volksschule  were  the  only  such  force 
worthy  of  consideration.  Sometimes  we  are  led  to  believe  that 
the  Volksschule  may  not  be  even  the  most  important,  but  such 
a  statement  could  not  be  proven  and  would  be  very  rash.  In 
order,  however,  that  one  may  better  understand  the  function 
and  place  of  the  Volksschule,  it  seems  necessary  to  mention  a 
few  of  the  extracurricular  and  benevolent  activities  which  vitally 
affect  the  Uves  of  those  who  receive  their  formal  education  in 
the  Volksschulen. 

The  continuation  school  system  in  Prussia  and  in  other  states 
of  the  Empire  is  a  very  potent  factor  in  the  life  of  the  lower 
classes.  More  and  more  the  continuation  school 
is  becoming  responsible  for  the  vocational  training  ^on'^hoois 
of  the  young,  both  boys  and  girls,  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  seventeen.  There  are  continuation  schools 
of  many  types.  Some  of  them  are  the  general,  in  which  merely 
the  subjects  of  the  Volksschule  are  continued,  the  industrial, 
the  commercial,  the  agricultural,  and  the  domestic  science.  As 
the  reader  will  notice,  the  courses  of  study  in  the  Volksschulen 
contain  very  little  that  is  technical  or  that  can  directly  be 
applied  in  pursuit  of  a  trade  or  calling,  and  it  is  purposely  so. 
In  order  to  prepare  the  youth  of  the  land  for  their  future  work, 
opportunity  is  given  in  the  continuation  school  during  the  time 

139 


140  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

of  apprenticeship  for  the  acquirement  of  both  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  along  many  lines  of  endeavor.  In  Berhn, 
to  boys  between  fourteen  and  seventeen,  in  1914,  there  were 
open  one  hundred  and  eight  different  courses  for  as  many  dif- 
ferent pursuits.  There  were  also  a  great  many  trade  courses 
for  girls.  In  some  places  attendance  is  voluntary,  but  in  the 
majority  of  places,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country,  children 
on  leaving  the  Volkssckule  at  fourteen  are  required  to  report 
immediately  to  the  continuation  school  to  prepare  for  their  voca- 
tions. These  schools  are  only  part-time  schools,  and  the  hours 
are  late  in  the  afternoon  or  evening,  so  that  the  pupils  may  be 
working  and  attending  school  at  the  same  time.  Employers 
are  required  to  give  their  apprentices  time  off  in  which  to  attend 
school.  Thus  the  education  of  the  child  in  the  majority  of 
places  in  Germany  is  provided  and  compulsory  from  the  age  of 
six  to  seventeen.  These  continuation  or  trade  schools  are  the 
schools  which  prepare  the  apprentices  to  become  journeymen 
and  the  schools  which  prepare  the  young  men  for  entrance  to 
the  middle  technical  schools.  The  boys  who  are  apprentices 
in  shoemaking,  carpentry,  goldsmithing,  printing,  and  the  like 
must  attend  the  continuation  schools. 

The  more  efficient  and  ambitious  apprentice  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  leaves  the  continuation  and  is  free  to  enter  a  techni- 
cal or  trade  school  of  the  middle  class,  which  he  may 
Technical  attend,  if  he  will,  for  two  or  three  years.  Such  schools 
Schools'**  are  for  forestry,  gardening,  cabinet  and  furniture 
making,  jewelry,  printing,  book  making,  and  many 
other  trades.    In  these  schools  he  becomes  a  master  workman. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  boy  is  provided  for  from  the  age  of 
six  until  seventeen,  and  if  he  wishes,  until  twenty  in  different 
types  of  schools.  During  all  the  formulative  period  the  state 
keeps  its  watch  over  him,  guides  his  actions,  and  controls  his 
thinking.    The  ordinary  boy  is  free  from  school  at  seventeen, 


EXTRACURRICITLAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    141 

and  then  comes  the  educative  element  which  exerts  more  in- 
fluence than  any  other  save  the  Volksschule,  —  army  service. 

When  the  German  lad  enters  upon  his  eighteenth  year  he  is 
eligible  to  army  service  for  two  years.  This  has  no  reference 
to  those  boys  who  attend  the  higher  (secondary)  Anny 
schools.  About  one  half  of  the  youths  of  the  country  Service 
actually  in  times  of  peace  serve.  Some  are  physically  unfit 
and  some  are  "put  back"  for  one  reason  or  another.  Those 
who  are  merely  "put  back"  can  be  called  out  for  training  in 
time  of  war.  We  are  particularly  interested  in  the  educative 
influence  of  two  years  in  the  army  on  the  youth  of  the  country. 

In  the  first  place,  the  army  service  is  generally  conceded  to 
be  the  most  severe  test  and  course  of  training  that  could  well 
be  devised.  Any  man  who  can  stand  two  years'  training  in  the 
German  army  need  have  no  fears  as  to  his  physical  stamina. 
The  service  is  about  as  near  actual  warfare  as  could  be  imagined 
as  regards  rigor  of  discipline  and  physical  activity.  The  men  are 
put  through  long  and  trying  physical  exercises,  marching,  drill- 
ing, and  gymnastics.  No  matter  what  the  other  advantages 
and  disadvantages  may  be,  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the 
very  definite  physical  benefit  derived  by  the  men  who  serve. 

The  spiritual  effect  is  even  more  noticeable  and  is  more  lasting 
than  the  physical.  The  rigid  discipline  of  army  service  makes 
the  man  responsive  to  commands,  obedient  to  authority,  crushes 
individuality,  and  accustoms  him  to  action  in  groups.  Physical 
obedience  reflects  on  the  psychical  reactions.  These  are  the 
less  tangible  effects  of  miUtary  training.  Service  in  the  army 
makes  most  of  the  men  patriotic  and  proud  of  the  machine  of 
which  they  are  a  part.  It  inspires  them  to  see  the  army  in  action 
during  maneuvers;  it  impresses  them  with  Germany's  power 
to  know  that  two  or  three  million  men  can  be  moblized  in  six 
or  eight  hours,  and  five  or  six  million  within  a  week.  Aside 
from  these  results  derived  from  military  service  the  men  receive 


142  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

a  great  deal  of  actual  class  instruction  from  their  officers  concern- 
ing military  tactics,  machine  construction  and  repairing,  building 
roads,  bridges,  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  aeroplanes,  boats, 
and  all  phases  of  activities  which  are  connected  with  the  Ger- 
man mihtary  machine.  The  German  army  is  a  school,  which  is 
the  capsheaf  of  the  great  educational  system  which  turns  out 
"God-fearing,  patriotic,  self-supporting  subjects  of  imperial 
Germany." 

From  the  national  point  of  view  Jugendpflege  is  a  new  move- 
ment. The  term,  best  translated  "youth  welfare,"  denotes 
Jugend-  a  movement  which  takes  care  of  the  youth  of  the 
Pflege  coimtry  after  the  compulsory  school  period,  between 

the  ages  of  fourteen  and  seventeen  or  twenty. 

There  had  been  a  great  many  local  organizations  prior  to  191 1 
which  were  interested  in  the  recreational  life  of  boys  and 
girls  outside  of  school  hours,  but  the  movement,  which  was  seen 
to  have  vast  importance  for  the  nation's  welfare,  lacked  organi- 
zation and  system.  Accordingly  in  191 1  the  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion issued  orders  ^  with  reference  to  a  nationalization  of  the 
movement  and  promised  government  support  to  all  movements, 
clubs,  associations,  which  had  at  heart  the  welfare,  spiritual 
and  physical,  of  the  boys  and  girls  who  had  Just  left  school  and 
were  employed  in  various  occupations.  The  money  to  support 
such  organizations  is  supplied  by  local,  private,  and  public  gifts 
and  levies. 

I.  The  purpose  of  the  Youth  Welfare  movement  is  cooperation  in 
the  bringing  up  of  happy,  morally  and  physically  efficient  youth,  filled 
with  civic  pride,  fear  of  God  and  love  for  home  and   the 
Fatherland.    It  desires  to  support,  supplement,  and  fur- 
ther the  educational  activity  of  the  home,  the  school,  the  church,  the 
employer,  and  the  ruler. 

3.  The  necessary  means  are  provided  by  friends  and  patrons  of  the 
youth,  by  cities  and  districts,  and  in  a  supplementary  way  by  the  state. 
^  Zeniralblatt,  19 11,  p.  345. 


EXTRACURRICXJLAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    143 

4.  The  care  of  the  youth  who  have  been  excused  from  school  attend- 
ance compasses  the  ages  from  fourteen  until  entrance  into  the  army,  or 
until  twenty  years  of  age.  The  younger  three-year  group  wiU  be  divided, 
where  possible,  from  the  older  three-year  group. 

The  ministerial  order  goes  ahead  to  explain  why  such  a  move- 
ment is  necessary.  On  account  of  the  economic  and  social  con- 
ditions of  a  great  many  of  the  youth,  little  or  no  time  or  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  for  their  physical  and  recreational  activities. 
A  very  large  number  of  such  boys,  and  girls  too,  devote  all 
their  spare  time  to  aimless  dissipation,  and  soon  fall  into  evil 
habits.  Something  to  do  that  is  valuable  is  the  only  way  to 
put  that  which  is  deleterious  out  of  a  child's  life.  Accordingly 
the  Minister  recommended  some  of  the  following  means :  ^ 

7.  Acquirement  of  rooms  for  the  establishment  of  homes  or  clubs 
for  gatherings  of  young  boys  and  girls  during  periods  of  recreation  and 
provision  of  opportunities  for  writing,  reading,  play,  and  other  activities. 
Establishment  of  libraries  for  the  youth.  Evenings  for  music,  lectures, 
reading  and  singing,  theatrical  productions,  and  especially  provision  for 
the  right  sort  of  socials  and  parties. 

Use  of  opporttmities  offered  in  a  locality  for  popular  education,  such 
as  museums,  with  proper  guidance  and  visiting  of  monuments  and  other 
historical,  geographical,  and  scientific  objects  of  interest. 

Provision  of  manual  training  shops.  Provision  of  playgrotmds  and 
covered  rooms  for  physical  exercises.  ...  If  possible  free  baths,  swim- 
ming, and  skating.  General  education  in  all  sorts  of  physical  activities 
according  to  season,  locality,  and  opportunity.  Besides  gymnastics, 
games,  walks  and  tours,  also  swimming,  showshoeing,  skating,  and  coast- 
ing are  to  be  recommended. 

In  addition  to  the  activities  already  mentioned,  teachers  very 
often  form  classes  in  shorthand,  German,  history,  or  in  any  other 
subject  which  may  be  in  demand. 

The  interest  in  the  "Youth  Welfare"  movement  has  grown 
with  great  rapidity.  Courses  have  been  opened  throughout 
1  Zentralblatt,  1911,  p.  347. 


144  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Prussia  for  the  preparation  of  leaders  of  boys'  and  girls' 
organizations.  In  1913  over  twenty-two  thousand  persons  had 
voluntarily  taken  these  courses.  These  volunteers 
come  from  all  classes,  chiefly  from  the  class  of  elemen- 
tary school  teachers,  but  also  from  other  callings,  which  shows 
the  general  interest  in  the  work.  The  normal  schools  of  Prussia 
are  now  preparing  their  teachers  to  take  part  in  the  movement 
and  offer  definite  instruction  to  accomplish  this  end.  This  is 
generally  done  by  organizing  the  youth  of  the  community  in 
which  the  normal  school  is  located  and  by  organizing  similar 
activities  within  the  normal  school,  the  normal  preparatory 
and  practice  school. 

Some  of  the  commoner  activities  of  the  "Youth  Welfare" 
movement  are  as  follows :  school  savings  banks ;  use  of  a  library ; 

games  and  contests  for  free  afternoons:  tours  and 
Activities  .  .  . 

excursions;  war  and  cross-country  games;  skatmg, 
coasting,  and  snowshoeing;  swimming;  manual  training; 
care  of  plants  and  gardening ;  classes  in  shorthand  and  writing ; 
gymnastics;  singing;  excursions  to  industrial  plants;  social 
gatherings ;   parlor  games ;   hoHday  celebrations. 

Jungdeutschland  (Young  Germany)  is  an  organization  for 
boys  with  much  the  same  purposes  and  characteristics  as  the 
Jung.  Boy   Scout  organization  in  America  and  England, 

deutschiand  except  that  it  is  somewhat  more  highly  organized. 
It  is  one  of  the  activities  aUied  with  the  "Youth  Welfare"  move- 
ment, except  that  Jungdeutschland  is  open  to  boys  who  are 
still  in  school  and  who  usually  come  from  the  better  classes 
of  society.  Jungdeutschland  is  an  organization  chiefly  for  the 
physical  and  moral  betterment  of  its  members  for  patriotic  and 
national  purposes.  It  is  very  military  in  organization  and 
method  and  has  for  its  head  Field  Marshal  Freiherr  von  der 
Goltz,  one  of  Germany's  most  noted  and  popular  soldiers. 

Such  movements  as  have  just  been  described  are  by  no  means 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    145 

new  to  America,  but  in  point  of  organization  and  general  effec- 
tiveness the  Germans  excel  us.  Movements  for  the  betterment 
of  the  youth  in  Germany  have  been  nationalized,  because  the 
utmost  importance  of  saving  the  next  generation  has  been 
recognized  in  high  places.  In  America  all  such  movements  are 
spasmodic,  at  best  poorly  organized,  and  open  to  only  a  small 
portion  of  our  youth.  Almost  no  provision  is  made  here  for 
training  of  proper  leaders  for  the  work  outside  of  the  Y.M.C.A. 
and  the  Boy  Scouts. 

There  are  other  activities  which  demand  the  attention  of 
the  student  of  German  schools.    Among  these  the  special  schools 
for  children  are  important.    Reference  has   already  §  1,   i  f 
been  made  to  auxiliary  classes  for  mentally  deficient  Abnormal 
children  in  another  chapter,  and  also  as  to  the  Mann- 
heim system  and  similar  systems,  which  make  provision  for  the 
brighter  as  well  as  the  duller  children.    The  number  of  children 
in  auxiliary  classes  runs  very  high,  and  there  are  either  schools 
or  classes  of  this  type  in  practically  all  German  cities  and  towns 
of  more  than  ten  thousand  population. 

Courses  for  stammerers  and  stutterers  among  the  children  of 
the  Volksschulen  were  first  organized  in  Germany  in  a  great  many 
cities  in  the  eighties  of  the  nineteenth  century.    Min- 
ister von  Gossler  was  particularly  interested  in  this  ciuidrenof 
phase  of   education.    Von   Gossler  took   the  stand  g***^^'® 
that  the  organization  of  special  classes  for  those  who 
had  defects  of  speech  would  not  only  take  a  great  burden  from 
the  Volksschulen,  but  would  also  increase  the  value  of  such  chil- 
dren as  future  workers  in  the  state.     Defects  of  speech  would 
hinder  the  child  in  its  trade  or  calling,  therefore  it  was  the  state's 
unavoidable  duty  to  do  all  it  could  for  their  improvement. 
From  that  time  the  number  of  courses  has  increased  greatly. 
Teachers  are  especially  trained  for  the  work,  and  usually  re- 
ceive a  higher  salary  than  the  regular  classroom  teacher.     Gutz- 


146  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

mann,  director  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  school  in  Berlin,  has 
done  probably  more  than  any  other  for  the  development 
of  method  in  the  instruction  and  cure  of  those  afflicted  with 
defective  speech.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  at 
least  100,000  children  in  the  German  Empire  who  are  defec- 
tive m  speech.  We  are  not  able  to  obtain  figures  as  to  the 
exact  number  of  courses  in  Germany,  but  we  have  visited  such 
classes  in  BerHn,  Breslau,  Cassel,  Dortmund,  Hannover,  Kiel, 
and  Posen.  The  normal  schools  also  instruct  their  students 
in  the  method  of  treating  cases  of  stuttering  and  stammering, 
and  also  in  measures  to  be  taken  to  check  incipient  cases.  This 
latter  point  is  of  importance  inasmuch  as  many  children  form 
these  habits  after  starting  to  school.  Courses  are  also  provided 
for  children  in  the  pre-school  period  in  order  that  the  total  amount 
of  stuttering  and  the  like  may  be  reduced. 

There  are  special  classes  for  partially  deaf  children,  and 
also  for  those  who  are  particularly  weak-sighted.  The  latter 
type  of  class  is  very  rare,  as  provision  is  generally  made  for 
such  children  by  advantageous  and  careful  seating  in  the 
regular  school.  In  some  few  cities  there  are  classes  for  crippled 
children  for  whose  instructor  the  community  pays  in  case  the 
parents  are  unable  to  do  so.  The  majority  of  cripples,  however, 
are  cared  for  in  homes  for  crippled  children.  Special  provision 
is  also  made  for  incorrigible  and  truant  children  in  truant  or 
parental  schools,  which  most  frequently  assume  the  character 
of  institutions. 

There  are  also  special  schools  and  courses  for  normal  children 
of  the  Volksschule.  We  have  already  mentioned  cooking,  sew- 
ing, and  manual  training  schools  and  courses  which 
Schools  for  are  to  be  found  in  all  of  the  large  cities  and  in  many 
c^^en  °^  ^^^  lesser  ones,  and  even  in  rural  districts.  These 
schools  and  courses  are  sometimes  organically  con- 
nected with  the  Volksschulen  and  sometimes  are  supported  sep- 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    147 

arately  by  private  funds  or  associations,  the  city,  or  the  state. 
It  has  alsd  been  necessary  to  establish  courses  in  drawing  for 
boys  in  addition  to  the  drawing  regularly  given  in  the  Volksschule. 
These  classes  are  generally  given  in  connection  with  a  contin- 
uation school.  Some  schools  give  swinmiing  in  addition  to  the 
regular  work  in  physical  training.  English  and  French  are  taught 
in  the  Volksschulen  of  a  few  cities,  particularly  in  the  great  com- 
mercial cities  and  in  cities  on  the  western  frontier  which  have 
a  large  French  population. 

Among  the  more  important  activities  of  benevolent  character 
which  deal  with  the  children  of  the  Volksschulen  are  children's 
day  homes  and  vacation  colonies.  The  day  homes  Benevolent 
are  intended  for  children  of  school  age  who  need  Activities 
supervision  and  a  warm  place  to  stay  during  the  hours  when  their 
parents  are  at  work.  In  many  families  both  the  mother  and 
the  father  are  employed  from  early  morning  until  seven  or  eight 
o'clock  in  the  evening.  Children  of  such  famihes  can  scarcely 
remain  at  home  and  cannot  be  allowed  to  run  the  streets.  Ac- 
cordingly almost  every  town  or  city  in  Germany  has  established 
one  or  more  of  these  homes  for  this  class  of  children.  The 
children  remain  in  these  homes  from  the  time  school  is  dismissed 
until  the  time  their  parents  return  from  work.  The  children 
are  employed  in  many  ways  and  are  always  under  the  direction 
of  some  guide  or  leader,  ordinarily  a  teacher.  School  lessons 
are  prepared  in  this  time.  Games,  sewing  for  the  girls,  manual 
training  for  the  boys,  gardening,  knitting,  patching,  and  the  like 
are  among  some  of  the  activities  of  these  homes.  It  is  customary 
in  many  places  to  serve  the  children  with  a  light  supper  of  bread 
and  milk  and  some  cold  meat.    Baths  are  frequently  provided. 

The  vacation  colonies  {Ferienkolonien)  are  also  for  the  poorer 
classes.  It  is  their  purpose  to  give  the  weak  and  physically 
undeveloped  children  of  the  poor  opportunity  in  the  summer 
and  fall  vacations  for  a  few  days  in  the  open  air,  in  the  mountains. 


148  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

in  the  country,  or  at  the  seashore.  These  colonies  are  sup- 
ported partly  by  private  and  partly  by  public  means.  Sickly 
children  are  handled  largely  in  three  categories.  Children  who 
are  ill  with  a  definite  disease  are  sent  to  children's  sanitariums 
or  hospitals.  Children  who  through  sickness  or  undernourish- 
ment are  in  a  poor  condition  make  up  the  inhabitants  of  the  regu- 
lar vacation  colonies.  The  third  group  of  children,  who  are 
in  the  first  stages  of  decline,  are  looked  after  in  the  "  city  colonies  " 
and  milk  stations. 

In  1881  the  "Association  of  Children's  Sanitariums  on  the 
German  Coast"  was  founded  by  Geheimrat  Benecke,  and  to-day 
sanitariums  are  to  be  found  in  all  of  the  important  coast  cities 
which  provide  free  treatment  for  the  children  of  the  poor. 

The  real  vacation  colonies  had  their  beginnings  in  Switzer- 
land about  forty  years  ago,  when  Pastor  Bion  of  Ziirich  took 
the  sickly  poor  children  of  that  city  out  of  their  unhealthful 
and  miserable  homes  up  into  the  forests  of  the  surrounding 
mountains.  From  there  the  movement  spread  to  Germany,  where 
it  has  grown  to  enormous  proportions  and  is  largely  supported 
by  municipalities  and  by  the  state. 

The  choice  of  children  is  usually  made  by  the  teacher  after 
investigation  of  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  home  from 
which  the  child  comes.  Children  from  seven  to  fourteen  years 
of  age  make  up  the  majority  of  the  total  number.  The  expenses 
in  the  colonies  are  borne  by  the  associations,  while  the  parents 
are  required  to  furnish  the  child's  clothes.  Bedclothing,  towels, 
soap,  combs,  and  books  are  provided  by  the  association. 

Although  there  is  not  as  much  destitution  in  Germany  as  in 
other  contmental  countries,  there  are  thousands  of  families  wlio 
Feeding  of  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  necessities  of  life.  The  children 
School  of  the  poorer  classes  suffer  not  only  from  hunger  but 

also  from  cold.  In  Berlin  alone  in  the  winter  of 
1913-1914    there   were    two    hundred    thousand   unemployed. 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND   BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    149 

Naturally  the  families  of  these  men  had  to  suffer.  At  best 
the  morning  breakfast  of  these  families  is  very  meager,  consist- 
ing of  a  cup  of  coffee  and  possibly  a  piece  of  bread  or  a  roll  without 
butter.  Thousands  of  children  in  the  large  cities  come  to  school 
without  a  warm  breakfast  of  any  kind,  and  without  any  second 
breakfast  in  their  satchel  to  still  their  hunger  until  lunch  time. 
Many  others  can  get  no  warm  food  at  noon,  perhaps  only  a  piece 
of  bread  and  a  cup  of  coffee.  Frequently  when  they  get  home 
they  find  the  door  shut  and  the  father  and  mother  at  work,  and 
they  are  compelled  to  play  in  the  streets  or  go  to  a  neighbor's 
house  until  their  parents'  return. 

In  practically  all  German  cities  there  are  associations  similar 
to  the  ones  that  support  the  day  homes,  which  take  it  upon 
themselves  to  furnish  breakfasts  and  luncheons  to  the  poor  chil- 
dren who  are  unable  to  get  proper  food  at  home.  The  breakfast 
thus  provided  consists  of  warm  milk  and  bread,  while  the  lun- 
cheon consists  of  bread  and  some  sort  of  nutritious  soup.  These 
associations  are  supported  partly  by  private  donations  and 
partly  by  public  funds.  In  many  of  the  large  cities  the  newer 
schools  have  special  rooms  set  apart  for  feeding  the  children. 
The  wife  of  the  principal  and  the  wives  of  the  teachers  usually 
exercise  supervision  over  the  meals  and  the  management  of  the 
undertaking. 

The  nimiber  of  children  fed  daily  in  Eerhn,  Munich,  Cologne, 
Frankfurt,  and  Dresden  amounts  to  three  or  four  thousand  in 
each  city.  The  numbers  increase  from  year  to  year.  Some 
school  men  oppose  the  movement  on  the  ground  that  the  parents 
of  children  fed  free  of  all  cost  come  to  depend  on  the  public  for 
the  support  of  their  children.  Nevertheless  the  movement  con- 
tinues to  grow. 

We  did  not  visit  a  city  in  Germany  of  any  considerable  size 
which  did  not  have  a  dental  clinic  for  its  children.  The  treat- 
ment at  these  clinics  is  either  free  or  costs  about  twenty-five 


I50  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

cents  for  the  year.  At  the  beginning  of  school  the  children 
are  sold  or  given  a  dental  card,  and  they  are  required  to  visit 
Dental  the  cHnic  and  have  their  teeth  examined.     An  investi- 

ciinics  gator  found  that  out  of  ten  thousand  children  only 

4.3  per  cent  or  430  children  had  perfectly  healthy  teeth,  and  that 
fuUy  half  the  teeth  of  all  the  children  were  in  some  way  affected. 
The  reason  for  such  conditions  is  lack  of  care  of  the  teeth. 
Only  a  few  of  the  children  take  advantage  of  the  free  dental 
treatment,  and  fewer  still  ever  learn  to  use  a  toothbrush.  There 
is  an  enormous  fortune  in  the  manufacture  of  tooth-brushes  in 
Germany,  for  the  great  mass  of  people  is  yet  unacquainted 
with  that  article  of  personal  toilet.  The  teachers  mention  the 
subject  sometimes  while  teaching  physiology  and  personal  hy- 
giene, but  the  results  as  yet  are  not  noticeable. 

Shower  baths  are  the  commonest  kind  of  baths  installed  in 
the  modern  German  school  building.     All  the  new  schools  and 

^   J  many  of  the  older  schools  have  shower  baths.     This 

Batiis.  is  true  in  small  towns  as  well  as  in  the  cities.     Oc- 

'""""'"^  casional  provision  is  made  for  bathing  in  the  coimtry 
schools.  A  great  deal  of  the  bathing  equipment  is  out  of  date. 
In  most  cases  the  shower  is  over  a  zinc  tub,  while  rarely  one  finds 
the  shower  built  in,  with  the  drain  in  the  floor.  Some  make 
provision  for  warm  water,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case. 
The  time  for  bathing  is  usually  taken  out  of  the  arithmetic  hour, 
or  it  is  after  school  and  is  supervised  by  the  janitor.  Bathing 
is  not  compulsory;  however,  the  children  in  the  upper  classes 
generally  learn  to  take  advantage  of  their  opportunity.  Many 
principals  in  the  larger  cities  have  told  me  that  the  children 
make  little  use  of  the  bath. 

In  some  of  the  larger  cities,  like  Munich,  the  baths  occupy 
several  rooms  in  the  basements,  where  there  are  as  many  as 
fifty  showers,  an  attendant's  room,  a  laundry,  and  dressing 
rooms.    Towels  and  soap  are  furnished  by  the  city  ordinarily, 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND   BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    151 

but  there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  all  depending  upon 
the  wealth  of  the  city.  In  Munich  from  one  half  to  three  fourths 
of  the  children  in  the  Volksschulen  use  the  school  baths.  In 
most  places  the  boys  bathe  much  more  frequently  than  the  girls. 

In  cities  wherp  school  baths  are  not  provided  it  frequently 
occurs  that  children  of  the  Volksschule  are  furnished  cards  free 
of  charge  to  public  baths  and  swimming  pools.  Germany  is 
very  rich  in  rivers  and  navigable  streams,  so  that  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  population  is  near  water  that  is  deep  enough  for 
swimming.  In  case  a  city  is  on  a  river  or  the  seacoast,  one 
invariably  finds  public  or  municipal  swimming  and  bathing  accom- 
modations, which  are  always  open  to  the  school  children.  Occa- 
sionally the  children  receive  free  swimming  instruction.  In  a 
few  cities  swimming  is  made  an  integral  part  of  the  physical 
training  course.     Swimming  contests  are  frequently  held. 

It  is  our  observation  that  the  German  child  does  not  play 
as  much  as  the  American  child.  It  is,  however,  not  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  facilities.  Rather  it  is  because  of  the  Municipal 
method  of  training  in  the  schools  and  of  the  disci-  Playgrounds 
pline  at  home.  All  the  large  cities  and  many  of  the  smaller  ones 
have  public  parks  and  municipal  playgrounds,  the  latter  being 
devoted  exclusively  to  children.  We  were  unable  to  get  any 
figures  as  to  the  numbers  that  use  the  playgrounds.  Our  judg- 
ment is  based  on  personal  observation  of  playgrounds  in  fifteen 
or  twenty  of  Germany's  largest  cities.  On  most  occasions  these 
grounds  were  noticeably  vacant.  Sometimes  there  would  be 
children  on  the  grounds,  but  most  often  they  would  be  occupy- 
ing the  benches  under  the  trees.  The  children  in  the  country 
who  have  no  playgrounds  do  infinitely  more  playing. 

There  are  at  present  movements  in  all  Germany  to  increase 
the  amount  of  play,  which  we  have  mentioned  in  the  paragraphs 
dealing  with  Jugendpflege.  Many  cities  are  training  teachers 
to  take  charge  of  the  public  playgrounds,  and  in  this  way  good 


152  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

results  are  being  achieved.  Statistics  kept  of  a  few  playgrounds 
show  ^  that  the  number  of  children  playing  and  the  interest  shown 
depend  entirely  on  the  number  and  activity  of  the  play  leaders 
on  the  grounds.  It  is  evident  that  the  German  child  must  be 
led  even  to  play  freely,  so  formalized  is  his  training  —  a  training 
for  following.  The  leader  says  "work,"  and  the  child  works; 
"play,"  and  the  child  plays. 

The  equipment  of  the  municipal  playgrounds  is  very  similar 
to  our  playgrounds  in  this  country.  There  are  poles  for  climb- 
ing, swings,  parallel  bars,  trapeze,  sand  pits,  and  the  like.  There 
is  also  ample  room  for  running  games,  football,  and  tennis. 
The  latter  game  is  not  played  much  by  the  lower  classes. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  and  helpful  activities  connected 
with  the  Volksschulen,  and  also  other  schools,  is  the  school  ex- 
Schooi  cursion.    The  German  is  a  great  lover  of  nature,  and 

Excursions  jijjg  excursion  movement  has  its  sources  in  that  love. 
No  matter  where  one  goes  in  Germany  there  are  thousands  of 
people  on  exciursions  and  chiefly  afoot.  One  meets  groups  of 
school  children  walking  and  tramping  everywhere  —  on  the  heath, 
in  the  valley,  on  the  mountain,  in  the  forest.  Many  of  these  ex- 
cursions are  only  for  an  afternoon ;  many  last  a  week  or  longer. 
Frequently  a  band  of  school  children  wanders  from  town  to  town, 
earning  board  and  lodging  by  singing  in  the  streets.  Our  first 
impression  in  regard  to  the  German  school  system  which  we 
derived  from  actual  observation  was  furnished  by  a  band  of 
wandering  schoolboys  which  we  met  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Bavarian  Highlands. 

School  excursions  have  an  educational  and  a  physical  bearing. 
We  shall  discuss  school  excursions  in  connection  with  several  of 
the  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum.  These  excursions  are 
particularly  important  for  children  from  great  cities  who  are 
unacquainted  with  rural  life  and  activity.  In  some  of  the  larger 
'Lexis,  vol.  Ill,  p.  85. 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    153 

cities  excursions  by  tram  are  undertaken  by  the  children  of  the 
Volkssckulen,  sometimes  to  the  mountains,  sometimes  to  the 
seashore.  Such  trips  are  gotten  up  and  planned  by  the  teachers 
and  are  supported  chiefly  by  the  benevolent  associations  that 
are  interested  in  children.  The  excursions  are  sometimes  free ; 
on  other  occasions  each  child  pays  a  certain  nominal  sum. 

The  physical  value  of  these  excursions  is  self-evident.  The 
educational  value  is  used  to  the  greatest  possible  degree.  The 
teacher  plans  in  advance  for  the  trip,  explains  to  the  children 
what  they  will  be  expected  to  see,  and  prepares  a  great  fund 
of  information  with  which  he  is  able  to  answer  all  the  children's 
questions.  The  excursions  furnish  practically  all  the  oppor- 
tunity a  child  gets  of  asking  natural  questions,  and  that  is  the 
reason  the  work  built  on  excursions  is  perhaps  the  best  that  is 
done  to-day  in  the  German  schools. 

The  material  used  in  the  large  cities  for  instruction  in  botany 
is  usually  supplied  from  the  municipal  gardens  and  is  delivered 
free  to  the  schools.  The  botanical  gardens  also  serve  school 
the  schools  as  laboratories,  inasmuch  as  the  teachers  hardens 
bring  their  classes  to  the  garden  for  instruction.  This  scheme 
is  at  best  insufficient  and  in  many  ways  unsatisfactory.  The 
newer  schools  have  been  built  on  plots  large  enough  so  that  each 
school  may  have  a  garden  of  its  own.  The  children  of  the  school 
in  this  case  have  the  care  of  the  garden,  each  class  being  assigned 
a  particular  portion  to  care  for.  The  children  raise  flowers  and 
vegetables  of  all  sorts.  Sometimes  there  is  a  little  pond  built 
in  the  garden  where  the  pupils  can  watch  the  development  of 
fish,  frogs,  and  other  water  animals. 

In  a  few  cities  one  finds  large  unoccupied  plots  of  ground, 
cut  up  into  little  portions  and  assigned  to  boys  from  the  Volks- 
schule  to  care  for  and  plant  with  whatsoever  they  will.  Aside 
from  keeping  the  boys  active,  this  plan  also  interests  many 
in  horticulture  and  gardening  as  careers.    Prizes  are  frequently 


1 54  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

given  to  the  boy  or  girl  who  raises  the  best  flowers  or  vegetables. 
Not  only  do  the  school  gardens  interest  the  children,  but  they 
also  awaken  the  interest  of  the  neighboring  communities  in  the 
activity  of  the  school. 

The  price  of  theater  tickets  in  Germany  is  a  great  deal  less 
than  in  America.    Since  most  of   the  theatrical  productions 

are  provided  by  municipal  or  royal  players,  the  city 
TUke*t"for  Can  afford  to  give  reduced  rates  or  free  seats  to  the 
School  school  children.    Free  seats  or  cheap  seats  for  school 

children  are  the  rule  for  children's  plays.  This  holds 
true  particularly  at  Christmas  time.  Fundamentally  the  pur- 
pose of  this  movement  is  to  interest  the  children  in  and  awaken 
a  finer  understanding  of  the  beauty  of  the  German  drama.  The 
plays  which  are  to  be  seen  on  the  stage  are  usually  read  and 
studied  in  school,  then  followed  by  the  theatrical  production.  The 
plays  that  are  most  frequently  visited  are:  Heyse's  Cotter g; 
von  Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows;  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barn- 
helm;  Schiller's  Wilhelm  Tell  and  Jungfrau  von  Orleans. 

Thrift  is  a  well-known  characteristic  of  the  German.    It  has 
been  preached  in  Germany  for  centuries  and  has  also  been 
J         practiced.    A  stranger  is  not  long  in  the   coxmtry 
Savings        before  he  hears  of  Sparkassen  and  upon  investiga- 
"^  ^  tion  it  is  found  that  almost  everyone  has  a  vital 

interest  in  a  Sparkasse  (savings  bank  or  institution)  of  one 
kind  or  another.  These  institutions  are  both  public  and  private, 
but  always  under  the  control  of  the  banking  authorities.  In 
the  cities  the  "city  savings  bank"  is  generally  the  most  im- 
portant of  this  class  of  savings  institutions,  and  here  and  there 
throughout  the  city  are  branch  depositories,  where  the  working 
class  can  find  easy  access  and  opportunity  to  deposit  its  savings, 
small  though  they  may  be.  Every  family  has  its  savings  book, 
which  is  most  carefully  guarded  so  that  when  old  age  overtakes 
the  German  working  man  there  is  generally  a  nest  egg  laid  away. 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY    155 

This  idea  of  saving  has  been  carried  over  into  the  schools. 
Formerly  the  principle  of  economy  was  taught  the  children ;  but 
some  teachers  came  to  believe  that  the  best  way  to  learn  thrift 
was  to  practice  it,  and  consequently  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  school  savings  banks  began  to  spring  up  here  and  there. 
The  clergy  as  well  as  the  teachers  have  contributed  largely  to 
the  development  of  this  movement.  As  early  as  1850  school 
savings  banks  were  established  in  the  Sunday  schools  (continuation 
schools)  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  children  to  save  enough 
money  to  buy  Bibles,  clothes,  and  song  books  for  confirmation. 
The  school  inspector  at  Hohenwald,  in  Brandenburg,  did  a  great 
deal  for  this  movement  and  estabHshed  a  bank  for  the  school 
children  in  1867.  In  1880  the  Society  for  School  Savings  Banks 
was  founded  and  since  that  time  the  number  of  these  institutions 
has  increased  very  rapidly,  so  that  at  the  present  time  there  are 
thousands  of  schools  in  which  the  children  lay  aside  so  much 
each  week,  and  according  to  the  last  reports  there  are  many  mil- 
lions of  marks  to  the  credit  of  the  school  children  of  Germany. 

In  almost  all  German  states  there  are  laws  or  regulations  con- 
cerning the  organization  and  conduct  of  savings  funds. 

Naturally,  there  are  many  different  methods  of  collecting  the 
money  from  the  children  and  putting  it  out  at  interest.  As  a 
rule,  the  children  bring  their  savings  on  Monday  of  each  week, 
or  the  first  of  every  month,  and  each  class  teacher  collects  these 
amounts  and  turns  them  over  to  the  teacher  who  has  charge 
of  the  saAdng  accounts  for  the  whole  school.  Each  child  has  a 
bank  book,  in  which  the  teacher  enters  the  amount  deposited, 
and  the  book  is  then  returned  to  the  child.  The  teacher  of  each 
class  also  keeps  a  general  entry  book  in  which  he  enters  the  moneys 
received  by  him.  In  the  schools  which  we  have  visited,  the  school 
savings  bank  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  stddtische  Sparkasse 
(city  savings  bank),  where  the  money  of  the  children  was  usually 
deposited.    The  rate  of  interest  is  usually  si  per  cent. 


156  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  some  schools  there  are  slot  machines  where  the  children 
may  get  a  deposit  check  on  the  insertion  of  a  ten-pfennig  piece. 
These  checks  are  collected  and  when  they  amount  to  one  mark 
they  are  turned  over  to  the  teacher  and  the  child  is  credited 
with  that  amount.  The  advantage  of  this  system  lies  in  the 
fact  that  a  child  can  get  a  deposit  check  as  soon  as  he  gets  his 
hands  on  his  ten-pfennig  piece  and  does  not  have  to  carry  his 
money  around  a  whole  week  or  month  past  all  the  tempting 
windows  where  pennies  are  so  easily  spent.  Another  system  of 
saving  which  is  rather  common  is  the  stamp  system.  The  chil- 
dren buy  stamps  (saving  stamps)  which  are  specially  for  this 
purpose,  and  they  paste  these  in  their  books.  This  is  merely 
another  form  of  registration  and  it  seems  to  be  more  objective 
to  the  children  than  when  figures  are  merely  written  down. 

The  conditions  of  withdrawal  also  vary.  In  some  systems 
the  money  must  be  kept  on  deposit  until  the  child  is  foiirteen 
or  removes  from  the  city.  In  other  systems  the  parents  are 
allowed  to  withdraw  the  savings  at  any  time.  As  a  rule  the 
money  is  kept  until  the  child  leaves  school,  so  that  there  wiU 
be  a  fund  on  hand  at  confirmation  time  when  the  child  takes 
up  his  or  her  calling. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  savings  fund  movement,  the  teachers 
were  opposed  to  it  on  many  grounds.  The  real  objection  was 
that  it  caused  a  great  deal  of  work  for  which  the  teachers  re- 
ceived no  pay.  At  that  time  the  collection  of  the  money  took 
place  outside  of  school  hours,  while  now  the  time  is  generally 
taken  out  of  the  regular  school  time.  It  is  interesting,  however, 
to  notice  some  of  the  reasons  given  as  argument  against  school 
savings  banks,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  one  never  hears  a  teacher 
at  the  present  time  maintain  them.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  reasons  given  in  1880  against  the  foundation  of  such  funds 
in  the  schools :  There  is  no  cogent  pedagogical  foundation  for 
the  establishment  of  school  savings  banks,  for  the  schools  possess 


EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITY     157 

a  sufficient  number  of  means  for  awakening  the  sense  of  economy. 
The  child  does  not  possess  the  right  conception  of  thrift,  that  is, 
the  understanding  of  money  and  labor  in  their  relationship. 
The  school  has  no  time  for  such  work.  School  savings  banks 
undermine  the  confidence  existing  between  the  home  and  the 
school.  They  produce  class  feeling.  They  produce  jealousy, 
greed,  covetousness,  and  far  worse  qualities.  They  destroy 
the  inclination  of  the  child  to  work  at  home.  They  deprive  the 
children  of  the  right  conception  of  the  purpose  of  the  school. 
They  assume  one  of  the  functions  of  the  home,  —  the  inculca- 
tion of  the  principle  of  economy  and  thrift.  They  commercial- 
ize the  child's  spirit. 

In  spite  of  these  arguments,  or  rather,  statements,  the  move- 
ment increased  very  rapidly,  because  there  was  a  need  felt  among 
the  people  for  just  such  an  institution,  where  children  could 
learn  to  save,  whether  there  was  a  pedagogical  reason  for  it  or 
not.  A  prominent  rector  in  BerUn  said  to  us,  "  The  time  we  spend 
in  collecting  the  money  from  the  children  each  week  is  the  most 
valuable  half-hour  we  spend." 

There  are  school  banks  in  America,  but  they  are  by  no  means 
so  general  as  in  Germany,  though  the  reason  for  it  is  not  far  to 
seek.  The  American  boy  saves  his  money  on  his  own  initiative. 
He  goes  straight  to  regular  banks  and  opens  up  his  account. 
America  has  a  lesson  to  learn  in  this  regard,  and  school  banks, 
under  city  or  state  banking  supervision,  would  do  much  to  in- 
crease the  thrift  of  the  American  school  children. 

We  have  endeavored  to  mention  briefly  in  this  chapter  some 

of  the  activities  which  supplement  the  work  of  the  Volksschulen. 

One  would  scarcely  find  all  of  these  movements  con-  . 

•'  .    .        Conclusion 

nected  with  any  one  school ;  however,  every  activity 
mentioned  above  is  growing  rapidly  from  year  to  year.    The 
country  child  fares  very  badly,  just  as  he  does  in  America,  except 
in  the  matter  of  teachers.    The  country  girl  and  boy  have  their 


158  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

compensation  in  other  ways.  It  is  diflScult  to  measure  the 
actual  value  of  all  the  extracurricular  movements,  but  it  seems 
to  us  that  if  all  the  children  could  partake  in  all  of  them,  they 
would  outweigh  the  work  done  in  the  schoolroom  as  far  as  real 
building  for  life  is  concerned. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER 

The  chart  on  page  160  indicates  the  number  of  years  of  prepara- 
tion required  of  the  elementary  school  teacher  and  the  schools 
in  which  this  preparation  is  generally  obtained.  The  rule  is, 
that  the  teacher  has  attended  an  elementary  school  (Volksschule 
or  Mittelsckule)  for  eight  years,  the  normal  preparatory  school 
for  three  years,  and  the  normal  school  for  a  like  period  of  three 
years,  in  all  a  preparation  of  fourteen  years'  duration. 

The  majority  of  the  elementary  school  teachers  attend  the 
Volksschule,  though  just  what  percentage  is  not  determinable. 
Those  who  do  not  attend  the  Volksschule  attend  a 
middle  school.     Only  in  a  few  cases  does  the  pupil  of  schuie  and 
a  Gymnasium  become  a  teacher  in  the  lower  schools.  ^^^^^ 
A  pupil  who  has  finished  the  full  nine  years'  course 
of  a  middle  school  enters  the  second  year  of  the  normal  pre- 
paratory school  (Praparandenanstali)  without  examination,  and 
if  he  has  passed  the  one-year  volunteer  examination  (see  p.  85), 
it  is  possible  for  him  to  enter  the  first  class  of  the  Praparanden- 
anstalt,  or  the  lowest  class  of  the  normal  school  {Seminar).    If 
the  pupil  has  merely  finished  the  Volksschule,  he  enters  directly 
into  the  lowest  class  of  the  Praparandenanslalt.    Attention  is 
called  here  to  the  diagram,  which  indicates  the  classes,  schools, 
and  possibilities  of  transfer  from  one  school  to  another.    Like- 
wise the  age  of  the  pupil  who  has  made  regular  progress  is  desig- 
nated.   No  one  may  begin  to  teach  in  Prussia  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  twentieth  year,  nor  may  any  one  be  admitted  to 
the  normal  school  before  the  age  of  seventeen. 

IS9 


i6o 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


School 
Year  Age 


II 
III 
IV 
V 
VI 
VII 
VIII 
IX 


>      :>      > 


I 

14 

19 

\  A/ormal 
School 

II 

13 

18 

\ 
LeArs/' 

III 

12 

17 

[semina/" 

I 

11 

16 

Normal 
Preparaiory 

II 

10 

15 

School 
/Prdparan 

III 

9 

14 

)den- 
yristalt) 

I 

8 

13 

\ 

II 

7 

12 

III 

6 

11 

IV 

5 

10 

%lhsc/iu- 
len 

V 

4 

9 

VI 
VII 
VIII 

3 

8 

2 

7 

1 

6 

PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    i6i 

A  pupil  of  the  Volksschule  wishing  to  become  a  teacher  enters 
next  the  Praparandenanstalt,  to  which  he  obtains  entrance  by 
passing  an  oral  and  written  examination  on  all  the  sub-  j^^jj^^^ 
jects  of  instruction  of  the  Volksschule.  The  Praparan-  Preparatory 
denanstalt  is  an  institution  for  preparing  boys  for 
the  normal  schools.  The  course  is  generally  three  years.  These 
institutions  are  partly  state,  partly  city,  and  partly  private. 
Some  are  in  connection  with  normal  schools  and  others  are  en- 
tirely separate  institutions.  There  are  no  normal  preparatory 
schools  for  girls,  but  provision  is  made  for  the  girls'  preparation 
in  girls'  higher  schools  and  private  institutions.  In  1912  there 
were  eighty-four  normal  preparatory  schools  in  Prussia  supported 
by  the  state,  and  one  hundred  fifty-nine  institutions,  either 
supported  by  the  cities,  or  of  a  private  nature.  All  receive 
state  support.  In  the  state  schools  there  were  7156  pupils  and 
14,623  in  the  other  schools.  In  the  same  year  the  state  prepara- 
tory school  cost  2,393,802  M.,  or  about  334  M.  per  pupil.  The 
pupils  are  expected  to  pay  their  own  expenses,  but  in  case  they 
are  not  able  to  do  so,  the  state  furnishes  them  aid. 

The  normal  preparatory  schools,  as  well  as  the  normal  schools, 
were  reorganized  thoroughly  by  the  General  Regulations  of  18^2, 
and  again  reorganized  by  the  regulations  of  July  i, 
1901,  and  they  exist  to-day  in  the  form  given  them  the  Normal 
by  the  regulations  last  named.    The  normal  prepar-  ^^'""'"'^ 
atory  schools  were  reorganized  in  a  uniform  way  for  all 
Prussia  in  order  that  the  pupils  coming  to  the  normal  schools 
should  have  pretty  much  the  same  preparation  and  ability. 
According  to  the  course  of  study  of  1901,  the  preparatory  school 
has  three  classes,  each  class  comprising  a  year's  work.    It  is 
also  to  be  noticed  that  the  course  of  study  of  the  normal  school 
and  the  course  of  study  of  the  preparatory  school  form  a  com- 
plete whole,  and  the  work  of  the  preparatory  school  is  built 
directly  upon  that  of  the  Volksschule.    In  fact  it  is  the  sole  task 


i62  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

of  the  preparatory  school  to  continue  the  general  education 
of  the  lower  school,  while  it  is  the  business  of  the  normal  school 
to  finish  the  general  education  of  its  pupils,  and  give  them  their 
professional  training,  too.  The  first  year  of  normal  preparatory 
school  is  to  take  pupils  with  greatly  varying  preparation,  for 
they  come  from  schools  of  varying  efiiciency,  and  bring  them 
to  the  same  standard  of  advancement.  In  some  subjects,  such 
as  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geometry,  the  work  of  the  highest 
class  of  the  Volksschule  is  repeated  to  some  extent  in  the  first 
year  of  the  preparatory  school.  As  a  result  of  the  new  regulations 
of  1901  a  great  deal  of  the  academic  work  of  the  normal  school 
has  been  shoved  down  into  the  normal  preparatory  school,  in 
order  to  give  the  students  in  the  normal  school  more  time  for 
methods,  practice  teaching,  history  of  education,  and  other 
professional  work.  Some  subjects  or  parts  of  subjects  are  finished 
entirely  in  the  preparatory  school,  for  example,  Bible  history, 
catechism,  German  grammar,  elementary  arithmetic,  ancient 
history,  writing,  and  zoology  in  part. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  normal  preparatory  school  has  a 
three  years'  course,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  the 
Plan  of  Volksschule.  Pupils,  however,  who  come  from  the 
tion^  a''  Volksschule  must  pass  an  entrance  examination  for  the 
Normal  Pre-  preparatory  school.    This  examination  is   a  means 

paratory 

School  of  elimination  of  the  poorer  class  of  pupils,  in  order 

that  the  normal  school  system  shall  not  become  overcrowded. 
As  a  rule  not  more  than  thirty  pupils  are  admitted  to  any  one 
class  of  the  school,  so  that  the  normal  number  of  pupils  in  a 
normal  preparatory  school  is  ninety. 

The  boy  on  applying  for  admission  to  the  preparatory  school 
must  furnish  a  birth  certificate,  also  certificates  of  confirmation, 
vaccination,  revaccination,  health  previous  training,  and  a 
certified  attest  from  the  father  that  the  latter  is  willing  to  sup- 
port the  son  throughout  the  course  and  that  he  has  the  neces- 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL   TEACHER    163 

sary  means  for  doing  so.  The  examination  must  be  passed,  and 
the  enrolhnent  is  finally  approved  by  the  Provincial  School 
Board,  under  whose  supervision  are  all  normal  schools  and 
normal  preparatory  schools.  The  tuition  is  generally  about 
thirty-six  marks  per  year.  The  institution  is  an  external.  The 
pupils  board  with  citizens  of  the  town,  but  are  always  under 
the  supervision  of  the  school  authorities.  Pupils  who  are  not 
financially  able  to  pay  all  their  expenses  are  excused  from  pay- 
ing the  tuition  fee,  and  frequently  receive  aid  from  the  state. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY   OF   THE   PRUSSIAN   NORMAL   AND    NORMAL 
PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS 


SrajEcrs 

PREPAItATORV  SCHOOL          NOEMAl  SCHOOl 

Reiuses 

m 

II 

I 

III 

II 

I 

Pedagogy    .     .     . 
Methods     .     .     . 

Practice  Teaching 
Religion      .    .     . 
German      .    .     . 
Mod.  Languages  . 
History       .     .     . 
Mathematics  .     . 
Natural  and  Phys- 
ical Science 
Geography .    .     . 
Writing  .... 
Drawing     .     .     . 
Physical  Training 
Music     .... 

Agriculture      .     . 

4 

s 

2 
2 
S 

2 
2 
2 
2 

3 
3 

4 
S 
2 
2 

s 

4 
2 
2 
2 
3 
4 
I 

3 
S 
3 
3 
5 

4 
2 

I 
2 
3 
S 

3 

3 
5 
2 
2 
S 

4 
3 

2 
3 
4 

I 

3 

(4)' 

4 
S 
2 
2 
S 

4 
2 

2 
3 
4 

I 
I 

3 
4 

4-6 
3' 
3' 
2 
2 
i< 

I  » 

16 

I 

3' 

4 

'  Included  in  hours  of 
the  several  subjects. 

"  One  hour-methods 
'  One  hour-methods 

*  One  hour-methods 

'  One  hour-methods 
'  One  hour-methods 

'  One  hour-methods 

Total       .     .     . 

34 

37 

37 

38 

38 

33-3S 

At  the  end  of  the  course  in  the  normal  preparatory  there  is  a 
leaving  examination  known  as  the  Entlassungspriifung.  It  covers 
the  work  of  the  preparatory  school  and  those  who  are  successful 


1 64  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

in  the  examination  are  admitted  to  the  normal  school.     This 

examination  corresponds  exactly  to  the  entrance  examinations 

(Aufnahmeprilfung)  for  normal  schools,  the  only  difference  being 

that  the  former  examination  is  held  at  a  normal  preparatory 

school,  while  the  latter  is  held  at  the  normal  school,  and  that 

the  dates  of  examination  may  be  different.     (See  p.  i66  for 

Aufnahmeprilfung) . 

In  general  the  course  of  study  of  the  normal  preparatory 

school  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  work  of  the  Volksschule. 

The  course  of  the  Volksschule  and  the  normal  pre- 

s^y'of°4e  paratory  might  well  be  compared  with  the  courses 

Prdparan-  gf  ^^  American  elementary  and  high  school,  though 
denanstalt  ,  _r 

the  subjects  of  study  are  by  no  means  the  same,     ihe 

average  graduate  of  the  German  normal  preparatory  seems  to 
be  equally  advanced  as  the  graduate  of  an  American  high  school, 
except  in  the  practical  subjects  and  in  physical  development. 
The  German  boy  of  seventeen  is  soft  and  unfinished  in  comparison 
with  the  average  American  high  school  graduate.  The  dif- 
ference is  not  in  academic  knowledge,  but  in  knowledge  of  things 
and  people,  which  the  American  boy  acquires  under  the  American 
system  of  life,  and  through  the  social  activity  into  which  every 
American  high  school  student  is  thrown  more  or  less.^ 

The  next  step  in  the  preparation  of  the  elementary  school 
teacher  is  the  Lehrersemmar  or  normal  training  school,  with  a 
The  Honnai  three  years'  course.  In  general  these  normal  schools 
School  aj-g  state  institutions.    In  1912  there  were  201  state 

normal  schools  in  Prussia ;  18  of  these  schools  were  for  women 
and  the  remainder  for  men;  4  were  non-sectarian,  126  for 
Protestant  teachers,  and  71  for  Catholic.  There  was  a  total 
of  18,887  students  enrolled  and  1435  teachers  employed.  These 
schools  were  supported  at  a  total  expense  of  14,791,664  M.,  of 

'■  See  Kandel,  Training  of  Elementary  Teachers  in  Germany,  for  the  course  of 
study  in  the  Prussian  normal  schools. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    165 

which  12,845,313  M.  was  contributed  by  the  state.    Each  stu- 
dent cost  on  the  average  a  little  over  783  M. 

The  majority  of  the  normal  schools  are  boarding  institutions, 
just  as  axe  some  of  our  normal  schools  in  America  and  those  in 
France.  The  schools  require  a  tuition  fee,  which,  how- 
ever, is  low.  The  pupils  who  can  pay  their  board  are 
required  to  do  so ;  the  others  pay  as  much  as  they  can,  and  the 
deficit  is  made  up  by  the  state.  The  boys  live  in  the  institutions 
under  very  strict  supervision,  and  with  a  limited  number  of  priv- 
ileges. All  normal  schools  are  not  vnternats,  and  the  pupils 
of  non-boarding  institutions  live  with  the  people  of  the  town. 

The  normal  schools  are  sectarian  and  non-coeducational. 
The  Protestants  are  educated  in  one  school,  the  Catholics  in 
another,  and  the  Jews  in  another.  So  far  as  we  can  -g^^^^ 
see  there  is  very  little  reason  for  such  separation.  The  Schools  for 
women  have  as  yet  few  normal  schools.  Up  till  the 
present  time  the  women  who  have  become  teachers  in  the  Volks- 
schulen  have  attended  public  or  private  girls'  higher  schools 
and  then  taken  the  examination  required  for  admission  to  the 
profession.  A  large  number  of  the  women  teachers  have  really 
passed  the  examination  for  the  middle  or  higher  girls'  schools, 
but,  on  account  of  a  lack  of  positions,  are  forced  to  teach  in  the 
lower  schools,  where  also  there  is  an  oversupply  of  women  teach- 
ers. It  is  customary  that  training  schools  for  women  are  tacked 
on  to  a  Lyzeum,  in  some  form  or  other.  Such  regular  state 
training  schools  as  there  are,  eighteen  in  all,  are  very  similar 
to  the  institutions  for  men.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private 
normal  schools  for  women  in  connection  with  girls'  higher  schools. 
Likewise  in  various  cities  in  connection  with  the  city  girls'  higher 
school  there  are  courses  for  teachers.  Taking  it  all  in  all,  the 
normal  school  system  for  women  is  not  developed  fully  in  Prussia, 
but  it  is  gradually  taking  on  a  form  similar  to  that  of  the  normal 
school  system  for  men. 


i66  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Each  student  applying  for  entrance  to  a  normal  school  must 
pass  an  entrance  examination,  which  is  called  the  Aufnahmeprii- 
Entrance  /""^-  Pupils  of  recognized  normal  preparatory  schools 
Examina-      are  not  required  to  take   this  particular  examination, 

tion  for  ,  ,        .  .        .         ^    i  i 

Normal  but  must  pass  a  leavmg  exammation  at  the  preparatory 
Schools  school,  which  to  all  mtents  and  purposes  is  identical 
to  entrance  examinations  at  the  normal  school.  The  entrance 
examination  ^  is  held  at  regular  intervals  before  an  examina- 
tion commission  composed  of  the  commissioners  of  the  Pro- 
vincial School  Board,  and.  the  director  and  several  of  the 
teachers  of  the  normal  school  in  the  administrative  county  in 
question.  Applications  for  admittance  are  granted  only  to 
those  who  will  have  attained  the  age  of  seventeen  by  the  time 
of  entrance  into  the  normal  school.  AppHcants  must  also 
bring  certificates  of  health  and  character,  just  as  in  the  case  of 
pupils  entering  the  normal  preparatory  schools,  as  we  have  de- 
scribed above.  It  is  immaterial  where  the  applicants  have 
acquired  their  previous  training,  be  it  in  the  Volksschule,  Mittel- 
schule,  Realschule,  Gymnasium,  or  Praparandenanstalt.  No  one 
is  admitted  to  the  examination  who  has  passed  the  age  of  twenty- 
four.  The  examination  covers  all  the  subjects  of  instruction 
in  the  preparatory  school  and  consists  of  a  written  part  and  an 
oral  part.  The  written  part  consists  usually  of  little  themes 
dealing  with  religion,  history,  geography,  or  science,  and  general 
topics  selected  from  the  candidate's  field  of  experience.  In 
place  of  the  first  group  of  themes,  a  number  of  questions  requiring 
two  or  three  minutes'  writing  may  be  assigned.  The  oral  part 
of  the  examination  is  held  preferably  before  the  whole  commis- 
sion and  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  examination.  Any 
applicant  deficient  in  any  one  major  subject  can  be  accepted 
only  in  case  the  whole  commission  thinks  the  applicant  can  make 

^  Allegemeine  Bestimtmngen  of  October  15,  1872.  Bestimmungen  betrefend 
das  Praparandenwesen,  July  i,  igoi. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    167 

up  the  deficiency.  Those  who  are  totally  lacking  musical 
ability  are  excluded,  but  those  who  are  merely  deficient  or  are 
so  because  of  some  defect  in  hearing  or  are  deficient  in  organ 
playing  may  be  accepted.  The  examination  requires  a  pretty 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  work  planned  for  the  normal  pre- 
paratory schools. 

After  the  examination  has  been  passed  the  successful  ones 
are  admitted  to  the  normal  school.  Only  those  are  announced 
as  having  passed  for  whom  there  are  places.  If  the  normal  school 
in  one  district  needs  more  pupils,  they  are  sent  from  another 
district  which  has  too  many.  The  classes  are  held  to  thirty  as 
nearly  as  possible.  On  entering  the  normal  school  the  student 
must  sign  the  following  promise :  ^ 

Upon  my  entrance  into  the  royal  teachers'  training  school  at  X — , 
I  hereby  obligate  myself  to  pay  back  all  aid  received  in  cash  or  in  other 
forms,  and  further  to  pay  as  tuition  fee  for  instruction  received  thirty 
(30)  marks  for  every  semester  spent  in  the  school, 

(i)  if,  I,  before  the  end  of  the  course,  should  leave  the  school  of  my 

own  account  and  without  being  compelled  to  do  so  through  illness,  or 

should  be  forced  to  leave  on  account  of  bad  conduct ; 

(2)  or  if  I  should  refuse,  within  the  first  five  years  after  passing  my 

first  teachers'  examination  (see  below),  to  accept  the  position  in  the 

public  school  service  assigned  to  me  by  the  provincial  or  central  authorities. 

After  the  completion  of  the  normal  school  course  all  can- 
didates for  the  teaching  profession  must  pass  the  First  Teachers' 
Examination   {Erste  Lehrerprufung)  on   the  basis  of 
which  they  receive  the  qualification  necessary  for  tern-  First 

Teachers- 

porary  appointment  in  the  Volksschulen.    Applicants  Examina- 
are  also  admitted  to  this  examination  who  have  not  ^"^^jf "'* 
prepared   at  the  normal  schools.     The  examination  prUfung) 
in  reality  is  the  leaving  examination  of  the  normal 
school,  but  serves  the  purpose  of  teachers'  examination,  too, 
just  as  in  some  states  in  America  graduation  from  the  normal 
>  Min.  EHasse  of  January  24,  18R7,  and  May  14,  1892. 


1 68  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

school  is  equivalent  to  certification  for  teaching.  The  examina- 
tion commission  consists  of  the  commissioner  of  the  royal  Provin- 
cial School  Board  as  chairman,  a  commissioner  of  the  admin- 
istrative county  in  which  the  examination  is  held,  and  the  director 
and  all  the  regular  teachers  of  the  normal  school.  Sample  copies 
of  drawing  and  writing  must  be  submitted  by  all  candidates 
before  the  examination  begins.  The  examination  is  made  up 
of  written,  practical,  and  oral  tests. 

The  standard  of  knowledge  and  ability  demanded  is  deter- 
mined by  the  course  of  study  for  normal  schools.  The  candidates 
who  received  their  training  in  the  normal  school  have 
Part  of  the  to  prepare  the  following  themes  or  compositions: 
Examina-  (j)  theme  deahng  with  a  topic  taken  from  pedagogy 
or  principles  of  teaching,  from  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, or  from  German  literature ;  (2)  composition  in  religion, 
and  (3)  another  in  history;  (4)  a  translation  from  German 
into  a  foreign  language  and  from  a  foreign  language  into 
German ;  (5)  for  those  who  study  organ  and  harmony,  the  com- 
position of  a  choral.  For  the  first  (i)  piece  of  written  work  4 
hours  are  allowed,  and  2  hours  each  for  the  others.  The 
candidates  coming  from  without  the  Seminar  must  prepare  the 
same  written  work,  and  in  addition  thereto  do  some  written 
work  in  mathematics  (3  hours),  and  in  geography  and  the  natu- 
ral sciences  (2  hours  each).  If  the  written  work  is  of  high  qual- 
ity, the  candidate  may  be  excused  entirely  from  the  oral  part  of 
the  examination. 

At  the  close  of  the  written  examination,  topics  are  assigned 
to  the  various  candidates,  which  they  shall  present  as  model 
Teaching.  lessons  before  the  commission  two  days  later.  A 
^of  tte  ™^*^°  outline  of  the  lesson  presented  must  be  pre- 
Examina-  pared  by  the  candidate  and  laid  before  the  commis- 
sion. The  topics  assigned  may  be  selected  from  any 
subject  of  instruction  in  the  Volksschule. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    169 

The  oral  part  of  the  examination  for  the  candidates  from  the 
normal  school  includes  oral  tests  in  pedagogy,  religion,  German, 
history,  a  foreign  language,  and  in  methods  for  all  orai  ex- 
elementary  school  subjects.  The  other  candidates  amination 
must  pass  an  oral  examination  in  all  subjects  of  the  normal 
school.  The  latter  class  of  candidates  are  never  excused  from 
the  oral  examination.  The  commission  decides  on  the  success 
of  the  candidate  according  to  the  total  results  of  all  parts  of  the 
examination.  Whoever  is  deficient  in  German,  religion,  peda- 
gogy, or  history  fails  in  the  examinations.  Deficiency  in  mathe- 
matics is  reason  for  failure  of  a  candidate  not  coming  from  the 
normal  school.  Failure  in  more  than  three  of  the  other  sub- 
jects of  examination  is  cause  for  refusal  of  the  teaching  certifi- 
cate. 

If  a  candidate  passes  the  examination,  he  receives  a  certificate 
which  indicates  the  name  of  the  holder,  personality,  training, 
industry,  conduct,  the  results  of  the  written  tests,  as  ^j^^  Teach- 
weU  as  of  the  oral  test  and  the  model  lesson.     The  ing  Certifi- 
administrative  county  adds  its  certification  of  quali- 
fication for  teaching,  and  the  candidate  is  now  subject  to  tem- 
porary appointment  in  an  elementary  school.' 

The  Prussian  elementary  teacher  is  appointed  at  first  only 
temporarily.  At  the  end  of  two  years'  service,  the  probationary 
is  allowed  to  apply  for  admittance  to  the  Second 

.  .  r      1  •  1  •  1        The  Second 

Teachers'  Examination,  the  passing  of  which  entitles  Teachers' 
the  teacher   to  permanent   appointment.    This   ex-  y^^"™*" 
amination,  according  to  the  regulations  issued  July 
13,  191 2,  consists  of  three  parts;  a  written,  a  practical,  and  an 
oral.    The  chief  change  made  by  the  new  regulations  from  those 
of  July  I,  1 90 1,  is  that  the  practical  (teaching)  part  of  the  ex- 
amination is  held  in  the  candidate's  own  school  and  class,  in 
which  he  has  taught  at  least  for  one  year.     This  innovation  is 
1  Neue  Bestimmungen  ilber  die  SeminarsentlassungsprUfung,  July  i,  1901. 


I70  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

of  decided  advantage  to  the  teacher,  for  he  is  not  required,  as 
formerly,  to  give  his  trial  lesson  with  strange  pupils.  The 
temporary  teachers  have  two  opportunities  each  year  to  register 
for  the  examination,  in  March  and  in  September,  and  if  the 
appHcation  is  granted,  they  are  examined  sometime  within  the 
following  six  months.  The  examination  is  held  by  a  commission 
of  three,  composed  usually  of  the  county  school  superintendent, 
the  district  school  inspector,  and  the  principal  or  head  of  a  normal 
school,  middle  school,  or  Volksschule.  The  fee  for  the  exami- 
nation is  five  dollars.  This  second  examination  must  be  passed 
before  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  of  teaching. 

The  written  part  of  the  examination  consists  of  a  treatise 
prepared  by  the  candidate  on  some  professional  topic  which 
„,    „,  .^      he  himself  has  selected  out  of  his  recent  educational 

The  Wntten  ,       _  t        i    • 

Examina-  activity  with  the  approval  of  the  district  school  m- 
*'°°  spector.    This  treatise  is  prepared  at  home  and  is 

generally  twenty-five  or  thirty  pages  in  length.  The  writer 
must  also  make  out  a  list  of  all  books  and  other  sources  which 
he  has  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  treatise,  both  of  which  he 
forwards  to  the  district  school  inspector,  along  with  his  appli- 
cation for  examination.  The  district  school  inspector  writes 
his  report  of  the  teacher's  work  in  the  application  blank  and, 
together  with  the  treatise,  forwards  it  to  the  commission.  A 
member  of  the  commission  reads  the  treatise,  reports  to  the 
commission  on  it,  and  then  it  is  decided  whether  the  probation- 
ary be  allowed  to  take  the  oral  part  of  the  examination. 

The  practical  test  covers  generally  three  subjects,  usually 
in  the  class  which  the  candidate  has  taught  the  most,  or  if  he  has 
^j^^  been  continually  occupied  in  other  classes,  a  part  of 

Practical       the  examination  may  be  held  in  these  classes.     The 

Test 

teacher  has  already  submitted  his  weekly  program 
to  the  commission,  and  it  in  turn  notifies' him  on  what  day 
it  will  examine  his  work.    The  commission  takes  into  consid- 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    171 

eration  the  general  condition  of  the  class  as  well  as  the  ability 
of  the  teacher  to  impart  instruction.  The  teacher  is  required 
to  treat  new  material  in  order  to  show  his  methods  in  working 
upon  the  "understanding  and  feelings  of  the  children." 

The  oral  part  of  the  examination,  which  is  given  immediately 
after  the  practical  test,  deals  with  the  professional  knowledge 
and  abihty  of  the  teacher.  He  is  examined  in  psy-  The  Oral 
chology,  logic,  ethics,  methods  of  teaching,  history  '^'^* 
of  education,  especially  the  development  of  the  Prussian  Volks- 
schule,  school  law,  and  administration.  The  result  of  the  ex- 
amination is  obtained  by  consideration  of  all  parts  thereof.  In 
case  of  failure  the  candidate  is  allowed  to  repeat  the  examina- 
tion once,  and  in  case  of  the  second  failure,  he  is  dismissed  from 
the  service. 

The  certificate  which  the  successful  candidate  receives  after 
the  examination  is  over  is  as  follows : 

On  the  basis  of  the  examination  of  his  school  work  and  training,  which 
he  has  passed  successfully  before  the  local  commission,  the  qualification 
for  permanent  appointment  as  teacher  in  the  elementary  school  is  granted 
Herr  N.  N.,  born  July  10,  1890,  in  district  of  Randow  in  the  administrative 
coimty  of  Stettin,  and  of  Protestant  religion,  at  present  teacher  in  the  rural 
district  of  Marienburg  in  Regierungsbezirk  Hildesheim. 

Teachers  in  the  public  schools  are  selected  by  the  local  author- 
ities from  the  Hst  of  those  ehgible,  that  is,  from  a  Hst  of  those 
who  have  passed  the  examinations  described  above. 
Teachers  are  elected  by  the  local  authorities  but  must  Appoint- 
be  confiurmed  by  the  county  government,  which  issues  ™*° 
the  appointment  or  notice  of  confirmation  of  election.    By  local 
authorities  is  meant  the  town  council,  which  acts  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  school  deputation  or  the  school  board,  Schul- 
vorstand,  in  communalities  which  form  their  own  school  cor- 
poration;  in  manors  the  local  authority  is  the  owner,  and  he, 
in  cooperation  with  the  school  board,  selects  the  teachers;  in 


172  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

other  school  corporations  the  school  board  or  the  school  depu- 
tation is  the  electing  body.^ 

Thus  finally  the  German  teacher  is  firmly  fixed  in  his  position. 
From  the  time  he  enters  the  normal  preparatory  school  until 
Security  of  be  is  finally  a  full-fledged  teacher  four  examinations 
Position  jjjygt  bg  passed.  It  is  a  process  of  selection,  which 
only  the  best  survive.  There  are  two  reasons  for  so  many  ex- 
aminations. The  first  reason  is  that  a  large  number  who  wish 
to  become  teachers  must  be  weeded  out,  and  the  second  is  that 
a  high  standard  of  ability  is  desired.  Both  of  these  results 
are  obtained.  Once  a  teacher  is  in  the  profession,  however,  he 
is  there  for  all  time.  It  is  a  very  rare  occurrence  that  a  teacher 
is  dismissed.  He  is  a  state  official  and  does  not  have  to  depend 
on  the  whims  of  a  local  school  board  for  his  bread  and  butter. 
This  sense  of  security  takes  a  great  burden  of  worry  from  the 
mind  of  the  teacher,  for  he  knows  that  he  will  be  cared  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  and  consequently  does  not  have  to  suffer  under 
the  bugbear  of  dismissal,  as  do  so  many  American  teachers. 
The  German  teaching  profession  is  a  compact,  permanent  body, 
and  unmolested  by  material  cares  can  pursue  serenely  an  educa- 
tional policy.  Not  only  is  the  head  of  the  school  system  of  a 
city  or  district  safe  and  secure,  but  so  also  are  his  subordinates. 
Removals  of  city  superintendents  never  occur  in  Germany  as 
they  do  in  America. 

The  sense  of  security  which  the  German  teacher  feels  sometimes 
produces  a  bad  effect,  that  of  indifference  and  routine  performance 
of  duty,  the  feeling,  —  "I'll  do  just  enough  to  escape  censure. 
What's  the  use  of  overexertion?"  The  number  of  German 
teachers  with  this  feeling  is  very  small.  I  have  seen  some  of 
that  kind,  but  the  vast  majority  work  hard  and  work  overtime. 
Every  German  official  has  a  very  great  pride  in  the  fulfillment 
of  his  duty. 

•  Schulunterhaltungsgesetz  vom  28  Juli,  igo6,  p.  24,  Heinze,  Im  Amt. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    173 

After  the  first  teachers'  examination  the  young  teacher  enters 
the  profession,  as  we  have  seen  above.  As  a  rule  he  is  desig- 
nated then  as  candidate  (Schulamtsbewerber).  If  he  is  unfit  for 
military  service,  he  is  allowed  to  seek  a  position,  and  is  appointed 
temporarily  with  all  the  rights  of  a  teacher.  His  position  is 
changed  without  further  ado  from  a  temporary  to  a  permanent 
one,  as  soon  as  he  has  passed  the  second  examination.  If  the 
candidate  is  fit  for  military  service,  he  is  not  allowed  to  apply 
for  a  position,  but  is  appointed  only  as  substitute  until  he  has 
satisfied  his  military  requirements.  Meanwhile  he  is  sent 
wherever  the  county  government  desires.  In  reality,  the  can- 
didate who  is  unfit  for  military  service  has  a  professional  and 
financial  advantage  over  the  candidate  who  is  fit. 

Since  1900  the  alternative  of  serving  as  a  one-year  volunteer 
or  one  year  at  the  expense  of  the  state  has  been  given  all  elemen- 
tary school   teachers.     Teachers   who  are  able  serve  ^^t^^ 
at  their  own  expense,  because  it  gives  them  and  their  Service  of 
profession  a  higher  social  standing.     One-year  active 
service  costs  from  700  to  800  M.,  while  the  Einjahriger  needs 
at  least  2500  M.     Teachers  who  do  not  possess  the  means  for 
serving  as  one  year  volunteers,  are  supported  by  the  state.    They 
serve  only  one  year,  but  do  not  receive  Schnuren  (shoulder  cords) 
as  do  those  volunteers  who  pay  their  own  expenses.    Nor  do  those 
teachers  who  are  supported  by  the  state  have  all  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  regular  one-year  volunteers.    They  cannot  choose 
their  regiment  nor  their  garrison.    They  must  live  in  the  barracks 
and  receive  the  same  food  and  equipment  that  the  two-year  men 
do.    On  the  other  hand,  the  teachers  better  financially  situated 
have  all  of  these  advantages  which  are  denied  two-year  men. 
I  Teachers  have  all  the  privileges  and  rights  of  state  servants  ^ 
and  are  direct  officials  of  the  state.^    Teachers  have  active  but 

*  Art.  23  of  the  Constitution,  January  31,  1850. 
'  Min.  Erl.  vom  19  Juni,  i88g. 


174  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

not  passive  suffrage  in  the  community,  that  is,  they  may  vote, 
but  they  may  not  be  elected  to  office.    A  teacher  in 

Pnvileges  ,  .      ,  ,  ,^  •, 

and  Rights  the  exercise  of  his  duty  cannot  leave  the  commumty 
of  Teachers  j^  ^yhich  his  school  is  without  the  consent  of  his 
superiors.  He  is  also  not  allowed  to  have  his  dwelling  outside 
of  the  community  in  which  he  teaches. 

The  teacher  is  excluded  from  certain  kinds  of  offices.  He 
cannot  be  a  member  of  the  magistracy  nor  of  the  town  council, 
nor  can  he  be  called  as  juryman.  He  cannot  accept  other  re- 
munerative employment  without  the  consent  of  the  school  au- 
thorities. A  special  privilege  is  allowed  the  teacher  as  an  official 
of  the  state  in  that  he  cannot  be  subjected  to  transfer  from  one 
position  to  another  in  form  of  punishment.  He  may  be  trans- 
ferred for  the  good  of  the  service,  but  his  position  must  be  just 
as  remunerative  and  just  as  high.  Previous  to  1909  elementary/ 
school  teachers  were  not  compelled  to  pay  any  kind  of  direct 
communal  tax,  i.e.  income  tax,  but  under  a  new  law  all  teachers 
appointed  since  that  time  are  required  to  pay  communal  taxes, 
as  other  persons  are  compelled  to  do.  They  are  also  required 
to  pay  state  taxes. 

The  Prussian  women  teachers  are  not  allowed  to  marry  and 
retain  their  positions  in  the  schools.  Through  marriage  the 
woman  teacher  not  only  loses  her  position,  but  also 
Prohibited  ^  claims  to  pension  which  she  may  have  acquired 
Teachera*"  ^P  *°  ^^^*'  *^^'  ^^^  prohibition  of  marriage  to 
women  in  its  present  form  will  not  be  able  to  hold 
out  indefinitely.  Already  certain  concessions  have  been  made 
to  married  women  teachers,  in  that  childless  widows  and,  in 
exceptional  cases,  widows  with  children  are  appointed  to  posi- 
tions, while  widows  and  married  women  with  husbands  are 
appointed  in  exceptional  cases  temporarily,  or  to  substitute 
positions.  It  is  manifestly  unjust  that  women  lose  their  pen- 
sion rights  on  marriage.     Some  states  in  Germany  grant  a 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    175 

compensation  for  the  surrender  of  these  rights.  In  other  states 
women  teachers  are  allowed  to  reenter  the  school  service  in  case 
the  marriage  is  dissolved  through  the  death  of  the  man  or  for 
some  other  cause.  Germany  is  recognizing  that  the  schools 
need  women,  but  to  withdraw  so  many  from  the  opportunity 
of  marriage  and  child-bearing  is  too  great  a  loss  for  the  human 
resources  of  the  state. 

The  ofl5.cial  position  of  the  teacher  is  affected  by  his  or  her 
religious  confession,  sex,  and  subject  of  instruction.    As  far  as 
the  confession  of  teachers  is  concerned,  there  is  little 
or  no  difference  in  the  official  standing  of  the  teachers  confession 
of  one  confession  compared  to  that  of  another.     Prot-  ^  *® 
estant  teachers  and  Cathohc  teachers  have  the  same 
rights,  the  only  difference  is  that  the  Protestant  is  generally  ap- 
pointed to  a  Protestant  school  and  the  CathoHc  teaches  Catholic 
children. 

Quite  large  differences  exist  between  the  position  of  the  male 
and  the  female  teachers.  The  character  of  the  school  com- 
munity, whether  it  is  urban  or  rural,  very  often  decides  Position 
whether  a  woman  or  a  man  shall  get  the  position.  "^"iSex 
In  Catholic  schools  women  are  chosen  in  large  mmibers  for  girls' 
classes.  The  number  of  women  teachers  has  increased  of  late 
years  very  rapidly  on  account  of  the  lack  of  men  teachers  a  few 
years  ago.  Now  there  is  a  surplus  of  women,  and  the  state  is 
unable  to  control  the  number  preparing  for  the  profession,  be- 
cause the  girls  prepare  generally  in  private  or  city  schools.  Men 
are  prepared  in  state  normal  schools  and  the  number  admitted 
can  be  cut  down  to  the  number  needed.  In  many  cases,  women 
who  filled  positions  temporarily  during  the  time  when  male 
teachers  were  wanting  have  already  been  crowded  out.  In 
the  country,  where  the  teacher  of  the  Volksschule  is  also  em- 
ployed in  the  boys'  agricultural  continuation  school,  women  can, 
of  course,  find  no  employment.    In  Prussia  there  are  no  regu- 


176  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

lations  as  to  whether  a  man  or  a  woman  shall  be  appointed ; 
while  in  other  German  states  it  is  generally  regulated  by  law 
what  positions  can  be  occupied  by  women,  and  what  are  open 
to  men. 

Generally  speaking,  the  German  elementary  male  teacher 
does  not  specialize.  He  is  trained  to  teach  all  the  subjects  of 
Position  and  the  Volkssckule  curriculvmi.  Among  the  women 
Subject  teachers  there  is  more  specialization.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  what  are  known  as  technische  Lehrerinnen  (female 
technical  teachers),  that  is,  teachers  of  special  subjects  such  as 
sewing,  physical  training,  cooking,  and  drawing,  for  which  there 
are  special  examinations.  It  is  only  natural  to  expect  that  men 
will  also  specialize  in  the  future,  particularly  if  manual  training 
finds  general  acceptance  in  the  Volksschulen. 

Out  of  long  past  centuries  the  usage  has  come  down  of  com- 
bining the  position  of  teacher  in  rural  communities  with  some 
form  of  service  in  the  church.  Accordingly  the 
Combina-      teacher  is  both  servant  of  the  church  and  the  state. 

non  .01 

School  and  Almost  all  German  states  have  abolished  the  com- 
Offices  bination  of  the  two  ofl&ces,  but  it  still  exists  in  Prussia. 
For  example,  in  the  administrative  district  of  Hilde- 
sheim,  where  this  report  was  written,  forty-six  per  cent  of  the 
teaching  positions  are  organically  connected  with  a  church 
office.  In  cities  such  a  combination  rarely  exists.  Naturally 
the  matter  will  give  great  trouble  in  regulation,  for  the  church 
will  not  give  up  its  hold  on  the  school-teacher  readily,  and  then 
equalization  of  property  will  also  cause  many  difficulties. 

In  visiting  German  elementary  schools  the  teacher  is  one  of 
the  chief  objects  of  interest.  After  one  has  observed  several 
hundred  classes,  in  all  sorts  of  places,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the 
country,  one  begins  to  form  ideas  of  the  elementary  school  teacher 
as  a  type.  The  question  comes  to  mind  over  and  over  again, 
—  How  old  is  the  teacher?    From  what  kind  of  family  do  these 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    177 

teachers  come?  Are  they  married?  What  is  the  general  con- 
dition of  their  health  ?  What  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women  ? 
In  other  words,  what  are  the  personal  relations  of  the  German 
elementary  teacher?  Such  questions  in  America  are  difficult 
to  answer  because  of  the  sad  neglect  of  school  statistics.  Under 
present  conditions  in  America  to  find  the  origin  or  to  determine 
the  kind  of  family  from  which  each  elementary  school  teacher 
came  would  be  absolutely  impossible,  though  it  is  rather  important 
to  know  the  sources  from  which  our  teaching  material  is  drawn. 
Studies  of  this  nature  have  been  made,  but  the  results  are 
based  on  comparatively  few  cases  and  the  information  was  not 
always  reliable.  In  Prussia  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  find  out 
the  answer  to  any  of  the  above  questions,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
as  to  the  authenticity  of  the  figures.  The  age  of  the  teachers 
will  first  be  considered. 

Of  every  hundred  men  and  women  teachers  the  following 
numbers  fell  into  the  age  groups  indicated. 


MEN' 

WOMEN 

City 

COUHTRY 

ITOTAL 

City 

CODNTEY 

Total 

Under  30  years    .... 

30-50  years 

Over  50  years      .... 

19.4 
62.0 
18.0 

43-7 

40.9 

iS-4 

34-3 
49.0 
16.7 

38.7 
49-4 
11.9 

63.4 

29.0 

7.6 

47-S 
42.1 
10.4 

A  study  of  the  preceding  table  shows  that  one  would  find 
very  few  teachers  under  twenty  years  of  age,  while  about  one 
teacher  out  of  every  three  is  between  twenty  and  Age  of 
thirty  years  old.  Among  both  men  and  women  Teachers 
teachers  about  six  of  every  ten  are  under  forty  years  of  age, 
about  two  in  ten  are  between  forty  and  fifty,  and  a  like  number 
are  over  fifty.    This  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  con- 

>  Schuhtatistische  Blatter,  vol.  XI,  No.  II,  loi. 


178 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


15 


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PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    179 

ditions  in  American  pubKc  schools,  where  the  teaching  body  is 
very  much  younger,  and  consequently  much  more  changeable. 
The  average  teaching  life  of  the  American  elementary  teacher 
is  not  much  over  five  years,  or  perhaps  not  that  much,  while 
at  least  eighty  per  cent  (80%)  of  German  teachers  have  taught 
longer  than  that.  The  sole  explanation  for  the  permanency  of 
the  German  elementary  teaching  force  is  that  the  occupation 
there  is  a  profession  and  the  teacher  holds  the  position  for  life 
or  until  pensioned. 

The  one  thing  that  strikes  an  American  visitor  most  peculiarly 
is  the  very  large  number  of  men  teaching  in  the  elementary 
schools,  even  in  the  lowest  classes.     One  cannot  help  „ 

■^    Men  and 

feelmg  that  a  man  teacher  of  fifty  years  of  age  is  Women 
somewhat  out  of  place  in  the  first  grade  of  an  elemen-  *^'  ^'^^ 
tary  school.  The  chances  are  that  he  is  out  of  sympathy  with 
the  children.  It  is  true  that  the  older  teachers  are  generally 
assigned  to  the  higher  classes,  if  the  school  happens  to  be  in  the 
city,  and  the  lower  classes  are  assigned  to  younger  teachers  or 
to  women.  There  has  always  been  a  very  strong  prejudice 
against  the  woman  teacher  in  the  German  schools,  and  she  has 
worked  her  way  in  with  difl&culty.  At  the  present  time  78.8% 
of  the  teachers  are  men  and  21.2%  women.  Within  the  years 
1901-1911  the  ntmiber  of  women  teachers  increased  10,892, 
or  79.2%,  while  the  number  of  men  increased  only  23%.  In 
spite  of  the  feeling  against  women  teachers,  the  number  is  in- 
creasing very  rapidly,  and  in  some  sections  the  women  are  almost 
equal  in  nimiber  to  the  men.  The  idea  prevails  among  German 
men  teachers  that  women  have  not  the  same  amount  of  in- 
tellectual ability  that  men  have,  and  they  merely  tolerate  the 
women,  all  the  while  looking  down  upon  them.  Women  teachers 
are  carefully  kept  out  of  the  upper  classes  of  boys'  schools,  and 
even  of  girls'  schools  in  some  subjects.  In  all  the  boys'  schools 
that  I  have  visited,  in  which  women  teachers  were  employed, 


i8o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  rector  has  always,  with  one  exception,  apologized  for  his 
women  teachers,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  he  could  have  much 
better  regretted  that  some  of  his  men  were  not  quite  as  capable 
as  they  should  have  been.  In  one  city,  while  visiting  a  school, 
I  asked  to  see  a  particular  class,  and  the  principal  replied,  "Of 
course,  you  may  visit  it,  but  I  am  afraid  you  will  be  disappointed, 
for  there  is  a  substitute  there  to-day  and  a  woman  at  that." 
This  tends  to  show  the  general  attitude  of  the  men  toward  the 
intellectual  and  teaching  ability  of  the  women.  It  will  also  be 
noticed  that  the  women  prefer  to  teach  in  the  cities,  where  though 
the  salaries  are  about  the  same  as  in  the  country,  the  school  is 
generally  graded  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  have  to 
work  are  much  more  favorable. 

From  the  following  table  it  will  be  seen  that  about  65%  of 
the  men  teachers  are  married,  about  32%  are  single,  and  about 
.  3%  have  been  married.     The  niunber  of  single  men 

among  the  corresponds  very  closely  to  the  number  of  men 
eac  ers  teachers  under  thirty  years  of  age,  but  this  must  not 
lead  to  the  supposition  that  no  teachers  are  married  before  that 
age.  It  is,  however,  a  rather  safe  assertion,  that  a  very  large 
majority  of  the  men  are  either  past  thirty  or  within  two  or  three 
years  of  it,  when  they  marry.  Conditions  in  Germany  do  not 
permit  a  young  teacher  to  marry  much  before  that  time.  First 
of  all,  his  salary  doesn't  warrant  marriage  before  that  age,  and, 
further,  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  late  marriage  out  of 
personal  reasons,  more  or  less  questionable.  It  will  also  be 
noticed  that  there  are  39.6%  of  the  teachers  in  the  country  who 
are  unmarried,  while  only  21.3%  of  the  men  in  the  cities  are  single. 
This  fact  is  no  doubt  explained  in  that  a  great  many  young  men 
begin  their  teaching  careers  in  the  country  and,  after  having 
passed  the  second  examination,  seek  positions  in  the  city  and 
there  marry.  Among  the  women,  of  course,  the  unmarried 
form  a  very  large  portion  of  the  women  teaching  body.     Over 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    i8i 

99%  of  the  women  teachers  are  urunarried,  there  being  only 
22  married  women  in  the  whole  Prussian  system,  and  .9%  who 
are  widowed.  A  large  number  of  women  drop  out  of  the  schools 
between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  thirty-five  in  order  to  get  married. 
If  they  quit  before  that  time  or  rather  before  they  have  taught 
ten  years,  they  have  to  make  restitution  to  the  state  in  case 
they  have  received  aid  for  purposes  of  education. 

MARRIAGE  TABLE  OF  PRUSSIAN  TEACHERS  IN  THE 
VOLKSSCHULEN 


Single 

Markied 

Widowed 

No. 

Per  Cent 

No. 

Per  Cent 

No. 

Per  Cent 

Men  Teachers  in : 
City  Schools 
Countty  Schools 
Total 

'< 

I 

igii 

191 1 

1911 

7,SS3 
22,257 
29,810 

21.3 
39.6 
32.S 

27,080 
33,021 
60,101 

76.S 
S8.7 
65.6 

786 

946 

1732 

2.2 
1-7 
1-9 

Women  Teachers  in 
City  Schools  . 
Country  Schools 
Total 

igii 
191 1 
igii 

15,663 

8,733 

24,396 

98.7 
99-4 
99.0 

12 
10 

22 

o.i 

O.I 

0.1 

186 

46 

232 

1.2 
•S 

■9 

It  is  a  diflSicult  matter  to  obtain  statistics  which  would  show 
accurately  the  condition  of  health  and  the  general  constitutional 
character  of  the  elementary  teaching  force,  but  there  Health  of 
are  several  things  worthy  of  notice  here,  some  based  on  Teachers 
our  own  observation,  and  others  based  upon  official  figures. 
To  us  at  least  six  out  of  every  ten  male  teachers  seemed  to  have 
very  robust  health.  This  was  not  only  true  among  the  younger 
teachers,  but  also  among  the  older.  We  may  account  for  this 
in  several  ways.  First,  as  we  shall  see  later,  a  rather  large 
percentage  of  the  teachers  come  from  the  country  or  from  rural 
districts,  and  consequently  bring  more  physical  strength  into 


i82  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  profession  than  do  the  members  from  the  cities.  Next, 
no  one  is  allowed  to  become  a  teacher  who  is  not  able  to  meet 
the  prescribed  physical  requirements.  Another  element  con- 
tributing largely  to  the  health  and  general  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  teachers  is  the  lack  of  worry.  Being  parts  of  a  system 
where  the  loss  of  position  and  income  is  well-nigh  impossible, 
where  fear  of  rebuke  from  superiors  is  almost  a  minus  quantity, 
the  teachers'  general  frame  of  mind  and  high  degree  of  content- 
ment will  conduce  to  physical  well-being. 

In  asking  teachers  in  what  way  they  suffered  most,  we  have 
generally  received  the  reply  that  headaches  and  throat  trouble 
were  the  commonest  causes  of  complaint.  The  matter  of  head- 
aches is  easy  of  explanation.  They  are  caused,  we  are  sure, 
ninety-nine  times  out  of  one  hundred  by  poor  ventilation.  Fresh 
air  is  one  thing  German  schools  cannot  boast  of.  In  fact, 
during  the  recitation  the  windows  are  kept  closed  and  the  ven- 
tilators may  or  may  not  be  open.  Such  a  condition  of  the  air 
not  only  produces  frequent  headaches,  but  toward  the  end  of 
the  day  causes  the  teacher  to  be  sleepy,  or  at  least  to  appear  so. 
By  the  end  of  the  day  we  mean  twelve  or  one  o'clock,  the  closing 
time  of  most  schools  in  cities.  Throat  complaints  are  caused 
by  the  excessive  amount  of  talking  required  of  the  teachers, 
as  demanded  by  the  oral  methods  so  largely  employed  in  German 
schools.  Some  teachers  have  told  me  that  they  frequently 
give  written  work  in  order  to  get  a  little  rest  for  their  throats. 
The  teachers  talk  not  only  a  great  deal,  but  very  loud  and  dis- 
tinctly, so  that  the  strain  on  the  throat  is  very  great  and  hence 
the  complaints. 

One  might  be  led  to  beheve  that  poor  ventilation  in  the  schools 
would  lead  to  tuberculosis.  Judging  from  a  comparatively 
small  nmnber  of  cases,  we  cannot  draw  the  conclusion  that  tuber- 
culosis is  a  disease  to  which  teachers  are  particularly  subject.^ 
'■  Schulstatistische  Blatter,  vol.  XI,  No.  ii,  p.  io6. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER    183 

The  figures  are  based  on  the  report  of  the  "Life  Assurance  So- 
ciety of  German  Teachers." 

Between  1897  a^nd  1912  there  were  2167  deaths  in  the  mem- 
bership of  the  society,  247  or  11.4%  of  which  were  caused  by 
tuberculosis  of  one  sort  or  another.  In  191 1  tuberculosis  was 
the  cause  of  8.7%  of  all  the  deaths  in  Prussia.  Thus  the  per- 
centage of  deaths  among  teachers  from  tuberculosis  is  a  little 
higher  than  among  the  general  population,  but  the  difference 
is  not  great  enough  to  warrant  our  sa3dng  that  the  German 
teacher  is  more  inclined  to  the  disease  in  question  than  are 
workers  in  other  fields. 

We  get  a  very  close  insight  into  the  general  health  or  physical 
strength  of  the  male  teacher  by  examining  statistics  which  tell 
in  how  far  they  have  satisfied  their  compulsory  mil- 
itary service.     Every  German  citizen,  if  he  is  physi-  Health  of 
cally  able,  has  to  serve  in  the  army,  and  as  is  well  ^^  *F^* 

,  ,  ...  Teachers 

known,   the  traimng  is  very  strenuous  and  makes 
large  demands  upon  the  physical  strength  of  the  recruits.    There- 
fore, if  a  man  is  taken  into  service,  it  is  a  fair  indication  that  he 
has  plenty  of  health  and  strength. 

These  figures  show  that  only  45%  of  the  men  teachers  have 
fulfilled  their  mihtary  obligations,  while  46.6%  are  declared 
either  totally  unfit  for  service,  or  have  been  placed  on  the  Ersatz- 
Reserve,  which  means  practically  the  same  thing.  This  state  of 
affairs  shows  us  very  clearly  that  the  general  health  and  physical 
ability  of  the  Prussian  teacher  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  After 
examining  the  figures  for  the  years  1889-91,  one  is  led  to  believe 
that  the  work  in  the  Seminar  and  in  the  first  few  years  of  teach- 
ing is  responsible  for  the  condition  existing.  The  boys  enter 
the  Seminar  in  tolerably  good  health,  but  let  us  notice  their 
condition  after  they  have  finished  their  course  and  have  been 
teaching  a  few  years.  Of  the  7177  teachers  of  the  years  1889-91, 
there  are  1535  temporarily  excused  from  military  service  on 


i84 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


account  of  health,  503  have  been  put  in  the  reserve,  and  819  have 
been  declared  absolutely  unfit  for  military  service. 


MILITARY  SERVICE  OF  ELEMENTARY  TEACHERS  IN  PRUSSIA,  1911  > 


Birth 

No.  OF 
Teachers 

No.  Who  Have  Satisfied 
MiuiASY  Requirements 

No.  Who  Have  Not  Satisfied 

Military  Requiremenis,  Divided 

AS  Follows: 

Year  op 

by  less 

than  I  yr. 

service 

by  at 

Postponed 
Service 

yr.  vol- 
unteer 

least  I 
yr.'s. 
service 

Put  on 
Reserve 

on 

account 
of 

not  good 

request 

health 

i8qi      . 

894 

I 

2 

2 

479 

357 

12 

41 

iggo 

2,64s 

I 

31 

129 

1,453 

824 

SO 

157 

1889 

3,638 

83 

423 

1,713 

354 

441 

624 

1888 

3,764 

I 

160 

734 

1,202 

96 

S73 

998 

1887 

3,646 

4 

274 

922 

467 

62 

739 

1,178 

1886 

3,3S4 

S 

486 

901 

137 

36 

683 

1,106 

1885 

3,156 

2 

493 

913 

33 

IS 

643 

i,oS7 

1884 

3,12s 

2 

533 

867 

6 

13 

662 

1,042 

1883 

2,861 

4 

572 

766 

2 

23 

547 

947 

1882 

2,823 

4 

S12 

83s 

1 

II 

537 

923 

1881 

2,766 

30 

398 

891 

I 

8 

568 

870 

1880-1876 

13,341 

4,121 

672 

22-35 

75 

2,740 

3,498 

1875-1871 

",396 

6,562 

5 

34 

I 

SI 

2,217 

2,526 

1870-1866 

8,936 

4,966 

II 

14 

75 

1,419 

2,151 

1865-1861 

10,90s 

S,3ii 

14 

22 

I 

24 

3,679 

1,854 

1860-1856 

7,166 

3,362 

16 

29 

33 

2,183 

1,543 

1855-1851 

4,394 

1,941 

29 

41 

23 

1,448 

912 

1850  and  e 

arlier 

2,833 

934 

22 

66 

I 

9 

1,125 

676 

Total     .     . 

91,643 

27,251 

4,313 

8,924 

5,497 

2,089 

20,566 

22,103 

Born  in  th 

e  city 

29,30s 

6,936 

1,739 

2,871 

2,330 

818 

6,727 

7,884 

Bom      in 

the 

country 

62,338 

20,315 

2,574 

6,953 

3,167 

1,271 

13,839 

14,219 

Of      each 

100 

teachers 

born 

in  the  ci 

ty    . 

100 

23.7 

S-9 

9.8 

7-9 

2.8 

23.0 

26.9 

Bom      in 

the 

country- 

100 

32.6 

4-1 

II. 2 

S-i 

2.3 

22.2 

22.8 

Total     . 

29.7 

4-7 

10.7 

6.0 

2.0 

22.5 

24.1 

'  Preussische  Statistik,  Heft  231,  Tdl  I,  p.  261. 


PREPARATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER     185 

OCCUPATIONAL   ORIGIN   OF   THE   TEACHERS   IN  PRUSSIAN 
ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS 


Occupation  o»  the  Fathers  of  the 
Teachers 

The  FottowmtG  Numbers  or  Teachers  Come 
FROM  Home  of  the  Various  Occupations 

Men 

Women 

Of  100  Male 
Teachers 

Of  100 

Female 
Teachers 

1911 

1911 

19x1 

X911 

A.  Farming,  gardening,  livestock,      f" 
forestry,  and  fishing                   | 

B.  Mining,  smelting,  industry,  and    ,' 
building                                      | 

U. 

C.  Commerce  and  trade                 <  b. 

[c. 

D.  Household  Work.     Day  labor-  f  j" 
ing.    Personal  service                ]    ' 

E.  Public  service  and  the  so-called    j' 
free  occupations 

Among  which : 

University  and  higher        

teachers-rectors,     normal     school, 
middle  school  and  head-teachers    . 

Elementary  teachers 

Other  teachers 

F.  Without  occupation 

a. 
Total  A-F                                  b. 

c. 

26,067 

1,600 

827 

18,983 
3,565 
2,795 

7,992 
1,990 
2,518 

335 

16,332 

3,234 

1,156 

65 

1,742 

13,467 

116 

4,249 

73,623 

10,389 

7,631 

2,912 

302 

27 

4,385 
1,276 

''       743 

3,024 

1,683 

646 

60 

5,499 
2,20s 

231 
467 

1,076 

2,198 

73 

1,657 

17,477 
5,466 
1,707 

28.4 

1.8 

•9 

20.7 
3-9 
3-1 

8.7 
2.2 
2.7 

■4 

17.8 

3-5 

1-3 

.1 

1.9 

14.7 
.1 

4.6 
80.4 
"•3 

8.3 

II.8 

1-3 
.1 

17.8 

5-2 

30 

12.3 
6.8 
2.6 

.2 

22.3 

9.0 

•9 

1.9" 

4-4 

8.9 
.3 

6.7 
70.9 
22.2 

6.9 

Total 

91,643 

24,650 

lOO.O 

lOO.O 

In  order  to  judge  the  elementary  teacher  of  the  Prussian 
Volksschule  it  is  interesting  and  necessary  to  know  from  what 
kind  of  home  he  or  she  has  come.    Fortunately  such  origin  of 
information  is  not  so  hard  to  obtain  in  Prussia  as  Teachers 
in  America,  and  that  which  is  obtainable  is  reliable  and  not 


1 86  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

merely  based  upon  the  word  of  the  individual  teacher,  who  is 
very  apt  to  give  the  calling  of  father  quite  a  Uttle  higher  than 
it  really  is.  Among  the  men  teachers  in  191 1  a  little  over  30% 
came  from  families  whose  fathers  were  employed  in  some  kind 
of  farming,  forestry,  or  fishing;  over  27%  from  homes  where 
the  father  was  occupied  in  mining,  smelting,  industry,  or  build- 
ing ;  something  over  13%  whose  fathers  were  in  business  of  some 
kind ;  22.6%  came  from  families  where  the  father  was  employed 
in  some  kind  of  public  service,  chiefly  that  of  teaching  in  the 
Volksschulen.  The  fathers  of  about  5%  were  unemployed  or 
pensioned.  Less  than  1%  were  children  of  day  laborers  or 
servants.  Among  the  women  teachers  the  percentages  were 
respectively  13.2%,  26%,  21.7%,  32.2%,  6.7%,  and  .2%.  Thus 
we  see  a  very  large  percentage  of  teachers  come  from  rural  homes, 
and  practically  all  from  the  so-called  middle  class. 


CHAPTER  X 

TEACHERS'  SALARIES 

In  the  constitutional  charter  of  1850,  Article  25,  we  read: 
"The  state  guarantees  the  teachers  in  the  Volksschulen  a  fixed 
income  which  corresponds  to  local  conditions.  In-  salary 
struction  in  the  public  Volksschulen  is  given  free."  ^^""^ 
Just  in  what  manner  this  clause  was  to  be  carried  out  was  never 
indicated,  for  the  general  school  law  proposed  in  this  charter 
has  never  been  passed.  Consequently  the  several  provinces 
paid  their  teachers  on  the  basis  of  their  own  individual  salary 
laws,  or  the  administrative  counties  were  allowed  to  regulate  this 
question  to  suit  themselves.  Nevertheless  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury saw  a  great  material  improvement  in  the  matter  of  teachers' 
salaries.  Knabe,^  in  discussing  the  increase  in  salaries,  gives  a 
table  showing  the  average  yearly  income  of  teachers  from  182 1 
till  1901.  The  increase  in  cities  up  to  1901  was  over  two  hun- 
dred per  cent  and  is  now  still  more,  due  to  the  new  salary  law  of 
1909,  while  the  salaries  of  country  school-teachers  were  multi- 
plied by  more  than  6.  These  figures  do  not  correspond  exactly 
to  those  of  the  official  records  but  approximate  them  closely. 

AVERAGE  INCOME  OF  TEACHERS 


1821 

1861 

1871 

1891 

1901 

Cities 

Country       

Both 

$IS9 
64 
80 

I21I 
137 
IS9 

$260 
169 
199 

$425- 
354 

55S44 
402 

4S8 

^Dasc 

ieutsche  TJn 

terricktswei 
187 

en,  p.  17. 

i88 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


It  is  also  interesting  to  compare  the  increase  in  male  teachers' 
and  female  teachers'  salaries  in  Prussia  since  1886.  The  very- 
marked  increase  from  1906  to  191 1  is  due  to  the  new  salary- 
scale  put  in  force  in  1909.  The  following  table  gives  the  aver- 
age income  of  men  and  women  teachers  both  in  the  city  and  in 
the  country.^ 


Year 

Mes  Teachers 

WouEN  Teachers 

City 

Country 

City 

Country 

1886 
1891 
1896 
1901 
1906 
1911 

$408  = 
453 
507 
S9S 
640 
804 

$283 
316 

339 
410 

42s 
600 

$304 
31S 
340 
393 
421 
SCO 

$238 
2S4 
283 
320 
330 
406 

The  average  salary  serves  only  to  show  the  general  tendency 
of  increase  and  it  gives  a  very  imperfect  picture  of  actual  salaries 
paid.  For  example,  a  very  few  highly  paid  teachers  can  bring 
the  average  salary  rather  high,  but  this  average  will  not  give  us 
any  idea  of  what  most  of  the  teachers  receive.  The  following 
tables  give  the  reader  after  a  brief  glance  a  very  definite  idea 
of  the  range  of  salaries  and  the  number  of  teachers  recei-ving 
such  salaries  and  at  what  period  of  service  these  salaries  are 
received.  The  form  of  these  tables  can  also  be  commended  to 
American  administrators  in  reporting  accurately  salaries  actually 
paid.     Salary  scales  will  be  given  later. 

*  Figures  based  on  statistics  taken  from  tlie  Statistische  JahrhUcher  fur  den  preus- 
sichen  Staat,  for  the  years  immediately  following  the  dates  given.  Also  found  in 
Schulstatislische  Blatter,  vol.  XI,  No.  8,  p.  77. 

'  A  dollar  has  been  taken  to  equal  4  marks,  though  its  value  is  about  4.20  M. 


TEACHERS'   SALARIES 


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3 

TEACHERS'   SALARIES 


197 


A  careful  study  of  these  tables  gives  us  something  more  than 
an  idea  of  the  salaries  actually  paid.  First  of  all,  we  are  struck 
by  the  length  of  service  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  Length  of 
teachers.  Of  male  teachers  in  the  cities  more  than  Service 
45  per  cent  have  been  in  the  service  for  more  than  twenty  years 
and  only  6.69  per  cent  have  had  less  than  six  years'  experience, 
while  77.67  per  cent  have  served  more  than  ten  years.  In  the 
country  25.89  per  cent  of  the  male  teachers  have  taught  less 
than  four  years.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  government  to  send  the 
young  teachers  to  country  schools  for  the  first  few  years  follow- 
ing graduation  from  the  normal  school  and  before  the  time  of 
permanent  appointment,  which  fact  accounts  for  the  rather  large 
niunber  of  young  teachers  in  the  country.  As  soon  as  the 
teachers  have  passed  their  second  examination,  they  apply  for 
positions  in  cities,  thus  making  room  again  for  young  teachers 
in  the  rural  communities.  Although  we  find  a  larger  percentage 
of  teachers  of  few  years'  experience  in  the  rural  schools  than  in 
city  schools,  over  53  per  cent  of  all  men  teachers  in  the  country 
have  taught  more  than  ten  years. 

As  a  rule  the  women  teachers  both  in  the  city  and  in  the 
country  are  younger  in  the  service  than  the  men.  In  cities 
21.74  per  cent  of  women  teachers  have  taught  less  than  women 
four  years,  and  5 1 .01  per  cent  have  taught  less  than  ten  Teachers 
years,  as  compared  with  6.69  per  cent  and  22.33  per  cent  respec- 
tively among  the  men.  The  women  apparently  drift  from  rural 
districts  to  cities  as  soon  as  possible  or  they  leave  the  service 
entirely,  for  we  find  that  42.95  per  cent  of  them  have  served 
less  than  four  years,  while  more  than  71  per  cent  have  taught  less 
than  ten  years. 

Practically  none  of  the  German  elementary  teachers  are 
imder  twenty  years  of  age.  Of  the  male  teachers  in  cities  19.24 
per  cent  are  between  twenty  and  thirty  years;  35.04  per  cent 
are  between  thirty  and  forty ;  while  the  remainder,  over  45  per 


198  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

cent,  are  over  forty  years  of  age.  In  the  country  among  men 
teachers  25.97  per  cent  are  under  twenty-five  years;  40.20  per 
Age  of  cent  are  between  twenty-five  and  forty,  while  the 

Teachers  remaining  33.83  per  cent  are  over  forty.  Among 
women  teachers  18.14  per  cent  are  under  the  age  of  twenty-five ; 
a  little  over  50  per  cent  are  between  twenty-five  and  forty  years. 
In  rural  districts,  40.59  per  cent  of  the  women  teachers  are  under 
twenty-five  years,  and  40.61  per  cent  are  between  twenty-five  and 
forty  years  of  age. 

The  tables  given  in  this  chapter  show  the  distribution  of 
salaries  of  rural  and  city  school-teachers  of  the  Prussian  ele- 
mentary schools.  In  cities  the  upper  55  per  cent  of 
the  male  teachers  receive  a  yearly  salary  of  more  than 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  ($750),  while  in  rural  sections 
50.50  per  cent  of  the  men  receive  more  than  five  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars  ($550).  Of  the  country  women  teachers  49.56 
per  cent  receive  a  yearly  income  of  over  $375.  One  notes  the 
decided  advantage  men  have  over  women  in  the  matter  of 
salaries  in  cities,  for  50  per  cent  of  the  men  receive  over  $550, 
far  above  the  median  salary  in  the  women's  scale.  In  the  cities, 
49.42  per  cent  of  the  women  have  salaries  higher  than  $475,  also 
considerably  lower  than  the  median  salary  for  men  in  cities. 

While  the  salaries  paid  to  Prussian  elementary  teachers  are 
by  no  means  high,  they  are  higher  than  American  salaries  in 
corresponding  schools  if  we  consider  all  of  our  elementary  schools, 
in  that  there  is  a  larger  percentage  of  German  teachers  than  of 
American  teachers  receiving  over  $750. 

Some  improvement  was  made  in  the  matter  of  salaries  of  the 
teachers  of  the  Volksschulen  from  1851  to  1897.  In  1873  the 
The  Salary  State  insured  to  the  teachers  increases  based  on  length 
Law  of  1897  of  service.  Also  by  the  laws  of  1888  and  1889  concern- 
ing the  lightening  of  the  school  expenditures  on  the  part  of  the 
local  communities,  the  general  average  of  salaries  was  increased. 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  199 

The  most  important  law  concerning  teachers'  incomes  was  that  ^ 
of  March  3,  1897.  This  law  assured  to  every  teacher  a  fixed, 
fundamental,  or  base  salary,  and  in  addition  thereto,  increases 
based  on  age,  and  free  lodgings,  or  a  corresponding  compensa- 
tion for  rent.  The  salaries  were  very  materially  increased  by  this 
law,  and  still  more  so  by  the  new  one  of  May  26,  1909,  which 
retained  the  principles  of  the  law  of  1897,  but  instead  of  mak- 
ing the  fundamental  salary  a  minimum,  it  made  it  the  normal 
salary  for  aU  teachers,  in  addition  to  which  there  are  several 
other  units  which  make  up  the  final  salary. 

The  income  of  a  teacher  in  the  Prussian  Volksschule,  after  he 
or  she  has  been  permanently  appointed,  consists  of  a  funda- 
mental salary,  of  successive  increases  based  on  length  jhe  Final 
of  service,  and  free  lodgings  or  compensation  therefor.  Salary  2, 
In  some  cases,  as  is  shown  below,  increments  are  granted  to  cover 
local  conditions ;  and  some  teaching  positions,  such  as  those  of 
the  principal  or  of  a  teacher  in  the  Hilfsschule,  have  extra  salary 
attached  to  them.  The  fundamental  salary  is  1400  M.  yearly 
for  men  and  1200  M.  yearly  for  women.  Physical  training, 
cooking,  and  household  arts  teachers  may  receive  a  smaller  base 
salary  than  the  ordinary  teacher,  but  it  must  not  be  less  than 
1 100  M.  for  men  or  1000  M.  for  women.  Temporarily  appointed 
teachers  or  those  who  have  been  in  the  service  less  than  four 
years  receive  a  fundamental  salary  of  one  fifth  less  than  ordinary 
teachers.  In  cases  where  teachers  fill  positions  which  combine 
church  and  school  ofl&ces,  the  salary  is  somewhat  higher  than 
that  given  above. 

The  first  additional  salary  element  is  one  granted  for  length  of 
service.  This  increment  is  called  an  AUerszulage.  There  are 
nine  such  increments,  the  first  being  granted  after  seven  years 

^Gesetz,  betreffend  das  Diensteinkommen  der  Lehrer  und  Lehrerinnen  an  den 
dffentlichen  Volksschulen. 

'  Lehrerbesoldungsgesetz,  p.  74.    Heinze,  Im  Amt,  Goslar,  1913. 


200 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


of  service,  and  the  remaining  eight,  after  intervals  of  three  years 
each.  The  maximum  salary  is  reached  then  in  (7  +  (8  X  3)  =  31) 
Service  thirty-one  years,  or  generally  in  the  fifty-first  year 
Increment  gf  ^g  teacher's  life,  since  most  of  the  teachers  begin 
at  twenty.  The  first  two  increments  for  men  are  200  M. 
yearly,  the  third  and  fourth  each  250  M.,  and  the  remaining 
five  are  200  M.  each.  For  the  women  each  of  the  first  two  in- 
crements is  100  M.,  and  the  others  are  150  M.,  yearly.  These 
increments  tabulated  appear  as  follows : 


After  7  Years'  Service 


After  7  years'  service 
After  10  years'  service 
After  13  years'  service 
After  16  years'  service 
After  19  years'  service 
After  22  years'  service 
After  25  years'  service 
After  28  years'  service 
After  31  years'  service 


Men 


200  M. 

400  M 

650  M 

goo  M.= 
I  too  M.= 
1300  M.= 
1500  M.= 
1700  M.= 
igoo  M.= 


=$So 
=  100 
=  162 
225 
27s 
32s 
375 
425 
475 


Women 


100  M.  =  $2S 
200  M.  =  50 
3SoM.=  87 
500  M.=  125 
650  M.=  162 
800  M.=  200 
g5oM.=  237 
iiooM.=  275 
1250  M.=  312 


Thus  far  there  have  been  mentioned  two  elements  of  the  final 
salary,  the  base  and  the  service  increment,  which  together 
would  amount  after  thirty-one  years'  service  to  1400  M.  plus 
1900  M.  =  3300  M.,  and  1200  M.  plus  1250  M.  =  2450  M., 
for  men  and  women  respectively. 

The  next  factor  going  to  make  up  the  salary  of  the  teacher  is 
the  Mietsentschadigung,  which  means  compensation  for  rent. 
The  Lod  ^^^  teacher  either  receives  free  lodgings  or  a  sum  of 
ing  or  money  in  lieu  thereof.    All  cities,  towns,  and  villages 

MU^ent-  ^^^  grouped  into  five  classes,  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  each 
schadigung^  place  according  to  the  cost  of  living  and  other  local 

'  Up  to  this  point  the  salary  is  composed  of  three  parts,  the  base  salary,  the 
service  increment,  and  the  rental  compensation. 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES 


20I 


conditions  which  prevail.    The  following  table  will  show  the 
amounts  paid  yearly  in  the  various  classes : 


Tyte  of  Commdnitv 

Men 

Women 

Community  in  Class  A  not  less  than      .    .    . 
Community  in  Class  B  not  less  than      .    .    . 
Community  in  Class  C  not  less  than      .     .     . 
Community  in  Class  D  not  less  than      .    .     . 
Conmiunity  in  Class  E  not  less  than      .    .     . 

800  M. 
630  M. 

520  M. 
4SoM. 
330  M. 

560  M. 
470  M. 
390  M. 
330  M. 

250  M. 

These  amounts  are,  of  course,  the  minima,  and  in  many 
places  the  teachers  receive  more.'^  Temporarily  employed  or 
unmarried  teachers  without  a  household  establishment  of  their 
own,  or  teachers  who  have  been  less  than  four  years  in  the  serv- 
ice, receive  a  rental  compensation  of  one  third  less  than  regular 
teachers.  A  great  many  unmarried  teachers  estabhsh  bachelor 
apartments  and  in  this  way  entitle  themselves  to  the  extra 
compensation.  All  of  the  rental  compensation  is  not  reckoned 
in  with  the  other  units  of  the  salary,  when  the  pension  is  granted, 
but  only  the  average  of  the  five  classes. 

The  next  factor  is  the  local  increment,  or  Ortszulage,  which  all 
teachers  receive  in  places  where  it  is  permitted  to  be  granted. 
This  increment  is  given  to  meet  extraordinary  local  Locaiin- 
conditions.     School  communities   (Schulverbande)   in  crement, 
which  previous  to  January  i,  1909,  the  fundamental 
salary  and  the  service  increment  for  ordinary  teachers  amounted 
to  2800  M.,  or  school  communities  in  which  the  final   salary 
was  more  than  4000  M.,  are  permitted  to  grant  a  local  incre- 
ment of  not  more  than  900  M.  for  men,  and  600  M.  for  women. 
Cities  which  form  a  district  for  themselves  are  also  allowed  to 
grant  these  increments.     This  increment,  as  the  service  incre- 

'  Principals  and  head  teachers  of  schools  of  six  or  more  than  six  successive 
classes  receive  a  larger  rental  than  other  teachers. 


202  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ment,  is  generally  a  progressive  one,  based  on  length  of  service. 
The  local  increments  must  not  increase  the  former  final  salary, 
that  existing  before  1909,  exclusive  of  the  Amiszulage  (see  be- 
low), beyond  4200  M.  for  men  and  2950  M.  for  women.  It  is 
seen,  then,  that  every  teacher  in  the  Prussian  Volkssckulen  does 
not  receive  this  local  increment,  and  this  increment  is  not  the 
same  in  all  places,  but  that  it  is  given  to  meet  varying  local 
conditions.  The  fundamental  salary  and  the  service  increments 
are  the  same  for  all  teachers,  while  the  rental  compensation  and 
the  local  increments  vary  with  the  community.  As  a  rule,  the 
last  two  units  are  largest  in  the  large  cities  where  hving  expenses 
are  the  highest. 

Some  teaching  positions  have  another  increment  attached  to 

them.    Directors  of  schools,  whether  they  be  principals,  head 

teachers,  first  teachers,  or  teachers  who  conduct  a 

Special 

emoluments,  school  alone,  receive  what  is  known  as  a  yearly  Amts- 
Amtszuiage  ^j^i^^g  (office  increment).  Ordinary  teachers  do  not 
receive  such  increments.  Section  24  of  the  salary  law  of  1909 
reads : 

Directors  of  schools  with  six  or  more  successive  classes  receive  a  pen- 
sionable bonus  or  increment  of  at  least  700  M.  yearly.  Directresses  of 
the  same  kinds  of  schools  receive  an  increment  of  at  least  500 ;  and  other 
directors  and  directresses  one  of  at  least  200  M.  yearly.  .  .  .  First  teachers 
in  schools  for  which  no  director  has  been  appointed  and  teachers  of  one- 
class  schools  are  granted  a  yearly  bonus  of  100  M.  Also  teachers  of  ab- 
normal children  receive  an  Amtszulage. 

Thus  we  see  how  the  salary  of  a  Prussian  elementary  teacher 
is  made  up  of  its  different  factors.  The  salary  is  constituted  in 
this  way  in  order  to  equalize  the  incomes  of  teachers  living  under 
greatly  varying  circumstances.  This  equalization  is  brought 
about  by  means  of  the  rental  increment  and  the  local  incre- 
ment. The  former  is  constant  as  far  as  the  length  of  service 
is  concerned,  but  varies  with  the  community,  while  the  latter 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES 


203 


varies  with  the  cbmmunity  and  generally  with  the  length  of 
service. 

The  following  tables  are  the  salary  scales  now  in  force  in 
Stettin,  in  Pomerania : 


SALARIES   OF  MARRIED  MEN  TEACHERS  IN  THE 
{VOLKSSCHULEN)   OF   STETTIN 


Years  of  Service 

Base  Salary 

Rental 
Increment 

Service 
Increment 

Local           Total 
Increment       Salary 

1-4  years    .     .     . 

1120  M. 

470  M. 



100  M. 

=  1690  M. 

S-7  years    . 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

— 

100  M. 

=  2150  M. 

8-10  years  . 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

200  M. 

100  M. 

=  2350  M. 

11-13  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

400  M. 

250  M. 

=  2700  M. 

14-16  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

650  M. 

250  M. 

=  2950  M. 

17-19  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

900  M. 

250  M. 

=  3200  M. 

20-22  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

1 100  M. 

300  M. 

=  3450  M. 

23-25  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

1300  M. 

300  M. 

=  3650  M. 

26-28  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

,    1500  M. 

400  M. 

=  395°  M. 

29-31  years 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

1700  M. 

400  M. 

=  4150  M. 

32  and  above 

1400  M. 

650  M. 

1900  M. 

500  M. 

=  4450  M. 

Unmarried  male  teachers  who  do  not  have  their  own  house- 
hold receive  a  rental  increment  of  470  M.  instead  of  650  M. 
Otherwise  their  incomes  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  married 
teachers.  A  principal  of  a  Volksschule  in  Stettin  gets  825  M. 
for  rental  compensation  as  compared  to  650  M.  received  by  the 
ordinary  teachers.  The  Amtszulage  received  by  the  principals 
in  this  city  is  1000  M.  yearly.  The  salaries  of  principals,  then, 
are  calculated  on  the  same  basis  as  salaries  of  teachers,  but  the 
principal  receives  1000  M.  yearly  Amtszulage,  which  an  ordinary 
teacher  has  no  claim  to,  and  also  the  principal  receives  175  M. 
more  rental  compensation  than  a  teacher  does.  Counting 
everything  together,  then,  a  principal  in  Stettin  receives  1175  M. 
more  than  does  a  married  male  teacher  of  the  same  number  of 
years  of  service.    Head  teachers  in  schools  for  mentally  defi- 


204 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


cient  children  receive  a  yearly  bonus  {Amtszulage)  of  500  M., 
while  ordinary  teachers  in  such  institutions  receive  200  M. 
The  table  given  above  is  merely  to  give  the  idea  of  how  salaries 
are  computed.  The  salaries  paid  in  the  city  mentioned  are  about 
the  lowest  in  Prussia  in  towns  of  over  two  hundred  thousand 
population. 

SALARIES   OF  WOMEN  TEACHERS  IN  STETTIN 


Yeaes  of  Service 

Base  Salahy 

Rental 
Ihceeuent 

Service 

iHCREilENT 

Local           Total 
Increueni       Salarx 

1-7  years    .    .     . 

1200  M. 

470  M. 





=  1670  M. 

8-10  years  . 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

100  M. 

SoM. 

=  1820  M. 

11-13  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

200  M. 

100  M. 

=  1970  M. 

14-16  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

35°  M. 

100  M. 

=  2120  M. 

17-19  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

500  M. 

100  M. 

=  2270  M. 

20-22  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

650  M. 

100  M. 

=  2420  M. 

23-25  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

800  M. 

100  M. 

=  2570  M. 

26-28  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

95°  M. 

100  M. 

=  2720  M. 

29-31  years 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

iioo  M. 

TOO  M. 

=  2870  M. 

32  and  after 

1200  M. 

470  M. 

1250  M. 

100  M. 

=  3020  M. 

A  very  cursory  inspection  of  the  tables  just  given  will  con- 
vince the  reader  that  the  theory  of  equal  pay  has  not  made  very 
marked  progress  in  Germany.  The  schoolmistress  is  a  com- 
paratively new  thing,  but  her  numbers  are  gradually  increasing 
in  the  Volkssckulen.  The  theory  that  the  same  work  when  done 
by  a  man  is  worth  more  than  when  done  equally  well  by  a  woman 
has  never  been  attacked.  The  German  school  man  says  quite 
frankly,  "Of  course,  a  man  teacher  is  better  than  a  woman 
teacher,"  and  that  finishes  the  discussion.  The  writer  be- 
lieves that  the  presence  of  a  large  percentage  of  women  in  the 
Volkssckulen  of  a  city  indicates  an  advance.  The  statistics  show 
that  where  there  is  the  largest  percentage  of  women  employed 
in  the  Volkssckulen,  there  one  will  find  the  smallest  number  of 
pupils  per  teacher,  and  the  greatest  amount  of  money  expended 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES 


205 


per  pupil,  and  that  these  school  systems  are  generally  pointed 
out  as  being  the  best  in  Germany. 

Below  are  given  at  length  tables  taken  from  the  Ministerial 
Order  of  July  20,  191 2,  which  give  a  general  idea  of  salaries  paid 
in  the  various  large  cities  of  Germany,  exclusive  of  the  rental 
compensation.  The  first  tables  give  the  rental  compensation  as 
paid  in  the  several  provinces. 


RENTAL  COMPENSATION  SCALE  FOR  THE  SEVERAL  PROVINCES 
FOR  DIRECTORS  OF  SCHOOLS  OF  SIX  OR  MORE  SUCCESSIVE 
CLASSES 


Province 

Classes  or  LocALrriES 

Amount 
or  Rental 
Compen- 
sation 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E, 

Ej 

E. 

E, 

SUBJ.  TO 

Pensions 

East  Prussia .    . 
West  Prussia      . 
Berlin  .... 
Brandenburg 
Pomerania     .     . 
Posen   .... 
Silesia  .... 
Saxony      .     .     . 
Schleswig-Hol- 

stein.    .    .    . 
Hannover .     .    . 
Westphalia    .     . 
Hesse-Nassau     . 
Rhine  Province 

1000  M. 
goo  M. 
1000  M. 
1000  M. 
1000  M. 

920  M. 
950  M. 

goo  M. 
880  M. 
goo  M. 
goo  M. 
goo  M. 

900  M. 
780  M. 

8soM. 
82s  M. 
850  M. 
840  M. 
850  M. 

700  M. 
700  M. 
750  M. 
800  M. 
750  M. 

700  M. 
640  M. 

6goM. 
680  M. 
680  M. 
670  M. 
6soM. 

630  M. 
620  M. 
680  M. 
700  M. 
680  M. 

S7oM. 
SSoM. 

600  M. 
s8oM. 
SSoM. 
SSoM. 
600  M. 

S30M. 
S40M. 
s8oM. 
s8oM. 
580  M. 

470  M. 
460  M. 

450  M. 
480  M. 
480  M. 
soo  M. 
SooM. 

480  M. 
480  M. 
520  M. 
S2oM. 
S20  M. 

380  M. 
420  M. 

3SoM. 
420  M. 
380  M. 
420  M. 
4SoM. 

380  M. 
380  M. 
420  M. 
440  M. 
420  M. 

300  M. 
320  M. 

250  M. 
360  M. 

320  M. 
340  M. 

280  M. 
300  M. 
340  M. 

250  M. 
250  M. 

260  M. 

710  M. 
654  M. 
1000  M. 
698  M. 
701  M. 
688  M. 
670.S  M. 
707  M. 

638  M. 
624  M. 
666  M. 
674  M. 
676  M. 

Each  locality  is  placed  in  one  of  the  classes  into  which  its 
province  is  divided,  and  the  figures  given  show  the  lowest  rental 
compensation  any  locaUty  assigned  to  that  class  can  pay.  The 
rental  compensation  plus  the  totals  in  the  last  column  of  table  D 
gives  the  complete  salary  in  twenty-seven  of  the  largest  cities  in 
Prussia. 


2o6 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


RENTAL  COMPENSATION  SCALE   FOR  OTHER  DIRECTORS 
AND  MALE  TEACHERS 


Province 

Classes  on  LocAirriES 

Amount 
01  Rental 

COMPEN- 

a' 

B 

C 

D 

El 

E, 

E8 

E. 

Pension- 

ABLE 

East  Prussia    .     . 
West  Prussia  .    . 
Berlin     .... 
Brandenburg 
Pomerania  .    .    . 
Posen     .... 
Silesia    .... 
Saxony  .... 
Schleswig-Holstein 
Hannover   .    .    . 
Westphalia      .    . 
Hesse-Nassau  .     . 
Rhine  Province 

800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 

800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 
800  M. 
810  M. 
800  M. 

7SoM. 
630  M. 

650  M. 
650  M. 
700  M. 
720  M. 
650  M. 
630  M. 
630  M. 
650  M. 
680  M. 
650  M. 

600  M. 
520  M. 

520  M. 
520  M. 
S7oM. 
550  M. 
580  M. 
S3oM. 
520  M. 
580  M. 
600  M. 
580  M. 

500  M. 
4SoM. 

450  M. 
450  M. 
460  M. 
450  M. 
460  M. 
4SO  M. 
450  M. 
SOO  M. 
500  M. 
500  M. 

400  M. 
360  M. 

350  M. 
370  M. 
380  M. 
420  M. 
380  M. 
400  M. 
400  M. 
450  M. 
450  M. 
4S0M. 

330  M. 
320  M. 

280  M. 
330  M. 
300  M. 
350  M. 
340  M. 
320  M. 
300  M. 
350  M. 
375  M. 
350  M. 

250  M. 
250  M. 

200  M. 
230  M. 

260  M. 
260  M. 

220  M. 
250  M. 
300  M. 

200  M. 
200  M. 

220  M. 

605  M. 
542  M. 
800  M. 
539.33  M. 
546  M. 
574  M. 
565.50  M. 
SS7M. 
SS4M. 
541.33  M. 
576  M. 
585.25  M. 
586  M. 

RENTAL  COMPENSATION  SCALE  FOR  WOMEN  TEACHERS  IN 
THE    VOLKSSCHULEN 


Province 

Classes  of  LocALrriES 

Pension- 
able Por- 
tion OE 

A 

B 

C 

D 

El 

E2 

Es 

E4 

Compen- 
sation 

East  Prussia    .    . 
West  Prussia  .     . 
Berlin     .... 
Brandenburg  .     . 
Pomerania  .    .    . 
Posen     .... 
Silesia    .    . 
Saxony  .... 
Schleswig-Holstein 
Hannover   .    .    . 
Westphalia      .    . 
Hesse-Nassau  .    . 
Rhine  Province 

600  M. 
560  M. 
560  M. 
560  M. 
560  M. 

560  M. 
560  M. 
560  M, 
560  M. 
560  M. 
560  M. 
560  M. 

500  M. 
470  M. 

470  M. 
470  M. 
480  M. 
500  M. 
470  M. 
470  M. 
470  M. 
480  M. 
480  M. 
480  M. 

400  M. 
390  M. 

390  M. 
390  M. 
400  M. 
410  M. 
390  M. 
390  M. 
390  M. 
400  M. 
420  M. 
400  M. 

330  M. 
330  M. 

330  M. 
330  M. 
330  M. 
330  M. 
330  M. 
330  M. 
330  M. 
350  M. 
360  M. 
3SoM. 

250  M. 
260  M. 

250  M. 
290  M. 
280  M. 
300  M. 
270  M. 
250  M. 
270  M. 
300  M. 
320  M. 
300  M. 

220  M. 
220  M. 

200  M. 
250  M. 
220  M. 
250  M. 
230  M. 
180  M. 
220  M. 
250  M. 
265  M. 
250  M. 

180  M. 
180  M. 

150  M. 
i8oM. 

190  M. 
190  M. 

160  M. 
200  M. 
210  M. 

140  M. 
150  M. 

160  M. 

410  M. 
394  M. 
560  M. 
390  M. 
398  M. 
404  M. 
404  M. 

392  M. 

393  M. 
393-33  M 
408  M. 
411.75  M. 
413  M. 

TEACHERS'  SALARIES 


207 


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PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


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TEACHERS'  SALARIES 


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2IO 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


In  order  that  the  salaries  given  above  may  be  compared  with 
those  paid  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  some  cities  and  states 
outside  of  Prussia  are  quoted  : 


Brunswick  (city) 
Bremerhaven 
Hamburg 
Leipzig .    .    . 
Numberg  .     . 
Strassburg 

Anhalt  .  .  . 
Bavaria  .  . 
Bremen  .  . 
Lippe-Detmold 
Lubeck  .  . 
Meck.-Strelitz 
Saxony  .  . 
Saxe-Coburg  - 
Saxe-Meinigen 
Reuss  L.  .  . 
Schw.-Sonderhausen 
Waldeck    .    .    .    . 


1800-3900  M.' 
2300-4600  M. 
2600-5100  M.' 
1600-3800  M. 
2640-5220  M. 
1600-4220  M. 

1260-3150  M. 
1200-2800  M. 
2200-4800  M. 
1400-2400  M. 
2100-4400  M. 
1200-2300  M. 
1500-3000  M. 
1200-2900  M. 
1250-3000  M. 
1300-2800  M. 
iigo-2430  M. 
1400-3020  M. 


Bremen  . 
Chemnitz 
Karlsruhe 
Munich  . 
Plauen  . 
Stuttgart 


Baden     . 

Brunswick 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Hesse      .    .     . 

Schaumburg-Lippe 

Meck.-Schwerin 

Oldenburg 

Sax.-Altenburg 

Saxe-Gotha 

Reuss  a.  L.  .     . 

Schw.  Rudolstadt 

Weimar  .     . 

Wiirttemberg 


2200-4800  M.* 
1500-3800  M. 
2400-4200  M.' 
2820-5520  M.* 
1600-3500  M. 
1650-3250  M. 
I 
1600-3200  M. 
1410-3300  M. 
1200-2400  M. 
1200-3000  M. 
1400-3200  M. 
1100-1800  M. 
1200-2730  M. 
1300-2600  M. 
1200-2900  M. 
1300-2800  M. 
1200-2400  M. 
1200-2750  M. 
1600-3200  M. 


The  following  salaries,  which  include  all  items,  are  the  highest 
which  are  paid  in  Prussia.    4.20  M.  are  equivalent  to  $1.00. 

Posen       5030  M. 

Frankfurt-am-Main 5010  M. 

Charlottenburg      .         5000  M. 

Dahlem 5000  M. 

Grmiewald ^ocjo  M. 

Schoneberg 5000  M. 

Steglitz SoooM. 

Wilmersdorf .     .  cqoo  |^4_ 

Berlin 5000  M 

Borkum 4^50  M. 

Friedenau 4850  M. 

Gr.  Lichterfelde 4850  M. 

*  Including  Rental  Compensation. 


TEACHERS'  SALARIES  211 

Tempelhof 4850  M. 

Zehlendorf 4850  M. 

Wiesbaden 4810  M. 

Treptow 4800  M. 

Dusseldorf 4800  M. 

Cologne 4800  M. 

Hermsdorf 4700  M. 

Lankwitz 4700  M. 

Lichtenberg 4700  M. 

Mariendorf   .     .     .     .^ 4700  M. 

Pankow 4700  M. 

Potsdam 4700  M. 

Neukolln 4700  M. 

Stralau 4700  M. 

Tegel 4700  M. 

Wannsee 4700  M. 

Weissensee 4700  M. 

Friedrichfelde 4650  M. 

Breslau 4620  M. 

Alderhof 4570  M. 

Marienfelde 457°  M. 

Nowawes 4570  M. 

Britz 4SSO  M. 

Nieder-imd  Ober  Schoneweide 4550  M. 

Niederschonhausen 4550  M. 

Reinickendorf 4550  M. 

Spandau 4550  M. 

Helgoland 455°  M. 

Konigsberg  in  Pr 455°  M. 

Glowno 454°  M. 

Heinersdorf 452°  M. 

Kopenick 452°  M. 

Alt-Glienicke 4500  M. 

Grunau 45°°  M. 

Lichtenrade       45°°  M. 

Wiltenau 45°°  M. 

Hanau 45°°  M. 

Kassel 45°°  M. 

Lissa 4SooM. 


212 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Altona 4SooM. 

Kiel 4SooM. 

Wilhelmshaven 4480  M. 

Stettin 445°  M. 

Everybody  in  Prussia  whose  income  is  more  than  900  M.  a 
Income  year  must  pay  an  income  tax,  so  this  must  be  de- 
''^"  ducted  from  the  total  amount  of  the  salary  if  we  want 

to  get  at  the  true  income  of  the  teacher. 

THE  INCOME  TAX  SCHEDULE 


Income  irom  More  Than 

And  Up  to  and  Including 

Tax 

900  M. 

1050  M. 

6M. 

1050  M. 

1200  M. 

9M. 

1200  M. 

1350  M. 

12  M. 

1350  M. 

1500  M. 

16  M. 

1500  M. 

1650  M. 

21  M. 

1650  M. 

1800  M. 

26  M. 

1800  M. 

2100  M. 

31  M. 

2100  M. 

2400  M. 

36  M. 

2400  M. 

2700  M. 

44  M. 

2700  M. 

3000  M. 

52  M. 

3000  M. 

3300  M. 

60  M. 

3300  M. 

3600  M. 

70  M. 

■  3600  M. 

3900  M. 

80  M 

3900  M. 

4200  M. 

92  M. 

4200  M. 

4500  M. 

104  M. 

4500  M. 

sooo  M. 

118  M. 

Sooo  M. 

SSooM. 

132  M. 

5500  M. 

6000  M. 

146  M. 

6000  M. 

6500  M. 

160  M. 

6500  M. 

7000  M. 

176  M. 

7000  M. 

7500  M. 

192  M. 

7SooM. 

8000  M. 

212  M. 

8000  M. 

8500  M. 

232  M. 

8500  M. 

9000  M. 

252  M. 

9000  M. 

9SooM. 

276  M. 

9500  M. 

10500  M. 

300  M. 

CHAPTER  XI 

TEACHERS'  PENSIONS 

Teachers  receive  pensions  in  all  German  states,  although  the 
systems  of  pensioning  are  by  no  means  uniform.  The  differences 
concern  the  amount  of  the  pension,  the  age  at  which  it  is 
granted,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  pension  fund  is  raised. 

In  Prussia  the  matter  is  regulated  by  the  pension  law  of  July  6, 
1885,  which  was  revised  in  1907.  Every  teacher  who  has  served 
ten  years  in  the  schools  is  entitled  to  a  pension,  if  he  or  she  be 
compelled  to  retire  after  that  period,  or  in  case  the  inability  to 
serve  has  been  brought  about  by  the  performance  of  duties  in 
the  school.  At  the  age  of  sixty-five  teachers  may  retire  with  a 
pension,  even  though  they  may  still  be  able  to  perform  the 
duties  of  their  ofl&ce.  If  teachers  retire  at  any  time  between 
the  tenth  year  of  service  and  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  life,  a  doctor's 
certificate  is  necessary  to  prove  that  they  are  no  longer  able  to 
teach. 

The  amount  of  the  pension  is  regulated  according  to  Article  2 
of  the  law  of  1907.^    It  reads  as  follows : 

The  pension,  if  retirement  occurs  after  the  tenth  completed  year  of  serv- 
ice but  yet  before  the  eleventh  fuU  year,  amounts  to  |J  of  the  last  income 
of  the  teacher,  and  increases  thereafter  by  ^  of  this  income  for  every  year 
of  service  following  up  to  the  thirtieth  completed  year  of  service,  and  in- 
creases after  that  each  year  by  ^h!  of  the  income  last  paid.  The  pension 
cannot  be  more  than  f|  of  the  last  salary. 

The  income  last  received  by  the  teacher  is  made  the  basis  for 
computation  of  the  pension.    In  this  income  are  included  cash 

1  Zentralblatt,  1907,  p.  570. 
213 


214  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

payments  to  the  teacher  (basal  salary,  local  increment,  or  bonus, 
rental  compensation,  service  increments),  free  lands,  dwelling, 
or  fuel  (see  p.  199).  The  years  of  service  are  counted  from  the 
time  at  which  the  teacher  entered  the  public  school  service  in 
Prussia.  The  first  six  hundred  marks  of  the  pension  is  paid  out 
of  the  state  treasury,  while  the  remainder  is  paid  by  the  local 
communities  or  others  responsible  for  the  support  of  the  schools. 

In  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  same  pension  system  is  in  force  as  in 
Prussia.  The  formula  expressing  the  calculation  of  the  pension 
in  Prussia  and  in  Alsace-Lorraine  is  [f§  plus  ws  (number  of 
years  between  the  loth  and  the  31st)  plus  tws  (number  of 
years  between  the  30th  and  the  41st)]  X  (salary  a  tretirement). 
The  pension  according  to  this  formula  would  lie  between  one 
third  and  three  fourths  of  the  salary  at  retirement.  In  1909 
there  were  10,725  teachers  on  the  pension  list,  and  pensions 
amounted  to  18,164,900  marks  annually. 

In  Prussia  the  pension  is  paid  partly  by  the  state  and  partly 
by  the  community,  while  the  teachers  contribute  nothing  at  all. 
This  is  not  true  of  all  the  states.  In  Oldenburg, 
tory  Pen-  Reuss  a.  L.,  and  in  Reuss  j. L.,  the  teachers  contribute^ 
Bion  un  s  ^jjjjg  ^  Mecklenburg-StreHtz  there  is  no  pension 
fund.    The  other  states  have  non-contributory  funds. 

The  maximum  pension  is  reached  in  Prussia  at  sixty-five,  like- 
wise in  Wiirttemberg  and  Saxony,  which  in  general  means  after 
Maximuni  forty-five  years  of  service.  This  is  also  the  case  in 
Pension  Schaumburg-Lippe.  In  Hesse,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Anhalt,  Brunswick,  and  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  the  highest  pension  is  paid  after  fifty  years  of  service, 
while  in  Baden,  Saxe-Coburg,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen,  and  Hamburg,  the  maximum  pension  comes 
after  forty  years  in  the  schools.  Bremen  pays  its  maximum 
after  thirty  years  of  service,  and  Oldenburg,  Saxe- Weimar,  and 
Lippe  after  thirty-seven  years. 


TEACHERS'  PENSIONS  215 

In  Bavaria  there  is  a  pension  fund  in  each  administrative 
district,  to  which  teachers,  local  communities,  and  the  state 
contribute.  The  amount  of  the  pension  varies  greatly 
in  the  several  districts.  Pensions  in  Bavaria  are  rather  '""* 
high  as  a  rule,  and  begin  with  the  first  year  of  service.  For  in- 
stance, in  Munich  the  pension  within  the  first  ten  years  of  serv- 
ice is  70  per  cent  of  the  salary;  80  per  cent  for  retirement  within 
the  eleventh  and  twentieth  years  of  service;  90  per  cent  between 
the  twenty-first  and  thirtieth  years;  and  100  per  cent  if  the  pen- 
sioning takes  place  after  the  fortieth  year  in  the  schools.  In 
Bavaria  length  of  service  is  reckoned  from  the  twenty-fifth  year 
of  age.  The  men  teachers  have  to  contribute  6  per  cent  and 
the  women  2.5  per  cent  of  the  first  year's  salary  upon  register- 
ing for  a  pension  and  a  Uke  percentage  on  all  subsequent  in- 
creases. This  amount  is  paid  only  once.  Thereafter  each  year 
the  men  must  pay  3  per  cent  and  the  women  1.2  per  cent  of  the 
yearly  salary,  if  they  enter  before  the  thirty-fifth  year.  If  they 
register  thereafter,  they  must  pay  4  per  cent  and  2.2  per  cent, 
men  and  women  respectively. 

In  Saxony  the  pension  amounts  to  30  per  cent  of  the  yearly 
salary,  if  retirement  occurs  between  the  eleventh  and  sixteenth 
years  of  service ;  then  it  increases  i  per  cent  yearly  up  to  the 
completed  seventeenth  year ;  2  per  cent  yearly  from  then  to  the 
completed  twenty-fifth  year ;  to  the  completed  thirty-second  year 
3  per  cent  yearly;  from  there  on  2  per  cent  each  year  to  the 
thirty-fifth  year;  and  finally  a  yearly  i  per  cent  increase  from 
then  till  the  completed  fortieth  year  of  service,  which  in  all 
amounts  to  80  per  cent  of  the  highest  salary  after  forty  years  in 
the  school. 

The  smaller  states  in  Germany  have  pension  laws  very  similar 
to  those  of  Prussia. 

Pensions  are  also  provided  for  the  widows  and  orphans  of 
teachers  in  almost  all  German  states,  but  there  are  many  dif- 


2i6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ferences  among  the  different  states.    In  some  states  both  the 
widows  and  orphans  receive  pensions,  in  others  only  the  widows 

receive  pensions.  Another  difference  lies  in  the  man- 
for'wwows  ner  in  which  the  pension  is  reckoned.  Sometimes  it 
"°*  is  reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  teacher's  pension  and 

sometimes  on  the  basis  of  the  salary  last  drawn. 
The  pension  in  other  states  is  often  a  definite  amount  regardless 
of  the  salary  of  the  husband. 

The  widows  and  orphans  of  Prussian  elementary  school  teachers 
were  first  provided  for  on  a  large  scale  by  the  law  of  December 
,  22,  1869,  which  arranged  for  the  establishment,  or 
Pensions  rather  the  reorganization,  of  widows'  and  orphans' 
in  Prussia  fy^^s.  According  to  this  law  the  pension  of  the 
widow  of  a  school-teacher  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  marks 
annually.  This  pension  was  increased  under  the  widows'  pen- 
sion fund  law  of  1881  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  marks  a  year. 
Again  in  1889  the  position  of  teachers  and  their  families  was 
somewhat  improved,  in  that,  according  to  law  of  June  19th  of 
that  year,  the  yearly  premiums,  as  well  as  the  initial  fee  for  en- 
trance into  the  pension  foundation,  were  abolished.  That  was 
the  end  of  contributory  pension  funds  in  Prussia.  At  the 
present  teachers  and  their  widows  and  children  are  treated  just 
as  other  state  officials.  The  law  which  regulates  widows'  and 
orphans'  pensions  bears  the  date  of  December  4,  1899,  with  a 
slight  revision  in  1907.  The  important  articles  of  the  law  as 
revised  in  1907  read  as  follows : 

Section  3.  The  widow's  pension  amounts  to  forty  per  cent  of  the 
pension  which  her  husband  drew,  or  to  which  he  would  have  been  en- 
titled, if  he  had  been  retired  on  the  day  of  his  death.  The  widow's 
pension  shall  amount  at  least  to  three  himdred  marks  yearly,  but  shall 
not  exceed  thirty-five  hundred  marks,  with  the  reservation  of  section  5 
kept  in  mind. 

Section  4.  The  orphan's  pension  amounts  to  one  fifth  of  the  widow's 
pension  for  each  child  for  children  whose  mother  is  living  and  was  entitled 


TEACHERS'  PENSIONS  217 

to  a  pension  at  the  time  of  the  teacher's  death,  and  to  one  third  of  the 
widow's  pension  for  children  whose  mother  was  dead  or  was  not  entitled 
to  a  widow's  pension  at  the  time  of  the  teacher's  death. 

Section  j.  Widow's  and  orphan's  pensions  singly  or  together  must 
not  amount  to  more  than  the  sum  of  the  pension  to  which  the  deceased 
was  entitled,  or  would  have  been  entitled  had  he  been  retired  on  the  day 
of  his  death.  The  amount  of  the  widow's  and  orphan's  pension  may  be 
curtailed  by  application  of  this  limitation. 

The  right  to  draw  pension  expires  when  any  such  person  mar- 
ries or  dies,  and  the  orphans  cease  to  draw  pensions  at  the  close 
of  their  eighteenth  year.  The  state  pays  the  first  four  hundred 
and  twenty  marks  of  widows'  pensions,  the  first  eighty-four 
marks  of  half-orphans'  pensions,  and  the  first  one  hundred  and 
forty  marks  of  full  orphans'  pensions.  The  remainder  of  the 
pension  is  paid  by  the  local  community  or  parties  responsible  for 
the  support  of  the  schools. 

In  Bavaria  there  are  special  funds  in  each  district  or  commu- 
nity for  the  support  of  widows  and  orphans.  These  funds  are 
more  or  less  like  beneficiary  insurance  societies  to  which 

.  .  Bavana 

the  teachers  must  pay  certam  sums  or  premiums. 
Orphan  funds  are  generally  of  a  private  character  except  in  large 
cities.  These  are  supported  by  the  teaching  body.  The  Lehrer- 
waisenstift  (teacher's  orphan  foundation)  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  societies.  One  may  take  Munich  for  an  example 
of  the  working  of  the  widow  and  orphan  pension  system  inBavaria.^ 
A.  The  yearly  pension  of  the  widow  is  reckoned  on  the  basis 
of  the  pensionable  salary  last  drawn  by  her  husband  while  in 
active  service  and  on  the  following  scale : 

1.  10  per  cent  for  the  widows  of  substitutes  or  temporarily  employed 
teachers. 

2.  For  the  widow  of  an  elementary  school  teacher, 

a.   12  per  cent  in  case  of  his  death  after  the  second  full  year 
of  service ; 

*  Lexis,  vol.  Ill,  p.  184. 


2i8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

6.   IS  per  cent  in  case  of  his  death  after  the  second  and  be- 
fore the  seventh  year  of  service ; 

c.  19  per  cent  in  case  of  his  death  after  the  seventh  and 
before  the  seventeenth  full  year  of  service ; 

d.  2$  per  cent  in  case  of  his  death  after  the  seventeenth  com- 
pleted year  of  service. 

B.  The  yearly  pension  of  legitimate  children  is  fixed  for  each 
child  at 

(a)  Tff  of  the  mother's  pension,  if  the  children  are  half  orphans ;  and 
(6)  ^  of  the  mother's  pension,  if  they  are  full  orphans. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  the  widow's  pension  amounts  to 

one  fifth  of  the  salary  last  drawn  by  the  husband,  while  each 

orphan  receives  one  fifth  of  the  amount  of  the  mother's 

pension,  if  the  mother  is  living  and  as  long  as  she  lives, 

and  after  her  death  three  tenths  of  the  widow's  pension. 

The  amount  of  the  widow's  pension  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Hesse  is  based  on  the  number  of  years  of  the  husband's  service 
Grand  ^  ^^  schools.    From  the  first  to  the  tenth  full  year 

Duchy  of  the  widow  receives  yearly  450  marks,  from  the  eleventh 
to  the  twentieth  completed  year  inclusive  500  marks, 
from  the  twenty-first  to  the  thirtieth  year  inclusive  550  marks, 
and  600  marks  if  he  had  served  longer  than  thirty  years.  The 
orphan's  pension  amounts  to  one  fifth  of  the  widow's  pension,  if 
the  mother  is  living;  but  if  the  mother  is  dead,  the  orphan's 
pension  is  two  thirds  of  the  mother's  pension  in  case  there  is 
only  one  child,  one  half  of  the  mother's  pension  in  case  there  are 
two  children;  and  in  case  there  are  three  or  more  children, 
each  one  receives  a  third  of  the  widow's  pension ;  but  in  no  case 
may  the  total  amount  of  pensions  for  the  heirs  -of  one  teacher 
come  to  more  than  1200  marks. 

The  regulations  in  the  other  states  in  regard  to  this  matter 
show  many  minor  differences,  but  in  general  the  instances  given 
above  are  typical. 


TEACHERS'  PENSIONS  219 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  German  governments  to  pension  state 
officials.  This  is  particularly  true  in  Prussia.  As  every  one 
knows  there  is  a  very  large  officialdom  in  Germany,  Principle  of 
and  aU  officials  are  salaried  and  pensioned,  thereby  Pensioning 
removing  them  from  the  influence  and  whims,  and  we  may  say, 
also  the  rightful  desires  of  the  people  whom  they  serve.  This 
large  body  of  officials  rides  safely  and  supreme  upon  the  shoulders 
of  the  governed.  It  must  be  said  that  they  do  their  work  faith- 
fully and  well,  even  though  at  times  they  conduct  themselves  as 
if  they  were  rulers  and  not  servants  of  the  people.  Civility  is 
not  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  the  German  official, 
and  this  attitude  arises  from  the  knowledge  of  the  security  of 
his  position.  He  knows  his  salary  and  pension  are  secure,  so 
long  as  he  fulfills  the  word  of  the  regulations  which  are  laid 
down  for  him.  These  statements  are  not  true  of  the  German 
elementary  teacher  or  of  his  administrator.  Although  the 
teacher  is  a  state  official,  he  cannot  be  put  in  the  category  of  the 
"typical  German  official,"  and  it  is  no  doubt  due  to  his  training 
that  he  is  so  different  from  other  classes  of  officials  in  his  atti- 
tude towards  the  people  he  serves  and  toward  strangers. 

A  still  more  striking  effect  of  the  system  of  pensioning  for 
teachers,  widows,  and  orphans  is  the  sense  of  security  brought 
by  the  knowledge  that  the  rainy  day  is  provided  for.  This 
knowledge  keeps  teachers  in  the  profession  and  enables  them  to 
devote  themselves  entirely  to  their  work  without  being  required 
to  worry  about  the  time  when  disability  forces  them  from  the 
schools. 


CHAPTER  XII 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE   VOLKSSCHULEN  AND    COURSES 

OF  STUDY 

A.  Although  the  Volksschule  is  not  organized  in  the  same 
way  in  all  the  states  of  the  empire,  an  exact  statement  of  the 
organization  in  Prussia  will  suffice  to  give  a  reasonably  clear 
conception  of  elementary  school  organization  in  Germany. 

The  Volksschulen  of  Prussia  are  organized  according  to  the 
general  Regulations  of  October  15,  1872.  The  normal  forms  of 
the  elementary  school  under  these  regulations  are  the  several- 
class  school,  the  school  with  two  teachers,  and  the  school  with 
one  teacher,  which  is  either  a  one-class  school  or  a  haM-day 
school.  The  seven-  and  eight-grade  schools  of  the  present  time 
are  not  specifically  recognized  by  these  regulations  at  all. 

The  one-class  school  corresponds  to  our  ungraded  country 
school,  in  that  all  children  of  compulsory  school  age  are  put  into 
one  class  and  are  taught  by  a  single  teacher.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  such  a  class  must  not  exceed  eighty.  The  school  is 
divided  into  three  sections  or  groups,^  as  are  all  Volksschulen. 
As  a  rule  the  children  of  the  lower  section  receive  twenty  hours 
of  instruction  a  week,  while  those  of  the  middle  and  upper  sec- 
tions receive  thirty  hours,  including  physical  training  for  boys 
and  handwork  for  girls. 

'  The  lower  section  usually  comprises  those  children  who  have  been  in  school 
from  one  to  three  years;  the  middle  section  those  children  in  school  four  or  five 
years;  and  the  upper  section  those  who  have  been  in  school  six,  seven,  or  eight 
years. 

220 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN  221 

A  one-class  school  may  be  organized  into  a  half-day  school 
with  the  approval  of  the  administrative  county  government, 
whenever  the  number  of  children  exceeds  eighty,  or  Half-Day 
where  the  schoolroom  is  overcrowded,  or  where  condi-  School 
tions  do  not  allow  a  second  teacher  to  be  employed.  Both  divi- 
sions of  the  half-day  school  together  receive  thirty-two  hours  of 
instruction  each  week. 

If  two  teachers  are  employed  in  one  school,  the  instruction  is 
given  in  two  separate  classes.  When  the  number  of  children  in 
such  a  school  exceeds  one  hundred  and  twenty,  a  . 

three-class  school  is  organized,  although  the  nvimber  with  Two 
of  teachers  may  not  necessarily  be  increased.     In  a 
three-class  school  with  two  teachers,  there  are  twelve  hours  of 
instruction  each  week  for  the  first  class,  twenty-four  hours  for 
the  second,  and  twenty-eight  for  the  third. 

In  schools  with  three  or  more  classes  ^  (not  used  in  the  sense  of 
grade),  except  schools  with  three  classes  and  two  teachers,  the 
children   of   the   lower   section   receive    twenty-two  . 

hours  of  instruction  a  week,  those  of  the  middle  section  Grade 
twenty-eight,  and  those  of  the  upper  section  thirty- 
two.    A  school  with  more  than  six  grades  was  scarcely  thought 
of  in  1872,  but  since  that  time  the  seven-  and  eight-grade  systems 
have  become  very  common  in  the  larger  cities. 

Concerning  the  nmnber  of  schools  of  the  various  types,  the 
following  tables  ^  on  page  223  show  the  forms  of  elementary  school 
organization  most  in  favor.  A  very  small  nimiber  of  Types  of 
children,  comparatively  speaking,  are  educated  in  Schools 
school  systems  of  eight  grades,  which  fact  seems  rather  strange, 
inasmuch  as  the  period  of  compulsory  education  covers  eight 
years.  The  number  of  eight-grade  school  systems,  however,  is 
increasing.     Naturally,  a  great  waste  of  time  and  unnecessary 

*  A  class  frequently  includes  more  than  one  year's  work. 
'  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  filr  den  premsischen  Stoat,  1913. 


222 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


repetition  are  entailed  in  the  upper  classes  of  the  six-  and  seven- 
grade  systems  by  the  fact  that  lie  pupils  must  either  repeat  the 
work  of  the  last  year  in  their  school  during  the  eighth  year,  or, 
as  is  generally  done,  follow  a  two  years'  course  in  the  seventh 
grade.  In  one  way  or  another,  the  grades  are  so  combined  or 
organized  with  reference  to  the  subject  matter  that  the  eight 
years  are  filled  out.  As  will  be  shown  in  another  place,  by  no 
means  all  of  the  pupils  cover  eight  years'  work,  although  they 
remain  in  school  during  the  whole  compulsory  period.  A  six- 
or  seven-grade  system  is  very  convenient  for  retarded  children, 
in  that  such  children,  if  retarded  only  one  or  two  years,  are  en- 
abled thus  to  get  a  rounded-out  training. 

The  elementary  schools  of  Prussia  are  organized  on 
School  Or-  several  bases ;  namely,  the  nimiber  of  grades  into 
gamzation  ^  ^j^j^jj  jjjg  ^qj.^  jg  divided,  and  the  sex,  religion,  and 

number  of  the  pupils. 

There  were  in  Prussia  in  the  years  1901,  1911,  the  following 
numbers  of  school  communities  : 

SCHOOL  COMMUNITIES  IN  PRUSSIA 


1 901 

190S 

191 1 

School  communities  with  one  school 

School  communities  with  two  schools 

School  communities  with  three  or  more  schools       .     . 

25,395 

1,970 

663 

25,481 

2,078 

726 

26,339 
1,927 

70s 

Total  school  communities 

28,028 

28,28s 

28,971 

The  decrease  in  the  number  of  communities  with  two  schools  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  recently  attempts  have  been  made  to  imite 
one-class  schools  where  they  hitherto  existed  side  by  side. 

The  figures  which  follow,  as  stated  before,  show  the  different 
forms  of  school  organization  which  existed  in  Prussia  with  refer- 
ence to  the  number  of  successive  classes  (grades). 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 
TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS  IN  PRUSSIA 


223 


Types  of  Schools 

1886 

1891 

1896 

igox 

1906 

1911 

One-class  schools  .  .  . 
Half-day  schools  .... 
Two-class  schools  with  two 

teachers       

Three-class  schools  .  . 
Other   three-class   schools 

and  several-class  schools 

17,743 
5,481 

3,032 
2,610 

5,150 

i6,S45 
5,925 

3,210 
3,136 

5,926 

15,578 
6,8s6 

3,215 
3,547 

6,942 

13,530 
7,873 

3,573 
3,830 

7,950 

13,507 
7,369 

3,941 
3,958 

8,986 

13,543 
6,6ss 

4,104 
4,192 

10,190 

Total  schools     .    .    . 

34,016 

34,742 

36,138 

36,756 

37,761 

38,684 

TYPES  OF  URBAN  SCHOOLS  IN  PRUSSIA 


TvPES  OF  Schools 

1886 

1S91 

1895 

1901 

1906 

1911 

One-class  schools 

Half-day  schools 

Two-class  schools  with  two  teachers 
Three-class  schools  with  two  teachers 
Other  three-class  schools  and  several- 
class  schools       

556 

91 

210 

151 

2,700 

461 

78 

234 

III 

2,987 

468 

75 
199 
141 

3,359 

408 

79 
214 

lOI 

3,612 

417 

64 

227 

114 

4,010 

394 

59 

223 

95 
4,354 

Total  schools       

3,718 

3,871 

4,242 

4,414 

4,832 

5,i2S 

TYPES  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  PRUSSIA 


Typbs  of  Schools 

1886 

1891 

1896 

1901 

1906 

1911 

One-class  schools  .  .  . 
Half-day  schools  .... 
Two-class  schools  with  two 

teachers       

Three-class    schools    with 

two  teachers  .... 
Other   three-class    schools 

with  other  several-class 

schools 

17,177 
5,390 

2,822 
2,459 

2,450 

16,084 
5,847 

2,976 
3,02s 

2,939 

15,110 
6,781 

3,016 

3,406 

3,583 

13,122 
7,794 

3,359 

3,729 

4,338 

13,090 
7,305 

3,714 

3,844 

4,976 

13,149 
6,596 

3,881 
4,097 

5,836 

Total  schools     .    .     . 

30,298 

30,271 

31,896 

32,342 

32,929 

33,559 

224 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


The  two  preceding  tables  give  the  distribution  according  to 
classes  for  urban  and  rural  schools  in  Prussia  for  quinquennial 
periods  from  1886  to  1911. 

The  next  table  gives  the  number  of  schools  organized 
variously  as  to  the  number  of  classes,  and  also  the  actual 
total  number  of  separate  classes.  In  these  schools  the  course 
of  study  is  divided  up  according  to  the  number  of  grades 
in  the  school. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  SCHOOLS  ACCORDING  TO  GRADES; 

AND   ACTUAL  NUMBER  OF  CLASSES 

IN  THESE  SCHOOLS 


Types  or  ScHOOts 

1886 

1891 

1896 

1 901 

1906 

1911 

Schools  of  one  class       .     . 

17,744 

16,600 

15,892 

13,615 

13,536 

13,571 

with  classes       .    .    . 

17,745 

i6,6ss 

16,206 

13,700 

13,565 

13,596 

Schools  of  two  classes  .     . 

8,84s 

9,474 

10,181 

11,849 

11,680 

11,134 

with  classes       .    .    . 

18,141 

19,425 

20,868 

24,313 

23,826 

22,706 

Schools  of  three  classes 

3,949 

4,447 

4,930 

5,258 

5,562 

5,904 

with  classes            .     . 

12,561 

14,054 

15,527 

16,593 

17,400 

18,266 

Schools  of  four  classes 

1,352 

1,553 

1,709 

1,834 

1,822 

1,929 

with  classes       .     .     . 

6,408 

7,247 

7,755 

8,274 

8,029 

8,280 

Schools  of  five  classes 

649 

692 

863 

968 

1,061 

1,176 

with  classes       .     .    . 

4,102 

4,253 

5,116 

5,623 

6,091 

6,744 

Schools  of  six  classes     .     . 

1,187 

1,551 

1,830 

1,613 

1,568 

1,484 

with  classes       .    .    . 

12,82s 

16,181 

18,699 

15,317 

13,997 

12,638 

Schools  of  seven  classes     . 

290 

42s 

733 

1,336 

1,988 

2,809 

with  classes       .     .     . 

3.31S 

4,931 

7,830 

15,940 

24,292 

35,560 

Schools  of  eight  classes 

283 

544 

677 

with  classes       .    .    . 

4,322 

8,702 

10,431 

Advanced      .... 

504 

The  type  of  school  most  favored  in  the  cities  is  the  seven- 
grade  or  seven-class  school,  while  the  one  generally  found  in  the 
country  has  three  classes  or  less.  The  following  tables  illustrate 
this  point  clearly : 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCBULEN  225 

TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  NUMBER  OF  CLASSES  IN  CITIES 


Types  or  Schools 

1886 

1891 

1896 

1901 

1906 

1911 

Schools  of  one  class      .     . 

S67 

464 

479 

410 

420 

396 

with  classes       .     .     . 

S68 

467 

491 

412 

423 

398 

Schools  of  two  classes 

342 

329 

291 

305 

309 

292 

with  classes       .     .    . 

740 

68s 

622 

628 

644 

59S 

Schools  of  three  classes     . 

548 

467 

493 

404 

378 

334 

with  classes       .    .     . 

i>9S4 

I,6S3 

1,712 

1,435 

1,282 

1,082 

Schools  of  four  classes 

S66 

538 

519 

432 

370 

312 

with  classes       .    .    . 

2,926 

2,775 

2,535 

2,187 

1,799 

1,428 

Schools  of  five  classes  .    . 

405 

386 

380 

362 

314 

275 

with  classes       .    .    . 

2,678 

2,542 

2,413 

2,249 

1,940 

1,700 

Schools  of  six  classes     .    . 

1,028 

1,297 

1,440 

1,118 

1,002 

827 

with  classes       .    .     . 

11,420 

13,923 

15,383 

11,174 

9,577 

7,652 

Schools  of  seven  classes     . 

262 

390 

640 

1,118 

1,525 

2,050 

with  classes       .     .     . 

3,062 

4,604 

6,998 

13,572 

18,926 

26,737 

Schools  of  eight  classes 

26s 

514 

639 

with  classes       .     .     . 

4,076 

8,250 

9,83s 

Advanced  classes 

444 

TYPES  OF  SCHOOL  AND  NUMBER  OF  CLASSES  IN  THE   COUNTRY 


Types  op  Schools 

One-class  schools      .     .     . 

17,177 

16,136 

15,413 

13,205 

13,116 

13,17s 

with  classes 

17,177 

16,188 

15,716 

13,288 

13,142 

13,198 

Two-class  schools 

8,503 

9,145 

9,890 

11,544 

11,371 

10,842 

with  classes 

17,401 

18,740 

20,246 

23,685 

23,182 

22,111 

Three-class  schools 

3,401 

3,980 

4,437 

4,854 

5,184 

5,570 

with  classes 

10,607 

12,401 

13,815 

15,158 

16,118 

17,184 

Four-class  schools 

786 

1,015 

1,190 

1,402 

1,452 

1,617 

with  classes 

3,482 

4,472 

S,220 

6,087 

6,230 

6,852 

Five-class  schools 

244 

206 

483 

606 

747 

901 

with  classes 

1,424 

1,711 

2,703 

3,374 

4,151 

5,044 

Siz-class  schools 

159 

254 

390 

495 

566 

657 

with  classes 

1,405 

2,258 

3,316 

4,142 

4,420 

4,986 

Seven-class  schools 

28 

35 

93 

218 

463 

759 

with  classes 

253 

32s 

832 

2,368 

5,366 

8,823 

Eight-class  schools 

18 

30 

38 

with  classes 

246 

452 

596 

Advanced  classes 

60 

226 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Schools  in  Prussia  with  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  teachers  are  as 
follows:  There  is  not,  especially  in  the  country,  a  teacher  for 
every  class,  very  frequently  there  being  one  less  teacher  in  a 
school  than  there  are  classes ;  for  example,  a  three-class  school 
with  two  teachers. 

SCHOOLS  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING  TO  NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS 


TvPES  OF  Schools  (a)  City; 

(b)  CotJNTEV. 

(a)  igoi 

1906 

19H 

(b)i9oi 

1906 

191Z 

Schools  with  one  teacher    .     . 

487 

481 

453 

20,917 

2o,39S 

19,745 

Schools  with  two  teachers  .     . 

317 

342 

319 

7,380 

7,862 

8,224 

Schools  with  three  teachers     . 

287 

256 

252 

1,590 

2,167 

2,474 

Schools  with  four  teachers .    . 

325 

320 

270 

880 

928 

1,054 

Schools  with  five  teachers  .     . 

270 

244 

218 

366 

457 

532  1 

Schools  with  six  teachers    .    . 

391 

349 

304 

275 

307 

379 

Schools  with  seven  teachers    . 

481 

50s 

506 

130 

190 

273 

Schools  with  eight  or  more 

teachers   

1,850 

2,335 

2,803 

444 

623 

878 

CHILDREN  IN  THE  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS  IN   1911 


Types  of  Schools 

Cky 

COTJNTEY 

Total 

Pee  Cent 

Children  in  one-class  schools  .  . 
Children  in  half-day  schools  .  . 
Children  in  two-class  schools  with 

two  teachers 

Children  in  three-class  schools  with 

two  teachers        

Children     in     other     three-class 

schools  and  several-class  schools 

13,706 
4,316 

20,519 
11,681 

2,496,531 

647,308 
522,850 

417,879 

566,727 

1,870,623 

661,014 
527,166 

438,398 

578,408 

4,367,154 

10.00 
8.02 

6.67 

8.80 

66.44 

Total  number  of  children 

2,546,753 

4,025,387 

6,572,140 

100.00 

The  division  of  children  among  schools  varying  in  number  of 
classes  is  better  shown  by  the  following  table,  taken  from  the 
Statistisches  Jahrbttch  fiir  den  preussischen  Staat  for  1912. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN  227 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CHILDREN  IN  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS 


TsPES  or  Schools 

CiTV 

Country 

Total 

Pee  Ceht 

Children  in  one-class  schools     .    . 

13,942 

650,536 

664,478 

10.  II 

Children  in  two-class  schools    .    . 

26,577 

1,003,470 

1,030,047 

15.82 

Children  in  three-class  schools  .    . 

50,297 

860,786 

911,083 

13-86 

Children  in  four-class  schools    .     . 

74,769 

383,626 

458,395 

6.97 

Children  in  five-class  schools     .    . 

80,967 

290,473 

371,440 

S.6S 

Children  in  six-class  schools      .     . 

402,250 

294,174 

696,424 

10.59 

Children  in  seven-class  schools 

1,422,634 

506,467 

1,929,101 

29-35 

Children  in  eight-class  schools  .     . 

464,029 

34,505 

498,534 

7-58 

Children  in  advanced  classes     .     . 

11,288 

1,350 

12,638 
6,572,140 

0.19 

Total  number  of  children 

2,546,753 

4,025,387 

100.00 

From  the  table  immediately  preceding  it  is  seen  that  only  a 
little  more  than  7I  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the  Prussian 
Volkssckulen  are  in  schools  of  eight  classes;  about  twenty-six 
(26)  per  cent  attend  one-  or  two-class  schools,  a  little  more  than 
twenty  (20)  per  cent  attend  schools  of  three  or  four  classes, 
while  over  sixteen  (16)  per  cent  attend  schools  of  five  or  six 
classes,  and  about  thirty  (30)  per  cent  attend  the  seven-class 
school.  The  last-mentioned  type  of  school  seems  to  stand  in 
greatest  favor  at  the  present  time.  The  period  of  compulsory 
attendance  is  eight  years,  though  many  of  the  children  do  not 
attend  longer  than  seven  and  a  half  years,  and  making  allow- 
ances for  non-promotions,  seven  one-year  courses  are  often  all 
the  pupils  ever  complete.  In  such  schools  an  advanced  class  is 
formed  for  those  pupils  who  complete  the  work  of  seven  years 
on  schedule  time,  and  who  must  remain  in  school.  The  ideal, 
however,  is  to  have  eight-class  schools,  one  year  being  given 
to  each  class  and  the  entire  subject-matter  being  divided  into 
eight  one-year  courses.  The  larger  cities  are  gradually  approach- 
ing this  goal,  but  are  held  back  chiefly  by  lack  of  money.  The 
six-class  systems  are  rapidly  losing  ground,  giving  way  to  sys- 
tems of  seven  or  eight  classes. 


228  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  number  of  classes  which  a  school  has  is  determined  by 
the  number  of  pupils  and  by  the  number  of  teachers  available. 
Half-day  It  is  merely  a  question  of  how  many  children  at  the 
Schools  jjjogj.  (-a,n  be  taught  together  by  a  single  teacher.  In 
Prussia  the  law  requires  that  when  the  munber  of  children  ex- 
ceeds eighty,  a  second  teacher  shaU  be  appointed.  A  very 
important  matter  to  be  decided  is  the  form  of  school  organiza- 
tion best  for  those  schools  in  which  there  is  only  one  teacher, 
since  about  one  fifth  of  all  the  children  in  Prussian  elementary 
schools  are  in  institutions  of  this  kind.  In  Baden  and  in  Saxony 
schools  with  one  teacher  are  always  divided  into  two  classes, 
but  in  Prussia  it  is  different.  According  to  the  General  Regu- 
lations of  October  15,  1872,  twenty  hours  of  instruction  must  be 
given  in  the  lower  section  of  the  one-class  school,  and  thirty  hours 
in  each  of  the  other  two  sections.  Under  certain  conditions, 
however,  a  half-day  school  may  be  organized.  A  haK-day  school 
is  one  in  which  the  lower  section  is  entirely  divided  from  the 
two  upper  sections,  receiving  twelve  hours'  instruction  per  week, 
and  the  upper  and  middle  sections  combined  in  all  recitations, 
receiving  a  total  of  twenty  hours  of  instruction.  This  type  of 
school  amounts  to  a  two-class  school,  for,  in  addition  to  being 
wholly  separated  in  all  subjects  of  instruction,  each  group 
attends  school  at  different  hours.  It  is  the  general  opinion  of 
German  school  men  that  the  half-day  school  is  not  so  good  a 
form  of  organization  as  the  undivided  one-class  school. 

Reference  to  the  chapter  on  school  statistics  (p.  91)  will  fur- 
nish an  insight  into  the  length  of  school  attendance,  the  cost,  and 
results  of  instruction  under  the  different  systems.  E.  Schwartz 
in  an  article  in  Schulstatistische  Blatter,  July  18,  191 2,  has  adduced 
rather  conclusive  proof  showing  the  superiority  of  the  eight- 
class  system  over  systems  having  fewer  classes.^    He  measures 

^  Schwartz,  Schulstatistische  BlUtter,  July  1913.  See  also  E.  Schwartz :  Or- 
ganization und  Unterrichtserfolge  der  stadtischen  Volksschtden  in  Deutschland,  eine 
kritische  Darstdlung  auj  Grund  der  Normaischuk  als  Massenheit.    Berlin,  1907. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCEULEN  229 

the  success  of  instruction  by  the  percentage  of  children  dis- 
missed from  school  attendance  out  of  the  highest  class.  The 
eight-class  systems  carry  by  far  the  largest  percentage  of  their 
children  through  the  entire  course.  The  average  number  of 
pupils  per  class  is  less  in  the  eight-class  systems  than  in  the 
seven-class,  but  about  the  same  as  in  the  six-class  systems.  It 
is  also  frequently  maintained  that  an  eight-class  system  costs 
more  than  the  others,  while  the  tables  in  the  authority  quoted 
prove  rather  conclusively  that  the  cost  per  child  in  the  former 
is  less  generally  than  in  the  latter. 

It  is  a  principle  of  elementary  school  organization  in  Germany 
that  Protestant  children  shall  attend  Protestant  schools  and 

that  Catholic  children  shall  attend  Catholic  schools.   _    , 

Contes- 

Furthermore,  the  teachers  are  divided  along  the  same  sionai 
lines.  Since  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  the  principle 
has  existed  that  the  inhabitants  of  a  principahty  follow  the  reli- 
gion of  their  ruler.  Consequently,  the  population  in  most  locali- 
ties of  Germany,  at  the  time  Volksschulen  were  first  established, 
was  generally  unmixed.  It  was  only  natural  that  the  school 
have  the  same  faith  as  the  inhabitants,  and  that  the  teacher 
also  belong  to  the  same  confession.  So,  even  where  the  church 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  establishment  of  the  school,  the  latter 
has  always  been  organized  on  a  confessional  basis.  In  some 
parts  of  Germany,  for  instance,  in  Nassau,  the  population  was  so 
mixed  religiously  that  a  non-confessional  school  (Simultanschulen) 
was  organized,  which,  according  to  the  law,  is  a  school  in  which 
teachers  of  different  confessions  are  employed.  By  Simultan- 
schulen is  meant,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  a  school 
where  children  of  different  religions  are  taught  together.  The 
Prussian  school,  however,  has  developed  on  the  confessional 
basis.  According  to  Article  24  of  the  Prussian  Constitution, 
"In  the  establishment  of  public  Volksschulen  the  confessional 
conditions  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration  as  far  as  possible." 


230  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  school  law  of  1906  regulated  the  confessional  affairs  of  the 
elementary  school  anew,  recognizing  both  the  confessional  and 
the  non-confessional  school.  Special  religious  instruction  is 
provided  for  the  religious  denomination  in  the  minority,  and 
under  certain  conditions  schools  may  even  be  erected  for  them. 
In  all  large  cities  there  are  Catholic  and  Protestant  schools. 
The  normal  training  schools  are  also  divided  on  the  same  basis. 
In  the  cities  it  is  reasonably  easy  to  establish  denominational 
schools,  but  in  the  country  more  and  more  difficulty  will  arise 
as  the  population  becomes  more  and  more  mixed  in  rehgious 
matters. 

The  next  principle  of  school  organization  is  that  of  separate 
schools  for  boys  and  girls.  About  two  thirds  of  the  children  in 
„     ,     ,      Prussia  are  found  in  mixed  classes.     In  school  districts 

Boys  and 

Gills'  where  there  are  enough  children  to  form  two  full 

choois  schools  with  the  complete  number  of  classes,  the  sexes 
are  segregated  for  pedagogical,  ethical,  and  economical  reasons. 
The  separation  of  the  sexes  has  a  direct  effect  upon  the  organi- 
zation and  efficiency  of  the  Volksschulen,  particularly  in  small 
communities.  If  the  number  of  children  in  such  a  community 
is  divided  into  halves  and  put  into  separate  schools,  the  schools 
frequently  cannot  have  as  many  classes  as  if  the  boys  and  girls 
were  taught  together.  If  the  principle  is  correct  that  the  effi- 
■  ciency  of  a  school  increases  with  the  number  of  classes,  a  division 
of  the  sexes  would  lead  often  to  a  lessening  of  the  school's  effi- 
ciency. Moreover,  separate  classes  for  boys  and  girls  in  small 
communities  often  increase  the  cost  of  education,  because  the 
number  of  classes  necessary  will  be  greater  in  a  divided  system, 
and  the  smaller  the  community,  the  greater  the  increase  in  abso- 
lute cost  per  pupil.  The  Catholic  commimities  generally  insist 
on  separate  classes,  just  as  the  CathoUcs  also  demand  that  the 
larger  girls  be  taught  by  women  teachers.  The  General  Regu- 
lations of  October  15,  1872,  recommended  that  in  schools  with 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


231 


three  or  more  classes  a  division  of  the  sexes  is  desirable.  This 
recommendation  has  found  little  acceptance,  however,  for  the 
Prussian  Volksschule  has  developed  from  an  economic  point  of 
view  in  this  respect  rather  than  from  any  so-called  ethical  or 
pedagogical  principles.  The  percentage  of  sex  division  has  in- 
creased latterly,  not  so  much  from  a  belief  that  there  is  any 
special  advantage  in  divided  schools,  but  rather  on  account  of 
the  growth  of  large  cities  in  recent  years,  where  the  organization 
of  separate  schools  entails  no  extra  expense. 

In  addition  to  the  principles  of  organization  discussed  above, 
the  organization  of  the  school  or  class  according  to  the  number 
of  pupils  is  also  significant.     In  cities,  as  soon  as  a  class  organiza- 
becomes  too  large,  a  parallel  class  is  formed,  and  gradu-  tion  on 
ally  the  whole  school  is  really  a  double  institution.  Numbers  ot 
When  all  the  classes  are  parallel,  if  finances  allow,  a  ^"^''^ 
new  school  is  formed  under  another  principal.    This,  however, 
is  not  the  rule,  the  double  school  remaining  under  the  same 
principal  until  further  growth  takes  place  which  compels  a  divi- 
sion.   The  number  allowed  in  a  class  varies  greatly  in  Germany. 


Number  of  Villages  and  Schools 

Range  in  Number  of  Pupils 

21 

11-30 

32 

31-40 

48 

41-50 

81 

Si-60 

84 

61-70 

S3 

71-80 

Si 

81-90 

16 

90-100 

I 

III 

In  Prussia  seventy  are  allowed  in  a  several-class  school  and 
eighty  in  a  one-class  school.  The  average  is  by  no  means  so 
high,  being  only  forty-nine  in  the  cities  and  fifty-six  in  the  whole 
kingdom.    In  Baden  and  Hesse,  the  number  of  pupils  permissible 


232  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

is  seventy,  in  Wiirttemberg  sixty.  In  country  schools  other 
conditions  prevail  sometimes.  For  example,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Brunswick  the  number  of  children  per  teacher  for  rural  schools 
is  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  This  condition  is  not 
uncommon  in  country  districts,  and  there  are  cases  in  which  one 
teacher  has  even  more  than  in  children  to  teach.^ 

The  number  of  classes  per  school,  or  rather  the  number  of 
classes  vmder  the  supervision  of  one  principal,  varies  greatly  in 
„    ^      ,     Prussia,  and  still  more  in  the  other  German  states. 

Number  of  ■    , 

Classes  per  From  a  questionnaire  sent  out  in  1 9 1 2-1 3  ,^  it  was  found 
School  ^j^^^  jjj  ^g^  schools  in  Prussia,  1961  of  them  had  from 

6  to  10  classes;  1537,  from  11  to  15  classes;  697,  from  16  to  20 
classes;  194,  from  21  to  25  classes;  62,  from  26  to  30  classes; 
and  12  had  between  30  and  35  classes.  In  Prussia  there  is  an 
evident  attempt  to  hold  the  number  of  classes  under  one  prin- 
cipal to  fifteen  or  less.  In  Munich  there  are  schools  with  34 
classes.  In  Saxony  the  principal  (Schuldirektor)  often  has 
several  schools  imder  his  supervision,  although  this  is  true  only 
of  smaller  cities.  The  highest  number  of  classes  imder  one 
principal  is  38  in  Zwickau,  40  in  Mittweida,  41  in  Lobau,  44  in 
Chemnitz,  and  69  in  Falkenstein. 

I  In  large  city  systems  there  is  usually  one  teacher  for  every 
class  in  schools  having  six  or  more  classes.  One-class  schools 
have  one  teacher.  Half-day  schools,  which  really 
Teachers  amount  to  two-class  schools,  have  also  one  teacher, 
per  c  00  rj^j^g  nimiber  of  teachers,  however,  when  the  children 
become  too  numerous  for  one  teacher,  does  not  always  corre- 
spond to  the  number  of  classes.  Prussia  has  no  law  covering 
this  point.  Sometimes  on  the  appointment  of  a  second  teacher, 
the  school  is  organized  as  a  two-class  and  sometimes  as  a  three- 

^  Das  Schulwesen  in  Herzogtum  Braunschweig,  1912-1913,  Schulslalistische  Blatter, 
July  24,  1913,  p.  73. 

'  Schulstatistische  Blatter,  March,  1913,  p.  27. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN  233 

class  school.  The  three-class  school  with  two  teachers  has 
advantages  over  a  two-class  school  with  two  teachers,  in  that 
the  former  has  fewer  children  per  class,  and  each  class  has  fewer 
hours  per  week.  Even  in  four-  and  five-class  schools  it  is  very 
common  that  the  number  of  teachers  is  one  less  than  the  number 
of  classes,  as  a  reference  to  the  statistics  in  this  chapter  will 
readily  show.    Such  organization  is  at  least  economical. 

As  has  been  shown,  the  eight-class  systems  are  not  very  numer- 
ous in  Germany,  because  the  children  of  the  Volksschulen  do  not 
have  any  desire  to  attend  school  after  reaching  the  age 
of  fourteen.    Whether  they  have  completed  the  work  Desirable 
or  not,  they  quit  and  begin  some  trade ;  and,  if  com-  JJ^"mber  of 
pelled,  go  on  with  their  education  in  the  continuation 
schools   (Fortbildungsschide).    For  one  reason  or  another,  the 
larger  part  of  the  children  do  not  reach  the  eighth  class  or  do  not 
complete  it,  and  the  authorities,  therefore,  do  not  think  it  neces- 
sary to  have  an  eight-class  system,  but  organize  a  seven-class 
system  with  an  extra  class  built  on  top  for  those  who  wish  to 
continue  or  finish  the  work  of  the  eighth  year.    In  1910,  of  every 
one  thousand  children  in  Prussia  who  had  completed  the  period 
of  compulsory  attendance,  the  following  number  had  completed 
the  various  years : 

448  had  reached  (not  necessarily  completed)  the  eighth  school  year. 
261  had  reached  (not  necessarily  completed)  the  seventh  school  year. 
181  had  reached  (not  necessarily  completed)  the  sixth  school  year. 
88  had  reached  (not  necessarily  completed)  the  fifth  school  year. 
22  had  reached  (not  necessarily  completed)  the  fourth  school  year. 

From  this  it  may  be  seen  that  less  than  45  per  cent  of  the  children 
completed  the  work  of  the  eighth  school  year  on  schedule  time. 
Retardation  plays  a  large  role  in  Prussia  as  well  as  in  America. 
The  government  allows  the  large  cities  of  Prussia  the  choice 
between  a  seven-  and  eight-class  system.    A  six-class  system  is 


234  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

now  looked  upon  as  being  undeveloped,  although  the  General 
Regulations  of  1872  consider  the  six-class  school  a  ftill  school, 
while  they  do  not  mention  the  seven-  and  eight-class  schools, 
which  have  developed  since  that  time. 

Berlin,  up  to  1914,  had  an  eight-class  system.  From  Easter, 
1914,  the  classes  were  nmnbered  from  VII  to  I,  and  I  a.  {Ober- 
klasse).  This  was  done  because  some  of  the  cities  in  Greater 
Berlin  could  not  organize  eight-class  schools.  Berlin  proper  has 
an  eight-class  system,  but  the  classes  are  numbered  as  given 
above  because  there  are  so  many  children  who  leave  school  just 
at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  or  what  is  now  called  the  first 
class.  If  a  boy  or  girl  has  a  school  certificate  from  the  first 
class,  he  or  she  will  get  a  much  better  position  than  if  the 
leaving  certificate  is  for  the  second  class,  as  would  be  the 
case  if  the  classes  were  numbered  from  VIII  to  I.  In  addi- 
tion the  course  of  study  has  been  changed  so  that  there  will  be 
a  natural,  well-roimded  off  stopping  place  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  year,  and,  indeed,  a  special  course  for  those  who  can 
only  complete  the  work  of  the  sixth  year  within  the  compulsory 
period.  Thus,  at  present,  there  is  uncertainty  as  to  which  sys- 
tem is  preferable. 

The  one-class  school  consists  of  three  sections,  the  lower 
section  (1-3  school  years),  the  middle  section  (4-5  school  years), 
and  the  upper  section  (6-8  school  years).  Enroll- 
tion  of  the  ment  of  children  of  compulsory  school  age  takes  place 
SchoS^*^^  only  once  a  year.  This  enrollment  occurs,  in  schools 
which  have  a  second  session,  on  the  first  school  days 
in  May ;  in  all  others  in  the  last  week  days  of  the  Easter  vaca- 
tion. AU  children  are  of  school  age  who  have  completed  the 
sixth  year,  or  who  will  have  completed  it  within  three  months 
after  their  enrollment. 

The  siunmer  semester  begins  on  the  first  of  May,  the  winter 
semester  after  the  autumn  holidays  in  October,  and  not,  as 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


235 


formerly,  on  the  first  of  November.  The  organization  of  the 
summer  term  is  planned  according  to  local  conditions.  The 
upper  and  middle  sections  have,  on  the  average,  eighteen 
hours  per  week,  every  day  from  6.45  a.m.  to  9.45  a.m.,  and 
the  lower  section  thirteen  and  a  half  hours,  from  10  a.m.  to 
12.15  P.M. 

In  the  winter  the  three  sections  in  the  undivided  schools  are 
all  taught  at  the  same  time.  The  half-day  school  (the  divided 
one-class  school)  works  in  the  summer  according  to  the  program 
of  the  summer  school.^  In  the  winter  the  upper  and  middle  sec- 
tions are  taught  as  one  class,  while  the  lower  section  has  its 
lessons  alone.  The  upper  and  middle  sections  receive  twenty 
hours'  instruction,  and  the  lower  section  twelve.  The  divided 
one-class  school  may  be  estabhshed  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
administrative  county  board. 

SCHEDULE  OF  HOURS  —  ONE-CLASS  SCHOOL 
TABLE  A.    SUMMER  SCHOOL 


Subjects 


Lower  Section 


Middle  and  Upper 
Section 


Religion      .  .  . 
German! 

Writing  J     '  '  ' 

Arithmetic  .  . 

Geometry   .  .  . 

History       .  .  . 

Geography  .  . 

Nature   .    .  .  . 
Singing        1 
Gymnastics} 

Drawing     .  .  . 

Handwork  .  . 
Total  Hours 


li 


i3i 


3 

Si 

3 


I 
(i) 


18(19) 


1  Table  A. 


236 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


TABLE  B.  WINTER  SCHOOL 
Undivided  One-Class  School 


Subjects 


Religion 

German 

Writing 

Arithmetic       

Geometry 

History 

Geography       

Nature 

Singing 

Drawing 

Handwork 

Physical  Training      .    .    . 
Total  Hours  per  Week 


Lower 
Section 


4 
II 


Middle 
Section 


S 
7 
2 

4 

2 
2 
2 
2 

(2) 
3 


30  (32) 


Upper 
Section 


S 
6 

I 

4 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
(2) 
3 


30  (32) 


WINTER   SCHOOL 
TABLE   C.     DIVIDED   ONE-CLASS   SCHOOL 


Subjects 

Lower  Class 

Upper  Class 
(Upper  and  middle  section) 

Religion 

German  1 

Writing  J 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

History 

Geography 

Nature 

Singing  (united  with   German 

and  Religion) 

Physical  Training 

Drawing 

Handwork 

i 

3 

7 
2 

f 

i 
1 

3 

ij 

(2) 

Total 

12 

20  (22) 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHVLEN 


237 


TABLE    D.  — ONE-CLASS    SCHOOL    (THREE    SECTIONS,    TWO     OF 
■WHICH  ARE  ALWAYS  UNITED) 


Subjects 


Religion    .  .  . 

German    .  .  . 

Writing    .  .  . 

Geometry  .  . 

Arithmetic  .  . 

History     .  .  . 

Geography  .  . 

Nature     .  .  . 

Singing     .  .  . 

Drawing  .  .  . 
Physical  Training 

Handwork  .  . 
Total    .... 


LOWEE 


Middle 


2Xf 
2Xf 
2X| 


(2) 


Upper 


3 
6 

I 
1 
4 

I 
I 

ii 
(2) 


14 


23  (25) 


23  (25) 


For  an  explanation  as  to  the  working  of  the  above  table,  see 
the  corresponding  weekly  program  on  page  243.  If  this  sort 
of  organization  is  not  possible,  the  following  schedule  for  a  half- 
day  school  may  be  adopted.  This  arrangement  of  the  hours  is 
typical  for  half-day  schools. 

HALF-DAY   SCHOOL 


Subjects 


Religion 

German 

Arithmetic  and  Geometry 

Drawing 

Science 

Singing 

Physical  Training  .    .    . 

Handwork 

Total  Hours  .... 


Lower  Section 


Middle  Section 


6 
9 

4 

I 
6 
2 
2 
(2) 


Upfee  Section 


6 
8 

S 

I 
6 
2 

(2) 


18 


30  (32) 


30  (32) 


238 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Since  the  half-day  school  ordinarily  must  be  organized  on 
account  of  lack  of  room,  and  since  all  three  sections  cannot  be 
taught  at  one  time,  it  is  always  possible  to  unite  two  sections  for 
instruction.  When  fourteen  hours  a  week  are  arranged  for  the 
lower  section,  the  hours  can  be  scheduled  as  in  Table  D. 

THREE-CLASS   SCHOOL  WITH   TWO   TEACHERS 


(A)  Summer  School 

(B)  Winter  School 

m 

II 

I 

III 

n 

I 

Religion  .    . 

t            2 

3 

4 

3 

2 

4 

4 

German  .     . 

7 

4^ 

4l 

7 

(s)si 

(6)6J 

Writing    .    . 

I 

I 

2 

I 

Arithmetic   . 

i        3 

3 

1 

3 

2 

4 

4 

Geometry     . 

I 

History    .    . 

I 

I 

2 

2 

Geography   . 

I 

I 

I 

2 

Nature     .     . 

I 

I 

I 

2 

Singing    .     . 

1        4 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

Physical 

f      li 

^ 

i^ 

(2)  i| 

(2)li 

Training    . 

Drawing  .    . 

I 

I 

I 

I 

Handwork    . 

(i) 

(i) 

(2) 

(2) 

I3l 

i8   (19) 

18    (19) 

12 

23  (25) 

27     (29) 

HL   Class  embraces  1-3  school  years,  lower  section. 
n.    Class  embraces  4-5  school  years,  middle  section. 
I.   Class  embraces  6-8  school  years,  upper  section. 

Summer  school  is  from  the  first  of  May  to  autiunn  vacation 
in  October. 

In  the  summer  the  third  class  is  divided  in  German  and  arith- 
metic. The  first  teacher  takes  the  first  section  in  these  subjects. 
In  the  other  subjects  both  sections  are  taught  by  the  second 
teacher. 

The  following  division  of  hours  between  the  teachers  was 
adopted  in  one  school. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCEULEN 


239 


PROGRAM  OF  A  THREE-CLASS  SCHOOL  WITH  TWO  TEACHERS 
I.  Teacher  II.  Teacher 


WnjTER 

SUMMEIE 

Summer 

WiNIER 

Religion  I 

3 

4 

Religion  II    .    .    . 

3 

4 

German  I  . 

4i 

6i 

German  II     .     .     . 

4i 

5i 

Writing  I  . 

I 

I 

Writing  n      .     .     . 

I 

3 

Arithmetic  I 

3 

4 

Arithmetic  II     .     . 

3 

4 

Geometry  I 

I 

History  II     .     .     . 

I 

2 

History  I  . 

I 

2 

Geography  II     .     . 

I 

I 

Nature  I    . 

I 

2 

Nature  II.     .     .     . 

I 

I 

Geography  I 

I 

2 

Drawing  or  1 
Singing  II   / ' 

Singing  I    . 

1 

2 

Physical  Trainini 

?l.    i       li 

i         ij 

Physical  Training  II 

i  =     li 

i                  li 

German  III  a 

7 

Religion  III  .     .     . 

2 

Arithmetic  III  a 

3 

Arithmetic  III  b     . 

3 

III  a  &  b        2 

Singing  or    \ 

German  III  b     .     . 

7 

III  a  &  b        7 

Drawing  II J 

Singing  III    .     .     . 

1=     li 

I 

Drawing  I     .     .     . 

I 

I 

Total  Hours   . 

28 

27 

31 

35 

In  the  division  of  hours  between  the  teachers  in  the  winter, 
there  are  35  hours  for  the  second  teacher  and  27  hours  for  the 
first  teacher,  since  the  division  in  the  lower  section  no  longer 
continues.  The  necessary  exchange  is  to  be  made,  if  possible,  in 
technical  subjects.  The  second  teacher  may  give  up  writing  in 
II  for  two  hours  and  singing  in  III  for  one  hour.  Likewise  draw- 
ing in  I,  drawing  or  singing  in  II,  and  singing  in  III  may  be 
used  for  equalization  of  hours,  though  here  care  must  be  taken, 
that  drawing  be  given  according  to  the  new  method  and  only 
by  teachers  who  have  been  especially  trained.  Also  in  con- 
sideration of  the  unity  of  instruction  it  is  the  general  practice 
to  have  the  religion,  German,  and  history  of  one  class  taught 
by  the  same  teacher.^ 

A  two-class  school  with  two  teachers  is  permitted  only  by  the 
consent  of  the  government,  when  a  three-class  school  for  local 

'Regulation  of  April  11,  1904;  Amtliches  Schulblatt,  1904,  p.  42;  April  15, 
1909.    Amt.  Schidblatt,  1909,  pp.  33-34;  191°.  PP-  89-90. 


240 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


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246  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

reasons  is  not  possible.  In  these  courses  of  study  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  girls  always  have  two  hours  more  per  week 
than  the  boys.    This  is  considered  extra  work.* 

The  organization  of  the  interna  of  the  school  still  rests  upon  the 
basis  of  the  General  Regulations  of  1872,  for  few  great  changes 
in  the  relative  value  or  importance  of  subjects  have  been  made 
since  that  time.  The  chief  modification  was  the  addition  of  a 
third  hour  in  physical  training  (1910),  which  was  taken  from  the 
total  number  of  hours  in  German,  the  subject  probably  best 
able  to  bear  the  loss.  Gradually  the  total  number  of  hours 
devoted  to  reUgious  instruction  had  been  brought  back  to  the 
normal,  whereas  it  had  often  occurred  that  the  instruction  in 
school  and  the  confirmation  instruction  amounted  to  six  hours 
weekly.  The  effort  of  the  Volksschule  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  times  led  to  an  overcrowding  of  the  curricula ;  that  is,  more 
material  was  put  into  the  different  subjects  than  the  children 
could  assimilate,  although  the  number  of  subjects  remained  the 
same.  There  was  an  overcrowding  in  reality,  perhaps,  from 
the  German  point  of  view.  The  government  has  continually 
struggled  against  the  overfeeding  of  the  children  at  the  expense 
of  their  ability  to  digest.  It  was  realized  that  there  was  too 
much  memory  work  being  done,  and  it  was  thought  that  by 
decreasing  the  subject  matter  both  teachers  and  children  would 
have  more  opportunity  for  real  thought  and  independent  work. 
It  is  likely,  however,  that  the  overcrowding  of  the  curricula  is 
not  the  cause  of  the  mechanization  of  the  schools.  It  is  rather 
the  method  of  instruction  generally  employed  in  the  Lernschule. 
The  ministerial  order  of  January  31,  1908,  emphasizes  the 
latter  point,  for  in  this  order,  the  minister  advises  that  the 
method  of  questioning  be  somewhat  neglected  and  the  children 
be  given  a  chance  to  do  some  independent  work. 

Every  Prussian  elementary  school  is  divided  into  three  sec- 
*  Verfiigung  vom  18  Jan.,  igi2,  AmtUches  Schulblatt,  No.  4. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN  247 

tions  {Stufe).  No  matter  whether  it  is  a  one-class  or  eight- 
class  school,  it  has  a  lower  section,  a  middle  section,  and  an  upper 
section,  just  as  we  in  America  might  speak  of  the  pri-  The 
mary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  grades  of  a  common  Sections 
public  school.  These  sections  are  created  for  pedagogical  reasons, 
radical  changes  in  methods  and  in  subject  matter  depending 
more  upon  the  section  a  child  may  be  in  than  upon  the  class 
within  any  given  section.  This  division  of  schools  into  sections 
evidently  arose  from  the  time  when  all  elementary  schools  were 
one-class  schools  and  the  children  were  divided  into  general  age 
groups  for  the  sake  of  rough  classification,  exactly  as  in  Ameri- 
can coimtry  schools  which  are  ungraded,  but  divided  up  into 
age  groups.  The  Regulations  of  October  13,  1872,  said  in  re- 
gard to  this  matter : 

§  12.  The  Volksschule,  even  the  one-class  school,  is  divided  into  sec- 
tions, which  correspond  to  the  different  stages  of  age  and  advancement 
of  the  children.  Where  a  Volksschule  has  four  classes,  the  middle  section 
has  two  classes,  and  if  the  school  has  six  classes,  each  section  has  two.' 

B.   Courses  of  Study 

As  has  been  said  before,  the  curriculum  of  the  Prussian  Volks- 
schule of  to-day  is  practically  the  same  as  that  determined  by  the 
General  Regulations  of  1872.    The  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion according  to  these  regulations  are  religion,  Ger-  instruction 
man  language  (conversation,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  j^  ^2^'" 
grammar),  arithmetic,  geometry,  drawing,  history, 
geography,  nature,  and  singing,  also,  gymnastics  for  the  boys 
and  handwork  for  the  girls.    A  study  of  the  curricula  which 
follow  will  show  how  the  present-day  courses  vary  from  those  of 
1872. 

*  As  a  rule  the  middle  section  comprises  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  of  school 
work. 


248 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  VOLKSSCHULE  ACCORDING 
TO  THE  REGULATIONS  OF   1872 


Lower  Section 

Middle  Section 

Upper  Section 

One- 
Class 
School 

Several-Class 
School 

One-Class 
School 

Several-Class 
School 

One-Class 
School 

Several-Class 
School 

Religion      .    .    . 
German       .    .    . 
Arithmetic  .    .    . 
Geometry    .    .    . 
Drawing      .    .    . 
History       1 
Geography  /     '     ' 
Nature    .... 
Singing   .... 
Gymnastics      .    . 
(Handwork)  > 

4 
II 
4 

I 

4 
II 

4 
I 

2 
(2) 

S-6 

lo-g 

4 

I 
6 

2 
2 

(2) 

4 
8 

4 

2 
6 

2 
2 
(2) 

S-6 

8-7 

S 

2 
6 

2 

2 

(2) 

4 
8 

4 
2 
2 

6(8) 

2 
2 
(2) 

Totals  .    .    . 

20 

22 

30 

30 

30 

30  (32) 

As  will  be  seen  later  from  the  courses  of  study  of  different 
cities,  some  minor  changes  have  been  introduced,  or  rather  the 
New  Sub-  subjects  named  above  have  been  broadened,  or  called 
jects  |jy  different  names.    Physical  training  for  girls  has 

been  introduced  in  practically  all  schools.  Handwork  has  been 
added  in  comparatively  few  schools.  At  the  first  glance  the 
program  given  above  seems  to  neglect  grammar,  spelling,  and 
composition,  but  these  subjects  are  all  included  under  the  general 
heading  "German."  The  Realien  are  real  subjects,  geography, 
history,  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  zoology  (biology).  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  first  years  of  the  school  are  devoted 
largely  to  German,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  time 
is  given  to  religion  and  arithmetic.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
middle  section  new  subjects,  such  as  geography,  history,  and 
nature  study,  are  introduced. 

1  For  the  girls. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN  240 

The  most  striking  difference  between  the  German  and  Ameri- 
can courses  of  study  is  the  presence  of  religion  in  all  German 
Volksschulen,  and  it  claims  a  large  portion  of  the  Differences 

total  time.     Physics  and  chemistry,  in  an  elementary  between 
p  1  •     /-^  '    ,  1         •      A  •         American 

form,  are  more  general  m  Germany  than  m  America,  and  German 

Physical  training  is  not  always  a  part  of  the  American  ^°^^^^ 
course  of  study,  while  it  is  found  invariably  in  the  German 
Volksschule.    The  differences  between  the  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  lower  schools  in  the  two  countries  are  discussed  more 
in  detail  in  the  chapters  relating  to  the  several  subjects. 

The  courses  of  study  given  below  at  some  length  will  present 
a  clearer  idea  of  the  number  of  subjects  taught  and  the  time 
devoted  to  each,  than  a  long  discussion  of  the  subject  would  do. 
The  tables  are  taken  from  courses  of  study  published  by  the 
various  cities,  except  that  the  writer  has  computed  the  percent- 
ages in  order  to  aid  the  reader  in  grasping  more  quickly  the  rela- 
tive value  of  each  subject.  Naturally,  a  three-class  or  a  one- 
class  school  cannot  give  so  much  material  as  an  eight-  or  a  seven- 
class  school.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  while  the  course 
of  study  throughout  Germany  is  rather  uniform,  the  subject 
matter  and  the  hours  are  not  always  uniformly  divided.  For 
example,  what  might  be  taught  in  Pomerania  in  the  sixth  year 
in  geography  might  easily  be  given  in  Mecklenburg  the  seventh 
year  or  the  fifth  year.  There  is  a  rather  definite  amount  of 
material  which  must  be  taught,  but  within  this  limit  there  is  a 
very  large  degree  of  variation  as  to  when  any  particular  part  of 
a  subject  shall  be  treated. 

In  general  we  may  conclude  that  the  city  schools  are  organized 
in  Germany  on  the  seven-  and  eight-class  basis,  while  the  rural 
schools  tend  chiefly  toward  one-,  two-,  or  three-class 

•'  '  '  Summary 

systems.    The  size  of  the  class  and  the  number  of 

pupils  per  teacher  fall  between  fifty  and  sixty.     City  schools  are 

non-coeducational,  while  the  country  schools  are  mixed.    With 


25° 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


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PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


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ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULEN 


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M    M    PO  rh  V)  VI 


2S6 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


very  few  exceptions,  all  schools  are  on  the  confessional  basis. 
The  subjects  of  instruction  are  religion,  German  (which  includes 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  composition,  and  grammar),  arithmetic, 
history,  botany,  zoology,  physics,  chemistry,  physiology  (and 
hygiene),  singing,  drawing,  physical  training,  and  handwork  for 
girls. 

BOYS'   VOLKSSCHULE  IN  HILDESHEIM.    SEVEN  GRADES 


SUBJECTS 


CLASSES 


Lower  Section 


Religion  . 
German 
Arithmetic 
Geometry  - 
Geography 
History 

Botany  and  Zoology 
Physics  and  Chemistry 
Writing  .  .  . 
Drawing  .  .  . 
Singing  .  .  . 
Physical  Training 
Totals     .    . 


vn       VI 


3 
ro 

4 


i8 


3 

ID 

4 


Middle  Section 


V        IV         III 


I 

2 
2 

I 

2 

24 


4 
6 

4 

2 
2 

I 
2 
2 
2 

28 


Upper   Section 


4 
6 

4 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
I 
2 
2 
3 
32 


4 
6 

4 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
I 
2 
2 
3 
32 


Hours 

Percent 

age 


26 

SI 
28 

4 
9 
8 

4 

7 

II 

lO 

II 

14 

183 


Total 


CHAPTER  XIII 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF 
SUBJECT  MATTER 

Until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  subject  matter 
held  the  place  of  chiefest  importance  in  the  field  of  elementary 
instruction,  for  it  was  thought  what  was  taught  re-  „ 

•      1  !•        .  r  1      ,    .  Histoncal 

quired  no  particular  apphcation  of  method  m  order  Develop- 
to  be  assimilated  by  the  children.  Memorization  ™'°* 
naturally  was  the  basis  of  such  instruction,  and  this  theory  of 
learning,  though  not  advanced  by  many  teachers  at  the  present 
time,  is  very  largely  practiced.  Ratich  and  Comenius  in  the 
first  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  Pietists  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  same  century,  tried  to  use  methods  whereby 
the  subject  matter  would  be  made  more  easy  of  acquirement. 
Greater  consideration  was  given  the  pupil,  and  the  methods 
employed  were  suited  more  closely  to  the  psychological  nature 
of  the  child's  mind.  One  of  the  direct  results  of  such  methods 
was  a  wider  use  of  the  mother  tongue  as  the  language  of  the 
school,  and  a  more  extensive  study  of  history  and  nature. 

This  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Pietists  was  carried  still 
further  by  the  Philanthropinists,  who  held  that  learning  should 
not  only  be  made  easier  by  being  made  to  fit  the  psychological 
tendencies  of  the  child  mind,  but  that  it  should  be  spiced  and 
sweetened  and  made  attractive,  in  fact,  almost  converted  into 
play  for  the  children. 

Pestalozzi  (1746-1827)  looked  upon  method  and  subject  matter 

as  a  means  of  developing  intellectual  and  spiritual  power.'    The 

school  was  not  merely  to  be  a  place  to  learn,  but  a  place  where 

the  children  should  be  educated  and  trained.    The  question 

S  2S7 


258  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

with  Pestalozzi  was  not  the  acquisition  of  mere  facts  and  knowl- 
edge, but  rather  the  development  of  intellectual  and  spiritual 
Purpose  of  Capacities  —  and,  in  some  senses,  formal  training. 
Accor*^°to  Subject  matter  was  of  importance  only  in  so  far 
Pestalozzi  as  it  furnished  exercises  for  thought,  speech,  and 
action.  Pestalozzi's  successors  tried  to  combine  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  and  the  development  of  power  as  the  end  to  be 
attained  by  instruction. 

With  Herbart  and  his  followers  the  aim  and  end  of  instruction 
was  the  formation  of  moral  and  religious  character.  It  was 
Herbart's  not  Hcrbart's  intention  merely  to  furnish  the  child 
Purpose  ^(-jj  a,  definite  number  of  concepts  by  the  form  and 
content  of  the  instruction  and  subject  matter,  but  rather  to 
shape  thereby  the  will  and  directly  to  affect  the  moral  nature 
and  attitude  of  the  child. 

There  is  naturally  at  the  present  time  in  Germany  great 
divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  the 
Volksschule.  German  school  men  agree  that  the  purpose  of  the 
instruction  in  the  elementary  school  is  not  merely  the  acquire- 
ment of  certain  facts  and  of  certain  ability  to  do  this  or  that  thing, 
but  rather  the  regular  development  of  the  natural  tendencies 
and  capacities  of  the  child,  because  it  is  only  in  this  way  that 
a  sufficient  training  can  be  acquired.  Efficient  citizenship  is  the 
purpose  of  education.  It  is  generally  considered  the  specific 
business  of  the  Volksschule  to  furnish  that  general  training 
which  every  one  must  possess  in  order  to  be  socially  efficient. 
Other  schools  may  furnish  broader  and  more  specific  training, 
but  the  Volksschule  should  lay  the  foundation. 

From  the  German  point  of  view  the  Volksschule  must  satisfy 
the  following  points : 

1.  Make  good  German  citizens  out  of  the  pupils. 

2.  The  instruction  given  in  the  elementary  classes  must  afford  the 
children  enough  material,  practical  facts,  and  knowledge  of  how  to  do 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  259 

things  so  that  they  may  understand  their  environment  and  their  in- 
tellectual   and    spiritual    inheritance.     There   are  certain  pu 
linguistic,  geographical,  scientific,  mathematical,  and  histori-  the  Volks- 
cal  facts,  as  well  as  reading  and  writing,  which  are  absolutely  "'^''"'^ 
necessary  for  every  person,  no  matter  what  occupation  he  may  follow 
in  life. 

3.  The  formal  training  of  intellectual  powers  is  generally  considered 
to  be  one  of  the  tasks  of  the  Volksschule.  The  child's  faculties  of  observa- 
tion, comparison,  and  reasoning  must  be  developed.  This  old  conception 
of  formal  training  is  still  the  prevalent  one  in  Germany  among  many 
teachers.  The  leading  school  men,  however,  no  longer  hold  to  the  theory 
of  properties  of  memory,  reasoning,  and  the  like.  Schwochow  says : ' 
"  Experience  and  the  newer  psychology  teach  that  subject  matter  produces 
formal  training  only  within  the  subject  to  which  it  is  related ;  or  intellec- 
tual power,  which  we  call  formal  training,  holds  good  only  in  that  group 
of  conceptions  to  which  it  is  itself  related.  This  rule  holds  for  aU  in- 
tellectual powers :  memory,  will,  understanding,  and  imagination.  For 
example,  a  pupU  well  drilled  in  grammar  is  not  thereby  qualified  to  form 
logical  conclusions  in  geometry,  if  his  thinking  is  not  trained  in  this  di- 
rection. He,  who  retains  readily  the  words  of  a  foreign  language,  often 
finds  difficulty  in  remembering  dates  and  names  of  places." 

4.  As  a  result  of  the  practical  and  industrial  tendency  of  the  age,  there 
is  a  growing  demand  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  progressive  school  men 
that  the  fundamentals  of  vocational  education  be  laid  in  the  Volksschule. 
Kerschensteiner '■=  says  that -the  first  and  most  important  task  of  the 
pubUc  school  is  trade  or  occupational  training,  the  foundations  or  prepa- 
ration for  which  can  be  begun  at  least  in  the  Volksschule. 

5.  Among  the  leaders  in  educational  thought  in  Germany  there  is  a 
demand  upon  the  Volksschule,  which  is  fulfilled  only  to  a  small  degree, 
that  the  children  be  trained  to  do  productive  work. 

The  selection  and  choice  of  subject  matter  for  any  school 
depend  on  the  aim  and  purpose  of  that  particular  institution. 
The  aim  of  the  German  Volksschule  as  stated  above  „  ,  ^ 

Selection  of 

helps  explain  the  elementary  course  of  study.  It  Subject 
is  the  purpose  of  the  Volksschule  to  give  an  elemen-  *  *' 
tary  general  training.    Upon  examining  the  course  of  study  we 

*  Methodik  des  Volksschuhmterrichts,  p.  12.  '  Begriff  der  Arbeitsschule,  p.  23. 


26o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

are  impressed  first  by  the  lack  of  manual  training  for  the  boys, 

and  second,  by  the  fact  that  each  subject  is  given  in  its  barest 

and   most   fundamental   elements.    Everything   that   pertains 

to  training  for  a  trade  or  occupation  is  eliminated,  except  in 

towns  and  cities  where  manual  training  and  bookkeeping  have 

been  iatroduced.    That  there  are  exceptions  to  the  foregoing 

statements  goes  without  saying. 

Attention  will  be  called  to  the  character  of  the  course  of  study 

in  the  separate  chapters  dealing  with  the  teaching  of  the  various 

subjects  found  in  the  elementary  curriculum.     It  is 

the  Field  of    Only  uecessary  to  remark  here  that  all  occupational 

the  Voiks-  instruction  and  indeed  much  that  is  included  in 
schule 

the   American   elementary   curriculum   are   omitted 

from  the  curriculum  of  the  German  Volksschule  because  the 
continuation  and  trade  schools  assume  the  responsibility  for  the 
occupational  training  of  the  youth.  The  majority  of  pedagog- 
ical thinkers  in  Germany  beheve  that  it  lies  without  the  province 
of  the  elementary  schools  to  impart  instruction  of  technical 
trade  or  occupational  character. 

Another  very  notable  characteristic  of  German  curricula  is 
their  brevity.  The  subject  matter  in  the  lower  schools  is  pared 
down  to  the  bare  essentials.  The  principles  of  selec- 
of  Selection  tion  are  essentiality,  psychological  fitness,  objectivity, 
M^er*'*  ^^^  contemporaneousness.  For  example,  in  natural 
science  only  such  facts  are  included  in  the  curricula 
as  can  be  gained  by  observation  or  concrete  representation. 
Scientific  systems,  names,  classes,  families,  characteristics, 
rules,  laws,  and  all  such  abstract  matters  are  excluded. 

But,  after  all,  the  curriculum  of  the  Volksschule  is  largely 
Hew  an  inheritance  handed  down  from  generations  long 

Subjects  past^  and  many  parts  of  it  have  survived  several 
centuries.  Two  of  the  newer  subjects  are  housekeeping  and 
cooking  for  girls.     Civil  government  (Biirgerkunde)  has  been 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  261 

admitted  in  some  places,  as  has  also  handwork  or  manual 
training. 

Each  German  elementary  school  has  a  course  of  study  {Lehr- 
plan).  In  Prussia  it  is  based  on  the  General  Regulations  of 
1872.  The  course  of  study  contains  an  outline  of  The  Course 
the  subject  matter  of  the  particular  subjects  of  in-  "f  study 
struction  and  divides  the  matter  into  courses  for  the  several 
classes  of  the  school.  It  also  states  the  aim  or  purpose  of  each 
subject  and  usually  gives  general  rules  or  principles  of  method. 
A  great  deal  of  value  is  laid  upon  this  course  of  study  and  it  is 
issued  either  by  the  administrative  county  board  or  by  the  city 
school  deputation  with  the  former's  approval.  The  teacher 
has  nothing  to  do  with  its  formulation.  The  course  of  study 
shows  not  merely  the  sequence  of  subject  matter  or  of  single 
course,  but  also  the  parallelism  of  subject  matter  and  topics 
and  their  connection.  As  far  as  we  have  observed,  the  course 
of  study  allows  the  teacher  a  great  deal  of  freedom  as  to  choice 
of  topics  and  methods.  He  is  practically  unhindered  in  the  use 
of  any  good  method.  The  detailed  course  of  study  {Lehrstof- 
vertdlungsplan),  which  is  mentioned  below,  is  made  either  by 
the  teacher  or  the  school,  and  only  seldom  by  the  higher  school 
authorities.    The  Lehrplan  merely  shows  the  way  in  big  outline. 

The  value  of  a  general  course  of  study  for  American  schools 
is  apparent.  Such  a  course  establishes  a  minimum  and  sets 
no  maximum,  and  prescribes  no  method.  Its  greatest  advantage 
is  in  regard  to  school  administration,  and  management,  in  that 
children  may  transfer  from  one  school  to  another,  from  one 
state  or  county  to  another  without  a  great  loss  of  time,  such  as  is 
almost  always  occasioned  by  transfers  in  our  schools.  But  we 
know  the  time  of  any  national  agreement  on  a  course  of  study 
for  our  elementary  schools  is  a  long  way  off,  and  may  never 
come,  owing  to  the  great  differences  in  local  conditions  and  tra- 
ditions. 


262  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  curriculum  of  the  Volksschule 
was  thoroughly  of  a  religious  nature.  It  consisted  of  catechism, 
Develop-  reading,  and  singing  of  church  songs,  and  occasion- 
ment  of  the  ally  writing  and  arithmetic.  During  the  seventeenth 
Course  of  century  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  history,  geog- 
^*"'*^  raphy,  and  natural  science  were  made  a  part  of  the 

work  of  the  elementary  schools,  which  additions  can  possibly 
be  ascribed  to  the  effect  of  empiricism  and  realism.  The  Schul- 
methodus  of  Duke  Ernst  of  Gotha  represented  this  new  move- 
ment in  elementary  education.  Under  the  influence  of  Pietism 
and  Philanthropinism  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  religious 
instruction  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Biblical  history 
and  sacred  song ;  the  German  was  enriched  by  oral  and  written 
exercises ;  and  singing  was  improved  by  the  use  of  secular  songs. 
In  the  general  Rural  School  Regulation  of  1763,  some  of  these 
innovations  were  included,  but  only  to  a  very  hmited  extent. 

Prussia,  during  the  nineteenth  century,  issued  two  official 
courses  of  study,  the  Regulation  of  1854  by  Stuhe,  and  the 
Present  General  Regulation  of  October  15,  1872,  by  Dr.  K. 
Course  Schneider.  The  new  subjects  introduced  were 
physical  training,  drawing,  and  handwork  for  the  girls.  Con- 
sequently, at  the  present  time  the  Prussian  curriculum  for  the 
Volksschule  contains  religion,  German  (speaking,  reading,  writ- 
ing), arithmetic  and  geometry,  drawing,  singing,  history,  geog- 
raphy, science,  physical  training,  and  handwork  for  the  girls. 
Nothing  further  need  be  said  concerning  the  principles  on 
which  the  choice  of  subject  matter  is  made.  They  are  just 
the  same  in  German  schools  as  in  our  own  and  so  well  known 
that  we  have  only  mentioned  them. 

In  Germany,  the  subject  matter,  which  has  been  chosen  for 
Arrange-  presentation,  is  arranged  sometimes  on  the  basis  of 
SuWect  °^^  °^  *^^^  theories :  that  of  organization  of  subject 
Matter         matter  in  concentric  circles,  that  based  on  the  cul- 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  263 

tural  development  of  the  race,  and  that  of  correlation  and 
concentration.     Up  to  the  present  time,  the  concentric  circle 
theory  has  had  the  most  followers  in  German  educa- 
tion.   According  to  this  theory  the  relatively  easiest  Cbcie" 
and  most  important  knowledge  is  placed  in  the  first  '^^^°^ 
year's  work,  and  thereafter,  with  a  repetition  of  that  which  has 
aheady   been   studied,  the   circle  or  sphere  of   knowledge  is 
widened,  more  and  more  each  year,  so  that  finally  the  subject 
matter  lies  like  rings  about  the  first  year's  work,  which  forms 
the  center  of  the  whole  structure. 

The  advantages  of  the  concentric  theory  are:  i.  The  in- 
struction can  be  made  to  fit  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
pupil  in  every  grade.  2.  The  child's  apperceptive  mass  aids 
in  learning  new  material.  3.  Constant  repetition  assures  the 
assimilation  of  the  subject  matter.  4.  A  rounded  and  complete 
conception  of  the  matter  is  afforded  by  means  of  the  frequent 
reviews  and  treatment  of  the  same  material  in  different  grades. 
5.  Pupils  are  able  to  leave  with  a  completed  sphere  of  knowl- 
edge, if  they  cannot  finish  the  whole  course  of  the  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  Herbartians  find  fault  with  this  theory 
on  the  ground  that  there  is  not  close  enough  connection  among 
the  various  subjects  of  instruction,  that  in  the  upper  classes 
Kttle  new  material  can  be  offered  the  children,  and  that  by 
constant  repetition  and  expansion  of  old  material  the  pupils 
lose  interest  and  become  indifferent.  In  short,  the  theory  of 
concentric  circles  produces  indifference,  boredom,  overloading, 
and  disorder.     (Rein.) 

Another  theory  of  organization  of  subject  matter  which  we 
find  in  the  German  course  of  study  is  that  agitated  by  Ziller.    It 
is  the  culture  epoch  theory,  which  bases  itself  on  the  p  .j^ 
assumption  that  the  child  in  its  development  repeats  Epoch 
the  experience  of  the  race;  that  is,  the  child  goes      *°^ 
through  the  same  stages  of  development  that  the  race  has  gone 


264  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

through.  According  to  this  theory  a  sphere  of  thought,  char- 
acter-building material,  shall  be  taken  up  as  the  middle  point 
of  each  year's  work.  The  other  subject  of  instruction  shall 
be  correlated  and  concentrated  about  this  central  point.  Ziller 
selected  the  following  historical  circles  of  thought  on  which 
to  base  his  course  of  study : 

First  year :    Twelve  fairy  stories. 

Second  year :    Robinson  Crusoe. 

Third  year :    The  Patriarchs.    Thuringian  or  other  German  myths.    ■■ 

Fourth  year :    Stories  of  heroes.    The  Judges.    The  Nibelungen.f 

Fifth  year:  Israelitish  kings  and  prophets.  German  emperors  from 
Karl  the  Great  to  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg. 

Sixth  year:  Life  of  Jesus.  Migration  of  the  races.  Papacy  and  the 
empire.     Crusades. 

[Seventh  year:  Apostohc  history.  Age  of  discovery.  The  Reforma- 
tion.   The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Eighth  year :  Luther's  Catechism.  Age  of  Frederick  the  Great.  War 
of  Liberation.    ReestabHshment  of  the  German  Empire. 

This  theory  of  Ziller's  has  not  found  much  acceptance  in  Ger- 
many for  the  simple  reason  that  there  is  no  proof  for  the  assump- 
tion on  which  the  whole  plan  of  organization  is  based.  Further, 
Ziller's  eight-step  theory  is  applicable  only  to  systems  which 
have  eight  grades.  Also,  it  is  not  very  probable  that  nature 
and  history  have  so  arranged  themselves  in  eight  successive 
pyschological  steps,  simply  because  the  Prussian  sets  the  period 
of  attendance  at  eight  years. 

The  Herbartians,  Ziller,  Dorpfeld,  and  Rein,  with  the  theory 
of  correlation  and  concentration  of  instruction,  dominate  the 
The  Theory  German  elementary  school  to-day.  The  course  of  study, 
tion^d*  '^^  rather  the  subject  matter  in  its  arrangement  and 
Concentra-  Organization,  is  Herbartian.  There  are,  of  course, 
^°^  different  schemes  of  correlation.     Some  Herbartians 

seek  to  establish  interrelations  among  subjects,  while  others 
group  the  various  subjects  and  correlate  these  groups.     There 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  265 

are  few  teachers  in  Germany  who  do  not  believe  in  the  theory 
of  correlation,  but  a  very  large  number  object  to  the  strained 
efforts  of  many  followers  of  Herbart  to  establish  interrelations 
which  are  entirely  artificial.  Another  objection  made  by  the 
systematic  German  is  that  through  too  much  correlation  a 
subject  loses  its  independence,  which  makes  a  logical  presenta- 
tion more  difficult. 

Reformers  in  Germany  to-day  demand  that  the  child  be  made 
the  center  of  all  instruction.  The  course  of  study  should  be 
arranged  according  to  the  intellectual  development  and  the 
interest  of  the  pupils.  The  pupils  shall  be  the  point  of  con- 
centration. The  home,  the  environment,  and  the  cultural 
development  of  the  fatherland  shall  be  the  points  around  which 
the  subject  matter  shall  be  grouped.  Correlation  of  related 
subjects  and  topics  is  taken  as  a  matter  of  course. 

There  is  a  group  of  reformers  in  Germany  at  the  present  time 
which  demands  an  undifferentiated  course  of  study  for  the  first 
year's  work.     Such  a  course  does  not  contain  reading,  undifferen- 
writing,  and  arithmetic  as  formal  subjects  but  inter-  *^^^^^ 

°  .  Course  of 

laces  and  correlates  them  with  all  the  work  and  play  study  for 
activities  of  the  school.  Work,  as  a  principle  of  ^^s™""^ 
method,  is  the  foundation  stone  of  this  scheme  of  organization 
of  subject  matter.  This  type  of  course  of  study  and  the  methods 
necessarily  entailed  thereby  are  rather  common  in  the  larger 
city  systems  of  Germany.  Frequently  this  tjrpe  of  instruction 
does  not  occupy  the  whole  first  year,  but  only  a  half-year,  or 
until  the  children  get  acquainted  with  their  playmates  and 
teachers  and  are  thoroughly  at  home  with  the  business  of  going 
to  school.  The  chief  advantages  of  the  undifferentiated  course 
of  study  are  that  the  methods  employed  under  such  a  system 
necessarily  involve  greater  activity  on  the  part  of  the  children, 
and  that  the  formalism  of  the  ordinary  routine  subject  is  entirely 
avoided.    The  school  of  Behrtold  Otto  in  Lichterfelde  near 


266  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Berlin  furnishes  abundant  evidence  of  the  value  of  this  type  of 
instruction. 

One  hears  a  great  deal  to-day  in  Germany  of  the  Arbeits- 

schule  (work-school).    It  must  be  said,  however,  that  one  hears 

much  more  of  this  kind  of  school  than  one  sees.    Under 

The 

"  Work-  the  Arbeitssckule  one  groups  together  all  those  move- 
"^  °°  ments  of  pedagogical  reform  which  seek  to  intensify 

the  work  done  in  the  school  and  to  mold  the  training  of  the 
children  to  meet  contemporary  needs.  The  name  arose  out  of 
contrast  to  the  "book-school"  or  the  "learning-school"  (Buch- 
schule  or  Lernschule).  This  movement  is  a  new  one  and  it  is 
very  difficult  to  state  the  real  difference  between  the  typical 
Volksschule  designated  "learning-school"  and  one  designated  as 
a  "work-school."  The  difference  is  very  noticeable  to  a  visitor. 
In  one  the  children  are  merely  learning,  and  in  the  other  they 
are  learning  by  doing. 

The  customary  method  of  instruction  has  for  its  aim  the  ac- 
quirement of  a  prescribed  set  of  facts.  Its  purpose  is  the  ac- 
TheOid  quisition  of  knowledge.  The  danger  in  this  method 
Method  of  is  that  knowing  and  doing  are  never  more  than  arti- 
ficially connected.  The  child  never  has  the  right  sort 
of  interest  in  mere  "learning-work,"  and  as  a  result  what  has 
been  learned  is  very  easily  forgotten. 

The  method  employed  in  the  "work-school"  starts  from  the 

child  rather  than  from  the  subject  matter.    The  child  is  the 

central  point  of  interest.    Its  aim  is  to  develop  aU 

The  Method    ,,  ,    ,  ,      ,       .     ,  ...  ,     ,  ,  .,  , 

of  the  the  mental  and  physical  activities  of  the  child,  to 

Schl°(?'  educate  the  child  up  to  independence,  of  thought 
and  action  through  self-activity. 
The  idea  of  the  Arbeitssckule  has  employed  the  minds  of 
German  educational  theorists  for  many  years.  It  comes  down 
to  us  from  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel  to  the  present 
time.     Its  present  appearance  is  partly  due   to  experimental 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  267 

psychology,  which  lays  great  importance  on  the  influence  that 
muscular  sensations  have  upon  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  child.     Further,  the  entire  social  situation  de- 
mands a  great  place  for  the  practical  activities.     The  Develop- 
more  industry  vanishes  from  the  home  and  is  con-  ™®"* 
centrated  in  factories,  so  much  the  more  are  "work-instruction" 
and  the  "work-school"  necessities  in  our  educational  systems. 

Even  if  the  idea  of  the  "work-school"  in  Germany  is  not 
new,  it  cannot  help  but  make  the  typical  methods  more  fruitful 
and  effective.    Among  the  majority  of  German  school 

,  "it  Work  as  a 

men  at  the  present  tune  there  seems  to  be  a  lack  of  Principle  of 
clearness  as  to  the  function  of  the  "work-school."  ^^*™'=t*''" 
They  feel  that  there  must  be  some  agreement  between  shopwork 
instruction,  which  emphasizes  the  practical  work  as  a  discipline, 
and  the  Arbeitsschule,  which  lays  stress  upon  manual  activities 
as  an  educative  factor.  To  many  reformers  the  introduction 
of  shopwork  into  the  schools  is  a  practical,  real  means  of  ac- 
complishing the  aim  of  the  Arbeitsschule.  They  base  their 
demand  for  such  work  in  the  school  upon  the  influence  which 
the  hand  has  for  the  development  of  intellectual  life.  It  is  not 
to  be  denied,  however,  even  if  it  were  psychologically  proven 
that  the  acquirement  of  spatial  concept  were  dependent  on 
manual  activities,  that  it  would  stiU  be  uncertain  how  far  hand- 
work is  able  to  affect  the  other  mental  functions.  Likewise  it 
remains  to  be  proven,  whether  the  principle  of  the  Arbeitsschule 
can  be  solved  only  in  connection  with  workshop  instruction, 
or  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  a  pure  didactic  imperative. 

The  Minister  Trott  zu  Solz,  in  writing  of  this  matter  in  191 1, 
said : 

Whence  it  follows  that  the  construction  work,  known  by  the  name  of 
Werkunterricht  (manual  work),  shall  arise  from  the  needs  of  all  subjects  of 
instruction,  and  that  a  new  course  of  study  is  not  needed  which  would  re- 

1  ZentralblaU,  191 1,  p.  394. 


268  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

quire  Werkunterrkht  as  a  new  subject  of  instruction  alongside  the  other 
usual  school  activities.  Also  construction  work  cannot  be  limited  to  a 
single  subject.  Rather  it  must  be  employed  wherever  observation  appears 
necessary  or  wherever  the  object  itself  awakens  within  the  child  the  con- 
structive instinct  or  the  desire.  If  the  educative  purpose  of  construction 
work  is  always  kept  securely  in  mind,  it  cannot  develop  into  mere  play. 

At  the  present  time  the  most  discussed  problem  in  German 
educational  circles  is  in  regard  to  work  in  the  school  as  opposed 
to  mere  learning.  The  whole  matter  resolves  itself  into  the 
question  of  whether  the  child  shall  do  independent  work,  be  it 
manual  or  intellectual  or  both,  or  whether  the  child  shall  merely 
study  a  book.  The  school  of  reformers  at  Dortsmund  simis  the 
matter  up  well  when  it  says :  ^ 

We  stand  f or  a  "  work-instruction  "  in  which  so  far  as  possible  the  pupil 
works  out  independently  his  own  world,  the  real  as  well  as  the  historical, 
be  it  through  observation  or  experiment;  or  be  it  through  reading  or  ques- 
tions. 

In  addition  to  containing  an  inner  scheme  of  organization 
of  subject  matter,  the  course  of  study  of  a  German  elementary 
Outer  Char-  school  must  be  definite  in  regard  to  some  other  points, 
acteristics      They  have  to  do  with  the  outward  form  of  instruc- 

of  the  Gen-       .  _, 

era]  Course  tion.  I.  The  course  of  study  must  set  the  aim  to 
of  study  |jg  accomphshed  in  each  particular  in  each  grade  and 
in  the  whole  school.  2.  An  outline  of  the  subject  matter  of 
each  subject  for  every  grade.  3.  The  length  of  the  course  and 
the  number  of  hours  weekly  in  each  subject  and  in  each  grade. 
4.  Regulations  in  regard  to  work  to  be  done  at  home.  5.  Regu- 
lations regarding  general  methods,  teaching  material,  and  books. 
In  addition  to  a  Lehrplan,  each  school  or  class  has  an  outline 
course  of  study  {Stofverteilungsplan).  It  is  merely  a  detailed 
course  of  study.  The  subject  matter,  given  in  large  outline  in 
the  general  course  of  study,  is  divided  up  among  the  weeks 
'  Dortmunder  Arbeitssckak,  p.  1. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


269 


of  the  year  or  half  year.    It  is  to  be  made  before  the  beginning 

semester,  and  the  topics  taken  up  in  each  subject  are  assigned 

to  this  or   that  week   throughout   the   term.     The  ^,   ^ 

,  The  Out- 

teacher  knows  then  just  what  progress  he  must  make  ime  Course 

each  week  in  order  to  get  over  the  whole  amount  °*^*"*y 

of  work.     The  outKne  is  approved  by  the  local  inspector  or  the 

principal  of  the  school,  and  it  is  always  kept  in  the  classroom 

for  reference.     The  outline  course  of  study  is  made  sometimes 

by  the  city  school  superintendent  or  a  group  of  teachers.    As 

a  rule,  however,  the  class  teacher  proposes  it  and  is  allowed  quite 

a  good  deal  of  liberty  in  the  choice  of  topics  and  in  regard  to 

the  amount  of  time  spent  upon  any  given  group  of  topics. 

The  teacher  must  also  keep  a  report  of  progress  made  in  each 

subject.     This  report  is  kept  in  a  separate  book  called  the 

Lehrbericht,  in  which  the  teacher  notes  the  topics  Lesson 

taught  and  disposed  of,  as  well  as  the  progress  of  the  Report 

pupils.     The  value  of  this  report  is  not  very  great,  outside  of 

the  fact  that  it  must  be  made  and  that  it  keeps  the  teacher  up 

to  schedule.    As  far  as  we  have  examined  such  reports  the  most 

common  note  made  in  these  books  is  "completed."    Its  form 

is  as  follows : 


Geruan 

History 

Religion 

Etc. 

First  Week 

Second  Week 

Third  Week 

Completed 
Completed 
Completed 

Not  completed 
Not  completed 
Not  completed 

Completed 
Completed 
Completed 

Etc. 
Etc. 
Etc. 

The  weekly  schedule   (Stundenplan  or  Lektionsplan)   shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  lessons  for  a  week,  the  number  of  hours 
devoted  to  each  subject,   the  days  on  which  these  The  WeeMy 
lessons  come,  and  the  teacher  who  is  to  give  each  Schedule 
lesson.    In  large  schools,  that  is,  in  schools  of  several  grades, 


270  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

there  is  a  schedule  for  the  whole  school,  and  in  each  classroom 
there  is  a  weekly  schedule  for  that  grade.  These  schedules  are 
followed  most  diligently.  As  a  rule,  religion  comes  first  in  the 
morning,  and  the  other  subjects  which  require  a  great  amount 
of  mental  exertion  are  put  as  early  in  the  day  as  possible.  Sub- 
jects like  drawing  and  music  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  morning 
session  or  in  the  afternoon. 

Such  is  the  general  organization  of  subject  matter,  which 
in  a  large  measure  determines  the  methods  to  be  employed. 
„     .   .        The  aim  of  the  elementary  school  is  probably  of  the 

Conclusion 

greatest  value  to  the  German  educator.  Method 
is  placed  above  subject  matter,  for  it  is  the  basic  principle  of 
German  hfe,  not  how  much  is  done,  but  how  and  how  well  it  is 
done. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
GENERAL  METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

It  is  very  difl&cult  to  make  the  statement  that  a  certain  sub- 
ject is  taught  in  such  and  such  a  way  in  the  Prussian  or  German 
elementary  schools,  because  there  is  a  great  deal  of  liberty  al- 
lowed the  teachers  in  the  matter  of  method,  and  because  there 
is  a  great  diversity  of  method  in  the  different  states  of  the  empire. 
Remarks  made  in  the  following  pages  concerning  methods  in 
the  various  subjects  of  instruction  are  based  on  the  observation 
of  over  six  hundred  classes  in  Volksschulen  in  cities  and  country 
districts  scattered  over  the  whole  of  Germany. 

The  teaching  in  the  Volksschule  is  by  the  oral  method,  which 
means  that  there  is  comparatively  little  written  work  or  reading 
done  by  the  pupils,  but  that  the  chief  source  of  in-  orai 
formation  is  the  teacher,  who  presents  the  subject  Method 
matter  in  the  form  of  carefully  prepared  talks  or  lectures.  The 
children  listen  very  carefully  to  what  the  teacher  says,  and 
repeat  it  after  the  teacher  has  concluded.  This  method  makes 
great  demands  upon  the  teacher  physically  and  mentally.  First 
it  requires  a  large  amount  of  energy  to  talk  the  greater  part  of 
four  or  five  hours  every  day,  and  second,  the  teacher  must  pre- 
pare the  lesson  with  extreme  care  in  order  to  be  able  to  present 
it  to  the  children  in  a  clear  and  interesting  manner.  The  Ameri- 
can visitor  must  truly  wonder  at  the  abiUty  almost  invariably 
shown  by  the  German  teachers  in  the  presentation  and  delivery 
of  their  material.  The  manner  of  speech  is  slow,  deliberate, 
but  full  of  animation  and  life,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  teacher  awakens 

271 


272  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  holds  the  attention  of  the  children.  The  children  must  also 
expend  great  amounts  of  energy  in  paying  close  attention  to  the 
subject  in  hand,  for  three,  or  four,  or  five  periods  in  succession, 
and  one  is  often  led  to  believe  the  attention  given  on  the  part 
of  the  children  is  a  physical  rather  than  a  mental  attitude. 

Sometimes  a  teacher  talks  for  twenty  or  twenty-five  minutes 
without  interruption  and  then  he  stops  and  begins  to  question 
General  the  children  in  regard  to  what  he  has  said.  This, 
Fonn  however,  cannot  be  said  to  be  the  mode  of  procedure 

of  Recita-  „      .  rm  i    i-  <•  •       •        • 

tion.  generally  m  use.    The  general  form  of  recitation  in 

Review  subjects  which  admit  of  the  oral  method,  such  as 
history,  literature,  religion,  science,  and  geography,  is  the  follow- 
ing: First  of  all  comes  the  review  of  the  previous  lesson  or 
lessons  for  a  few  minutes,  generally  ten  or  fiiteen.  In  this  part 
of  the  lesson  the  teacher  calls  upon  some  pupil  to  smnmarize 
or  repeat  that  which  the  latter  has  learned  about  a  given  subject 
or  topic.  The  German  teacher  is  not  satisfied  just  because  a 
child  knows  a  thing  to-day,  but  makes  him  repeat  it  to-morrow 
and  the  next  day.  Wiederholen  (repeat)  is  the  word  most 
commonly  heard  in  the  German  school.  This  review  is  not  neces- 
sarily connected  with  the  lesson  of  the  day,  although  it  is  in  the 
majority  of  cases.  The  review  is  not  always  limited  to  fifteen 
minutes,  but  frequently  takes  thirty  and  sometimes  forty  min- 
utes. This  continual  review  of  old  work  is  the  most  powerful 
and  effective  means  of  compelling  the  child  to  know  what  he  is 
supposed  and  required  to  know.  Often  the  teacher  will  have 
three  or  four  children  give  the  review  work,  and  the  recitation 
of  each  child  will  be  practically  the  same,  word  for  word,  as  the 
recitation  of  the  others.  This  forces  the  conclusion  that  the 
review  is  a  matter  of  memory  rather  than  repetition  of  something 
which  the  child  has  thought  about  and  assimilated.  But  in 
spite  of  the  memorization  or  because  of  it,  the  review  accom- 
plishes its  work,  the  acquirement  of  certain  facts.    Long  periods 


METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      273 

of  review  at  the  end  of  the  term  are  not  so  common  in  Germany 
as  in  America,  obviously  because  this  work  is  carried  on  from  day 
to  day. 

The  next  part  of  the  lesson  is  the  advance  work.  Ordinarily 
the  teacher  says,  "The  work  for  to-day  is  such  and  such  a  topic." 
The  superscription  is,  for  example,  "The  preparation  Advance 
of  the  ground  for  sowing."  This  short  sentence  is  ^'"^ 
called  the  Uberschrift,  and  is  what  we  call  the  topic  heading. 
A  lesson  will  be  put  under  four  or  five  such  sentence  headings 
in  order  to  aid  the  child  in  grasping  and  memorizing  what  will 
be  said.  Invariably  the  teacher  asks  the  children  after  an- 
nouncing the  heading  to  repeat  the  topic  heading,  and  he  re- 
quires that  it  be  repeated  four  or  five  times,  so  that  the  children 
will  know  what  he  is  going  to  talk  about  at  least.  Then  the 
teacher  talks  five  or  six  minutes  about  this  topic.  It  is  from 
these  little  talks  or  lectures  that  the  child  gets  its  new  material, 
and  not  from  books  as  in  American  schools.  These  talks  are 
short,  clear,  concise  in  form,  well  delivered,  and  above  all,  dis- 
tinctly delivered.  As  soon  as  the  teacher  has  finished  his  remarks, 
he  begins  to  ask  questions  covering  the  subject  matter  of  the 
topic  in  hand. 

The  procedure  which  follows  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  vital  points  in  the  whole 
educational  process  of  the  German  schools.  The  first  question 
is  generally,  "What  is  the  heading  (Uberschrift)?"  The  next 
step  is  either  the  request  to  relate  or  repeat  what  has  been  said, 
or  the  content  of  the  teacher's  remarks  is  obtained  question  by 
question.  The  first  method  allows  the  child  more  liberty  and 
affords  him  a  better  chance  for  some  independent  work.  The 
second  method,  that  of  direct  question  and  answer,  is  a  purely 
mechanical  process,  the  question  of  the  teacher  generally  being 
turned  about  by  the  pupil  and  made  over  into  an  answer  of  some 
sort  or  other. 


274  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  first  method  is  very  much  like  methods  applied  in  America, 
with  the  difference  that  the  children  in  America  get  the  material 
which  they  are  to  recite  upon  from  a  text-book,  while  the  Ger- 
man children  depend  upon  the  teacher.  Some  teachers  allow 
the  children  to  use  their  own  words  in  reproducing  the  subject 
matter  just  presented.  Other  teachers  insist,  either  purposely 
or  unknowingly,  upon  the  children  repeating  verbatim  what 
the  former  have  said.  It  is  natural  and  easiest  for  the  children 
to  use  the  words  which  the  teacher  has  used.  Some  children 
show  an  almost  marvelous  abihty  in  memorizing,  and  if  they 
hesitate,  they  need  only  a  single  word  suppUed  by  the  teacher 
to  enable  them  to  go  ahead  with  the  recitation. 

The  commonest  form  of  aid  given  the  children  in  the  memori- 
zation of  the  subject  matter  is  the  first  four  or  five  words  of  the 
sentence  which  the  child  is  trying  to  recall.  Some  teachers 
give  a  great  deal  of  such  aid,  others  who  do  not  insist  on  too 
accurate  memorization  give  less  of  such  help.  Not  merely  one 
pupil  is  asked  to  recite,  but  several,  one  after  the  other,  no  matter 
whether  the  first  recitation  was  good  or  bad.  It  is  exactly  as 
if  in  an  American  school  a  boy  were  called  upon  to  teU  how  corn 
is  planted,  and  as  soon  as  he  had  finished  one  were  to  ask  four 
or  five  more  boys  to  tell  the  same  thing  and  in  practically  the 
same  words.  It  is  true,  that  so  much  repetition  of  the  same 
recitation  is  not  always  the  case,  but  it  is  aUtoo  frequent.  How- 
ever, it  accomplishes  what  the  teacher  desires.  There  are  a 
certain  number  of  facts  which  the  children  must  learn  and  they 
learn  them  by  memorizing  them.  When  children  acquire  these 
facts  from  text-books,  they  do  not  stick  closely  to  the  text  in 
recitation.  In  fact,  they  cannot  remember  the  words  of  the 
book  so  well,  and  are  forced  to  formulate  the  thoughts  in  their 
own  language,  but  when  they  have  just  heard  the  words  from 
the  mouth  of  the  teacher,  almost  involuntarily  they  repeat  what 
they  have  heard  without  thinking  seriously  of  the  content. 


METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      275 

The  second  method  is  that  of  question  and  answer.  The 
Minister  of  Education  in  1908  wrote  as  follows :  ^  "  The  method 
of  instruction  develops  too  much  into  the  form  of  mere  question 
and  answer.  More  time  is  to  be  allowed  to  the  self-activity 
and  independent  work  of  the  children.  The  questioning  too 
often  aims  at  an  enlargement  of  the  question  by  particular 
words,  or  deals  with  what  is  perfectly  obvious.  The  questions 
are  too  easy  and  awaken  the  interest  of  the  pupils  to  too  small  a 
degree.  It  is  necessary  to  make  greater  claims  upon  the  thinking 
and  power  of  judgment  of  the  pupils."  Teachers  who  employ 
the  question  method  in  order  to  obtain  the  repetition  of  what 
they  have  presented  to  the  children  run  the  risk  of  falling  into 
the  habit  of  formal  question  and  answer.  This  is  one  of  the  great- 
est faults  of  the  German  elementary  school  teacher.  After  he 
has  presented  the  subject  matter  he  begins  to  question  for  the 
content,  sentence  by  sentence.  Frequently  he  is  not  satisfied 
unless  the  child  repeats  the  exact  words  which  the  teacher  has 
used.  The  great  trouble  is  that  the  question  is  too  easy  and 
^betrays  the  answer  in  its  own  form.  The  commonest  type  of 
question  might  be  called  the  memory  question.  The  judgment 
question  is  a  rarity  in  the  average  recitation.  With  some  teach- 
ers the  judgment  question  is  much  more  frequent  and  especially 
in  such  subjects  as  physics,  chemistry,  geography,  and  botany. 
But  we  can  safely  say  that  in  going  into  German  Volkssckulen 
at  random  eight  questions  out  of  ten  will  be  purely  memory 
questions,  the  others  falling  in  other  categories.  We  counted 
five  hundred  questions  in  classes  taken  at  random  and  the  re- 
sults gave  four  hundred  and  seventeen  memory  questions  as 
against  eighty-three  of  all  other  kinds. 

When  the  children  seem  to  have  learned  the  main  things 
under  the  first  topic  heading,  the  teacher  continues  his  remarks 
under  the  second  heading,  third  heading,  and  so  on,  until  he  has 
'  Ministerial  Erlass  vom  ji  Januar,  igoS,  Zentralblatt,  1908,  p.  379. 


276  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

finished  the  day's  lesson.  Each  topic  is  treated  just  as  the  first, 
and  at  the  end  the  children  are  asked  to  repeat  the  topic  headings 
and  sometimes  to  summarize  the  whole  lesson. 

The  greatest  fault  brought  about  by  the  methods  as  described, 
and  these  methods  are  in  general  use,  is  the  lack  of  independent 
thinking  and  action  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  No 
independ-  allowance  is  made  for  the  individuality  of  the  chil- 
*°*^°p^  dren.  Memory  work  is  everything.  The  children  are 
of  the  required  to  memorize  so  much  that  little  or  no  time 

'  ^  is  left  during  recitation  periods  for  free  interchange 

of  thought  between  teacher  and  pupils  or  between  one  pupil 
and  another.  Naturally  the  child  is  called  upon  at  times  to 
think  for  himself,  but  it  is  by  no  means  as  frequent  as  it  should 
be.  The  teachers  often  say  that  they  have  so  much  material 
which  they  have  to  teach  that  there  is  no  time  left  for  open 
and  free  discussion  in  class.  That  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case, 
however.  The  course  of  study  is  not  overcrowded,  as  the  reader 
will  see  later  on.  The  lack  of  time  arises  because  memoriza- 
tion is  the  slowest  known  process  of  acquiring  knowledge.  The 
children  are  called  upon  for  a  great  amount  of  memory  work 
in  history,  religion,  geography,  literature,  music,  and  science. 
In  arithmetic  the  memory  drill  is  not  noticeable,  because  the 
rules  are  learned  by  actual  application  and  by  practical  examples. 
Teachers  frequently  say  that  they  try  to  get  their  pupils  to  do 
independent  work,  but  as  long  as  they  use  the  method  of  lectur- 
ing and  repetition,  they  will  find  that  the  children  have  no  oppor- 
tunity to  do  and  think  for  themselves. 

The  causes  for  the  lack  of  self-activity  and  independent  think- 
ing on  the  children's  part  are  not  far  to  seek.  The  subject 
Pupil  matter  is  given  to  them  and  is  required  of  them  agaia 

Questions  [^  much  the  same  form.  Pure  memorization  excludes 
opportunity  for  thinking.  The  second  cause  is  perhaps  as  great 
in  its  importance  as  the  first.    It  is  very,  very  seldom  that  a  child 


METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      277 

is  allowed  to  ask  a  question  in  regard  to  the  subject  under  dis- 
cussion. The  teacher  looks  at  the  matter  from  this  standpoint : 
"I  have  said  everything  about  the  subject  that  the  child  needs 
to  know.  My  explanations  have  been  clear.  What  has  the 
child  to  inquire  about?"  Such  questions  are  not  absolutely 
forbidden,  but  they  are  not  encouraged.  One  teacher  said  to 
me:  "Why,  that  would  destroy  the  discipHne,  and  the  regular 
order  of  the  lesson.  One  would  never  get  through  with  the  work 
planned."  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  explanations  offered 
by  the  German  teacher  in  the  presentation  of  the  lesson  are 
almost  without  exception  clear  and  logical.  But  a  child  who  is 
thinking  and  who  is  interested  in  the  subject  will  have  some 
questions  to  ask,  or  something  of  his  own  to  offer.  I  had  visited 
over  three  hundred  classes  in  the  Volksschulen  in  Prussia  before 
I  heard  a  question  from  a  pupil  or  a  request  for  an  explanation 
of  a  question  which  had  occurred  to  him.  Since  that  time  I 
have  found  one  teacher  who  openly  encouraged  the  children  to 
ask  questions  and  who  gave  up  a  part  of  each  lesson  to  this  work. 
Other  teachers  have  said  that  they  allow  their  pupils  to  ask 
questions,  but  in  the  classes  which  I  visited  with  them  I  did 
not  hear  any.  It  is  also  very  seldom  that  a  teacher  will  permit 
a  question  during  the  course  of  his  explanation.  There  may  be 
more  excuse  for  excluding  questions  here,  but  there  is  none  for 
bringing  children  into  such  a  condition  that  they  do  not  want 
to  ask  questions.  The  German  elementary  teacher  has  the  field 
of  pupil-questions  yet  to  develop,  and  when  he  does,  he  will 
have  taken  the  first  great  step  toward  developing  self-activity 
and  independence  in  his  pupils.  The  German  school  child 
knows  a  great  deal,  for  it  has  been  poured  into  him,  just  as  water 
is  poured  into  a  jug,  but  he  does  not  think  for  himself  or  act  for 
himself.  He  is  non-independent.  His  individuality  has  been 
left  undeveloped. 
The  ordinary  lesson  in  the  Volksschule  is  pedagogically  Her- 


278  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

bartian.     The  different  steps  of  the  teaching  process  may  be 

indicated  by  the  preparation,  presentation,  comparison,  gener- 

.  .    alization,  and  application.     Of  course,  one  or  more  of 

Form  of  the   these  steps  may  be  omitted  or  two  steps  may  be  com- 

°"      bined,  as  is  frequently  the  case. 

It  is  very  seldom  that  one  hears  a  German  teacher  present  a 
lesson  which  is  not  well  prepared,  well  organized,  and  logical 
in  its  progress.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  training  of  the  normal 
schools,  which  in  Germany  are  institutions  to  teach  the  young 
men  and  women  how  to  teach,  how  to  present  the  subject,  how 
to  select  the  relatively  important,  and  neglect  the  less  valuable, 
as  well  as  academic  institutions  where  more  information  is 
obtained. 

Another  great  help  to  teachers  in  Germany  is  the  lesson 
plans  (Praparationen) ,  which  are  obtainable  for  almost  every 
topic  in  every  subject  taught  in  the  Volksschule.  Some  of  these 
lesson  plans  are  very  fully  developed,  even  the  questions  and 
answers  being  given.  Of  course,  no  teacher  could  use  such  a 
lesson  plan  verbatim  in  the  school,  but  the  outline  and  form  of 
the  lesson  can  be  of  very  great  help  to  him.  The  lesson  prep- 
arations furnish  to  teachers  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson  as 
well  as  the  form  in  which  to  present  it.  To  what  extent  these 
forms  are  used  is  impossible  to  say,  but  judging  from  the  great 
number  of  such  publications  on  the  market,  there  must  be  a 
large  demand  and  sale  for  them.  A  still  more  valuable  aid  to 
the  teacher  comes  in  the  form  of  handbooks  and  manuals,  which 
are  especially  prepared  for  the  Volksschulen.  In  every  subject 
a  teacher  can  buy  literally  hundreds  of  books  which  will  help 
him  directly  in  the  preparation  of  his  lessons.  Since  these  books 
are  written  for  elementary  teachers,  it  is  not  necessary  to  pick 
and  choose  and  spend  long  hours  seeking  out  the  proper  material 
to  give  the  children.  In  the  matter  of  teaching  helps,  as  in  many 
others,  the  German  teachers  are  much  better  equipped  than  are 


METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      279 

our  teachers.  We  can  account  for  the  excellent  general  fonn 
of  the  lessons  in  the  Volksschulen  in  no  other  way  than  that 
the  importance  of  form  is  drilled  into  the  teacher  at  the  normal 
school,  and  that  his  training  there  is  continued  and  supported 
afterwards  by  excellent  lesson  helps  and  manuals. 

There  is  still  another  factor  which  keeps  the  German  teacher 
up  to  a  high  standard  in  method  and  in  form  of  instruction,  and 
that  is  the  strict  supervision  under  which  he  stands.  Every 
German  teacher  has  a  superior  somewhere,  and,  in  order  to  ad- 
vance, he  wants  the  approval  of  that  superior.  It  is  another 
very  characteristic  German  trait  to  do  well  whatever  is  at  hand 
and  to  take  pride  in  it.  This,  together  with  the  knowledge  that 
his  work  is  always  under  inspection,  keeps  his  standard  of  work 
very  high.  We  may  not  always  think  that  the  standard  is  of 
the  right  kind,  but  it  is  the  best  of  the  kind  to  be  had. 

The  matter  of  school  organization  also  aids  the  teacher  in  hold- 
ing the  form  of  the  lesson  up  to  the  mark.  In  the  middle  and 
upper  sections  of  schools  with  several  classes,  each  recitation  has 
forty-five  or  fifty  minutes.  This  length  of  time  enables  the 
teacher  to  develop  the  lesson  carefully  and  completely.  In 
American  schools  the  recitation  periods  are  generally  much 
shorter,  especially  where  each  grade  is  divided  into  two  sections, 
occupying  the  same  room.  The  amount  of  subject  matter 
which  a  teacher  selects  for  one  recitation  is  Httle  in  com- 
parison to  lessons  assigned  in  America.  This  is  another  factor 
which  enables  the  German  teacher  to  finish  in  a  well-rounded 
maimer  the  subject  under  discussion.  The  conciseness  and 
clearness  of  the  presentation  plus  the  deliberate,  well-planned 
progress  of  individual  lessons  makes  one  feel  after  hearing  a 
lesson  that  a  good  solid  brick  has  been  laid  securely  and  well 
in  the  educational  structure. 

Text-books  are  used  very  httle  in  the  Volksschule.  This,  of 
course,  necessitates  a  method  not  employed  in  our  elementary 


28o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

schools.  For  example,  in  history  the  children  are  not  assigned 
so  many  pages  to  be  read  at  home.  The  teacher  is  the  text- 
^     ^    ,      book,  as  mentioned  before,  and  indeed,  a  speaking 

Text-books  '  '  '  f  a 

and  In-  text-book,  to  which  the  children  hsten.  Text-books 
struction       ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^   ^^   home   study  to  any  considerable 

degree,  but  are  chiefly  used  in  class  for  occasional  reference. 
In  arithmetic,  however,  problems  for  solution  at  home  are 
usually  taken  from  a  problem  book,  but  the  book  is  in  our  sense 
of  the  word  not  a  text-book,  in  which  methods  of  solution  and 
explanations  are  given,  as  a  substitute  for  the  teacher.  Ger- 
man school  children  know  very  little  about  books  and  how  to 
acquire  information  from  them.  They  are,  in  comparison  with 
our  children,  poor  readers,  chiefly  because  books  do  not  mean 
the  same  to  them  that  they  do  to  American  children.  I  have 
seen  little  reference  work  at  all  done  in  the  Volksschulen,  that  is, 
I  have  seldom  heard  children  requested  to  read  books  supple- 
mentary to  their  regular  work  in  class.  In  reading,  the  text- 
books are  much  the  same  as  in  our  schools.  Supplementary 
readers  are  seldom  seen.  Some  schools  have  libraries,  but  they 
are  very  little  used.  In  the  other  subjects,  such  as  history, 
geography,  science,  etc.,  there  are  no  text-books,  but  a  reader 
for  all  these  subjects  together.  The  children  are  referred  to 
this  book  at  times  after  the  topic  has  been  discussed  in  class. 
Naturally,  without  text-books  the  children  do  very  little  work 
at  home.  They  have  some  written  work  occasionally  and  gen- 
erally problems  for  arithmetic.  It  is  a  safe  estimate  that  the 
average  German  school  child  spends  little  more  than  haK  an  hour 
in  home  work.  In  school,  however,  the  child  is  at  work  from 
the  time  school  begins  until  it  ends.^  Commonly  in  America 
the  child  has  study  periods  scattered  throughout  the  day.  Not 
so  with  the  German  child  in  city  schools.  One  subject  follows 
right  upon  the  heels  of  another  until  the  day's  work  is  done. 
^  This  is  true  only  where  one  teacher  has  one  class. 


METHODS  IN  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      281 

And  it  must  be  so.  The  teacher,  in  view  of  the  lack  of  a  text- 
book, must  furnish  the  material  for  the  children  to  learn,  and 
then  must  find  out  if  they  have  learned  it.  Consequently 
there  is  neither  time  nor  need  for  study  periods.  There  is,  how- 
ever, little  doubt  that  good  text-books  would  relieve  the 
German  teacher  of  a  great  deal  of  work,  which  the  children  could 
obtain  as  well  through  a  text-book  as  through  the  teacher.  Time 
thus  gained  could  be  used  in  giving  the  children  more  opportunity 
for  independent  discussion  and  work  in  the  recitation  period, 
or  the  teacher  could  introduce  new  and  interesting  sidelights 
on  the  regular  routine  work.  Too  much  text-book  and  too 
little  teacher  is  not  good,  but  the  reverse  is  not  much  better. 

The  children  in  the  German  elementary  schools  have  much 
less  written  work  to  do  than  our  children.  The  form  of  that 
which  they  do  is  excellent,  the  content  leaves  much  written 
to  be  desired.  Dictations  for  the  sake  of  form,  spell-  ^°'^ 
ing,  and  the  like  are  very  frequent,  but  short.  Original  com- 
positions are  written  once  every  two  weeks  at  home,  while  pre- 
pared compositions  are  required  at  least  once  a  week.  A  pre- 
pared composition  is  one  for  which  the  subject  has  been  talked 
over  in  school,  the  form  is  prescribed,  and  it  amounts  generally 
to  little  more  than  a  spelling  and  writing  exercise,  for  the  think- 
ing has  been  done  in  advance  by  the  teacher.  The  original 
compositions  prepared  independently  at  home  are  generally 
in  connection  with  the  work  at  school,  and  the  subject  of  the 
composition  is  frequently  determined  by  the  teacher.  Another 
form  of  written  work  in  some  schools  is  the  daily  essay  (Nieder- 
schrift).  It  consists  merely  of  a  few  sentences  written  in  class 
at  the  close  of  a  recitation,  generally  summarizing  the  main 
points  of  the  lesson,  or  treating  some  one  topic.  Five  or  ten 
minutes  are  given  to  such  work.  These  several  forms  of  com- 
position work  are  discussed  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  German 
mstruction.    From  the  lowest  grade  to  the  highest  in  school 


282  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

written  work  is  always  handed  in  in  notebooks,  written  in  ink. 
The  teacher  and  the  children  as  well  are  relieved  of  great  burdens 
by  the  small  amount  of  written  work.  The  children  do  not 
write  easily  or  fluently,  because  of  lack  of  practice,  and  because 
the  work,  such  as  is  done,  is  too  formally  prepared.  The  Min- 
ister of  Education  recognized  that  the  written  work  was  faulty 
and  touched  on  the  subject  in  his  order  of  January  31,  1908. 
He  is  quoted  at  some  length  because  this  order  is  one  of  the  few 
issued  since  1872  dealing  with  methods : 

For  work  in  written  expression  the  essays,  comparatively  few  in  number, 
which  are  frequently  prepared  without  a  purpose,  are  not  sufficient,  but 
there  must  be  frequent,  and  if  possible,  daily  written  exercises  in  the  form 
of  short  essays  {Niederschriften) .  This  exercise  begins  in  the  lowest  grades 
with  the  composition  of  short  sentences  and  develops  more  and  more  in  the 
upper  classes  into  short  essays,  which  are  finally  to  be  written  without  any 
special  preparation,  and  whose  content  is  to  be  taken  out  of  the  various 
subjects  treated,  and  also  from  the  experience  and  observation  of  the 
children.  Such  written  exercises  are  to  be  prepared  not  only  in  the  Ger- 
man instruction,  but  also  in  other  branches,  namely,  the  Reaiien.  Correc- 
tions, as  a  rule,  are  to  be  made  by  the  pupUs  in  the  class. 

In  regard  to  the  real  compositions,  the  subjects  are  to  be  chosen  from 
the  subject  matter  already  treated,  and  from  the  experiences  and  observa- 
tions of  the  children.  Real  Ufe  conditions  are  to  be  considered  in  letters 
and  in  business  correspondence.  Topics  are  to  be  excluded  which  lie  far 
from  the  consciousness  of  the  chUd,  which  go  far  out  beyond  their  power  of 
comprehension  and  expression,  and  which  would  only  lead  to  verbosity, 
which  do  not  express  what  the  children  themselves  have  thought  and  felt. 
In  working  out  the  composition  a  drUl  on  one  definite,  set  conception  of  the 
subject  is  to  be  avoided.  Even  if  the  chief  thoughts  and  the  outline  are 
worked  out  in  common  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils,  the  latter  are  to  be 
allowed  the  greatest  possible  liberty  in  particulars  in  the  form  of  expression. 
The  preparation  for  these  exercises  can  disappear  more  and  more  in  the 
upper  sections.  These  exercises  are  not  to  be  corrected  by  the  teacher,  for 
in  this  case  the  corrected  copy  would  only  have  the  value  of  a  writing  les- 
son. The  compositions  can  be  read  aloud  by  individual  children,  then 
commented  on  by  the  teacher  and  corrected  by  the  pupils  themselves  in 
the  original  form.    Then  the  teacher  looks  over  the  compositions  as  cor- 


METHODS  IN   GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      283 

rected  by  the  pupUs.  On  the  return  of  the  compositions  mistakes  which 
occur  rather  frequently  are  to  be  explained,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  daily 
written  exercises  (Niederschrifien). 

These  recommendations  of  the  Minister  show  most  clearly 
where  the  weaknesses  of  the  written  work  lie.  The  children  have 
not  been  and  are  not  yet  allowed  freedom  enough  in  the  selec- 
tion and  preparation  of  their  material  and  in  the  execution  of 
their  own  ideas. 

The  German  teacher  makes  concrete  the  ideas  which  he  is 
trying  to  present.  The  child  learns  by  eye  as  well  as  by  ear. 
German  schools  are  provided  richly  with  maps,  charts.  Teaching 
models,  machines,  pictures,  and  other  material.  Material 
There  is  never  an  overabundance  of  such  material,  but  there 
is  rarely  a  topic  discussed  in  class  without  there  being  some  sort 
of  a  representation  of  it  before  the  eyes  of  the  children.  In 
religion  there  are  maps  and  pictures,  and  in  history  the  same 
with  charts  in  addition.  Maps  and  globes  are  aknost  without 
number  in  geograJ)hy,  while  in  the  sciences  there  is  always  plenty 
of  physical  and  chemical  apparatus,  and  models  of  animals 
and  birds,  either  artificial  or  natural.  As  a  result  of  so  much 
care  and  expenditure  in  this  respect,  the  child  has  ever  before 
the  eye  something  concrete  with  which  he  can  tie  up  what  the 
teacher  is  saying.  The  average  teacher,  however,  just  in  this 
connection,  misses  his  best  opportunity  to  let  his  pupils  develop 
their  self -activity.  Instead  of  asking  the  questions,  "What 
do  you  see  here?"  "What  do  you  know  about  the  object?" 
"What  have  your  experiences  been  with  such  things?"  and  so 
on,  he  generally  tells  the  children  all  about  the  object,  to  be  sure, 
very  fully  and  accurately,  and  then  the  children  are  asked  to 
repeat  what  they  have  been  told. 

We  would  not  be  stating  the  exact  state  of  affairs,  if  we  closed 
our  remarks  on  the  general  class  procedure  here.  What  has 
been  said  applies  to  the  average  recitation.    The  reader  must, 


284  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

however,  withhold  judgment  of  German  teaching  methods, 
until  the  chapters  on  the  several  subjects  have  been  read.  Above 
all  else,  the  method  must  be  finally  judged  in  light  of  the  aim 
of  the  entire  process. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  teachers  and  principals,  the  leaders 
in  school  thought,  who  do  not  conduct  their  classes  in  the  manner 
described  above.  Some  features  are  the  same.  One  may  say 
that  all  steps  mentioned  are  present  in  the  recitations  of  these 
more  advanced  teachers,  but  there  are  other  more  vital  elements 
in  addition.  These  teachers  make  allowance  for  the  individuality 
of  their  pupils,  and  they  make  provision  in  their  method  for 
individuality.  These  teachers  recognize  the  fact  that  children 
are  by  nature  active  workers  and  not  merely  jugs  into  which 
something  may  be  poured.  They  recognize  that  these  children 
want  to  do  things.  A  concrete  example  will  serve  to  show 
just  how  these  teachers  let  the  children  develpp  and  employ 
their  thinking  capacities  instead  of  forcing  them  to  memorize 
facts.  Naturally  these  better  teachers  do  not  all  employ  the 
same  methods. 

This  lesson  given  in  S was  about  bees.     The  teacher  had 

pictures  of  bees,  beehives,  and  honey.  Then  she  had  a  model 
of  a  honeycomb,  showing  how  the  bees  stored  the  product  of 
their  labors.  The  first  question,  after  they  had  all  looked  at 
the  pictures  and  models,  was :  "What  do  you  know  about  bees? 
Tell  me  anything  you  know  if  you  think  it  is  important  enough." 
The  children,  though  of  only  nine  or  ten  years  of  age,  began  to 
pour  out  their  information,  and  when  they  had  finished,  every 
child  in  the  room  knew  how  the  hives  were  made,  where  the  honey 
came  from,  all  about  the  queen,  swarming  and  its  causes,  and 
many  other  details,  some  amusing,  but  all  real  to  the  children. 
Next  the  teacher  said,  "Have  you  any  questions  to  ask?"  The 
questions  were  not  long  in  coming:  "Where  do  little  bees 
come  from?"     "Why  doesn't  the  honey  run  out  of  the  comb?" 


METHODS  IN   GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      285 

"How  many  bees  are  there  in  a  hive?"  and  without  exception 
these  questions  were  real  and  to  the  point.  Some  of  the  ques- 
tions the  teacher  answered,  but  the  children  were  generally  given 
a  chance  first  to  answer  their  fellow's  questions,  and  their  ex- 
planations often  sufficed.  When  this  was  all  over;  there  wasn't 
much  left  for  the  teacher  to  say,  for  they  had  all  talked  about 
it  together.  There  were  points  which  needed  clearing  up  and 
this  the  teacher  did.  At  the  close  a  child  was  asked  to  summarize 
what  had  been  learned.  There  was  no  rote  work  or  memory 
drill,  but  these  children  knew  about  bees.  Their  capacity  for 
bee  observation  had  been  wonderfully  developed.  Their  atti- 
tude toward  the  subject  was,  "I  know  this  about  the  bee,  but 
what  is  that?"  Their  minds  were  inquiring  and  open.  The 
bell  rang  and  there  was  a  chorus  of  "Oh's"  in  disappointment. 

The  next  period  following  the  same  class  was  very  different. 
Another  teacher  was  there,  a  teacher  of  the  method  described 
first.  The  children  had  acquired  the  inquisitive  attitude  of 
mind  and  began  to  ask  questions  about  the  whys  and  where- 
fores of  things.  The  teacher  silenced  them  and  began  to  drill 
in  the  facts  cut  out  for  the  week's  work.  The  bell  rang  in  due 
time  amid  rejoicing. 

The  reader,  however,  will  get  a  much  clearer  idea  of  methods 
actually  employed  by  reading  the  stenographic  reports  of  lessons 
given  in  following  chapters  dealing  with  the  various 
subjects  of  the  Volksschule.  The  lessons  given  are  as 
nearly  typical  of  the  general  practice  as  we  have  been  able  to 
secure.  The  danger  is  always  present  that  the  classes  observed 
were  not  typical,  but  owing  to  the  comparatively  large  number  of 
classes  visited,  we  beHeve  that  the  lessons  selected  from  the  whole 
group  of  reports  are  rather  representative  of  German  methods. 


CHAPTER  XV 

RELIGION 

"Among  all  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  German  ele- 
mentary school,  religion,  without  doubt,  occupies  the  most 
Importance  important  place."  A  statement  to  this  effect  is  found 
of  ReUgion  ^  ^j^g  -^^ork  of  practically  every  German  school  man 
writing  on  the  relative  values  of  the  different  branches  of  study. 
It  seems  much  safer  to  say  that  rehgion  is  one  of  the  three  most 
important  subjects,  German  and  history  being  the  other  two. 
It  may  be  difl&cult  for  Americans  to  understand  why  so  much 
time,  about  an  eighth  of  the  total,  is  given  to  this  subject. 
Religion,  according  to  German  school  men,  has  a  twofold  pur- 
pose to  fulfill.  First,  and  of  lesser  importance,  it  must  acquaint 
the  children  with  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  Second,  and  of  the 
higher  importance,  it  must  teach  the  children  their  duties  to 
God,  the  king,  the  Fatherland,  and  their  fellow  men.  To  an 
impartial  observer  who  has  seen  a  large  number  of  lessons  in 
religion  taught  in  the  German  schools,  the  real  aim  of  all  the 
instruction  in  rehgion  is  to  justify  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right 
of  kings  in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  people.  Frequently  we 
have  heard  teachers  stating  the  doctrine  that  there  is  a  very 
close  relationship  between  piety  and  patriotism,  between  obedi- 
ence to  God  and  obedience  to  the  temporal  king. 

In  one  sense  of  the  word  religion  is  the  oldest  subject  of  in- 
struction in  the  German  Volksschule.  From  the  period  of  the 
earliest  begirmings  of  the  Volksschule,  when  rehgion  occupied 
practically  the  whole  time  of  instruction,  there  has  been  a  gradud,l 
decrease  in  the  amount  of  time  allotted  to  it,  but  even  to-day  it 
occupies  a  comparatively  large  place  in  the  curriculum.    Under 

286 


RELIGION 


287 


the  Hohenzollern  kings  there  has  been  a  very  marked  effort  to 
make  the  people  religious,  and  develop  in  them  that  sort  of  piety 
which  causes  a  people  to  sacrifice  everything  for  God,  king,  and 
the  Fatherland.  Even  Frederick  the  Great,  disbeliever  though 
he  was,  insisted  that  his  people  study  religion  in  order  that  they 
would  be  obedient  and  subservient  to  the  authorities  over  them. 
At  the  present  time  the  study  of  religion  has  produced  in  the 
mind  of  the  average  German  the  idea  that  God,  king,  and  coun- 
try are  equally  sacred,  inviolable,  and  coexistent. 

No  German  child  is  excused  from  religious  instruction.  If 
the  child  is  a  Protestant,  he  attends  a  Protestant  school;  if  a 
Catholic,  he  attends  a  Catholic  school ;  and  if  a  Jew,  sectarian 
a  school  of  that  faith,  if  there  be  one.  In  case  the  Schools 
child  has  no  religion  at  all,  he  is  not  excused,  but  must  study 
the  lessons  in  religion  of  the  school  which  he  attends.  Under 
no  circumstances  is, it  left  to  the  parent's  discretion  as  to  whether 
his  child  shall  or  shall  not  receive  religious  training.  All  that  a 
parent  can  do  is  to  choose  from  the  types  of  instruction  offered. 
It  very  often  occurs  that  a  community  is  predominantly  of  one 
confession,  and  contains  only  a  few  children  of  other  faiths. 
According  to  the  German  school  law  no  child  is  required  to  receive 
religious  instruction  except  from  a  teacher  of  his  own  confession. 
Accordingly,  a  Catholic  child  in  a  predominantly  Protestant 
community  does  not  receive  his  instruction  in  religion  in  the 
regular  school,  but  receives  it  from  his  own  clerg5mian  at  some 
definite  time.  Such  a  child  must  obtain  a  certificate  of  attend- 
ance from  his  clergyman  and  present  it  at  his  own  school. 

In  large  cities  where  all  religious  denominations  are  repre- 
sented in  large  numbers,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  sectarian    ' 
organize  sectarian  schools.    There  are  very  few  Jewish  gS°°'^jJj 
Volksschulen,  for  as  a  rule  Jewish  children  attend  the  in  the 
higher  schools,  or  are  so  few  in  number  that  they    °^^ 
prefer  to  take  their  religious  instruction  with  the  rabbi.    In 


288  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

rural  districts  the  matter  is  not  so  easily  regulated.  It  is  the 
custom  in  districts  which  are  of  differing  religious  beliefs  to  es- 
tabhsh  a  school  of  one  faith  in  one  village  and  of  the  other  faith 
in  the  neighboring  village.  Of  course,  this  necessitates  children 
walking  quite  long  distances  sometimes,  but  in  reality  it  causes 
no  serious  difficulties,  for  villages  in  Germany  are  never  very  far 
apart.  '         i'  i 

In  Prussia  and  in  practically  all  German  states  religious  in- 
struction in  the  schools  is  supervised  by  the  church.    In  former 
times  the  clergy  had  control  of  the  teaching  of  all  sub- 

SupeTvision  °-'  ,  i  r    i 

of  ReUgious  jects  in  the  Volksschulen,  but  all  branches  of  the  cur- 
instruction  j.j(,jjiujjj^  g^ye  reUgion,  have  been  removed  now  from 
their  supervision.  It  is  with  a  death-grip  that  the  church 
holds  on  to  this  last  stronghold.  Several  times  a  year  the  pastor 
or  priest  of  the  district  visits  the  schools  and  sees  if  religion  is 
being  taught  in  an  orthodox  manner.  As  a  rule,  the  pastor 
inspects  the  school  about  Easter  time  and  visits  each  class. 
After  he  has  made  the  round  of  the  rooms,  he  meets  the  teachers 
in  conference  and  makes  his  suggestions.  The  pastor  has  real 
power  of  recommendation  and  while  visiting  may  even  request 
the  teacher  to  turn  over  the  class  to  him.  It  is  very  seldom, 
however,  that  this  is  done.  We  recall  such  an  occasion  in  a  large 
city  school  in  Prussia,  which  brought  on  quite  a  lot  of  discussion 
among  the  teachers  as  to  the  pastor's  right  to  do  more  than 
observe  what  was  being  done.  Some  of  the  teachers  even  went 
so  far  as  to  tell  the  pastor  in  the  conference  that  he  had  exceeded 
his  rights.  The  principal  of  the  school  immediately  read  a 
passage  from  the  Prussian  constitution  which  runs:^  "The 
churches  control  the  religious  instruction  in  the  schools."  After 
the  meeting  was  over  the  principal  of  the  school  explained  to 
the  teachers  in  private  in  no  uncertain  terms  just  who  their 
superiors  were  in  matters  pertaining  to  religion. 

>  Verfassungsurkunde,  Art.  24,  Heinze,  Im  Ami,  p.  4. 


RELIGION  289 

The  socialists  in  Germany  oppose  religious  instruction  in  the 
schools  for  the  reason  that  they  see  it  is  the  foundation  of  mo- 
narchialism  and  imperialism.  In  some  cities  where 
the  socialists  are  particularly  strong  they  have  made  ^d  ReUgion 
attempts  to  remove  religion  from  the  elementary  cur-  ^^^ 
riculum,  although  as  yet  they  have  not  been  successful 
in  any  case.  Teachers  have  frequently  told  me  that  one  of  the 
hardest  things  to  combat  in  the  upper  grades  of  schools  is  grow- 
ing disbelief  on  the  part  of  the  children,  and  that  this  disbelief 
is  occasioned  by  socialistic  parents  who  tell  their  children  that 
the  religion  taught  in  the  school  is  all  a  humbug  and  that  they 
need  pay  no  attention  to  it.  This  was  true  particularly  in  the 
great  industrial  centers  of  western  Germany,  near  Essen,  Bar- 
men, Dortmund,  Elberfeld,  and  Diisseldorf.  Every  effort  is 
made  by  the  goverrmient  to  combat  the  influence  of  socialism, 
and  teachers  are  required  to  preach  openly  against  its  mali- 
cious(?)  influences.  ■- 

If  in  large  cities  there  are  about  an  equal  number  of  Protestant 
and  Catholic  schools,  it  is  the  custom  to  have  two 
superintendents  (Stadtschulrdte) ,  one  for  the  Protestant  aon  of 
schools  and  one  for  the  Cathohc  schools.    There  is  no  |*^^^ 
especial  advantage  in  this  except  that  teachers  and 
pupils  liked  to  be  supervised  by  one  of  their  own  confession. 

There  are  Protestant  and  Catholic  editions  of  practically  all 
elementary  school  text-books.  For  example,  there  are  Protes- 
tant and  Catholic  editions  of  school  histories,  readers,  sectarian 
science  readers,  and  religious  texts,  as  well  as  some  of  Text-books 
the  other  texts.  The  books  differ  in  their  treatment  of  certain 
phases  of  history,  religion,  and  hterature.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
these  sectarian  texts  on  account  of  the  great  divergence  of  sym- 
pathies existing  among  the  different  classes  of  people. 

Religious  instruction  consists  of  the  catechism,  Biblical  his- 
tory', church  history,  and  the  liturgy,  which  consists  of  church 


290  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ritual,  prayers,  church  music,  calendar,  and  pericopes.  As  a  rule 
special  hours  are  assigned  only  to  Biblical  history  and  the  cate- 
ReUgious  chism,  while  the  other  phases  of  religious  instruction 
Instruction  ^re  given  in  connection  with  them.  Biblical  history  is 
used  for  illustration  of  the  doctrines  laid  down  in  the  catechism, 
it  furnishes  a  great  many  proofs  of  the  truth  of  the  doctrines 
found  in  the  catechism,  it  gives  concrete  form  to  these  doctrines. 

Four  hours  a  week  in  reUgion  are  given  throughout  the  ele- 
mentary school  course,  except  in  the  last  year  when  the  number 
Hours  per  is  decreased  to  three,  because  of  the  extra  time  which 
^^*^  the  children  must  spend  in  preparation  for  confirma- 

tion. (See  below.)  In  addition  to  this  the  children  are  urged  to 
go  to  church  on  Sunday,  but  as  a  rule  the  children  seem  satisfied 
with  the  amount  of  spiritual  food  they  receive  in  the  school. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  course  of  study  for  a 
seven-grade  system : 

Class  7.  Fourteen  Bible  stories,  eight  passages  from  the  Bible,  five 
stanzas  of  songs,  five  commandments,  and  three  prayers.  The  following 
ire  some  of  the  stories:  Joseph  and  His  Brethren,  Joseph  Is  Sold  into 
Egypt,  Joseph  in  Prison,  Jacob  Goes  to  Egypt,  The  Birth  of  Jesus,  The 
Wise  Men  from  the  East,  The  Twelve-year-old  Jesus  in  the  Temple,  Jesus 
and  the  Children. 

Class  6.  Fourteen  Bible  stories,  seven  passages,  eight  stanzas  of  song, 
three  commandments,  and  one  prayer.  The  Bible  stories  include :  Abra- 
ham and  Lot,  Isaac's  Birth  and  Sacrifice,  Jacob  and  Esau,  The  Feeding  of 
the  Five  Thousand,  Jairus'  Daughter,  Jesus'  Crucifixion  and  Death,  and 
The  Resurrection  of  Jesus. 

Class  S-  Nineteen  Bible  stories,  eleven  passages,  four  stanzas  of  songs, 
the  second  commandment,  and  the  second  article  of  the  catechism  without 
explanation.  The  stories  include :  David  and  Goliath,  Moses'  Birth, 
Absalom,  The  Prodigal  Son,  The  Good  Samaritan,  Jesus  before  Pilate  and 
Herod,  and  Jesus'  Ascension. 

Class  4.  Twenty-one  new  stories,  twenty-one  passages,  twenty-three 
stanzas  of  songs,  explanation  of  the  first  section  of  the  confession  and  the 
first  and  third  articles  of  the  catechism. 


RELIGION  291 

Class  3.  Twenty-nine  new  stories,  thirty-nine  passages,  eighteen  stanzas 
of  songs,  the  explanation  of  the  three  articles,  and  the  Twenty-third  Psahn. 

Class  2.  Memory  material,  twenty-seven  passages,  thirty  stanzas  of 
songs,  the  Ninetieth  Psalm,  1-12,  One  Hundred  and  Thirtieth  Psalm,  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  the  explanation  of  the  third  section  of  the  confession, 
and  the  text  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  articles  of  the  catechism.  Bible  read- 
ing :  The  Psalms  and  the  Life  of  Jesus.    The  pericopes. 

Class  I.  Twenty-one  passages,  twenty-five  stanzas  of  church  songs, 
the  first  and  fourth  sections  of  the  confession.  First  and  One  Hundred  and 
Twenty-first  Psalm.  Bible  reading:  Old  Testament,  the  Psalms  and 
about  the  prophets  of  Israel.  New  Testament,  Christ's  life  and  teachings. 
Church  history  covering  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  Augustine, 
Boniface,  Huss,  the  Reformation,  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Zwingli,  Calvin, 
and  Francke.  Home  and  foreign  missions.  Treatment  of  aU  parts  of  the 
catechism.  That  is  to  be  considered  especially  which  has  meaning  for  the 
social  and  religious  life  of  the  present :  Superstition,  materialism,  the  oath, 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  attitude  shown  toward  gentlemen,  servants, 
superiors  and  rulers,  modesty  in  word  and  deed,  what  is  mine  and  yours, 
honesty  in  business,  contentment,  gratitude,  social-political  legislation, 
charitable  institutions. 

As  in  all  other  subjects  of  instruction,  there  is  an  enormous 
amount  of  material  in  religion  which  the  children  are  required 
to  memorize.  There  are  one  hundred  and  one  Bible  Memory 
stories  that  the  children  must  memorize,  one  hundred  ^°'''' 
and  thirty-five  passages  from  the  Bible,  one  hundred  and  thir- 
teen songs,  as  well  as  all  of  the  catechism,  Hturgy,  and  pericopes. 
In  addition  to  this  the  church  and  apostolic  history  is  practically 
all  memory  work.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  lessons  given  to 
it,  but  at  the  same  time  it  makes  heavy  demands  upon  the 
children. 

No  text-book  is  used  in  religion  in  the  first  three  years  in  the 
majority  of  schools.    In  the  intermediate  and  upper  sections  the 
children  generally  have  a  Bible  reader  {biblisches  Lese-  _,     .    ^^ 
J«cA),  which  contains  the  catechism,  liturgy,  ritual, 
hymns,  church  history,  Bible  stories,  which  are  written  in  BibU- 


292  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

cal  style,  and  extracts  from  the  Bible,  or  a  paraphrase  of  cer- 
tain parts  of  it.  The  Bible  itself  is  not  always  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupils,  but  it  is  usually  in  their  hands  in  the  upper  classes. 
Sometimes  the  catechism  is  in  a  separate  book  and  frequently 
the  church  hymns  are  bound  by  themselves. 

Every  school,  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country,  is  re- 
quired to  have  a  map  of  Palestine  as  part  of  its  equipment.  In 
actual  practice  most  schools  have  several  maps  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  of  the  countries  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  Besides,  it  is  customary  to  have  pictures  illustrative  of 
the  sacred  stories  which  are  presented  to  the  children.  One 
most  frequently  finds  pictures  representing  Christ  in  the  Temple, 
Christ's  nativity,  the  Crucifixion,  and  other  of  the  more  striking 
and  dramatic  incidents  in  Bible  story. 

Although  the  rehgious  instruction  consists  of  Bible  stories, 

catechism,  Uturgy,  songs,  and  other  elements,  the  work  is  closely 

correlated.    In  the  lower  section,  that  is,  the  first 
Bible  '  .  ' 

stories  and  three  years,  a  large  part  of  the  work  consists  of  Bible 
^'°^  stories.  Stories,  like  those  of  Joseph  and  of  Jesus,  are 
selected  to  fit  the  ability  of  children.  The  general  method  of 
teaching  such  stories  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  teaching  fables 
and  fairy  tales  in  the  corresponding  grades.  The  teacher  tells 
the  story  in  a  lively  animated  manner,  and  all  the  while  is  careful 
to  keep  his  language  extremely  simple  and  clear.  Generally  he 
uses  a  sort  of  paraphrase  of  the  Biblical  story.  After  a  few  sen- 
tences of  the  story  have  been  related,  one  or  two  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  repeat  the  story  in  practically  the  words  of  the  teacher. 
In  fact,  all  the  stories  are  learned  in  this  manner  throughout 
the  grades.  The  children  seem  to  enjoy  learning  Bible  stories 
and  delight  much  more  in  telling  them.  In  the  upper  grades  the 
children  often  go  over  in  their  Bible  readers  the  stories  they  have 
memorized  and  use  them  as  a  reading  lesson.  The  memoriza- 
tion is  very  efl&ciently  done  and  years  after  the  children  have 


RELIGION  293 

left  school  they  are  able  to  repeat  a  long  list  of  stories  that  they 
have  learned  in  the  religion  class  at  school.  We  have  talked 
frequently  with  young  men  and  women  who  have  finished  the 
Volksschule  and  on  being  asked  to  repeat  this  or  that  Bible  story 
were  able  to  give  it  almost  word  for  word.  In  making  a  test  of 
this  point,  a  housemaid  was  given  a  list  of  Bible  stories  in  order 
to  see  how  many  of  them  she  could  repeat.  She  was  able  to 
recite  every  one  of  them  with  almost  no  hesitation. 

Catechism  is  begun  in  the  very  earliest  grades  and  is  made 
increasingly  difi&cult  as  the  work  progresses.  All  of  this  work  is 
purely  of  memoriter  character  and  the  children  must 
know  absolutely  every  word  of  it.  Naturally,  there  *'  ^^ 
is  some  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  the  doctrines  and  teach- 
ings of  the  church,  but  this  comes  in  the  upper  grades  after  a  large 
part  has  already  been  conmiitted  to  memory.  Practical  appH- 
cation  is  made  of  the  truths  contained  in  the  catechism,  partic- 
ularly in  the  last  two  years  of  school.  Such  questions  as  super- 
stition, materialism,  perjury,  honesty,  and  the  like  are  discussed, 
and  the  teachers  strive  hard  to  impress  the  children  with  the 
cardinal  truths  of  Ufe.  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  in  connection 
with  the  teaching  of  the  catechism  that  the  relation  of  the  citizen 
to  his  God  and  his  king  is  especially  stressed.  Perhaps  more 
is  made  of  this  point  than  of  any  other. 

In  all  the  grades  of  the  school,  parts  of  the  liturgy,  that  is, 
prayers,  responses,  masses,  pericopes,  church  calendar,  and 
hymns,  are  given,  although  the  larger  part  of  the 
liturgy  is  reserved  for  the  last  years  in  school,  just  pre- 
vious to  the  time  when  the  children  are  supposed  to  become  full- 
fledged  members  of  the  church.  There  is  an  enormous  amount 
of  material  to  be  learned.  First  of  all,  there  is  a  great  number 
of  songs,  the  words  and  meaning  of  which  are  learned  in  the 
rehgion  hour,  but  which  are  generally  sung  in  the  music  period. 
The  songs  which  are  learned  are  those  in  most  common  use  in 


294  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  churches  of  the  community.  The  whole  of  one  hymn  is 
rarely  ever  learned  at  one  time,  and  sometimes  all  the  stanzas 
of  some  hymns  are  never  learned.  As  far  as  our  observation 
went  the  children  find  a  great  deal  of  real  joy  in  singing  the 
hymns,  although  they  display  a  far  greater  readiness  in  singing 
secular  songs. 

Learning  the  church  calendar  and  the  pericopes  also  lays 
quite  a  serious  claim  upon  the  memory  of  the  children.  In  this 
work  they  are  required  to  commit  to  memory  the  scriptural 
assignments  for  each  church  service  during  the  whole  year. 

In  addition  to  all  this  there  are  a  number  of  prayers,  benedic- 
tions, invocations,  and  the  like  which  the  pupils  must  commit 
to  memory. 

The  children  receive  a  great  deal  of  benefit  from  the  study  of 
church  history,  for  within  the  scope  of  this  phase  of  religious 
Church  instruction  is  included  the  history  of  the  Jews,  the 
History  Romans,  and  the  Germans  with  regard  to  their  rela- 
tionship to  Christianity.  Naturally  the  history  of  none  of  these 
peoples  is  treated  very  intensively,  but  generally  the  teachers 
take  great  pains  to  describe  the  development  of  the  races  which 
have  been  vitally  touched  by  Christianity.  The  method  in 
presentation  of  the  material  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  regular 
history  period.  The  teacher  relates  the  subject  matter  to  the 
pupils  and  explains  its  meaning  to  them.  After  this  has  been 
done  the  children  merely  tell  what  they  have  learned,  but 
which  fortimately  they  are  not  forced  to  commit  to  memory. 

The  avowed  purpose  of  the  rehgious  instruction  demands  that 

some  sort  of  moral  application  be  made.    By  appUcation  is  not . 

meant  merely  a  general  moraUzation,  but  an  applica- 

of  Bible        tion  of  the  principles  which  have  been  developed  in 

Stories  and    ^.j^g  study  of   historical ,  characters  to  the  Christian 

History  _  •' 

Ufe  of  the  children,  and  to  their  circle  of  duties  and 
responsibilities,  to  their  errors,  temptations,  and  trials. 


RELIGION  295 

Biblical  geography  is  the  description  and  discussion  of  the 
places  and  regions  connected  with  the  Bible  narrative.  There 
are  no  special  hours  set  aside  for  this  work,  but  it  is  BibUcai 
treated  incidentally.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  Geography 
the  geography  of  Palestine,  while  Greece,  Rome,  Egypt,  and 
Germany  are  also  treated.  Of  course,  the  political  geography 
dealt  with  is  that  of  Bible  times,  and  is  not  of  very  much  value 
to  the  children  at  present.  The  physical  phase  of  the  subject, 
however,  is  handled  rather  fully  and  can  be  rather  closely  corre- 
lated with  the  regular  work  in  geography. 

The  religious  iastruction  in  the  German  elementary  school 
aims  to  develop  moral  principles  for  the  everyday  Hfe  of  the 
children.    The  children  are  acquainted  with  these 
principles  through  precept  rather  than  through  prac-  Training  vs. 
tice.    The  children  receive  instruction  in  moral  prin-  ^0^^  ^- 

....  .  '^  struction 

aples  rather  than  trauung  m  their  apphcation.  The 
German  child  has  very  few  opportunities  to  exercise  his  moral 
judgment  in  school.  The  routine  of  the  school  robs  him  of  that 
chance.  In  the  Volksschulen  there  are  no  organizations  for  the 
children  which  are  so  fruitful  in  offering  occasions  to  the  chil- 
dren to  decide  between  right  and  wrong.  Ordinarily  the  teacher 
states  the  moral  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  the  Bible  lessons  or 
stories.  Frequently,  it  is  done  in  the  following  fashion :  "Why 
did  Joseph's  brothers  cast  him  into  the  pit?"  "They  cast  him 
into  the  pit  because  they  were  jealous  of  him."  "What  should 
we  not  be?"  "We  should  not  be  jealous."  This  process,  no 
doubt,  acquaints  the  child  with  the  moral  ideas,  but  it  is  ques- 
tionable if  it  has  a  very  great  influence  upon  the  conduct  of  the 
children. 

German  school  children  are  not  without  training  and  firm 
grounding  in  morals.  It  is  not  gotten,  however,  from  the  reli- 
gious instruction  in  school  but  from  training  at  home  and  in  the 
community.    The  example  of  the  teacher  is  also  a  very  powerful 


296  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

influence  in  shaping  the  characters  of  the  children.  German 
children  are  honest,  courteous,  punctual,  conscientious,  and 
thrifty.  Their  training  and  rearing  at  home  is  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  their  moral  education.  Thrift  they  learn  by 
example  and  by  precept.  In  many  places  the  pupils  are  en- 
couraged in  saving  by  the  estabhshment  of  school  savings  banks. 
One  of  the  greatest  moral  virtues  of  all  German  children  is  their 
respect  for  the  law.  They  acquire  this  respect  from  the  atti- 
tude of  their  parents  and  the  entire  citizenship  toward  the 
law.  They  know  that  they  must  have  respect  for  the  law, 
for  they  know  its  operation  is  as  inevitable  as  the  rising  of 
the  sun. 

Despite  the  great  amount  of  religion  taught  in  the  schools  the 
Prussian  people  are  not  religious.  The  attitude  of  the  majority 
in  religious  matters  is  not  that  of  antagonism  toward 
ReUgious  the  church,  but  rather  that  of  the  utmost  indifference. 
In  the  Catholic  sections  of  Prussia  and  in  southern 
Germany  the  people  are  much  more  devout  than  in  those  sec- 
tions which  are  predominatingly  Protestant.  In  a  number  of 
large  cities  in  Prussia  it  has  been  found  that  about  one  per  cent 
of  the  population  attends  a  church  service  once  a  week.  Prac- 
tically every  one  belongs  to  a  church,  but  that  is  about  as  far  as 
it  goes.  The  church  in  Germany  is  not  the  social  institution 
that  it  is  in  America.  One  very  rarely  hears  reUgion  and  the 
church  and  its  activities  spoken  of.  The  church  is  a  part  of 
the  order  of  things  in  about  the  same  sense  as  the  fire  depart- 
ment is.  It  is  state  supported,  state  managed,  and  state  con- 
trolled in  a  very  large  measure.  It  can  operate  without  the 
individual  efforts  of  the  citizens,  hence  no  one  bothers  himself 
about  it. 

The  commercialization  of  Germany  is  one  of  the  large  con- 
tributing factors  in  the  growth  of  rehgious  indifference.  Ger- 
many  is   the   most   commercial,  most   money-mad  nation  in 


RELIGION  297 

the  world  to-day.  It  is  often  said  that  the  American  sacrifices 
everything  for  the  dollar.  The  German  sacrifices  everything 
for  the  pfennig.  The  god  of  the  German  is  force, 
and  his  religion  is  Germanism.  The  German  state  ReU^out 
is  their  all.  In  consequence  the  piety  and  reverence  ^'^'*f^"'«"'=« 
of  the  old  German  is  buried  deep  beneath  the  onrushing  current 
of  industrialism,  materialism,  and  their  passion  for  wealth  and 
world  power.  Only  a  national  disaster  can  make  the  German 
pious  and  reverent  as  of  old.  Germany  has  enormous  wealth, 
and  with  its  sudden  acquisition  has  come  an  alarming  indul- 
gence in  luxury,  vice,  and  pleasure.  Nachtleben  (night  life) 
has  the  nation  in  its  grip,  and  this  type  of  life  is  not  Kmited 
to  Berlin,  but  is  found  in  the  capital  of  every  province,  and 
in  small  cities,  and  in  villages.  When  any  nation  begins  to 
make  day  out  of  night,  it  has  begun  to  imdermine  its  own 
foundations. 

It  is  a  sad  commentary  on  German  moral  life,  as  well  as  upon 
the  effect  of  religious  instruction  in  the  schools,  to  know  that 
one  hundred  and  seventeen  out  of  every  one  thousand  births 
are  illegitimate.  Women  openly  employed  in  vice  are  not  in- 
cluded in  this  number.  From  these  figures  it  is  very  evident 
that  sex  immorality  claims  a  very  high  percentage  of  the  people. 
This  is  another  cause  of  the  decay  of  the  spirit  of  piety  and 
reverence. 

Observation  of  the  German  people  at  work  and  at  play  leads 
us  to  the  opinion  that  the  religious  instruction  of  the  schools 
has  httle  effect  upon  their  moral  life  and  an  ever  decreasing 
effect  upon  their  reUgious  Hfe.  Every  virtue  is  taught  the  chil- 
dren, but  the  average  German  man  indulges  himself  in  his  early 
years  either  in  drunkenness,  licentiousness,  or  selfishness.  He  is 
not  charitable.  His  positive  virtues  are  honesty  and  thrift. 
There  can  be  no  more  positive  proof  than  Germany  that  "Moral- 
ity cannot  be  taught." 


298  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

RELIGION 
II  (SrxTH-YEAR)  Class.    Girls 

Teacher:    What  are  the  chief  religions  of  the  world? 

Pupil:  The  chief  religions  of  the  world  are  the  Christian,  which  exists  ia 
Eiirope,  America,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world;  the  Jewish, 
which  is  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  earth;  the  Mohammedan  reU- 
gion,  which  exists  chiefly  in  Turkey,  Persia,  and  in  northern  Africa ; 
the  Buddhist  reUgion,  which  exists  in  Japan  and  India ;  and  the  heathen 
religion. 

Teacher:    Repeat  that. 

Pupil :  The  chief  religions  of  the  earth  are  the  Christian,  existing  in  Europe, 
America,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world ;  the  Jewish  religion ;  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  which  exists  in  Turkey,  Persia,  and  northern 
Africa ;  the  Buddhist  religion  in  Japan  and  India ;  the  heathen  .  .  . 

Teacher :    In  what  land  near  Japan  is  the  Buddhist  religion  strong  ? 

Pupil:    In  China ;  and  the  heathen  religion  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Teacher:    What  religion  do  we  honor? 

Pupil:    The  Christian  religion. 

Teacher:    Where  did  the  Christian  religion  get  its  name? 

Pupil:    It  received  its  name  from  Christ. 

Teacher:    What  did  Christ  announce  to  mankind? 

Pupil:    Christ  proclaimed  that  he  was  the  Son  of  God. 

Pupil:    He  proclaimed  also  that  we  should  beUeve  in  Him. 

Pupil:    He  proclaimed  that  we  should  receive  the  kingdom  of  Heaven. 

Teacher:  We  say  God  revealed  himself  to  mankind.  To  whom  did  God 
reveal  himself? 

Pupil:    God  revealed  himself  to  mankind. 

Teacher:    Through  whom  did  God  reveal  himself? 

Pupil:    God  revealed  himself  through  Jesus  Christ. 

Teacher:    Had  God  ever  revealed  himself  before  the  time  of  Christ? 

Pupil:    He  revealed  himself  to  the  Israelites. 

Teacher:    By  what  man  did  he  reveal  himself? 

Pupil:    God  revealed  himself  through  Moses. 

Teacher:  Yes,  Moses  was  God's  agent.  God  revealed  himself  twice,  first 
through  Moses  to  the  Jews,  and  secondly  to  all  men  through  Christ. 
How  often  and  to  whom  did  God  reveal  himself? 

Pupil:  God  revealed  himself  twice,  first  to  the  Jews  through  Moses,  and 
then  to  men. 


RELIGION  299 

Teacher:    All  men. 

Pupil:    And  then  to  all  men  through  Christ. 

Teacher:    Where  is  this  revelation? 

Pupil:    It  is  in  the  Bible. 

Teacher:    Yes,  but  God  revealed  himself  not  only  by  writings,  but  also  by 

speech.    What  does  the  word  Bible  mean?  (No  rephes.)    The  word 

Bible  .  .  . 
Pupil:    It  means  Holy  Scripture. 
Teacher:    No,  it  means  book.    You  have  other  books,  though,  haven't 

you?    What  ones? 
Pupil:    The  reader,  the  arithmetic,  the  grammar. 
Teacher :    But  why  call  this  the  Book  ? 
Pupil:    Because  it  contains  the  Holy  Scripture. 
Pupil:    Because  it  is  important,  a  special  book. 
Teacher:    That  is  right.    It  is  sometimes  called  the  Book  of  Books.    What 

is  it  sometimes  called? 
Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Book  of  Books. 
Teacher :    Why  is  the  Bible  more  important  than  all  other  books,  than  the 

reader  or  the  grammar? 
Pupil:    It  is  more  important  because  it  was  written  by  Christ. 
PupU:    Because  it  contains  the  Holy  Scripture. 
Pupil:    Because  it  was  written  by  Luther. 
Teacher:    It  was  not  written  by  Luther,  only  translated  into  German  by 

him.    This  book  shows  us  something  special. 
PupU:    It  shows  us  the  way  of  life. 
Teacher:    That  is,  the  way  to  God.    Therefore  it  is  the  most  important  of 

all  books.    The  word  Bible  is  a  very  common  one,  but  still  it  is  a 

foreign  word.    It  comes  from  the  Latin  for  book.    What  else  is  the 

Bible  called? 
Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Holy  Scripture. 
Teacher:    Why  is  it  called  holy? 
PupU:    Because  God's  word  is  holy. 
Teacher:    What  else  is  in  the  Bible? 
PupU:    There  are  proverbs,  parables,  history  in  the  Bible. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  content  of  the  Bible? 
PupU:    The  Bible  contains  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Teacher :    Again. 
PupU:    The  Bible  contains  the  Holy  Scripture,  and  proverbs,  parables, 

and  history. 


300  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  history? 

Pupil:    Sacred  history. 

Teacher:    Who  wrote  it? 

Pupil:    The  Prophets  and  Moses  wrote  it. 

Teacher:    What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  Bible? 

Pupil:    The  word  Bible  means  book. 

Teacher:    Why  is  it  called  only  that ? 

Pupil:    Because  it  is  the  most  important  book  of  all. 

Teacher:    What  way  does  the  Bible  show  us? 

Pupil:    The  Bible  shows  us  the  way  to  God. 

Teacher:    It  is  worth  more  than  all  the  other  books.    What  other  name 

is  given  it  ? 
Pupil:    The  Holy  Scripture. 
Teacher:    Again. 
Pupil:    It  is  sometimes  called  the  Holy  Scripture.    It  deals  with  the 

revelation  of  God. 
Teacher:    Why  is  it  an  especially  important  book? 
Pupil:    Because  it  contains  the  Holy  Scripture. 
Pupil:    It  is  especially  important  because  it  shows  the  way  of  life. 
Teacher:    Why  is  it  called  the  Holy  Scripture? 
Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Holy  Scripture  because  it  contains  the  word  of 

God  and  it  is  holy. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  third  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Bible? 
Pupil:    The  Word  of  God. 

Teacher:    That  is  easy  to  ejjplain.    Why  is  it  called  the  Word  of  God? 
Pupil:    Because  it  contains  the  words  of  God. 
Teacher:    Have  you  read  the  Bible? 
Pupil:    Yes. 

Teacher:    What  language  is  it  written  in? 
Pupil:    It  is  in  German. 

Teacher:    Has  the  Bible  always  been  in  German? 
Pupil:     It  has  been  in  German  since  the  time  of  Luther. 
Teacher:    What  language  was  it  in  before  Luther's  time? 
Pupil:    Latin. 
Pupil:    And  Hebrew. 
Teacher:    Did  Christ  speak  Latin? 
Pupil:    He  spoke  German. 

Teacher:    No.    Now  think  where  he  Uved.    Where  was  that ? 
Pupil:    He  lived  in  Palestine. 


RELIGION  301 

Teacher:    What  language  did  he  speak  then? 

Pupil:    He  spoke  Hebrew. 

Teacher:    In  the  tune  of  Jesus  none  of  the  Bible  was  written  and  collected 

as  it  is  now.    What  language  did  the  prophets  and  apostles  speak? 
Pupil :   They  spoke  Hebrew. 

Teacher:    Some  of  them  wrote  in  another  language.    What  language? 
Pupil:    Latin. 

Teacher:    No,  Greek.    How  did  that  come?    (No  answer.)    At  that  time 
Greek  was  the  language  of  commerce  and  culture,  and  it  was  spoken 
everywhere.    It  was  a  world  language.    What  would  have  happened 
if  the  disciples  spoke  only  Hebrew  and  the  Bible  were  only  in  Hebrew? 
Pupil:    Then  the  reUgion  would  have  been  for  the  Jews  only. 
Teacher:    Yes,  and  that  was  not  the  purpose  of  Christ's  coming.    He 
brought  salvation  not  only  to  the  Jews,  but  to  all  men.    Therefore  a 
new  language  had  to  be  used  and  the  part  of  the  Bible  written  in 
Greek  was  the  New  Testament.    What  does  the  word  Testament 
mean? 
Pupil:    It  means  Bund  (alliance). 

Teacher:    How  many  people  are  needed  to  form  an  agreement  or  covenant  ? 
Pupil:    Many. 

Teacher:    At  least  how  many? 
Pupil:    At  least  two. 

Teacher:    Yes,  there  are  many  alliances.    Your  father  and  mother  have 
formed  an  alliance;  and  Germany,  Italy  and-  Austria  have  made  an 
alliance.    Who  made  the  alliance  in  the  Bible? 
Pupil:    God  and  man  made  an  alliance. 
Teacher:    Who  was  the  negotiator  of  this  aUiance? 
Pupil:    Jesus  Christ. 
Teacher:    What  does  testament  mean? 
Pupil:    Testament  means  an  aUiance. 

Teacher:    What  conclusion  must  you  draw  when  you  speak  of  a  new  Testa- 
ment? 
Pupil:    That  there  is  an  old  Testament. 
Teacher:    With  whom  did  God  make  the  old  alliance? 
Pupil:    He  made  the  old  aUiance  with  the  Israelites. 
Teacher:    Who  was  the  negotiator  of  the  old  alliance? 
PupU:    Moses. 

Teacher:    Yes,  God  made  two  alliances  (or  covenants)  with  Man.    The 
first  was  between  God  and  mankind  and  Moses  was  the  negotiator; 


302  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  there  is  a  new  covenant  between  God  and  Man  through  Jesus 

Christ.    Summarize  that. 
Pupil:    God  made  two  covenants  with  man.    He  made  the  first  covenant 

with  Man  through  Moses;  and  he  made  the  second  covenant  with 

Man  through  Christ. 
Teacher:    What  was  the  language  of  the  Old  Testament? 
Pupil:    The  Old  Testament  was  in  Hebrew. 

Teacher:    What  was  the  language  of  the  Bible  which  Luther  found? 
Pupil:    It  was  in  Latin. 
Teacher:    The  Greeks  after  a  long  time  lost  their  leadership  and  a  people 

living  to  the  west  of  them  became  their  leaders.    They  lived  in  the 

country  that  is  now  Italy.    They  were  the  Romans.    What  language 

did  they  use  ? 
Pupil:    Latin. 
Teacher:    The   Christian  religion  was  spread  over  western  Europe  by 

Roman  priests  and  all  of  them  spoke  Latin,  so  it  became  necessary, 

inasmuch  as  they  preached  in  Latin,  to  translate  the  Bible  into  Latin. 

Repeat  that. 
Pupil:    The  priests  who  spread  the  Christian  religion  in  Europe  all  spoke 

Latin,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  translate  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 

scriptures  into  Latin. 
Teacher:    What  did  we  talk  about  first  ? 
Pupil:    We  talked  about  the  names  of  the  Bible. 
Teacher:    Then  what? 

Pupil:    We  spoke  of  the  language  of  the  Bible. 
Teacher:    Tell  me  about  that. 

Pupil:    At  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  Bible  was  in  Hebrew.  .  .  . 
Teacher:    In  what  language  was  the  Old  Testament? 
Another  Pupil:    The  Old  Testament  .  .  . 
Teacher:    What  is  the  oldest  or  first  part  of  the  Bible  called? 
Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Old  Testament. 
Teacher:    In  what  language  was  the  Old  Testament  written? 
Pupil:    Latin  .  .  . 
Another  Pupil:    It  was  written  in  Hebrew  and  the  New  Testament  was  in 

Greek.    In  later  times  the  Romans  spread  Christianity,  and  since 

they  spoke  Latin  the  Bible  was  translated  into  that  language. 
Teacher:    Luther  was  not  the  first  who  translated  the  Bible  or  parts  of  it 

into   German.    Parts  had  been  translated  excellently,   whUe  other 

parts  had  been  poorly  done.    And  what  was  the  result  of  such  work? 


RELIGION  303 

Pupil:    Nobody  understood  it. 

Teacher:  Yes,  so  Luther  translated  so  that  any  German  could  understand 
it.  He  translated  it  from  the  original  because  he  knew  both  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  Between  the  backs  of  this  book  which  I  hold  in  my  hand 
is  the  story  of  many  centuries,    Was  the  Bible  always  one  book? 

Pupil:    No,  it  was  several  separate  books  at  first. 

Teacher:  At  the  time  of  Christ  they  were  not  in  one  book.  How  were 
they  kept? 

Pupil:    They  were  kept  on  roUs. 

Teacher:  Yes.  At  that  time  book-making  was  not  so  highly  developed  as 
now.  Writing  was  done  on  papyrus  or  on  pergament.  This  paper 
was  made  from  a  plant,  the  stems  were  slit  open  and  several  stems 
laid  together  and  beaten  and  smoothened,  and  the  writing  was  not 
done  with  a  steel  pen.    What  did  they  write  with  ? 

Pupil:    They  wrote  with  a  real  feather  (quiU)  or  with  a  brush. 

Teacher:  Books  were  not  bound  up  as  they  are  now,  but  these  parchments 
were  rolled  up  on  sticks  and  laid  on  a  shelf.  The  title  was  written  on 
the  outside  and  a  person  wishing  to  read  sought  out  the  roll  he  wanted 
and  read  it.    What  does  our  school  Bible  cost  ? 

Pupil:    It  costs  from  one  to  two  marks. 

Teacher:    Was  the  Bible  always  so  cheap ? 

Pupil:    No. 

Teacher:  It  used  to  be  that  a  man  would  work  his  whole  life  in  writing  a 
Bible.  He  would  work  for  years  and  years.  They  were  written  very 
carefully  and  illustrated  and  embelUshed,  especially  the  initial  letters. 
Sometimes  a  Bible  would  cost  two  thousand  marks  (Oh)  or  more.  Why 
was  it  that  Bibles  cost  so  much  then  ? 

Pupil:  They  cost  a  great  deal  because  there  was  so  much  work  required 
in  making  them. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

GERMAN 

German,  as  a  subject  of  instruction  in  the  Volksschule,  in- 
cludes observation  work,  reading,  literature,  composition,  gram- 
Scopeof  mar,  spelling,  and  writing.  In  glancing  over  a  Ger- 
the  Subject  laaxi  elementary  course  of  study  it  is  usual  to  find  all 
those  different  branches  of  language  instruction  grouped  under 
the  general  term,  German,  although  the  hours  for  writing  and 
observation  instruction  are  given  separately.  Clear-cut  dis- 
tinctions between  reading  and  literature,  Hterature  and  gram- 
mar, grammar  and  spelling,  and  the  like  are  not  made  in  the 
German  schools  as  are  sometimes  made  in  ours.  A  German 
period  usually  affords  some  time  to  several  of  the  subjects  in- 
cluded in  the  conception  —  German  instruction.  One  very 
rarely  finds  a  spelling  lesson,  a  grammar  lesson,  or  a  reading 
lesson  which  takes  up  the  whole  of  a  period  marked  on  the 
daily  program  as  German.  As  a  rule,  part  of  the  time  is  given 
to  reading,  part  of  the  time  to  grammar  or  speUing,  or  the  hour 
is  broken  up  into  some  other  such  combination. 

General 

Regulations  The  General  Regulations  of  1872  lay  the  founda- 
cen^g'°"'  ^'°^  principles  of  German  instruction  for  the  Prus- 
Gennan        sian  Volksschulen. 

The  following  course  in  German  is  for  an  eight- 
grade  school.  It  is  very  similar  to  any  course  which  one  would 
find  in  a  large  city  of  Prussia.  Courses  of  study  for  schools  with 
fewer  grades  would  contain  the  same  material,  but  it  would  be 
divided  a  little  differently. 

304 


GERMAN 


305 


The  instruction  in  German  is  to  bring  the  children  to  a  complete  mastery 
of  the  oral  and  written  use  of  the  mother  tongue.  This  end  is  to  be  brought 
about  by  the  use  of  the  primer,  reading  book,  regular  grammatical  exercises 
and  instruction,  independent  written  exercises  of  the  children,  and  by  object 
lessons  in  the  lower  sections. 

I.  The  primer  belongs  to  the  eighth  or  lowest  class.  The  children  learn 
German  script  and  print  and  are  drilled  in  phonetic  reading  of  short  passages. 

The  reader  is  taken  up  in  the  seventh  class.  Latin  print  is  learned. 
Phonetic  reading.  Thoughtful  reproduction  of  reading  passages  is  prac- 
ticed.   Exercises  in  spelling. 

The  drill  of  the  A  B  C's  appears  in  the  sixth  class  in  addition  to  the 
reading  and  understanding  of  the  passages  assigned.  In  the  fifth  class 
regular  exercises  and  the  reproduction  of  narrative  passages  begin  and 
are  continued  in  the  fourth  class.  In  classes  two  and  three  this  work  is 
broadened  by  paraphrasing  of  selections,  with  special  attention  to  organiza- 
tion of  material.  In  the  first  class  the  work  is  further  enlarged  by  instruc- 
tion concerning  the  different  kinds  of  literary  composition  and  the  different 
types  of  poetry. 

II.  Granunatical  exercises  begin  with  the  first  year.  From  the  seventh 
class  on,  the  granunatical  work  follows  a  regular  order  with  the  aid  of  a 
grammar  or  language  book,  which  divides  the  material  into  year's  work. 
From  the  seventh  to  third  class  the  subject  matter  is  assigned  to  five  days 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  each,  but  in  the  two  upper  classes  the  grammar 
work  is  hmited  to  three  days  a  week,  so  that  a  whole  hour  can  be  given  to  it 
once  a  week.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  treat  grammar  in  a  connected 
manner  in  these  two  classes.  So,  also,  syntax  and  the  most  important 
phenomena  of  word  formation  and  change  of  meanings,  which  are  neces- 
sary for  an  understanding  of  the  language,  will  be  able  to  find  a  more 
thorough  presentation.  In  classes  seven  to  one  a  dictation  is  given  every 
Saturday.  Finally,  an  exercise  consisting  of  a  few  sentences  from  the 
grammar  text  is  to  be  given  the  children  in  classes  seven  to  two  every  day 
as  home  work.  In  the  seventh  and  sixth  classes  this  grammar  exercise  may 
be  interchanged  with  copying  some  lines  from  the  reader.  The  subject 
matter  in  grammar  is  divided  among  the  different  classes  as  follows : 

Class  8.  Exercises  in  copying  words  and  short  sentences  from  the  board 
or  out  of  the  primer ;  writing  down  words  and  short  sentences  whose  spell- 
ing corresponds  to  their  sound ;  dictation  of  words  copied  previously ;  and 
sentences  composed  by  the  children  themselves. 

X 


3o6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Class  7.  Exercises  in  recognizing  nouns,  in  the  use  of  the  article,  in  the 
formation  of  the  singular  and  plural,  in  the  use  of  capital  letters,  in  the  use 
of  vowel  modification  in  the  plural  and  in  the  words  with  chen  and  kin; 
and  in  syllabication. 

Class  6.  Exercises  in  the  declension  of  nouns,  alone  and  with  adjectives 
and  as  found  in  sentences;  numerous  exercises  in  the  use  of  the  genitive 
and  dative  cases.  Exercises  in  forming  the  three  principal  tenses  of  the 
verb  in  the  active  voice ;  exercises  in  finding  the  subject  and  predicate  of 
simple  sentences;  the  use  of  the  prepositions,  mit,  nach,  bei,  von,  zu,  aus, 
durch,  fur,  ohne,  urn,  gegen.  Exercises  in  writing  long  vowels  and  doubling 
the  consonants,  including  "ck"  and  "tz";  in  writing  words  in  "ig"  and 
"lich,"  with  the  final  consonants  d,  t,  b,  g,  ch,  and  k.  Continued  work  in 
syllabication,  and  in  punctuation  of  imperative,  interrogative,  and  declara- 
tive sentences. 

Class  5.  Exercises  in  the  conjugation  of  the  verb,  including  the  im- 
perative form,  the  infinitive  used  as  a  noun,  and  the  participles.  The  use 
of  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  with  the  dative  and  accusative  cases. 
Exercises  in  the  declension  of  nouns  with  adjectives ;  numerals ;  pronouns ; 
and  nouns  in  the  genitive  case.  Exercises  in  the  use  of  prepositions :  an, 
auf,  hinter,  in,  neben,  unier,  Uber,  vor,  zwischen.  Exercises  in  spelhng  words 
in  which  the  consonants  are  doubled  words  with  long  vowels,  also  with 
final  d  and  t,  b  and  p,  g,  ch,  and  k,  ng,  and  nk,  and  with  the  j  sounds. 

Class  4.  Exercises  with  prepositions ;  declension  of  personal  pronouns ; 
use  of  verbs  with  the  genitive ;  use  of  adjectives  which  govern  the  genitive 
or  dative ;  verbs  and  adjectives  which  require  a  preposition ;  adverbs,  and 
adverbial  modifiers. 

Further  exercises  with  the  j  sounds.  Exercises  in  writing  the  short  a 
and  e,  du  and  en,  ai  and  ei,  s,  v,  ph,  and  pf.  Differentiation  of  Iz  and  Is,  nz 
and  ns,  x,  cks,  cks  and  gs.  Verbs  in  ieren.  Easy  exercises  in  the  syntax 
of  word  formation. 

Class  3.  Continued  work  with  prepositions.  Exercises  in  the  use  of 
verbs  which  require  two  cases  (the  accusative  and  dative,  accusative  and 
genitive,  accusative  and  a  preposition  with  its  case) ;  use  of  complements 
which  are  expressed  by  a  preposition  and  its  case,  or  by  the  noun  form  of 
the  verb  with  zu;  punctuation ;  use  of  conjunctions  in  compound  and  complex 
sentences ;  conversion  of  parts  of  the  sentence  into  subordinate  clauses  and 
punctuation  thereof;  recognition  of  the  parts  of  speech. 

Further  exercises  in  spelling,  including  spelUng  of  foreign  words.  Con- 
nected repetition  and  review  of  the  forms  and  syntax.    Word  formation. 


GERMAN  307 

Class  2.  More  exercises  in  recognizing  parts  of  speech.  Exercises  with 
verbs  requiring  two  accusatives;  changing  parts  of  sentences  into  sub- 
ordinate clauses  and  vice  versa ;  picking  out  dependent  clauses,  and  their 
punctuation,  correct  use  of  conjunctions,  and  relative  pronouns.  Spelling 
and  word  formation,  and  the  building  of  word  families. 

Class  I.  Continued,  repeated,  and  broadened  exercises  in  the  whole 
field  of  grammar  and  spelling  in  connection  with  the  correction  of  mistakes 
in  compositions  and  dictations.  Further  work  in  word  formation  and 
discussion  of  transfer  of  meanings. 

III.  Further  independent  written  work  aids  in  the  language  training  of 
the  children.  This  written  work  is  for  the  most  part  exercises  which  are 
prepared  in  class  in  a  special  notebook.  The  preparation  consists  of 
reading,  observing,  and  talking  about  the  subject.  As  for  content,  these 
exercises  deal  with  questions  of  a  real  kind,  which  have  been  discussed  in 
school  or  are  connected  in  some  way  with  the  child's  field  of  experience. 
They  are  to  be  kept  within  a  moderate  latitude.  From  the  seventh  class 
on  half  an  hour  a  week  is  set  aside  for  these  written  exercises.  From  the 
fourth  class  on  they  take  the  form  of  short  compositions,  which  are  written 
in  the  notebooks  in  class.  Instead  of  this  in  the  three  upper  classes,  an 
essay  is  prepared  at  home  every  third  week,  in  which  a  certain  independence 
and  individuaUty  of  expression  is  expected. 

IV.  Language  instruction  in  the  first  three  years  of  school  finds  its 
supplementary  work  in  object  lessons.  Beginning  with  the  consideration 
of  real  objects,  this  instruction  proceeds  to  the  conception  of  figurative 
representation  in  order  to  draw  conclusions  in  the  observation  of  the  simplest 
facts  of  nature,  of  the  local  surroundings,  and  of  historical  facts,  which  he 
near  the  child's  intellectual  horizon. 

Class  8.  Observation  of  simple  objects  in  the  province  of  home  and 
school  Ufe.  First  attempts  of  the  children  to  draw  these  objects.  The 
schoolroom,  the  school  yard,  the  school  building.  Study  of  pictures  and 
learning  of  short  poems.  —  Two  hours. 

Class  7.  Observation  and  talks  about  particular  animals  and  plants. 
Simplest  observations  concerning  the  path  of  the  sun,  and  the  effects  of 
light  and  heat.  Days  and  seasons.  The  months  and  the  days  of  the 
week.    Pictures  and  models.    Short  poems. 

Class  6.  Further  study  of  particular  animals  and  plants.  The  street  and 
its  trade.  Visiting  of  some  buildings  and  monuments.  Information  concern- 
ing Emperor  WiUiam  the  Great  and  Empress  Augusta,  Emperor  Frederick 
and  his  consort.  Emperor  WiUiam  II  and  Empress  Augusta  Victoria. 


3o8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Outside  the  furtherance  of  language  training,  German  instruction  must 
aspire  to  furnish  an  introduction  to  the  national  literature,  which  is  suitable 
to  the  pupil's  point  of  view.  In  the  upper  section,  national  poems  and 
ballads  and  poems  of  historical  content,  in  so  far  as  they  have  poetic  value, 
are  especially  to  be  considered.  In  the  first  class,  in  addition  to  the  most 
serious  and  difficult  prose  and  poetical  selections  in  the  reader,  longer  poems 
are  to  be  read.  For  this  work  the  following  are  recommended:  WUhelm 
Tell,  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  Ernst  von  Schwaben, 
and  Hermann  und  Dorothea.  From  the  second  class  on,  the  children  are 
to  be  acquainted  with  the  most  valuable  characteristics  and  important  facts 
of  the  lives  of  the  most  prominent  poets  and  authors.  In  every  class  at 
least  five  poems  which  have  been  intensely  studied  are  memorized.  The 
children  are  trained  in  the  declamation  of  these  poems.  Folk-songs,  se- 
lected from  the  course  of  study  for  vocal  music,  are  also  to  be  learned. 
For  the  sake  of  language  training  it  will  be  useftd  if  in  every  class  some  short, 
valuable  prose  selections  be  learned. 

The  teacher  of  German  must,  above  all  else,  direct  the  use  of  the  school 
library,  for  it  is  desirable  that  the  home  reading  be  made  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  the  German  instruction  in  school.  It  is  also  to  be  recommended 
that  suggestions  which  are  gained  in  the  other  branches  of  study  be  turned 
to  accoimt  in  choosing  material  for  home  reading.  Thus  it  would  be  brought 
about  that  the  need  of  reading  will  be  increased,  and  the  children  wiU  be 
sent  out  into  life  at  the  time  of  leaving  school  with  a  lasting,  active,  well- 
trained  desire  for  reading. 

Writing : 

Class  VII.  The  large  and  small  German  letters,  the  Arabic  numerals, 
and  punctuation  marks.  Copy-books  with  narrow  double  lines  are  used. 
Two  hours. 

Class  VI.  The  material  in  the  first  semester  is  the  same  as  in  Class  7 ; 
in  addition,  one  hour  a  week  in  the  second  semester,  the  small  letters  of  the 
Latin  script.  Copy-books  with  single  lines  are  used  for  the  German  script 
and  books  with  double  lines  for  the  Latin  script.    Two  hours. 

Class  V.    One  hour  for  German,  and  one  hour  for  Latin  script. 

Class  IV.  One  hour  each  for  both  scripts,  and  copy-books  with  single 
lines  only  are  used  in  both  periods. 

Class  III.  Letters  and  business  forms,  etc.  Copying  of  given  funda- 
mental forms,  and  discussion  of  their  content  and  structure.    One  hour. 


GERMAN  309 

Class  II.  Writing  of  more  fundamental  forms,  copies  and  dictations. 
One  hoxir. 

Class  I.    Independent  preparation  of  letters  and  business  forms. 

Note.  —  Such  in  general  is  the  course  of  study  in  German.  Each  school 
is  allowed  to  make  a  more  detailed  course  of  study.  The  Lehrplan  is  some- 
thing similar  to  what  we  have  given  above,  though  for  all  courses  of  in- 
struction. The  detailed  course  is  called  the  Stoffverteilungsplan.  This,  as 
we  have  said,  is  made  out  by  each  school  for  itself,  or  it  may  be  made  by 
the  authorities  for  the  schools  imder  their  supervision.  The  detailed  course 
of  study  outlines  the  work  in  each  subject  week  by  week  for  the  whole  year, 
and  the  number  of  topics,  and  the  topics  to  be  covered  each  week  are  deter- 
mined by  this  plan,  so  the  teacher  knows  in  just  how  much  time  each  topic 
is  to  be  treated.  In  the  general  course  of  study  in  Germany  there  is  a  wide 
range  of  choice  allowed  to  schools  or  the  school  districts  as  to  what  topics 
shall  or  shall  not  be  treated,  but  the  teacher  himself  must  follow  closely 
the  detailed  course  of  study,  which  of  course  is  bmlt  upon  the  general  course 
of  study.  In  most  German  schoolrooms  one  can  find  the  detailed  course  of 
study,  and  by  looking  up  the  present  month  and  week  can  know  what  selec- 
tion the  children  are  reading,  what  sort  of  problems  are  being  solved  in 
arithmetic  classes,  and  so  on.  In  some  cities,  however,  the  teacher^  of  each 
single  class  makes  out  the  detailed  course  of  study,  receiving  only  a  general 
plan  for  each  subject  as  is  given  above  for  German. 

Generally  a  printed  course  of  study  contains  a  num-  General 
ber  of  remarks  dealing  with  general  methods  to  be  em-  Recom- 
ployed  in  teaching  the  subject  and  aims  that  are  to  be  mended  in 
attained.     Some  of  the  general  principles  laid  down  study  for 
for  the  teaching  of  German  in  the  elementary  schools  *^*™"" 
are  as  follows : 

1.  In  every  section  the  child  is  to  be  given  freedom  of  expression,  so 
far  as  the  purity,  correctness,  and  naturalness  of  the  language  permit. 

2.  Regular  exercises,  which  consciously  connect  the  word  with  the 
thing,  and  the  speech  with  the  act,  are  recommended  in  the  lower  section, 
in  order  to  increase  the  clearness  and  accuracy  of  the  child's  conceptions 
as  well  as  his  ability  of  expression. 

3.  The  study  of  words  is  to  be  carried  on  in  all  subjects,  if  the  subject 
matter  can  gain  clearness  and  hfe  thereby.    This  study  is  to  give  the 


3IO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

children  knowledge  of  the  origin  and  relationship  of  words,  of  the  sensual 
background  of  many  abstract  words,  of  the  origin  of  the  figures  of  speech, 
and  of  the  transfer  of  sounds  and  meanings. 

4.  The  most  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  spoken  language  and  not  upon 
the  written  word.  The  written  form  shall  grow  naturally  and  imforced 
out  of  oral  expression. 

5.  A  clear,  distinct  pronunciation  is  sought  after  most  diligently 
during  the  whole  school  period. 

6.  Foreign  words  are  to  be  carefully  avoided  in  all  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion wherever  the  German  language  has  imderstandable  words  of  its  own, 
with  the  exception  of  technical  expressions  in  general  use. 

Though  it  may  be  a  pedagogical  principle  of  the  German  ele- 
mentary teachers  to  allow  the  children  freedom  of  expression  in 
Freedom  of  recitation  and  in  written  work,  it  is  a  most  uncommon 
Expression  thing  to  find  a  teacher  who  puts  this  principle  into 
practice.  In  oral  recitation  the  teacher  as  a  rule  insists  that 
the  pupil  use  the  words,  very  often  the  exact  words  and  sen- 
tence structure,  which  the  teacher  has  used  in  presenting  the 
subject  matter  to  the  class.  The  child  is  frequently  corrected 
during  a  recitation,  so  often  that  one  comes  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  teacher  is  reciting  instead  of  the  child.  These  correc- 
tions by  no  means  concern  themselves  always  with  errors  in 
grammar,  with  content,  or  with  choice  of  words.  Generally  such 
corrections  are  due  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  hear 
his  own  words  again,  not  trusting  the  child  to  form  the  thought 
in  his  own  language.  The  teacher  feels  it  will  be  safer  to  have 
the  pupil  memorize  what  has  already  been  said  than  to  risk 
that  the  child  lose  the  fact  in  trjdng  to  express  it  in  his  own 
way.  The  memory  method  is  so  largely  employed  in  elementary 
schools  in  Germany  that  an  individuality  of  expression  is  as  a 
rule  badly  dwarfed  in  the  pupils.  This  is  not  only  true  of  oral 
expression  but  also  of  written  work.  The  compositions  are  pre- 
pared at  home,  but  most  of  them  are  talked  over  at  school 
in  advance,  so  that  originality  in  form  and  content  is  lacking, 


GERMAN  311 

because  such  form  and  content  as  these  compositions  have  are 
given  largely  by  the  teacher. 

The  principle  involved  in  No.  2  is  very  generally  practiced  in 
schools  which  we  have  visited,  finding  its  highest  development 
in  the  Hilfsschulen  and  in  the  Arbdisschulm,  in  which  speech  and 
action  are  most  closely  united. 

One  of  the  best  characteristics  of  German  instruction  in  the 
elementary  schools  is  that  it  is  not  Umited  to  the  periods  exclu- 
sively set  aside  for  German.     Correct  habits  of  oral 
speech  and  written  expression  are  demanded  just  as  of°GemM 
vigorously  in  zoology,  physics,  and  geography.    An  with  other 
error  in  grammar  is  just  as  quickly  corrected  in  physi- 
ology as  in  a  Uterature  lesson.    This  practice  adds  not  only  to 
the  thoroughness  of  the  work  in  German,  but  also  serves  to  make 
the  work  in  all  other  subjects  more  accurate  and  careful. 

The, study  of  words,  in  regard  to  their  figurative,  literal,  and 
transferred  meanings,  in  regard  to  their  origin  and  relationships, 
is  carried  on  in  all  branches.  In  the  language  lessons  words  are 
borrowed  from  all  subjects  for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  The 
majority  of  teachers,  however,  believe  they  can  teach  the  mean- 
ing, derivation,  and  use  of  words  better  in  their  natural  setting 
than  they  can  by  lifting  the  words  bodily  out  of  the  environment 
in  which  they  are  used  and  set  down  in  an  hour  designated  as 
German.  The  correlation  of  German  with  all  the  other  subjects 
of  instruction  is  most  thoroughly  carried  out. 

The  principle  laid  down  in  No.  4,  that  the  most  emphasis  is 
laid  upon  oral  form  of  expression,  is  one  that  goes  hand  in 
hand  with  the  oral  method  of  teaching.    The  children  ^  ,  ^ 

.  .  Oral  Work 

have  far  less  reading  to  do  than  American  children  and 
also  much  less  writing,  the  chief  form  of  expression  being  speech. 
The  children  talk  much  better  than  they  write,  very  clearly  for 
the  reason  that  they  have  much  greater  opportunity  for  the  oral 
mode  of  expression.    In  view  of  the  future  occupations  of  the 


312  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

larger  part  of  pupils  of  Volkssckulen,  it  is  only  right  that  the 
chief  emphasis  be  laid  upon  speech  rather  than  upon  written 
work.  The  lower  classes  in  Germany  do  very  little  reading, 
and  still  less  writing. 

Yet  in  spite  of  the  very  great  amoimt  of  time  given  to  the 
oral  form  of  expression  in  the  schools,  that  is,  to  spoken  high 
German,  good  high  German  is  not  used  by  the  ordi- 
man  in  the  nary  classcs  at  all.  One  would  think,  after  all  these 
Schools  years  of  compulsory  attendance  at  schools  in  which 
high  German  is  used,  that  the  people  would  gradually  drop  the 
dialects.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Here  in  America  the 
difference  in  the  pronunciation  which  a  boy  uses  in  school  and 
the  one  he  uses  at  home  or  later  in  Hf  e  is  not  great.  In  Germany, 
among  the  lower  classes,  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

One  very  excellent  quality  of  the  instruction  in  German  ele- 
mentary schools  is  the  distinctness  of  enunciation  both  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  and  of  the  teacher.    Mumbling  in 

Enunciation    '^     .       .  '^     .  .  ,    .  .     , 

recitation,  readmg,  or  m  any  form  of  speech  is  stnctly 
forbidden.  First  of  all,  the  children  are  required  to  speak  dis- 
tinctly. In  no  class  of  all  those  which  were  visited  did  we  ever 
hear  children  speaking  indistinctly.  They  speak  slowly  and 
loudly.  The  only  adverse  criticism  which  can  be  made  of  the 
oral  work  is  that  sometimes  the  children  speak  too  loudly,  in 
fact,  they  sometimes  scream.  At  all  events,  screaming  is  to  be 
preferred  to  mumbling  and  stumbling  over  words.  The  reasons 
German  children  excel  ours  in  this  respect  are  that  the  teachers 
set  them  an  example  in  plain,  clear-cut  speech,  which  we  do  not 
find  in  America,  and  that  German  teachers  continually  insist  on 
plain,  clear  enunciation  on  the  part  of  the  children.  In  this 
particular  we  have  much  to  learn  from  the  Germans. 

Just  at  present  there  is  a  great  movement  in  all  of  the  schools 
of  Germany  to  purify  the  language  of  foreign  words.  In  past 
generations  a  great  number  of   French  words  crept  into  the 


GERMAN  313 

language  and  found  general  acceptance  and  use  in  all  classes  of 
society.  The  present  emperor  wished  to  purify  the  language, 
and  in  the  last  two  decades  all  the  schools  have  been  Foreign 
busy  in  substituting  good  German  words  for  foreign  ^""^^ 
words  in  common  use.  In  the  higher  schools  both  the  foreign 
and  the  German  word  are  learned,  although  in  speech  and  in 
writing  the  German  word  is  preferred.  In  elementary  schools 
one  hears  foreign  words  very  seldom,  and  when  they  are  used, 
it  is  always  with  the  apology,  "If  we  may  use  a  foreign  word." 
Sometimes  this  eradication  of  foreign  terms  is  carried  too  far, 
but  in  general  the  movement  is  a  good  one,  for  the  German 
words,  especially  the  compounds,  are  much  more  intelligible  to 
the  children  than  a  foreign  word  can  ever  be.  For  example 
Bahnsteig  (railway  platform)  has  been  substituted  for  Perron. 
Any  child  knows  what  the  elements  of  the  word  Bahnsteig  mean, 
while  Perron  is  entirely  unknown  to  him.  Particularly  in  gram- 
mar have  German  words  displaced  the  Latin  or  French  forms ; 
Nennwort  or  Dingwort  has  been  substituted  for  Substantiv,  Zeit- 
wort  or  Tdtigkeitswort  for  Verb,  Bindewort  for  Konjunktion,  Fur- 
wort  for  Pronom,  and  so  on.  This  substitution  of  German  words 
for  foreign  ones  is  taking  place  in  all  subjects  of  instruction  and 
in  all  schools.  Its  meaning  for  the  intensification  of  the  national, 
linguistic  feeling  cannot  be  measured. 

7.  The  reading-book  is  the  starting  point  of  all  German  instruction  from 
the  second  grade  up  to  the  sixth  inclusive.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  whole  selections,  which  are  capable  of  arousing  the  desire  to  read  in 
the  child,  may  be  read,  but  in  the  choice  of  such  material  any  work  going 
beyond  the  intellectual  development  of  the  child  is  carefully  to  be  avoided. 

8.  Reading  serves  as  an  introduction  into  the  national  Uterature  and 
shall  aid  in  strengthening  the  child's  moral,  religious,  and  patriotic  feel- 
ings and  desires. 

9.  Home  reading  is  also  influenced  as  far  as  possible.  A  part  of  the 
German  period  once  a  week  may  be  given  over  to  this  work  in  schools 
which  have  a  library. 


314  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

10.  It  seems  also  advantageous  that  a  number  of  books,  which  can 
be  loaned  from  a  public  library,  be  recommended  to  those  pupils  about 
to  leave  school,  in  order  to  direct  their  reading  in  the  right  paths. 

We  shall  speak  of  the  reading  books  in  another  place.  Not  a 
very  large  percentage  of  elementary  schools  have  libraries  of 
their  own,  although  a  number  do,  especially  schools  in  large 
cities.  German  elementary  school  children  do  not  read  as  much 
as  our  American  pupils.  In  the  first  place,  they  have  not  the 
opportunity,  and  in  the  second  place,  the  methods  of  instruction 
do  not  conduce  to  much  reading. 

The  majority  of  public  libraries  do-  not  have  children's  depart- 
ments or  reading  rooms,  and  those  hbraries  that  do  have  such 
departments  are  not  used  much  by  the  children.    It 

Libranes         .  ...,.,. 

IS  a  very  common  practice  for  city  hbranes  to  have 
branches  located  in  public  school  buildings  for  the  use  of  the 
public,  especially  the  children.  Such  branches  are  usually  open 
only  a  few  hours  each  day,  and  frequently  not  more  than  three 
or  four  days  in  each  week.  As  far  as  our  personal  experience  is 
concerned,  we  did  not  see  one  child  of  compulsory  age  in  a  public 
library,  and  in  all  we  visited  thirty-three  libraries  and  reading 
rooms  just  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  who  visited  them.  Statis- 
tics show,  however,  that  the  children  use  these  Hbraries  to  some 
extent,  but  actual  observation  tends  to  make  us  believe  that 
reading  is  not  a  passion  with  German  children. 

There  is  a  great  sale  of  "penny-dreadfuls"  among  the  children 
of  the  Volksschule.  These  stories  are  generally  of  the  "Nick 
Cheap  Carter,"    "Diamond    Dick,"     "Frank    Merriwell," 

Literature  "Liberty  Boys  of  '76"  style,  and  owe  their  origin  to 
our  American  nickel  and  dime  novel  industry.  German  teachers 
are  striving^to  overcome  the  influence  of  this  type  of  literature, 
by  publishing  cheap  editions  of  good  novels  of  war  and  adven- 
ture. Cooper's  Leather  Stocking  Tales  being  of  those  in  most 
common  use.    German  authorities  are  not  trying  to  forbid  the 


GERMAN 


31S 


publication  of  cheap  literature  by  law,  but  are  attempting  to 
destroy  its  sale  by  cultivating  in  the  children  a  taste  for  a  better 
kind  of  reading. 

******* 

Observation  instruction  taken  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term 
is  generally  used  in  German  schools  is  limited  to  the  first  three 
years  of  the  school.  Observation  on  the  part  of  the  observation 
child  of  its  immediate  environment  is  made  the  basis  instruction 
of  instruction  in  oral  language.  "The  child  himself  is  to  learn 
to  observe  objects  and  processes  by  the  use  of  all  his  senses,  to 
organize  his  observations,  and  to  express  himself  with  reference 
to  that  which  he  has  observed.  A  clear  pronunciation  is  to  be 
practiced  carefully  in  this  work."  Some  teachers  hold  that  special 
hours  should  be  set  aside  for  observation  instruction  as  a  special 
subject,  while  others  hold  that  observation  instruction  should 
be  made  the  beginning  of  every  subject  of  the  curriculum,  and 
that  all  instruction  should  in  substance  be  observational.  In 
the  majority  of  the  schools  we  visited,  observation  instruction 
(Ansckauungsunterricht)  as  a  special  subject  was  essentially  a 
part  of  German  rather  than  of  any  other  subject.  The  prin- 
ciple of  learning  by  observation  is  employed,  of  course,  in  the 
teaching  of  all  subjects. 

Just  in  this  connection,  however,  we  have  seen  the  poorest 
teaching  which  came  to  our  notice.  Quite  a  number  of  teachers 
of  science  fail  to  make  the  most  of  the  child's  desire  to  observe 
and  handle  the  objects  under  discussion  and  to  tell  his  own 
reactions  thereto.  Frequently  we  have  seen  teachers  bring  speci- 
mens of  animals  to  a  class  and  never  ask  the  children  what  they 
saw,  but  merely  give  the  children  those  facts  which  seemed  im- 
portant. On  asking  teachers  why  the  children  were  not  allowed 
to  talk  about  the  objects  being  studied  and  to  relate  their  own 
experiences,  we  have  invariably  gotten  the  reply,  "That  would 
destroy  discipline." 


3i6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

It  is  part  and  parcel  of  the  purpose  of  the  whole  elementary 
system  of  education  in  Germany  to  destroy  individuality  and 
initiative  among  the  lower  classes.  The  ruling  classes 
Destruction  have  decided,  one  might  say,  what  a  boy  or  girl  of  the 
of  individu-  lower  classes  is  supposed  to  see  and  observe  even  in 
the  simplest  processes  of  learning.  They  know  that 
if  initiative  and  individuality  are  killed  in  the  children,  these 
qualities  cannot  live  in  them  when  they  become  men  and  women. 
And  to  uphold  the  system  of  government  now  in  vogue,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  masses  have  neither  individuahty 
nor  initiative,  but  rather  observe  what  they  are  supposed  to 
observe,  think  what  they  are  supposed  to  think,  and  act  as  they 
are  supposed  to  act. 

As  a  rule,  there  is  no  set  list  of  topics  to  be  used  as  the  basis 
of  observation  instruction.  One  usually  hears  the  beginners 
Subject  talking  about  the  home,  the  school,  the  school  yard,  or 
Matter  ^jjg  garden,  some  topic  which  the  children  can  actually 
observe,  and  with  which  they  are  intimately  acquainted.  A 
great  deal  of  use  is  made  of  pictures  to  illustrate  the  seasons  of 
the  year,  the  country,  the  city,  landscapes,  harvest-time,  the 
family,  and  activities  for  which  the  child  always  feels  vital 
interest. 

Pictures  are  only  used,  however,  in  the  majority  of  cases 
when  the  actual  observation  is  not  possible  or  the  experience 
of  the  child  does  not  suffice.  In  many  instances 
teachers  begin  the  work  in  oral  language  by  telling 
the  children  fairy  stories,  and  illustrating  them  by  means 
of  pictures.  Almost  every  German  city  or  village  has  its 
legends  and  fairy  stories,  and  these  are  widely  used  by  the 
teachers  at  first  to  awaken  the  child's  desire  to  teU  what  he  has 
experienced. 

In  many  schools  observation  instruction  consisted  merely  in 
describing  what  had  been  seen.    In  the  more  progressive  schools 


GERMAN  317 

the  children  were  allowed  to  use  other  means  of  expression, 
such  as  drawing,  cutting,  building  with  sticks,  and  modeling  with 
clay  or  plasticine.  It  was  the  exception,  however,  to  find  such 
work. 

The  chief  criticisms  of  the  observation  instruction  in  the  ele- 
mentary classes  which  we  visited  are  (a)  that  the  sense  of  sight 
is  chiefly  employed  in  forming  conceptions  of  the  external  world 
of  the  child,  (&)  that  speech  is  the  only  form  of  expression  em- 
ployed, (c)  that  there  is  no  principle  laid  down  for  the  selection 
of  topics  to  be  taught,  and  (d)  generally  too  many  objects  are 
observed. 

In  another  chapter  "undifferentiated  instruction"  has  been 
spoken  of  as  being  adopted  in  the  first  year  of  some  schools.  It 
deals  chiefly  with  organization  of  subject  matter,  the 

f,  ,  ,  t         Observa- 

formal  subjects  of  instruction  not  appearing  during  tion  instruc- 
the  first  months  of  work.    In  school  systems  into  undKerm- 
which  "vmdifferentiated  instruction"  has  been  rntro-  tiated  in- 
duced, the  methods  employed  are  largely  observational 
in   character.    In   fact,    " imdiff erentiated   instruction"   is   an 
attempt  to  bring  about  the  realization  of  a  "work-school"  for 
beginners  instead  of  a  mere  "learning-school,"  and  therein  to 
realize  the  ideal  of  modern  observation  instruction  —  that  is,  to 
learn  through  observation  and  expression. 

Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  as  separate  subjects,  take 
practically  all  the  time  in  the  beginning  class  of  the  typical 
German  school,  while  two  or  three  hours  a  week  are  devoted  to 
observation  instruction,  which  is  usually  treated  as  a  part  of  the 
oral  language  work.  There  exists  naturally  a  wrong  relation 
between  the  knowledge  of  things  and  the  three  R's,  which  con- 
tains a  danger  for  the  mental  development  of  the  child.  This 
danger  arises  when  the  transmission  of  new  ideas  and  con- 
cepts takes  place  through  the  written  and  spoken  word  rather 
than  through  observation  and  objective  experience.    Instruction 


3i8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

which  consists  solely  of  words  and  pictures  leads  to  verbalism 
and  juggling  of  words,  without  bringing  about  real  intellectual 
training. 

Some  of  the  educational  reformers  are  demanding  that  the 

usual  course  of  instruction  and  methods  employed  in  the  first 

year  of  school  be  entirely  changed  in  order  to  do  away 

Position  of     ^yith  the  false  relationship  which  exists  between  the 

the  Geiman      .  .  ,..,,.  i     i         • 

Reformers  time  given  to  the  traditional  subjects  and  the  time 
given  to  observation  work.  To  accomphsh  this  end 
observation  instruction  is  to  be  made  the  basis  of  all  the  work 
of  the  school,  and  in  the  first  year  of  school  it  is  to  be  the  only 
subject,  —  an  "undifferentiated  observational  instruction,"  out 
of  which  the  ordinary  subjects  shall  arise  during  the  course  of 
the  first  year  or  at  the  begiiming  of  the  second. 

This  idea  is  by  no  means  a  new  one  in  Germany,  for  it  was 
put  forward  in  the  past  by  von  Rochow,  Denzel,  Knauss,  Brauti- 
gam,  and  many  others.  The  only  question  is  with  regard  to  the 
length  of  such  work.  In  nearly  aU  the  city  systems  which  we 
visited  there  was  some  sort  of  a  preparatory  observation  and 
language  course,  covering  periods  varying  from  a  few  weeks  to 
haK  a  year. 

We  were  told  that  there  were  many  diflSculties  confronting 
the  continuation  of  "undifferentiated  observation  instruction" 
throughout  the  whole  first  year.  Chief  among  these  difficulties 
were  that  the  parents  wanted  the  children  to  read  as  early  as 
possible,  that  the  courses  of  study  demanded  that  children  read 
and  write  before  the  end  of  the  first  year,  and  that  it  was  difficult 
to  get  material  to  fill  up  a  whole  year  in  this  manner.  In  spite 
of  these  objections  this  general  type  of  instruction  based  on 
observation  is  rapidly  gaining  ground.  In  Posen  a  preparatory 
course  in  observation  and  language  has  been  approved  for  the 
bi-lingual  schools  of  that  city,  and  the  requirements  in  formal 
reading  and  writing  have  been  lessened.    Leipzig  has  experi- 


GERMAN  3ig 

mental  classes  in  which  the  "undifferentiated  instruction"  is 
extended  over  the  entire  beginning  year. 

As  a  rule,  observation  instruction  as  a  special  sub-  Observa- 
ject  is  merely  one  phase  of  German,  but  as  a  principle,  iTo^to  *" 
observation  is  used  in  all  subjects  to  a  greater  or  less  2*" 

J  J  o  c.^    Subjects 

degree. 

We  are  inserting  here  stenographic  reports  of  two  lessons  given 
in  Hannover  in  January,  1914.  The  first  one  was  in  the  VII. 
Class,  or  the  beginning  class,  and  the  second  in  the  V.  Class  or 
third  year. 

Class  VII  s.  Hannover.    37  Girls.    German.    Observaiional 
Instruction 

(The  teacher  explained  to  me  that  the  class  discipline  was  made  as  easy 
as  possible  in  order  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  pupils,  who,  coming  chiefly 
from  poorer  homes,  were  very  shy  and  difficult  to  cause  to  talk.  As  has 
been  remarked  in  another  place,  the  discipKne  is  so  strict,  or  rather  the  fear 
of  the  teacher  is  so  great  in  some  classes,  that  many  children  are  almost 
afraid  to  recite.  This  was  not  the  case  in  this  class,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
true  of  aU  classes.) 

Teacher:    Tell  me  how  a  snow  man  is  made. 

PupU:  We  roll  together  two  big  balls  of  snow ;  out  of  one  we  make  the 
feet  and  legs,  and  of  the  other  the  body  and  arms.  Then  we  put  a  small 
ball  on  top  for  a  head,  put  a  cane  in  one  hand,  and  borrow  a  hat  from 
father  to  go  on  his  head.  The  eyes  we  make  of  coal  and  we  put  a  pipe 
in  his  mouth. 
Teacher:  How  do  we  make  a  snow  man  in  school? 
PupU:    We  make  him  out  of  clay. 

Teacher:  Who  will  tell  me  how  we  make  the  snow  man  out  of  clay? 
Pupil:  We  took  some  white  clay  and  made  the  legs  and  feet  and  body. 
Then  we  rolled  the  head  out  of  some  more  white  clay,  then  we  took 
some  pink  clay  for  the  nose  and  a  strip  of  red  clay  for  the  Ups.  Then 
we  made  the  cane  out  of  brown  clay.  Then  we  made  some  long  strips 
out  of  yellow  clay  and  — 
Teacher:    What  were  they  for? 

Pupil:    They  were  the  hair.    Then  we  took  some  brown  clay  —  a  square 
piece  and  a  little  roimd  and  about  this  high. 


320  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    What  did  you  do  with  that ? 

Pupil:    That  was  his  hat.    For  the  eyes  we  used  small  pieces  of  coal. 

Teacher:    What  else  did  we  make ? 

Pupil:    A  sled. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  how  to  make  a  sled. 

Pupil:    First  we  make  two  long  — 

Teacher:    What  do  you  call  these  long,  straight  pieces  underneath  a  sled? 

Pupil:    Runners. 

Teacher:    What  do  we  do  first ? 

Pupil :    First  we  make  two  runners  and  then  put  a  board  on  top  where  we  sit. 

Teacher:    How  can  we  represent  snow? 

Pupil:    We  can  represent  snow  with  small  papers  or  salt. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  how  snow  comes. 

Pupil:  At  first  there  are  a  great  many  drops  of  water  away  up  in  the  sky. 
They  go  out  where  it  is  very  cold  and  then  turn  into  very  small  needles 
of  ice.  They  become  very  much  afraid,  and  one  of  them  says  to  his 
fellows,  "Give  me  your  hand,"  so  they  all  form  star-Uke  groups  and 
fly  down  to  earth  and  hght  up  Lieschen's  coat.  When  the  little  girl 
sees  it,  she  cries,  "Oh,  what  a  pretty  snowflake !" 

Teacher:  What  animals  do  not  sufier  from  cold  and  hunger  in  the  winter 
when  there  is  snow  ? 

Pupil:    Domestic  animals. 

Teacher:    Name  some  domestic  animals. 

Pupil:    The  dog,  cat,  cow,  horse,  and  chickens  are  domestic  animals. 

Teacher:    Why  are  they  called  domestic  animals? 

Pupil:    They  are  domestic  animals  because  they  hve  near  the  house. 

Teacher:    Why  don't  domestic  animals  suffer  from  hunger  in  the  winter? 

Pupil:    Because  they  are  fed  by  the  people.  ' 

Teacher:    Do  any  animals  suffer  from  cold  and  hunger  when  it  is  winter? 

Pupil:    Yes,  the  migrating  birds  {Zugvoget)} 

Teacher:    Do  they? 

Another  Pupil:  No,  because  they  fly  away  where  it  is  warm,  but  the  birds 
which  stay  through  the  winter  suffer  from  hunger. 

Teacher:    Why? 

Pupil:  They  suffer  because  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  and  they  can 
get  no  worms  or  seeds. 

'  (The  little  girl  who  used  the  word  "Zugvogel "  had  pronounced  it  as  if  there 
were  a  "  t "  between  the  "  g  "  and  "  v,  "  and  at  this  point  the  teacher  went  back 
to  take  up  the  mistake.) 


GERMAN  321 

Teacher:    Who  takes  care  of  these  birds  when  it  is  so  cold? 

Pupil:    Some  people  throw  crumbs  and  seeds  on  the  snow,  and  the  little 

birds  come  and  eat  them. 
Pupil:    And  sometimes  people  throw  out  bones  with  a  httle  meat  left  on 
them  and  the  birds  pick  the  meat  oflf. 

Teacher:    From  what  word  does  "Zug"  come? 

Pupil:    "Zug"  comes  from  Ziehen. 

Teacher:    Better  perhaps  from  "zogew.''    How  do  you  spell  "Zwg"? 

Pupils:    (speUing  phonetically  together)  "Z-u-g." 

Teacher:  Is  the  "g"  hard  or  soft?  (No  reply.)  The  teacher  then  shows 
the  children  how  the  two  "g's"  are  pronounced,  and  they  are  drilled 
on  the  pronunciation.  This  g  soimd  is  called  a  guttural.  (The  Ger- 
man word  is  Gaumenstosser,  which  means  that  the  breath  is  forced 
against  the  roof  of  the  mouth  in  making  the  sound.  The  word  is  per- 
fectly clear  to  German  children,  for  both  parts  of  the  compound  are 
very  common  words.)     How  do  you  make  the  sound  "t"? 

Pupil:  You  put  the  tongue  against  the  upper  teeth  and  the  breath  forces 
it  down,  then  the  sound  is  "t." 

Teacher:    What  do  you  caU.  that  kind  of  a  sound? 

Pupil:  That  is  called  a  dental  {Zungenstosser  —  a  sound  which  bumps 
into  the  tongue)  because  the  breath  strikes  the  tongue  and  knocks  it 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  mouth. 

Teacher:    How  is  the  "b"  sound  made? 

Pupil:  We  hold  the  Ups  tight  together  and  then  puff  the  breath  out  be- 
tween them  suddenly. 

Teacher:  Now  let  us  go  back  to  the  birds.  Sometimes  people  build  little 
houses  especially  for  birds  where  they  may  come  to  eat.  How  many 
ever  saw  such  a  house  ? 

Pupil:    There  is  one  on  the  blackboard. 

Pupil:  Out  in  the  woods  the  other  day  I  saw  a  house  on  a  tree.  There 
was  a  little  hole  in  the  box  and  a  stick  fastened  on  the  side  of  the  box. 

Teacher:    What  do  you  suppose  Bertha  saw? 

Pupil:    That  was  a  httle  bird  house,  where  the  birds  sleep. 

Teacher:    Yes,  that  was  the  house,  but  not  a  house  especially  built  for  feed- 
ing the  birds. 
(The  lesson  was  not  quite  finished.     Some  little  girls  had  been  excused 

in  order  to  get  the  "milk  breakfast"  which  was  furnished  free  by  the  city 

to  those  children  who  come  from  homes  which  cannot  afford  to  buy  milk.) 


322  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Class  V  a.  Hannover.    Observation  Instruction.    54  Girls 

(This  lesson  is  to  be  read  in  connection  with  the  arithmetic  lesson  on  page 

374.    Work  was  based  on  a  walk  taken  by  the  pupils  with  their  teacher.) 

Teacher:  How  were  the  dead  buried  here  a  long  time  ago?  ,  Here  in 
Hannover,  I  mean. 

Pupil:  The  dead  were  laid  in  a  hollow  stone  grave  together  with  arrows, 
spears,  knives,  axes,  then  over  the  top  was  put  a  stone  slab  and  on  top 
of  that  earth  and  grass,  so  it  looked  like  a  giant's  grave. 

Teacher:    What  are  these  graves  called? 

Pupil:    They  are  called  Hiihnergraben. 

Teacher:  They  are  called  stone  houses.  There  are  quite  a  nimiber  of 
them  in  the  Luneburger  heath.  Why  do  we  think  this  kind  of  grave 
the  oldest  ? 

Pupil:  We  think  they  are  the  oldest  because  they  are  made  of  stone  and 
the  things  in  them  are  all  made  of  stone,  the  arms,  and  other  instru- 
ments. 

Teacher:    What  is  this  age  called ? 

Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Stone  Age. 

Teacher:    What  was  the  next  age  called? 

Pupil:    The  next  age  was  the  Bronze  Age. 

Teacher:    Why  was  it  called  the  Bronze  Age? 

Pupil:  Because  the  weapons  and  tools  were  made  of  bronze.  And  the 
dead  were  burned  and  the  ashes  were  put  in  bronze  urns,  along  with 
bronze  bracelets,  chains,  ear-rings,  hairpins. 

Teacher:    What  else  was  there  generally  in  or  near  the  urn? 

Pupil:    Sometimes  there  was  a  tear-cup,  for  the  tears  of  the  relatives. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  the  story  of  the  Uttle  cup  {Krilglein). 

Pupil:  Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  mother  who  had  a  little  child.  One 
day  the  child  became  very  ill  and  in  spite  of  all  the  mother  could  do, 
the  child  finally  died.  The  mother  was  not  to  be  comforted,  but  wept 
and  wept  every  day.  She  did  not  know  how  to  live  without  the  child. 
One  evening  as  she  was  sitting  alone  crying,  the  chUd  appeared  to  her 
and  said,  "Mother,  you  must  not  weep  for  me  any  more.  The  cup 
for  your  tears  is  now  full  and  if  you  shed  another  one,  the  cup  will  over- 
flow and  I  shall  never  have  any  peace  again."  Then  the  chUd  vanished. 
The  mother  stopped  crying  at  once,  for  she  did  not  wish  her  child  to 
be  unhappy. 

Teacher:    What  do  we  call  this  age ? 


GERMAN  323 

PupU:    Bronze  Age. 

Teacher:    No,  give  a  complete  sentence. 

Pupil:    We  call  this  the  Bronze  Age. 

Teacher:    Where  did  Hannover  get  its  name? 

Pupil:  Two  fishermen  one  time  wanted  a  place  to  build  a  hut  so  that 
when  the  Leine  flooded  there  would  be  no  danger  to  them.  So  they 
built  a  hut  here  at  what  is  now  called  Hannover,  but  they  called  it 
Hohen  Ufer,  which  has  been  changed  into  Hannover. 

Teacher:    The  Leine  floods  every  year.    When? 

Pupil:    The  Leine  floods  in  the  Spring. 

Teacher:    Why  does  a  river  flood  in  the  Spring? 

PupU:  The  snow  on  the  moimtains  melts  and  floods  the  rivulets,  these 
aU  come  together  and  fill  the  brooks  and  then  these  flood,  and  finally 
the  river  is  so  full  that  the  banks  no  longer  can  hold  the  water,  and  it 
flows  out  on  to  the  meadows. 

Teacher:    We  have  floods  here  every  year.    Is  it  a  good  thing? 

PupU:  It  is  good  because  it  brings  fertilizing  soil  and  moisture  to  the 
meadows,  but  the  water  must  not  remaia  too  long. 

Teacher:    What  fields  must  not  be  flooded? 

PupU:  The  com  and  wheat  fields  must  not  be  flooded,  because  if  they  are 
too  wet  the  grain  wiU  not  grow. 

Teacher:    Who  was  the  first  prince  of  Hannover? 

Pupil:    The  first  prince  of  Hannover  was  Henry  the  Lion. 

Teacher:    Why  was  he  called  Henry  the  Lion.    Let  us  read  the  story. 

(The  story  was  read  by  the  children,  each  one  reading  a  paragraph  aloud 
to  the  class.) 

Henry  came  to  Hannover  first  in  11 63.    He  built  a  castle.    Where 

was  it  ? 
PupU:    It  was  in  Burgstrasse. 
Teacher:    Besides  the  castle  he  built  a  wall  about  the  city.    The  wall  had 

thirty-five  towers.    Name  some  of  them. 
PupU:    The.  Beguinen  Tower  (notes  lacking  here). 
Teacher:    No,  not  all  of  these  were  in  the  city.    Henry  built  a  number  of 

towers  in  the  forests  outside  the  city  in  order  to  protect  the  wall,  as 

the  Lister  Turm  and  the  DUrner  Turm.    What  was  the  highest  and 

finest  tower  of  all? 
PupU:    The  Beguinen  Tower.    (This  tower  was  drawn  on  the  blackboard.) 
Teacher:    Where  is  it? 


324  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:    It  is  am  Hohen  Ufer. 

Teacher:    Henry  had  also  a  castle  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Leine.    It  was 

called  Burg  Lauenrode  and  it  was  built  in  1215  and  was  meant  as  a  fort 

to  protect  the  city.    He  put  a  castellan  in  the  castle  to  take  care  of  it. 

Later,  however,  the  castellan  thought  he  could  force  the  citizens  of 

Hannover  to  do  his  will,  but  the  people  objected  and  destroyed  the 

castle  in  1371.    The  Jewish  Temple  stands  there  now.    What  Burg 

did  the  Duke  build? 
Pupil:    He  built  Burg  Lauenrode. 
Teacher:    How  long  did  it  stand ? 
Pupil:    It  stood  until  1371. 
Teacher:    Why  was  it  destroyed?     (None  of  the  children  knew,  so  the 

teacher  repeated  the  remarks  above.) 
Pupil:    How  was  it  destroyed ? 
Teacher:    The  Burgers  of  Hannover  surrounded  the  fort  and  hurled  heavy 

rocks  against  it  and  took  the  castellan  prisoner  and  killed  him.    What 

churches  were  here  then? 
Pupil:    The  Marktkirche  was  built  in  1250  (drawing  on  the  board).    It 

had  the  highest  tower  of  all,  95  meters. 
Teacher:  What  is  the  tower  covered  with? 
Pupil:    It  is  covered  with  copper. 

Teacher:    What  happened  to  the  tower  of  the  church  a  long  time  ago? 
Pupil:    In  the  middle  ages  the  top  of  the  tower  fell  ofi. 
Teacher:    Who  lived  there ? 
Pupil:    A  watchman  Uved  there.    His  duty  was  to  blow  a  horn  at  the 

hours  and  watch  for  fires  throughout  the  city. 
(The  hour  ended  at  this  point,  but  the  lesson  was  continued  in  the  following 

period.) 


READING 

The  day  of  the  primer  is  rapidly  passing  in  Germany.  Some 
schools  still  use  it.  The  blackboard  is  now  in  most  common 
Reading  in  use,  although  One  finds  still  a  great  many  charts  and 
First  Class  reading  frames  or  boxes.  One  finds  almost  every 
known  method  in  use  in  Prussia  except  that  it  is  forbidden  to 
use  the  alphabet  or  spelHng  method.    One  finds  the  phonic 


GERMAN  325 

method,  the  word-script  method,  the  analytic,  the  synthetic, 
and  the  normal-word  methods.  Phonetics  are  used  universally. 
The  names  of  the  letters  are  rarely  ever  learned  in  the  first  year. 

Very  often  the  phonic  method  is  begun  only  after  a  number 
of  words  or  short  sentences  have  been  learned.  Then  the  study 
of  some  of  the  more  common  and  important  consonants  The  Phonic 
is  begun  and  gradually  they  are  combined  with  vowels  Method 
and  new  words  are  built  up,  or  the  ones  already  learned  are  spelled 
phonetically.  Many  words  are  developed  from  the  children's 
activities  or  from  the  description  of  pictures.  When  a  little 
vocabulary  is  gained,  reading  of  sentences  is  begun. 

Some  schools  use  the  normal  word  method.    They  begin  with 
learning  thirty  or  more  words  as  wholes  and  then  they  are 
analyzed.    The  sounds  and  signs  acquired  in  this  way 
are  made  the  basis  of  acquiring  new  words.     Some-  The  Normal 
times  the  teacher  spends  a  whole  day  in  learning  a  Method 
"normal  word,"  while  other  teachers  spend  three  or 
four  days  on  the  same  word,  discussing  it  in  all  the  situations  in 
which  the  child  is  acquainted  with  it. 

The  script  method  and  the  word  and  sentence  methods  are 
taught  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  America.  The  question  as  to 
whether  reading  and  writing  should  be  taught  ^  together  is  still 
a  debated  one.  The  more  progressive  teachers  postpone  writing 
imtil  after  the  child  has  learned  to  read.  Many  schools  do  not 
undertake  any  reading  at  all  until  the  second  half  of  the  first 
year,  devoting  all  of  their  time  to  a  composite  or  undifferen- 
tiated instruction  by  which  the  child  accustoms  himself  to  the 
school  and  learns  to  talk  freely  and  without  hesitation. 

The  German  child  has  a  rather  hard  time  when  it  comes  to 
writing.    He  must  learn  to  write  both  German  and  Latin  script. 
He  generally  learns  the  beginning  of  the   German 
script  in  the  first  year  and  the  Latin  script  in  the 
second  year. 


326  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

German  script  is  exceedingly  difficult  on  account  of  the  many 
sharp  angles  and  shading  lines  which  are  necessary.  The  first 
writing  is  usually  on  slates  or  with  pen  and  ink.  Very  few 
schools  use  pencils.  Of  course,  all  schools  use  the  blackboard, 
but  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  teachers  begin  first  with  the  very  simplest  letters,  which 
consist  of  straight  lines,  and  as  the  children  acquire  these  move- 
ments, the  work  advances  to  its  more  difficult  stages.  We  were 
somewhat  surprised  to  see  the  large  number  of  slates  that  are 
still  in  use.  Each  child  has  a  slate  and  a  sponge  which  is  attached 
to  his  seat.  The  system  is  at  the  least  not  very  sanitary.  If 
the  children  write  with  ink,  and  this  work  is  always  begun  very 
early,  a  very  stiff,  sharp  pen  is  used.  The  stub  pen  or  baU- 
pointed  pen  is  first  used  in  the  higher  classes. 

Practically  all  of  the  writing  is  given  as  class  instruction. 
The  children  are  kept  very  close  together  and  as  the  teacher 
counts  or  beats  time,  they  write.    "Up,"  "down,"  "up." 

At  each  word  the  child  makes  a  mark  until  the  whole  process 
is  thoroughly  learned.  Writing  instruction  is  kept  up  two 
hours  a  week  in  the  lower  section,  and  thereafter  an  hour  a  week. 

The  models  from  which  the  children  write  are  put  on  the  board 
by  the  teacher.  Copy  books  are  not  allowed.  The  copy  may 
be  only  letters,  or  a  sentence,  in  which  case  it  is  the  traditional 
proverb. 

The  results  obtained  by  teachers  in  Germany  are  simply 
marvelous  as  far  as  writing  is  concerned.  One  rarely  sees  a 
blot  of  any  kind.  The  work  is  invariably  neat  and  clean.  In 
the  upper  grades  some  of  the  handwriting  books  look  like 
steel  engraving. 

The  reading  book  is  the  basis  of  all  German  instruction  in  the 
Volksschulen.    Readers  are  usually  adopted  by  coun- 

The  Reader       .  .  j  f  J 

ties,  but  sometimes  also  by  provinces,  and  in  most 
cases  very  large  cities  use  a  different   reader  from  surround- 


GERMAN 


327 


ing  towns  though  they  may  be  in  the  same  county.  Naturally 
the  number  of  books  in  a  series  varies  with  the  kinds  of  schools 
in  which  they  are  used. 

Ordinarily  three  books  compose  the  reading  series,  one 
volume  each  for  the  lower,  middle,  and  upper  sections.  The 
first  grade  has  no  book  at  all  or  a  primer.  The  first  book 
has  usually  two  hxmdred  or  more  pages,  the  second  about  four 
hundred,  and  the  third  about  six  hundred.  Illustrations  are 
few  and  inferior. 

The  general  character  of  the  selections  is  the  same  in  all  readers. 
We  quote  the  general  subjects  in  Hirt's  Lesebuch  for  the  Province 
of  Brandenburg  —  Book  11. 

A.  Pictures  from  Life. 

1.  The  father's  house  and  the  home. 

2.  Our  duties. 

3.  Occupational  sketches. 

B.  Man  and  God. 

C.  Changes  of  Seasons. 

D.  Geographical  Selections. 

1.  The  home. 

2.  The  Fatherland. 

E.  Popular  tales  and  myths. 

F.  From  the  history  of  our  people. 

The  general  subjects  in  Book  I  of  the  same  series  are  as 
follows : 

A.  Pictures  from  life. 

1.  Parents  and  children. 

2.  At  home  and  abroad. 

3.  Healthy  body  —  healthy  soul. 

4.  Human  duty  and  honor. 

5.  The  world  of  commerce  and  labor. 

6.  Social  economy. 

7.  War  and  peace. 

8.  At  sea. 


328  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

B.  God  and  Eternity. 

1.  God. 

2.  In  death. 

3.  Guilt  and  punishment. 

4.  Sketches  from  the  life  of  the  church. 

C.  From  Nature. 

1.  Thoughtful  observation  of  nature. 

2.  General  natural  science. 

D.  Sketches  from  geography. 

1.  Home  and  the  Fatherland. 

2.  From  foreign  lands. 

3.  From  our  colonies. 

4.  Astronomy. 

E.  Historical  sketches. 

From  the  above  outlines  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  almost 
every  phase  of  human  activity  is  touched  upon.  The  reader, 
with  its  wide  source  of  selection,  can  be  used  in  correlation  with 
almost  every  subject  in  school.  The  general  content  of  the 
readers  is  supposed  to  meet  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the 
respective  communities.  The  historical  and  legendary  selec- 
tion, as  well  as  those  relating  to  geography  and  industry,  refer 
as  far  as  possible  to  the  child's  immediate  environment.  As  far 
as  possible  the  authors  whose  works  are  chosen  for  use  in  the 
readers  represent  the  very  best  there  is  in  German  literature. 
This  ideal  is  held  to,  even  with  regard  to  the  geographical  and 
scientific  portions  of  the  texts. 

Reading,  particularly  oral  reading,  is  rather  inferior.  The 
children  seldom  read  with  expression  or  individuality.  One 
child's  reading  sounds  almost  Hke  that  of  every  one  else 
in  the  same  room.  There  are  several  good  features  in 
the  work  which  concern  the  technique  of  good  reading.  The 
children  always  read  loud  enough  to  be  heard  —  and  very  often 
too  loud.  No  matter  where  one  sits  in  a  room;  no  matter 
whether  one  even  tries  to  listen,  every  syllable  is  audible.    Quite 


GERMAN  329 

a  number  of  the  children  seem  to  shout.  The  eniuiciation  is 
always  excellent.  There  is  no  mumbling  or  swallowing  of  final 
syllables.  Every  ending  is  brought  out  sharply  and  clearly. 
If  a  word  is  pronounced  at  all,  it  is  pronounced  loudly  and 
clearly  enough  to  be  heard  by  every  one,  and  if  there  is  an  error 
in  pronunciation,  the  teacher  knows  immediately  what  it  is. 

Reading  is  practiced  in  all  the  different  subjects,  not  alone  in 
the  reading  hour.  As  far  as  our  observation  went  the  reading 
in  the  history  and  geography  classes  was  better  than  in  the  Ger- 
man classes.  However,  in  general  there  is  no  attention  paid  to 
the  rate  of  reading,  which  is  invariably  too  fast.  Expression  in 
reading  is  an  unknown  quantity. 

Silent  reading  is  not  as  common  as  in  America,  because  of  the 
difference  in  methods  of  instruction.  The  German  child  does 
not  have  to  read  in  order  to  acquire  his  material  for  reproduc- 
tion —  his  source  is  his  teacher. 

In  many  ways  it  is  not  so  important  that  the  children  become 
particularly  good  oral  readers  on  account  of  the  lack  of  need  for 
oral  reading  in  after  life.  The  same  is  true  of  silent  reading  to  a 
less  extent.  The  German  lower  classes  are  not  a  reading  popu- 
lation, as  we  have  said  heretofore. 

The  teacher  always  helps  the  children  in  preparation  for  a 
reading  lesson  in  several  ways.  First,  he  reads  the  lesson  to  the 
children  with  an  attempt  to  get  the  spirit  of  the  The  Read- 
selection  over  to  the  children.  He  also  aids  them  m  '"^  Lesson 
understanding  any  technical  or  lingmstic  difficulties,  or  any 
new  word  which  may  arise  in  the  new  lesson.  The  procedure  in 
this  respect  varies,  of  course,  with  the  nature  and  difficulty  of  the 
selection.  In  the  majority  of  lessons  a  great  deal  of  attention 
is  given  to  the  settmg,  to  the  spirit  {Stimmung)  of  the  lesson, 
particularly  in  the  treatment  of  poems  and  patriotic  selections. 

One  of  the  best  features  of  the  reading  is  the  oral  reproduc- 
tion of  the  passages  which  have  been  treated  in  class.    For 


330  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

example,  if  the  reading  has  dealt  with  the  Battle  of  Sedan,  a 
child  is  given  an  opportunity  to  teU  the  story.  He  does  this  very 
Oral  Repro-  largely  in  the  words  and  language  of  the  book.  In  fact 
duction  jjg  frequently  commits  a  great  deal  of  it  to  memory. 
Teachers  believe  that  in  this  way  his  vocabulary  of  good  words 
and  expressions  is  materially  increased. 

German  teachers  and  school  children  are  particularly  fond  of 
poetry.  In  addition  to  a  great  number  of  songs  which  must  be 
learned  for  the  singing  hour,  the  child  usually  has  to 
commit  to  memory  during  his  school  course  about 
fifty  poems  of  varying  length.  Naturally  the  memorization  of 
the  poem  is  about  the  last  step  in  its  treatment.  The  method  is 
usually  as  follows.  The  teacher  talks  a  little  about  the  content 
of  the  poem,  its  history,  the  author,  and  its  general  setting. 
Then  without  a  book  the  teacher  reads  the  poem,  and  usually 
very  well.  Sometimes  he  reads  it  again.  A  child  then  tries  to 
repeat  the  first  stanza  as  a  whole,  then  another  child  tries,  and 
perhaps  a  third.  Then  the  whole  class  tries  with  the  teacher's 
help.  Then  the  second  is  learned,  until  the  poem  is  finished. 
The  next  day  some  one  tries  again  to  repeat  the  whole  poem. 
Repetition  of  the  poem  is  kept  up  at  continually  lengthening 
intervals  throughout  the  year  and  the  following  years.  Once 
having  learned  the  poem  in  this  way  the  children,  I  am  told, 
rarely  forget  it,  even  many  years  later  in  life.  It  is  astounding 
to  the  visitor  to  see  how  many  poems  the  children  know,  and  it 
is  still  more  astounding  when  one  thinks  of  the  large  number  of 
songs,  sacred  and  secular,  which  they  must  learn,  as  well  as 
the  great  amount  of  memoriter  material  required  in  religion. 
National  patriotic  poems,  poems  of  nature,  and  baUads  are  the 
most  popular.  Many  children  commit  to  memory  Schiller's 
Lied  von  der  Glocke  and  Wilhelm  Tell  as  well  as  many  longer 
passages  from  Goethe. 

There  are  always  many  selections  in  the  reader  chosen  for 


GERMAN  231 

their  classical  literary  value.  The  number  of  longer  selections 
is  usually  very  small,  but  these  are  very  thoroughly 
handled,  somewhat  in  the  same  way  as  "The  Sailor  of  "**"*"* 
Hallig,"  which  is  given  in  this  chapter.  The  longer  poems  are 
reserved  for  the  last  two  years  of  school.  The  teachers  seem 
particularly  well  prepared  to  present  hterary  German.  More 
genuine  enthusiasm  was  exhibited  by  the  teachers  and  pupils  in 
the  treatment  of  Wilhelm  Tell,  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  and 
Minna  von  Barnhelm  than  in  any  other  subject  in  school,  unless 
we  except  history  and  singing.  We  are  convinced,  however, 
that  the  treatment  of  certain  poems  is  not  original  with  the 
majority  of  teachers.  The  standard  poems  used  in  the  Volks- 
schule  are  foimd  in  thousands  of  model  lesson  books  which  are 
to  be  had  at  every  bookshop.  Every  step,  even  the  answers 
of  the  children,  is  given  in  these  prepared  lessons,  and  many 
teachers  follow  the  models  slavishly.  This,  however,  is  true 
of  almost  every  topic  in  every  subject  in  the  whole  curricultun. 
******* 

Grammar  is  taught  in  practically  every  grade  in  school  in  an 
informal  way.  No  special  hours  are  set  aside  for  it,  except 
occasionally  in  the  upper  classes.  Ordinarily  only  a 
few  minutes  of  each  hour  are  given  over  to  formal 
grammar  discussion.  Grammar,  or,  still  better,  correct  gram- 
matical usage,  is  insisted  upon  and  taught  in  every  grade  and  in 
every  subject.  Bad  German  is  absolutely  forbidden  at  all  times. 
"Every  lesson  a  German  Lesson"  is  the  law.  We  have  already 
indicated  the  course  of  study  in  graniinar.  The  work  is  brief 
and  thorough.  Grammatical  usage  rather  than  grammatical 
theory  is  the  strong  point  in  this  field. 

Selections  from  the  reader,  compositions  of  the  children,  and 
oral  speech  in  all  classes  are  made  the  basis  for  selec-  subject 
tion  of  subject  matter.    The  difi&culties  in  German  Matter 
are  attacked  and  explained  wherever  they  are  found.    If  a  boy 


332  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

makes  a  mistake  in  the  use  of  a  plural  in  arithmetic,  history,  or 
science,  the  error  is  corrected  in  that  class  where  it  is  needed 
and  in  the  situation  where  it  occurs.  Compositions  in  all  classes, 
of  course,  especially  in  Gerwow,  are  the  best  basis  for  grammatical 
instruction.  Dictations,  while  used  also  for  spelling  and  punc- 
tuation, serve  as  more  formal  subject  matter  for  grammar. 
Rules  are  developed  in  the  class  from  the  examples  studied. 
Texts  are  used  in  some  schools.  These  are  issued  in  a  series, 
usually  one  book  or  pamphlet  for  each  class  above  the  lowest 
one.  They  are  for  drill  and  are  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils.  They 
are  never  made  the  starting  point  in  the  instruction ;  they  con- 
tain no  rules.  The  subject  matter  is  merely  to  test  what  the 
children  have  learned  in  connection  with  their  other  grammar 
work.  Many  teachers  hold  these  books  to  be  unnecessary,  and 
say  that  enough  drill  to  establish  correct  usage  can  be  secured  in 
other  ways.  Analysis  by  diagram  did  not  come  to  our  notice 
at  all.  Oral  analysis  is  universal,  but  hair-spUtting  distinctions 
are  entirely  avoided.  For  example,  such  a  thing  as  classifying 
subordinate  conjunctions  into  all  their  many  classes  is  unheard 
of.  The  larger  elements  in  the  sentence  are  picked  out.  Recog- 
nition of  nouns,  adjectives,  prepositions,  verbs,  adverbs,  con- 
junctions and  pronouns,  declension,  and  conjugation  of  words 
take  up  most  of  the  time.  The  form  is  rarely  separated  from 
its  use  in  a  sentence. 

Spelling  and  punctuation  begin  at  the  very  first  and  continue 
in  every  grade,  and  in  all  classes.  SpelUng  lists  are  always 
Orthog-  made  up  from  the  other  work  in  school.  Detached 
raphy  spelling  lessons  do  not  occur.    An  attempt  is  made  to 

group  words  which  are  similar  in  sound  and  in  spelUng.  Special 
hours  for  spelling  do  not  appear  in  the  curriculum.  It  is  a  part 
of  the  German  hour.  Since  German  is  a  more  nearly  phonetic 
language  than  ours,  the  German  child  does  not  have  to  spend  a 
great  amount  of  time  on  spelling.    Almost  all  words  are  spelled 


GERMAN  33, 

just  as  they  sound.  This  is  one  great  saving  of  time  in  the  Ger- 
man schools.  What  the  child  makes  up  in  spelling  he  loses  in 
the  difficulties  brought  about  by  an  inflected  language.  Every 
noun,  adjective  and  verb  is  modifiable.  The  children  must  learn 
to  spell  all  of  these  modified  forms,  which  is  no  easy  task. 

Compound  words  and  formation  of  words,  as  well  as  word 
groups  on  the  same  stem  and  words  of  changed  meanings,  re- 
quire a  great  deal  of  time,  although  there  are  not  many  compound 
difficulties  involved.  A  long  word  in  German  is  much  ^°^^s 
easier  for  a  German  child  than  a  long  word  in  English  for  an 
American  child.  The  German  word  is  made  up  of  simple  parts 
which  are  perfectly  clear  to  every  child ;  in  English  these  parts 
are  usually  from  Latin  and  Greek  elements  which  are  clear  to 
but  few. 

Dictations  are  the  basis  of  much  of  the  work  in  orthography. 
The  teacher  reads  a  familiar,  or  unfamiliar,  passage  to  the  chil- 
dren.   They  are  expected  to  write  it  correctly  with 

.  Dictation 

respect  to  spelhng,  punctuation,  and  form.  These  are 
corrected  in  class  and  discussed.  Only  the  most  frequent  errors 
are  dwelt  on  at  any  length.  The  children  give  the  correct  form 
if  possible,  while  the  teacher  helps  only  in  case  of  necessity. 
The  dictation  books  are  collected  and  corrected  from  time  to 
time  by  the  teacher. 

One  can  see  the  mechanizing  effect  of  German  methods  in  the 
composition  work  better  than  in  any  other.  Written  work  in 
the  German  class  is  made  up  of  oral  composition,  dictation, 
short  themes  of  a  paragraph  or  more,  and  compositions  or  essays. 
All  of  these  exercises  except  the  last  are  carried  on  throughout 
the  school. 

The  aims  of  written  work  in  the  Volksschule  are  to  bring  order 
and  system  into  the  child's  thought,  "to  accustom  ^^^^ 
the  child  to  intellectual  work  and  particularly  to  inde- 
pendent activity,"  and  to  ground  his  knowledge  in  various  fields 


334  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

of  learning.  "These  are  the  pedagogical  aims.  The  practical 
aim  is  to  enable  the  pupil  to  present  his  thoughts  with  clearness 
and  linguistic  accuracy."  The  child  possibly  achieves  aU  these 
aims  except  that  of  independent  thinking.  The  teacher  does  all 
of  the  thinking,  the  organizing,  and  judging.  The  child  merely 
writes  it  down. 

In  the  very  lowest  grades  the  first  type  of  language  composi- 
tion is  oral.  The  child  is  taught  to  tell  a  story  which  has  been 
told  to  him,  to  relate  his  experiences  at  home,  to  tell  about  his 
pets.  In  the  middle  section  of  the  school  the  child  has  a  daily 
written  exercise  in  German  or  in  some  other  subject.  This  exer- 
cise (Niederschrift)  is  usually  mere  writing  down  a  summariza- 
tion of  a  lesson.  The  summarization,  of  course,  has  been  made 
in  class  or  at  least  has  been  discussed  so  that  there  is  very  little 
independent  abiUty  called  for.  However,  as  the  children  go 
into  higher  classes  the  content  of  these  written  exercises  becomes 
more  and  more  original.  One  notes  all  the  way  through  a  very 
striking  resemblance  in  content  and  form  of  expression  in  any 
given  set  of  exercises.     • 

The  more  formal  compositions  are  required  once  every  two 
weeks.  The  subject  matter  of  these  compositions,  although  they 
are  supposed  to  be  independent  work,  is  discussed  in  class.  The 
teacher  and  children  determine  topic  sentences  covering  the 
introduction,  the  development  or  treatment  of  the  subject,  and 
the  conclusion.  The  compositions  printed  in  this  chapter  il- 
lustrate the  results  obtained.  The  result  is  uniform  in  thought, 
sentence  structure,  style,  and  form.  Often  the  sentences  are 
identical.  These  compositions  are  put  in  Httle  exercise  books, 
which  the  teacher  carefully  corrects  and  returns.  The  children 
must  rewrite  the  paragraphs  in  which  errors  occur. 

No  other  activity  in  the  German  schools  shows  so  clearly  the 
conscious  attempt  to  cast  all  the  mental  activity  of  the  children 
in  the  same  mold.    It  can  be  condemned  or  approved  —  all 


GERMAN  335 

depending  on  the  point  of  view.  Some  may  ask,  "To  what 
purpose  shall  these  children  of  the  lower  classes  be  trained  to 
write  independent,  original  composition  ?  "  These  people  answer 
their  own  question  and  say  that  these  children  are  never  called 
on  to  write  anything  that's  original  and  independent,  so  why 
learn  it? 

One  or  two  other  features  of  the  written  work  in  the  school  are 
worthy  of  mention.  Letter  writing,  both  personal  and  business 
correspondence,  receives  a  great  deal  of  attention.  The  children 
acquire  great  facility  and  a  good  formal  style,  which  all  know 
who  receive  German  letters.  The  forms  of  expression  are  some- 
what stilted,  but  they  are  always  clear  and  excellent  German. 
The  children  also  learn  to  fill  out  all  kinds  of  business  forms, 
receipts,  postal  order  blanks,  checks,  and  the  like.  This  would 
be  an  excellent  thing  for  all  of  our  schools  and  even  our  colleges, 
for  no  one  ever  heard  of  a  group  of  fifty  people  in  an  American 
school  being  able  to  fill  out  any  kind  of  a  blank  correctly. 

The  teacher  of  German  never  tries  to  correct  all  the  errors 
in  the  written  work.  He  picks  out  the  high  spots  and  drills  on 
them  and  then  passes  on  to  the  next  most  important 

mi  11  •  1  .•  .  Corrections 

pomt.     Ihe  teachers  have  strict  orders  not  to  fritter 
away   their   energy   in   reading   and   re-reading   compositions. 
This  is  also  an  excellent  point  for  some  of  our  overconscientious 
but  unwise  teachers  of  English. 

The  work  in  German  as  a  whole  is  not  satisfactory  from  our 
point  of  view.  It  is  entirely  too  formal,  too  cut-and-dried,  too 
deadening.  It  produces  poor  writers,  poor  readers, 
but  good  memorizers.  But  since  the  German  govern- 
ment does  not  want  to  develop  writers  and  readers  out  of  its 
lower  classes,  the  school  cannot  be  said  to  fail  in  this  respect. 
It  would  be  an  interesting  experiment  to  see  what  the  children 
in  the  manufacturing  sections  would  write  and  put  into  their 
compositions  if  given  perfect  freedom.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


336  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

German  work  in  its  oral  phases,  aside  from  its  lack  of  originality, 
has  many  features  of  charm.  The  interest  of  the  children  in 
telling  fairy  tales,  and  myths,  in  reciting  poems  and  reciting  the 
deeds  of  great  Germans  is  truly  delightful. 

Lesson  in  German  Literature.    Sixth  Class 
The  Sailor  of  Hallig.    Allmers 

1.  "Kapitdn,  ich  bitte  euch,  lasst  mich  fort. 

0  lasset  mich  frei,  sonst  lauf'  mich  von  Bord, 
ich  muss  heim,  muss  heim  nach  der  Hallig. 
Schon  sind  vergangen  drei  ganze  Jahr', 
dass  ich  stets  zu  Schiff,  dass  ich  dort  nicht  war, 
auf  der  Hallig,  der  lieben  Hallig." 

2.  "Nein,  Jasper,  nein,  das  sag'  ich  dir : 
noch  diese  Reise  machst  du  mit  mir. 
dann  darfst  du  gehn  nach  der  Hallig. 
Doch  sage  mir,  Jasper,  was  willst  du  dort? 
Es  ist  so  oder,  armseUger  Ort, 

die  kleine,  die  einsame  Hallig." 

3.  "Ach,  mein  Kapitan,  dort  ist's  wohl  gut. 
und  an  keinem  Ort  wird  mir  so  zu  Mut. 
so  wohl  als  auf  der  HaUig ; 

und  mein  Weib  hat  nur  mich  manch'  traurige  Nacht ; 
hab'  so  lang'  nicht  gesehen,  wenn  mein  Kind  mir  lacht, 
imd  Hof  und  Haus  auf  der  Hallig." 

4.  "So  hore  denn  Jasper,  was  ich  dir  sag' : 
es  ist  gekommen  ein  boser  Tag. 

ein  bbser  Tag  fiir  die  Hallig. 
Eine  Sturmflut  war  wie  nie  vorher, 
und  das  Meer,  das  wildaufwogende  Meer 
hoch  ging  es  uber  die  Hallig. 

5.  "  Doch  sollst  du  nicht  hin,  vorbei  ist  die  Not, 
dein  Weib  ist  tot,  und  dein  Kind  ist  tot, 

z 


GERMAN  33^ 

'    ertrunken  beide  auf  der  Hallig. 

Auch  die  Schafe  und  Lammer  sind  fortespiilt, 
auch  dein  Haus  ist  fort,  dein  Wurt  zerwuhlt ; 
was  wolltest  du  tim  auf  der  Hallig?" 

6.  "  Ach  Gott,  Kapitan,  ist  das  geschehen? 
Alles  soli  ich  nicht  wiedersehen, 
was  lieb  mir  war  auf  der  Hallig? 
Und  ihr  fragt  mich  noch,  was  ich  dort  will  tun? 
WiU  sterben  und  im  Grabe  ruhn 
auf  der  Hallig,  der  lieben  Hallig." 

The  poem  was  read  through  first  by  the  teacher. 
Teacher:    A  sailor  from  HaUig  begs  his  captain  for  permission  to  return 

home.    Repeat  what  I  have  just  said. 
Pupil:    A  sailor  from  Hallig  begs  his  captain  for  permission  to  return  home. 
Teacher:    Explain  the  expressions,  captain  and  sailor. 
Pupil:    The  captain  is  the  commander  of  the  ship,  the  sailors  do  the  rough 

work  on  the  ship ;  they  keep  the  ship  clean,  cast  the  anchor  and  take 

it  up  again,  loosen  the  sails  and  then  fasten  them  up. 
Teacher:    Why  is  the  sailor,  of  whom  the  poem  tells,  called  the  sailor  of 

Hallig? 
Pupil:    His  home  was  on  one  of  the  Hallig  Islands. 
Teacher:    Show  me  the  Hallig  Islands.    Point  to  one  of  the  larger  groups. 

(Pupa  points  to  them  on  a  map.) 
Pupil:    Those  are  the  North  Friesian  Islands. 
Teacher:    TeU  me  their  position. 

Pupil:    They  lie  in  the  North  Sea  on  the  west  coast  of  Schleswig. 
Teacher:    Why  do  sailors  fear  the  North  Sea  ? 

Pupil:    Very  heavy  and  dangerous  storms  often  break  over  the  North  Sea. 
Teacher:    What  did  I  say  at  the  first  of  the  hour? 

Pupil:    A  saUor  from  Hallig  begs  his  captain  for  permission  to  return  home. 
Teacher:    What  questions  come  to  mind ? 
Pupils:    Why  does  the  sailor  want  to  go  home?    Will  the  captain  grant 

his  request? 
Teacher:    The  first  stanza  of  the  poem  answers  the  first  question.    Read  it 

through  quietly.    (The  children  read  the  first  stanza  to  themselves.) 

Answer  very  briefly. 
Pupil:    The  sailor  is  homesick. 


338  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    Why  do  you  think  that  ? 

Pupil:    He  loves  his  island  home  and  was  not  there  for  three  years.    AH 

this  time  he  was  on  the  ship. 
Teacher:    But  with  all  his  homesickness  he  wUI  remain  a  brave  sailor. 

How  do  we  know  that? 
Pupil:    He  has  not  fled  secretly,  but  asks  his  captain  to  let  him  go. 
Teacher:    How  do  we  know  that  lie  can  no  longer  control  his  longing  for 

home? 
Pupil:    He  says  to  the  captain,  "If  you  do  not  let  me  go,  I  shall  run  away, 

I  must  go  home  to  HaUig." 
Teacher:    Did  the  captain  refuse  this  request?    Read  the  second  stanza. 

(Children  read  the  second  stanza  silently.)    Why  don't  we  have  to 

use  the  word  sailor  from  now  on  ? 
Pupil:    Because  we  know  the  sailor's  name  is  Jasper. 
Teacher:    What  reply  does  the  captain  make  to  Jasper's  request? 
Pupil:    The  captain  teUs  Jasper  that  he  must  make  the  trip  with  him  and 

that  he  cannot  go  to  HaUig. 
Teacher:    The  captain  does  not  appear  to  understand  Jasper's  longing. 

What  does  he  ask? 
Pupil:    What  do  you  want  there?    HaUig  is  a  desolate,  poor  place,  a  small, 

lonesome  island. 
Teacher:    That  is  the  way  a  person  would  talk  who  does  not  love  HaUig. 

But  what  do  we  know  already  from  Jasper? 
Pupil:    HaUig  is  very  dear  to  Jasper  because  it  is  his  home. 
Teacher:    Can  there  not  be  a  more  special  reason  why  he  feels  such  a  long- 
ing for  HaUig? 
Pupil:    Perhaps  he  is  married,  or  has  a  sweetheart  there,  or  his  mother 

Uves  there  stiU. 
Teacher:    Now  read  the  third  stanza.    What  is  the  reason? 
Pupil:    Jasper  has  his  wife,  chUd,  and  home  on  HaUig. 
Teacher:    What  desire  draws  him  to  his  wife  and  child? 
Pupil:    His  wife  is  anxious  about  him  and  can  often  not  sleep  for  wonying 

about  him.     She  fears  that  some  misfortune  may  have  overtaken  him. 

How  she  would  rejoice  if  she  saw  him  Uving  and  weU  again.    His  chUd 

smUed  at  him  so  sweetly  the  last  time  he  was  at  home,  and  that  smile 

he  has  not  seen  for  a  long  time. 
Teacher:    In  general  what  does  Jasper  think  of  HaUig? 
Pupil:    No  place  in  the  world  makes  him  feel  so  weU  as  HaUig.    It  pleases 

him  better  than  aU  the  rest  of  the  world. 


GERMAN  33P 

Teacher:  Summarize  the  content  of  the  first  three  stanzas  imder  a  head- 
ing (or  in  one  sentence). 

Pupil:  Jasper  would  like  to  go  home  to  HalUg  in  order  to  see  his  wife  and 
child. 

Teacher:  The  captain  has  given  no  good  reason  why  he  will  not  let  Jasper 
go.    AVhat  question  remains  to  be  answered? 

Pupil:    Why  wiU  the  captain  not  let  Jasper  go? 

Teacher:    Read  the  next  two  stanzas.    Answer  very  briefly. 

Pupil:    The  captain  wishes  to  spare  Jasper  great  pain. 

Teacher:    Relate  what  happened  one  day. 

Pupil:  A  bad  day  came  at  HaUig.  A  tidal  wave  came  such  as  had  never 
been  seen  before.  The  sea  rolled  high  over  the  island.  Jasper's  wife 
and  child  were  drowned.  The  sheep  and  lambs  were  aU  washed  away, 
the  house  was  destroyed,  and  its  foundation  ruined. 

Teacher:  Wha:t  would  the  captain  surely  have  done  if  some  one  had  told 
him  that  Jasper's  wife  and  child  were  in  need? 

Pupil:    He  would  have  let  him  go  home. 

Teacher:    But  now? 

Pupil:  Now  it  wouldn't  do  any  good  for  him  to  go  home.  The  need  is 
past,  he  cannot  help  his  family  any  more  and  what  he  would  see  on  the 
island  would  only  make  him  sad. 

Teacher:    So  that  captain  meant  well.    What  is  the  last  question? 

Pupil:    Does  Jasper  remain  on  board  ship  ? 

Teacher:  Read  the  last  stanza.  Answer,  giving  the  heading  covering 
stanza  four  to  six. 

Pupil:    Jasper  stiU  wishes  to  go  to  HaUig  in  order  to  die  and  be  buried  there. 

Teacher:    Repeat  the  two  headings. 

Pupil:  Jasper  would  Uke  to  go  home  to  HaUig  in  order  to  see  his  wife  and 
chUd.    Jasper  stiU  wishes  to  go  to  Hallig  in  order  to  be  buried  there. 

Teacher:    Read  the  poem  aloud.     (The  poem  is  read  aloud.) 

Teacher:    How  does  Jasper  feel  toward  his  island  home? 

Pupil:    He  loves  it. 

Teacher:    Why  is  that  hard  for  a  stranger  to  understand? 

Pupil:  Because  HaUig  is  a  smaU,  desolate  island.  There  are  no  mountains, 
no  forests.  One  carmot  take  long  walks.  Other  human  beings  are 
seldom  seen.  What  one  needs  must  be  brought  from  a  great  distance. 
People  are  always  in  danger  of  being  swept  away  by  the  water. 

Teacher:  And  stiU  the  sa3dng  is  true  of  Jasper.  Home  is  always  beau- 
tiful.   What  may  have  made  him  love  HaUig  in  his  duldhood? 


340  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:  His  parents  and  brothers  and  sisters  lived  there.  He  watched  the 
sheep  in  the  fields ;  he  learned  early  in  life  to  steer  a  boat  and  it  gave 
Viim  pleasure  to  be  tossed  about  by  the  waves.  He  hunted  for  mussels 
on  the  beach  and  caught  fish.  It  was  frightful  yet  beautiful  when  the 
storm  raged  and  the  high  waves  beat  over  the  island. 

Teacher:    What  can  we  understand  from  that  ? 

Pupil:    We  can  vmderstand  why  Jasper  loves  his  home. 

Teacher:    How  does  Jasper  feel  toward  his  wife  and  child? 

Pupil:  He  loves  his  wife  and  child.  He  is  sad  because  his  wife  is  anjdous 
about  him.  He  would  like  very  much  to  play  with  his  child  and  he 
would  be  glad  to  see  the  child  smUe  at  him. 

Teacher:  Why  didn't  he  remain  at  home  with  them? 

Pupil:  He  must  work  as  a  saUor,  in  order  to  earn  money.  The  family 
caimot  live  from  stock  raising  and  from  fishing.  They  need  money  in 
order  to  buy  bread,  salt,  potatoes,  clothes,  wood,  and  coal. 

Teacher:  How  does  Jasper  feel  when  he  must  remain  away  from  his  family 
so  long? 

Pupil:    He  becomes  very  homesick  and  wishes  to  return  to  Hallig. 

Teacher:    Why  doesn't  he  show  this  longing  for  a  long  time? 

Pupil:  Because  he  holds  it  for  his  duty  to  remain  with  his  captain.  The 
captain  has  always  been  very  kind  to  him  and  has  given  him  the  chance 
to  earn  something. 

Teacher:  How.  does  he  behave  when  the  longing  for  home  becomes  over- 
powering? 

PupU:  He  begs  the  captain  to  let  him  go  to  Hallig ;  only  in  case  his  wish 
is  not  granted  wiU  he  run  away. 

Teacher:  How  great  his  love  for  Hallig  and  for  his  family  is  we  see  in  the 
conclusion  of  the  poem. 

Pupil:  He  wishes  to  die  at  Hallig,  where  he  passed  his  childhood  and  where 
his  wife  and  child  have  made  him  happy. 

Teacher:    How  does  the  captain  show  his  feeling  toward  the  sailor? 

Pupil:  The  captain  has  learned  what  has  happened  at  Hallig.  He  knows 
what  love  Jasper  holds  for  his  wife  and  child.  At  first  he  says  nothing 
to  him  in  order  not  to  make  him  unhappy.  He  wishes  to  break  the  sad 
news  to  him  later.  When  Jasper  comes  to  him  with  his  request,  he 
refuses  it ;  but  when  he  can  keep  silent  no  longer,  he  prepares  Jasper 
for  the  ill  tidings.  A  bad  day  has  come  for  Hallig  and  a  tidal  wave 
swept  over  the  island.  When  Jasper  hears  that,  he  suspects  some- 
thing had  happened  and  then  comes  the  news.    Your  wife  is  dead, 


GERMAN  341 

your  child  is  dead,  sheep  and  lambs  are  swept  away,  and  your  house  is 

destroyed. 
Teacher:    Why  does  he  wish  to  keep  Jasper  with  him? 
Pupil:    He  hopes  that  the  work  on  the  ship  and  the  trip  over  the  ocean 

will  drive  away  his  sad  thoughts. 

Composition.    First  Class.    Steglitz.    Girls 
What  Drives  Men  to  Foreign  Lands? 

1.  Introduction :    Praise  of  homeland. 

2.  Treatment :     Causes  for  leaving  home  are : 
(a)  Greed  and  desire  for  gold. 

(6)  Curiosity  and  pleasure, 
(c)  Bad  conscience  and  sense  of  freedom, 
(i)  Desire  for  knowledge  and  discovery, 
(e)   Christian  love  and  business  occupations. 

3.  Conclusion :    Never  forget  that  you  are  a  German. 

"Smoke  at  home  is  clearer  than  sunshine  abroad."  So  runs  the  prov- 
erb, but  still  there  are  every  year  many  people  who  leave  their  home  land. 
Many  reasons  lead  people  to  emigrate,  partly  honorable  rea- 
sons, partly  dishonest.  But  the  clever  man  knows  that  things 
go  best  for  him  at  home  and  says  to  himself:  "My  home,  what  can  be 
better!"  What  the  different  reasons  are  that  take  men  to  foreign  lands 
my  essay  wiU  portray. 

One  often  reads  in  the  newspapers  gold  may  be  found  in  Alaska  and 
California,  and  diamonds  in  Africa.  Greed  and  lust  for  gold  drive  men 
into  imknown  lands.  They  believe  that  here  they  wUl  find  their  fortune. 
In  their  thoughts  these  poor  people  have  very  much  deceived  themselves, 
for,  in  place  of  good  fortune,  they  find  misery. 

On  our  beautifully  and  comfortably  equipped  ocean  steamers  we  find 
many  people  fuU  of  curiosity  and  desire  for  pleasure.  The  rich  have  heard 
the  beauties  of  other  lands  praised,  and  filled  with  curiosity,  they  must 
see  the  boasted  countries.  Those  in  search  of  pleasure  wish  to  be  freed 
from  the  regular  everyday  life  and  they  pass  this  time  in  other  lands. 
But  not  only  these  people  take  trips,  but  also  the  sick.  This  we  saw  in 
the  case  of  Emperor  Frederick,  who  visited  the  Riviera  on  account  of  his 
throat  trouble. 

If  someone  has  committed  a  crime  at  home,  then  he  thinks  he  is  best 


342  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

protected  from  his  earthly  judge  in  a  foreign  country.  It  does  not  suit 
other  men  to  obey  longer  the  laws  of  the  fatherland.  They  go  abroad  and 
believe  that  here  they  can  enjoy  freedom. 

But  it  is  not  always  these  dishonorable  reasons  which  cause  men  to  go 
into  those  regions.  Among  other  reasons  are  the  desire  for  knowledge  and 
the  spirit  of  discovery.  Professor  Koch  passed  the  best  years  of  his  life  in 
the  tropical  regions  of  Africa  in  order  to  establish  the  causes  of  the  sleeping 
sickness.  Christopher  Columbus  went  forth  in  order  to  be  able  to  prove 
that  the  earth  is  a  sphere. 

Out  of  sympathy  for  the  heathen,  missionaries  go  to  foreign  countries 
in  order  to  preach  Christianity  to  them.  They  expose  themselves  to  many 
privations  through  the  practice  of  Christian  love.  Business  occupations 
take  many  men  abroad.  Great  companies  which  establish  harbors  in  for- 
eign lands  or  build  railroads  send  their  workmen  there.  So  these  causes 
belong  to  the  honorable  ones. 

We  have  now  heard  all  that  which  causes  men  to  leave  their  homeland. 
If  these  people  remain  abroad  a  long  time  and  succeed,  very  often  they 
deny  their  German  heritage.  In  order  to  combat  this  thought  the  poem, 
German  Advice,  says,  "Du,  deutsches  Kind,  sei  tapfer,  Ireu,  und  wahr." 

Handwriting  =  i ' 
Content         =  2 , 


^  >  Very  good. 


Composition.    First  Class      Girls.    Steglitz 

What  Drives  Men  to  Foreign  Lands? 
Outline. 

Introduction :    Praise  of  homeland. 

Treatment :    Causes  for  leaving  the  homeland  are : 

(o)  Greed  and  desire  for  gold. 

(&)  Curiosity  and  pleasure. 

(c)  Bad  conscience  and  sense  of  freedom. 

(i)  Desire  for  knowledge  and  discovery. 

(e)   Christian  love  and  business. 
Conclusion :    Never  forget  that  you  are  a  German. 

The  home  is  the  most  beautiful  place  in  all  the  world.    There  we  pass 

our  childhood  and  are  surrounded  by  love.    In  the  home  are  those  who 

Exec  ti  ^'■^  dearest  to  us  and  by  whom  we  are  loved.    No  language 

sounds  so  sweet  as  the  mother  tongue.    Nowhere  do  the 

church  bells  ring  so  beautifully  as  in  the  homeland,  and  the  places  where 


GERMAN  343 

we  played  as  chUdren  remain  very  dear  to  us.  We  should  love  our  home 
above  all  else.  He  who  does  not  love  his  home  is  ungrateful  and  of  poor 
spirit. 

Still  unfortimately  there  are  many  men  who  leave  their  homes.  There 
are  many  causes  why  they  leave  their  homes.  Many  think  they  will 
find  their  fortimes  in  foreign  lands  and  emigrate.  Saddest  of  all  is  it  when 
greed  and  lust  for  gold  are  the  causes  for  their  deserting  the  homeland. 
How  bitterly  are  these  men  often  deceived.  The  land  of  gold  proves  to 
be  a  barren  region  where  they  often  die  of  privation.  Besides  they  must 
live  together  with  men  of  all  sorts,  and  not  infrequently,  someone,  who 
really  has  found  some  gold,  will  be  slain  for  the  sake  of  his  earnings.  In 
many  cases  the  seekers  for  gold  return  as  wretched  men  to  their  homes. 
True  is  the  proverb,  "Remain  at  home  and  support  yourself  honestly." 

Other  men  go  to  foreign  lands  for  sake  of  pleasure,  and  in  order  to  learn 
about  other  lands  and  peoples.  These  are  mostly  rich  people.  It  is  very 
fine  to  travel.  Our  ocean  steamers  sail  in  all  directions  and  by  means  of 
the  railways  we  can  travel  a  great  distance  in  a  short  time.  Also  for  the 
sake  of  health  many  people  take  long  journeys.  They  hope  to  be  well  and 
strong  again  in  foreign  countries,  as  was  not  possible  for  them  at  home. 
Our  Emperor  Frederick  went  to  San  Remo  in  order  to  find  benefit  in  the 
warm  dimate  for  his  serious  Ulness. 

A  bad  conscience  is  another  reason  for  leaving  the  homeland.  Criminals 
hope  to  escape  justice  in  foreign  countries.  However,  they  are  seized 
and  are  turned  over  to  an  earthly  judge.  In  their  breasts  evil  men  carry 
an  even  more  severe  judge,  a  bad  conscience,  which  will  not  let  them  be  at 
peace  even  in  the  most  distant  lands.  The  desire  for  fuller  freedom  drives 
many  a  man  across  the  ocean  into  the  primeval  forests  to  lead  an  unrestricted 
ejdstence.  In  their  lonesomeness  such  men  no  doubt  often  think  of  their 
dear  homes. 

Many  men  do  their  fatherland  great  service  and  honor  when  a  desire 
for  knowledge  and  discovery  takes  them  to  foreign  lands.  Thus  Columbus 
discovered  America,  Wissmann  explored  Africa  and  Sven  Hedin  crossed 
the  mysterious  Tibet.  Many  brave  men  sought  to  reach  the  north  pole 
and  many  a  one  lost  his  life  in  the  ice  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  spirit  of  discovery. 
The  homeland  can  be  proud  of  such  heroes. 

Every  year  many  missionaries  go  to  India,  Africa,  and  Australia  in 
order  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen.  There  they  build  schools,  teach 
and  baptize  the  natives.  Not  infrequently  the  missionaries  are  exposed  to 
danger  when  the  natives  are  particularly  wild  and  close  their  heart  to  the 


344  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Christian  life.  As  missionaries  leave  their  homes  in  order  to  serve  Chris- 
tianity, so  also  great  scholars,  like  Robert  Koch  and  others,  go  into  the 
jungles  to  study  diseases.  They  benefit  thereby  not  only  their  fatherland 
but  also  all  mankind.  Business  takes  the  seamen  to  foreign  lands,  likewise 
colonists,  who  carry  their  native  civilization  to  the  colonies.  They  build 
railroads  and  harbors  that  the  coimtry  may  prosper  on  account  of  com- 
merce. 

As  men  are  taken  to  foreign  lands,  so  they  are  driven  back  home  again. 
They  do  not  always  find  everything  as  they  once  left  it.  He  who  remains 
in  foreign  countries  must  never  forget  how  much  he  is  indebted  to  his 
homeland.  He  must  never  forget  that  he  is  a  German ;  he  must  love  the 
German  language  above  everything  else,  and  maintain  German  manners 
and  customs. 


Handwriting  =  2  1  ,,  , 

Content         =JVerygood. 

Corrections 
These  are  omitted. 


Composition.    Steglitz.    First  Class.    Girls 
Outline. 

I.  Introduction :    Praise  of  the  homeland. 
II.  Treatment :    The  causes  for  leaving  the  homeland  are : 
(a)  Greed  and  lust  for  gold. 
(6)  Curiosity  and  pleasure. 

(c)  Bad  conscience  and  sense  of  freedom. 

(d)  Desire  for  knowledge  and  spirit  of  discovery. 

(e)  Christian  love  and  business  occupations. 

III.   Conclusion :    Never  forget  that  you  are  a  German. 

I.  Many  poets  praise  in  their  poems  the  beauties  of  the  homeland. 
The  homeland  with  its  wonderful  pine  forests  rejoices  the  heart  of  every 
man.  Apd  still  there  are  many  men,  who  go  out  into  the  wide  world,  to 
earn  their  daily  bread  better  than  they  can  at  home.  Frequently  they 
deceive  themselves  badly,  and  are  obliged  to  find  a  miserable  death  in  a 
foreign  land.  My  essay,  which  follows,  will  tell  what  drives  men  to  foreign 
lands. 

II.  a.  People  often  read  in  the  newspapers  that  gold  is  to  be  found 
in  California  and  Alaska.  They  go  there  to  make  their  fortune.  But  this 
joy  does  not  last  long.    Most  of  them  return  to  their  homes  as  poor, 


GERMAN  345 

wretched  people.  The  little  gold  that  they  already  had  they  spend  on 
their  journey. 

II.  b.  On  the  stately  ocean  steamers  we  can  see  every  day  people 
who  leave  home  in  order  to  see  beauties  which  are  over  there.  Curiosity 
attracts  them.  Likewise  pleasure  contributes  to  causing  many  to  travel 
abroad.  Also  many  illnesses  require  trips  to  foreign  shores.  So  it  occurred 
to  our  dear  Emperor  Frederick  who  sought  a  cure  for  his  throat  on  the 
Italian  coast. 

n.  c.  In  the  large  city  there  are  many  dishonest  men  who  have  em- 
bezzled lots  of  money.  In  order  to  protect  themselves  from  their  enemies, 
they  journey  to  a  foreign  country.  To  be  sure  they  can  thus  escape  their 
earthly  judge,  but  not  their  heavenly  judge.  Many  men  do  not  wish  to 
obey  the  laws.  They  leave  their  homeland  and  think  over  there  to  act 
and  do  as  they  please. 

II.  d.  Desire  for  knowledge  and  the  spirit  of  discovery  are  often  the 
causes  which  take  men  into  foreign  lands.  So  it  was  with  Columbus,  who 
wished  to  show  his  fellow  men  that  the  earth  was  a  sphere,  and  not  a  disc 
as  they  thought,  and  therefore  he  left  his  beloved  country.  Likewise  other 
men  go  to  America  in  order  to  teU  us  something  about  that  coimtry  and  its 
inhabitants. 

II.  e.  Many  men,  called  missionaries,  go  out  into  the  distant  lands 
in  order  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen.  Thereby  they  expose  them- 
selves to  many  dangers.  For  in  Australia  there  live  so-caEed  cannibals, 
who  take  pleasure  in  killing  a  man  and  eating  his  flesh. 

III.  When  we  are  abroad,  we  must  not  forget  that  we  are  German 
children.  We  are  also  not  to  forget  our  mother  tongue.  Also  we  must 
not  ridicule  anything  German.  We  must  always  cherish  that  beautiful 
lyric  poem  which  reads:  "Du  deutsches  Kind,  sei  tapfer,  treu,  und  wahr." 

Handwriting  =  2—3 
Content        =2—3 

Grammar  and  Orthography  Lesson.    Girls.    Class  II 

Teacher:    Please  write  these  sentences  as  dictation.    (Reading.) 

1.  Auf  Regen  folgt  Sonnenschein. 

2.  Eine  Sckwalbe  macht  keinen  Sommer. 

3.  Willst  du  nicht  das  Ldmmlein  huten? 

4.  Goldene  Abendsonne,  wie  bist  du  so  schon. 

5.  Wer  hat  die  schonsten  Schafchen? 


346  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:  Who  has  no  mistakes  (after  spelling  sentences  out  and  giving 
the  correct  pxinctuation)  ?  (Several  —  5  —  children  raised  their 
hands.  Writes  the  following  sentence  on  the  board.)  "Die  gute 
Grossmutter  erzahlt  dem  kinde  das  Mdrchen.    What  is  the  predicate  ? 

Pupil:    The  predicate  is  "erzahlt  dem  Kinde  das  Mdrchen." 

Teacher:    Who  tells  the  story? 

Pupil:    The  grandmother. 

Teacher:    What  is  that? 

Pupil:    That  is  the  subject. 

Teacher:    Was  does  the  grandmother  tell? 

Pupil:    Das  Mdrchen. 

Teacher:  That  is  a  complement  and  is  always  in  the  fourth  case.  Wem, 
to  whom,  is  always  in  the  third  case.    What  are  the  attributes? 

Pupil:    Gut  is  an  attribute  to  grandmother. 

Teacher:    What  part  do  we  ask  first ? 

Pupil:    Who  01  what  with  a.  verb?    The  answer  is  the  subject. 

Teacher:    Are  the  subject  and  predicate  sufficient? 

Pupil:    No,  but  they  are  the  most  important. 

Teacher:    How  can  you  teU  the  subject? 

Pupil:    It  is  always  the  answer  to  the  question  "Wer  tut  or  Was  tut  das?  "■ 

Teacher :  Wen  ?  or  was  ?  is  always  the  fourth  case  if  in  the  predicate.  Wem 
is  in  the  third  case.  The  attribute  is  used  to  modify.  Give  an  ex- 
ample. 

Pupil:    Good  modifies  grandmother. 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  word  is  modified  in  this  case? 

Pupil:    The  noun  is  modified. 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  words  are  attributes? 

Pupil:    Adjectives  are  attributes. 

Teacher:    How  do  we  recognize  an  adjective? 

Pupil:    It  answers  the  question,  Wie  ist  das  Ding? 

Teacher:    How  do  you  tell  the  predicate? 

Pupil:  It  answers  the  question,  "What  does  the  subject  do  or  how  is  the 
subject  ?  " 

Teacher:    How  do  you  recognize  the  complements? 

Pupil:  The  answer  to  wen?  or  was?  is  always  in  the  fourth  case.  The 
answer  to  wem  is  always  in  the  third  case. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  recognize  an  adjective? 

Pupil:    It  answers  the  question  "wie?" 

Teacher:    Give  some  examples. 


GERMAN  347 

Pupil:    Wie  ist  der  Vater?    Wie  ist  das  Bild? 

Teacher:    How  do  you  write  adjectives,  large  or  small? 

Pupil:    Adjectives  are  written  with  small  letters  except  when  they  begin 
a  sentence. 

Teacher:    What  question  do  you  ask  with  verbs? 

Pupil:    What  does  the  subject  do ? 

Teacher:    How  are  verbs  written ? 

Pupil:    Verbs  are  written  small. 

Teacher:    What  words  are  written  large? 

Pupil:    Nouns  are  written  large. 

Teacher:    What  words  denote  gender? 

Pupil:    The  gender  words  are  (articles)  der,  die,  das. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  change  a  verb  to  a  noun  ? 

Pupil:    Any  verb  can  be  used  as  a  noun  if  we  use  das  with  it. 

Teacher:    What  other  kinds  of  words  can  be  made  into  nouns? 

Pupil:    Any  kind  of  a  word  can  be  used  as  a  noun. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  write  nouns ? 

Pupil:    Nouns  are  written  with  capital  letters. 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  a  word  is  used  before  a  noun? 

Pupil:    We  use  adjectives  and  articles  before  nouns. 

Teacher:    Name  the  indefinite  articles. 

Pupil:    The  indefinite  articles  are  ein,  eine,  ein. 

Teacher:    What  changes  occur  in  the  articles? 

Pupil:    The  endings  are  changed.    One  can  decUne  them. 

Teacher:    Decline  der  Vater,  die  Mutter,  das  Kind. 

Pupil:    der  Vater  die  Mutter  das  Kind 

des  Voters  der  Mutter  des  Kind 

dem  Vater  der  Mutter  dem  Kinde 

den  Vater  die  Mutter  das  Kind 

Teacher:   Give  me  the  plural  of  the  same  words. 

Pupil:    die  Vater  die  Mutter  die  Kinder 

der  Vater  der  Matter  der  Kinder 

den  Vdtern  den  MUttern  den  Kindern 

die  Vater  die  Matter  die  Kinder 

Teacher:    What  articles  have  nd  plural? 

Pupil:    Ein,  eine,  ein  have  no  plural. 

Teacher:    What  are  some  of  the  prepositions  with  the  dative  (third)  case? 

Pupil:    Some  prepositions  with  the  third  case  are:  mit,  nach,  bei,  samt, 
seit,  von,  zu,  ausser,  gegemiher. 


348  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    Give  me  an  example  with  mit. 

Pupil:    Ich  schneide  mit  dem  Messer. 

Teacher:    Give  some  prepositions  which  govern  the  fourth  case. 

Pupil:    Some  prepositions  which  govern  the  accusative  are :  durch,  fur, 
um,  ohne,  gegen,  wider. 

Teacher:    Give  an  example  with  durch. 

Pupil:    Die  Soldaten  zogen  durch  die  Stadl. 

Teacher:    Give  some  prepositions  which  may  be  used  with  either  the  third 
or  fourth  case. 

PupU:    They  are  hinter,  auf,  neben,  unter,  vor,  mnschen,  an,  in,  iiher. 

Teacher:    What  have  we  studied  to-day? 

Pupil:    We  have  studied  adjectives,  verbs,  nouns,  articles  and  preposi- 
tions. 

Teacher:    Will  you  recite  the  poem,  " Morgengruss." 

(We  stopped  taking  notes  at  this  point.) 


CHAPTER  XVII 
ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic,  according  to  Gennan  educators,  has  two  pur- 
poses.   The  first  is  to  teach  the  children  to  solve  problems  as 
they  occur  in  actual  life,  and  the  second  to  give 
them  practice  in  clear  thinking  and  correct  speech. 
The  first  aim  is  the  practical  one,  the  second  the  formal  one. 
To  quote  from  the  Berlin  course  of  study :  ^ 

Arithmetic  in  all  sections  of  the  school  is  to  make  clear  the  principles 
of  the  method  employed  and  to  lay  down  in  hard  and  fast  rules  the  knowledge 
so  acquired.  Only  in  this  way  wiU  the  pupils  succeed  in  independently 
drawing  and  presenting  the  general  truths  previously  developed.  Accuracy 
in  the  use  of  established  principles  is  to  be  gained  by  extensive  practice. 
Repetition  and  review  serve  this  purpose.  Daily  reviews  are  indispensable 
for  this  subject. 

The  following  outline  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  contents 
of  the  course  in  Arithmetic  in  the  Volksschule: 

Class  8.    Numbers  from  1-20. 

Class  7.    Nimibers   from    i-ioo ;  fractions   in    connection  Course  of 
with  the  multiplication  and  division  tables;  separation  of  a  Study 
whole  into  its  parts  and  the  combination  of  the  parts  into  a  whole ;  relations 
of  value,  Mark  and  Pfennig.    Preparation  for  the  rule  of  three.    Four  hours. 

Class  6.  Nimibers  from  i-iooo ;  fractions ;  common  fractions  and 
mixed  numbers  on  the  basis  of  the  small  numbers  of  the  multipKcation 
table;  tables  of  measure,  liter,  hektoliter,  meter,  kilometpr,  centimeter, 
millimeter,  gram,  kilogram ;  rule  of  three.    Four  hours. 

Class  4.    Work  with  compound  denominate  numbers  in  tens,  hundreds, 
etc. ;  fractions  in  connection  with  the  work  in  denominate  numbers  in  tens, 
hundreds,  etc. ;  decimal  fractions ;  rule  of  three.    Four  hours. 
'  Lehrplan  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  p.  64. 
349 


3SO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Class  3.  Common  and  decimal  fractions;  proportion;  calculation  of 
simple  and  direct  relations  or  terms ;  business  arithmetic.    Four  hours. 

Class  2.  Problems  in  proportion  dealing  with  indirect  and  compound 
terms ;  percentage ;  profit  and  loss ;  net  weights  and  tare ;  partnership ; 
averages;  problems  of  transportation,  railway,  post,  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone.   Four  hours. 

Class  I.  Problems  of  the  household,  city  and  state  budget,  such  as  state, 
city  and  church  taxes ;  problems  in  haU,  fire  and  life  insurance ;  problems 
dealing  with  money,  bills  of  exchange,  deeds,  bonds,  stocks,  checks  and  the 
like ;  square  root ;  equations  of  the  first  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity. 
Four  hours.     (This  year's  course  for  boys.) 

Class  I.  Problems  dealing  with  housekeeping;  rent,  furnishing  the 
house,  heat  and  light,  clothing,  provisions,  budget ;  problems  dealing  with 
depositing  money  in  savings  banks,  with  mortgages,  and  with  notes,  deeds, 
etc. ;  problems  dealing  with  fire,  life,  annuity  and  capital  insurance ;  prob- 
lems in  the  imperial  insurance  regulations ;  foreign  money  and  exchange : 
checks ;  mensuration.    Four  hours.     (For  girls.) 

The  arithmetic  in  the  first  three  years  of  the  school  limits 

itself  to  work  with  numbers  under  one  thousand.    In  the  first 

year  numbers  greater  than  ten  are  rarely  ever  treated 

in  the  at  all.    All  the  time  of  this  year  is  given  over  to 

Lower  Sec-    learning  the  niunbers  from  one  to  ten  in  all  their  com- 

bons  .  ° 

binations.  The  children  are  not  to  count  mechan- 
ically or  to  deal  solely  with  abstract  numbers,  but  they  gain 
the  number  concepts  through  the  use  of  natural  objects,  such 
as  balls,  blocks,  sticks,  coins,  tables,  hands,  children,  and  the 
like.     Counting-frames  are  also  used  very  largely. 

After  the  child  has  learned  to  count  simple  objects,  he  is 
drilled  in  mechanical  counting  of  abstract  nmnbers,  but  this 

TheNum-  ^®  "^^  ^°^^  ^^^^^  ^^  number  concept  has  been 
ber  Con-  thoroughly  established.  Before  the  child  is  allowed 
'*''  ^  to  count,  one,  two,  three,  and  so  on,  he  is  taught  the 

position  and  composition  of  each  number.  He  is  required  to  un- 
derstand that  three  is  composed  of  two  and  one,  and  of  one  and  two, 
and  of  three  owe's.    So  it  is  with  all  the  numbers.    The  pupils  are 


ARITHMETIC 


351 


materially  aided  in  this  work  by  the  counting-frames.  The 
pupils  are  taught  to  arrange  the  numbers  on  the  frame  always  in 
the  same  way  at  first,  in  order  that  they  may  have  a  good  mental 
picture  of  four,  seven,  or  whatever  the  number  may  be.  If  they 
are  learning  the  number  four,  they  count  four  objects ;  they  do 
four  things;  they  play  four  games;  they  see  four  boys,  and 
finally  on  the  counting-frame,  four  balls,  or  counters,  are  placed 
in  a  definite  position,  so  that  the  child  when  thinking  of  the 
number  will  immediately  see  the  number  as  a  whole  and  can 
see  it  equally  well  in  its  parts.  Sometimes  these  number-pic- 
tures are  arranged  on  cards,  while  at  other  times  they  may  be 
placed  on  blocks.  The  children  are  taught  to  see  a  nmnber 
as  a  whole  and  then  in  its  parts.  For  example,  the  mmiber  6 
at  any  one  given  time  is  conceived  as  being  made  up  of  5  plus  i, 
4  plus  2, 3  plus  3.  The  following  diagrams  show  how  the  numbers 
are  often  arranged  on  the  frames  to  aid  the  pupil  in  gaining  these 
mental  pictures. 

After  each  ntmiber  has  been  thoroughly  learned  the  children 
are  allowed  to  make  it  on  their  slates  and  to  write  the  processes 
which  they  have  already  done  orally. 

Counting  is  usually  done  with  cubes  or  balls. 


Teacher:    What  is  7  made  up  of? 
Pupils:     7  is  6  and  i. 

7  is  s  and  2. 

7  is  4  and  3. 

7  is  2  and  5. 

7  is  I  and  6. 

7  is  2  and  5,  and  so  on. 


Examples  of 
First  Year 
Work.    Ad- 
dition and 
Subtraction 


This  shows  how  carefully  each  number  is  drilled,  backwards 
and  forwards,  almost  every  day  in  the  year.  Of  course,  prac- 
tical problems  within  the  child's  understanding  are  used.  Num- 
bers in  this  year  are  rarely  separated  into  more  than  two  parts, 
as  6  is  5  and  i,  rather  than  6  is  2  and  2  and  2.    When  this  has 


352  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

been  thoroughly  learned,  the  children  add  in  the  following 

manner : 

1  and  I  are  2. 

2  and  I  are  3. 

3  and  I  are  4. 

Then  the  subtraction  is  tried  in  the  same  way : 

10  less  I  is  9. 

9  less  I  is  8. 

8  less  1  is  7,  and  so  on. 

When  the  addend  and  subtrahend  one  are  thoroughly  drilled, 
two  and  three  are  used  in  the  same  way.  Later  addition  and 
subtraction  in  regular  order  is  dropped  and  problems  like  the 
following  are  given : 

8  and  i  equal  ? 

6  less  I  equals  ? 

7  and  2  equal  ? 
S  less  3  equals  ? 

Thus  far  only  two  numbers  have  been  added  or  subtracted. 
After  addition  and  subtraction  have  been  thoroughly  drilled, 
multiplication  of  numbers  with  the  product  under  is  begun,  or 
the  addition  combinations  up  to  twenty  are  taken  up,  usually 
the  latter  processes  first.    The  first  step  is  to  add. 

10  and  I 
10  and  2 
to 

10  and  10. 

After  that  the  combinations  like  11,  10,  and  i  are  learned. 

11  and  1 

to 
19  and  I 


ARITHMETIC  353 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  combinations  are  always 
made  with  concrete  objects  first.  As  soon  as  possible  abstract 
drill  work  is  commenced.    The  next  step  is  subtraction: 

20  less  I  Then  10  and  2 

19  less  I  10  and  9 

to  14  and  I 

II  less  I  19  less  i 

and  finally  10  and  5 

10  and  8 
17  less  I 

At  last  the  addend  to  a  larger  number  than  ten  is  increased 
as  in  II  and  2,  15  and  3,  17  and  2,  11  and  9,  and  then  subtraction 
of  20  less  7,  19  less  7,  18  less  5,  and  so  on.  These  combinations 
become  absolutely  automatic,  and  one  never  finds  children  in 
the  second  year  who  hesitate  at  immediate  recognition  of  these 
combinations.  Teachers  have  told  me  that  the  entire  success 
of  the  work  in  arithmetic  depends  on  speed  and  accuracy  in 
the  fundamental  addition  and  subtraction  facts  of  the  first  year 
and  to  some  extent  those  of  the  second.  The  next  step  is  mixed 
problems  in  addition  and  subtraction  as:  14  less  3,  17  and  5, 
19  less  8,  etc.     This  goes  over  to 

20  equals  19  and  ?  18  and  ?  equal  19. 

16  equals  13  and  ?  and  13  and  ?  equal  20. 
IS  equals  12  and  ?  11  and  ?  equal  19. 

These  are  frequently  made  the  basis  of  real  problems  from 
within  the  child's  experience. 

When  the  point  has  been  reached,  the  teacher  goes  back  to 
9  and  ?  equal  10,  7  and  ?  equal  10,  6  and  ?  equal  10,  and  16  and 
?  equal  20,  etc. 
Then  comes 

9  and  3  equal  ?   to  which  the  answer  is  9  and  3  equal  12. 

9  and  ?  equal  10.  9  and  i  equal  10. 

10  and  ?  equal  12.  10  and  2  equal  12. 

9  and  3  equal  ?  9  and  3  equal  12. 

2  A 


354  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  additions  going  over  ten  the  number  is  completed  to  ten 
and  the  remainder  of  the  addend  is  added  to  lo.  Subtraction 
goes  in  the  same  way :  13  less  6  equals  7.  13  less  3  equals  10. 
10  less  3  equals  7.  Hence,  13  less  6  equals  7.  This  method  is 
continued  until  there  is  no  further  necessity.  One  finds  the  same 
plan  in  the  higher  classes  in  subtracting  niunbers  like  150  from 
87s ;  as :  875  less  100  equals  775 ;  775  less  50  equals  725. 

A  table  like  the  following  is  used  for  drill  in  some  schools ! 


II  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

S    4    3     2     I  plus  ? 

12  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

S    4    3     2  plus  ? 

13  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5    4    3  plus  ? 

14  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

S    4  plus  ? 

IS  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

S  plus  ? 

16  is  10 

9 

8 

7 

6  plus  ? 

17  is  10 

9 

8 

7; 

plus 

? 

18  is  10 

9 

8  plus  ? 

19  is  10 

91 

plus 

? 

20  is  10 : 

plus  ? 

Very  little  of  the  work  is  written.     One  or  two  children  work 
at  the  board  each  day. 
The  work  begins  in  multiplication  with 

1  and  I  equal  ?  2  times  i  equals  ? 

2  and  2  equal  ?  2  times  2  equals  ? 

Muitipiica-  Then  how  many  shoes  are  2  pairs?  How  many  feet 
have  3,  4,  5,  10  sparrows?  How  many  marks  are 
2  three-mark  pieces?  4  three-mark  pieces?  etc.  How  many 
legs  have  3  horses?  5  horses?  One  post-card  costs  5  pfennigs. 
How  much  do  2,  3,  4,  s  cards  cost?  One  egg  costs  6  pfennigs. 
How  much  do  i,  2,  3  eggs  cost? 

After  this  work  comes  division.  How  many  one-pfennig 
pieces  can  you  get  if  you  have  a  2  pfennig  piece?  How  many 
pairs  of  stockings  can  you  obtain  from  2,  4,  6,  8,  10  stockings? 
How  often  is  2  contained  in  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  16,  20? 


ARITHMETIC  355 

Then  with  charts  fractions  are  begun,  but  only  in  simple  form. 
What  is  the  half  of  two?  The  half  of  ten?  The  third  of  6?  The 
fourth  part  of  8  ?  What  is  the  sixth  part  of  12  ?  Of  18  ?  What 
is  the  fifth  part  of  20,  10,  15?  Then  the  exercises  and  prob- 
lems as  follows : 

2  divided  by  2  ;  12  divided  by  2  ;  etc. 

18  divided  by  3  ;  12  divided  by  3 ;  etc. 

16  divided  by  4 ;  8  divided  by  4 ;  etc. 

IS  divided  by  s ;  10  divided  by  5 ;  etc. 

6  divided  by  6 ;  12  divided  by  6 ;  etc. 

A  dozen  apples  are  divided  among  2,  4,  6  children.    How  many 
apples  does  each  child  receive? 

Such  in  general  is  the  work  of  the  first  year.  Numbers  beyond 
twenty  are  seldom  touched  upon.  When  one  considers  that 
four  hours  each  week  for  forty  weeks  are  given  to  the  numbers 
under  twenty,  and  that  a  half  of  the  work  is  drill  and  prac- 
tically all  oral,  there  is  small  wonder  that  the  children  know 
their  niunber-work  thoroughly. 

The  mmiber  space  from  i  to  100  is  treated  dining  this  year. 
The  relation  between  tens  and  units  comes  first.  10  units  equal 
I  ten;  50  units  equal  5  tens;  etc.  i  ten  equals  The  Second 
10  units ;  4  tens  equal  40  units.  Then  come  prob-  ^^" 
lems  in  addition.  4  tens  and  2  units  equal  42  units.  Further 
along  we  find  problems  like  94  equals  9  tens  and  4  units;  40 
and  8  equal  ? ;  28  equals  ? ;  28  equals  20  and  8 ;  59  less  9 
equals  ? ;  74  less  4  equals  ?  Counting  frames  are  used  for  this 
work  until  the  pupils  are  ready  to  go  over  to  abstract  problems. 
Practical  problems  are  also  introduced.  The  next  step  is  to 
name  the  multiple  of  ten  above  25,  19,  66,  24,  37,  and  the  like. 
Immediately  after  that,  to  add  enough  to  the  following  numbers 
to  make  the  next  higher  multiple  of  tens,  as,  25  and  5  equal  30 ; 
33  and  ?  equal  40;  and  then  the  children  will  name  the  next 
higher  multiple  of  ten  and  say  how  much  less  the  given  nimiber 


3S6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

is,  as,  40  less  6  equals  ?  30  less  3  equals  ?.  A  great  many  such 
problems  are  solved  and  the  children  acquire  facility  therein. 
One  can  easily  recognize  the  value  of  these  and  the  following 
exercises  for  oral  arithmetic. 

The  next  step  is  the  addition  of  one-place  nxmibers  to  any 
number  of  two  figures : 

21  and  2  equal  43  and  2  equal  38  and  2  equal  65  and  2  equal 

31  and  2  equal  53  and  2  equal  98  and  2  equal  75  and  2  equal 

41  and  2  equal  63  and  2  equal  68  and  2  equal  35  and  2  equal 

71  and  2  equal  93  and  2  equal  48  and  2  equal  55  and  2  equal 

When  this  is  learned,  they  count  by  one-place  numbers  up  and 
down  to  100.  For  example,  21  and  2  equal  23 ;  23  and  2  equal 
25  ;  25  and  2  equal  27,  as  far  as  100,  and  then  backwards.  The 
addends  and  subtrahends  as  large  as  9  are  used  in  this  way. 
Literally  thousands  of  such  problems  are  given  during  this  year. 
All  the  numbers  up  to  9  are  next  treated  as  follows : 

4  and  4  equal  8,  counting  up  and  down  by  4's.  i  times  4  is  4  and  up  to 
10  times  8  is  80.  16  divided  by  4  is  ? ;  J  of  32  ;  j  of  16 ;  J  of  40.  Then 
comes  2  times  4  less  S  is  3 ;  8  times  3  less  5  is  ?. 

The  practical  problems  in  this  part  of  the  work  are  as  follows : 

Fritz  has  4  times  9  Pf .,  Otto  has  7  times  9  Pf.  How  many  more  pfennigs 
has  Otto  than  Fritz?  If  one  meter  of  goods  costs  6  M.,  how  much  do 
9  meters  cost  ? 

At  the  close  of  the  exercises  with  the  one-place  operative 
number,  the  following  type  of  work  is  begun : 

9  equals  4  times  2  and  i.     13  divided  by  2  equals  6,  rem.  1. 
17  equals  ?  times  ?  and  ? 

4  equals  i  times  3  and  i.    The  third  part  of  11  equals  3,  rem.  2. 
16  equals  ?  times  ?  and  ?.  The  third  part  of  29  equals  ?,  rem.  ?. 

In  the  second  half  of  this  year's  work  a  two-place  operative 
number  is  used.  The  beginning  is  made  with  multiple  of  ten, 
as  follows: 


ARITHMETIC 


357 


10  and  10  equal  20  90  less  10  equals  ?  i  times  10  equals  10 

10  and  20  equal  ?  80  less  10  equals  ?  2  times  10  equals  ? 

to                                         to  to 

10  and  90  equal  ?  20  less  10  equals  ?  10  times  10  equals  ? 

Problems  are  as  follows.     Some  one  owes  70  M.    How  many 
10  M.  pieces  are  necessary  to  pay  the  debt? 
Then  follow  problems  like  these : 

20  and  20  equal  ?  10  and  30  equal  ?  60  less  30  equals  ? 

20  and  60  equal  ?  10  and  40  equal  ?  60  less  40  equals  ? 

60  divided  by  3  equals  ? 

60  divided  by  2  equals  ? 

20  is  how  much  less  than  70? 

60  is  how  much  less  than  90  P 

Otto  has  20  pens  and  40  pens ;  Karl  has  30  pens.  How  many 
more  has  Otto  than  Karl ;   and  how  many  have  they  together  ? 

In  the  last  part  of  the  year  the  following  types  of  problem 
form  the  basis  of  the  work : 

(0)  Multiples  of  tens  are  added  to  multiples  with  digits  in  units'  places. 
Ex.  82  and  10  equal  ?  45  less  10  equals  ?  33  and  50  equal  ? 

45  and  10  equal  ?  39  less  10  equals  ?  99  less  70  equals  ? 

(b)  Multiples  of  ten  with  digits  in  units'  places  are  added  to  multiples 

of  ten. 

(c)  These  same  kinds  of  numbers  are  subtracted. 

(i)  Multiples  of  ten  are  multiplied  and  divided  by  units. 

(e)  Multiples  of  ten  with  digits  in  units'  place  are  added  to  and  subtracted 

from  similar  numbers. 
45  and  18  equal  ?    43  and  35  equal  ?    99  less  27  equals  72. 
36  and  18  equal  ?    62  and  35  equal  ?    72  and  19  equal  ? 
(/)   Multiples  of  ten  with  digits  in  units'  place  are  multiplied  by  units 
and  the  products  are  increased  or  decreased  by  two-place  figures. 

2  times  19  less  18  equals  ?  2  times  45  less  27  equals  ? 

2  times  24  less  18  equals  ?  2  times  39  less  27  equals  ? 

2  tunes  43  less  18  equals  ?  3  times  27  less  19  equals  ? 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  even  as  low  as  the  second 
grade  the  multiplication  of  larger  numbers  by  one-place  figures 


3S8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

is  commenced.     One  sees  here  the  basis  of  good  oral  arithmetic. 
The  multiplication  table  up  to  lo  times  lo  is  learned  in  this  grade. 

(g)  Division  of  two-place  numbers  by  units  including  9. 
98  divided  by  8  equals  12,  rem.  ? 
89  divided  by  8  equals   ?,  rem.  ? 

The  following  types  of  problems  are  solved  by  the  children 
at  the  close  of  the  year : 

(i)  A  family  consists  of  six  persons.  Each  eats  two  rolls  a  day.  How 
many  roUs  does  the  family  eat  in  a  week  ?  How  much  is  spent  for  rolls 
each  week  if  four  rolls  cost  10  Pf.  ? 

(2)  3  boys  divide  a  number  of  plums.  Each  receives  18.  How  many 
plums  did  they  have  aJl  together? 

The  work  of  the  third  year  deals  with  the  nimiber  space  from 
100  to  1000.  The  exercises  are  practically  all  oral,  except  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year. 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers  between  100  and  1000, 
as  well  as  the  multiplication  and  division  of  these  numbers  by 
figures  of  two  places,  are  carried  on  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
in  case  of  the  numbers  below  100.  The  beginning  of  denom- 
inate numbers  is  made  in  this  grade  in  a  formal  way  in  that  the 
driUs  in  addition  and  the  other  processes  deal  with  meters,  milli- 
meters, grams,  liters,  and  the  like.  One  is  surprised  to  see  the 
facility  with  which  the  third-grade  children  handled  difl&cult 
problems,  of  which  we  give  some  examples. 

240  mm.  and  80  mm.  equal  ? 

400  mm.  and  600  mm.  equal  ? 

How  much  is  4  times  60  and  30? 

How  much  is  7  times  80  and  50? 

How  much  is  8  times  90  and  60  ? 

9  M.  equals  ?  Pf. 

The  third  part  of  150,  210,  24  equals  ? 

420  equals  60  times  ?    640  equals  80  times  ? 

540  equals  60  times  ?    800  equals  80  times  ? 

600  equals  60  times  ?    720  equals  80  times  ? 


ARITHMETIC  ^^g 

i>  i>  h  A>  A.  A.  A  of  a  mark  equals  ? 
1^,  T^  of  a  mark  equals  ? 

7  M.  19  Pf.  equals  ?  Pf. 

7592  and  70  equal  ? 

S  times  65  equals  ? 

69s  less  122  equals  ? 

The  solution  of  5  times  65  is  as  follows : 

S  times  65  equals  ? 
S  times  60  equals  300. 
S  times  5  equals  25. 
300  and  25  equal  325. 

The  solution  of  645  and  125  is  as  follows : 

64s  and  125  equal  ? 
645  and  100  equal  745. 
745  and  20  equal  765.  ■ 
76s  and  s  equal  770. 

These  problems  are  always  solved  orally.    Later  a  problem 
like  this  one  is  solved. 


i  of  291  equals  ? 

J  of  200  equals  40. 

i  of  90  equals  18. 

40  and  18  equal  58. 

5  of  291  equals  58,  rem.  i. 


The  stenographic  reports  sufl&ce  for  explanation  of  the  methods 
in  the  remaining  years  of  the  Volksschule.  We  wish  now  to 
call  attention  to  some  of  the  valuable  features  of  the  arithmetic 
work. 

The  most  important  lesson  taught  by  the  method  in  arith- 
metic in  the  Volksschule  is  that  of  oral  arithmetic.    The  chil- 
dren acquire  an  almost  unbelievable  facility  in  solving  orai  Arith- 
difficult  problems  without  the  aid  of*written  figures.  ™®*''^ 
Unending  drill  with  actual  problems  is  the  secret  of  the  success  of 


360  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

this  work.  First  of  all  the  process  is  explained,  a  step  at  a  time. 
Each  step  is  drilled  and  finally  the  complete  process^  A  child 
is  never  allowed  to  stumble  around  uncertain  as  to  what  is  to 
be  done.  The  drills  are  usually  short  and  very  rapid.  The 
practical  applications  follow.  Fully  three  fourths  of  the  time 
in  arithmetic  is  spent  in  oral  work.  American  teachers  must 
come  to  learn  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  problems  that  are 
required  written  in  our  schools  could  be  done  just  as  well  orally, 
and  many  of  those  that  cannot  be  done  orally  are  entirely  im- 
necessary  and  useless. 

The  German  teacher  does  not  depend  upon  the  text-book  to 
teach  the  children  the  arithmetical  processes.  In  fact  the  book 
contains  no  rules  or  explanations  in  regard  to  how  problems 
shall  be  solved.  AU  the  development  work  and  most  of  the  drill 
work  is  done  in  school.  In  taking  up  a  new  topic,  for  example, 
percentage,  the  teacher  assigns  no  home  work  at  aU,  but  begins 
the  hour  with  the  first  step  in  the  development  of  the  topic,  and 
in  this  way  knows  that  each  child  understands  what  is  being  done 
because  all  are  given  opportunity  to  solve  problems  involving 
this  first  operation.  Usually  the  teacher  solves  a  problem  on 
the  board  by  way  of  illustration  and  then  asks  several  children 
to  solve  similar  problems,  requiring  each  to  explain  what  he  has 
done.  The  class  in  this  way  has  ample  opportunity  to  see  what 
is  expected  and  how  every  step  is  performed.  German  teachers 
will  tell  you  that  as  far  as  they  are  concerned  they  do  not  care 
whether  the  children  ever  do  any  home  work  in  arithmetic, 
but  they  do  believe  in  work,  rather  than  recitation,  in  the  school- 
room. 

The  German  child  after  the  third  year  usually  has  written 
work  two  or  three  times  a  week  to  prepare  at  home  and  to  put 
Written  into  a  notebook.  The  examples  are  taken  from 
^°*  the  problem-book,  which  contains  no  explanations  or 

rules.    The  number  of  problems  require  about  fifteen  or  twenty 


ARITHMETIC  361 

minutes'  preparation.  The  blackboard  work  is  different  from 
that  in  America.  There  is  room  for  only  one  child,  so  while 
this  child  solves  a  problem,  all  the  others  watch  for  errors  and 
for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  the  method.  Then  all  the  children 
solve  a  few  examples  at  their  seats.  In  all,  the  written  work  at 
school  does  not  claim  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  time. 

The  practical  problems  in  the  course  are  excellent.  Every 
problem  lies  within  the  experience  of  the  child.  The  conditions 
of  the  problem  correspond  to  actual  conditions.  The  subject 
price  of  every  article  mentioned  is  the  price  as  the  Matter 
child  knows  it,  not  a  fictitious  price.  One  never  hears  problems 
which  ask  how  many  steps  a  man  takes  in  walking  ten  kilo- 
meters. Nobody  wants  to  know  that.  The  majority  of  problems 
deal  with  wages,  expenses  of  families,  cost  of  food  and  clothing, 
insurance,  railway  fare,  taxes,  express,  telephone  and  telegraph 
rates,  rebate,  interest,  mortgages.  The  children  themselves 
furnish  a  large  part  of  the  problems.  The  course  of  study 
already  quoted  gives  more  detail  in  reference  to  the  topics  taught. 

The  course  is  intensely  practical  in  that  a  great  many  por- 
tions of  arithmetic  as  taught  in  Germany  are  omitted.  Mul- 
tipliers and  divisors  of  more  than  three  places  are  very  important 
seldom  used.  Fractions  are  limited  to  those  in  com-  Omissions 
mon  use.  For  example,  ttItt,  fIt,  and  the  Uke  seldom  are 
permitted.  Square  root,  cube  root,  partial  payments,  compound 
proportion,  stocks  and  bonds,  and  other  similar  topics  do  not 
appear  in  the  course  of  study. 

Arithmetic  is  correlated  wherever  possible.  The  problems  in 
arithmetic  are  taken  from  almost  every  province  of  life.  Dates 
in  history  give  opportunity  in  reckoning  days,  months,  j;gjj.gj^tjQ„ 
and  years;  travel  and  geography  furnish  problems 
dealing  with  the  purchase  of  railway  tickets;  in  cooking  and 
serving  are  examples  to  find  the  cost  of  materials  and  suppHes. 
The  correlation  brought  out  in  the  insurance  system  and  other 


362  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

economic  problems  is  particularly  close.  The  topic  of  insurance 
belongs  in  the  history  and  civil  government  course,  and  there  it 
receives  a  thorough  explanation.  However,  it  is  vitalized  in 
arithmetic  by  a  great  number  of  problems  dealing  with  the  various 
forms  of  insurance  common  among  the  lower  classes  of  people. 
How  taking  out  insurance  is  really  done,  how  premiums  are  paid, 
and  how  profits  are  collected  all  enter  into  the  problems  and  fur- 
nish a  great  deal  of  useful  information. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  the  arithmetic  in  the 
German  schools  is  admirably  done.  It  may  be  that  the  chil- 
dren are  not  allowed  much  freedom  in  organization  of  subject 
matter,  but  they  most  assuredly  learn  the  four  fundamental 
operations,  and  to  solve  the  problems  which  actually  come  up 
in  their  Hves.  We  cannot  recall  a  single  topic  which  they  learn 
in  arithmetic  that  does  not  find  frequent  use  in  the  home,  the 
shop,  or  in  business. 

BrBLIOGRAPHY  IN  ARITHMETIC 

1.  Hentschel,  Lehrbuch  des  Rechenunterrichts  in  der  Volksschule,  1907, 
Leipzig. 

2.  Lehrpldne  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  1902-1913. 

3.  Zentralbldtter ,  1872-1914. 

GEOMETRY 

The  number  of  hours  given  to  geometry  in  the  Volksschule 

varies  somewhat  with  the  number  of  grades  in  the  school  and 

even  with  cities.    In  Berlin  the  boys'  schools  begin 

Hours  .  -^  ° 

geometry  m  the  fifth  year  with  one  hour  a  week, 
while  during  the  remaining  three  years  the  subject  receives 
two  hours  each  week.  The  girls'  schools  have  only  one  hour 
each  week  during  the  last  two  years.  In  Hannover  the  boys 
have  two  hours  geometry  a  week  the  last  three  years,  while  the 
girls  have  some  geometrical  solutions  the  last  two  years  in  con- 
nection with  their  arithmetic  work. 


ARITHMETIC  363 

Geometry  of  the  Volksschule,  to  all  serious  intents  and  purposes, 
is  very  similar  to  mensuration  in  our  schools,  that  is,  mensura- 
tion of  lines,  surfaces,  and  solids.    The  course  of  study  course  of 
in  Hannover  is  more  typical  of  the  German  school  ^*"'*y 
than  is  the  Berlin  course.^ 

Sixth  Year    (Boys) 

1.  Fundamental  geometrical  conceptions :  solids,  surfaces,  lines,  angles, 

points. 

2.  The  straight  line  and  linear  measure. 

3.  Angles ;  measurement  of  angles. 

4.  The  triangle. 

5.  The  quadrilateral. 

6.  Lines  and  angles  in  the  circle. 

7.  Surface  —  mensuration  of  surfaces. 

8.  Measurement  and  reckoning  of  the  quadrilateral  and  triangle. 

9.  Volume. 

10.  Mensuration  of  the  cube  and  prism. 

Seventh  Year 

1.  Congruence  of  triangles. 

2.  The  most  important  propositions  dealing  with  angles,  sides  and 

diagonals  of  the  parallelogram. 

3.  The  Pythagorean  proposition. 

4.  Study  of  area  of  straight-hue  figures. 

5.  Circumference  and  area  of  the  circle  and  ellipse. 

6.  Mensuration  of  the  cube,  the  prism,  the  cylinder,  pyramids,  the 

sphere,  and  the  cone. 

Eighth  Year 

I  Review  of  sixth  and  seventh  years'  work. 

2.  The  trapezium  and  the  trapezoid. 

3.  The  regular  polygon. 

4.  Tangents  and  angles  within  and  without  the  circle. 

5.  Proportion  of  distance ;  similarity  of  plane  figures ;  reduced  scales. 

6.  Circumference,  area,  sector,  and  segment  of  the  circle. 

7.  Truncated  cones  and  pyramids. 

1  Lehrplanfilr  die  Biirgerschukn  der  .  .  .  Stadt  Hannover,  1913- 


364  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Seventh  Year    (Girls) 

1.  Linear  and  square  measure. 

2.  The  quadrilateral. 

3.  The  triangle. 

4.  The  circle. 

5.  Volume. 

6.  The  prism. 

7.  The  cylinder. 

All  of  these  are  treated  in  the  arithmetic  hour. 

Eighth  Year 

1.  Review  of  the  work  of  the  seventh  year. 

2.  Mensuration  of  the  parallelogram  and  the  triangle. 

3.  Surface  area  and  volume  of  the  cube  and  the  prism. 

4.  Mensuration  of  straight-hne  surfaces. 

5.  Area  and  circumference  of  the  circle. 

6.  Volume  of  simple  solids. 

The  course  in  Berlin  is  somewhat  more  extensive  than  the  one 
here  given,  but  the  majority  of  schools,  including 
the  rural  schools,  have  even  less  geometry  than  is 
here  indicated. 

The  children  have  no  texts  at  aU  in  geometry.  The  apparatus 
is  that  which  is  commonly  used  in  geometry  classes  in  this  coun- 
try, the  cubes,  prisms,  circles  made  up  of  triangles  to  show  the 
method  for  finding  the  area,  spheres,  and  the  Kke.  With  re- 
gard to  teaching  material  the  teacher  takes  most  of  the  geometri- 
cal figures  in  their  setting  in  actual  life,  the  schoolroom,  the 
building,  the  playground,  and  so  on.  If  the  teacher  wants  a 
rectangle,  the  boys  find  it  in  the  ceiling ;  if  he  wants  a  triangle, 
they  find  it  at  the  window ;  if  he  wants  a  prism,  they  take  a  box ; 
and  so  on  in  every  topic.  When  the  children  find  areas  of  squares 
or  parallelograms,  it  is  always  the  area  of  a  real  square  or  par- 
allelogram which  the  children  can  see  that  is  measured.  No 
hypothetical  areas  are  measured.  The  angles,  hues,  and  surfaces 
discussed  are  always  under  the  immediate  observation  of  the  eye. 


ARITHMETIC 


36s 


Almost  without  exception,  where  the  children  are  calculating 
the  area  of  a  surface,  a  child  is  required  to  run  his  hand  along  the 
boundaries  of  the  surface  to  be  sure  that  he  and  the  others  really 
know  what  is  being  measured. 

Rigid  proofs  are  not  insisted  on  in  every  case,  and  very  rarely 
in  girls'  schools.  The  propositions  proven  are  only  the  easiest 
ones  from  plane  and  solid  geometry.  Practical  knowledge 
and  appUcation  are  much  more  the  aim  of  this  work  than  formal 
mental  improvement. 

The  work  in  geometry  is  closely  correlated  with  that  in  drawing. 
Children  are  required  to  draw  to  a  scale  the  surfaces  measured 
and  described. 

One  very  valuable  feature  of  all  geometrical  and  arithmetical 
study  in  the  Volksschule  is  the  great  amount  of  training  given 
to  judging  offhand  the  area,  dimensions,  and  volume  ,  ,  . 

,  Judging  of 

of  all  sorts  of  geometrical  surfaces  and  soUds.  On  Length,  Area 
the  wall  of  every  schoolroom  is  painted  the  meter,  "''*^°'"™^ 
the  square  meter,  and  sometimes  the  cubic  meter.  One  is  often 
surprised  at  the  accuracy  of  the  children's  judgment  in  the 
matter  of  judging  length  and  volume.  Most  of  the  children 
can  tell  to  within  a  few  centimeters  the  length  of  almost  any 
line  under  ten  meters.  The  same  accuracy  is  attained  in  judg- 
ing volume,  weight,  and  time.  In  order  to  test  the  accuracy 
of  this  offhand  judging,  the  actual  measurement  is  made  from 
time  to  time,  but  not  enough  to  injure  the  child's  confidence 
in  his  own  judgment. 

In  every  grade  the  attempt  is  made  to  make  objective  the  re- 
lation of  numbers  by  means  of  lines,  volimies,  or  areas.  This 
is  particularly  valuable  to  the  children  in  teaching  fractions  and 
almost  any  topic  in  percentage  and  is  used  ahnost  universally 
by  German  teachers. 

The  stenographic  lesson  in  this  chapter  illustrates  sufficiently 
the  actual  class  procedure. 


366  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  valuable  lesson  of  the  geometry  in  the  Volksschule  is  the 
close  relation  made  between  the  geometry  of  theory  and  the 
geometry  of  everyday  life.  The  children  can  really  use  every 
geometrical  fact  learned  in  the  school  —  and  that  rather  fre- 
quently. The  girls  are  given  only  that  which  they  need.  Ab- 
stract proofs  and  hypothetical  figures  and  propositions  find 
no  place  at  aU  in  the  elementary  school.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  geometrical  facts  are  necessary  for  everybody  and  too 
frequently  these  are  omitted  from  our  courses  of  study. 

Arithmetic.    First  Year.    Boys 

(The  class  had  been  in  school  ten  weeks.) 

Teacher:    Count  to  ten.    Use  the  counting-frame. 

(The  counting-frame  consisted  of  two  wooden  uprights,  between  which 

ten  wire  rods  were  stretched.    On  each  rod  were  ten  wooden  balls, 

some  red  and  some  green.) 
Pupil:    Counting  to  ten  as  he  shoves  a  ball  for  each  number  from  left  to  right 

One,  two,  three.  .  .  .  ten. 
Teacher:    A  man  has  six  birds.    He  sells  four.    How  many  has  he  left? 
Pupil:    He  has  two  left. 
Teacher:    Give  aU  the  combinations  of  7. 
Pupil:    Counting  with  the  balls,     i  and  6  are  7.     2  and  5  are  7. 
Teacher:    Another  boy. 
Pupil:    1  and  6  are  7.     2  and  5  are  7.    3  and  4  are  7.    4  and  3  are  7. 

5  and  2  are  7.    6  and  1  are  7. 
Teacher:    Count  the  days  of  the  week. 
PupU:    Monday,  i;  Tuesday,  2;  Wednesday,  3;  Thursday,  4;  Friday, 

S ;  Saturday,  6 ;  Sunday,  7. 
Teacher:    How  many  days  in  a  week ? 
Pupil:    There  are  7  days  in  a  week. 
Teacher:    Sunday  and  Monday  have  passed.    How  many  days  of  the  week 

remain? 
Pupil:    7  less  2  is  5. 

Teacher:    9  less  i  is  how  many?    Indicating  on  the  frame. 
Pupil:    9  less  i  is  8. 
Teacher:    8  less  i  is  how  many? 


ARITHMETIC 


367 


Pupil:    8  less  i  is  7. 

Teacher:    7  less  i  is  how  many? 

Pupil:    7  less  i  is  6. 

Teacher:    6  less  i  is  how  many? 

Pupil:    6  less  i  is  5. 

Teacher:    5  and  i  are  how  many? 

Pupil:    5  and  i  are  6.     (In  each  case  the  child  indicated  the  addition  on 

the  counting-frame.) 
Teacher:    6  and  i  are  how  many? 
PupU:    6  and  i  are  7. 
Teacher:    7  and  i  are  how  many? 
Pupil:    7  and  i  are  8. 
Teacher:    8  and  i  are  how  many? 
PupU:    8  and  i  are  g. 
Teacher:    9  and  i  are  how  many? 
PupU:    9  and  i  are  10. 
Teacher:    We  shall  now  count  by  2's  to  ten  on  the  frame.    2,  4,  6,  8,  10. 

Repeat  that. 
Pupil:    2,  4,  6,  8,  10.     (Indicated  all  addition.) 
Teacher:    Count  down  from  10  by  2's. 
Pupil:     10,  8,  6  .  .  . 
PupU:     10,  8,  6,  4,  2,  o. 
Teacher:    (Writing  whUe  a  pupU  indicated  the  subtraction  on  the  frame, 

and  gave  the  results.) 


8-2=6 

10-3  =  7 

6—2=4 

10—4  =  6 

10—2=8 

io-S  =  S 

6—2=4 

10—6=4 

4—2  =  2 

10-7=3 

10—1=9 

10-8  =  2 

10-2=8 

10—9  =  1 

Teacher:    A  boy  had  ten  cherries.    He  ate  three.    How  many  had  he  left ? 
PupU:    He  had  7  left.    10— 3  =7. 

(This  drill  work  was  repeated  six  times.) 

The  teacher  made  all  the  addition  combinations  up  to  10, 
using  the  frame.    The  children  did  all  the  work. 


368 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


o  ooooooooo 
00  oooooooo 
ooo  ooooooo 
oooo  oooooe 
ooooo  ooooo 
oooooo  oooo 
ooooooo      ooo 

00000«f00       oo 

ooooooooo  o 

oooooooooo 


After  that  had  been  finished,  the  teacher  wrote  a  number  of 
problems  on  the  board  for  the  pupils  to  solve  on  slates. 


io  =  7  +  ? 
io=9  +  ? 
io=3  +  ? 

10  =  2  +  ? 


io=4+? 

IO  =  I  +  ? 

io=6  +  ? 
10=8  +  ? 
io  =  7  +  ? 


Class  VII  a.    Hannover.    Arithmetic.    37  Girls.    Age  6-7 


(The  children  counted  with  wooden  sticks,  laying  the  base  number  —  in 
this  case  "9"  —  first  and  adding  the  required  number  to  it.  The 
lesson  dealt  with  "9"  and  its  combinations,  as  9+1,  9+2,  etc.) 

Teacher:    Without  the  sticks,  —  How  many  are  9+1  ? 

PupU:    9  and  i  are  10. 

Teacher:    8  and  2? 

Pupil:    8  and  2  are  10. 

Teacher:    6  and  4? 

Pupil:    6  and  4  are  10. 

Teacher:    3  and  7? 

Pupil:    3  and  7  are  10. 

Teacher:    5  and  s? 

Pupil:     s  and  5  are  10. 

Teacher:    2  and  8? 


ARITHMETIC  369 

Pupil:    2  and  8  are  10. 

Teacher:    4  and  6? 

Pupil:    4  and  6  are  10. 

Teacher:    Now  count  with  the  sticks.    How  many  are  9  and  3?    (The 

pupils  always  keep  9  sticks  down  in  one  row,  then  add  enough  (i)  to 

make  10,  and  lay  the  remainder  of  the  given  number  in  the  next  row.) 
Pupil:    9  and  i  are  10.     10  and  2  are  12.    Therefore,  9  and  3  are  12. 
Teacher:    How  many  are  9  and  s? 
PupU:    9  and  5?    9  and  i  are  10.    10  and  4  are  14.    Therefore,  9  and  s 

are  14. 
Teacher:    9  and  6? 

Pupil:    9  and  1  are  10.    10  and  4  are  14  .  .  . 
Teacher:    No,  that  is  wrong.    How  many  have  you  in  your  hand  after 

laying  i  in  the  first  row? 
PupU:    Five. 
Teacher:    Well,  then! 

PupU:    10  and  5  are  13.    Therefore,  9  and  6  are  15. 
Teacher:    g  and  7? 

Pupil:    9  and  i  are  10.     10  and  6  are  16.    Therefore,  9  and  7  are  16. 
Teacher:    9  and  9? 

Pupil:    9  and  i  are  10.     10  and  8  are  18.    Therefore,  9  and  9  are  18. 
(The  answers  given  were  with  one  exception  correct,  but  the  other  results 

did  not  come  as  readily  as  the  report  would  indicate.    The  pupils 

talked  slowly,  and  laid  the  sticks  carefuUy  before  giving  their  repUes.) 
Teacher:    Now  we  shall  add  without  the  sticks.    How  many  are  10  and  3 ? 

Give  merely  the  result. 
Pupil:    Thirteen. 
Teacher:    10  and  4? 
Pupil:    Fourteen. 
Teacher:    10  and  8? 
PupU:    Eighteen. 
Teacher:    10  and  7? 
PupU:    Seventeen. 
Teacher:    10  and  2? 
PupU:    Twelve. 

Teacher:    9  and  7?    Solve  aJoud. 
PupU:    9  and  i  are  10.    10  and  S  •  •  • 
Teacher:    No. 
PupU:    9  and  i  are  10.    10  and  6  are  16.    Therefore,  9  and  7  are  16. 

SB 


370  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    9  and  5? 

Pupil:    Fourteen. 

Teacher:    9  and  8? 

Pupil:    Seventeen. 

Teacher:    9  and  6? 

Pupil:    Fifteen. 

Teacher:    Sands?    Solve  aloud. 

Pupil:    8  and  2  are  10.    10  and  i  are  11.    Therefore,  8  and  3  are  11. 

Class  III.    Sixth  Year 

Teacher:  The  aim  of  the  lesson  is  to  see  how  after  an  unequal  division  we 
calculate  the  remainder  as  a  fraction  of  the  whole  number.  A  father 
divides  a  dozen  pencUs  among  his  three  children.  He  gives  Alfred 
\  dozen,  Bertha  J  dozen,  and  Konrad  the  remainder.  What  fractional 
part  of  a  dozen  does  Konrad  receive? 

Pupil:    i  dozen  +  \  dozen  =  6  pieces  +  4  pieces  =  10  pieces. 

1  dozen  —  10  pieces  =  2  pieces,  the  remainder. 

2  pieces  =  \  dozen.     .".  The  remainder  is  5  dozen. 
Teacher:    How  was  the  dozen  divided ? 

PupU:    i+h+h 

Teacher:    How  is  that  unequal  division? 

Pupil:    -^  dozen  +  ^  dozen  +  ^  dozen  =  6  pieces  +  4  pieces  +  2  pieces. 

Teacher:    How  many  did  Alfred  and  Bertha  receive  together? 

Pupil:    They  received  6  pieces  +4  pieces,  as  dozens:  A  +  i^=  M  = 

1  dozen. 

Teacher:    What  fractional  part  of  a  dozen  did  Bertha  and  Konrad  receive 

together  ? 
Pupil:    They  received  4  +  i  =  4  pieces  +  2  pieces  =  6  pieces  =  i  dozen. 
(As  wiU  have  already  been  noted,  such  statements  as  J  +  |  =  4  pieces  + 

2  pieces  =  6  pieces  are  incorrect.) 

Teacher:    What  fractional  part  greater  is  \  dozen  than  \  dozen? 

Pupil:    \  dozen  =  f  dozen  +  \  dozen,  so  \  dozen  is  \  dozen  greater  than 

I  dozen. 
In  twelfths  of  a  dozen :  A  =  t^  +  t\,  thus  /^  is  ^  greater  than  ^. 
Teacher:    How  did  we  find  the  unknown  remainder? 
Pupil:    We  reduced  the  dissimilar  fractions  to  a  lower  order,  added  them 

and  subtracted  them  from  a  dozen. 
Teacher:    How  do  we  determine  the  remainder  as  a  fractional  part  of  a 

dozen? 


ARITHMETIC  371 

Pupil:    2  pieces  are  a  sixth  part  (J)  of  12  pieces. 

Teacher:    How  do  we  determine  the  remainder,  when  we  express  the  units 

of  a  lower  order  immediately  as  fractional  parts  of  a  dozen? 
Pupil:    We  change  J  +  J  dozen  into  twelfths  of  a  dozen,  add  them,  then 

subtract  them  from  a  whole  dozen,  which  we  express  as  ^|  dozen. 
Teacher :    Which  figures  do  we  add  in  the  addition  of  ^f  and  ^  ? 
Pupil:    We  add  the  6  and  4,  the  mmierators. 
Teacher:    What  figures  do  we  subtract  when  we  subtract  ^  from  Jf  ? 
Pupil:    We  subtract  10  from  12. 

Teacher:    How  do  we  add  J  +  i  +  i  dozen  as  fractional  parts  of  a  dozen ? 
Pupil:    We  reduce  the  fractions  to  a  common  denominator  and  then  add 

the  numerators. 
Teacher:    In  what  ways  only  can  we  compare  J  dozen  and  J  dozen? 
Pupil:    We  can  compare  J  dozen  and  |  dozen  by  changing  them  to  units 

of  a  lower  order  or  to  twelfths  of  a  dozen. 
Teacher:    If  I  give  one  boy  J  dozen  apples,  and  another  i  dozen  apples, 

what  will  the  remainder  be,  if  I  had  only  one  dozen  apples  ? 
Pupil:  J  dozen  +  i  dozen  =  4  pieces  +  3  pieces  =  7  pieces. 
I  dozen  —  7  pieces  =  5  pieces,  the  remainder. 
S  pieces  =  ^  dozen.  Therefore,  the  remainder  was  ^j  dozen  apples. 
Teacher:  Why  cannot  a  dozen  be  divided  into  |  and  |  parts? 
Pupil:  Because  f  dozen  +  |  dozen  equals  more  than  a  dozen. 
Teacher:    What  remainder  shall  I  have,  if  I  give  away  5  and  5  of  a  Shock 

of  pears  ?    {Shock  =  60.) 
Pupil:    \  Sh.  +  5  Sh.  =  12  pieces  +  10  pieces  =  22  pieces. 
22  pieces  taken  from  60  pieces  =38  pieces. 
38  pieces  =  |§.    Therefore,  the  remainder  is  f§  Shock. 
Teacher:    A  daily  paper  is  subscribed  for  by  three  families  in  common. 

A  pays  f ,  B  i,  C  the  remainder  of  the  subscription.    What  part  has  C 

to  pay?    We  think  that  such  fractions  are  made  of  the  price  that  we 

can  take  out  fourths  and  fifths.    With  what  fractional  parts  is  that 

possible? 
Pupil:    With  twentieths,  fortieths,  sixtieths,  etc. 
Teacher:    We'll  take  the  smallest  fraction.    How  can  we  subtract  fourths 

and  fifths  from  twentieths? 
PupU:    i  =  ^,  and  i  =  ^. 

Teacher:    What  fractional  part  then  do  A  and  B  pay  together? 
Pupil:    They  pay  |  +  |  =  ^  +  ^  =  H- 
Teacher:    What  is  the  remainder  ?    What  do  we  add  to  J  J  to  get  f  g  ? 


372 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Pupil: 

Teacher: 

Pupil: 


hi  +  -ITS  =  M-    sV  is  the  remainder. 
What  fractional  part  more  does  A  pay  than  B  ? 


1  _ 


—  ^  ~  ^  ~  is- 


A  pays  j^  more  than  B. 


Teacher:    How  do  we  add  f  and  i ? 

Pupil:    We  change  the  fractions  to  twentieths  and  add  the  numerators  of 

the  new  fractions. 
Teacher:    Into  what  other  denomiaations  could  we  have  reduced  these 

fractions  ? 
Pupil:    We  could  have  reduced  them  to  fortieths,  sixtieths,  eightieths, 

and  hundredths. 
Teacher:    Why  did  we  select  twentieths? 
Pupil:    Because  it  was  the  smallest. 
Teacher:    How  do  we  find  the  remainder ? 

Pupil:    We  think  of  the  sum  required  to  make  up  JJ  to  fj  or  one  whole  (i). 
Teacher:    How  do  we  compare  f  and  j ? 
Pupil:    We  change  them  into  twentieths  and  subtract  one  from  the  other 

to  find  how  much  larger  one  is  than  the  other. 
Teacher:    Three  persons  buy  some  coal  together.    A  pays  for  J  of  it,  B  pays 

for  f  of  it,  and  C  for  the  remainder.     For  what  does  C  pay? 
Pupil:    A  and  B  pay  for  the  sum  of  J  +  f  =  ^V  •  •  • 
48  is  not  the  least  common  denominator. 
A  and  B  together  pay  for  i  +  f  =  ^  +  /i  =  Ji  of  the  coal. 
C  pays  for  the  remainder,  if  +  Ji  =  |t- 
C  pays  for  JJ  of  the  coal. 
How  do  we  find  the  remainder  when  we  have  to  take  the  stun  of 

such  fractions  as  i  +  J,  i  +  J,  J  +  J  and  the  like  from  a  whole  (i)  ? 
PupU:    We  always  think  of  the  whole  being  divided  into  fractional  parts, 

to  which  denomination  the  fractions  treated  can  be  reduced  so  that 

we  can  add  and  subtract  them. 
Teacher:    Give  an  example. 
Pupil:    I  +  5  to  find  the  remainder  when  the  sum  is  subtracted  from  a 


Teacher 
PupU: 


Teacher 


ARITHMETIC  3-, 

whole.    We  think  of  a  whole  as  divided  into  fifteen  (13)  equal  parts 
because  we  can  change  J  and  i  to  fifteenths.  ' 

Teacher :    What  do  we  do  when  we  have  to  deal  with  dissimilar  fractions  ? 

PupU:    We  make  them  similar. 

Teacher:    The  new  denominator,  which  gives  both  dissimilar  fractions,  is 
called  the  common  denominator. 
How  do  we  find  the  least  common  denominator? 
Let  us  see  how  we  do  that.    What  is  the  common  denominator  of 
iandi? 

PupU:    4. 

Teacher:    Of  iandi? 

Pupil:    6. 
■  Teacher:    Of  J  and  \  ? 

Pupil:    8. 

Teacher:    Of  J  and  J? 

PupU:    6. 

Teacher:    Of  |  and  J? 

Pupil:    9. 

Teacher:    Of  \  and  \  ? 

Pupil:    8. 

Teacher:    Of  J  and  ^  ? 

PupU:    12. 

Teacher:  You  see  the  common  denominator  falls  in  the  arithmetical  series 
of  the  lesser  of  the  two  fractions,  as  2,  4 ;  2, 4,  6 ;  2, 4,  6,  8 ;  3,  6 ;  3,  6, 9. 
In  all  these  examples  the  larger  of  the  two  denominators  could  be  the 
common  denominator. 

Teacher:    What  is  the  common  denominator  of  J  and  J? 

PupU:    6  is  the  common  denominator. 

Teacher:    Off  and  J? 

Pupil:    12. 

Teacher:    Of  J  and  \7 

PupU:    The  common  denominator  is  35. 

Teacher:  The  two  denominators  belong  to  different  arithmetical  series, 
and  the  common  denominator  is  the  product  of  the  two.  The  de- 
nominators in  the  examples  just  given  have  no  common  denominator. 
What  is  the  common  denominator  of  \  and  f  ? 

PupU:    7  and  3  have  no  common  factor,  so  the  common  denominator  of 

i  and  f  is  7  X  3  =  21- 
Teacher:    What  are  the  common  denominators  of  these  pairs  of  fractions, 


374  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

I  and  I,  -^  and  ^,  t  and  ^?  These  pairs  of  fractions  are  related  by 
common  factors,  because  they  belong  to  similar  arithmetical  series. 
We  find  the  lowest  common  denominators  in  such  cases  by  going  up 
in  the  arithmetical  series  of  the  largest  denominator  and  testing  every 
member  of  the  series  to  see  if  the  smallest  denominator  is  contained  in 
it.    What  is  the  lowest  common  denominator  of  i  and  ^? 

Pupil:  20  is  not  divisible  by  8.  The  next  number  in  the  arithmetical 
series  is  40.  40  is  divisible  by  8.  Hence,  40  is  the  least  common  de- 
nominator. 

Teacher:  Summarize  what  we  have  learned  about  finding  the  least  common 
denominator. 

Pupil:  We  find  the  least  common  denominator  in  the  arithmetical  series 
of  the  largest  denominator. 

Hannover.    Class  V  a.    (Third  Year.)    Arithmetic.     54  Girls 

(See  lesson  in  the  same  class  on  page  322.) 

Teacher:    When  did  Henry  hold  his  first  banquet  in  Hannover? 

Pupil:    He  held  his  first  banquet  here  in  1163. 

Teacher:    How  long  ago  is  that ? 

Pupil:    That  was  751  years  ago. 

Teacher:    Solve  that  aloud. 

Pupil:    From  1163  to  1863  was  700  years.    From  1863  to   1900  was  37 

years  and  from  1900  to  1914  is  14  years.    37  years  and  14  years  are 

51  years.    So  all  together,  751  years. 
Teacher:    When  was  Lauenrode  built? 
Pupil:    It  was  built  in  1213. 

Teacher:    How  long  ago  was  that  ?    Be  clever.     (The  answer  came  at  once.) 
Pupil:    699  years. 

Teacher:    How  did  you  figure  it  so  quickly? 
Pupil:    There  is  only  i  year  lacking  untU  1915,  or  exactly  700  years  since 

1215. 
Teacher:    When  was  Lauenrode  destroyed? 
Pupil:    It  was  destroyed  in  137 1. 
Teacher:    How  long  did  it  stand? 
Pupil:    It  stood  156  years.    From  1215  to  1315  is  100  years.    And  from 

131S  to  1371  is  56  years.    Therefore,  in  all  156  years. 
Teacher:    How  long  ago  was  that ?    I  mean  when  the  Bwfg  was  destroyed. 
Pupil:    It  was  destroyed  S43  years  ago.    From  1371  to  1871  was  5°° 


ARITHMETIC  375 

years,  and  from  1871  to  1900  was  29  years,  and  from  1900  to  1914, 
14  years.  29  years  and  14  years  are  43  years.  Therefore,  from  1371 
to  the  present  time  is  543  years. 

Teacher:    When  did  Hannover  become  a  city? 

Pupil:    Hannover  became  a  city  in  1241. 

Teacher:    How  long  ago  was  that ? 

FupU:    That  was  673  years  ago. 

Teacher:    When  was  the  Marktkirche  built? 

Pupil:    The  Marktkirche  was  built  in  1250. 

Teacher:    Uov  long  a.go  was  the  Marktkirche  hxiilt?    Solve  aloud. 

Pupil:  It  was  built  664  years  ago.  From  1250  to  1850  is  600  years,  and 
from  1850  to  1900  is  50  years,  and  from  1900  to  1914  is  14  years.  Fifty 
(so)  years  and  14  years  are  64  years.    Therefore,  all  together  664  years. 

Teacher:    When  was  the  Nicolai  Fotmdation  established? 

Pupil:    The  Nicolai  Stiff  was  established  in  1256. 

Teacher:    Calculate  how  long  ago  that  has  been. 

PupU:  From  1256  to  1856  is  600  years.  From  1856  to  1900  is  44  years. 
From  1900  to  1914  is  14  years.  44  years  and  14  years  make  58  years. 
Therefore,  together,  658  years. 

Teacher:    What  have  you  noticed  recently  in  the  store  windows? 

Pupil:    "White  Week." 

Pupil:    "  10  %  rebate." 

Teacher:    What  is  "White  Week"? 

Pupil:  Always  about  the  first  of  February  the  merchants  sell  white  goods 
at  a  reduction  for  a  few  days. 

Teacher:    What  is  "  10 %  rebate" ? 

Pupil:    That  means  you  can  buy  i  mark's  worth  of  goods  for  90  pfennigs. 

Teacher:  Rebate  means  a  reduction.  What  is  "inventory  sale"?  (No 
answer.)  Every  year  the  merchant  goes  over  his  wares  and  takes 
stock  of  them  and  sees  what  he  has.  Things  that  he  has  not  been  able 
to  sell  readily,  he  places  on  sale  and  this  is  called  an  "inventory  sale." 

Teacher:  I  buy  something  for  8  M.  and  receive  10%  rebate.  What  do 
I  pay?    Give  just  the  result. 

PupU:    7.20  M. 

Teacher:    I  buy  for  5  M.,  10  %  rebate.    What  do  I  pay? 

PupU:    4.50  M. 

Teacher:    I  buy  for  12  M.,  10%  rebate.    What  do  I  pay? 

Pupil:    10.80. 

Teacher:    Solve  that  aloud. 


376  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:  I  receive  on  i  M.,  lo  Pf.  reduction.  On  12  M.  I  receive  12  times 
10  Pf.  or  1.20  M.  reduction.  Therefore,  I  must  pay  12  M.  less  1.20  M. 
or  10.80  M. 

Teacher:    I  buy  for  6.50  M.,  10  %  rebate.    What  must  I  pay? 

Pupil:  On  I  M.  I  receive  10  Pf.  rebate.  On  6  M.  6  times  10  Pf.  or  60  Pf. 
On  so  Pf.  I  receive  5  Pf.  rebate.  In  all  I  receive  65  Pf.  rebate.  There- 
fore, I  must  pay  6.50  M.  —  .65  M.  or  5.85  M. 

Teacher:    I  buy  for  4.50  M.,  10%  rebate.    What  do  I  pay? 

Pupil:    4.0S  M. 

Teacher:    A  whole  mark  has  how  many  pfennigs? 

Pupil:    A  whole  mark  has  100  Pf. 

Teacher:    JM.? 

Pupil:    i  M.  has  2S  Pf. 

Teacher:    JM.? 

Pupil:    i  M.  has  50  Pf. 

Teacher:    fM.? 

Pupil:    i  M.  has  75  Pf. 

Teacher:    How  many  pfennigs  has  61  M.  ?  i  M.  ? 

Pupil:    625  Pf. 

Teacher:    How  many  pfennigs  in  3 J  M. ? 

Pupil:    ii  M.  have  375  Pf. 

Teacher:    iM.? 

Pupil:    20  Pf. 

Teacher:    i  M. 

Pupil:    I  M.  have  80  Pf. 


Teacher 

:    25  Pf.  is  made  up  of  what  fractional  parts  of  a  mark? 

Pupil: 

25  Pf.  are  i  M. 

Pupil: 

25  Pf.  are  1  M  +  jii  M. 

Pupil: 

AM. 

Pupa: 

AM. -AM. 

Teacher 

;    Of  what  fractional  parts  of  a  mark  are  60  Pf .  made  up  ? 

Pupil: 

J  M.  +  A  M. 

Pupil: 

|M. 

Pupil: 

MM. 

Pupil: 

1  M.  +  A  M. 

Pupil: 

AM. 

Pupil: 

A  M.  +  A  M. 

Teacher 

.•    Of  what  fractional  parts  of  a  mark  are  45  Pf.  made  up? 

Pupil: 

A  M.  +  A  M. 

ARITHMETIC 

PupU: 

AM. 

PupU: 

«  M.  +  jV  M. 

PupU: 

i  M.  -  ,V  M. 

PupU: 

i  M.  +  A  M.  +  A  M. 

PupU: 

J  M.  +  i  M. 

377 


Arithmetic.    Class  III.    (Fifth  Year.)    Steglitz.    Berlin.    Boys 

Teacher:    What  is  the  product  of  ij  X  S? 

PupU:    9f. 

Teacher:    Solve  it  orally. 

PupU:    s  X  I  are  s.    s  X  J  are  Jy^  or  4f ,  together,  gf .    .-.  5X1}  are  gf. 

Teacher:    Write  this  problem  on  the  board :  12  X  6|. 

PupU:    Solution :    (Pupil  talking  as  he  solved.) 


I2.6f=I2.6+(l2.f  =^^)  = 


72 
10 
82 
.-.  12  X  6f  =  82. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  multiply  fractions? 

PupU:    The  numerator  of  the  fraction  is  multiplied  by  the  number  and 

divided  by  its  denominator. 
Teacher:    If  a  cyclist  can  ride  3 J  kilometers  in  \  of  an  hour,  how  far  can  he 

ride  in  f  hr.  ? 
PupU:  (solving  at  the  board) : 

5-33  km.  =  s-3kni.  +  (5.3^  km.  =  -^  =i^  km.  =3!  km.] 
\  44  / 

IS  km. 

3|km. 

i8|km. 

.'.  He  rode  i8j  km.  in  |  of  an  hour. 

Teacher:    How  much  time  had  he  used? 
PupU:    f  of  a  minute. 
PupU:    He  had  used  fifty  (50)  minutes. 

Teacher:    What  is  i  multiplied  by  i  ?    (No  answers  were  correct.)    Well 
then,  if  I  divide  a  whole  in  8  parts,  how  many  eighths  do  I  get? 


378  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

PupU:    We  get  (|)  eight  eighths. 

Teacher:    Well,  if  I  divide  each  one  of  these  eighth  parts  into  four  parts, 

how  many  parts  shall  I  have  ? 
Pupil:    There  will  be  32  parts. 
Teacher:    Very  well,  then,  what  is  f  multiplied  by  j ? 
Pupil:    i  multiplied  by  J  is  ^.  .  .  . 
Teacher:    In  division  we  can  only  divide  units  of  one  denomination  by 

units  of  like  denomination.    We  cannot  divide  apples  by  pliuns.    And 

so  it  is  in  fractions.    I  cannot  divide  the  area  of  the  playground  by 

meters.    By  what  can  I  divide  the  area  of  the  playground? 
Pupil:    We  can  divide  it  by  square  meters. 

Teacher:    How  often  is  one  meter  contained  in  the  length  of  this  room? 
Pupil:    A  meter  is  contained  nine  times  in  the  length  of  the  room. 
Teacher:    How  often  are  6  pears  contained  in  90  plums? 
Pupil:     IS  times. 

PupU:    They  are  not  contained  at  all.    It  cannot  be  done. 
Teacher:    To  how  many  boys  can  I  give  6  pears  each,  if  I  have  ninety 

(90)  pears? 
Pupil:    To  fifteen  boys. 
Teacher:    How  of  ten  is  f  contained  in  ^  ? 
PupU:    f  is  contained  in  |  two  (2)  times. 

Teacher:    Divide  3!  by  |.    What  must  we  do  with  the  mixed  number? 
Pupil:    The  mixed  number  must  be  changed  to  an  improper  fraction. 

3;  are  equal  to  -y.    ^  divided  by  f  =  5. 
Teacher:    Divide  si  by  f. 

PupU:    S3  -^  i :    Sl  are  equal  to  y :     J/  divided  by  |  =  8. 
Teacher:    9f  -;-  35.    Now  use  your  eyes  as  well  as  your  minds. 
PupU:    Three. 
(The  period  was  interrupted  and  finally  cut  short  by  some  secretarial  work 

which  the  teacher  had  to  attend  to.) 

Ariteoietic.    Sixth  Year.    Boys.    Steglitz 

Teacher:  There  were  four  persons  in  business  together.  A  had  invested 
30,000  M.,  B  10,000  M.,  C  7,000  M.,  and  D  1,000  M.  The  earnings 
for  the  year  were  10,701.20  M.  D  received  2  %  of  the  earnings  for 
managing  the  business.  What  did  each  one  receive  after  D  had  been 
paid? 

Pupil:    The  first  thing  I  do  is  to  find  2  %  of  10,701.2  M. 


ARITHMETIC 


379 


Teacher:    What  is  2  %  of  10,701.20  M.  ? 
Pupil:    2  %  of  10,701.20  M.  is  214.02  M. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  get  that  ?    Write  the  amount  on  the  board. 
Pupil:     (Writes  10,701.20  M.  on  the  board.) 
Teacher:    What  do  you  need  to  do  now  to  find  2  %  of  the  amount? 
Pupil:    1  %  of  10,701.20  M.  is  107.01  M. 
2  %  of  10,701.20  is  214.02  M. 

Then  I  subtract  214.02  M.  from  10,701.20  M.Jin  order  to  find  the  amount 
which  is  divided  among  A,  B,  C,  and  D.    In  all  there  are  48  parts ; 
A  receives  f|,  B  receives  if,  C  receives  ^,  and  D  receives  A- 
10,701.20  M.  less  214.02  M.  is  10,487.18  M.,  which  is  the  profit  less  the 
2  %  paid  to  D  for  his  work.     (Up  to  this  point  the  solution  was  oral.) 
^  of  10,487.18  M.  =  10,487.18  M  ^  48  =  218.44. 
A  receives  30  X  218.44  M.  =  6553.20  M. 
B  receives  10  X  218.44  =  2184.40  M. 
C  receives  7  X  218.44  =  1529.08  M. 
D  receives  i  X  218.44  =  218.44  M. 
Teacher:    A  and  B  subscribe  for  a  newspaper  together,  paying  1.80  M. 

quarterly.    A  pays  20  Pf.  more  than  B.    What  does  each  pay? 
Pupil:    1.80  M.   less  .20  M.  =  1.60  M.,  which  is  the  amount  that  is 
equally  divided  between  A  and  B. 

1.60  M.  -5-  2  =  .80  M.    But  since  A  pays  20  Pf.  more  than  B,  he  pays 
1. 00  M.  and  B  pays  .80  M. 
Teacher:    The  principle  is  to  subtract  the  amount  which  one  pays  more 
than  the  other,  then  the  remainder  is  divided  equally  between  them. 
Solve  the  problem  again. 
PupU:    1.80  M.  -  .20  M.  =  1.60  M. 
1.60  M.  -=-  2  =  .80  M. 
.80  M.  +  .20  M.  =  1.00  M.,  what  A  pays. 
.80  M.  =  what  B  pays. 
Teacher:    Read  the  amounts  paid  by  each  as  parts. 
PupU:    1  part  +  1  part  +  .20  M.  =  1.80  M. 
2  parts  +  .20  M.  =  1.80  M. 
2  parts  =  1.60  M. 
1  part  =  .80  M. 
B  pays  1  part  =    .80  M. 
A  pays  I  part  +  20  M.  =  i.oo  M. 
Teacher:    A  and  B  divide  60  M.,  A  receiving  10  M.  more  than  B.    What 
does  each  receive? 


38o 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Pupils:    I  part  +  lo  M.  +  i  part  =  60  M. 

2  parts  +  10  M.  =  60  M. 

2  parts  =  so  M. 

I  part  =  2  s  M. 

I  part  +  10  M.  =  35  M.,  what  A  receives. 

I  part  =  25  M.,  what  B  receives. 


Arithmetic.    Sixth  Year.    Boys.    Steglitz.    Berlin 

(The  following  is  a  short  exercise  given  in  about  ten  minutes  on  registration 

day  when  classes  were  not  completely  organized.) 
Teacher:    What  is  a  fraction ? 
Pupil:    A  fraction  is  a  part  of  a  whole. 
Teacher:    That  is  not  exactly  right. 
Pupil:    A  fraction  is  one  or  more  parts  of  a  whole. 
Teacher:    How  many  parts  are  there  in  a  fraction? 
Pupil:    There  are  three  parts. 
Teacher:    What  are  they? 

Pupil:    They  are  the  numerator,  the  line,  and  the  denominator. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  function  of  the  numerator? 
Pupil:    The  numerator  (Zdhler)  is  above  the  line  and  tells  the  number  of 

parts  taken  to  make  the  fraction. 
Teacher:    What  does  the  denominator  do? 
Pupil:    The  denominator  tells  the  size  of  the  parts  into  which  the  whole 

is  divided. 
Teacher:    What  is  5?    What  does  that  mean? 
Pupil:    It  means  that  a  whole  is  divided  into  four  (4)  parts,  and  that  three 

are  taken  to  make  up  the  fraction  J. 
Teacher:    Three  fourths  (f)  can  come  from  more  than  one  imit  or  whole. 

How? 
Pupil:    i  is  3  X  i  of  a  whole. 
Teacher:    One  can  get  the  fraction  J  in  another  way. 


% 

^ 

VAt 

% 

'A 

% 

m: 

X 

1 

%     1 

% 

X 

% 

ARITHMETIC  381 

Teacher:  One  can  take  three  one  fourth  parts  of  one  whole,  but  there  is 
another  way.  One  can  take  three  wholes  and  take  the  fourth  part  of 
each  and  thus  have  three  fourths  (f ) ,  as  the  diagram  shows.  What  does 
I  mean,  when  one  takes  the  fourth  part  of  each  of  three  wholes  or  units? 

PupU:    Three  fourths  would  mean  3  divided  by  4,  or  J. 

Teacher:    That  is  all  for  this  morning.    What  is  your  next  class? 

Geometry.    Seventh  Year.    Girls 
Teacher:    What  kinds  of  lines  are  there ? 
PupU:    There  are  straight  Unes  and  crooked  lines. 
Teacher:    What  kinds  of  straight  lines  are  there? 
PupU:    There  are  perpendicular,  horizontal,  and  oblique  lines. 
Teacher:    What  kinds  of  crooked  Unes  are  there? 
PupU:    There  are  spiral  lines,  snake-shaped  lines,  and  broken  lines,  and 

also  curved  and  mixed  lines. 
Teacher:    Very  well,  draw  those  on  the  board  for  me.    How  do  we  measure 

a  line? 
PupU:    We  measure  a  line  by  a  unit  of  linear  measure,  for  example,  the 

centimeter  or  kilometer. 
Teacher:    Show  me  a  unit  of  linear  measure. 
PupU:    That  is  one  (pointing  at  the  meter,  which  is  marked  off  on  the  walls 

of  German  schoolrooms). 
Teacher:    Yes,  how  long  is  that  line  (on  the  board)  in  all? 
PupU:    It  is  two  meters  long. 
Teacher:    How  many  meters  in  a  kilometer? 
PupU:    There  are  one  thousand  meters  in  a  kilometer. 
Teacher:    How  far  would  that  be  from  here? 
PupU:    That  would  be  about  to  Ringstrasse  or  the  railway  station. 
Teacher:    What  is  that  (drawing  a  circle  on  the  board)  ? 
PupU:    That  is  a  circle. 

Teacher:    What  are  these  (pointing  at  the  arms  of  the  compass)? 
PupU:    They  are  the  arms  of  the  compass. 
Teacher :    What  do  we  call  lines  which  are  equally  distant  from  each  other 

at  all  points  ? 
PupU:    We  call  such  lines  parallel  lines. 

Teacher:    And  lines  which  are  not  equally  distant  from  each  other? 
PupU:    We  call  them  non-parallel  lines. 

Teacher:    What  happens  when  two  non-paraUel  hnes  are  projected? 
PupU:    They  meet  or  cut  each  other. 


382 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


Teacher:    What  is  formed  by  their  intersections  ? 

Pupil:    Angles  are  formed  when  two  lines  intersect. 

Teacher:    If  I  place  the  arms  of  the  compass  perpendicular  to  each  other, 

what  kind  of  an  angle  do  I  get  ? 
Pupil:    That  is  a  right  angle.  ' 

Teacher:    If  I  spread  the  arms  of  the  compass  a  little  farther  apart,  what 

kind  of  an  angle  is  that  ? 
Pupil:    That  is  an  obtuse  angle. 
Teacher:    If  I  put  the  arms  of  the  compass  so  that  they  form  a  straight 

line,  what  kind  of  an  angle  is  that? 
Pupil:    That  is  a  straight  line  or  an  angle  of  i8o°. 
Teacher:    Yes,  or  straight  angle.    If  I  make  the  angle  still  larger  than 

180°,  what  do  we  call  it? 
Pupil:    We  call  that  a  reflex  angle. 

Teacher:    Draw  aU  these  kinds  of  angles  on  the  board.    Where  have 
we  a  right  angle  in  the  room? 

Pupil:    Over  there  in  the  corner  (shows 
the  angle).     (The  teacher  then  has  the 
girls  find  the  different  types  of  angles 
"  in  various  places  in  the  room.) 

"  Teacher:    How  do  these  lines  stand  with 

reference  to  each  other  ? 
Pupil:    They   are  perpendicular   to   each 
other. 

Teacher:    What  kinds  of  angles  are  a,  b,  c,  and  d? 
Pupil:    They  are  all  right  angles. 
Teacher:    Show  me  such  angles  in  the  room. 


Fig.  a. 


Fig.  i. 


Teacher :  The  angles  e  and  /,  and  g  and  h,  are  complementary  angles.  They 
have  one  side  in  common  and  the  other  sides  form  a  straight  line. 
What  are  the  angles  e  and  /  equal  to  ? 


ARITHMETIC 


383 


d 


Pupil:    The  angles  e  and  /  are  equal  to  2  right  angles. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  know  that ? 

Pupil:    The  angles  formed  by  a  straight  line  and  a  perpendicular  upon  it 

are  equal  to  two  right  angles. 
Teacher:    The  angles  e  and  /  (Fig.  a)  are 

called   adjacent   angles  and   adjacent 

angles  are  equal  to  two  right  angles. 

What  kind  of  angles  are  e  and/? 
Pupil:    The  angles  e  and  /  are  adjacent  

angles  and  are  equal  to  2  right  angles. 
Teacher:    What  kind  of  angles  are  a  and  d 

(Fig.c)? 
Pupil:    They  are  vertical  angles. 
Teacher:    Vertical  angles  are  equal. 

The  angle  e  (Fig.  a)  +  the  angle  /  =  2  right  angles. 

The  angle  h  (Fig.  a)  +  the  angle  /  =  2  right  angles. 

Then  / e  +  Z/  =  Zh  +  Z/,  because  things  equal  to  the  same  thing 
are  equal  to  each  other.  Then  I  subtract  the  angle  /  from  both 
quantities  and  I  have 

Ze  =  Zh. 

How  can  that  be  true  ? 
Pupil:    Equals  taken  from  equals  leave  equals. 
Teacher:    That  is  good.    I  see  you  have  given  attention. 


Fig. 


9Xh 


Teacher:    What  kind  of  lines  are  A  and  Bf 

Pupil:    They  are  parallel  hues. 

Teacher:    I  shall  name  one  of  a  pair  of  adjacent  angles  and  you  name  the 

other.    The  angle  a. 
PupU:    The  angle  c. 
Pupil:    Or  the  angle  h. 
Teacher:    The  angle  e. 
Pupil :    The  angle  /  or  g. 


(This  was  continued  for  some  minutes.) 


384  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    What  is  the  sum  of  such  adjacent  angles? 

Pupil:    180°. 

Teacher:    Now  let  us  see  the  vertical  angles.    What  is  the  relation  of 

vertical  angles? 
Pupil:    Vertical  angles  are  equal. 

Teacher:    What  is  the  angle  corresponding  to  the  angle  a? 
Pupil:    The  angle  d. 

Teacher:    Pick  out  other  pairs  of  vertical  angles. 
Pupil:    The  angles  6  and  c,  e  and  h,  g  and  /. 
Teacher:    Look  at  the  angles  a  and  e.    We  have  a  new  name  for  them. 

They  are  corresponding  angles.    What  kind  of  angles  are  they? 
Pupil:    They  are  corresponding  angles. 
Teacher:    Pick  out  some  other  corresponding  angles. 
Pupil:    The  angles  h  and/,  d  and  h,  and  g  and  c. 
Teacher:    Why  are  such  angles  equal  ?     (No  answer.)    If  we  were  to  place 

the  angle  e  upon  the  angle  a,  by  just  shoving  the  lower  part  of  the 

figure  up,  the  angles  would  coincide.    We  have  another  kind  of  an 

angle,  hke  those  we  have  here  in  angle  a  and  angle  g.     We  call  them 

supplementary  angles.    What  do  we  call  them  ? 
Pupil:    We  call  them  supplementary  angles. 
Teacher:    There  is  another  kind  of  angle.    Notice  the  angles  a  and  h. 

They  are  called  alternate  exterior  angles  {Wechselwinkel).    What  are 

they  called? 
Pupil:    They  are  called  alternate  exterior  angles. 
Teacher:    They  are  always  equal.    Why?     (No  answer.)    What  is  the 

relation  of  the  angle  a  and  the  angle  d  ? 
Pupil:    They  are  equal. 

Teacher:    What  do  we  know  of  the  angle  d  and  the  angle  h? 
Pupil:    They  are  equal. 

Teacher      What  is  the  conclusion  about  angle  a  and  angle  h  ? 
Pupil:    They  must  be  equal  too,  because  things  equal  to  the  same  thing 

are  equal  to  each  other. 
Teacher:    Yes.    What  kind  of  angles  have  we  learned  about  to-day? 
Pupil:    We  have  learned  about  alternate  exterior  angles. 
(The  bell  rang  at  this  point.    The  teacher  said  that  geometry  was  of  little 

benefit  to  the  girls  and  that  he  never  insisted  on  a  strict  proof.    The 

discipline  was  very  poor.) 


ARITHMETIC 


Arithmetic.    Seventh  Year.    Boys 


385 


Teacher:    Write  on  the  board  4  meters  as  kilometers. 
Pupil:    0,004  km.  (writing).    Naught,  comma,  naught,  naught,  four  kilo- 
meters. 
Teacher:    How  else  can  that  be  read  ? 
Pupil:    Four- thousandth  of  a  kilometer,  or  four  meters. 
Teacher:    Write  40  meters  as  kilometers. 
Pupil:    0,040  km. 

Teacher:    Write  400  meters  as  kilometers. 
Pupil:    0,400  km. 

Teacher:    Write  thirty-four  and  thirty-six  thousandths  kilometers. 
Pupil:    (Writes)  34,036  km. 
Teacher:    Read  that  in  all  possible  ways. 

PupU:    Thirty-four,    comma,    naught,    three,    six    kilometers.    Thirty- 
four  .  .  . 
PupU:    Thirty-four^  and  thirty-six  thousandths  kilometers. 

Thirty-four  kilometers,  thirty-six  meters. 

Thirty-four  thouM-iid,  thirty-six  meters. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  aU  together. 
Pupils:    Thirty-four,  comma,  naught,  three,  six  kilometers. 

Thirty-four,  and  thirty-six  thousandths  kilometers. 

Thirty-four  kilometers,  thirty-six  meters. 

Thirty-four  thousand,  thirty-six  kilometers. 
Teacher:    Karl,  repeat  that  once  more. 
Pupil:    Thirty-four,  comma,  naught,  three,  six  kilometers. 

Thirty-foiu:,  and  thirty-six  thousandths  kilometers. 

Thirty-four  kilometers,  thirty-six  meters. 

Thirty-four  thousand,  thirty-six  kilometers. 
Teacher:    Read  that  all  together  (writing  135,05  m.  on  the  board). 
Pupils:    One  hundred  thirty-five,  comma,  naught,  five  meters. 

One  hundred  thirty-five,  and  five  hundredths  meters. 

One  himdred  thirty-five  meters,  five  centimeters. 

Thirteen  thousand  five  hundred  five  centimeters. 
Teacher:    Repeat  this  together  :  417,30  Hektoliter  (hi.). 
Pupils:    Four  hundred  seventeen,  comma,  thirty  hektoliters. 

Four  hundred  seventeen,  and  thirty  hundredths  hektoliters. 

Four  hundred  seventeen  hektoliters,  thirty  liters. 

Forty-one  thousand,  seven  hundred  thirty  liters. 


386  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    Repeat  this  together :  300,01  Marks. 
Pupil:    Three  hundred,  comma,  naught,  one  marks. 

Three  himdred,  and  one  hundredth  marks. 

Three  himdred  marks,  one  pfennig. 

Thirty  thousand,  one  pfennigs. 
Teacher:    How  do  you  write  i  Pf.  as  a  decimal? 
Pupil:    0,01  M.,  naught,  comma,  naught,  one  mark. 
Teacher:    How  do  you  write  10  Pf.  ? 
Pupil:    0,10  M.,  naught,  comma,  ten  mark. 
Teacher:    What  is  a  fraction ? 

Pupil:    A  fraction  is  the  simple  or  compound  part  of  a  whole. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  numerator? 
Pupil:    The  numerator  is  the  number  which  tells  the  parts  which  I  have 

taken  of  the  whole.    It  is  above  the  line. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  denominator? 
Pupil:    The  denominator  tells  into  how  many  parts  the  whole  has  been 

divided.    It  is  below  the  line. 
Teacher:    Out  of  how  many  wholes  can  a  fraction  come? 
Pupil:    A  fraction  can  be  made  up  from  one  whole  or  several  wholes. 
Teacher:    What  is  f  when  derived  from  two  wholes? 
Pupil:    f  is  I  of  2,  or  f  means  2  divided  by  3. 
Teacher:    Again. 

Pupil:    f  is  J  of  2,  or  I  means  2  divided  by  3. 
Teacher:    Again. 

Pupil:    f  is  J  of  2,  or  f  means  2  divided  by  3. 
Teacher:    What  is  f? 
Pupil:    I  is  J  of  4,  or  4  divided  by  5. 
Teacher:    What  is  |  ? 

Pupil:    I  is  5  of . 

Teacher:    That  is  wrong. 

Pupil:    f  is  i  of  5,  or  s  divided  by  6. 

Teacher:    What  is -J? 

Pupil:    f  is  4  of  7,  or  7  divided  by  8. 

Teacher:    ^? 

Pupil:    -[\  is  ^  of  4,  or  4  divided  by  11. 

Teacher:    What  is  ^'j? 

Pupil:    fy  is  -^  of  9,  or  9  divided  by  13. 

Teacher:    What  is  ,8^? 

Pupil:    ^5  is  ^  of  8,  or  8  divided  by  15. 


ARITHMETIC  387 

Teacher:  I  let  a  pitcher  fall  and  it  breaks  into  twelve  equal  pieces.  I  put 
them  together.    What  have  I? 

Pupil:    You  would  have  a  whole  pitcher. 

Teacher:    If  I  added  two  equal  parts  more  ? 

Pupil:    Then  you  would  have  more  than  a  whole  pitcher. 

Teacher:    Name  a  proper  fraction. 

Pupil:    f. 

Teacher:    Name  improper  fractions. 

Pupa:    ^  and  H. 

Pupil:    Vandf 

PupU:    |. 

Teacher:  Take  a  proper  fraction  and  compare  the  numerator  and  the  de- 
nominator. 

PupU:    The  numerator  is  less  than  the  denominator. 

Teacher:  Take  an  improper  fraction  and  compare  the  numerator  and  the 
denominator. 

PupU:    The  numerator  is  larger  than  the  denominator. 

Teacher:    Summarize  that. 

PupU:  In  an  improper  fraction,  the  numerator  is  greater  than  the  de- 
nominator; and  in  a  proper  fraction,  the  numerator  is  less  than  the 
denominator. 

Teacher:    Repeat  that  again. 

Pupil:  In  an  improper  fraction,  the  numerator  is  greater  than  the  de- 
nominator ;  and  in  a  proper  fraction  the  numerator  is  less  than  the 
denominator. 

Teacher:    Repeat  that  agaia. 

PupU:    In  an  improper  fraction  the  numerator  is  less  than  the  denom 

Teacher:    That  is  wrong. 

PupU:  In  an  improper  fraction  the  numerator  is  greater  than  the  denomi- 
nator, and  in  a  proper  fraction  the  numerator  is  less  than  the  denomi- 
nator. 

Teacher:    Compare  the  two  kinds  of  fractions  with  a  whole. 

Pupil:  An  improper  fraction  is  greater  than  a  whole,  while  a  proper  frac- 
tion is  less  than  a  whole. 

Teacher:  Take  JJ,  what  can  we  do  with  it  ?  We  can  change  it  to  a  mixed 
number.    What? 

Pupil:    fj  equals  i^. 

Teacher:    |? 

Pupil:    J  equals  i|. 


388  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    |? 

Pupil:    I  equal  if 

Teacher:    What  does  |  mean? 

Pupil:    f  means  9  divided  by  8. 

Teacher:    How  do  we  change  an  improper  fraction  to  a  mixed  number? 

PupU:    We  divide  the  numerator  by  the  denominator. 

Teacher:    Change  ^  to  a  mixed  number. 

Pupil:    *M  =435-5-12  =  36  and  3  remainder  =  36^2  or  36^. 

Geometry.    Eighth  Year.    Girls 

Teacher:    Draw  a  circle. 

Pupil:     (Pupil  draws  a  circle  on  the  board.) 

Teacher:    We  always  put  the  letter  C  at  the  center  of  a  circle. 

Teacher:    What  is  a  circle ? 

Pupil:    A  circle  is  a  plane  bounded  by  a  curved  line  all  points  of  which 

are  equidistant  from  a  point  within  called  the  center. 
Teacher:    What  are  the  parts  of  a  circle ? 

PupU:    The  parts  of  the  circle  are  the  circumference  and  the  area. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  radius? 

Pupil:    The  radius  is  a  line  drawn  from  the  center  to  the  circumference. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  diameter? 
PupU:    The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  which  passes  through  the 

center  and  intersects  the  circumference  at  two  points. 
Teacher:    Compare  the  diameter  and  the  radius. 
PupU:    The  diameter  is  twice  the  length  of  the  radius. 
Teacher:    How  often  is  the  diameter  contained  in  the  circmnference? 
Pupil:    The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  contained  2>\  times  in  the  circumference 

of  that  circle. 
Teacher:    When  we  know  the  circumference  of  the  circle,  how  do  we  find 

the  diameter  ? 
Pupil:    We  divide  the  circumference  of  a  circle  by  3I  to  find  its  diameter. 
Teacher:    Read  3^  as  a  decimal. 
Pupil:    3.1416. 

Teacher:    Draw  a  tangent  to  that  circle. 
Teacher:    Draw  a  chord.     Can  you  show  me  a  segment?    Can  you  show 

me  a  sector?     (Directions  were  carried  out.) 
Teacher:    The  diameter  of  a  table  was  two  (2)  meters.    Each  guest  was 

allowed  60  cm.    How  many  guests  ? 
PupU:    loj  guests. 


ARITHMETIC  389 

Teacher:    How  did  you  get  that ? 

Pupil:  3|  X  2  meters  =  6^  m.  =  628  cm.  Each'guest  was  given  60  cm., 
therefore,  there  were  places  for  about  loj  guests. 

Teacher:    We  have  taxicabs.    What  regulates  price? 

Pupil:    The  price  depends  upon  the  distance  traveled. 

Teacher:    How  does  one  determine  the  distance  traveled? 

Pupil:  The  distance  is  determined  by  the  number  of  revolutions  made 
by  the  wheel,  which  are  registered  by  a  feather  attached  to  the  axle. 

Teacher:  A  wheel  is  i  m.  in  diameter.  How  far  will  the  wagon  travel 
when  the  wheel  turns  once  ? 

Pupil:    3f  meters. 

Teacher:    How  far  in  100  revolutions ? 

Pupil:    It  will  travel  314.16  meters. 

Teacher:    In  200  revolutions? 

Pupil:    It  will  travel  628.32  meters. 

Teacher:    Who  fixes  the  price  for  taxicabs? 

Pupil:    The  police. 

Teacher:  One  must  have  a  permit  in  order  to  be  allowed  to  operate  a  public 
cab.  Every  one  may  not  do  so.  Before  one  is  allowed  to  do  so,  one 
must  give  evidence  of  his  ability  to  drive  and  show  a  certain  knowledge 
of  traffic  rules  and  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  city.  In  case 
it  is  an  auto  taxicab,  the  chauffeur  must  pass  an  examination  to  demon- 
strate that  he  understands  the  machine  and  its  operation.  Only  a 
fixed  number  of  cabs  are  allowed  to  solicit  fares  at  any  one  cab  stand, 
and  all  such  cabs  must  be  registered  with  the  poh'ce.  The  price  of 
fare  is  fixed  for  definite  distance.  The  meter  registers  for  one,  two, 
or  three  persons.  The  minimum  fare  is  70  Pf.  for  the  first  500  m. 
How  far  is  that  ? 

Pupil:    That  is  about  as  far  as  from  Schulzenstrasse  to  Ringstrasse. 

Teacher:  Then  a  charge  of  10  Pf.  is  made  for  every  additional  200  m. 
Who  decides  the  price? 

Pupil:    The  police  fix  the  price. 

Teacher:    What  registers  the  price? 

Pupil:    The  meter  registers  the  price  and  the  distance. 

Teacher:    What  determines  the  amount  of  the  fare? 

Pupil:    The  distance  traveled  determines  the  fare. 

Teacher:    The  circumference  of  a  taxicab  wheel  is  0.80  m. 
The  first  500  m.  costs  70  Pf. 
Each  additional  300  m.  costs  10  Pf. 


39°  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  total  fare  was  2.80  M.    How  far  did  I  travel? 

How  many  revolutions  did  the  wheel  make  ? 
Pupil:    The  wheel  was  in  circumference  z\  X  0.80  m.  =  2.51  m.  or  2.5  m. 

Therefore,  the  wheel  covered  2.5  m.  in  every  revolution. 
Teacher:    Does  that  help  you  find  how  far  you  went? 
Pupil:    No.    For  .70  M.,  500  m.  were  covered.     That  leaves  2.80  M. 

—  0.70  M.  =  2.10  M.    Each  o.io  M.  pays  for  an  additional  300  m. 

2.10  M.  -i-  0.10  =  21.    Hence,  for  2.10  M.  one  travels  21  X  300  m. 

=  6300  m. 

6300  m.  +  SCO  m.  =  6800  m.  =  6.8  km. 

Whence  we  find  that  one  rides  6.8  km.  for  2.80  M. 
Teacher:    Put  that  on  the  board.    On  a  chaus6e  one  would  travel  from  the 

0.0  kilometer  stone  to  the  one  marked  6.8  km.    How  many  revolutions 

did  the  wheel  make  ? 
Pupil:    The  wheel  would  make  as  many  revolutions  as  2.5  m.  is  contained 

in  6.8  km.     2.5  m.  =  .0025  km. 
Teacher:    No,  there  is  an  easier  way. 
Pupil:    We  change  6.8  km.  to  meters.    6.8  km.  =  6800  m.    6800-5-2.5  = 

68000  m.  -^  25  m.  =  2720.    Therefore,  the  wheel  revolved  2720  times. 
Teacher:    Why  did  you  change  2.5  m.  to  25  m.? 
Pupil:    When  I  divide  by  a  decimal,  I  always  make  the  divisor  a  whole 

number. 
Teacher:    Next  we  shall  see  how  we  reckon  the  area  of  a  circle.    The  cir- 
cumference is  really  a  straight  line.    The  circumference  is  an  infinite 

number  of  straight  lines,  each  of  which  forms  the  base  of  a  triangle, 

the  apex  of  which  is  the  center  of  the  circle.    (Exhibited  a  wooden 

circle  broken  into  triangles.) 

Into  what  can  we  break  up  a  circle  ? 
Pupil:    We  can  break  up  a  circle  into  triangles. 
Teacher :    This  fact  is  of  importance  for  the  calculation  of  the  area  of  a  circle. 

How  do  we  find  the  area  of  a  triangle  ? 

Pupil:    The  area  of  a  triangle  equals  base  X  altitude  ^  hjOt 

2  2 

Teacher:    The  area  of  a  triangle  equals  J^  of  a  parallelogram  with  the  same 

base  and  altitude.    If  I  wish  to  find  the  area  of  a  circle,  what  is  the 

height  of  the  triangles  which  make  up  the  circle  ? 
Pupil:    The  radius  would  represent  the  height. 
Teacher:    What  would  represent  the  base  of  the  triangles? 
Pupil :    The  circumference  of  the  circle  represents  the  base  of  all  the  triangles. 


ARITHMETIC 


391 


Teacher:    How  then  do  I  get  the  area  of  a  circle? 

Pupil:    One  could  find  the  area  of  a  circle  by  finding  the  area  of  all  the 

triangles  which  make  up  a  circle. 
Teacher:    What  becomes  the  base  of  all  the  triangles? 
Pupii:    The  circumference  is  the  base. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  altitude ? 
Pupil:    The  radius. 
Teacher:    Let's  write  that  as  a  formula. 

Pupil:  =  area  of  a  circle. 

2 

Teacher:    How  do  I  find  the  area  of  a  circle? 

PupU.     Multiply  the  radius  by  the  circumference  and  divide  the  product 

by  two. 
Teacher:    How  do  I  find  the  area  of  a  circle? 
PupU:    I  don't  know. 
Teacher:    We  multiply  the  radius  by  the  diameter  and  then  by  3.1416,  and 

that  is  divided  by  two.    Repeat  that. 

Pu0:    Area  of  circle  =        '^'    — . 

Teacher:    Again. 

PupU:    The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  — — '  ^'         . 

Teacher:    Write  that  in  your  notebooks. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  REAL  SUBJECTS 

There  is  a  group  of  subjects  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Prussian 
Volksschule  known  by  the  general  term  Realien,  real  subjects. 
In  this  group  we  find  history,  geography,  botany,  zoology,  physi- 
ology, chemistry,  and  physics.  We  shall  take  up  each  of  these 
subjects  separately  and  discuss  the  methods  employed  in  their 
teaching.  We  shall  try  to  base  our  remarks  as  nearly  as  possible 
upon  the  observational  studies  which  we  have  made  in  elemen- 
tary schools  in  various  sections  of  the  kingdom. 

History 

In  neither  the  higher  nor  lower  schools  was  there  any  historical 
instruction  during  the  sixteenth  century.     The  study  of  history, 
...      according  to  educators  of  that  time,  belonged  in  the 
Develop-       University.     Comenius,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
™*°  asked  that  history  be  taught  in  the  vernacular  schools, 

but  his  request  had  no  effect  on  the  actual  introduction  of  the 
subject  into  the  elementary  curriculum.  The  Pietists  were 
the  first  teachers  to  put  history  together  with  the  other  Realien 
in  the  Volksschule.  These  studies  were  designated  as  the  "study 
of  natural  and  other  useful  things."  The  General-Land-Schul- 
Reglement  in  1763  made  the  Realien  a  part  of  the  elementary 
course,  but  in  spite  of  this  fact  there  were  no  special  periods  set 
aside  for  work  in  history  and  the  instruction  consisted  more  or 
less  in  committing  to  memory  dates  and  names,  a  practice 

392 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  393 

which  has  persisted  down  to  the  present  time,  though  one  finds 
very  few  teachers  who  consciously  follow  this  method.  Gen- 
erally there  was  no  regular  history  text-book. 

The  Philanthropinists  contributed  considerably  to  an  improve- 
ment in  the  method  in  history.  Previously  history  had  been 
little  more  than  learning  names  and  dates,  but  the  Philan- 
t  thropinists  emphasized  the  influence  of  history  upon  the  forma- 
;  tion  of  character,  and  necessarily  demanded  a  method  which 
would  correspond  to  the  aim  which  they  had  set.  They  required 
that  the  teacher  tell  the  history  to  the  children  in  a  spontaneous 
and  animated  maimer,  and  also  that  the  work  be  made  as  objec- 
tive and  concrete  as  possible.  Basedow  (17  23-1 790)  recom- 
mended the  use  of  the  maps  and  pictures.  His  Elementarwerk 
was  used  for  this  latter  purpose  because  it  contained  a  number 
of  historical  illustrations.  Salzmann  made  a  still  greater  ad- 
vance, in  that  he  connected  the  history  of  the  community  in 
which  he  lived  with  the  other  work.  He  also  employed  direct 
observation  to  enrich  the  character  of  his  instruction,  for  exam- 
ple, visiting  monuments,  battlefields,  and  ruins.  Still  another 
step  in  advance  by  the  Philanthropinists  was  the  new  practice 
of  having  the  children  repeat  in  class  the  history  material  which 
/  the  teacher  had  told  them.  This  method  is  still  followed,  although 
not  with  the  best  results. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  appeared  quite  a 
number  of  histories  for  children.  By  the  aid  of  these  books  and 
the  pulsing  national  feeling  aroused  by  the  War  of  Liberation, 
the  interest  for  history  was  greatly  strengthened.  Up  to  this 
time  the  history  of  culture  had  found  a  very  little  place  in  the 
curriculum.  The  main  topics  were  kings,  conquests,  and  battles. 
And  a  very  large  part  of  the  elementary  school  history  in  Germany 
to-day  is  concerned  with  the  same  subjects.  The  struggles  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  emphasized  the  warlike 
character  of  the  history  instruction  in  the  schools,  and  there 


394  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

have  been  wars  frequently  enough  in  Germany  to  keep  alive 
this  spirit  until  the  present  time. 

Harnisch  (i 784-1864)  was  the  creator  of  the  subject  known 
as  Weltkunde,  translated  best  as  study  or  knowledge  of  the  world. 
Weltkunde,  on  which  Harnisch  published  a  book  in 
181 7,  included  the  study  of  "animals,  plants,  man- 
kind, history,  minerals,  peoples,  and  states."  Under  Weltkunde 
he  made  three  divisions :  study  of  the  home,  the  nation,  and  the 
earth.  The  work  in  history  was  divided  accordingly  into  the 
study  of  the  home,  the  fatherland,  and  the  world.  The  in- 
struction was  arranged  in  concentric  circles,  beginning  with 
that  which  was  near  and  going  to  that  which  was  far  away, 
going  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  During  the  third  and 
fourth  decades  there  appeared  several  books  on  the  method 
of  teaching  history  and  on  the  arrangement  and  choice  of  sub- 
ject matter. 

By  the  General  Regulations  of  1872  separate  recitation  periods 
were  assigned  to  the  various  real  subjects  (history,  geography, 
and  science),  which  fact,  indeed,  marked  a  decided  advance 
in  the  teaching  of  each  of  the  subjects.  Before  this  time  the 
Realien  had  been  treated  as  a  unit,  so  to  speak,  but  from  the 
date  of  the  new  regulations,  each  of  the  subjects  was  treated 
in  a  more  isolated  and  independent  fashion.  Instead  of  the 
reading  book  being  used  as  a  text  for  the  Realien,  a  new  sort 
of  text-book  came  into  existence,  which  contained  a  section  for 
history,  one  for  geography,  and  other  sections  for  each  of  the 
scientific  subjects.  This  type  of  text-book  has  evidently  proved 
itself  to  be  of  worth,  for  such  texts  are  used  in  all  German 
elementary  schools  to-day,  though  they  are  employed  more  for 
reference  work  than  for  class  work. 

Since  the  federation  of  the  German  states  in  1871,  the  chief 
task  of  history  instruction  in  the  elementary  school  has  been 
the  development  of  patriotism  and  a  strong  national  feeling. 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  395 

It  seems  that  the  work  in  history  accomplishes  three  things. 
It  plants  in  the  minds  of  the  children  the  sense  of  German 
citizenship,  love  of  country,  and  allegiance  to  and 
admiration  of  the  ruhng  house.  One's  impression  MoveLnts 
after  visiting  forty  or  fifty  classes  in  history  would  be  '°  History 
that  the  purpose  of  this  subject  was  the  glorification 
of  the  ruling  house.  One  would  think  that  the  course  was  or- 
ganized around  Charles  the  Great,  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick 
the  Great,  Frederick  Wilhelm  III,  William  the  Great,  and  the 
present  emperor.  And,  in  fact,  one  would  not  be  far  wrong 
in  drawing  this  conclusion,  for  the  subject  matter  of  the  history 
course  is  largely  the  lives  and  deeds  of  these  men.  One  hears 
not  only  of  the  wars  and  military  achievements  of  these  national 
heroes,  but  also  of  their  works  of  peace.  Just  as  in  America, 
the  history  work  is  too  much  about  battles,  marches,  and  cam- 
paigns, but  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  with  us.  It  is  very 
important  for  the  German  national  policy  that  the  children 
of  the  elementary  school  be  enthusiastic  for  things  military, 
because  it  is  the  boys  of  this  school  who  become  the  soldiers 
in  the  ranks,  and  it  is  the  girls  of  the  Volksschule  who  become  the 
mothers  of  German  battalions.  The  teachers  do  their  work 
well,  The  history  period  is  the  liveliest  of  the  day.  The  teacher 
himself  is  burning  with  excitenient  and  very  often,  as  he  relates 
to  the  children  the  story  of  Leipzig  or  Sedan,  his  voice  becomes 
loud  and  his  maimer  is  more  hke  that  of  a  Fourth  of  July  orator 
than  that  of  a  calm,  quiet  teacher.  The  children,  however, 
are  mihtary  and  war-loving  in  spirit,  and  the  girls  are  even  more 
enthusiastic  than  the  boys.  It  may  have  been  only  chance, 
but  of  all  the  sixty-four  recitations  which  we  have  heard  in  his- 
tory, forty-eight  of  them  dealt  with  rulers  and  their  deeds  as 
warriors,  or  with  their  campaigns.  To  any  one  who  understands 
the  national  policy  of  the  German  empire,  it  is  very  clear  why 
this  military,  patriotic  spirit  must  be  fostered.    The  reader 


396  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

must  not  think,  however,  that  the  battles  and  campaigns  of  the 
rulers  are  the  only  topics  of  discussion.  Love  for  Kaiser  and 
Fatherland  is  also  engendered  by  a  study  of  the  reforms  and 
movements  undertaken  by  the  ruling  house  for  the  benefit  of 
the  lower  classes.  The  teachers  emphasize  these  reforms  to 
show  the  children  how  much  their  ruler  loves  them,  to  which 
the  conclusion  is  that  they  should  love  and  cherish  their  monarch 
in  return,  which  no  doubt  they  do.  This  nationalistic  movement 
in  history  directs  itself  not  only  toward  the  ruler,  but  toward 
the  Fatherland  and  all  things  German.  Outside  of,  but  still 
connected  with  love  of  ruler,  there  is  inculcated  in  the  heart  of 
the  German  school  child  a  German  attitude  of  mind,  that  is,  a 
love  of  all  things  German,  a  love  of  German  customs  and  tra- 
ditions. He  is  not  directly  taught  to  hate  the  French  or  the 
English,  but  in  discussing  the  frontiers  which  are  open  to  attack, 
the  teacher  makes  it  very  clear  that  Germany  must  not  leave  its 
western  boundary  unguarded.  There  is  not  an  overstatement 
of  fact  or  misrepresentation  on  the  part  of  the  te^acher  in  order 
to  establish  the  German  point  of  view  or  to  convince  the  children 
of  German  superiority.  The  German  point  of  view  and  feeling 
of  superiority  is  established  simply  by  ignoring  the  point  of  view 
of  the  French  or  English.  It  is  very  difficult  to  convey  to  an 
American  who  has  not  lived  among  Germans  an  idea  of  the 
intensity  of  the  feeling  for  German  customs,  literature,  history, 
power,  country,  and  ruler.  It  is  cultivated  not  only  in  history, 
but  also  in  geography,  literature,  and  song. 

But  the  reader  must  not  think  that  this  feeling  of  nationalism 
is  the  only  one  which  is  sought  by  the  teachers  of  history.  We 
should  like  to  mention  as  next  in  prominence,  the  consideration 
given  to  the  cultural  development  of  the  human  race,  chiefly, 
of  course,  among  the  Germans.  Biedermann  in  the  introduction 
to  his  "Deutsche  Volks-  und  KuUurgeschickte"  writes:  "Be- 
sides the  stories  of  battles,  wars,  and  treaties  of  peace,  there  should 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  397 

also  be  treated  the  most  important  facts  concerning  the  history 
of  the  old  German  empire,  the  history  of  German  cities,  the 
growth  of  civil  power,  the  development  of  German  agriculture, 
trade,  and  industry,  German  inventions,  German  family  life, 
and  German  art  and  science."  This  point  of  view  has  come  to 
be  accepted  everjrvFhere  throughout  Germany,  so  that  now  a 
great  deal  of  time  is  devoted  to  giving  the  children  a  definite 
idea  of  the  cultural  development  of  their  own  country  and  also 
as  far  as  possible  of  other  countries  in  so  far  as  they  touch  Ger- 
man life.  This  movement  in  history  for  the  Volksschule  has 
been  represented  by  Albert  Richter,  Geistbeck,  Krieger,  and 
Kettel. 

There  is  still  another  tendency  prominent  in  some  of  the  schools 
which  we  have  visited  and  that  is  to  offer  a  kind  of  civil  govern- 
ment (Biirgerkunde)  in  connection  with  the  history.  Biirger- 
kunde  has  in  some  schools  become  an  independent  subject,  but 
this  is  not  yet  the  general  practice.  It  is  Hkely  to  be  a  new 
subject  some  day,  but  new  subjects  do  not  find  easy  admittance 
into  the  German  curriculum.  The  children  are  taught  the 
constitution  of  the  state,  and  their  duties  and  rights  as  citizens ; 
more  of  duties,  however,  than  of  rights.  The  most  important 
social  and  industrial  laws  are  studied  and  the  general  conditions 
of  social  and  industrial  Ufe  are  discussed.  In  schools  where  a 
part  of  the  history  period  is  not  given  to  the  treatment  of  these 
subjects,  such  subjects  are  brought  up  at  opportune  times  in 
the  study  of  geography,  history,  science,  and  arithmetic. 

The   Social-Democratic  party  is   numerically   the   strongest 
in  Germany  and  it  forms  the  chief  opposition  to  the  government. 
It  would  not  be  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  much  Anti-Sodai- 
of  the  excellent  social  legislation,  as  well  as  industrial  '■^^^  t*""*- 
legislation,  of  the  last  forty  years,   though  coming  History  in- 
apparently  from  the  benevolent  and  fatherly  hands 
of  the  Hohenzollerns,  has  been  forced  through  by  the  socialists. 


398  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

These  measures  have  frequently  been  allowed  to  pass  merely 
to  satisfy  the  lower  classes,  and  not  because  the  rulers  were 
especially  beneficent.  The  emperor  has  been  clever  enough 
to  see  that  to  refuse  certain  measures  would  only  endanger  his 
own  position  by  increasing  the  number  of  socialists  and  the  sum 
total  of  discontent  among  the  masses.  In  order  to  stem  the  tide 
of  socialism  which  had  been  sweeping  over  the  empire,  and  which, 
in  spite  of  all  efforts  to  combat  it,  is  becoming  stronger,  the 
emperor  issued  an  order  in  1889  which  instructed  the  schools  to 
help  in  putting  down  "socialistic  and  commimistic  ideas"  at 
work  among  the  people.  It  is  among  the  parents  of  the  children 
of  the  Volksschule  that  socialism  finds  its  strength,  so  the  govern- 
ment very  naturally  directed  the  elementary  teacher  to  preach 
patriotism  and  conservatism.  We  quote  part  of  the  order' 
because  it  shows  how  definitely  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the 
Volksschule  are  set,  which  fact  we  believe  to  be  one  of  the  chiefest 
points  of  excellence  in  the  German  educational  system. 

We  have  thought  for  a  long  time  of  making  use  of  the  schools  in  com- 
bating the  spread  of  sociahstic  and  communistic  ideas.  In  the  first  place 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  healthy  conception 
of  political  and  social  relations  through  the  cultivation  of  the  fear  of  God 
and  love  of  country.  But  I  cannot  avoid  the  conviction  that,  in  a  time  when 
socialistic  errors  and  misconceptions  are  being  spread  with  increased  zeal, 
the  school  must  make  renewed  efforts  toward  the  advancement  of  a  recog- 
nition of  that  which  is  true,  of  that  which  is  real,  and  of  that  which  is  pos- 
sible in  this  world.  The  school  must  create  in  the  youth  the  conviction 
that  the  doctrines  of  socialism  are  contrary  not  only  to  God's  decrees  and 
Christian  moral  teaching,  but  in  reahty  are  incapable  of  application  and 
destructive  both  to  the  individual  and  the  state.  The  school  must  bring 
modern  affairs  more  than  heretofore  into  the  curriculum,  and  show  that  the 
power  of  state  alone  can  assure  the  individual  his  family,  his  freedom,  and 
his  rights ;  and  impress  on  the  youth  how  Prussian  kings  have  continually 
given  themselves  pains  to  better  the  conditions  of  the  working-class  from  the 
time  of  the  legal  reforms  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  the  abolishment  of 

'  Allerhochste  Ordre  vom  i  Mai,  i88g,  ZentraJblatt,  p.  245. 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  399 

serfdom  down  untU  to-day.  Further  the  school  must  prove  by  means  of 
statistical  facts  how  materially  and  how  constantly  during  this  century 
the  conditions  of  Uving  and  the  wages  among  the  working-classes  have 
improved  under  our  royal  protection. 

Another  interesting  sidelight  on  the  purpose  and  importance 
of  history  is  the  following :  ^ 

These  regulations  do  not  need  a  special  justification.  The  German 
people  have  the  good  fortune  to  possess  a  Fatherland,  a  ruling  house,  of 
whose  history  it  can  be  proud.  What  was  said  in  the  time  of  Frederick 
the  Great  holds  good  to-day.  The  other  nations  envy  the  Prussians  their 
king.  The  industry  and  wonderful  talent  of  patriotic  historians  have  gone 
into  all  phases  of  German  and  Prussian  history  and  presented  it  in  a  complete- 
ness of  form  which  we  have  known  heretofore  only  in  the  history  of  ancient 
peoples.  There  is  before  us  an  abundance  of  stirring  events  from  the  story 
of  over  five  hundred  years  of  uninterrupted  labors  of  the  HohenzoUerns  for 
their  country  and  people.  It  would  be  base  ingratitude  toward  the  ruling 
house  and  against  those  great  men,  who  have  dedicated  aU  their  power  and 
ability  for  the  state  both  in  war  and  in  peace ;  it  would  be  a  sin  against  the 
coming  generation,  if  one  should  neglect  to  make  it  acquainted  with  the 
blessings  which  come  to  it  by  virtue  of  its  allegiance  to  the  Prussian  state ; 
it  would  be  also  an  injustice  to  the  state  itself,  if  an  unpatriotic  race  were 
brought  on.  Wherefore,  all  the  Prussian  kings  shall  receive  a  prominent 
place  in  the  instruction  of  Prussian  youth ;  and  likewise  shall  the  important 
men,  who  distinguished  themselves  in  behalf  of  the  kmg  and  Fatherland 
durmg  the  Wars  of  Liberation  and  those  of  Emperor  William  I,  be  set  up 

as  shining  examples  for  the  German  youth. 

Von  Gossler. 

The  peculiar  thing  is,  however,  that  truth  is  not  killed  by 
imperial  decree  any  more  than  the  conditions  of  industrial 
life  have  been  really  improved  by  the  mandate  of  the  em- 
perors. Authority  gives  way  only  under  pressure.  The  result 
of  this  decree  was  that  the  socialistic  forces  were  just  that 
much  the  more  antagonized,  and  socialistic  principles  that 
much  the  more  discussed.  The  instruction  in  history  was  to 
1  Afwf.  Erlass.,  30  August,  1889. 


400  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

be  so  changed  that  the  children  would  hate  the  name  socialism 
and  look  upon  it  as  an  enemy  of  the  great  and  glorious  Father- 
land, which  owed  its  greatness  and  glory  to  the  Hohenzollern 
and  the  Lord.  Socialism  has  come  to  have  so  much  power  that 
teachers,  though  they  dare  not  openly  avow  its  principles,  neither 
dare  openly  to  attack  the  party. 

The  aim  of  the  instruction  in  history  has  already  been  stated, 

but  we  wish  to  restate  it  because  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Aim  f    (^^   "^^^  pupils  shall  be  acquainted  with  the  chief 

History         facts  in  the  development  of  the  Fatherland,  with  the 

struchon  j.yj|]jg  house,  and  its  most  prominent  members  in 
earlier  times,  in  order  that  the  love  of  monarch  and  country 
be  awakened  in  them.  (2)  History  is  to  give  the  children  an 
insight  into  the  poHtical,  social,  industrial,  and  moral  conditions 
of  the  present  in  order  that  they  may  come  to  respect  them. 
At  the  same  time  the  children  shall  study  the  persons  and  per- 
sonalities by  whom  this  historical  development  was  furthered 
or  hindered.  (3)  History  serves  in  the  formation  of  character. 
The  ministerial  order  of  January  31,  1908,  says : 

As  the  aim  of  history  instruction  it  must  be  kept  securely  in  mind  that 
the  children  are  to  leave  school  with  the  most  important  facts  of  national 
history  fixed  firmly  in  mind.  To  insure  this,  careful  drill  and  constant, 
regular  repetition  of  the  chief  dates  are  necessary. 

Now  let  us  see  what  a  typical  history  course  in  the  elementary 
school  is.  History  usually  begins  in  the  fourth  year  in  school 
The  Course  and  Continues  until  the  end  of  the  school.  By  an 
of  Study  examination  of  the  courses  of  study  in  the  chapter 
on  school  organization,  one  will  find  that  the  work  in  history 
begins  in  the  first  year  of  the  middle  section  and  receives  two 
recitation  periods  each  week  during  the  next  five  years.  The 
following  outline  of  topics  is  taken  from  the  course  of  study 
of  the  elementary  schools  in  Hannover,  and  is,  as  far  as  our 
observation  carried  us,  fairly  representative : 


THE  SEAL  SUBJECTS  401 


Class  4.    Fourth  School  Year 

1.  The  old  Germans:  Land,  dwelling,  occupation,  education,  and 
character ;  religion,  Wotan,  Donar,  Ziu,  Freya ;  giants,  dwarfs,  witches. 

2.  Arminius,  Germany's  liberator. 

3.  The  Siegfried  myth. 

4.  The  Cundry  myth. 

5.  Charles  the  Great :    Stories  of  his  life  and  career. 

6.  Luther. 

7.  Stories  about  Frederick  the  Great,  Frederick  William  III,  Queen 
Louise,  William  I,  Frederick  III,  and  William  II. 

Class  3.    Fifth  School  Year 

1.  The  old  Germans :    See  class  3 ;  tribal  division,  assemblies,  courts, 
war,  and  reUgion. 

2.  The  Romans  and  Germans  in  war  and  in  peaceful  relations. 

3.  Tribal  migrations  (Alaric  and  Attila). 

4.  Boniface :    The  cloister  (Marienwerder,  Loccuon,  cloisters  which 
the  children  know). 

5.  Charles  the   Great :    Introduction  of   Christianity  among  the 
Saxons ;  the  courts,  imperial  administration,  coronation. 

6.  Henry  I :    Election ;  building  of  the  frontier  forts ;  victory  over 
the  Wendians  and  Hungarians. 

7.  Otto  I :    Victory  over  the  Hungarians ;  Hermann  Billung. 

8.  Henry  IV :    Education ;  struggle  with  the  Saxons ;  struggle  with 
the  pope. 

9.  Knighthood  and  the  feudal  system  (Ricklingen  and  Briiningstein 
castles). 

10.  The  first  crusade.    Mohammed. 

11.  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Destruction  of  Milan;  Henry  the  Lion; 
Barbarossa's  death.    The  results  of  the  crusade. 

12.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg :  Struggles  against  the  robber  barons; 
Hapsburg's  power. 

13.  The  city  of  Hannover  in  the  Middle  Ages:  Founding;  Burg 
Lauenrode ;  the  city  in  1400 ;  attack  on  the  city  by  Henry  the  Elder 
of  Brunswick ;  the  Hanseatic  League. 

14.  Our  ruling  family. 


402  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Class  2.    Sixth  School  Year 

1.  The  most  important  inventions  and  discoveries  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

2.  Maximilian  I :  Introduction  of  the  first  imperial  tax ;  the  postal 
system ;  the  internal  peace ;  names  of  places  and  people. 

3.  (For  Lutheran  schools.)  The  Reformation  by  Luther,  Zwingli, 
and  Calvin.    The  Reformation  in  Hannover. 

4.  (For  Catholic  schools.)  The  division  of  the  church.  Luther, 
Zwingli,  Calvin,  introduction  of  the  Lutheran  faith  in  Hannover. 

3  a.  (For  Lutheran  schools.)  The  Counter-Reformation ;  the  Schmal- 
kaldian  War ;  the  Jesuits. 

4  a.  (For  Catholic  schools.)  The  religious  revival  in  the  Catholic 
church ;  the  Council  of  Trent.    Missions.    Foundation  of  new  orders. 

5.  The  Thirty  Years'  War :  TUly,  Wallenstein,  Gustavus  Adolphus ; 
Lower  Saxony  and  especially  Hannover  in  the  war ;  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia; civilization  in  Germany  after  the  war  (witchcraft). 

6.  The  first  Hohenzollern  in  Brandenburg. 

7.  Prussian  and  the  German  knighthood.  Germanization  of  the 
eastern  provinces. 

8.  The  Great  Elector:  Youth;  foundation  of  a  standing  army; 
accessions  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia ;  his  interest  in  agriculture,  com- 
merce and  industry;  the  Huguenots;  Wars  with  France  and  Sweden; 
Louise  Henrietta. 

9.  Ernest  August,  elector  of  Hannover;  his  wife,  Sophie;  Leibniz. 
George  I,  king  of  England  (Herrenhausen,  the  palace  of  the  Guelphs). 

10.  Frederick  I :    Acquirement  of  the  kingship. 

11.  Frederick  William  I:  Personality,  his  work  for  the  army, 
finance,  elementary  schools,  governmental  administration,  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  industry ;  the  reception  of  the  inhabitants  of  Salzburg. 

12.  Frederick  the  Great:  Youth,  the  Seven  Years'  War  (chief 
battles  from  1756-1760) ;  first  partition  of  Poland;  his  interest  in  agri- 
culture, legal  reform,  commerce,  and  industry;  system  of  taxation; 
life  in  Sans  Souci. 

13.  Frederick  William  III :  Second  and  third  partitions  of  Poland. 
The  Allgemeine  Landrecht. 

14.  Our  imperial  house. 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  403 

Class  I.    Seventh  School  Year  ^ 

1.  The  French  Revolution :    Causes,  outbreak ;  Reign  of  Terror. 

2.  Napoleon  I,  the  Rhine  League.  (The  occupation  of  Hannover 
and  the  German-English  Legion.) 

3.  Frederick  William  III  and  Queen  Louise.  Prussia's  fall.  Con- 
tinental blockade. 

4.  Prussia's  regeneration:  Stein,  Hardenberg,  Schamhorst.  The 
history  of  the  peasantry,  industry,  and  the  army. 

5.  Resistance  to  Napoleon:  Hofer,  Schill,  Frederick  William  of 
Brunswick. 

6.  Napoleon's  campaign  against  Russia. 

7.  The  Wars  of  Liberation:  York;  appeal  to  the  people;  poets 
of  freedom ;  the  allies ;  battles  at  Katzbach  and  Grossbeeren ;  Leipzig ; 
crossing  of  the  Rhine;  Napoleon's  fall;  the  first  peace  of  Paris;  Na- 
poleon's return;  battles  at  Ligny  and  Waterloo;  the  second  Peace  of 
Paris;  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena;  the  Congress  of  Vienna;  Hannover  a 
kingdom. 

8.  Frederick  WiUiam  HI  in  peace :    The  Zollverein. 

g.  Frederick  William  IV :  The  year  1848 ;  the  Prussian  constitu- 
tion; the  refusal  of  the  imperial  crown;  his  interest  in  art  and  litera- 
ture. 

10.  Ernest  August  and  George  V  of  Hannover. 

11.  William  I  as  king:  Bismarck,  Roon,  Moltke;  the  Danish  War; 
the  German  War  (Lapgensalza,  Koniggratz) ;  the  North  German  League. 
The  Franco-Prussian  War:  Cause;  unity  in  Germany;  the  battles 
at  Weissenburg,  Worth,  Spichern,  Metz,  and  Sedan;  sieges  of  Metz, 
Strassburg,  Paris,  and  Belfort;  the  establishment  of  the  new  German 
empire ;  peace  of  Frankfurt. 

12.  William  I  as  Emperor:  Constitution  of  the  German  empire; 
historical  development  of  trade  and  industry  (Krupp  and  Egestorff), 
trade  and  commerce ;  social  legislation ;  acquirement  of  colonies,  Wil- 
liam's death ;  Empress  Augusta. 

13.  Frederick  III. 

14.  William  II:  Love  of  peace;  his  work  for  the  army  and  navy  and 
the  working  classes ;  campaign  in  China ;  revolt  in  Southwest  Africa ; 
civil  legal  code ;  Empress  Augusta  Victoria. 

15.  Civil  Government. 

(o)  History  of  the  school,  judicial,  and  taxation  systems. 


404  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

(6)  The  Prussian  state. 

The  rights  and  privileges  of  the  King.  Rights  and  duties 
of  Prussian  citizens.  The  Landtag  (legislative  body). 
Administration  of  the  central  government.  Local  self- 
government.    Expenditures  and  revenues  of  the  state. 

(c)  The  German  empire. 

The  emperor's  rights.  Rights  and  duties  of  German 
citizens.  The  Bundesrat  and  Reichstag.  Imperial  ad- 
ministration. Army  and  navy.  Judicial  system.  Ex- 
penditures and  revenues  of  the  empire. 

This  course  of  study  also  prescribes  the  dates  to  be  learned 
each  year.  In  all  there  are  fifty-nine  dates  which  the  child  is 
supposed  to  remember  and  know  the  significance  of,  when  he 
has  finished  the  school.  One  must  also  remember  that,  although 
regular  history  work  begins  in  the  fourth  year,  the  children  have 
had  historical  myths  and  stories  in  the  earlier  years,  as  well  as 
having  had  a  great  deal  about  the  history  of  their  own  city  or 
province  either  in  connection  with  reading  or  Heimatkunde  (q.v.). 

As  has  already  been  said,  there  are  some  of  the  fundamental 
facts  and  principles  of  social  economy  and  civil  government 
given  in  connection  with  history  and  other  subjects,  wherever 
and  whenever  it  seems  most  advantageous  to  present  them. 
The  following  is  a  further  extract  from  the  Hannover  course  of 
study  ^  covering  this  point.  The  place  in  the  course  where  the 
subjects  are  treated  is  indicated. 

1.  Work:  Forms  of  work,  division  of  labor,  reward  and  wages. 
(In  connection  with  the  seventh  commandment.'') 

'    2.  Property:    Individual  and  common  property.     (Seventh  com- 
mandment.) 

3.  Money:  Valuation,  gold  coins,  paper  money,  negotiable  paper. 
Savings  accounts,  banks.  —  Arithmetic  in  the  first  class  (eighth  school 
year). 

1  Lehrplan  fur  die  BUrgerschulen  der  koniglichen  Haupt-  und  Residenzstadt  Han- 
nover.   Cruse's  Buchhandlung,  1913,  p.  43. 

'  The  commandments  are  arranged  differently  in  the  Lutheran  catechism. 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  405 

4.  Insurance :    Fire,  hail,  life,  military,  sick,  accident,  invalid,  and 
old  age  insurance.    Arithmetic  in  the  first  and  second  classes. 

5.  Economic  conditions  in  Germany :   Geography  in  the  first  class. 
(a)  Population. 

(fi)  Products  (agriculture,  animal  husbandry,  forestry,  fishing, 
mining,  house  and  factory  industry.  Germany's  depend- 
ence upon  foreign  countries). 

(c)   Trade  (domestic,  imports  and  exports). 

(i)  Transportation  and  commimication  (railways,  postal  system, 
telegraph,  ship  lines,  telephone).    Arithmetic,  first  class. 

(e)  Protection  of  German  labor  (duties,  commercial  treaties). 

6.  History  of  civil  progress.  —  History,  first  class. 

(a)  The  peasantry;  (6)  middle  class;  (c)  trade  and  industry; 
(d)  commerce ;  (e)  army  and  navy ;  (/)  schools ;  (g)  courts ; 
{h)  taxation. 

7.  The  family.     Fourth  and  sixth  commandments.    First  Article. 
(a)  Members  of  the  family;  (6)   authority  and    guardianship; 

(c)  registration  of  marriage,  births  and  deaths;  (d)  serv- 
ants ;  (e)  compulsory  school  law ;  (f)  trade  or  occupation ; 
(g)  the  win ;  (h)  the  family  budget.  —  Arithmetic  in  the 
first  class. 

8.  The  community.  —  Geography  in  the  second  class. 

(o)  Meaning  and  duties  of  the  community ;  (6)  duties  and  rights 
of  citizens ;  (c)  administration  of  the  community ;  (d)  budget 
of  the  community  —  arithmetic  in  the  first  class ;  (e)  the 
church  and  community.    The  Third  Article. 

9.  The  Prussian  state.  —  History  in  the  first  class. 

(a)  The  king's  rights  and  privileges.  — (The  same  as  noted  above 
in  the  history  course  of  study.) 
10.  The  Empire.  History  in  the  first  class.  (The  same  as  above, 
with  a  consideration  of  the  courts  taught  in  connection  with  religion.) 
Duties  toward  the  life  of  our  fellows:  murder,  injury,  adulteration  of 
food.  (Fifth  commandment.)  The  honor  and  reputation  of  our  neigh- 
bor; confidence,  falsehood,  perjury  (second  and  eighth  commandments). 
The  property  of  our  neighbor:  theft  and  deception,  embezzlement 
(seventh  commandment). 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  the  system  in  Hannover  has 
only  seven  classes.    Some  schools,  however,  have  an  eighth 


4o6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

grade  or  an  Oberklasse,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  subject 
naatter  as  we  have  given  it  above  for  the  first  class  is  extended 
a  little,  a  few  more  topics  inserted,  and  divided  into  two  years' 
work.  In  the  chapter  on  chemistry  and  physics,  instead  of 
giving  the  course  for  the  first  class,  we  shall  give  a  two  years' 
course  which  is  for  the  first  class  and  the  upper  class  (Oberklasse). 

School  authorities  have  a  very  definite  purpose  which  the 

teaching  of  history  in  the  Volksschule  has  to  accomplish,  that  is, 

to  instill  patriotism,  love  of  ruler,  and  national  pride 

Worth  of       in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  children.    History 

e  u  ject  jjj^g|.  gjyg  jjjg  children  the  belief  that  Germany  is  the 
greatest,  most  cultured,  most  beneficent  nation  in  the  world. 
Every  topic  in  the  course  of  study  is  selected  with  this  aim  in 
view.  Whether  a  fact  or  topic  shall  or  shall  not  be  given  a  place 
in  the  curriculum  is  judged  solely  on  this  basis.  A  close  study 
of  various  history  courses  bears  out  the  truth  of  this  statement. 
Only  after  observation  of  the  actual  methods  employed  in 
teaching  history,  and  of  the  spirit  with  which  it  is  done,  does  one 
recognize  that  war  and  valor  are  the  German's  religion,  that  the 
greatness  of  Germany  is  his  ruhng  desire.  The  test  for  every 
topic  in  the  course  is,  —  Does  it  function  in  making  the  pupil 
a  German  in  every  sense  of  the  word  ? 

As  a  rule  the  course  in  history  consists  of  two  sub-courses,  a 
preparatory  course  and  the  chief  course.  The  preparatory  course 
in  reality  begins  as  far  down  in  the  school  as  the  first 
Divisions  or  sccoud  year  and  covers  the  third  and  sometimes  the 
Com-sT'^  fourth  year.  The  content  of  this  elementary  course 
is  fairy  tales,  stories,  and  myths  of  the  immediate 
vicinity,  monuments,  public  buildings  of  historic  interest,  and 
something  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  ruling  house. 
The  content  of  the  main  course  is  given  above  in  detail. 

In  the  lower  section  a  subject  known  as  Heimatkunde  (study 
of  the  home)  makes  preparation  for  the  later  work  both  in 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  407 

geography  and  history.     Briefly,  Heimatkunde  presents  to  the 
pupils  all  the  historical  and  geographical  facts  of  elementary 
nature  with  which  the  children  come  in  contact,  and 
of  which  they  have  heard  since  infancy.     They  learn  the  Home 
the  physical  characteristics  of  the  immediate  vicinity,  i?^iT'" 
of  its  rivers,  bridges,  churches,  and  the  most  im- 
portant facts  in  its  history.     They  acquire  also  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  emperor  and  his  family,  and  of  the  ruling  house. 
This  work  is  frequently  given  in  connection  with  the  observation 
instruction  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  German. 

The  course  in  Heimatkunde  is  often  the  same  as  the  prepara- 
tory course  in  history  during  the  second  and  third  years,  but 
not  after  the  third  year,  when  a  definitely  planned 
history  course  is  given.     Some  of  the  topics  given  in  Heimat- 
in  Heimatkunde  at  Hildesheim  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  governmental  district  and  its  neighboring  vicinity. 

(o)  The  schoolhouse,  its  location,  the  directions,  the  school  yard, 
the  street. 

2.  The  city  of  Hildesheim. 

(o)  The  cathedral,  myth  concerning  its  fovmding. 

(b)  The  chief  post  office. 

(c)  Important  buildings  on  Cathedral  Square. 

(d)  Streets  near  the  cathedral. 

(e)  Godehardi  Square.    History  of  the  neighborhood. 
(/)  Godehardi  church. 

(g)  District  court. 

(h)   New  city  market  and  Lamberti  Square. 

(i)   Sedan  Street  and  its  history. 

(j)  The  railway  station. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  topics  treated  in  a  geographical 
and  historical  way.     Such  a  preparation  thoroughly  g^^^^^j 
equips  the  children  for  their  future  work  in  geography  orgamza- 
and  history,  both  of  which  subjects  begin  just  where  subject 
the  study  of  the  home  left  off.  Matter 


4o8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

One  finds  the  subject  taken  up  in  many  different  ways.  Some 
of  the  methods  of  organization  will  be  mentioned.  Frequently, 
the  subject  matter  is  treated  chronologically.  This 
oiogicai  method  is  either  progressive  or  regressive.  The 
progressive  type  is  similar  to  that  organization  em- 
ployed in  Tlmerica.  Its  chief  fault  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  more 
recent  events  are  never  reached.  The  regressive  chronological 
method  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  lower  classes  with  very 
good  results,  working  back,  for  instance,  from  the  present  kaiser 
to  his  father,  grandfather,  and  so  on. 

Some  teachers  make  a  shght  variation  of  the  progressive 
chronological  order  of  treatment  which  emphasizes  the  sequence 
TheS  °^  events  by  laying  stress  on   the  contemporaneity 

chionous  of  things.  This  order  of  presentation  is  not  so  good 
for  the  elementary  school,  inasmuch  as  it  is  better 
suited  for  universal  history,  which  is  not  adapted  for  the  purpose 
of  the  subject  in  the  Volksschule. 

Occasionally  one  finds  a  course  of  study  organized  on  the 
group  basis,  which  presents  historical  material  in  groups.  On 
this  basis  events  and  men  of  like  character  or  nature 
^g^p^n"'  ^'^^  treated  together.  For  example,  Arminius,  Wash- 
ington, Kosciuszko,  and  JuUus  Caesar  would  be  studied 
one  after  the  other.  The  same  plan  would  be  followed  with 
regard  to  discoveries,  inventions,  or  social  reforms.  At  the 
end  of  such  a  course,  the  whole  is  summarized  by  a  chronological 
review  of  the  topics  discussed,  and  historical  principles  are  thus 
developed.  This  plan  is  now  regarded  as  out  of  date.  It  never 
had  very  wide  acceptance,  chiefly  because  such  a  treatment 
tore  the  historical  sequence  all  to  pieces,  and  tended  to  cause 
confusion  in  the  children's  minds  as  to  the  relation  of  various 
events. 

The  concentric  circle  plan  of  arrangement  of  subject  matter 
is  found  in  very  general  use  to-day  in  the  Volksschule.    The 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  409 

subject  matter  is  arranged  in  three  expanding  concentric  circles, 
of  which  the  inmost  one  presents  the  most  important  charac- 
ters  and   facts   of   modern,  medieval,   and   ancient  „^   „ 

The  Con- 
times.     The  second  circle  presents  the  less  impor-  centric 

tant  characters  and  facts,  and  intensifies  the  topics  "■'='^^"' 
treated  before.  The  third  circle  includes  the  least  important 
characters  and  facts,  i.e.  those  which  come  least  often  to  the 
attention  of  pupils.  The  advantages  of  this  plan  are :  that  pupils 
who  do  not  finish  the  whole  course  of  the  school  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  most  important  historical  facts,  and  that 
every  year  new  material  is  treated.  The  most  serious  disad- 
vantage entailed  by  the  concentric  plan  of  organization  is  that 
the  child's  psychological  nature  does  not  coincide  fully  with  this 
organization.  The  majority  of  the  school  men  in  Germany 
do  not  hold  rigidly  to  the  concentric  circle  theory  in  history, 
but  believe  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  chief  facts  be  gone  over 
a  second  or  third  time  in  different  parts  of  the  course.  It  is 
usual  to  find  that  a  study  of  the  period  from  the  Great  Elector 
on  is  treated  for  the  second  time  in  the  last  class. 

Another  form  of  organization  is  also  found  at  times,  —  the 
combining  method.     The  work  in  history  is  made  a  part  of  the 
work  in  geography,  or  some  other  subject.    When,  ^^^  ^^ 
for  example,  the  geography  of  a  certain  province  is  Wning 
studied,  the  history  of  that  province  is  also  studied 
intensively.    As  a  result  of  this  method  of  organization,  each 
of  the  subjects  loses  its  identity,  and  neither  receives  its  due 
attention.     The  only  principle  of  worth  involved  here  is  that 
history  should  always  have  its  geographical  basis  firmly  fixed, 
but  this  should  not  be  carried  to  an  extreme. 

The  Herbartians  in  Germany  reject  the  concentric  circle 
plan  of  organization  and  divide  the  subject  matter  in  history 
according  to  the  epochs  in  the  cultural  development  of  the 
race.     According  to  this  plan,  new  material  is  treated  each 


4IO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

year.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  the  children  have  German 
myths ;  in  the  fifth  year,  the  high  points  in  German  national 
life,  such  as  Arminius,  Clovis,  Boniface,  Charlemagne, 
Epoch  Or-  Henry  I,  and  Otto  I;  in  the  sixth  year,  the  migra- 
gamza  on  ^j^^  ^^  ^^  races,  empire  and  papacy,  crusades,  knight- 
hood, the  Hanseatic  League ;  in  the  seventh  year,  the  discoveries, 
the  Reformation,  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  in  the  eighth  year, 
Prussian  downfall,  the  War  of  Liberation,  reestablishment  of 
the  empire.  Only  those  events  are  chosen  which  in  the  light  of 
present  events  are  educative.  This  limits  the  material  and 
topics  taken  up  considerably.  The  advantages  of  this  organiza- 
tion are :  that  the  particular  historical  periods  chosen  can  be 
thoroughly  treated  because  of  their  limited  number,  and  events 
chosen  in  view  of  their  present  worth  are  suited  to  arouse  the 
interest  of  the  children.  At  first  the  topics  are  generally  taken 
up  in  the  regressively  chronological  order.  Another  important 
thought  in  this  plan  of  organization  is  that  of  "high  spots"  in 
history  instruction.  All  the  historical  material  groups  itself 
about  the  "high  spots"  in  the  course,  so  that  the  child  gets  a 
perspective  from  which  the  inner  connection  of  the  whole  is 
visible.    To  take  an  example : 

Rein,  Pickel,  and  Scheller '  in  the  treatment  of  German  history  begin 
with  Henry  I,  because  his  history  o£Eers  simple  relationships.  Then  follows 
as  the  "high  spot,"  Otto  I.  The  thought  that  the  latter  took  Charlemagne 
as  his  model,  and  the  question  of  how  Saxony  came  over  to  Christianity, 
lead  backwards  to  this  second  "high  spot."  Boniface  won  over  the  German 
tribes  to  Christendom,  while  Clovis  won  over  the  Franks.  At  the  end  the 
whole  material  from  Arminius  to  Otto  I  is  run  through  again  chrono- 
logically. 

Thus  the  content  is  treated  only  once  thoroughly.  The 
starting  point  is  usually  an  historical  poem,  and  great  use  is 
made  of  the  sources. 

'  Schwochow,  Methodik  des  Volksschulunterrichts,  p.  400. 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  41 1 

The  Herbartians  have  rendered  great  service  in  developing 
history  instruction  in  the  elementary  schools.  This  school  of 
pedagogical  thinkers  conceives  of  history  instruction  as  in- 
struction intended  for  formation  of  moral  character  and  assigns 
it  the  most  important  place  in  the  whole  curriculum  next  to 
religion.  According  to  their  plan  the  historical  development 
is  set  parallel  alongside  the  development  of  individuals,  the 
dangers  of  the  concentric  circle  plan  are  avoided,  the  idea  of 
"high  spots"  is  made  use  of,  a  preparatory  course  in  myths 
is  afforded,  the  culture  epochs  of  the  racial  development  are 
given  consideration,  sources  and  poems  are  helpfully  employed, 
and  the  teaching  is  based  on  the  five  formal  steps. 

Not  any  one  of  the  plans  of  organization  mentioned  above 
is  carried  out  in  its  entirety  in  the  German  Volksschule.  The 
courses  generally  are  a  composite  of  all  these  schemes  of  organi- 
zation of  subject  matter,  but  one  might  say  that  the  concentric 
circle  plan,  modified  somewhat  by  the  Herbartian  scheme,  is  the 
one  most  in  use  in  Germany  to-day. 

The  biographical  plan  in  history  has  to  do  with  the  organi- 
zation, but  perhaps  more  with  the  manner  in  which  the  whole 
subject  is  presented.    History  is  considered  merely  Bio- 
as  a  series  of  biographies,  the  lives  of  the  world's  or^^ra- 
greatest  men.    This  point  of  view  in  history  is  very  tion 
practical  and  is  widely  accepted  in  all  schemes  of  organization 
of  history  subject  matter.    The  biographical  treatment  of  his- 
tory is  particularly  appUcable  in  the  lower  section  and  it  is  found 
in  use  in  nearly  all  German  elementary  schools. 

Going  over  from  the  subject  of  organization  of  material  to 
methods  of  instruction,  it  can  be  said  at  the  outset  that  the  five 
formal  steps,  as  set  forth  by  Herbart  and  modified  Five  Formal 
by  Rein  and  Ziller,  dominate  the  history  work  of  ^**i'® 
the  present  day.  Ahnost  every  lesson  we  observed  had  its  steps 
of  preparation,  presentation,   association,  generalization,   and 


412  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

application.     Frequently  these  steps  appear  only  in  modified 

1.  Prepara-  form.  The  most  common  t3^e  of  preparation  is  a 
tion  review  of  the  previous  lesson.  This  is  generally  the 
case  when  the  lesson  is  one  of  a  series  dealing  with  a  special 
topic.  When  the  lesson  is  one  that  takes  up  new  material, 
the  preparation  for  the  lesson  generally  finds  its  starting  point 
in  a  historical  poem,  or  in  historical  material  treated  in  an  earlier 
grade.  Frequently  the  preparation  or  introduction  to  the  new 
work  is  tied  up  with  some  fact  of  local  interest  which  is  known 
to  all  the  pupils ;  for  example,  names  of  streets,  old  buildings, 
churches,  monuments,  pictures,  folk-songs,  children's  rhymes. 
At  this  point  the  German  teacher  usually  fails  to  make  use  of 
the  child's  desire  to  do  independent  work,  and  rarely  intrusts 
the  child  with  working  out  the  preparation  by  himself.  This 
is  one  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  the  German  system,  at  least 
from  our  point  of  view.  The  stenographic  lessons  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter  will  illustrate  these  various  methods  of  prepara- 
tion. 

Teachers  who  are  thoroughly  Herbartian  generally  begiu 
a  new  topic  by  reading  aloud  or  having  the  children  read  some 

2.  Presen-  source  material  on  the  point  in  question.  After  this 
tation  jja,s  been  done,  the  children  and  the  teacher  work 
out  the  historical  facts  and  principles  together.  Only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  follow  this 
plan,  because  it  is  thought  that  the  method  mentioned  takes 
too  much  time  and  is  really  beyond  the  abihty  of  the  pupils. 
All  teachers  readily  admit  the  value  of  source  material  in  teaching 
history,  but  the  majority  prefer  to  use  the  sources  only  as  a  means 
of  illustration. 

As  in  other  subjects,  so  also  in  history,  the  lecture  method 
of  presenting  the  subject  is  the  most  commonly  accepted  one. 
This  method,  however,  requires  special  preparation  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  and  is  absolutely  useless  in  the  hands  of  teachers 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  413 

who  do  not  believe  heart  and  soul  in  the  truth  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  which  they  are  presenting.     In  this  particular 
respect  the  German  teacher  is  remarkably  well  quali- 
fied, for  all  of   them  are  intensely  patriotic.    The  Mettod*^^ 
American   elementary  school  teachers  rarely  throw  ^esenta- 
themselves  body  and  soul  into  the  portrayal  of  an  his- 
torical situation.     Many  of  our  teachers  appear  ashamed  to  lose 
themselves  in  patriotic  enthusiasm,  and  most  of  them  are  incapa- 
ble of  it.     One  finds  no  lack  of  patriotism  among  the  German 
teachers.     Germany  is  the  one  great  Kving  reaUty  to  them. 
We  have  never  seen  a  single  recitation  in  history  in  a  German 
Volksschule  in  which  the  teacher  did  not  fairly  burn  with  patriotic 
zeal  as  he  related  the  story  of  his  coimtry's  greatness  and  glory. 
They  feel  that  it  is  their  sacred  duty  to  make  their  pupils  patriotic 
German  citizens,  and  history  affords  them  the  best  opportxmity 
for  this  work. 
One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  this  enthusiasm  which 

it  was  our  privilege  to  see,  was  found  in  a  school  at  S .    It 

was  the  i8th  of  April,  1914,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  fall 
of  the  Diippel  forts,  during  the  war  against  Denmark  in  1864. 
An  order  had  been  sent  out  from  Berlin  that  this  day  should  be 
celebrated  in  every  school  throughout  Prussia.  The  class  was 
composed  of  about  fifty  girls  in  the  eighth  year  (highest  grade). 
The  teacher  began  the  lesson  by  telling  the  children  of  the  mean- 
ing of  the  day  and  said  that  he  would  read  them  a  poem  which 
dealt  with  an  incident  which  took  place  exactly  fifty  years  before 
the  present  date.  Before  he  read  them  the  poem  he  related, 
with  the  pupils'  aid,  the  events  which  led  up  to  the  Danish- 
Prussian  War,  and  gave  the  reasons  which  justified  Prussia  in 
making  war  upon  its  small  and  weaker  neighbor.  Next, 
something  was  told  about  each  of  the  German  commanders. 
Then  by  means  of  a  drawing  the  teacher  described  the  battle- 
field and  the  almost  impregnable  forts  which  had  to  be  overcome 


414  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

by  the  Prussians  and  Austrians  before  the  Danes  could  be  beaten. 
Working  gradually  toward  a  climax,  and  with  his  voice  all 
tense  with  emotion,  he  pictured  the  night  before  the  battle,  the 
terrific  cannonading,  and  the  final  assault  which  won  the  day. 
The  success  of  the  assault  was  determined  by  a  private  who 
sacrificed  his  life  to  make  a  breach  in  the  wall  by  exploding  a 
sack  of  powder  which  he  was  carrying.  The  poem  dealt  with 
this  incident. 

The  teacher  knew  the  poem,  which  was  six  or  seven  stanzas 
in  length,  and  recited  it  with  fervor  and  enthusiasm.  Each 
stanza  ended  with  the  lines, 

Der  Feind  ist  geschlagen 
Und  Schlesnmg  ist  frei. 

Next  he  repeated  the  first  stanza  twice  and  then  called  on  one 
of  the  girls  to  try  to  repeat  it,  which  she  did  very  creditably. 
Then  the  whole  class  repeated  it  with  the  teacher,  and  again 
individually.  The  entire  class  learned  three  stanzas  in  the  one 
hour.  After  the  class  was  dismissed,  the  girls,  while  walking  in 
the  corridors,  were  heard  repeating  the  poem  and  emphasizing 
particularly  the  recurring  lines, 

Der  Feind  ist  geschlagen 
Und  Sckleswig  ist  frei. 

Although  the  German  teachers  exhibit  great  enthusiasm  and 
patriotism  in  their  work  in  history,  they  also  stick  very  closely 
(6)  Histori-  to  the>  historical  tr,uth  in  the  matter.  Though  the 
cai  Accuracy  emperors  and  kings  are  praised,  their  faults  are  also 
spoken  of.  Their  virtues,  however,  outweigh  their  faults.  This 
is  another  point  our  American  history  teachers  would  do  well 
to  remember,  particularly  in  treating  the  Civil  War. 
, ,  ■,^  ,.      1      A  visitor  is  struck  with  the  excellent  delivery  shown 

(c)  Dehveryj   ,         ,       „  ,         .  ■' 

by  the  German  teacher  m  presenting  material  to  his 
pupils.    The  presentation  is  fluent  and  dignified,  and  always 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  415 

in  such  language  as  is  fitted  to  the  comprehension  of  his 
hearers.  This  type  of  teacher  is  the  general  rule.  There  are 
some  who  declaim  and  thunder  at  their  classes  and  give  one  the 
impression  more  of  a  Fourth  of  July  orator  than  a  school- 
teacher. 

The  next  two  steps  are  ordinarily  united  in  present-day  prac- 
tice.   This  in  general  amounts  to  a  series  of  questions  upon  the 
material  which  has  been  presented  and  any  necessary 
explanations,  just  as  in  other  subjects.     Illustrations  fodation^ 
of  this  can  be  found  in  the  stenographic  lessons.  ""^  ^®"" 

.  ,  .  7  eralization 

source  material  is  often  used  at  this  point  to  clarify 
some  topic.  Poems  and  selections  from  the  reader  are  used 
by  way  of  intensification  of  treatment.  Most  of  all  the  teacher 
makes  use  of  review.  For  example,  if  the  lesson  is  about  com- 
pulsory military  service,  the  topic  can  be  tied  up  to,  and  com- 
pared with,  related  topics  going  back  as  far  as  the  arriere-ban 
among  the  early  Germans,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  army 
after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  down  to  the  present  time.  The  broad 
conclusions  are  generally  drawn  by  the  teacher  and  are  learned 
merely  as  any  other  fact  is  learned.  Very  little  opportunity 
for  independent  thought  is  given. 

This  step  is  very  frequently  not  formally  taken  up  at  all. 
The  whole  process  is  in  a  way  its  application.  The  application 
is  generally  to  show  the  greatness  of  Germany,  how  g.  Appiica- 
the  kings  have  taken  care  of  their  people,  and  how  *'°" 
the  people  may  benefit  from  patriotic,  faithful  service.  Fre- 
quently, the  application  is  made  by  asking  the  pupils  how  this 
or  that  historical  event  affects  them  or  the  social  fabric  in  which 
they  live.  Sometimes  moral  lessons,  which  are  drawn  from  the 
Uves  of  historical  personages,  are  apphed  to  the  lives  of  the 
children.  In  the  main,  however,  the  application  touches  some 
phase  of  that  citizenship  which  is  the  best  possible  for  the  Ger- 
man state. 


41 6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

No  matter  what  the  general  theory  of  instruction  may  be, 

repetition  claims  the  largest  part  of  the  time.    The  teacher 

gives  the  pupils  the  information  and  then  requires 

Repetition       °  .  ...  . 

them  to  repeat  it,  summarize  it,  and  repeat  it  over 
and  over  again  until  he  is  satisfied  that  they  know  the  facts 
thoroughly.  The  observer  is  not  always  convinced  that  the 
children  know  the  meaning  of  what  they  have  recited,  but  it 
is  certain  that  they  know  facts.  As  aids  in  this  repetition  the 
teacher  frequently  writes  the  chief  dates  on  the  board,  as  well 
as  several  sentences  which  summarize  the  different  topics  in  the 
lesson.  The  ministry  in  Berhn  requires  that  the  children  know 
the  most  important  facts  and  chief  dates  in  their  national  history. 
Usually  these  facts  and  dates  are  drilled  while  the  topics  are 
being  discussed,  and  also  at  other  times  as  an  independent  drill 
exercise,  entirely  divorced  from  all  subject  matter.  Repetition 
forms  a  part  of  almost  each  lesson.  The  first  ten  minutes  of 
each  hour  is  usually  devoted  to  a  review  of  previous  work.  A 
general  repetition  of  the  main  points  is  required  at  the  end  of 
the  treatment  of  each  large  topic. 

Whatever  may  be  said  for  or  against  this  type  of  teaching, 
it  gets  the  result  desired,  for  the  children  do  acquire  the  facts, 
and  from  the  process  they  get  a  large  portion  of  German  patriot- 
ism, although  they  might  acquire  a  still  more  reasonable  patriot- 
ism if  they  were  not  required  to  spend  such  a  large  part  of  their 
time  in  memorization  and  were  allowed  to  think  and  act  for 
themselves. 

There  is  no  separate  history  text-book.  The  Realimbiich 
is  a  science  reader  which  contains  sections  on  history,  geography, 
biology,  physics,  chemistry,  and  physiology.  These 
books  are  usually  adopted  throughout  the  whole  of 
an  administrative  county,  although  an  entire  province  may  use 
the  same  text.  This  science  reader  is  seldom  read  by  the  pupils 
at  all.    Many  pupils  have  told  us  that  they  never  read  in  it 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  417 

more  than  once  or  twice  a  month,  and  then  only  for  review.  A 
series  of  topics,  generally  the  commonest  facts  in  history,  are 
briefly  treated  in  this  book.  The  children  have  little  use  for 
the  text-book,  because  the  teachers  present  to  them  in  class 
the  same  material  and  more  of  it,  and  usually  in  much  better  form. 
These  texts  are  rarely  ever  illustrated,  and  in  case  they  are, 
only  very  poorly.  As  far  as  we  observed,  the  children  in  the 
German  school  would  be  just  as  well  off  without  the  Realienbuch 
as  with  it,  as  far  as  the  history  section  is  concerned.  In  this 
respect  the  Germans  surpass  us.  They  are  not  slaves  to  a  text- 
book. The  reason  is  plain  to  see.  Their  teachers  are  trained, 
while  many  of  ours  are  not,  and  hence  we  need  a  text,  in  order 
that  the  children  may  at  least  learn  something.  The  Germans 
have  also  something  to  learn  in  regard  to  text-books,  because 
a  good  text-book  is  a  help  even  to  a  highly  trained  teacher. 

A  section  of  the  German  reader  is  given  over  to  history,  in 
which  are  to  be  found  fables,  myths,  biographical  sketches, 
and  historical  selections  in  prose  and  poetry,  which  History  in 
are  used  to  supplement  the  regular  historical  material  ^^  Readers 
given  by  the  teacher  or  found  in  the  Realienbuch.  The  historical 
selections  found  in  the  German  reader  are  generally  of  a  better 
character  than  those  found  in  the  Realienbuch,  because  the 
former  are  generally  written  by  standard  writers,  while  the 
latter  are  not. 

Besides  these  two  sources  of  history  material,  there  are  quite 
a  number  of  historical  readers,  which  are  used  in  a  supplemen- 
tary way.  This  practice  is  not  very  general.  None  Historical 
of  the  history  text  is  used  to  any  extent  to  help  the  Readers 
child  prepare  his  lesson.  He  learns  his  lesson  in  school  from  his 
teacher,  and  then  uses  the  text  to  supplement  what  he  has  gotten 
there. 

The  spoken  word  of  the  teacher  does  more  than  anything 
else  to  make  the  history  instruction  concrete.    It  is  the  best 

2  E 


41 8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

means  of  illustration  which  one  finds  in  the  work  in  the  Volks- 
schule.  The  story  or  event  as  related  by  the  German  history 
niustrative  teacher  is  vibrating  with  life.  It  paints  the  event  in 
Material  vivid  colors.  The  battle,  the  charge,  or  the  storm- 
ing of  the  fortress  appears  in  their  childish  imaginations  as  almost 
real.  The  map  is  one  piece  of  material  which  is  invariably 
present.  Any  one  acquainted  with  the  excellence  of  German 
maps  will  understand  what  a  valuable  aid  the  maps  are  in 
history  work.  A  boy  is  never  allowed  to  talk  about  a  place 
of  which  he  does  not  know  the  location.  Naturally  history  is 
very  closely  correlated  with  geography,  and  the  teacher  never 
fails  to  show  the  way  in  which  history  has  been  affected  by  geo- 
graphical phenomena  or  principles.  Maps  are  largely  used  to 
explain  the  expansion  of  Prussia.  Such  maps  are  usually  ar- 
ranged in  series,  or  so  printed  in  color  that  the  pupils  can  see 
at  a  glance  the  territorial  growth  of  Prussia  and  the  German 
Empire.  Then  one  sees  a  great  many  maps  used  to  show  the 
plans  of  famous  battles. 

When  maps  are  not  practicable,  the  teacher  takes  advantage 
of  his  abiUty  to  draw.  If  the  map  does  not  show  the  arrange- 
Piansand  ment  of  troops  in  the  battle,  the  teacher  simply 
Sketches  sketches  it  on  the  board  and  simplifies  his  work  im- 
mensely. There  are  also  a  great  number  of  printed  sketches 
or  plans  of  battles,  campaigns,  expeditions,  and  the  like,  which 
many  teachers  use  quite  extensively. 

Historical  pictures  are  also  used.  Every  German  schoolroom 
has  a  picture  of  the  present  emperor,  and  generally  Emperor 
William  I,  the  present  empress,  and  Bismarck.  Some 
rooms  have  other  famous  Germans.  Besides  pictures 
of  individuals  almost  every  school  possesses  pictures  to  illustrate 
life  among  the  early  Germans :  feudalism,  knights,  old  German 
towns,  famous  battles,  fortresses,  and  many  other  topics  of 
historical    interest.    Such    illustrative    material    is    published 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  419 

very  cheaply  and  in  great  quantities,  so  that  there  is  scarcely 
a  school,  in  the  town  or  in  the  country,  that  does  not  have  a 
sufficient  supply. 

A  few  of  the  larger  cities  have  school  museums,  while  almost 
every  city  of  any  considerable  size  has  general  museums  with 
collections  of  educational  interest.    One  of  the  best 

,  Museums 

school  museums  is  located  at  Hannover.  It  con- 
tains collections  of  ethnological  characters,  miniature  models 
of  the  old  German  home,  the  German  camp,  the  old  Roman 
city,  and  the  like.  The  general  museums  usually  are  much 
better  equipped  for  history  work  than  are  the  school  museums, 
which  devote  most  of  their  collections  to  the  study  of  geography 
and  the  natural  sciences.  One  finds  ordinarily  in  the  city  mu- 
seums historical  paintings,  cannons,  flags,  weapons  of  all  sorts, 
statues  of  famous  men,  all  of  which  make  very  excellent  illus- 
trative material  for  the  elementary  history  work.  School  ex- . 
cursions  are  frequently  made  to  the  museums,  just  as  they  are  to 
places  of  historical  interest,  and  with  very  excellent  results.  The 
time  for  such  excursions  is  taken  from  the  regular  school  work, 
though  occasionally  these  trips  may  fall  on  the  free  afternoons. 

Closely  bound  up  with  the  history  work  is  some  instruction 
in  practical  citizenship.     It  deals  with  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  citizen.    This  work  is  generally  handled  in  the  cj^jsa^a 
hour  assigned  to  history,  but  such  is  not  always  the  PoHticai 
case.    The  general  course  of  study  rarely  contains     '^°'^°^^ 
an  outline  of  the  topics  to  be  treated,  but  the  necessary  points 
are  usually  scattered  through  the  history  course.    The  subject 
is  a  mixture  of  the  elements  of  civics  and  of  economics  (Volks- 
wirtschaftslehre  and  Burgerkunde). 

The  course  given  below  outhnes  the  topics  usually  taught 
which  relate  to  civics  or  political  economy.  Course 

1.  Work:  kinds,  division  and  reward  (the  seventh  commandment). 

2.  Property :  individual  and  common. 


420  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

3.  Money :  gold,  sflver,  paper,  notes,  bills  of  exchange,  banks,  sav- 
ings institutions  (given  in  arithmetic  in  the  eighth  year). 

4.  Insurance :  fire,  hail,  life,  military,  sick,  accident,  invalid,  old 
age  insurance  (arithmetic,  eighth  year). 

5.  The  economic  conditions  in  Germany  (geography  in  eighth 
year). 

(o)  Population. 

(6)  Products:  agriculture,  animal  husbandry,  forestry,  fisheries, 
mining,  home  industry,  factory  industry,  Germany's  depend- 
ence on  foreign  countries. 

(c)  Commerce  :  domestic  trade,  imports,  exports. 

(d)  Transportation :  railroads,  post,  telegraph,  telephone,  steam- 

ships. 

(e)  Protection  of  German  labor :  tariffs,  commercial  treaties. 

6.  Development  of  social  institutions :  (History,  eighth  year). 
Peasant  class,  citizenship,  and  suffrage,  industry,  commerce,  and  trade, 
transportation,  army  and  navy,  school  system,  courts,  and  taxation 
system. 

7.  The  family:  members  of  the  family,  guardianship,  registrar's 
office  (marriages,  deaths,  births),  servants,  compulsory  school  attendance, 
occupations,  wills,  and  family  budget  (arithmetic,  eighth  year). 

8.  The  community :  meaning  and  purpose  of  the  commimity,  duties 
and  rights  of  the  citizens,  income  and  expenses  of  the  community,  ad- 
ministration of  the  local  government,  church  relationships  of  the  com- 
munity. 

9.  The  Prussian  kingdom:  rights  and  privileges  of  the  king,  rights 
and  privileges  of  Prussians,  the  house  of  representatives  (Landtag), 
state  administration,  income  and  expenses. 

10.  The  German  empire :  the  rights  of  the  emperor,  rights  and  duties 
of  Germans,  the  Bundesrat  and  Reichstag,  imperial  administration, 
army  and  navy,  income  and  expenses;  judicial  system,  which  treats 
of  the  duties  of  one  to  his  neighbors'  life  (murder,  bodily  injury,  and 
adulteration  of  foods) ;  duties  relating  to  the  honor  and  good  name  of 
one's  feUows  (trust,  falsehood,  and  perjury) ;  duties  toward  our  neigh- 
bor's property  (theft  and  deception). 

Each  one  of  these  topics  is  taken  up  in  the  subject  where  it 
fits  best  and  is  clearly  discussed  and  explained.  There  is  no 
attempt  made  to  explain  to  these  children  of  the  Volksschule 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  421 

all  the  unending  intricacies  of  German  government.  Enough  is 
explained  to  enable  a  citizen  of  the  lower  class  to  understand 
in  a  fundamental  way  those  parts  of  the  governmental 
system  with  which  he  comes  in  intimate  contact. 
The  pupil  is  brought  to  recognize  the  valuable  protection  and 
good  which  the  state  furnishes  him,  and  he  is  taught  very  specif- 
ically that  he  owes  certain  obUgations  to  the  state  for  that  pro- 
tection. If  the  state  assures  the  safety  of  his  home  and  city, 
he  must  be  willing  to  serve  in  the  army  which  affords  the  pro- 
tection. 

The  pupil  acquires  here  a  very  definite  idea  of  respect  for 
law  and  authority,  and  he  acquires  actual  practice  in  respecting 
law  and  authority  in  his  daily  Ufe,  for  German  laws  are  respected 
and  they  are  enforced.  And  it  is  just  at  this  point  that  the  most 
striking  difference  between  America  and  Germany  exists.  We 
run  along  without  ever  thinking  much  about  the  law,  while  the 
Germans  are  a  law-directed  people.  It  extends  down  into  the 
little  things  of  life  which  might  be  annoying  to  us,  but  which 
might  improve  our  standards  somewhat  if  we  would  do  the 
same  things  on  our  own  initiative.  The  German  does  not  tear 
up  paper  and  throw  it  in  the  street ;  he  does  not  litter  vacant 
lots  with  garbage  and  refuse ;  he  does  not  steal  flowers  or  dis- 
figure shrubbery  in  public  parks;  and  he  does  not  do  a  great 
many  other  uncouth  things  which  we  do  here  in  America.  It 
is  not,  however,  due  to  a  rigorous  supervision  by  the  police  now. 
The  present-day  German  has  been  educated  out  of  such  things. 
Somewhere  he  has  acquired  a  certain  sort  of  civic  pride  which 
requires  him  to  protect  and  respect  public  property.  Some- 
where he  has  acquired  a  civic  pride  which  makes  him  keep 
his  home  neat  and  in  good  repair.  One  would  have  to  search 
diligently  in  Germany  to  find  a  tumbledown  town  or  village, 
while  one  has  to  search  infinitely  more  to  find  one  in  America 
that  is  not  dilapidated  wholly  or  that  has  not  some  dilapidated 


42  2  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

section.  The  German  law  does  not  require  such  spick  and 
span  cities.  It  is  the  German  ideal,  obtained  somewhere  in 
their  system  of  education,  that  performs  these  miracles,  and 
the  course  in  civics  and  economics  contributes  to  quite  a 
large  extent  this  quality  of  civic  pride  and  responsibility  which 
is  so  urgently  needed  here  in  America.  The  German  begins 
by  having  his  school  and  church  as  clean  and  attractive  as 
limited  means  will  permit.  How  does  it  contrast  with  our 
school  and  church  ?  Though  our  condition  in  regard  to  appear- 
ance of  public  schools  is  rapidly  improving,  we  are  now  in  many 
respects  far  behind  the  Germans. 

History  teaching  in  the  Volksschule  calls  for  too  little  activity 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  protagonists  of  the  "work-school" 
(Arbeiisschtde)  charge  the  ordinary  school-teacher  with  believing 
that  his  task  is  accomplished  when  the  children  have  acquired 
certain  facts,  riames,  and  dates.  From  our  observation  this  is 
often  true,  and  almost  all  of  the  teachers  of  history  insist  on  a 
great  deal  of  memory  work,  but  at  the  same  time  they  redeem 
this  fault  by  their  intense  patriotism  and  enthusiasm.  Though 
the  whole  effect  of  the  work  in  history  makes  the  German  child 
patriotic  and  conscious  of  his  country's  greatness,  his  individuality 
is  left  dwarfed  and  undeveloped  by  lack  of  opportunity  for  in- 
dependent thought.  One  hears  a  great  deal  of  talk  about  de- 
veloping the  individuality  of  the  children,  but  one  rarely  finds 
opportunity  in  a  Volksschule  for  the  children  to  really  express 
themselves.  In  the  Arbeitsschule  at  Dortmund  we  saw  a  real 
attempt  to  let  the  pupils  do  things  for  themselves  in  history. 
They  drew  their  own  maps,  they  made  their  own  sketches,  they 
modeled  their  own  forts  in  the  sand  table  and  tried  to  give 
some  expression  to  the  historical  conceptions  which  they  had 
acquired. 

As  far  as  the  purposes  of  governmental  and  national  policy 
are  concerned,  history  is  the  most  important  subject  in  the 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  423 

entire  elementary  school  curriculum.  In  trying  to  make  an 
estimate  of  the  worth  of  the  subject,  it  can  be  said  that  it 
fully  accomplishes  its  purpose  in  making  patriotic 
Germans  out  of  the  pupils  in  the  Volksschule.  Natu-  """^  "^  °° 
rally,  history  is  not  the  only  factor  that  contributes  to  this  end, 
but  it  is  the  most  important  one.  The  German  government 
started  out  a  half  century  ago  with  the  intention  of  making  its 
citizenship  the  most  intelligent  and  the  most  chauvinistic  in  the 
world,  and  it  has  accomplished  its  purpose.  Herein  lies  the  lesson 
for  America.  We  must  fix  our  national  purposes  and  then  mold 
the  coming  generations  definitely,  concretely,  toward  that  end. 

History.    Fifth  Yeas 

Teacher:    What  prince  were  we  speaking  of  last  time? 

Pupil:    We  spoke  of  Emperor  William  I. 

Teacher:    What  relation  was  he  to  Emperor  William  II? 

Pupil:    He  was  the  grandfather. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  of  the  youth  of  William  I. 

Pupil:  His  early  youth  was  very  happy,  but  during  the  time  of  Prussia's 
defeat  he  was  sad  because  he  saw  his  mother  weeping.  The  French 
were  in  the  land  and  the  Prussians  could  not  save  it.  The  queen  was 
forced  to  flee,  but  she  stiU  trusted  in  God.  She  said,  "Because  we  have 
deserted  Him,  have  we  been  cast  down." 

Teacher:    Who  was  the  eldest  brother  of  William  I? 

Pupil:    His  eldest  brother  was  Frederick  William  IV. 

Teacher:    AVhen  did  he  reign ? 

Pupil:    He  reigned  from  1840  to  1858. 

Teacher:    Why  didn't  he  reign  until  i860? 

Pupil:    WUHam  I  was  appointed  regent  on  account  of  his  brother's  illness. 

Teacher:  WiUiam  I  was  thoroughly  a  soldier.  How  old  was  he  when  his 
brother  died? 

PupU:    He  was  61  years  old. 

Teacher:    What  wars  did  he  wage? 

PupU:    He  waged  the  Danish  War. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  the  first  events  of  the  Danish  War. 

Pupil:  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein  died. 
They  invited  the  King  of  Denmark  to  become  duke,  but  Schleswig 


424  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  Holstein  were  not  to  be  divided.  After  the  Second  Peace  of  Paris, 
Holstein  was  taken  up  by  the  North  German  Federation.  The  Danes 
...  I  don't  know. 

Pupil:  The  Danes  oppressed  the  Germans  in  Schleswig.  In  1863  the 
king  of  Deimiark  died,  and  his  successor,  Christian  IX,  called  Schleswig 
a  Danish  province.  This  was  contrary  to  the  agreement,  for  Schleswig 
and  Holstein  were  not  to  be  divided. 

Teacher:    What  did  Germany  do ? 

Pupil:  Germany  and  Austria  attacked  Denmark,  and  sent  an  army  under 
Graf  von  Wrangel  and  Prince  Frederick  Karl. 

Teacher:  In  February  the  army  advanced  into  Schleswig.  The  Austrians 
went  to  the  west,  and  the  Prussians  to  the  east.  Prince  Frederick  Karl 
tried  to  go  around  the  Danes.  He  fought  them  at  Misshunde  and  then 
advanced  to  Amis.  The  Danes  then  retreated,  and  stopped  at  Duppel, 
where  they  had  very  strong  fortifications.  It  was  necessary  to  capture 
this  fortress  because  it  shut  off  all  access  to  upper  Denmark.  In  front 
of  the  fortifications  was  a  broad  level  plain,  which  the  Germans 
would  have  to  cross  before  they  could  deliver  an  attack.  The  question 
was,  —  How  could  the  Germans  get  troops  dose  enough  to  make  an 
eSective  storming  of  the  ramparts  and  barricades?  The  German 
commander  had  trenches  dug  in  zigzag  directions  toward  the  forts. 
Why  do  you  think  he  had  this  done  ? 

Pupil:  I  suppose  because  the  trench  would  never  be  open  to  fire  from  the 
forts  and  the  Germans  could  thus  approach  them  without  coming  from 
cover. 

Teacher:  This  work  took  a  long  time,'but  at  length  the  trenches  were  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  forts.  On  the  night  before  the  attack  the  Prince 
ordered  all  the  men  to  rest.  At  five  the  next  morning  he  ordered  all 
the  artillery  to  open  fire  upon  the  forts.  This  cannonading  continued 
until  ten  o'clock  sharp.  All  at  once  it  ceased,  and  the  word  for  advance 
was  given.  Like  a  flash  the  men  were  out  of  their  trenches  and  were 
in  the  breaches  in  the  fortifications  that  the  artillery  fire  had  made. 
Many  of  our  brave  soldiers  fell  and  the  outcome  was  in  doubt.  To 
make  a  breach  that  would  admit  our  troops  was  of  greatest  importance. 
A  common  soldier,  Klinke  by  name,  carried  a  sack  of  powder  on  his 
back.  He  saw  that  if  he  exploded  it,  a  hole  would  be  torn  in  the  de- 
fenses, but  that  it  would  cost  him  his  life.  Did  he  hesitate?  No! 
The  breach  was  made,  but  there  was  not  a  piece  left  of  the  poor,  brave 
soldier.    In  a  very  short  time  the  Danes  retreated  and  the  victory 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  425 

was  ours.    The  Danes  soon  made  peace  and  Schleswig-Holstein  be- 
came a  part  of  Prussia.    Who  were  the  commanders  of  the  Germans 
and  Austrians  ? 
Pupil:    Graf  von  Wrangel  and  Prince  Frederick  Karl. 

History.    Eighth  Year.    Boys 

Teacher:  How  did  Emperor  William  I  seek  to  avoid  the  disadvantages 
which  the  growth  of  industry  brought  his  people  ?  The  accumulation 
of  great  amounts  of  capital  by  individuals,  the  exploitation  of  the 
unemployed,  and  the  like  aroused  the  discontent  of  the  workingman 
and  endangered  domestic  peace  and  harmony.  How  did  the  working- 
man  show  his  discontent  ? 

Pupil:    By  strikes. 

Teacher:    What  were  the  results ? 

Pupil:  Property  was  destroyed,  the  employee  got  no  work,  and  the  em- 
ployer earned  nothing. 

Teacher:    How  did  Emperor  William  try  to  avoid  this  danger? 

We  learn  that  from  a  message  sent  by  Emperor  William  in  1881 
to  the  imperial  parUament.  It  runs  as  follows :  (reading)  We  would 
look  back  upon  all  the  success  with  which  God  has  blessed  our  reign 
with  so  much  the  more  contentment,  if  we  could  have  the  consciousness 
of  having  left  behind  for  the  Fatherland  new  and  lasting  assurance  of 
its  inner  peace,  and  greater  surety  and  lucrativeness  of  assistance  to  the 
needy  and  helpless,  which  is  their  due.  In  our  efforts  in  this  direction 
we  are  assured  of  the  approval  of  all  the  federated  governments  and 
of  the  support  of  parliament  without  party  dififerences.  In  this 
connection,  the  bill  concerning  the  insurance  of  employees  against 
accidents  which  has  been  submitted  in  this  session  by  all  the  federated 
governments,  will  be  submitted  to  reconsideration  and  modification, 
in  order  to  work  out  the  new  deUberation  thereon.  Supplementary 
thereto  a  bUl  will  be  introduced  which  will  propose  a  similar  organiza- 
tion of  industrial  sick  fund  system.  Also  those  who  become  inca- 
pacitated through  age  or  invalidism  have  a  well-founded  claim  on 
society  for  a  greater  amount  of  state  aid  than  they  hitherto  have  been 
able  to  obtain.  Prince  Bismarck,  at  whose  instance  this  legislation 
for  the  protection  of  the  working  classes  was  introduced,  fought  for 
these  proposals  in  parliament,  and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that  these 
laws  were  adopted.  When  in  the  deliberation  over  the  matter  it  was 
held  up  to  him  that  it  would  cost  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars  to  put 


426  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  accident  insurance  law  into  effect,  he  replied,  "It  wouldn't  frighten 
me,  if  it  were  to  cost  seventy-five  millions.  .  .  .  According  to  my 
opinion,  a  state,  whose  majority  of  citizens  are  confessors  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  should  be  active  and  concerned  in  caring  for  the  poor,  the 
weak,  and  the  old."  His  efforts  succeeded  in  putting  these  laws  into 
effect.  To  be  sure  this  did  not  happen  all  at  once,  but  only  gradually, 
and  the  great  emperor  did  not  live  to  see  the  fulfiUment  of  his  wonderful 
plans.  The  industrial  legislation  was  first  finished  under  Emperor 
William  II.    How  has  the  imperial  message  been  fulfilled? 

Pupil:  Sickness,  accident,  invalid,  and  old  age  pensions  have  been  intro- 
duced for  the  protection  of  employees. 

Teacher:    What  is  the  purpose  of  insurance  against  sickness? 

Pupil:  Every  employee  is  required  to  take  out  sickness  insurance.  The 
employer  must  register  his  workers,  and  pay  the  premiums  for  them, 
although  he  may  withhold  from  their  wages  their  share  of  the  premiums. 

Teacher:    What  benefits  does  this  type  of  insurance  assure? 

Pupil:  It  protects  the  workingman  and  his  family  in  case  of  sickness 
from  dire  need ;  it  assures  his  dependents  a  certain  amount  of  support, 
for  they  receive  a  certain  sum  of  money  upon  the  death  of  the  support 
of  the  family.  The  amotmt  received  varies  with  the  amount  of  the 
wages  which  the  employee  earned. 

Teacher:    What  is  the  purpose  of  accident  insurance? 

Pupil:  It  is  to  protect  the  worker  and  his  famUy  from  necessity.  But 
accident  insurance,  the  cost  of  which  has  to  be  borne  by  the  employers, 
also  protects  the  Ufe  and  health  of  the  employees,  because  the  employers 
are  compelled  to  take  all  sorts  of  safety  precautions,  so  that  accidents 
cannot  happen  so  easily. 

Teacher:  Let  us  look  at  statistics  and  see  if  the  number  of  accidents  has 
really  decreased.  (The  teacJier  read  the  figures  to  show  that  the 
number  of  accidents  had  fallen  off  to  a  large  extent.) 

Teacher:  Why  have  they  introduced  old  age  and  invalid  insurance  in 
addition  to  those  already  mentioned? 

Pupil:  This  insurance  is  to  protect  the  employees  from  need  who  have 
become  permanently  incapacitated  through  accident  or  old  age. 

Teacher:    But  were  such  measures  necessary? 

Pupil:  Certainly,  first,  in  the  interest  of  the  state,  because  we  have  learned 
that  the  internal  peace  and  external  power  are  endangered  by  the  dis- 
content of  the  masses. 

Teacher:    What  else? 


THE  REAL  SUBJECTS  427 

Pupil:  It  is  necessary  in  the  interest  of  the  working  classes  whose  down- 
trodden conditions  and  whose  vocation  demand  such  care  from  the 
state. 

Teacher:    ^What  other  reason  is  there  for  this  insurance? 

Pupil:  It  is  necessary  in  the  interest  of  our  industry,  because  it  demands, 
for  a  further  healthy  development,  a  contented,  work-loving,  strong, 
laboring  class.  Then,  too,  it  was  a  commandment  of  brotherly  love  to 
care  for  the  old,  weak,  sick,  and  infirm. 

Teacher:    Why  were  the  employers  made  to  bear  a  part  of  the  expenses? 

Pupil:  The  employees  help  them  earn  their  wealth,  so  it  is  only  right  and 
just  that  the  employers  help  care  for  their  employees. 

Teacher:     Give  me  a  sentence  to  summarize  the  lesson. 

Pupil:  The  emperors  have  caused  legislation  to  be  passed  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  working  people. 

History.    Class  I.    Eighth  Grade  (Review) 
Teacher:    The  aim  of  the  lesson  is  to  show  how  the  emperors  have  continued 

the  efforts  of  their  illustrious  ancestors  in  behalf  of  the  welfare  of  the 

people. 
Teacher:    What  illustrious  ancestors  are  meant? 
Pupil:    The  Great   Elector,  Frederick   William  I,  Frederick  the  Great, 

and  Frederick  William  III. 
Teacher:    In  what  way  did  these  emperors  further  the  general  welfare  of 

the  people  ? 
Pupil:    Frederick  the  Great  did  much  for  the  agricultural  life  of  his  people, 

and  estabhshed  a  great  army. 
Teacher:    What  value  did  these  efforts  have? 
Pupil:    They  brought  great  blessings  to  the  people. 
Teacher:    In  what  way  have  the  emperors  furthered  the  welfare  of  the 

new  empire  ? 
Pupil:    The   restoration  of  commerce,   the   introduction    of  protective 

tariffs  and  commercial  treaties,  imperial  postal  service,  founding  of 

colonies,  increase  and  improvement  of  means  of  transportation,  such 

as  canals,  railroads,  steamship  Unes,  and  the  Uke. 
Teacher:    Why  did  the  emperors  have  to  look  out  for  the  improvement  of 

commerce  and  industry? 
Pupil:    The  conditions  arising  from  political  reasons  seriously   affected 

the  commerce  of  all  of  the  German  states.    There  was  no  Customs 

Union  and  each  state  sought  to  get  the  advantage  of  its  neighbor. 


428  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Uniform  commercial  regulations  were  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
people  and  the  unity  of  the  empire. 

Teacher:    How  did  the  emperors  seek  to  help? 

Pupil:  The  imperial  postal  system  was  organized. 

Pupil:    Then  protective  tariffs  were  introduced. 

Teacher:  Why  were  the  protective  tariffs  introduced,  and  why  were  com- 
mercial treaties  drawn  up  ? 

Pupil:  The  hurtful  influence  of  foreign  competition,  which  was  injurious 
to  German  industry  and  agriculture,  was  to  be  removed.  The  hin- 
drances which  kept  back  our  industry  and  commerce  were  to  be  re- 
moved.   In  this  manner  the  welfare  of  the  nation  was  to  be  advanced. 

Pupil:  New  countries  were  opened  up  to  exports.  The  exportation  of 
goods  to  other  countries  was  made  easier,  while  importation  was  made 
more  difficult. 

Teacher:    In  what  way  were  commerce  and  trade  made  easier? 

Pupil:  Commerce  and  trade  were  made  easier  by  the  establishment  of 
the  imperial  postal  system,  imperial  railroads,  steamship  hnes,  and 
canals. 

Teacher:    In  what  way  did  these  new  things  improve  business? 

Pupil:  It  made  trade  much  easier,  more  simple,  cheaper,  and  afforded 
quick  exchange,  and  transportation  of  goods. 

Pupil:  Commerce  was  made  possible  with  all  countries  by  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  imperial  steamship  lines.  Regions  which  were  previously 
shut  off  were  opened  up  to  trade.  German  sea-trade  was  increased 
and  protected. 

Teacher:  What  influence  did  these  peaceful  efforts  have  upon  Germany's 
international  position  ? 

Pupil:  The  inner  unity  increased  Germany's  outer  position  as  a  world 
power.  Germany  was  respected  in  the  councils  of  the  nations  and  was 
feared  throughout  all  Europe. 

Teacher:    Will  some  one  summarize  what  we  have  said? 

Pupil:  The  German  emperors  have  increased  the  general  welfare  of  then: 
people  through  the  establishment  of  a  postal  system,  commercial 
treaties,  protective  tariffs,  railways,  canals,  and  steamship  lines. 
These  efforts  made  Germany  firmly  united. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

GEOGRAPHY 

Standing  in  very  close  relationship  to  history  both  in  content 
and  in  method,  geography  holds  a  very  important  place  in  the 
curriculum  of  every  German  elementary  school.    To  j^^^   ^^^ 
one  who  has  observed  the  German  schools,  it  is  a  ofGeog- 
matter  of  extreme  difl&culty  to  discuss  geography  apart  '"''  ^ 
from  history,  because  these  two  subjects  are  always  most  inti- 
mately associated  with  each  other.     In  the  first  three  or  four 
years  of  the  school  there  is  no  attempt  to  teach  history  and 
geography  separately,  but  the  material  of  historical  or  geo- 
graphical nature  that  is  considered  suitable  for  the  lower  sec- 
tion of  the  school  is  given  under   the  name  of  Heimatkunde 
(knowledge  of  the  home). 

The  purpose  of  instruction  in  geography  is  first  of  all  a  practical  one. 
Geographical  knowledge  is  a  necessity  for.  the  ordinary  man  under  the 
commercial  and  industrial  conditions  of  to-day  and  these 
times  of  the  German  expansion  in  colonization,  trade,  and  ^J?*?!^ 
industry ;   and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Volksschule  to  satisfy  this 
necessity  in  an  acceptable  manner.    On  the  other  hand,  geography  serves 
pedagogical  purposes  as  well ;  for  if  presented  in  the  proper  way  geography 
is  not  merely  a  matter  of  memorization,  but  has  an  effect  on  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  understanding,  thereby  becoming  an  educative  instrument. 

These  are  the  words  of  a  leading  German  educator  of  to-day 
and  they  are  the  truest  words  ever  written  of  the  purpose  of  a 
vast  amount  of  the  work  done  in  the  elementary  schools.  The 
aim  is  a  practical  one,  looking  toward  the  commercial,  industrial, 

1  Schowchow,  Metkodik  des  Volksschulunterrichts,  p.  432. 
429 


430  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  colonial  expansion  of  the  German  Empire.  Geography  is 
studied  to  show  the  children  the  industrial  greatness  and  the 
industrial  necessity  of  the  Fatherland.  Every  item  in  the  course 
of  study  in  geography  aims  at  the  inculcation  in  the  child's  mind 
of  an  idea  which  is  calculated  to  make  him  a  more  patriotic  Ger- 
man, a  German  who  sees  the  need  of  national  conservation  and 
defense  and  expansion  across  the  seas.  The  work  in  geography 
is  merely  supplementary  to  that  in  history.  It  ftimishes  the 
material  with  which  the  child  is  made  to  justify  the  aims  and 
ideals  of  his  native  land. 

France  is  studied  largely  to  acquaint  the  German  child  with 
his  traditional  enemy.  South  America  is  studied  more  closely 
than  North  America  because  in  that  continent  the  German  ulti- 
mately hopes  to  gain  a  foothold.  Routes  of  travel  to  the  Near 
East  are  considered  carefully  because  the  German  has  long 
looked  with  desire  on  the  riches  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  and 
Eg5^t.  The  natural  resources  of  the  Fatherland  are  very  plainly 
discussed  to  show  that  the  Empire  can  feed  itself  for  only  two 
hundred  eighty  days  of  the  year  in  normal  times.  On  account 
of  this  fact  the  German  feels  justified  in  being  an  expan- 
sionist. 

It  goes  without  saying  th'at  the  German  teacher  has  other  ideals 
than  these  practical  ones  to  be  attaraed  by  instruction  in  geog- 
raphy, but  they  are  all  subordinate  to  that  of  German  nationalism. 

Friedrich  Ratzel  holds  a  very  prominent  place  among  Ger- 
man  geographers   who   are    devoting    themselves   to  the  ele- 

^.  .  ,  mentary  school.  His  most  important  books  are 
I.  Principles    .      ,  ,  .  ^ 

Underlying    Afithropogeograpme  and  Die  Erde  und  das  Leben.    As 

fastScSons   ^^^  ^^  method  is  concerned,  he  has  laid  aside  that  of 

comparison  and  has  put  the  "  where  people  live  "  and 

"why  they  live  there"  in  the  chief  place  of  importance  in  the 

geography  of  the  Volksschule.     He  has  made  the  home  of  prime 

importance  and  a  point  of  departure.     He  has  done  away  with 


GEOGRAPHY  431 

a  too  complete  dependence  upon  the  map  through  which  the 
geography  had  become  very  mechanical  and  lifeless. 

As  nearly  as  we  can  ascertain,  the  following  principles  He  at 
the  basis  of  the  work  in  geography  in  the  Volksschule  at  the 
present  time. 

1.  A  knowledge  of  the  formation  of  the  land  of  any  particular  country 
constitutes  primarily  the  basis  of  the  geographical  instruction. 

2.  Portions  of  the  earth's  surface,  which  in  regard  to  their  climate, 
structure,  animal  and  plant  life  form  a  unified  whole,  are  called  natural 
landscapes,  upon  which  physical  and  political  geography  are  buUt. 

3.  Man  and  his  occupations  are  the  most  important  phenomena  upon 
the  earth's  surface.  Consequently  the  geography  of  kultur,  which  seeks 
to  find  the  geographical  conditions  upon  which  civilization  is  buUt,  holds 
an  important  place  in  elementary  school  geography. 

4.  The  principle  involved  in  home  geography  shall  be  carried  through- 
out the  course. 

5.  The  self-activity  of  the  pupil  is  necessary.  On  this  last  point  the 
German  schools  fall  down  and  one  is  led  to  doubt  if  the  teachers  really 
desire  the  pupils  to  exercise  any  self-activity. 

The  Berlin  course  of  study  outlines  the  following  work  in  geog- 
raphy. 

Class  5.    (fourth  year  in  school).    Home  geography  dealing  with  Berlin. 
The  Province  of  Brandenburg.    Observation  of  the  heavens.   Course  of 
(This  work  has  already  been  begun  in  the  lower  section  as  a  Study 
part  of  the  topics  in  Observation  Instruction.) 

Class  4.  General  view  of  the  continents  and  oceans.  Germany.  Ob- 
servation of  the  heavens ;  apparent  movements  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars ;  phases  of  the  moon ;  its  relation  to  the  sun ;  eclipses  of  the  moon. 

Class  3.  Countries  of  Europe.  Daily  and  yearly  movement  of  the  sun. 
Movement  of  the  moon  and  its  phases. 

Class  2.  Foreign  countries  and  continents  with  especial  reference  to 
German  colonies  and  protectorates.  Concluding  work  in  the  geography 
of  Germany  with  particular  emphasis  upon  natural  resources. 

Class  I.  The  economic  conditions  in  Germany.  Germany's  position 
in  world  commerce.  The  latitude  of  different  places ;  the  equator,  the  poles, 
tropics,  and  polar  circles.    Shape  of  the  earth.    The  globe.    Geographical 


432  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

latitude  and  longitude.  Rotation  of  the  earth.  The  sun's  orbit.  The 
moon.    The  solar  system.     Fixed  stars.    The  universe. 

In  Hannover  we  find  another  course  of  study. 

Class  6  (second  year).  Home  geography.  The  schoolhouse.  The 
school  district. 

Class  s.  Home  geography:  The  city  of  Hannover  and  its  environs. 
Observations  of  the  heavens. 

Class  4.  The  province  of  Hannover.  Germany  in  broad  outline. 
Continuation  of  the  study  of  the  heavens :  daily  course  of  the  sun ;  day  and 
night ;  varying  length  of  day  and  night ;  seasons  of  the  year ;  phases  of 
the  moon. 

Class  3.  The  earth :  distribution  of  land  and  water  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face ;  the  equator ;  the  zones ;  hemispheres ;  continents  and  oceans. 
Europe  in  broad  outline.  Germany.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  the 
heavens ;  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ;  heating  of  the  earth  in  different 
seasons ;  apparent  form  of  the  heavens,  the  horizon ;  the  polar  star. 

Class  2.  {a)  Foreign  continents  with  special  emphasis  on  the  German 
colonies.  (6)  The  province  of  Hannover,  which  includes  a  discussion  of 
state  and  local  government  and  the  judicial  system,  (c)  The  city  of  Han- 
nover :  the  meaning  and  duties  of  the  conmnmity ;  duties  and  rights  of 
citizens;  administration  of  the  city;  income  and  expenses  of  the  city; 
sanitary  regulations ;  commercial,  charitable,  and  educational  institutions ; 
industry ;  churches,  {d)  Study  of  the  heavens ;  shape  of  the  earth ;  dusk ; 
apparent  course  of  the  sun  in  the  four  seasons. 

Class  I.  {a)  Other  countries  of  Europe.  (6)  Germany;  population, 
production  (agriculture,  animal  husbandry,  forestry,  fishing,  mining,  in- 
dustry, foreign  relations  and  the  colonies) ;  commerce  (domestic  and  for- 
eign) ;  transportation  (railways,  post,  telegraph,  telephone,  and  steamships) ; 
protection  of  German  labor  (customs  and  commercial  treaties),  (c)  Study 
of  the  heavens:  movement  of  the  earth;  solar  system;  the  moon. 
{d)  General  geography,  climate,  weather,  erosion,  and  the  like. 

The  courses  of  study  as  given  above  indicate  in  a  general 
way  the  nature  of  the  work  done  in  geography  in  the  elementary 
Types  of  school.  Home  geography  claims  most  of  the  time  in 
Geography  tjjg  third  and  fourth  years,  while  formal  geography  is 
taught  in  the  remaining  four  years.  The  work  is  considered 
from  many  points  of  view,  chiefly,  however,  from  its  historical 


GEOGRAPHY  433 

and  economic  sides.  According  to  the  theory  of  German  geog- 
raphers who  deal  with  the  subject  for  the  Volksschule,  the  phys- 
ical phases  of  geography  should  receive  the  major  portion  of  the 
teacher's  attention,  but  observation  has  led  us  to  beheve  that 
the  political  and  economic  viewpoints  receive  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  time.  It  must  not  be  concluded,  however,  that  the 
essentials  of  geography  are  neglected.  A  glance  at  the  above 
courses  shows  at  once  that  the  main  geographical  principles  are 
taken  up,  not  only  once,  but  several  times. 

No  other  subject  is  used  as  freely  for  purposes  of  correlation 
as  is  geography.    In  religion  a  very  large  amount  of  formal 
geography  or  map  work  is  introduced.    If  the  child  had 
no  other  geography  work,  he  would  receive  from  the  with  other 
hours  spent  in  religion  a  very  thorough  knowledge    "  ^''** 
of   Egypt,   Asia   Minor,   Palestine,    Greece,   Rome,   and    Ger- 
many.    The  map  and  illustrations  are  always  used  in  religion 
lessons   dealing   with    countries   or  places   mentioned   in   the 
Scriptures. 

Geography  is  likewise  correlated  with  reading  much  in  the 
same  way  that  we  use  geographical  readers  in  this  country, 
except  that  the  geographical  selections  are  an  integral  part  of 
every  reader.  In  Hirt's  Lesebuch,  part  3,  one  hundred  fifty 
pages,  out  of  a  total  of  five  hundred  sixty-three,  are  devoted 
to  geography.  These  selections  deal  with  the  home,  the  Father- 
land, the  German  colonies,  foreign  coimtries,  and  astronomy. 
When  these  selections  are  read  in  the  German  recitation,  a 
study  of  the  map  and  use  of  illustrative  material  are  always  a 
part  of  the  work.  A  great  number  of  the  geographical  readings 
have  a  nationalistic  trend  which  appeals  to  the  child's  patriotism 
and  love  of  country.  The  following  paragraphs  are  taken  from 
a  reading  lesson  which  was  used  to  supplement  the  study  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  This  same  material  could  be  used  equally 
well  in  history. 


434  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  the  revolutionary  wars  the  French  conquered  the  remainder  of 
Alsace  and  thereby  the  whole  western  mark  became  French. 

The  new  masters  did  everything  to  make  friends  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  They  encouraged  agriculture,  commerce,  trade,  and  in- 
dustry by  means  of  new  roads,  canals,  and  railways.  Especially  through 
the  Vosges  they  built  roads  in  order  to  turn  the  faces  of  the  Alsatians  toward 
France.  Metz  and  Strassburg  were  more  strongly  fortified ;  they  were  to 
become  the  iron  claws  which  were  to  hold  the  land  for  France.  Thus  the 
French  succeeded  in  drawing  the  inhabitants  over  to  their  side,  only  they 
were  not  able  to  force  their  tongue  upon  the  German  population.  Although 
the  official  language  was  French,  the  mass  of  the  people  spoke  German  at 
home  and  thus  remained  German  at  heart. 

Then  came  the  war  of  1870-71  which  the  French  brought  on  so  reck- 
lessly. For  pimishment  therefor  the  stolen  provinces  were  taken  back 
again.  All  of  Alsace  and  aU  of  Lorraine  and  a  little  more  were  won  back 
for  the  new  German  Empire. 

The  proud  abbey  at  Strassburg  and  the  lordly  cathedral  at  Metz  look 
no  longer  toward  the  West,  but  eastward  toward  the  German  lands,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Alsace-Lorraine  have  learned  to  feel  happy  again  as 
Germans  under  the  protecting  scepter  and  loving  care  of  the  German 
kaiser. 

Geography  and  history  are  more  closely  correlated  than  any 
other  subjects,  as  can  easily  be  understood.  The  selection  just 
given  above  is  typical  of  the  geographical-historical  selections 
used  in  a  supplementary  way.  Both  subjects  grow  out  of 
Heimatkunde,  which  is  both  elementary  history  and  geography. 
History  is  called  upon  continually  to  give  life  and  motivation 
to  the  geography  lesson.  The  children  are  never  allowed  to 
forget  that  it  is  German  land,  a  part  of  the  Fatherland,  that  they 
are  studying.  It  is  very  difficult  to  find  any  spot  in  Germany 
that  has  not  been  intimately  connected  with  Germany's  political 
development.  This  fact,  inasmuch  as  a  patriotic  citizenship  is 
one  of  the  chief  aims  of  education,  is  enough  to  arouse  the 
child's  interest,  for  there  is  no  child  who  is  not  vitally  con- 
cerned in  knowing  why  Germany  is  the  greatest  nation  in  the 
world. 


GEOGRAPHY  435 

Elementary  science  is  also  employed  to  vitalize  the  geography 
instruction.  The  trees,  plants,  minerals,  and  animals  which  are 
commonest  in  Germany  are  studied  in  beginning  botany,  zoology, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  and  all  this  is  brought  in  to  aid  in  geog- 
raphy. The  correlations  made  are  not  accidental,  but  carefully 
planned  to  save  time  in  teaching. 

Reference  to  the  foregoing  courses  of  study,  particularly  the 
one  of  the  Hannover  schools,  shows  a  very  great  amount  of 
time  given  to  the  economic  phases  of  geography  in  the  2.  Economic 
last  years  of  school.  This  is  put  at  the  last  of  the  Geography 
course  for  several  reasons.  First,  because  the  child  would 
scarcely  be  able  to  understand  it  at  an  earher  age,  and,  secondly, 
because  the  State  wishes  to  leave  a  firm  impress  of  Germany's 
position,  power,  and  needs  upon  the  youthful  citizen  who  is  about 
to  leave  school.  These  topics  are  treated  from  another  point  of 
view  in  the  history  and  civil  government  course  {Burgerkunde) . 
This  type  of  work  in  geography  has  great  value  for  the  t3^e  of 
citizen  which  the  State  demands,  in  that  it  provides  a  definite 
kind  of  knowledge  which  every  intelligent  citizen  must  have. 
There  is  not  much  theory  involved ;  it  is  generally  a  plain  state- 
ment of  facts,  selected  to  show  what  Germany's  power  and  re- 
sources are,  and  to  show  what  are  the  duties  and  rights  of  the 
State,  the  community,  and  the  citizen.  It  must  be  said  that 
the  teachers  who  give  this  work,  in  aU  instances  observed, 
never  overstate  the  facts.  They  merely  ignore  facts  con- 
cerning other  countries.  It  must  be  admitted  that  a  great 
many  superlative  statements  in  regard  to  Germany  can  be 
truthfully  made. 

In  spite  of  all  theory  to  the  contrary,  a  large  portion  of  the 
time  in  geography  is  given  over  to  the  study,  that  is,  3.  PoUticai 
the  memorization  of  poUtical  divisions  and  boundaries,  Geography 
rivers,  capitals,  and  the  hke. 

Although  the  larger  part  of  the  course  in  geography  is  given 


436  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

over  to  economic  and  political  geography,  the  physical  side  of 
the  subject  is  amply  taken  care  of.  One  of  the  good  features  of 
geography  in  the  schools  in  Germany  is  that  the  chil- 
^<f  Mattie-  dren  are  not  overburdened  with  more  physical  geog- 
maticai         raphy  than  they  can  imderstand.     Only  the  most 

Geography 

essential  and  fundamental  principles  of  geography  are 
discussed,  and  then  very  simply  and  very  clearly.  Mathematical 
geography  is  taken  up  in  a  very  brief  way  in  connection  with 
arithmetic  in  addition  to  being  treated  in  a  few  lessons  in  the 
upper  geography  classes.  Reference  to  the  courses  given  above 
will  show  how  much  attention  is  given  to  the  phases  of  geog- 
raphy treated  in  this  paragraph. 

One  finds  quite  a  number  of  methods  used  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  subject  matter  in  geography,  all  of  which  may  be 
Methods  of  Observed  in  daily  use  in  the  schools.  The  subject  mat- 
Organiza-  ter  treated  is  very  much  the  same  in  all  Volksschulen, 
Subject  and  it  is  selected  generally  on  the  basis  of  the  princi- 
Matter  pjgg  mentioned  above,  which  resolves  itseK  finally  into 
teaching  the  child  the  most  necessary  things  about  his  own 
home,  his  province,  the  state,  and  the  outside  world  in  so  far  as 
it  concerns  Germany.  Several  of  the  methods  of  organization 
of  this  subject  matter  will  be  mentioned.  The  courses  selected 
above  are  the  most  tj^ical,  based  on  the  concentric-circle  theory 
of  organization,  modified,  however,  to  some  extent. 

The  analytic  method  of  treatment  proceeds  from  the  general 
to  the  particular.  The  child  begins  with  the  earth,  then  takes 
_,  the  continent,  the  country,  the  state,  the  province,  and 

Analytic  the  city  in  turn.  Physical,  political,  and  economic 
geography  follow  each  other.  The  majority  of  Ger- 
man educators  do  not  hold  to  this  organization  because  they 
think  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  experience  of  the  child,  and 
puts  off  a  treatment  of  the  home  and  state  to  the  last  of  the 
course. 


GEOGRAPHY  437 

The  synthetic  method  is  just  the  reverse  of  the  analytic. 
Modifications  of  this  method  are  in  most  common  use  in  the 
Volkssckule.    This  happens  to  be  the  most  current  form 

.  .        .        ...  ,  .      .  The  Syn- 

of  orgaiuzation  m  America  at  this  time.    The  order  of  thetic 
topics  is  usually  the  schoolhouse,  the  home,  the  city,  ^^^^^  ^ 
the  district,  the  province,  the  state,  the  rest  of  the  world.     Among 
the  prominent  methodicians  of    Germany  who  have  used  this 
organization  are  Harnisch,  Diesterweg,  Henning,  and  Gude. 

The  correlative  method  of  organization  in  geography  is  carried 
out  rigidly  in  very  few  schools,  but  is  used  more  or  less  in  all 
for  pedagogical  and  administrative  reasons.  This  correlative 
organization  is  used  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint  Method 
because  a  child  can  learn  the  geography  of  a  place  more  easily, 
and  remember  it  longer,  if  at  the  same  time  he  learns  some  of 
its  history.  From  an  administrative  standpoint  it  saves  a  great 
deal  of  time  to  organize  subject  matter  on  a  correlative  basis. 
Herbart,  Ziller,  Rein,  and  Gopfert  have  rendered  great  service  to 
the  Volkssckule  along  these  lines.  According  to  this  principle 
if  in  the  fifth  year  in  history  the  child  studied  Henry  IV,  Bar- 
barossa,  the  Crusades,  the  spread  of  Christianity  on  the  Baltic 
Sea,  and  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  he  would  study  the  Alps,  Italy, 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  Asia  Minor  and  Palestine,  the  Baltic 
provinces,  Switzerland  and  Austria  in  geography.  Many  of 
the  German  teachers  with  whom  I  have  talked  say  that  the 
danger  in  this  organization  is  that  geography  loses  its  identity 
through  correlation  with  other  subjects.  In  spite  of  this  danger 
this  plan  of  allowing  one  subject  to  bolster  up  and  help  out  an- 
other is  one  of  the  best  features  of  the  German  schools.  We 
talk  a  great  deal  about  correlation  in  this  country,  but  there  is 
very  little  real  correlation  done.  If  a  point  of  correlation  happens 
to  come  up,  our  teachers  take  advantage  of  it,  but  there  is  not 
much  conscious  and  intelligent  planning  for  the  proper  type  of 
correlation. 


438  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  concentric  circle  theory  of  organization  in  geography  is 
used  in  some  form  or  other  in  practically  all  German  Volks- 
schulen,  which  fact  does  not  interfere  at  all  with  correlation  or 
with  the  use  of  the  synthetic  scheme  of  organization.  In  the 
lowest  section  of  the  school  the  whole  field  of  geography,  of 
course,  only  in  barest  outhne,  is  taken  up ;  in  the  middle  section, 
the  same  material  is  treated  still  more  intensively,  and  increased 
in  difficulty  and  richness  according  to  the  needs  and  abihties  of 
the  child ;  and  it  is  all  gone  over  again,  with  added  content,  in 
the  upper  section  of  the  school.  This  method  of  organization  is 
particularly  valuable  for  several  reasons.  First,  it  is  valuable 
because  the  child  retains  subject  matter  better  if  it  is  gone  over 
several  times ;  and  second,  it  is  valuable  for  those  children  who 
never  reach  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade,  in  that  all  the  important 
topics  have  been  taken  up  previously  at  least  twice. 

For  example,  in  the  geography  course  in  Hannover  (p.  432), 

the  city  of  Hannover  was  taken  up  in  grades  two,  three,  six,  and 

seven ;  Germany  was  discussed  in  grades  four,  five,  and 

^^Mmp  es  o    ggygjj .  g^jj^  ^j^g  province  of  Hannover  was  treated  in 

Concentric     grades  four  and  six.     This  does  not  take  into  account 

Theory  °  .  .        .  ,  ,  . 

the  treatment  these  topics  receive  m  other  subjects 
than  geography,  from  which  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  really 
important  items  are  thoroughly  handled.  They  are  studied  in 
such  a  way  that  when  the  child  leaves  school,  he  knows  his  own 
home  and  coimtry  much  better  than  does  the  average  American 
child. 

The  methods  employed  in  the  classroom  are  very  different 
from  those  that  are  used  in  America,  but  are  very  similar  to 
those  used  in  teaching  the  other  subjects  in  the  German  Volks- 
schule.  The  following  instruction  from  the  Ministry  serves  as  a 
good  starting  point  for  a  discussion  of  methods  of  teaching  in 
geography.  "Dictations^  are  not  allowed.  Likewise  a  purely 
'  General  Regulations,  of  Oct.  15,  1872. 


GEOGRAPHY  439 

mechanical  drilling  of  names  of  countries  and  cities  and  statis- 
tics is  forbidden.  Instruction  is  to  start  with  observation, 
which  is  made  possible  by  use  of  the  globe  and  the  map."  Atten- 
tion is  called  here  to  a  stenographic  lesson  in  geography  printed 
in  this  chapter  (p.  445) ,  which  furnishes  us  a  great  deal  of  light 
on  this  and  other  points  having  to  do  with  methods  in  geography. 
This  lesson  is  very  typical  of  all  geography  work  in  the  German 
Volksschulen.  We  have  fuUy  thirty  lessons  like  the  one  cited 
and  all  were  taken  at  random  in  very  widely  separated  parts  of 
the  Empire.  The  lesson  was  taken  in  April,  1914,  in  Steglitz,  a 
suburb  of  Berlin. 

This  lesson  contains  no  dictations.  The  map  and  globe  were 
both  used ;  the  map  was  used  very  freely  and  well.  The  reader 
is  left  to  judge  as  to  how  much  drill  of  places,  rivers,  mountains, 
and  seas  was  done.  We  believe  that  this  lesson  is  sufficient 
comment  on  the  method  in  geography.  It  must  not  be  con- 
cluded for  an  instant  that  the  lesson  was  a  bad  one.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  many  things  in  its  favor :  i.  No  home  work 
was  required.  2.  The  children  acquired  a  set  of  facts  which 
the  Ministry  had  decided  was  necessary  for  them  to  know. 
3.  They  were  offered  opportunity  to  contribute  something  to 
the  lesson.  4.  They  had  some  review  work  and  proved  that 
they  had  retained  what  they  had  learned  in  the  same  manner, 
previously.  5.  The  teacher  accomplished  everything  he  set 
out  to  do.  Every  child  learned  something  about  France  and 
learned  it  in  a  way  to  retain  it.  6.  The  children  used  good 
German.     7.   They  acquired  no  false  impressions. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  children  exercised  no  initiative.  They 
did  no  organization  of  subject  matter.  There  was  no  provision 
made  for  individuahty.  There  was  no  judging  by  the  child 
relative  to  the  worth  of  statements  or  subject  matter.  These 
things  may  be  very  desirable  in  America,  but  the  work  must  be 
judged  from  the  German  viewpoint.    The  German  government 


440  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

is  not  at  all  concerned  in  cultivating  initiative  in  the  lower 
classes;  the  government  has  no  desire  to  make  any  provision 
for  individuality  among  the  classes  where  it  desires  to  have  uni- 
formity in  thought  and  opinion ;  the  government  decides  about 
the  relative  worth  of  facts,  and  the  people  must  accept  the 
evaluation. 

The  lesson  referred  to  is  the  best  single  explanation  for  the 
uniformity  in  thought  and  action  in  Germany  that  we  know  of. 
In  such  wise  is  the  thought  of  the  lower  classes  cast  and  fixed. 
The  method  is  sure  and  invariable. 

The  word  Heimatkunde  is  best  translated  as  study  or  knowl- 
edge of  the  home.  It  is  a  well-grounded  principle  in  German 
Heimat-  Pedagogy  that  that  which  concerns  the  local  com- 
kunde  munity  should  occupy  the  most  important  place  in  all 

subjects.  When  we  speak  of  Heimatkunde  with  reference  to 
geography,  we  have  in  mind  an  independent  subject  with  special 
hours  assigned  to  it  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  school,  and 
sometimes  in  the  second.  It  differs  from  observation  instruction 
in  the  first  year  of  school  in  that  observation  instruction  deals 
with  particular  places  and  makes  no  attempt  to  develop  general 
ideas,  while  Heimatkunde-preTpares  the  way  for  geography  by  teach- 
ing the  child  what  a  hill  or  a  river  is.  Methodicians  maintain 
that  Heimatkunde  is  largely  geographical  and  is  only  supple- 
mented by  the  history  which  is  always  given  with  it.  Never- 
theless Heimatkunde  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  mixture  of 
history  and  geography,  with  the  emphasis  on  the  geography. 

The  aim  of  Heimatkunde  is  that  the  child  shall  learn  about 
his  home  through  direct  contact  with  things  in  his 

Aim  ■  •   ■    • 

native  vicmity,  that  he  learn  thereby  a  few  funda- 
mental geographical  ideas  and  that  he  learn  a  little  about  the 
use  and  purpose  of  a  map. 

The  method  employed  is  Pestalozzian.  The  teacher  takes  his 
children  to  the  place  he  wishes  them  to  study,  they  observe  it, 


GEOGRAPHY 


441 


describe  it,  and  draw  what  they  have  seen  if  possible.     The 
teacher  naturally  supplements  all  this  observation  with  whatever 
historical  material  is  necessary.    The  time  for  these 
excursions  is  taken  from  the  regular  school  hours, 
although  frequently  the  children  go  in  the   afternoons  after 
school.     Some  teachers  object  to  taking  the  children 
because  the  teacher  is  responsible  in  case  any  child  is 
injured.    These  excursions  are  generally  called  walks,  and  are 
taken  sometimes  in  the  country  and  other  times  just  about  the 
city.     Of  course  such  excursions  are  not  limited  to  the  Heimat- 
kunde  of  the  third  and  fourth  years,  but  are  continued  through- 
out the  school  course.    Aside  from  the  instructional  phase  of 
the  excursions,  they  often  assume  a  little  of  the  picnic  spirit, 
especially  when  they  are  out  in  the  country.     It  is  a  very  com- 
mon sight  to  see  a  teacher  with  his  children  returning  from  a 
walk  at  evening,  singing  some  patriotic  song  or  Wanderlied. 
Although  the  excursions  are  sometimes  informal  in  appearance, 
the  teacher  always  has  a  very  definite  plan  in  mind  as  to  the  ideas 
which  he  wishes  the  children  to  acquire,  and  ordinarily  there  is  a 
fixed  plan  as  to  the  number  and  order  of  trips  to  be  made. 

The  best  work  which  we  observed  along  this  line  was  in  the 
Arbdtssckule  at  Dortmund.  This  school  is  a  regular  Volksschule, 
but  is  called  the  Arbeitsschule  because  the  methods  employed  in 
the  school  are  entirely  different  from  those  of  other  German 
schools.  Here  the  children  learn  by  doing,  by  working  rather 
than  by  mere  memorization.  Practically  everything  taught  in 
this  school  is  studied  first  through  direct  contact  and  observa- 
tion. All  the  work  in  German,  geography,  science,  drawing, 
manual  training,  and  arithmetic  is  based  on  knowledge  that  the 
children  have  acquired  on  excursions  or  walks. 

In  addition  to  using  the  excursions  as  a  basis  for  classroom 
discussion  in  geography,  the  teacher  in  this  particular  school  at 
Dortmund  made  them  the  foundation  upon  which  the  study  of 


442  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

maps  was  built  up.  The  children  drew  sketches  of  the  play- 
ground, the  schoolroom,  the  neighboring  streets.  One  lesson  we 
introduc-  observed  followed  an  excursion  up  a  little  valley  to  the 
tion  to  east  of  Dortmund.     On  their  return  the  boys  worked 

""  out  a  relief  map  of  the  landscape  on  the  sand  table, 
placing  rivers,  hills,  forests,  and  villages.  It  need  not  be  said 
that  this  work  was  all  done  by  the  pupils  —  the  one  school  we 
had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  in  which  all  the  children  were  exer- 
cising a  large  degree  of  individuality.  There  are  several  schools 
of  this  type  in  Germany,  but  the  percentage  is  very  small  indeed. 

The  German  teacher  usually  has  no  other  aid  in  geography 
than  maps,  but  of  these  has  always  had  an  ample  supply.  The 
Maps  and  child  has  no  text-book  ^  —  except  there  is  a  section  of 
Text-books  ^jjg  Realienbuch  (p..4i6)  which  is  devoted  to  geography. 
There  is  also,  as  has  been  said,  a  portion  of  the  reader  devoted  to 
geographical  matter.  The  geography  section  of  the  Realienbuch 
is  somewhat  similar  to  the  subject  matter  of  our  own  text-books 
in  geography.  The  only  difference  in  their  use  is  that  the 
American  child  studies  his  geography  text-book,  while  the  Ger- 
man child  does  not.  The  latter  very  rarely  uses  the  Realien- 
buch for  the  reason  that  the  teacher  himself  always  presents  the 
subject  matter  to  be  learned.     (See  p.  416.) 

A  German  schoolroom  always  has  access  to  wall  maps  of  all 
continents,  both  political  and  physical,  maps  of  the  empire,  the 
kingdom,  the  province,  the  city,  and  the  district.  A  smaU  school 
in  Pomerania  had  the  following  maps : 


I. 

Palestine. 

7- 

Berlin. 

2. 

Map  for  Old  and  New  Testament. 

8. 

Sedan. 

3- 

Palestine  (modem). 

9- 

Germany  (Physical). 

4- 

Stettin.  . 

10. 

Germany  (Political). 

S- 

Northern  heavens. 

II. 

Africa  (Physical). 

6. 

Randow  (Kreis). 

12. 

Africa  (Political). 

*  In  some  cities  one  may  find  text-books  in  geography. 


GEOGRAPHY  443 

13.  North  America  (Physical).  22.  German  colonies. 

14.  North  America  (Political).  23.  Pomerania  (Political). 

15.  Europe  (Physical).  24.  Pomerania  (Physical). 

16.  Europe  (Political).  25.  Middle  and  Southern  Europe. 

17.  War  of  1870-71.  26.  South  America. 

18.  Brandenburg  (Hist.).  27.  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

19.  Australia.  28.  Western  Hemisphere. 

20.  Prussia  (Political).  29.  Oder  River. 

21.  Prussia  (Physical).  30.  Social  geography  chart. 

It  is  the  common  practice  to  have  all  the  above  maps  in  the 
German  schools.  The  German  teacher  depends  very  largely  on 
his  maps  to  help  him  out  in  his  work.  A  German  map,  to  one 
who  can  read  a  map,  is  equally  as  good  as  most  text-books  in 
geography  and  the  children  readily  acquire  great  f aciUty  in  their 
use.  Not  only  do  they  have  an  abundance  of  wall  maps,  but 
each  child  has  a  small  school  atlas,  which  means  much  more  to 
the  German  child  than  the  supplementary  reading  in  the  Realien- 
buch.  A  child  in  the  upper  grades  can  pick  up  an  atlas  or  look 
at  a  good  map  and  tell  nearly  all  there  is  to  know  about  a  country 
without  ever  having  read  a  word  in  a  book.  The  maps  of  local 
districts  are  particularly  good.  From  one  which  was  used  in 
the  school  mentioned  above,  the  child  can  really  acquire  an 
immense  amount  of  information  by  being  able  to  read  the 
legends  on  the  map.  By  a  glance  at  the  map  he  can  tell :  where 
all  the  railroads  are ;  the  elevation  of  all  places ;  the  local  dis- 
tances to  within  a  few  yards ;  the  kinds  of  roads,  whether  they 
are  paved  or  laid  with  cobblestones;  the  automobile  roads  or 
bicycle  paths ;  all  post  oflSces  ;  whether  a  road  has  shade  trees  in 
case  he  wishes  to  take  a  walk;  where  he  can  get  refreshments 
along  the  road ;  where  he  can  buy  gasoline ;  where  the  churches 
or  graveyards  are  located ;  where  the  brick  factories,  windmills, 
water  mills,  and  monuments  are  situated ;  where  the  swamps, 
meadows,  heather,  planted  fields,  pine  forests,  and  beech  forests 
are.    That  is  about  all  one  would  require  of  a  map. 


444  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  map  is  by  no  means  the  larger  part  of  work.    The  teacher 

is  the  source  of  all  information,  except  what  the  child  may  have 

happened  to  acquire.  The  method  employed  is  much 
Method  ,  ,.-.  ^.,  ,- 

the  same  as  that  m  history.    It  is  almost  entirely  oral 

instruction.  The  teacher  tells  the  children  the  fact  which  he 
wants  them  to  learn,  and  as  soon  as  he  has  said  it,  he  calls  on  the 
children  to  repeat  it.  The  stenographic  lesson  illustrates  the 
method.  In  the  Arheitsschule  at  Dortmund  the  children  exer- 
cised much  more  initiative  and  always  gave  their  own  experience 
before  the  teacher  made  his  contribution.  This  latter  method 
is  much  more  like  that  which  we  use  here  in  America. 

In  one  or  two  schools  visited  there  were  stereopticon  machines 
installed  for  use  in  all  subjects,  but  particularly  in  geography 
I.  stereop-  and  history.  The  principals  of  these  schools  seemed 
ticons  ^Q  believe  that  stereopticon  views  and  moving  pictures 

could  become  a  great  educative  factor  if  the  views  and  films 
were  prepared  on  psychological  and  pedagogical  principles. 
There  seems  to  be  much  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of  some 
such  plan  in  our  schools  more  generally  than  is  now  the  case. 
The  teachers  in  the  German  schools  used  the  views  to  illustrate 
the  material  which  they  were  presenting  to  the  children. 

German  teachers  always  have  some  concrete  or  objective  ma- 
terial before  the  child.  The  map  is  always  there,  and  when  a 
2  niustra-  ^^^^  speaks  of  a  place,  he  is  unfailingly  required  to 
tive  point  to  it  on  the  map  or  some  other  child  must  do  it 

for  him.  Sometimes  the  teacher  draws  on  the  board 
a  map  of  the  region  of  which  he  is  speaking,  and  frequently  the 
children  are  also  required  to  make  such  maps.  There  is  very 
little  drawing  of  maps  on  paper  such  as  we  do  in  America. 

The  school  museums,  of  which  the  best  are  in  Hannover  and 
School  Berlin,  serve  a  very  excellent  purpose  in  geography 

Museums  teaching.  In  these  museums  are  ethnological,  bio- 
logical, geological,  and  historical  collections.    The  teachers  take 


GEOGRAPHY  445 

their  classes  to  these  museums  as  often  as  there  is  a  demand  or 
opportunity  for  such  work.  This  is  another  feature  of  the  Ger- 
man schools  which  we  would  do  well  to  adopt. 

The  former  and  present-day  practice  in  geography  in  Ger- 
many is  in  spite  of  all  their  theory  a  memorization  of  places, 
names,  areas,  and  the  like ;  a  learning  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  facts  more  or  less  necessary.  Such  will  always 
be  the  case  until  the  what,  how,  and  why  are  emphasized  more 
than  they  are  at  present.  It  will  never  be  any  better  until  the 
principle  followed  in  the  Arheitsschule  at  Dortmund,  where  the 
child's  self-activity  was  regarded,  finds  wider  practice.  All  the 
instruction  must  be  based  on  reality,  and  the  subject  matter  must 
concern  the  child's  present  and  future  needs,  in  this  case,  his  own 
locality  and  Germany.  The  children  must  be  given  a  chance 
to  work  with  things,  make  maps,  construct  models,  and  carry 
out  simple  experiments  which  underlie  fundamental  geographical 
principles.  Among  the  good  points  in  the  geography  work  of 
the  Volksschule  the  definiteness  and  conciseness  of  the  course  is 
probably  the  best.  Not  too  much  is  attempted.  Every  topic 
has  a  definite  purpose,  in  keeping  with  the  aim  of  the  entire  school 
program.  The  teachers  are  well  prepared ;  they  have  good  con- 
trol of  subject  matter.  The  maps  are  not  to  be  excelled.  The 
method  used  gets  the  results  which  are  desirable  in  Germany  — 
acquirement  of  facts. 

Geography.    Ill  Class.    Fifth  Year.    Boys 

Teacher:    Where  do  we  live? 

PupU:    We  live  in  Europe. 

Teacher:    What  is  your  Fatherland? 

PupU:    Germany  is  my  Fatherland. 

Teacher:    AH  together,  —  Germany  is  our  Fatherland. 

Pupils:    Germany  is  our  Fatherland. 

Teacher:    Who  is  our  Landesvaler  (father  of  the  country)  ? 

PupU:    Emperor  William  II  is  the  father  of  our  coimtry. 


446  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    Why  is  he  called  Landesvater? 

Pupil:    Because  he  rules  the  German  fatherland. 

Teacher:    No. 

Pupil:    Because  he  cares  for  the  land  and  its  people  as  if  he  were  the  father. 

Teacher:  Yes.  He  cares  for  the  land  as  a  father  cares  for  his  children, 
whence  comes  the  name.    What  is  the  emperor  called?    All  together. 

Pupils:    The  emperor  is  called  Landesvater. 

Teacher:  Germany  is  shut  in  by  many  other  lands.  What  country  is  to 
the  west  ? 

Pupil:    France. 

Teacher:  We  shall  hear  something  about  this  coimtry  to-day.  What 
country  are  we  to  hear  about  to-day? 

Pupil:    We  shall  hear  about  France  to-day. 

Teacher:    Once  more. 

Another  Pupil:    We  shall  hear  about  France  to-day. 

Teacher:    All  together. 

Pupils:    We  shall  hear  about  France  to-day. 

Teacher:    Wliat  is  the  name  of  this  country? 

(Teacher  had  written  the  name  on  the  board.) 

Pupil:    France. 

Teacher:    Who  has  ever  heard  of  it?     (Several  hands  were  raised.) 
What  have  you  heard  ? 

Pupil:    It  is  a  republic. 

Teacher:  All  together:  France  is  a  repubKc. 

Pupils:    France  is  a  republic. 

Teacher:    What  is  a  republic? 

Pupil:    A  republic  has  no  king,  only  a  ruler. 

Teacher:    Not  exactly. 

Pupil:    France  is  not  ruled  by  a  king,  but  by  a  president. 

Teacher:    Who  is  the  ruler  of  Germany? 

Pupils:    The  kaiser  is  the  ruler  of  Germany. 

Teacher:    And  after  his  death  who  wUl  be  the  ruler? 

Pupil:    The  crown  prince. 

Teacher:    And  how  is  it  in  a  republic ? 

Pupil:    The  president  is  elected  by  the  people  as  often  as  they  wish. 

Teacher:  Yes,  in  a  republic  the  president  is  elected  for  some  four  or  five 
years  and  he  may  be  elected  more  than  once.  He  rules  only  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  years.    How  long  does  a  king  rule  ? 

Pupil:    A  king  rules  for  life. 


GEOGRAPHY  447 

Teacher:    What  are  the  boundaries  of  France  (pointing  to  the  map)  ? 

Pupil:    The  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Pyrenees  and  .  .  . 

Teacher:  The  west  boundaries  of  France  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Bay  of  Biscay;  on  the  south  the  P5rrenees  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea ;  on  the  east,  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  and  Germany ;  and  the  northern 
boundaries  are  Belgium  and  the  EngUsh  Channel.  Give  the  bound- 
aries of  France.  (A  pupil  pointed  to  the  boundaries  while  another 
pupil  recited.) 

Pupil:  The  western  boundaries  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  the  southern  boundaries  are  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea ;  the  eastern  borders  are  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  and  Germany ; 
on  the  north  are  Belgium  and  the  English  Channel. 

Teacher:  Now  let  us  consider  the  east  boundaries  of  France  more  closely. 
They  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura,  and  the  Argonnen  Wold.  AU  to- 
gether :  The  eastern  .  .  . 

Pupils:  The  eastern  boundaries  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura,  and  the 
Argormen  Wald. 

Teacher:    Now  one  pupU  alone  give  the  boundaries  on  the  east. 

Pupil:  The  eastern  boundaries  of  France  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura, 
and  the  Argonnen  Wald. 

Teacher:    Now  give  me  all  the  boundaries  of  France. 

Pupil:  The  western  boundaries  of  France  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Bay  of  Biscay;  the  southern  are  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea ;  the  eastern  boundaries  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura,  the  Argonnen 
Wald;  and  Bdgixmi  and  the  English  Channel  on  the  north. 

Teacher:  What  you  told  me  of  France  was  not  very  much.  Can  any  one 
give  me  the  name  of  a  ruler  of  France? 

Pupil:    Napoleon  I. 

Pupil:    Napoleon  III. 

Teacher:    What  wars  did  Napoleon  I  wage ? 

PupU:    The  wars  against  Prussia  one  hundred  years  ago. 

Teacher:    What  wars  did  Napoleon  III  conduct? 

Pupil:    The  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1871. 

Teacher:    Have  the  French  and  Germans  gotten  along  well  together? 

Pupil:    No,  they  have  had  many  wars  with  one  another. 

Teacher:  Yes.  Now  we  must  study  and  find  out  more  about  this  coun- 
try, because  we  may  have  trouble  in  the  future  with  them !  The  chief 
rivers  of  France  are  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  the  Garonne,  the  Maas,  the 
Mosel,  and  the  Seine.    Repeat  that. 


448  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:    The  chief  rivers  of  France  are  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  the  .  .  . 

Teacher:    Garonne. 

Pupil:    .  .  .  the  Garonne,  and  the  .  .  . 

Teacher:    Seine  (giving  it  the  French  pronunciation). 

Pupil:    .  .  .  the  Seine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Mosel. 

Teacher:    AH  together  (pointing  to  the  rivers). 

Pupils:    The  chief  rivers  of  France  are  the  Rhone,  the  Loire,  the  Garonne, 

the  Seine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Mosel. 
Teacher:    What  mountains  are  here  in  the  South  of  France? 
Pupil:    The  Pyrenees. 
Teacher:    On  the  east  of  France  are  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Argonnes,  the 

Sevennes.    The  Sevennes  stretch  up  as  far^  as  the  Mosel.    Repeat 

that. 
Pupil:    The  mountains  in  eastern  France  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura, 

the  Argonnes,  and  the  Sevennes. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  once  more.    These  moimtains  in  here  are  the 

Vosges. 
Pupils:    The  mountains  in  eastern  France  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura, 

the  Argonnes,  the  Vosges,  and  the  Sevennes. 
Teacher:    Where  are  the  lowlands  of  France?    (No  reply.)    The  lowland 

plain  of  France  reaches  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Belgium.  Repeat  that. 
Pupil:  The  lowland  plain  of  France  reaches  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Belgium. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  again. 

Pupil:    The  lowland  plain  of  France  reaches  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Belgium. 
Teacher:    There  is  another  lowland  (valley)  along  the  Rhone. 
(The  song  " Deutschland,  Deutschland,  fiber  alles"  was  then  sung,  presum- 
ably because  the  boys  were  getting  a  Uttle  sleepy.) 
Teacher:    What  is  our  Fatherland ? 
Pupil:    Germany  is  our  Fatherland. 
Teacher:    Who  is  our  kaiser? 
Pupil:    WiUiam  II  is  our  kaiser. 
Teacher:    What  can  we  call  him ? 
Pupil:    We  call  him  the  Landesvater. 
Teacher:    What  country  are  we  studying  to-day? 
Pupil:    We  are  studying  France. 
Teacher:    What  border  of  Germany  is  France? 
Pupil:    France  is  the  western  border  of  Germany. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  capital  of  France? 
Pupil:    Paris  is  the  capital  of  France. 


GEOGRAPHY 


449 


Teacher:    What  is  the  best  train  for  Paris?    (No  reply.)    The  best  train 

for  Paris  passes  through  Hannover,  Cologne,  and  Brussels.    Repeat 

that. 
Pupil:    The  best  train  for  Paris  runs  from  Berlin  through  Hannover, 

Cologne,  and  Brussels.     (It  was  repeated  again.) 
Teacher:    The  best  water  route  from  Berlin  to  Paris  is  down  the  Elbe  to 

Hamburg,  then  through  the  North  Sea  and  EngUsh  Chaimel  to  Havre, 

and  then  by  raU  to  Paris.    Or  one  may  go  by  way  of  Boulogne  instead 

of  Havre.    Give  me  the  boundaries  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  boundaries  of  France  on  the  west  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and 

the  Bay  of  Biscay;   the  southern  boundaries,  the  Mediterranean  Sea 

and  the  Pyrenees ;  the  eastern  boundaries  are  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura, 

the  Argonnen  Wold;  Belgium  and  the  Enghsh  Channel  are  the  northern 

boundaries. 
Teacher:    Give  me  the  chief  rivers  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  chief  rivers  of  France  are  the  Rhone,  the  Garonne,  the  Loire, 

the  Seine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Mosel. 
Teacher:    Repleat  that.     (Calling  another  pupil.) 
Pupil:    The  chief  rivers  of  France  are  the  Rhone,  the  Garonne,  the  Loire, 

the  Seine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Mosel. 
Teacher:    What  are  the  chief  mountains  of  France? 
Pupil:    The  moimtains  of  France  are  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Vosges,  the 

Argonnes,  and  the  Sevennes.     (Repeated  by  another  pupil.) 
Teacher:    Give  me  the  lowlands  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  chief  lowland  of  France  reaches  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Belgium. 

The  other  plain  is  along  the  Rhone. 
Teacher:    If  we  take  a  look  at  the  general  shape  of  France,  what  form  do 

we  find  it  to  have  ? 
Pupil:    It  is  quadrilateral. 

Teacher:    Yes.    There  are  two  peninsulas.    Normandy.    Say  that. 
Pupils:    Normandy. 

Teacher:    And  Brittany.    Pronounce  that. 
Pupils:    Brittany. 
Teacher:    These  peninsulas  used  to  reach  out  and  join  England  to  the 

continent,  but  the  North  Sea  broke  through.    What  was  the  result? 
Pupil:    England  was  then  an  island. 
Teacher:    What  lands  used  to  be  joined ? 
Pupil:    England  and  France  used  to  be  joined. 
Teacher:    What  divided  these  countries ? 

2  G 


4SO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:    The  North  Sea  broke  through  and  separated  them  by  the  Eng- 

hsh  Channel. 
Teacher:    What  body  of  water  separates  England  and  France? 
Pupil:    The  English  Channel  {Armel  Kanal). 
Teacher:    Why  is  it  called  the  Armel  Kanal? 
Pupil:    Because  it  has  the  shape  of  a  coat  sleeve. 
Teacher:    The  narrowest  part  of  the  channel  is  at  Dover  straits.    Where 

is  the  narrowest  part  of  the  channel? 
Pupil:    The  narrowest  part  of  the  channel  is  called  the  Straits  of  Dover. 
Teacher:    What  are  the  chief  peninsulas  of  France? 
Pupil:    The  chief  peninsulas  of  France  are  Brittany  and  Normandy. 
Teacher:    What  have  we  talked  about  to-day? 
Pupil:    We  have  talked  about  France. 

Teacher:    What  was  the  name  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  France? 
Pupils:    The  Franks. 
Teacher:    Who  was  their  king? 
Pupil:    His  name  was  Charles  the  Great. 
Teacher:    Give  me  the  boundaries  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  boundaries  of  France  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Bay  of 

Biscay  on  the  west,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Gulf  of 

Lyon  are  the  southern  boundaries ;  and  France  is  bounded  on  the  east 

by  the  Alps,  the  Swiss  Jura,  the  Argonnes,  the  Vosges;   and  on  the 

north  by  Belgium  and  the  English  Channel. 
Teacher:    Name  the  chief  rivers  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  chief  rivers  of  France  are  the  Rhone,  the  Garonne,  the  Loire, 

the  Seine,  the  Maas,  and  the  Mosel. 
Teacher:    Give  the  name  of  the  mountains  in  France. 
Pupil:    The  Alps,  the  Jura,  the  Vosges,  the  Argonnes,  and  the  Sevennes. 
Teacher:    Where  do  we  iind  the  Sevennes? 
Pupil:    The  Sevennes  extend  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Mosel. 
Teacher:    Where  are  the  lowland  plains  of  France? 
Pupil:    The  great  lowland  plain  of  France  is  in  the  western  part  of  the 

country  and  extends  from  the  Pjrrenees  to  Belgium. 
Teacher:    Give  the  names  of  the  chief  peninsulas  of  France. 
Pupil:    The  chief  peninsulas  of  France  are  Brittany  and  Normandy. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that,  together. 

Pupils:    The  chief  peninsulas  of  France  are  Brittany  and  Normandy. 
Teacher:    Why  is  the  chaimel  called  the  Armel  Kanal? 
Pupil:    It  is  called  the  Armel  Kanal  because  it  has  the  shape  of  a  sleeve. 


GEOGRAPHY  451 

Teacher:    What  did  we  study  about  before  vacation? 

Pupil:    We  studied  about  the  Balkan  countries. 

Teacher:    What  are  the  Balkan  countries  (pointing  at  map)  ? 

Pupil:    The  Balkan  states  are  Turkey,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  Servia,  Bosnia, 

Montenegro,  Albania,  Herzegovina,  and  Greece. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that,  some  one  else.     (It  was  repeated  again.) 
Teacher:    Who  is  the  new  prince  of  Albania? 
Pupil:    Prince  William  of  Wied. 

Teacher:    Yes,  he  is  a  German  prince.    What  is  the  capital  of  Albania? 
Pupil:    The  capital  of  Albania  is  Durrazo. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  capital  of  Turkey? 
Pupil:    Constantinople. 

Teacher:    Give  me  the  route  by  train  from  Berlin  to  Constantinople. 
Pupil:    The  train  passes  through  Dresden,  Prague,  Vienna,  Belgrade, 

Sofia,  Adrianople,  and  Constantinople,  and  the  name  of  the  train  is  the 

Oriental  Express. 
Teacher:    How  do  you  go  to  Constantinople  by  water? 
Pupil:    One  may  go  to  Trieste  by  train  and  then  by  boat  through  the 

Adriatic  Sea,  the  .^Egean  Sea,  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 

then  the  Bosphorus. 
Teacher:    What  other  water  route  is  there ? 
Pupil:    One  may  start  from  Hamburg  down  the  Elbe,  through  the  North 

Sea,  the  EngUsh  Channel,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 

the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  ^gean  Sea,  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of 

Marmora,  and  the  Bosphorus. 
Teacher:    Tell  me  what  you  know  of  Constantinople. 
Pupil:    The  churches  have  no  bells  and  mstead  of  spires  they  have  minarets. 

They  are  called  mosques. 
Teacher:    How  are  the  faithful  called  to  prayer? 
Pupil:    A  priest  calls  the  people  from  the  minaret. 
Teacher:    Constantinople  lies  on  the  water.    Of  what  meaning  is  that ? 
Pupil:    It  is  a  great  commercial  city. 
Teacher:    Yes.    Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.    What  is  the 

capital  of  Greece  ? 
PupU:    Athens  is  the  capital  of  Greece. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  seaport  of  Athens ? 
Pupil:    It  is  Piraeus. 
Teacher:    Who  is  the  queen  of  Greece?    (No  answer.)    She  is  the  sister 

of  our  emperor. 


CHAPTER  XX 

BIOLOGY 

Naturgesckichte  (natural  history),  consisting  of  botany,  zo- 
ology, and  physiology,  is  a  separate  subject  of  instruction  in  all 
„   .,.  German  Volksschulen.    It  is  one  of  the  Realien.    The 

Position 

in  the  Subject  is  generally  first  begun  m  the  first  year  of  the 

°""  middle  section  (see  p.  247)  and  is  continued  two  hours 
a  week  throughout  the  remaining  classes  of  the  school,  although 
the  number  of  hours  may  be  somewhat  less  in  some  of  the  years. 
The  total  number  of  year  hours  rarely  exceeds  ten.  Of  course, 
some  plants  and  animals  have  been  superficially  studied  in  the 
lower  section,  but  only  incidentally  or  as  subject  matter  for 
observation  instruction. 

The  course  of  study  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  location 
of  the  school.  Rural  schools  would  naturally  have  a  different 
Course  of  course  from  city  schools.  The  following  course  is 
study  typical.    It  is  customary  to  have  botany  and  zoology 

in  alternate  semesters  throughout  the  course. 

Class  6  (third  year,  lower  section).  In  this  class  there  is  no  real  study  of 
biology,  but  preparation  therefor  is  made  by  observational  studies  of 
flowers  and  trees,  as  the  apple,  chestnut,  tulip,  wind  rose,  honejreuckle,  bean, 
and  sunflower.  The  horse,  cow,  cat,  dog,  chicken,  rabbit,  sparrow,  stork, 
and  beetle  are  studied. 

Class  s  (fourth  year,  middle  section).  I.  Relation  of  simple  organs  and 
their  uses.  II.  Observations  and  experiments.  Plants  in  school  garden. 
House  plants.  Care  of  plants.  Development  of  the  tulip  and  the  bean. 
A  fish  in  the  school  aquarium.    Development  of  the  butterfly.    Field 

4S» 


BIOLOGY  453 

excursions.  III.  Topics:  (a)  Tulip,  wind  rose,  strawberry,  cherry  tree, 
lion's  tooth,  house  plants,  fuchsia,  begonia,  cress ;  peas  and  beans,  cabbage ; 
(6)  starling,  frog,  bat,  mole,  swallow,  butterfly,  deer,  fox,  pig,  squirrel,  wood- 
pecker, otter,  owl,  swan,  bear,  elephant,  camel. 

Class  4.  I.  Biological  characteristics  of  plants,  and  especially  of  blossoms. 
Biological  characteristics  of  animals,  especially  the  relationships  of  bodily 
structure,  habitat,  and  manner  of  living.  Biological  groups.  Classifica- 
tion of  plants  and  animals  into  groups  of  the  natural  systems.  II.  Obser- 
vations and  experiments:  plants  of  the  school  garden.  House  plants. 
Care  of  plants.  Experiments  in  germination.  Growth  of  cuttings  and 
twigs.  Prevention  of  pollination  and  artificial  pollination  of  fuchsia  and 
Alpine  violet  blossoms.  Dissemination  of  seeds.  Water  plants  and  lower 
forms  of  animal  life  in  water  (snaU,  mussel,  water  insects,  water  weed,  water 
lentil,  and  flea-crab).  Field  excursions.  III.  Topics:  (a)  Forest:  oak 
(foliage  trees),  scotch  pine  (conifers),  red  ant,  lizard.  (6)  Field :  rye,  flax, 
poppy,  carrot,  potato,  field  mouse,  lark,  crow,  burying  beetle,  (c)  Meadow : 
meadow  grasses,  pastureland,  common  mushrooms,  bees,  fishing  worm,  gar- 
den spider,  (rf)  Heath  and  moor:  heather,  bog-moss,  buckwheat, 
(e)  Water :  crabs,  snails,  mussels,  mosquito,  dragon  fly. 

Class  3.  I.  Further  study  of  biological  characteristics  of  other  forms  of 
life.  Some  lower  plants.  Some  lower  animals  and  some  articulate  animals. 
Characteristic  animals  of  other  zones.  Study  of  human  body  and  its 
hygiene.  Some  exotic  plants.  Half  a  year  is  given  to  the  last  three  topics. 
II.  Experiments  and  observation,  (a)  Microscopic  studies  of  the  spores 
of  the  mushroom,  the  fern,  or  moss;  study  of  yeast,  moldy  yeast,  sea- 
weed (algae)  from  the  school  aquarium,  hair,  vegetable  fiber,  fungi  of  the 
mouth,  blood  corpuscles.  (6)  Products  of  the  colonies  in  the  commercial 
and  school  museums,  (c)  Sanitary  regulations  of  the  city,  street  cleaning, 
sewerage,  hospitals,  public  gymnasiums  and  playgrounds,  baths,  vaccina- 
tion, dental  clinics,  parks,  forest  and  meadow  reserves.  III.  Topics: 
Brake  or  shield-fern,  maiden-hair  fern,  moss,  toadstool,  yeast,  fungi, 
house  fly,  silk  moth,  trichina  and  tapeworm,  parasites  of  the  human  body, 
lower  animals  of  the  aquarium,  monkey,  whale,  ostrich,  herring,  sea-fish, 
human  skeleton,  muscles  and  their  functions,  blood  and  its  circulation, 
respiration,  nutrition,  foods  (cocoanut  palm),  luxuries  (tobacco,  coffee,  tea, 
spices),  alcohol,  grapes,  care  of  teeth,  alimentation,  sense  organs  and  nerves, 
body  temperature  and  its  regulation  by  means  of  clothing,  infectious  disr 
eases,  work  and  play,  results  of  dissipation. 

Class   2.    I.  The    most   important  facts  of  botany  and  physiology. 


454  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

II.  Observation  and  experiments  dealing  with  plants  and  plumules  to  form 
the  basis  of  botany.  Embryo  plants  in  nutritive  solutions.  Water  weed 
exposed  to  sunlight.  Test  for  starch  with  iodine  solution.  Cuttings. 
Microscopic  work  with  fatty  cells,  mUk,  and  leaves  of  plants.  Sanitary 
arrangements  of  the  city.  .  Plants  in  the  garden  and  house.  III.  Topics : 
(a)  Structural  elements  of  plants,  assimilation  of  food  by  plants,  respiration 
of  plants,  circulation  of  sap  in  plants.  (6)  Care  of  the  limbs  of  the  human 
body,  sport,  homes  for  cripples ;  hygiene  of  the  vital  organs,  food,  air,  homes 
for  infants.  Alcoholism  and  temperance  societies.  Dental  hygiene,  dental 
chnics.  Hygiene  of  the  circulatory  and  respiratory  apparatus.  Homes  for 
tubercular  cases.  Hygiene  of  the  skin,  eyes,  ears,  baths,  asylums  for  the 
deaf,  dtmib,  and  blind.  Hygiene  of  the  nerves,  institutions  for  epileptics, 
and  insane  hospitals.  Regulation  of  body  temperature.  Influence  of 
weather  and  climate.  Acclimatization.  Contagious  diseases.  Vaccina- 
tion. Hospitals.  Quarantine  houses.  First  aid  to  the  injured  in  cases  of 
wounds.  Burns,  hemorrhages,  drowning,  asph}Tdation,  freezing,  fainting. 
Red  Cross.  Work  and  recreation.  Evil  consequences  of  dissipation. 
Dwelling. 

Class  I.  I.  Continuation  of  the  work  in  botany  of  Class  2.  Structural 
elements  of  plants,  protective  features  of  plants,  bushes,  and  trees  of  the 
locality.  II.  (a)  Skeleton  of  man  and  animals  compared.  Skeleton  of  a 
mammal,  a  bird,  a  fish,  and  a  turtle.  Skeleton  of  the  coral  and  the  sponge. 
The  lower  animals,  (b)  Muscles  and  their  relation  to  movement.  Organs 
of  movement  of  animals,  mobility  of  bones  and  tendons.  Organs  of  motion 
of  animals  in  the  air,  in  the  earth,  in  water,  in  trees,  on  the  ground, 
(c)  Blood  and  its  circulation  in  man  and  in  animals.  Elements  and  color 
of  blood.  The  heart  of  different  classes  of  animals,  (d)  Respiration  in 
man  and  in  animals.  Respiratory  system.  Respiration  through  the 
lungs,  gUls,  trachea,  and  skin.  Cold-  and  warm-blooded  animals,  (e)  Nu- 
trition of  the  hiunan  body.  Foods.  Alcohol.  Dental  hygiene.  Poisons, 
Nutrition  of  animals.  Method  of  nutrition,  flesh  and  plant  eating  animals. 
Juices  of  meats  and  plants.  Organs  of  nutrition :  hand,  foot,  paw,  claw, 
teeth,  beak,  tongue,  spittle,  stomach,  crop,  intestine,  osmosis,  alimentation. 
(J)  Hiunan  nervous  organism.  Nervous  systems  of  animals,  especially  the 
eyes  of  vertebrates  and  insects,  (g)  Protective  arrangements  of  animals 
against  cold,  water,  enemies.  (,h)  Multiplication  of  animals.  Living  young. 
Eggs.  Metamorphosis  in  amphibia,  articulate  animals,  worms,  and  tri- 
chinae. Division  and  budding  among  lower  animals.  Classification  of 
animals. 


BIOLOGY 


455 


The  course  of  study  in  biology  and  physiology  just  given  is 

for  a  large  city.    In  cities  where  there  are  separate  schools  for 

boys  and  girls,  the  topics  chosen  during  the  last  two 

Course  for 
years  are  not  the  same  for  both  types  of  schools.    The  Boys  and 

needs  of  each  sex  are  considered  in  making  such  a  ^"^"^'^ 

course.     In  some  places  the  girls  have  no  physics  or  chemistry, 

or  at  least  not  so  much  as  the  boys,  and  in  these  cases  they 

usually  have  a  little  more  extensive  course  in  physiology,  and  in 

the  botany  of  food  plants.    Physiology  as  a  rule  receives  about 

twenty  lessons  in  each  of  the  last  two  years. 

This  course  typifies  those  given  in  practical  German  Volks- 
schulen,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country.  Naturally  the 
amoimt  of  time  spent  on  each  topic  varies  with  the  Nature  of 
locahty  and  how  great  an  intimacy  the  children  have  ^'  Course 
with  plants  and  flowers  before  coming  to  school.  The  striking 
thing  about  the  course  is  its  usefulness.  In  the  whole  list  there 
is  not  one  topic  about  which  the  children  should  not  be  in- 
formed ;  in  fact,  about  which  it  is  not  almost  necessary  for  them 
to  know.  Not  many  plants  or  animals  are  discussed  within  any 
one  year,  but  a  few  are  treated  very  thoroughly.  Very  few  of 
the  plant  or  animal  types  are  entirely  new  to  the  children,  for 
many  of  them  have  been  observed  and  studied  superficially  in 
the  lower  classes. 

There  is  no  special  text-book  for  this  subject.  A  portion  of 
the  Realienbuch  (see  p.  394)  is  devoted  to  the  description  of 
plants  and  animals  and  to  a  discussion  of  physiology  ^^^.^3^^^ 
and  hygiene.  The  book,  as  in  other  subjects,  is  very 
little  used.  The  text  generally  deals  briefly  with  each  of  the 
topics  discussed  in  class,  but  offers  nothing  more  than  a  sum- 
mary of  the  work.  The  teacher  rarely  ever  refers  the  pupils  to 
the  text-book  until  the  topic  has  been  presented  and  thoroughly 
discussed  in  class.  Many  teachers  have  told  us  that  no  text 
was  necessary  so  far  as  they  were  concerned.    Children  in  va- 


4S6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

rious  schools  have  frequently  told  us  that  they  never  used  their 
science  reader  more  than  once  or  twice  during  the  year  and  then 
for  review.  The  significance  of  all  this  is  that  the  sources  of 
information  are  the  teacher  and  the  study  of  the  various  plants 
and  animals.  The  text-book  itself  is  generally  poor,  judged  by 
American  standards.  Our  text-books  have  developed  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  because  we  have  to  depend  on  them  to 
make  up  the  deficiencies  of  our  teachers.  Consequently,  we 
study  books  too  much.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Germans  fail 
to  see  the  use  to  which  a  good  text  may  be  put.  A  great  deal 
of  time  is  wasted  in  their  schools  on  account  of  the  lack  of  good 
science  texts.    This  is  true  of  other  subjects  as  well. 

German  Volksschulen  are  excellently  equipped  for  teaching 

elementary  science,  particularly  biology.    Every  school  that  we 

visited  had  a  collection  of  prepared  animals  and  birds 

Material  . 

and  mounted  models  of  plant  Hfe.  In  addition  to  the 
specimens  of  the  plant  or  animal  being  discussed,  the  school 
generally  has  illustrative  maps,  charts,  or  pictures,  covering 
every  animal  or  plant  studied.  For  example,  for  the  study  of 
the  honeybee,  a  school  will  have  a  box  in  which  specimens  are 
mounted  showing  the  embryo  bee,  its  growth  and  development, 
how  the  comb  is  made,  how  honey  is  gathered,  and  all  other 
activities  connected  with  the  hfe  of  the  bee.  Besides  this  the 
school  has  pictures  to  illustrate  the  kinds  of  bees,  their  habitat, 
reproduction,  and  activities. 

Thus  it  is  for  every  topic  taught  in  biology.  The  instruction 
is  made  as  objective  and  concrete  as  possible,  for  the  children 
always  have  some  observational  material  on  which  to  base  their 
work. 

In  the  cities,  each  school  has  its  supply  room  in  which  the 
Apparatus  material  for  the  general  use  of  the  whole  school  is 
Rooms  kept.  Care  is  exercised  in  the  purchase  of  biological 
supplies  that  duplications  are  not  made  in  purchasing  and  that 


BIOLOGY  457 

specimens  purchased  shall  serve  as  many  classes  as  possible.  A 
teacher  is  assigned  to  look  after  this  room  and  is  made  respon- 
sible for  the  condition  and  preservation  of  the  collection.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  the  material  in  these  rooms  is  systematically 
arranged,  so  that  it  will  always  be  ready  for  use. 

Between  the  recitation  periods  the  head  boy  of  the  class  goes 
to  the  apparatus  room  and  secures  the  articles  necessary  for  the 
next  recitation.  Everything  is  on  hand  when  the  recitation 
begins.  Within  our  observation  it  never  occurred  that  a  teacher 
had  forgotten  to  secure  a  model,  map,  or  chart  which  was 
needed  in  the  recitation.  This  is  merely  German  foresight 
and  method. 

In  the  country  biology  is  taught  even  more  successfully  than 
in  the  cities.    The  collections  of  specimens  are  never  so  rich  or 
varied,  but  they  are  always  sufl&cient  and  are  generally 
made  by  the  pupils  themselves.    Very  frequently,  suppUesin 
where  in   the   city  stuffed  models  of  animals  and  ^le  Country 

J  Schools 

mounted  specimens  of  plants  are  necessary,  natural 
specimens  are  to  be  had  in  the  country. 

The  poorest  teaching  anywhere  in  the  Volksschulen  is  done  in 
biology  and  in  the  other  elementary  sciences,  but  particularly 
in  biology.  It  is  not  that  the  teachers  do  not  give  the  Methods  of 
children  enough  facts,  but  it  is  the  way  in  which  they  instruction 
are  given.  The  teachers  have  no  lack  of  observational  material, 
but  they  do  not  aUow  the  children  to  observe.  It  was  very 
seldom  that  we  heard  the  teachers  ask  the  children,  in  taking  up 
a  new  plant  or  a  new  animal,  what  they  knew  about  it,  what  they 
had  experienced  with  it,  what  they  could  see.  Almost  invariably 
the  teacher  made  all  the  observations  and  required  the  children 
to  make  the  same  ones  and  to  talk  about  no  other.  Questions 
from  the  children  were  exceedingly  rare.  But  as  we  have  said 
in  many  other  places,  it  is  not  the  aim  of  the  German  Volks- 
schule  to  make  individual  thmkers  of  the  common  classes. 


4S8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Biology  aims  chiefly  to  teach  the  children  an  appreciation 
and  knowledge  of  themselves  and  the  living  world  about  them. 
Sex  education  in  the  elementary  schools  is  taught  by 
Sought  in  teaching  the  sex  relationships  of  plants  and  of  animals, 
loogy  rpjjjg  jg  always  done  delicately  and  simply,  so  that 
almost  unconsciously  the  child  acquires  knowledge  of  himself 
and  the  sex  relationship. 

Biology  is  tied  up  with  almost  every  subject  in  the  curric- 
ulum, particularly  literature,  composition,  language,  geography, 
Correlation  ^nd  drawing.  The  correlations  made  are  always 
of  Biology  natural  and  are  never  artificial,  except  in  a  few  cases. 
In  the  lesson  on  the  eagle,  given  in  this  chapter,  attention  is  called 
to  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  impress  on  the  chil- 
dren the  kingly  attributes,  the  greater  worth  of  the  nobility. 
Thus  the  schools  are  made  to  establish  the  doctrine  of  kingship 
among  the  people  and  convince  them  of  its  naturalness  and 
justice. 

The  lessons  appended  show  the  methods  usually  employed  in 
biology.  They  were  selected  at  random  from  a  large  number  of 
lessons.  We  believe  they  show  that  the  main  difference  between 
such  work  in  our  schools  and  the  German  schools  lies  in  the 
method  employed.  We  also  beheve  that  it  is  the  general  use  of 
such  methods  which  produces  the  German  type  of  contented 
citizenship,  patriotic  and  non-individualistic,  in  contrast  to  our 
freer,  more  independent,  restless  American. 

Biology.    Class  III.    Sixth  Year 

Teacher:    We  shall  review  plums  to-day.    What  is  the  best  ground  for 

plums?     (Had  chart  of  plum  blossoms  and  fruit.) 
Pupil:    Moist  and  protected  ground  is  best  for  plums. 
Teacher:    Where  do  we  get  plums  from  besides  our  native  land? 
Pupil:    We  get  plums  from  Asia. 
Teacher:    What  other  fruits  do  we  get  from  Asia? 
Pupil:    We  get  dates,  figs,  and  other  tropical  fruits. 


BIOLOGY  45g 

Teacher:    What  is  the  shape  of  the  plum  leaf? 

Pupil:    It  is  an  ellipse. 

Teacher:    When  does  it  bloom? 

Pupil:    It  blooms  in  May. 

Teacher:    How  is  the  blossom  protected  in  winter? 

PupU:    The  bud  is  protected  in  winter  by  a  thick  covering. 

Teacher:    When  does  the  bud  begin  to  swell? 

Pupil:    The  bud  begins  to  swell  in  early  sprmg  when  the  sap  rises. 

Teacher:    Describe  the  bloom. 

Pupil:    The  bloom  is  white  at  the  top  and  a  Uttle  green  at  the  bottom. 

The  fertilization  takes  place  by  transference  of  pollen  by  bees.    There 

are  always  several  blossoms  in  a  cluster. 
Teacher:    Describe  the  plum. 
PupU:    The  plum  is  ordinarily  about  so  (showing)  large.    It  is  covered 

with  a  thick  skin.     Some  plums  are  blue  and  others  are  green.    In 

the  center  is  a  stone. 
Teacher:    What  are  the  uses  of  the  plum? 

PupU:    Pliuns  are  used  to  eat  and  to  make  marmalade,  and  jeUy,  too. 
Teacher:    What  else? 
Pupil:    They  are  used  for  preserves. 
(In  the  advance  work  the  bat  was  taken  up.    The  teacher  had  a  prepared 

specimen,  one  half  showing  the  skeletal  development,  the  other  show- 
ing the  natural  external  features  of  the  bat.) 
Teacher:    What  animal  is  that? 
PupU:    That  is  a  bat  {Fledermaus). 
Teacher:    What  other  things  can  fly? 
PupU:    Birds  can  fly. 
Teacher:    Is  the  bat  a  bird ? 
Pupil:    The  bat  is  not  a  bird  but  an  animal. 
Teacher:    The  bat  is  a  mammal.    The  bat  can  fly.    The  bat  is  a  flying 

mammal.    Repeat  that. 
PupU:    The  bat  can  fly.    The  bat  is  a  fl)dng  marmnal. 
PupU:    The  bat  is  a  flying  mammal. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  several  times. 
Pupil:    The  bat  is  a  Qying  mammal. 
Pupil:    The  bat  is  a  fljdng  mammal. 
Pupil:    The  bat  is  a  fl)ang  mammal. 
PupU:    The  bat  is  a  flying  mammal. 

(This  was  repeated  a  dozen  times  in  all.) 


46o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    How  is  the  bat  fitted  out  for  flying? 

Pupil:    It  is  light. 

Teacher:    How  does  that  come ? 

Pupil:    It  is  —  The  body  is  short. 

Pupil:    The  body  is  not  long.    The  legs  are  short. 

Pupil:    The  bones  are  thin. 

Teacher:    Repeat  that. 

Pupil:    The  bat  is  fitted  for  flying  because  its  body  is  not  long,  its  legs 

are  short,  and  the  bones  are  thin. 
Teacher:    Why  is  the  bird  so  light  ? 
Pupil:    The  bird  is  hght  because  the  bones  are  filled  with  air  and  the 

body  has  air  spaces. 
Teacher:    The  bat  has  not  these  advantages.    But  it  has  very  large  wings. 

(Boys  examined  the  wings.    The  teacher  measures  the  length  of  the 

wings  from  tip  to  tip.)    The  breadth  of  the  wings  is  43  cm.    How 

great  is  the  distance  from  tip  to  tip  ? 
Pupil:    The  distance  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  the  tip  of  the  other  wing 

is  43  cm. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that. 
Pupil:    The  distance  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  the  tip  of  the  other  wing 

is  43  cm. 
(Then'  followed  the  description  of  the  bat.    The  teacher  would  make  one 

statement  and  then  have  it  repeated  twice  at  least.    When  the  general 

description  had  been  finished,  three  boys  gave  a  summary  of  all  the 

points.) 
Teacher:    It  flies  as  fast  as  a  bird.    It  can  guide  itself  in  the  air  skillfully. 

It  cannot  fly  from  the  ground  because  its  legs  are  weak.    Repeat  that. 
Pupil:    The  bat  can  fly  almost  as  fast  as  a  bird.    It  can  guide  itself  well 

in  the  air  .  .  . 
Teacher:    No,  can  guide  itself  skillfully  in  the  air. 
Pupil:    —  can  guide  itself  skillfully  in  the  air.    It  cannot  fly  from  the 

ground,  because  its  legs  are  not  strong. 
Teacher:    No,  because  its  legs  are  weak. 
Pupil:    — because  its  legs  are  weak. 

Zoology.    Sixth  Grade.    Hiidesheim:.    45  Boys 
Teacher:    What  aids  the  bird  in  flying ? 
Pupil:    The  shape  of  the  breast-bone. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  shape  of  the  breast-bone? 


BIOLOGY  461 

PupU:    It  is  shaped  like  a  ship  or  boat,  and  therefore  the  bird  can  fly 

through  the  air  more  easily. 
Teacher:    What  else  is  the  breast-bone  for? 
PupU:    The  muscles  are  attached  to  the  breast-bone. 
Teacher:    What  else  aids  the  bird  in  flying? 
Pupil:    The  wings. 

Teacher:    Yes,  but  I  mean  other  equipment  which  aids  the  bird  in  flying. 
Pupil:    The  feathers  are  strong  and  stiff  and  so  arranged  that  they  cut 

through  the  air  easily. 
Teacher:    What  else  assists  the  bird  in  flying? 
PupU:    The  bones  are  hollow  and  contain  air. 
Teacher:    Are  the  bones  of  the  horse  or  cow  hollow? 
PupU:    No,  they  are  filled  with  marrow. 
Teacher:    How  do  birds  catch  their  prey?    First,  how  they  locate  it  and 

then  how  they  seize  it. 
PupUs:    The  birds  locate  their  prey  with  their  eyes. 
Teacher:    How  are  the  bird's  eyes  located  to  aid  it  in  seeing  prey  easily? 

Take  the  owl,  for  example. 
PupU:    The  eyes  are  set  fast  in  the  owl's  head. 
PupU:    The  eyes  are  large  and  set  so  that  the  owl  has  a  large  angle  of 

vision  and  can  see  in  almost  all  directions  at  one  time. 
PupU:    And  then  the  owl's  eyes  have  such  large  pupils  that  they  can  see 

easily  at  night. 
Teacher:    What  happens  to  the  pupils  of  the  bird's  eyes  or  our  eyes  at  night  ? 
PupU:    The  pupil  of  the  eye  becomes  much  larger,  so  that  more  light  rays 

may  enter. 
Teacher:    In  what  other  ways  do  birds  locate  their  prey? 
PupU:    Some  birds  locate  their  prey  by  means  of  feeUng. 
Teacher:    The  bat,  for  instance,  locates  its  prey  by  feeling.    It  stretches 

out  its  wings,  and  when  an  insect  comes  near  or  in  contact  with  them, 

the  bat  turns  in  that  direction,  and  what  is  left  for  the  bat  to  do  ? 
PupU:    It  has  merely  to  open  its  mouth. 

Teacher:    How  are  birds  fitted  out  for  catching  their  prey  after  they  have 

located  it  ? 
PupU:    The  owl  has  sharp  claws  and  a  beak. 
Teacher:    Yes,  the  owl  sees  a  mouse  in  the  field,  and  like  lightning  swoops 

down  upon  it  and  seizes  it  with  its  claws.    What  would  happen  if  the 

owl  could  not  dart  down  quickly? 


462  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:    The  mouse  would  run  into  its  hole. 

Teacher:    What  does  the  owl  use  its  beak  for? 

Pupil:    The  owl  tears  the  mouse  up  with  its  beak. 

Teacher:  Does  the  owl  eat  the  fur  too?  (No  answer.)  Yes,  it  swallows 
it,  but  since  fur  is  hard  for  the  owl  to  digest,  it  vomits  it  out  again, 
after  it  has  rolled  all  the  little  pieces  together  in  a  ball  in  its  stomach. 
How  is  the  woodpecker  fitted  out  to  catch  its  prey? 

Pupil:    It  has  claws  and  a  long  beak. 

Teacher:  That  is  right,  but  the  claws  are  not  used  directly  for  catching 
the  prey.    What  are  the  claws  for? 

Pupil:    The  claws  help  to  hold  the  woodpecker  on  the  tree. 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  a  foot  or  claw  has  the  woodpecker? 

Pupil:  It  has  a  dimbing  foot,  two  toes  in  front  and  two  which  point 
backward. 

Teacher:    What  else  does  the  woodpecker  use  in  climbing? 

Pupil:  The  woodpecker  uses  its  tail  as  a  sort  of  a  chair  or  stool.  It  is  a 
climbing-taU. 

Teacher:  Now  as  for  the  part  which  the  woodpecker  uses  to  catch  its 
prey,  what  is  that  ? 

Pupil:    The  woodpecker  catches  its  prey  with  its  beak. 

Teacher:    What  kind  of  wood  does  the  woodpecker  like  best  to  work  on? 

Pupil:    Worm-eaten  wood. 

Teacher:    Why? 

Pupil:  Because  in  this  kind  of  wood  there  are  worms  which  the  wood- 
pecker eats. 

Teacher:  First  the  woodpecker  beats  on  the  side  of  the  tree  opposite  the 
worm  holes.  He  does  this  to  scare  the  worms  or  insects  and  they  run 
towards  the  openings.  Then  he  jumps  aroimd  to  the  other  side  of  the 
tree  and  waits.  After  a  Uttle  he  stabs  his  long  beak  in  the  hole  to 
catch  the  worms.    He  has  also  a  very  long  tongue. 

Teacher:  (Showing  the  picture  of  an  ostrich.)  The  ostriches  live  in  Africa 
and  generally  run  in  herds.  They  are  both  wild  and  domestic.  The 
domestic  ostriches  are  used  for  hauling  and  riding.  Give  me  the  con- 
tent of  that. 

Pupil:  The  ostrich  is  an  African  bird.  They  hve  in  herds.  Some  are 
wild  and  some  domestic.    They  are  used  for  riding  sometimes. 

Teacher:  The  ostrich  is  the  largest  bird.  It  is  about  two  and  one  half 
meters  in  height,  and  weighs  between  fifty  and  sixty  kilograms.  It  has 
a  large  body,  a  very  small  head,  and  little  wings. 


BIOLOGY  463 

Pupil:    The  ostrich  is  a  very  large  bird,  about  two  and  a  half  meters  Id 

height,  and  from  fifty  to  sixty  kUograms  in  weight.    Its  head  is  small. 

Its  wings  are  also  small. 
Teacher:    Have  you  noticed  anything  strange  about  the  legs  of  an  ostrich  ? 

(No  answer.)     The  first  joint  is  peculiarly  arranged,  it  bends  backward 

instead  of  forward.    In  this  respect  it  is  Uke  the  horse.    Of  what 

advantage  is  that?    It  enables  the  ostrich  to  run  very  rapidly.    Can 

the  ostrich  fly? 
PupU:    Not  very  well,  because  it  is  very  heavy  and  its  wings  are  small. 
Teacher:    The  ostrich  has  no  breast-bone,  which  is  so  necessary  for  flying, 

as  we  have  learned  in  other  studies  of  birds.    How  would  you  describe 

the  foot  ? 
Pupil:    The  ostrich  has  two  toes  on  each  foot.    It  doesn't  look  as  if  the 

ostrich  could  sit  on  a  limb  very  well. 
Teacher:    That  is  right.    To-morrow  when  we  have  more  time  we  shall 

study  the  ostrich  further  as  to  what  it  eats,  its  young,  its  nest,  and  the 

like. 

Zoology.    Eighth  Year.    Boys 

Teacher:    We  are  going  to  study  about  the  eagle  to-day.    What  can  you 

tell  me  about  the  eagle  ? 
Pupil:    We  have  learned  in  our  study  of  the  Alps  in  our  geography  period 

that  the  eagle  likes  to  hunt  the  chamois  and  the  mountain  goat. 
PupU:    The  eagle  is  a  very  large  bird.    There  is  an  eagle  on  every  gold 

piece,  and  on  banners  and  flags  there  is  a  flying  eagle.    Generally  on 

coats  of  arms  there  is  an  eagle. 
Pupil:    I  have  seen  eagles  on  the  buttons  of  the  postman's  uniform. 
Pupil:    And  also  on  aU  imperial  documents.    In  the  neighboring  village, 

,  there  is  the  Eagle  Apothecary  shop,  and  in  there  is  the 

Eagle  drug  store. 
Pupil:    My  mother  buys  Eagle  chocolate. 
Teacher:    It  would  be  best  if  we  could  have  a  real  eagle  here  to-day  to 

examine.    But  we  haven't,  so  we  must  travel  a  long  way  off. 
Pupil:    We  must  go  to  the  Alps. 

Teacher:    And  we  must  wait  there  a  long,  long  time.    Why? 
PupU:    The  eagle  very  seldom  permits  us  to  see  him,  and  besides  there 

are  not  many  eagles. 
Teacher:    That's  the  reason  many  people  in  the  Alps  have  never  seen  an 

eagle  in  Alight.    And  we  must  satisfy  ourselves  with  a  picture.    Here 


464  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

it  is.    Look  at  it  carefully.    Take  plenty  of  time.    (Children  examine 

the  picture.) 
Teacher:    What  do  you  see  in  the  picture.    Make  the  description  orderly. 

(Teacher  merely  indicated  pupils  who  were  to  recite.) 
Pupil:    The  big,  old  eagle  has  a  rabbit  in  his  beak.    The  beak  is  large 

and  strong. 
Teacher:    There  is  stiU  more  to  be  said  about  the  beak. 
Pupil:    The  upper  beak  is  very  thick  towards  the  back,  and  bent  over  like 

a  sickle  in  front,  and  goes  far  out  over  the  under  part  of  the  beak. 
Pupil:    The  eyes  are  large  and  yeUow.    They  look  very  proud. 
Pupil:    The  head  has  sharp  pointed  feathers.    Those  on  the  back  of  the 

head  are  rusty  brown. 
Pupil:    The  neck  is  strong  and  thick.    It  is  covered  with  rusty-brown 

feathers  like  the  head. 
Pupil:    The  feathers  vary  in  color  from  brownish  yellow  to  blackish  brown. 
Pupil:    The  body  is  rather  long  and  slender. 
Teacher:    What  about  the  wings? 

Pupil:    The  wings  are  long  and  they  almost  entirely  cover  the  body. 
Pupil:    The  legs  are  strong  and  the  feet  are  covered  with  feathers  almost 

to  the  toes. 
Pupil:    The  talons  are  long,  very  strong,  sharp,  and  sickle-shaped  like  the 

beak.    Each  foot  has  four  powerful  toes,  which  are  yellow  in  appear- 
ance.   Three  of  them  are  turned  forward  and  one  back. 
Pupil:    Two  young  eagles  are  standing  near  the  old  one  with  their  mouths 

wide  open.    They  are  rejoicing  over  the  meal  their  father  is  preparing 

for  them.    They  do  not  look  much  like  the  old  eagle. 
Pupil:    Their  beaks  and  their  talons  are  bent  inward ;  the  wings  are  short, 

and  soft  downy  feathers  cover  their  bodies. 
Pupil:    The  picture  represents  an  eagle's  nest  on  a  steep  cliff.    The  nest  is 

built  out  of  dry  branches.    We  can  see  high,  snow-covered  mountains 

and  they  are  probably  the  Alps. 
Teacher:    As  you  said,  the  eagle  on  our  picture  has  a  rabbit  in  his  beak. 

How  did  he  get  this  booty? 
Pupil:    He  captured  it. 

Teacher:    For  what  purpose  has  he  fetched  a  rabbit  roast? 
Pupil:    The  old  eagle  and  his  young  were  hungry,  so  he  went  out  fora^ng. 
Teacher:    Yes,  the  eagle  is  always  hungry.    When  he  goes  out  from  the 

nest,  he  flies  spirally  high  into  the  air.    What  do  you  call  that  floating 

about  in  spiral  lines? 


BIOLOGY  465 

Pupil:    Circles. 

Teacher:  Flying  in  circles  he  watches  continually.  As  soon  as  he  notices 
something  close  by,  he  pounces  like  a  flash  upon  it.  But  how  can  the 
eagle  see  things  creeping  or  flying  down  below  from  such  a  height? 

Pupil:    He  has  to  have  sharp,  far-seeing  eyes. 

Teacher:  That's  it.  Nothing  escapes  his  unbelievably  sharp  eyes.  But 
why  does  none  of  his  victims  escape? 

Pupil:    The  eagle  pounces  upon  them  with  the  speed  of  an  arrow. 

Teacher:  But  how  can  he  throw  himself  like  lightning  from  such  an  enor- 
mous height? 

Pupil:  His  wings  are  very  large  and  strong,  and  are  shaped  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Teacher:  An  eagle  of  one  meter  in  height  can  stretch  out  its  wings  two 
meters,  from  here  to  here.  So  we  say  that  the  eagle's  span  is  two  meters. 
Explain  Klafterweite. 

Pupil:    Klaftern  means  stretch  out. 

Teacher:  The  animals  which  the  eagle  catches  must  see  their  enemy  in 
the  air  before  he  swoops  down. 

PupU:    He  flies  so  high  that  he  looks  very  small  and  cannot  be  recognized. 

Teacher:  That's  right.  In  this  way  the  rabbit,  running  all  unsuspecting 
across  the  field,  is  surprised  and  overpowered.  Often  the  eagle  looks 
like  a  mere  dot  in  the  sky.    But  why  does  the  eagle  go  up  so  high? 

Pupil:  In  order  that  he  may  get  a  view  of  a  very  large  amount  of  ground, 
for  the  higher  he  moimts,  just  so  much  the  greater  is  his  horizon. 

Teacher:    How  can  the  eagle  descend  so  rapidly  from  on  high? 

PupU:  He  claps  his  wings  close  to  his  body  and  falls  straight  down- 
ward. 

Teacher:  The  eagle,  however,  must  swing  just  a  little  out  of  a  straight  line, 
otherwise  he  would  not  come  down  on  the  right  place.  At  the  very 
last  moment  he  spreads  his  wings  out,  otherwise,  he  would  certainly 
crush  himself  on  the  ground.  So  he  catches  his  booty.  That  is  cruel 
of  the  eagle,  but  animals  do  not  know  any  better.  Let  us  turn  back 
again  to  our  picture.  We  have  explained  how  the  eagle  catches  his 
prey.    How  may  the  eagle  tear  up  his  booty? 

Pupil:  With  his  beak,  which  is  crooked  and  sharp,  or  with  his  four  sharp, 
curved  talons  on  his  toes. 

Teacher:  Draw  his  talons  on  the  board  quickly.  Why  are  the  beak  and 
talons  so  sharp  ? 

Pupil:    So  they  will  sink  into  the  flesh  easily. 
3  H 


466  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher :    May  not  the  wings  also  be  helpful  in  the  capture  of  prey  ?    Think 

what  strength  even  a  goose  has  in  its  wings,  when  a  person  wants  to 

catch  it. 
Pupil:    When  it  is  necessary,  the  eagle  can  beat  furiously  with  its  wings, 

for  they  are  strongly  buUt. 
Teacher:    The  legs  are  called  clutches.    Why,  do  you  suppose ? 
Pupil:    They  serve  for  catching  things. 
Teacher:    But  how  is  it  possible  for  the  old  eagle  to  carry  the  rabbit  such 

a  long  distance  to  his  family? 
Pupil:    The  beak  is  bent  like  a  hook.    You  can  see  in  the  picture  how  the 

eagle  holds  his  booty  secure  in  his  beak. 
Teacher:    What  else  may  have  been  helpful  in  carr5dng  during  the  flight? 
Pupil:    The  hook-shaped  talons.    They  are  suited  like  the  beak  for  carry- 
ing stuff  away,  for  the  prey  gets  hooked  fast  on  them  and  cannot  escape. 
Teacher:    The  talons  and  the  beak  are  not  sufficient.    The  eagle  is  fitted 

out  in  still  another  way. 
Pupil:    A  thick  neck  and  powerful  legs.    The  legs  and  neck  have  strong 

muscles.    The  eagle  has  also  a  broad  breast-bone  and  a  high  comb. 
Teacher:    Why  is  the  flying  ability  of  many  birds  small? 
Pupil:    The  domestic  chicken  and  partridge  have  short,   round,  stubby 

wings,  and  a  narrow  breast-bone. 
Teacher:    Summarize  how  the  eagle  is  well  fitted  for  capturing  its  booty. 
Pupil:    The  following  items  aid  the  eagle  admirably  in  catching  its  prey: 

the  sharpness  of  its  eyes,  the  strength  of  its  neck  and  leg  muscles,  the 

form  of  the  beak  and  the  talons,  and  the  span  of  its  wings. 
Teacher:    Why  does  the  old  eagle  fetch  the  rabbit? 
Pupil:    In  order  to  stiU  the  hunger  of  its  young. 
Teacher:    I  suppose  the  young  eagles  get  their  own  food  sometimes. 
Pupil:    Never.    They  stiU  have  short  wings  which  are  not  able  to  raise 

their  heavy  bodies  into  the  air. 
Teacher:    What  animals  do  the  young  eagles  resemble? 
Pupil:    They  resemble  young  chickens,  which  are  called  pullets. 
Teacher:    But? 

Pupil:    They  are  much  larger. 
Teacher :    How  does  the  old  eagle  show  himself  to  be  when  he  gets  his  young 

everything  that  is  necessary  for  their  nourishment? 
Pupil:    Elind  and  considerate. 

Teacher:    Do  you  know  other  animals  that  show  great  love  for  their  young? 
Pupil:    The  fox,  the  duck,  and  the  hen. 


BIOLOGY  467 

Teacher:    Are  there  any  animals  which  do  not  care  for  their  young? 

Pupil:  To  be  sure.  For  example,  the  cuckoo  that  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
nest  of  a  strange  bird  and  lets  them  be  hatched  out  by  other  birds. 
It  never  sees  its  young. 

Teacher:    Young  eagles  are  insessorial  birds.    What  does  that  mean? 

Pupil:  They  come  out  of  the  egg  naked  and  helpless  and  therefore  must 
remain  sitting  in  the  nest  a  longer  time  and  be  fed  by  the  parent  birds. 

Teacher:  The  old  eagles  at  first  feed  their  young  from  their  crops,  then 
bring  them  raw  meat ;  and  later,  crippled  animals  in  order  to  let  them 
get  practice  in  killing  their  prey ;  and  finally  they  let  an  animal  escape 
in  order  to  practice  their  young  in  hunting.  How  long  do  the  young 
remain  in  the  nest? 

Pupil:  UntU  the  young  have  wings  long  enough  to  fly  out  of  the  nest  and 
get  food  for  themselves. 

Teacher:    What  other  animals  are  insessorial? 

Pupil:  The  dove,  the  starling,  and  the  sparrow  are  birds  whose  young  are 
raised  in  the  nest. 

Teacher:    The  opposite  of  insessorial? 

Pupil:  Autophagous  birds;  for  example,  the  chicken,  the  partridge,  quail, 
and  the  goose.    Their  young  leave  the  nest  immediately. 

Teacher:  The  old  eagle  teaches  his  young  to  fly.  The  figurative  expres- 
sion, "I  have  borne  you  on  the  wings  of  an  eagle,"  is  derived  from  the 
first  attempts  of  an  eagle  to  fly.  The  following  verse  of  the  song, 
"Praise  the  Lord  who  rules  over  all,  who  guides  you  safely  on  the 
wings  of  an  eagle."  Further,  "As  an  eagle  stretches  his  wing  over  his 
young,  so  hath  the  arm  of  the  Ahnighty  covered  me."  But  strange 
to  say,  the  parental  love  of  the  eagle  does  not  remain  too  long.  As 
soon  as  the  yoimg  can  fly,  they  must  leave  the  parental  home  and  are 
never  permitted  to  return.  The  eagle  withdraws  his  support  from  his 
young,  and  never  suffers  them  again  in  his  vicinity.  He  compels  them 
to  seek  their  own  hunting  ground.  If  the  old  eagle  sees  one  of  his 
young  in  his  territory  again,  there  is  a  hard  fight,  which  does  not  end 
happily.    Why  does  the  eagle  act  so  hard  and  unlovely? 

Pupil:  He  thinks  that  otherwise  he  cannot  find  enough  food.  Besides  he 
is  a  glutton  and  never  satisfied. 

Teacher:    What  animals  does  gluttony  compel  to  live  alone? 

Pupil:  The  mole,  cuckoo,  and  the  hamster.  They  do  not  allow  their  own 
kind  in  their  hunting  ground. 

Teacher:    Summarize  how. the  eagle  treats  its  young. 


468  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:  The  eagle  brings  food  to  its  young  and  cares  for  them  well  until 
they  can  fly.  Then  the  young  must  leave  the  nest,  and  are  never 
allowed  to  return  to  their  parents'  hunting  ground  or  home. 

Teacher:    How  do  you  suppose  the  meals  take  place? 

Pupil:  The  old  eagle  tears  up  and  divides  the  rabbit  with  his  beak  and 
claws,  which  are  sharp  and  crooked  for  this  purpose. 

Teacher:    Can  the  young  participate  in  the  meal  already? 

Pupil:    Yes,  they  have  sharp  beaks  and  talons  for  tearing  up  meat. 

Teacher:    What  part  of  the  rabbit  do  you  suppose  the  eagles  eat? 

Pupil:    The  meat,  not  the  fur  and  bones. 

Teacher:    Why  not  the  fur  and  bones? 

Pupil:    Because  they  are  hard  and  indigestible. 

Teacher:  You  are  wrong.  You  are  thinking  about  yourself.  The  eagle 
has  a  very  excellent  digestion,  so  that  he  eats  the  rabbit,  fur,  bones, 
and  all.  Lots  of  the  bones,  of  course,  he  cannot  swallow  at  once. 
The  beak  possesses  no  teeth.  What  must  happen  to  the  bones  before 
they  can  be  eaten  ? 

Pupil:    The  eagle  must  first  break  up  the  large  bones  before  eating  them. 

Teacher:    Summarize:  how  the  eagle  devours  his  prey,  hair,  bones  and  aU. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  tears  up  his  prey  with  his  beak  and  talons  and  divides 
it  among  his  young.  The  eagle  eats  not  only  the  flesh  but  also  the  fur 
and  bones. 

Teacher:    Does  the  eagle  like  rabbit  meat  only? 

Pupil:    He  hunts  chamois  and  mountain  goat,  too. 

Teacher:  Many  naturalists  think  that  the  eagle  is  not  able  to  kill  a  chamois 
or  a  goat  in  spite  of  his  great  strength.  I  read  in  a  book :  "The  eagle 
hunts  rather  large  mammals  and  birds,  especially  fawns,  does,  rabbits, 
lambs,  geese,  and  chickens.  If  forced  by  himger,  he  even  steals  young 
animals  in  the  very  face  of  the  shepherd,  and  carries  them  away  in  the 
air  in  his  talons."    What  name  does  the  eagle  rightly  bear? 

Pupil:    He  is  a  bird  of  prey  that  causes  a  great  deal  of  harm  by  his  gluttony. 

Teacher:  As  such  he  is  the  terror  of  the  Alps.  From  where  does  he  get 
his  feathered  prey? 

Pupil:    From  barnyards,  and  from  the  vicinity  of  dwellings. 

Teacher:    Cannot  the  eagle  become  dangerous  in  other  respects? 

Pupil:    Even  to  human  beings. 

Teacher:  And  it  is  said  that  the  eagle  has  really  attacked  people  who  were 
hunting  him  or  wanted  to  take  his  prey  from  him.  Indeed,  in  our 
reader  it  tells  us  that  he  has  attacked  children  and  hurled  adults  down 


BIOLOGY 


469 


from  narrow  paths.  We  shall  read  the  selection  next  period.  But 
many  say  that  the  eagle  is  not  dangerous  to  men,  but  that  the  bearded 
vulture  which  lives  in  the  Alps  is.  I  have  brought  along  a  picture  of 
this  bird.  Of  this  gigantic  bird,  it  says;  "He  is  the  terror  of  lambs 
and  goats,  upon  which  he  pounces  from  on  high.  He  tries  to  hurl  into 
abysses  animals  and  even  men  that  happen  to  be  on  the  rocks,  and  it 
is  a  proven  fact  that  at  times  he  has  stolen  children  in  mountainous 
districts."  Give  briefly  what  the  eagle  likes  to  eat  and  m  what  manner 
he  is  so  destructive. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  lives  upon  goats,  chamois,  sheep,  chickens,  small  animals, 
like  the  rabbit  and  pheasants.  The  eagle  is  destructive  of  flocks  and 
dangerous  even  to  children  and  grown  persons. 

Teacher:  We  were  just  speaking  of  the  damage  done  by  the  eagle  and  the 
danger  he  causes.     Is  there  no  way  to  destroy  this  bird  of  prey? 

Pupil:    People  try  to  shoot  it. 

Teacher:    But  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  kill  it.    Explain  why. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  has  a  dark  brown  coat  of  feathers  which  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish from  the  rocks.  He  lives  in  protected  hidden  places.  He 
has  sharp  eyes  and  ears.  Lastly  he  is  afraid  of  men  and  therefore 
keeps  in  inaccessible  places  high  in  the  mountains  or  flies  so  high  that 
he  cannot  be  reached. 

Teacher:    The  nest  of  the  eagle  is  high  up.    But  why  so  high  up? 

Pupil:    His  retreat  is  hidden. 

Teacher:  In  the  picture  we  can  see  neither  tree,  nor  man,  nor  even  grass. 
Reason  ? 

Pupil:  Nothing  can  live  there.  There  is  no  soU,  only  bare  rocks.  It  is 
also  too  cold,  for  near  by  there  are  mountains  covered  with  ice  and 
snow. 

Teacher:    Can  you  imagine  why  the  eagle  is  called  the  "rock  eagle"? 

Pupil:    His  home  is  on  the  barren  rocks. 

Teacher:  His  regular  home  is  on  the  mountain  heights,  but  when  he  gets 
hungry,  he  leaves  these  heights.  From  here  he  makes  his  raids.  Why 
does  the  eagle  have  his  abode  up  so  high  ?  Does  he  find  his  food  any- 
where near  at  hand? 

Pupil:  Oh,  no.  The  animals  which  are  necessary  for  his  food  live  a  long 
way  off.  He  lives  here  solely  for  protection  and  safety,  for  no  other 
animal  that  can  injure  him  lives  up  there.  Even  the  hunter  cannot 
climb  near.  His  young  are  safe,  even  when  he  is  out  foraging.  And 
then,  too,  he  has  a  broad  view  of  all  his  hunting  territory. 


470  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    Doesn't  it  get  too  cold  for  the  eagle  up  there? 

Pupil:    No,  because  he  has  a  thick,  warm  coat  of  feathers. 

Teacher:  But  as  soon  as  the  eagle  thinks  that  some  one  has  gotten  on  his 
trail,  or  has  found  out  his  nest,  he  moves  out  and  finds  another  hiding 
place.    Isn't  it  a  pity  to  leave  such  a  nest  ? 

Pupil:  The  eagle's  home  doesn't  deserve  the  name  of  nest.  It  is  only  a 
few  dry  branches.    It  is  a  pitiful  home  for  the  young  eagles. 

Teacher:  The  eagle's  nest  has  exactly  the  same  name  as  the  chicken 
hawk's. 

Pupil:    Eyrie  (nest). 

Teacher:    What  do  you  suppose  it  means,  the  eagle  horstet? 

Pupil:    The  eagle  builds  an  eyrie,  he  nests. 

Teacher:    Horst  means  high  born.    Explain. 

Pupil:    The  eagle's  young  are  born  high  up. 

Teacher:    Haven't  you  heard  that  word  Horsi  before? 

Pupil:    Lots  of  boys  have  that  for  a  surname. 

Teacher:  The  eagle  doesn't  dwell  in  our  moimtains  alone,  but  all  over 
Europe  and  Asia.  (Reading.)  "The  rock  (golden)  eagle  inhabits  the 
wooded  mountain  districts  of  Europe,  North  America,  and  Asia.  It 
is  found  very  seldom  in  Germany.  Summarize  why  and  how  the 
eagle  builds  his  nest  up  so  high. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  builds  his  nest  high  up  on  the  mountain  in  order  to  pro- 
tect himself  against  his  enemies.    It  is  built  of  dry  branches  and  twigs. 

Teacher:  At  our  school  games  to-day  you  shot  at  an  eagle  with  a  sUng. 
Describe  your  eagle. 

Pupil:  He  was  made  of  wood,  painted  in  bright  colors,  and  wore  a  crown. 
In  one  claw  he  had  a  scepter  and  in  the  other  an  apple  with  a  cross. 

Teacher:    Did  only  your  eagle  have  a  crown? 

Pupil:    No,  the  other  classes  had  similar  eagles,  too. 

Teacher:    But  why  a  crown ? 

Pupil:    We  consider  the  eagle  to  be  the  king  of  birds. 

Teacher:    Why  the  king? 

Pupil:    He  is  the  strongest  and  most  powerful  of  all  the  birds. 

Teacher:    That's  why  he  bears  the  name  of  "king's  eagle." 
What  makes  him  the  king  of  birds? 

Pupil:  I.  The  eagle's  size,  being  one  meter  high  and  the  wings  extending 
two  meters.  But  the  eagle  is  not  the  largest  bird  in  the  world,  for 
that  is  the  condor,  which  lives  in  the  Andes  in  South  America  and  is 
three  meters  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing. 


BIOLOGY  471 

2.  His  strength,  royal  power.    No  animal  is  able  to  resist  him. 

His  strength  comes  from  powerful  bones  and  muscles. 
PupU:    3.  The  eagle's  speed  is  greatest.    No  animal  can  escape  him. 

4.  Majestic  flight.    Two  great  pointed  wings  with  beautifully 

arranged  feathers.    The  tail  serves  as  a  rudder  and  a  brake.    He  has 

a  broad  breast-bone. 
PupU:     s-  He  has  royal  garments.    Rich  feathering  of  golden  brown. 

A  long  tail  which  appears  white  at  the  base,  dark  bands  in  the  middle, 

and  black  at  the  tip.    He  has  beautiful  brown  stockings  on  his  legs ; 

and  yellow  toes. 
Pupil:    6.  Kingly  carriage.    He  carries  himself  upright  like  a  man.    The 

eagle's  walk  is  said  not  to  be  very  graceful. 
Teacher:    What  is  the  cause  of  that? 
Pupil:    His  claws  are  bent  too  much. 
Teacher:    Is  the  eagle  an  air  bird  or  a  land  bird? 
PupU:    The  eagle  is  more  an  air  bird. 
Teacher:    What  else  is  kingly  about  the  eagle? 
Pupil:    7.  He  has  a  kingly  glance.    His  eyes  are  large,  fiery,  and  sharp, 

flashing  majestically. 
PupU:    8.  He  has  a  royal  dwelling  place,  high  on  the  rocks. 
Teacher:    To  what  words  is  the  name  Adler  connected? 
PupU:    With  adelig,  and  this  word  is  derived  from  edel  (noble). 
Teacher:    What  is  noble  in  the  eagle ? 
PupU:    His  carriage  in  flying  and  sitting. 
Teacher:    What  people  are  called  noble  or  nobility? 
Pupil:    Princes,  kings,  and  emperors.    The  highest  persons  belong  to  the 

rank  of  nobility. 
Teacher:    Now  you  can  see  why  the  eagle  was  placed  formerly  on  coins, 

stamps,  and  arms. 
PupU:    The  eagle  expresses  courage,  strength,  and  power. 

The  eagle  is  the  sjmibol  of  princely  power  and  victorious  might. 
The  eagle  from  olden  times  has  been  the  symbol  of  majesty  and 

victory,  for  example,  the  eagle  of  Jove  and  the  golden  eagle  of  the 

Romans.    The  old  Germans  wore  an  eagle  on  their  helmets  as  an 

ornament.    Hermann,  the  liberator  of  Germany,  had  an  eagle  helmet. 
Teacher:    What  countries  have  the  eagle  on  their  coat-of-arms? 
PupU:    Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria. 
Teacher:    Is  it  fitting  for  these  nations  to  have  this  emblem? 
PupU:    Yes,  they  are  strong  and  powerful. 


472  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:  What  position  does  the  eagle  have  on  coins,  flags,  stamps,  and 
arms  ?  \ 

Pupil:    In  full  flight,  for  in  this  position  he  looks  best. 

Teacher:  Here  are  coins  and  stamps.  Look  at  them.  Many  people  re- 
ceive the  "Order  of  the  Eagle."    What  is  that? 

Pupil:  That  is  the  highest  order  in  Prussia.  Only  men  who  have  per- 
formed great  service  get  it. 

Teacher:  Now  summarize.  TeU  what  makes  the  eagle  king  of  all  birds 
and  why  he  is  the  symbol  of  power. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  is  king  of  all  birds  because  of  his  size,  strength,  kingly 
flight,  and  appearance.  For  these  reasons  he  is  the  symbol  of  power 
and  strength. 

Teacher:    Now  summarize  all  we  have  learned  about  the  eagle. 

Pupil:  The  keenness  of  sight,  the  strength  of  the  wings  and  neck,  the 
shape  of  the  beak  and  claws,  as  weU  as  swiftness  in  flight,  fit  the  eagle 
for  catching  its  prey. 

(Lesson  continued  on  the  following  day.) 

Teacher:  You  have  already  studied  about  the  birds  of  prey  and  other 
birds  related  to  the  eagle. 

Pupil:    We  have  studied  the  chicken  hawk. 

Teacher:  Look  at  this  stuffed  hawk  and  this  picture.  How  is  the  hawk 
fitted  out  for  preying  ? 

Pupil:  It  has  a  sharp  beak  for  overcoming  its  booty.  The  upper  beak 
is  bent  hke  a  hook  and  projects  over  the  lower  beak.  It  is  suitable 
for  tearing  the  victim  to  pieces.  The  hawk  can  seize  and  hold  its  prey 
fast  with  its  feet.  The  toes  have  long,  bent  claws.  The  shape  of  the 
wing  makes  swift  flight  possible. 

Teacher:  There  is  something  that  you  can't  see  either  in  the  picture  or 
from  the  stuffed  model. 

Pupil:    The  eyes  must  be  good. 

Teacher:    StiU  other  birds  of  prey  are  known  to  you? 

Pupil:    The  house-hawk  and  the  barn-owl. 

Teacher:  Look  at  these  models  of  the  house-hawk  and  the  barn-owl. 
Prove  that  the  house-hawk  (mouse-hawk)  is  built  well  for  its  purpose. 

Pupil:  The  house-hawk  has  large  wings  which  stretch  out  over  one  meter 
and  with  which  it  can  pounce  down  quickly  upon  its  prey.  Sharp, 
long  toes  catch  the  victim,  and  the  sharp,  needle-like  claw  can  sink  easily 
into  the  flesh.  The  beak  is  sharp  and  bent  for  tearing  food  to  pieces. 
The  eyes  are  sharp  so  it  can  see  a  mouse  from  on  high. 


BIOLOGY 


473 


Teacher:    Look  at  the  barn-owl  and  at  the  picture. 

Pupil:    The  barn-owl  has  a  bent  beak,  and  long,  sharp  claws,  so  it,  too,  is 

well  suited  for  capturing  animals. 
Teacher:    Finally  we  shall  look  briefly  at  the  picture  of  the  fifth  bird  of 

prey  we  are  to  study.    Describe  it. 
Pupil:    The  vulture  has  short  toes  with  blvuit  claws,  and  a  powerful  beak. 

The  neck  is  feathered.    The  feathers  of  the  back  are  black,  those  of 

the  neck  and  breast  are  reddish  yellow.    Under  the  beak  there  is  a 

beard-like  tuft  of  feathers. 
Teacher:    That's  why  it  is  called  the  bearded  vulture. 

The  result  of  our  discussion  is  as  follows :  (writing). 

1.  Classification :  Birds  of  prey  are  large,  powerful  birds,  with 
strong,  sharp,  hooked  beaks ;  sharp  bent  claws  on  the  toes ;  live  chiefly 
on  meat. 

2.  Scientific  principle :  The  bodily  structure  of  birds  of  prey 
suited  to  their  manner  of  life. 

Teacher:    Are  the  above-named  birds  of  prey  entirely  injurious? 

Pupil:  No,  the  house-hawk  himts  field  mice,  rats,  hamsters,  locusts,  and 
vipers.  The  barn-owl  exterminates  many  mice  and  rats.  These  birds 
are  very  useful.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chicken  hawk  destroys  birds, 
doves,  and  chickens. 

Teacher:    What  purpose  does  the  beak  of  these  birds  serve? 

Pupil:    It  serves  for  tearing  up,  for  killing,  carrying  off,  and  defense. 

Teacher:    Isn't  there  anything  good  to  be  said  of  the  eagle? 

Pupil:    Majestic  flight,  appearance,  and  good  care  of  its  young. 

Teacher:    What  is  meant  by  eagle  eyes ? 

Pupil:    Sharp  eyes. 

Teacher:    What  is  meant  by  eagle  glance? 

Pupil:     Sharp  glance. 

Teacher:    What  is  meant  by  eagle  flight? 

Pupil:    Very  swift  flight. 

Teacher:    By  aquiline  nose ? 

Pupil:    A  nose  like  the  beak  of  an  eagle. 

Teacher:    Explam  the  following  expressions. 

(New  words  were  defined.) 

Teacher:    Explain  mouse-hawk. 

Pupil:    It  lives  chiefly  on  mice. 

Teacher:    Explain  barn-owl  (veil-owl). 

Pupil:    The  feathers  form  a  veil  about  the  beak  and  eyes. 


474  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Teacher:    A  plant  in  our  own  forest  is  named  after  the  eagle. 

Pupil:  The  eagle  fern.  The  cross  section  of  its  rootstock  has  the  appear- 
ance of  an  eagle. 

Teacher :    Prove  that  the  eagle  is  constructed  so  as  to  aid  in  its  nourishment. 

Pupil:  Its  food  is  chiefly  flesh  and  its  beak  and  claws  are  formed  for  catch- 
ing, hunting,  slaying  of  its  prey. 

Teacher:  Show  that  the  eagle  is  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  move- 
ments it  is  required  to  make. 

Pupil:  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  body  is  comparatively  light 
and  thin  so  it  can  cut  through  the  air  easily.  The  tail  serves  as  a 
rudder  and  a  brake. 

Teacher:    How  is  the  eagle  protected  from  its  enemies? 

Pupil:  Its  dweUing  place  protects  it  and  its  young,  as  do  its  color,  senses, 
claws,  and  strength. 

Teacher:  That's  why  eagles  can  live  for  a  hundred  years.  Now  what  bird 
of  prey  do  you  know  ? 

Pupil:    The  eagle. 

Teacher:  Next  time  write  a  composition  about  what  you  admire  in  the 
eagle. 

And  draw  an  outline  of  the  eagle's  head. 

(In  connection  with  the  lesson  in  biology,  the  children  read  in  their  readers 
selections  entitled,  "The  Golden  Eagle,"  "The  Election  of  the  King 
among  the  Birds,"  "The  Eagle  and  the  Raven"  (^Esop),  and  "The 
Eagle  and  the  Tortoise"  (^sop)). 


CHAPTER  XXI 
PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY 

One  of  the  striking  differences  between  the  German  and  the 
American  courses  of  study  in  the  lower  schools  is  the  amount  of 
time  devoted  to  elementary  physics  and  chemistry.  These  sub- 
jects are  not  ordinarily  a  part  of  the  course  in  our  country,  while 
they  are  always  taught  in  the  German  Volksschulen  during  the 
last  three  years,  which  correspond  to  our  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  grades.  In  boys'  schools  physics  and  chemistry  together 
receive  two  hours  each  week  for  three  years.  The  time  is  divided 
equally  between  the  subjects.  The  number  of  hours  for  these 
subjects  in  girls'  schools  is  usually  less. 

The  contents  of  the  courses  of  study  vary  greatly  in  different 
sections  of  the  country  according  to  the  needs  and  to  the  facili- 
ties for  teaching.    We  give  below  the  course  of  study  course  of 
for  the  Berlin  schools  which  is  general  enough  to  allow  ^*"*y 
wide  selection  in  the  choice  of  particular  topics  to  be  taught. 

Class  3.    Boys'  school.    2  hours. 

First  semester :    Heat. 

Second  semester :    Elementary  principles  of  solids,  liquids,  and  gases. 
Class  2.     2  hours. 

First  semester :    Topics  from  inorganic  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 

Second  semester :    Magnetism,  electricity,  galvanics. 
Class  1.    3  hours. 

First  semester :    Conclusion  of  topics  from  inorganic  chemistry.    Or- 
ganic chemistry. 

Second  semester :    Mechanics,  sound,  light. 

These  names  appear  rather  formidable  for  youngsters  of  ele- 
mentary school  age,  but  the  topics  selected  and  the  method  of 

47S 


476  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

treatment  are  very  simple  and  practical,  suited  in  every  way 
to  the  understanding  of  the  child.  The  regular  elementary 
school  in  Hannover  is  only  seven  years  in  length  and 
the  boys  have  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  last  two 
years  only,  while  the  girls  have  it  only  for  one  year  —  the  sixth 
grade.    The  lists  of  topics  in  the  boys'  schools  are  as  follows : 

Class  2  (sixth  year).  Sources  of  heat;  expansion  of  solids,  liquids,  and 
gases  by  heat ;  the  thermometer ;  currents  in  water  and  air ;  melting  and 
freezing;  steam,  vaporization,  condensation;  atmospheric  precipitations; 
the  steam  engine;  conduction,  radiation,  and  convection  of  heat;  equi- 
librium, center  of  gravity;  the  lever;  balances;  inclined  plane;  friction; 
adhesion;  capillarity;  expansion  of  the  air;  air  pressure;  barometer; 
pumps ;  fire  engine ;  cause  of  sound ;  tones ;  transmittance  and  speed  of 
sound;  the  ear;  reflection  of  sound;  echo;  fundamental  magnetic  phe- 
nomena ;  magnetic  distribution ;  terrestrial  magnetism ;  compass ;  electri- 
cal phenomena;  electrical  conductivity;  positive  and  negative  electricity; 
electrophor ;  Leyden  jar ;  electrical  machine ;  thunder,  lightning ;  Hghtning 
rod. 

Class  I  (seventh  year),  (a)  Attraction ;  gravity ;  weight ;  pulleys ;  wheel 
and  axle ;  block  and  tackle ;  falling  bodies ;  pendulum ;  centrifugal  and  cen- 
tripetal force ;  law  of  machines ;  water  wheel ;  turbine ;  swimming ;  specific 
gravity;  luminous  and  non-luminous  bodies;  transmission  of  light;  re- 
flection of  Ught ;  plane  mirrors ;  convex  and  concave  mirrors ;  refraction  of 
light ;  lenses ;  colored  Ught ;  rainbow ;  the  human  eye ;  optical  instruments ; 
galvanic  elements  and  series ;  effects  of  the  galvanic  current ;  electromag- 
netism;  the  telegraph;  the  telephone;  induction,  {b)  The  air;  oxygen; 
nitrogen;  water;  hydrogen;  oxidation;  carbon;  carbon  dioxide;  carbon 
monoxide;  sulphur;  phosphorus;  common  salt;  chlorine;  sodium;  potas- 
sium. (Study  of  alkaU  works  at  Ronnenberg) :  calcium  carbonate ;  chalk 
deposits  near  Hannover ;  manufacture  of  glass ;  silicic  acid ;  glass  factories 
and  cement  factories  near  Hannover;  coins;  precious  metals,  copper; 
nickel;  iron;  gas  plant;  food  elements  from  the  plant  kingdom;  starch; 
gluten ;  bread ;  alcoholic  drinks ;  vinegar ;  fermentation ;  making  of  sugar ; 
sugar  factories  in  Diesterland  near  Hannover;  food  elements  from  the 
animal  kingdom ;  albumen ;  casein ;  fat ;  putrefaction ;  preserving. 

Class  2  (sixth  year).  Girls.  The  thermometer;  atmospheric  precipita- 
tion ;  steam  engine ;  the  balances ;  the  pendulum  clock ;  water  mains ;  swim- 


PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY  477 

ming ;  lamp  wick ;  pumps ;  barometer ;  bicycle  pump ;  the  ear  and  sound ; 
the  eye  and  light ;  telegraph ;  the  telephone ;  electric  street  railway .1 

Of  course,  the  above  outline  serves  only  in  a  general  way  to 
show  what  range  and  kind  of  topics  are  chosen  for  the  course. 
The  topics  vary  very  greatly.  In  some  places  the  topics  selected 
are  very  practical  and  the  topics  dealt  with  have  to  do  solely 
with  physical  and  chemical  phenomena  of  daily  life.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  the  courses  for  girls !  In  other  places  the 
subject  is  treated  more  abstractly  and  from  the  viewpoint  of 
formal  discipline.  As  far  as  our  observation  went,  the  topics 
selected  were  most  practical  in  character  and  in  application. 
The  lessons  were  aU  concerned  with  the  everyday  physical  and 
chemical  phenomena.  They  dealt  with  those  things  of  com- 
mon Hfe  which  every  intelligent  citizen  should  know,  but  which 
he  seldom  knows.  In  cities  the  topics  had  to  do  with  the  physics 
and  chemistry  of  life  in  the  city,  while  in  the  country  the  topics 
dealt  with  the  chemistry  and  physics  with  relation  to  agriculture. 

As  in  geography,  physics  and  chemistry  are  taught  for  a  two- 
fold purpose  —  first,  to  attain  practical  knowledge  of  the  phys- 
ical and  chemical  phenomena  of  the  world  round  Purpose  of 
about,  and  second  to  attain  the  formal  disciplinary  Subjects 
value  inherent  in  the  method  and  content  of  the  subjects.  This 
is  at  least  the  ideal  which  German  teachers  profess  to  have  in 
mind.    According  to  the  General  Regulations  of  1872, 

the  children  are  to  be  made  acquainted  with  those  phenomena  of  nature 
with  which  they  daily  come  in  contact.  In  the  several-class  Volksschtde, 
the  subject  matter  is  to  be  broadened  to  such  an  extent  that  the  most  im- 
portant principles  of  equilibrium,  motion,  sound,  light,  heat,  magnetism, 
electricity  are  taught  in  order  that  the  children  will  be  able  to  explain  the 
more  common  phenomena  of  nature  and  ordinary  machines. 

Instruction  is  to  start  with  observation,  which  is  to  be  aided  by  experi- 
ments, at  least  in  schools  with  several  classes.' 

1  Lehrplanfur  die  Burgerschulen  der  . . .  Stadt  Hannover,  Cruse,  19 13,  Hannover. 

'  General  Regulations  of  1872. 


478  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

The  method  used  in  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  Volksschule 
is  always  based  on  observation.     If  the  topic  is  the 
electric  bell,  the  teacher  always  has  an  electric  bell 
and  may  also  have  diagrams  or  charts  of  it  to  aid  in  explanation. 
Experiments  are  used  in  so  far  as  equipment  allows. 
The  teacher  as  a  rule  performs  all  experiments. 
The  Realienbuch  is  the  text.    It  is  very  seldom  used  until 
the  teacher  has  presented  the  subject  matter  and  explanation  in 
class.    The  descriptive  and  illustrative  material  in  the  book 
are  largely  a  resum6  of  that  which  the  teacher  presents.    These 
texts,  however,  are  very  helpful  to  the  children.    The  explana- 
tions are  non-technical  and  extremely  simple  with  sufficient 
illustrations  to  make  the  text  clear.    In  the  text-book  by  Kahn- 
meyer  and  Schulze,  used  in  Berhn,  out  of  a  total  of  552  pages  in 
the  science  reader,  1 10  pages  are  devoted  to  physics  and  chemis- 
try.   The  following  is  a  translation,  which  is  given  to  show  the 
character  of  the  reading  matter  in  a  modern  Realienbuch: 

Starch  and  Suoak^ 

1.  Starch.  — It  is  found  in  microscopic  form  in  those  cells  of  plants 
which  serve  as  food  depositories,  for  example,  in  the  cells  of  roots  and 
seeds.  We  obtain  starch  chiefly  from  potatoes  and  wheat.  Try  to 
dissolve  starch  in  water.  Put  some  starch  in  water  and  heat  it.  Starch 
absorbs  water  on  heating  and  swells  up  to  such  an  extent  that  a  gummy 
mass  is  formed.  To  a  dilute  starch  solution  we  add  a  solution  of  iodine ; 
it  becomes  dark  blue.  Upon  boUing  the  color  disappears,  but  reappears 
on  cooling.  Taste  sprouted  barley.  In  sprouting  of  seeds  a  ferment 
(diastase)  is  formed,  imder  the  influence  of  which  starch  is  changed  to 
sugar. 

2.  Dextrin.  We  warm  dry  starch  up  to  170-200  degrees  C,  con- 
stantly stirring.  It  becomes  yellow,  then  brown.  The  iodine  will  no 
longer  bring  out  the  blue  color.  This  substance  formed  from  starch  is 
dextrin.  Pour  water  on  the  dextrin.  The  dextrin  dissolves  and  forms 
a  sticky  mass,  which  can  be  used  as  a  glue  instead  of  gum  arable.    Dextrin 

1  Kahnmeyer  and  Schulze,  Realienbuch,  p.  539,  Berlin,  1910. 


PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY  479 

is  also  used  in  dyeing,  likewise  in  ironing.  Dextrin  is  also  formed  in 
baking.  The  heat  of  the  oven  acts  so  upon  the  outside  of  the  bread  that 
the  starch  is  changed  to  dextrin.  It  is  this  dextrin  which  holds  the 
particles  of  starch  together  in  the  form  of  a  hard  crust  which  we  notice 
on  the  top  of  the  bread.  If  we  paint  the  hot  crust  with  water,  the  dextrin 
dissolves ;  then  if  we  put  the  bread  back  in  the  oven  again,  the  crust 
becomes  very  glossy  and  smooth. 

3.  Grape  Sugar.  Notice  the  separation  of  sugar  in  raisins  and 
plums,  as  also  particles  of  sugar,  which  crystallize  out  of  honey.  Com- 
pare its  taste  to  that  of  cane  sugar.  Where  does  grape  sugar  appear? 
We  make  it  out  of  cane  sugar  or  out  of  starch.  Compare  its  taste  and 
solubility  with  that  of  cane  sugar.  A  grape  sugar  solution  is  reddened 
by  a  Fehling  solution.  Since  starch  sugar  is  a  substitute  for  honey,  it  is 
used  for  that  in  sweetening  honey  and  spice  cakes.  It  is  used  a  great 
deal  in  making  candy.  Starch  sugar  is  used  a  great  deal  for  coloring 
food  products.  For  this  purpose  sugar  colors  are  made  out  of  it.  How 
is  it  to  be  explained  that  frozen  potatoes  taste  sweet  ? 

It  is  customary  in  all  of  the  larger  cities  such  as  Berlin  and 
Stettin  to  have  a  science  reader  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  community  and  the  course  of  study.    Thus  the  ^^  .^^ 
book  just  quoted  from  was  written  to  satisfy  the  de-  Treated  in 
mands  of  the  Berlin  course  of  study.    We  shall  give  a 
list  of  the  topics  dealing  with  heat  which  are  taken  up  in  the  above 
quoted  text-book.     Each  large  subject  in  physics  and  chemistry 
is  handled  in  much  the  same  way.    The  reading  matter  is  as  a 
rule  about  as  technical  as  the  paragraphs  dealing  with  sugar. 

I.  Heat. 

A.  Effects  of  Heat. 

I.  Expansion  of  bodies  by  heal, 
(o)  Expansion  of  solid  bodies. 
(6)  Expansion  of  liquids, 
(c)  Expansion  of  gases, 
(i)  Thermometer. 

Mercurial  thermometer. 
Alcohol  thermometer, 
(e)  Irregular  expansion  of  water. 


48o  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

2.   Changes  of  Form  produced  by  Heat. 
(a)  Melting  and  freezing. 
(6)  Heat  of  fusion. 

(c)  Heat  of  solution. 

(d)  Boiling-point. 

(e)  Steam,  its  expansion. 
(/)    Condensation  of  steam. 

B.  Transmission  of  Heat. 

1.  Conduction  —  good  and  bad  conductors;  application  of  heat 

conductors. 

2.  Heat  radiation ;  character,  direction,  and  effects  of  heat  rays ; 

influence  of  the  surface  upon  radiation. 

C.  Sources  of  Heat. 

1.  The  sun. 

2.  Chemical  processes. 

3.  Mechanical  work. 

4.  Electricity. 

D.  Heat  Phenomena  in  the  Atmosphere. 

1.  Vaporization. 

2.  Humidity. 

3.  Atmospheric  precipitations. 

(a)  Dew  and  frost. 

(b)  Fog  and  clouds. 

4.  Currents  of  air. 

(a)  Origin. 

(b)  Land  and  sea  winds. 

(c)  Trade  winds. 

Many  may  oppose  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  elementary 
school.  The  Germans  hold  that  in  order  to  be  an  efficient  Ger- 
Practicai  ™^^  citizen  each  child  must  acquire  an  elementary 
Natoe  of  knowledge  of  ordinary  things.  The  child  on  leaving 
in  chemis-  school  should  know  about  the  telephone,  the  telegraph, 
*^  simple  machines,  the  chemistry  of  butter,  meat,  sanita- 

tion, and  the  like.    The  outline  of  a  course  in  chemistry  as  given  in 
a  German  school  is  given  to  show  the  practical  nature  of  the  work : 

1 .  The  air ;  oxygen ;  nitrogen ;  burning ;  oxidation ;  ores  that  are  oxides. 

2.  Water;  drinking  water;  distilled  water;  characteristics  of  water. 


PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY  481 

3.  Fire;  the  flame;  carbon;  diamond;  graphite;  oxides  of  carbon; 
soda  water ;  chemistry  of  respiration. 

4.  Heating  and  lighting.  Substances;  wood;  peat;  soft  coal; 
anthracite  coal ;  petroleum ;  illuminating  gas ;  ammonia ;  paraffin ;  car- 
bolic acid  and  other  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  gas;  carbon 
monoxide ;  lighting  devices  and  lamps. 

5.  Matches ;  sulphur ;  sulphur  diojdde ;  hydrogen  disulphide ;  phos- 
phorus; gun-powder. 

6.  Common  salt ;  sodium ;  soda ;  chlorine ;  hydrochloric  acid,  potas- 
sium and  potash  salts. 

7.  Calcium;  lime;  brick;  gypsum. 

8.  Glassware  and  pottery;  salicic  acid;  silicates;  making  of  glass; 
manufacture  of  pottery ;  glazing ;  feldspar ;  aluminium. 

g.   Coins ;  gold ;  silver ;  copper ;  nickel ;  tin ;  zinc. 

10.  Iron;  mining  and  milling  of  iron;  iron  industry  in  Berlin;  iron 
compounds. 

11.  Soils;  composition  of  the  soU ;  manures. 

12.  Sugar  and  starch;  grape  sugar;  beet  sugar;  cane  sugar;  milk 
sugar ;  malt  sugar ;  starch ;  dextrin ;  sugar  and  starch  as  foods. 

13.  Beer,  wine,  and  vinegar;  manufacture;  alcohol  and  its  abuse. 

14.  Meal  and  bread;  planting  of  grain;  grinding  of  the  meal;  bak- 
ing of  bread. 

15.  Milk,  butter,  and  cheese;  composition  of  milk;  changes  in  mUk: 
preservation  of  mUk;  nutritive  value  of  milk;  making  of  butter;  arti- 
ficial butter ;  making  of  cheese. 

16.  Fats,  soaps,  and  glycerin;  characteristics  of  fats;  manufacture 
of  soaps;  action  of  soap;  making  of  stearin  candles,  glycerin;  nitro- 
glycerin ;  nutritive  value  of  fats. 

17.  Eggs  and  meat. 

18.  Vegetables,  fruits,  and  mushrooms, 
ig.   Coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  tobacco. 

20.  Paper  and  ink ;  their  manufacture. 

21.  Leathers  and  tannery. 

22.  Dyes  and  dyeing. 

All  of  these  topics  are  taken  up  in  the  very  simplest  manner 
possible.  We  were  struck  by  the  simplicity  of  the  explana- 
tions and  the  practical  nature  of  the  illustrations  used  by  the 

teacher. 

2 1 


482  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

As  in  other  subjects  the  teacher  usually  was  the  source  of 
most  of  the  material  and  the  statements  made  concerning  what- 
ever topic  there  was  under  discussion.  Very  rarely 
tion  of  Sub-  did  the  teacher  ever  begm  by  getting  the  children  to 
ject  atter  ^^jj  what  their  experience  had  been  or  their  knowledge 
of  anything  was.  For  example,  a  teacher  was  beginning  the 
study  of  the  balances.  He  had  a  certain  type  of  balances  in 
his  hand.  His  first  statements  were,  —  "This  is  a  pair  of 
balances.  What  is  this?"  This  is  a  very  common  practice 
among  teachers  of  elementary  science.  They  do  not  give  the 
children  any  chance  at  all  to  express  what  they  have  seen. 
There  were  some  exceptions  to  this  method  of  procedure.  Ordi- 
narily the  children  repeat  what  they  are  told  to  say  and  see  only 
that  which  they  are  told  to  see.  Let  it  be  said,  however,  that 
the  teacher  always  touches  the  essential  points,  so  when  through 
the  child  does  know  something  about  what  he  has  studied. 

Practically  all  teachers  used  some  form  of  experimentation. 
Particularly  the  rural  teachers  were  very  resourceful  in  getting 
Experimen-  experimental  material  and  supplies  at  a  very  little 
tation  (,Qg^^  either  of  time  or  of  money.    The  experimentation 

in  almost  all  schools  is  carried  out  by  the  teacher ;  the  children 
merely  look  on  and  see  what  happens.  One  very  excellent 
feature  of  this  phase  of  the  work  was  the  preparation  teachers 
had  always  made  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  lesson. 
Whether  the  experiment  was  in  a  laboratory  or  in  an  ordinary 
classroom  there  was  never  a  failure  in  a  lesson  that  I  saw.  The 
material  was  always  on  hand,  and  the  whole  list  of  experiments 
went  off  like  clockwork.  Every  lesson  made  its  point,  and 
made  it  clearly  and  definitely. 

Only  the  newer  and  more  modem  schools  have  laboratories 
for  science  instruction.  Ordinarily  the  experiment  is  carried  on 
in  a  regular  classroom;  the  teacher  does  the  best  he  can  to 
make  conditions  favorable.    The  materials  are  always  kept  in 


PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY  483 

the  general  storeroom  and  are  brought  to  the  classroom  by  the 
teacher  or  by  the  pupils.  This  is  about  all  the  activity  the 
children  get  in  this  work,  except  when  they  assist  a 
little  in  the  actual  performance  of  the  experiment.  In 
the  newer  schools  one  finds  a  large  room  or  a  small  amphi- 
theater devoted  exclusively  to  science  work.  In  this  room  are 
the  chemical  and  physical  apparatus  and  suppUes;  a  lecture 
and  demonstration  table ;  water,  light,  electricity,  and  gas  con- 
nections; and  often  a  stereopticon.  This  is  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  the  old  system  of  carrying  out  the  experiments  in  the 
regular  classrooms  and  it  may  be  the  ideal  way  for  elementary 
science  work. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  movement  now  afoot  in  Germany 
which  calls  for  more  self-activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  a  few 
schools  have  put  in  laboratories  with  individual  cabi-  Laboratory 
nets  and  desks,  where,  under  the  teacher's  guidance,  Work, 
each  pupil  carries  out  his  own  experiments.  This  plan  was  used 
in  the  Arbeitsschule  at  Dortmund,  but  it  is  rarely  found  in 
Germany.  However,  it  is  permissible  for  a  teacher  to  get  up 
volunteer  classes  to  do  such  work  after  school. 

Physical  and  chemical  apparatus  is  much  cheaper  in  Ger- 
many than  in  America ;  it  is  also  much  better.  Though  it  may 
be  cheap,  many  German  teachers  with  their  pupils 
have  become  collectors  of  apparatus  and  inventors  of 
substitutes.  Ink  bottles  are  made  over  into  alcohol  lamps ;  tin 
can  lids  are  made  into  scales ;  darning  needles  are  used  as  axles ; 
fruit  cans  are  used  as  battery  jars;  cigar  boxes  for  wooden 
apparatus,  and  so  on.  Whether  the  apparatus  is  made  at  home 
or  bought,  there  is  always  enough  to  give  the  course  in  a  very 
satisfactory  way.  The  cost  of  apparatus  is  perhaps  the  strongest 
argument  against  individual  desks  in  the  laboratory  and  experi- 
mentation by  the  pupils.  It  would  cost  enormous  sums  to  fit 
up  laboratories  for  ten  million  children. 


484  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Some  teachers  hold  that  a  child  should  experiment  to  find 
out  the  laws  of  nature.  The  majority  of  German  teachers  hold 
to  the  opinion  that  experiments  by  the  pupil  can  only 
Experimen-  servc  to  Substantiate  observations  he  himself  has  made 
***'°°  and  to  better  fix  such  observations  in  the  child's  mind 

because  he  has  worked  with  the  thing,  has  seen  it,  felt  it,  and  not 
merely  heard  of  it. 

Chemistry  and  physics  are  among  the  newer  subjects  in  the 

elementary  curriculum  in   Germany.     The   teachers  say  that 

they  consider  these  two  subjects  of  very  great  impor- 

Conclusion  "'  ,    ,         ,     .  .       ,  7    .       .^   ,, 

tance  and  that  their  presence  m  the  course  is  justifiable. 
Germany  of  to-day  is  intensely  commercial,  industrial,  and 
materialistic,  even  more  so  than  America.  Physical  and  chemi- 
cal knowledge  enters  into  almost  every  phase  of  a  German's 
daily  life.  In  the  country  the  farmer  has  a  great  need  for  chemi- 
cal knowledge,  for  it  is  only  by  the  application  of  chemistry  to 
the  soil  that  Germany  has  been  able  to  produce  such  enormous 
quantities  of  foodstuffs  and  to  support  her  very  large  popula- 
tion. In  the  city  there  are  even  more  demands  for  some  use  of 
physical  and  chemical  laws  in  many  occupations  and  callings. 
Naturally  aU  of  this  knowledge  is  not  obtained  in  the  Volks- 
schulen,  but  what  the  common  day  laborer  needs  to  know  is 
acquired  in  the  period  of  school  life  before  apprenticeship.  Some 
of  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  these  subjects  are  not 
ideal  by  any  means,  but  the  fundamental  principle  that  it  is 
necessary  that  the  child  know  his  environment  is  absolutely 
sound. 

Chemistry.    Steglitz.    School  No.  5.    45  Boys.     Eighth  Grade 

Teacher:    I  have  here  in  a  bottle  some  sulphur  and  here  I  have  some  iron 

filings.    I  am  going  to  mix  them.    What  am  I  doing? 
Pupil:    You  are  mixing  sulphur  and  iron  filings. 
Teacher:    How  does  the  mixture  look ? 
Pupil:    The  mixture  looks  gray  and  yellow. 


PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY  485 

Teacher:    Here  I  have  a  magnet.    What  are  the  properties  of  a  magnet  ? 

Pupil:    A  magnet  will  attract  iron. 

Teacher:  (Performs  the  experiment  —  separating  the  sulphur  and  the  iron 
by  stirring  the  magnet  around  in  the  mixture  and  withdrawing  the 
iron  which  dings  to  the  magnet.)    What  is  the  result  ? 

Pupil:    The  iron  has  been  removed  from  the  mixture  by  means  of  a  magnet. 

Teacher:  When  I  mix  siilphur  and  iron  filings  I  get  a  mixture;  with  the 
help  of  a  magnet  I  can  extract  the  iron.    Repeat  that. 

PupU:  I  put  iron  filings  and  sulphur  together  and  I  get  a  mixture.  I  can 
at  any  time  separate  them  by  holding  a  magnet  in  the  mixture.  The 
filings  cUng  to  the  magnet  and  thus  the  mixture  is  broken  up. 

Teacher:    Very  good.    Now  I  take  a  test  tube.    What  is  it? 

Pupil:    It  is  a  test  tube. 

Teacher:  In  the  test  tube  I  put  some  of  the  mixture  of  iron  and  sulphur 
and  I  heat  it.    What  am  I  doing  ? 

Pupil:    You  are  heating  it. 

Teacher:  I  am  heating  the  mass.  Fumes  arise.  What  happens  when 
the  mixture  is  heated  ? 

Pupil:    Fumes  arise  from  the  mixture  when  it  is  heated. 

Teacher:  The  mixture  when  heated  forms  a  hard  mass.  (Breaks  the 
test  tube  and  shows  the  product  to  the  class.)    How  does  it  smeU? 

Pupil:    It  smells  very  badly. 

Teacher:  The  iron  has  united  with  the  sulphur,  forming  iron  sulfide. 
The  heat  brought  about  the  chemical  combination  and  caused  the 
compound  to  be  formed.    What  is  this  compound? 

PupU:    The  compound  is  iron  sulfide. 

Teacher:    How  was  it  made ? 

Pupil:  A  mixture  of  iron  filings  and  sulphur  was  heated  in  a  test  tube. 
The  heat  caused  the  formation  of  a  chemical  compound,  iron  sulfide. 

Teacher:    How  do  I  get  this  chemical  compound? 

Pupil:    You  get  iron  sulfide  by  heating  a  mixture  of  iron  and  sulphur. 

Teacher:  I  can't  separate  iron  and  sulphur  in  this  compound  by  means 
of  a  magnet.     Show  the  difference  between  a  mixture  and  a  compound. 

Pupil:  A  chemical  mixture  can  very  easily  be  broken  up,  while  a  com- 
pound is  more  difficult. 

Teacher:  A  compound  consists  of  several  substances  imited  in  such  a  way 
as  to  change  the  nature  of  the  substances  involved.  If  there  is  only 
one  thing  in  a  substance,  it  is  caUed  an  element.  A  mixture  does  not 
change  the  nature  of  the  substances  put  together.    Repeat  that. 


486  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:  A  compound  consists  of  several  substances  combined.  There  is 
a  change  in  the  nature  of  each  substance.  A  mixture  does  not  afEect 
the  substances  used. 

Teacher:  I  can  break  up  the  iron  sulfide  by  the  addition  of  some  hydro- 
chloric acid.  (He  performed  this  experiment,  forming  two  new  com- 
pounds, iron  chloride  and  hydrogen  sulfide.)  Almost  all  compounds 
can  be  broken  into  their  elements,  but  it  is  not  very  easy,  not  nearly 
so  easy  as  it  is  to  break  up  mixtures.  When  we  look  about  us  we  see 
two  large  classes  of  substances,  elements  and  compounds.  In  all  there 
are  87  elements.  Here  are  some.  This  is  potassiimi,  this  is  iron ;  so- 
dium, phosphorus.    What  are  these  substances? 

Pupil:    They  are  elements. 

Teacher:  These  elements  are  related  to  each  other.  When  they  unite 
they  form  compoimds.  Chalk  is  such  a  compound  —  it  is  calcium 
carbonate  —  made  up  of  calcium,  carbon,  and  oxygen.  What  is  this? 
Is  it  an  element  or  a  compound  ? 

Pupil:  That  is  a  piece  of  chalk.  It  is  a  compound.  It  contains  carbon, 
oxygen,  and  .  .  . 

Pupil:    Calciiun. 

Teacher:    This  is  sulphuric  acid.    What  is  this? 

Pupil:    That  is  sulphuric  acid. 

Teacher:  I  am  going  to  add  some  diluted  sulphuric  acid  to  some  chalk. 
The  acid  destroys  the  compound,  calcium  carbonate  or  chalk,  and 
new  compounds  are  formed.  (Performs  the  experiment.)  That  gas 
you  see  going  off  is  carbon  dioxide  and  g3^sum  remains  in  the  test  tube. 
What  have  we  learned  so  far  about  a  mixture? 

Pupil:  A  mixture  was  made  by  putting  sulphur  and  iron  filings  together 
and  then  we  separated  the  two  by  means  of  a  magnet,  the  iron  filings 
clinging  to  the  magnet.    The  substances  were  not  changed. 

Teacher:    What  is  a  compound  ?    What  did  I  use  to  make  one  ? 

Pupil:  A  mixture  of  iron  filings  and  sulphur  was  heated  and  a  new  com- 
pound, iron  sulfide,  was  formed.  Substances  used  in  making  a  com- 
pound are  changed  and  are  not  easily  separated. 

Teacher:    What  do  compounds  consist  of  ? 

Pupil:    Compounds  are  made  up  of  elements  in  chemical  combination. 

Teacher:    What  happened  to  the  chalk? 

Pupil:  By  adding  sulphuric  acid  to  the  chalk,  the  chalk  was  broken  up. 
Carbon  dioxide  passed  off  as  gas,  and  gjT)sum  was  formed. 

Pupil:    Gypsum  is  used  in  making  casts  and  statuettes. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY  487 

Teacher:    Why  must  one  work  rapidly  with  this  substance? 

Pupil:    It  becomes  hard  very  quickly. 

Teacher:  We  call  the  change  in  chalk  which  we  have  just  seen  a  chemical 
process.  In  a  chemical  process  old  compounds  are  changed  and  new 
ones  were  formed.  What  were  the  old  compounds  and  the  new  ones 
in  the  chemical  process  which  we  have  just  seen  ? 

Pupil:  The  old  compounds  were  chalk  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  new 
compounds  were  gypsum  and  carbon  dioxide. 

Teacher:  (He  took  some  clean  zinc  and  a  beaker  filled  with  water.)  I  put 
some  zinc  in  some  water.  When  zinc  is  put  in  contact  with  oxygen 
there  is  a  new  compoimd  formed  —  zinc  oxide.  When  any  metal  is 
combined  with  oxygen  an  oxide  is  formed.    What  is  formed  ? 

Pupil:    When  a  metal  combines  with  oxygen  an  oxide  is  formed. 

Teacher:  You  notice  that  the  zinc  is  already  covered  over  by  this  oxide. 
There  are  metals  and  non-metals.  Metals  generally  have  a  silver- 
like appearance  when  freshly  cut,  but  this  surface  becomes  dulled  when 
exposed  to  the  air  or  to  oxygen.  If  I  now  add  some  acid  (HCl)  to  the 
beaker  containing  the  water  and  zinc,  bubbles  begin  to  rise.  These 
bubbles  are  hydrogen  gas,  and  there  is  a  new  substance,  zinc  chloride, 
formed.    What  did  we  do  ? 

Pupil:  We  put  some  zinc  in  water  and  let  it  stand  a  while.  Then  some 
hydrochloric  acid  was  added.  New  compounds  were  formed.  Hy- 
drogen gas  was  given  off  and  zinc  chloride  was  formed. 

Teacher:  We  shaU  write  a  composition  about  the  work  this  morning  some 
day  next  week.    Now  what  did  we  do  in  this  last  experiment  ? 

Pupil:  We  put  some  zinc  in  water.  Then  we  added  some  hydrochloric 
acid. 

Teacher:    What  did  we  see? 

Pupil:  First  the  zinc  was  covered  by  a  grayish  substance,  zinc  oxide. 
Then  after  the  acid  was  added,  bubbles  of  hydrogen  gas  arose.  A  new 
substance,  zinc  chloride,  was  formed.    The  beaker  got  warm. 

Teacher:  Yes,  that  is  an  important  point.  In  every  chemical  process, 
heat  is  evolved.  What  is  a  mixture?  What  is  a  compound?  We 
shall  answer  those  questions  in  our  next  composition. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

SEWING 

Sewing  is  a  required  subject  in  all  girls'  schools  in  Germany. 
In  fact  it  is  one  of  the  very  oldest  subjects  of  instruction  in 
girls'  schools,  having  been  introduced  into  the  curric- 
ulum when  the  only  other  branches  taught  were  read- 
ing, writing,  and  singing.  It  was  made  obhgatory  in  the  Prussian 
public  Volksschulen  for  girls  in  1872,  although  it  had  been  taught 
in  a  more  or  less  systematic  way  in  the  schools  of  all  German 
states  for  centuries. 

The  purpose  of  sewing  in  the  Volksschulen  is  first  of  all  to 
teach  the  girls  how  to  prepare  those  articles  of  clothing  and  of 
general  household  use  which  are  absolutely  indispens- 
able to  every  family.  In  the  second  place  a  very 
great  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  darning,  patching,  mending, 
and  repairing  of  clothes  and  household  goods.  On  the  peda- 
gogical side  sewing  is  supposed  to  arouse  the  spirit  of  independent 
work  in  the  children  as  well  as  to  encourage  economy,  orderli- 
ness, the  sense  of  color  and  form,  and  enjoyment  of  constructive 
work.  The  reader  may  judge  how  much  the  pedagogical  phases 
of  the  subject  are  really  considered. 

In  sewing  more  than  in  some  other  subjects  the  course  of 
study  differs  greatly  according  to  the  size  of  the  school  and  the 
Course  of  number  of  classes.  The  coiurse  must  be  limited  in 
study  country  schools  or  in  many  small  town  schools  on  ac- 

count of  the  lack  of  time  and  teaching  force.    The  following  is 
about  what  one  would  find  in  an  ordinary  coimtry  school. 

488 


SEWING 


489 


Third  school  year :    Knitting,  a  pair  of  children's  stockings. 

Fourth  and  fifth  years :  Pair  of  ladies'  hose ;  making  of  heels ;  darning 
of  heels. 

Sixth  year:  Sewing  bag,  handkerchiefs  and  towels  are  hemmed;  and 
sewing  simple  aprons. 

Seventh  year :    Underwear  for  women ;  canvas  for  marking. 

Eighth  year :  Man's  shirt.  Patching,  mending,  and  darnmg  of  old  arti- 
cles of  clothing. ' 

The  course  of  study  for  the  Berlin  schools  is  given  next.  It 
covers  six  years,  beginning  with  the  third  grade. 

Class  6.  Two  hours.  Introduction  to  sewing.  The  first  sewing  exer- 
cises are  to  be  on  pieces  of  stiff  canvas  about  20  cm.  square,  with  needles 
and  red  embroidery  cotton,  No.  8.  These  exercises  include  the  running- 
stitch,  quilting-stitch,  back-stitch,  and  the  cross-stitch.  The  cross-stitch 
is  first  to  be  practiced  as  an  under-stitch  l3dng  from  left  to  right, 
then  as  a  top-stitch,  Isdng  from  right  to  left,  and  finally  as  the  finished 
cross-stitch  in  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  in  simple  patterns  or  in 
some  Latin  letters.  Beguining  knitting.  Class  work:  a  knitting  bag  of 
about  sixty  stitches  is  to  be  done  with  strong  cotton.  No.  7  or  No.  8  needle. 
Practice  of  right  and  left  stitches,  and  joining  them  together.  About  thirty 
hours  are  to  be  given  to  this  work. 

Class  5.  Two  hours.  The  knitting  is  to  be  continued  on  a  pair  of 
stockings  of  about  sixty-four  stitches.  Material :  strong,  imitation  Vigogne. 
Size  of  needle.  No.  7  or  8. 

Class  4.  Two  hours.  Sewing  on  a  practice  piece  of  cloth  about  thirty  cm. 
square,  of  linen  or  half  linen.  Rxmning  stitch;  back-stitch,  two  simple 
seams,  bound  together  by  a  whip  seam ;  three  or  four  flat  turned  seams, 
fastening  of  borders  by  broad  quilting  seams  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides 
and  by  edging  on  the  right  and  left  side ;  buttonholes ;  sewing  on  buttons 
and  hooks  and  eyes.  Also  two  letters  and  the  date  in  cross-stitch.  Knit- 
ting exercise  in  making  heels  and  a  cap. 

Class  3.  Three  hours.  A  prize  shirt  is  made  from  1.5  m.  of  linen  or 
shirting.  .  .  .  Drawing  the  pattern  and  cutting  the  pattern  in  paper 
precede  the  cutting  out  in  cloth.  The  finished  shirt  is  to  be  marked  with 
letters  done  in  cross-stitch.    Knitting,  stocking  heels  and  caps. 

Class  2.  Four  hours.  Repairing ;  patching  and  darning,  three  hours 
for  patching  and  one  hour  for  darning.  Patching  includes  inserted  patches 
and  patches  which  are  merely  laid  over  the  hole.    Patches  are  done  first 


490  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

in  white  and  figured  wash  goods,  and  then  in  plain  and  figured  woolens. 
Darning  takes  up  first  darning  of  knitted  socks.  Then  the  work  is  extended 
by  learning  to  attach  parts  of  stockings  by  means  of  the  knitting  stitch, 
and  the  knitting  in  of  heels  when  the  foot  is  entirely  separated.  Next  conies 
the  darning  of  holes  and  tears,  first  on  practice  pieces  and  then  different 
materials.  It  is  desirable  that  the  darning  be  done  on  the  patching  pre- 
viously executed. 

White  and  figured  wash  goods,  and  also  plain  and  figured 
woolens  are  used  for  the  patching ;  and  for  darning,  sock  yam, 
and  darning  yarn.  Besides  these,  the  use  of  other  common  ma- 
terials wiU  be  allowed  for  patching  and  darning. 

Class  I.  Four  hours.  Making  a  shirt  waist.  First  the  drawing  and 
cutting  of  the  pattern  in  paper,  then  in  the  material,  finally  the  sewing  of 
the  waist.    A  piece  of  wash  goods,  80  cm.  by  1.7  m.  is  to  be  used. 

Embroidery.  —  Learning  the  alphabet  in  diagonal  broad-stitch ;  scallop- 
ing. Material :  a  small  piece  of  embroidery  cloth,  only  with  letters  and 
simple  scallops.    Two  weeks  are  devoted  to  embroidery. 

Under  aU  circmnstances  it  is  distinctly  kept  in  mind  that  sewing,  em- 
broidery, and  darning,  in  brief,  the  technique  of  these  activities,  is  not  the 
main  purpose  of  the  work,  but  that  the  children  shall  learn  independently 
to  make  useful  articles  and  in  so  doing  acquire  the  technique  of  sewing. 

The  number  of  hours  given  over  to  sewing  varies  somewhat. 
From  the  third  school  year  on,  never  less  than  two  hours  are 
given  weekly,  and  the  number  of  hours  may  be,  and  frequently 
is,  as  high  as  four.  Sewing  is  begun  in  the  second  school  year 
sometimes,  but  the  practice  is  not  general. 

The  size  of  classes  varies  greatly.  The  ordinary  class  is 
between  forty-five  and  fifty-five.  This  niunber  is  plainly  too 
Size  of  large  for  one  teacher  to  handle  at  one  time.  In  order 
Classes  ^q  j^gg^-  ^jjjg  situation,  the  classes  are  usually  divided 
or  there  are  two  teachers  assigned  to  each  class.  In  actual 
practice  then  one  teacher  ordinarily  has  to  look  after  from 
twenty-two  to  twenty-seven  children.  This  number  is  fre- 
quently much  smaller. 


SEWING  491 

There  are  two  classes  of  teachers  who  give  instruction  in  sew- 
ing, those  who  are  regular  teachers  of  sewing  and  who  do  noth- 
ing else,  and  those  who  teach  sewing  in  addition  to  or 
as  a  part  of  other  regular  classroom  teaching.  The 
latter  class  is  by  far  the  more  numerous.  There  are  special 
normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  sewing  and  cook- 
ing, and  there  are  also  courses  offered  in  normal  schools 
which  prepare  teachers  for  these  branches  in  the  Volksschulen. 
Girls  .who  have  finished  a  girls'  higher  school  or  a  middle  school 
may  be  admitted  to  the  courses  to  prepare  for .  teaching 
cooking  and  sewing.  Regular  teachers  in  girls'  schools  will 
also  be  admitted  to  such  courses.  The  curriculum  which  these 
future  teachers  of  domestic  arts  pursue  includes  ^  practical  work 
in  sewing,  in  which  they  must  make  all  the  articles  which  are 
required  in  the  courses  of  study  for  girls'  schools :  machine 
sewing,  cutting  and  fitting ;  a  course  in  textiles ;  drawing,  free- 
hand and  mechanical;  pedagogy,  including  history  of  educa- 
tion, principles  of  education,  psychology,  and  methods,  special 
methods  in  teaching  sewing  with  practice  teaching ;  physiology 
and  the  hygiene  of  sewing ;  German  and  civil  government,  arith- 
metic, singing,  and  gymnasium.  Taking  such  a  course  does  not 
excuse  one  from  an  examination,  which  is  required  of  all  who 
wish  to  teach  cooking  and  sewing.  This  examination,  which 
consists  of  practical  and  written  tests,  covers  the  work  given  in 
the  outline  above. 

Class  instruction  is  used  almost  entirely  in  sewing.  There  is 
very  little  individual  instruction,  and  in  fact,  it  is  not  desired  by 
the  teachers,  unless  in  exceptional  cases.  There  are  not  class  in- 
special  sewing  rooms  as  a  rule,  the  regular  classroom  struction 
being  used  for  the  purpose.  In  some  of  the  larger  and  newer 
schools  where  sewing  machines  are  installed,  there  are  special 
rooms  for  all  manual  activities.    The  greater  part  of  the  work 

'  ZentraJblaU,  1907,  pp.  778-780. 


492 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


in  sewing  is  done  by  hand,  for  in  actual  life  the  German  home 
which  sends  its  children  to  the  Volksschule  seldom  owns  a  ma- 
chine, and  hence  it  would  be  useless  for  the  girls  to  learn  to  use 
machines  in  school. 

One  would  think  that  sewing  would  give  the  children  an 
opportunity  for  a  little  initiative  and  expression  of  individuality, 
Method  of  but  such  is  not  the  case  frequently.  The  typical 
Instruction  jnethod  of  instruction  is  as  follows :  First  of  all,  the 
teacher  shows  the  children  the  aim  of  the  lesson  by  showing 
them  the  finished  article  which  the  class  is  going  to  make.  The 
beginning  is  made  from  the  whole  garment  or  article,  and  it  is 
analyzed  into  its  component  parts.  What  the  children  have 
already  learned  is  used  in  acquiring  the  mastery  of  the  new  steps 
which  the  new  problem  sets  for  them.  The  teacher  shows  how 
the  work  is  to  be  begun  and  the  compound  activities  are  dis- 
sected into  their  simplest  operations.  The  teacher  shows  the 
children  what  she  wants  done  by  doing  it  before  them  first. 
Then  she  questions  them  as  to  what  they  have  seen  and  requires 
them  to  give  reasons  for  doing  the  work  one  way  rather  than 
another.  Frequently  the  teacher  illustrates  what  she  wants 
done  by  means  of  drawings  or  diagrams  on  the  board.  After  the 
teacher  has  finished,  some  of  the  girls  are  required  to  give  an 
explanation  of  the  whole  operation.  They  make  drawings,  too, 
if  they  are  able  to  do  so. 

Then  comes  the  actual  work,  and  its  doubtful  value  will  be 
immediately  apparent.  Practically  all  new  manual  movements 
or  activities,  such  as  learning  a  new  stitch,  are  taught  as  drills, 
the  teacher  first  calling  the  new  movements,  "In,  out,  around, 
in,  out,  around,"  and  later  by  counting  or  tapping  on  the  desk. 
This  is  kept  up  until  all  the  children  have  learned  the  process. 
This  tjT)e  of  work  is  continued  throughout  the  entire  six  years  of 
sewing,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  in  the  upper  grades  as  in  the 
lower.    To  use  the  words  of  a  German  teacher,  *'In  this  way 


SEWING  493 

equal  progress  for  all  is  made  possible."  Whatever  may  be  said 
for  or  against  rhythmic  manual  activities,  the  whole  method  is 
typically  German.  It  makes  all  of  the  children  learn  the  process, 
it  enables  them  all  to  do  the  work  reasonably  well,  it  makes 
them  all  get  through  about  the  same  time,  it  saves  the  teacher, 
and  it  makes  the  children  all  alike,  which  is  very  desirable  in  the 
German  scheme  of  things.  After  any  activity  has  been  suffi- 
ciently well  learned  as  a  group,  the  children  are  allowed  to  go 
ahead  of  their  own  accord.  Naturally,  in  spite  of  the  methods 
employed,  some  children  can  work  faster  than  others.  When- 
ever a  girl  finishes  the  class  assignment  and  has  some  time  left, 
she  is  given  extra  work  and  is  sometimes  allowed  to  choose  some 
particular  project  for  herself,  with  the  teacher's  approval.  At 
Christmas  the  children  are  allowed  to  work  on  gifts  for  their 
famihes  or  for  the  poor. 

Correction  of  work  is  carried  out  as  a  class  rather  than  indi- 
vidually, for  similar  errors  are  generally  made  by  several  in  the 
class.  At  a  given  time  the  teacher  calls  on  the  class  correction 
for  suggestions  as  to  the  method  of  correcting  the  mis-  °'  ^°* 
takes.  First,  a  child  will  give  the  correct  way  in  which  the 
work  should  be  done,  and  then  this  way  is  compared  with  the 
incorrect  way  and  the  errors  are  pointed  out.  If  at  last  one  or 
two  children  have  not  succeeded  in  doing  the  work  correctly, 
the  teacher  will  give  them  some  individual  attention. 

Discipline  in  sewing  rooms  is  always  a  rather  difficult  ques- 
tion. As  a  rule  the  children  are  permitted  to  talk  to  their 
neighbors,  but  are  never  allowed  to  leave  their  seats  pj^ .  ^^^^ 
without  permission.  Some  teachers  told  us  that  the 
rhythmic  method  in  teaching  was  a  very  great  help  in  the  mat- 
ter of  discipline.  It  takes  no  explanation  to  see  how  that  would 
be  so.  When  a  child  needs  help  from  the  teacher,  she  merely 
lays  her  work  on  her  desk,  folds  her  hands,  and  waits  until  it  is 
her  turn  to  go  to  the  teacher's  desk.    When  the  time  comes  for 


494  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  approval  of  the  children's  work,  the  teacher  passes  from 
desk  to  desk  and  inspects  the  character  of  the  finished  product. 
This  is  done  to  save  time  and  confusion.    • 

The  discipline  in  the  sewing  classes  that  we  observed  was  by 
far  the  poorest  of  all  that  we  saw  in  the  German  schools.  Prin- 
cipals of  schools  attributed  this  to  the  youth  of  some  of  the 
teachers,  to  the  character  of  the  work,  and  to  the  fact  that  many 
of  the  sewing  teachers  are  special  teachers  or  substitutes.  One 
principal  said  to  me,  "Oh,  you  can't  expect  much  in  a  discipli- 
nary way  from  women." 

The  children  always  buy  their  own  materials,  such  as  needles, 
thread,  and  cloth.  If  a  child  is  too  poor  to  buy  her  own  ma- 
.  terials,  they  are  supplied  her  by  the  community.    This 

and  Equip-  situation  arises  rarely.  The  parents  never  make  objec- 
™*°*  tion  to  the  purchase  of  sewing  materials  because  the 

things  the  girls  make  are  always  useful  articles  and  no  loss 
whatever  is  involved.  As  can  be  noted  from  the  course  .of 
study  given  above,  the  amount  of  material  and  the  niunber  of 
articles  made  are  very  conservative. 

In  some  schools  one  finds  quite  a  lot  of  illustrative  teach- 
ing material  in  the  way  of  darning,  patching,  knitting,  and 
weaving  charts,  and  model  sets  of  the  articles  commonly  made 
in  the  Volksschule.  The  use  of  the  charts  seems  to  be  quite 
general  and  with  rather  good  results.  A  darning  chart  is  gener- 
ally mounted  on  a  standard  so  that  it  can  be  seen  from  all  parts 
of  the  room.  The  material  is  heavy  white  woolen  yarn  and  a 
hole  has  been  left  in  the  goods.  The  darning  cotton  or  wool  is 
black  so  that  the  children  can  see  how  the  stitches  are  taken. 
The  other  charts  are  made  somewhat  on  the  same  plan.  Sewing 
machines  are  not  very  Common  and  are  used  only  in  the  last 
grade  of  the  school.  The  Singer  and  Diirrkopp  machines  are 
the  makes  in  commonest  use. 

There  are  two  outstanding  features  of  sewing  instruction 


SEWING  495 

which  deserve  attention.  The  first  thing  which  recommends 
itself  is  the  extreme  practical  nature  of  the  work  done  by  the  girls 
in  their  sewing  courses.  Knitting,  darning,  patching, 
making  of  stockings,  shirts,  shirtwaists,  aprons,  and  ^°°'='"^°° 
the  like  form  the  substance  of  the  course.  In  our  own  country 
too  much  of  the  time  in  sewing  is  given  over  to  making  fancy 
work  and  such  articles,  so  that  the  majority  of  parents  put  the 
whole  affair  down  as  a  fad  and  never  consider  it  as  a  serious 
subject  worthy  of  time  and  thought.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  chil- 
dren take  more  actual  delight  in  making  something  that  can  be 
used  by  them  than  they  do  in  making  miniature  garments  and 
make-believe  clothes.  It  may  seem  strange  to  Americans  why 
so  much  knitting  and  darning  is  put  in  the  course  in  German 
Volksschulen.  That  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  three 
fourths  of  the  population  of  the  country  wear  knitted  woolen 
stockings  in  the  winter  time.  Darning  and  mending  are  integral 
parts  of  the  great  German  virtue  —  economy.  Every  German 
Hausfrau  takes  her  needlework  with  her  on  every  occasion,  so 
that  no  precious  moments  go  to  waste. 

The  other  point  that  comes  to  our  attention  is  the  drill  or 
rhythmic  method  employed  in  teaching  sewing.  All  the  chil- 
dren are  kept  together.  "One,"  —  the  needle  goes  in;  "two," 
—  the  needle  goes  through;  "three,"  —  the  needle  is  out. 
Regular  progress  is  the  watchword.  Every  child  shall  do  every- 
thing in  the  same  way.  It  raises  a  pedagogical  question  which 
we  cannot  decide.  This  much  we  know,  it  is  one  of  the  processes 
in  which  we  can  most  clearly  see  how  all  Germans  are  made  to 
think  and  act  alike.  We  cannot  condemn  the  method  because 
it  does  what  is  most  desirable  from  the  German  viewpoint. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
COOKING 

Cooking  is  by  no  means  general  in  the  German  Volksschulen. 
It  is  taught  in  practically  none  of  the  rural  schools  and  in  very 
Prevalence  f^w  of  the  schools  in  the  smaller  towns  or  cities, 
in  Schools  Cooking  has  been  reserved,  until  very  recently,  for  the 
mother  to  teach  at  home.  Of  late  years  in  the  large  cities  where 
the  mothers  were  not  able  to  teach  cooking  for  economic  reasons 
it  has  become  customary  to  establish  school  kitchens,  each  of 
which  could  serve  several  schools.  In  *  all  Prussia  there  are 
(1913)  38,684  schools,  and  of  this  number  1779  have  special 
equipment  for  teaching  cooking  and  general  housework.  Of 
the  33,559  schools  in  the  country  only  404  are  provided  with 
instruction  in  cooking,  while  of  the  5125  city  schools  1375  are 
equipped  for  cooking.  Seven  hundred  seventy-five  of  the 
city  schools  equipped  for  cooking  are  found  in  the  1747  schools 
of  Prussia's  thirty-three  largest  cities.  It  can  readily  be  seen 
that  there  is  still  room  for  wide  development  along  this  line. 

We  give  below  the  complete  course  of  study  in  cooking  for  a 
Course  of  ^^'^  ^^  ^^^^  hundred  thousand  population.  It  in- 
study  eludes  both  technical  and  practical  work. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  this  course  is  for  girls  from  homes 

whose  incomes  seldom  exceed  five  or  six  hundred  dollars  a  year. 

„.    .^  The    above   course  may  not  include   many  dishes 

Significance       t  •  1 

which  sound  very  appetizing,  especially  in  some  of 

their  combinations,  but  they  are  the  things  the  common  people 

live  on.    American  household  economists  can  do  well  if  they 

'  SchulstatisUsche  Blatter,  January,  1913. 

496 


COOKING 


497 


learn  this  one  lesson  in  making  courses  of  study:  to  teach  the 
girls  to  prepare  the  dishes  which  they  will  sometime  need  to 
know  how  to  prepare.  One  observes  very  few  fancy  dishes  in 
this  course  of  study;  one  sees  no  charlotte  russe,  one  sees  no 
lady  fingers,  one  finds  no  macaroons. 


No. 

Theory 

Practice 

Special  Work 

I. 

Introduction. 

Milk  soup. 

2. 

The  stove  and  fire- 

Potato    soup    and    meat 

making. 

balls. 

3- 

Food  elements. 

Chopped      meat      with 
herring  sauce  and  po- 
tatoes. 

4- 

Meat. 

Roast    pork    and   boiled 
potatoes. 

Scouring  wooden-ware. 

S- 

Eggs. 

Pancakes  and  rhubarb. 

Packing  of  eggs. 

6. 

Milk. 

Creamed    potatoes    and 
liver. 

7- 

Laundry     I.    Soak- 
ing, washing,  drying. 

Meat  soup. 

Washmg  the  tea  towels. 

8. 

Laundry     II.    Lay- 
ing, rolling,  ironing. 

Rice  with  raisins. 

Kitchen  laundry. 

9- 

Fruit. 

Fruit    soup    with    bran 
dumpling. 

10. 

Review:  Egg. 

Spinach,      boiled      eggs, 
boiled  potatoes. 

Cleaning  brooms. 

II. 

Vegetables  I. 

Turnips  and  potatoes  with 
pork. 

12. 

Potatoes. 

Potatoes,     parsley,    and 

Scouring    of    pans    and 

sausage. 

kettles. 

13- 

Beverages. 

Oat-cocoa. 

Cleaning  of  spice-boxes. 

14. 

Preserving  fruit. 

Pudding  and  fruit. 

Preserving  pickles. 

IS- 

Vegetables  II. 

Cabbage  with  mutton  and 
potatoes. 

Preserving  of  beans. 

16. 

Milk.    Review. 

Bran     gruel    and    fruit 
sauce. 

Cleaning  of  pantry. 

17- 

Grains  I. 

Corn-meal  cakes  and  apple 
sauce. 

18. 

Grains  11. 

Hulled  barley  and  plums. 

Cleaning  of  cellar. 

19. 

Review:  Laundry. 

Green  beans  with  bacon 
and  onions  and  potatoes. 

Kitchen  laundry. 

20. 

Review:  Meat. 

Goulash  and  mashed  po- 
tatoes. 

498 


PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


No. 

Theory 

Practice 

Special  Work 

21. 

The  oven. 

Apple  and  rice  pudding. 

Ironing. 

22. 

Leguminous  plants. 

Lentil  soup  and  sausage. 

Cleaning  of  granite-ware. 

23- 

Brewing. 

Meat  soup. 

Preserving  of  fruit. 

24. 

Fish. 

Smothered    perch,    mus- 
tard sauce,  potatoes. 

25- 

Bread-baking. 

Bread,  bread  soup. 

26. 

Food  for  invalids. 

Oatmeal,  Irish  stew. 

Scouring  pans. 

27. 

Butter  and  cheese. 

Peas-porridge   soup   with 

Cleaning  of  brooms  and 

bread-crumbs. 

brushes. 

28. 

Review:  Potatoes. 

Baked  potatoes,  fruit. 

29. 

Beets,  radishes,  tur- 

Fricasseed fish,      potato 

Scouring  of  the  floor. 

nips. 

salad. 

3°- 

Baking. 

Christmas    cakes,    malt, 
coffee. 

31- 

Water. 

Bran  soup,  sour  potatoes, 
smothered  veal. 

32- 

Clothing  and  Cleans- 

Potatoes  with  herring. 

Scouring  of  tables. 

33- 

1 

mg. 
Review:  Vegetables. 

French  turnips  with  beef 
and  potatoes. 

Cleaning  the  stove. 

34- 

The  calf ;  inner  parts. 

Lung    soup    and   boiled 

Scouring  and  scrubbing  the 

potatoes. 

kitchen. 

35- 

Sugar. 

Bread     dumplings     and 
baked  fruit. 

36. 

Review :  Fish. 

Baked   herring   and    po- 
tato soup. 

37- 

The  fats. 

Beefsteak     and     potato 
salad. 

Cleaning  of  cupboards. 

38. 

Review:  Fruit. 

Potato  balls,  fruit. 

39- 

Bookkeeping. 

Fish  cutlets,  rice  soup. 

Cleaning  of  cellar. 

40. 

Cleaning  of  kitchen. 

Roast  pork,  macaroni. 

Thorough      cleaning     of 
kitchen. 

The  first  glance  at  the  course  shows  several  things.  First  of 
all,  cleanliness  stands  forth  prominently  as  a  feature  of  the  work. 
Scour,  clean,  scrub  are  the  watchwords.  Second  in  prominence, 
the  word  potato,  Germany's  chief  means  of  sustenance  as  far 
as  the  lower  classes  are  concerned.  The  potato  culture  was  in- 
troduced into  Germany  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  the  same 
time  that  he  introduced  the  sugar  beet.    This  one  deed  alone 


COOKING  499 

was  sufficient  to  make  him  a  great  ruler.  One  often  stops  to 
wonder  what  the  German  masses  would  eat  if  they  did  not  have 
potatoes.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  cooking  of  potatoes  and 
vegetables  of  all  sorts  is  given  much  more  attention  in  the 
Volksschulen  than  the  cooking  of  meats  because  the  poorer 
classes  have  meat  rather  rarely. 

In  some  schools  the  course  in  cooking  is  two  years,  while  in 
others  it  is  only  one  year.  Ordinarily  three  hours  a  week  are 
devoted  to  it,  but  in  quite  a  number  of  places  only  two  Length  of 
hours  a  week  are  used.  However,  the  hours  are  bourse 
always  run  together  so  that  the  girls  will  have  a  period  of  suffi- 
cient length  in  which  to  do  acceptable  work.  The  afternoon  is 
frequently  chosen  as  the  time,  since  it  in  no  way  interferes  with 
the  regular  school  program. 

The  normal  nimaber  in  a  class  in  cooking  is  twenty-four. 
Sometimes  the  number  is  smaller  than  this,  but  we  size  of 
have  never  seen  a  larger  class.    This  number  is  Usually  '^•^^ses 
about  the  nrnnber  of  girls  that  one  would  find  in  a  regular  eighth 
grade. 

The  kitchens  are  always  large  and  fully,  though  not  expensively, 
equipped.  There  are  generally  six  stoves,  three  gas  stoves  and 
three  coal  stoves,  in  each  kitchen.  Coal  is  used  very  Equipment 
extensively  in  Germany  for  cooking.  Each  stove  ordi-  °*  Kitchens 
narily  has  four  burners  or  lids.  There  are  six  flat-topped  tables, 
one  for  each  group  of  girls,  since  the  class  is  divided  into 
six  groups  of  four.  There  are  four  stools  at  each  table.  This 
equipment  occupies  the  middle  of  the  room.  The  teacher's 
desk  is  at  one  end  of  the  room,  while  the  sinks  and  wash  basins 
are  at  the  other,  as  are  also  the  general  stores  and  supplies. 
Against  the  wall  on  the  sides  of  the  room  near  the  stoves  are 
cabinets,  one  for  each  group  of  girls. 

The  equipment  in  each  cabinet  was  as  follows :    i  salt  box, 
I  meal  box,  2  large  graters,  i  lemon  squeezer,  2  small  graters. 


SOO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

1  salt  shaker,  i  pepper  shaker,  i  large  bread  board,  i  small 
bread  board,  i  meat  hacker,  i  oil  cloth,  i  pudding  mold,  i  granite 

serving  dish,  6  dinner  plates,  6  soup  plates,  6  salad 

Cabinets  ,  *  '  .     ,        ^  \      ,   ^  -ii        v  i. 

plates,  I  water  pitcher,  i  meat  plate,  i  milk  pitcheri 

2  bowls,  I  pancake  platter,  2  glasses,  i  gravy  dish,  i  soup  tureen, 
6  cups  and  saucers,  6  granite-ware  plates,  4  granite-ware  cups, 

1  liter  measure,  6  knives,  6  forks,  6  teaspoons,  6  soup  spoons, 
4  kitchen  knives,  i  water  boiler,  i  potato  boiler,  4  baking  dishes, 

2  stew  pans,  2  skillets,  2  bakers,  2  large  coUanders,  i  soup  strainer, 
I  coffee  strainer,  i  coffee  pot,  2  iron  spoons,  4  wooden  spoons, 
I  box  of  metal  polish,  poHshing  boards,  towels. 

The  theory  and  practice  in  cooking  are  very  closely  related. 
Ordinarily  the  theoretical  part  of  the  work  immediately  precedes 
the  practical  work.  The  first  part  of  the  cooking 
period  is  devoted  to  discussions  and  instructions,  while 
the  rest  of  the  time  is  taken  up  with  cooking  itself.  A  great  deal 
of  time  is  saved  for  actual  practice  by  taking  advantage  of  all 
possible  correlations  existing  between  cooking  and  the  other 
subjects  in  the  course.  For  example,  the  food  elements,  the 
vegetables,  fruit,  meat,  grains,  fish,  are  all  studied  in  botany 
and  zoology.  Water,  sugar,  fire,  coal,  gas,  baking  are  all  treated 
rather  fully  in  physics  and  chemistry.  These  topics  barely  re- 
quire more  than  a  short  review  in  the  cooking  period.  At  the 
same  time,  because  these  topics  are  used  in  the  cooking  class,  a 
motive  is  furnished  for  learning  or  studying  them  in  the  science 
classes.  Such  theoretical  work  as  is  given  is  very  simple  and 
direct.  The  children  are  not  required  to  learn  any  chemical 
formulae  or  to  calculate  the  number  of  calories  or  heat  units  in 
this  or  that  particular  article  of  food.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
discussion  about  how  to  keep  food  clean,  desirable  combinations 
of  food,  economy  in  buying,  keeping  of  household  accounts,  and 
topics  of  this  kind. 

Very  definite  instructions  always  precede  the  practical  work. 


COOKING 


SOI 


Reasons  for  doing  the  work  one  way  rather  than  another  are 
always  given.    The  teacher  gives  the  instructions  slowly,  an- 
swers questions  now  and  then,  while  the  girls  write  in  Practical 
their  notebooks.    Frequently  the  teacher  gives  only  ^°'^^ 
the  first  part  of  the  directions,  and  after  that  has  been  done,  or, 
if  possible,  while  it  is  being  done,  gives  the  rest  of  the  instructions. 

The  girls  work  together  in  groups,  as  a  rule,  for  very  few 
kitchens  have  individual  equipment.  The  Germans  believe  that 
it  is  almost  as  valuable  to  work  in  groups  as  it  is  to  work  in- 
dividually, that  it  frequently  prevents  errors  in  carrying  out 
instructions,  and  that  it  saves  time.  The  one  fact  that  is  es- 
tablished is  that  it  saves  a  very  great  deal  of  money. 

The  girls  seem  to  enjoy  this  kind  of  work  more  than  any 
other  which  they  are  called  upon  to  do.  Outside  of  the  sewing 
and  gymnasium  classes  it  is  the  only  opportunity  that 
they  have  to  express  themselves  and  show  any  indi- 
viduality whatever.  They  are  more  at  their  ease  and  really 
seem  to  have  a  good  time.  As  far  as  the  educative  value  of 
the  subject  is  concerned,  it  is  preeminently  ahead  of  almost 
all  other  subjects.  First,  it  gives  the  child  a  type  of  knowledge 
which  is  immediately  useful  because  most  of  the  girls  help  in 
such  work  at  home.  Secondly,  the  problems  they  are  called 
upon  to  solve  in  planning  a  meal  at  school,  or  some  other  similar 
project,  require  a  longer  thought  process,  a  process  with  more 
steps  in  it,  than  any  other  subject,  not  excluding  even  arith- 
metic and  physics. 

Outside  of  the  actual  cooking  the  girls  receive  a  great  deal 
of  instruction  and  some  practice  in  general  housework,  which 
consists  mostly  of  learning  how  to  keep  everything  Housekeep- 
around  the  house  clean,  particularly  the  cooking  ""eWork 
utensils.  The  girls  also  learn  how  to  wash,  dry,  a,nd  iron  clothes. 
Several  teachers  told  me  that  they  considered  the  part  of  the 
work  which  had  to  do  with  cleaning  more  important  than  the 


502  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

actual  cooking.  No  girl  leaves  the  Volksschule  where  house- 
keeping is  taught  who  does  not  know  what  water,  soap,  and  scour- 
ing brushes  can  do  for  dirt,  and  she  has  learned  it  through  ex- 
perience.    Cleanliness  is  one  of  the  German's  greatest  virtues. 

Another  feature  of  the  cooking  instruction  is  that  the  girls 
are  always  required  to  prepare  meals  rather  than  individual 
dishes.  They  are  required  to  prepare  food  in  quantities  large 
enough  for  the  average  family  in  the  average  length  of  time, 
and  to  have  it  all  ready  at  once.  In  our  American  schools  the 
girls  are  taught  too  often  to  prepare  one  thing  without  any  regard 
to  any  other  element  involved  in  feeding  a  hungry  family  punc- 
tually and  sufficiently. 

Another  lesson  which  the  teachers  strive  to  teach  is  that 
of  economy.  The  girls  in  their  cooking  classes  take  the  actual 
incomes  of  their  own  homes  and  cook  accordingly.  The 
incomes  of  German  homes  of  the  lower  class  are  small  and  the 
problem  confronting  the  housewife  is  how  to  prepare  a  meal  for 
four  for  about  thirty  cents.  This  is  the  problem  the  children 
in  the  schools  have  to  solve.  To  do  this  the  girls  are  required  to 
plan  meals,  to  do  the  bu3dng,  and  all  the  rest.  They  take  a 
family  of  a  certain  size,  they  take  a  normal  income,  and  divide 
it  up  among  the  different  things  for  which  money  must  be  spent, 
such  as  food,  rent,  clothing,  savings,  and  the  like.  Their  expenses 
for  food  must  be  within  the  limits  of  the  apportionment  for 
that  item.  This  is  excellent  practice  for  the  girls  in  bujdng, 
planning,  and  in  bookkeeping.  It  is  the  only  way  of  teaching 
economy,  if  it  can  be  done.  Economy  is  another  great  virtue  of 
German  character. 

Cooking.    Class  I.    Girls,  Age  13-14.    Steglitz.    Berlin 

After  the  girls  had  put  on  water  to  boU  the  teacher  gave  them  the  direc- 
tions. 

Teacher:    To-day  we  are  going  to  cook  shell-fish,  with  mustard  dressing 
and  boiled  potatoes.    What  are  we  going  to  do? 


COOKING  503 

Pupil:    We  are  going  to  cook  shell-fish,  with  mustard  dressing  and  boiled 

potatoes. 
Teacher:    Where  do  we  get  this  fish  ? 
Pupil:    We  get  shell-fish  from  the  North  Sea. 
Teacher:    There  are  salt-water  fish  and  fresh-water  fish.     The  shell-fish 

is  a  salt-water  fish.    Describe  this  fish. 
Pupil:    The  fish  is  medium  in  size;  it  has  black  stripes  on  both  sides  of 

the  back  and  it  has  a  large  head. 
Teacher:    Do  you  see  anything  special,  any  distinguishing  sign? 
Pupil:    Yes,  there  are  black  spots  on  both  sides. 
Teacher:    How  can  you  teU  a  shell-fish ? 
Pupil:    A  sheU-fish  always  has  those  black  spots  on  the  sides. 
Teacher:    A  good  fish,  one  that  is  not  spoiled,  must  have  red,  shiny  giUs. 

The  eyes  must  be  good.    It  must  smell  fresh.    The  flesh  must  be  elastic, 

so  that  when  I  press  my  finger  into  the  fish  the  mark  will  soon  disappear. 

Repeat  that. 
Pupil:    A  good  fish  must  have  red,  shiny  gUls,  a  good  odor,  and  the  flesh 

must  be  elastic. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  again. 
Pupil:    A  good  fish  must  have  red,  shiny  giUs,  a  good  odor,  and  the  flesh 

must  be  elastic. 
Teacher:    Repeat  that  again  together. 
Pupils:    A  good  fish  must  have  red,  shiny  gills,  a  good  odor,  and  the  flesh 

must  be  elastic. 
Teacher:    What  does  sea-fish  cost  ? 
Pupil:    Sea-fish  costs  from  40  to  50  Pfennige  a  pound. 
Teacher:    Meat  costs  more  than  fish.    One  fourth  of  a  pound  of  meat  is 

required  for  each  person,  while  one  half  a  pound  of  fish  is  required  for 

each  person.    One  fourth  of  a  povmd  of  meat  costs  35  to  40  Pfennige, 

while  a  half  pound  of  fish  costs  but  20  to  25  Pfennige.    Which  is  the 

cheaper  ? 
Pupil:    Fish  is  the  cheaper. 
Teacher:    3oth  fish  and  veal  are  very  digestible.    There  is  albumen  in  fish. 

It  is  easily  digested  and  very  nutritive.    What  can  we  say  of  fish? 
Pupil:    Fish  contains  albumen.    Fish  is  very  easily  digested  and  is  very 

nutritive. 
Teacher:    What  are  the  advantages  of  fish  as  a  food? 
Pupil:    Fish  is  cheap,  digestible,  and  nutritive. 
Teacher:    How  are  fish  brought  to  Berlin  ? 


504  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Pupil:  They  are  brought  here  in  refrigerator  cars,  which  are  lined  with 
wood  and  tin. 

Teacher:    From  where  do  we  get  fish  ? 

Pupil:    We  get  fish  from  Bremerhaven  and  Cuxhaven. 

Teacher:  We  shall  now  scale  the  fish.  Where  do  we  begin  to  scale  the 
fish? 

Pupil:  We  should  begin  at  the  tail  and  on  the  sides  with  a  short,  sharp 
knife. 

Teacher:  Next  we  remove  the  gills  and  cut  oflf  the  head.  (Teacher  pro- 
ceeds with  the  work,  the  children  do  not  do  their  work  until  later.) 
There  are  four  very  important  things  to  learn  in  cooking  fish.  They 
all  begin  with  the  letter  "s"  (in  German).  They  are  clean  {sduhern), 
salt  (salzen),  sour  with  vinegar  (sduren),  let  stand  {stehen  lasseri). 
What  are  the  four  things  to  learn? 

Pupil:    Clean,  salt,  sour,  and  let  stand. 

Teacher:  After  that  is  done  we  cook  the  fish.  If  we  cook  the  whole  fish 
we  must  begin  with  tepid  or  warm  water,  so  the  outside  will  not  cook  too 
soon  and  fall  apart.  If  we  cut  the  fish  up  we  may  use  boiling  water  at 
once.    How  do  you  know  when  the  fish  is  done  ? 

Pupil:    The  meat  gets  white  and  the  bones  come  out  easily. 

Teacher:    Now  let's  calculate  the  cost  of  the  meal. 
The  following  table  was  put  on  the  board: 

J  lb.  fish 75  Mark 

Salt,  pepper,  vinegar oi  Mark 

SO  gr.  butter 08  Mark 

75  gr.  meal ^03  Mark 

.87  Mark 
Seasoning  for  sauce  poured  over  fish  ...  .03  Mark 
I  kg.  potatoes ^  Mark 

.96  Mark  — Total 

Teacher:  After  the  head  has  been  cut  off,  remove  the  entrails  and  wash 
thoroughly.  Then  put  the  fish  in  a  hter  of  cold  water  and  cook  after 
you  have  cut  it  up.  Add  to  it  some  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar.  When 
it  is  done  let  it  stand  for  a  couple  of  hours.  Half  an  hour  before  meal- 
time make  the  mustard  dressing  with  cold  water,  fish  broth,  meal, 
mustard,  and  onions  and  cook  for  15  minutes.  Finally  take  some  of 
the  fish,  cook  in  boiling  water  for  two  or  three  minutes  and  then  serve 
with  the  mustard  sauce.    You  know  how  to  boil  potatoes. 


COOKING  SOS 

The  girls  carried  out  the  instructions  without  any  failures 
and  served  a  very  nice  little  meal,  to  which  we  were  invited. 
After  the  meal  was  over,  great  care  and  attention  were  given  to 
cleaning  the  dishes  and  replacing  them.  We  do  not  vouch  for 
the  accuracy  of  the  above  recipe,  for  in  taking  notes  on  this 
lesson  we  were  somewhat  lost  as  to  the  technical  terms  used. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SINGING 

Two  hours  each  week  are  given  over  to  singing  in  all  classes 
of  the  Volksschulen  except  in  the  first  two  years,  where  it  receives 
only  one  hour  a  week,  or  two  half-hour  periods  in  connection 
with  games  and  plays  in  physical  training. 

The  course  of  study  in  music  in  the  Berlin  schools  is  given  ia 
this  chapter  and  it  indicates  the  number  and  names  of  the  songs, 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  musical  theory  which  is  required.  There 
is  really  very  little  emphasis  laid  upon  the  technical  side  of 
music.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  time  is  given  to  learning 
songs  and  singing  them. 

Each  German  teacher  must  be  able  to  sing.    There  are  only 

a  few  who  cannot  play  the  violin  with  more  or  less  ability,  for 

this  instrument  is  ordinarily  used  for  the  accompani- 

Teachers 

ment.  Many  of  the  rural  teachers  can  play  the 
organ,  since  they  are  not  only  the  school-teachers  but  also  the 
church  organists.  The  organ  is  used  in  some  schools ;  the  piano 
is  rarely  found  in  the  Volksschulen.  In  the  larger  cities  many 
schools  have  special  teachers  for  music,  as  is  the  custom  in  Amer- 
ica. In  such  cases  the  regular  class  teachers  have  no  music 
whatever  to  teach.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the  better 
results  are  obtained  under  special  teachers.  Special  teachers 
have  to  take  a  definite  course  in  preparation  at  the  normal 
schools  and  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  before  being 
certified  as  music  teachers. 

Our  criticism  of  the  music  teaching  will  not  concern  itself 
much  with  the  method,  but  restrict  itself  to  the  rather  obvious 

506 


SINGING  507 

educative  influence  exerted  by  the  subject.  There  are  two 
obvious  effects  of  the  music  instruction  —  to  the  children  it 
means  recreation  and  enjoyment,  and  iacrease  in  patriotic  and 
religious  fervor.  Every  child  must  sing  whether  he  has  a  good 
voice  or  not.  In  the  end  every  child  wants  to  sing  and  with  all 
the  fervor  of  his  soul.  At  least  they  want  to  sing  for  visitors. 
The  teachers  invariably  allow  the  children  to  choose  some  of  the 
songs.  We  personally  had  heard  DeutscMand,  Deutschland 
iiber  alles  eighty-five  times  in  different  classes  before  we  stopped 
counting.  Music,  which  means  singing  in  the  Volksschule,  is  a 
very  valuable  support  to  the  work  in  history  and  religion  as 
they  affect  the  child's  patriotic  ardor. 

The  songs  are  always  committed  to  memory  thoroughly  before 
the  singing  is  begun.  The  religious  songs  are  learned  in  the 
religion  hour,  and  frequently  some  of  the  secular  songs  are 
learned  as  literature  in  the  German  or  in  the  history  period. 
These  four  subjects  are  very  closely  correlated  as  far  as  the  con- 
tent of  the  songs  is  concerned.  In  order  to  secure  the  proper 
expression  the  meaning  of  each  song  is  clear  before  it  is  sung. 
The  class  then  recites  the  words  of  the  song  in  unison.  The 
teacher  sings  the  song  first,  a  stanza  at  a  time,  and  then  the  class 
sings  it  with  him,  over  and  over  until  it  is  learned. 

I  had  visited  a  girls'  school  in  Bredow  (Pomerania)  for  several 
days  and  had  made  friends  with  a  number  of  the  children.  They 
were  accustomed  to  invite  visitors  to  hear  classes  which  they 
enjoyed  especially,  and  on  my  last  day  there,  the  girls  in  the 
upper  classes  asked  me  to  come  to  hear  them  sing.  This  school 
had  a  regular  music  teacher,  who  was  full  of  fire  and  vim.  There 
were  in  all  about  eighty  girls  in  the  combined  classes.  The 
teacher  talked  for  a  short  time  about  a  new  scale  they  had  been 
studying  and  when  that  was  through  he  began  with  the  songs. 
He  said  he  always  allowed  the  girls  to  choose  all  their  songs  — 
any  that  they  had  learned.    The  girls  were  as  happy  as  could  be, 


5o8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  sang  to  their  hearts'  content.  Not  getting  enough  response, 
the  teacher  mounted  his  table,  the  violin  in  one  hand  and  the 
bow  in  the  other,  and  I  have  never  seen  so  much  enthusiasm  in 
any  class  in  my  hfe.  After  they  had  sung  several  songs,  one 
little  girl  put  up  her  hand  and  asked,  "May  I  sing  a  song  for  the 
gentleman?"  On  receiving  permission,  she  gave  as  beautiful 
a  rendition  of  Stille  Nacht,  heilige  Nacht  as  I  ever  have  heard. 

We  cite  this  instance  only  to  illustrate  what  happened  in 
almost  every  school.  One  began  to  feel  the  latent  enthusiasm 
and  patriotic  and  rehgious  fervor  of  the  Germans,  more  strong 
in  the  girls  even  than  in  the  boys. 

The  important  lesson  to  be  learned  from  the  music  of  the 
Volksschulen  is  the  influence  singing  may  "have  upon  the  char- 
acter and  patriotism  of  the  children.  We  can  welcome  the  day 
when  it  will  be  impossible  for  a  teacher  who  cannot  lead  the  chil- 
dren in  singing  to  secure  a  position  in  our  elementary  grades. 

SINGING 

Class  8:  i  Hodk 

First  attempts  to  sing,  awakening  of  the  musical  and  rhythmical  feeling. 

In  connection  with  the  object  lessons,  folk-songs  and  game-songs  which 
have  been  used  as  language  exercises  are  to  be  sung,  being  first  spoken 
by  the  teacher,  then  by  the  pupils;  then  they  are  recited  in  musical 
rhythm,  finally  sung  or  played  by  the  teacher  and  then  sung  by  the  pupils. 

Also  in  a  Kke  manner,  church  songs  and  their  melodies,  together  with 
drill  in  position  of  the  body  and  the  mouth. 

CHURCH  SONGS 
Ach,  hleib'  mil  deiner  Gnade. 

FOLK-SONGS 
Kuckuck. 

Schlaf,  mein  Kind. 
Fuchs,  du  hast  die  Gans  geslohlen. 
Morgen,  Kinder,  wird's  was  geben. 


SINGING  509 

Class  7:  i  Hour 

Singing  from  music  without  key  or  signature. 
Text :  Numerical  notation  and  suitable  syllables. 

1.  Pointing  out  and  naming  of  the  lines  and  spaces  by  the  children. 

2.  Singing  the  scale  up  and  down. 

The  fundamental  tone  is  to  be  written  on  the  first  line  below  the  staff 
and  to  be  intoned  in  a  moderate,  suitable  pitch. 

3.  Quarter  notes  and  quarter  rest.  J  time,  beating  time,  bar,  double- 
bar,  f  time,  half  note,  and  half  rest.  Whole  note  and  whole  rest. 
I  time,  rest,  and  repeat. 

4.  Singing  of  small  groups  of  notes,  in  sequence  up  and  down,  which 
always  return  to  the  fundamental  tone. 

5.  Accented  syllables.    Loud  and  soft. 

6.  Repetition  of  the  work  of  Class  8. 

CHURCH  SONGS 

Mir  nock,  spricht  Christus. 
Vom  Himmel  hoch. 

FOLK-SONGS 

Der  Mond  ist  aufgegangen  (st.  1,  2). 

Alle  Jahre  wieder. 

Die  Ahendglocke  schallet. 

Vogel  singen  (st.  i,  2,  4)  (|  time). 

Class  6:  2  Hours 

Familiarization  with  the  major  key. 
Extension  of  range  down  to  A  and  up  to  F. 

1.  The  key  of  G,  C-major  scale.  Naming  and  singing  of  particular 
sequences  by  the  German  name,  c,  d,  e,  etc.  Position  of  the  half  steps 
from  3  to  4  and  from  7  to  8. 

2.  Triad  on  the  first  interval  with  reversions.  Major  thirds  and 
minor  thirds. 

3.  Eighth  notes  and  eighth  rest.    Dotted  half  note.    |  time. 

4.  Regulation  of  breathing.  Inhalation.  Holding  of  the  breath. 
Exhaling. 


5IO  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

CHURCH   SONGS 

Lobt  Goit,  ihr  Christen. 
Wach,  auf,  mein  Herz. 
Jesu,  gek'  voran. 

FOLK-SONGS 

O  Tvie  es  ist  kalt  geworden  (f  time). 

Ihr  Kinderlein,  kommet  (st.  2,  Da  liegt  es,  ach  Kinder;  st.  3,  So  nimm). 

Alles  neu  macht  der  Mai  (st.  i). 

Wer  hat  die  schonsten  Schdjchen. 

Class  5:  2  Hours 

Extension  of  the  range  down  to  lower  A  and  up  to  G. 

1.  Formation  of  G-major  scale.    Sharp  #. 

Removal  of  the  sharp  by  a  natural.  The  triad  and  the  first  and  fifth 
intervals. 

2.  Sharping  of  F  to  F(t.  Distinguishing  the  half  tone  FS-G  from 
the  whole  tone  F-G,  the  half  tone  E-F  from  the  whole  tone  E-Fj,  up 
and  down. 

3.  Dotted  quarter  notes.    |  time,  |  time. 

4.  Slur. 

Beginning  of  two-part  singing. 

CHURCH   SONGS 

Nun  ruhen  alle  Walder. 
Liebster  Jesu,  wir  si/nd  hier. 
Lobe  den  Herren. 
Gott  des  Himmels  und  der  Erden. 
Freu'  dich  sehr. 

FOLK-SONGS 

Heil  dir  im  Siegerkranz. 

Ich  halt'  einen  Kameraden  (two  parts). 

0  du  froMiche  (two  parts). 

Komm,  lieber  Mai. 

Jung  Siegfried. 


SINGING  511 

Class  4:  2  Hours 

Range  from  lower  G  to  upper  G. 

1.  Formation  of  F-major  scale.    Flat  t?. 

Removal  of  the  flat  by  a  natural.    Distinguishing  A-Bt?  from  A-B, 
B-C  from  BlT-C,  up  and  down. 

2.  Combination  into  cadences  of  the  first,  fourth,  and  fifth  triads  of 
C,  G,  and  F-major. 

3.  Sixteenth  note  and  sixteenth  rest.    Dotted  eighth. 

4.  Practice  in  crescendo  and  decrescendo. 


CHURCH   SONGS 

Nun  danket  alle  Gott. 

Herr  Jesu  Christ,  dich  zu  uns  wend '. 

Mein  erst  GefUU. 

Wie  soil  ich  dich  empfangen.    ■ 

O  Haupt  voll  Blut  und  Wunden. 

FOLK-SONGS 

Deuischland,  Deuischland  iiber  alles  (imison.) 

Ich  hdbe  mich  ergehen  (two  parts). 

So  nimm  denn  (two  parts). 

Nachtigall,  Nachtigall  (two  parts). 

Wo  frag'  ich  viel  nach  Geld  und  Gut  (two  parts). 


Class  3 :  2  Houns 

1.  (a)  D-majorscale-C.    Removal  of  Cjt  by  a  natural.    Distinguish- 
ing Cj-D  from  C-D. 

(6)  B-major  scale.    E  flat.    Removal  of  the  flat  by  a  natural. 
Distinguishing  the  whole  and  half  tones  as  in  i,  o. 

2.  Chief  triads  of  D-major  and  B-major  with  their  reversions.    Form- 
ing of  cadences  in  B-major  and  D-major. 

3.  Use  of  t  and  f  before  other  fundamental  tones  (marks  of  trans- 
position). 

4.  Practice  of  fourths  and  fifths. 
Beginning  of  three-part  singing. 


SI  2  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

CHURCH   SONGS 

0  heiliger  Geist. 

O  dass  ich  tausend  Zungen  hUtte. 

Dir,  dir,  Jehova,  wUl  ich  singen. 

Wachet  auf,  rufi  uns  die  Stimme. 

Jesus,  meine  Zuversicht. 

Ein'  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Goti. 

FOLK-SONGS 

Ich  Weiss  nicht,  was  soil  es  hedeuten  (two  parts). 

Es  brausi  ein  Rufwie  Donnerhall  (one  part). 

Das  Wandern  ist  (two  parts). 

Der  Mai  ist  gekommen  (three  parts). 

StUle  Nacht,  heilige  Nacht  (three  parts). 

Nun  ade  du  mein  lieb'  Heimatland  (three  parts). 

Class  2:  2  Hotxrs 

1.  A-major  and  Et'-major  scales.  Application  of  G#  or  G|7,  as  in 
Class  3.  Cadences  in  A-major  and  E|7-major.  Formation  of  triads 
on  every  interval  of  the  major  scale. 

2.  Major  and  minor  sixths. 

3.  Development  of  the  minor  scale  from  the  major  scale  by  making 
the  sixth  the  fundamental. 

CHURCH   SONGS 

Aus  tiefer  Not  schrei  ich  zu  dir  (Melody :  Herr  me  du). 

Eins  ist  Not. 

Allein  Gott  in  der  Hoh'sei  Ehr'. 

Wie  gross  ist  des  Allmacht'gen  GUte. 

Was  Gott  tut,  das  ist  wohlgetan. 

Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  lasst  walten. 

Liturgical  song  (unison). 

FOLK-SONGS 

Folk-songs  chosen  by  the  teacher,  popular  songs,  and  some  classical 
songs  of  three  or  four  parts. 


SINGING  513 

Class  i  :  2  Houss 

CHURCH  SONGS 
O  Lamm  Gottes. 

Set  Lob  und  Ehr'  (Melody :  Es  ist  das  Heil  uns  kommen  her). 
Herz  und  Herz  vereint  zusammen  (Melody :  0  du  Liebe  meiner  Liebe). 
SolW  ich  meinem  Golt  nicht  singen. 

These  songs  are  for  the  schools  in  which  Class  i  and  Class  2  are  not 
united  in  singing  instruction. 


3L 


CHAPTER  XXV 
DRAWING 

Deawing  was  made  a  regular  subject  of  instruction  in  the 
Prussian  schools  by  the  General  Regulations  of  1872,  although 
its  great  value  in  the  education  of  the  child  had  been  recognized 
by  Pestalozzi  many  years  before.  There  had  been  a  great  deal 
of  drawing  taught  in  all  the  different  types  of  schools  before 
this  time.  There  always  has  been  a  very  great  divergence  of 
opinion  among  German  teachers  of  drawing  as  to  the  content 
and  method  of  the  subject.  Suffice  it  to  say  here  that  drawing 
in  the  elementary  school  until  recent  years  had  been  mere  copying 
from  a  pattern  or  had  been  geometrical  and  mechanical  to  a 
large  degree.  The  purpose  of  the  subject  was  chiefly  the  formal 
discipline  and  the  practical  value  that  could  be  derived.  Sense 
of  color  and  perspective  were  totally  lacking.  Real  drawing 
ability  was  neglected.     Geometrical  exactness  was  demanded. 

The  new  regulations  ^  concerning  the  course  and  method  in 
drawing  are  given  because  they  best  explain  what  the  Volksschule 
is  now  attempting  in  this  field. 

I.  Free-hand  Drawing.  General  Aim.  Drawing  is  to  enable 
the  pupils  to  observe  nature  and  the  objects  of  their  environ- 
ment in  regard  to  form  and  color  and  to  reproduce  clearly  and 
simply  that  which  has  been  seen. 

Lower  Section : 

Drawing  from  Memory. 
Middle  and  Upper  Sections : 

Drawing  from  the  Object. 

'  Min.  EH.  vom  12.  Juni,  1902. 
S14 


DRAWING  515 

A.  Lower  Section.  First  three  years  of  school.  In  the  first 
school  year  special  hours  for  drawing  are  not  set  aside.  Draw- 
ing is  given  in  connection  with  instruction  in  German.  Work : 
Simple  objects  from  the  sphere  of  the  child's  observation  are 
drawn  from  memory. 

Examples:  Plum,  chain,  spectacles,  egg,  spoon,  ovate  leaf, 
hoop,  wheel,  watch-dial,  picture  frame,  copy-book,  envelope, 
window,  door,  paper  hat,  kite,  gable,  sign-board  or  door-plate, 
saw,  ax,  knife,  horseshoe,  pliers,  shears,  leaves  of  various  shapes, 
etc. 

Drawing  is  done  with  charcoal,  chalk,  and  colored  crayons 
on  wrapping-paper  which  is  fixed  by  clamps  on  adjustable 
drawing-boards,  which  are  made  of  pasteboard.  Some  of  the 
pupils  draw  on  the  blackboard.  There  is  no  individual  instruc- 
tion.   The  class  works  as  a  group. 

The  purpose  of  drawing  exercises  in  the  lower  section  is  to 
prepare  the  way  for  training  the  eye  and  the  hand.  The  finished 
drawing  is  to  show  whether  the  child  has  grasped  the  essentials 
of  the  form  of  the  object  presented.  The  sketching  of  definite 
models  is  not  yet  a  part  of  the  instruction.  AU  drawings  are 
to  be  done  free-hand.  Artificial  or  guide  lines  are  not  to  be 
used  in  drawing  simple  objects.  The  pupils  are  urged  to  execute 
the  lines  with  one  stroke  and  to  let  the  incorrect  lines  stand 
until  the  correct  line  is  secured  by  a  repetition  of  the  exercise. 
Patterns  of  any  kind  are  forbidden. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  subject  matter  given  above  the  fol- 
lowing method  is  to  be  followed : 

The  teacher  will  have  the  object  drawn  by  the  children  from 
memory  in  order  to  ascertain  what  conception  the  children  have 
of  the  object.  Together  with  the  children  the  teacher  establishes 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  object.  Then  the  object  is  drawn 
on  the  board  by  several  children.  Finally  all  the  children 
draw  the  object  on  paper  from  memory. 


5i6  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

B.  Middle  Section.  Fourth  and  fifth  years.  Work:  The 
instruction  goes  over  from  drawing  from  memory  to  drawing 
from  objects.  Flat  objects,  especially  those  taken  from  nature, 
are  used  as  models.  Exercises  with  the  same  object  are  taken 
in  finding  color  and  in  the  free  reproduction  with  the  brush 
without  sketch  lines.  Under  favorable  circumstances  drawing 
from  simple  articles  of  the  household  may  be  begun.  Drawing 
from  memory  is  continued,  even  after  work  in  drawing  from 
real  objects  is  taken  up. 

Examples  for  fourth  school  year — Class  5  :  Leaves,  butterflies, 
and  dragon-flies  of  simple  form,  as :  Plantain,  Uly-of-the-valley, 
sumac,  copper-beech,  hlac,  arrowhead,  corn-bind,  hazelwort,  pig- 
weed, ground-wig,  common  oak,  ehn,  liverwort,  passion-flower, 
ivy,  hedge  butterfly,  the  red  admiral,  and  dragon-fly. 

Examples  for  fifth  school  year — Class  4:  Difficult  leaves, 
butterflies,  hbellas,  fish,  birds'  feathers  and  wings,  as :  Ailan- 
thus,  chestnut,  maple,  sarsaparilla,  Virginia  creeper,  grape, 
hellebore,  sycamore,  buttercup,  corn  poppy,  geranium,  Spanish 
carnation,  peacock  butterfly,  swallow-tail  butterfly,  bedstraw 
moth,  death's-head  moth,  hawk  moth,  perch,  carp,  pike,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  drawing  material  of  the  lower  section, 
there  are  added  the  soft  pencil,  white  and  toned  paper,  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  brush  and  water  colors.  The  instruction  is 
individual,  group,  or  class  instruction  as  the  need  may  be. 

The  goal  to  be  kept  in  mind  for  drawing  in  middle  section  is 
that  the  child  learn  to  make  independent  observation  from 
nature,  to  reproduce  faithfully  in  the  drawing  that  which  has 
been  observed,  and  to  retain  a  clear  concept  in  his  mind  of  that 
which  has  been  drawn.  In  drawing  from  nature  the  chief  thing 
is  that  the  model  be  correctly  conceived  and  vitally  reproduced 
in  its  characteristic  features. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  subject  matter  the  following  method 
is  to  be  pursued  in  general. 


•  DRAWING  517 

After  the  pupils  individually  or  in  groups  have  been  provided 
with  models,  the  characteristics,  which  are  important  for  pic- 
torial reproduction,  are  estabhshed  by  a  discussion  of  the  object. 
The  teacher  points  out  the  method  of  reproduction  by  sketching 
the  object  on  the  board  in  elear,  distinct  Knes.  Next  the  whole 
model  and  its  chief  parts  are  sketched  and  when  this  is  done 
the  details  are  taken  up.  After  the  pupils  have  thoroughly 
learned  the  essentials  of  the  natural  form  to  be  reproduced, 
they  draw  it  once  more  from  memory  with  crayon  or  char- 
coal, and  then  they  take  up  its  reproduction  with  pencil.  Here 
especial  attention  is  to  be  given  that  the  pupil  does  not  skip 
hastily  over  the  characteristic  features  and  that  on  the  other 
hand  he  does  not  copy  in  superficial  imitation  the  unimportant 
details. 

C.  Upper  Section.  Sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years.  Work : 
Drawing  from  objects  is  expanded  to  include  the  reproduction 
of  phenomena  of  perspective  and  shading.  The  exercises  in 
connection  with  harmony  of  color  and  drawing  from  memory 
are  continued.  Exercises  in  sketching  with  pencil  and  brush 
are  taken  up  as  opportunity  affords.  Vases,  utensils,  tools, 
instruments,  parts  of  the  school  building  and  natural  objects 
will  serve  as  models. 

Examples  for  the  sixth  year:  Chest,  box,  flower-pot,  key, 
cup,  bowl,  glass,  etc. ;  plum,  apple,  pear,  onion,  pumpkin,  grapes, 
wabiut,  poppy-head,  groimd  cherry,  pine-cone,  etc. 

Examples  for  the  seventh  year:  Jug,  pot,  vase,  wine-glass, 
table,  bench,  chair,  cupboard,  half-opened  window,  stove,  etc. 
Leaves,  twigs,  fruit,  rubber-tree,  copper-beech,  oak,  laurel  tree, 
artichoke,  ear  of  corn,  thistle,  etc. 

Examples  for  the  eighth  year:  Parts  of  the  schoolroom 
and  schoolhouse,  clock,  mortar,  lamp,  chandelier,  street-lamp, 
etc.  Natural  objects  as  in  Class  7.  In  addition  buds  and 
blooms :   anemone,  narcissus,  tuhps ;   also  mussels,  snail-shells, 


5i8  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

beetles,  animal  heads,  stuffed  birds,  and  quadrupeds.  Drawing 
material  is  the  same  as  in  the  middle  section.  Charcoal  is  to 
be  used  by  the  beginners ;  later  the  pencil.  Instruction  is  given 
individually,  to  groups,  or  to  the  whole  class,  as  the  nature  of 
the  work  demands. 

As  in  the  middle  and  lower  sections,  the  real  task  of  the  in- 
struction in  the  upper  section  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  is 
that  the  pupils  learn  to  observe  independently,  to  reproduce 
accurately,  and  to  retain  a  clear  picture  of  the  object  drawn. 
The  phenomena,  therefore,  of  perspective,  shading  and  color 
are  not  to  be  made  known  to  the  child  by  means  of  theoretical 
explanation  and  constructions,  but  by  practical  exercises  in 
the  observation  of  definite  objects.  The  objects  are  to  be  so 
placed  that  the  pupil  can  really  perceive  the  phenomena  which 
he  is  about  to  observe.  The  correct  conception  of  perspective, 
lights,  and  color  is  the  chief  thing  and  not  the  clever  execution 
and  dependent  imitation  of  unimportant  details. 

In  sketching  it  is  a  question  of  reproducing  the  model  faith- 
fully, but  with  as  simple  medium  as  possible. 

The  following  method  is  to  be  used  in  general. 

The  pupil  is  led  to  observe  the  model  closely  and  on  the  basis 
of  his  observation  to  sketch  with  free-hand  the  whole  object. 
He  compares  his  drawing  with  the  object,  either  by  placing 
it  beside  the  object  or  by  holding  it  as  far  from  himself  as  possible. 
The  errors  which  do  not  appear  to  him  are  pointed  out  and 
improved  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  by  means  of  per- 
pendicular and  horizontal  lines.  At  the  same  time  the  shading 
is  done.  Only  after  the  plastic  impression  is  obtained  in  this 
manner,  can  any  advance  be  made  to  further  instruction.  Here 
attention  is  especially  to  be  given  that  the  final  effect  is  not  to 
be  destroyed  by  overemphasis  of  details. 

Also  in  painting  the  pupils  are  urged  to  put  in  the  chief  tones, 
to  prove  their  correctness  by  comparison  with  the  model  in  the 


DRAWING  519 

manner  given  above,  and  always  to  hold  the  total  impression 
in  mind. 

II.  Mechanical  (Geometrical)  Drawing.  Mechanical  draw- 
ing is  connected  with  geometry  in  the  sixth  school  year.  In 
Classes  2  and  i  every  fourth  drawing  period  is  to  be  given  over 
to  mechanical  drawing. 

Work :  Instruction  in  mechanical  drawing  is  to  develop  the 
power  of  spatial  representation  in  the  pupils  and  to  train  them 
in  the  preparation  of  clean,  accurate  drawings  and  also  in  the 
use  of  the  compass,  ruler,  and  drawing-pen. 

Sixth  school  year  —  Class  3.  Drawing  of  geometrical  figures 
and  constructions.    Drawing  to  scales. 

Seventh  school  year  —  Class  2.  Projection  of  simple  bodies : 
prisms,  cubes,  pyramids,  and  combinations  of  these  forms.  Draw- 
ing of  correspondingly  simple  objects  (box,  table,  bench)  to  a 
given  scale. 

Eighth  school  year  —  Class  i.  Continuation  of  the  pro- 
jection of  simple  sohds:  cyhnder,  sphere,  and  combinations  of 
these  forms.     Drawing  to  a  scale. 

The  use  of  patterns  and  blackboards  is  forbidden.  The  work 
in  Classes  i  and  2  begins  with  soUds  as  models.  This  work  is 
not  to  be  continued  too  long.  Rather  such  exercises  are  to 
be  given  up  as  soon  as  possible  and  such  exercises  substituted  as 
are  not  illustrated  by  any  particular  model,  but  only  indicated 
by  a  sketch  by  the  teacher.  The  pupil  learns  in  this  way  to 
read  projection  drawings. 

The  models  are  to  be  drawn  in  horizontal  sections,  vertical 
elevation  and,  if  necessary,  lateral  perspective.  Other  plane 
sections  occurring  in  the  model  and  the  top  of  the  object  are  also 
to  be  reproduced.  Entire  models  are  to  be  reproduced  in  right- 
and  acute-angled  parallel  projection.  The  drawings  are  to  be 
executed  with  drawing-pen  and  drawing-ink.  The  drawings 
are  to  be  tinted  with  a  light,  quiet  color. 


S20  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

It  has  been  over  ten  years  since  these  regulations  have  been 
passed  and  it  is  only  natural  that  within  so  short  a  time  the 
whole  teaching  of  the  subject  has  not  been  changed.  The  chief 
reason  for  the  slow  change  in  method  is  the  ladi  of  a  body  of 
teachers  trained  in  the  spirit  of  the  regulations  of  1902.  A 
vast  majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  Volksschulen  at  the  present 
time  were  educated  before  the  date  of  the  regulations  and  hence 
have  been  unable  to  change  materially.  This  accounts  for  the 
very  poor  teaching  of  a  rather  good  course  of  study.  The  course 
of  study  is  a  very  radical  change  from  all  that  preceded  it.  Up 
to  1902  the  need  of  mechanical  and  geometrical  drawing  in  the 
ordinary  trades  has  made  itself  felt  so  strongly  that  almost  all 
of  the  work  in  the  Volksschulen  in  this  subject  had  taken  a 
mechanical  turn.  Drawing  was  considered  merely  an  aid  to 
geometry,  and  it  had  not  been  regarded  as  a  means  of  expression 
in  relation  to  German,  nature  study,  geography,  history,  and  the 
other  subjects  in  the  curriculum. 

Only  a  small  portion  of  those  who  teach  drawing  are  par- 
ticularly trained  for  it.  As  in  domestic  science  and  physical 
Special  training,  an  examination  is  held  every  year  for 
Teachers  special  teachers  in  drawing.  Candidates  for  this 
examination  must  have  finished  the  equivalent  of  six  years  in  the 
secondary  school  and  be  nineteen  years  of  age.  The  examination 
lasts  five  days  and  covers  drawing  from  life,  flowers,  plants, 
still  hfe,  blackboard  drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  methods, 
course  of  study,  regulations,  fitting  of  drawing  room,  drawing 
materials,  history  of  art. 

There  have  been  a  great  many  short  courses  given  since  1902 
to  prepare  the  old  teachers  to  work  according  to  the  new  regula- 
tions, but  as  yet  only  the  younger  and  special  teachers  are  really 
doing  their  work  in  the  spirit  of  the  modern  movement. 

During  the  fixst  year,  drawing  is  a  part  of  the  German  in- 
struction, the  objects  to  be  drawn  being  taken  from  the  im- 


DRAWING  521 

mediate  environment  of  the  child.  In  the  second  and  third  years 
one  hour  a  week  is  especially  set  apart  for  drawing,  while  during 
the  remaining  five  years  of  the  middle  and  upper 

•  I  .  .  Hours 

sections  two  hours  a  week  are  assigned  to  it.     This 
holds  for  city  schools.    In  the  country  sichools  with  one,  two, 
or  three  teachers,  one  hour  a  week  ordinarily  sufiices  for  the  sub- 
ject.    In  Munich  and  in  some  industrial  cities  more  time  is  as- 
signed to  drawing  than  here  indicated. 

The  chief  task  of  the  drawing  instruction  in  the  lower  section 
of  the  Volksschule  is  to  teach  the  children  to  draw  objects  of 
common  Ufe  from  memory.  Drawing  from  memory  Lo^er 
does  not  mean  that  the  child  is  to  reproduce  an  apple  Section 
merely  from  memory  of  having  seen  it  outside  the  school.  It 
means  he  shall  be  able  to  reach  that  point  of  ability.  Sometimes 
the  object  is  shown  the  children  first  and  discussed  in  regard 
to  its  chief  characteristics  and  then  drawn.  Sometimes  the 
teacher  has  the  children  draw  the  object  first  as  they  are  able, 
then  come  the  comparison  with  the  object  itself  and  the  dis- 
cussion, and  finally  another  drawing.  Children  are  allowed 
to  draw  as  they  feel  and  understand,  both  with  regard  to  color 
and  form.  Self-expression  is  the  aim.  One  teacher  told  me 
that  self-expression  was  very  wasteful  of  drawing  materials 
and  that  the  class  never  kept  together.  Corrections  in  the  lower 
section  limit  themselves  to  oral  explanations  and  brief  explana- 
tions on  the  blackboard.  Details  are  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
It  was  our  observation  that  German  children  have  a  very  differ- 
ent color  appreciation  from  that  of  American  children.  In  the 
use  of  crayolas  in  the  lower  grades,  they  invariably  used  the  very 
loudest,  brightest  color.  Ordinarily  children  are  allowed  to 
use  pencils  and  rough  paper,  charcoal,  chalk,  and  crayolas  in  the 
lower  grades.  Drawing  books  with  patterns  to  be  copied  are 
not  allowed  in  any  section  of  the  school. 

Special  rooms  for  drawing  are  first  used  by  children  in  the 


522  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

middle  section  when  drawing  from  objects  is  first  begun.  No 
country  schools  and  only  the  most  modern  city  buildings  have 
Middle  drawing  rooms.  The  regular  classroom  serves  ordi- 
Section  narily  for  the  purpose.  In  case  the  building  is 
equipped  with  a  special  room  for  drawing,  the  latter  is  usually 
found  on  the  top  floor  in  order  that  it  may  be  well  lighted.  Each 
child  has  his  own  drawing  desk,  and  a  cabinet  for  his  drawings. 
The  cabinets  are  generally  arranged  in  the  form  of  fihng  cases 
and  are  alphabetically  grouped.  The  rooms  are  always  large 
and  are  provided  with  water  connections  and  artificial  lighting. 

The  work  in  the  middle  section  is  chiefly  drawing  leaves, 
butterflies,  fish,  and  the  like.  These  are  always  drawn  from 
models.  In  the  richer  cities  the  children  are  often  provided  with 
mounted  specimens  of  butterflies,  leaves,  etc.,  while  in  the  smaller 
towns  and  in  the  country  the  teacher,  with  the  aid  of  the  chil- 
dren, has  to  make  his  own  collection.  The  teacher  usually  makes 
a  drawing  first  to  show  in  general  the  method  as  to  what  parts 
of  the  object  are  to  be  drawn  first,  the  use  of  sketch  fines,  and 
observation  of  dimensional  relationships.  The  outline  form  is 
gotten  first  and  at  last  the  details.  Sense  of  color  is  also  trained 
in  this  section.  The  mediimis  are  oil-crayons  (crayolas)  and 
water-colors  and  white  and  yellow  drawing-paper.  In  using 
colors,  the  outline  of  the  object  is  sketched  first  and  then  the 
colors  are  filled  in. 

The  results  in  the  work  in  this  section  were  very  poor  as  far 
as  our  observation  went.  The  teachers  as  a  rule  did  too  much 
or  nothing  at  all  for  their  pupils  and  they  had  gone  from  the 
extreme  of  mechanical  work  to  the  other  extreme  of  utmost 
self-expression  on  the  part  of  the  child,  and  the  result  was  that 
the  children  floundered.  Many  objects  were  unrecognizable  to 
us.  The  teachers  gave  more  actual  aid  in  correction  of  errors  in 
this  section  than  in  the  lower  section  and  the  instruction  tended 
to  be  more  individual. 


DRAWING  523 

Mechanical  or  geometrical  drawing  is  begun  in  the  sixth  year 
at  the  same  time  that  geometry  is  begun.  Mechanical  drawing 
fits  itself  more  into  the  scheme  of  things  in  German  tipper 
schools  than  does  free-hand  drawing.  It  is  much  Section 
more  orderly,  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  everybody  together  in 
the  work,  and  is  more  definite  than  free-hand  drawing.  It  is 
the  type  of  work  that  has  always  been  done  in  the  German  schools. 
We  foimd  some  really  fine  work  in  geometrical  and  elementary 
design.  Perspective  work  was  rather  poor  except  in  a  few  cases. 
Free-hand  drawing  was  in  very  much  the  same  disorganized 
condition  as  in  the  middle  section. 

No  group  of  school  men  recognize  the  great  value  of  drawing 
for  the  mental  development  and  powers  of  expression  of  children 
more  than  do  the  Germans.  Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  of  Munich,  has 
laid  particular  emphasis  upon  the  value  of  the  subject.  He  makes 
drawing  a  means  of  expression,  and  indeed  almost  the  most 
important  means  of  expression  in  all  subjects,  even  in  German 
hterature.  He  emphasizes  drawing  for  its  practical  value  as 
prevocational  training  for  both  boys  and  girls. 

The  status  of  drawing  in  regard  to  both  method  and  con- 
tent is  now  undergoing  radical  changes  in  Germany.  The  aim 
of   the   subject   and   the  practice  are  more  widely  ^     ,   . 

•"  .  rrn  Conclusion 

divorced  than  in  any  other  subject.  The  new  move- 
ment in  drawing  in  the  German  elementary  schools  is  due  in  a 
large  measiire  to  American  and  Enghsh  influence.  The  reason 
for  the  great  amoimt  of  failure  in  the  drawing  is  very  evident. 
Freedom  and  self-expression  are  not  permitted  the  children  in 
any  other  subject  than  drawing  and  the  children  simply  do  not 
know  what  it  means.  Their  abiUty  to  express  independent 
ideas  has  largely  been  killed  by  the  routine  of  instruction.  The 
teachers  suffer  from  the  same  trouble. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

MANUAL  TRAINING 

Manual  training  for  boys  is  not  a  regular  subject  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  Prussian  Volksschule,  nor  in  many  of  the  other  Ger- 
man states.    The  subject  is  generally  elective.    In 

Prevalence  . 

some  cities,  for  example,  Munich,  manual  trammg  is 
compulsory.  The  expression  "elective"  refers  to  choice  on  the 
part  of  the  school  and  not  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  If  a  city 
or  a  school  decides  to  introduce  manual  training  for  boys,  all  the 
boys  are  required  to  take  the  work.  It  may  seem  strange  that 
the  girls  have  had  sewing  and  cooking  for  many  years,  while 
the  handwork  for  boys  has  been  neglected.  The  reason  for  there 
having  been  no  manual  training  for  boys  is  that  the  educational 
policy  in  Germany  has  been  to  leave  all  vocational  or  prevoca- 
tional  training  to  trade  or  continuation  schools,  and  accordingly 
no  provision  for  manual  training  for  boys  in  the  Volksschule  was 
considered  necessary.  Sewing  and  cooking  were  incorporated 
in  the  curriculum  of  the  Volksschule,  because  only  recently  has 
ample  provision  been  made  for  girls  in  the  way  of  continuation 
and  vocational  schools. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  a  movement  has  been 
growing  in  Germany  to  foster  the  manual  training  work  in  the 
Volksschulen.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  Deutscher  Verein  fur 
Knabenhandarbeit,  a  great  deal  of  progress  has  been  made,  es- 
pecially with  regard  to  training  of  teachers.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  training  schools  for  manual  training  teachers  in  Leipzig 
and  Hannover,  and  there  are  also  a  large  number  of  normal 
schools  in  all  German  states  which  offer  manual  training  courses. 

S24 


MANUAL  TRAINING  525 

The  Ministry  in  Berlin  has  also  taken  cognizance  of  the  move- 
ment.^ The  following  reasons  for  manual  training  in  the  public 
schools,  particularly  the  Volksschulen,  appear  important : 

The  transformation  of  the  whole  economic  fabric  in  the  last  century  has 
deprived  the  youthful  generations  of  conditions  favorable  to  later  vocational 
training.  In  rural  conmiunities  the  youth  still  learns  that  which  is  most 
important  for  his  life's  caUing  in  that  he  is  associated  closely  with  his  elders ; 
likewise  in  the  small  and  middle-sized  cities  the  child  has  the  opportunity 
of  helping  the  adults  in  their  work,  and  at  least  of  observing  it  directly. 
Conditions  in  the  large  city  are  entirely  different.  The  production  and  the 
consumption  of  goods  are  for  the  most  part  entirely  dissociated.  Between 
the  life  of  the  workshop  and  that  of  the  family  the  only  relationship  is  the 
wage.  The  work  of  the  father  and  frequently  that  of  the  mother  is 
imknown  and  unintelligible  to  the  child.  A  regular  occupation  within 
the  narrow  walls  of  the  home  is  for  the  most  part  impossible.  It  is  only 
exceptionally  that  there  are  even  sufficient  playgrounds  provided  for  the 
children.  Accordingly  nothing  remains  except  the  street,  which,  it  is  true, 
offers  much  diversion  and  excitement,  but  is  not  the  place  for  a  well- 
regulated  physical  activity. 

The  economic  and  social  conditions  require  that  the  school  take  over  as 
far  as  possible  that  which  the  home  no  longer  does,  or  is  able  to  do. 

Before  aU  else  the  choice  of  occupations  shows  that  a  well-planned  in- 
troduction for  physical  education  is  lacking  for  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  children,  and  that  the  real  joy  in  work  is  wanting.  The  inclination  to 
do  hard  physical  work  is  decreasing.  This  holds  not  only  for  the  large  cities 
but  in  general.  The  hand-working  trades  complain  seriously  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult, indeed  often  impossible,  to  secure  a  satisfactorily  prepared  body  of 
apprentices.  Industry  also  suffers  from  a  lack  of  skilled  workmen.  The 
German  Committee  for  Technical  Schools  has  pointed  out  recently  with 
emphasis  that  it  is  very  important  for  the  mechanical  industries  that  a 
greater  mmiber  of  well-prepared  skilled  workmen  be  educated  than  hereto- 
fore. If  such  were  done,  the  quick  readjustment  to  new  technical  inven- 
tions would  become  possible  and  a  very  important  element  in  the  ability 
of  Germany  to  compete  in  the  world's  markets  would  be  secured. 

While  there  is  a  general  lack  in  recruits  for  the  skilled  trades,  the  rush  to 
unskilled  labor  is  extraordinarily  great.    In  Berlin  errand  boys  and  helpers 

1  Zentralblait,  1912,  p.  szo- 


526  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

make  up  a  third,  and  in  many  cities  of  the  Rhine  districts  a  half,  of  the  male 
youth  employed  in  commerce  and  industry.  These  young  men  perform 
work  of  all  kinds.  Positions  are  changed  quickly  and  frequently,  according 
to  opportunity  and  whim.  The  employer  concerns  himself  about  them  not 
at  all  or  only  exceptionally.  Worst  of  all,  the  yoimg  man  becomes  independ- 
ent of  his  family  far  too  early.  He  receives  a  comparatively  high  wage ;  it 
is  not  an  infrequent  thing  that  a  boy  in  the  continuation  school  earns  fifteen 
to  twenty  marks  ($3.75  to  $5.00)  weekly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wage  does 
not  increase  sufficiently  with  increasing  age,  and  the  livelihood  remains 
permanently  unsatisfactory.  The  unlearned  youth  belong  chiefly  to  the 
most  needy  class  of  society;  they  contribute  the  greater  part  of  children 
to  orphans'  homes.  The  education  of  these  masses  of  youthful  unskilled 
workmen  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  the  present.  The  continua- 
tion school  and  child  welfare  movement  have  important  problems  to  solve 
in  this  field.  Even  if  they  do  their  best,  the  educational  effect,  which  the 
choice  of  a  definite  Ufe's  calling  exercises,  is  lacking. 

Therefore  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  number  of  unskilled 
workers  does  not  become  greater  than  is  absolutely  necessary  imder  existing 
social  and  economic  conditions.  AJl  means  which  can  serve  to  bring  the 
youth  to  take  up  skilled  trades  therefore  deserve  earnest  attention.  The 
proper  advice  with  regard  to  choice  of  trade  in  the  Volksschule  and  the  con- 
tinuation school,  also  from  the  doctor  and  the  employment  bureau,  is  a 
pressing  need  and  will  be  able  to  do  much.  More  than  anything  else, 
manual  training  will  he  suited  to  awaken  the  desire  and  love  for  learning  a 
definite  trade. 

In  foreign  countries  one  notices  in  manual  training  the  most  important 
means  for  the  advancement  of  skilled  labor  and  the  education  of  workers 
trained  for  a  trade.  The  example  of  Anglo-Saxon  countries  proves  this. 
Just  recently  the  Enghsh  educational  authorities  were  striving  to  bring 
about  a  closer  connection  between  their  many  manual  training  schools  and 
their  public  schools.  .  .  .  For  this  reason  we  consider  it  necessary  to  devote 
to  the  question  of  manual  training  an  increased  attention,  and  in  every  pos- 
sible way  to  advance  the  education  of  the  youth  in  the  public  schools  with 
regard  to  joy  and  ability  in  work. 

Practically  all  the  larger  cities  in  Germany  have  introduced 
manual  training  into  some  of  their  schools.  Out  of  38,684 
lower  schools  in  Prussia  only  1169  had  introduced  manual  train- 
ing in  191 1.    The  subject  is  found  more  in  the  cities  near  the 


MANUAL  TRAINING  527 

Rhine  than  in  other  parts  of  the  empire.  This  is  true  on  ac- 
count of  the  industrial  nature  of  these  cities.  All  the  elemen- 
tary schools  in  Dusseldorf  and  Dortmund  have  manual  training 
shops.  Out  of  the  33,559  country  schools  only  407  had  manual 
training  in  191 1.  About  one  seventh  of  the  city  schools  in 
Prussia,  and  about  one  country  school  in  every  eighty,  teach 
manual  training  for  boys. 

Handwork  for  boys  includes  varied  activities,  some  of  which 
are  exercises  in  paper,  cardboard,  and  sticks,  light  wood-work, 
clay  modeling,  pasteboard  work,  wood  carving,  metal 
work  and  modeling.  All  of  these  are  very  seldom  in- 
cluded in  one  course,  and  the  work  in  the  Volksschule  is  limited 
usually,  to  one  or  two  mediums.  In  Munich  the  work  confines 
itself  to  work  with  wood  and  metal  and  is  taught  only  in  the 
highest  grade.  In  Worms  manual  training  is  obligatory  and  is 
begun  in  the  third  grade.  The  work  in  the  third  grade  begins 
with  modeling  in  clay  and  plastiline  and  continues  throughout 
the  fourth  grade.  Pasteboard  work  is  begun  in  the  fifth  grade 
and  continued  in  the  sixth.  Wood-work  is  confined  to  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  Dortmund  manual  training  is 
taught  in  only  three  schools,  the  subject  being  elective.  The 
course  deals  with  elementary  work  in  metal  and  wood.  As  far  as 
we  could  observe,  the  work  in  manual  training  was  very  similar 
in  all  respects  to  that  given  in  our  schools  in  America.  The 
shops  are  never  well  equipped  as  with  us.  The  Germans  have 
made  a  rather  close  study  of  manual  training  in  America,  and  it 
can  be  said  safely  that  the  actual  shop  work  is  more  American 
than  Danish,  whence  the  beginning  of  the  movement  came. 

Good  teachers  of  manual  training  are  scarce  in  the  Volksschulen. 
Of  course,  there  are  plenty  of  good  teachers  of  wood-work  and 
the  like  in  trade  schools,  but  as  yet  the  number  avail-  ^^^^^^^ 
able  for  the  Volksschule  is  small.    They  have  exactly 
the  same  difficulty  in  Germany  as  in  America  when  a  new  sub- 


528  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ject  seeks  to  make  its  way  into  the  schools.  The  old  teachers 
do  not  know  how  to  teach  it  and  do  not  want  to  learn.  Ac- 
cordingly special  teachers  are  trained,  or  master  workmen  are 
called  on,  and  the  subject  is  made  elective,  until  more  favorable 
conditions  obtain.  Gradually  courses  in  manual  training  are 
being  put  into  the  normal  schools,  and  manual  training  normal 
schools  and  special  courses  are  being  established. 

The  course  of  study  for  teachers,  usually  coming  from  the 
Courses  for  ranks  of  the  elementary  school  teachers,  is  typified  by 
Teachers  ^jja,t  given  at  the  Simon  School  of  Gardening  and 
Manual  Training  in  Hannover.  The  course  is  half  a  year  in 
length.^ 

Rural  Wood-work.  —  In  connection  with  gardening  this  course  deals  with 
the  preparation  of  such  wooden  structures  as  are  common  in  gardening  or 
about  the  rural  household. 

Shop  Work.  —  Here  the  student  receives  such  instruction  as  will  aid  in 
teaching  wood- work  in  the  schools.  He  also  learns  to  make  equipment  that 
can  be  used  in  geometry  and  the  natural  and  physical  sciences. 

Wood-work.  —  It  begins  with  work  with  saw  and  chisel.  Then  comes 
work  in  joinery.  Several  more  or  less  difficult  pieces  are  prepared  in  this 
course.    The  more  capable  can  work  with  the  lathe. 

Metal  Work.  —  Work  with  iron,  copper,  etc. 

Pasteboard  Work. 

Chemistry,  Physics,  Methods,  Drawing. 

It  is  easily  recognized  that  the  position  of  manual  work  for 

boys  in  the  Volksschulen  is  not  very  much  respected  and  is  by 

„     .   .      no   means   well   secured.    The   shops   provided  are 

Conclusion  ,      ,  .,  r-      r- 

usually  makeshifts;  the  work  is  largely  elective; 
the  teachers  are  not  well  prepared ;  not  enough  money  is  given 
to  insure  good  results ;  the  purposes  of  the  subject  are  not  well 
defined.  We  can  say  no  more  than  that  a  beginning  has  been 
made. 

•  Zentralblatt,  191 2,  p.  688. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

Since  1862  physical  training  has   been   compulsory  in   all 
Prussian  schools  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country.     Com-  ' 
munities  were  required  to  provide  gym.nasiums  and  grounds  for   , 
physical  exercises.    Teachers  were  required  to  fit  themselves  to 
teach  the  subject  in  the  schools.     Children's  games  were  added 
to  the  course  in  gymnastics  in  1882  ^  and  at  the  present  time  the 
play  feature  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  whole  course. 
The  play  movement  received  further  encouragement  from  the 
Ministry  in  1908  ^  in  regulations  concerning  games,  excursions, 
and  the  like,  all  of  which  were  to  be  encouraged  in  the  Volks- 
schule,  in  order  to  further  the  physical  welfare  of  the  nation. 
In  1910  a  third  hour  for  gymnastics,  games,  and  play  was  added  I 
to  the  curriculimi  of  the  Volksschule  in  all  Prussian  schools.'' 
More  and  more  the  educational  authorities  are  recognizing  the 
enormous  influence  of  physical  activity  upon  the  mental  and 
moral  character  of  the  people.    The  government  has  recognized 
that  up  to  the  present  time  a  far  too  large  share  of  the  time  has 
been  given  to  routine  school  work  and  not  enough  to  the  bodies 
of  the  children.     Strength,  endurance,  beauty,  and  health  are  the  j 
purpose  of  the  course  now  rather  than  mere  muscular  devel-  | 
opment  as  heretofore.     German  gymnastics  were  heavy  until 
changed  by  the  introduction  of  the  more  valuable  portions  of 
Swedish  systems  in  recent  years.    In  addition  to  the  regular 
three  hours  each  week  for  physical  training,  all  children  are  re- 

^Mm.  Erl,  Oct.  27,  1882.  ^ Zentralblati,  1908,  p.  516. 

8  Ibid.,  1910,  p.  S97. 
SM  529 


S30  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

quired  to  have  ten  minutes  of  breathing  and  arm  exercises  on 
the  days  when  there  is  no  regular  work  in  the  gjminasium. 
Some  of  the  purposes  of  physical  training  are  as  follows :  ^ 

1.  To  further  physical  development  and  to  increase  the  health  of  the 
youth. 

2.  To  accustom  the  body  to  a  natural,  graceful  carriage. 

3.  To  increase  strength,  endurance,  and  versatility  of  the  body. 

4.  To  assure  the  acquirement  of  certain  skill  which  is  useful  in  later 
life,  especially  with  reference  to  service  in  the  army. 

5.  To  awaken  and  further  self-confidence  and  resoluteness  of  the  will 
by  increasing  the  health,  strength,  and  abUity  of  the  body. 

6.  To  aid  the  school  in  its  educational  activity,  that  the  pupils  are 
'trained  in  the  performance  of  physical  exercises  to  strict  attention,  quick 
(  comprehension,  accurate  execution  of  a  command,  and  to  willing  subor- 
I  dination  to  the  purposes  of  a  greater  whole. 

The  course  in  physical  training  varies  a  great  deal  accord- 
ing to  local  conditions,  depending  on  equipment  and  teaching 
Course  of  force.  All  courses  are  based  on  the  "  Instructions 
study  {qj.  physical   training   instruction   in  the    Prussian 

Volksschule"  of  1895,  and  on  "Regulations  for  physical  training 
for  boys  in  Volksschulen  without  gymnasiums,"  of  1909.  The 
following  course  of  study  is  merely  a  general  outline  to  show 
the  nature  of  the  work  in  the  various  sections  of  the  Volksschule. 

In  the  lower  section  the  course  in  physical  training  includes 
Lower  Sec-  many  simple  running,  singing,  and  ball  games ;  also 
''°"  games  of  imitation,  such  as  Komm  mit,  Wollt  ikr  Wis- 

sen,  Die  Tyroler  sind  lustig,  and  the  like. 

To  prepare  the  children  for  formal  work,  marching  games 
and  play  are  used,  —  marching  in  flank  and  column  formation, 
walking  and  running,  Swedish  exercises  of  the  simplest  nature 
in  connection  with  imitation  games;  later  real  Swedish  exer- 
cises like  arm  swinging,  arm  bending  and  stretching,  back  bend- 
ing and  turning,  leg  swinging  and  bending,  knee  bending. 
'  LeiifadenfUr  den  Tumunterricht  in  preussischen  Schvlen,  1895. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING 


S3 1 


The  work  in  the  middle  and  upper  sections  is  more  formal 
an^  may  be  discussed  under  several  heads  as  follows :  Middle  and 

Upper  Sec- 

1.  Formations:  Taking  of  positions,  military  formations.   *^°^^ 

2.  Swedish  exercises:  (a)  Body  exercises,  head  exercises,  leg  exer- 
cises ;  (b)  position  exercises,  preUminary  swimming  exercises,  breathing 
exercises,  waist  exercises. 

3.  Apparatus  work:  Jimipmg,  rope-climbing,  rack,  horse,  parallel 
bars,  rings,  ladder,  suspended  bar,  and  other  apparatus. 

4.  Walking,  running,  hopping  exercises,  ordinary  walk,  toe-walk, 
rapid-walk,  climbing-walk,  stretching-walk,  endurance  nm,  hopping, 
limping. 

5.  Popular  exercises:  Wrestling,  tug-of-war,  weight-throwing,  con- 
tests in  high  jump,  broad  jump,  hop-step-jump,  relay  race,  and  the  like. 

6.  Games :  Games  with  apparatus,  balls,  ropes,  games  without  ap- 
paratus. 

7.  Walking  and  tramping  in  the  open  country.  We  have  already 
referred  to  this  several  times. 

Every  German  school,  whether  it  be  in  the  city  or  in  the 
country,  gives  three  hours  each  week  in  physical  training  in  the 
two  upper  sections,  ordinarily  on  alternate  days.  In 
country  schools  or  in  city  schools  which  have  no  gym- 
nasiums or  covered  courts  for  the  work,  physical  training  is 
omitted  on  stormy  days  and  an  indoor  exercise  is  substituted. 
In  the  lower  section  of  the  Volksschule  only  one  or  two  hours  a 
week  are  devoted  to  physical  training. 

The  greater  part  of  the  teaching  is  done  by  teachers  who  also 
give  instruction  in  other  subjects.  Of  course,  in  the  country 
this  is  always  the  case,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  in  ^^ 
the  city  the  physical  training  work  is  done  by  the  regu- 
lar classroom  teacher.  There  is  an  increasingly  greater  number 
of  special  teachers  in  physical  training,  both  among  the  men 
and  among  the  women.  The  larger  part  of  the  teachers  receive 
their  training  for  the  work  in  the  normal  schools,  where  this 
subject  forms  a  regular  part  of  the  course.    There  are,  how- 


532  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

ever,  in  Prussia  several  special  institutions  for  the  education 
of  physical  training  teachers  of  both  sexes.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  special  courses  offered  each  summer.  Those  who 
desire  to  become  regular  physical  training  teachers  are  re- 
quired to  pass  an  examination  which  consists  of  an  oral, 
Examina-  written,  and  practical  test.  The  candidate  must  have 
*•""  passed   at  least  six  years  in  a  higher  school  or  its 

equivalent.  The  written  examination  consists  of  an  essay 
dealing  with  physical  training  and  answers  to  questions  hav- 
ing to  do  with  the  subject.  The  oral  part  covers  the  his- 
tory of  the  subject,  methods,  course  of  study,  vocabulary, 
and  terminology,  apparatus,  equipment,  physiology,  and  hy- 
giene of  physical  training,  and  principles  of  education.  The 
practical  part  requires  demonstration  of  ability  to  carry  out 
given  physical  exercises.  Swimming  may  be  included.  The 
Royal  Institute  for  Teachers  of  Physical  Training,  in  Berlin, 
is  the  best  known  institution  for  the  preparation  for  this  ex- 
amination, although  attendance  at  this  school  is  by  no  means 
necessary. 

Very  few  rural  schools  have  regular  gymnasiiuns  and  only 
the  newer  buildings  in  the  large  cities  are  so  equipped.  In 
Gymnasi-  some  cities  one  gymnasiimi  serves  four  or  five  schools, 
"™^  thus  keeping  the  gymnasium  in  use  practically  all  the 

time  by  different  groups  of  children.  These  gymnasimns  may 
be  in  school  buildings  or  they  may  belong  to  the  city  or  to  some 
Turnverein,  of  which  there  are  always  a  great  many.  As  might 
be  expected,  the  gymnasiums  vary  a  great  deal  in  equipment  and 
in  arrangement  as  to  ventilation  and  lighting.  The  equipment  is 
generally  sufficient  and  of  good  character,  there  always  being  an 
abundance  of  horses,  bars,  ropes,  ladders,  mats,  clubs,  dumb- 
bells, wands.  The  floors  in  many  cases  leave  much  to  be  desired. 
Sometimes  they  are  very  rough  and  bumpy.  More  often  they 
are  dusty.    The  lighting  is  sometimes  very  poor,  and  the  ventila- 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  533 

tion  is  almost  without  exception  bad,  even  when  there  is  pro- 
vision made  for  it. 

One  example  is  rather  characteristic  of  the  worst  type  of 
gymnasiums,  which  are  by  no  means  few  in  number.    I  went  out 

one  afternoon  from  School  No.  i,  in  the  city  of  S with 

the  teacher  and  fifty  boys  to  the  gymnasiimi  in  order  to  see 
them  at  work.  The  teacher  was  not  a  regular  gymnasium 
director  and  he  told  me  that  he  did  not  Uke  the  work,  nor  did 
any  one  else  that  he  knew,  save  regular  physical  training  teachers. 
The  boys  were  very  orderly  in  everything  and  gave  impUcit 
obedience  to  every  command.  Four  or  five  of  them  had  special 
suits  and  a  dozen  or  more  had  tennis  shoes ;  the  others  wore  their 
school  clothes  and  went  in  stocking  feet  while  in  the  gymnasium. 
The  floor  was  of  ship's  decking  and  was  extremely  dusty.  The 
hall  was  large  and  poorly  lighted.  Artificial  Ughting  was  used 
later  in  the  hour.  There  were  no  baths  in  connection  with  the 
gymnasium.  The  teacher  wore  his  school  suit  and  tennis  shoes. 
He  gave  his  directions  from  a  raised  platform. 

The  work  consisted  very  largely  of  marching  and  making 
different  formations.  All  this  work  was  done  with  the  rigidity 
of  Prussian  mihtarism  and  was  continued  about  twenty-five 
minutes.  By  that  time  the  air  was  so  full  of  dust  that  most 
of  the  children  were  coughing  and  they  themselves  were  wet 
with  perspiration.  Then  came  some  apparatus  work.  The 
class  was  divided  into  four  sections  and  they  were  to  learn  to 
go  over  the  "horse"  backwards  and  sideways.  The  teacher 
showed  them  how  once  or  twice,  then  they  worked  by  them- 
selves. For  protection  one  boy  always  stood  at  the  "horse" 
to  catch  any  who  might  fall.  In  all  respects,  the  work  was 
similar  to  that  in  some  of  our  gymnasiimis. 

When  the  hour  was  up,  the  boys  sang  Deutschland,  Deutsck- 
land  uber  dies,  put  on  their  coats  and  collars,  if  they  had  re- 
moved them,  and  went  home.    No  one  thought  about  a  bath. 


534  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Some  never  did.  Bathing  is  not  a  part  of  the  physical  work  in 
the  schools.  This  description  is  typical  of  the  poorer  class  of 
gymnasiums. 

The  better  class,  very  few  in  number  relatively,  are  really  very 
fine.  The  floors  are  of  linoleum  or  hard  wood,  immaculately 
clean,  and  excellently  ventilated  and  equipped.  In  some  of  the 
/better  girls'  schools  the  children  were  required  to  wear  special 
I  clothing,  and  the  work  was  actually  in  charge  of  a  special  teacher. 
This  type  of  school  gymnasium  is  the  ideal  of  the  German  school 
man,  but  lack  of  funds  and  ministerial  indifference  are  account- 
able for  the  poor  condition  of  this  subject  in  the  Volksschulen. 
One  might  say  where  there  are  new  schools  there  are  good  gym- 
nasiums, usually  in  separate  buildings,  and  where  there  are  old 
school  buildings,  there  are  no,  or  poor,  gymnasiums. 

The  country  schools  and  the  towns  of  smaller  rank  generally 
have  outdoor  gymnasiums.  The  equipment  is  usually  re- 
stricted  to  the  horizontal  and  parallel  bars,  the  jump- 
Gymna-  ing  Standards,  climbing  poles,  ropes,  trapeze,  and 
""""^  sand  pits.    Every  school  has  some  kind  of  exercise 

ground  which  is  usually  the  playground.  The  only  draw- 
back with  this  arrangement  is  the  loss  of  time  incurred  owing 
to  inclement  weather.  It  is  in  regard  to  outdoor  g3Tnnasiums 
\  that  the  Germans  excel  our  schools.  Every  school  in  town  or 
country  has  some  kind  of  outdoor  equipment  for  physical 
training.  In  a  sense  the  country  child  needs  the  work  more 
than  the  town  child,  and  every  child  in  Prussia  gets  an  oppor- 
tunity for  some  sort  of  formal  gymnasium  work. 

Whether  or  not  the  school  has  a  gymnasium,  whenever  the 
|weather  permits,  the  physical  training  work  is  carried  on  out- 
side in  the  open  air.  On  the  days  when  there  is  no  regular 
kymnasium  work,  the  children  are  given  five  or  ten  minutes  of 
breathing  and  setting-up  exercises.  The  purpose  of  these  short 
exercises  is  to  wake  up  the  child  and  develop  habits  of  deep 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  535 

breathing.  These  exercises  are  given  ordinarily  after  two  or 
three  hours  of  continuous  school  work.  The  usual  exercises  are 
arm  stretching  upwards  ten  or  fifteen  times,  body  bending 
backwards  ten  times,  rolling  and  circling  with  bent  arms  for- 
ward and  backwards,  toe  raising  and  stretching,  running  on  the 
toes,  standing  still,  leg  stretching.  The  classroom  is  used  for 
this  purpose  except  in  good  weather. 

Swimming  is  a  part  of  the  physical  training  course  in  a  few  of 
the  German  Volksschulen.  Opportunity  is  given  for  swimming 
in  many  cities  in  the  public  pools,  although  the  schools 
are  not  responsible  for  the  children  learning  to  swim. 
The  course  of  study  sometimes  takes  up  "dry  land"  swimming, 
and  this  instruction  is  of  some  benefit  to  the  children.  Up  to 
the  present  the  swimming  is  not  a  serious  part  of  the  course. 
We  have  seen  good  swimming  instruction  for  school  children  in 
Berlin,  Haimover,  Duisburg,  Danzig,  Barmen,  Gelsenkirchen, 
Bochum,  and  Erfurt. 

We  can  give  only  general  impressions  in  regard  to  the  physical 
training  work  in  the  Volksschulen.  A  discussion  of  the  actual 
exercises  and  methods  would  not  be  of  benefit  sufficient  to  merit 
the  space  here. 

The  work  is,  on  the  whole,  too  military  in  character,  due,  no 
doubt,  to  the  military  training  of  many  of  the  teachers  and  to 
the  military  purpose  to  which  the  subject  looks  for-  ^j^jj^j^^j^jj^ 
ward.  As  far  as  our  observations  carried  us,  the  chil- 
dren do  not  get  to  play  —  really  play.  It  is  all  too  formal  — 
there  is  no  free  play  to  speak  of  at  all.  Everything  is  directed 
and  proposed  by  the  teacher.  According  to  the  regulation 
of  1910  the  third  gymnasium  period  is  given  over  entirely 
to  play  — this  indicates  in  itself  what  the  need  of  the  physical 
training  work  is.  The  teachers  themselves  are  poorly  prepared 
for  their  work  and  too  often  detest  doing  it.  They  are  seldom 
properly  dressed  for  it  and  this  is  no  doubt  the  cause  for  the 


536  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

dislike.  The  children  frequently  do  not  enjoy  the  exercises 
because  they  are  not  clothed  for  it  and  are  uncomfortable  after- 
wards because  of  being  forced  to  sit  around  in  sweaty  garments. 
At  the  same  time,  although  the  methods  may  be  condemned, 
the  amount  of  time  and  importance  given  to  the  subject  holds  a 
very  important  lesson  for  us.  We,  as  a  nation,  neglect  the  health 
and  bodies  of  our  children  in  the  public  school.  No  German 
child  is  overlooked.  Some  will  say  that  the  children  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Kansas  City,  and  Nashville  do 
receive  physical  training.  Thus  far  it  is  good.  What  of  the 
children  in  the  country?  And  in  the  small  towns  and  cities? 
They  receive  nothing.  Some  day  America  will  learn  that  healthy 
citizens  are  its  greatest  assets. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

CONCLUSION 

The  reader  who  turns  to  this  chapter  without  having  read 
closely  the  preceding  ones  is  sure  to  be  disappointed.  An  effort 
has  been  made  to  put  forward  a  plain  statement  of  the  facts  as 
they  have  been  observed,  and  we  have  not  been  anxious  to 
interpret  them,  because  we  should  prefer  that  our  observations 
serve  as  a  basis  of  opinion  rather  than  that  we  should  impose  our 
own  interpretation  upon  the  reader.  The  impressions  that  have 
been  received  will  be  summarized,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made  to 
indicate  some  of  the  ways  in  which  American  school  men  might 
profitably  learn  from  the  Germans. 

Students  of  German  elementary  schools  often  err  in  their 
judgment  of  this  type  of  school  because  they  do  not  understand 
its  relation  to  the  whole  educational  machinery.  The  Volks- 
sckule  is  only  one  of  the  many  parts  which  make  up  the  educa- 
tional system.  Each  part,  whether  it  be  the  elementary  school 
system,  the  higher  school  system,  the  universities,  the  normal 
schools,  technical  schools,  or  continuation  schools,  performs  a 
very  definite  function  in  the  educational  work  which  the  State 
requires  to  be  done. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  leaders  of  Germany  de- 
cided that  Germany  should  assume  leadership  in  the  world  in 
every  line  of  endeavor,  particularly  in  commerce  and  world 
power.  They  set  this  as  the  very  definite  goal  of  their  national 
ambition.  The  next  question  was  how  that  aim  could  be  accom- 
plished. It  was  to  be  done  through  education.  Accordingly 
school  systems  were  organized  with  this  aim  in  view.    In  a  state 

S37 


538  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

such  as  the  Germans  proposed  building  there  were  to  be  leaders 
and  followers.  The  followers  were  to  be  trained  for  a  docile, 
efficient  German  citizenship;  that  is,  the  lower  classes  were  to 
be  made  into  God-fearing,  patriotic,  economically  independent 
Germans.  This  was  the  task  of  the  Volksschule,  and  it  has  been 
wonderfully  well  accomplished.  This  type  of  German  is  created 
to  do  the  manual  labor  of  the  State. 

The  leaders  were  to  be  trained  in  the  middle  and  higher  schools 
and  in  the  universities.  There  were  to  be  different  grades  of 
leaders :  leaders  in  the  lower  walks  of  life,  leaders  in  the  middle 
walks  of  life,  and  leaders  of  the  nation.  The  higher  school  and 
universities  were  employed  to  produce  these  tjT)es  of  leaders. 
From  the  time  of  beginning  in  the  higher  school  at  the  age  of 
nine  until  the  universities  are  finished,  barriers  are  placed  in  the 
way  of  advancement  of  those  who  would  become  leaders.  Those 
who  fail  at  the  age  of  fifteen  at  the  time  of  the  one-year  volun- 
teer examination,  or  who  quit  school  at  that  age,  become  leaders 
of  the  lower  order.  Those  who  fall  before  the  barrier  of  the 
leaving  examination  of  the  higher  schools  become  leaders  of  some- 
what higher  rank.  In  the  universities,  the  restraint  of  the  higher 
schools  is  withdrawn,  and  the  students  are  given  absolute  free- 
dom. Those  who  can  survive  this  test  of  character  and  who 
can  pass  the  state  examinations  have  opened  to  themselves  the 
way  to  become  the  leaders  in  national  affairs ;  those  who  carmot 
survive  must  accept  lower  positions. 

There  are  then  leaders  and  followers.  The  leaders  think  and 
do;  the  followers  merely  do.  The  schools  are  organized  for 
the  express  purpose  of  producing  just  these  types.  It  is  pre- 
cisely because  these  facts  are  true  that  we  cannot  take  over  the 
German  system  or  any  of  its  parts  without  radical  changes. 
They  educate  the  individual  for  the  state;  we  make  the  state 
for  the  individual. 

The  lesson  to  learn  here  is  this.    The  German  sets  definitely 


CONCLUSION  S39 

his  national  aims.  Those  in  authority  shape  every  resource  to 
reach  that  goal.  The  schools  were  molded  to  meet  the  needs 
of  state.  We,  in  America,  should  formulate  very  definitely 
the  goal  in  keeping  with  democratic  principles  for  which  we  are 
aiming  and  shape  our  educational  policies  toward  that  end. 
Unless  we  take  the  situation  in  hand  and  prepare  our  citizenship 
to  meet  shocks  from  without,  our  country  is  ahnost  sure  to  meet 
with  grave  disaster. 

Any  conclusions  as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  German  schools 
must  be  drawn  with  due  regard  for  the  purpose  which  the  schools 
are  intended  to  subserve.  One  must  judge  the  achievements 
of  the  German  elementary  schools  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
German,  for  what  may  be  highly  inefficient  for  us  may  be  of  the 
greatest  efficiency  for  him.  The  school  that  can  turn  out  a 
good  hard-working,  industriously  efficient,  law-abiding  German, 
content  to  plod  along  in  his  unchanging  groove,  must  be  considered 
excellent  in  Germany,  but  would  be  open  to  the  severest  criti- 
cism if  it  were  established  in  America.  That  of  which  we  dis- 
approve is  usually  condemnable  only  from  our  own.  standpoint, 
although  it  may  be  highly  praiseworthy  when  judged  from  the 
German  point  of  view. 

The  fixst  great  aim  of  German  elementary  education  is  the 
production  of  an  efficient  German  citizen.  An  efficient  German 
citizen  is  one  who  is  God-fearing,  one  who  is  economi- 

-        ,  t  1       'ii*  Aim  of 

cally  independent  and  who  is  ready  and  wimng  to  German 
take  his  place  in  that  part  of  the  social  order  to  which  ^^^^^ 
he  belongs.     This  comes  to  mean  that  the  Volksschule 
must  furnish  that  general  education  which  is  necessary  to  all 
citizens  and  which  is  the  basis  of  subsequent  occupational  train- 
ing.    This  latter  training  is  usually  cared  for  by  the  Fachschulen 
or  special  schools ;  in  this  case,  the  continuation  and  trade  schools. 
The  second  aim  of  German  elementary  education  is  an  un- 
conscious   one,    but    nevertheless    unavoidably    present.    We 


540  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

interpret  it  as  the  felt  need  of  producing  in  large  numbers  a  type 
of  citizenship  easily  amenable  to  the  dictates  of  bureaucratic 
of&cialdom.  This  under  class  is  composed  of  the  peasants, 
small  tradesmen,  subordinate  officials,  artisans,  and  other  labor- 
ing classes,  together  comprising  fully  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
total  population. 

Chief  among  the  avowed  aims  of  the  Volkssckule  is  the  forma- 
tion of  moral  and  religious  character.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  reason  religion  is  made  one  of  jthe  chief  subjects  of  in- 
struction in  the  elementary  schools  is  to  teach  the  lesson  of 
obedience  to  authority  which  is  the  basis  of  the  German  state. 

The  reader  should  interpret  the  preceding  chapters  in  the 
light  of  the  aims  of  the  elementary  school  which  we  have  just 
stated.  In  no  other  way  can  a  variety  of  practices  current 
in  the  German  Volkssckule  be  Justified. 

The  educational  system  of  Germany  has  developed  from  the 
higher  forms  of  education  downward.  Also,  as  a  corollary, 
J  schools  for  the  upper  classes  of  society  developed 
theDevei-  long  before  general  institutions  of  learning  were 
ttroerman  estabHshed  for  the  common  people.  The  Volkssckule 
Voiks-  has  been  evolved  for  the  most  part  since  the  middle 

schule  r     1         .   ,  .  .     , 

of  the  eighteenth  century,  m  a  penod  contempora- 
neous with  the  universal  democratic  movement  in  all  human  in- 
stitutions. However,  the  Volkssckule  is  not,  in  Germany,  the 
product  of  a  desire  felt  by  the  masses  for  general  culture  and 
training  or  for  the  foundations  of  occupational  education.  The 
elementary  schools  have  been  given  to  the  people  by  rulers  who 
saw  that  the  strength  of  Government  lay  in  an  educated  body 
of  subjects.  Perhaps  it  would  be  clearer  to  say  that  the  elemen- 
tary school  system  of  Germany  was  created  by  the  Government 
for  the  people.  The  people  themselves  did  not  demand  it. 
Nevertheless,  the  school  system  is  now  a  thing  which  the  Govern- 
ment can  no  longer  take  away  from  the  governed.    A  partial 


CONCLUSION  S4I 

explanation  of  the  lack  of  sympathy  between  the  home  and  the 
school  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  school  is  not  of  and  from  the 
people.  This,  naturally,  is  not  the  only  cause  for  this  lack  of 
sympathy.  It  is,  however,  the  historical  factor  in  bringing 
about  the  situation  of  which  we  speak.  Because  over-centrah- 
zation  of  administrative,  and  the  paternalistic  attitude  of  the 
government  in  educational  matters  have  largely  produced  a 
vast  chasm  between  the  home  and  school  in  Germany,  our 
American  states  should  be  on  guard  against  these  errors.  The 
school  can  only  be  a  living  social  factor  in  so  far  as  it  is  of  and 
from  the  people  and  the  product  of  their  own  activity. 

The  next  lesson  which  we  Americans  can  draw  from  the  history 
of  the  Volksschule  is  that  the  excellency  of  the  schools  stands 
in  direct  ratio  to  the  eflBiciency  and  preparedness  of  the  teaching 
body.  Capable  teachers  must  be  adequately  paid  and  adequately 
educated.  There  is  a  very  high  coefl&cient  of  correlation  between 
the  eflSciency  of  schools  and  the  amount  of  money  spent  upon 
them.  Germany's  schools  have  improved  as  the  total  amount 
expended  upon  them  has  increased. 

Reference  to  the  chapter  dealing  with  the  statistics  of  the 
German  schools  shows  us  that  the  average  amount  spent  for 
the  education  of  each  child  is  about  sixteen  dollars.  The  amount 
is  less  than  is  expended  in  some  American  states,  but  it  is  a  great 
deal  more  than  in  a  majority  of  our  states,  especially  those  in 
the  South.  Even  if  the  amount  expended  per  child  in  Ger- 
many does  not  equal  that  spent  in  our  richest  states,  it  is 
large  enough  to  insure  a  very  high  minimum  of  excellency,  below 
which  none  of  the  schools  fall,  either  in  the  city  or  in  the  country. 
The  point  is  this ;  all  of  the  German  schools  are  grouped  closely 
together  on  the  scales  of  efficiency  and  of  amount  of  expenditure. 
This  insures  protection  against  unevenness  and  holes  in  the 
general  education  of  the  people.  A  curve  representing  the 
degrees  of  efficiency  of  German  schools  in  different  communities 


542  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

would  approach  closely  a  straight  line,  while  a  curve  for  Ameri- 
can elementary  schools  would  be  a  very  broken  one. 

Teaching  in  Germany  is  a  profession.  The  members  of  the 
teaching  body  form  a  clear-cut,  well-defined  professional  group 
just  as  do  lawyers  and  doctors.  That  teaching  is  a 
profession  in  Germany  means  that  a  certain  fixed 
standard  of  preparation  has  been  required  of  those  persons  get- 
ting ready  for  that  field  of  work.  It  also  means  that  its  mem- 
bers remain  teachers  for  life.  Teaching  in  America  is  not  yet 
a  profession  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  because  there  is  no 
commonly  accepted  minimum  of  preparation  for  the  calling, 
and  because  the  teaching  body  changes  so  very  rapidly.  The 
most  of  our  teachers  make  teaching  a  stepping-stone  to  some 
other  pursuit.  The  questions  before  us  now  are,  how  shall  we 
make  the  average  teaching  life  of  our  teachers  longer,  and  how 
shall  we  raise  the  standards  for  the  certification  in  our  elementary 
schools  ? 

The  best  way  to  increase  the  length  of  service  of  our  teachers 
is  to  provide  a  money  compensation  which  is  in  some  way  ade- 
quate for  the  work  done.  The  reason  that  the  most  of  our 
teachers,  especially  the  men,  quit  the  field  is  because  there  is 
no  money  in  it,  frequently  not  enough  to  insure  a  decent  living. 
This  point  is  by  no  means  a  new  one,  but  the  study  of  the  Ger- 
man elementary  scales  impresses  the  truth  and  value  of  this 
fact  upon  our  minds.  The  German  elementary  school  teacher 
does  not  receive  a  princely  salary,  in  fact,  less,  much  less,  than 
elementary  teachers  in  many  of  our  larger  cities,  but  such  as  it 
is,  it  is  adequate  and  secure.  His  salary  provides  for  him  a 
comfortable  home,  education  for  his  children,  some  savings, 
and  a  pension.  It  is  not  very  difiicult  to  account  for  the  fact 
that  teachers  thus  provided  for  do  not  leave  the  profession. 
If  teaching  is  ever  recognized  as  a  full-fledged  profession  in 
America,  it  will  be  only  when  we  pay  our  teachers  adequate 


CONCLUSION  S43 

salaries.  As  salaries  are  increased,  so  increase  the  requirements 
necessary  for  appointment  and  the  length  of  time  which  teachers 
remain  in  the  work,  because  all  three  of  these  elements  are 
closely  interwoven  with  each  other  and  increase  and  decrease 
together. 

The  German  elementary  teacher  is  better  paid  than  the  Amer- 
ican teacher  of  the  same  rank.  If  American  and  German  ele- 
mentary school  teachers'  salaries  were  plotted  on  a  scale,  it  would 
be  found  that  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  of  the  German  teachers 
would  receive  far  higher  salaries  than  the  middle  fifty  per  cent 
of  American  teachers.  For  example,  the  percentage  of  German 
teachers  in  the  Volksschule  receiving  seven  hundred  dollars 
yearly  would  be  far  greater  than  the  percentage  of  American 
teachers  receiving  the  same  amount. 

A  distinct  advantage  of  the  German  salary  system  over  the 
American  is  that  the  difference  in  salaries  paid  in  the  city  and 
in  the  country  is  by  no  means  as  great  there  as  it  is  here  at 
home.  In  fact,  the  only  difference  between  the  salaries  in 
Germany  in  cities  and  in  country  districts  is  that  in  urban  com- 
munities local  increments  are  paid  in  order  to  equalize  the  cost 
of  living.  America  must  learn  that  the  work  of  the  country 
teacher  is  just  as  important  as  that  of  the  city  teacher  and  should 
be  equally  well  compensated. 

The  German  salary  system  has  stiU  another  phase,  which 
may  be  advantageous  to  us  if  adopted  to  some  small  degree  in 
America.  The  Germans  do  not  pay  an  administrative  oflScer 
in  their  schools  a  very  much  greater  salary  than  they  pay  the 
regular  teacher.  We  Americans  very  often  pay  a  superintend- 
ent fifteen  hundred  dollars  and  the  teachers  who  have  been  an 
equal  length  of  time  in  the  service  only  half  or  less  than  half  as 
much.  We  should  try  at  least  to  strike  a  proper  relationship 
between  the  salary  of  the  administrators  and  that  of  the  ordinary 
teacher. 


544  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

In  close  connection  with  the   German  salary  scale  is  the 

teacher's  pension,  which  is  granted  in  all  German  states.    Pen- 

,    sions  in  Germany  are  for  the  most  part  paid  by  the 

Permanent  •'  ^         ^  ■' 

Pension  State.  Pension  systems  which  are  supported  by  the 
ystem  State  are  based  on  a  number  of  errors.  First,  if  the 
teachers  are  not  compelled  to  contribute  to  the  fund,  the  in- 
centive for  economy  and  saving  is  taken  from  them.  This, 
however,  is  not  always  the  case.  Secondly,  we  can  see  no  reason 
why  teachers  should  be  pensioned  at  all,  if  their  salaries  are 
adequate  during  the  years  of  active  service.  Fundamentally 
there  is  no  more  reason  for  pensioning  a  school  teacher  than 
there  is  for  pensioning  a  grocer}mian  or  a  butcher.  Each  in  his 
way  performs  a  service  for  the  state  or  society  and  each  fills  a 
necessary  place  in  a  social  order.  Every  citizen  should  be 
economically  independent  from  the  time  he  enters  upon  his 
life  work  until  his  death.  The  time  for  the  teacher  to  receive 
compensation  for  his  service  is  while  he  is  performing  that  ser- 
vice, and  not  two  steps  before  the  grave.  In  America  there  is 
a  social  stigma  attached  to  the  person  who  draws  a  pension  or 
lives  from  money  that  he  has  not  earned.  If  we  are  to  have 
pensions  at  all,  let  us  have  contributory  systems.  It  may  at 
least  develop  a  spirit  of  thrift  in  our  teachers  which  up  to  this 
time  has  been  sadly  lacking. 

The  total  preparation  of  the  elementary  teacher  in  Germany 
requires  fourteen  years.  As  nearly  as  we  can  judge  this  course, 
it  is  the  equivalent  of  the  American  high  school  course  and 
two  years  in  college  plus  the  professional  courses  —  pedagogy, 
psychology,  and  history  of  education.  This  is  the  minimum 
that  is  required  of  every  regular  teacher.  Any  one  acquainted 
with  the  amount  of  preparation  which  a  very  great  number  of 
our  elementary  teachers  have  can  see  immediately  why  the 
German  schools  on  the  average  are  superior  to  ours.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  we  have  a  uniform    standard  of  preparation 


CONCLUSION  545 

throughout  the  country,  but  it  is  decidedly  necessary  that  a 
lower  limit  of  preparation  be  agreed  upon,  with  less  than  which 
no  teacher  can  be  certificated. 

Another  very  excellent  feature  of  the  teacher-training  system 
is  that  the  preparation  or  training  requirements  of  the  country 
teacher  are  just  as  high  as  those  of  the  city  teacher.  In  fact, 
a  vast  majority  of  all  teachers  have  taught  in  rural  communities. 
The  result  of  this  quality  of  training  is  that  the  work  in  the 
country  schools  is  almost  as  efficiently  done  as  in  the  cities. 
The  child  does  not  suffer  in  his  general  training  from  accident 
in  place  of  birth.  It  foUows,  of  course,  that  the  salaries  in  rural 
communities  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  cities.  The 
thought  presented  in  this  paragraph  is  of  vital  importance  to 
us  in  America.  A  child  on  the  farm  is  just  as  valuable  as  the 
one  in  the  city  and  has  every  right  to  equal  privileges.  The 
most  striking  thing  about  the  elementary  school  system  in  Ger- 
many is  that  all  schools,  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country, 
possess  the  essentials  of  an  efficient  school  plant  —  trained 
teachers,  good  salaries,  hygienic  and  sanitary  conditions,  well- 
equipped  buildings,  teaching  material,  and  all  other  things  which 
are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  proper  functioning  of  the  school. 
We  in  America  know  what  is  necessary  for  good  schools,  but 
we  do  not  furnish  all  our  children  with  the  same  degree  of  oppor- 
tunity for  development.  Our  country  schools  are  by  no  means 
on  the  same  plane  of  excellency  as  our  better  city  schools.  Our 
rural  schools  are  in  want  of  good  teachers,  good  buildings,  money, 
and,  more  than  aU  else,  sanitary  conditions  under  which  the 
children  may  work  to  the  best  advantage.  Until  we  bring  up 
our  country  schools  to  a  decent  standard,  imtil  we  give  the  child 
in  rural  commtmities  equal,  or  at  least  fair  opportiuiities,  we 
shall  continue  to  strike  at  the  foimdation  of  our  national  re- 
sources and  to  waste  our  vital  forces. 

We  believe  that  the  chief  points  in  which  the  German  teacher 


546  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

has  the  advantage  over  the  American  are :  education  or  prep- 
aration ;  permanency  in  the  profession ;  and  in  regard  to  salary. 
In  other  points  the  American  does  not  suffer  in  comparison. 
The  three  factors  which  we  have  just  mentioned,  as  we  said 
before,  are  all  really  one  and  the  same.  One  factor  cannot  be 
changed  without  affecting  the  other  two. 

It  seems  that  the  best  way  to  attack  the  problem  of  the  Ameri- 
can public  schdol  is  to  take  a  lesson  from  Germany  in  regard  to 
centralization  and  uniformity  in  the  matter  of  teacher  training 
and  teachers'  salaries.  The  preparation  and  certification  of 
teachers  ought  to  be  a  matter  of  central  state  authority,  be- 
cause then  we  would  have  a  more  general  uniformity  along 
the  minimal  Une.  Likewise,  the  appointment  in  the  last  instance 
should  rest  with  this  central  authority  and  should  be  permanent. 
Appointment  of  teachers  must  be  taken  out  of  the  range  of 
local  politics,  jealousies,  personal  influence  of  family  and  the 
other  things  which  have  made  the  selection  of  our  elementary 
teachers  a  matter  of  accident  rather  than  of  real  quahfication. 

To  any  one  who  visits  American  elementary  schools  the  most 
apparent  needs  are  that  the  teachers  have  not  a  great  enough 
store  of  facts  to  present  and  that  their  methods  are  poorly 
grounded.  In  the  first  place,  the  German  elementary  teacher 
on  the  average  knows  more  things  to  teach  and  better  how  to 
teach  them  than  does  the  American  teacher.  This  is  due  to 
training  alone.  It  frequently  occmrs  in  our  schools  that  a  teacher 
knows  enough  subject  matter  but  has  no  good  way  of  im- 
parting it  to  the  children.  In  all  our  observation  in  German 
schools,  we  have  rarely  seen  a  teacher  who  did  not  have  a  fairly 
good  method,  if  the  aim  of  German  education  were  kept  firmly 
in  mind.  The  situation  as  we  have  it  in  America  is  due  largely 
to  the  fact  that  a  vast  number  of  our  teachers  have  had  no 
training  for  teaching  at  all  or,  if  any,  only  for  a  very  brief  period. 
The  following  case  is  t3rpical  of  what  some  of  our  larger  cities 


CONCLUSION  547 

permit.  In  a  large  Southern  city  where  there  is  a  widely  known 
college  for  teachers,  there  are  about  fifty  girls  who  finished  high 
school  one  year  ago.  They  have  attended  the  college  for  a  year, 
taking  drawing,  sewing,  cooking,  and  English.  Next  year  they 
intend  to  teach  in  the  primary  grades  of  the  above-mentioned 
city.  They  will  have  had  no  pedagogy,  no  psychology,  nor 
anything  except  subject  matter,  to  prepare  them  to  become 
primary  teachers.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  up  pages  in  point- 
ing out  Germany's  lesson  to  us  in  this  matter. 

The  impression  which  a  careful  observer  receives  of  the  Ger- 
man school  teacher  is  that  each  one  of  them  has  a  vision,  each 
one  sees  what  Germany's  ideals  are,  what  Germany's  hopes 
are,  and  what  are  the  purposes  of  the  public  schools.  So  many 
of  our  teachers  do  not.  The  profession  is  a  stepping  stone  to 
some  other  profession,  business  and  law  for  men,  marriage  for 
women.  Each  German  teacher  believes  most  fervently  that 
the  destiny  of  his  country  rests  in  his  hands,  since  he  must  train 
the  youth  in  patriotic,  ef&cient  German  citizenship.  The 
lesson  which  the  German  elementary  teacher  furnishes  us  is  the 
hardest  one  to  instill  in  our  teachers'  minds  and  characters; 
it  is  the  lesson  of  patriotism,  toil,  imdying  ardor,  and  zeal  for 
the  work  in  hand.  We  take  the  liberty  to  quote  from  a  letter 
written  since  the  recent  war  began.  It  is  almost  identically 
the  substance  of  a  conversation  which  we  had  with  the  writer 
in  April,  1914,  in  which  he  prophesied  the  war  and  told  us 
in  what  hght  he  considered  his  duty  and  privilege  as  a  teacher. 
An  extract  from  the  letter  f oUows  : 

Here  we  are  working,  and  we  shall  do  our  duty  as  long  as  we  remain 
here.  If  the  Fatherland  calls,  then  with  God  for  Kaiser  and  the  Empire ; 
for  the  pen  and  the  sword ;  instead  of  teaching  history,  we  shall  help  make 
history.  The  fourteen  himdred  boys  and  girls  of  my  school  work  just  as 
well  and  diligently  as  when  you  were  here.  Only  now  and  then  the  chil- 
dren have  a  holiday  when  our  courageous  troops  announce  new  victories  in 


548  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

the  East  and  in  the  West.    Then  you  should  see  the  eyes  and  cheeks  of  our 

boys  and  girls  burn.    Then,  my  dear  A ,  one  can  see  how  wonderful 

the  work  of  a  teacher  reaUy  is.  Our  people,  who  are  fighting  for  their  most 
sacred  possessions,  wiU  conquer,  and  will  sooner  die  than  live  in  slavery,  for 
without  honor  and  without  freedom  no  true  man  can  wish  to  live. 

A  study  of  school  administration  in  Prussia  holds  a  very  vital 
lesson  in  the  matter  of  state  and  county  organization  and  super- 
vision of  pubKc  instruction,  especially  with  reference  to  rural 
schools.  Our  schools  should  be  removed  entirely  from  the  realm 
of  poKtics.  All  positions  in  our  schools,  supervisory  or  other- 
wise, should  be  appointive  or  on  a  civil  service  basis  rather  than 
elective.  The  vast  majority  of  our  state  superintendents  hold 
their  positions  for  poUtical  reasons  much  more  than  for  pro- 
fessional fitness  and  ability.  Merit  should  be  the  sole  basis 
of  appointment  to  such  an  important  educational  office,  and  the 
term  of  tenure  should  depend  entirely  on  the  continuance  of 
efficient  and  satisfactory  service,  the  degree  of  efficiency  rendered 
to  be  determined  by  a  board  of  educational  experts. 

It  is,  however,  with  the  smaller  unit  of  school  organization 
that  we  must  concern  ourselves.  For  many  years  the  district 
system  has  prevailed  in  America  as  far  as  our  rural  schools  have 
been  concerned,  although  we  have  had  county  supervision  in 
most  of  our  states.  Our  coimty  superintendents  have  generally 
been  untrained  as  far  as  special  preparation  for  administering 
and  supervising  of  schools  was  concerned.  As  a  rule  county 
superintendents  have  been  teachers  who  by  means  of  political 
influence  or  local  popularity  have  had  themselves  elected  to 
this  office  without  ever  having  shown  any  particular  fitness  or 
preparation  for  the  work.  Consequently  our  rural  schools  have 
never  had  the  same  quality  of  administration  or  supervision 
that  our  city  schools  have  had.  There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that 
we  must  give  our  rural  schools  as  efficient  and  thorough  super- 
vision as  we  give  our  city  schools,  if  we  believe  that  the  rural 


CONCLUSION  549 

population  is  as  important  a  factor  of  our  social  life  as  the  urban 
populations. 

In  Germany,  theoretically  and  to  a  large  extent  practically, 
the  rural  schools  are  under  the  same  sort  of  supervision  as  the 
city  schools.  The  district  school  inspectors  {Kreisschtdinspek- 
toren)  have  control  not  only  of  the  rural  schools  but  also  of  the 
city  schools,  no  matter  what  the  size  of  the  city  may  be.  Such 
inspectors  may  be  called  from  any  section  of  the  country  and 
the  choice  need  not  necessarily  be  Hmited  to  teachers  who  have 
served  for  a  long  time  in  the  commimity  in  question.  In  this 
way  the  most  efficient  applicant  may  be  chosen  for  the  position. 
How  different  is  it  here  in  America !  The  rural  schools  in  Ger- 
many, in  an  ever-increasing  percentage,  have  trained  district 
inspectors,  who  correspond  rather  closely  to  our  county  super- 
intendents. In  every  case  the  occupants  of  this  office  are  highly 
educated  and  have  had  wide  experience  in  the  education  of  the 
people.  Our  usual  county  superintendent  compares  in  no  way 
with  the  German  inspector. 

The  unit  of  school  administration  ia  Germany  is  preeminently 
more  satisfactory  than  our  traditional  district  system  in  this 
country.  The  administrative  county  (Regierungsbezirk)  is 
the  unit  of  school  administration  as  far  as  the  Volksschulen 
are  concerned.  These  counties  are  very  similar  to  counties  in 
America  with  reference  to  size  and  to  some  administrative 
powers.  The  inspectors  who  represent  the  county  and  who 
actually  carry  on  the  immediate  inspection  of  the  schools  are 
the  KrdsschuUnspektoren.  They  are  the  immediate  representa- 
tives of  the  central  govenment  at  Berlin  and  are  the  superiors 
of  all  other  school  authorities  in  their  districts.  They  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown  and  hence  removed  from  petty  local 
interference ;  and  they  are  highly  trained  for  their  work.  The 
advantage  of  having  a  large  unit  for  administration  is  that 
financial  resources  of  the  district  can  be  better  utilized  for  the 


5  so  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

benefit  of  all,  which  means  a  high  standard  of  efficiency  in  every 
way.  It  also  means  that  the  educational  policy  of  the  schools 
is  not  left  to  a  great  number  of  local  and  less  competent  school 
board  members.  About  the  only  thing  the  local  board  does 
in  a  German  community  is  to  make  proposals  and  to  pay  the 
bills.    Educational  experts  decide  how  it  ought  to  be  done. 

Even  in  some  of  our  counties  which  have  a  central  board, 
what  is  the  condition?  There  is  frequently  a  county  super- 
intendent who  inspects  schools  and  certificates  teachers.  As 
likely  as  not  the  other  members  of  the  board  are  a  number  of 
cheap  politicians  who  have  interest  in  schools  because  of  the 
patronage  they  control.  They  know  nothing  of  education  as  a 
profession  or  of  educational  aim,  and  they  are  in  many  cases 
scarcely  more  than  literate.  Contrast  this  with  the  German 
county  board.  The  business  end  of  the  schools  is  handled  by 
highly  trained  government  officials,  who  hold  their  positions  on 
civil  service  examination.  The  educational  side  of  the  schools 
is  under  the  control  of  educators  who  have  no  interest  in  politics 
whatever.  The  lesson  for  us  is  plain.  The  worst  form  of 
tyranny  is  ignorance  and  inefficiency. 

The  financing  of  schools  in  Germany  holds  a  very  important 
lesson  for  those  interested  in  the  question  of  school  finance.  It 
costs  about  sixteen  dollars  a  year  to  educate  each  child  in  the 
Volksschulen  of  Germany.  Why  does  it  cost  so  much  more  in 
this  country  to  give  a  child  the  same  kind  of  training  ?  The  dif- 
ference in  the  price  of  building  materials  and  supplies  is  part 
of  the  answer,  but  not  all.  Politics  do  not  enter  into  the  financing 
of  German  schools.  Bids  are  let  to  the  lowest  bidder,  and  the 
buildings  are  never  let  out  to  one  firm.  Each  item  is  subject 
to  a  bid.  It  makes  no  difference  to  the  educational  authorities 
who  receives  the  contracts.  There  are  no  embezzlements; 
there  are  no  rake-offs.  Further  than  this,  expensive  educational 
experiments  are  never  tried  on  a  large  scale  until  they  have  been 


CONCLUSION  SSI 

thoroughly  tested.  There  is  no  retracing  of  ground,  no  payment 
for  failures.  And  last  but  not  least  no  money  is  handled  by 
school  teachers  or  men  who  have  been  school  teachers,  for  that 
is  considered  to  be  the  work  of  men  trained  for  business.  It 
furnishes  food  for  thought  when  we  realize  that  it  costs  about 
one  hundred  sixty  millions  of  dollars  a  year  to  educate  all  the 
children  in  Germany  who  attend  the  lower  schools.  These 
children  number  over  eleven  millions.  New  York  City  alone 
pays  over  thirty  million  each  year  for  her  children. 

Germany  excels  us  also  in  the  matter  of  school  statistics. 
Any  one  who  can  read  German  can  find  out  in  ten  minutes  more 
about  salaries  actually  paid  to  teachers  than  an  American  stu- 
dent can  discover  about  the  same  subject  here  in  America  in 
ten  years  or  in  fifty.  One  can  tell  in  one  minute  Just  how  many 
teachers  there  are  in  Prussia  between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  forty 
and  the  distribution  of  their  salaries  in  groups  varying  twenty- 
five  dollars  from  each  other.  One  can  find  out  age,  salary,  and 
length  of  service,  and  any  other  item  which  our  teachers'  colleges 
investigate  in  the  time  it  takes  to  read  the  figures.  These  items 
can  never  be  known  in  this  country  under  our  present  system. 
It  is  undemocratic  to  know  such  things.  We  can  safely  say  we 
know  but  little  about  the  educational  statistics  of  this  country 
as  a  whole,  and  it  is  our  most  pressing  administrative  need.  Who 
can  tell  how  many  children  were  retarded  in  grade  in  the  United 
States  last  year  ?  Nobody  can,  and  still  the  retarded  child  costs 
an  enormous  amount  each  year.  It  is  undemocratic  to  be 
efficient. 

Another  vital  matter  of  administration  is  compulsory  school 
attendance.  The  German  compulsory  education  law,  reenforced 
by  imperial  child-labor  laws,  is  compulsory  in  every  sense  of 
the  word.  The  children  go  to  school  all  the  time  there  is  school 
in  session,  and  sickness  is  the  only  excuse.  All  children  attend. 
The  police  attend  to  that,  but  it  is  only  seldom  that  the  police 


552  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

are  called  upon,  for  the  people  of  Germany  respect  the  law.  It 
is  undemocratic  to  respect  and  obey  laws.  The  larger  percentage 
of  our  compulsory  education  laws  are  farces.  Even  if  they  were 
enforced,  it  would  improve  the  educational  situation  but  little. 
What  does  the  enforcement  of  a  law  mean  which  compels  a 
child  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  twelve  to  attend  school 
unless  it  can  already  read  or  write  ?  Under  our  system  of  regis- 
tration of  our  inhabitants,  we  do  not  know  how  many  children 
there  are  in  a  community,  especially  in  cities,  how  old  these 
children  are,  or  how  long  they  have  attended  school.  It  is  un- 
democratic to  have  such  records.  It  is  perfectly  possible  to  live 
in  a  large  American  city  and  have  several  children  who  never 
attend  school  at  all.  If  they  do  attend,  they  may  go  as  often 
as  they  want  and  the  only  thing  necessary  to  excuse  them  is  a 
note  written  by  the  children  themselves  or  the  parents.  All  the 
compulsory  education  laws  in  the  world  will  do  no  good  until  we 
know  how  many  children  there  are,  their  ages,  and  where  they 
live.  We  can  never  educate  our  people  until  we  get  them  all 
in  school. 

There  is  another  lesson  for  us  in  Germany's  care,  on  a  national 
scale,  for  her  exceptional  children,  particularly  the  weaker  ones. 
Compulsory  education  extends  to  the  weaker-minded,  the  blind, 
the  deaf,  the  crippled,  as  well  as  to  any  others.  The  purpose 
is  to  save  even  the  broken  branches  for  the  state.  They  too 
are  a  part  of  the  national  resources  and  the  educational  authori- 
ties strive,  not  only  for  humanitarian  reasons  but  also  for  eco- 
nomical reasons,  to  make  the  weak  stronger  and  as  little  a  burden 
as  possible  upon  the  state.  We  in  America  are  making  efforts 
in  this  direction,  but  they  are  spasmodic.  There  is  no  centralized 
movement.  The  movement  if  undertaken  by  the  state,  par- 
ticularly in  reference  to  retarded  children,  would  reach  all  and 
would  mean  a  great  saving  to  the  state  in  the  end,  and  lift  a 
heavy  burden  from  the  regular  schools.    The  Mannheim  system 


CONCLUSION  5S3 

and  the  regular  auxiliary  schools  of  all  cities  in  Germany  are 
worthy  of  study  to  this  end. 

The  methods,  the  How,  of  the  German  schools,  are  perhaps 
the  source  of  the  greatest  value  to  us.  How  they  teach  is  much 
more  important  than  what  they  teach,  although  the  latter  sub- 
ject is  of  great  importance.  We  refer  at  first  to  no  particular 
device  or  set  of  devices  or  modes  of  procedure  in  any  subject. 
To  be  brief,  we  mean  that  inasmuch  as  Germany  by  her  methods 
as  employed  in  the  Volksschulen  can  make  seventy  million  think 
and  act  as  one  man  is  the  most  significant  educational  fact,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  theory  which  Germany  can  teach  us  to-day. 
This  is  the  main  thesis  of  our  argument.  We  beUeve  the  steno- 
graphic lessons  and  the  discussion  of  the  methods  of  teaching 
prove  that  it  is  the  teaching  methods  employed  in  the  Volks- 
schulen which  have  wrought  this  miracle  within  a  hundred  years. 
The  important  lesson  of  the  German  schools  is  that  a  nation 
can  be  unified  in  thought  and  action  by  means  of  education, 
more  particularly  by  instruction. 

About  one  hundred  years  ago  and  again  forty-five  years  ago, 
the  leaders  of  the  German  nation  determined  to  place  Germany 
in  the  place  of  leadership  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  To 
accomphsh  this  end  a  highly  developed  citizenship,  both  leaders 
and  followers,  was  necessary.  The  universities  and  the  higher 
schools  have  trained  the  leaders ;  the  Volksschulen  have  trained 
the  followers.  The  great  masses  have  been  molded  and  cast 
in  one  die,  —  they  think  aKke,  —  they  act  aKke.  What  they 
think  and  what  they  do  is  deternained  by  the  leaders  of  the  nation. 
This  is  achieved  by  the  Volksschulen. 

At  this  point  the  selection  of  subject  matter  in  the  various 
subjects  in  the  elementary  school  plays  an  important  r61e.  In 
two  subjects,  history  and  religion,  is  found  the  key  to  the  whole 
situation.  The  courses  of  study  in  these  subjects  are  so  selected 
that  a  certain  attitude  of  mind  and  a  certain  mind  content  are 


554  PRUSSIAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

afforded  the  lower  classes,  which  when  finally  fixed  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  people  means  devotion  to  the  Emperor,  and  self- 
abnegation  and  subordination  to  the  State.  Those  portions  of  the 
Bible  are  chosen  which  have  most  to  do  with  obedience  to  the 
Heavenly  Father  and  his  representatives  on  earth,  which  are  in 
this  case,  the  princes  of  HohenzoUern.  The  course  in  history,  and 
indeed  in  every  other  subject,  is  chosen  very  largely  from  a 
patriotic,  national,  German  point  of  view.  So  much  for  the 
What  of  the  schools. 

By  an  inordinate  amount  of  memorization  of  the  selected  facts, 
by  constant  drill  on  the  achievements  and  power  of  the  German 
nation,  by  "Une  upon  line,  and  precept  upon  precept"  for  eight 
years,  and  then  by  service  in  the  army,  the  youthful  mind  is 
Germanized,  is  set  like  adamant  and  is  capable  of  no  change. 
The  work  of  the  Volksschule  is  accomplished,  for  the  masses 
think  alike  and  respond  as  a  man  to  the  slightest  suggestion 
from  authority. 

It  is  with  no  empty  bribe  that  the  common  people  of  Germany 
are  thus  led  into  spiritual  captivity.  Each  citizen  is  educated 
for  an  occupation,  his  home  is  secure  from  attack,  his  children 
are  in  good  schools,  he  is  protected  from  disease  and  famine, 
he  is  insured  against  accident  and  unemployment ;  old  age  has 
no  terrors.  Why  should  a  man  not  sacrifice  himself  for  the 
State  for  such  privileges?  To  a  man  who  has  never  lived  in 
a  state  of  free  opportunity  of  self-betterment,  to  a  man  who 
cannot  miss  what  he  has  never  known,  life  cannot  hold  much 
more  than  that  which  the  paternalistic  government  ia  Germany 
affords. 

Methods  of  instruction  in  the  various  subjects,  particularly 
in  history,  religion,  science,  and  arithmetic,  hold  many  valuable 
lessons  for  teachers  in  the  American  elementary  schools.  The 
important  question  is,  however,  can  we  increase  our  national 
efficiency  by  content  of  curricula  and  methods  of  instruction 


CONCLUSION  55S 

in  the  lower  schools  ?  Of  course,  it  cannot  be  done  in  the  same 
way  as  it  is  done  in  Germany,  because  this  is  a  republic  and 
our  conception  of  the  individual  and  his  rights  is  not  the  same 
as  in  Germany. 

To  achieve  the  fullness  of  our  national  possibilities  we,  as 
Germany  has  already  done,  must  set  definitely  the  goal  of 
national  aims.  We  must  know  the  end  of  our  efforts.  Then  we 
must  mold  our  means  and  methods  to  obtain  that  which  we 
have  fully  resolved  upon.  Germany  has  shown  us  what  can 
be  done  in  a  comparatively  short  time  with  a  definite  aim  and 
definite  methods.  The  methods  which  Germany  has  used 
would  not  be  applicable  here,  for  they  lead  in  exactly  the  op- 
posite direction  from  that  in  which  we  are  endeavoring  to  go. 

And  the  necessity  of  action  is  upon  us,  necessity  from  without, 
and  necessity  from  within.  The  education  of  patriotic,  self- 
sacrificing,  capable  citizens  is  the  only  thing  which  can  solve 
the  problems  which  are  near  at  hand.  Indefiniteness  and  lack 
of  purpose  mean  loss  of  leadership  in  every  field  of  endeavor. 
The  golden  dream  of  being  the  favored  of  God  will  end  in  a  hor- 
rible nightmare  unless  the  youth  of  America  is  taught  how  to 
know  the  meaning  of  true  Kberty,  of  the  exercise  of  the  rights 
of  citizenship,  of  the  value  of  industry,  of  courage,  and  of  char- 
acter. 


APPENDIX 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  HISTORY  OF  THE   VOLKSSCHULEN 

1.  Allgemeine  Bestimmungen  vom  15  Okt.,  iZj2. 

2.  Bartholomaus,  Das  Allgemeine  Landrecht  und  die  Preussische  Volks- 

schule,  Bielefeld,  1895. 

3.  Bartholome,  Die  Forderung  des  Volksschulwesens  im  Staate  der  Eohenzol- 

lern,  Dusseldorf,  1907. 

4.  Beckedorrf's  Jahrhiicher  des  preussischen  Volksschulwesens. 

5.  Von  Bremen,  Die  Preussische  Volksschule,  Berlin,   1905.     Nachtrage, 

1909. 

6.  Von  Bijlow,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  des  Pommerschen  Volksschulwesens 

im  16.  Jahrhundert,  Stettin,  1880. 

7.  Clausnitzer,  Die  Volksschulpddagogik  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  HaUe,i902. 

8.  Clausnitzer,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Unterrichtsgesetzes,  Hamburg, 

1908. 

9.  Eckstein,  Die  Gestaltung  der  Volksschule  durch  den  Franck'schen  Pietismus. 

10.  Eylert,  CharakterzUge  aus  dem  Leben  des  Konigs  von  Preussen,  Friedrich 

Wilhelm  III. 

11.  Fischer,  Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  die  Volkserziehung,  Berlin,  1887. 

12.  Fischer,  Geschichte  des  deuischen  Volksschullehrerstandes,  Hannover. 

13.  Franckes,  Pddagogische  Schriften,  Langensalza,  1876. 

14.  Gesellschaft  filr  die  deutsche  Erziehungs-  und  Schulgeschichte.    Monu- 

menta  Germaniae  Paedagogica. 

15.  Giebe,  Verordnungen  belreffend  das  gesamte  Schulwesen  in  Preussen, 

Dusseldorf,  Schwann. 

16.  Heppe,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volksschulwesens,  5  vol.,  Gotha,  Perthes. 

17.  Heubaum,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Bildungsivesen  seit  der  Milte  des 

ly  Jahrhunderts,  Berlin,  1905. 

18.  Kaemmel,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Schulwesens  im  Ubergang  vom  Mittel- 

alter  zur  Neuzeit,  Leipzig,  1882. 

19.  Keller,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Volksschulwesens,  Berlin,  1873. 

20.  Knabe,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Schulwesens,  Leipzig,  1905. 

21.  Kwiatowski,  Geschichte  der  Entwicklung  des  Volksschulwesens  in  Ost-  und 

West  Preussen,  Konigsberg,  1880. 

557 


SS8  APPENDIX 

22.  Lamprecht,  Deutsche  Geschichte,  Berlin,  Gartner. 

23.  Lewin,  Geschichte  der  Entwicklung  der  preussischen  Volksschule,  Berlin. 

24.  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  Deutschen  Reich,  Berlin. 

25.  Meyer,  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  PUdagogische  Schriften  und  Ausserungen, 

Langensalza. 

26.  Nebe,  Comenius  als  Mensch,  Padagog,  und  Christ,  Bielefeld,  1891. 

27.  Nebe,  Melanchthon,  der  Lehrer  Deutschlands,  Bielefeld,  1897. 

28.  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  auf  den  deutschen  Schulen 

und  Universitdten,  Leipzig,  1896. 

29.  Preussische  Gesetzsammlung,  Berlin. 

30.  Von  Raumer,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik  vom  WiederaufblUhen  klassischer 

Studien  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit,  sth  edition,  Giitersloh,  1879. 

31.  Reichsgesetzblatt,  Berlin. 

32.  Rein,  Encyklopddisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik,  Langensalza. 

33.  Von  Ronne,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  des  Preussischen  Staates,  Berlin,  1855. 

34.  Schmid,  Encyklopadie  des  gesamten  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtswesens, 

10  vol.,  Gotha. 

35.  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  Kothen,  1875. 

36.  Schneider  and  Von   Bremen,  Das   Volksschulwesen  im  Preussischen 

Slaate,  Berlin,  1885-1887. 

37.  Schumann,  Die  Geschichte  des  Volksschuhuesens  in  der  Altmark. 

38.  Specht,  Geschichte  des  Unterrichtswesens  in  Deutschland,  Stuttgart,  1885. 

39.  Statistische  Nachrichten  von  Petersilie:  Schulstatistik  wm  Jahre  1878, 

1882,  1891,  1896,  1901,  1906,  1911. 

40.  Strack,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volksschulwesens. 

41.  ThUo,  Preussisches  Volksschulwesen  nach  Geschichte  und  Statistik. 

42.  Vormbaum,  Evangelische   Schulordnungen,    3    vol.,  Giitersloh,   1858- 

1864,  Bertelsmann. 

43.  Zentralblatt  fiir  die  gesamte  Unterrichtsverwaltung  im  Preussen,  1859- 

1914,  Berlin. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Von  Bremen,  Die  preussische   Volksschule,  Berlin,  1905.     Nachtrdge, 

1-4,  190S-1909. 

2.  Dortmunder  Burgerbuch,  Dortmund,  1913. 

3.  Guldner,  Die  hohere  Lehranstalten  fiir  die  weibliche  Jugend  in  Preussen, 

1913,  HaUe. 


APPENDIX 


559 


4.  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  Goslar,  1913. 

5.  Kretzschmar,  Hatidbuch  des  preussischen  Sckuheckts,  Leipzig,  1899. 

6.  PlUschke,    Die   siadtische    Schuldepuiationen   und    ihr   Geschdftskreis, 

Berlin,  1908. 

7.  Preussische  Geseizsammlung,  Berlin. 

8.  Sachse,  Schulordnungen  im  Regierungsbezirk  Hildesheim,  Hildesheim, 

igio. 

9.  Sckulstatistische  Blatter,  Berlin,  Monthly. 

10.  ZentrcMdtter ,  1859-1915. 

11.  Ziegler,  Handbuch  fUr  Lehrer  und  Lehrerinnen,  Leipzig,  1903. 

STATISTICS  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Schulsiatistisches  Blatter,  Berlin,  Monthly. 

2.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  des  deutschen  Reiches,  Annual. 

3.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  preussischen  Staat,  Annual. 

4.  Vierteljahrhefte  zur  Statistik  des  deutschen  Reiches,  Quarterly. 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Von  Bremen,  Die  preussische  Volksschule,  1905-1909,  Berlin. 

2.  Handbuch  far  Lehrer  und  Lehrerinnen,  Leipzig,  1899. 

3.  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  Goslar,  1913. 

4.  Reichsgesetzblatt,  Berlin. 

5.  School  regulations  for  various  cities. 

6.  Zentralbldtter,  1859-1915. 

SCHOOL  HYGIENE    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Baginsky  and  Janke,  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,  Stuttgart. 

2.  Berichte  des  deutschen  Lehrervereins,  Berlin. 

3.  Von  Bremen,  Die  preussische  Volksschule,  1905. 

4.  Biirgerstein  and  Nelotzky,  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,  Jena. 

5.  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  Goslar,  1903. 

6.  Zentrdblatter,  1859-1915. 

EXTRACURRICULAR  AND  BENEVOLENT  ACTIVITIES 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Biirgerstein  and  Nelotzky,  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,  Jena. 

2.  Handbuch  fur  Jugendpflege,  Langensalza. 

3.  Lejcis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  deutschen  Reich,  1904,  vol.  3. 


S6o  APPENDIX 

4.  Nolle,  Das  Gesetz  betreffend  die  Filrsorge-erziehung  Minderjahriger, 

Berlin. 

5.  Regulations  of  various  cities  and  county  governments  relative  to 

benevolent  activities. 

6.  Schulstatistische  Blatter,  Berlin,  1902-1914. 

7.  ZentralUdtter,  1872-1915. 

8.  Zur  Liieratur   uber  JugendJUrsorge  und   Jugendrettung,  Langensalza, 

Beyer. 

SCHOOL  SAVINGS  BANKS    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Bohme,    Die    selbststiitidige   Idndliche    Schulsparkasse,    Braunschweig, 

Appelhaus. 

2.  Conrad,  Handworterbuch  der  Slaatswissenschaften,  Jena,  1901,  vol.  vi. 

3.  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  Deutschen  Reich,  1904. 

4.  Regulations  of  various  county  governments  relative  to  school  savings 

banks. 

5.  Rein,  Encyclopddie. 

6.  Reports  of  Deutscher  Verein  fur  Jugend  Sparkassen,  Hannover. 

7.  Senckel,   Die   Schul-    und   Jugendsparkassen,    Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, 

Harnecker. 

8.  ZentralUdtter. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHER 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Von  Bremen,  Die  preussische  Volksschule,  1905,  Berlin. 

2.  Fischer,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volksschullehrerstandes,  Berlin,  1898. 

3.  Handbuch  fur  Lehrer  und  Lehrerinnen,  Leipzig,  1899. 

4.  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  1913,  Goslar. 

5.  Kandel,  The  Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  in  Germany, 

New  York,  1910. 

6.  Meyer,  Die  zweite  PrUfung. 

7.  Pddagogische  Zeitung,  Berlin,  Monthly. 

8.  Schulstatistische  Blatter,  Berlin. 

9.  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  preussischen  Stoat,  1913-1914. 

10.  Zentralblatt  fur  die  gesamte  Unterrichlsverwaltung  in  Preussen,  Berlin. 

TEACHERS'   SALARIES  AND  PENSIONS 

1.  Von  Bremen,  Die  preussische  Volksschule,  1905,  Berlin. 

2.  Heinze,  Im  Amt,  1913,  Goslar. 


APPENDIX  S6i 

3.  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichiswesen  im  deutschen  Reich,  1904. 

4.  Siatistisches  J ahrhuch  fur  den  preussischen  Stoat,  1913-1914. 

5.  Zentralbldtter,  1872-1915. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE   VOLKSSCEVLEN  AND  COURSES  OF 
STUDY.    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Courses  of  study  in  various  cities  and  counties. 

2.  Das   Schidwesen  im  Herzogtum  Braunschweig,   1912-1913,  Schulstati- 

stische  Blatter,  1913,  July,  p.  73. 

3.  Grundlehrplan  fiir  die  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  Breslau,  Hirt,  1902, 

and  Velhagen-Klasing,  Berlin,  1913. 

4.  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichiswesen  im  deutschen  Reich. 

5.  Pliischke,  Die  Schuldeputationen  und  ihr  Geschaftskreis,  1908,  Berlin. 

6.  Popp,  Lehrplane  fiir  Landschulen,  Stettin,  Burmeister,  1912. 

7.  Regulations  governing  schools  in  various  counties,  particularly  Stettin 

and  Hildesheim. 

8.  Schulstalistische  Blatter,  1902,  1914,  Berlin. 

9.  Schwartz,  Organisation  und  Unterrichtserfolge  der  stadtischen   Volks- 

schulen  in  Deutschland,  Berlin,  1907. 

10.  Statistische  Jahrbilcher  fUr  den  preussischen  Staat,  1900-1914. 

11.  Zentralblatter,  1859-1915,  Berlin. 

METHODS    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Kehr,  Praxis  der  Volksschule. 

2.  Lay,  Experimentelle  Didaktik,  Leipzig,  1910. 

3.  Noth,  Die  Konzentrationsidee,  Berlin,  1902. 
Otto,  Beitrage  zur  Psychologic  des  Unterrichts,  Leipzig,  1903. 

5.  Rein,    Pddagogik    in    systematischer    Darstellung,    Langensalza.    En- 
cyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Pddagogik,  Langensalza. 

6.  Rein,  Pickel,  Scheller,   Theorie  und  Praxis  des  Volksschulunterrichts 

nach  Herbartschen  Grundsatzen. 

7.  Von  Sallwiirk,  Die  didaktischen  Normalformen,  Frankfurt-am-M.,  1909. 

8.  Schmidt,  Grundlagen  zur  Ausgestaltung  des  Arbeitsunterrichts,  Leipzig, 

1911. 

9.  Schwochow  and  Hoffmann,  Methodik  des  Volksschulunterrichts,  Leipzig, 

Teubner,  1913- 
10.   Schwochow,  Die  Schulpraxis,  Leipzig. 
Wiget,  Dieformalen  Stufen,  Chur,  1911. 
2  o 


4 


II 


562  APPENDIX 

12.  Zentralbldtter,  1859-1915,  Berlin. 

13.  Ziller,  Allgemeine  Pddagogik,  Leipzig,  1891. 

RELIGION    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Dassow,  H.,  28  hihlische  Geschichten  fur  die  Unierstufe,  Goslar,  Danehl. 

2.  Deharbe,  Ausgefuhrte  Katechesen  Uber  die  Sittenlehre,  Kempten,  Kosel. 

Erklarung  des  grosseren  katholischen  Katechismus,  Paderborn. 
Ausgefuhrte  Katechesen  uber  die  katholische  Gnadenlehre,  Kempten, 
Kosel. 

3.  Deharbe,  S.   J.,  Katholischer  Katechismus  fur  die  Elemeniarschulen, 
\        F.  Pustet,  Regensburg. 

4.  Glattfelter,  Lehrbuch  der  katholischen  Religion  im  Anschluss  an  den 

Katechismus  der  Diozesen  Kijln,  Breslau,  Erm^land,  Fulda,  Limburg, 
Milnster,  Paderborn  und  Trier,  Dusseldorf,  1906. 

5.  Gopfert,  Worterbuch  zum  kleinen  Katechismus  Luthers. 

6.  Hamisch,  O.,  Biblische  Geschichte,  Breslau,  DiiKer. 

7.  Heimerdinger,  Prdparationen  fUr  den  Katechismusunterricht. 

8.  Hempel,  Zum  Katechismusunterricht. 

9.  Hunder  und  Zeissig,  Biblische  Geschichten  fiir  das  erste  und  sweite 

Schuljahr. 

10.  Jonas,  F.  A.,  Darstellender,  zerlegender,  lehrender  Unterricht,  Leipzig, 

Durr,  191 1. 

11.  Just,  Der  abschliessende  Katechismus. 

12.  Klose,  Erklarung  des  rdmischen  katholischen  Katechismus  in  ausgefiihrten 

Lektionen. 

13.  Lehmensick,  Kernlieder  der  Kirche  in  Stimmungsbildern. 

14.  Nowack,  H.,  Religionsbuchlein  fiir  die  Kinder  der  Unterstufe. 

15.  Paul,  M.,  Fiir  Herz  und  Gemilt  der  Kleinen.    56  biblische  Geschichte  in 

erzahlend-darstellender  Form,  191 1. 

16.  Schmarje,  Das  katechetische  Lehrerverfahren  auf  psychologische  Grundlage, 

Flensburg,  1892. 

17.  Schmitt,  J.,  Erklarung  des  kleinen  Deharbeschen  Katechismus,   1898. 

Freiburg  i.  B.,  Herder. 

18.  Spigaro,  Katholischer  Volkskatechismus,  Tratenau,  igo6. 

19.  Staude,  Paul,  Prdparationen  fiir  den  ersten  Religionsunterricht  in  dar- 

stellender Form. 

20.  Staude,  Richard,  Prdparationen  zu  den  biblischen  Geschichten. 

21.  Thrandorf,  Allgemeine  Methodik  des  Reli-gionsunterrichts. 

22.  Thrandorf-Meltzer,  Der  Religionsunterricht. 


APPENDIX  563 

23.  Togel,  Der  konkreie  Eintergrund  zu  den  150  Kernspriichen  des  religiosen 

Lernstqffes. 

24.  Weber,  Ausgefuhrte  Katechesen  iiber  das  dritte  Hauptstuck,  Kempten, 

Kosel.    Ausgefuhrte  Katechesen  iiber  die  katholische  Glaubenslehre  und 
Gebote,  Kosel. 

25.  Winkler,  Biblische  Geschichten  fur  die  Unterstufe  in  entwickelnddarstel- 

lender  Form. 

26.  Wittenbrink,  F.,  Deharbes  kurzeres  Handbuch  zum  Religionsunterricht 

in  den  Elementarschulen,  Paderborn,  1898. 

27.  Witzmann,  Praparationsentnmirfe  zu  den  Gleichnissen  Jesu. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  HISTORY 

1.  Biedermann,   K.,   Der  Geschichtsunterricht  auf  Schulen  nach  kultur- 

geschichtlicher  Methode,  Wiesbaden,  1900,  Bergmann. 

2.  Fritzsche,  R.,  Die  deutscke  Geschichte  in  der  Volksschvle,  Altenburg, 

Pierer. 

3.  Hirts  neues  Realienbuch,  Breslau,  Hirt. 

4.  Kahnmeyer,  L.,  and  Schulze,  H.,  Anschaulich-ausfUhrliches  Realienbuch, 

entkaltend   Geschichte,   Erdkunde,   Natur geschichte,   Naturlehre,   und 
Chemie,  Bielefeld,  Velhagen  und  Klasing. 

5.  Krieger,  Der  Geschichtsunterricht  in  Volks-,  Burger-,  und  Fortbildungs- 

schulen,  Numberg,  Korn. 

6.  Lamprecht,  Die  kulturhistorische  Methode. 

7.  Rosenburg,  Methodik  des  Geschichtsunterrichis,  1905,  Breslau,  Hirt. 

8.  Rude,  A.,  Quellenbuch  fur  den  Geschichtsunterricht  an  Volks-  und  Mittel- 

schulen,  Sachsa,  1892,  Haacke. 

9.  Rusch,  G.,  Methodik  des  Geschichtsunterrichis,  Wien,  Pichler. 

10.   Staude,  R.,  and  Gopfert,  A.,  Praparaiionen  zur  deutschen  Geschichte  nach 
Herbartschen  Grundsatzen  ausgearbeifet,  Dresden,  Bleyl  und  Kammerer. 
For  a  rather  complete  bibliography  on  history  in  the  elementary 
school  see  Heinze's  Im  Amt,  pp.  423-426,  Goslar,  1913,  Danehl. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    BIOLOGY 

1.  Courses  of  study  for  various  cities  in  Prussia. 

2.  Fuss,  Der  erste  Unterricht  in  der  Natur  geschichte,  Nurnberg,  Korn,  1906. 

3.  Junge,  Natur  geschichte  in  der  Volksschule,  Kiel. 

4.  See  Bibliography  for  Physics  and  Chemistry. 

5.  Zentralbldtter. 


564  APPENDIX 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    GERMAN 

1.  Bruggemann,  Der  erste  Leseunierricht,  Leipzig,  Wunderlich,  1908. 

2.  Hildebrand,  Vom  deutschen  Sprachunierricht  in  der  Schule,  Leipzig, 

Klinkhardt,  1910. 

3.  Lehrplane  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  1902-1913. 

4.  Sachse,  Zum  Aufsatzschreiben  in  der  Volksschule,  Leipzig,  Hahn,  1910. 
S-  Zentralblatter,  1872-1914. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

1.  Fischer,  Methodik  des  Unterrichls  in  der  Erdkunde,  Hirt,  Breslau,  1905. 

2.  Kerp,  FUkrer  beim  Unterricht  in  der  Heimatkunde,  Hirt,  Breslau,  1910. 

3.  Ratzel,  Die  Erde  und  das  Leben,  Leipzig,  1902. 

4.  Schiel,  Heimatkunde,  Borgmeyer,  HUdesheim,  1909. 

5.  Wohlrabe,  Deutsches  Land  und  Volk,  Gebauer,  HaUe,  1908. 

GEOGRAPHY 

1.  Berliner  Lehr plan  fur  die  Gemeindeschulen,  1913. 

2.  Finger,  Anweisung  zum  Unterricht  in  der  Heimatkunde,  Berlin,  1908. 

3.  Fritzsche,  Die  neuen  Bahnen  des  erkundlichen  Unterrichls,  Langensalza, 

1906. 

4.  Kerp,  Methodisches  Lehrbuch,  Trier,  1907,  Lintz. 

5.  Nowack,  Der  Unterricht  in  der  Geographie,  Leipzig,  1909,  Hirt. 

6.  Zentralblatt,  Berlin. 

PHYSICS  AND   CHEMISTRY 

1.  Buseman,  Methodik    der    naturkundlichen    Fdcher    in  der   Volksschule, 

Leipzig,  1908. 

2.  Lehrplan  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  1913. 

3.  Lehrplan  fUr  die  Biirgerschulen  der  Stadt  Hannover,  Hannover,  1913. 

4.  Nebel,  Praparationen  fUr  den  Unterricht  in  der  Chemie,  Leipzig,  Wunder- 

lich, 191 1. 

5.  Wurthe,  Praparationen  fUr  Naturlehre,  Osterwieck,  1912,  Zickfeldt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  SEWING 

1.  Courses  of  study  for  different  German  cities. 

2.  Grupe,  Die  neue  Nadelarbeit,  Berlin,  Durer,  Haus,  1911. 

3.  Krause  and  Metzel,  Der  Schulunlerricht  in  den  Nadelarbeiten,  Cother, 

Schettler,  1905. 


APPENDIX  565 

4-  Stobbe,  Lehrproben  fur  den  Eandarheitsunterricht,  Breslau,  Hirt. 

5-  ZerUralhldtter,  1872-1914. 

COOKING 

1.  Courses  of  study  in  various  cities. 

2.  Zentralblatter. 

SINGING 

1.  Grell,  Gesanglehre  fur  Schule  und  Haus,  Basel,  Reich. 

2.  Lehrplane  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  1902-1913. 

3.  Monatschrift  fur  Schulgesang,  Berlin,  Wiedermann. 

4.  Zentralblatt,  1872-1915. 

DRAWING 

1.  Kerschensteiner,  Die  Entwicklung  der  zeichnerischen  Begabung,  Munich, 

Gerber. 

2.  Lehrplan  der  Berliner  Gemeindeschulen,  Berlin,  1913. 

3.  Wegweiser  nach  neuen  Bahnen  des  Zeichenunterrichts,  Leipzig,  Teubner. 

4.  Zeitschrift  des  Vereins  deutscher  Zeichenlehrer. 

5.  Zentralblatter,  Berlin. 

MANUAL  TRAINING    BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Berliner  Lehrgang  fur  leichte  Holzarbeiten,  Leipzig,  Heinrichs,  1911. 

2.  Courses  of  study  in  Berlin,  Dortmund,  Hannover,  Munich,  and  other  cities. 

3.  Die  Arheitschule,  Leipzig,  Hahn,  1910. 

4.  Dortmunder  Arbeitschule,  Leipzig,  Teubner,  1911, 

5.  Hertel    and    Kalb,  Der    Vnterricht  fur^^erziehliche  Knabenhandarbeit, 

Leipzig,  Teubner. 

6.  Kerschensteiner,  Der  Begrif  der  Arbeitschule,  Leipzig,  Teubner,  1911. 

7.  Von  Schenckendorff,  Der  praktische  Vnterricht,  Breslau,  Hirt,  1880^- 

8.  Seinig,  Die  redende  Hand,  Leipzig,  Wunderlich,  191 1. 

9.  Zentralblatter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

1.  Anleitungfur  das  Knabenturnen  in  Volksschulen  ohne  Turnhallen,Bei]ia, 

Cotta,  1908. 

2.  Grittner,  Praxis  des  Turnunterrichts,  Leipzig,  Velhagen  and  Erasing. 

3.  Leitfaden  fur    den    Turnunterricht  in  den  preussischen    Volksschulen, 

Berlin,  Hertz,  1895. 

4.  Strohmeyer,  Turnen  und  Spiel  in  der  preussischen  Volksschule,  Leipzig, 

Teubner,  191 1. 


INDEX 


Abnormal   children,   courses  for,    145   S.; 

schools  for,  145. 
Administration  of  Volksschuk,  Chap.  II. 
Administrative  County,  S4,  60;  powers  of, 

61  ft. 
Aim  of  education  according  to  Herbart,  258 ; 

Pestalozzian,  258;  Prussian,  258-259,  316, 

sag- 
Alcoholism,  127. 
AUgemeines  Landreckt,  23  S. ;  importance  of, 

26. 
Appointment  of  teachers,  see  Teachers;  •  per- 
manency of,  172. 
Arithmetic :  aim,  349 ;  correlation  of ,  361  Sf. ; 

course  in,  349  fE. ;  in  lower  grades,  350  ff. ; 

lessons  in,  366  ff.;    methods  in,  350  fi. ; 

omissions  in,  361;   oral,  359  ff.;   subject 

matter,  361 ;  written  work  in,  360. 
Army  service,  for  boys  of  VolksscHtde,  141  S. ; 

for  teachers,  173. 
Attendance :  compulsory,  ro4  fi. ;  dismissed 

from,  108  ff. ;    enforcement  of,  106-no; 

exemption  from,  107 ;  law  of  1717,  9;  law 

of  1794,  25 ;  law  of  1825,  ro5  ff. 

Banks,  savings,  154  ff. 

Basedow,  393. 

Bases  of  school  organization,  222. 

Baths,  school,  150. 

Benevolent  activities,  147  ff. 

Biology,  Chap.  XXI;  aim  in,  458;  correla- 
tion of,  458;  course  of  study  in,  452  ff. ; 
course  for  boys  and  for  girls,  455 ;  lessons 
in,  458  ff.;  methods  of  instruction,  457; 
teaching  material  in,  456;   text-book  in, 

4SS- 
Birth-rate,  91  ff. 
Board,  administrative  county,  60  ff.;   dty, 

see  School  Deputation,  69  ff.;  provincial 

school,  58  ff . ;  rural,  73  ff . 
Buildings,  school,  129  ff.;   site  of,  129  ff.; 

rural,  I30' 


Calendar,  school,  ir3  fi. 

Certificate,  teacher's,  i6g. 

Chemistry,  see  Physics  and  Chemistry. 

Church,  see  also  Religion;  combination  of 
church  and  school  positions,  176;  relation 
of  church  and  state,  287  ff . ;  of  church  and 
school,  287-289. 

City  school  inspector,  56,  71  ff. 

City  schools,  organization  of,  222  ff. ;  types 
of,  22  fi. 

Civics,  419  fi. ;  aim,  421;  course  in,  419  ff. 

Classes,  average  number  of  pupils  in,  97  ff . ; 
per  school,  232 ;  social,  87. 

Clinics,  dental,  149;  tubercular,  r28. 

Co-education,  230. 

Colonies,  vacation,  147  ff. 

Composition,  333  ff . ;  aims  of,  333 ;  correc- 
tions, 335 ;  lesson  in,  341  fi. 

Compulsory  attendance,  see  Attendance. 

Concentration,  theory  of,  264  ff. 

Confessional  schools,  229. 

Constitution  of  Prussia  in  1850,  40  ff. 

Continuation  schools,  139  ff. 

Cooking,  Chap.  XXIV;  course  of  study  in, 
496;  equipment  for,  499;  housekeeping, 
so  ff . ;  length  of  course  in,  499 ;  lesson  in 
practical  work,  501;  prevalence  of,  496; 
size  of  classes  in,  499;  theoretical  work, 
500. 

Correlation,  theory  of,  264. 

Cost  of  instruction,  per  pupil,  94 ;  total,  94. 

Courses  of  study,  247  ff. ;  characteristics  of, 
268;  according  to  regulations  of  1872, 
247  ff.,  261 ;  comparison  with  American, 
249 ;  detail,  268  ff . ;  development  of,  262 ; 
in  cities,  250  ff.;  outline,  268  ff.;  rural, 
235  ff.;  special  subjects,  see  each  subject; 
undifferentiated,  265  ff. 


Defectives,  schools  for,  145  ff. 

Dental  clinics,  149  ff. 

Deputation,  school :  duties  of,  69  fi. 


567 


568 


INDEX 


Dictation  in  German  instruction,  333. 

Discipline,  118. 

District  school  inspector,  56,  62  ff.;  duties 

of,  63  £f. ;  salary  of,  67 ;  types  of,  66. 
Drawing,  Chap.  XXVI;  aim  in,  514,  321; 

comse  in,  514  ff-,  S"  ff- ;  free  hand,  521 ; 

mechanical,  523;     methods  in,  514  fi., 

521  ff.;  teachers,  520. 

Enunciation  in  German,  312. 

Equipment,  teaching,  283. 

Examination:    entrance  to  normal  school, 

166 ;  first  teachers',  167 ;  second  teachers', 

i6g  S. ;  teachers'  examination  in  1729,  2; 

in  1826,  37  fi. 
Excursions,  152,  44r. 
Expenditures :    for  all  schools,  94  S. ;    for 

Volksschule,  93  ff. 
Eyesight  of  school  children,  132. 

Feeding  of  school  children,  148. 

Foreign  words  in  German,  313. 

Francke,  5-6. 

Frederick  the  Great,  interest  in  schools,  13, 

17-22. 
Frederick  William  I,  founding  of  elementary 

schools,  8. 
Frederick  William  II,  22  ff. 
Frederick  William  III,  regulations  issued  by, 

28,  30-33- 
Frederick  William  IV,  39. 

Gardens,  school,  153. 

General-Land'Schul-Reglement,  14  fi. 

Geography,  Chap.  XX;  aim,  429;  cartog- 
raphy, 442;  concentric  circle  plan  in, 
438 ;  correlation  of,  433 ;  course,  437  ff. ; 
economic,  435;  illustrative  material  in, 
444 ;  importance  of,  429 ;  maps,  442-443 ; 
methods  in,  444 ;  museums  for,  444 ;  or- 
ganization of  subject  matter  in,  436; 
physical,  436;  political,  43s;  principles 
underlying,  430  ff . ;  stereopticons  in,  444 ; 
text-books,  442 ;  types  of,  432. 

Geometry :  course  in,  363  fi. ;  estimating  in, 
36s;  hours  for,  362;  lessons  in,  381  ff., 
388  ff. ;  methods  in,  364. 

German:  aim,  303;  correlation  of,  311; 
course  in,  304  ff. ;  dictation,  333 ;  foreign 
words  in,  3r2  ff. ;  freedom  of  expression  in, 
310;  lessons  in,  336 ;  methods  in,  309  ff. ; 
oral,  311  ff. ;  regulations  concerning, 
304  ff . ;  scope  of,  304. 


Grammar,   331;    lesson  in,   345;    subject 

matter  of,  331  ff. 
Gymnasium,   60;    relation  to   Volksschuk, 

8s  ff. 
Gymnasiums,  532  ff. ;  outdoor,  S34- 

Half -day  schools,  228. 

Health,  of  school  children,  see  Hygiene; 
teachers',  181  ff. 

Heating,  133-13S ;  see  also  Ventilation. 

Hecker,  in  Berlin,  13 ;  Realschule,  13 ;  rela- 
tion to  Francke,  13. 

Eeimathunde,  407,  440;  course  in,  407; 
method  in,  44r. 

Herbart,  influence  on  Prussian  schools,  258. 

Herbartians,  409  ff. 

Higher  schools:  pupils  of,  85;  relation  to 
Volksschule,  8s  ff . ;  transfer  from  lower  to, 
86  ff. ;  types  of,  84-85. 

History,  Chap.  XIX;  accuracy  in,  414 ;  aim, 
400;  anti-socialistic  tendency  of,  397; 
bases  of  organization  in,  407  ff . ;  biograph- 
ical organization  of,  411;  chronological 
order  in,  408 ;  combining  method  in,  409 ; 
concentric  circle  plan,  407  ff . ;  course  in, 
400  ff . ;  culture  epoch  organization  of,  410 ; 
formal  steps  of  instruction  in,  411 ;  group- 
ing plan,  408 ;  Heimatkunde,  407 ;  histori- 
cal development  of,  392  fi. ;  instruction  in, 
411  ff. ;  illustrative  material  in,  418; 
lecture  method  in,  413;  museums,  419; 
newer  movements  in,  395  fi. ;  relation  to 
dvics,  419;  relative  worth  of,  406;  text- 
book in,  416 ;  synchronous  order  in,  408. 

HoUdays,  114-115. 

Home-work,  137. 

Housekeeping,  soi. 

Hygiene,  school,  126  fi. ;  of  instruction,  136  ff. 

Illiteracy,  amount  of,  in  1871  and  1906,  42- 
43- 

Income  tax,  212. 

Increments,  salary,  see  also  Salary;  local, 
201  ff. ;  rental,  200,  205;  service,  199  fi.; 
special,  202. 

Inspection  of  schools,  6r-78 ;  clerical,  9,  26, 
68;  state,  24;  fee  a/so  administration;  see 
also  inspector. 

Inspector:  dty,  71  ff. ;  county,  626. ;  dis- 
trict, 63  ff. ;  local,  67  ff. ;  provincial,  SO- 

Instruction :  method  of.  Chap.  XIV ;  super- 
vision of,  lee  Inspection;  teaching  material 
for,  283;  undifferentiated,  317. 


INDEX 


569 


Jugendpflege :  aim  of,  142  fi.;  teachers,  143- 

144. 
Jungdeutsckland,  144  S. 

Kreis,  see  School  inspection  district. 
Kusterschule,  see  Sacristan  school. 

Lanirat,  see  Magistrate  of  district. 

Laws:    maintenance  law  of  igo6,  loi  £f.; 

previous  to  1906,  100;  school  law  of  1850, 

40  S. 
Libraries,  314. 

Lighting  of  school  rooms,  131. 
Literature:     cheap,    314;    in    VolksschuU, 

330  £E.;   lesson  in,  336  ff.;    text-book  in, 

326  ff. 
Local  school  inspector,  56;  duties  of,  67. 

Magistrate  of  district,  54,  67. 

Maintenance  of  Volksschule,  100  ff. ;  law  of 
igo6,  loi. 

Management,  school.  Chap.  VL 

Manual  training.  Chap.  XXVII ;  course  for 
teachers  in,  528;  course  in,  527;  preva- 
lence of,  524;  its  relation  to  industry, 
525  ff. ;  teachers  of,  527. 

Marriage  among  teachers,  174, 180. 

Methods  of  instruction.  Chap  XIII ;  general. 
Chap.  XIV;  historical  development  of, 
257  ff  ■ ;  influence  of  Herbart  and  Pestalozzi 
on,  257  ff. ;  memory  work,  274;  oral, 
271  ff. ;  questions  in,  276  ff. ;  review,  272 ; 
special,  see  each  subject,  supervision  of, 
279,  61-78. 

Middle  schook,  140  ff. ;  course,  82  ff. ;  pupils 
of,  82;  purpose  of,  83  ff.;  relation  to 
VolksschuU,  82  ff.;  relation  to  higher 
schools,  83  ff. ;  transfer  to  and  from,  87. 

Mihtary  service,  141  ff.,  173  ff-,  184- 

Ministerial  bureaus,  38. 

Ministry  of  Educational  and  Medical  Affairs, 
SS  ff. ;  duties  of,  $7  S. 

Normal  preparatory  school,  161  ff.;  course 
in,  162  ff. ;  organization  of,  162 ;  purpose 
of,  161  ff. 

Normal  schools :  entrance  to,  166 ;  establish- 
ment of,  in  Prussia,  1774,  17.  22;  in  nine- 
teenth century,  37 ;  Francke's,  7 ;  leaving 
examination  of,  167;  relation  to  Volks- 
schule, 160;  statistics  of,  164;  training  of 
teachers,  Chap.  DC;  women's,  163. 


Oberrealschule,  relation  to  Volksschule,  85  ff . 

Oberschulkollegium,  establishment,  22. 

Observational  instruction,  315;  lessons  in, 
319  ff.;  methods  in,  316;  principle  of, 
319;  subject  matter  of,  316. 

One-class  school,  221-234. 

One-teacher  school,  see  One-class  school. 

Oral  method  of  instruction,  271  ff. 

Organization  of  schools.  Chap.  XII;  bases 
of,  222;  of  city  schools,  233  ff.,  247  ff.; 
of  one-class  school,  234;  program  of  one- 
class  school,  23s  ff.;  segregation  in,  230; 
types  of,  222  ff. ;  three-class  school,  238  ff. 

Orthography,  332. 

Pensions,  Chap.  XI;  contributory,  214;  in 
Bavaria,  2r5 ;  in  Prussia,  214 ;  law,  213  ff. ; 
maximum,  214;  principle  of,  219;  widow's, 
in  Prussia,  216;  in  Bavaria,  217. 

Pestalozzi,  influence  of,  33-37,  257  ff.;  Pes- 
talozzians  in  Prussia,  37. 

Philanthropinism,  in  Germany,  8,  393. 

Physical  training.  Chap.  XXVIII;  aim  of, 
529  ff.;  course  in,  331;  examination  for 
teachers  of,  532 ;  gymnasiums,  532 ;  hours 
for,  S31;  swimming,  535;  teachers, 
S3iff. 

Physician,  school,  126;  duties  of,  126. 

Physics  and  chemistry,  Chap.  XXII;  aim, 
477 ;  apparatus,  483 ;  course  of  study  in, 
475  ff . ;  laboratory  work  in,  482 ;  lesson  in, 
484  ff . ;  method  in,  478 ;  482  S. ;  practical 
nature  of,  480;  text-book  in,  478. 

Pietism,  4  fi.,  392;  schools  influenced  by, 
4-8,  2S7  ff. 

Playgrounds,  municipal,  151;  school,  121, 
524- 

Principal  of  Volksschule,  56 ;  duties  of,  74  ff . ; 
salary,  203. 

Privileges  of  teachers,  174.^ 

Program,  daily :  begiiming  hours  of,  136  ff. ; 
of  rural  schools,  235  ff. 

Provincial  School  Board,  duties  of,  SO  ff-; 
organization  of ,  58  ff. 

Provincial  school  superintendent,  39. 

Provinzialschulrat,  see  Provincial  school  su- 
perintendent. 

Prussia,  organization  of,  S4  ff. 

Punishment,  corporal,  120. 

Pupils,  average  number  per  class,  97  ff. 

Purpose  of  Volksschule,  see  Aim  of  education. 

Questions  in  instruction,  276  ff. 


570 


INDEX 


Rationalism,  in  Gennany,  19. 

Reading,  324  S.;  course  in,  327;  lesson  in, 
329;  literature  in,  331 ;  methods  in,  325, 
329;  poetry,  330;  oral,  328;  primary, 
324  ff. ;  silent,  329;  text-book  in,  326  S. 

Realgymnasium,  60 ;  relation  to  VolksschuU, 
84  fi. 

Realien,  392;  introduction  of,  20,  452;  text- 
books for,  416,  442. 

Recesses,  121. 

Reckenschulen,  i. 

Recitation,  form  of,  272  S.,  277  £f. 

Regulations  of  1872,  as  basis  of  Volksschule, 
43  ff. ;  importance  of,  52. 

Regulations,  school :  in  Middle  Ages,  2 ;  of 
eighteenth  century,  7 ;  of  1713, 9 ;  of  173s, 
10;  1763,  14;  1765,  16;  1772,  20;  of 
1854,  41 ;  of  1872,  43  ff. 

Reklor,  see  Principal. 

Religion,  Chap.  XV ;  Bible  in,  292 ;  causes 
of  indifference  to,  297;  catechism,  293; 
church  history,  294 ;  course  in,  290,  292  ff. ; 
effects  of,  296 ;  equipment  or,  292 ;  geog- 
raphy in,  295 ;  hours  per  week  in,  290 ; 
importance  of,  2S6;  instruction  in,  290; 
lessons  in,  298 ;  liturgy,  293 ;  memory  work 
in,  291;  moral  training,  295;  nature  of, 
289  S. ;  socialist  and,  289 ;  supervision  of, 
288;  tesrt-book,  291. 

Rental  compensation,  200,  205  ff. ;  see  also 
Increments,  Salary. 

Review,  272. 

Rooms,  school,  130  ff. ;  floors  of,  133 ;  heat- 
ing of,  133  ;  lighting,  131 ;  seating,  131  ff.  ; 
size  of,  130 ;  ventilation,  133  ff. 

Rural  schools :  courses  of,  235  ff. ;  houses, 
130;  programs,  240  ff. ;  regulations  of 
1763  and  1765  for,  15-17 ;  religious  instruc- 
tion in,  287 ;  types  of,  223  ff. 

Sacristan  schools,  1-2. 

Salary  of  teachers  in  the  Volksschule,  see  also 
Teachers,  salary  of ;  final  salary,  199 ;  in- 
crements in,  199  ff. ;  law  of  1897  and  1910, 
198  ff.;  tables,  189  ff.;  scales.  Chap.  X; 
special  increases,  202 ;  women's,  189  ff,  204. 

Schedule:  daily,  240  ff. ;  weekly,  235  ff., 
269  ff. 

School  board,  56 ;  composition  of,  73 ;  duties 
of,  73  ff. 

School  commission,  56,  72 ;  duties  of,  72. 

School  deputation,  56,  69  ff. ;  duties  of,  70  ff . 

School  inspection  district,  54,  62-63;  in- 
spector of,  63  fi. 


School  socifety,  69. 

Schreibschulen,  i. 

Science,  elementary,  see  Biology,  Physics,  and 
Chemistry. 

Seating,  135  ff. 

Sectarian  schools,  287;  administration  of, 
289 ;  text-books  for,  289. 

Segregation  of  sexes  in  schools,  230. 

Sessions,  school,  116  ff.;  half-day,  117. 

Sewing,  Chap.  XXIII ;  aim,  488 ;  classes  in, 
490;  course  of  study,  488  ff. ;  disdphne 
in,  493;  equipment,  494;  material  for, 
494;  methods  of  instruction  in,  491  fi.; 
teachers  of,  491. 

Singing,  Chap.  XXV;  course  in,  508;  in- 
fluence of  singing,  507;  method,  507; 
teachers  of,  506  fi. 

Socialism  and  history  instruction,  397 ;  atti- 
tude toward  religion,  289. 

Social  origin  of  teachers,  185. 

Special  schools,  146  ff. 

Spelling,  332. 

Spener,  relation  to  Pietistic  movement,  4-5. 

Statistics  of  Prussian,  elementary  school. 
Chap.  IV;  religious  denominations,  92. 

Subject  matter :  bases  of  selection  of,  260  ff. ; 
organization  of,  262  ff. ;  selection  of,  259. 

Supervision  of  Volksschule,  diagram  of,  56; 
of  pupils,  123;  of  religious  instruction, 
288 ;  of  Volksschule,  Chap.  II. 

Swimming,  150,  535. 

Systems  of  schools :  higher,  79  ff . ;  middle, 
82 ;  parallel,  79  fi. 

Tardiness,  118. 

Teachers:  age,  177  ff. ;  appointment  of ,  25, 
171  ff. ;  examination  for,  2-3,  37  fi. ;  first 
examination,  167;  second  examination, 
169  ff.;  health  of,  181  ff.;  length  of  service 
of,  197  ff. ;  marriage  of,  174,  180  ff. ; 
military  service  of,  173,  184;  niunber  of, 
per  school,  232;  origin,  185  ff.;  privileges 
of,  174;  qualifications  of  in  eighteenth 
century,  11-12;  pensions,  213  ff. ;  salary, 
see  Salary;  training  of,  in  Pietistic  schools, 
7 ;  present  training  of.  Chap.  IX ;  sodal 
origin  of,  185;  women,  number  of,  96, 
179,  197 ;  see  also  Women. 

Technical  schools,  140-141. 

Text-books,  for  special  subjects,  see  each 
subject ;  in  sectarian  schools,  289 ;  use  of, 
274,  279  ff. 

Theater  tickets,  154. 

Trade  schools,  140  fi. 


INDEX 


S7I 


Tmning  of  teachers,  Chap.  IX. 

Tuberculoas,  128. 

Two-teacher  school,  221 ;  program  of,  238  S. 

Undifferentiated  course  of  study,  265,  317  ff. 

Vacation,  113  ff. ;  colonies,  147  ff. ;  heat,  137. 

Vaccination,  127. 

Ventilation,  133  ff. 

Volksschuh,  administration  of.  Chap.  II; 
aim,  80,  258  ff.,  260;  condition  of,  in 
eighteenth  century,  23;  beginning  of 
nineteenth  century,  28;  course  of  study, 
46  ff,  247  ff. ;  expenditures  for,  93  ff;. 
forms  of,  88  ff . ;  history  of.  Chap.  I ;  in 
Middle  Ages,  1-2 ;  in  eighteenth  century, 
11;  maintenance  of ,  100  ff. ;  nationaliza- 
tion of,  24 ;  number  of  pupils,  gs  ff. ;  or- 
ganization of,  43  ff. ;   Chap.  XII ;  pupils 


of,  81  ff. ;  relation  to  other  schools,  79  ff. ; 
statistics  of.  Chap.  IV;   types  of,  88-89, 
220  ff. 
Von  Rochow,  interest  in  pubUc  education, 
20;  school  at  Reckahn,  20  ff. 

Weltkwnde,  394. 

William  II,  attitude  toward  socialism,  398. 

Winkelsckulen,  ±. 

Women  teachers:  age  of,  177  ff. ;  effect  of 
sex  on  position,  17s ;  marriage  of,  174- 
I7S;  normal  schools  for,  165;  number, 
96;  pensions  of,  215  ff. ;  salary  of,  187  ff., 
204;  training  of,  165. 

Work-school,  266  ff. 

Writing,  308 ;  see  also  German. 

Written  work,  281  ff. 

Zedlitz,  influence  on  schools,  19  S. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


*HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a  few 
of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


MODERN  PEDAGOGY 


Aspinwall      ....    Outlines  of  the  History  of  Educa- 
tion     $  .80 

Bagley Classroom      Management.       Its 

Principles  and  Technique    .     .      1.25 
Craftsmanship  in  Teaching     .     .      i.io 

Educational  Values i.io 

Educative  Process,  The .     .    .     .      1.25 

School  Discipline 1.25 

Bigelow Sex  Education 1.25 

Brewer The  Vocational  Guidance  Move- 
ment   

Bricker Teaching  of  Agriculture  in  the 

High  School i.oo 

Brown American  High  School   ....      1.40 

Chubb The  Teaching  of  English  in  Ele- 
mentary and  Secondary  Schools      i  .00 

Cloyd Modern  Education  in  Eiurope  and 

the  Orient 1.40 

Cubberley     ....     State    and   County   Educational 

Reorganization 1.25 

Cubberley  and  Elliott .     State  and  County  School  Adminis- 
tration      2.50 

Curtis Education  Through  Play  (Educa- 
tional Edition) 1.2  s 

Practical  Conduct  of  Play  (Edu- 
cational Edition) 1.50 

The  Play  Movement  and  Its  Sig- 
nificance   1.50 

De  Garmo     ....     Interest  and  Education ....      i.oo 
Principles  of  Secondary  Education 

3  Vols.    I,  $1.25;  II,  $1.00;  ni,  I.oo 
Dewey Democracy  and  Education,  A  Phi- 
losophy of  Education      ...      1.40 
Dobbs Illustrative  Handwork  ....      i.io 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

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MODERN  PEDAGOGY— Continued 


Dresslar     ....    School  Hygiene $1.25 

Dutton Social  Phases  of  Education  in  the 

School  and  the  Home  ....  1.25 
Eaton  and  Stevens  .    Commercial    Work    and    Training 

for  Girls 1.50 

Fardngton ....    Commercial  Education  in  Germany  i.io 

Foght The  American  Rural  School  .     .     .  1.25 

Rural  Denmark  and  its  Schools  .    .  1.40 

The  Rural  Teacher  and  His  Work    .  1.40 

Ganong The  Teaching  Botanist      ....  1.25 

Graves A  History  of  Education.    Vol.  I. 

Before  the  Middle  Ages      .     .     .  i.io 
Vol.  n.    A  History  of  Education 

During  the  Middle  Ages     .     .     .  i.io 

Vol.  HI.    Modern  Times  ....  i.io 

Great  Educators  of  Three  Centuries  i.io 
Peter  Ramus  and  the  Educational 

Reformation  of  the  i6th  Century  1.25 

A  Students'  History  of  Education   .  1.25 

Halleck Education  of  the  Central  Nervous 

System i.oo 

Hall-Quest     .     .    .    Supervised  Study 1.25 

Hanus Educational  Aims  and  Values     .     .  i.oo 

Modern  School,  A 1.25 

Hart Educational  Resources  of    Village 

and  Rural  Communities    ...  i.oo 
Heatwole    ....    A  History  of  Education  in  Virginia  .  1.25 
Henderson      .    .    ,    Principles  of  Education    ....  1.75 
Herrick Meaning  and  Practice  of  Commer- 
cial Education 1.25 

Holtz     .    .    ,    .    .    Principles  and  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing Geography i.io 


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MODERN  PEDAGOGY— Continued 

Home       Philosophy  of  Education    .    .    .  $1.50 

Psychological  Principles  of  Educa- 
tion    1.75 

Idealism  in  Education    ....  1.25 
Story-Telling,   Questioning    and 

Stud3dng i.io 

Howerth The  Art  of  Education    ....  i.oo 

Huey Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Read- 
ing   1.40 

Hummel  and  Hummel    Materials  and  Methods  in  High 

School  Agriculture     .    .    .    .  1.25 
Jessup  and  Coffman    .    The  Supervision  of  Arithmetic    .  i.io 
Johnson,  Henry      .    .    Teaching  of  History  in  Elemen- 
tary and  Secondary  Schools     .  1.40 
Kabn  and  Klein      .    .    Commercial  Education,  Principles 

and  Methods  in 1.40 

Kennedy Fundamentals  in  Methods       .    .  1.25 

Kerschensteiner     .    .    The  Idea  of  the  Industrial  School  .50 
Kilpatiick,  V.  E.     .    .    Departmental  Teaching  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools 60 

Kilpatrick,  W.  B.  Froebel's  Kindergarten  Principles 

Critically  Examined 90 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.  .    .    Fundamentals  of  Child  Study      .  1.30 

Lee       Play  in  Education i-So 

McKeever     ....    Trauiing  the  Girl i-So 

The  Industrial  Training  of  the  Boy  .50 
MacVannel    ....    Outline  of  a  Course  in  the  Philoso- 
phy of  Education 90 

miller Education  for  the  Needs  of  Life  1.25 

Monroe Principles  of  Secondary  Education  2.00 

Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Edu- 
cation    2.00 

SyUabus  of  a  Coiurse  of  Study  on 
the  History  and  Principles  of 
Education S© 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

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MODERN  PEDAGOGY— Continued 


Monroe Source  Book  in  the  History  of  Edu- 
cation for  the  Greek  and  Roman 

Period $2.40 

Brief  Course  in  the  History  of 

Education 1.40 

Cyclopedia  of  Education,  5  Vols.  25.00 

O'Shea D3mamic  Factors  in  Education    .  1.25 

Pearson Vitalized  School 1.40 

Perry Management  of  a  City  School      .  1.25 

Outlines  of  School  Administration  1.40 
Pyle      .              ...    The  Examination  of  School  Chil- 
dren     50 

Sachs The  American  Secondary  School  i.io 

Sisson Essentials  of  Character      ...  i.oo 

Smith All  the  Children  of  All  the  People 

(Teachers'  Edition)  .     .     .     .  i.io 
Sneath  and  Hodges    .    Moral  Training  in  the  School  and 

Honae 80 

Starch Educational  Measurements     .    .  1.25 

Experiments  in  Educational  Psy- 
chology       1.00 

Strayer A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching 

Process 1.25 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy    How  to  Teach ,  1.40 

Strayer  and  Thomdike    Educational  Administration 

Quantitative  Studies      ...  2.00 

Taylor Handbook  of  Vocational  Education  i.oo 

Principles  and  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing Reading go 

Thomdike      ....    Education:  A  First  Book  .    .    .  1.25 
Vandewalker.    .    .    .    Kindergarten,  The,  in  American 

Education 1.25 

Ward The  Montessori  Method  and  the 

American  School 1.25 

Wayland How  to  Teach  American  History  i.io 


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