CORNELL
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT
FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY
HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE
E184.J5 Wm' """""">' '■"'"'T
^iSlllMliiwteJSK'" America,
olin
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032764205
Ezrkiel's Statue of Rhigidus Liiierty
IN Fairmount Park, I'hiladeit'Hia,
HISTORY OF THE
JEWS IN AMERICA
FROM THE PERIOD OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD
TO THE PRESENT TIME
BY
PETER WIERNIK
NEW YORK
The Jewish Press Publishing Company
19 12
e:
COPYRIGHT, 1912
By THE JEWISH PRESS PUBLISHING CO.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PREFACE,
There were l-^ss than ten thousand Jews in the New World
three centuries after its discovery, and about two-thirds of them
lived in the West Indies and in Surinam or Dutch Guiana in
South America. While the communities in those far-away places
are now larger in membership than they were at the beginning
of the Nineteenth Century, their comparative importance is much
diminished. The two or three thousand Jews who lived in North
America or in the United States one hundred years ago have, on
the other hand, increased to nearly as many millions, the bulk of
them having come in the last three or four decades. On this
account neither our conditions nor our problems can be thor-
oughly understood without the consideration of the actual present.
The plan of other works of this kind, to devote only a short con-
cluding chapter to the present time, or to leave it altogether for
the future historian, could therefore not be followed in this work.
The story would be less than half told, if attention were not paid
to contemporary history.
The chief aim of the work — the first of its kind in this com-
plete form — being to reach the ordinary reader who is interested
in Jewish matters in a general way, original investigations and
learned disquisitions were avoided, and it was not deemed ad-
visable to overburden the book with too many notes or to provide
a bibliographical apparatus. The plan and scope of the work are
self evident ; it was inevitable that a disproportionately large part
should be devoted to the United States. The continuity of Jewish
history is made possible only by the preservation of our identity
as a religious community; local history really begins with the
formation of a congregation. Each of the successive strata of
iii
iv Preface.
immigration was originally represented by its own synagogues
and when the struggle to gain a foothold or to remove disabilitiei
was over, communal activity was the only one which couk
properly be described as Jewish. Economic growth couk
have been entirely neglected, despite the present day ten-
dency to consider every possible problem from the stand-
point of economics. But the material well-being of the Jewi
of the earlier periods was an important factor in the preparatior
for the reception and easy absorption of the larger masses whicl
came later, and this gives wealth a meaning which, in th(
hands of people who are less responsible for one another thar
Jews, it does not possess. The Marrano of the Seventeentl
or the Eighteenth Century who brought here riches far ir
excess of what he found among the inhabitants in the place;
where he settled, would probably not have been admitted if h(
came as a poor immigrant, and his merit as a pioneer of trad<
and industry interests us because he assisted to make this countr}
a place where hosts of men can come and find work to do. With-
out this only a small number could enjoy the liberty and equalitj
which an enlightened republic vouchsafes to every newcomei
without distinction of race or creed.
Still these absorbingly interesting early periods had to b(
passed over briefly, despite the wealth of available material
to keep within the bounds of a single volume, and to be able tc
carry out the plan of including in the narrative a comprehensiv(
view of the near past and the present. While no excuse is neces-
sary for making the latter part of the work longer than the ear-
lier, though in most works the inequality is the other way, thi
author regrets the scarcity of available sources for the history o:
the Jewish immigration from Slavic countries other than Russia
There were times when German Jewish historians were re
proached with neglecting the Jews of Russia. In those time:
there was a scarcity of necessary "Vorarhciten" or- preparatior
of material for the history of the Jews of that Empire. To-day
as far as the history of the Jewish immigrant in America is con-
Preface. v
cerned, the scarcity is still greater as far as it concerns the Jews
who came from Austria and Roumania.
The principal sources which were utilized in the preparation of
this work are : The Publications of the American Jeivish Histori-
cal Society (20 vols., 1893-1911), which are referred to as "Pub-
lications"; The Jewish Encyclopedia (Funk and Wagnalls, 12
vols., 1901-6) ; The Settlement of the Jews in North America,
by Judge Charles P. Daly, edited by Max J. Kohler (New York,
1893), often referred to as "Daly"; The Hebrews in America,
by Isaac Markens (New York, 1888) ; The American Jew as
Patriot, Soldier and Citizen, by the Hon. Simon Wolf, edited by
Louis Edward Levy (Philadelphia, 1895). Other works, like
Dr. Kayserling's_ Christopher Columbus, Mr. Pierce Butler's
Jiidah P. Benjamin (of the American Crisis Biographies, Phila-
delphia, 1906) and the Rev. Henry S. Morals' Jezi's of Phila-
delphia, were also drawn upon for much valuable material which
they made accessible. All of these works were used to a larger
extent than is indicated by the references or foot-notes, and my
indebtedness to them is herewith gratefully acknowledged.
Where biographical dates are given after the name of a person
born in a foreign country, the date of arrival in the New World
is often fully as important as that of birth or death. This date
is indicated in the text by an a., which stands for arrived, as b.
stands for born and d. for died.
In conclusion I gladly record my obligation to Mr. Abraham'
S. Freidus of the New York Public Library for aid in the gath-
ering of material; to Mr. Isaiah Gamble for re-reading of the
proofs; to Mr. Samuel Vaisberg for seeing the work through the
press, and to my sister. Bertha Wiernik, for assistance in the
preparation of the index.
p. W., New York, July, 1912.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION Page i
PART I.
THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE PERIOD.
CHAPTER I.
THE PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW
WORLD.
The Jew of Barcelona who has navigated the whole known world —
Jadah Cresques, "the Map Jew," as director of the Academjr of Navi-
gation which was founded by Prince Henry the Navigator — One
Jewish astronomer advises the King of Portugal to reject the plans
of Columbus — Zacuto as one of the first influential men in Spain to
encourage the discoverer of the New World — Abravanel, Senior and
the Marranos Santangel and Sanchez who assisted Columbus — The
voyage of discovery begun a day after the expulsion of the Jews
from Spain — Luis de Torres and other Jews who went with Colum-
bus — America discovered on "Plosannah Rabbah" — The Indians as
the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel — Money taken from the Jews to de-
fray the expenditure of the second voyage of Columbus — Vasco da
Gama and the Jew Caspar — Scrolls of the Thorah from Portugal
sold in Cochin — Alphonse d'Albuquerque's interpreter who returned
to Judaism Page lo
CHAPTER n.
■EARLY JEWISH MARTYRS UNDER SPANISH RULE IN THE NEW
WORLD.
Children torn from their parents were the first Jewish immigrants —
Jewish history in the New World begins, as Jewish history in Spain
vii
viii Contents.
ends, with the Inquisition — Emperor Charles V., Philip II. and
Philip III. — Lutherans persecuted together with Jews and Moham-
■^.^ edans — Codification of the laws of the Inquisition, and its special
edicts for the New World Page 19
CHAPTER III.
VICTIMS OF THE INQUISITION IN MEXICO AND IN PERU.
Impossibility of obtaining even approximately correct figures about the
Inquisition — A few typical cases — The Carabajal family — Relaxa-
tion for several decades — The notable case of Francisco Maldonado
de Silva Page 24
CHAPTER IV.
MARRANOS IN THE PORTUGUESE COLONIES.
Less persecution in Portugal itself and also in its colonies — Marranos
buy right to emigrate — They dare to profess Judaism in Brazil, and
the Inquisition is introduced in Goa — Alleged help given to Holland
in its struggle against Spain Page 28
PART II.
THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH COLONIAL PERIOD.
CHAPTER V.
THE SHORT-LIVED DOMINION OF THE DUTCH OVER BRAZIL.
The friendship between the Dutch and the Jews — Restrictions and priv-
ileges in Holland — Dutch-Jewish distributors of Indian spices —
Preparations to introduce the Inquisition in Brazil — Jews help the
Dutch to conquer it — Southey's description of Recife — Vieyra's de-
scription p^g^ 32
Contents. ix
CHAPTER VI.
RECIFE : THE FIRST JEWISH COMMUNITY IN THE NEW WORLD.
The "Kahal Kodesh" of Recife or Pernambuco in Brazil — Manasseh ben
Israel's expectation to make it his home — Large immigration from
Amsterdam — Isaac Aboab da Fonseca and his colleagues — First
rabbis and Jewish authors of the New World — The siege and the
surrender — The return, and the nucleus of other communities in
various parts of America Page 37
CHAPTER Vn.
THE JEWS IN SURINAM OR DUTCH GUIANA.
Jews in Brazil after the expulsion of the Dutch — The community ofPara-
maraibo, Surinam, was founded when Recife was still flourishing —
First contact with the English, whom the Jews preferred — David Nasi
and the colony of Cayenne — Privileges granted by Lord Willoughby
— "de JoodenSavane" — Trouble with slaves and bush negroes — Plan-
tations with Hebrew names — German Jews — Legal status and ban-
ishments — Jewish theaters — Literature and history page 41
CHAPTER vnr.
THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH WEST INDIES.
The community of Curasao — Encouragement to settle is followed by
restrictions — Plans of Jewish colonization — Trade communication
with New Amsterdam — Stuyvesant's slur — The first congregation^
Departures to North America and to Venezuela — Barbadoes — Taxa-
tion and legal status — Decay after the hurricane of 1831 — Jamaica
under Spain and under England — Hebrew taught in the Parish of
St. Andrews in 1693 — Harsh measures and excessive taxation —
Naturalizations Page 51
CHAPTER IX.
NEW AMSTERDAM AND NEW YORK.
Poverty of the first Jewish immigrants to New Amsterdam— Stuyve-
sant's opposition overruled by the Dutch West India Company —
Privileges and restrictions — Contributions to build the wall from
X Contents.
— -» which Wall street takes its name — The first cemetery — Exemption
from military duty — Little change at the beginning of the English
rule — The first synagogue after a liberal decree by the Duke of
York — Marranos brought back in boats which carried grain to Portu-
gal — Hebrew learning — ^Question about the Jews as voters and
as witnesses — Peter Kalm's description of the Jews of New
York about 174S — Hyman Levy, the employer of the original
Astor Page 62
CHAPTER X.
NEW ENGLAND AND THE OTHER ENGLISH COLONIES.
The Old Testament spirit in New England — Roger Williams — The first
Jew in Massachusetts — Judah Monis, instructor in Hebrew at Har-
vard — Newport — Jews from Holland bring there the first degrees
of Masonry — The cemetery immortalized by Longfellow — Jacob
Rodrigues Rivera introduces the manufacture of sperm oil — Aaron
Lopez, the greatest merchant in America — Immigration from Port-
ugal — Rabbi Isaac Touro — Visiting rabbis — First Jews in Connect-
icut — Philadelphia — Congregation Mickweh Israel — Easton's wealthy
Jews — Maryland — Dr. Jacob Lumbrozo — General Oglethorpe and
the first Jews of Georgia — Joseph Ottolenghi — The Carolinas-—
Charleston Page 71
PART III.
THE REVOLUTION AND THE PERIOD OF EXPANSION.
CHAPTER XI.
THE RELIGIOUS ASPECT OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
Spirit of the Old Testament in the Revolutionary War — Sermons in
favor of the original Jewish form of Government — The New Nation
as "God's American Israel" — The Quebec Act — The intolerance of
sects as the cause of separation of Church and State — A Memorial
sent by German Jews to the Continental Congress — Fear expressed
Contents. - xi
in North Carolina tliat tlie Pope might be elected President of the
United States — None of the liberties won were lost by post-revo-
lutionary reaction, as happened elsewhere Page 80
CHAPTER XII.
HE PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.
aptain Isaac Meyers of the French and Indian War of 1754 — David S.
Franks and Isaac Franks — David Franks, the loyalist — Solomon
and Lewis Bush — Major Benjamin Nones — Other Jewish Soldiers,
of whom one was exempted from duty on Friday nights — The
Pinto brothers — Commissary General Mordecai Sheftal of Georgia
— Haym Salomon, the Polish Jew, and his financial assistance to
the Revolution Psjgg ,^j
CHAPTER XIII.
THE DECLINE OF NEWPORT; WASHINGTON AND THE JEWS.
England's special enmity to Newport caused the dispersion of its Jew-
ish congregation — The General Assembly of Rhode Island meets
in the historic Newport Synagogue — Moses Seixas' address to
Washington on behalf of the Jews of Newport and the latter's
reply — Washington's letters to the Hebrew Congregations of Sa-
vannah, Ga., and to the congregations of Philadelphia, New York,
Richmond and Charleston Page fls
CHAPTER XIV.
)THER COMMUNITIES IN THE FIRST PERIODS OF INDEPENDENCE.
iabbi Gershom Mendez Seixas — Growth of the Jewish community of
Philadelphia on account of the War — Protest against the religious
test clause in the Constitution of Pennsylvania — Benjamin Frank-
lin contributes five pounds to Mickweh Israel — Secession of the
German-Polish element — New Societies— Jewish lawj'ers; Judge
Moses Levy — Congressman H. M. Phillips — The Bush family of
Delaware — New Jersey and Ne\v Hampshire — North Carolina: the
Mordecai family and other early settlers Page 104
xii Contents.
CHAPTER XV.
THE QUESTION OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY IN VIRGINIA AND I]
NORTH CAROLINA.
Little change in the basic systems of State institutions — Patrick Heiirj
Madison and Jefferson on religious liberty in Virginia — The simi
larity between the Virginia statute and the conclusions of Mose
Mendelssohn pointed out by Count Mirabeau — The first congregj
tion of Richmond — Article 32 of the Constitution of North Caro
lina against Catholics, Jews, etc.— How Jacob Henry, a Jewish
member of the Legislature, defended and retained his seat i:
1809 — Judge Gaston's interpretation — The first congregation of VVil
mington, N. C. — Final emancipation in 1868 Page l;
CHAPTER XVL
THE WAR OF l8l2 AND THE REMOVAL OF JEWISH DISABILITIE
IN MARYLAND.
The Jewish community almost at a standstill between the Revolutio
ard the War of 1812 — Stoppage of immigration and losses throug
emigration and assimilation — No Jews in the newly admitted State
— The small number of Jews who fought in the second war wit
England included Judah Touro, the philanthropist — The Jewish dis
abilities in Maryland — A Jew appointed by Jefiferson as Unite
States Marshal for that State — The "Jew Bill" as an issue in Mar)
land politics — Removal of the disabilities in 1826 Page 1;
CHAPTER XVII.
MORDECAI MANUEL NOAH' AND HIS TERRITORIALIST-ZIONISTI
PLANS.
Noah's family; his youth and his early successes as journalist and <
dramatist — His appointment as Consul in Tunis and his recall-
His insistence that the United States is not a Christian nation-
Editor and playwright. High Sheriff and Surveyor of the Port (
New York — His invitation to the Jews of the world to settle i
the City of Refuge which he was to found on Grand Island — In
Contents. xiii
pressive ceremonies in Buffalo which were the beginning and the
end of "Ararat" — His "Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews" —
Short career on the bench — Jewish activities Page 1:^8
PART IV.
THE SECOND OR GERMAN PERIOD OF IMMIGRATION.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE FIRST COMM'UNITIES IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
npetus given to immigration to America by the reaction after the fall
of Napoleon — The second period of Jewish immigration — First
legislation about immigration (1819) — The first Jew in Cincinnati —
Its first congregation, Bene Israel — Appeals to outside communities
for funds to build a synagogue — The first Talmud Torah — Rabbis
Gutheim, Wise and Lilienthal — Cleveland — St, Louis — Louis-
ville — Mobile — Montgomery and its alleged Jewish founder,
Abraham Mordecai — Savannah and Augusta — .New Orleans — Judah
Touro Page 135
CHAPTER XIX.
EW SETTLEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE WEST AND ON THE PACIFIC
COAST.
icrease in general immigration — Estimated increase in the number of
Jews — The natural dispersion of small traders over the country —
Chicago — First congregations and other communal institutions — In-
diana — Iowa: Polish Jews settle in Keokuk and German Jews in
Davenport — Minnesota — Wisconsin — Congregation "Bet El" of De-
troit, Mich. — The first "minyan of gold seekers in San Fran-
cisco — "Mining congregations" — Solomon Heydenfeldt — Portland,
•^■■egon Page 149
xiv Contents.
CHAPTER XX
THE JEWS IN THE EARLY HISTORY OF TEXAS. THE MEXICA:
WAR.
The first settler in 1821 — Adolphus Sterne, who fought against Mexic
and later served in the Texan Congress — David S. Kaufman — Su:
geon-General Levy in the army of Sam Houston — A Jew as the firi
meat "packer" in America — Major Leon Dyer and his brother Is;
dore — Mayor Seeligsohn of Galveston (1853) — One Jew laid 01
Waco; Castro County is named after another — Belated commun;
and religious activities — The War with Mexico, in which only
small number of Jews served — David Camden de Leon and h
brother Edwin, U. S. Consul-General in Egypt Page II
CHAPTER XXI.
THE RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT.
Political liberalism and religious radicalism of the German Jewish in:
migrant — The struggle with Orthodoxy hardly more than an ai
imated controversy — No attempt made here by the Temple to swa!
low the Synagogue, as was the case in Germany — The first Reforn
ers of Charleston, S. C. — Isaac Leeser, the conservative leader, th
first to make a serious effort to adjust Judaism to American sui
roundings — Dr. Max Lilienthal — Isaac M. Wise, the energetic 01
ganizer of Reform Judaism — Dr. David Einhorn — Dr. Samuel Adle
— Bernhard Felsenthal — Samuel Hirsch Page 11
CPIAPTER XXn.
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM AND ITS STAND AGAINST REFORM.
"The poor Jews of Elm street and the rich Jews of Crosby street"-
Rabbis Samuel M. Isaacs, Morris J. Raphall and Jacques J. Lyons-
Sabato Morals — Kalish and Hiibsch, the moderate reformers — Ben
jamin Szold — Dr. Marcus Jastrow's career in three countries-
Alexander Kohut — Russian Orthodoxy asserts itself in New Yorl
and the Bet ha-Midrash ha-Godol is founded in 1852 — Rabbi Abrj
ham Joseph Ash and his various activities — Charity work which rs
mains subordinate to religious work in the synagogue Page 11
Contents. xv
CHAPTER XXIII.
INTERVENTION IN DAMASCUS. THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SWISS
DISCRIMINATION.
The Damascus Affair; the first occasion on which the Jews of the United
States requested the government to intercede in behalf of persecuted
Jews in another country — John Forsyth's instructions to American
representatives in Turkey, in wliich those requests were anticipated
— A discrimination in a treaty with Switzerland to which President
Fillmore objected, and which Clay and Webster disapproved — The
case of a Jewish-American citizen in Neufchatel — Newspaper agita-
tion, meetings and memorials against the Swiss treaty — President
Buchanan's emphatic declaration, and Minister Fay's "Israelite
Note" about the Jews of Alsace — Question is settled by the eman-
cipation of the Swiss Jews Page 193
PART V.
THE CIVIL WAR AND THE FORMATIVE PERIOD.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE DISCUSSION ABOUT SLAVERY. LINCOLN AND THE JEWS.
Pro-slavery tendencies of the aristocratic Spaniards and Portuguese —
David Yulee (Levy) — Michael Heilprin and his reply to Rabbi
Raphall's Bible View on 5/az'(?rji— Immigrants of the second period
as opponents of slavery — Two Jewish delegates in the Convention
which nominated Abraham Lincoln, and one member of the Elec-
toral College in i860— Two other Jews officially participate in Lin-
coln's renomination and re-election in 1864 — Abraham Jonas — En-
couragement from the Scripture in original Hebrew Page 206
CHAPTER XXV.
PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE CIVIL WAR. JUDAH P. BENJAMIN.
Probable number of Jews in the United States at the time of the out-
break of the Civil War— Seddon's estimate of "from ten to twelve
xvi Contents.
thousand Jews in the Southern Army" — Judah P. Benjamin, the
greatest Jew in American public life — His early life and his mar-
riage — Whig politician, planter and slave owner — Elected to the
United States Senate and re-elected as a Democrat — Quits Wash-
ington when Louisiana seceded and enters the cabinet of the Con-
federacy — Attorney-General, Secretary of War and Secretary of
State — His foreign policy — His capacity for work — When all is lost
he goes to England and becomes one of its great lawyers — His last
days are spent in France Page 218
CHAPTER XXVI.
DISTINGUISHED SERVICES OF JEWS ON BOTH SIDES OF THE
STRUGGLE.
More "brothers in arms'' and a larger proportion of officers in the Con-
federate Army than in that of the North, because most Southern
Jews were natives of the country — Some distinguished officers — A
gallant private who later became a rabbi — Paucity of Southern rec-
ords — Generals Knefler, Solomon, Blumenberg, Joachimsen and
other officers of high rank in the Union Army — New York ranks
first, Ohio second and Illinois third in the number of Jews who went
to the front — Two Pennsylvania regiments which started with Jew-
ish colonels — Commodore Uriah P. Levy, the ranking officer of the
United States navy at the time of the outbreak of the war, is pre-
vented by age from taking part in it Page 229
CHAPTER XXVII.
THTE FORMATIVE PERIOD AFTER THE CIVIL Vi^AR.
Ebb and flow of immigration between 1850 and 1880 — Decrease and
practical stoppage of Jewish immigration from Germany — The
breathing spell between two periods of immigration, and the prep-
aration for the vast influx which was to follow — The period of great
charitable institutions — Organization and consolidation — The He-
brew Union College and the Union of American Hebrew Congrega-
tions — The Independent Order B'nai Brith — Other large fraternal
organizations and their usefulness — Important local institutions in
New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, etc P^gg 242
Contents. xvii
CHAPTER XXV-III.
NEW SYNAGOGUES AND TEMPLES. IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA
PRIOR TO 1880. ^ - —
Continued increase in the wealth and importance of the German-Jewish
congregations — New and spacious synagogues and temples erected
in various parts of the country in the "sixties" and the "seventies"
— Problems of Russian-Jewish immigration prior to 1880 — -Econornic
condition of the Jewish masses in Russia worse in the "golden era"
than under Nicholas I. — Emigration from Russia after the famine
of 1867-68 and after the pogrom of Odessa in 1871 — Presumption of
the existence of a Hebrew reading public in New York in 1868 —
The first Hebrew and Yiddish periodicals . page 250
PAET VI.
THE THIRD OR RUSSIAN PERIOD OF IMMIGRATION.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE INFLUX AFTER THE ANTI- JEWISH RIOTS IN RUSSIA IN 1 88 1.
The country itself is well prepared for the reception of a larger number
of Jewish immigrants — Absence of organized or political Anti-
semitism — Increase in general immigration in 1880 and 1881 — Ar-
rival of the "Am Olam"— Imposing protest meetings against the
riots in Russia — Welcome and assistance — Emma Lazarus — Heilprin
and the attempts to found agricultural colonies— Herman Rosen-
thal Failures in many States — Some success in Connecticut and
more in New Jersey — Woodbine — Distribution — Industrial workers
and the new radicalism Page 260
XHAPTER XXX.
COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES AMONG THE NEW COMERS.
Congregational and social activities among the new comers— Ephemeral
organizations— The striving after professional education— Syna-
xviii Contents.
gogues as the most stable of the new establishments — "Landsleut"
congregations — The first efforts to consolidate the Orthodox com-
munity of New York — The Federation of Synagogues — Chief Rabbi
Jacob Joseph — Other "chief rabbis'' in Chicago and Boston — Promi-
nent Orthodox rabbis in many cities — Dr. Philip Klein — The short
period in which the cantor was the most important functionary in
the Orthodox synagogue — Synagogues change hands, but are rarely
abandoned Page 274
CHAPTER XXXI.
NEW COUMUNAL AND INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES.
The Jewish Alliance of 1891 as the first attempt to form a general or-
ganization in which the immigrants of the latest period should be
officially recognized — Some of the prominent participators — The
new Exodus of 1891 — The Baron de Hirsch Fund — Various activi-
ties — Decrease in the numbers and proportion of the helpless and
the needy — The American Jewish Historical Society — The Jewish
Publication Society of America — The Jewish Chautauqua — Partici-
pation in the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893— The Council
of Jewish Women Page 2SC
CHAPTER XXXn.
THE LABOR MOVEMENT AND NEW LITERARY ACTIVITIES.
Difficulty of securing data for the history of the Labor Movement
among Jewish immigrants — John R. Commons' characterization of
a Jewish labor union — A constantly changing army of followers
under the same leaders — The movement under the control of the
radical press— The leaders as journalists and literary men — They
popularize the press and teach the rudiments of politics — The voter
— The "Heften" — Neo-Hebrew periodicals — The Yiddish stylists—
The plight of the Hebraists ; . p^g^ 097
CHAPTER XXXni.
RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA. THE PASSPORT QUESTION.
The normal rate of Jewish immigration is but slightly affected by the
panic of 1893 — Oppressiveness of the Sunday Laws are felt by the
Contents. xix
new immigrants — The Extradition Treaty with Russia — Beginning
of the struggle about the Passport Question — The first Resolution
against Russia's discrimination, introduced in Congress by Mr.
Cox in 1879 — Diplomacy and diplomatic correspondence — More
resolutions — Rayner, Fitzgerald, Perkins — Henry M. Goldfogle — •
John Hay's letter to the House — Alore letters, speeches and dis-
cussions — The Sulzer Resolution and the last step to abrogate the
Treaty of 1832 Page 30G
CHAPTER XXXIV.
LEGISLATION ABOUT IMMIGRATION. SUNDAY LAWS AND THEIR
ENFORCEMENT.
Jewish interest in immigration — The first legislation on the subject^
The Nativists or "Know Nothings" — A Congressional investiga-
tion in 1838 — President Taylor's invitation to foreigners to come
and settle here — A law to encourage immigration passed on Lin-
coln's recommendation in 1864 — The General Immigration Law of 1882
The "Ford Committee" — Permanent Immigration Committees
in Congress — Continued agitation and legislation on the subject —
A bill containing the requirement of an educational test is vetoed
by President Grover Cleveland in 1897 — The last Immigration Law
of igo7 — The Immigration Commission of 1907 and its report in
1910 — Sunday Laws and their significance for the Orthodox Jew —
Laws of various States and Territories — Their effect on movements
for municipal reform — Status of the problems Page 310
CHAPTER XXXV.
END OF THE CENTURY. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. THE
DREYFUS AFFAIR. ZIONISM.
Jews in the Spanish-American war — Commissioned and non-commis-
sioned officers, privates and "Rough Riders"— Jews in the Navy:
Simon Cook, Joseph Strauss and Edward David Taussig— The ca-
reer of Rear-Admiral Adolph Marix— His part in the Inquiry about
the "Maine" and in the war— The significance of the Dreyfus Af-
fair—Its influence on the spread of Zionism— The American press
almost as pro-Dreyfus as the Jewish — The Zionist movement in
America— The rank and file consists of immigrants from Slavic
countries, under the leadership of Americans Page B31
zz Contents.
PART VII.
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. PRESENT CONDITIONS.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
SYNAGOGUES AND INSTITUTIONS. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ROU-
MANIA AND THE ROUMANIAN NOTE.
Synagogues and other Jewish Institutions — General improvement and
moderation — The Jewish Encyclopedia — Its editors and contribu-
tors — The Roumanian situation and the American Government's in-
terest in it since 1867 — Benjamin F. Peixotto, United States Consul-
General in Bucharest — Diplomatic correspondence between Kasson
and Evarts — New negotiations with Roumania in 1902 — The Rou-
manian Note to the signatories of the Berlin Treaty — The question
still in abeyance Page 3;J8
CHAPTER XXXVH.
HELP FOR THE VICTIMS OF THE RUSSIAN MASSACRES IN I9O3 AND
1905. OTHER PROOFS OF SYMPATHY.
The Kishinev massacre — Official solicitude and general sympathy — -Pro-
test meetings and collections — The "Kishinev Petition" and its fate
— Less publicity given to the later pogroms, whose victims were
helped by "landsleut" from this country — The influence of pogroms
on immigration — The frightful massacres in Russia in the fall of
1905, and the assistance rendered by this country — A Resolution of
sympathy adopted in Congress — The 250th Anniversary of the Set-
tlement of the Jews in the United States — Relief for Moroccan
Jews proposed by the United States — Oscar S. Straus in the
Cabinet Page 353
CHAPTER XXXVni.
THE AMERICAN- JEWISH COMMITTEE. EDUCATIONAL INSTITU-
TIONS AND FEDERATIONS.
Formation of the American Jewish Committee — Its first fifteen members
and its membership in 191 1 — The experimental Kehillah organiza-
Contents. xxi
tions — The re-organized Jewish Theological Seminary — Faculty of
the Hebrew Union College — The Dropsie College of Hebrew and
Cognate Learning — The Rabbi Joseph Jacob School — Other Ortho-
dox "Yeshibot" — Talmud Torahs and "Chedarim" — Hebrew Insti-
tutes — They become more Jewish because other agencies now do
the work of Americanizing the immigrant — Technical Schools —
Young Men's and Young Women's Hebrew Associations — Federa-
tions of various kinds Page 300
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE JEWS IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
The legend about the Jewish origin of Chevalier de Levis — Aaron Hart,
the English Commissary, and Abraham Gradis, the French banker —
Early settlers in Montreal — Its first Congregation — Troubles of
Ezekiel Hart, the first Jew to be elected to the Legislature — Final
Emancipation in 1832 — Jews fight on the Loyalist side against Popi-
neau's rebellion — Prominent Jews in various fields of activity —
Congregation "Shaar ha-Shomaim" — Toronto — First synagogue in
Victoria, B. C, in 1862 — Hamilton and Winnipeg — Other communi-
ties — Agricultural Colonies — Jewish Newspapers Page .380
CHAPTER XL.
JEWS IN SOUTH AMERICA^ MEXICO AND CUBA.
The first "minyan" in Buenos Ayres, Argentine, in 1861 — Estimate of
the Jewish population in Argentine — Occupations and economic
condition of the various groups — Kosher meat and temporary syna-
gogues as indications of the religious conditions — Communities in
twenty-six other cities — The Agricultural Colonies — Brazil — The
rumor that General Floriano Peixotto, the second president of the
new Republic, was of Jewish origin — Communities in several cities
— The Colony Philippson — Jews in Montevido, Uruguay — Other
South American Republics — Isidor Borowski, who fought under
Bolivar — -Panama — Moroccan Jews are liked by Peru Indiaits —
About ten thousand Jews in Mexico — Slowly increasing number in
Cuba, where Jews help to spread the American influence, page .387
jsii Contents,
CHAPTER XLI.
lEN OF EMINENCE IN THE ARTS, SCIENCES AND THE PROFESSIONS.
ews who attained eminence in the world of art and of science — Moses
J. Ezekiel — Ephraim Keyser — Isidor Konti — Victor D. Brenner^
Butensky and Davidson — Painters; Henry Mosler, Constant Mayer,
H. N. Hyneman and George D. M. Peixotto— Max Rosenthal and
his son, Albert — Max Weyl, Toby E. Rosenthal, Louis Loeb and
Katherine M. Cohen — Some cartoonists and caricaturists — Musi-
cians, composers and musical directors — -The Damrosch family, Ga-
brilowitsch, Hoffman and Ellman — Operatic and theatrical man-
agers and impressarios — Playwrights and actors — Scientists: A. A.
Michelson, Morris Bloomfield, Jacob H. Hollander, Charles Wald-
stein and his family— Charles Gross— Edwin R. A. Seligman, Adolph
Cohn, Jaques Loeb, Simon Flexner and Abraham Jacobi — Fabian
Franklin — Engineers: Sutro, Gottlieb and Jacobs — Some eminent
physicians and lawyers — Merchants and financiers Page 394
CHAPTER XLH.
LITERATURE : HEBREW AND ENGLISH. PERIODICALS.
"uriosities of early American Jewish literature which belong to the
domain of bibliography — Rabbinical works: Responses, commen-
taries and Homiletics — Hebrew works of a modern character — Ehr-
lich's Mikra Ki-Peshuto and Eisenstein's Ozar Israel — Neo-Hebrew
Poets and literati — Jewish writers in the vernacular — "Ghetto
Stories" — Writers on non-Jewish subjects — Scientific works —
Writers on Jewish subjects and contributors to the "Jewish En-
cyclopedia" — A. S. Freidus — Non-Jewish writers about Jews — ■
Daly — Frederic, Davitt and Hapgood — Journalists, editors and pub-
lishers — The Ochs brothers; the Rosewaters — Pulitzer and de
Young of Jewish descent — The Jewish denominational press in
English — The "Sanatorium." Page 405
CHAPTER XLin.
YIDDISH LITERATURE, DRAMA AND THE PRESS.
fiddish poets of the United States equal, if they do not excell, the poets
of the same tongue in other countries — Morris Rosenfeld — "Ye-
hoash" and Sharkansky — Bovshoer and other radicals — Zunser — Old
Contents. xxiii
fashioned novelists — The sketch writers who are under the influence
of the Russian realistic writers — Abner Tannenbaum — Alexander
Harkavy — "Krantz," Hermalin, Zevin and others — Abraham Gold-
faden and the playwrights who followed him — Jacob Gordin and
the realists — Yiddish actors and actresses — The Yiddish Press — The
high position attained by the dailies — Weekly and monthly pub-
lications Page 418
CHAPTER XLIV
lSENt conditions, the number and the dispersion of
jews in america. conclusion.
persion of the Jews over the country and its colonial posses-
sions — The number of Jews in the United States about
three millions — The number of communities in various States —
The number of Jews in the large cities — The number of the
congregations is far in excess of the recorded figures — The process
of disintegration and the counteracting forces — The building of syn-
agogues — Charity work is not overshadowing other communal activi-
ties as in the former period, and more attention is paid to affairs of
Judaism — The conciliatory spirit and the tendency to federate — Self-
criticism and dissatisfaction which are an incentive to improvement
— Our great opportunity here — Our hope in the higher civilization
in which the injustices of the older order of things inay never
reappear Page 424
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Fkontispiece (Ezekiel's Statue of Religious Liberty)
Col. Isaac Franks 91
judah touro 145
Rabbi Isaac Leeser 109
Dr. Isaac M. Wise 173
Rabbi Sabato Morais 181
Dr. Marcus Jastkow 187
Michael Heilprin 209
Lewis N. Dembitz 213
Judah p. Benjamik 219
Hon. Simon Wolf 231
Commodore Uriah P. Levy 239
Julius Bien 245
Kasriel H. Sarasohn 257
Emma Lazarus 263
Herman Rosenthal 267
Chief Rabbi Jacob Josepi; 279
Miss Sadie American 293
Prof, Gotthard Deutsch 341
Hon. Jacob H. Schiff 359
Hon. Oscar S. Straus 363
Judge Mayer Sulzberger 367
Hon. Benjamin Selling opp. p. 370
Prof. Solomon Schechteb 373
Martha Wolfenstein 41I
MoRDECAi Manuel Noah 415
XXIV
INTRODUCTION.
THE JEWS AS EARLY INTERNATIONAL TRADERS.
The ten centuries which passed between the fall of the Western
Roman Empire and the discovery of the New World are com-
monly known as the Middle Ages or the Dark Ages. They were,
on the whole, very dark indeed for most of the inhabitants of
Europe, as well as for the Jews who were scattered among them.
It was a time of the fermentation of religious and national ideas,
a formative period for the mind and the body politic of the races
from which the great nations of the present civilized world were
evolved. It was a period of violent hatreds, of cruel persecutions,
of that terrible earnestness which prompts and justifies the exter-
mination of enemies and even of opponents; there was almost
constant war between nations, between classes, between creeds
and sects. The ordinary man had no rights even in theory, the
truths "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these
are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" were not self-evi-
dent then ; they were not even thought of until a much later era.
The treatment accorded to the Jews in our own times in the
countries where the general conditions are nearest to those pre-
vailing in the dark ages, gives a clear idea of what the Jew had
to undergo when the average degree of culture was so much
lower than it is in the least developed of the Christian countries
at present. The records of the times are so filled with pillage,
expulsions and massacres, that they impress us as having been
common occurrences, though they happened further apart to those
who lived through the peaceful intervals which distance of time
1
2 History of the Jews in America.
makes to appear short to us. There were, of course, some bright
spots, the most shining of which was the Iberian peninsula dur-
ing the earlier part of the Moorish domination. Sometimes a
kind-hearted king would afford his Jews protection and even
grant them valuable privileges ; a clear-headed prince often found
it to his own interest to utilize them for the advancement of the
commerce of his dominion, and in a rare period of peace and'
prosperity there also happened a general relaxation of the sever-
ity which characterized the time. But if we view the entire
thousand years as a single historical period, we find the condi-
tion of the Jews slowly deteriorating; with the result that while
the modern nations were welded together and came out of the
medieval furnace strengthened and developed, the Jews were
pushed back, segregated and degraded, ready for the numerous
expulsions and various sufferings which continued for more than
two centuries in Western Europe and are not yet over in other
parts of the Old World.
The favorable position of the Jews at the beginning of the
Middle Ages is less familiar to the reading public, even to the
Jewish reader, than the troublesome times which came later. As
a matter of fact the Jews were, except for the lack of national
unity and of the possession of an independent home, better sit-
uated materially four centuries after the destruction of the Sec-
ond Temple than before the last dissolution of the Kingdom of
Judah. The instinct for commerce which is latent in the "Sem-
itic" race was awakened in the Diaspora and, after an interrup-
tion of more than a thousand years, we find, at the end of the
classical times, international trade again almost exclusively in the
hands of members of that race. The Sumero-Accadians or orig-
inal Babylonians who were the earliest known internationar trad-
ers on land, and the Phoenicians, who first dared to trade over
seas, were of Semitic origin. As foreign commerce is the highest
form of activity in regard to the utilization of human produc-
tivity, so it is also the forerunner of mental activity and of the
spread of an ennobling and instructive culture. The beginnings
of both Egyptian and Greek civilization, according to the latest
Introduction. 3
discoveries, point unmistakably to Mesopotamian or Phoenician
origin, with a strong probability that the latter received it from
the former in times which we usually describe as pre-historic, but
about which we now possess considerable exact information. Cul-
ture followed the great route of the caravans to Syria and Egypt
on one side, to Iran, India and as far as China in an opposite di-
rection. And if we accept the wholly incorrect and un-scientihc
division of the white race into Aryans and Semites, then this
original and most fertile of the cultures of humanity was un-
doubtedly Semitic. A more modern and more nearly correct di-
vision would place these ancient inhabitants of the plateau of
Asia as a part of the great Mediterranean or brunette race, which
includes, besides all the so-called Semites, a number of Euro-
pean nations which are classed as Aryans. Greece succeeded
Phoenicia and was in turn succeeded by Rome in the hegemony
of international trade as well as in that of general culture. Both
commerce and culture declined when the ancient civilization was
all but destroyed by the invasion of the blond barbarians of the
northern forests, who were themselves destined to attain in a far-
away future the highest form of civilization of which mankind
has hitherto proven itself capable. (See Zollschan "Das Ras-
senproblem," Vienna, iQio, pp. 206 ff.)
It so happened that at the time of the downfall of the Roman
Empire, or, as it is usually called, the beginning of the Middle
Ages, another people of Semitic origin, the Jews, were for the
most part engaged in international trade. There are records of
Jewish merchants of that period shipping or exporting wine, oil,
honey, fish, cattle, woolens, etc., from Spain to Rome and. other
Latin provinces, from Media to Brittannia, from the Persian
Gulf and Ethiopia to Macedonia and Italy ; there was no impor-
tant seaport or commercial center in which the Jews did not oc-
cupy a commanding position. Their prominence as importers
and exporters rather increased than diminished by the downfall
of the great Empire. The new nations of the Germanic king-
doms which were founded on the ruins of Rome, knew nothing
of international trade, and the position of the Jews as merchants
4 History of the Jews in America.
was accepted by them as a matter of course. Hence the first
traces of Jewish settlements in modern European countries are
almost exclusively to be found in the earliest records of commerce
and of trading privileges. They are then known as traders with
distant countries, as sea-going men, as owners of vessels and as
slave-traders. The commercial note or written obligation to pay,
which is accepted in lieu of payment and is itself negotiable as a
substitute for money, is a Jewish invention of those times. They
developed industries and improved the material conditions of
every place in which they were found in large numbers. As late
as 1084, when their position had been already much weakened
and the coming Crusades were casting their shadows, Bishop
Rudiger of Speyer began his edict of privileges granted to the
Jews with the statement : "As I wish to turn the village of
Speyer into a city ... I call the Jews to settle there." (See
ibid p. 351.)^
THE SPANISH JEWS AS LAND OWNERS.
Canon Law on one side and the rise of cities on the other shat-
tered the position of the Jews until they were reduced to sore
straits at the end of the Middle Ages. The church labored per-
sistently and relentlessly through the centuries in which Europe
was thoroughly Christianized, to separate the Jews as far as pos-
sible from their Gentile neighbors. The ties which united the
two parts of the population by a thousand threads of mutual in-
terest, friendship, co-operation and beneficial intercourse, were
slowly loosened and, where possible, all but severed. At the var-
ious Church Councils, from Nicea to the last Lateran, there was
laid down the theory of the necessity to force the Jews out of
' A remarkable work by Werner Sombart, Die Juden imd das Wirt-
schaftsleben (Leipsic ign), which appeared after the above was written,
deals exhaustively with the important part which the Jews played in the
development of business and finance in medieval as well as in modern
times. While it is avowedly a partisan work written for a special pur-
pose, it is a notable contribution to social-economic Jewish history
which no student of the subject can afiford to neglect.
Introduction. 5
the national life of the countries in which they dwelt, and to seg-
regate them as a distinct, inferior and outlawed class. The prin-
ciples enunciated by the higher clergy were disseminated by the
priests and the demagogues among the masses. Special laws and
restrictions were often followed by attacks, sacking of the Jew-
ish quarters and degradations of various kinds. In the twelfth
and the following three centuries the ill-treatment was often fol-
lowed by expulsions and cancellation of debts, while heavy fines on
individual Jews or on entire communities were accepted on both
sides as a lesser evil or as easy terms for escaping greater hard-
ships. The climax of this method of dealing with the Jews, the
greatest blow administered to the unhappy Children of Israel by
Christian princes, was the expulsion from Spain in 1492, and its
concomitant, the expulsion from Portugal five years afterwards.
But the Church alone could never have accomplished the ruin
of the Jews if the changing economic conditions and the rise of
a large and powerful class of Christian merchants did not help to
undermine the position of the erstwhile solitary trading class.
The burgher classes were the chief opponents and persecutors of
their Jewish competitors : they seconded, and in many cases insti-
gated, the efforts of the clergy to exclude the Jews from many
occupations. So when the city overpowered the land owner and
began to exert a preponderant influence on the government, the
cause of the Jew was lost, or at least postponed until a more hu-
mane and liberal time, when the ordinary claims of the brother-
hood of man were to overcome the narrow-minded mercantile
and ecclesiastical policies of a ruder age. The great historian
Ranke pointed out that the struggle between the cities and the
nobility in Castille was decided in favor of the former by the
marriage of Queen Isabella to Ferdinand of Aragon. It was
also this marriage which sealed the doom of the Spanish Jews,
as well as that of their former friends and protectors, the Moors,
who had by that time sunk so low, that it was impossible for
them to keep their last stronghold in Europe much longer.
Though the outlook in Spain was very dark, it was much worse
in all other known countries, which accounts for the fact that
6 History of the Jews in America.
there was hardly any emigration from the Christian parts of
Spain in the time immediately preceding the expulsion. The
Spanish Jew was then, and has to some extent remained even
unto this day, the aristocrat among the Jews of the world. His
intense love for that country is still smouldering in the hearts of
his descendants, and not without reason. In other European
countries the Jew could, during the middle ages, only enjoy the
sympathy and sometimes be accorded the protection of the no-
bility. In Spain and Portugal he actually belonged to that class.
For, as Selig (Dr. Paulus) Cassel has justly remarked (in his
splendid article Juden in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopedia) suf-
ficient attention has not been paid by Jewish historians to the im-
portant fact that Spain and Portugal were the only considerable
countries during the Middle Ages in which the Jews were per-
mitted to own land. The statement, for which there is an ap-
parent Jewish authority, that they owned about a third of Spain
at the time of their exile, is doubtless an exaggeration, but there
can be no question of their being extensive holders of land-prop-
erties.
This largely explains why the Jew in Spain has not sunk in
public estimation as much as he did in other countries, why his
fate was different, and, in the end, worse than that of his more
humiliated and degraded brother elsewhere. When the German
or French Jew was forced out of commerce he could only become
a money-lender at the usurious rates prevailing in those times.
This vocation drew on him the contempt and hatred of all classes,
as was always the case and as is the case in many places even to-
day. But while the usurer was despised he was very useful, often
even indispensable, especially in those times when there was a
great scarcity of the precious metals and of convertible capital.
This may explain why the exiled Jews were in other countries
usually called back to the places from which they were exiled.
The prejudice of the age may render their work disreputable,
but it was none the less necessary ; they were missed as soon as
they left, and on many occasions negotiations for their return
Introduction. 7
v/ere begun as soon as the popular fury cooled down, or when
the object of spoliation was attained.
Not so in Spain. The Jewish merchant who could no longer
hold his own against his stronger non-Jewish competitor, could
do what is often done by others who voluntarily retire from such
pursuits, i. e., invest his capital in landed estates. We can im-
agine that the transition did not at all seem to be forced, that
those who caused it, and even its victims, might have considered
it as the natural course of events. After the great massacres of
1391, a century before the expulsion, many Jews emigrated to
Moorish North Africa, where there still remained some degree
of tolerance and friendliness for them, mingled perhaps with
some hope of re-conquering the lost parts of the Iberian penin-
sula. But later there was less thought of migration, least of all
of emigrating to the parts of Spain which still remained in the
possession of the Moors. The race which was, seven centuries
before, assisted by the Jews to become masters of Iberia, and'
which together with them rose to a height of culture and mental
achievement which is not yet properly appreciated in modern
history, has now become degenerate and almost savage in its
fanaticism. The Jew of Spain was still proud, despite his suffer-
ings. He could not see his fate as clearly as we can now
from the perspective of five hundred years. He was rooted in
the country in which he lived for many centuries. He was, like
most m.en of wealth and position, inclined to be optimistic, and
he could not miss his only possible protection against expropria-
tion or exile — the possession of full rights of citizenship — be-
cause the Jews nowhere had it in those times and had not had it
since the days of ancient Rome.
The catastrophe of the great expulsion, which came more unex-
pectedly than we can now perceive, was possibly facilitated by the
position which the Jews held as land owners. It certainly con-
tributed to make the decree of exile irrevocable. The holder of
real property is more easily and more thoroughly despoiled, be-
cause he cannot hide his most valuable possessions or escape
8 History of the Jews in America.
with them. He is not missed wlien he is gone ; his absence is
hardly felt after the title to his lands has been transferred to the
Crown or to favorites of the government. When the robbery is
once committed only compunction or an awakened sense of jus-
tice could induce the restitution which re-admission or recall
would imply. And as abstract moral forces had very little in-
fluence in those cruel days, it is no wonder that the expulsion
was final — the only one of that nature in Christian Europe.
This peculiar position of the Jews in Spain and Portugal was
also the cause of the immense number of conversions which gave
these anti-Jewish nations a very large mixture of Jewish blood
in their veins. The temptation to cling to the land and to the
high social position which could not be enjoyed elsewhere was
too strong for all but the strongest. Thus we find Marranos or
secret Jews in all the higher walks of life in the times of the dis-
covery of America. The more steadfast of their brethren who'
were equally prominent in the preceding period assisted in var-
ious ways earlier voyages of discovery, and even contributed in-
directly to the success of the one great voyage, which did not
begin until they were exiled from Spain forever.
But we must constantly bear in mind, when speaking of the
Middle Ages and of the two centuries succeeding it, the sixteenth
and the seventeenth, that the Jews did not possess the right of
citizenship and were not, even when they were treated very well,
considered as an integral part of the population. This was the
chief weakness of their position and the ultimate cause of all the
persecutions, massacres and expulsions. Still they had many
opportunities and made the most of them to advance their own
interests and those of the countries in which they dwelt. We
find them in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in close touch
with the current of national life in the countries which were most
absorbed in enterprises of navigation and discovery. Alany of
them were still great merchants, numerous others were scholars,
mathematicians and astronomers or astrologers ; some had in-
fluence in political life as advisers or fiscal officials at the royal
Introductioii. 9
:ourts. They accomplished much, as Jews and as Marranos,
L'ven when the danger of persecution must have been ever-pres-
ent, or later, when in constant terror of the Inquisition. Many
Df them could therefore participate in the work which led to the
discovery of a New World, where their descendants were des-
tined to find a home safer and more free than was ever dreamt of
in medieval Jewish philosophy.
PART I.
THE SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE PERIOD.
CHAPTER I.
THE PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW
WORLD.
The Jew of Barcelona who has navigated the whole known world —
Judah Cresques, "the Map Jew," as director of the Academy of Navi-
gation which was founded by Prince Henry the Navigator — One
Jewish astronomer advises the King of Portugal to reject the plans
of Columbus — Zacuto as one of the first influential men in Spain to
encourage the discoverer of the New World — Abravanel, Senior and
the Marranos Santangel and Sanchez who assisted Columbus — The
voyage of discovery begun a day after the expulsion of the Jews
from Spain — Luis de Torres and other Jews who went with Colum-
bus — America discovered on "Hosannah Rabbah" — The Indians a3
the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel — Money taken from the Jews to de-
fray the expenditure of the second voyage of Columbus — Vasco da
Gama and the Jew Caspar — Scrolls of the Thorah from Portugal
sold in Cochin — Alphonse d' Albuquerque's interpreter who returned
to Judaism.
In the days when Church and State were one and indissoluble,
and when all large national enterprises, such as wars or the
search for new dominions by means of discovery, were under-
taken avowedly in the name and for the glory of the Catholic
religion, it could not have been expected that governments will
make an effort to protect international trade as long as it was in
Jewish hands. We must therefore go as far back as to the first
10
Juceff the Navigator and Judah, "the Map Jew". 11
half of the 14th century to find a record of Jews who went to
sea on their own account in an independent way. Accordhng to
the great authority on the subject of this chapter (Dr. M. Kay-
serhng, "Christopher Columbus and the participation of the Jews
in the Spanish and Portuguese Discoveries," English translation
by the late Prof. Charles Gross of Harvard University) Jaime
III., the last king of Mallorca, testified in 1334 that Juceff Fa-
quin, a Jew of Barcelona, "has navigated the whole then known
world." About a century later we find again a Jew prominently
identified with navigation; but in this instance he is a scientific
teacher, in the employ of an energetic prince who considered
navigation as a national project of the greatest moment. Prince
Henry the Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460), who helped his
father to capture Ceuta, in North Africa, and there "obtained
information from Jewish travellers concerning the south coast
of Guinea and the interior of Africa", established a naval acad-
emy or school of navigation at the Villa do Iffante or Sagres, a
seaport town which he caused to be built. He appointed as its
director Mestre Jaime of Mallorca whose real name was Jafuda
(Judah) Cresques, the son of Abraham Cresques of Palma, the
capital of Mallorca. Jafuda was known as "the Map Jew,"
and a map which he prepared for King Juan I. of Aragon and
was presented by the latter to the King of France, is preserved
in the National Library of Paris.' He became the teacher of
tlie Portuguese in the art of navigation as well as in the manufac-
ture of nautical instruments and maps. In this work he had no
superior in his day.
While this Jewish scholar helped the Portuguese to many nota-
ble achievements in their daring voyages, another one, at a later
period, was almost the direct cause of their being overtaken by
the Spaniards in the race for new discoveries. For it was Joseph
Vecinho, physician to King Joao, of Portugal, considered by the
high court functionaries to be the greatest authority in nautical
^A fac-simile of this map is found in the "Jewish Encyclopedia," vol.
III., opp. p. 678.
12 History of the Jews in America.
matters, who influenced the King to reject the plan submitted by
Christopher Columbus (i446?-i5o6), and thereby caused the
latter to leave Portugal for Spain in 1484.
Columbus came to Spain when Ferdinand and Isabella, with
the aid of the newly introduced Inquisition, were despoiling the
wealthy Marranos, who were burned at the stake in large num-
bers. The last war with the Moors had already begun.
Another and more famous Jewish scholar was to make amends
for whatever suffering was caused to the great discoverer by Ve-
cincho's fatal advice. Abraham Ben Samuel Zacuto, who was
born in Salamanca, Spain, about the middle of the 15th century
and died an exile in Turkey after 15 10, was famous as an astron-
omer and mathematician, and in his capacity as one of the lead-
ing professors in the university of his native city was formerly
the teacher of the above named Vecinho. He was more discern-
ing than his pupil, and when he learned to know Columbus, soon
after the latter's arrival in Spain, he encouraged him personally
and also ga\'e him his almanacs and astronomical tables, which
were a great help in the voyage of discovery. Zacuto was among
the first influential men in Spain to favor the plans of Colmnbus,
and his favorable report caused Ferdinand and Isabella to take
him into their service in 1487. The explorer was then ordered
to proceed to Malaga, which was captured several weeks before,
and there made the acquaintance of the two most prominent Jews
of Spain in that time — the chief farmer of taxes, Abraham Senior,
and Don Isaac Abravanel, These two men were provisioning the
Spanish armies which operated against the Moors, and were in
high favor at Court. Abravanel was one of the first to render
financial assistance to Columbus.
Louis de Santangel and other Marranos interposed in favor
of Columbus when he was about to go to France in January,
1492, because Ferdinand refused to make him Viceroy and Life-
Governor of all the lands \A'hich he might discover. Santano-el's
pleadings with Isabella were especially efifective, and when the
question of funds remained the only obstacle to be overcome he
Santangel as the Financier of the Discovery. 13
who was saved from the stake by the King's grace at the time
when several other members of the Santangel family perished,
advanced a loan of seventeen thousand florins — nearly five mil-
lion maravedis — to finance the entire project. Account books
in which the transfer of money from Santangel to Columbus,
through the Bishop of Avila, who afterwards became the Arch-
bishop of Granada, were recorded, are still preserved in the
Archive dc India of Seville, Spain.
"After the Spanish monarchs had expelled all the Jews from
all their Kingdoms and lands in April, in the same month they
commissioned me to undertake the voyage to India" — writes
Christopher Columbus. This refers to the Decree of Expulsion,
but the coincidence of the actual happening was still more re-
markable. The expulsion took place on the second day of Aug-
ust, 1492, which occurred on the ninth day of the Jewish month
of Ab, the day on which, according to the Jewish tradition, is
the anniversary of the destruction of both the first Holy Temple
of Jerusalem in the year 586 B. C. and also of the second Temple
at the hands of the Romans in the year 70 C. E. The day,
known as "Tishah be'Ab," was observed as a day of mourning
and lamentation among the Jews of the Diaspora in all countries
and is still so observed by the Orthodox everywhere to this day.
Columbus sailed on his momentous voyage on the day after — the
third of August. The boats which were carrying away throngs
of the expatriated and despairing Jews from the country which
they loved so well and in which their ancestors dwelt for more
than eight centuries, sighted that little fleet of three sailing craft
which was destined to open up a new world for the oppressed of
many races, where at a later age millions of Jews were to find a
free home under the protection of laws which were unthought
of in those times.
Neither all the names nor even the number of men who ac-
companied Columbus on his first voyage are known to posterity.
Some authorities place the number at 120, others as low as 90.
But among the names which came down to us are those of sev-
eral Jews, the best known among them being Louis de Torres,
14 History of the Jews in America.
who was baptized shortly before he joined Columbus. Torres
knew Hebrew, Chaldaic and some Arabic, and was taken along
to be employed as an interpreter between the travellers and the
natives of the parts of India which Columbus expected to reach
by crossing the Ocean. Others of Jewish stock whose names
were preserved are : Alfonso de Calle, Rodrigo Sanchez of Se-
govia, the physician Maestro Bernal and the surgeon Marco.
Land was sighted October 12, 1492, on "Hosannah Rabbah"
(the seventh day of the Jewish Feast of the Booths), and Louis
de Torres, who was sent ashore with one companion to parley
Vvith the inhabitants, was thus the first white man tO' step on the
ground of the New World. As the place proved to be not the '
Kingdom of the Great Khan which Columbus had set out to
reach, but an island of the West Indies, with a strange liitherto^
unknown race of copper-colored men, it is needless to say that
the linguistic attainments of the Jewish interpreter availed him
very little. After he managed to make himself somewhat under-
stood, he was favorably impressed with the new country and
finally settled for the remainder of his life in Cuba. He was the
first discoverer of tobacco, which was through him introduced
into the Old World. It is also believed that in describing in a
Hebrew letter to a Marrano in Spain the odd gallinaceous bird
which he first saw in his new abode, he gave it the name "Tukki"
(the word in Kings I, 10 v. 22, which is commonly translated
peacock) and that this was later corrupted into "turkey," by
which name it is known to the English-speaking world.
It may also be remarked, in passing, that the belief identifying
the red race which was surnamed Indian with the lost ten tribes
of Israel, began to be entertained by many people, especially
scholars and divines, soon after the discovery of America. It at-
tained the dignity of a theory in the middle of the 17th century
when Thorowgood published his work: "The Jews in America;
or. Probabilities that the Americans are of that Race." (London,
1650.) This view was supported among our own scholars by
no less an authority than Manasse Ben Israel, who wrote on the
Jewish Money for the Second Voyage. 15
>ame subject in his "Esperanga de Israel" which was pubhshed
in Amsterdam in the same year.
Columbus wrote the first reports of his wonderful discovery
o Louis de Santangel and to Gabriel Sanchez. The letter to the
irst is dated February 15, 1493, ^nd was written on the return
royage, near the Azores or the Canaries.
It was decreed by a royal order of November 23, 1492, that
;he authorities were to confiscate for the State Treasury all prop-
;rty which had belonged to the Jews, including that which Chris-
;ians had taken from them or had appropriated unlawfully or by
violence. This gave Ferdinand sufficient means to provide for
:he second voyage of Columbus (March 23, 1493). The King
md the Queen signed a large number of injunctions to royal
>fficers in Soria, Zamora, Burgos and many other cities, direct-
ng them to secure immediate possession of all the precious met-
ds, gold and silver utensils, jewels, gems and other objects of
/alue that had been taken from the Jews who were expelled from
Spain or had migrated to Portugal, and everything that these
[ews had entrusted for safe keeping to Marrano, relatives or
'riends, and all Jewish possession which Christians had found
3r had unlawfully appropriated. The royal officers were later
ordered to convert this property into ready money and to give
he proceeds to the treasurer, Francisco Pinelo, in Seville, to meet
he expenditure of Columbus' second expedition.
One of the specific instances of these confiscations which de-
;erves to be mentioned, is the order to Bernardino de Lerma to
ransfer to Pinelo all the gold, silver and various other things
vhich Rabbi Ephraim (who is sometimes referred to in contem-
)orary documents as Rabi Frayn, also as Rubifrayn, and who
vas perhaps the father of the great Rabbi Joseph Caro, author
if the Shulhan Aruk, etc.), the richest Jew in Burgos, had before
migrating left with Isabel Osoria, the wife of Louis Nunez Cor-
mel of Zamora. Not merely the clothing, ornaments and val-
lables which had been taken from the Jews were converted into
noney, but also the debts which tliey had been unable to re-
over were declared by order of the Crown to be forfeited to the
16 History of the Jews in America.
state treasury, and stringent measures were adopted to collect
them. A moderate estimate places the sum thus obtained at six
million maravedis, to which ought to be added the two millions
contributed by the Inquisition of Seville as a part of the enor-
mous sums which it wrested from Jews and Moors. According
to another order, issued in the above-named date, it was from
this Jewish money that Columbus was paid the ten thousand
maravedis which the Spanish monarchs had promised as a re-
ward to him who should first sight land.^
In the days of suffering and disgrace wdiich came to Columbus
after his discoveries, Santangel and Sanchez remainecL- faithful
to him and often interceded in his behalf with Ferdinand and
Isabella. They both c ed in 1505, about one year before the
great discoverer whose success they made possible. Their im-
mediate descendants occupied high positions in the royal service.
^ ^ ^ l}r ^
Columbus was not the only renowned discoverer of that time
who was directly and indirectly assisted by Jews. The great
and cruel Vasco da Gama, who did for Portugal almost as much
as Columbus did for Spain, could hardly have carried out his
important undertakings without the help of at least two Jews.
One of them was the above-mentioned iVbraham Zacuto, who,
like many of his unfortunate brethren, went from Spain to Por-
tugal after the calamity of 1492. He was highly favored by
King Joao and by his successor, Dom Manuel, and the latter con-
sulted him on the advisability of sending out under Vasco da
Gama's command the flotilla of four boats which was to reach
India by the way of Cape of Good Hope. Zacuto pointed out
the dangers which would have to be encountered, but gave it as
his opinion that the plan was feasible and predicted that it would
result in the subjection of a large part of India to the Portu-
^ There is a record that it was not Columbus himself but a sailor from
Lepe who first saw a distant light and cried "land!" and who, when he
found that he had been defrauded of the gratuity, obtained his dis-
charge, went to Africa and there discarded Christianity for his old
faith. But the chronicler does not inform us whether the sailor's old
faith was Judaism or Islam.
Vasco da Gama aided by two Jews. 17
^uese crown. Zacuto's works and the instruments which he in-
'ented and made available materially facilitated the execution of
he enterprises of Vasco da Gama and other explorers. As in
he case of Columbus and Spain, da Gama sailed in the year of
he expulsion of the Jews from the country which fitted out his
;xpedition (1497). When he returned Zacuto was an exile in
funis, though he probably could have remained in Portugal, just
IS Abravanel could have remained in Spain.
It was during his return voyage to Europe, while staying at
he little island of Anchevide, sixty mils from Goa (off the
ndian coast of iVIalabar) that Vasco da Gama met the second
few who became very useful to him and to Portugal. A tall
European with a long white beard approached his ship in a boat
vith a small crew. He had been sent by his master, Sabayo, the
VIoorish ruler of Goa, to negotiate with the foreign navigator.
de was a Jew who, according to some chronicles, came from
r'osen, according to others from Granada, whose parents had
emigrated to Turkey and Palestine. From Alexandria, which
;ome give as his birthplace, he proceeded across the Red Sea to
VIecca and thence to India. Here he was a long time in capi-
ivity, and later was made admiral (capitao mor) by Sabayo.
The Portuguese were overjoyed "to hear so far from home a
anguage closely related to their native speech." But he was
soon suspected 01 being a spy and was forced by torture to join
:he expedition and — as a matter of course — to embrace Chris-
:ianity. The admiral acted as his godfather and his name came
lown to us as Gaspar da Gama or Gaspar de las Indias. He
,vas brought to Portugal, where he was favored by King Manuel
md "rendered inestimable service to Vasco da Gama and several
ater commanders." He accompanied Pedro Alvarez Cobral on
he expedition in 1500 which led to the independent discovery of
Brazil, which became a Portuguese possession. On the return
/oyage Gaspar met Amerigo Vespucci, who received much in-
iormation from him and mentions him as a linguist and traveller
.vho is trustworthy and knows much about the interior of India.
On another expedition in which he accompanied his godfather
18 History of the Jews in America.
in 1502, Gaspar found his wife in Cochin. She had remained
true to him and to Judaism; since he was carried away by the
Portuguese, but probably both of them considered it unsafe for
her to join him. He again journeyed to Cochin in 1505 in the
retinue of the first Viceroy of India, wliich also included the son
of Dt. Martin Pinheiro', the Judge of the Supreme Court of Lis-
bon. The young Pinheiro carried along a chest filled with
"Torah" scrolls which were taken from the recently destroyed
synagogues of Portugal. Caspar's wife negotiated the sale in
Cochin, "where there were many Jews and synagogues," obtain-
ing four thousand parados for thirteen scrolls. The viceroy later
confiscated the proceeds for the state treasury and sent an ac-
count of the whole affair to Lisbon.
Another Portuguese commander and governor of India, Al-
phonse d'Albuquerque, obtained much information and valuable
assistance from his interpreter, a Jew from Castille whom he in-
duced to embrace Christianity and to assume the name Francisco
d'Albuquerque. His companion Cufo or Hucefe underwent the
same change of religion and visited Lisbon, but soon found him-
self in danger and escaped to Cairo, where he again openly pro-
fessed Judaism.
CHAPTER II.
EARLY JEWISH MARTYRS UNDER SPANISH RULE IN THE NEW
WORLD.
Children torn from their parents were the first Jewish immigrants —
Jewish history in the New World begins, as Jewish history in Spain
ends, with the Inquisition — Emperor Charles V., Philip II. and
Philip III, — Lutherans persecuted together with Jews and Moham-
edans — Codification of the laws of the Inquisition, and its special
edicts for the New World.
We have seen in the preceding chapter that the Jews were
expeUed forever from Spain and Portugal at the time when these
two nations, with considerahle assistance from professing and
converted Jews, discovered the New World and took possession
of it. Nothing could therefore have been farther from the
thoughts and the hopes of the Jews of those dark days than the
idea that America was to be, in a far-away future, the first Chris-
tian country to grant its Jewish inhabitants full citizenship and
absolute equality before the law. For nearly a century and a
half no professing Jew dared to tread upon American soil, and
even the secret Jews or Marranos were as much in danger in the
newly-planted colonies as in the mother countries under whose
rule they remained for a long time.
The first Jewish immigrants in the New ^Vorld were children
who were torn away from the arms of their parents at the time
of the expulsions, and even they were persecuted as soon as they
grew up. The Marranos who sought a refuge in America in
these early days were soon followed by the same agencies of per-
secution which made life a burden to them in their old home.
We meet in America for more than a century after its discovery
19
20 History of the Jews in America.
almost the same conditions as in Spain and Portugal after the
Jews were exiled. Where the history of the Jews in Spain ends
— says Dr. Ivayserling — the history of the Jews in America be-
gins. The Inquisition is the last chapter in the record of llie
confessors of Judaism on the Pyrenean peninsula and its first
chapter in the western hemisphere. The Nuevos Christianos
concealed their faith, or were able to conceal it, as little in the
New World as in the mother country. With astonishing tenac-
ity, nay, with admirable obstinacy, they clung to the religion of
their fathers; it was not a rare occurrence that the grandchildren
and great-grandchildren of the martyred Jews sanctified the
Sabbath in a most conscientious manner, by refraining from work
as far as possible and by wearing their best clothing. They also
celebrated the Jewish Festivals, observed the Day of Atonement
by fasting, and married according to the Jewish customs. They
clung to their faith and sufi^ered for it even as late as the eigh-
teenth century, which means that the Jewish religion was handed
down secretly and preserved in the seventh and eighth genera-
tion after the exile. Many went to the stake or died in the pris-
ons of the Incjuisition in the New World ; many others were
transported in groups to Spain and Portugal and gave up their
lives as martyrs in Seville, Toledo, Evora or Lisbon. Their re-
ligious heroism will be apparent in all its magnitude wdien the
immense documentary material which is heaped up in the arch-
ives of Spain and Portugal, and other places on this side of the
ocean, will have been sifted and worked up. ("Publications,"
II, P- 72>-) ^
Intolerance reigned supreme in America almost immediately
after its colonization, and the secret Jews who settled there were
not permitted to enjoy peace or prosperity. Juan Sanchez of
Saragossa, whose father was burnt at the stake, was the first to
obtain permission of the Spanish government to trade with the
newly-discovered lands. In 1502 Isabella permitted him to take
five caravels loaded with wheat, barley, horses and other wares
to Espafiola (Little Spain, the large West Indian Island contain-
ing Haiti and Santo Domingo), without paying duty. In 150.'
Early Jewish and Indian Victims. 21
; was again permitted to export merchandise to that country,
ther secret Jews went to the new places and settled there, some
/en obtaining positions in the public service. As early as 151 1
e hear already of measures taken by Isabella's daughter, 0,ueen
janna of Castille, against "the sons and grandsons of the
irned" who held public office. The Inquisition was introduced
lere by a decree of that year, and one of its first victims wa»
'iego Caballera of Barrameda, whose parents, according to two
itnesses, had been prosecuted and condemned by the same
ibunal in Spain.
The Inquisitor-General of Spain, Cardinal Ximenes de Cis-
sros, on May 7, 15 16, appointed Fray Juan Quevedo, Bishop
f Cuba, his delegate for the Kingdom of Terra. Firuia. as tlie
lainland of Spanish America was then called, and authorized
im to select personally such officials as he needed to hunt down
id exterminate the Marranos. Emperor Charles V. (1500-
558), with the permission of his former teacher. Cardinal Had-
an (1459-1523), the Dutch Grand-Inquisitor of Aragon who
ter became Pope (Hadrian or Adrian VI. 1522-23), issued an
lict on May 25, 1520, whereby he ordained Alfonso Manso,
lishop of Porto Rico, and Pedro de Cordova, Vice Provincial
f the Dominicans, as Inquisitors for the Indies and the islands
f the ocean.
At first the secret Jews were not the only victims of the perse-
jtions and not even the most numerous among them. "There
ere many heathenish natives who were forcibly converted by
le mighty clerical arm of the Spanish conqueror, but who never-
leless remained at heart loyal to their hereditary belief and
ractised their idolatrous customs with as much zeal as the fear
E discovery and consequent punishment would allow." Fiend-
h atrocities were committed in the name of religion against
lose Indian Marranos, and the fearful persecutions depopulated
le country to such an extent that the tyrants themselves per-
;fved that they must desist.
The Inquisition in Spain itself had, however, fallen more or
ss into desuetude during the reign of the above-mentioned Em-
22 History of the Jews in America.
peror Charles V., who was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isa-
bella, and had inherited their Spanish and American possessions.
It was revived and invigorated under the more bigoted rule of
his son, King Philip II. (i 527-1 598), who ascended the Spanish
throne in 1556, after his father's abdication. Under the new
reign the laws of the Inquisition were codified and promulgated
at Madrid on September 2, 1561. A printed copy of the new
code was sent to America in 1569. Another document, dated
February 5, 1569, issued by Cardinal Diego de Spinosa, General
Apostolic Incjuisitor against Heresy, Immorality and Apostasy,
addressed "to the Reverend Inquisitors Apostolic ... in
his Majesty's Dominions and Seignories of the P'rovinces of
Piru (Peru), New Spain and the new Kingdom of Granada and
the other provinces and Bishoprics of the Indies of the Ocean"
consists of forty sections prescribing the rules of procedure. (See
Elkan Nathan Adier, The Inquisition in PcVu, Publications XII,
PP- 5-37-)
A later document containing the general edicts to be read on
the third Sunday of Lent and the fourth Sunday of Anathema
in every third year in the Cathedral of Lima and all the towns of
the districts, was printed in Peru itself shortly after 1641, and
records the names of the places which were included in the juris-
diction of those issuing it. It reads : "We, the Inquisitors against
Heresy, Immorality and Apostasy in this city and Archbishopric
of Los Reyes (Lima) with the Archbishopric of Los Charcas
and Bishoprics of Quito, Cuzco, Rio de la Plata, Paraguay,
Tucuman, Santiago and Concepcion of the Dominions of Chile,
la P!az (Bolivia), Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Guamanga, Areguipa,
and Truxillo, and in all the Dominions, Estates and Seignories
of the Provinces of Peru, and its Viceroyalty Government and
district of the Royal Audiencias thereto appertaining." In this
document we find the name of a new Christian sect which is to
be punished for heresy together with the unbelievers who were
known to the Inquisition of the earlier period. Lutherans are
now enumerated among heretics after the Jews and the Moham-
edans. Among the books and engravings which are considered
Lutherans are Added to the Heretics. 23
IS heretical and indecent are mentioned the books of Martin
Luther and other heretics, the Alcoran or other Mohamedan
3ooks, "Biblias en romance" (Bibles in the vernacular) and oth-
ers prohibited by the censorships and catalogues of the Holy
3ffice, etc. llien follow lengthy descriptions of how to detect
[ews, Mohamedans and Lutherans; and in the case of the first
;ven the drinking of Ivosher wine and the making of a "berakah"
Dr pronouncing a blessing before tasting it are not omitted from
:he practices which characterized the secret Jew whom the In-
quisition was to discover and punish.
But it seems that the Marranos came to America in large num-
Ders despite all the severity of Philip IL His son l^hilip HI.
^1578-1621), who succeeded him in 1598, endeaNored to prevent
;heir emigrating to the New World and issued in the beginning
)f the seventeenth century, the following edict :
"We command and decree that no one recently converted to our
loly faith, be he Jew or Moor, or the offspring of these, should settle
n our Indies without our distinct permission. Furthermore we forbid
Host emphatically the immigration into New Spain of any one Iwho is
It the expiration of some prescribed penance] newly reconciled with
he Church; of the child or grandchild of any person who has ever worn
he 'san benito' publicly; of the child or grandchild of any person who
vas either burnt as a heretic or otherwise punished for the crime of
leresy, through either male or female descent. Should any one [falling
mder this category] presume to violate this law, his goods will be con-
iscated for the benefit of the royal treasury, and upon him the full
neasure of our grace or disgrace shall fall, so that under any circuni-
;tances and for all time he shall be banished from our Indies. Who-
loever does not possess personal effects, however, should atone for his
ransgression by the public infliction of one hundred lashes."
This characteristic specimen of anti-immigration legislation of
:hree centuries ago, including what would in the collocjuialism of
0-day be called a "grandfather clause," was the cause of much
suffering; but it is not possible to state with any degree of cer-
:ainty how far it was effective. It is probable that the number
)f Marranos in the "Indies" which belonged to the King of
Spain went on increasing until about the middle of the seven-
eenth centurv, when certain territories ^\■ere for the first time
jpened for them in the New World where 'they could practise
udaism openly.
CHAPTER III.
VICTIMS OF THE INQUISITION IN MEXICO AND IN PERU.
Impossibility ot obtaining even approximately correct figures about the
Inquisition — A few typical cases — The Carabajal family — Relaxa-
tion for several decades — The notable case of Francisco Maldonado
de Silva.
The Inquisition, or, as it styled itself, the Holy Office, was an
institution of tremendous power and iniluence which during its
existence of more than three centuries deeply impressed the char-
acter of the Spanish and Portuguese peoples. A great number
of books were written about it, but the material to be dealt with
is so vast that none of the works purporting to be histories of
the Incjuisition really deserve that name. It has been mentioned
already in the preceding chapter that an immense mass of docu-
mentary material which is heaped up in various arciiives awaits
to be sifted and worked up. An idea of the actual quantity of
this material can be obtained from the statement made by Mr.
E. N. Adler, in the monogram on the Inquisition in Peru quoted
above, that thirty-three million documents, relating to the In-
quisition, are preserved in 80,000 "legajos'' or bundles in the
castiUc of Simancas, a small town, seven miles from Valladolid,
in Spain.
It is therefore next to impossible to attempt to give a general
review of the work of that awful tribunal in the old world or
the new ; it is even unsafe to quote figures as to the total number
of trials, Autos da Fe or of victims, because most of the author-
ities contradict one another or disagree in vital points. Many
facts which are given at one time as reasonably certain, are soon
disproved by the discovery of more authentic records, which ne-
9A
The Carabajal Family in Mexico. 25
;essitates a constant changing of the time, the place and the iden-
ity of persons spoken of in such descriptions. It is therefore
:onsidered best to mention here onU' a few typical cases of vie-
ims abont whose identity and Jewish extraction there can be no
loubt. From these the reader may form his own opinion as to
.vhat was constantly happening in the various places since the
■nc|uisition's firm establishment in the New World in the second
lalf of the sixteenth century, until its final disappearance at the
;nd of the eighteenth and in some instances as late as the begin-
ling of the nineteenth centuries.
Several members of the Carabajal (Carvalho?) family suf-
fered martyrdom in Mexico at the end of the sixteenth century
md at the beginning of the seventeenth. Francisca Nunez de
Z,'arabajal, born in Portugal about 1540', was among the mem-
jers of the family seized by the Incjuisition in 1590. She was
:ortured until she implicated her husband and her children, and
:he entire family was forced to confess and abjure Judaism at a
ziublic Auto da Fe which was celebrated on Saturday, February
24, 1590. Later, after more than five years' imprisonment, they
vere convicted of relapsing into Judaism, and Francisca, her son
Luis and her four daughters were burned at the stake in Mexico
City, December 8, 1596. She was the sister of Don Luis de
Carabajal y Cueva (born in Portugal, 1539), who was appointed
Governor of New Leon, Mexico, in 1579 and is said to have died
in 1595. He arrived in Mexico in 1580, where, in consideration
Df his appointment as governor of a somewhat ill-defined dis-
trict, he undertook to colonize a certain territory at his own ex-
pense, being allowed the privilege of reimbursing himself out of
the revenue. There were many Spanish Jews among his colo-
lists, and within a decade after their settlement more than a score
were denounced and more or less severely punished for Judaiz-
ing. He is the subject of a work, half romantic and half histor-
ical, by Mr. C. K. Landis, entitled Carabalja the Jezu, a Legend
of Monterey (Vineland, 1894).
Another heroic martyr of Mexico was Don Tomas de Sobre-
iionte, a Judaizer, who died at the stake April 11, 1649, without
26 History of the Jews in America.
uttering a groan, mocking "the Pope and his hirelings" and
taunting his tormentors with his last breath.
The Inquisition in Lima, Peru, is known to have solemnized
thirty-four Autos da Fe at that place between 1573 (November
15) and 1806 (July 17) and at ten or eleven of them there were
Jewish victims, their numbers ranging from one or two to as
high ,as fifty-six (January 23, 1639). From the earliest day ot
its establishment it looked with suspicion upon the Portuguese
who settled there. In this case as in many others, Portuguese
was only another name for Marranos, and they were treated with
great severity. There is a record of one David Ebron, who in
1597 sent a memorial to Philip II. relating to his discoveries and
services in South America, but it is not known how far his claims
were recognized. About 1604 or 1605 a number of those who
were accused in Peru of Judaizing sent memorials to the King
of Spain in which they pleaded that life under such conditions
had become unbearable. Relief was obtained in the form of an
Apostolic Brief from Pope Clement VIII., commanding the In-
quisitors to release, without delay, all Judaizing Portuguese in
Peru. When this order arrived in Lima, only two prisoners
were still detained in the dungeons of the Tribunal, Gonzolo de
Luna and Juan Vicente. The others had either become recon-
ciled or had suffered death at the stake.
The liberal decree, which arrived too late for most of the com-
plainants who were to benefit by it, still seems to ha^'e had the
effect of securing the Marranos against molestation for several
decades. But as soon as they had increased in wealth and in-
fluence the establishment of a new Tribunal was ordered in the
PVovince of Tucuman, it having been ascertained that quite a
colony of Jews were domiciled in the Rio de la Plata. In con-
sequence of this order, dated jMay 18, 1636, the Portuguese were
again hounded and many of them lost life and fortune. Tlie In-
quisition succeeded in ferreting out tlie fact that in Chili alone,
at that time, there were no less than t\\'enty-eight (secret) Jews,
most of them enjoying the rights of citizenship and living se-
curely and at peace with their neighbors. It has now been prac-
Maldonado de Silva, the Martyr. 27
tically ascertained that a considerable number of Jews or Mar-
ranos lived in Peru, Chili, Argentine, Cartagena and La Plata
towards the end of the sixteenth century, that their number and
wealth increased in the first half of the seventeenth, when the
new era of persecutions was ushered in by attacks and denun-
ciations.
A notable instance, typical of the times, was the case of Fran-
cisco JMaldonado de Silva. His sister Dona Isabel Maldonado,
forty years old, on the 8th day of Jul}^, 1626, testified before the
Commissioner of the City of Santiago de Chile that her brother
had, to her horror and indignation, confessed to being a Jew,
imploring her not to betray him and using all endeavors to con-
vert her too. He was arrested in Concepcion, Chili, April 29,
1627, and was transported to Lima in July of the same year,
where he was imprisoned in a cell of the convent of San Domin-
go. He is described in the records of the Tribunal as a bachelor,
thirty-three years old, an American by birth, having been born
of new-Christian parents in the city of San Miguel, Province of
Tucuman, Peru. His father, the Licentiate Diego Nunez de
Silva, and his brother, Diego de Silva, were both reconciled by the
Inquisition at an auto held in Lima March 13, 1605. He con-
fessed that he was brought up as a Catholic and that up to his
eighteenth year he rigidly observed the tenets of the Christian
faith. According to a circumstantial description of his case
(Publications, XI, pp. 163 ff. ), he remained in prison for nearly
twelve years, during which time he had many hearings and dis-
puted with many priests who undertook to convert him. He also
wrote much in defence of his views and at one time made a nearly
successful effort to escape. In the last years of his confinement
he fasted very much, thereby becoming so feeble that he could not
turn in his bed, "being nothing but skin and bones." He was,
with ten others, burnt at the stake in Lima, on January 23, 1639,
at a splendid and gruesome Auto da Fe, for which the prepara-
tions were costly and elaborate, involving fifty days of uninter-
rupted labor, holidays included.
CHAPTER IV
MARRANOS IN THE PORTUGUESE COLONIES.
Less persecution in Portugal itself and also in its colonies — Marranos
buy right to emigrate — They dare to profess Judaism in Brazil, .and
the Inquisition is introduced in Goa — Alleged help given to Holland
in its struggle against Spain.
While the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal, which took
place five years after the great expulsion from Spain, was in
many respects more cruel and accompanied by greater atrocities,
notable among which were the forced conversions and the rob-
bing of children from their Jewish parents to be brought up as
Christians, the conditions in the Portuguese colonies, including
Brazil, were somewhat more favorable for the reception of Jew-
ish refugees than in the Spanish possessions of the New World.
This happened because the conditions in Portugal itself were
much more favorable to the Jews prior to the era of expulsions,
and the sudden severity against the Jews in 1497, which was
almost unexpected, was due to the influence of the Spanish rul-
ers. It was Queen Isabella of Spain who prevailed on King *
Manuel of Portugal (reigned 1495-1521), her future son-in-
law, to exile the Jews of his dominion, ^-owing she would never
set foot on Portuguese soil until the country was clear of them.
In the preceding centuries the Jews, though they were recog-
riized and treated as a separate nation in Portugal even more
than in Spain, their condition when judged by the standards of
the dark ages was much more favorable and well nigh secure.
There are no records of systematic persecutions in Portuo-al be-
28
Milder Treatment in Portuguese Colonies. 29
fore the exile from Spain. The influence of the Church grew
much more slowly in the former country, and its kings followed
the old Spanish policy of protecting the Jews and Moors against
the encroachments of the clergy long after it was abandoned by
Spain. JMarranos and other Jews who escaped from the Inqui-
sition to Portugal before the Spanish expulsion were — because
the King did not want or did not dare to harbor them — permitted
to go to the Orient but not to Africa, because in the latter place
they could become dangerous to him as allies of the Moors. So
it came to pass that while in the more extensive Spanish domains
across the Atlantic we hear only of individual crypto-Jewish set-
tlers and more of their misfortunes and the Autos da Fe of
which they were the victims, than of their successes, we learn of
considerable settlements of Marranos in Brazil early in the six-
teenth century.
But even the better conditions in the Portuguese territories
must not be taken in the ^ense which such a term would imply
to-day or even a hundred years ago. The Portuguese policy was
cruel and vaccillating, only a little less so than that of its larger
and more consistent neighbor. King Manuel forbade the neo-
Christians, in 1499, to .leave Portugal, the prohibition was re-
moved in 1507 and again put into effect in 1521. His successor
John III. (reigned 1521-57) was even less favorably disposed
towards the secret Jews who remained in his Kingdom, and in.
1 53 1 the Inquisition was introduced there by the authorization
of Pope Clement VII. The IMarranos bought from John's suc-
cessor King Sebastian (reigned 1557-78) the right of free de-
parture for the sum of 250,000 ducats. But there were other
involuntary departures in the periods when the emigration of
those suspected converts was prohibited. For a considerable time
in the i6th century Portugal sent annually two shiploads of Jews
and criminals to Brazil, and also deported persons who had been
30 History of the Jews in America.
condemned by the Inquisition. The banishment of large num-
bers to Brazil in 1548 is especially mentioned.
Jews or Marranos were soon settled in all the Portuguese col-
onies, and the}' carried on an extensive trade with various coun-
tries. "As early as 1548 (according to some, 1531) Portuguese
Jews, it is asserted, transplanted the sugar-cane from Madeira
tO' Brazil." Some of them began to feel so secure that they dared
to profess Judaism openly. The result was the introduction of
the Inquisition into Goa, the metropolis of the Portuguese do-
minions in India, with jurisdiction over all the possessions of
that country in Asia and Africa, as far as the Cape of Good
Hope. It was therefore but natural for the hunted and despair-
ing new-Christians to sympathize with the Dutch who were at
that time (beginning at 1567) fighting for their freedom, and
to help them later against Portugal itself in the New World and
in the Far East. The charge that the Marranos of the Indies
sent considerable supplies to the Spanish and Portuguese Jews
in Hamburg and Aleppo, who in turn forwarded them to Hol-
land and Zeeland, is probably not true. But the act would have
certainly been justified in times when the Marranos were legally
burned alive when convicted of adhesion to the religion of their
forefathers. The charge also pro\-es that the Jews and Marranos
of various and distant countries were then believed to be in com-
munication, and to render assistance to one another or to their
friends when the occasion required it. We may recognize in such
charges the false accusations which were circulated about Jews
from times immemorial to our present day; but it nevertheless
tends to prove that the Jews retained some recognizable import-
ance as international traders even in times when their fortunes
were at the lowest ebb.
Except for the brief period in the 17th centurv C which is dealt
with more extensively in a subseque^it chapter), in which Brazil
came under the domination of the Dutch, it remained almost en-
The Approach of Better Times. 31
tirely free of Jews until the present time. The time was ap-
proaching when hberal and enterprising nations, pursuing a
more enhghtened and more profitable policy, were beginning to
grant tlie Jewish refugee not only shelter and security, but also
the religious liberty and broad human tolerance which were al-
most unknown in the Catholic countries in the Middle Ages.
The dawn of a new era began for the Jews in Europe with the
ascendency, first of Holland and then of England, and the Chil-
dren of Israel were soon to share openly in the invaluable bene-
fits which the discovery of the New World brought to mankind
in general.
PART II.
THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH COLONIAL PERIOD.
CHAPTER V.
THE SHORT-LIVED DOMINION OF THE DUTCH OVER BRAZIL.
The friendship between the Dutch and the Jews — Restrictions and priv-
ileges in Holland — Dutch-Jewish distributors of Indian spices —
Preparations to introduce the Inquisition in Brazil — Jews help the
Dutch to conquer it — Southey's description of Recife — Vieyra's de-
scription.
The United Provinces of Netherland, or, as it is commonly
called, Holland, became a safe place for Jews as soon as the
Union of Utrecht (1579) made its independence reasonably se-
cure. When the liberator of these provinces, William of Orange
("The Silent," 1533-84), was installed as Stadtholder in 1581
he declared that "he should not suffer any man to be called to
account, molested or injured for his faith or conscience." This
implied, and actually resulted in, better treatment of the Jews,
which led to their enjoying a larger degree of prosperitv and se-
curity in Holland in the following century than anywhere else.
The friendship between the Jews and the Dutch which com-
menced at that period has never, unto this dav, been marred by
systematic persecution or any retrogressive step. It proved mu-
tually beneficial in various parts of the world, and has cost Spain
32
Limitations under the Dutch Regime. 33
and Portugal much more than is ordinarily known even to stu-
dents of History/
But while the treatment was immeasurably better, the vicious
principle of separation remained. The Jews in Holland were as
much a nation apart, in theory at least, as in Spain and Portugal
before the expulsion. They did not enjoy the full rights of citi-
zenship (until they received it, somewhat against their will, dur-
ing the French invasion at the end of the eighteenth century)
and were not even free from other restrictions. They were not
permitted to serve in the train bands or militia of the cities, but
paid a compensation for their exemption therefrom. The prohi-
bition of intermarriage with Christians could hardly be consid-
ered a hardship for Jews of the seventeenth century; but the
fact that they were not allowed any mechanical pursuit or to
engage in retail trade has a much deeper significance. It ex-
plains, at least partly, why the Dutch succeeded where the Port-
uguese failed, notably in that Indian trade, whose interruption by
toe Turkish conquest of Constantinople was the cause of search-
ing new water routes to the East and of the discovery of the New
World.
Having exiled their best international traders and kept those
remaining as Marranos in constant terror, the Portuguese could
not derive the full benefit from that lucrative trade in spices
which was to be the reward of their great discoveries. When
the sixty years' captivity — as the domination of Spain over Port-
ugal, from 1580 to 1640, is called — brought, among other disas-
ters, the capture of the Portuguese Indian possessions by the
Dutch, the superiority of the latter's methods were soon appar-
ent. They succeeded with more ease "since, with true commer-
cial spirit, they not only imported merchandise from the East to
' This subject is treated extensively in the chapter headed "Services
rendered by the Jews to the Dutch, 1623-44," in Mr. Simon Wolf's val-
uable work "The American Jew as Patriot^ Soldier and Cilhen,'' p. 443
&., and m the monogram "Damage done to Spanish Interests m Amer-
ica by Jews of Holland," which is mcorporated in the "Publications,"
vol. XVII.
34 History of the Jews in America.
Holland, but also distributed it tbrough Dutch merchants tO'
every country in Europe; whereas the Portuguese in the days
of their commercial monopoly were satisfied with bringing over
the commodities to Lisbon and letting foreign nations come to
fetch them." It is not difficult to surmise who were those Dutch
merchants who distributed the spices to every country in Europe,
when we think of that class of wealthy Marrano immigrants in
Holland who were not permitted to follow mechanical pursuits
or to engage in retail trade. Holland's tendency was clearly
apparent. The Jews, mostly Portuguese, were permitted to use
their wealth, their abilities and their foreign connections to carry
on and extend that trade which languished in the hands of those
who banished them. The Jews were exceedingly grateful for
the opportunity which Holland afforded them to be useful to
themselves and to her, and the very effective results of the friend-
ship between the Jews and the Dutch were soon apparent in the
ensuing struggle between the latter and the Portuguese over the
possession of Brazil.
The Dutch commenced the realization of their ambitious
scheme for the conquest of Brazil in the second decade of the
seventeenth century, at a time when the large number of Mar-
ranos who lived there were terrorized by rumors of the intro-
duction of the inquisition. These rumors became current as
early as 1610, when it was reported that the physicians of Bahia,
who were mainly new-Christians, prescribeci pork to their pa-
tients in order to lessen the suspicion that they were still adhering
to Judaism. In connection with some of the earliest Brazilian
intrigues in favor of the Dutch, mention is made of one Fran-
cisco Ribiero, a Portuguese captain, who is described as having
many Jewish relatives in Plolland. About 1618 the Inquisition
in Oporto, Portugal, had arrested all merchants of Jewish ex-
traction. Many of the victims were engaged in Brazilian trade,
and the Inquisitor-General applied to the go\-ernment to assist
the Holy Office to recover such parts of their effects as might be
in the hands of their agents in Brazil. Accordinglv, Don Luis
de Sousa was charged to send home a list of all the new-Chris-
Capture of Brazil by the Dutch. 35
tians in Brazil "with the most precise information that can be
obtained of their property and place of abode." It seems highly
probable that it was the Dutch war alone which prevented the
introduction of the dreaded Tribunal in Brazil.
The Dutch \\'est India Company, which was formed in 1622
in furtherance of the project of conquering Brazil, had Jews of
Amsterdam among its large stockholders, and several of them
in its Board of Directors. One of the arguments in favor of
its organization was "that the Portuguese themselves — some
from their hatred of Castille, others because of their intermar-
riage with new-Christians and their consequent fear of the In-
quisition — would either willingly join or feebly oppose an in-
vasion, and all that was needful was to treat them well and give
them liberty of conscience."
When the Dutch fleet was sent to Bahia all the necessary in-
formation was obtained from Jews. The city was taken in 1624
and Willeken, the Dutch commander, at once issued a proclama-
tion offering liberty, free possession of their property and free
enjoyment of religion to all who would submit. This brought
over about two hundred Jews, who exerted themselves to induce
others to> follow their example. Bahia was re-captured by the
Pbrtuguese in 1625, and though the treaty for its deliverance
provided for the safet)' of the other inhabitants, the new-Chris-
tians were abandoned and five of them were put to death. Many
ethers, however, seemed to have remained there for several years.
Another foothold was gained by the Dutch when the city of
Recife or Pernambuco, wdiich had a large Crypto-Jewish pop-
ulation, was captured in 1631. Most of the Jews and new-
Christians from Bahia and other Brazilian towns soon removed
to that city. The conquerors appealed to Holland for colonists
and craftsmen of all kinds, and many Portuguese Jews came
over in response to that call. Robert Southey, the historian of
Brazil, asserts that the Jews there made excellent subjects of
Holland. "Some of the Portuguese Brazilians gladly threw off
the mask which they had so long been compelled to wear, and
joined their brethren in the Synagogue. The open joy with
36 History of the Jews in America.
which they celebrated their ceremonies attracted too much notice.
It excited the iiorror of the CathoHcs; and even the Dutch them-
seh-es, less liberal than their own laws, pretended that the tol-
eration of Holland did not extend to Brazil." The result was
an edict b)? which the Jews were ordered to perform their rites
more privately.
When in 1645 Vieyra was inciting the Portuguese to re-con-
quer Brazil, he pointed particularly to Recife, calling attention
to the fact that "that city is chiefly inhabited by Jews, most of
whom were originally fugitives from Portugal. They have their
open Synagogues there, to the scandal of Christianity. For the
honor of the faith, therefore, the Portuguese ought to risk their
lives and property in putting down such an abomination." The
Portuguese, who had shortly before thrown off the Spanish
yoke and regained their independence at home, responded to
that call and redoubled their effort to reconquer their gigantic
South American colony. But although the history of that first
really Jewish settlement in the Xew World was brief, extending
over less than two decades, it was so brilliant in itself and had
such far-reaching consecjuences in the settlement of Jews in other
parts of America that another chapter must be devoted to its
description.
CHAPTER VI.
RECIFE: THE FIRST JEWISH COMMUNITY IN THE* NEW WORLD.
The "Kahal Kodesh" of Recife or Pernambuco in Brazil — Manasseli ben
Israel's expectation to make it his home — Large immigration from
Amsterdam — Isaac Aboab da Fonseca and his colleagues — First
rabbis and Jewish authors of the New World — The siege and the
surrender — The return, and the nucleus of other communities in
various parts of America.
The rebuke to the joyful demoiistrations of the Jews in Recife
did not pre\-ent the estabhshment there of the first real Jewish
community in the New World. The Dutch Stadtholder of
Brazil, John Alaurice, of Nassau, was a just and honorable of-
ficial who encouraged the development of the community and its
steady increase by immigration. The Jews of Recife, who were
soon numbered by thousands, called themselves "Kahal Kodesh"
(The Holy Congregation) and had a governing body consist-
ing of David Senior Coronel, Abraham de Mercado, Jacob Mu-
cate and Isaac Casthunho. One of the earliest settlers there was
Ephraim Sueiro, a step-brother (or brother-in-law) of the fam-
ous Rabbi of Amsterdam, Manasseh Ben Israel (1604-57). Do'''
Francisco Fernandez de Mora, who had a grandchild in Amster-
dam, held important offices; while another member of the com-
munity, Caspar Diaz Ferrena, was considered one of the wealth-
iest men in the country. Dr. Kayserling, in his paper on "The
Earliest Rabbis and Jewish writers in America" ("Publications"
III, p. 13 ff. ) quotes from the correspondence between the old
Vossius and Hugo Crotius, in which they speak of the intention
of their mutual friend, the above-named Rabbi Manasseh, to
einigrate to Brazil in order to improve his material condition,
37
38 History of the Jews in America.
which was unsatisfactory in Amsterdam, notwithstanding tlie
high communal position wliich lie held there. He dedicated the
second part of his "Conciliador" to the prominent men of the
congregation of Recife, probably in anticipation of the expected
journey, which, however, was never made.
But though the man who was later to induce Oliver Cromwell
to admit Jews into England did not come, other reputable Hebrew
scholars soon arrived to lend lustre to the new congregation. In
1642 about six hundred Spanish-Portuguese Jews from Am-
sterdam embarked for Brazil, accompanied by two men of learn-
ing, Isaac Aboab da Fonseca (1605-93) and Moses Raphael
de Aguilar (d. 1679). Aboab became the Chacham or Rabbi — •
the first in America. Aguilar, who was also a grammarian, be-
came the reader or cantor. A congregation was also organized
at Tamarica, which had its own Chacham, Jacob Lagarto, the
first Talmudical author in the AA'estern Hemisphere, A certain
Jacob de Aguilar is also mentioned as a Brazilian rabbi of that
time. Considerable numbers of Jews also resided at other places
in Brazil, particularly at Itamarica, Rio de Janeiro and Para-
hibo. But Recife was the great center, and its fame soon spread
even into the Old AVoiid. NieuhofT, the historian, writes that
the Jews there had built stately homes, that they had a vast
traffic and purchased sugar mills. Several years later they raised
large sums to assist the Dutch in defending the coast.
The last and most important immigrants were barely settled
when the sanguinary struggle between the Portuguese and the
Dutch for the possession of the colon}? began in 1645. A con-
spiracy into which nati\-e Portuguese entered for the purpose of
assassinating the Dutch authorities at a bancjuet in the capital
was discovered and exposed by a Jew, and a possible sudden
termination of Dutch rule was averted. Open war broke our in
1646 and Recife had to endure a long and costly siege. Jews
vied with Dutch in suffering and in bra\erv, and there is a
lecord of the fact that Marranos in Portugal used their influence
to call the attention of the government of the Netherlands to
The Siege and Capture of Recife. 39
the gravity of the situation in South America. But the re-
sources of the West India Company were exhausted by the
possession of Brazil, and as the home government would not
or could not give it proper support, the heroism and the self-
sacrifice of both Dutch and Jews served only to prolong the
struggle. It probably also served to cement the friendship be-
tween the defenders, who were later to dwell together for longer
periods in other parts of America.
Aboab commemorated the thrilling experience of this war in
the introductory chapter of his Hebrew version of Abraham
Cohen Herrera's Porta Cocli (Sha'ar ha-Shomayim ). He also
wrote a poetical account of the siege in a work entitled "Zckcr
Rab : Prayers, Confessions and Supplications which were com-
posed for the purpose of appealing to God in the trouble and the
distress of the congregation when the troops of Portugal over-
whelmed them during their sojourn in Brazil in 5406 (1646)."
The Rabbi ordered fasts and prayers, while wealthy members
of the community, like Abraham Coen, contributed material
support. "Many of the Jewish immigrants were killed by the
enemy, many died of starvation ; the remainder were exposed to
death from various causes. Those who were accustomed to
delicacies were glad to be able to satisfy their hunger with dry
bread ; soon they could not obtain even this. They were in want
of everything, and were preserved alive as if by a miracle.''
Among the instances of individual heroism which deserve to be
iccorded is that of one of the Pintos, who is said to have manned
the fort Dos Affrogades single-handed, until, overwhelmed by
superior force, he was compelled to surrender.
On the 23d of January, 1654, Recife, together with the neigh-
boring cities of Mauritsstad, Parahiba, Itamarica, Seara and
other Hollandish possessions, was ceded to the Portuguese con-
querors, with the condition that a general amnesty should be
granted. The Jews, as loyal supporters of the Dutch, were
promised every consideration ; nevertheless the new Portuguese
Governor ordered them to quit Brazil at once. Sixteen vessels
were placed at their disposal to carry them and their property
40 History of the Jews in America.
wherever they chose to go, and they were also furnished with
passports and safeguards.
Aboab, Aguilar, the Nassys, Perreires, the Mezas, Abraham
de Castro and Joshua Zarfati, both surnamed el Brasil, and many
others returned to Amsterdam. Jacob de Velosino, (b. in Per-
nambuco, 1639, '^- '" Holland, 1712), the first Hebrew author
bom on American soil, settled at The Hague. Others went
to Surinam, Cayenne and Curacao, and it is generally assumed
that the first Jewish settlers who in that year arrived in New
Amsterdam (the future New York) came directly — or at least
indirectly — from Pernambuco. The community of Recife
formed thus, by its dissolution, the nucleus of several of the
oldesti and most important Jewish communities in the New
World.
CHAPTER VII.
THE JEWS IN SURINAM OR DUTCH GUIANA.
Jews in Brazil after the expulsion of the Dutch — The community ofPara-
maraibo, Surinam, was founded when Recife was still flourishing —
First contact with the English, whom the Jews preferred — David Nasi
and the colony of Cayenne — Privileges granted by Lord Willoughby
— "deJoodenSavane" — Trouble with slaves and bush negroes — Plan-
tations with Hebrew names — German Jews — Legal status and ban-
ishments — Jewish theaters — Literature and history.
The history of the Jews in Brazil practically ends with the
termination of the Dutch rule, and there is a gap which extends
until the new settlements at the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury. There was the usual aftermath of iVIarranos and persecu-
tions which was almost a repetition of the happenings under
Portuguese dominion prior to the short, liberal era under Hol-
land's sway. Some new-Christians continued to reside in Bra-
zil after the capitulation of 1654. Their number was largely in-
creased towards the end of the seventeenth century, when Port-
ugal again banished to Brazil the Marranos who had become
reconciled. These transportations continued from 1682 to 1707;
and the Jews again became to be known as a distinct class. They
were closely watched, however, and many were sent back to
Lisbon from time to time, to be tried by the Inquisition iVlany
Jews from Rio were burned at an Auto da Fe at Lisbon in 1723.
Several of these martyrs were men of great repute, the most
promment being the famous Portuguese poet and dramatist,
Antonio Jose da Silva, a native of Rio de Janeiro, who was
burned as a Jew at Lisbon in 1739. In 1734 Jews appear to
41
42 History of the Jews in America.
have been influential in controlling the price of diamonds in
Brazil.
The transportations to Lisbon of those accused of Judaizing
had become so common at the middle of the eighteenth century,
that "a wide ruin was produced and many sugar mills at the
Rio stopped in consequence." The influential Marquis de Pom-
bal, with all his power, did not venture to proclaim toleration
for the Jews; but he succeeded in having laws enacted making
it penal for any person to reproach another for his Jewish origin,
and removing all disabilities of Jewish blood, even from the de-
scendants of those who had suffered under the Inquisition. He
prohibited public Autos da Fe, and required all lists of families
of Jewish extraction to be delivered up. These statutes deprived
the Inquisition of its most important means of accusation ; and as
a result the Marranos were ultimately absorbed in the Catholic
population of Brazil.
The Jewish community which was founded in Surinam or
Dutch Guiana, near Brazil, in the days when the community
of Recife was still in a flourishing condition, and which soon
rose to prominence after the dispersion of the latter, has enjoyed
an almost uninterrupted existence until the present day. Ac-
cording to the latest researches, the oldest indication in the
archives of the Dutch-Portuguese Jews shows that the Jews
had already settled in Surinam in the year 1639.^ As far as can
be traced, the first Jewish marriage was celebrated there between
Ilaham Isaac Mehatob and Judith IMehatob in 1643. The text
of the "Ketubah," which has been preserved, proves that Suri-
nam, or rather the city of Paramaribo, had already in that year
a sufficient number of Jews to require the services of a Haham
or Rabbi.
Though the Dutch had claims on it, Guiana was at that time
' Rabbi P. A. Hilfman of Paramaribo, Surinam, in "Publications"'
XVI, p. 7 ff.. supplementing the chronology made by Prof. Richard Gott-
heil in the same Publications at the begmnmg of \'ol. IV. See also
Rev. J. S. Roos of the Dutch Congreg. in Paramaribo, Ibid Vol. XI 11,
pp. 126 fi.
Jews Prefer the English to the Dutch. 43
practically British territory, and it was there that the Jew came
first in contact with the Englishman in the New World, many
years before they began to dwell together in North America. And
while it was recognized that of all European nations the Dutch
were then the most friendly to the Jews, many of the latter who
had experience with both nationalities in that part of the world
soon learned to prefer the English. Lord VVilloughby, who
arrived for the second time in Surinam in 1652, brought with
him- several Jewish families, and the community was thus in-
creasing even before the influx of refugees from Brazil two years
later.
On September 12, 1659, the Jews were permitted, under
the patronage of David Nassi, to found a colony on the island
of Cayenne (French Guiana). According to the tenor of the
eighteen articles contained in the letters patent of that date, all
the land over which they exercised the rights of possession within
iour years from that date, would become their property; and they
would be allowed to administer justice according to the Jewish
usages and customs. The colony was further increased by the
arrival, in 1660, of one hundred and fifty-two Jews from Leg-
horn, Italy. But the four years" limit was barely passed when
the French took Cayenne in 1664, and all the Jews left the island
for Surinam under the leadership of the above-mentioned David
Nassi. The French of the time of "the Grand Monarch" Louis
XIV would not suffer Jews to be settled in their colonies; a cen-
tury and a quarter had to pass before France, shaken to its very
foundations by the great revolution which began in 1789, was
the first of modern European nations to grant its Jews the abso-
lute eciuality which is implied in full citizenship.
Even while the Portuguese Jews were still in Cayenne, they
were given by Lord AVilloughby, in 1662, the same privileges in
Surinam as the English colonists. A year after their return, on
August 17, 1665, was issued the famous grant of privileges by
the Governor, Council and Assembly of Surinam, of which the
preamble reads as follows :
"Whereas, it is good and sound policy to encourage as much
44 History of the Jews in America.
as possible whatever may tend to the increase of a new colony,
and to invite persons of whatsoever country and religion to
come and reside here and to traffic with us ; and whereas, we
found that the Hebrew nation, now already resident here, have,
with their persons and property, proved themselves useful and
beneficial to this colony ; and being desirous further to encourage
them to continue their residence and trade here, we have with
the authority of the Governor, his Council and Assembly passed
the following act :
The provisions of the act (the full text of which is repro-
duced in "Publications, vol. Ill, pp. 145-46; vol. IX, pp. 144-45,
and vol. XVI, pp. 179-80) is extremely favorable to the Jews.
The British Government of Surinam therein ratified all former
privileges of the Jews, guaranteed them full enjoyment and free
exercise of their religious rites and usages, and made void any
summons served upon them on their Sabbaths and holidays.
They were not to be called for any public duties on those days,
except in urgent cases. Civil suits of less value than ten thou-
sand pounds of sugar were to be decided by their Elders, and
the magistrates were obliged to enforce their judgments. They
were also permitted to bequeath their property according to their
own laws of inheritance. They were given ten acres of land for
the erection of a Synagogue and such buildings as the congre-
gation might need ; and in order to induce Jews to settle there,
it was decided that all who came for that purpose should be con-
sidered as British-born subjects, in return for obeying all the de-
crees of the King of England which did not infringe on their
privileges.
For Portuguese Jews of the seventeenth century, i. e., for ex-
tremely conservative Jews whose relatives were at that \-ery time
tortured and burned at the stake for adherence to their religion,
these privileges were probably much more acceptable than an
outright admission to full citizenship could have been. There
was no desire or striving for assimilation on either side in those
times. No especially organized movement was necessary to em-
phasize the fact, which was then self-evident, of the existence of
The First Synagogue in Surinam. 45
a separate Hebrew nation. Nobody thought otherwise before
the philosophers of the eighteenth century instilled in the minds
of the civilized nations the idea of the modern assimilationisi.
The frank selfishness of the preamble was, therefore, a better
guarantee of good faith and more convincing than phrases about
humanity and inherent rights could possibly be in those illiberal
times. The English were thus less sentimental and more busi-
ness-like in their dealings with the Jews than the Dutch, and
were probably on that account more trusted. When Surinam
became a Dutch province, July 13, 1667, the Jews were allowed
all rights of citizenship. Still a number of them left with the
English and went to Jamaica. Another declaration by the home
government of Holland, made two years later, to the Jews of
Surinam, that they would be allowed free exercise of their religion,
tends to prove that there must have been cases, or at least fears,
of restraint in that respect. Even if the "Documents relating to
ihe attempted departure of the Jews from Surinam in 1675"
(edited by Dr. J. H. Hollander, in "Publications" VI, pp. 9-29)
in which the anxiety of many Jews to leave Surinam for British
territory is described, should be considered as somewhat exag-
gerated, it could not have been entirely an invention. The Jews'
preference for the British rule was therewith clearly established,
and so was their acknowledged usefulness in the newly founded
colonies.
The Jews of Surinam were then chiefly engaged in agriculture,
the wealthy among them being large planters and slave holders.
The chief men of the congregation were David Nassi, Isaac
Perreira, Isaac Aries, Henriques de Caseras, Raphael Aboab,
Samuel Nassi, Isaac R. de Pardo, Aaron de Silva, Alaus de
Fonseca, Isaac Mera, Daniel Mesia, Jacob Nunez, Israel Calaby
Cid, Isaac da Costa, Isaac Drago, Bento da Costa. The first
Synagogue was built in 1672, on an elevated spot in Thorarica
belonging to the Jews, da Costa and Solis. There are still some
tombstones with illegible Hebrew inscriptions. We hear about
that time of Rabbi Isaac Neto who was called from England as
minister of the congregation of Paramaribo (1674 or 1680),
46 History of the Jews in America.
and later we find recorded the name of another rabbi, David
Pardo, who also came from London and died in 1713 (or 1717).
The last named wrote, while still in Europe, "Sefer Shulhan
Tahor" (Amsterdam, 1686), extracts from the "Shulhan Aiuk,"
and is considered the most distinguished rabbi of Surinam.
In 1682 the above-named Samuel Nassi, who has been de-
scribed as capitein and as the richest planter in Surinam, gave
to the Jews an island on the river Surinam, about seventy miles
from the sea, where most of them settled and which was hence-
forth known as "de Jooden Savane'' (Savannah of the Jews,
the name originally meaning: a treeless region) and was the
principal seat of the Jewish community of Surinam. It was there
that the Congregation Berakah-we-Shalom (Blessing and
Peace) built its splendid Synagogue in 1685. One hundred
years later the centennial of the dedication of that Synagogue
was appropriately celebrated on Wednesday, Heshwan 8, 5546
(October 12, 1785), of which a record was printed in Amster-
dam the following year, partly in Hebrew and partly in Dutch.
(See Roest, Catalog . . dcr Roscnthalsclicn Biblioihek I,
P- 738.)
When a French squadron attacked Surinam in 1689, the Jews
under the leadership of Samuel Nassi did good service in beating
them off. Similar valuable service was rendered in 1712, this
time under Capitein Isaac Pinto, against another French attack
under Cassard. The unfriendliness of the French was demon-
strated again in that year, when they took the Jewish Savannah
and desecrated the Synagogue by slaughtering a pig on the
"Teibah" or Ammud. The Jews, on the other hand, did not al-
ways get the protection to which they were entitled. When the
slaves on the plantation of M. Machado revolted and killed their
master in 1690, Governor Van Scherpenhuitzen refused to as-
sist the Jews. At a later period (in 1718), when there was con-
tinual trouble with bush negroes, who destroyed the jjlantation of
David Nassi, they were chastised by Jews under the leadership
of Capitein Jacob d'Avilar. David Nassi (1672-1743) himself
served under him with distinction, and hig praises were sung
Planters, Slave-Holders and Fighters. 47
by the Judeo-Spanish poetess Benvenide Belmonte. We also find
traces of legal restrictions in such instances as the decree of i/^S'
by which all Jewish marriages contracted in Surinam up to that
year are confirmed, but henceforth they must be made in con-
formity with the Dutch marriage law of 1580. Sunday-closing
laws were also brought into force against them, but they were
later repealed.
A list of the names of about sixty-five plantations belonging
to Jews at that period and the names of the owners has been
preserved. ("Publications,'' IX, p. 129 fT. ) Some of the plan-
tations bear Hebrew names like Carmel, Hebron, Succoth and
Beer-Sheba. The number of Jews in Surinam was then (about
1694) 570, consisting of ninety-two Dutch or Portuguese fami-
lies, about fifty unmarried persons and ten or twelve German
families. They possessed about nine thousand slaves.
Difiiculties between the earlier settlers and the Germans, who
arrived later, soon arose, and in 1734 the latter recjuested
permission to form a separate community, which was granted.
They were, however, prohibited to own any possession on the
Jewish Savannah, nor were they allowed to have their own juris-
diction. The act of the separation of the "Hoogduytsche"
(High-German) Jews, who founded the congregation Nev/eh
Shalom, is dated January 5, 1735. It is signed by A. Henry
de Scheusses (Governor) and Samuel Uz. Davilar, Ishac Car-
rilho, Abraham Pinto Junior, Jehoshuah C. Nassi, for the
Portuguese; Solomon Joseph Levie, I. Meyer Wolff, Gerrit
Jacobs, Jakob Arons Polak for "the German Jews. The Port-
uguese thereupon built a new Synagogue, "Zedek we-Shalom,"
which was dedicated in 1737. But the Germans also stuck to
the Portuguese iXIinhag or prayer-book, and we have it on the
authority of Rabbi Roos of Paramaribo ( 1905) that there never
existed a Synagogue with the Alinhag Ashkenaz in Surinam.
Bloody conflicts with negroes continued for about forty years
longer, and many valiant deeds of Jewish military leaders and
their followers embellish the records of that period. David Nassi
was killed in battle at the age of 71 (in 1743), lifter being sue-
48 History of the Jews in America.
cessful in more than thirty skirmishes, and was succeeded as
capitein by Isaac Carvalho. In 1749 another Jewish capitein,
Naar, won a victory against the Auka negroes: while in 1750
young Isaac Nassi and three hundred of his men were kihed
by an ox-erwhelming force of bush negroes. At last, in 1774,
forts were erected and a miilitary line drawn from the Savannah
of the Jews along the river Commoimber to the sea; and we hear
no more of negro wars.
The legal status of the Jews was undergoing some changes,
as is ahiiost unavoidal^Ie so long as there is not the same law
for Jew and Gentile alike. Some measures could be considered
as improvements, like the law of 1749, which granted the Jews
of Surinam their own judiciary in matters affecting less than
600 gulden. On the other hand we hear of an unsuccessful at-
tempt in 1768 to institute a Ghetto in Paramaribo, and in 1775
Jews were forbidden to visit a certain amateur theatre of that
town. At that time the two communities also began to make use
of the right which was bestowed on them by the English Char-
ter of Privilege (and later confirmed by the Dutch authorities),
of "banishing troublesome people and persons of bad demean-
our.'' The "Deputies of the Jewish Nation" had only to de-
clare to the Governor the reasons why they wished to have
these persons banished, and they were expelled. The above
named Rabbi J. S. Roos has noted five cases of such banish-
ments :
Solomon Montel was banished in 1761 on the rec|uest of the
Portuguese deputies, because he refused to restitute rents or
usury "which is contrary to the Mosaic law." In 1772 Noach
Isaaks was banished on the request of the German deputies, and
m the following year Abraham Isaac Moses Michael Fernandes
Henriques, alias Escarabajos, was, on the request of the Port-
uguese deputies, made tO' quit the place. Elias Levin was ban-
ished in 1 78 1 by the Germans and Abraham de Mesquita, the
last of those exiled, belonged to the Portuguese part of the
community.
Tlie German Jews kept on increasing in numbers, and in 1780
Jewish Theaters and Literary Activity. 49
their Synagogue in Paramaribo was enlarged and two- burial
grounds were procured. In 1 784 the Jewish theatre of that city,
probably the lirst in modern history, was enlarged and em-
bellished. The Savannah, of which only ruins remain now, was
on its decline, and had only about forty houses in 1792; while
the community in Paramaribo was growing and two Jewish play
houses are mentioned in that year. The Portuguese were still
the majority, numbering 834, but the Germans were gaining
fast, and from the ten families at the end of the seventeenth
century they rose now to the number of 477. There were also
about ICO Jewish mulattoes in Paramaribo in that time.
The Jews of Surinam in that period also commenced to dis-
play considerable literary activity. J. C. Nassi and others wrote
the Essai historiquc sur la Colonic dc Surinam avcc fhistoire de
la nation juivc y ctahlic (Paramaribo, 1788), which is one of
the principal sources of the history of the Jews of Surinam. A
highly interesting correspondence between representative Jews
of that community and Christian Wilhelm v. Dohm (1751-1820)
relating to the latter's work favoring the Jews, is printed at the
end of that Essa}'. (Reproduced in "Publications," XIII, pp.
133-35). Various other works of historical, religious and poet-
ical nature were written and published there in the following
half century.
The histor)' of the community of Paramaribo in the nineteenth
century is une\-entful. In 1836, when the German congregation,
which now numbered 719 souls, already exceeded the Portuguese
portion, which had declined to 684, a new "Hoogduitsche of
Nederlandsche" Synagogue was erected. In 1838 Rabbi B. C.
Carrilon became the spiritual head of the Dutch-Portuguese con-
gregation. Twenty years later M. J. Lewenstein (1829-64) was
inaugurated as the Chief Rabbi of the congregation of Para-
maribo and held the position for six years, until his death. In
1900 the city contained about 1,500 Jews, who occupied an honor-
able position and controlled the principal property of the colony.
Even modern Antisemitism has not failed to invade this distant
Jewish settlement, the oldest in the New World.
50 History of the Jews in America.
At present (1911.) there are about 4,000 Jews in Surinam,
mostly in ParamarilDO, which has now about 50,000 inhabitants.
The two communities, both strongly orthodox, are still in exist-
ence, and each has its rabbi. The most prominent Jewish citizen
in the colony is Mr. David De Costa, a former President of the
Provincial Parliament, wdio was lately appointed by the Dutch
Government to be the presiding judge of the Supreme Court of
the colony. Mr. da Costa was for many years Parnass or Presi-
dent of the Portuguese congregation. Another member of the
Jewish community, M. Benjamin, is at the head of the educa-
tional system of the province. Several families trace their de-
scent from the original settlers who came there in 1639, and all
of them, now fully enfranchised for several generations, have no
other mother-tongue than the Dutch. Their staunch orthodoxy
has saved them from being absorbed in the non-Jewish popula-
tion, as happened A\ith most of the early settlers in the British
colonies in North America.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH WEST INDIES.
The community of Curagao — Encouragement to settle is followed by
restrictions — Plans of Jewish colonization — Trade communication
with New Amsterdam — Stuyvesant's slur — The first congregation —
Departures to North America and to Venezuela — Barbadoes — -Taxa-
tion and legal status — Decay after the hurricane of 1831 — Jamaica
under Spain and under England — Hebrew taught in the Parish of
St. Andrews in 1693 — Harsh measures and excessive taxation —
Naturalizations.
Another early settlement on Dutch territory which is still in
a flourishing condition is on the island of Curacao, Dutch West
Indies. It is probable that Jews from Holland were among the
first settlers in the island under the Dutch Government, whicii
captured it from Spain in 1634; but there is no definite record
until 1650, when twehe Jewish families — De Meza, Aboab, Per-
reire, De Leon, La Parra, Touro, Cardoze, Jestu'um, Marchena,
Chaviz, Oliveira and PIenric|ues Coulinho — were granted per-
mission by Prince Maurice of Orange to settle there. Alathias
Bock, Governor of the island, was directed to grant them land
and supply them with slaves, horses, cattle and agricultural im-
plements, in order to further the cultivation and develop the nat-
ural resources of the island. The land assigned to them was
situated at the northern outskirts of the present district of Wil-
lemstad, which is still known as the "Jodenwyk" (Jewish cjuar-
ter). But despite the favorable conditions under which they
settled there, severe restrictions were put on their mo\'ements,
and they were even prohibited in 1653 from purchasing addi-
tional negro slaves which they needed for their farms.
51
52 History of the Jews in America.
By a special grant of privilege, dated February 22, 1652,
Joseph Nunez de Fonseca (known also as David Nassi), who
undertook to emigrate and take with him a large number of peo-
ple under a Jewish patron named Jan de Ulan, two leagues of
land along the coast were to be given him for every fifty families,
and four leagues for every hundred families which he should
bring over. The colonists were exempted from taxes for ten
years, and could select the land on which they desired to settle.
They were also accorded religious liberty, though they were re-
strained from compelling Christians to work for them on Sun-
day, "nor were any others to labor on that day." The pro-
ject was, however, not carried out on any extensive scale.
It was only after the re-concjuest of Brazil by the Portuguese in
1654, and the consequent expulsion and dispersion of the Jews
from the territory which was now again forbidden to them, that
their effective settlement in Curacao began. The Brazilian Jews
who came there in that period brought with them considerable
wealth, and they laid the foundation of that prominence in the
commerce of the island which they have since retained.
Shortly afterwards (1657) regular communications for the
purposes of trade were established between New Amsterdam and
Curasao, and it was principally in the hands of Jews. An orig-
inal bill of lading (in Spanish) and an invoice of goods shipped
from Curagao to New Netherland in 1658 and addressed to
Joshua Mordecai En-Riquez, includes Venetian pearls and pen-
dants, thimbles, scissors, knives, bells, etc. An illicit trade was
also carried on with Isaac de Fonseca of Barbadoes, which
tended to undermine the trade monopoly enjoyed by the Dutch
AVest Indies Company. But Fonseca's threat to abandon Cura-
qoa and turn his trade towards Jamaica, kept the authorities
from interfering.
Peter Stuyvesant (1592-1672), the Governor of New Neth-
erlands, complained to the directors of the AA'est India Company
in the following year, that the Jews in Curasao were allowed to
hold negro slaves and were granted other privileges not enjoyed
by the colonies of New Netherlands ; and he demanded for his
The Community of Curacao. 53
own people, if not more, at least the same privileges as were
enjoyed by "the usurious and covetous Jews."
The Congregation Mickweh Israel was founded in 1656 under
the direction of the Spanish and Portuguese community of Am-
sterdam, and regular daily services were held in a small wooden
building which was rented for the purpose. The Rev. Abraham
Haim Lopez de Fonseca, who, according to one of the oldest
tombstones on the Jewish burial ground in Curasao, died Ab.
22, 5432 (1672), was the earliest hazzan or rabbi whose name
l:as come down to us. The first regularly appointed Hakam
was Joshua Pardo, who arrived from Amsterdam in 1674 and
remained until 1683, when he left for Jamaica. A new Syna-
gogue was erected in 1692 and consecrated on the eve of Pass-
over of that year, the services being read by the Hazzan David
Raphael Lopez da Fonseca (d. 1707). The building, which was
enlarged in 1731, still stands.
In the last decade of the seventeenth century a considerable
number of Jews left the island for the continent of America,
many of them, including the Touro family, going to Newport.
A number of Italian settlers who originally came from the Jewish
colony of Caj^enne, which was dispersed in 1664, went to Tu-
cacas, Venezuela, where they established a congregation called
'"Santa Irmandade."
The prosperity of those who remained in Curagao went on
increasing in the eighteenth century. A benevolent society was
established in 1715; five )'ears later they responded liberally to
an appeal for aid from the Congregation Shearith Israel of New
York, and in 1756 met with an ecjual generosity a similar appeal
from the Jews of Newport. By 1750 their numbers had in-
creased to about two thousand. They were prosperous mer-
chants and traders, and held positions of prominence in the com-
mercial and political affairs of the island. By the end of the
century they owned a considerable part of the property in the
district of AVillemsted ; and as many as fifty-three vessels are said
to have left in one day for Holland, laden with goods which for
the most part belonged to Jewish merchants.
54 History of the Jews in America.
A new congregation, which called itself "Neweh Shalom" and
occupied a tract across the harbor from Willemsted, was or-
ganized about 1740, and its Synagogue in the "Otrabanda" was
consecrated on Ellul 12, 5505 (1745). It was established chiefly
in order to save those who lived there from crossing the water
on the Sabbath to attend divine services, and for a time it was
regarded as merely a branch of the older congregation and as
under its direction. This led to a series of disputes which cul-
minated, in 1749, in an open breach. It was settled by the inter-
vention of Prince AYilliam Charles of Orange-Nassau, in a de-
cree dated April 30, 1750, in which the original jurisdiction of
the older congregation, subject to the regulations of the Portu-
guese community of Amsterdam, was sustained. The arrange-
ment lasted for the following one hundred and twenty years,
when the younger congregation became independent (1870).
The increase in numbers and material well-being continued
during the nineteenth century, but the community was not with-
out internal dissensions. It was due to one of these controversies
between the Parnassim and the ministers that a society called the
"Porvenir" was founded in 1862. In the following year it de-
veloped into a Reform Congregation under the name "Emanuel,"
whose new Synagogue, in the cjuarter "Scharlo," was dedicated
in 1866. About three years before a moderate change in the
direction of reform was introduced into the liturgy of the oldest
congregation.
The congregations of Curagao now have more than one thou-
sand members, nearly four-fifths of it belonging to Mickwch
Israel. The Jews are among the leading citizens of the island, in
business, as well as in the professions; they occupy executive
and judicial positions, and are well represented among the of-
ficers of the militia. Almost all of them, like in Holland itself,
are true to their religion, and there are probably less apostasies
and intermarriages than in any other free community in which
the emancipation of the Jews has been fully carried out in theory
as well as in practice.
^ -K v -I* >r
The First Jews in Barbadoes. 65
The Jewish settlements in the British West Indies also en-
joyed long periods of increase and prosperity ; but they declined
when the English colonies of the North American continent, and
later, the United States, offered a wider field of activities and
better opportunities under conditions which were so similar to
those prevailing in the older places as to make the change of resi-
dence a matter of very little inconvenience. The oldest settle-
ment under the English flag in the West Indies was probably
on the island of Barbadoes, where, it is believed, Jews came first
in 1628. On April 2.y, 1655, Oliver Cromwell issued passes
to Abraham de Mercado, M. D., Hebrew, and his son, Raphael,
to go to Barbadoes to exercise his profession. In 1656 the Jews
were granted, upon petition, the enjoyment of the privileges of
the laws and statutes of the Commonwealth of England and of
the Island relating to foreigners and strangers.
In April, 1661, Benjamin de Caseres, Henry de Caseres anil
Jacob Fraso petitioned the King of England to permit them 10
live and trade in Barbadoes and Surinam. Their petition was
supported by the King of Denmark, which tends to prove that
they must have been men of considerable importance. In the
report made by the Commissioners of Foreign Plantations, to
whom it was referred, it is stated that the whole question of
the advisability of allowing Jews to reside in and trade with his
majesty's colonies "hath been long and often debated." The
merchants of England were opposed to the admission of Jews,
because of their ability to control trade wherever they entered, and
because they would divert it from England to foreign countries.
The planters, on the contrary, favored their admission and ac-
cused the merchants of aiming to appropriate the whole trade to
themselves. The commissioners refrained from deciding the
general ciuestion, but advised that these three highly recom-
mended Jews, who had behaved themselves well and with gen-
eral satisfaction in Barbadoes, should be granted a special license
to reside there or in any other plantations.
The Jewish community was soon increased to a considerable
extent, partly by the arrival of former members of the dis-
56 History of the Jews in America.
solved colony of Cayenne (1664). It is recorded in the minutes
of the vestry of St. Michael's Parish (July 9, 1666) "that the
Jews inhabiting this Parish do pay the cjuantity of 35,000 pounds
Muscovado sugar, to be levied by themselves and paid to Senior
Lewis Dias and Senior Jeronimo Roderigos, who are hereby or-
dered to pay it to the present church wardens." The order is
repeated in October, 1666, and again in 1667; and in that year
another order making the levy for the year 20,000 pounds was
issued. In 1669 the order in January was for 14,000 pounds, and
in March for 16,000. In 1670 it was again for 16,000, but the
Tews sent in a petition declaring the amount to be excessive.
This had the effect of reducing the amount of the tax to 7,000
]30unds in 1671 and to "half of what was levied last year" in
1672. For the following five years it was mostly 7,000 pounds
a year, "levied for their trade." In 1680 it is 8,500 pounds,
apportioned among forty-five Jews, some being made to con-
tribute only twelve pounds, several others as high as 792 each,
with David Raphael de Mercado heading the list with 1,075
pounds. (See list of names in "Publications," XIX, pp. 174-75.)
Antonio Rodrigo Rigio, Abraham Levi Regio, Lewis Dias,
Isaac Jerajo Coutinho, Abraham Pereira, David Baruch Lou-
zada and other Hebrews who were made free denizens by His
Majesty's letters patent, petitioned in 1669 about the refusal to
accept the testimony of Jews in the courts of the colony. The
governor, in forwarding the petition, says, that "they had not
been exposed to any other injuries in their trade or otherwise."
But the privilege granted was only for cases "relating to trade
and dealing." Special taxes continued to be imposed at various
times until 1761, when all additional burdens were lifted, and
afterward the Jews were rated and paid taxes on the some scale
as other inhabitants. All political disabilities were removed by
act of the local government in 1802, and by act of Parliament
in 1820.
The number of Jews in Barbadoes was never as large as that
of Surinam. In 1681 the total Jewish population of the island
was 260. They went on increasing slowly, the great majority
Barbadoes and Jamaica. 57
living in Bridgetown (where the first Synagogue was erected,
probably prior to 1679) and a small number in Speightstown. In
1792, at the beginning of the period of the greatest prosperity of
the community, the congregation of Bridgetown had 147 mem-
bers, and 17 pensioners were supported. The name of the con-
gregation was "Kehol Kodesh Nidhe Israel," and its ministers
were all selected by the vestry of the Spanish and Portuguese
Synagogue in London.
The decline of the Jewish community of Barbadoes dates from
the great hurricane in 1831 which devastated the island, and also
destroyed the Synagogue. Though a new edifice was erected
and dedicated in 1833, and even a religious school was estab-
lished several years later, the members kept on leaving the island
for the United States, most of them going to Philadelphia. In
1848 there were only 71 Jews left. In 1873, those remaining
petitioned for relief from taxation of propertv held by the
congregation. The census of 1882 showed 21 Jews, and the
number was still smaller at the end of the nineteenth century.
When England conquered the largest of its \\^est Indian pos-
sessions, the island of Jamaica, in 1655, a considerable number
of Jews, known as "Portugals," were living there. They dared
not profess Judaism openly, or organize themselves into a con-
gregation ; but they were less in danger on account of their
faith than in any other Spanish colony. The proprietary rights
of the island was vested in the family of Columbus until about
1576, when it passed to the female Braganza line, and these ex-
clusive rights exempted the island from the jurisdiction of the
Inquisition, and prevented it from being included in the bishop-
ric of Cuba. The British were careful to distinguish between
the Portuguese Jews and the Spaniards, with the result that
the Jews at once began to establish and develop the commercial
prosperity of the colony. Sir Thomas Lynch, governor of Ja-
maica, writing in March, 1672, to the Council for Trade and
Transportation, mentions, as points in favor of the Jews that
58 History of the Jews in America.
"they have great stocks, no people, and aversions to the French
and Spaniards."
Several years before that time Jacob Joshua Bueno Enriques,
a resident of Jamaica for two years, petitioned the King for
permission to work a copper mine, and that he and his
brothers, Josef and Moise, "may use their own laws and hold
Synagogues." In 1668 Solomon Gabay Faro and David Gomes
Flenriques were recommended by the King to the governor to
remain and trade in Jamaica as long as they behaved well and
fairly. There were considerable increases by arrivals from Bra-
zil, later from the withdrawal of the British from Surinam, by
direct immigration from England and even from Germany. But
there must have been also considerable emigration of Jews, for
at the end of the seventeenth century the number of Jews in Ja-
maica is figured at eighty. While the inclusion of Hebrew in
the curriculum of the free school which was established in the
Parish of St. Andrews in 1693 — the earliest known instance of
the teaching of Hebrew in an English settlement in the New
World — may be taken as a concession to the Jewish inhabitants,
there was no lack of harsh and galling measures. In 1703 the
Jews were prohibited, under penalty of five hundred pounds,
from holding Christian servants. In 171 1 they were prohibited,
along with mulattoes, Indians and negroes, from being em-
ployed as clerks in any of the judicial or other offices.
The struggle of the Jews of Jamaica against heavy taxation
forms an interesting chapter in their history at the beginning of
the eighteenth century. (See "Publications" II, p. 165 ff. ) In
1700 a memorial was presented to Sir William Beeston, Gover-
nor-in-Chief of the Island of Jamaica, against the excessive spe-
cial taxation of four assemblies, and against "being forced to
bear arms on our Sabbath and holy days . . . without any
necessity or urgent occasion (which is quite contrary to our re-
ligion, unless in case of necessity, when an enemy is in sight or
apprehension of being near us)." The reply by the governor
and council begins with the admission of the truth of the state-
ment about taxation ; but a counter-claim is advanced that "their
Temporary Retrogression. 59
first introduction into this island was on the condition that they
sliould settle and plant, which they do not, there being but one
considerable and two or three small settlements of the Jews in
all the island. But their employment is generally keeping of
shops and merchandise, by the first of which they have en-
grossed that employment, and by their parsimonious living
(which I do not charge as a fault in them) they have thereby
means of underselling the English; that they cannot, many in
them, follow that employment, nor can they in reason put their
children to the Jews to be trained up in that profession, by
vv-hich the English nation think they suffer much, both in their
own advantages and what may be made to their children here-
after."
The governor then proceeds to explain that the Jews them-
selves requested that "they might on any occasion be taxed by
the lump," and that because of their controlling of trade, espe-
cially of the retail trade, the Assembly have thought it but just
that they should pay something in proportion more than the
English. He continues ; "As for their bearing of arms, it m-ust
be owned that when any public occasion has happened or an
enemy appeared they have been ready and behaved themselves
very well; but for their being called into arms on private times
and that have happened upon their Sabbath or festivals, they
have been generally excused by their officers, unless by their
obstinacy or ill-language they have provoked them to the con-
trary."
Traces of retrogression are also discernible in a document
which was presented in 1721 to the Jamaica House of Repre-
sentatives, entitled : "A petition of Jacob Henriques, Moses
Mendes Ouixano and David Gabai on behalf of themselves and
the rest of the Jews now resident in this island . praying
that the House will take into consideration the great disparity
there issbetween the numbers, trade and substance of the Jews
now resident in this island in this and former times, and to
mitigate the assessment of tax to be laid upon them." But it
seems that there was an improvement and an increase of the
60 History of the Jews, in America.
community about the middle of that century ; for not less than 1 5 1
of the 189 Jews in the British- American Colonies whose names
have been handed down as naturalized between 1740 (under the
act of Parliament of that year) and 1755 resided in Jamaica.
Among the leading Jewish families which contributed most
signally to the development of Jamaica's trade are : de Silva,
Soarez, Cardozo, Belisario, Belinfante, Nuiiez, Fonseca, Gutte-
rect, de Cordova, Bernal, Gomez, Vaz and Bravo.
Kingston was from the time of its foundation (1693) the
principal seat of the Jewish community; an earlier Synagogue
which is mentioned in 1684 and 1687 was probably situated in
Port Royal. There were also settlements in Spanish Town,
Montego Bay, Falmouth and Lacovia.
Here also, like in most other Dutch and English colonies, the
local authorities were less liberal than the home governments,
especially in matters of taxation. The assistance of the crown
was necessary to abolish all special taxation, and also to check
such attempts as were made during the reign of William III.
to expel the Jews from the island. There is a record (see ''Pub-
lications" XIX, p. 179-80) of a Mr. Montefiore who made an
application to be admitted as an attorney in Jamaica in 1787,
and produced a certificate of his admission in the Court of
King's Bench, in London, in 1784; but the above-mentioned anti-
Jewish law of 1 71 1 was cited to disqualify him- from acting as
attorney in Jamaica. It is believed that the man who met with
this refusal was Joshua Montefiore (1762-1843), an uncle of
Sir Moses Montefiore (1784-1885).
The community was in a flourishing condition in 183 1, when
all ci\'il disabilities were finally removed, and the Jews immiC-
diately began to take a leading part in the affairs of the colony.
In 1838 Sir Francis H. Goldsmid (1808-78) was able to com-
pile a long list of Jews who were chosen to civil and military
C'ffices in Jamaica smce the act of 183 1, which was used by him
as an argument in favor of removing the Jewish disabilities at
home.
Alexander Bravo was the first Jew to be chosen as a mem-
Present Conditions in Jamaica. 61
ber of the Jamaica Assembly, being elected for the district of
Kingston in 1835. He later became a member of the council
and afterward receiver-general. In 1849 eight of the forty-seven
members of the colonial assembly were Jews, and Dr. C. M.
Morales was elected Speaker in that year. Phinchas Abraham
(d. 1887) was one of the last survivors of the body of mer-
chants who contributed to the prosperity of the West Indies (see
Jiii.'. Encyclopedia s. v.).
The Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue of Kingston, situated
on Princess street until the time of its destruction by the great
fire of 1882, was consecrated in 1750. It was replaced by a new
edifice on East street in 1884. The English and German Syna-
gogue was consecrated in 1789, a third (German) was merged
with the first in 1850. The Synagogue of the "Amalgamated
Congregation of Israelites," which was consecrated in 1888, was
destroyed by the earthquake of Januar}^ 1907. The United Con-
gregation now worships at the East street Synagogue, which
was enlarged for the purpose. The Eriglish-German Congrega-
tion consecrated a new Synagogue in 1894. There is also a He-
brew Benevolent Society and a Gemilut Hasodim Association
which is more than a century old.
Among the rabbis of Jamaica were : Joshua Pardo who came
there from Curacao in 1683; his contemporary, the Spanish poet,
Daniel Israel Lopez Laguna ; Hakam de Cordoza (d. in Spanish
Town, 1798) ; Rev. Abraham Pereire Mendes (b. Kingston,
1825; d. New York, 1893); Rev. George Jacobs; Rev. J. M.
Corcos, and the present rabbi of the English-German Synagogue
on Orange street. Rev. M. H. Solomon. The two Synagogues
in Kingston are the only ones in the colony, which has about
two thousand Jews, or nearly ten per cent, of the white popula-
tion of Jamaica.
CHAPTER IX.
NEW AMSTERDAM AND NEW YORK.
Poverty of the first Jewish immigrants to New Amsterdam — Stuyve-
sant's opposition overruled by the Dutch West India Company —
Privileges and restrictions — Contributions to build the wall from
which Wall street takes its name — The first cemetery — Exemption
from military duty — Little change at the beginning of the English
rule — The first synagogue after a liberal decree by the Duke of
York — Marranos brought back in boats which carried grain to Portu-
gal — Hebrew learning — Question about the Jews as voters and as
witnesses — Peter Kalm's description of the Jews of New York
about 1745 — Hyman Levy, the employer of the original Astor.
The wealth which made the Spanish and Portuguese Jew wel-
come, or at least insured him sufferance, in the other Dutdi
and English colonies of the New World, was absent in the case
of those who first settled in what is now New York. In Sep-
tember, 1654, the year in which the Dutch lost control of Brazil
and the great Jewish community of Recife was scattered, there
arrived in the port of New Amsterdam (as New York was
called by its Dutch founders) the barque St. Catarina, of Avhich
Jacc[ues de la Motthe was master, from Cape St. Anthony
(Cuba?), carrying twenty-seven Jews, men, women and chil-
dren. These passengers, the first Jews to arrive in what is now
the United States, were so poor that their goods had to be
sold by the master of the vessel by public auction for the pay-
ment of their passage. The amount realized by the sale being
insufficient, he applied to the Court of Burgomaster and the
Schoepens that one or two of them, as principals, be held as
security for the payment of the balance in accordance with the
62
The First Jews in New Amsterdam. 63
contract made with him by which each person signing it had
bound himself for the payment of the whole amount, and under
which he had taken two of them, David Israel and Moses Am-
brosius, as principal debtors.
The court accordingly ordered that they should be placed
under civil arrest, in the custody of the provost marshal, until
they should have made satisfaction; that the captain should be
answerable for their support while in custody, as security for
which a certain proportion of the proceeds of the sale was di-
rected to be left in the hands of the secretary of the colony. But
as no further proceedings appear upon the records, the matter
was doubtless arranged and was probably nothing more than a
dispute or misunderstanding between them and the captain as
to whether they were bound to make good the deficiency, which
was probably enhanced by the forced sale of their effects by
auction.^ It is more likely that their embarrassment was only
temporary and was due to their being robbed shortly before or
after they left their last stopping place or residence, which was
probably Jamaica. (See Leon Hiihner, Whence came the First
Jewish Settlers of Neiu Yorkf "Publications," IX, p. 75 ff.)
It is mentioned that some of them were awaiting remittances,
which must have come in time to enable the refugees to hold
their own until the question of permitting them to remain in the
colony was settled in their favor through correspondence with
Holland.
Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of the' colony, a man of strong
will and strong prejudices, was hostile to the new arrivals, and
he Soon wrote to the Directors of the Dutch West India Company
in Amsterdam requesting that "none of the Jewish nation be
permitted to infest New Netherland." He received a reply that
' Daly, "The Settlement of the Jews in North America," p. 7 ff. The
names of those early immigrants (some of them coming from Holland
about the same time) as far as can be gathered from the records, are as
follows: Abraham d'Lucena, David Israel, Moses Ambrosius, Abraham
de la Simon, Salvatore d'Andrade, Joseph da Costa, David Frera, Jacob
Barsimson, Jacob C. Henrique (.or Jacob Cohen), Isaac Mesa and Asser
Levy.
64 History of the Jews in America.
such a course "would be unreasonable and unfair, especially be-
cause of the considerable loss sustained by the Jews in the tak-
ing of Brazil, and also because of the large amount of capital
which they have invested in the shares of this company. After
many consultations we have decided and resolved upon a cer-
tain petition made by said Portuguese Jews, that they shall have
permission to sail to and trade in New Netherland and to live
and remain there, provided that the poor among them shall not'
become a burden to the company or to the community, but be
supported by their own nation." This is the end of the reply,
dated, April 26, 1655, which began with the ominous sentence:
"We would have liked to agree to your wishes and request, that
the new territories should not be further invaded by people of
the Jewish race, for we forsee from such immigration the same
difficulties which you fear." But the influence of the Jews in
Amsterdam overcame the predilections and the fears of the com-
pany, and a special act was issued July 15, 1655, expressly giving
Jews in New Netherlands the privileges contained in the above
letter to the governor.
Before the favorable decision could arrive from Holland,
the position of the Jews was precarious. On the ist of March,
1655, Abraham de la Simon was brought before the Court of
Burgomaster and the Schoepens upon the complaint of the
Sellout or Sheriff for keeping open his store on Sunday during
the sermon, and selling at retail. The Sheriff on that occasion
informed the court that the Governor and Council had re-
solved that the Jews who had come in the preceding autumn, as
well as those that had recently arrived from Holland, must
prepare to depart forthwith. The Court, which was also a
council for the municipal government of the city, was asked by
the Sheriff whether it had any objection to make; whereupon,
says the record, it was decided that the Governor's resolution
should take its course.
There is reason to believe that some Jews left on account
of that resolution before the orders from Holland arrived. They
presumably went to Rhode Island. Those who remained were
Stuyvesant's Opposition. 65
still objects of the Governor's aversion, and even the more
friendly Company was not too liberal. A letter from the directors
to Stuyvesant, dated, March 13, 1556, contains the following:
"The permission given to the Jews to go to New Netherlands
and enjoy the same privileges as they have here (in Amsterdam),
has been granted only as far as civil and political rights are con-
cerned, without giving the said Jews a claim to the privilege of
exercising their religion in a synagogue or a gathering."
But it must be said to the credit of the directors that they in-
sisted on what they granted to the Jews, and in another let-
ter, dated, June 14, 1556, they write to the self-willed governor:
"We have seen and heard with displeasure, that against our
orders of the isth of February, 1655, issued at the request of
the Jewish or Portuguese nation, you have forbidden them to
trade to Fort Orange (Albany) and the South River (Dela-
ware), also the purchase of real estate, which is granted to
them without difficulty here in this country, and we wish it had
not been done, and you have obeyed your orders which you
must always execute punctually and with more respect. Jev^'S
or Portuguese people, however, shall not be employed in any
public service (to which they are neither admitted in this city)
nor allowed to have open retail shops; but they may quietly and
peacefully carry on their business as beforesaid and exercise in
all quietness their religion within their houses, for which end
they must without doubt endeavor to build their houses close
together in a convenient place on one or the other side of New:
Amsterdam — at their choice — as they do here.''
These instructions came as the result of a petition sent to
the directors by Abraham d'Lucena, Salvatore d'Andrade and
Jacob Cohen, for themselves and in' the name of others of the
Jewish nation, asking for a confirmation of the privileges, which
was thus granted. These three and two other Jews, Joseph da
Costa and David Frera, were in the preceding year, 1655, as-
sessed each 1,000 florins to defray the cost of erecting the outer
fence or city wall, from which Wall street takes its name. It
was the same amount as was imposed upon the wealthiest of the
66 History of the Jews in America.
citizens, and the five adduced it as a reason for their being en-
titled to the rights to trade and to hold real property.
Abraham d'Lucena, who appears to have been the most promi-
nent of the early Jewish immigrants, and several others, ap-
plied in July, 1655, for a burying ground; but the request was
refused with the reply "that there was no need for it )'et." There
Vi'as need for it, however, about a year later, and on July 14,
1656, a lot was granted to them outside of the city for a place
of interment. This is the old cemetery on Oliver street and
New Bowery, which was augmented by further purchases in
the following century.
The city was at that time exposed to attacks from Spanish
cruisers and pirates, and to assaults from hostile Indians. The
encroachments of the English on Long Island and Westchester
was a subject of constant anxiety, England never having con-
ceded the rights of the Dutch to settle New Netherlands.
This caused all the male inhabitants capable of bearing arms
to enroll in the Burgher Guard, and a watch was kept up night
and day with the steadiness and vigilance of a beleaguered town.
A few months after the arrival of the Jewish immigrants the
question arose whether the adult males among them should be
incorporated in the Burgher Guard; the officers of the guard
submitting the cjuestion to the Governor and Council. It was
duly deliberated upon and an ordinance was passed (August 28,
1655), which, after reciting "the unwillingness of the mass of
the citizens to be fellow-soldiers of the aforesaid nation" or
watch in the same guard-house, and the fact that the Jews in
Holland did not serve in the train bands of the cities, but paid
a compensation for their exemption therefrom, declared that
they should be exempt from that military service, and for such
exemption each male person between the ages of sixteen and
sixty shall pay a monthly contribution of sixty-five stivers.
Jacob B'arsimson and Asser Levy (d. 1682) petitioned to be
allowed to stand guard like other burghers, or to be relieved
from the tax, which was refused by the Governor and Council
with the remark that "they might go elsewhere if they liked."
Beginning of the English Rule. 67
But after the last order from Amsterdam favorable to the claims
of the Jews was received, Asser Levy applied to be admitted
to the right of citizenship, and exhibited his certificate to the
court to show that he had been a burgher in Amsterdam. His
request, as well as the one made for the same purpose by Sal-
vatore d'Andrade and others, was not complied with. The
matter was brought before the Governor and Council, and as
the directions from Holland were controlling, an order was made
April 21, 1657, that the Burgomaster should admit them to that
privilege. Here the struggle virtually ended, and they were no
longer troubled during the Dutch rule.
When the British captured the city in 1664 and renamed it
Nevi' York, the condition of the Jews remained practically un-
changed. There is a record of at least one Jew who removed
from Newport to New York in that period, and had difficulties
with the local authorities because they enforced against him the
regulation which did not permit a Jew to engage in retail trade.
The Charter of Liberties and Privileges which was adopted in
1683 by the colonial legislature declared that "no one should
be molested, punished, disquieted or called in question for iiis
religious opinion, who professed faith in God by Jesus Christ,"
which meant that the Jews and unbelievers were excluded from
the privileges of religious freedom. A petition by the Jews to
Governor Dongan, in 1686, for liberty to exercise their religion,
I. e., to have public worship, was consecjuently decided in the
negative. But James, Duke of York (afterwards King James
IL, 1633-1701), to whom New York was granted by his brother,
had previously sent out instructions, which arrived about that
time, "to permit all persons of what religion soever, quietly to
inhabit within the government, and to give no disturbance or dis-
Quiet whatsoever for or by reason of their diiTering in matters of
religion."
The exact date when the Jews took advantage of that liberal
decree is not known, but it is presumed that the religious serv-
ices, which had been heretofore conducted semi-privately, were
soon performed in a house devoted to that purpose. It is certain
68 History of the Jews in America.
that there was a Jewish Synagogue in New York in 1695, prob-
ably as early as 1691, while the restrictions as to trade were re-
moved a few years before. The Synagogue, the first on the
North American continent, was situated on the south side of the
present Beaver street, 'between Broadway and Broad street.
When it became too small for the community which was in-
creasing in wealth and in numbers, a new edifice was erected in
1728 on Mill street (about the present site of South William
street), where the congregation, which now assumed the name
of "Shearith Israel'' (Remnant of Israel), continued to worship
for more than a century.
A profitable commerce was carried on between New York
and the West Indies at the beginning of the eighteenth century
in which numerous Jewish merchants participated. There was
also carried on, though for a short period, a considerable busi-
ness of exporting wheat to Portugal, on account of the scarcity
in Europe about the close of the French war. Abraham
d'Lucena and Louis Moses Gomez, who engaged in that traflic
to Portugal, not only became two of the most affluent of the
Jewish residents of New York, but they also incidentally caused
an increase of the number of their co-religionists in the com-
munity. It is presumed that the vessels which carried grain to
the Iberian peninsula brought Jewish or Marrano passengers on
the return voyage. Most of the new Jewish names which be-
gan to appear here about that time are of undoubted Spanish and
Portuguese origin. But there were also in the city Jews from
other countries. When the Rev. John Sharpe proposed the
erection of a school-library and chapel in New York, in 1712-13,
he points out among the advantages which the city afforded for
that purpose that : "It is possible also to learn Hebrew here as
well as in Europe, there being a Synagogue of Jews, and many
ingenious men of that nation from Poland, Hungary, Germany,
etc."
The abovp-mentioned Louis Moses Gomez (b. Madrid, 1654;
d. New York, 1740) who arrived in America about 1700, was
until the time of his death one of the principal merchants of
First Struggle about the Franchise. 69
New York. He had five sons, and his descendants have inter-
married with most of the old-time American-Jewish famiUes.
While the community was increasing in number and wealth,
something occurred which sharply reminded the Jews that the
tnne of complete emancipation had not yet come. In 1737 the
election of Col. Frederick Phillips as representative of the Gen-
eral Assembly for the County of Westchester was contested by
Captain Cornelius Van Home. Colonel Phillips called several
Jews to give evidence on his behalf, when an objection was made
to their competency as witnesses. After arguments on both
sides were heard, they were informed by the speaker that it
was the opinion of the House that "none of the Jewish profes-
sion could be admitted as evidence." It seems that Jews had
voted at the election, for after again hearing arguments from
the counsel of both parties, the House resolved that, as it did
not appear that persons of the Jewish religion had a right to
vote for members of Parliament in Great Britain, it was the
unanimous opinion of the House that they could not be admitted
to vote for Representatives in the colony. This decision has
been described by a later historian as remarkable, and in ex-
planation of it he says ; "That Catholics and Jews had long been
peculiarly obnoxious to the colonists," that "the first settlers be-
ing Dutch and mostly of the Reformed Protestant religion, and
the migration from England, since the colony belonged to the
Crown, being principally Episcopal, both united in their aver-
sion to the Catholics and the Jews." (Quoted by Daly, The
Settlement of the Jezvs in North America, p. 46.)'
^ Judge Daly himself, however, sees no ground for inferring that the
decision proceeded from aversion. He thinks it was simply a question
of law. The law of New York colony was especially modeled upon that
ot the mother country. New York was a conquered province, and wh-en
it was taken from the Dutch, the English mode of procedure in all mat-
ters of law and government was introduced bodily; and from this circum-
stance English forms, precedents and modes of proceeding came into
use to an extent that did not prevail in other colonies where the people
themselves had been left to originate and frame such a system of gov-
ernment and laws as was suggested by their wants and most conducive
to their interests. The Legislative Assembly was therefore simply de-
claring the law as it existed in England at that time. (,1. c.)
70 History of the Jews in America.
The general condition of the Jews of New York was, never-
theless, highly favorable, as is attested by Peter Kalm (1715-79),
the Swedish botanist and traveler, who spent a considerable time
ni the colony in the following decade. He says : "There are
many Jews settled in New York who possess great privileges.
They have a Synagogue and houses, great country-seats of their
own property, and are allowed to keep shops in the town. They
have likewise several ships which they freight and send out with
their goods; in fine, the Jews enjoy all the privileges in common
to the other inhabitants of this town and province."
The increase of the community between that time and the
American Revolution was very slow in comparison with the
fast growth of the general population of the city, which was
less than 5,000 in 1700, about 9,000 in 1750, and nearly 23,000
in 1776. The natural increase and the additions which the Jew-
ish community received by immigration, chiefly from England,
was barely sufficient to counteract the loss of others who went
to Newport, Charleston and Philadelphia. But, though small,
it continued to be a highly respectable and influential body, hav-
ing among its members some of the principal merchants of the
city. Of this number was Hayman Levy (d. 1790) who carried
on an extensive business chiefly with the Indians, and by win-
ning their respect and confidence became the largest fur trader
in the colonies. Upon his books are entries of moneys paid to
John Jacob Astor (1763- 1848), the founder of the Astor fam-
ily, for beating furs at the rate of one dollar a day. Miss Ze-
porah Levy (d. 1833), a daughter of Hayman, was married in
1779 to Benjamin Hendricks, a native of New York, the founder
of a well-known and long-maintained Jewish commercial house.
CHAPTER X.
NEW ENGLAND AND THE OTHER ENGLISH COLONIES.
The Old Testament spirit in New England— Roger Williams— The first
Jew in Massachusetts— Judah Monis, instructor in Hebrew at Har-
vard — Newport — Jews from Holland bring there the first degrees
of Masonry— The cemetery immortalized by Longfellow— Jacob
Rodrigues Rivera introduces the manufacture of sperm oil — Aaron
Lopez, the greatest merchant in America — Immigration from Port-
ugal — Rabbi Isaac Touro — Visiting rabbis — First Jews in Connect-
icut — Philadelphia — Congregation Mickweh Israel — Easton's wealthy
Jews — Maryland — Dr. Jacob Lumbrozo — General Oglethorpe and
the first Jews of Georgia— Joseph Ottolenghi— The Carolinas—
Charleston.
Although "tlie Puritans of England and America appropriated
tlie language of our judges and prophets" and the spirit of the
Old Testament was the most potent force in the foundation and
the conduct of the early Commonwealths of New England, still
it was not a typical or recognized leader of those who deemed
themselves members of a new Hebrew theocratic democracy, but
rather an outcast from their ranks, who first granted full relig-
ious libert}' to the Jews and bade them welcome. This man was
Roger AVilliams (i6go?-i684), the former clergyman of the
Church of England, who later (1631) became a Puritan pastor
in Salem, Ma.ss., and was expelled for denying the right of the
magistrates to punish Sabbath-breaking, and was four years
later "banished from the jurisdiction of the Puritans of America,
and driven into the wilderness to endure the severity of our
northern winter and the bitter pangs of hunger."'
' Oscar S. Straus, "The Origin of the Republican Form of Govern-
ment in the United States," p. 48.
71
72 History of the Jews in America.
There was at least one Jew in Massachusetts before the ar-
rival of the first Jews in New Amsterdam, and he is mentioned
only as being assisted — or forced — to quit the colony. The
reference to him is dated May 3, 1649, when it is stated that
Ihe court allows Solomon Franco, the Jew, six shillings per week
out of the treasury for ten weeks for subsister.ce till he can get
his passage into Holland (see Kohut, The Jczi's of N'c-lu England
in "Publications," XI, p. 78). Several other Jews are men-
tioned as having lived there in the latter part of the seventeenth
and in the first three-c^uarters of the eighteenth centuries. But
owing to the intolerance and religious zeal of the Puritans, they
either moved to other parts or embraced Christianity. When a
Jew named Joseph Frazon (or Frazier) died in Boston, in 1704,
his body was sent to Newport for burial.
The most distinguished among the early converts was Judah
Monis (born in Algiers about 1680; died in Northborough,
Mass. in 1764). He was baptized in the College Hall at Cam-
bridge, Mass., on March 22, 1722, and was afterward active in
the cause of his new faith, although he observed throughout his
life the Jewish Sabbath. He was an instructor in Hebrew at
Harva^rd University, from 1722 till 1759, when on the death
of his wife he resigned and removed to Northborough. Besides
some insignificant missionary pamphlets, he was the author of
the first Hebrew grammar printed in America (Boston, 1735).
It was in the smallest of the original colonies, which is now
likewise the smallest State in the Union, Rhode Island, founded
by the pioneer of religious liberty in the New World, that the
Jews established their oldest congregation on the North Ameri-
can continent. Providence was founded in 1636, Portsmouth
and Newport about two years later, and the last named place,
which soon became one of the most important cities in the
colonies, excelling even New York as a commercial center and
port of entry until after the Revolution, began to attract Jews
soon after their arrival in these parts of the country. The earliest
authentic mention of Jews in Newport is in 1658, when fifteen
Jewish families are said to have arrived from Holland, bringing
The First Jews of Newport. 73
with them the first degrees of Masonry which they proceeded to
confer on Abraham iVIoses in the house of Mordecai Campanall.'
But there is reason to beheve that Jews from New Amsterdam
and Curagao settled there a year or two before. A congregation
seems to have been organized in 1658 under the name "Jeshuat
Israel." The cemetery, immortahzed by Longfellow and Emma
Lazarus, was acquired by Campanall and Moses Packeckoe, in
1677, but it is possible that there existed an earlier Jewish
cemetery.
AStill even in Rhode Island it was only tolerance; the recogni-
tion of equal rights was yet to come with the Declaration of
Independence. In reply to a petition of the Jews, the General
/.ssembly of Rhode Island, in 1684, affirmed the right of the
Jews to settle in the colony, declaring that "they may expect
as good protection here as any stranger being not of our nation
residing among us in His Majesty's colony ought to have, be-
ing obedient to His Majesty's laws."
More Jewish settlers arrived from the West Indies in 1694;
but the great impulse to the commercial activity which raised
Newport to the zenith of its prosperity was given by a number
of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the
eighteenth century. Most prominent among those were Jacob
Rodrigues Rivera (died at an advanced age in 1789), who
arrived in 1745, and Aaron Lopez, who came in 1750. The
former introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil,
having brought the art with him from Portugal, and it soon be-
came one of the leading industries; Newport, whose inhabi-
tants were engaged in whale fishing, had seventeen manufactories
of oil and candles and enjoyed a practical monopoly of this
trade down to the Revolution.
Aaron Lopez (died May 28, 1782), who was Rivera's son-in-
law, became the great merchant prince of New England. (Ezra
Stiles says of him, that for honor and extent of commerce he
^ See Oppenheim, "The Jews and Masonry," in "Publications'" XIX,
pp. 9 ff., for an interesting treatment of the discussion about the authen-
ticity of this statement.
74 History of the Jews in America.
was probably surpassed by no merchant in America.) The ad-
vantages of this important seaport were quickly comprehended
by this sagacious merchant, and to him in a larger degree than
to any one else was due the rapid commercial development that
followed. He was the means of inducing more than forty Jew-
ish families to settle there, the heads of many of which were men
of wealth, mercantile sagacity, high intelligence and enterprise.
In fourteen years after Lopez settled there, Newport had 150
vessels engaged in trade with the West Indies alone, besides an
extensive trade which was carried on as far as Africa and the
Falkland Islands. The Jews were even then, nearly three hun-
dred years after the expulsion, transferring to the liberal Eng-
lish colonies the wealth and the still more valuable business abil-
ity and commercial connections which they could not freely or
safely employ as Marranos in Portugal. The emigration of
secret Jews from that country increased after the great earth-
quake at Lisbon (1755), and a considerable portion went to
Rhode Island. One of the vessels from that unhappy city,
bound for Virginia, was driven into Narragansett Bay, and its
Jewish passengers remained at Newport.
Isaac Touro (died Dec. 8, 1783) came from Jamaica to New-
port, in 1760, to become the minister of its prosperous congre-
gation, and occupied the position until the outbreak of the Rev-
olution, when he returned to end his days in Jamaica. Until
the time of his arrival worship was held in private houses, but
in 1762 the congregation, which numbered between sixty and
seventy members, decided to erect a Synagogue. The building,
which is still standing, was completed and dedicated in 1763.
There is evidence that the Jewish population of Newport, even
before the Revolution, contained considerable German and Polish
elements. According to one historian, the city numbered before
the outbreak of hostilities 1,175 Jews — which was probably a
majority of the Jews in all the colonies — while more than 300
worshipers attended the Synagogue.
Many Jewish rabbis from all parts of the world were attracted
to Newport in those times. The above-named Ezra Stiles
Connecticut and Pennsylvania. 75
(1727-95), the famous president of Yale University, who was
a preacher in Newport at that time, mentions several of them in
his diary. He met one from Palestine in 1759, two from Poland,
T771 and 1772, respectively, a Rabbi Bosquila from Smyrna, a
Rabbi Cohen from Jerusalem and Rabbi Raphael Hayyim Isaac
Carregal (b. Hebron, Palestine, 1733; d. Barbadoes, 1777),
who preached at Newport in Spanish in 1773, and became an
intimate friend of the Christian theological scholar.
The arrival of a Jewish family from the West Indies to New
Haven, Conn., in 1772, is noted by Stiles, who was a native
of that place, in his diary as follows : "They are the first real
Jews at that place with exception of the two brothers Pinto,
who renounced Judaism and all religion." This is substantially
accurate in regard to New Haven, although one David, the Jew,
is mentioned in the Hartford town records as early as 1659 (or
1650), and the residence of several Jews is implied in the entry
which was made in the same records under date of September
2, 1661 : "The same day ye Jews which at present live at John
Marsh, his house, have liberty to sojourn in ye town for seven
months." They are mentioned at a subsequent period, too, which
proves that they were permitted to remain longer than the
allotted se\'en months. But all trace of them is lost afterwards,
and almost two centuries had passed until the first Synagogue
Vvas erected in Hartford.
The Jews of New Amsterdam who had difficuliies with Peter
Stuyvesant in 1655 about their right to trade on the South River,
which was subsequently re-named the Delaware (see above, chap-
ter 9) were probably the first to set foot in what later became
the colony and still later the State of Pennsylvania. This was
twenty years before William Penn (1644-1718) became part
proprietor of West Jersey, and more than a quarter of a cen-
tury before he came over to America (1682) and founded the
city of Philadelphia in the colony of Pennsylvania, which he
received as a grant from the King of England in the preceding
year.
76 History of the Jews in America.
The first Jewish resident of Philadelphia was Jonas Aaron,
who was living there in 1703. A number of other Jews settled
(here in the first half of the eighteenth century and some of
them, including David Franks (172093), Joseph Marks and
Sampson Levy, became prominent in the life of the city. Isaac
Miranda came there earlier (1710) and held several State offices,
but he was a convert to Christianity, and his preferment can-
not be considered a Jewish success. A German traveler men-
tions the Jews among the religious sects of Philadelphia in 1734.
In 1738 Nathan Levy (1704-53) applied for a plot of ground to
be used as a place of burial, and obtained it Sept. 25, 1740. This
was the first Jewish cemetery in the city, and was henceforth
known as the "J^ws' burying ground," situated in Spruce street,
near Ninth street. It later became the property of the Congre-
gation Mickweh Israel, which had its beginnings about 1745
and is believed to have worshipped in a small house in Sterling
alley. The question of building a Synagogue was raised in 1761,
as a result of the influx of Jews from Spain and the West Indies,
but nothing was then accomplished in that direction. In 1773,
when Barnard Gratz (born in Germany, 1738; died in Balti-
more, 1801) was parnas and Solomon Marache, treasurer, a
subscription was started "in order to support our holy worship
and establish it on a more solid foundation," but no Synagogue
was built until about ten years later. Barnard Gratz and his
brother, Michael (b. 1740), with whom he came to Amreica
about 1755, were among the eight Jewish merchants of Phila-
delphia who signed the Non-Importation Resolution in 1765.
The others were Benjamin Levy, David Franks, Sampson Levy,
Hyman Levy, Jr. ; Mathias Bush and Moses Mordecai.
Jews were to be found in Lancaster, Pa., as early as 1730,
before the town and county were organized, and the name of
Joseph Simon was preserved as the best known of the first ar-
rivals. Myer Hart (d. about 1795) and his wife, Rachel, and
their son, Michael (b. 1738), were one of the eleven original
families that are classed as the founders of Easton, Pa., about
1750. Myer Hart heads the list of those furnishing material
Jacob Lumbrozo in Maryland. 77
for the erection of a schoolhouse in Easton in 1755. He is first
described as a shopkeeper and later as an innkeeper, and Le was
naturalized April 3, 1764. In 1780 his estate was valued at
£2,095, ^'''d that of his son, Michael, at £2,261, these two being
the heaviest taxed individuals in the county. At that period there
were two other Jewish merchants residing at Easton, Barnard
Levi and Joseph Nathan.
There is a tradition that Schafferstown, Pa., had a Synagogue
?nd a Jewish cemetery in 1732, but the facts have not been veri-
fied, and there is a suspicion that the supposed Jews were Ger-
man pietists who assumed Biblical names.
To the south of Pennsylvania the older colony of Maryland,
which was established in 1634, "adopted religious freedom as
the basis of the State;" but this boon was reserved for Chris-
tians only, although there is no record that the statutory death
penalty for those who denied the trinity was ever carried out in
practice. The physician, Jacob Lumbrozo (d. May, 1666), who
hailed from Lisbon, Portugal, and came to Maryland about Janu-
ary, 1656, and later became an extensive land owner, was com-
mitted for blasphemy in 1658, but this did not prevent him from
enjoying a lucrative practice and engaging in various mercantile
pursuits in subsecpent years. He was even granted letters of
denization on Sept. 10, 1663, which vested him with all the
privileges of a native or naturalized subject. But his case seems
to have been exceptional, probably owing to his medical skill
and his wealth. But in general, colonial Maryland was no place
for Jews, and even after it became a part of the United States
it was one of the last to remove the civil disabilities of its Jewish
citizens.
Another Marrano physician from Lisbon, Dr. Samuel (Ri-
biero) Nufiez, who escaped from the clutches of the Inquisition
and arrived, in 1733, in the newly founded colony of Georgia,
found a more congenial place of refuge. Georgia was in re-
spect to the Jews the reverse of New Netherlands; the trustees
of the colony in England were opposed to permitting Jews to
settle there, but General James Edward Oglethorpe (1696-
78 , History of the Jews in America.
1785), the Governor, was very friendly disposed towards them.
Nunez was one of forty Jewish immigrants who unexpectedly
arrived at Savannah in the second vessel which reached the
colony from England (July 11, 1733). The Governor, one of
1he noblest figures of colonial times, bade them welcome, and
considered them a good acquisition to the new colony. The
first settlers were of Spanish and Portuguese extraction,^ but
Jews who apparently came from Germany took up their resi-
dence there less than a year afterwards. Both bands of set-
tlers received equally liberal treatment, and they soon organized
a congregation (1734). The first male white child born in the
colony was a Jew, Isaac Minis. Abraham de Lyon, of Portugal,
introduced the culture of grapes into Georgia in 1737, while others
of the early settlers engaged in the cultivation and manufacture
of silk, the knowledge of which they likewise brought with them
from Portugal. A dispute with the trustees of the colony re-
specting the introduction of slaves caused an extensive emigration
to South Carolina in 1741, and resulted in the dissolution of the
congregation. But in 1751 a number of Jews returned to
Georgia, and in the same year the trustees sent over Joseph
Ottolenghi (d. after June. 1774) to superintend the somewhat
extensive silk industry of the colony. Ottolenghi soon attained
prominence in the political life of the colony and was elected
a member of the General Assembly, where he served from 1761
to 1765. Several other Jews renderd distinguished services to
Georgia, but they belong to the period of the Revolution, which
V :l\ be treated separately in the following part. A new con-
gregation was started in 1774.
"Jews, heathens and dissenters" were granted full liberty of
conscience in the liberal charter which the celebrated English
philosopher, John Locke (1632-1704) drew up for the govern-
ance of the Carolinas (1669), and the spirit of tolerance was
always retained there. Still few Jews were attracted there at
the beginning, and about thirty years later we know of only one
' For a list of their names see "Publications" XVII, pp. 16S-69.
The First Synagogue of Charleston. 79
Jew, Solomon Valentiiu', as living in Charleston. A few others
followed him, and in 1703 a protest was raised against "Jew
strangers" voting for members of the Assembly. About the
middle of the eighteenth century the number of Jews in Charles-
ton suddenly increased through the above-mentioned exodus
from Georgia, and the first Synagogue of the Congregation Bet
Elohim was established in 1750. Its first minister was Isaac da
Costa, and among its earliest members were Joseph and Michael
Tobias, Moses Cohen, Abraham da Costa, Moses Pimenta, David
de Olivera, IMordecai Slieftal, Michael Lazarus and Abraham
Nunez Cardozo. The fit5t Synagogue was a small building on
Union street; its present edifice is situated at Hassell street. A
Hebrew Benevolent Society, which still survives, was also or-
ganized at an early date. A German-Jewish congregation was
also' in existence in the last quarter of the eighteenth century.
Several prominent Jews of London purchased large tracts of
land in South Carolina, near Fort Ninety-six, which became
known as the "Jews' Land." Moses Lindo who arrived from
London in 1756, became engaged in indigo manufacture, which
he made one of the principal industries in the colony. Another
London Jew, Francis Salvador (d. 1776), was the most promi-
nent Jew in South Carolina at the time of the outbreak of the
Revolutionary War.
PART III.
THE REVOLUTION AND THE PEEIOD OP
EXPANSION.
CHAPTER XI.
THE RELIGIOUS ASPECT OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
Spirit of the Old Testament in the Revolutionary War — Sermons in
favor of the original Jewish form of Government — The New Nation
as "God's American Israel" — The Quebec Act — The intolerance of
sects as the cause of separation of Church and State — A Memorial
sent by German Jews to the Continental Congress — Fear expressed
in North Carolina that the Pope might be elected President of the
United States — None of the liberties won were lost by post-revo-
lutionary reaction, as happened elsewhere.
The spirit of the old Testament which was prevalent among
the early settlers of New England was perhaps still more mani-
fest there at the time of the outbreak of the Revolutionary War
of Independence. The ever-increasing antagonism which was
aroused by the attempt of the Parliament of England to regulate
and to tax the colonies, found expression in Biblical terms to an
extent which can hardly be appreciated in the present time. The
people in America had to fight over again the same battles for
con.stitutional liberties which the English had fought before them,
and George III., so far as his claims over the colonies were con-
cerned, relied as much upon the kingly prerogative, the doctrine
of "Divine Right," as ever did James I. All of these pretensions,
all the questions of right and liberty had to be re-argued. To
refute this false theory of kingly power it was not only expedient
80
Arguments from the Bible. 81
but necessary to rc\-ert to the earliest times, to the most sacred
record, the Old Testament, for illustration and for argument,
chiefly because the doctrine of Divine Right of a King by the
Grace of God and its corollaries, "unlimited submission and non-
resistance," were deduced, or rather distorted, from the New
Testament, ha\'ing been brought into the field of politics with
the object of enslaving the masses through their religious creed.
"It is, at least, an historical fact — says the historian Lecky — that
in the great majority of instances the early Protestant defenders
of civil liberty derived their political principles chiefly from the
Old Testament, and the defenders of despotism from the New.
The rebellions that were so frec|uent in Jewish history formed the
favorite topic of the one, the unreserved submission inculcated
by St. Paul, the other."^
While there were many free thinkers or Deists among the in-
tellectual leaders of the Revolution, the masses of the colonists
were intensely religious, and an argument from Scripture carried
more weight with them than any other. Education was limited
at that period in the colonies ; there were not many newspapers,
they were rarely issued more than once a week, and the number
of subscribers was but few. The pulpit had their place, and the
pastors in their sermons dealt with politics not .less than with
religion. Sermons were for the people the principal sources of
general instruction. These pastors, in the way of history, knew
above all that of the Jewish people, and they were the first to
bring before their audiences the ideals of the old Hebrew com-
monwealth. Rev. Jonathan Mayhew (1720-66), whose discourse,
in 1750, against unlimited submission was characterized as "the
morning gun of the Revolution," declared in a later oration on
the "Repeal of the Stamp Act" which he delivered in Boston on
May 23, 1766: "God gave Israel a king in His anger because
they had not sense and virtue enough to like a free common-
' Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, vol. II, 168, quoted in Straus, Origin
of Reptiblican Form of Government in tJic United States, pp. 19 ff., which
see for an extensive treatment of this subject.
82 History of the Jews in America.
wealth, and to have Himself for their King — where the spirit
of the Lord is there is liberty — and if any miserable people on
the continent or isles of Europe be driven in their extremity to
seek a safe retreat from slavery in some far distant clime — O let
them find one in America." Rev. Samuel Langdon (1723-97),
President of Harvard College, delivered an election sermon be-
fore the "Honorable Congress of Massachusetts Bay" on the
31st of JMay, 1775, taking as his text the passage in Isaiah I,
26, "And I will restore thy judges as at first," in which he said :
"The Jewish government, according to the original constitution,
which was divinely established, if considered only in a civil \iew,
was a perfect republic. And let them who cry up the divine right
of Kings consider, that the form of government which had a
proper claim to a divine establishment was so far from including
the idea of a King, that it was a high crime for Israel to ask to
be in this respect like other nations, and when they were thus
gratified, it was rather as a just punishment for their folly. .
The civil polity of Israel is doubtless an excellent general model,
allowing for some peculiarities ; at least some principal laws and
orders of it may be copied in more modern establishments." Al-
most everybody at that time knew by heart the admonitions of
Samuel to the children of Israel, describing the manner in which
a King would rule over them.
Sermons drawing a parallel between George III. and Pharaoh,
inferring that the same providence of God which had rescued the
Israelites from Egyptian bondage would free the coloiiies, were
common in that period ; and they probably had more effect with
the masses than the great orations of the statesmen or the philo-
sophical essays of the publicists which came down to us in the
literature of the Revolution. The success of the AVar of Inde-
pendence was also accepted in that sense. The election sermon
preached by the Rev. Dr. Ezra Stiles, President of Yale College,
on May 8, 1783, at Hartford, before Governor Trumbull and
the General Assembly of the State of Connecticut, mav be cited
as an instance. Dr. Stiles took for his text Deut. XXVI, 19:
"And to make you high abo\-e all nations which he has made,
"God's American Israel". 83
in praise, and in name, and in honor, etc." This sermon takes
up one hundred and twenty closely printed pages, and assumes
the proportions of a treatise on government from the Heljrew
Theocracy down to the then present, showing by illustration and
history that the culmination of popular government had been
reached in America, transplanted by divine hands in fulfilment
of Biblical prophecy from the days of Moses to the land of
Washington; and discussing from an historical point of view
"the reasons rendering it probable that the United States will,
by the ordering of heaven, eventually become this people." He
referred to the new nation as "God's American Israel" and to
Washington as the American Joshua who was raised up by God
to lead the armies of the chosen people to liberty and inde-
pendence.'^
The committee which was appointed on the same day the Dec-
laration of Independence was adopted, consisting of Dr. Frank-
lin, Mr. Adams and Mr. Jefferson, to prepare a device for a
seal for the United States, at first proposed that of Pharaoh
sitting in an open chariot, a crown on his head and a sword in
his hand, passing through the dividing waters of the Red Sea
^Another great American clergyman. Dr. Henry M. Field (1822-
1907), who wrote about a century later, also found in the Jewish polity
m.uch that was later adopted in the Constitution of the United States.
In his work On the Desert (New York, 1883), he says: "Perhaps it does
not often occur to readers of the Old Testament that there is much
likeness between the Hebrew Commonwealth and the American Re-
public At the bottom there is one radical principle that di-
vides a republic from a monarchy or an aristocracy; it is the natural
equality of men — that "all men are born free and equal" — which is
fully recognized in the laws of Moses as in the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. Indeed, the principle is carried further in the Hebrew Com-
monwealth than in ours; for not only was there equality before the
laws, but the laws aimed to produce equality of condition in one point,
and that a vital one — the tenure of land, of which even the poorest
could not be deprived, so that in this respect the Hebrew Common-
wealth approached more nearly to a pure democracy." See a more
extensive quotation in Simon Wolf's The American Jew as Patriot, Sol-
dier and Citizen, pp. 494-98.
84 History of the Jews in America.
in pursuit of the Israelites : with rays from a pillar of fire beam-
ing on Moses, who is represented as standing on the shore extend-
ing his hand over the sea, causing it to overwhelm Pharaoh/
Great religious animosity was also aroused by the "Quebec
Act," which was passed by the British Parliament in 1774, for
the purpose of preventing Canada from joining the other colonies.
It guaranteed to the Catholic Church the possession of its vast
amount of property, and full freedom of worship. The object
which it was intended to effect by the passage of this act was pure-
\y one of State policy, and as far as Canada herself was concerned
it was a wise and diplomatic step. But with the exception per-
haps of the Boston Port Bill, it was the most effectual in alien-
ating the colonies. It was construed as an effort on the part of
Parliament to create an Established Church, and not that alone,
but the establishment of ihat Church which was most hateful to
and dreaded by the great majority of the people in the colonies.
It was not due to lack of religious sentiment that the ultimate
bond between the colonies was a strictly secular one, and that
Church and State were forever separated in the Constitution of
the United States. It was rather due to the great and insur-
mountable differences in the religious beliefs among the various
parties to the confederation; it may be said that it was strong
sectarianism which forced upon them a non-sectarian govern-
ment. The religious complexion of no two of the American
colonies was precisely alike. The various sects at the time of the
Pevolution were grouped as follows: The Puritans in A^fassachu-
setts, the Baptists in Rhode Island, the Congregationalists in Con-
necticut, the Dutch and Swedish Protestants in New Jersey, the
Church of England in New York, the Quakers in Pennsylvania,
the Baptists, Methodists and Presbyterians in North Carolina,
the Catholics in Maryland, the Cavaliers in Virginia, the Hugue-
nots and Episcopalians in South Carolina, and the Methodists
in Georgia. Owing to these diversities, to the consciousness of
'A drawing of this design is printed as the frontispiece of Mr.
Straus's above-named work.
Separation of Church and State. 85
danger from ecclesiastical ambition, the intolerance of sects as
exemplified among themselves as well as in foreign lands, it was
wiseh' foreseen that the only basis upon which it was possible to
form a Federal union was to exclude from the National Govern-
ment all power over religion.
The seperation of Church and State was therefore a practical
necessit3^ based on causes which were deeply rooted in the life
of the people. It was almost a forced step on the way of develop-
ment, not an enthusiastic outburst in favor of an abstract prin-
ciple. This is why the ground which was then gained was never
lost again, why there was no reaction and no reversion to the
former order of a religious establishment as happened in France
after the great revolution which began in 1789. The moderate,
self-restrained liberalism of the colonists held its own after the
struggle was over and kept on progressing slowly. The
violent radicalism of the older country went so far that many
steps had to be retraced, and the fight of separating Church and
State had to be fought out all over again in our own time, more
than a century after all religion was abolished during the reign
of terror.
A letter sent by an unnamed German Jew on' behalf of himself
and his brethren to the President of the Continental Congress,
in which the wretched condition of the Jews in Germany at that
time is depicted, and their desire to become subjects of the thir-
teen provinces is expressed, appeared in the Dcutschcs Museum
of June, 1783, and four years later a separate edition of it was
published under the title, Schreibcii dues deutschcn Jiidcn an
den Nord Aincrikanischen Pr'iisidenten} As there is no record
of its reception or discussion in America, it probably attracted
very little attention. The same is also true of the letter which
Jonas Phillips (b. in Rhenish I^russia, 1736; d. in New York,
' See Dr. M. Kayserling, A Memorial Sent by German Jews to the
President of the Continental Congress, in "Publications" VI, pp. 5-8,
where it is also stated that the letter was wrongly attributed to Moses
Mendelssohn (1729-86).
86 History of the Jews in America.
Jan. 28, 1803), of Philadelphia, sent to the Federal Convention
in relation to the removal of the test oath in Pennsylvania which
discriminated against Jews and those who did not subscribe to
Christian doctrines (Sept. 7, 1787). When the fundamental law
of the land was adopted there were no exciting debates about
the C|uestion of religious liberty. The clause abolishing religious
tests in the Federal Constitution passed almost unanimously;
the State of North Carolina a'one voted against it, and as there
were hardly any Jews there at that time, the fear of the Roman
Catholics was the only cause for the illiberal stand taken by its
representatives. The extent of that fear can be understood from
the fact that when the State Convention of North Carolina to
adopt the Federal Constitution convened in Hillsborough, in
July, 1788, pamphlets were circulated "pointing out in all seri-
ousness the danger of the Pope being elected President should
the Constitution be adopted." (See Hiihner, Religious Liberty
iv North Carolina, "Publications," XVI, p. 42). The time for
religious liberty as well as for independence in national affairs
had come and was accepted as a matter of course, and it is the
exceptional glory of the American Revolution that all the liberties
won were retained and the young nation was enabled to continue
on the way of progress unhindered by post-revolutionary reaction,
and to devote its energies to the solution of the problems which
the Revolution left unsolved, and to new problems which arose
after that period.
CHAPTER XII.
IHE PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.
Captain Isaac Iileyers of the French and Indian War of 1754 — David S.
Franks and Isaac Franks — David Franks, the loyalist — Solomon
and Lewis Bush — Major Benjamin Nones — Other Jewish Soldiers,
of whom one was exempted from duty on Friday nights — The
Pinto brothers — Commissary General Mordecai Sheftal of Georgia
— Haym Solomon, the Polish Jew, and his financial assistance to
the Revolution.
There were only about two thousand Jews in tlie colonies at
the time when the war broke out, mostly well-to-do merchants
of Spanish and Portuguese descent, of whom a considerable num-
ber had formerly li\ed in England or had trade connections with
the mother country and with its various dependencies. Class
interest and personal predilection for old associations were there-
fore in favor of their being in sympathy with the ruling power
over the sea; still the number of Jewish loyalists was small. The
largest number cast their lot with the colonists, and performed
useful service in various ways — as merchants abstaining under
non-importation agreements from buying English goods, as
tradesmen furnishing supplies, as officials assisting the move-
ments of the army, and as officers and soldiers in the line. In
most of the colonies the Jews were then still barred from electi\'e
office by clauses in the charters and restrictive laws ; but this
did not prevent them from participating in the work of liberat-
ing the country, while on the other hand there was no desire
manifested to exclude them from doing their patriotic duty, from
which they were excluded in the middle of the preceding century
by the less liberal burghers of New Netherlands.
87
88 History of the Jews in America.
The names of more than forty Jews who served in the con-
tinental armies of the Revolution have been preserved, and most
of the data about them' is to be found in Mr. Simon Wolf's val-
uable work."^ As they almost all belonged to the wealthier class,
it is but natural that the number of officers is disproportion-
ately large in this small band. Four of them reached the rank of
Lieutenant-Colonel, three became Majors, and there were at least
half a dozen Captains. Nor were these the first Jews to bear
arms or to hold military rank in the colonies. As early as 1754,
during the French and Indian War, Isaac Meyers, a Jewish citi-
zen of New York, called a town meeting at the "Rising Sun" Inn
and organized a company of bateau men of which he became the
captain. Two other Jews are named as taking part in the same
war. Both of them served in the expedition across the Allegheny
Mountains in the year above named.
Two members of the Franks family served creditably in the
Continental army, while a third (they were probably cousins)
became known through his sympathy for England. David Sal-
isbury Franks, who is described as a "young English merchant,"
settled in Montreal, Canada, in 1774, and was active both in
business and in the affairs of the Jewish community. On May 3,
1775, he was arrested for speaking disrespectfully of the king,
but was discharged six days later. In 1776 General AVooster
appointed him paymaster to the American garrison at Montreal,
and when the army retreated from Canada he enlisted as a vol-
unteer and later joined a Massachusetts regiment. In 1778 he
v/as ordered to serve under Count d'Estaing, then commanding
the sea forces of the United States; upon the failure of the ex-
pedition he went to Philadelphia, becoming a member of Gen-
eral Benedict Arnold's military family. In 1779 he went as a
volunteer to Charlestown, serving as aide-de-camp to General
Lincoln, and was later recalled to attend the trial of General
Arnold for improper conduct while in command of Philadelphia,
■■ The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier and Citizen, by Simon Wolf,
edited by Louis Edward Levy, Philadelphia, 1895.
David S. and Isaac Franks. 89
in which trial Franks was himself implicated. He was aide-de-
camp to Arnold at the time of the latter's treason, in September,
1780; on October 2 he was arrested, but when the case was tried
the next day he was honorably acquitted. Not satisfied with this,
Franks wrote to General Washington asking for a court of in-
quiry; on November 2, 1780, the court met at West Point and
completely exonerated him. In 1781 he was sent by Robert
Morris to Europe as bearer of dispatches to Jay in Madrid and
to Franklin in Paris. On his return Congress reinstated him into
the army with the rank of Major. On January 15, 1784, Con-
gress resolved "that a triplicate of the definitive treaty [of peace]
be sent out to the ministers plenipotentiary by Lieut. -Col. David
S. Franks" and he again left for Europe. The next year he
was appointed Vice-Consul at Marseilles; in 1786 he served in
a confidential capacity in the negotiations connected with the
treaty of peace and commerce made with Morocco, and on his
return to New York in 1787 brought the treaty with him. On
January 28, 1789, he was granted four hundred acres of land
in recognition of his services during the Revolutionary War.
His relative, Isaac Franks (b. in New York, 1759; d. in Phila-
delphia, 1822), was only seventeen years old when he enlisted
in Colonel Lesher's regiment, New York Volunteers, and served
with it in the battle of Long Island. On September 15 of
the same year he was taken prisoner at the capture of New York,
but effected his escape after three months' detention. In 1777
he was appointed to the quartermaster's department, and in
January, 1778, he was made foragemaster, being stationed at
West P'oint untilFebruary 22, 1781, when he was appointed by
Congress ensign in the Seventh Massachusetts Regiment. He
continued in that capacity until July, 1782, when he resigned
on account of ill-health. He settled in Philadelphia, where he
later held various civil offices, and was in 1794 appointed by
Governor Mifflin Lieutenant-Colonel of the Second Regiment of
Philadelphia County Brigade of the Militia of the Common-
wealth. It was at his house at Germantown (now No. 5442
90 History of the Jews in America.
Main Street) that President Washington resided during the pre-
valence of yellow fever in 1793, when the seat of government was
removed to that suburb of Philadelphia. His portrait, painted by
his friend, Gilbert Stewart, is now in the Gibson collection of
the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia.
The third and loyalist member of the family, David Franks
(b. in New York, 1720; d. in Philadelphia, 1793), son of Jacob
Franks, settled in Philadelphia early in life, and was elected a
member of the provincial Assembly in 1748. He supplied the
army with provisions during the French and Indian War, and
in 1755 he assisted to raise a fund for the defense of the colony.
On November 7, 1765, he signed the Non-Importation Resolu-
tion; his name is also appended to an agreement to take the
King's paper money in lieu of gold and silver. During the Rev-
olution he was an intermediary in the exchange of prisoners, as
well as "an agent to the contractors for victualing the troops
of the King of Great Britain." Pie was twice imprisoned by the
Colonial Government as an enemy to the American cause, and
after his second release, in 1780, he left for England. He re-
turned in 1783 and lived the last ten j'ears of his life in Phila-
delphia.
Solomon Bush, a native of Philadelphia, the son of Matthias
Bush, was an officer in the Pennsylvania militia for ten years.
In 1777 he was appointed by the Supreme Council of Pennsyl-
vania Deputy Adjutant-General of the State militia. In Sep-
tember of that year he was dangerously wounded during a
skirmish and had to be taken to Philadelphia. When the British
captured the city in December, 1777, he was taken prisoner, but
released on parole. In 1779 he was promoted to the rank of
Lieutenant-Colonel, and was pensioned in 1785.
A Colonel Isaacs of the North Carolina militia is mentioned
as "wounded and taken prisoner at Camden, August 16, 1780;
exchanged July, 1781." (Wolf, /. c, p. 49.)
Lewis Bush became First Lieutenant of the Sixth Pennsyl-
vania Battalion on January 9, 1776, and Captain on Tune 24 of
Col. Isaac Franks.
91
Soldiers of the Revolution. 93
the same year. He was transferred to Colonel Thomas Hartley's
additional Continental Regiment in January, 1777, and was com-
missioned Major March 12, 1777. He participated in a num-
ber of battles, and at the battle of Brandywine, on September 11,
1777, he received Avounds from which he died four days later.
Benjamin Nones (d. 1826), a native of Bordeaux, France,
emigrated to Philadelphia in 1777, and at once took up arms
on behalf of the colonies. He served as a volunteer in Captain
Verdier's regiment under Count Pulaski during the siege of
Savannah, and on September 15, 1779, received a certificate for
gallant conduct on the field of battle. He attained the rank of
Major, and it is stated that he was with General De Kalb at
the battle of Camden, S. C, on August 16, 1780.
Jacob de Leon and Jacob de la Motta were captains under
de Kalb; Captain Noah Abraham was called out with the bat-
talion of Cumberland County militia of Pennsylvania, July 28,
1777- Aaron Benjamin (d. 1829), who started as an ensign
in the Eighth Connecticut Regiment January i, 1777, rose three
years later to the rank of Regimental Adjutant. Manuel Mor-
decai Noah (1747-1825) served under General Marion; Isaac
Israel rose to the rank of Captain in the Eighth Virginia Regi-
ment in 1777, and Nathaniel Levy, of Baltimore, is mentioned
35 having served under Lafayette. There is a record of a cer-
tificate issued by the New York Committee of Safety, in January,
1776, which read as follows: "Hart Jacobs, of the Jewish re-
ligion, having signified to this committee that it is inconsistent
with his religious profession to perform military duty on Fri-
day nights, being part of the Jewish Sabbath, it is ordered that
he be exempted from military duty on that night of the
week. . . ." (See "Publications," XI, p. 163.)
Three, and probably four, brothers of the old Pinto family
who resided in Connecticut, took an active part in the Revolu-
tion. Abraham Pinto was a member of Company X, Seventh
Regiment, of that State, in 1775; William Pinto (of whom it
it not certain that he was a brother) appears as a volunteer in
94 History of the Jews in America.
1779 and 1 78 1. Jacob Pinto, who was in New Haven as early
as 1759, appears to ha^■e been a member of a political commit-
tee in that city in 1775, and his name is found among those of
other influential citizens of the place in a petition to the Council
of Safety for the removal of certain Tories in 1776. Solomon
Pinto served as an officer of the Connecticut line throughout the
war, and was wounded in the British attack on New Haven July
5 and 6, 1779. Pie was one of the original members, in his State,
of the Society of the Cincinnati, which at the beginning included
only meritorious officers of the Revolutionary army.
Mordecai Sheftal (b. at Savannah, Ga., 1735; d. there 1797),
who was one of the first white children born in Savannah, being
the son of Benjamin Sheftal, who came there in 1733, was the
chairman of the Revolutionary Parochial Committee of his na-
tive city. In 1777 he was appointed Commissary-General to the
troops of Georgia, and in October of the following year he be-
came Deputy Commissary of Issues in South Carolina and
Georgia. His imprisonment after Savannah was taken by the
British attracted much attention and the description of it forms
an interesting part of the local histor}? of that period. In 1782
Sheftal appeared in Phi'adelphia, which was then the haven for
pariot refugees, as one of the founders of the Mickweh Israel
congregation. In the following year, in common with other
officers, he received a grant of land in what was called "The
Georgia Continental Establishment" as a reward for services dur-
ing the war. He subsec|uentl}' figures as one of the incorporators
of the Union Society (1786), '\\-hich is §till one of Savannah's
representative organizations ; and his name is also closely associ-
ated with the early history of Freemasonry in the United States.
Sheftal and the above-named IManuel Mordecai Noah, besides
iheir acti\-e service in the army, also contributed large sums to
the cause of the Revolution. Other Jews advanced considerable
sums, some of them almost beyond their means. The list of
tliose who rendered valuable and timely assistance includes Ben-
Haym Salomon. 95
jamin Levy, Hyman Levy, Samuel Lyons, Isaac Moses and Ben-
jamin Jacobs.
There \vas one, however, who gave more than all of them to-
gether, who gave away practically all he possessed, and neither
he nor his rightful heirs ever recovered the large debts which the
new nation owed to him. This man was Haym Salomon (b. in
Lissa, Poland, now a part of Prussia, in 1740; d. in Philadelphia,
Jan. 6, 1785). Pie probably traveled extensively before coming
to America, because he could speak German, French and Italian,
besides Polish and Russian, an accomplishment which could
hardly have been acquired by a Jew in Poland in that period. He
settled in New York, and there matried Rachel, a daughter of
Moses B. Franks (a brother of Jacob Franks). He was arrested
by the British as an American spy soon after they occupied New
York in September, 1776, and was kept in confinement for a con-
siderable period. When his linguistic proficiency became known
he was turned over to the Hessian General, Heister, who gave
him an appointment in the commissariat department. He used
the greater liberty which was now accorded him to be of serv-
ice to the French and American prisoners, and to assist a number
of them to effect their escape. On August 11, 1778, he escaped
from New York and settled in Philadelphia. He soon became
a prominent exchange broker, and did considerable business with
Robert Morris (1734-1806), the financier of the American Rev-
olution,^ who was Superintendent of Finance for the colonies in
1781-84. He also became broker to the French consul and the
treasurer of the French army which came to assist Washington,
and fiscal agent to the French minister to the United States,
Chevalier de la Luzerne. In these capacities large sums passed
through his hands and he became the principal individual dt-
' Aaron Levy (b. in Amsterdam, 1742; d. in Philadelphia, 1815), who
was also of great assistance to the colonies in their struggle for inde-
pendence, was a partner of Robert Morris in various enterprises in
Pennsylvania. The town of Aaronsburg, Center County, Pa., was
founded by Levy and is named after him. (See "Jew. Encyclopedia,"
S- v., Aaronsburg and Levy, Aaron.)
96 History of the Jews in America.
positor of the Bank of North America, which was founded by
Morris. The latter, who Ivept a diary, mentions in it nearly sev-
enty-five separate transactions in whicli Salomon's name figures
in the negotiations of bills of exchange, by which means the
credit of the government was maintained in this period ; Salomon
practically being the sole agent employed by Morris for this pur-
pose. Most of the money advanced by Louis XVI. to the cause
of the Revolution and the proceeds of the loans negotiated in
Holland passed through his hands.
He advanced aid to numerous prominent men of this period.
James Madison, in a letter (Aug. 27, 1782) urging the forward-
ing of remittances from his State which he represented in Phila-
delphia, wrote: "I have for some time been a pensioner on the
favor of Haym Salomon, a Jew broker." On September 30 of
the same year he writes : "The kindness of our little friend in
Front Street, near the coffee house, is a fund which will preserve
me from extremities, but I never resort to it without great mor-
tification, as he obstinately rejects all recompense. The price of
money is so usurious that he thinks it ought to be extorted from
none but those who aim at profitable speculation. To a neces-
sitous delegate he gratuitousl)- spares a supply out of his private
stock." James Wilson (1742-98), another famous delegate to
the Continental Congress, who sometimes acted as Salomon's
attorney, relates that without his client's aid, "administered with
equal generosity and delicacy'' he would have been forced to re-
tire from the public service.
Haym Salomon died suddenly, at the age of forty-five, leav-
ing a widow and two infant children, named Ezekiel and Haym
M. The inventory of his estate showed that he had lent to the
government more than $350,000, but although these certificates
of indebtedness were almost all that was left of his wealth, they
were never paid, and all efforts of his heirs in later times to re-
cover from Congress pa)'ment on these claims, or even to obtain
a token of recognition for his great services, have thus far proved
unsuccessful.
Salomon's Descendants. 97
Salomon also took an active part in Jewish communal affairs
in Philadelphia and was one of the original members of the
Congregation Alickweh Israel. In 1784 he was treasurer of
what was probably the first Jewish charitable organization in that
city.
His son, Hyam M. Salomon, lived in New York and was a
dealer in powder and shot, occupying a store in Front Street in
the time of the great fire of 1835. William Salomon (b. in
Mobile, .-Via., Oct. 9, 1852) of New York is a great-grandson of
Hyam Salomon.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE DECLINE OF NEWPORT; WASHINGTON AND THE JEWS.
England's special enmity to Newport caused the dispersion of its Jew-
ish congregation — The General Assembly of Rhode Island meets
in the historic Newport Synagogue — Moses Seixas' address to
Washington on behalf of the Jews of Newport and the latter's
reply — Washington's letters to the Hebrew Congregations of Sa-
vannah, Ga., and to the congregations of Philadelphia, New York,
Richmond and Charleston.
The breaking out of the Revolution put an end to tlie commer-
cial prosperity of Newport. Its situation upon the ocean, which
made it before so favorable for commerce, had now an opposite
effect, and left it more exposed to attacks from the enemy than
any other place of equal importance, in North America. Its in-
habitants had especially provoked the hostility of the mother
country, as it was one of the first places to manifest a spirit ot
resistance to the British Goverrment by burning an armed vessel
of war that came to exact an odious tax. It could expect no
mercy and received none, when 8,000 British and Hessian troops
occupied it in I77('\ Four hundred and eighty houses were de-
stroyed, its commerce was ruined and its commercial interests
never recovered from this blow, which fell with crushing effect
upon the Jewish residents.
The congregation was dispersed, the Synagogue was closed,
and Ralibi Isaac Touro went with his family to Jamaica, where
he remained until his death in 1782. Aaron Lopez, who was a
heavy sufferer, accompanied by a majority of the foremost Jews
of Newport, removed to Leicester, Mass., and their stay in that
town had a favorable effect on its development. Others went
98
Washington's letters to the Jews. 99
to Philadelphia and other places. When Newport was evacuated,
in 1779' after the enemy destroyed its wharves and fortifications
and carried off its library and records, some of the ejiiles began
to return, \\lien the General Assembly of the State of Rhode
Island convened for the first time after the evacuation, it met
in the historic Synagogue (Sept., 1780), Aaron 'Lopez was
one of a number of the Leicester colony who set out for their
former home, but he was drowned on the way, and his body
was later recovered and buried in the old cemetery.
But those who returned did not remain long. New York had
become the great commercial center after the Revolution, and
the important Newport merchants left one by one for that citj-;
others went to. Philadelphia, Charleston or Savannah. The
congregation was, however, still in existence when President
AA'ashington visited Newport in August, 1790, and he was on that
occasion formally addressed by Moses Seixas on behalf of the
Jews of Newport as follows:
Sir: — Permit the children of the stock of Abraham to approach you
with the most cordial affection and esteem for your person and merit,
and to join with our fellow-citizens in welcoming you to Newport.
With pleasure we reflect on those days of difficulty and danger when
the God of Israel, who delivered David from the peril of the sword,
shielded your head in the day of battle, and we rejoice to think that
the same spirit which rested in the bosom of the greatly beloved Daniel,
enabling hiin to preside over the provinces of the Babylonian Empire,
rests and ever will rest upon you, enabling you to discharge the ard-
uous duties of Chief Magistrate of these States.
Deprived, as we have hitherto been, of invaluable rights of free
citizens, we now — with a deep sense of gratitude to the Almighty Dis-
poser of all events — behold a government erected by the majesty of
the people, a government w'hich gives no sanction to bigotry and no
assistance to persecution, but generously afifording to all liberty of
conscience and immunities of citizenship, deeming every one, of what-
ever nation, tongue or language, equal parts of the great governmental
machine. This so ample and extensive Federal Union, whose base
is philanthropy, mutual confidence and public virtue, we cannot but
acknowledge to be the work of the great God, who rules the armies
cf the heavens and among the inhabitants of the earth, doing what-
ever deemeth to Him good.
100 History of the Jews in America.
For all the blessings of civil and religious liberty which we enjoy
under an equal and benign administration, we desire to send up thanks
to the Ancient of days, the great Preserver of men, beseeching Him
that the angel who conducted our forefathers tlirough the wilderness
into the promised land may graciously conduct you through all the
difficulties and dangers of this mortal life; and when, like Joshua, full
of days and of honors, you are gathered to your fathers, may you be
admitted into the heavenly paradise to partake of the water of life and
the tree of immortality.
To this letter, which bears unmistakable traces of having been
originally composed in Rabbinical Hebrew, the Father of His
Country replied as follows :
TO THE HEBREW CONGREGATION OF NEWPORT, RHODE
ISLAND.
Gentlemen: — While I have received with much satisfaction your ad-
dress, replete with expressions of esteem, I rejoice in the opportunity of
assuring you that I shall always retain a grateful remembrance of the
cordial welcome I experienced in my visit to Newport from all classes
of citizens.
The reflection on the days of difficulty and danger, which are passed,
is rendered the more sweet from the consciousness that they are suc-
ceeded by days of uncommon prosperity and security. If we have
the wisdom to make the best use of the advantage with which we are
now favored, we cannot fail under the just administration of a good
government to become a great and happy people.
The citizens of the United States of America have the right to
applaud themselves for having given to mankind examples of an en-
larged and liberal policy worthy of imitation. All possess alike liberty
of conscience and immunities of citizenship. It is now no more that
toleration is spoken of as if it were by the indulgence of one class
of people that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent natural
rights, for happily the Government of the United States, which gives
to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance, requires only that
they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good
citizens in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.
It would be inconsistent with the frankness of my character not to
a-"0w that I am pleased with your favorable opinion of my adminis-
tiation and fervent wishes of my felicity. May the children of the
stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy
the good will of the other inhabitants, while everyone shall sit in safety
End of the Newport Community. 101
under his own vine and fig-tree and there shall be none to make him
afraid. May the Father of all mercies scatter light and not darkness
in our paths and make us all in our several vocations useful here and,
in His own due time and way, everlastingly happy.'
G. WASHINGTON.
In the year following this correspondence the Synagogue wa.s
closed for lack of attendance, and it was not reopened for nearly
a century. The above-named Moses Seixas, who for many years
was cashier of the B'ank of Rhode Island, was one of the last
Jews in Newport of that period. Moses Lopez, the nephew of
Aaron-, is reputed to have been the last one who remained there,
and ultimately he, too, left for New York, where he died in
1830. Sentiment caused the descendants of many of the original
families to direct that their remains should be buried in the old
cemetery, where tombstones show interments during the entire
period down to 1855. Abraham Touro (d. in Boston, 1822),
the son of Rabbi Isaac Touro, bequeathed a fund for perpetually
keeping the Synagogue in repair, and also made provisions for
the care of the burial ground. His brother Judah Touro of New
Orleans replaced the old cemetery wall with a massive one of
stone, with an imposing granite gateway (1843); ^"d, at his
own rec[uest, he himself was buried there. The street on which
the Synagogue is situated is known as Touro Street. The city
also possesses a park known as Touro Park. Though the Touro
fund provided for the support of the minister also, the Synagogue
remained closed until 1883, when the Rev. A. P Mendes, on
appointment by the Congregation Shearith Israel of New York
( which became the legal proprietor of both Synagogue and ceme-
tery of Newport), became minister and conducted services until
his death in 1891.
^ :{; ^ H: ^i
There are extant two other letters written by George Wash-
ington to Jewish communities which felicitated him upon his ad-
'A fac-simile of Washington's repl}' is found in the "Jewish Ency-
clopedia," vol. IX, between pp. 294-95.
102 History of the Jews in America.
vancement to the presidenc}'. One is in reply to an address signed
by Levi Slieftal as president, in behalf of the Hebrew Congre-
gations of Savannah, and is as follows:
lO THE HEBREW CONGREGATIONS OF THE CITY OF
SAVANNAH, GEORGIA.
Gentlemen: — I thank you with great sincerity for your congratula-
tion on my appointment to the office which I have the honor to hold by
the unanimous choice of my fellow-citizens, and especially the expres-
sions you are pleased to use in testifying the confidence that is re-
posed in me by your congregations.
As the delay which has naturally intervened between my election
and your address has afforded me an opportunity for appreciating the
merits of the Federal Government and for communicating your senti-
ments of its administration, I have rather to express my satisfaction
rather than regret at a circumstance which demonstrates (upon experi-
ment) your attachment to the former as well as approbation of the
latter.
1 rejoice that a spirit of liberality and philanthropy is much more
pievalent than it formerly was among the enlightened nations of the
earth, and that your brethren will benefit thereby in proportion as it
shall become still more extensive; happily the people of the United
States have in many instances exhibited examples worthy of imita-
tion, the salutary influence of which will doubtless extend much fur-
ther if gratefull}' enjoying those blessings of peace which (under the
favor of heaven) have been attained by fortitude in war, they shall
conduct themselves with reverence to the Deity and charity towards
their fellow-creatures.
May the same wonder-working Deity, who long since delivered the
Hebrews from their- Egj'ptian oppressors, planted them in a promised
land, whose providential agency has lately been conspicuous in establishing
these United States as an independent nation, still continue to water them
with the dews of heaven and make the inhabitants of every denomi-
nation participate in the temporal and spiritual blessings of that people
whose God is Jehovah.
G. WASHINGTON.
The third address AA'as from the Hebrew Congregations in the
cities of Philadelphia, New York, Richmond and Charleston,
Washington's Third letter. 103
dated December 13, 1790, and signed on their behalf by Manuel
Jcsephson, to A\hich the President returned the following:
Gentlemen: — The liberality of sentiment towards each other, which
marks every political and religious denomination of men in this coun-
try, stands unparalleled in the history of nations.
The affection of such a people is a treasure beyond the reach ot
calculation, and the repeated proofs which my fellow-citizens have
given of their attachment to me and approbation of my doings form
the purest sources of my temporal felicity.
The affectionate expressions of your address again excite my grati-
tude and receive my warmest acknowledgment.
The power and goodness of the Almighty, so strongly manifested m
the events of our late glorious revolution, and His kind interposition
in our behalf, have been no less visible in the establishment of our
present equal government. In war He directed the sword, and in
peace He has ruled in our councils. My agency in both has been
guided by the best intentions and a sense of duty I owe to my country.
And as my intentions have hitherto been amply rewarded by the
approbation of my fellow-citizens, I shall endeavor to deserve a con-
tinuance of it by my future conduct.
May the same temporal and eternal blessing which you implore for
me rest upon your congregations.
G. WASHINGTON.
CHAPTER XIV.
OTHER COMMUNITIES IN THE FIRST PERIODS OF INDEPENDENCE.
Rabbi Gershom Mendez Seixas^ — Growth of the Jewish community of
Philadelphia on account of the War — Protest against the religious
test clause in the Constitution of Pennsylvania — Benjamin Frank-
lin contributes five pounds to Mickweh Israel — Secession of the
German-Polish element — New Societies — Jewish lawyers; Judge
Moses Levy — Congressman PI. M. Phillips — The Bush family of
Delaware— New Jersey and New Plampshire — North Carolina: the
Mordecai family and other early settlers.
While the Jewish community of New York was not entirely
dispersed, like that of Newport, by the outbreak of the Revolu-
tion, a great majority resolved to leave the city before it was occu-
pied by the British (Sept. 15, 1776). The patriotic minister of
the Congregation Shearit Israel, I-iabbi Gershom Mendez Seixas
(b. in New York, 1745; d. there July 2, 1816), who was the
spiritual head of the community since 1766, early espoused the
cause of the colonies, and it was mostly due to his influence that
the congregation closed the door of its Synagogue on the ap-
proach of the British. Most of those who left went to Phila-
delphia ; Rabbi Seixas himself first went to Stratford, Conn.,
where he remained about four years, and where several of his
former congregants joined him. In 1780 he, too, went to Phila-
delphia, but returned to New York after the war (March, 1784),
when the Synagogue was reopened and he resumed his former
position. He later (1787) became a trustee of Columbia College,
and was one of its incorporators whose name appeared on the
charter.
104
New York after the Revolution. 105
There was, however, notwithstanding the statement of Dr.
Benjamin Rush that "the Jews in all the States are Whigs," a
sprinkling of Tories in New York Jewry, who remained at home,
and some of them occasionally held services in the Synagogue
during the British occupation, under the presidency of Lyon
Jonas, and subsequently of Alexander Zuntz, a Hessian officer,
who settled in New York. On the reorganization of the con-
gregation at the close of the Revolution, Hyman Levy succeeded
Zuntz as president, and the congregation presented an address
of congratulation to Governor Clinton on the outcome of the war.
Rabbi Seixas was one of the fourteen ministers who participated
in the inauguration of Washington as President, in New York,
on April 30, 1789. A list of the residents of New York in 1799
whose residences were assessed at f2,oo0' or over includes the
names of Benjamin Seixas, Solomon Sampson, Alexander Zuntz
and Ephraim Hart.
The community was still small — not quite half as large as that
of Newport in the preceding period ; there were only about 500
Jews in New York at the commencement of the War of 1812.
But it was slowly growing and several of the first communal in-
stitutions date from that time. A Hebrah Gemilut Hasodim, for
the burying of the dead, was organized in 1785; the Polonies
Talmud Torah was founded in 1802, with a fund which Myer
Polonies bequeathed to the congregation for that purpose in the
preceding year. The Hebrah Hesed we-Emet was organized in
the same year.
The Jewish community which gained most in the time of the
war was that of Philadelphia. The little building in Sterling
Alley, where the Congregation Mickweh Israel prayed at that
time, soon became too small, and a three-story brick house, in
Cherry Alley, between Third and Fourth Streets, was hired.
But even the new place was soon too small, and a plain building
was constructed on a lot in Cherry Street, west of Third Street,
which was bought for the purpose. It was dedicated on Septem-
ber 13, 1782, by Rabbi Seixas. A list of the members of the
106 History of the Jews in America.
congregation at that time contains 102 names^ and the percent-
age of Ashkenazic (German and Polish) names is much larger
than in similar lists of earlier dates.
A year after the Synagogue was built the Jews of Philadel-
phia for the first time appeared as an organized body in any
public proceeding. On the 23d of December, 1783, the minister,
Gershom Alendez Seixas ; the parnass, Simon Nathan ; and Asher
Alyers, Barnard Gratz and Haym Salomon, as members of the
Mahamad or Board of Trustees, in behalf of themselves and
brethren, addressed the Council of Censors in relati(Mi to the
declaration recpiired to be made by each member of the Assembly,
which affirmed that "the Scriptures of the Old and the New
Testaments were given by Divine inspiration," and also in rela-
tion to that part of the Constitution which declared that "no
other test should be required of any other civil magistrate in that
State." They represented that the provisions deprived them of
the right of ever becoming representatives. They did not covet
office, they said, but they thought the provision improper, and an
injustice to the members of a persuasion that had always been
attached to the American cause. This memorial appeared to have
iiad no immediate effect ; but it doubtless had its influence in pro-
curing the ultimate modification of the test clause in the Con-
stitution of Pennsylvania.
Rabbi Seixas was succeeded in Philadelphia by the Rev. Jacob
Raphael Cohen (d. Sept., 181 1), who was formerly a reader or
hazzan in Montreal, Canada, and New York. The congrega-
:;on was weakened by the departure of a considerable number
of members after the war, and probably also by the death of
J-faym Salomon, who was one of its most generous contributors,
and found itself in financial difficulties about the year 1788. After
an application to the General Assembly of Pennsylvania for per-
mission to set up a lottery to pay the amount due on the Syna-
gogue building was not granted, the congregation issued a gen-
' See Hyman Polock Rosenbach, The Jews in Philadelphia prior to 1800,
pp. 22-23, ff; Philadelphia, 1883.
Philadelphia. 107
oral appeal to citizens of all sects. Among the non-Jews who
sent in contributions in response to this appeal was the great Ben-
jamin Franklin (1706-90) and the astronomer, David Ritten-
house (1732-96), the former contributing five pounds and the
latter two.
In April, 1790, the Legislature passed an act to allow the He-
brew Congregation to raise eight hundred pounds sterling by a
lotter}?. The managers were: Manuel Josephson, Solomon Lyon,
Solomon Hays, Solomon Etting, William ^Vistar and John Duf-
field. The last two were not Jews, but were placed among the
trustees probably to give the project some influence with mem-
bers of other denominations.
The inevitable secession of the Ashkenazic element took place
in 1802, when the "Hebrew-German Society Rodef Shalom," one
of the earliest German-Jewish congregations in America was
formed. It was reorganized and chartered in 1812. Among
its earliest rabbis were Wolf Benjamin, Jacob Lipman, Bernhard
Illowy, Henry Vidaver, i\loses Sulzbacher and Moses Rau.
A Society for the Visitation of the Sick and for Mutual As-
sistance was organized in October, 1813, with Jacob Cohen as
its first president. In 181 9 several ladies organized the still exist-
ing Female Hebrew Benevolent Society, of which Miss Rebecca
Gratz (1781-1869), wdio was reputed to be the prototype of Re-
becca in Walter Scott's "Ivanhoe," was the first secretary. Sev-
eral other benevolent and educational societies date their origin
from the first half of the Nineteenth Century, and have helped
to give the Jewish community of Philadelphia that substantiality
and compactness of organization wdiich is missing in other large
cities of the United States.
At the same time progress was being made in other directions,
too. The aptitude of the Jew for the legal profession could not
be displayed and utilized as early as his well known medical
skill, which he exercised even in the dark ages. But as soon as
the opportunity of emancipation was oiTered, good jurists ap-
peared and soon occupied a prominent place at the bar and alsO'
108 History of the Jews in America.
on the bench. The earhest Jewish practitioner in Pennsylvania,
of wliom tliere is a record, was Moses Levy (d. May 9, 1826),
whose admission to the bar dates as far back as 1778, and who
a year later was admitted to practice in the -Supreme Court of
that State. He held various offices and finally became Pre-
siding Judge of the District Court of the City and County of
Philadelphia (1822), after having served twenty years as Re-
corder. At least three other Jews were admitted to the practice
of law in Philadelphia in the eighteenth century; Samson Levy
(d. 183 1 ) in 1787, Daniel Levy of Northumberland county
(d. 1844) in 1 79 1, and Zalegman Phillips (1779- 1839) in 1799-
About a dozen more were admitted during the first half of the
nineteenth century, among them being the latter's son, Henry
Mayer Phillips, who was admitted in 1832, and was, twenty-four
years later, elected to represent the fourth district of Pennsylvania
in the 35th Congress. (See Henry S. Morals, The Jezvs of
Philadelphia, index. )
'Jfi :)(: ■^ 'Jf: -Jfi
The number of Jews in the remainder of the thirteen original
colonies was at that time very small and they were mostly scat-
tered. While there are, for instance, records of Jews who lived
or traded in Delaware as early as 1655, there was no Jewish
community in that State until about two cen'turies later. But
there was at least one Jewish family in Wilmington, Del., im-
mediately after the Revolution, several members of which par-
ticipated in that struggle. David Bush joined the Washington
Lodge of Freemasons of Wilmington on December 16, 1784.'
He was its Senior W'arden in 1789, its Treasurer in 1791 and
again Senior Warden in 1795. He was the father of Major
Lewis Bush, who has been mentioned in a former chapter
(page 90), and of three other sons, two of whom also held offices
' See Oppenheim, The Jews and Masonry, in "Publications," vol.
XIX, 1-94, for the sources of most of the references to Masonry in this
rt'ork.
Delaware and New Jersey. 109
in the same lodge in the last decade of the eighteenth century.
Joseph Capelle (Carpelles ?) was Master of the lodge in 1792.
The colony of New Jersey, whose Indians, according to a de-
scription by William Penn, closely resembled Jews, had very few
real Israelites in Colonial times, despite its proximity to New York
on one side and to Pennsylvania on the other. In the test estab-
lished in AVest Jersey for office-holders in- 1693, the candidate had
to declare on oath or affirmation that he "professes faith in God
the father, and Jesus Christ his eternal son. . ." In the
East Jersey Bill of Rights was inserted the provision "that no
person or persons that profess faith in God, by Jesus Christ his
only son, shall at any time be any way molested. . . . Pro-
vided this shall not be extended to any of the Romish religion."
But, as it is justly observed by Mr. Friedenberg (see "Publica-
tions," XVII, p. 36), these provisions were not at all aimed against
the Jews, of whom there were hardly any in the colony at that
time, but against heathens, atheists, infidels and Catholics, espe-
cially against the latter. No Jews were naturalized in New Jersey
before the Revolution. David Hays is known to have resided on
a plantation in Griggs Town, Somerset County, in 1744, when
he offered it for sale; and Myers Levy, a Dutch Jew, is reported
to have absconded from Spottsville, in East New Jersey, in 1760,
leaving many debts behind. Another Jew, Nathan Levy, a shop
keeper of Philipsburg, Sussex County, West Jersey, is mentioiiecl
many years later. There was only, as far as it is known, one
Jew in the New Jersey troops of the Continental Army : Asher
Levy or Lewis, a grandson of the well-known Asser Levy of
New Amsterdam. He was commissioned ensign in the first
regiment, September 12, 1778. "The New Jersey Journal" was
established by David Franks at Camden in 1778 and existed
about four years.
The first families with Jewish names which are mentioned in
the records of New Hampshire, were the Moses and the Abrams
family "descendants of Jewish Christians." The Abrams family,
according to tradition, is descended from two brothers who came
110 History of the Jews in America.
from Palestine to New England at an unknown date, their names
being William Abrams, who was a ship's carpenter and fell into
the sea and was drowned, and John, the other brother, who set-
tled at Amesbury, Mass. ("Publications," XI, p. 79). In the
list of grants to settlers on the road, between Wolfsborough and
Leavits Town (Ossipee), issued in 1770, on condition that eacfi
settler had to give a bond for £30 that a house would be erected
by him. within a year, grant No. 1 1 was made to Joseph Levy.
In 1777 mention is made of William Levi, of Somersworth, as
a private in the 2d New Hampshire Continental Re.eiment.
Abraham Isaac settled in Portsmouth about the close of the Rev-
olution and was active in Masonic afTairs. A local historian
writes of him that "he and his wife were natives of Prussia and
Jews of the strictest sect. They were the first descendants of
the venerable Patriarchs that ever pitched their tents in Ports-
U'outh, and during their lives were the only Jews among us.
He acquired a good property and built a house on State street.
Their shop was always closed on Saturday." Mr. Isaac died
February 15, 1803, and on the stone which marks his grave in
the North Burying Ground is an epitaph written by the poet
J. M. Sewall, author of the popular revolutionary song "Vain
Britons Boast No Longer."
It has already been mentioned in a former chapter (page 86)
that there were hardly any Jews in North Carolina at the time
when its representatives voted at the Constitutional Convention
against the abolition of religious tests. The provision of its
State Constitution of 1776, which read "That no person who
shall deny the being of God or the truth of the Protestant re-
ligion . . . shall be capable of holding any office or place
of trust or profit in the Civil Department within the State" was
doubtless aimed primarily at Roman Catholics, though it neces-
sarily included Jews, Quakers, Mohamedans, etc. Jews did not
become directly interested in the struggle for religious liberty
in that State until the first decade in the Nineteenth Century,
and the description of it will be found in the following chapter.
North Carolina. Ill
The annals of Freemasonry, which usually disclose the earliest
Jewish settlers in various localities in the eighteenth century, do
not contain any Jewish names in the lodges of that fraternity
until its very close. Jacob Mordecai (b. in Philadelphia, 1762;
d. in Richmond, 1838), the son of Moses Mordecai (b. in Bonn,
Germany, 1707; d. in Philadelphia, 1781), was Master of John-
ston Caswell Lodge No. 10, of Warrenton, N. C, in 1797, 1798
and 1799. He was the founder and proprietor of a female sem-
inary in that city which enjoyed a good reputation. One of his
sons, JMajor Alfred Mordecai (1804-87), was probably the first
Jewish graduate of the United States Military Academy of West
Point. ^ Zachariah Hart (also spelled Harte) was a member of
David Glasgow Lodge, in Glasgow County, in 1798 and 1799.
Abraham Isaacs was Senior Warden of St. Tammany Lodge No.
30, of Wilmington, in 1798. Aaron Lazarus (1777-1841), who
is mentioned as one of the first Hebrews to reach Wilmington
and later became one of the first directors of the AVilmington &
Weldon Railroad Company, was a member of the same lodge in
1803. There were about half a dozen other Jewish Masons in
the lodges of Wilmington, Newbern and of Beaufort County
about that time.
* A description of this highly interesting Jewish family, by Gratz Mor-
decai, is found in "Publications, " VI, pp. .39-48.
CHAPTER XV.
THE QUESTION OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY IN VIRGINIA AND IN
NORTH CAROLINA.
Little change in the basic systems of State institutions — Patrick Henry,
Madison and Jefferson on religious liberty in Virginia — The simi-
larity between the Virginia statute and the conclusions of Moses
Mendelssohn pointed out by Count Mirabeau — The first congrega-
tion of Richmond — Article 32 of the Constitution of North Caro-
lina against Catholics, Jews, etc. — How Jacob Henry, a Jewish
member of the Legislature, defended and retained his seat in
i8og — Judge Gaston's interpretation — The first congregation of Wil-
mington, N. C. — Final emancipation in 1868.
The provision in Article VI of the Constitution of the United
States (§3) that "no rehgious test shall ever be required as .1
qualification to any office or public trust under the United States"
settled the matter only as far as the National Government was
concerned. Each of the independent and sovereign States could
solve this problem in its own way, though most of them have
already adopted full religious freedom. But it must be re-
membered that the basic institutions of the States were not di-
rectly changed by the Revolution, and in some of them they were
not changed at all. In some instances Royal Charters remained,
with some alterations, as State Constitutions; English common
law remained in force even to this day, unless otherwise provided
for by special enactment. The colonies were too free originally
to require or desire a sudden radical change when they threw
off the British yoke. They kept on progressing by the slow
process of evolution, but not at an equal pace, each emphasizing
the questions in which its inhabitants were mostly interested.
112
Church and State in Virginia. 113
Uniform or simultaneous action was not to be expected under
such conditions.
Virginia, the State of Washington and of Jefferson, the
"mother of presidents" and the home of the framers of the Na-
tional Constitution, began to consider the question of religious
liberty seriously soon after peace was declared. It was not a
new C|uestion even then, for as early as 1776, when a new Con-
stitution for the Commonwealth was drafted, there occurred a
significant discussion about the difference between toleration and
rights. The Declaration of Rights, reported by a committee of
which Colonel Mason was chairman, contained a provision rela-
tive to religious liberty whose authorship is attributed to Patrick
Henry (1736-99). It provided that all men should enjoy the
fullest toleration in the exercise of religion. Madison strongly
opposed the use of the word toleration, which recognized lib-
erty of worship not as a right but as a favor granted to dissent-
ing denominations. At his instance the provision was amended
to read : "All men are equally entitled to the free exercise of re-
ligion, according to the dictates of conscience."
But even this was still far from actual separation of Church
and State in Virginia. Even the annual assessments, which had
been theretofore levied in favor of the Episcopal Church, were
not abolished outright, they were simply suspended from year
to year, until, at Jefferson's instance, the grant was defeated in
1779. In that year he introduced a measure entitled "A bill
tor establishing religious freedom," which, after two readings,
was sent throughout the State to secure the sense of the peo-
ple relative to it before taking final action at the next legislature.
It was permitted to languish unacted upon for several years, and
during that time an agitation was kept up against the spirit
wdiich it embodied. Various measures were suggested, about
1784, looking to establish Christianity in Virginia instead ot
any single Christian sect, as before the Revolution, and for se-
curing governmental support to all Christian sects. The theory
of the advocates of such measures was, that while there should
114 History of the Jews in America.
be no actual persecution of non-Christian sects, the State ought
to estabhsh Christianity as the rehgion of the great majority of
the people, and that the Revolution had evolved merely the prin-
ciple that no single Christian sect should be preferred over any
other. On November ii, 1784, a resolution drafted by Patricia
Henry was reported to the Lower House of the Legislature, pro-
viding that "the people" of the Commonwealth, according to
their respective abilities, ought to pay a moderate tax or contribu-
tion for the support of the Christian religion, or of some Chris-
tian church denomination or communion. . . ." In spite of
i\Iadison's opposition, it was adopted by a vote of 47 to 32, and
a special committee, of which Mr. Henry was chairman, was
appointed to draft such a bill.^
It was clearly understood that this measure was intended to
curtail the rights of Jewish and other non-Christian residents.
Beverly Randolph, writing about this subject to James Monrot,
says : "The only great point that has been discussed since the
sitting of the Assembly has been a motion for a general assess-
ment, upon more contracted ground than I could ever have ex-
pected. The generals on the opposite sides were Henry and
Madison. The former advocated, with his usual art, the estab-
lishment of the Christian religion in exclusion of all other De-
nominations. By this I mean that Turks, Jews and Infidels were
to contribute to the support of a religion whose truth they did not
acknowledge. Madison displayed great learning and ingenuity,
v\-ith all the powers of a close reasoner; but was unsuccessful in
the event, having a majority against him. I am, however, in-
clined to think that the measure will not be adopted. . . . The
supporters of this holy system wiU certainly split whenever they
come to enter upon the minute arrangements of the business."
"A bill establishing a provision for teachers of the Christian
religion" was brought in December 23, 1784, and after it was
'See Max J. Kohler, Phases in the History of Religions Liberty in
America . in "Publications," XI, pp. 53-73, where the subject is
extensively treated and the sources are given.
Madison's Victory. 115
amended, but without materially changing its substance, it passed
its second reading. But on the next day (December 24) Madi-
son was able to secure the passage of a resolution postponing
the third reading till the following November, and copies of the
bill were ordered to be printed and distributed in every county
of the Commonwealth. The people were requested to signify
their opinion respecting the adoption of such a measure to the
next session of the legislature. An active and thorough discus-
sion of the bill followed throughout the State. Madison pre-
pared a "Memorial and Remonstrance" against the bill, which
was extensively circulated and signed.
i\Iadison made no mistake in suggesting this appeal to the
people. AA'hen the Assembly met in October, 1785, the table of
the House of Delegates almost sunk under the weight of the
accumulated copies of the memorial against the bill which came
from different counties, each with its long and dense columns of
subscribers. The fate of the assessment was sealed. The mani-
festation of the public judgment was too unequivocal and over-
whelming to lea^•e the faintest hope to the friends of the meas-
ure, and it was abandoned without a struggle. The declaratory
act for the establishment of religious liberty, which had been
drawn by Jefferson as one of the committee of revisors and pre-
sented to the legislature in 1779, was then taken up and passed
into a law. Madison's "Memorial and Remonstrance" had
cleared away every obstruction.
In a letter to Madison, dated December 16, 1786, Jefferson,
who was then our Minister to France, wrote : "The Virginia Act
for religious freedom has been received with infinite approbation
in Europe, and propogated with enthusiasm. I do not mean by the
governments, but by the individuals who compose them. It has
been translated into French and Italian, has been sent to most ot
the courts of Europe, and has been the best evidence of the false-
hoods of those reports which stated us to be in anarchy. It is
inserted in the new Encyclopsedia, and is appearing in most of
the publications respecting America. In fact, it is comfortable
116 History of the Jews in America.
to see the standard of reason at length erected, after so many
ages during which the human mind has been held in vassalage
by kings, priests and nobles; and it is honorable for us to have
produced the first legislature who had the courage to declare that
the reason of men may be trusted with the formation of his owti
opinions."
In the following year Count Mirabeau (1749-91) the most
distinguished of the advocates of Jewish emancipation in France,
calls attention in his essay On Moses Mendelssohn and the Polit-
ical Reform of the Jews (1787) to the striking similarity of the
enactment of Virginia to the conclusions at which the Jewish
philosopher of Berlin arrived by abstract reasoning; assuming
that Mendelssohn never saw the preamble of the American law,
which was drafted by Jefferson four years before the publica-
tion of "Jerusalem" in 1783. It is clear, however, that about
seven years later, when the great French Revolution, which was
influenced by the American Revolution much more than is com-
monly supposed, was in full swing, even the debates of the Con-
stitutional Convention of Virginia of 1776 had become known
to the friends of religious liberty in France. In the course of a
petition in favor of their own emancipation, addressed by the
French Jews to the National Assembly on January 29th, 1790,
they said : "America, to which politics will owe so many useful
lessons, has rejected the word toleration from its code, as a
term tending to compromise individual liberty and to sacrifice
certain classes of men to other classes. To tolerate is, in fact,
to suffer that which you could, if you wish, prevent and pro-
hibit."
There were not many Jews in Virginia in the time when this
momentous question was discussed and solved. Individual Jews
are mentioned in the Seventeenth Century, but the first record
of a congregation occurs in connection with the address to Wash-
ington, mentioned above (page 102), which was sent by the He-
brew congregations of Philadelphia, Richmond, New York and
Charleston. The minute-book of the Congregation Bet Shalom
Virginia and North Carolina. 117
of Richmond, Va., dates back to the year 1791, and it is as-
sumed that the first or Sephardic congregation was organized
in that year. The first place of worship was in a room of a
three-story brick Ijuikhng on the west side of 19th street, between
Frankhn and Grace streets, -where one of the members resided.
It later moved to a small brick building, erected on the west side
of 19th street in the rear of the Union Hotel, which then stood
on the corner of Main street. After some years a lot was purchased
from Dr. Adams on the east side of Mayo street, above Franklin
street, on which a commodious synagogue was erected, in which
the congregation worshipped for up^\'ards of three-ciuarters of a
century. The burial ground on Franklin street, near 21st street,
which is now enclosed with a substantial granite wall, was con-
veyed by Isaiah Isaac to Jacob I. Cohen, Israel I. Cohen, David
Isaac, ]\Ioses A'lordecai, Jacob I. Cohen, Jr., Simon Gratz, Aaron
Levy, Moses Jacob and Levy Myers, as trustees, on October 21st,
1791. It was used until about 1816, when Benjamin Wolfe,
then a member of the Common Council of the City of Richmond,
made application on behalf of the congregation for a new piece
of ground, which was granted by an ordinance passed on the
20th day of i\Iay, giving for that purpose an acre of land be-
longing to the City of Richmond lying upon Shockoe Hill.'-
North Carolina, like Virginia, had an Established Church until
a short time before the outbreak of the Revolution, all citizens
being required to pay toward its support, and dissenting clergy-
men being denied the privilege of performing even the marriage
ceremony. But when the Dissenters won their fight against the
Establishment, they took an uncompromising stand against the
complete emancipation of Roman Catholics, Jews and others
not belonging to a Protestant denomination. The opposition
to Jews was mainly theoretical or academic, as there were prac-
tically no Jews in North Carolina at that time. In happy con-
' See Jacob Ezekie!, The Jews of Richmond . in "Publications," IV,
pp. 21-27.
118 History of the Jews in America.
trast to some Old World countries of the present time, oppo-
sition to Jews in the United States developed only in parts of
the country where they were least known. In all the original
States which had considerable Jewish communities, like New
York, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, full religious liberty was
firmly established before the adoption of the Federal Consti-
tution.
Like Virginia, too. North Carolina adopted a Constitution in
1776. It provided for liberty of worship and even excluded
clergymen from being members of the Senate, House of Com-
mons or Council of State. But when it came to the question 0^
holding office, an exception was incorporated in Article 32 which
read as follows :
"That no person who shall deny the being of God or the
tiuth of the Protestant religion or the Divine Authority, either
of the Old or New Testament, or who shall hold religious prin-
ciples incompatible with the freedom and safety of the State,
shall be capable of holding any office or place of trust or profit
in the Civil Department within the State."
This article was doubtless aimed primarily at Roman Cath-
olics; but the prohibition being a sweeping one, it necessarily
included Jews, Quakers, Mohamedans, Deists, etc. While there
was some opposition to the adoption of this section, it seems
to have expressed the predominating opinion of the State on
that point, for, as it was noted above (page 86), the dele-
gates of North Carolina voted at the Federal Constitutional Con-
vention of 1787 against the clause abolishing religious tests.
The entire question was again discussed at the State Convention
which was called in 1788 to ratify the Constitution of the United
States, and the narrower view prevailed. The Convention re-
solved neither to ratify nor reject the Constitution, but that a
Declaration of rights be laid before Congress and twenty-six
amendments proposed. North Carolina was therefore unrep-
resented in the extra session of the first Congress which adopted
the first amendment, "That Congress shall make no laws re-
Laws Against Non-Protestants. 119
specting the establishment of rehgion or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof." This amendment was partly a concession to
that State, impl)'ing a guaranty that even should a Papist or a
Mohamedan be elected President, he should not be able to force
his religion on those unwilling to accept it. After its adoption,
North Carolina adopted the Constitution, in November, 1789.
Despite all this prejudice, section 32 of the State Constitu-
tion soon came to be regarded a dead letter. As a matter ot
fact, a Catholic was elected Governor in 1781. It was not until
1809 that the whole subject again came prominently to the front
in the case of Jacob Henry, a Jew, who was elected a member
of the Legislature for Carteret County. He had served through-
out the year 1808 and had apparently been re-elected for i8og,
and then a fellow member asked to have his seat declared va-
cant on account of his faith.
Henry delivered a notable address in the Assembly in defense
of his rights to his seat. It made a strong impression at that
time, and was later republished as an example of fine composi-
tion in a work known as the American Orator} He was per-
mitted to retain his seat, but the principle at issue was rather
avoided than settled. It was decided that the article prohibit-
ing non-Protestants from holding office in any civil department
of the State did not exclude such persons from serving in the
Legislature, because the legislative office was above all civil
offices. The view was more pointedly defined by saying that
Catholics and Jews could make the laws, but could neither execute
nor interpret them. Actually, however, both executive and ju-
dicial offices were held by non-Protestants, before and after
that incident.
When a distinguished Roman Catholic, Wilham Gaston (1778-
' See Leon Hiihner. Religious Liberty in North Carolina, in "Pub-
lications," XVI, pp. 37-71, for the facts and the sources, and also for
Henry's speech, which is too long to be reproduced here. The speech
IS also found in Selections for Homes and Schools, by Marion L. Misch,
pp. 305-10, issued by the Jewish Publication Society of America in 191 1.
120 History of the Jews in America.
1844), was chosen Justice of the Supreme Court of North Caro-
Hna {1834) a doubt arose, even in his own mind, whether he
could accept the office. But he resorted to an even more in-
genious interpretation of the Constitution, which was subse-
cjuently followed in other cases as well. He argued that the
word "deny" implied an overt act, and that "the Constitution
does not prescribe the faith which entitles to or excludes from
civil office, but demands from all those who hold office, that
decent respect of the prevalent religion of the country which
forbids them to impugn it, to declare it false, tO' arraign it as
an imposition upon the credulity of the people."
While the acceptance of this decision made it possible for
every one to hold office, the efforts to abolish the religious test
altogether did not cease. The question was again thoroughly
debated at the Convention which came together in 1835 to amend
the State Constitution. There were practically no Jews in the
State even then, but some of the distinguished members of the
Convention championed the cause of absolute religious liberty
and worked for the abolition of the entire article which pre-
scribed the test. Their efforts, however, were not successful, and
the change which was adopted emancipated only the Catholics,
by substituting the word "Christian" for "Protestant."
The small Jewish Congregation of Wilmington, N. C, which
was organized in 1852 for burial purposes, began about four
years later to circulate a petition for the removal of the existing
disability. A bill to that effect was introduced in the Legisla-
ture in the same year (1858), but the committee to which it was
leferred reported that while it considered the objectionable clause
"a relic of bigotry and intolerance unfit to be associated in our
fundamental law with the enlightened principle of representa-
tive government . . . it is highly inexpedient to alter or
amend the Constitution by legislative enactment in any particular
whatsoever."
When the Constitution of North Carolina was again changed
by the Convention of 1861, which voted for secession and joined
Final Emancipation in 1868. 121
the Confederacy, the article in question was changed in phrase-
ology only. The word "Christian" was omitted, but the clause
still debarred from holding office a "person who shall deny the
being of God or the Divine Authority of both the Old and the
New Testament." The convention of the period of reconstruc-
tion, which met in 1865, afforded no relief, but the Constitution
which it framed was rejected by the people at the polls in the
following year, though on other grounds. It was not until the
Constitutional Convention of 1868 that Jewish emancipation was
accomplished in North Carolina. The time was ripe for the
abolition of all religious tests, and there appears to have been
no debate on that point. Only "persons who shall deny the
being of Almighty God" were, and still are, debarred from hold-
ing office in that State, as no change has been made in this
regard since 1868.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE WAR OF l8l2 AND THE REMOVAL OF JEWISH DISABILITIES
IN MARYLAND.
The Jewish community almost at a standstill between the Revolution
ard the War of 1812 — Stoppage of immigration and losses through
emigration and assimilation — No Jews in the newlj' admitted Statej
— The small number of Jews who fought in the second war with
England included Judah Touro, the philanthropist — The Jewish dis-
abilities in Maryland — A Jew appointed by Jefferson as United
States Marshal for that State — The "Jew Bill" as an issue in Mary-
land politics — Removal of the disabilities in 1826.
The hopes of the Jews of western Europe were raised by the
French Revolution, which gave the Jews of France full citizen-
ship. The Napoleonic wars brought liberty and Jewish eman-
cipation in the countries and principalities which were conquered
by the great Corsican, and even where this was not achieved
it became a probability for the near future. The disturbed state
of Europe made foreign travel, and especially emigration over
sea, hazardous, and there were hardly any new arrivals of Jews
from the Old AVorld during the quarter century following the
establishment of the United States Government. There were,
en the other hand, numerous departures of Jews for England and
its American colonies, especially Jamaica, during and after the
Revolution, and the losses through baptism and mixed marri-
ages, which account for the disappearance of a large number of
colonial Jewish families, retarded the natural growth of the
communities. As a result it is doubtful whether there were as
many Jews in the United States at the time of the outbreak of
122
Jews in the War of 1812. 123
the second war with England, in 1812, as there were in the
RevoKitionary period. Neither had their weahh or importance
increased in those times ; it seems that there was even some de-
terioration in hoth, caused no doubt by the lack of new blood
which is indispensable to small communities.
There were hardly any Jews in the three new States which
were admitted to the Union in the eight years of Washington's
administration. In Vermont, which came in in 1791, there was
no Jewish Congregation until the last quarter of the nineteenth
century. Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796) had very few
Jews until a later period, and the stray Jewish sounding names
which are met with in various records in the first half century
of their existence as States are not safe material for the founda-
tion of a history of the Jews in these Commonwealths. Ohio,
which was admitted in 1803, had very few Jews at that time,
and the immense territory of Louisiana, which was purchased
from Xapoleon in the same year, had practically none, as Jews
never thrived in the French possessions in the New World, ex-
cept in colonies like iMartiniciue,' where there was a Jewish com-
munity prior to it being occupied by the French (1635).
The number of Jews who took part in the War of 1812 was
therefore smaller than that of the participants in the War of
Independence, and the disproportionately large percentage of
officers shows that they still belonged mostly to the wealthier
classes. In the list which is enumerated in the valuable work of
Mr. Simon Wolf, which was mentioned above, there are men-
tioned thirteen officers, of whom one, Nathan Moses of Penrt-
sylvania, achieved the rank of Colonel, and two, Mayer Moses
of South Carolina and Mordecai Myers of Pennsylvania, were
captains. (General Joseph Bloomfield of New Jersey, who is
included in the list, was not a Jew, see "Publications," XI, p.
190.) The balance comprises three lieutenants, one adjutant,
one ensign, two sergeants, three corporals and twenty-seven
^ See Jewish Encyclopedia, Ylll, pp. 353-54, s. v., Martinique; and
also Oppenheim in "Publications,'' XVIII, pp. 17-18.
124 History of the Jews in America.
privates. Among tlie latter were Jacob Hays and Benjamin
Hays of New York, father and son ; and Judah Touro, the phil-
anthropist, who was dangerously wounded at the battle of New
Orleans in January, 1815.
The War of 1812 gave the impetus to a renewal of the agi-
tation for the removal of the disabilities of the Jews of Mary-
land, the only State which had a considerable Jewish community
in such a disadvantageous position. The church establishment
in Maryland teiTninated with the fall of the proprietary rule and
the emergence into statehood. With it fell, too, the force of
the legislation which for a century and a half had declared the
profession of Jewish faith a capital offence, as was already
mentioned in a previous chapter (page yy)-^ But part of the
old spirit remained under the new conditions, and the new State
Constitution of 1776, which granted free exercise of religion,
provided for "a declaration of belief in the Christian religion"
as a necessary cjualification for holding public office. But this
did not prevent a gradual influx of Jews during and after the
Revolutionary AVar, which is to be attributed to the commercial
and industrial advantages of Baltimore. The first formal effort
to effect the removal of the disability was made in December,
1797, when Solomon Etting (b. in York, Pa., 1764; d. in Bal-
timore, 1847), Bernard Gratz (b. in York, Pa., 1764; d. in Bal-
timore, 1801) and others presented a petition to the General As-
sembly at Annapolis in which they averred "that they are a sect
of people called Jews, and thereby deprived of many of the valu-
able rights of citizenship, and pray to be placed upon the same
footing with other good citizens." The committee to whom
this petition was referred reported the same day that they "have
taken the same into consideration and conceive the prayer of the
petition is reasonable, but as it involves a constitutional question
of considerable importance they submit to the House the pro-
^See J. H. Hollander, Cii'iV Status of the Jcwi in Maryland, in "Pub-
lications,'' II, pp. 33-44; the article Maryland in the "Jewish Enci'clo-
pedia" and Blum's History of the Jews of Baltimore.
The "Jew Bill" in Maryland. 125
priety of taking the same into consideration at this advanced
stage of the session." This disposition of the petition put a
quietus upon further agitation for the next five years. In the
meantime (1801) Reuben Etting (b. in York, Pa., 1762; d. in
Philadelphia, 1848), a brother of the above-mentioned Solomon,
was appointed by President Jefferson United States IN-Iarshal for
Maryland, which presented the anomalous condition of a man
who could not be chosen constable under the State laws, holding
a highly responsible Federal office. A second petition with the
same object in view as the first was presented to the General
Assembly in November, 1802, and this time it came to a vote,
but it was refused, thirty-eight voting against it and only seven-
teen in its favor. The attempt was renewed in 1803 and in 1804,
when it was again defeated by a vote of thirty-nine to twenty-
four. This fourth defeat disheartened the few determined spirits
upon whom the brunt of the struggle had thus far fallen, and the
formal agitation ceased for a time.
The arrival in Baltimore from Richmond, Va., in the year
1808, of the Cohen family, consisting of the widow and six
sons of Jacob J. Cohen, a soldier of the Revolution fa native
of Rhenish Prussia, who came to America in 1773 and died in
1808), and other arrivals in that period, helped to increase the
material importance and the communal influence of the Jews
of Baltimore. After Solomon Etting and several members of
the Cohen family served with distinction in the defense of Bal-
timore and in subsec[uent military engagements, the injustice
of the Jewish disabilities became more manifest. The sympathy
of a group of men active in public life was enlisted, and these con-
ducted the legislative struggle for full emancipation of the Jews
in the General Assembly from 1816 to 1826. The most promi-
nent figure in this group, which included Thomas Brackenridge,
E. S. Thomas, General Winder, Colonel W. G. D. VVorthington
and John V. L. MacMahon, was Thomas Kennedy of Washing-
ton county.
The "Jew Bill' became a clearly defined issue in Mar}'land
126 History of the Jews in America.
politics, and here we see again the American pecuHarity men-
tioned above (page ii8), that those who' knew the Jew best were
his most ardent defenders. Several representatives from country
districts, where Jews were known by name only, failed of re-
election because they had voted for the repeal of Jewish disabili-
ties ; while, on the other hand, a disposition favorable to Jewish
emancipation became at an early date a sine qua non of election
from Baltimore. The successful effort of Jacob Henry to retain
his seat in the Legislature of North Carolina, which has been
described in the previous chapter, was effectively used by the
friends of the Jews in Maryland. Speaking on the Jew Bill in
1818, Mr. Brackenridge alluded to the incident as follows: "In
the State of North Carolina there is a memorable instance on
record of an attempt to expel Mr. Henry, a Jew, from the legis-
lative body of which he had been elected a member. The speech
delivered on that occasion I hold in my hand. It is published in
a collection called "The American Orator," a book given to
your children at school and containing those republican truths
you wish to see earliest implanted in their minds. Mr. Henry
prevailed, and it is a part of our education as Americans to love
and cherish the sentiments uttered by him on that occasion."
Six years later Col. AVorthington, in the course of a speech on
the same subject, also recalled Henry's triumph in glowing terms.
Some of the addresses delivered on that subject were considered
of sufficient importance to be republished separately after the
question was settled; one collection of them entitled "Speeches
on the Jew Bill in the House of Delegates in Maryland" was
published in Philadelphia in 1829.
Finally, in 1822, a bill to the desired effect passed both houses
of the General Assembly; but the Constitution of Maryland re-
quired that any act amendatory thereto must be passed at one
session and published and confirmed at the succeeding session
of the Legislature. Accordingly, recourse was necessary to the
session of 1823-24, in which a confirmatory bill was introduced
accompanied by a petition from the Jews of Maryland. The bill
Removal of the Disabilities. 127
was confirmed by the Senate, but defeated in the House of Dele-
gates after a stirring debate, and all formal legislation hitherto
enacted was rendered nugatory. But the time was ripe for this
act of justice, and on the last day of the following session of
the Legislature (Feb. 26, 1825) an act "for the relief of the
Jews of Maryland," which had already received the sanction of
the Senate, was passed by the House of Delegates by a vote of
twenty-six to twenty-five. The bill provided that "'every citizen
of this State professing the Jewish religion" who shall be ap-
pointed to any office of profit or trust shall, in addition to the
required oaths, make and subscribe a declaration of his belief in
a future state of rewards and punishments, instead of the dec-
laration now rec|uired by the government of the State. In the
following year a brief confirmatory act was passed and the battle
for Jewish emancipation was won. Theoretically there still re-
mained a discrimination, which was not eliminated until many
years afterwards ; but practically there was no formal disability.
Solomon Etting and Jacob I. Cohen, both of whom had been
throughout the moving spirits of the legislative struggle, were
promptly elected in Baltimore (Oct., 1826) as members of the
City Council, and the former ultimately became president of that
body. A number of Jews later occupied and still occupy im-
portant political positions in Maryland commensurate with their
individual ability and with the prominence of Jews in the busi-
ness and professional life of the State.
CHAPTER XVII.
MORDECAI MANUEL NOAH' AND HIS TERRITORIALIST-ZIONISTIC
PLANS.
Noah's family; his youth and his early successes as journalist and as
dramatist — His appointment as Consul in Tunis and his recall —
His insistence that the United States is not a Christian nation^
Editor and playwright, High Sheriff and Surveyor of the Port of
New York — His invitation to the Jews of the world to settle in
the City of Refuge which he was to found on Grand Island — Im-
pressive ceremonies in Buffalo which were the beginning and the
end of "Ararat" — His "Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews" —
Short career on the bench — Jewish activities.
While the last vestiges of discrimination against the Jews
were being removed in I\Iaryland, a grandiose plan for solving
the Jewish problem through colonization in America was con-
ceived by one of the most prominent Jews of New York. This
man was JXJordecai Manuel Noah (b. in Philadelphia, July 19,
'78^; d. in New York March 22, 1851). He was of Portuguese
descent, a son of Manuel Mordecai Noah of South Carolina, who
served in the Revolutionary army, and a cousin of Henry M.
Phillips (b. in Philadelphia, 181 1; d. there 1884), who- was a
member from the fourth district of Pennsylvania in the Thirty-
fifth Congress (elected as a Democrat in 1856), and besides oc-
cupying various positions of honor and trust, also served as
Grand Master of Free Masons of his native State. Noah was
left an orphan at the age of four, and was brought up by his
maternal grandfather, Jonas Phillips (b. in Germany, 1736; d. in
Philadelphia, 1803). Noah was apprenticed to a carver ana
gilder, but his studious habits and abilities attracted the atten-
128
Mordecai Manuel Noah. 129
tion of some prominent men, and it is said that the financier,
Robert Alorris, procured the cancellation of his indentures and
obtained for him an appointment as clerk in the office of the
Auditor of the United States Treasury.
Upon the removal of the national capital to Washington,
young Noah resigned his clerkship and accepted employment as
a reporter at tlie sessions of the Pennsylvania Legislature at Har-
risburg, where he acquired his first experience in journalism.
Several years later he removed to Charleston, S. C, where he
became in 1809 the editor of "The City Gazette" and became an
ardent advocate of war with England. This was against the pre-
^ailing spirit of the wealthy seaport town,- and it involved him
in many quarrels and in several duels, in one of which he killed
his opponent. It was also in this city that his first play, "Paul
and Alexis," or "The Orphans of the Rhine," was performed for
the first time. It was afterwards taken to England, where it
v,-as somewhat altered, and with its name changed to "The Wan-
dering Boys" was brought out in 1820 at the Park Theatre in
New York with great success.
After declining an appointment as Consul to Riga, Russia, in
1812, Noah was appointed by President Madison a year later
as American Consul to Tunis, with a special mission to Algiers.
He sailed from Charleston in a vessel bound for France, which
was captured by the British fleet off the French coast. He was
brought to England as a prisoner of war, but being regarded as
a person of importance he was allowed to remain at liberty upon
his parole, and to utilize the time in travelling through the coun-
try. After some months he was released and proceeded by the
way of Spain to his post of duty. He was soon engaged in the
work for which he was specially commissioned — to ransom the
American prisoners then held in slavery by the Algerians. He
was to endeavor to release the captured sailors in such wise as to
lead the Algerians to believe that the relatives and friends of the
captives, and not the American government, was interested in
their ransom. Noah effected this in a creditable manner under
130 History of the Jews in America.
the circumstances ; but he was compelled to expend a sum exceed-
ing the amount allowed him by his government. Noah's political
opponents at home made use of this apparent irregularity to
effect his recall. Mr. Monroe, then Secretary of State, wrote to
him that it was not known at the time of his appointment that
his religion would be any obstacle to the exercise of his consular
functions, but that recent information, on which entire reliance
could be placed, proved that it would have a very unfavorable ef-
fect ; that the President therefore had deemed it expedient to
revoke his commission, and that upon the receipt of this letter
he should consider himself as no longer in the service of the
United States.^ Noah finally extricated himself from all his
difficulties, and later was thoroughly vindicated, his actions ap-
proved and his advances remitted.
One of his official acts as Consul deserves special mention.
The war between the United States and England was still rag-
ing, when one day an American privateer came into the harbor
of Tunis with three English East Indiamen loaded with valuable
cargoes as prizes. The prizes and cargoes were turned over to
the American Consul to sell at auction. The British Minister
protested against such sale on the ground of a clause in the
treaty with England which provided that no Christian power
should sell a B'-itish prize or its cargo in an Algerian port. Noah
admitted the bona fides of the stipulation, but contended that
under proper interpretation of international law the United
States could not be held to be a Christian nation within the mean-
ing of the treaty and hence was excepted from the inhibition.
To prove his contention he exhibited the Constitution of the
United States with its provisions against sectarianism and re-
ligious tests, and finally cited the Joel Barlow Treaty with Tur-
key of 1808, ratified by the United States Senate, which declared
that the United States made no objections to Mussulmen because
of their religion and that they are entitled to and should receive
'Daly, p. 112, et seq.; see also Wolf, Mordecai Manuel Noah, Phila-
delphia, 1897, and Jeuish Encyclopedia, s. v., Noah.
Noah's Activities. 131
all the privileges of citizens of the most favored nations. This
arg'ument was sustained by the Bey and the prizes were accord-
ingly sold in Tunis. Noah's contention thus became established
as a principle of international law which has never since been
challenged. It was perhaps this stand taken by Noah in de-
claring the American nation to be non-Christian which convinced
the government at home that his faith was "an obstacle to the ex-
ercise of his consular functions."
On his return to America Noah settled in New York (1816),
v.'here he resided for the rest of his life in the enjoyment of many
honors and great popularity. He was successively the editor of
the "National Advocate," "New York Enquirer," "Evening
Star," "Commercial Advertiser," "Union" and "Times and Mes-
senger." In 1 81 9 he published in New York his "Travels in
England, France, Spain and the Barbary States" in which he
described his experiences abroad, the services he had rendered to
his government in Tunis and the manner in which he was re-
quited. His occupation as a journalist, which brought him into
frequent connection with the theatre, led him to return to dra-
matic autho-rship, and he was reputed to be one of the most
popular American playwrights of his day. Most of his plays
were based on American history, but some of them dealt with
other themes, like his successful melodrama "Yousef Carmatti,
or The Siege of Tripoli."
He also took an active part in politics, and was appointed High
Sheriff of New York in 1822; but when the office was made
elective a short time afterwards he was defeated after an excit-
ing campaign. He was a supporter of General Jackson, and was
later appointed by him Surveyor of the Port of New York.
But during all these varied activities he never forgot, as he
was indeed seldom permitted to forget, that he was a Jew. He
had strong convictions on the subject of Jewish nationality and
devoted considerable attention to the Jewish question in general.
Finally, in 1825, he turned to his long cherished scheme of the
restoration of the Jews to their past glory as a nation. For this
132 History of the Jews in America.
purpose he acquired, with the aid of some of his friends, an island
thirteen miles in length and about five miles broad, called Grand
Island, in the Niagara River, opposite Tonawanda, not far from
Buffalo, N. Y., and issued a proclamation to the Jews of the
world, inviting them to come and settle in the place, which he
named '"Ararat, a City of Refuge for the Jews."
The plan had its practical side and attracted considerable at-
tention. Noah was at that time perliaps the most distinguished
Jewish resident in America, and could by no means be consid-
ered a visionary. The tract was chosen with particular refer-
ence to its promising commercial prospects, being close to the
Great Lakes and opposite to the newly constructed Erie Canal ;
and Noah deemed it "pre-eminently calculated to become in time
the greatest trading and commercial depot in the new and bet-
ter world." After heralding this project for some time in his
own newspapers and in the press, religious and secular, generally,
Noah selected September 2, 1825, as the date for laying the foun-
dation stone of the new city. Impressive ceremonies, ushered
in by the firing of cannon, were held, and participated in by state
and federal officials. Christian clergymen, and even American
Indians, whom Noah identified as the "lost tribes" of Israel, and
who were also to find refuge in this new "Ararat."
It was found on that day that there were not boats enough
in Buffalo to carry to Grand Island all who wished to go there,
and the celebration, in consequence, took place in Buffalo. A
procession, headed by a band of music, was formed, composed
of military companies and several Masonic bodies in full regalia,
after which came Noah, as Governor and Judge of Israel, wear-
ing a judicial robe of crimson silk trimmed with ermine, fol-
lowed by fraternal officers and dignitaries. After marching
through the principal streets of Buffalo, the procession entered
the Episcopal Church, where exercises, including a long oration
by Noah, were held; the close of the ceremonies being announced
by a salvo of twenty-four guns.
The celebration in Buffalo was the beginning and the end of
"Ararat" and the "Discourse." 133
the scheme. There was no resiDonse to the proclamation, the city
was never built, and the monument of brick and wood which was
erected upon the island on the site of the contemplated town fell
to pieces, and in the course of time wholly disappeared. The
only relic of the enterprise is the foundation stone of the pro-
posed city, which is preserved in the rooms of the Buffalo His-
torical Society, with the inscription of 1825 still legible.
Noah's plan was to establish "Ararat" as a merely temporary
city of refuge for the Jews, until in the fulness of time a Pales-
tinian restoration could be effected. The failure of this pro-
ject of a "temporary asylum" did not weaken his belief in the
ultimate redemption of the Jews and their return to the Holy
Land. Nearly twent}' years after the unsuccessful attempt to
concentrate the Jews on Grand Island, Noah delivered the great-
est oration of his life, "A Discourse on the Restoration of the
Jews," which was soon afterwards published in book form ( New
York, 1844), in which he urged the return to Palestine as the
only solution of the Jewish question, which had become acute in
Europe in the troublesome times preceding the upheavals of 1848.
Noah resigned the office of Surveyor of the Port of New York
in 1833, after having held it about four years. After eight years
of intense journalistic and political activitj^, he was, in 1841, ap-
pointed by Governor Seward an Associate Judge of the New
York Court of Sessions. He had no sooner commenced to dis-
charge his judicial duties than James Gordon Bennett, in the
"New York Herald,'' began to assail and ridicule him. Noah
nimself made no complaint, but others took up the defence of
the court's dignity and Bennett was indicted for libel. Noah
himself was not anxious to have the case prosecuted, asserting
that the attack on him was the result of an old editorial quar-
rel, in which he had been to a considerable degree the aggressor.
Bennett came off with a small pecuniary fine. Noah shortly
afterwards resigned from the bench, to avoid sitting upon the
trial for forgery of a certain member of Congress whom he had
known from boyhood.
134 History of the Jews in America.
He took an active part in Jewish communal affairs of New
York City, and was in 1842 elected president of the Hebrew
Benevolent Society. He was also president of the Jewish Char-
ity Organization of New York, and remained at its head when
it was merged into a B'nai Berith lodge. Among his works of
Jewish interest deserves also to be mentioned a translation of the
"Book of Jashar," which he published in 1840.
He married Rebeccah Jackson of New York, and their off-
spring numbered five sons and a daughter. He died in the 66th
year of his age, and was the last Jew that was buried within the
limits of old New York City.
PART IV.
THE SECOND OE GEEMAN PEEIOD OP
IMMIGEATION.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE FIRST COMM/UNITIES IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
Impetus given to immigration to America by the reaction after the fall
of Napoleon — The second period of Jewish immigration — First
legislation about immigration (i8ig) — The first Jew in Cincinnati —
Its first congregation, Bene Israel — Appeals to outside communities
for funds to build a synagogue — The first Talmud Torah — Rabbis
Gutheim, Wise and Lilienthal — Cleveland — St. Louis — Louisville —
Mobile — Montgomery and its alleged Jewish founder, Abraham
Mordecai — Savannah and Augusta — New Orleans — Judah Touro.
The reaction in Western Europe after the fall of Napoleon
in 1815 gave an impetus to emigration to America. This was
especially true of Germany and more particularly of the German
Jews. Those who had already tasted the sweets of freedom
could not so easily endure the returning hardships of the galling
exceptional laws and discriminations, as did their fathers and
grandfathers who knew not the experience of better co'ulitions.
While the struggle for political and religious liberty was car-
ried on with increased intensity in the various Germa-i stales and
principalities, many ventured to come out to the New World ni
quest of more favorable conditions and better opportu'^ities. This
new immigration, which continued for about half a century, until
135
136 History of the Jews in America,
the Jews in all the German states were emancipated, much ex-
ceeded the immigration of the preceding two centuries, while it
now appears almost insignificant in comparison with the large
ir.'flux from the Slavic countries in the last thirty years. These
Jewish immigrants of the second period, which is usually called
the German period (though a considerable number came from
Austria-Hungary, Russian-Poland and even Russia proper), were
in one essential point more like the Slavic Jews who came after
them than like the Sephardim of former times ; they came
poor, and grew up with the country. The Spanish and Portu-
guese Jews as a class were wealthy; some of them brought more
capital with them than was found in the localities in which they
settled. Their wealth and their business connections made them
welcome or secured them sufferance at a time and at places — ■
in the Old World as well as in the New — where a poor Jew,
coming to earn his living as a peddler or craftsman, would prob-
ably never have been admitted. But better times had come; an
immensely large country, which had now increased its territory
by the Louisiana Purchase, and doubly secured its independence
by the successful issue of the second war with its former masters,
now needed men even more than mone}', and the immigrant who
came to cast his lot with the new nation was welcome. A sub-
stantial part of the Jewish immigrants of this new era remained
in the older communities, which were thereby largely increased,
liut many penetrated far into the South and the \\'est; new set-
tlements were founded in scores of places, and almost in each
case a congregation was formed as soon as there were a suffi-
ciert numl^er of Jews to warrant such an undertaking. As there
was no longer any struggle between the Jews, as such, and the sur-
rounding non-Jewish world, the history of the Jews of a locality
is mainly the history of its communal ir.stitutions and of its in-
dividual members, who reflect credit on it by their distinction in
various fields of activity. We shall now follow the formation
of these new communities in various parts of the country, with an
effort to understand the spirit which moved the early settlers in
First Immigration Law of 1819. 137
their Jewish activities, which helped them to^ rise to an eminent
position in their new home and to be useful to their fellow citi-
zens, as well as to their co-religionists who arrived at a later
period.
*!» •i* •i^ T* "i-
There are no statistical figures for the number of immigrants
who arrived in the second decade of the nineteenth century; but
what may be considered as an official declaration (in the vo-
luminous report of the Immigration Commission, issued in 1910)
states that after the year 1816 "an ui'.precedented emigration
from Europe to the United States occurred. It is estimated that
no less than 20,coo persons arrived in 1817." The sudden de-
mand for passage caused overcrowding, disease and death in
the steerage of the sailing vessels, which resulted in the first
"legislative interference" by a law which "became effective
?ilarch 2, 1819, containing provisions intending to regulate the
number of passengers on each vessel and proper victualing of
each vessel." A provision of this law also marked the beginning
of statistics relative to immigration into the United States. And
as there was now a certain percentage of Jews among the arrivals
of each year, it may be presumed that the Jews of that time
were as much interested in these earliest provisions relating to
immigration, as we are to-day in that perennial question.
Some of the pioneers of this new Jewish immigration came
from England, but as in the earlier period of the Spanish Jews,
the Germans and the Polish soon followed, or came simultane-
ously. A typical instance was that of Cincinnati, where the first
Jewish congregation in the Ohio Valley was formed. The first
Jew to settle there was Joseph Jonas (b. in Exeter, England,
1792; d. in Cincinnati, iSlay 5, 1869), who came to America
in 18 1 6 and lived for a short time in New York and in Phila-
delphia. PTe left the latter city on the second day of January,
:8i7, and arrived in Cincinnati on the eighth of March. He was
a watchmaker by trade, and had little difficulty in establishing
himself. He was a curiosity at first, as many in that part of the
138 History of the Jews in America.
country Jiad never seen a Jew before. Numbers of people came
from the country round about to see liim, and he related in his
old age of an old Quakeress who said to him : "Art thou a Jew?
Thou art one of God's chosen people. Wilt thou let me examine
thee?" She turned him round and round and at last exclaimed:
"Well, thou art no different to other people."^
Jonas remained the only Jew in Cincinnati for about two
}ears, when he was joined by Lewis Cohen of London, Barnet
Levi of Liverpool and Joseph Levy of Exeter. These four, with
David Israel Johnson of Brookville, Ind. (a frontier trading-
station), conducted in the autumn of 1819 the first Jewish service
in the western portion of the United States. Solomon Buck-
ingham, Moses Nathan and Solomon Menken came there from
Germany in 1820. The last named established the first wholesale
dry goods house in Cincinnati. The six Moses brothers, one of
whom, Phineas (d. 1895), lived to the age of ninety-seven, ar-
rived in the following two years, and about this time Joseph
Jonas was joined by his three brothers, Abraham, Samuel and
George; their parents and a fourth brother, Edward, coming
some time afterwards. Services were held only on Rosh ha-
Shanah and Yom Kippur until 1824, whe-i the number of Jew-
ish inhabitants reached about twenty. (See "Publications," IX,
p. 155, for fourteen Jewish names from the Cincinnati Directory
of 1825.) In the first month of that year the Congregation
"Bene Israel" was formally organized, and at a meeting held
some time thereafter it was resolved to build a suitable house
of worship.
There was not, however, sufficient wealth in the new com-
munity to enable the congregation to undertake the work un-
aided, and an appeal was sent to the older congregations in the
United States and also to England, for help in the proposed un-
' See Philipson, The Jewish Pioneers in the Ohio Valley, in Publica-
tions, VIII, pp. 43 et, seq.; also Markens, pp. 100-104, ^"d Jewish En-
cyclopedia, s. V. Cincinnati.
An Appeal from Cincinnati. 139
riertakinp-. A copy of this appeal has been preserved (in "Pub-
lications," X, pp. 98-99) and reads as follows:
TO THE ELDERS OF THE JEWISH CONGREGATION AT
CHARLESTON.
Gentlemen : — Being deputed by our Congregation in this place,
as their committee to address you in behalf of our holy Religion, sep-
arated as we are and scattered through the wilds of America as children
of the same family and faith, we consider it as our duty to apply to you
for assistance in the erection of a House to worship the God of our
forefathers, agreeably to the Jewish faith; we have always performed
all in our power to promote Judaism and for the last four or five years
we have congregated where a few years before nothing was heard but
the howling of wild beasts and the more hideous cry of savage man. We
are well assured that many Jews are lost in this country from not
being in the neighborhood of a congregation, they often marry with
Christians, and their posterity lose the true worship of God forever; we
have at this time a room fitted up for a synagogue, two manuscripts of
the law and a burying ground, in which we have already interred four
persons, who, but for us, would have lain among the Christians; one of
our members also acts as Shochet. It will therefore be seen that nothing
has been left undone, which could be performed by eighteen assessed
and six unassessed members. Two of the deceased persons were poor
strangers, one of whom was brought to be interred from Louisville, a
distance of near 200 miles.
To you. Gentlemen, we are mostly strangers and have no further
claim on you, than that of children of the same faith and family, re-
questing your pious and laudable assistance to promote the decrees of
our holy Religion. Several of our members are, however, well known
both in Philadelphia and New York — namely Mr. Samuel Joseph, form-
erly of Philadelphia; Messrs. Moses Jonas and Mr. Joseph Jonas,
the two Mr. Jonas's have both married daughters of the late Rev. Ger-
son Mendes Seixas of New York. Therefore with confidence, we solicit
your aid to this truly pious undertaking, we are unable to defray the
whole expense, and have made application to you as well as the other
principal congregations in America and England, and have no doubt of
ultimate success.
It is also worthy of remark that there is not a congregation within
140 History of the Jews in America.
500 miles of this city, and we presume it is well known how easy of
access we are to New Orleans, and we are well informed that had we
a synagogue here, hundreds from that city who now know and see
nothing of their religion, would frequently attend here during holidays.
We are. Gentlemen, your obedient servants,
S. Joseph Chan,
Joseph Jonas,
D. I. Johnson,
Phineas Moses.
I certify the above is agreeable to a Resolution of the Hebrew Con-
gregation of Cincinnati.
July 3, 1825.
Joseph Jonas, Parnas.
Both the congregation in Charleston and that in Philadel-
phia sent contributions, and so did some individuals in New
Orleans and in Barbadoes, W. I. It was some time, however,
until the necessary amount was collected. The congregation was
chartered by the General Assembly of Ohio in 1830, and the
synagogue was dedicated in the year 1836. The first official
reader was Joseph Samuels ; he was succeeded by Henry Harris,
who was followed in 183S by f-lart Judah. In the same year
was organized the first benevolent association. The first re-
ligious school was founded in 1842, but it existed only a short
time. A Talmud Torah was established in 1845, which gave
way in the following year to the Hebrew Institute, of which
Janies K. Gutheim (b. in Prussia, 1817; d. in New Orleans,
1886) was the founder. This also flourished but a short time,
for with the departure of Rabbi Gutheim for New Orleans m
1848 the institute was closed.
A considerable number of German Jews arrived in the city
during the fourth decade of the nineteenth century. They were
rot in sympathy with the existing congregation, in which the
influence of the English Jews was predominant, and determined
to form another congregation. The Bene Yeshurun congrega-
tion was accordingly organized by these Germans in September,
1841, and it was incorporated under the laws of the state in 1842.
Its first reader was Simon Bamberger, and when Gutheim, who
The First Jews of Cleveland. 141
followed him, left it, he was succeeded by H. A. Henry and A.
Roseiifeld. The assumption of the ofnce of rabbi in the Bene
Yeshurun congregation by Isaac M. Wise in April, 1854, and
in the Bene Israel co::gregation by Max Lilienthal (b. in Munich,
1815; d. in Cincinnati, 1882) in June, 1855, gave the Jewish
community of Cincinnati a commanding position and made it a
Jewish center and the home of a number of movements which
were national in scope. But their activity in general Jewish
matters does not properly belong to the history of Jews in Cin-
cinnati, and will be treated in a succeeding chapter. Three other-
congregations were formed before the close of the period of
German-Polish immigration : the Adath Israel, organized in
1847; the Ahabat Achim, organized in 1848; and the Shearit
Israel, in 1855.
The first Jew who is known to have settled in Cleveland, O.,
was a Bavarian, Simson Thorraan, who came there in 1837. He
was soon joined by Aaron Leventrite and by others of his coun-
trymen, and the thriving city, which had then about 6,000 inhabi-
tants, soon had twenty Jews, who organized the Israelitish So--
ciety in 1839. In 1842 there was a split, and the seceding part
formed the Anshe Chesed Society ; but four years later these two
again united and formed the Anshe Chesed congregation, the
oldest existing congregation in Cleveland. The first services
were held in a hall on South Water street and Vineyard lane,
with Thorman as president and Isaac Hoffman as minister or
reader. A burial ground was purchased in 1840. New dissen-
sions arose in 1848 in the rapidly increasing community and re-
sulted in the withdrawal of a number of members, who in 1850
formed the Congregation Tifereth Israel, which from the be-
ginning represented the reform element. Isidor Kalish (b. in
Krotoschin, Prussia, 1816; d. in Newark, N. J., 1886) was its
first rabbi until 1855, and he was followed by Wolf Fassbinder,
Jacob Cohen, G. M. Cohen, Jacob Mayer, Aaron Hahn and the
present incumbent, Moses J. Cries (b. in Newark, 1868), who
assumed his position in 1892. The rabbis of the older congre-
142 History of the Jews in America.
gation were: Fuld, 1850; E. Hertzman, 1860-61; G. M. Cohen,
1861-66; Nathan, 1866-67; Gustave M. Cohen, 1867-75; Moritz
Tintner (b. in Austerhtz, Austria, 1828; d. in New York, May
II, 1910), 1875-76; and M. Machol (b. in Kohnar-in-Posen,
1845) since 1876.
The first Jewish congregation in St. Louis, Mc, was or-
ganized about the same time as that of Cleveland, though in-
dividual Jews were living there more than thirty years before.
The Bloch, or Block, family of Schwihau, Bohemia, settled there
about 181 6, the pioneer being Wolf Bloch. Eliezer Block was
an attorney-at-law there in 1821. Most of the early arrivals in-
termarried with Christians, and were lost to Judaism. It was not
until the Jewish New Year in 1836 that the first religious serv-
ices were held, when ten men rented a little room over a grocery
store at the corner of Second and Spruce streets. The Acliduth
Israel or United Hebrew Congregation was organized in 1839,
Abraham. Weigel (d. 1888) being the first president and Samuel
Davidson the first reader. Services were held for many years in
a private house in Frenchtown. The first building used as a
synagogue was located in Fifth street, between Green and Wash-
ington avenues. According to Markens (p. 108), Bernard
Illowy (b. in Kolin, Bohemia, 1814; d. near Cincinnati, O.,
1871), one of the leading conservative rabbis of America in his
time, a pupil of the great Rabbi Moses Sofer (1763-1839), of
Presburg, Hungary, was elected to the rabbinate of the St. Louis
congregation in 1854. Its temple on Sixth street, between Lo-
cust and St. Charles streets, was dedicated in 1859. Rev. Henry
J. Messing (b. 1848) held the position of rabbi for about thirty
years. The B'nai El congregation, which was organized in 1852,
moved into its own house of worship in 1855. Rabbi Moritz
Spitz (b. in Csaba, Hungary, 1848), editor of the "Jewish
Voice," has been at the head of this congregation since 1878.
The third of the earlier congregations, Shaare Emet, was or-
ganized in 1866, with H. S. Sonnenschein (b. in Hungary, 1839;
d. in Des Moines, la., 1908) as its first rabbi.
Kentucky and Alabama. 143
The first Jewish organization of Louisville, Ky., is mentioned
in the year 1832, and two brothers named Heymann, or Hyman,
from Berlin, were known to have settled there as early as 1814.
Several Polish Jews from Charlestown, S. C, and some Ger-
man Jews from Baltimore arrived there about 1836, and were
soon joined by new arrivals direct from Germany. They bought
a graveyard, built a mikweh and engaged a shochct. A few
wealthy Jews came from Richmond, Va., but they did not asso-
ciate with the others and were soon absorbed by the non-Jewish
population. The first regular minister was J. Dinkelspiel (1841),
and the congregation, which was named Adath Israel, was in-
corporated in 1842. B. H. Gotthelf was elected cantor and
shochet in 1848 and later became Hebrew teacher of a school
which was opened in 1854. In 1850 a synagogue was built on
Fourth street, between Green and Walnut streets, which was
consumed by fire in 1866. A regular preacher, L. Kleeberg, was
then engaged and remained till 1878. Another congregation
v/as chartered by the legislature in 185 1, but it was not prop-
erly organized until 1856, when it changed its name from "The
Polish House of Israel" to Bet Israel.
Farther to the south congregations were organized about that
time in Mobile, Ala., ar,cl in two other towns of that state. The
most prominent among the early settlers of Mobile was Israel
I. Jones, who arrived there from Charleston, S. C., and organ-
ized the Congregation Shaare Shamayyim, the oldest in the
state, in 1844. B. L. Tim, from Flamburg, in whose residence
the first services were held ; I. Goldsmith, S. Lyons, D. Mark-
stein, Solomon Jones and A. Goldstucker, all from Germany,
were among the first members. The first synagogue was dedi-
cated in December, 1846, with Mr. Jones as President and Rev.
de Silva as minister. The latter died in New Orleans in 1848
and was succeeded by Baruch ]M. Emanuel, who served for five
vears. Mont.o'omery, which is said to ha\'e been founded by
Abraham Mordecai, an intelligent Jew, who dwelt fifty years
in the Creek Nation, and confidently believed that the Indians
144 History of the Jews in America.
were originally of his people (see "Publications," XIII, pp.
71-81, 83-88), had its first Jewish society for relieving the sick,
organized in 1S46. Its first twelve members were from Germany
and Poland. In 1849 this Chevra, which held religious services
on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur, was enlarged into a regu-
lar congregation called Kahal Montgomery or Temple Beth Or.
Isaiah Weil was the first president and the number of members
was about thirty. Mo rabbi was employed until about fifteen
years later. There is also a record of a congregation which was
organized in Claiborne, Ala., in 1855, and had an officiating
rabbi. Most of the Jews, however, left the town and the con-
gregation passed out of existence.
While the older Jewish community of Savannah, Ga., which
dated from the eighteenth century, was strengthened by the new
immigration, a new community, in Augusta, grew up in the first
half of the nineteenth century. A Mr. Florence and his wife
came there from Holland in 1825. Isaac Hendricks arrived
Avith his family from Charleston, S. C, in 1826, and it is believed
that Isaac and Jacob Moise, also Charlestonians, reached Au-
gusta about the same time. Jews from Germany began to ar-
rive in 1844. Isaac Levy, who came there about 1840, was for
many years City Sheriff, and Samuel Levy was for two year^
Judge of the Superior Court and for ten years Judge of the
Court of Ordinary (Markens, p. 113). There is reason to be-
lieve that the sixth Governor of Georgia, David Emanuel (d.
1808), who assumed the office jMarch 3, 1801, and after whom
the largest county in the state, Emanuel, was named, was a Jew,
or at least of Jewish Descent.' The number of Jews in Au-
gusta went on increasing until about 1846, when the congregation
B'nai Israel, which is still in existence, was organized.
The prominent figure of the philanthropist Judah Touro (b.
in Newport, R. I., 1775; d. in New Orleans, 1854) looms large
in the early Jewish history of New Orleans. Touro was edu-
' See Leon Hiiliner, The first Jew to hold the Office of Governor of
cue of tlie United States in "Publications," XV'II, pp. 187-95.
Judah Touro.
145
Judah Touro. 147
cated by his uncle, Moses Michael Hays (1739-1805), who had
become an eminent merchant of Boston, and was later employed
in his counting house. Touro came to New Orleans about a
year before Louisiana was purchased by the United States from
France in 1803. He opened a store and built up a thriving
trade in New England products, and soon became one of the
wealthiest and most prominent merchants of the growing city.
He gave liberally to many charities and public spirited enter-
prises in New Orleans and elsewhere, at a time when large
gifts for such purposes were not as common as they are now.
When he donated $10,000 towards the erection of the Bunker
Hill Monument in 1840, those interested in raising the necessary
funds had almost given up their project in despair. Thougir
the cornerstone was laid in 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of
the battle which it was to commemorate, Amos Lawrence's gen-
erous offers of aid met with no material response, even when
aided by the eloquent appeals of Edward Everett (1794-1865)
and Daniel Webster (1782- 1852), until Touro privately offered
to duplicate Lawrence's donation, provided the remaining neces-
sary $30,000 would be raised. On the dedication of the monu-
ment in 1843, v,lien Daniel Webster was the orator of the day,
the generosity of the chief donors was praised in the lines read
by the presiding officer, which became very popular at that time.^
At his death he left, among many other bequests, a large sum
in trust to Sir Moses Montefiore (1784-1885) for the poor Jews
of Jerusalem. His name is connected with the oldest and largest
Jewish institutions in New Orleans, while Boston, Newport and
other communities have benefited by his generosity.
' The lines read as follows:
Amos and Judah — venerated names!
Patriarch and prophet, press their equal claims,
Like generous coursers running neck and neck.
Each aids the work by giving it a check.
Christian and Jew, they carry out a plan —
For though of different faith, each is in heart a man.
148 History of the Jews in America.
Alexander Isaacs and Asher Philips were also among the
arrivals at New Orleans early in the last century. Morris Jacobs
and Aaron Daniels were the Senior Wardens, and Abraham
Plotz, Asher Philips and Abraham Green, the Junior Wardens
of a benevolent society named Shaare Chesed. In that capacity
they bought the first Jewish cemetery in New Orleans, which was
located just beyond the suburb of Lafayette, in the Parish of
Jefferson, fronting on Jackson street, where the first interment,
that of Plyam Harris, took place on June 28, 182S. The first
congregation adopted the name of the benevolent society, and
worshipped in a room on the top floor of a building in St. Louis
street. The oldest existing synagogue, the Shaare Chesed Ne-
fuzot Judah, commonly known as the Touro synagogue, was or-
ganized in its present form in 1854. The other congregations
belong to a later period, which will be described in a subsequent
part.
Another prominent Jew, the greatest in American public life
— Judah P- Benjamin — also lived in New Orleans in this period.
But he took no interest in Jewish afi^airs, and his career belongs
to the chapters in which the participation of Jews in the dis-
pute about slavery and in the Civil War will be described.
CHAPTER XIX.
NKW SETTLEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE WEST AND ON THE PACIFIC
COAST.
Increase in general immigration — Estimated increase in the number of
Jews — The natural dispersion of small traders over the country —
Chicago — First congregations and otlier communal institutions — In-
diana — Iowa: Polish Jews settle in Keokuk and German Jews in
Davenport — Minnesota — Wisconsin — Congregation "Bet El" of De-
troit, Mich. — The first "minyan" of gold seekers in San Francisco —
"Mining congregations" — Solomon Heydenfeldt — Portland, Ore.
The tide of immigration, which began to rise still higher than
before in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, now con-
sisted to a considerable part of Germans, and a goodly portion
of them were Jews from Germany and the surrounding coun-
tries. The official figures for the number of immigrants who
came to the United States in 1826 are 10,837; for 1832, 60,482;
in 1842 it rose to 104,565. The rise was very unequal, with
marked recessions sometimes to less than half in the interven-
ing years ; but when measured by decades the increase was con-
stant, and after 1845 there were only two 3'ears — 1861 and 1862
— in which the number of immigrants fell below 100,000. While
there are no figures obtainable as to the number of Jews which
came in those years, it is certain that they soon outnumbered
many times the few comparatively small cominunities which
existed before that period. The estimates made by representative
Jews at various times, giving the number of Jews in the country
in 1818 as 3,000, in 1826 as 6,000, in 1840 as 15,000 and in
1848 as 50,000, are merely guesses, but they give a fair idea of
149
150 History of the Jews in America.
the estimated ratio of increase in those thirty years. The ex-
perience of to-day is that whenever actual figures are obtained
they prove to be in excess of the estimate made by communal
leaders, and it is probable that the same results would be dis-
closed in the former times, too. On the other hand, care must be
exercised to guard against exaggerated estimates, made for va-
rious reasons, but mainly for political effect.
As a large part of the Jewish immigrants then took to peddling
or other forms of trade on a small scale, it was natural for them
to disperse ovei all the states and territories, though, as we
shall see farther on, many settled in the larger cities, in which
the number of Jews soon rapidly multiplied. The problem of
congestion never arose, or could arise, among business people,
no matter how small their business mig'ht be at the beginning.
It arose at a later period of immigration, which brought to our
shores large numbers of laborers, both skilled and unskilled, with
whom living near their centers of occupation was an economic
necessity as well as a convenience. This is why no artificial aid
or encouragement was at that time necessary to the scattering of
Jewish immigrants o\-er all habitable places, and why many of
themi became pioneers and early settlers in new c&mmunities.
The same thing happens now, too, with that small part of the
immigrants which still take to trading as their first vocation.
Thus we find in Chicago, the future metropolis of the great
Middle West, a Jew by the name of J. Gottlieb, arrived within
a year after its incorporation as a town, in 1837. Isaac Ziegler
(1808-93), 3- peddler, came there in 1840; in the same year came
also the brothers Benedict (d. 1854) and Nathan Shubert and
P. Newburg, tailors. The last named became a tobacco dealer
and later rem-oved to Cincinnati. Eened'ct Shubert became a
leading merchant tailor and built the first brick house in Chicago,
on Lake street, where he carried on his business for a number
of years. About twenty Jews from Germany, including Jacob
Rosenberg (d. 1900) and the brothers Julius, Abraham (b. in
Bavaria, 1819; d. in Chicago, 1871) and Moses Kohn, came to
Chicago. 151
Chicago between 1840 and 1844, and aoout as many in the fol-
lowing three years. A "Jewish Burial Ground Society," of which
Isaac Wormser was president, was organized in 1845, and bought
from the city one acre of ground on the north side (now within
the confines of Lincoln Park) for a cemetery. It was abandoned
in 1857, when it was already within the city limits.
The first religions services were held in a private room above
a store on Wells street (now Fifth A^-enue) on Yom Kippur of
the same year, Philip Newburg and Mayer Klein ofliciating as
leaders. Only an exact minyan or ten men attended those serv-
ices, which had to be discontinued whenever one left the room.
The second services, with about the same number of attendants,
were held on Ycm Kippur, 1846, also in a private room, above
the dry goods store of Rosenfeld & Rosenberg, 155 Lake street,
Pliilip Newburg and Abraham Kohn officiating. A scroll of
the Torah which the brotJiers Kohn had Ijrought with them
from Germany was used on both occasions.
The "Kehilat Anshe ]\Iaarab" was organized wjth about
twentv members in 1847. L. jNL Leopold (b. in W'urtemberg,
1821; d. in iSTew York, 1889) was the first president, and Rev.
Ignatz Kunreuther (181 1-84) was elected rabbi, shochet and
reader. He held the position six years, when he retired to pri-
vate life, and later engaged in the real estate and loan business.
The first synagogue, which was built on Clark street, between
Adams and Quincy streets (where the new post office now
stands), was dedicated Friday, June 13. 1851. Rev. Liebman
Adler ( b. in Saxe-Weimar, 1812; a. 1854: d. in Chicago, 1892),
father of the prominent architect, Dankmar Adler (1844-1900),
was the second rabbi of the congregation, and held the position
for more than twentv j^ears. The Hebrew Benevolent Society
was organized in 185 1 and is still in existence. The second con-
gregation, under the name "B'nai Sholom," consisting mostly of
natives of Prussian-Poland, was established in 1852. The
"Tudische Reformverein," which subsequently led to the organ-
ization of the Sinai Congregation, was organized in 1858, with
152 History of the Jews in America.
Leopold Mayer as president and Dr. Bernhard Felsenthal (b.
in Germany, 1822; d. in Chicago, Jan. 12, 1908) as secretary.
The Hebrew Rehef Association, which later built the Michael
Reese Hospital, the first Jewish hospital in Chicago, was insti-
tuted in 1859. Henry Greenbaum (b. in Germany, 1833) was
its first president. Isaac Greensfelder became treasurer, and Ed-
ward S. Salomon, who afterwards served with distinction in the
Civil War, was brevetted to the rank of Brigadier-General, and
later served for four years as Governor of Washington Terri-
tory (1871-74), was its first secretary. Salomon was elected
Clerk of Cook County in 1861.^
The oldest Jewish congregation in Illinois outside of Chicago
is that of Peoria, surnamed Anshe Emet, which was organized
in i860.
In the neighboring State of Indiana, which was admitted to
the Union in 18 16, Jews began to settle about the same time as
ill Illinois, and there are four communities which date back to
the period before the Civil War. The oldest Jewish congre-
gation in the state is the Achdut we-Sholom of Fort Wayne,
which was instituted in 1848. The Congregation Ahawat
Achim of Lafayette is but one year younger, while the congre-
gation of Evansville dates from about the same time. The first
Jewish settlers in Indianapolis, the capital, which now had tlie
largest community, were Moses Woolf, and Alexander and
Daniel Franco, who came there from England in 1849. A fam-
ily of Hungarian Jews named Knefler arrived soon afterwards.
Adolph Rosenthal and Dr. J. M. Rosenthal came in 1854, and
Flerman Bamberger, who later became a leading merchant, ar-
rived in 1855. The first congregation was organized in 1856,
but more than a decade passed until it was housed in its own
building.
Jewish immigrants also soon penetrated west of Illinois, into
^ See H. Eliassof, The Jews of Chicago, in "Publications," XI, which
also appeared separately.
Iowa and Minnesota. 153
that part of the Louisiana Purchase which was orofanized as the
Iowa Territory in 1838. Its pioneer Jew was Alexander Levi
(b. in France, 1809) who arrived to this country in 1833 and
kept a store in Dubuque in 1836. He was the first foreigner to
be naturalized in Iowa, and was a justice of the peace in 18^6.
A Mr. Samuel Jacobs was surveyor of Jefferson County in 1840,
and Nathan Louis and Solomon Fine are mentioned as peddlers
in Fort Madison in 1841. They settled in Keokuk and later in
McGregor, both of which places had a number of Jews in those
early days. It is stated (see Glazer, The Jezvs of lozva, Des
Moines, 1905) that about one hundred Jewish peddlers arrived
in Iowa in the decade following its admission as a state (1846).
Burlington and Keokuk were the centers for peddlers, who were
mostly from Poland and Russia, while most of the German Jews
preferred Davenport, which was largely settled by Germans.
According tO' the above-mentioned authority, the first minyaii
was held in Keokuk in '1855, on Passover, and in that year the
Tews of that place organized a society which later became the
Congregation B'nai Israel. In Davenport a congregation having
the same name was organized in 1861, which is still in existence.
Among those who participated in public affairs was William
Krouse (b. about 1823), who arrived in Iowa in 1843, and fur-
thered the movement to remove the capital from Iowa City to
Fort Des Moines, where he resided. He was the founder and
one of the directors of the first public school in that city. His
brother Robert was one of the earliest settlers of Davenport.
Farther to the north, there were only individual Jewish
traders in Minnesota before the Civil War, and the three
brothers Samuels, from England, who had an Indian trading
post at Taylor Falls, on the Minnesota side of the St. Croix
River, seem to have been the first Jewish settlers in that state.
Morris Samuels, a captain in the Union army, was one of them.
Isaac Marks, who resided in Mankato about that time, had a
trading post near that place. About 1857 some Jews came to
St. Paul and engaged in general business, which likewise con-
154 History of the Jews in America.
sisted mostly in trading with the Indians. But there was no
communal organization there or in any other part of the state
until about fifteen years afterwards.
There is a record of one Jew who resided in Green Bay, Wis-
consin, as early as 1792. His name was Jacob Franks (see
"Publications," IX, p. 151, ff.). But we know little of other
Jews there prior to the time of its admission to the Union in
1848. Shortly afterward the Congregation Bene Yeshurun was
organized in Milwaukee by Lobl Rindskopf, Leopold Newbauer,
Emanuel Silverman and others. Alexander Lasker and Mar-
cus Heiman were its first cantors, in the order named. Isidor
Kalish, M. Folk, Elias Epstein and Emanuel Gerechter later
succeeded one another as rabbis.
Still farther to the north, Michigan, which became a state
eleven years before AVisconsin, received its first Jewish settlers
about the same time. About a dozen families of Bavarian Jews
settled in Detroit in 1848. According to an account written
by Dr. Leo M. Franklin (b. in Cambridge City, Ind., 1870; rabbi
of Temple Bet El, Detroit, since 1899), it was due to Isaac
Cozens, and more especially to his wife, Sophie, with whom he
arrived in Detroit from New York about 1850, that the Bet El
Society was established in that year. In April, 1851, steps
were taken to incorporate the congregation by "the undersigned
Isfaelites of the City of Detroit for the purpose of forming a
society to provide themselves a place of public worship, teachers
of their religion and a burial ground, and give such society the
name of Congregation 'Bet El'." The signatures attached to
the petition for incorporation are those of Jacob Silberman, Solo-
mon Bendit (d. in St. Clair, Mich., 1902), Joseph Friedman,
Max Cohen, Adam Hirsch, Alex. Hein, Jacob Long, Aaron
Joel Friedlander, Louis Bresler and C. F. Bresler ; an exact min-
yan, or the minimum number, required for the formation of a
synagogue. Like most congregations of that period. Bet El
was Orthodox in its ritual, but it was not long before the Re-
form spirit began to create divisions in the community. In 1861
California. 155
n large number of the members withdrew because of the intro-
duction of an organ and a mixed choir into the synagogue, and
they formed the Congregation Shnare Zedek, of which Rev. A.
j\I. Hershman is now the rabbi. The first rabbi of Congregation
Bet El was Rev. Samuel Marcus, and he was followed by a
number of well known ralibis, including Liebman Adler, Isidor
Kalish. Kaufman Kohler, Henry Zirndorf and Louis Grossman.
A large number of Jews crossed the continent or came by
boats from various parts of the world, along with the heavy tide
of travel towards the Pacific Coast, when the discoveries of gold
in California in 1849 Ijegan to attract great multitudes. There
was a miiiyan in San Francisco on Yom Ivippur of that year
in a tent owned by Louis Franklin. Among those who partici-
pated were H. Joseph and Joel Xoah, a brother of Alordecai M.
Noah. The organization of the Jewish community was com-
pleted between July and October of the following year, when
two congregations came into existence about the same time. The
Shearit Israel congregation, which comprised the Polish and Eng-
lish elements, was organized in August, 1850, under the leader-
ship of Israel Solomons. The Germans and Americans united in
the Congregation Emanuel, the name of whose president, Eman-
uel J\I. Berg, is signed on a contract dated September i, 1850, for
the renting of a room on Bush street, below Montgomery, as a
place of worship. About a dozen "mining congregations"
sprang up in as many different places in California in the fol-
lowing ten years ; Sonora had a Hebrew Benevolent Society as
early as 185 1 ; Stockton, a Congregation Re'im Ahubim in 1853.
In Los Angeles the founding of a benevolent society was brought
about by Carvalho, a Sephardic Jew, who was a member of
General Fremont's expedition. Religious services were held
there in 1852. In Nevada City a Hebrew Society was organ-
ized in 1855, which numbered twenty members about two years
later. In Jackson a congregation was organized for the autumn
holidays in 1856, and it erected the first synagogue in the min-
ino- districts. The building still stands, but it is used for other
155 History of the Jews in America.
purposes, as the Jews have left the place long ago. Fiddletown,
Grass Valley, Shasta, Folsom, Marysville and Jesu Maria all
had temporary congregations which did not long survive the
"gold fever." (See "Jewish Encyclopedia," s. v., California.)
Sacramento is the only place in the state outside of San Francisco
which has Jewish organizations — a congregation and two soci-
eties, which originated in this period.
A majority of the Jews from the mining communities who
did not return to the East finally drifted into San Francisco,
which from the beginning had the largest and most important
Jewish community of the Pacific Coast. The foremost among
the Jews who attained eminence in the new state, which was
admitted into the Union in 1850, was Solomon Heydenfeldt
(b. in Charleston, S. C, in 1816; d. in San Francisco, 1890).
He removed to Alabama at the age of twenty-one, where he
was admitted to the bar and practiced law for a number of years
in Tallapoosa County. He was obliged tO' leave the state on ac-
count of his views on the slavery question, and came to San
Francisco in 1850. He was elected Associate Justice of the Su-
preme Court of California two years later and held the office with
distinction from 1852 to 1857. His brother Elkan and Isaac
Cardozo were members of the Legislature of California in 1852,
while another Jew, Henry A. Lyons, was also a member of the
Supreme Court of the state about that time. A. C. Labatt, one
of the pioneers, was an alderman of San Francisco in 185 1,
v.-hen Samuel Marx was United States appraiser of the port and
Joseph Shannon was county treasurer. Many Jews who began
their careers in San Francisco later became eminent merchants
and financiers, like the four brothers Seligman, the three brothers
Lazard, the Glaziers ard the AVormsers, all of whom settled
later in New York. Michael Reese, one of the extensive realty
brokers ; Moritz Friedlander, who later became one of the largest
grain dealers in the country; and Adolph Sutro, the engineer,
were also among those whose modest beginnings belong to
that period. To the same class belong also Louis SIoss and
Portland, Oregon. 157
Lewis Gerstle, who later founded the Alaska Commercial
Company.
\A'hat may be considered as an overflow of the Jewish immi-
gration to California reached Oregon about a decade before it
attained statehood in 1859. Most of the first Jewish settlers,
who originally came from various parts of Southern Germany,
arrived in Oregon from New York and other eastern states by
way of Panama and California, and settled principally in Port-
land. Its first congregation. Bet Israel, was organized in 1858,
the founders being Leopold Mayer, M. Mansfield, B. Simon,
Abraham Frank, Jacob Mayer, H. F Bloch, Samuel Levy and
others. Rev. H. Bories was the first Hazan and Rev. Dr. Julius
Eckman the first rabbi and preacher. He was succeeded by
Rev. Dt. Isaac Schwab, who later went to St. Joseph, Mo. A
burial society, or cemetery association, was organized some time
before and the first benevolent society about a year later. The Jew-
ish community of Portland has practically remained the only one
in the state to this day, and though not large numerically, it
has been from the beginning one of the most influential and
important of the Jewish communities of the country. A pro-
portionately larger number of Portland Jews have been elevated
to high positions in the service of the city, state and nation than
those of any other community. But they mostly belong to a later
period which will be treated in a subsequent part of this work.
CHAPTER XX
THE JEWS IN THE EARLY HISTORY OF TEXAS. THE MEXICAN
WAR.
The first settler in 1821 — Adolphus Sterne, who fought against Mexico
and later served in the Texan Congress — David S. Kaufman — Sur-
geon-General Levj' in the army of Sam Houston — A Jew as the first
meat "packer" in America — Alajor Leon Dyer and his brother Isa-
dore — Mayor Seeligsohn of Galveston (1853) — One Jew laid out
Waco; Castro County is named after another — Belated communal
and religious activities — The War with Mexico, in which only a
small number of Jews served — David Camden de Leon and his
brother Edwin, U. S. Consul-General in Egypt.
The history of the Jews of Texas begins at the time when the
largest state of the American Union was still a part of ^lexico.
The first Jewish settler of whom any record is preserved was
Samuel Isaacs, who came there from the United States in 1821
with Austin's first colony of three hundred. He received a Span-
ish grant of land as a colonist, and is later mentioned once more
as the recipient of a bounty warrant for 320 acres of land, lo-
cated in Polk county, for services in the arm)' of Texas in
[836-37. When Abraham Cohen Uabatt (b. in Charleston, S.
C, in 1802; d. in Texas after 1894), who has been mentioned in
the preceding chapter, visited Velasco, Texas, in 1831, he found
there two Jews — Jacob Henry from England and Jacob Lyors
from Charleston — who had been there for some years engaged
in business. When the former of the two died without issue he
left his fortune for the building of a hospital at that seaport
158
Sterne and Kaufman in Texas. 159
Adolphus Sterne (b. in Cologne, Germany, i8oi; d. in New
Orleans, 1852) was one of the first settlers in Nacogdoches, in
the eastern portion of Texas, where he came from New Or-
leans in 1824. He knew several European languages and soon
mastered various Indian dialects, which made him very useful
to the insurgents against Mexican rule, whose cause he espoused.
He was sentenced to death for his share in the Fredonian war
against Mexico. He was saved by a general amnesty which had
been declared by that time, and took an oath of allegiance to the
INIexican government, which he kept faithfully until Texas be-
came an independent republic in 1836. After having been Al-
calde and official interpreter' under the old order, he served in
both the upper and the lower houses of the Texas Congress.
Dr. Joseph Hertz came with his brother Hyman to Nacogdoches
about 1832; Simon Schloss (b. in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1812)
came there in 1836. David S. Kaufman (b. in Cumberland
County, Pa., in 1813: d. in W'ashington, D. C, 1851), a grad-
uate of Princeton College, came there from Louisiana in 1837.
In 1838 he was elected a Representative in the Texas Congress;
was twice re-elected and was twice chosen Speaker of the House.
In 1843 he was elected to the Senate, where, in 1844, as a mem-
ber of the Committee on Foreign Relations, he presented a
leport in favor of annexation to the United States. When this
plan was carried out he was elected one of the first members of
the House of Representatives from Texas, serving from 1846
until his death five years afterwards. Albert Emanuel (b. 1808)
came there from Germany in 1834, and was one of the first vol-
unteers in the Texas army, serving in the battle of San Jacinto.
He later settled in New Orleans, where he died in 185 1. Samuel
]\Iass (who married a sister of Offenbach, the composer) and
Simon Weiss were two other natives of Germany who settled in
Nacogdoches about that time. Four Jews are known to have
fought at Goliad under Fannin (March 26, 1836), one of whom,
Edward J. Johnson (b. in Cincinnati, O., 1816) was slain, to-
gether with his chief, after the surrender to the Mexicans.
160 History of the Jews in America.
Moses Albert Levy served as surgeon-general in Sam Hous-
ton's army throughout the Texas-Mexican war. Dr. Isaac
Lyons, of Charleston, served as surgeon-general under General
Tom' Green in the war of 1836. Among other Jews who ren-
dered notable service to the Republic of Texas were the brothers
Leon and Isadore Dyer, natives of Germany, who, at an earhr
age, came with their parents to Baltimore, where the older
Dyer founded a meat-packing establishment, which is said to
have been the first in America. Leon Dyer (b. 1807; d. in
Louisville, Ky., J883), who settled in New Orleans, was quarter-
master-general of the state militia of Louisiana in 1836, when
Texas called for aid in her struggle for independence. With
several hundred other citizens of New Orleans, he responded,
and, coming to Galveston, he received a commission as major in
the Texas forces, signed by the first President, Burnett. The
Louisiana contingent was assigned to the force of General Green,
and saw much active service. Major Dyer also served on the
guard which took General Santa Anna, the captive President
of Mexico, from Galveston to Washington in the following year.
His brother, Isadore Dyer (b. 1813; d. in Waukesha, Wis.,
1888), settled in Galveston as a merchant in 1840, and was one
of its public spirited citizens. He was one of the earliest grand
masters of the Order of Odd Fellows in Texas. The first Jew-
ish religious services in Galveston were held at his house in 1856.
Henry Seeligsohn (b. in Philadelphia, 1828; d. 1886) came
to Texas in 1839, and was elected first lieutenant of the Gal-
veston Cadets, an organization composed of young boys, which
rendered efficient service. Plis father was Michael Seeligsohn
(d. 1868), who was elected Mayor of Galveston in 1853. Levi
Myers (sometimes also called Levi Charles or Qiarles Levi)
Harby (b. in Georgetown, S. C, 1793; d. in Galveston, 1870),
who was a midshipman in the United States Navy in 1812 and
was taken prisoner by the British, also participated in the Texan
war of independence. A. Wolf was killed in the battle of Ala-
mo in 1836, and his name is inscribed on the Alamo monument at
De Cordova and Castro. 161
Austin. Jacob de Cordova (b. in Spanish Town, Jamaica, 1808;
d. in Texas, 1868) removed to Galveston from New Orleans in
1837 and was the founder of several newspapers, represented
Harris county in the Texas Legislature in 1847, and laid out
the city of Waco in 1849. Henry Castro (b. in France, 1786;
d. in Monterey, Mexico, 1861), a descendant of a wealthy Mar-
rano family, entered, in 1842, into a contract with President Sam
Houston of Texas to settle a colony west of the Medina. Hous-
ton also appointed him consul-general in France for the Repub-
lic of Texas. Between 1843 ^nd 1846 Castro sent to Texas about
5,000 emigrants from the Rhenish provinces, who settled in the
towns of Castroville, Ouihi, Vandenburgh and O'Harris. Castro
county, in northwest Texas, was named in honor of this early
promoter of immigration to Texas, who sank large sums in the
venture.
There was little communal and religious activity in the stir-
ring times of the early development of Texas, and the first com-
munal organizations appeared a considerable time after Jews set-
tled in some localities. The first Jewish cemetery in Texas was
established in Houston in 1844, where the first synagogue in the
state was built exactly ten years later. The Jews of Galveston
acquired their first burial ground in 1852 ; religious services
were held since Yom Kippur 1856, but no congregation was
organized until twelve years later. In San Antonio almost
twenty years passed between the acquisition of a cemetery
(1854) and the organization of the first congregation. All the
other Jewish communities in the rapidly growing state date their
foundation from a later period.'
The war with Mexico, which began in 1846, was the least pop-
ular of all the wars in which the United States has engaged,
' See the papers contributed by Rev. Henry Cohen, of Galveston,
Tex,, to the "Publications," Vols. II, IV, V, on the Jews of Texas (the
last being on Henry Castro) and his article "Texas" in the Jewish En-
cyclopedia, Vol. XII.
162 History of the Jews in America.
and this probably accounts for the small number of Jews who
volunteered to participate in what was practically' an attack on a
weak neighbor. The number of Jews in the country was now
more than ten times as large as in the time of the wars with
England ; but there are only about a dozen more names in the
list of the Jewish soldiers of the Mexican war (in the above-men-
tioned work of Mr. Simon \A'olf) than in the list of the year
1812. New York now had the largest Jewish community, and
was represented by no less than fifteen in that small band of less
than sixty, in which there was only one from Pennsylvania
(Gabriel Dropsie, Co. E, ist Regiment), one from New Jersey
(Sergeant Alexander B. AA^einberg) and five from ^laryland.
The others were mostly from the South, a large proportion of
them having participated in the earlier struggle between Texas
and Mexico.
The most prominent Jewish soldier of the Mexican war was
David Camden de Leon (b. in South Carolina, 1813; d. in Santa
Fe, N. M., 1872). He graduated as a physician from the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1836 and two years later entered the
United States army as an assistant surgeon. He served with dis-
tinction in the Seminole war of 1835-42, which was the
most bloody and stubborn of all wars against Indian tribes.
For several years afterwards he was stationed on the Western
frontier. He served throughout the Mexican war and was pres-
ent at most of the battles. At Chapultepec he earned the sobri-
quet of "the Fighting Doctor," and on two occasions led a charge
of cavalry after the commanding officer had been killed or
wounded. He twice received the thanks of Congress for his dis-
tinguished services and for his gallantry in action. He was after-
wards again assigned to frontier duty, and in 1856 became sur-
geon, with the rank of major. Like most Southern officers in the
regular army, de Leon resigned his commission at the outbreak
of the Civil war and joined the Confederacy, for whose govern-
m.ent he organized the medical department, becoming its first
surgeon-general. Edwin de Leon (b. in Columbus, S. C, 1818;
Jews in the Mexican War. 163
d. 1891), the journalist and author, who was appointed by Presi-
dent Pierce consul-general to Egypt, and was later a confidential
agent of the Confederate States in Europe, was a brother of
David C. de Leon.
Leon Dyer and Henry Seeligsohn, whose participation in the
struggles of Texas was described at the beginning of this chap-
ter, also served as officers in the war with Mexico. The names
of Captain Michael Styfft, who served on the staff of General
Zachary Taykir, and of Lieutenant-Colonel Israel Moses, who
was promoted from the rank of assistant-surgeon, have also been
preserved. Among those who were killed in action was Sergeant
Abraham Adler of the New York Volunteers.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT.
Political liberalism and religious radicalism of the German Jewish im-
migrant — The struggle with Orthodoxy hardly more than an an-
imated controversy — No attempt made here by the Temple to swal-
low the Synagogue, as was the case in Germany — The first Reform-
ers of Charleston, S. C. — Isaac Leeser, the conservative leader, the
first to make a serious effort to adjust Judaism to American sur-
roundings — Dr. Max Lilienthal — Isaac M. Wise, the energetic or-
ganizer of Reform Judaism — Dr. David Einhorn — Dr. Samuel Adler
— Bernhard Felsenthal — Samuel Hirsch.
The Jewish immigrants, who were penetrating into various
parts of the country in that period, formed only a portion of the
new arrivals. The bulk of them, as in later times, remained in
the East, principally in New York City, where not less than ten
new congregations were established in the second cjuarter of the
nineteenth century. While the proportion of those unaffiliated
with a synagogue was probably smaller then than it is now, the
tendency to establish very small synagogues was also less, so
that the existence of a dozen congregations in New York about
the year 1850 may denote a larger Jewish population at that
time than an equal or even a larger number would imply at the
present time. It would also not be safe to insist that there were
not at that time in existence several congregations whose names
were not preserved on account of their insignificance or for other
reasons.
The German element, which predominated in this second period
of Jewish immigration, was mostly under the influence of the
164
Influence of German Liberalism. 165
liberalism, which was then prevalent in Germany. But the polit-
ical liberal of central Europe at that time found in the United
States all, and in some respects more than, he was striving for
in the Old Country, including- that national unity which was then
only a pious dream in Germany. Aside from the question of
slavery, which was not yet acute in the North at the beginning of
that period, the German liberal found here all his ideals realized :
perfect equality for all white men without distinction of creed or
rationality; absolute freedom of speech and of the press; more
individual liberty and better opportunities for work, for trade and
for enterprise than could be thought of in the localities from
which he came. It was natural for most of them to sympathize
with the abolitionist movement, and later they were among the
first to join the newly formed Republican party. But even the
political radical or revolutionary of the other side of the ocean
had little to object to in the democracy which he found here
iaWy developed, and he soon became a patriotic, and to some ex-
tent a conservative, American citizen.
It was different in regard to the religious liberalism or radi-
calism which was then occupying the minds of the Jews of Ger-
many. The conditions in that country made religious reform one
of the burning questions of the day among them ; some saw in
its adoption a sure means of obtaining the much coveted political
emancipation, while others thought it the only protection against
the frightfully increasing number of conversions which were then
occurring. Orthodox Judaism was certainly losing ground in
Germany at that time, and it was difficult to foresee where it would
stop or how much of it would remain. Wherever there was a strug-
gle between the old order of things in religious matters and the
new, the latter was certain to prevail. Within a few decades
the real old style Orthodoxy almost totally disappeared from
most parts of Germany, retaining a foothold only in the province
of Posen and in isolated localities like Mayence a'xl Frankfort -on-
the-Main. Elsewhere even those who did not join the extreme
reformers adopted a conservatism which was far from the old
166 History of the Jews in America.
Orthodoxy. The bulwark of Orthodoxy — the poor Jewish
masses — was itself disappearing : the old style rabbis who sur-
vived were in despair, and when they died modern German
preachers were chosen to fill their places. It seemed as if the
temple was swallowing the synagogue, and the religious radical
v.'as victorious decades before the political radical obtained even
a part of what he desired.
The conditions in this country were entirely different. Eman-
cipation had been achieved, and there was practically no Jewish
question as far as the outside world was concerned. There were
no wholesale desertions from the camp of Judaism, but that slow
drifting away of a part of- the wealthier class, which is not an
unusual phenomenon wherever and whenever there is no legal
restriction or stubborn prejudice to prevent gradual assimilation.
There was also a steady replenishment, or rather an augmenta-
tion, of the poorer Orthodox classes, among whom the Polish
and Russian element was steadily increasing, a prejudice which
is almost national keeping them apart from the Germans, who were
rapidly advancing in wealth, social and political position, as well
as in religious radicalism. The old American element which re-
mained true to traditional Judaism, the considerable part of the
Germans who would not accept reform, and the masses of later
arrivals, gave to Orthodox Judaism in America a strength which
it never possessed in Germany after the close of the eighteenth
century. The steady increase in immigration from the Slavic
countries easily filled up the places of those whose improved ma-
terial and social condition caused them to drop out of the ranks
cf the Orthodox; just as those who rose to wealth and joined the
leformers filled up the places left vacant by those who advanced
beyond Reform Judaism into that complete assimilation into
which it must lead those of its devotees who emphasize its pro-
gressive side and neglect the eternal and historical sides.
These conditions reduced the struggle between Orthodoxy and
Reform to something hardly above an animated controversy in
the denominational periodicals, and its historical value consists
Religious Radicalism. 167
chiefly as an indicator of material progress. There was no class-
struggle between the wealthy Jews and their poorer brethren who
came after them in increasingly larger numbers, and there was
no real conflict between the former's and the latter's religious
views for the same reason. Accession to the ranks of wealth
usually meant affihation with a Reform congregation, where the
poor man could not afford to join and would not be welcome if
he came. Whi)e several of the young enthusiasts who came over
permeated with the fighting spirit of the German reformers
might have thought at the beginning of continuing the struggle
in the Old-World fashion until the "enemy" was annihilated, it
did not take them long to discover the futility of such efforts.
1 he task of Reform Judaism in America was plainly not to con-
Cjuer the Orthodox synagogue or to win recruits from the ranks'
of those who wished to remain faithful to traditional Judaism,
but to enroll under its banner the affluent American or Ameri-
canized Jews who were on the point of drifting away altogether.
The view of the extremely conservative, who considered these re-
formers as already lost to Judaism, has been shared by a large
majority of the Jews of the United States for the last sixty or
seventy years. But aside from condemning public declarations
which were ofl'ensive to the Orthodox spirit and which were occa-
sionally made by reformed bodies or by their conspicuous repre-
sentatives, the Orthodox masses have, as usual, displayed more
fortitude than aggressiveness in religious matters. This accounts
for the presence of numerous leaders, agitators and organizers in
the Reform camp, where newly assumed positions had to be de-
fended to one's own satisfaction even if there was no formidable
attack; while Orthodoxy easily held its own by force of increas-
ing numbers, even if its tenacity was relaxed by the stress of
circumstances.
The autonomy of congregation, whi:.! is a characteristic fea-
ture of new Jewish settlements, and which remained permanently
in a country where there are no general laws about religion and
no special relations with the government to force on the Jews
168 History of the Jews in America.
official representatives, was also favorable to the spread of Re-
fonu. Still, the first attempt which was made in Charleston,
S. C, in 1824, to imitate the Reform movement of Germany wa.s
a failure. The "Reformed Society of Israelites," which was estab-
lished there in that year by twelve former members of the Con-
gregation Eet Elohim, who left the latter religious body because
a memorial for the reformation of the ritual was rejected by
the vestry without discussion, had but a brief existence. But
Charleston was losing its comparative importance and was at-
tracting less Jewish immigration than the northern seaport com-
munities. So there was a continual drifting away into^ indif-
ference, and when a new synagogue was built to replace the one
which was destroyed by the great conflagration of 1838, the pe-
tition of thirty-eight members that an organ be placed in the new
structure, was granted. There was again a split in the congre-
gation, which did not become united until it was greatly reduced
by the ravages of the Civil War.
It was the rabbi of the Charleston congregation (Gustav Poz-
nanski), a man imbued with the spirit of the Reform Temple of
Hamburg, who decided, as an authority on Jewish matters, that
an organ in the synagogue was permissible according to religious
liuW. Tliis is typical of numerous later cases in which an autono-
n:ous congregation, subject to no other religious authority and
not connected with any other religious body, accepted the author-
ity of its own rabbi to modify its ritual and its religious practices
in accordance with his personal views or inclinations. Several
other "Reform Vereine" in the East and the Middle West had a
more lasting success, because they obtained able and energetic
leaders from among the young German scholars who came over
at that time, and who were, so to speak, in duty bound to con-
tinue the spread of Reform in their new home. But curiously
enough, and perhaps emblematic of the ultimate course of Ameri-
can Judaism, the first real and successful attempt to adjust Ju-
daism to its surroundings in the United States was not made
by an adherent of the Reform movement, but by its strongest and
Rabbi Isaac Leeser
169
Rabbi Isaac Leeser. 171
ablest opponent which this country has developed. Long before
the new leaders of that movement arrived and began to spread
tlieir ideas and ideals in the German language, there arose a
vig-orous and diligent pioneer who introduced the English ser-
mon in the American synagogue, who established the first in-
fluential Jewish periodical, a man whose strong intellect and or-
ganizing abilities left their impress on the Jewish community of
the entire country — Rabbi Isaac Leeser.
He was born in Neuenkirchen, Prussia, in 1806, and received
his secular education in the gymnasium of Miinster. But he was
i-lso instructed in Hebrew and was well versed in several tractates
of the Talmud, when he left for the United States at the age of
eighteen. He came to this country in May, 1824, and settled
in Richmond, Va., being employed in the business of his uncle,
Zalma Rehine, for the following five years. He went to a school
for a short time, but studied much in his leisure hours, increasing
not only his secular knowledge but also his acquaintance with
Jewish lore. He early evinced interest in religious affairs, and
was soon assisting Rev. Isaac B. Seixas (1782-1839), of the
Portuguese Congregation of Richmond, in teaching religious
classes. In 1828 an article in the "London Quarterly" reflect-
irg on the Jews was answered by Leeser in the columns of the
"Richmond Whig" and attracted considerable attention on ac-
count of its excellence. This ultimately led to his being elected
Minister of Congregation Mickweh Israel in Philadelphia in
[829.
He came to Philadelphia in that year and resided there for
the remainder of his life. Pie preached his first English sermon
in 1830 and in the same year appeared his translation of Johlson's
"Instruction in the Mosaic Religion." In the following ten years
appeared several volumes of his articles and discourses, a Hebrew,
Spelling Book, and a Catechism. In T843 he established "The
Occident and American Jewish Advocate," which he edited for
twenty-five years, until his death, when it was continued for one
year longer by Mr. (now Judge) Mayer Sulzberger, who had
172 History of the Jews in America.
latterly assisted Rabbi Leeser in its direction. In 1845 appeared
his translation of the Bible, which "became an authorized version
for the Jews of America." Besides writing, editing and trans-
lating, he visited various parts of the United States, where he
lectured on divers topics relating to Judaism, always advocating
and spreading that enlightened conservatism for which he con-
sistently stood all his life.
The Hebrew Education Society, the Board of Hebrew Minis-
ters, and the Jewish Hospital of Philadelphia owe their founda-
tion to his active efforts; and he also advocated a union of all
the Jewish charities of that city, which was consummated some
years after his decease. The Board of Delegates of American
Israelites, the first American Jewish Publication Society and the
Maimonides College (of which he was the first president) were
also created mostly through his influence.
After serving twenty-one years at the Mickweh Israel syna-
gogue. Rabbi Leeser retired in 1850 and held no clerical positioa
until 1857, when the Bet El Emet Congregation was organized
by a number of his friends. He became its rabbi, continuing until
his death, on February i, 1868. The opinion that he was "the
n'ost distinguished of Hebrew spiritual guides in this country"^
IS hardly exaggerated.
The first among the prominent leaders of the Reform move-
ment to arrive in this country was Dr. Max Lilienthal (b. in
Munich, Bavaria, 1815; d. in Cincinnati, O., 1882). He played
an important part in the attempt of the Russian Government to
spread secular knowdedge among the Jews of that country by
drastic means; but when he seemed to be at the height of his
career he suddenly left Russia under circumstances which have
never been thoroughly explained, and came to the United States
in 1845. Settling in New York he first became the rabbi of the
Congregation Anshe Chesed on Norfolk street, and later of
Sha'ar ha-Shomayyim, on Attorney street. These were Ortho-
' Henry S. Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia, p. 45.
Dr. Isaac M. "Wise.
173
Lilienthal and Wise. 175
dox congregations, and there was considerable friction between
the religious members and the rabbi, who was inclined towards
Reform. He gave up the rabinate in 1850 and established an
educational institute, at the same time becoming one of the most
active spirits in the "Verein der Lichtfreunde," a society formed
in 1849 for the discussion and spreading of the teachings of Re-
iorm. In 1855 ^^ was elected rabbi of the Congregation Bene
Israel, of Cincinnati, O., and held the position until his death.
He wrote many articles and several works of prose and poetry,
both in German and in English, and was an active communal
worker, a teacher, and even participated in the municipal affairs
of Cincinnati, serving as a member of the Board of Education, as
a director of the Relief Union and of the univci ^ity board. But
he was eclipsed and practically reduced to the position of assist-
ant to the man who surpassed him as a leader and organizer, and
who became the recognized head of the reformed Jews of the
West.
This man was Isaac Mayer Wise (b. in Bohemia, 1819; d. in
Cincinnati, 1900), who came to this country in the summer of
1846 and after a brief stay in New York became the rabbi of
Congregation Bet El of Albany (organized 1838), the first, and
then the only, congregation of that city. He had received an old-
fashioned rabbinical education at home, but he soon developed
here into a radical reformer and introduced in his synagogue
many novel features and practices, often in the face of strong
opposition. A split in the community followed, in 1850, and his
followers organized a new congregation, the Anshe Emet, of
which he remained rabbi for four years. In 1854 he was chosen
rabbi of Congregation Bene Yeshurun in Cincinnati, and held the
position for the remaining forty-six years of his life. He estab-
lished there "The Israelite" (now "The American Israelite")
soon after his arrival in Cincinnati, and through this organ he
advocated, with much energy, his ideas of Reform and the plans
of organization which he succeeded in carrying out, after many
failures and setbacks, about twenty years later, when the time
176 History of the Jews in America.
for unification and organization had arrived. He also established,
in 1855, a German weekly, the "Deborah," by means of which he
reached a part of the Jewish public which did not read English.
He wrote much for his periodicals, and was also the author of
numerous books on theological and historical subjects, and also
several novels, and even two plays (in German). But his chief
strength was his ability as an organizer. The Union of American
Hebrew Congregations, the Hebrew Union College (opened
1875) and the Central Conference of American Rabbis (organ-
ized 1889) owe their existence to him.
David Einhorn (b. in Bavaria, 1809; d. in New York, 1879),
who came to America in his mature years, had played a some-
what prominent part in the Reform movement in Germany, where
he held several important rabbinical positions. His scholarly at-
tainments were of a high order; but he was even more radical
than Wise and Lilienthal, whom he strongly opposed soon after
his arrival to this country in 1855. He became in that year the
rabbi of Har Sinai Congregation in Baltimore, Md. (organized
in 1843), '^''"i soon afterward he began to issue there a monthly
magazine in German under the name of "Sinai," in which he ad-
vocated his views of Reform. In 1861 Einhorn was compelled
to leave Baltimore on account of his anti-slavery views, which
he courageously expressed despite the local sympathy with the
South. He went to Philadelphia, where he became rabbi of
Kenesset Israel, removing to New York in 1866, where he became
tl.e rabbi of Congregation Adath Yeshurun, a position which he
held until a short time before his death. In later years he be-
came reconciled to his former opponents in the Reform camp,
and was the leading spirit in the rabbinical conference which was
held in Philadelphia in 1869.
Dr. Samuel Adler (b. in Worms, Germany, 1809; d. in New
York, 1891) was a preacher and assistant rabbi in his native city
until 1842, when he became rabbi of Alzey, Rhine Hesse, and
remained there about fifteen years. He also participated in the
rabbinical conferences in Germany, in which the Reform move-
Adler, Gottheil and Felsenthal. 177
ment was to some extent systematized; and he was considered
one of its representatives there when he was called, in 1857, 10
bcome rabbi of Congregation Emanuel of New York. This was
the first avowedly Reform congregation in the city, and has since
become the wealthiest Jewish congregation in the country. It
was organized in 1845. Its first place of worship was a private
house on the corner of Clinton and Grand streets, and its first
rabbi-preacher, L. Merzbacher (d. 1856) began his duties at a
salary of $2CO per annum. Dr. Adler was brought as his suc-
cessor, and held the position until he was retired as rabbi emeritus
in 1874, being succeeded by Dr. Gustav Gottheil (b. in Pinne,
Prussian-Poland, 1827; d. in New York, 1903). Adler was in
his time practically the only Reform rabbi in New York, and
neither his disposition, which was that of a scholarly retired man,
nor the local circumstances, which were influenced by the fact
that the Poles and Russians had a large majority even in the
supposedly German period, were favorable to the spread of Re-
form. He was the possessor of a large library of rabbinica,
which was after his death presented by his family to the Hebrew
Union College. Dr. Felix Adler (b. in Alzey, 1851), the founder
of the Society for Ethical Culture, is his second son.
The last of the American pioneer Reform rabbis whose activi-
ties date back to the time before the outbreak of the Civil War
was Bernhard Felsenthal (b. in German}^, 1822; d. in Chicago,
1908). ^^l^iIe originally intended for a secular career, he was
a thorough Talmudical scholar, and for a decade before he came
to this country (in 1854) he was a teacher in a Jewish congrega-
tional school. After three years spent in Madison, Ind., as rabbi
and teacher, he removed to Chicago, where he became an em-
ployee of a Jewish banking firm. In 1858 the Jiidische Reform-
verein of Chicago was formed, with Felsenthal as its secretary
and guiding spirit. In the following year he published a pam-
phlet in favor of Reform which attracted much attention : and two
years later, after the Reformverein developed into Sinai Con-
gregation, he became its first rabbi. In 1864 he took charge of
178 History of the Jews in America.
Zion Congregation, the second Reform congregation of Chicago,
and held the position until he was retired as rabbi emeritus, in
1887. While he was theoretically an extreme radical in religious
matters, his extensive knowledge of rabbinical literature and his
love for Jewish learning, added to his generous disposition and
real affection for Jewish scholars of the old type, helped to make
his relations with the Orthodox Jews more pleasant than in the
case of other representative rabbis of his class. He was prob-
ably the only Reform rabbi in this country who was really be-
loved among the masses of the immigrants from the Slavic coun-
tries, and he thus exemplified a possibility of a better understand-
ing between the different wings of American Judaism, which was
tlien, and partly still is, by many considered difficult of accom-
plishment.
Samuel Hirsch (b. in Rhenish Prussia, 1815; d. in Chicago,
1889) belonged to this group, although he did not arrive in
America until 1866, after having served as chief rabbi of Luxem-
bourg for nearly a quarter of a century. He succeeded David
Einhorn in Philadelphia, where he remained for twenty-two
years. After retiring from the ministry he removed to Chicago,
where he spent his last days with his son. Dr. Emil G. Hirsch (b.
in Luxembourg, 1852), the eminent preacher and professor of
rabbinical literature at the University of Chicago. Samuel
Hirsch belonged to the extreme wing of radical reformers, and
was one of the first to advocate the holding of special services in
the Temple on Sunday. His chief work was written in Germany,
"Die Religionsphilosophie der Juden" (Leipsic, 1842), of which
only one part appeared. It is an effort to explain Judaism from
the Hegelian point of view, but as it was written long before he
arrived in this country, it has no interest for American Jewish
history except, perhaps, as an instance of the influence of the Ger-
man method of abstract theorizing on the uncompromising rad-
ical pioneers of the American Reform movement.
CHAPTER XXII.
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM AND ITS STAND AGAINST REFORM.
"The poor Jews of Elm street and the rich Jews of Crosby street" —
Rabbis Samuel M. Isaacs, Morris J. Raphall and Jacques J. Lyons —
Sabato Morais — Kalish and Hiibsch, the moderate reformers — Ben-
jamin Szold — Dr. Marcus Jastrow's career in three countries —
Alexander Kohut — Russian Orthodoxy asserts itself in New York,
and the Bet ha-Midrash ha-Godol is founded in 1852 — Rabbi Abra-
ham Joseph Ash and his various activities — Charity work which re-
mains subordinate to religious work in the synagogue.
In New York, too, it was not a radical appealing to a wealthy
congregation, but a conservative in a neighborhood where the
poorer Jews dwelt, who first introduced the English sermon in
the synagogue. Reference is made by a correspondent from, New
York (see "Orient," 1840, p. 371) to "the poor Jews of Elm
street and the rich Jews of Crosby street" in that period; and it
was; characteristically enough, in the synagogue of the Bene
Yeshurun, then situated at Elm street, that the innovation was
made. Samuel Mayer Isaacs (b. in Leeuwarden, Holland, 1804;
d. in New York, 1878), the son of a Dutch banker who removed
to England, was called to the rabbinate of that congregation in
1839. When members who seceded from that synagogue formed
the Congregation Sha'are Tefilah, in 1847, Rabbi Isaacs went
with them and remained with his new charge until his death.
He was an able exponent of conservative Judaism and was the
founder of the "Jewish Messenger" (1857), which was continued
after his demise by his son. Professor Abraham Samuel Isaacs
179
180 History of the Jews in America.
(b. in New York, 1852), until 1902, when it was merged with
another Jewish periodical. Like Leeser, Rabbi Isaacs was a
good organizer, and influenced the foundation of various Jewish
institutions.
His successor as rabbi of the Elm street congregation was
Rabbi Morris Jacob Raphall (b. in Stockholm, Sweden, 1798;
d. in New York, 1868), who was, like Isaacs, also the son
of a banker. Raphall was a linguist and a good rabbinical
scholar, and while in England he delivered lectures on He-
brew poetry, and also began there the publication of the "Hebrew
Review and Magazire of Rabbir.ical Literature," which was dis-
continued in 1836. For some time he acted as secretary to Solo-
mon Herschell (1762-1842); he also made translations from
Maimonides, Albo and Wessely; he participated in the transla-
tion of part of the Mishna, and began a translation of the Pent-
eteuch, of which one volume appeared. After being for eight
years minister of the Birmingham Synagogue, he sailed for New
York in 1849, ^""J remained with the Bene Yeshurun un'il
shortly before his death. Raphall was tlie only prominent North-
ern rabbi who defended the institution of slavery in the pulpit,
as well as in one of his works, entitled "Bible View of Slavery."
Rev. Jacques Judah Lyons (b. in Surinam, 1814; d. in New
York, 1877), who was a rabbi in his native city for several years,
came to the United States in 1837, went to Richmond, Va.,
where he was minister of the Congregation Bene Shalom for
two years, came to New York in 1839, and became rabbi of tue
Spanish and Portuguese Congregation, which had removed from
Mill street to Crosby street in 1834. He held the position thirty-
eight years," successfully combating every movement to change
the form of worship in his congregation."
Leeser's successor in the pulpit of Mickweh Israel in Philadel-
phia was also a prominent conservative, Sabato Morals (b. in
Leghorn, Italy, 1823; d. in Philadelphia, 1897). After having
spent five years in London as the master of a Jewish Orphans'
School, he arrived in Philadelphia in 1851, and "until his death
I'huto by Gutekunst, Pliila.
Rabbi Sabato Morals.
181
Morals, Kalisch and Huebsch. 183
his influence was a continually growing power for conservative
Judaism. . . Though his ministry covered the period of
greatest acti\-ity in the adaptation of Judaism in America to
changed conditions, he, as the advocate of Orthodox Judaism
withstood every appeal in behalf of ritualistic innovations and de-
partures from traditional practice," proving thereby how much
the personality of the rabbi counts in this country in deciding the
religious attitude of his congregation. When Maimonides Col-
lege was established in Philadelphia, in 1867, Morals was made
professor of the Bible and Biblical literature; and he held the
chair during the six years that the college existed. He was the
founder and the first president of the faculty of the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary, which was established in New York in 1886,
Vidiich position, as well as that of Professor of Bible, he held until
his death. Henry Samuel Morals (b. in Philadelphia, i860),
the writer on Jewish historical subjects and the first editor of
the Philadelphia "Jewish Exponent" (established 1887), is a
son of Sabato Morals.
Isidor Kalisch (b. in Krotoschin, Prussian-Poland, 1816; d. in
Newark, N. J., 1886) was another scholarly' rabbi of that period,
who came to the United States in 1849, after having studied at
several Europe.in universities. While he was more inclined tow-
ard Reform, he is chiefly known for his literary works and
translations, which cover a wide range of Jewish subjects in He-
brew, German and English. He officiated as rabbi in various
communities, beginning with Cleveland, O., and ending in New-
ark, N. J., to which city he removed from Nashville, Tenn., after
he retired from the ministry in 1875. Supreme Court Justice
Samuel Kalisch fb. in Cleveland, O., 1851) of Newark is his so-^.
Rev. Adolph Hiibsch (b. in Hungary, 1830; d. in New York,
1884) was also a moderate Reformer with a good Rabbinical
education. He came to New York in 1866 and became rabbi and
preacher of the Congregation Ahabat Chesed, which grew con-
siderably under him. He was one of those who yielded to the
temptation of the time to tamper with the Siddur, and his edition
184 History of the Jews in America.
of it, which was adopted by several other congregations for a cer-
tain time, was an addition to the curiosities of American Jewish
h'turgical hterature.
Henry S. Jacobs (b. in Kingston, Jamaica, 1827; d. in New
York, 1893), who came to Richmond, Va., as rabbi of Co"grega-
tion Eet Shalom in 1854 and later held similar positions in
Charleston, S. C, New Orleans and New York (Shearit Israel,
1873-74; Eer.e Yeshurun, 1874-93), also belongs to the group
of conservative rabbis of that period, who did much to uphold
traditior.al Judaism as a living faith without treating it as a
movement or considering themselves as agitators. His con-
ciliatory attitude enabled him to act as president of the Board of
Jewish Ministers of New York from its organization until his
death.
Benjamin Szold (b. in Hungary, 1829; d. at Eerkely Springs,
W. Va., 1902), who came tO' Baltimore in 1859 as rabb' of Oheb
Shalom congregation and remaired with it as rabbi until 1S52
and as rabbi-emeritus until his death, was an opponent of radi-
calism who influenced his congregation to adept a more con-
sevative course relating to prayers. The changes in the con-
tents of the Siddur, or traditional Prayer Book, are a character-
istic of the extremely individualistic period in tl:e Reform move-
ment, when almost every leader of prominence tried his hand at
it, and when the aim seemed to be to make the services in each
temple or Reform-synagogue as unlike tb.r.t c-f the other as
possible. Most of those special "siddurim" have neither literary
nor historical value, and deserve to be mentioned only as the
curiosities or vagaries of an epoch of transition in American
Judaism. Szold used the prevailing method for the purpose of
inducing his congregation to retrace its steps ; and his "Abodat
Israel." which closely followed traditional lines, soon displaced
the more radical "Minhag America," r.ot only in his own syna-
gogue but in a number of others. It was re-published several tim^s,
once with an English translation. His commentary on Job (Bal-
timore, 1886), written in Hebrew, is one of the best works of
Mordecai Jastrow. 185
that nature produced in the United States. Miss Henrietta
Szold, the translator and writer on Jewish subjects, is his
daughter.
Of the same age, and to some extent imbued with the same
views as Szold, was Mordecai or Marcus Jastrow (b. in Ragosen,
Prussian-Poland, 1829; d. in Germantown. Pa., 1903), who
had a remarkable career as rabbi in two countries before he came
to America. Jastrow had a thorough rabbinical education, and
also a degree of Ph.D. from the University of Halle. In 1858
he became the preacher of the modern or "German" congrega-
tion at Warsaw, Russian-Poland, and threw himself into the
study of the Polish language and of the condition of the Jews
of Poland. His work "Die Lage der Juden in Polen", which
appeard anonymously (Hamburg, 1859), proves him to have
possessed much valuable information and clear views on the con-
dition of the Jews of Poland ; while a collection of Polish ser-
mons which was published in Posen (1863) attest to his mas-
tery of the language. He took the part of the Poles against
their Russian oppressors, and participated in the demonstrations
against the killing of five Poles in a suburb of Warsaw in Feb-
ruary, 1861, which led to the beginning of the second Polish
insurrection. Jastrow was imprisoned, together with the great
Rabbi Berush Meisels, ■ and after being held more than thret
m.onths, was expelled from Russia. His widely circulated pa-
triotic Polish sermons, his efforts to bring the Jews and Chris-
tians together in protest against the Muscovite tyranny, and his
imprisonment, made him one of the most popular men in the
old Polish capital at that time. He occupied the position of rabbi
at Mannheim, Germany, for a short time in 1862, but his sym-
pathy with Poland was too strong to permit him to remain there
when, on the supposed pacification of that unhappy country,
the order for his expulsion was revoked in November of that
year. He soon returned to Warsaw, but a few months later the
actual insurrection broke out, and, his passport being cancelled
while he was visiting Germany, he could not return to Russia.
186 History of the Jews in America.
He then (1864) accepted a position as rabbi at Worms, Hesse,
v.here he remained until 1866, when he was chosen rabbi of the
Congregation Rodeph Shalom in Philadelphia.
In the first years of his American rabbinate, Jastrow ably sec-
onded the efforts of Leeser to preser\'e conservative Judaism in
the East against the advance of radical Reform, and continued
to oppose that tendency after Leeser's death. Jastrow was one of
the professors of Maimonides College, and later collaborated with
Szold in the revision of the "Siddur Abodat Israel" and in its
translation into English. Besides his activity in local Jewish
affairs and in other Jewish matters of a more general nature,
he contributed to many European and American Jewish period-
icals and was for several years the chief editor of a new transla-
tion of the Bible into English, which was undertaken under the
auspices of the Jewish Publication Society of America. He also
found time to compile his great work, "A Dictionary of the Tar-
gumim,, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic
Literature" (London and New York, 1 886-1 903), and in his
last years was editor of the department of the Talmud in the
"Jewish Encyclopedia." Two of his sons are renowned American
scholars. The older. Prof. Morris Jastrow (b. in Warsaw, 1861),
has occupied the chair of Semitic languages at the University
of Pennsylvania since 1892, and is one of the foremost Oriental-
ists in the country. The younger, Joseph Jastrow (b. in Warsaw,
1863), has been prof, of Psychology at the University of Wiscon-
sin since 1888, and a recognized authority on his special sub-
ject. He was in charge of the psychological section of the
World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, and served
as president of the American Psychological Association for the
year 1900.
The last of the important rabbis to come here from a Western
European country was Alexander Kohut (b. in Hungary, 1842;
d. in New York, 1894), the lexicographer and Orientalist, whose
"Aruch Completum" (Vienna, 1878-92), to which he devoted
twenty-five years of his life, is still the standard work on the
I'lKplo b\ Giilekuijst, riiHa
Dr. Marcus Jastrow.
187
Alexander Kohut. 189
subject. The first four volumes were printed during his resi-
dence in Hungary, where he was rabbi first at Stuhlweissenburg,
then at Funfkirchen, and lastly at Grosswardein (188084). The
last four appeared during his sojourn in America, whither he
came in 1885, when he was chosen rabbi of Congregation Ahabat
Chesed in New York. He was at once recognized as an eminent ■
conservative leader, and was associated with Morals in founding
the Jewish Theological Seminary, in which he became professor
of Talmudic methodology. In March, 1894, while delivering a
eulogy on Kossuth, he was stricken in the pulpit, and died after
lingering several weeks. A volume containing memorial ad-
dresses and tributes to his memory was published by his con-
gregation in 1894. Another volume, containing essays by forty-
four noted scholars in Europe and America, entitled "Semitic
Studies in Memory of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut," was pub-
lished in Berlin in 1897 by his son, George Alexander Kohut
(born in StuhhA eissenburg, 1874), the bibliographer and writer
on Jewish subjects.
Extreme Russian Orthodoxy asserted itself in New York about
the middle of the nineteenth century. There were numerous
Jews from Russia in the country long before that, and the im-
migration from Russian-P'oland increased heavily after 1845,
when Jews in the Kingdom of Poland were first conscripted in
the army, in violation of a promise made by the Government that
this was to be postponed until they were granted equal rights with
non-Jewish subjects. The first Russian congregation in America
was founded June 4, 1852, with twelve members, which soon in-
creased to about twenty-three, several of whom, however, were
natives of Germany who were dissatisfied with the Reform tend-
encies of the congregations to which most of their countrymeir
belonged.^ The first place of worship was in a garret of the
' The list of these members as given by J. D. Eisenstein in his
History of the first Russian-American Jewish Congregation in Publica-
tions IX, pp. 63-74, is as follows: Benjamin Lichtenstein, Judah Middle-
man, Abraham Benjamin (of Hamburg), Abraham Joseph Ash, Joshua
190 History of the Jews in America,
house, No. 83 Bayard street, for which a monthly rental of eight
dollars was paid. B. Lichtenstein was the first Parnass or presi-
dent, I. Cohen the secretary, H. S. Isaacs the reader and Abraham
Joseph Ash (Eisenstadt? b. in Semyatich, Russia, 1813; d. in
New York, 1888), who came to America in that year and was
a Talmudical scholar, acted as rabbi without compensation.
The place on Bayard street was soon too small for the rapidly
increasing congregation, and it removed in November of the
same year to larger cjuarters on the first floor of a house on the
corner of Canal and Elm streets, for which a monthly rental of
twenty-five dollars was paid, although there was a carpenter-
shop on the floor above. In another six months the continual
increase necessitated another removal, this time to the top floor
of a former court house at the corner of Pearl and Centre streets.
There was a German congregation, "Bet Abraham," on the first
floor of the same building ; but it soon moved out and, changing
its name to "Sha'are Zedek," located in Henry street and was
known as the Henry Street Synagogue, until it moved uptown
several years ago.
During the three years which the first Russian congregation,
which called itself simply the Bet ha-Midrash, remained on Pearl
street, Mr. Ash became the regularly appointed rabbi at a salary
of two dollars a week, and Joshua Falk ha-Kohen., author of
"Abne Joshua" (a commentary on Pirke Abot, New York,
i860), delivered occasional sermons without compensation.
About this time a quarrel between Rabbi Ash and Judah Middle-
man, who was also a Talmudical scholar, about the recognition
of a shochet, in which the rabbi would not submit to the decision
of European rabbinical authorities, led to the first split in the
Rothstein, Israel Cohen, Abba Baum, David Lasky, Leib Cohen, Baruch
Solomon Rothschild, Elijah Greenstein, Feibel Philips (the scribe),
Abraham Reiner, Tobias Schwartz, Abraham Levy (of Raczki), Hyman
Harris, Leibel Raczker, Samuel Hillel Isaacs, Jerahmel Chuck (of Ber-
lin), Isidor Raphall and Jacob Levy. The first twelve were the original
members.
Rabbi Ash and the Orthodox Jews. 191
congregation. IMiddleman and his followers withdrew and
formed a separate iiiinyan on Ba3rard street, which later became
the congregation Bene Israel (Kalwarier, organized 1862),
which now has its synagogue on Pike street.
A Portuguese Jew by the name of John Hart, who visited the
Pearl street synagogue to say kaddish on his Jahrzeit, or anni-
versary of his parents' death, influenced his friend, Samson
Simpson, the founder of Mount Sinai Hospital (b. in Danbury,
Conn., 1780; d. in New York, 1857), to donate three thousand
dollars, which formed the largest part of the fund with which
the Welsh Chapel, No. 78 Allen street, Avas purchased and
turned into a synagogue. It was dedicated June 8, 1856. New
quarrels between the rabbi's adherents and the officers of the
congregation led to a lawsuit, and later to another split; this time
Rabbi Ash and twenty-three of his followers left the synagogue,
and they formed a new congregation which they named "Bet
ha-Midrash ha-Godol," which was dedicated August 13, 1859,
the first location being the top floor of the house on Forsyth
street, on the southwest corner of Grand street. Henry Chuck
was the first president of the new congregation; Mayer Salwen,
secretary; Israel Cohen, reader, and Nathan Mayer, beadle and
collector.
About the time of the beginning of the Civil War, Rabbi Ash
left the rabbinate and engaged in business, in which he was suc-
cessful for a time. During these years he became one of the
largest contributing members and acted for a time as the highest
officer of the congregation. But reverses came and he again be-
came a rabbi, which, with a short interruption in 1876, when he
became a dealer in "Kosher" wine, he remained until his death.
The congregation removed from Forsyth street to the corner of
Clinton and Grand streets in 1865, and from there moved into its
own new building at 6q Ludlow street, which was dedicated Sep-
tember 27, 1872. This building was sold in 18S5 when the con-
gregation purchased the Methodist church at Nos. 52-60 Norfolk
192 History of the Jews in America.
street, which has been known as the Bet ha-Midrash ha-Godol for
the last quarter of a century.
This synagogue, which was increasing in wealth and member-
ship, made progress in true Orthodox fashion. A system of bak-
ing strictly kosher matzoth for Passover was introduced in 1870.
An extra shochet, Asher Lemil Harris, was engaged for the spe-
cial meat market which supplied the members. A "Hebra Mish-
nayot" for the daily study of the Mishna was organized in the
same year and a "Hebrah Shas," for the study of the Talmud
every evening after the services, was organized in 1874 by Rabbi
Ash and Judah David Eisenstein (b. in Mesericz, government of
Siedlce, Russian-Poland, 1855; a. 1872), who is now the editor
and publisher and practically the author of the Hebrew Ency-
clopedia "Ozar Israel."
The congregation also did a considerable amount of direct and
unorganized charity work, the money often being contributed by
niembers or visitors who were called to the reading of the Torah
on Saturdays or other formal occasions. Poor transients and im-
migrants were assisted, some were taken into the houses of the
more wealthy members for Sabbaths and festivals. Many of
them were assisted to become peddlers, and were even instructed
in the rudiments of the occupation. The poor of the Holy Land
were also remembered by special donations once a year. But
charity work never overshadowed the religious work. The Jiffairs
of the synagogue remained paramount, which is one of the prin-
cipal reasons why congregations of this kind retain their truly
Orthodox character. The increase of wealth brought the em-
ployment of the first professional cantor, Judah Oberman ( 1877),
who was succeeded by Simha Samuelson in 1880. Other large
congregations were now growing up on the East Side, where the
Jewish population was increasing very fast; but the further de-
velopment of its religious and communal life belongs to a later
period.
CHAPTER XXIII.
INTERVENTION IN DAMASCUS. THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SWISS
DISCRIMINATION.
The Damascus Affair; the first occasion on which the Jews of the United
States requested the government to intercede in behalf of persecuted
Jews in another country — John Forsyth's instructions to American
representatives in Turkey, in which those requests were anticipated
— A discrimination in a treaty with Switzerland to which President
Fillmore objected, and which Clay and Webster disapproved — Tlie
case of a Jewish-American citizen in Neufchatel — Newspaper agita-
tion, meetings and memorials against the Swiss treaty — President
Buchanan's emphatic declaration, and Minister Fay's "Israelite
Note" about the Jews of Alsace — Question is settled by the eman-
cipation of the Swiss Jews.
The Jewish community of the United States as a whole had
no difficukies with the outside world and no serious internal
problems in the period of expansion which is treated in this part.
The results of the treaty between our Government and that of
Russia, which was concluded in 1832, in which the rights of
American Jews to enter Russia on the same conditions as other
American citizens were not safeguarded as explicitly as ought
to have been done in dealing with a power so unfriendly to the
Jews, had not become apparent until nearly a half century after-
wards, and must be ascribed more to oversight and ignorance
of Russia's treatment of Jews than to wilful neglect. Several un-
favorable local decisions against Jews as such, mostly in cases of
violation of Sunday laws, or of exemption claimed by Jews from
attending court on Saturday,^ were of an immediately more pain-
' See A. M. Friedenberg, Pub- Calendar of American-Jewish Cases,
l.ications, XII, pp. 87 et seq.
193
194 History of the Jews in America.
ful nature; but this question also did not become acute until a
much later period, when there grew up communities containing
large poor Orthodox masses, for whom the observance of two
day's rest was a great economic hardship. An occasional objection
to a public functionary's forgetfulness about there being other
citizens than Christians, which was sometimes noticed in Thanks-
giving Day Proclamations (see Dr. Lilienthal's correspondence
about a case of that nature with Governor Salmon P. Chase of
Ohio, in "Publications," XIII, pp. 30-36) would soon itself be
forgotten by Jew and gentile alike. The Jews were occasioning
and experiencing very little difiiculties, contributing to the work
of developing the country, and thus unconsciously assisting in
preparing themselves and the general population for the larger
influx of immigrants which were to come later.
The Jews of America were therefore prepared to participate
with the Jews of Western Europe in arousing public sympathy
and causing diplomatic intervention in the case of the thirteen
unfortunate Jews of Damascus who were imprisoned and tor-
tured under the Blood Accusation of 1840. While the distance
and the absence of the present means of quick communication
delayed the action taken by the Jews of America until after the
n.ecessary assistance "\\'as rendered by European governments at
the instance of the most influential Jews of England and France,
the steps taken by the Jews here and the noble response of the
Government under President Martin Van Buren (1782-1862)
is of real historical value, and has been so regarded by Jost.^ It
was for the firsi time that the Jews of the United States interested
themselves and enlisted the interest of the government in the
cause of suffering Jews in another part of the world, and thus
participated in that consolidation of the Jewish public spirit
which resulted from this memorable occurrence, and which jus-
' Jost, Neuere Geschiclite der Israeliten, ii. pp. 360-6S. See also Jacob
Ezekiel, Persecution of the Jezvs in -fS-/o, "Publications," VIII, pp. 141-45,
and Joseph Jacobs, Tlie Damascus Affair of 1840 and the Jews of America,
ibid X, pp. 119-28.
The Damascus Affair. 195
tifies the statement made by Mr. Jacobs that "in a measure, mod-
ern Jewish history may be said to date from the Damascus affair
of 1840." There were now emancipated Jews in some countries
\\ho not only dared to come out in open protest against anti-
Jewish outrages in other countries, but could also interest civil-
ized governments to take official notice of such outrages — some-
thing unknown in former times. The American government, on
its part, did not even wait for the request of the Jews to inter-
cede in behalf of the victims of barbarous cruelty; but of its own
accord it sent instructions to its representatives in Turkey and in
Egypt to do all in their power for the unfortunate Jews.
The first meeting of Jews "for the purpose of uniting in an ex-
pression of sympathy for their brethren at Damascus, and of tak-
ing such steps as may be necessary to procure for them equal and
impartial justice' was held in New York on August 19, 1840;
and a letter containing the Resolution which was adopted tliere
was sent to President Van Buren under the date of August 24,
to which the following reply was received :
Washington, August 26, 1840.
Messrs. J. B. Kursheedt, Chairman, and Theodore J. Seixas, Secretary.
Gentlemen: — The President has referred to this Department your let-
ter of the 24th inst., communicating a resolution unanimously adopted at
a meeting of the Israelites in the City of New York, held for the purpose
of uniting in an expression of sentiment on the subject of the persecu-
tion of their brethren in Damascus. By his direction I have the honor
to inform you, that the heart-i ending scenes which took place at
Damascus, had previously been brought to the notice of the President
by a communication from our Consul at that place, in consequence
thereof, a letter of instruction was immediately written to our Consul
at Alexandria, a copy of which is herewith transmitted for your satis-
faction.
About the same time our Charge d' Affairs at Constantinople was in-
structed to interpose his good offices in behalf of the oppressed and
persecuted race of the Jews in the Ottoman Dominions, among whose
kindred are found some of the most worthy and patriotic of our own
1£6 History of the Jews in America.
citizens, and the whole subject which appeals so strongly to the uni-
versal sentiment of justice and humanity was earnestly recommended to
his zeal and discretion. I have the honor to be, gentlemen,
Very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
JOHN FORSYTH.
The letter by Mr. John Forsj'th (1780-1841) to the Consul,
which is mentioned in the above communication, was as follows :
Washington, August, 14, 1840.
JOHN GLIDDON, ESQ., United States Consul at Alexandria, Egypt.
Sir: — In common with all civilized nations, the people of the United
States have learned with horror the atrocious crimes imputed to the
Jews of Damascus, and the cruelties of which they have been the vic-
tims. The President fully participates in the public feeling, and he can-
not refrain from expressing equal surprise and pain, that in this ad-
vanced age, such unnatural practices could be ascribed to any portion
of the religious world, and such barbarous measures be resorted to, in
order to compel the confession of imputed guilt; the offences with which
these unfortunate people are charged, resemble too much those which,
in less enlightened times, were made the pretexts of fanatical persecu-
tion or mercenary extortion, to permit a doubt that they are equally
unfounded.
The President has witnessed, with the most lively satisfaction, the
effort of several of the Christian Governments of Europe, to suppress
or mitigate these horrors, and he has learned with no common gratifica-
tion their partial success. He is moreover anxious that the active sym-
pathy and generous interposition of the Government of the United
States should not be withheld from so benevolent an object, and he has
accordingly directed me to instruct you to employ, should the occasion
arise, all those good offices and efforts which are compatible with discre-
tion and your official character, to the end that justice and humanity may
be extended to these persecuted people, whose cry of distress has
reached our shores. I am, sir.
Your obedient servant,
JOHN FORSYTH.
The Damascus Affair. 197
The following letter was addressed to David Porter (1780-
^843; the father of Admiral David D. Porter), who was then
United States Minister to Turkej':
DEPARTMENT OF STATE.
Washington, August 17, 1840.
DAVID PORTER, ESQ.
Sir: — In common with the people of the United States, the President
has learned with profound feelings of surprise and pain the atrocious
cruelties which have been practiced upon the Jews of Damascus and
Rhodes, in consequence of charges extravagant and strikingly similar
to those, which, in less enlightened ages, were made pretexts for the
persecution and spoliation of these unfortunate people. As the scene of
these barbarities are in the Mahomedan dominions, and, as such inhuman
practices are not of an infrequent occurrence in the East, the President
has directed me to instruct you to do everything in your power with the
government of his Imperial Highness, the Sultan, to whom you are
accredited, consistent with discretion and your diplomatic character, to
prevent or mitigate these horrors, — the bare recital of which has caused
a shudder throughout the civilized world; and in an especial manner, to
direct your philanthropic efforts against the employment of torture in
order to compel the confession of imputed guilt. The President is of
the opinion that from no one can such generous endeavors proceed with
so much propriety and effect, as from the representative of a friendly
power, whose institutions, political and civil, place upon the same foot-
ing, the worshippers of God, of every faith and form, acknowledging no
distinction between the Mahomedan, the Jew, and the Christian. Should
you, in carrying out these instructions, find it necessary or proper to
address yourself to any of the Turkish authorities, you will refer to
this distinclh'e characteristic of our government, as investing with a'
peculiar propriety and right, the interposition of your good offices in
behalf of an oppressed and persecuted race, among whose kindred are
found some of the most worthy and patriotic of our citizens. In com-
municating to you the wishes of the President, I do not think it ad-
visable to give you more explicit and minute instructions, but earnestly
commend to your zeal and discretion, a sub'ect which appeals so
Strongly to the universal sentiments of justice and humanity.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
JOHN FORSYTH.
198 History of the Jews in America.
The Jews of Philadelphia held, on August 27, a meeting for
the same purpose in the^vestry of the Mickweh Israel Synagogue,
at which were present, besides the prominent Jews of the city,
several representative Christian clergymen — Dr. Ducachet, Rec-
tor of St. Stephens, Dr. Ramsay, a Presbyterian minister, and
the Rev. Mr. Kennedy — all of whom spoke. Isaac Leeser was
the principal orator, and he argued that as both Christianity
aiid Islam are derived from Judaism, if the last advocated ritual
murder, the daughter-religions would equally be guilty of the
same practice. He contrasted the position of the Eastern Jews
with that of their brethren in this happy land, and declared that
Vihile the Jews everywhere felt themselves true citizens of the
lands in which they dwelt, they still retained full sympathy with
their co-religionists throughout the world, especially when
charges were brought against them which affected the honor and
good fame of their religion. A series of resolutions were adopted
and sent to Washington, whence Mr. Forsyth replied in similar
terms to those he had used in his letter to the Jews of New
York, and likewise enclosed a copy of his letter to Consul Glid-
don at Alexandria. Another meeting was held in Richmond,
Va., where a resolution was adopted thanking the President "for
the prompt and handsome manner in which he has acted in ref-
erence to the persecution practiced upon our brethren in Da-
mascus."
The Jews of the United States were also in open sympathy
with the liberal movements in Central Europe, especially in Ger-
many, which culminated in the revolutions of the year 1848.
While there was no active co-operation or direct assistance in
those times of slow communication, those who wrote from
America described the conditions prevailing here as well-nigh
ideal from the liberal point of view. A poem by Sigmund Herzl,
entitled "Auf! Nach Amerika!" which appeared in the "Central
Organ," published in Vienna in 1848 by Isidor Bush (b. in
Prague, Bohemia, 1822; a. in New York, 1849; d- ''^ St. Louis,
Mo., 1898), in which America is described as a place where true
Switzerland's Discrimination. 199
brotherly love reigns supreme, where ignorance and base prej-
udice are entirely unknown, may be taken as an example of the
expression of that sentiment. When the great Jewish champion
of the liberal movement in Germany, Gabriel Riesser (b. in Ham-
burg, Germany, 1806; d. there 1863), visited America in 1856,
he was greeted by many former German revolutionary soldiers —
both Jewish and Christian — and in New York they gave a pub-
lic dinner in his honor. German Jews in Philadelphia formed
a Riesser Qub, which existed for a number of years. (See Al-
bert M. Friedenberg in "Publications," XVII, pp. 204-5.)
The first diplomatic difficulties which the Government of the
United States experienced on account of discrimination against
its Jewish citizens occurred about this time, and — strangel}^
enough — it was not with Russia, but with the Swiss Confedera-
tion. A general convention between the two republics was drawn
and signed at Berne, November 25, 1850, by Mr. A. Dudley
Mann, American Minister to Switzerland, on the part of the
United States, and by Messrs. Druey and Frey-Herosee on the
part of the Swiss Confederation. This treaty and a copy of the
instructions under which Mr. Mann acted, together with- his
dispatch of November 30, 1850, explanatory of the Articles of
Convention, were transmitted to the United States Senate on
February 13, 1851, by President Millard Fillmore (1800-74).
Neither the treaty nor the papers accompanying it were ever
made public, the ban of secrecy imposed by the Senate having
never been removed. But President Fillmore himself, in the
message transmitting the treaty, objected to it in the form in
which it was presented. He said : "There is a decisive objection
arising from the last clause in the First Article. That clause
is in these words: On account of the tenor of the Federal Con-
stitution of Szvitzerland, Christians alone are entitled to the en-
joyment of the privileges guaranteed by the present Article in the
Swiss Cantons. But said cantons are not prohibited from ex-
200 History of the Jews in America.
fending the same privileges to citizens of the United States of
other religions persuasions.
"It is quite certain [continues the President] that neither by law,
nor by treaty, nor by any other official proceeding is it competent for
the Government of the United States to establish any distinction be-
tween its citizens founded on differences in religious beliefs. Any benefit
or privilege conferred by law or treaty on one must be common to all,
and we are not at liberty, on a question of such vital interest and plain
constitutional duty, to consider whether the particular case is one in
which substantial inconvenience or injustice might ensue. It is enough
that an inequality would be sanctioned, hostile to the institutions of the
United States and inconsistent with the Constitution and the laws. Nor
can the Government of the United States rely on the individual Cantons
of Switzerland for extending the same privileges to other citizens of the
United States as this article extends to Christians. It is indispensable
not only that every privilege granted to any of the citizens of the United
States should be granted to all, but also that the grant of such privileges
should stand upon the same stipulation and assurance by the whole
Swiss Confederation, as those of other articles of the convention.'
The two most prominent men in American public life at that
time, Senator Henry Clay (1777-1852) and Secretary of State
Daniel Webster (i 782-1852), strongly disapproved the discrim-
ination which the proposed treaty provided. The former wrote;
"I disapprove entirely the restrictions limiting' certain provisions
of the treaty, under the operation of which a respectable portion
of our fellow-citizens would be excluded from their benefits.
This is not the country nor the age in which unjust prejudices
should receive any countenance." Webster wrote about the
same time to a Jew who addressed him on the subject (pre-
sumably J. M. Cordozo) : "The objections against certain special-
ties of the Swiss Convention concerning the Israelites which you
urge in your letter to me have not escaped the attention of the
Department, and I hasten to inform you that they will be laid
' See Sol. M. Stroock Switzerland and the American lews, "Publica-
tions" XI, pp. 7-52, and Cyrus Adler, Jnvs in American Diplomatic Cor-
respondence, ibid XV, pp. 25-39, for ample treatment of the subject, in-
cluding numerous documents and copious references.
The Passport Question in 1851—2. 201
before the Senate with the convention. (The letter is dated
February ii, 1851.)
In the meantime, ahhough it was asserted on behalf of Switzer-
land that the discriminations which it insisted upon were only
"a precautionary measure ... a safeguard against the im-
mense itinerant (Jewish) population of Alsace," the two Can-
tons of Basle ^•igorously executed a decree of banishment against
the Jews which was promulgated November 17, 1851. The
law was suspended for a few months because of a note sent by
Emperor Napoleon III. to the Council of the Federation, in
which he said "That France will expel all Swiss citizens estab-
lished in France in case the two Cantons should insist on carry-
ing out this law against the Jews." But while the negotiations
were pending, the two Cantons carried out the law of expulsion,
and no further steps were taken by France. About this time
there was set on foot in this country a movement to procure re-
ligious toleration abroad for American citizens generally. It
appears to have been aimed at the persecution of American Prot-
estants in Catholic countries, and the movement to secure re-
dress in this direction culminated in a resolution introduced in
the House of Representatives, December 13, 1852, by John A.
Wilcox, of Mississippi, which declared "that the representa-
tives of this Government at foreign courts be instructed to urge
such amendments of all existing treaties between the United
States and the other powers of the world as will secure the
ssme liberty of religious worship to all American citizens resid-
ing under foreign flags which is guaranteed to all citizens of
every nation of the whole world who reside under the flag of
our Union."
Objection was made to this resolution as an encroachment upon
the powers of the Executive, and action was delayed for a long
time. A resolution of a similar nature, which was reported to
the Senate from the Committee on Foreign Relations, February
17. i8S3> ™^^ ^^^ same fate. But all these discussions had the
effect of the Senate refusing to ratify the treaty with Switzer-
202 History of the Jews in America.
land in the form in which it was sent to it. Mr. Mann there-
upon proceeded to negotiate another treaty which, while striking
iiom it the clause objected to by the President and the other
notable men mentioned above, yet in another form inserted a
clause, the effect of which was the same as that of the clause
Vvhich had been stricken out. Article I of this new treaty read
as follows :
The citizens of the United States of America and the citizens of
Switzerland shall be admitted and treated upon a footing of reciprocal
equality in the two countries, where such admission and treatment shall
not conflict with the constitutional or legal provisions, as well Federal
as State and Cantonal of the contracting parties.
Despite the previous and many subsec^uent protests from num-
erous Jews, and also despite the attention of the government,
which was attracted to the case of A. H. Gootman, an American-
Jewish citizen, who was ordered expelled from the Canton of
Neufchatel in 1853, the treaty containing the above article was
ratified by the Senate November 6, 1855. Ratifications were ex-
changed two days afterward, and the treaty was proclaimed No-
vember 9, 1855, by President Franklin Pierce (1804-69), when
William Learned Marcy (1786-1857) was Secretary of State.
In 1856 the above mentioned Mr. Gootman, who had re-
mained in Neufchatel by special permission, again requested,
through the American minister to Switzerland, Mr. Theo. S.
Fay, the intervention of the United States Government against
bis expulsion. In his letter to the State Department Mr. Fay
states it as a matter of fact that the treaty between the two re-
publics "does not grant to Israelites the right of domicile in
Switzerland," and in a second letter he says "that it may be
superfluous to repeat that the obnoxious clause in the treaty was
unavoidable without a revision of the federal constitution of
Switzerland." He also repeats "that the admission of Ameri-
can Jews would necessitate that of Jews of other nations, and
particular inconvenience is apprehended from the usurious Israel-
itish population of the French province of Alsace." This second
Buchanan's Promise. 203
Gootman case became generally known, and public sentiment
was aroused against the treaty. The result of the agitation was
apparent even in the general press of the country, and many
protest meetings were held, memorials drawn and forwarded to
Washington and committees appointed to consider the matter.
A delegation of prominent Jews went to the Capital in October,
1857, and presented a memorial to President James Buchanan
(1791-1868), who gave an explicit promise to remedy the wrong
of which the Jews complained.
The declaration of the President on the subject was so emphatic
that most of the leaders and promoters of the agitation were
completely satisfied that the question was already settled in their
favor. Dr. Einhorn wrote in his "Sinai" : "We feel satisfied that
the Israelites of the United States may feel implicit confidence
in the Executive, and that their rights as citizens of the United
States will be zealously maintained." Dx. Wise, in the "Israel-
ite," wrote: "No doubt was left in the minds of the delegates,
but that this matter is settled as far as we are concerned." Rabbi
Leeser, however, was not so well satisfied, and he did not agree
that all agitation ought now to cease, but thought it "advisable
for all the congregations that have not yet acted to draw up
memorials and send them to the President, to show at least that
the interest in the question was not confined to the four States
represented at Washington on the 31st of October."
Another long diplomatic correspondence followed, with re-
ciprocal requests for information about the condition of the Jews
in both countries, with urgent requests from Washington that
something be done, and with explanations from Mr. Fay that
the Cantonal laws or constitutions would have to be changed be-
fore favorable action could be expected. In November of the
same year Mr. Fay wrote: "I would wish carefully to avoid
cf?ering encouragement to the Hebrews." But he was now work-
ing diligently to carry out the desire of the President, and was
even collecting material to disprove the charges made by the
Swiss against the Alsatian Jews. In November, 1858, he wrote
204 History of the Jews in America.
to Secretary of State Lewis Cass (1782-1866): "That the
mouths of all foreign governments and preceding treaty makers
have been until now closed by a plea about the Alsatian Jews.
I think that after the renseignements which I am now collecting
no Swiss authority will ever dare to advance that objection
against us as an argument, and I am more and more of the
opinion that it may become expedient to denounce our treaty
until the exptmction of the offensive clause." The results of
Mr. Fay's investigations were incorporated in his "Israelite
Note," which was transmitted to the Secretary of State on June
3, 1859, and to the Federal Council of Switzerland on the same
day. It had a salutary effect on Switzerland, where the Fed-
eral Council assisted in its circulation. A German edition of
it was printed in St. Gall in i860. The cause of the Jews in
Switzerland gained much from this intervention of the repre-
sentative of a foreign government in their behalf; and the con-
sequences were felt in other countries where the struggle for
Jewish emancipation was then going on. According to a letter
written by Mr. Fay in October, 1859, the Bavarian Minister told
him that should he succeed in Switzerland, the Israelites of Ba-
varia would also be emancipated.
The case of the Jews was making considerable progress, and
other enlightened governments also made representations to
Switzerland in favor of the Jews ; still nothing definite was ac-
complished under Buchanan's administration, either. In March,
1861, Rabbi Leeser expressed, in the "Occident," his regret, that
nothing was done, and wrote that he expected that nothing would
be done until "Switzerland herself will render the laws harmless
by repealing through her Cantonal Councils all inequality laws
existing against us." This prediction proved correct ; for while
the succeeding Secretary of State, William H. Seward (1801-
']2') took up the matter with Mr. George G. Fogg, who was
then minister to Switzerland, several years passed before an-
other favorable report reached the State Department on the sub-
ject. The appointment by the Government of the United States
The Ultimate Solution. 205
of a Jewish citizen, Mr. Bernays, as its Consul to Ziirich created
a stir in both countries, and clearly indicated the favorable dis-
position of the administration of President Abraham Lincoln
(1809-65) towards the Jews.
In 1864 Mr. Fogg wrote to Mr. Seward that the President of
the Confederation, Mr. Dubs, had informed him that the Fed-
eral Council were then disposed to so amend the treaty that no dis-
crimination founded on religious belief should thereafter be made
or endured by citizens of the United States within the limits of the
Swiss Confederation. The remaining Cantons were remov-
ing the Jewish disabilities one after another; but in some of
them, as in Basle, the hotbed of opposition and prejudice against
the Jews, full civil rights were not granted until 1872, although
the right of residence was freely accorded ten years earlier. The
new Swiss Constitution, which was adopted in 1874, at last estab-
lished full religious liberty, and also made the c^uestion of treat-
ments of aliens a Federal, as distinguished from a Cantonal, mat-
ter. It was not until then that the question was solved, so to
speak, automatically; but it is conceded that the efforts of the
Government of the United States contributed to the result, al-
though it could not attain its object by direct diplomatic ne-
gotiations.
PART V.
THE CIVIL WAR AND THE FORMATIVE
PERIOD.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE DISCUSSION ABOUT SLAVERY. LINCOLN AND THE JEWS.
Pro-slavery tendencies of the aristocratic Spaniards and Portuguese —
David Yulee (Levy) — Michael Heilprin and his reply to Rabbi
Raphall's Bible View on Slavery — Immigrants of the second period
as opponents of slavery — Two Jewish delegates in the Convention
which nominated Abraham Lincoln, and one member of the Elec-
toral College in i860 — Two other Jews officially participate in Lin-
coln's renomination and re-election in 1864 — Abraham Jonas — En-
couragement from the Scripture in original Hebrew.
As almost all the early Jewish settlers in America belonged
to the wealthy classes, and most of them were in everything, ex-
cept as to their faith, aristocratic Spaniards or Portuguese, it
was natural for them to accept the institution of slavery as they
found it, and to derive as much benefit from it as other affluent
men. There were numerous Jewish slave holders in various
parts of the New World, including the West Indies, New York
and New England, long before and down to the American Rev-
olution. There are several early references even to American-
Jewish slave dealers. The growth of democracy and changed
economic conditions had gradually put an end to slavery in the
north soon after the beginning of the nineteenth century ; but in
206
The Jews and Slavery. 207
the South slavery remained common, among Jews as well as
among others. Public opinion in the South not only sanctioned
slavery, but considered it the basis of its prosperity and pre-
dominance; and the prominent Jew of that part of the country
was simply acting and feeling like his non-Jewish neighbors and
fellow-citizens when he owned slaves or defended the institu-
tion at every possible opportunity. And those Jews who at-
tained high political or social position in the South were by force
of circumstances pro-slavery men. There was no lack of individ-
ual instances of Jews who evinced special tenderness for the
black man, and even went so far as to liberate the negroes of
whom they were the owners. It is thus related of the philan-
thropist Judah Touro, "that the negroes who waited upon him in
the house of the Shepards — -with whom he lived for forty years
— were all emancipated by his aid and supplied with the means of
establishing themselves ; and the only slave he personally pos-
sessed he trained to business, then emancipated, furnishing him
with money and valuable advice." The American and Foreign
Anti-Slavery Society, in its report in 1853, noted that some Jews
in the Southern States "have refused to have any right of prop-
erty in man, or even to have any slaves about them" and that
the cruel persecutions they themselves were subjected to tended
to make them friends of universal freedom.^ But these were
exceptional, not typical cases, and not more common among Jews
than among gentiles.
It was therefore natural to find in a man like David Yulee
(originally David Levy, b. in St. Thomas, W. I., 181 1; d. in
New York City, 1886), who after studying at Richmond, Va.,
became a planter in Florida, a stanch supporter and defender of
slavery. He was a Delegate to Congress from the Territory of
Florida from 1841 to 1845, bearing the name of Levy. When
Florida was admitted as a state in 1845, Levy, who had then as-
sumed the name of Yulee, was elected a United States Senator
' See Max J. Kohler in artictc Antislavery Movement in America in
"Jew. Encyclopedia."
208 History of the Jews in America.
from that state, being the first Jew who was elected to the upper
house of the American Congress. He served a full term and
later he was elected for another term, beginning in 1855 which
he did not finish, because he retired in January, 1861, to join the
Confederacy, later serving as a member of the Confederate Con-
gress. We find even a resident of the far West, Judge Samuel
Heydenfeldt, of California — mentioned in a former part —
who, as a native of the South, was a strong partisan of the
Confederacy, going so far as to withdraw from a lucrative prac-
tice in the courts, because he felt that he could not subscribe to
the "iron clad" oath of loyalty required by law as a condition
precedent to argument in every case (see Friedenberg, in "Pub-
lications," X, p. 138).
In the religious controversies which went on at the time when
the question of slavery began to absorb the attention of the
American people, the Jews also took part on both sides. It has
already been mentioned that Dr. Einhorn was forced to quit Bal-
timore on account of the strong stand against slavery which he
took in his sermons and in his German monthly "Sinai." Rabbi
Sabato Morals found in Philadelphia, and so did Rabbis Bern-
hard Felsenthal and Liebman Adier in Chicago, more congenial
surroundings for their work against slavery. Rabbi Morris J.
Raphall, of New York, came out in i860 with a strong sermon,
which later appeared in a pamphlet, entitled "Bible Vieiu on
Slavery," in which he attempted to prove that since the Bible,
which is the highest law, sanctioned slavery, it was futile to invoke
an alleged "higher law" against it. There was, of course, no
lack of replies and refutations to this argument, but none was
so strong or attracted so much attention as one that came from
the pen of a scholar who represented the very latest class of
Jewish immigrants to the United States.
This man was Michael Heilprin (b. in Piotrkow, Russian-
Poland, 1823; d. in Summit, N. J., 1888), the son of Pinhas
Mendel Heilprin (b. in Lublin, Russian-Poland, 1801 ; d. in
Washington, D. C, 1863). His father, who was a scholarly
Michael Heilprin.
209
Mihcael Heilprin. 211
merchant of the old Pohsh-Jewish type and the author of sev-
eral works in Hebrew, was his only teacher, and brought him up
in that spirit of enlightened Orthodoxy which was not antag-
onistic to the acquisition of secular learning. Michael's almost
phenomenal memory and diligence helped him tO' master many
languages and to become proficient in numerous sciences, which
enabled him later to become one of the associate editors and an
important contributor to Appleton's New American Cyelopaedia.
The Heilprins removed to Northern Hungary about 1843, where
Michael established himself as a bookseller in Miskolcz. He
soon mastered the Hungarian language, and his articles and
poems in the cause of liberty attracted much attention during the
stormy days of 1848 and 1849. He became the friend and con-
fidant of Louis Kossuth (1802-94) and other leaders, and when
the short-lived independent Hungarian government was estab-
lished, he became secretary of the literary bureau which was at-
tached to its ministry of the interior. After the suppression of
the Revolution he spent some time in Cracow and in France,
but returned to Hungary in 1850, and settled as a teacher in
Satoralja-Ujhely, where his second son, the well-known Ameri-
can naturalist, Angelo Heilprin, was born in 1853 (d. in New
York, 1907) ; the elder son, Louis, the encyclopedist (b. in
Miskolcz, 1851), died in New York in 1912.
Michael Heilprin came to the L^nited States in 1856 and set-
tled in Philadelphia, where for two years he taught in the schools
of the Hebrew Education Society. He "saw but one struggle
here and in Hungary," and his sympathies were actively engaged
in the anti-slavery movement. In 1858 he settled in Brooklyn,
where he resided until 1863, when he removed to Washington,
returning to New York in 1865. On January 16, 1861,
he contributed a fiery denunciation and an exhaustive schol-
arly refutation of Raphall's views to the New York Tribune
which commanded wide attention; and owing to this vehement
but convincing repudiation of alleged Jewish pro-slavery views,
212 History of the Jews in America.
Heilpnn succeeded in arousing the public in a more marked de-
gree than any other Jewish anti-slavery champion.
The bulk of the Jewish immigrants who came from Germany
in the forty years preceding the Civil War were almost unanir
mous against slavery, because they were under the influence of
the liberal movements of the Old World. These immigrants were
intensely interested in the anti-slavery movement and were among
the first and the most enthusiastic members of the newly formed
Republican party. The two Jews who were chosen delegates
tO' the National Convention of that party in i860, which nomi-
nated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency, and the Jewish
member of the Electoral College which ratified the choice of
the people in that year, were all natives of Germany. The oldest
among them was Sigismund Kaufman (b. in Darmstadt, 1824;
d," in Blerlin, 1889), who participated in the German Revolution
of 1848-49, and coming to America, became a representative of
the German Republican element in the United States. He took
an active part in the leadership of German social and fraternal
organizations in New York, was a director of the Hebrew Orphan
Asylum, and held the position of Commissioner of Immigration.
He addressed anti-slavery meetings in English, German and
French, and was considered one of the influential politicians
of New York in his time. He was chosen a Presidential Elector
for the State of New York in i860.
Moritz Pinner (b. in Germany about 1828), one of the mem-
bers of the Republican State Convention which was held in St.
Louis on February 12, i860, was elected a delegate to the Na-
tional Republican Convention to be held in Chicago the follow-
ing May. Fie was opposed to the Presidential candidate who
v-as put forward by that convention, and when it adopted the
unit rule, thereby forcing him to vote against his own favorite
candidate (Seward), he offered his resignation; but the conven-
tion adjourned without taking ac'"ion on it. He was at the
Chicago Convention as a delegate, but abstained from voting,
on account of his declination to be bound by the decree of the
f'iiolo Ijy Kl£ii]bei, I.ouisrll].
Lewis N. Dembitz.
213
Lewis N. Dembitz. 215
State Convention, which is one of the reasons why his name does
not appear on the official roll of the Missouri delegates. Pinner,
who later removed to Elizabeth, N. J., was actively engaged
for a number of years before the outbreak of the war in cir-
culating anti-slavery literature in Missouri, and was for some time
the editor of a German periodical devoted to the same cause.'
The third and youngest of the three Jews who directly par-
ticipated in the official part of the work of nominating and elect-
ing Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in i860, was Lewis
Aaphtali Dembitz (b. in Zirke, Province of Posen, Prussian-
Poland in 1833 : d. in Louisville. Ky., 1907) , who had been a prac-
ticing attorney at Louisville since 1853. He was previously occu-
pied as a journalist and had at a later time written several works
on legal and general, as well as on Jewish, suljjects. Demljitz
took an active interest in Jewish affairs and held various com-
munal positions in local and national bodies. He was consid-
ered one of the leaders of Conservative Judaism in America, and
is best known as the author of Jnuish Scn<iccs in the Synagogiir
and Home (1898). At the Convention of i860 he was a dele-
gate from the city of Louisville, where he resided for more than
a half centur)-, and where he held the position of Assistant City
Attorney from 1884 to 1888.
The one Jewish delegate to the Convention which re-nomi-
nated Mr. Lincoln in 1864 was likewise a native of Germany,
while the one Jewish member of the Electoral College which
re-elected him was of German parentage. The former was
Maier Hirsch ( 1829-76) , a merchant of Salem, Oregon, who
was one of the six delegates from that state to the Republican
National Convention of 1864. He settled in Oregon in 1852,
when he came to the United States from Wijrtemberg. He set-
tled in New York in 1874, where he died two years later. Maier
Plirsch was a brother of Solomon Hirsch, who was LInited
' See Markens, Lincoln and the Jews in "Publications," XVII, pp. 10-65,
for a more detailed treatment of the subject of this chapter.
216 History of the Jews in America.
States Minister to Turkey from 1889 to 1892, and of Edward
Hirsch, at one time State Treasurer and later a State Senator
of Oregon.
The Presidential elector of 1864 was A. J. Dittenhoefer (b.
in South Carolirja, 1836), who came with his parents to New
York when he was four years old, and has resided there con-
tinually since. He served as Justice of the Marine (now City)
Court, and held several positions of trust and honor in the Re-
publican Party, of which he was one of the earliest members
in New York.
Among the personal friends of Lincoln was Abraham Jonas
(b. in Exeter, England, 1801 ; d. in Quincy, 111., 1864), whose
four sons, strangely enough, fought in the Confederate Army.
Jonas, who first lived in Kentucky, was a member of the Legisla-
ture of that State in 1828-30 and in 1833; and in the last named
year he was also chosen Grand Master of Masons of the State
of Kentucky. He removed to Illinois in 1838, and there also
became Grand Master of the newly organized Masonic Grand
Lodge, which was founded in 1839. He was elected a member
of the Illinois Legislature in 1842, retiring from his mercan-
tile pursuits on being admitted to the bar in 1843. He served
as Postmaster of Quincy from 1849 to 1852. Jonas, with Lin-
coln, was chosen by the Illinois State Republican Convention,
held at Bloomington on May 29, 1856, a Presidential elector on
the Fremont ticket. A confidential letter which Lincoln, after
his first nomination in i860 wrote to Jonas, denying that he
was affiliated with the American or "Know Nothing" party, is
preserved in the authoritative Lincoln biography by Nicolay and
Hay. During his last illness, when he knew that the doctors
had no hope for his recovery, Jonas's only wish was to see his
son, Charles H., a member of the Twelfth Arkansas Regiment,
who was at that time a prisoner of vi^ar on Johnson's Island,
Lake Erie. This wish was communicated by telegraph to Lin-
coln, who issued an order, dated June 2d, 1864, to "Allow
Charles H. Jonas, now a prisoner of war at Johnson's Island, a
Lincoln's Jewish Friends. 217
parole of three weeks to visit his dying father, Abraham Jonas,
at Quincy, 111." Benjamin F. Jonas (b. in Williamstown, Ky.,
1834; d. in New Orleans, 191 1). who served in the artillery of
Hood's Corps in the Army of Tennessee, and who, after serv-
mg several terms in the Legislature of Louisiana, was elected
a United States Senator from that state, serving from 1879 until
1885, was one of the above mentioned four sons of Abraham
Jonas who served in the Confederate Army.
The admiration which Jews felt for Lincoln was probably
best expressed by the silk flag which City Clerk Abraham Kohn
of Chicago sent to the President-elect before his departure for
Washington in February, 1861. It was painted in colors, its
folds bearing Hebrew characters lettered in black with the third
to ninth verses of the first chapter in Joshua, the last verse being :
"Have I not commanded thee? Be strong and of good courage;
be not afraid neither be thou dismayed ; for the Lord thy God
is with thee whithersoever thou goest."
CHAPTER XXV.
FARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN THE CIVIL WAR. JUDAH P. BENJAMIN.
Probable number of Jews in the United States at the time of the out-
break of the Civil War — Seddon's estimate of "from ten to twelve
thousand Jews in the Southern Army" — Judah P. Benjamin, the
greatest Jew in American public life — His early life and his mar-
riage — Whig politician, planter and slave owner — Elected to the
United States Senate and re-elected as a Democrat — Quits Wash-
ington when Louisiana seceded and enters the cabinet of the Con-
federacy — Attorney-General, Secretary of War and Secretary of
State — His foreign policy — His capacity for work — When all is lost
he goes to England and becomes one of its great lawyers — His last
days are spent in France.
The highest estimate of the number of Jews in the United
States about the time of the outbreak of the Civil War was about
tour hundred thousand (Jonas P. Levy in 1858; see "Publica-
tions," XI, p. 39), while the lowest, given by Mr. Simon Wolf
in his work, which is the standard authority on the participation
of the Jews in the war,^ thinks it "altogether doubtful whether
there were more than 150,000, if that many, when hostiliticis
commenced." But it is certain that even if the higher estimatt
is nearer the truth, the Jews took their full share in the strug-
gle and "that the enlistment of Jewish soldiers, N'orth and South,
reached proportions considerably in excess of their ratio to the
general population." Mr. \Volf has collected data to the effect
that over seven thousand Jews took part in the conflict on both
sides, but he has by no means been able to come near com--
' The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier and Citi::cn, p. 6.
218
/•
r / I
From Pierce Eullei's "JuLiah P. lie:
^'
Judah P. Bon j a mi n.
219
Judah P. Benjamin. 221
pleteness. Neither the Government of the United States nor
that of the Confederacy took notice of the rehgion of its sol-
diers; a large number of the young German-Jewish volunteers
v;ere far from being strict adherents of religion, while many
^mo^g the native Jews had American names and could not be
easily recognized as Jews. Mr. Seddon, the Secretary of War
of the Confederacy, when requested, in the fall of 1864, to grant
a furlough to Jewish soldiers who would like to keep Rosh ha-
Shanah and Yom Kippur, is quoted as replying that he believed
that there were from ten to twelve thousand Jews in the Southern
Army, and that it would perhaps disintegrate certain commands
if the request was granted. While this number is probably an
exaggeration, it cannot be very far from the truth, and consid-
ering the comparatively small number of Jews in the South at
that time, this is a really remarkable showing.
The number of Jews who distinguished themselves by their
bravery and who attained high rank and other forms of recog-
nition, was also correspondingly large, especially if we consider
their inexperience in war. But before treating of the men who
gained eminence on the field of battle, and of the others whose
creditable record in the war helped them to attain positions of
prominence in other walks of life afterwards, we shall speak
cf the one man who occupied a really commanding position in
this gigantic struggle, the greatest Jew in American public life —
Judah P. Benjamin.
He was the son of Philip (b. about 1782) and Rebecca de
Mendes Benjamin, who emigrated from London, England, to
St. Thomas, W. I., in 1808, shortly after their marriage, where
the son was born August 6, 181 1. The Benjamins removed to the
United States, where they originally intended to go, about 1818,
and settled in Charleston, S. C. Judah Philip entered Yale Uni-
versity in 1825, and left in 1827, without taking a degree. A
year later he came to New Orleans, where he taught English,
learned French and studied law as a notary's clerk. He was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1832 and a year later married his former
222 History of the Jews in America.
pupil, Natalie St. Martin, who remained all her life a devout
Roman Catholic. The marriage was not a happy one, and when
their only child which survived infancy was about five years
old, Mrs. Benjamin moved permanently to France to educate
her, and Mr. Benjamin saw them only on his visits to Paris,
which he made almost annually.
Benjamin was associated with Thomas Slidell, who later
became Chief Justice of Louisiana, in the preparation of the
Digest of the Reported Decisions of the Superior Courts in the
Territory of Orleans and State of Louisiana, which was published
in 1834. He soon afterward became interested in politics, and
was elected to the lower house of the General Assembly of
Louisiana on the Whig ticket in 1842. When he was forced
by weakened eyesight to relinquish his laAV practice for a time,
he took up sugar planting, in which he likewise succeeded very
well. The plantation, however, was ruined by a flood, and Ben-
jamin removed to New Orleans, together with the members of
his family, whom he brought over from South Carolina. They
were his mother (d. 1847), his oldest sister, the widow of Abra-
ham Levy (whom she married in 1826), and his younger sister,
who later became the mother of Julius Kruttschnitt (b. in New
Orleans, 1854), the railroad manager. As a planter Benjamin
became a slave owner, and some of his slaves, who were still
living at the beginning of the present century, "would tell visitors
all sorts of tales of the master of long ago — none but kindly
memories and romantic legends of the glory of the old place."^
He soon became one of the recognized leaders of the Whig
party in his state, and "no small share of the flashes of success
that came to it in the last decade of its existence in Louisiana is
attributable to his energy and political sagacity." He was, ac-
cording to the journalistic custom of that time, savagely as-
' Pierce Butler, Judah P. Benjamin, Philadelphia, 1907, p. 62. This
complete biographical work is the only one of its kind written of an
American Jew, and practically supersedes all that was written about
Benjamin before.
Benjamin as a Senator. 223
sailed by the newspapers which opposed him, and he was even
charged, in 1844, with belonging to the "Know Nothing" party,
despite the fact that he was himself foreign born. But he agreed
Avith that party in his opposition to the granting of suffrage to
immigrar.ts into the state, even to natives of Northern States,
in whom he saw a source of danger to the South.
His seat in the Constitutional Con\'ention of 1844 being con-
tested, he resigned and was re-elected by a much larger majority.
\\'hen he again took his seat at the convention which re-assem-
bled in New Orleans, Benjamin was the recognized leader of
the delegates of that city in its disputes with the representatives
of the country districts. One of his speeches at that convention
proved that he clearly foresaw the war in 1845, though he was
then considered an alarmist. He was elected a State Senator
in 1852, and soon became a leading candidate for the United
States Senate. He received the nomination by an unexpectedly
large majority and was elected in the same year, as a \Vhig.
When that party was split by the antagonism between the North
and the South, he came out openly m 1855 with the declara-
tion that it did not exist any more as a national party. He
urged the necessity of uniting in one great Southern party, on
a platform ''on which we can all stand together to meet with
firmness the coming shock." When the formation of such a
party proved impracticable, he turned to the Democratic party
and became more friendly to the administration. His first really
powerful speech in the Senate was delivered May 2d, 1856, on
the Kansas bill, in which he distinctly and calmly enunciated the
right of secession.
In 1859 Benjamin was re-elected to the United States Senate
by a majority of one vote (that of the last "Know Nothing" in
the Louisiana Legislature). He was now one of the prominent
Senators, and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. He was in
favor of secession only as a last resort ; but he thought that this
last resort was reached after Lincoln's election in i860. He deliv-
ered two powerful orations in the Senate in the following winter,
224 History of the Jews in America.
and a memorable farewell speech, February 4, 1861, on the
right of Louisiana to secede. His last speech in the capital was
delivered before the Washington Artillery on Washington's
birthday, and soon after, in N,ew Orleans, he took leave from his
family, whom he was never to see again.
Louisiana had already seceded from the Union on January 26,
t86i, and one month later, February 25, Benjamin was named
by the President of the new Confederacy, Jefferson Davis (1808-
89) as his Attorney-General. Benjamin assumed his new office
at the new capital, Montgomery, Ala. ; but there was hardly any
work for him to do as an Attorney-General to a government
that practically had no courts. But he was often called upon
by President Davis to perform other services which required
tact and delicacy, and he soon gained the latters confidence to a
marked degree. On September 17, 1861, Benjamin was named
Secretary of War ad interim, to succeed Secretary Walker, act-
ing also as Attorney-General until November 15 of that year. He
proved unpopular in his new office, and was blamed by a Con-
gressional committee for not sending ammunition to General
Wise, who lost an important battle about that time. But as a
matter of fact there was nothing to send, and the President and
his Secretary of War preferred to accept official blame to dis-
closing the dearth and scarcity of powder to a committee of the
Confederate Congress, fearing that it might become known to
the Yankees. Benjamin shouldered the odium, as usual; but he
rose in the estimation of Davis and the other leaders who were
conversant with the true state of affairs. Thus it happened that
while almost everybody in the South expected Benjamin to be
dismissed in disgrace, the surprising news was published on
March 27, 1862, that he was promoted to the office of Secretary
of State.
His new Department was the one for which he was pre-emi-
nently fit ; and while he could not, in the nature of things, accom-
plish all that was expected of him, he earned the undying fame
which was best expressed in the description of him as the "Brains
As Secretary of State. 225
cf the Confederacy." The great problem was to obtain assist-
arce from a maritime power, the onl)' one who could help the
blockaded Confederacy, which was prevented by the blockade
from selling its chief staple article — cotton. Spain, though a
slave power herself at that time, was unfriendly to the former
persistent filibusters, and her distrust could not be overcome.
France was too friendly with England and would not interfere
without the latter's consent or co-operation, so that even if the
South could send out a new Benjamin Franklin to Paris he could
accomplish little. Benjamin, like almost all Southern statesmen,
believed that England will be unable to get along without cot-
ton, and ignoring or misunderstanding the moral forces which
the cause of the North awakened in Europe, he displayed more
independence at the beginning than was justifiable. Later, when
he was in England, Benjamin declared : "I did not believe that
your government would allow such misery to your operatives,
such loss to your manufacturers, or that the people themselves
would have borne it."' Benjamin believed that recognition (by
England and France) even without intervention would end the
war, and he might have been right if recognition came early.
Mason, the Southern representative in England, made little
headway, and even had his cause been stronger, he was no match
for Adams, the minister of the North. Slidell, Benjamin's friend,
was apparently more successful in France. Benjamin authorized
him to offer France a cotton subsidy valued at over sixty million
francs for breaking the blockade or even for simple recognition
of the Confederacy. Emperor Louis Napoleon (1808-73)
seemed to have been favorably inclined, and Mercier, the French
minister at Washington, who visited Richmond with Lincoln's
permission, was so influenced by Benjamin that he became al-
most enthusiastic. But communications were unsteady and un-
safe, and some dispatches came seven months after they were
sent from Paris. As an instance : Benjamin received from Sli-
dell on February 27, 1863, a message written December .27,
1862, stating that the envoy to France was "without any dispatch
226 History of the Jews in America.
from you later than April 15th." The fall of New Orleans,
May I, 1862, blasted the hopes of early intervention.
Benjamin worked very hard as Secretary of State, although
there were no ambassadors to be received and no social functions
to be attended in Richmond. It has been stated on good author-
ity that President Davis consulted with his Secretary of State
more freely than with any other member of his cabinet, and
finding him always willing and able, got in the habit of referring
to the State Department anything that did not beyond any hope
belong to some other department. Benjamin's assistant secre-
tary, L. O. Washington, writes of him : "He was ever calm, self-
poised, and master of all his resources. His grasp of a subject
seemed instantaneous. His mind appeared to move without
friction. His thought was clear." Mrs. Jefferson Davis wrote:
"Mr. Benjamin was always ready for work; sometimes with
half an hour recess, he remained with the Executive from ten
in the morning until night. . . . Both the President and
the Secretar)' of State worked like galley slaves, early and late.
Mr. Davis came home fasting, a mere mass of throbbing nerves,
and perfectly exhausted; but Mr. Benjamin was always fresh
and buoyant."
When New Orleans fell, his little family, after privations and
misadventures, moved to La Grange, Ga., where he could again
supply them with money. \Mien the fortune of the Confederacy
began to wane, his unpopularity increased, and attacks upon the
score of his religion and race, which were never neglected by his
opponents during his entire career, were now redoubled. He
was especially blamed for the desperate plan, which was carried
cut through the desire and influence of General Robert E. Lee
(1807-70) of enlisting negroes in the Confederate army. On
February 9, 1865, Benjamin made, at a mass meeting in Rich-
mond, the last public speech of his life. His power over his
audience was still great, but all was lost. Richmond fell in less
than two months. After an anxious week at Danville, he ac-
companied President Davis to Greensboro, where the fugitive
Benjamin's Career in England. 227
government halted for a few days. Taking leave from Mr.
Davis, to whom he could no longer be of any assistance, he es-
caped to the West Indies, where he visited his native place for
the last time, and after many dangers and adventiu'es he arrived
in England, July 22, 1865.
Although England did not recognize the Confederacy, many s}-m-
pathized with it, and Benjamin, whose fame preceded him, was
received in London with great friendliness, despite the order which
he gave as Secretary of State, expelling from the Confederate
States all British Consuls, because they persisted in acting under
orders from their superiors in Washington. He was befriended
by many of the important men of the time in Lcjndon, including
both Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield, 1804-81) and Will-
iam E. Gladstone (1809-98). EIa\-ing been born in an English
colony, the son of an Englishman, he simply returned to h.\s
original allegiance, seemingly trying to forget his experience
of more than forty years as an American. He never made a
political address or a public declaration after leaving America.
His subsequent career as an English barrister, as one of the
greatest of barristers in his time, was wonderful, especially when
we remember that it was begun when he was over fifty-five years
of age; with a past history which was so crowded with activity
and exciting experience to wear out any man. He wrote there his
Treatise on the Lai^' of Sale of Personal Property, zvith Refer-
ences to the Aiiierieaii Decisions, to the French Code and Civil
Lazi' which became a legal classic on both sides of the Atlantic.
His income from his law practice was for some years as high
as £15,000 annually, which was much rarer then than it is now.
In 1872 he received a "patent of precedence," which gave him
rank above all other Queen's Counsels. About 1877 he be-
gan to build a new house on .Vvenue d'Jena (No. 41), in
Paris, in which city his wife and only child continued to reside,
even after he settled in England. A bad accident caused by an
228 History of the Jews in America.
attempt to jump off a tram-car, in 1880, left him a sick man
for the rest of his Hfe. Diabetes developed, and in February,
1883, he was forced to announce his retirement from the English
Bar. After a notable banquet given in his honor by the Bench
and Bar — the first of its kind in England — he retired to his man-
sion in Paris, where he died May 6, 1884, about seventy-three
years old. He was buried according to the rites of the Catholic
Church, although it is not believed that he was converted to
Christianity. His wife survived him seven years. His only
daughter, Ninette, who married Captain Henri -de Bousignac, of
the French army, died without issue in 1898.
CHAPTER XXVI.
DISTINGUISHED SERVICES OF JEWS ON BOTH SIDES OF THE
STRUGGLE.
More "brothers in arms'' and a larger proportion of officers in the Con-
federate Army than in that of the North, because most Southern
Jews were natives of the country — Some distinguished officers — A
gallant private who later became a rabbi — Paucity of Southern rec-
ords— -Generals Knefler, Solomon, Blumenberg, Joachimsen and
other officers of high rank in the Union Army — New York ranks
first, Ohio second and Illinois third in the number of Jews who went
to the front — Two Pennsylvania regiments which started with Jew-
ish colonels — Commodore Uriah P. Levy, the ranking officer of the
United States navy at the time of the outbreak of the war, is pre-
vented by age from taking part in it.
The disproportionately large number of Jews who served in
the Confederate army was already alluded to in the former chap-
ter. Another proof of it is the preponderance among the Jews
in that army of instances of "brothers in arms" (as Mr. Wolf
calls them), i. e., of groups of several brothers who went to
the front with their neighbors to fight the battles of the state
and the section of the country in which they lived. Six brothers
Cohen — Aaron, Jacob H., Julius, Edward, Gustavus A. and
Henry M. — came from North Carolina. South Carolina contrib-
uted the five brothers Moses — Percy, Joshua L., Horace, J. Harby
and A. Jackson. The four brothers Jonas have been men-
tioned in a former chapter, but they also had a fifth brother
who, like their father, embraced the Union cause. Raphael
Moses and his three sons were four Southern soldiers from
^39
230 History of the Jews in America.
Georgia, while Alabama sent also three Moses brothers: Mor-
decai, Henr)' C. and Alfred. Three brothers Cohen came from
Arkansas, Virginia and Louisiana each sent three brothers sur-
named Levy, while of the three brothers Goldsmith two came
from Georgia and one from South Carolina. The reason for
the presence gf so many brothers in arms in the Confederate
srmy is given by the above named authority as due to the fact
that the Jews of the Southern States were, in a much larger pro-
portion than those of the Xorth, natives of the soil or residents
of long standing. \A'hile the Jews of the North were much more
numerous, they were, for the most part, immigrants of a com-
paratively recent date, and therefore less intensely imbued with
the spirit of the conflict.
There were about twenty-three Jewish staff officers in the
Confederate arm}^ \\hich is likewise a larger number than
those who held similar positions in the L^nion army, and
probably for the same reason given above. The most distin-
guished of them were : Surgeon-General David de Leon, who
participated in the Mexican war (see page 162) ; Assistant Ad-
jutant-General J. Randolph Mordecai, and Colonel Raphael J.
Moses, who served on the staff of General Longstreet and was
chief commissary for the State of Georgia. Adolph Meyer
(b. in New Orleans, 1842; d. there 1908), who later served nine
terms as a member of the House of Representatives in Washing-
ton from the First District of Louisiana (52d to 60th Congresses,
inclusive), entered the Confederate army in 1862, and served
until the close of the war on the staff of Brigadier-General John
S. Williams of Kentucky. There were also about a dozen Jew-
ish officers in the Confederate na\y, one of whom, Captain Levy
Myers Harby (b. in Georgetown, S. C, 1793: d. in Galveston,
Tex., 1870), who had previously served in the war of 1812, in
the Mexican war and in the Bolivian war, and, after resigning
from the service of the United States and joining the Con-
federacy, distinguished himself in the defence of Galveston, and
was in command of its harbor at the close of the Civil War.
I'liolo bv Harris i ].;„i„e. „•„„, ^
Hon. Simon Wolf.
231
Jews in the Confederate Army. 233
Lionel Levy, a nephew of Judah P. Benjamin, served as Judge-
Advocate of the Alihtary Court of the Confederate Army.
Among those who served as privates in tlie ranks who deser\-e
to be mentioned was Samuel Ullman of the i6th Infantry Regi-
ment of Mississippi, who served gallantly through the war, being
twice wounded, and later (1891-94) was rabbi of Emanuel Con-
gregation of Birmingham, Ala. There have also been preserved
the names of twenty-five Jews among the Confederate prisoners
who died in Elmira. N. Y., during the time which they were
detained there. A list of seventeen soldiers interred at the
Jewish burying ground of Richmond, Va., contains the names of
one captain, three lieutenants, and one corporal, which is an
exceptionallv large ratio of officers for the Civil War on either
side. Even in the South the Jews could at that time be num-
bered by tens of thousands, with a much larger proportion of
poor men, or immigrants, than in former times, and the relative
number of officers was perforce much smaller than at the time
of the Revolution or of the War of 1812. Still the Jews of
the South were then, as it was stated above, much more as-
similated or Americanized than those of the North, and the
records of the Confederate army were less carefully kept or
preserved. Thus it happens that, while judging from inference
and some general statements, it may appear that the number of
Jews in the armies of the Confederacy was almost as large as,
if not larger than, their number in the LTnion Army, the actual
records compiled by Mr. AVolf tell an entirely different story.
His lists contain about six thousand names of Jews who sup-
ported the Union cause, while among those who defended seces-
sion and slavery there were only about a fifth of that number
whose names and identity he ascertained.
It is also to the Union army that we have to go to find Jewish
officers who commanded regiments on the Ijattlefields. Brevet
Major General Frederick Knefler, a native of Hungary, who rose
to the colonelcy of the 79th Indiana Regiment and subsequently
became a Brigadier-General, and was made Brevet Major-Gen-
234 History of the Jews in America.
eral for meritorious conduct at Chickamauga, is classed as a
Jew. Edward S. Solomon (known also as Salomon; b. in Sles-
wick-Holstein, 1826; d. 1909) emigrated to the United States
after receiving a high school education in his native town, and
settled in Chicago, where he was elected alderman in i860. At
the outbreak of the war he joined the 24th Illinois Infantry as
second-lieutenant, participating in the battles of Frederickton
and Mainfordsville, Kentucky, and was promoted to the rank of
major in 1862. He then resigned and assisted in the organiza-
tion of the Eighty-second Illinois Infantry, in which regiment
he became lieutenant-colonel, and afterwards became its colonel.
He took part, under General Howe, in the battles of Chancellor-
ville, Gettysburg, Chattanooga, Lookout Mountain and Mis-
sionary Ridge. In 1865 he was brevetted brigadier-general.
When peace was restored he returned to Chicago and became
clerk of Cook County, 111. In 1870 he was appointed by Presi-
dent Ulysses S. Grant (1822-85) governor of Washington Ter-
ritory, and held the position about four years. After resigning,
in 1874, he settled in San Francisco, where he was twice elected
to the Legislature of California, and also held the office of Dis-
trict Attorney of San Francisco.
Leopold Blumenberg (b. in Prussia, 1827; d. in Baltimore,
1876) served with distinction in the Prussian-Danish war of
1848-49 and was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. Pie
came to the United States in 1854 and settled in Baltimore,
■i\-here he engaged in a profitable business, which he abandoned
at the outbreak of the war. He helped to organize the Fifth
IMaryland Regiment, in which he became a major. His work
for the Union cause excited the animosit)' uf local secessionists,
who attempted to hang him, and he was forced to have his house
barricaded and guarded for several nights. Blumenberg was
acting colonel of his regiment near Hampton Roads. He was
later attached to Mansfield's corps at the Peninsular campaign,
and commanded his regiment as colonel at .Vntietam, where he
was severely wounded. When he liad parti}- recovered he was
Officers in the Union Army. 235
appointed by President Lincoln provost-marshal of the third
Maryland district, A\hich position he held for two years. Presi-
dent Andrew Johnson (1808-75) gave him a position in the
revenue department and commissioned him brigadier-general,
United States Volunteers, by brevet. General Blnmenberg was
a member of the Plar-Sinai Congregation and of the Hebrew
Orphan Asylum of Baltimore.
Philip J. Joachimsen (b. in Breslau, Germany, 1817; a. 1831;
d. in New York, 1890) was appointed Assistant Corporation
Attorney of the City of New York soon after his admission to
the bar, in 1840, and fifteen years later he became Assistant
United States District Attorney, being afterward appointed Sub-
stitute United States Attorney under a special provision of an
act of Congress. (Alarkcns 223.) During his term of office he
secured the first capital conviction for slave trading, and also
the conviction of some Nicaraguan filibusterers. He organized
and commanded the 59th New York Volunteer Regiment
and was injured at New Orleans. He was made brigadier-gen-
eral by brevet. In 1870 he was elected a Judge of the Marine
Court of the City of New York and served a full term of six
years. Judge Joachimsen was active in Jewish communal affairs,
and was the first president of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum
(1859). Twent)' years later he organized the Plebrew Shelter-
ing Guardian Society.
General \\'illiam Mayer rendered valuable service during the
Draft Riots in New York City, for which he received an auto-
graph letter of thanks from President Lincoln. Subsecjuently
General J\Iayer devoted himself to journalism and was the editor
of several German newspapers.
Marcus M. Spiegel, the son of a rabbi of Oppenheim-on-the-
Rhine, enlisted in the 67th Ohio Infantry Regiment and
was promoted step by step until lie became lieutenant-colonel,
and for braverv manifested on the battle field, was appointed
Colonel of the 120th Ohio Infantry. He was wounded at Vicks-
burg, and after joining his regiment again, fell at Snaggy Point,
236 History of the Jews in America.
on the Red River, Louisiana. But for his untimely death,
Colonel Spiegel would have been promoted to the rank of Bri-
gadier-General, to which he was recommended by his superior
offi'cers.
Max Einstein (b. in Wiirtemburg, 1822; a. 1844) had con-
siderable military experience prior to the outbreak of the war.
He was a silk merchant, and became First Lieutenant of the
Washington Guards in 1852, In the following year he joined
the Philadelphia (Flying) Artillery Company and was chosen
its Captain. He became Aide-de-Camp (with the rank of Lieu-
tenant-Colonel) to Governor James Pollock of Pennsylvania in
1856. In i860 he was elected Brigadier-General of the Second
Brigade of Pennsylvania Militia. In the succeeding year he
organized the 27th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment, which was
mustered into service May 31, 1861, for a three years' term.
This regiment, under Colonel Einstein's command, succeeded in
covering the retreat of the Union Army in the first battle of Bull
Run and won credit by its conduct. Einstein was subsequently
appointed by President Lincoln United States Consul at Nurem-
berg, Germany, and later served as United States Revenue Agent
at Philadelphia.
It is worth noting as an example that this one regiment had
nearly thirty Jewish officers, most of them in n*inor positions,
and about sixty privates in the ranks. This was, of course, an
exceptional case, but Jews were represented in most of the regi-
ments, especially those of Philadelphia, almost if not quite as
much as in the regiments of those states which sent a larger con-
tingent of Jewish soldiers to the front than Pennsylvania. The
first of those states was New York, with nearly two thousand,
■which had already at that time achieved the distinction of hav-
ing the largest Jewish community in the New World. Ohio,
which came second, with 1,134, and Illinois, with 1,076, clearly
indicated the growing importance of the Middle West for the
new immigration. Indiana contributed over five hundred — al-
most as many as Pennsylvania — while Michigan had more than
Officers in the Union Army. 237
two hundred of its Jewish inhabitants in the Union Army. New
England had the smallest representation, for the number of Jews
there was very small at that time.
There w»s still another Pennsylvania regiment, the 65th
(Fifth Cavalry), known as the "Cameron Dragoons" (on ac-
count of its being recruited under the authority of an osder
issued by Secretary of War Simon Cameron (1799-1889) July
6, 1861), which first went to the front under the command of
a Jewish colonel. His name was Max Friedman (b. in Miihl-
hausen, Germany, 1825), and he came to the United States in
1848, settling in Philadelphia. He served as Major of a Regi-
m.ent in the State Militia prior to the Civil War. Colonel Fried-
man remained with his regiment in the field until a severe wound
received at the battle of Vienna, Virginia, forced him to resign
in the following month. He later (1869) settled in New York
as the cashier of the Union Square National Bank, of which he
v.-as one of the organizers.
Abraham Hart (b. in Hesse-Darmstadt, 1832), who arrived
in this country at the age of eighteen, was a captain in the
73d Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment, and when Colonel
Kolter, under whom he served, was elevated to the command of
a brigade in General Blenker's Division of the Army of the Po-
tomac, Captain Hart was detailed as Adjutant-Genera! of the
brigade. Moses Isaac of New York attained the same rank,
that of adjutant-general in the Third Army Corps of the Army
of the Potomac, and participated in the battles of the Penin-
sular campaign, subsequently serving under General Banks.
Another New York Jew, of whom little else is known besides a
brief notice by Mr. Wolf (p. 285), was Lieutenant-Colonal Leo-
pold C. Newman, of the 31st Infantry Regiment of that
state, whose foot was shattered by a cannon ball in the battle
of Chancellorville (May 2, 1863), and he was taken to Wash-
ington, where he died. President Lincoln visited him at his bed-
side, and brought along his commission promoting him to the
rank of Brigadier-General.
238 History of the Jews in America.
While the number of Jewish soldiers was proportionally large,
and many of them became distinguished for bravery and were
promoted to responsible positions, it was in the other branch
of the service, the Navy, in which a member of the Jewish com-
munity attained the highest rank up to that time. Commodora
Uriah Phillips Levy (b. in Philadelphia, 1792; d. in New York,
1862) held the highest rank in the United States Navy prior to
the outbreak of the Civil War, though his age prevented him
from participating in that struggle. Levy sailed as a cabin Doy
before he was eleven years old, and at the age of fourteen he
was apprenticed as a sailor, and also attended a naval school for
one year, becoming a second mate four years later. He soon
rose to be first mate, and was master of a schooner at twenty.
While he was on a cruise on the "George Washington," of
which he was part owner as well as master, a mutiny took place,
his vessel was seized and he was left penniless; but he man-
aged to return to the United States, and after obtaining the
necessary means, he secured the mutineers, brought them to the
United States and had them convicted.
Levy received his commission from the United States Navy
as sailing master in October, 1812, when the war with Eng-
land had already begun. Until June 13 he served on the ship
"Alert," doing shore duty ; then he went on the brig "Argus,"
bound for France. The "Argus" captured several prizes, and
Levy was placed in command of one, but the prize was re-
captured by the English, and Levy and the crew were kept as
prisoners for sixteen months in England. In 18 16 he was as-
signed as sailing master to the "I^ranklin," and in March, 181 7,
he was appointed lieutenant in the Navy, which appointment was
confirmed by the Senate.
Levy had many difficulties in tire Navy, partly due to his
promotion from the line, which is never popular among officers
who receive their training at the Naval Academy, and partly,
as he himself and many others thought, on account of his faith
and descent. He fought a duel, in which he killed his opponent,
Commodore Uriah P. Levy.
239
Commodore Uriah P Levy. 241
was court-martialed six times, and finall}' dropped from the list
as captain, to which rank he had been promoted. He defended
his conduct before a court of inquiry in 1S55, which restored
him to the navy as captain. Subsecjuently he rose to the rank
of commodore.
Levy was the descendant of an old Philadelphia family, al-
ways acknowledged his Jewish allegiance, and was one of the
charter members of the Washington Hebrew Congregation.
He purchased Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, whom
he greatly admired, and it is still owned by the family, the present
owner being Congressman Jefferson M. Levy, a nephew of the
commodore. A statue of Jefferson, presented to the government
by Uriah P. Levy, is still standing in the Statuary Hall of the
Capitol in Washington. Levy is buried in the portion of Cypress
Hills Cemetery in New York which belongs to Congregation
Shearit Israel (of which another nephew, Louis Napoleon Levy,
a brother of the Congressman, is president), and on his impos-
ing tombstone is recorded that "he was the father of the law for
the abolition of the barbarous practice of corporal punishment
in the United States Navy."
CHAPTER XXVII.
THTE FORMATIVE PERIOD AFTER THE CIVIL WAR.
Ebb and flow of immigration between 1850 and 1880 — Decrease and
practical stoppage of Jewish immigration from Germany — The
breathing spell between two periods of immigration, and the prep-
aration for the vast influx which was to follow — The period of great
charitable institutions — Organization and consolidation — The He-
brew Union College and the Union of American Hebrew Congrega-
tions — The Independent- Order B'nai Brith — Other large fraternal
organizations and their usefulness — Important local institutions in
New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, etc.
The number of immigrants arriving in the United States
increased in the middle of the last century, and reached its
highest point of that period in 1854, when the new arrivals
numbered 427,833. It then began to diminish, and fell to about
150,000 in i860, and to less than 90,000 in each of the two
first years of the Civil War, 1861 and 1862. In the following
year it began to rise again, and in the two last years of the
war, when the final outcome was already easily foreseen in the
Old World, it was considerably above the three years preceding
the beginning of the conflict. In 1865 there came 247,453; in
1867 (when the present system of figuring by the fiscal year, end-
ing June 30, was adopted) they numbered 298,967, and only a
little less in 1868. In 1869 it rose to 352,569; in 1870 to
387,203. After a slight relapse in 1871 to 321,350, it rose in
1872 to 404,806 and in 1873 to 459,803, when the current re-
ceded again on account of the slackening of all business activity
which followed the panic of that year. It sank to as low as
242
Decline of G-erman Immigration. 243
138,469 in 1878, rose again to 177,826 in 1879, and to 457,257
in 1880, when the country had fully recovered from the effects
of the panic, as well as from the ravages of the great struggle.
But while Germans formed a large part of those who arrived
in the two or three decades after the war, the number of Jews
who left that country was now very small, and sank to almost
nothing about 1880. What was described by a Jewish traveler^
as the second German-Jewish migration to America, which began
about 1836, and to which "Bavaria contributed the largest quota
of (Jewish) immigrants, because of her peculiarly harsh (anti-
Jewish) marriage laws and commercial restrictions," practically
ended in the decade of the Civil War, when the Jews were
emancipated in most of the German states. The progress made
by these immigrants in less than one generation can be best illus-
trated by cjuoting two passages from the same article by Mr.
Kohler : "The early German settlers commonly arrived here
without means, frequently without any education other than of
the most rudimentary character." Subsequently (p. 102) he
quotes a German-American politician, who wrote in 1869: "The
German Jews in America gain in influence daily, being rich,
intelligent and educated, or at least seeking education. They
read better books than the rest of the Germans. . ."
This progress was largely accelerated by the great business
activity which followed the war. A large number of the Ger-
man-Jewish immigrants amassed wealth, and the stoppage of
the arrival of new poor immigrants, or rather of poor relatives,
reduced the number of the needy and helpless among them to an
insignificant fraction. It may be said that it was during these
fifteen years ( 1865-80), between the preceding large German-Jew-
ish immigration and the following incomparably larger Russian-
Jewish influx, that the Jews of the United States succeeded in
bringing their communal house to order, and in preparing for their
^ See Kohler, German-Jewish Migration to America in "Publications"
IX, 96 ff.
244 History of the Jews in America.
historic mission of receiving the great masses which were soon
to be driven thither from the Slavic countries by the iron hand of
persecution. Most of the large charitable institutions, which
are the pride of American Judaism, and have served to reheve
want and pain in various forms, actuahy date from that period.
The date of organization or original foundation is in most cases
much earlier. But at the beginning these institutions were more
like the small charities which are now founded by poor immi-
grants. There were very few great Jewish institutions in the
United States prior to the Civil War, although most of the mag-
nificent organizations in the older communities justly claim a
continued existence from ante-bellum days. The largest number
and the most important of them grew to their imposing size
and vast usefulness in "the seventies," i. e., in that breathing
spell which the Jews of America had between two periods of
immigration.
The tendency to organize, to consolidate and take up the work
of American Judaism in earnest, which characterized that period,
manifested itself in the conferences of the Reform Rabbis, al-
though as occasions for squabbles about destructive innovations
and for extremely radical declarations, they deserve to be classed
as ephemeral sensationalism rather than events of historical im-
portance. It was at the third of these conventions, held in Cin-
cinnati in June, 1871, that it was decided to establish the Hebrew
Union College and to organize the Union of American Hebrew
Congregations. The last named organization, which was
founded in July, 1873, with thirty-four congregations, number-
ing about 1,800 members,' now comprises about two hundred con-
gregations, with a total membership of nearly twenty thousand,
and includes practically the entire American and Americanized
German elements which are affiliated with Jewish religious insti-
tutions. The College, which was established two years later, has
^ Rev. Joseph Krauskopf, //a// a Century of Judaism in the United
States, in "The American Jews' Annual" for 5648, p. 87.
Julius Bien.
Principal organizer of the Ind. Order B'nai B'rith,
245
"Sons of the Covenant." 247
educated nearly one hundred and fifty American Rabbis, some
of whom have attained eminence as preachers and communal
workers.
The Independent Order B'nai B'rith (Sons of the Covenant),
which seems destined to be the great Jewish international organ-
ization of the future, though founded in 1843, did not assume
its commanding position until about a quarter of a century after-
\vard. It had less than 3,000 members in 1857. Three years
after the close of the Civil War its membership rose to
20,000, which was probably a larger proportion of the Jew-
ish population of the country at that time than it ever had
before or after. It now has about 34,000 members, dis-
tributed in the seven districts into which it has divided
the United States, and in Germany, Austria and Roumania,
where there are flourishing lodges. A lodge has also recently
been established in England. The guiding spirit of the order
was Julius Bien (b. in Hesse-Nassau, Germany, 1826; d. in New
York, 1909), who was its president in the years 1854-57 and
1868-1900. His successor was Leo N. Levi (b. in Victoria,
Tex., 1856; d. in New York, 1904), who was in turn succeeded
by the present incumbent, Adolf Kraus (b. in Bohemia, 1850; a.
1865), an eminent attorney, who has resided in Chicago since
1871, where he has served as President of the Board of Educa-
tion, Corporation Counsel of the city and President of the Civil
Service Commission.
While no other Jewish fraternal organization succeeded in
accomplishing as much as the B'nai B'rith in communal or
charitable work and in representing general Jewish interests for
a number of years, other organizations of the same kind, which
kept more strictly to the activities for the benefits of their own
members, also originated in that period. They are the Order
Brith Abraham (organized 1859) and its offshoots, the Kesh-
er shel Barzel (founded i860), the Independent Order Brith
Abraham (1887), the Free Sons of Israel (1849), and the Free
Sons of Benjamin (1879). The two Brith Abraham Orders, the
248 History of the Jews in America.
second of which was formed by a secession from the first,
have grown very fast of late years, the former having about
70,000 members of both sexes and the latter about twice that
number. Like most of the other Jewish or-ders which originated
later, the bulk of their membership consists of immigrants of the
last period from the Slavic countries. Aside from the pecuniary
benefits which members and their families derive from these
organizations at lower rates than they could have obtained else-
where, the educational value of these bodies is also great, for
many obtain there the, first glimpse of the systematic working oi
an organization which is amenable to its own rules.
As much, if not more, progress was made in that time with
the founding of institutions which are considered as local in
their character, but which in large communities like New York,
Philadelphia or Chicago ultimately helped more people at a
larger cost than many of the national organizations. The United
Hebrew Charities of New York was organized in 1874, two
years after the incorporation of the Home for Aged and Infirm
Hebrews. The Mount Sinai Hospital was originally the Jews'
Hospital (organized 1857), but it was then a small institution,
and its large structure (which was abandoned for a still larger
one in 1901) which first bore the name of Mount Sinai was
erected in 1870. The Hebrew Benevolent Orphan Asylum, which
was organized in its original form in the first quarter of the last
century, had only thirty children, in a rented house, in i860. Its
first building, on the corner of Third avenue and Seventy-seventh
street, was erected in 1862, and its magnificent structure on Am-
sterdam avenue more than twenty years afterwards. The He-
brew Sheltering Guardian Orphan Asylum Society was organized
in 1879. The Hebrew Free School Association, which gave the
impetus to the organization in later years of important educa-
tional institutions, like the Hebrew Technical Institute, the Tech-
nical School for Girls, and ultimately also to the Educational Al-
liance (originally The Hebrew Institute, organized 1891), orig-
Communal Activities. 249
iiiated in that period and existed until about 1899. The Young
Men's Hebrew Association was organized in 1874.
Philadelphia likewise enjoyed much communal activity in that
formative period of American-Jewish history. The first Jewish
theological seminary in America, Maimonides College, was
opened there in 1867 and existed for six years. The Hebrew
Education Society, which was organized in 1848 and opened its
school with twenty-two pupils in 185 1, opened a second school in
the vestry room of the Bene Israel Synagogue on Fifth street
in 1878, and a third school on the northwest corner of Marshall
street and Girard avenue in 1879. The first Jewish Hospital
Association of that city was incorporated in 1865. The Jewish
Maternity Association was founded in 1873. The Jewish Foster
Home, which erected its first small building in 1855, was or-
ganized in its present form in 1874, since which time it has be-
come one of the most important communal institutions there.
The Young Men's Hebrew Association was organized in 1875,
a year later than the one in New York.
The first Jewish Hospital in Chicago was erected on La-
salle avenue in 1868. It was destroyed by the great fire of
1871, and eight years later the funds which made possible the
erection of the Michael Reese Hospital were donated for that
purpose. The United Hebrew Charities of Chicago, originally
the United Hebrew Relief Association, was organized in 1859,
and changed its name later. The United Hebrew Charities of St.
Louis was organized in 1875.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
NEW SYNAGOGUES AND TEMPLES. IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA
PRIOR TO 1880.
Continued increase in the wealth and importance of the German-Jewish
congregations — New and spacious synagogues and temples erected
in various parts of the country in the "sixties'" and the "seventies"
— Problems of Russian-Jewish immigration prior to 1880 — Economic
condition of the Jewish masses in Russia worse in the "golden era"
than under Nicholas I. — Emigration from Russia after the famine
of 1867-68 and after the pogrom of Odessa in 1871 — Presumption of
the existence of a Hebrew reading public in New York in 1868 —
The first Hebrew and Yiddish periodicals.
The charitable institutions which were founded or enlarged
in this period were not the only indication of the improved and
settled condition of the Jews who came here in the preceding
half century. These institutions were later to be even more
enlarged, and numerous others were to be established to meet
the demands made upon them in the following quarter century.
It is to the synagogues or temples which date from these times
that we have to turn in order to gain a true conception of the
general condition of the Jews. In this respect there is a strik-
irg similarity between the condition of the Sephardim at the
beginning of the nineteenth century and the German Jews at
the end of its third quarter. In both cases the numerical growth
almost stopped with the cessation of immigration from the home
country. The small number of arrivals and the natural increase
were barely enough to replace the losses through death and
through estrangements which were caused by outright defections
or by the slower process of mixed marriages. And just as the
250
New and Enlarged Synagogues. 251
Spanish and Portuguese element in American Judaism, wliich had
barely held its own after the suspension of the Inquisition, per-
mitted the surviving Marranos to remain where they were, and
improved conditions in Western Europe obviated the necessity of
the Sephardim of Holland, France or England looking for new
homes, so did the much larger and more active German ele-
ment practically stop growing numerically after the emancipa-
tion of the Jews in the German States. The number of Jews
who arrived here from Germany after 1880 is insignificant, and
the same may be said of the relative number of German-Jewish
synagogues which were established after that time.
As a matter of fact the formation of German congregations
stopped several years earlier. The better cohesiveness and dis-
cipline among the Americanized Jews made splits a very rare
occurrence. Only in large cities the removal of many members
of a congregation too far from the location of its synagogue
caused the formation of new congregations, consisting mostly of
members of older bodies, with some accessions of immigrants
from the Slavic countries. In the smaller cities there is even
now only one German- American congregation, usually dating
from before the Civil War or from the decade following it. Tn
the larger cities there may be several of them of about the
same age, except in some communities, like Charleston, S. C,
where the Spanish and the Germans are fused in the one Re-
form congregation, or in New York, where each section of the
community is sufficiently large to have several congregations of
its own.
It is therefore not to the increase in the number of German-
Jewish congregations, but to their increase in wealth and im-
portance, as demonstrated by the increase in the size and
splendor of the synagogues and temples, that we have to look
for proof of the great progress which was made in that period.
The most representative congregations of New York have been
described in the preceding parts of this work. In Philadelphia
a new, spacious synagogue of its oldest congregation, Mickweh
252 History of the Jews in America.
Israel, was dedicated in i860, and the new beautiful temple of
the Congregation Rodef Shalom, "one of the earliest German-
Jewish congregations in America," was built in 1870. Kehillat
Anshe Maarab of Chicago had its first large synagogue ready
(converted from a church) in 1868. The second oldest con-
gregation. Bene Shalom, erected its first temple, on the corner
of Harrison street and Fourth avenue, in 1864, "at that time
the handsomest Jewish house of worship in Chicago." The
third eldest, Sinai Congregation, purchased the site of its tem-
ple in 1872 (after the fire of 1871 had destroyed its former
house of worship), and t!ie structure was finished four years
later. In distant California, Temple Emanuel, of San Francisco,
was dedicated in 1866. In the District of Columbia (Washing-
ton) the first synagogue was dedicated in 1863 and the second
in 1873. The old congregation of Savannah, Ga., erected a
new and much larger synagogue in 1876.
Temple Achdut we-Shalom of Evansville, Ind., which was
erected in 1856, was replaced by a more costly one in 1874. In
Indianapolis, the capital and largest city of that state, a new
temple was dedicated in 1868, about three years after the cor-
nerstone was laid. The first temple of the Congregation Adath
Israel of Louisville, Ky-, was finished in 1868; about three years
later congregations were organized in Owensboro and Paducah,
in the same state. Temple Sinai of New Orleans. La., of which
Dr. Maximilian Heller (b. in Prague, Bohemia, i860), has been
rabbi since 1887, dates from 1870. In Monroe, in the same state, a
congregation was organized in that year, and in Shreveport, La.,
several years before. The synagogue of the Baltimore Hebrew
Congregation, which was erected in 1845, ^^'^^ enlarged in i860,
while the "Chizzuk Amoonah," which seceded from it in 1871,
erected its synagogue on Lloyd street five years later.
The older synagogues of both Boston, Mass., and Detroit,
Mich., date from the same period. Mount Zion Congregation
of St. Paul, Minn., was founded in 1871. Meridian, Natchez,
Port Gibson and Vicksburg, in the State of Mississippi, have
Albany, Rochester, Syracuse, etc. 253
synagogues which originaied within the decade of the war. The
same is true of Kansas City, St. Joseph and St. Louis, in Mis-
souri, and of Temple Israel of Omaha, Neb. The first houses
of worship of Hoboken and Jersey City, N. J., were established
about 1870, while in the largest city of that state, Newark, the
synagogue (built 1858) of the Congregation B'nai Jeshurun
(organized 1848) was replaced by an imposing temple which was
dedicated in 1868.
lu the State of New York, outside of its chief city, the same
cafl-'be seen. The first considerable synagogue of Albany, that
of Congregation Beth El, was erected in 1865. The first con-
gregation of BuiTalo, organized in 1847, built its own synagogue
in 1874. In both of these cities, like in many others, larger and
more costly temples were erected later; but there was much less
wealth in the country in general after the Civil War, and a
building costing fifty thousand dollars which was erected in the
"sixties" or the "seventies" represented perhaps a further ad-
vance from preceding times than one three times as costly in-
dicated in the "nineties." In some instances, like that of Roches-
ter, where the first Jewish community was organized in 1848,
the purchase of a spacious church building early in its career
(1856) postponed the necessity of a large edifice until later.
It was not until Rabbi Max Landsberg (b. in Berlin, 1845; a.
1871) had been with the Congregation "Berith Kodesh" of
Rochester for nearly a cjuarter century that the present fine tem-
ple was erected (1894). In other communities divisions or
splits made it impracticable to build large houses of worship
until a later time : so we find that in Syracuse, where the first re-
ligious organization was formed in 1841, and the first synagogue
■v^as opened in 1846, a building erected in 1850 sufficed for the
needs of the congregation more than half a century afterwards.
This was because a new congregation was formed in 1854; an-
other secession took place in 1864 and one more congregation
was founded in 1870. Brooklyn, on account of its proximity
to New York City, could not develop a really independent com-
254 History of the Jews in America.
munal life until it had a very large Jewish population, and in
some respects has not done so even yet. The Keap Street
Synagogue, which dates from the period which we deal with in
this chapter, was the largest of its kind in the city for many
years.
ii: :^ :^ ^ iji
The marked diminution or practical cessation of Jewish im-
migration from, Germany by no' means meant a stoppage of
Jewish immigration. There was a steady flow of immigifa-
tion from Russia, which, beginning with the exodus from Rifts-
sian-Poland of 1845 (see above, page 189), has actually never
ceased until this day, although it did not assume the immense
proportions of the last thirty years. The "Aufruf" on behalf of
the Russian-Jewish refugees, which Rabbi S. M. Schiller (Schil-
ier-Szinessy, b. in Alt-Ofen, Hungary, 1820; d. in Cambridge,
England, 1890) published in the Orient for 1846 (pp. 67-68),
is a sufficient indication of the comparative antiquity of a
problem which many suppose never arose until after the
anti-Jewish riots in 1881. What is even less known in Western
countries is that the economic condition of the Jews in Russia
was much worse in the so-called "golden period" under Czar
Alexander II. (1818-81) than under his more despotic predeces-
sor. There was a popular saying among the Russian-Jews at that
time — when it could not have occurred to anybody that these years
of starvation would later be considered a golden age — that Czar
Nicholas I. (1796-1855) wanted the persons of the Jews but left
them their goods, while his son was less concerned about the per-
sons, but despoiled them of their goods. This allusion to the pas-
sage in the Pentateuch (Gen. 14, 21 ) , in which the king of Sodom
says to Abraham "Give me the persons and take the goods to
thyself," meant that Nicholas, who first began to enroll Jews
in the Russian army and attempted to convert as many Jews
to Christianity as possible, afforded the Jews in general better
opportunities to earn a living than the more liberal Alexander.
The fact that no proper provision was made for the Jews in the
Immigration from Russia. 255
re-adjustment which followed the emancipation of the serfs, and
that even the slight concessions, like the permission to skilled
artizans to live outside of the "Pale of Settlement," were never
carried out honestly, is at the bottom of much of the Jews'
trouble there.
In less than five years after the emancipation of the Russian
serfs there came a crisis, occasioned by the hard times which
followed the crop failure of 1867, which caused "a state of dis-
tress in East Prussia and a famine on the other side of the
border."^ The Jews of Germany did much to alleviate the dis-
tress of the large number of Russian Jews who lived at that time
in East Prussia, and also to send relief to the needy co-religion-
ists of Western Russia. But then, as now, the suffering was
too widespread and the general condition too hopeless to be
relieved by almsgiving, and the result was an exodus of consid-
erable magnitude. This new exodus was treated in a series of
articles in the Allgemeine Zcitung des Jndenthums of 1869 en-
titled "Auswanderung der Juden aus den Westrussischen Pro-
v/inzen" (Emigration of Jews from the provinces of Western
Russia). M. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu (in his Le."; Immigrants
juifs et le Judaisme mix Etats-Unis, Paris, 1905, p. 5) tells of
500 Jewish emigrants from Russian-Polland which the Alliance
Israelite Universelle sent to the United States in 1869 from the
famine stricken districts. The great anti-Jewish riot in Odessa
on Passover, 1871, which shattered the hope of the Jews for eman-
cipation in the then near future, and marked the beginning of
the reaction which culminated in the reign of the following Czar,
was also followed by cosiderable emigration of Jews. Many
remained in Prussia, which was yet open for Russian subjects;
but a large number proceeded to the United States, or went there
after remaining for some time in England.
The Jewish population of the United States, and especially of
the City of New York, was therefore constantly increasing,
^See Dr. Isaac Riilf (1834-1902), Die Russische Juden, Memel, 1892,
p. 4ff-
256 History of the Jews in America.
though neither the number of Jews nor the relative proportion
as to country of origin is possible to ascertain for that time.
Judge Daly (p. 56) quotes Joseph A. Scovil, author of "Old
Merchants of New York" as saying (in 1868), "There are now
80,000 Israelites in this city, and it is the high standard of ex-
cellence of the old Israelite merchant of 1800 that has made
the race occupy the proud position it now holds in this city and in
the nation." Daly himself thought the number to be somewhat
smaller. He says (p. 58), "The Jews have now (1872) in New
York twenty-nine synagogues, and as a proportional part of
the population they are now estimated at about 70,000."
Whether the lower estimate or the higher is nearer the truth,
it is clear that there were already in New York a large number
of Jews, and that a considerable portion of them were from Rus-
sia. A rare little volume in rabbinical Hebrew, entitled Enick
Rcphaim, against the heresy of the Reform Jews, which was
published by the author, Elijah Holzman, a shochet from Cour-
land, in New York, in 1868, is a good indication that there were
already here at that time a sufficient number of readers of that
language to warrant the publication of a work of that nature.
As only the intellectual aristocracy among the Jews of the Slavic
countries reads Hebrew and a large majority of the Russian-
Jewish immigrants of that period belonged to the poorest and
most ignorant classes, the belief in the existence of a Hebrew
reading public, even if it proved to be a mistaken one, implies
the presence of a large number of Russians.
The first attempts to establish periodicals for this public soon
followed. Hirsch Bernstein (b. in Wladislavov or Neustadt-
Schirwint, government of Suwalki, 1846; d. in Tannersville,
New York, 1907) arrived in New York in 1870, and in the
same year established the first Judaeo-German or Yiddish paper,
and also the first periodical publication in the Neo-Hebraic lan-
guage in the United States. The Yiddish publication, called
"The Post," had a brief existence ; but the second, ha-Zofch
he' Erez ha-Hadashah, of which Mordecai ben David Jalomstein
Kasriel H. Sarasohn.
257
The First Yiddish Periodicals. 259
(b. in Suwaiki, 1835; a. 1871; d. in New York, 1897) was
editor for most of the time, appeared weekly for more than five
years. His brother-in-law, Kasriel H. Sarahson (b. in Paiser,
Russian-Poland, 1835; d. in New York, 1905), who arrived in
the United States in 1866, and settled in New York, founded
there, in 1874, the weekly "Jewish Gazette," which, with its
daily edition, the Iczvish Daily News (established 1886), later
became the most prosperous Jewish periodical publications in
any country. Jalomstein was the principal contributor to these
publications for about twenty years. Another Yiddish weekly,
the Israelitische Presse, was founded in Chicago in 1879, by Nach-
man Baer Ettelson and S. L. Marcus. It had a Hebrew sup-
plement, and existed for several years. The Jewish press in general
will be treated in a later chapter; but it deserves to be mentioned
here that some of the best representative Jewish papers of the
Country, like the A merican Hebrezu of New York and the Jezvish
Exponent of Philadelphia (both founded in 1879) ^nd the Jezv-
ish Advance of Chicago (founded 1878; existed about four
years) contributed to place the Jews of the country in the proper
condition for the reception of the large number of persecuted
Tews which were soon to arrive.
PART VI.
THE THIRD OR RUSSIAN PERIOD OP
IMMIGRATION.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE INFLUX AFTER THE ANTI-JEWISH RIOTS IN RUSSIA IN 1881.
The country itself is well prepared for the reception of a larger number
of Jewish iminigrants — Absence of organized or political Anti-
semitism — Increase in general immigration in 1880 and 1881 — Ar-
rival of the "Am Olam" — Imposing protest meetings against the
riots in Russia — Welcome and assistance — Emma Lazarus — Heilprin
and the attempts to found agricultural colonies — Herman Rosen-
thal — Failures in many States — Some success in Connecticut and
more in New Jersey — Woodbine — Distribution — Industrial workers
and the new radicalism.
The favorable economical and political conditions of the coun-
try itself were, however, the best preparation for the reception of
a larger number of Jewish immigrants from Russia, who came as
the result of the greatest Jewish migration since the exodus from
Egypt. The strong congregations, the well-organized charities
and the considerable number of wealthy Jews who were able and
willing to assist the refugees, as well as the numerous able, ener-
getic and tireless workers who did their best to alleviate the suf-
ferings of the new arrivals and to help them, to^ find their way in
the new surroundings — all these were necessary and to some de-
gree indispensable to solve as much of the problem as circum-
stances would permit. But all would have been useless if there
260
After the Russian "Pogroms." 261
was not room for new immigrants to settle here, and work for
them to do. It would also have been well nigh impossible to
take full advantage of the opportunities which this country offers
to willing workers, were it not for the absence of that organized
or official anti-Semitism which is found in one form or another
in almost all civilized countries outside of the English-speaking-
world. Indi\'idual instances of social antipathy and personal dis-
like, or even hatred, of Jews, were not rare in the United States,
at that period or at any other. But the Jew baiter was never
encouraged, or even approved, by the all-powerful public opinion
of the country at large ; sympathy for the suffering Jew was
easily aroused, and those who pleaded the cause of the victim of
persecution were not hampered by open opposition or by covert
political influences.
There was a sudden increase in immigration in the two years
preceding the Russian influx. The country was recovering from
the panic of 1873 and from the effect of the contraction of the
currency which was incident to the resumption of specie pay-
ment by the government at the beginning of 1879. The number
of immigrants who came here in 1876 was 169,986; in 1877 it
fell to 141,857; in 1878 to 138,469. There was a slight rise in
1879 to 177,826; but in 1880 it jumped to 457,257 and in 1881
(in the fiscal year ending June 30, when there was as yet no in-
creased immigration from Russia on account of the riots) to
669,431. The people who came were needed, as is the case with
the million or more who had come here in the three years pre-
ceding the panic of 1907 and again in the last two or three years,
which is proven by the fact that they are easily absorbed. Not
only the general conditions, but even the times, were favorable
for an increased Jewish immigration. There was neither eco-
nomic nor national or racial cause for abstaining from giving
those who fled from the pogroms the best public and open-
hearted welcome that Jewish refugees ever received when com-
ing in masses from one country to another.
The first of the anti-Jewish riots of that period took place in
262 History of the Jews in America.
Yelisavetgrad, on April 27, 1881. Another outbreak in Kiev fol-
lowed on May 8, and there were "over 160 towns and villages in
which cases of riot, rapine, murder and spoliation have been
known to occur during the last nine months of 1881" (Joseph
Jacobs, "Persecution of the Jews in Russia, 1881," p. 13). These
riots, and the relief which was afforded to its victims, and espe-
cially to those who left Russia by way of Germany and Austria,
have created a small literature of their own; but the subject in
general belongs rather to the history of the Jews in Russia than
to the present work, which can only be concerned with the emi-
grants after their arrival here. The first to arrive as a direct re-
sult of the riots, and among whom the new tendencies which were
called forth by the calamities were prevalent to an appreciable
degree, were included in a group of about 250 members of the
"Am Olam" ("Eternal People") Society which came to New
York July 29, 188 1.
Unlike the time of the Damascus affair in 1840 (see above,
p. 193), the Jews of America not only took the leading part in
arousing public opinion against the outrages, but they could do
much more than enlist the sympathies of their non-Jewish fellow-
citizens : they collected money tO' aid the sufferers and bade them
welcome to these shores. A call for "A meeting of the citizens
of New York without distinction of creed, to be held on Wed-
nesday evening, February ist, 1882, . . for the purpose of
expressing their sympathy with the persecuted Hebrews in the
Russian Empire," was signed by about seventy-five of the most
prominent non-Jewish citizens of New York, headed by ex-Pres-
ident U. S. Grant. The memorable meeting was held in Chick-
ering Hall, and was presided over by Mayor William R. Grace;
it was addressed by distinguished men in various walks of life,
including three Christian clergymen, and had a marked effect on
public opinion. It was on the same day that a similar meeting, at
which the Lord Mayor presided, was held in London, at the Man-
sion House. Two weeks later (February 15) a meeting of the same
nature with the same excellent moral result was held in Phila-
Rnima Lazarus
:3(;;j
Emma Lazarus. 265
delphia, where four clergymen, two of them Protestant Bishops
and one representing the Roman CathoHc Archbishop, were
among the spealters. The Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society col-
lected over $300,000 for the new arrivals, and nearly two-thirds
of that sum was contributed by residents of this country, the
balance coming from Germany, England and France. Some
groups .of immigrants were given a public welcome; temporary
quarters were built for their accommodation on Ward's Island
and at Greenpoint, L. I., where several thousand were housed
and maintained until they found employment.
There was one other voice raised at that time in behalf of the
Jew and of Judaism, only to be prematurely silenced forever a
few years afterwards. The most gifted poet which American
Jewry has produced, Emma Lazarus (b. in New York 1849; d.
there 1887) was aroused, and her noble spirit reached its full
height, by the stirring events of the martyrdom of the Russian
Jew. Like so many other intelligent Jews in various coun-
tries, Emma Lazarus, the daughter of an old Sephardic family
of social position, the friend of Emerson and other noted literary
men, was up to that time mainly interested in general and classic
subjects, and devoted to them her poetical and literary talents.
"She needed a great theme to bring her genius to full flower, and
she found that theme in the Russian persecution of 188 1 . . .
Her poetry took on a warmer, more human glow ; it thrilled with
the suffering, the passion, the exaltation of a nation of the Mac-
cabees."^ Her family, though nominally Orthodox, had hitherto
not participated in the activities of the synagogue or of the Jew-
ish community. But contact with the unfortunates frorn Russia
led her to study the Bible, the Hebrew language, Judaism and
Jewish history. She suggested, and in part saw executed, plans
for the welfare of the immigrants. The fruit of her latter lit-
erary activity include "Songs of the Semite" (1882) ; "An Epis-
tle to the Hebre^cvs" r poems like "The Banner of the Jezv," "The
'Adele Szold in Emma Lazarus, a biographical sketch, in "The He-
brew Standard" for December i, 1905.
266 History of the Jews in America.
Neiif Ezekiel," and "By the Waters of Babylon : Little Poems in
Prose" (1887), her last published work. A collection of her
works, in two volumes, appeared after her death (1889), and in
1903 a bronze tablet commemorative of her was placed inside the
pedestal of the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. (See
Jeunsh Encyclopedia, s.v. Lazarus, Emma, by Miss Henriette
Szold.)
The number of those who received direct assistance was only
a small fraction of the arrivals from Russia at that time. Ac-
cording to the opinion of the author of the article United States
in the "Jewish Encyclopedia," "The various committees and so-
cieties assisted about five per cent, of the total Jewish immi-
grants." One of the most active and self-sacrificing of the work-
ers for the refugees, Michael Heilprin, who was himself brought
up under the influence of the Haskalah movement, was, like all
Maskilim of the old school, a strong believer in the theory that
the Jewish problem was to be solved by inducing or helping the
Jews to become agriculturists. Many of the immigrants who
belonged to the class described as Intellectuals or Intelligents,
whose dreams of political liberty and assimilation in Russia were
shattered by the pogroms, also entertained fantastic notions
about the virtue of agriculture. They fell in with all coloniza-
tion plans, for which they had more enthusiasm than natural apti-
tude, and this gave rise to a series of experiments in the coloniz-
ing of Russian immigrants, none of which were immediately
successful, though it contributed to> the inception of a small class
of Jewish farmers which is slowly growing in the United States,
and in which many see considerable promise for the future.
The first Jewish agricultural colony of that period was founded
on Sicily Island, Catahoula Parish, Louisiana. The settlers, in-
cluding thirty-five families from Kiev and twenty-five from Yeli-
savetgrad, had been partly organized in Russia. Its lead-
ing spirit was Herman Rosenthal (b. in Friedrichstadt, Courland,
1843; a. 1881), who is now chief of the Slavonic department of
the Mew York Public Library. Before the colony was fairly
/
■^^
#
r//
mf
Phnto by Schlll,
Herman Rosenthal.
207
Agricultural Colonies, Woodbine. 269
started it was literally swept away by an overflow of the Mis-
sissippi in the spring of 1882, and the colonists scattered; a few
of them, however, settling as independent farmers in Kansas and
Missiouri. In July, 1882, Rosenthal headed another group of
twenty families which formed the colony Cremieux, in Davison
county, in the present State of South Dakota. It led a precarious
existence for about three years and was finally abandoned. An-
other attempt, which was made by the Alliance Israelite Univer-
selle, with the formation of a colony surnamed "Betlehem Yehu-
dah," in the same region, was no more successful. Colonies
founded in the same year in Colorado and Oregon met with no
better fate. The colonies founded in North Dakota (one), in
Kansas (five), in Michigan (one), and in Virginia (two) re-
main but memories. Those founded later in Connecticut were
more successful, and some of them are still in existence and even
growing. The most successful were those established in New
Jersey, where four of the nine which were founded there since
1882 are still in existence and, considering the drawbacks of
such enterprises, are in a flourishing condition. They are: Al-
liance, Salem county, founded by the Alliance Israelite in 1882;
Carmel, Cumberland county, founded by the aid of Michael Heil-
prin in the same year; Rosenhayn, in the same county, which
owes its origin to six families which were settled there by the
Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society of New York in 1883 ; and Wood-
bine, Cape May county, which was founded by the trustees of
the Baron de Hirsch Fund in 1891, and is the largest as well as
the most thriving of all Jewish colonies in America. Woodbine
now has over two thousand inhabitants, and is an incorporated
borough with a government of its own, which was instituted in
1903, with Professor Hirsch Loeb Sabsovich (b. in Berdyansk,
Russia, i860; a. 1888), the former superintendent of The Baron
de Hirsch Agricultural and Industrial School of that place, as the
first Mayor. He was succeeded by M. L. Bayard, who is likewise
a native of Russia.
While the assistance rendered to the needy immigrants, and
270 History of the Jews in America.
the large sums expended in the formation of colonies and in sup-
porting them, attracted the most attention, a larger number were
effectively helped by being distributed over various parts of the
country where they could engage in trade or find work for which
they were much better fitted than for farming. The largest num-
ber received little, if any, assistance, except such as was rendered
by their relatives or countrymen whom they found here. The
least successful and those who became helpless or dependent from
various causes were assisted by the old charitable institutions,
which were enlarged or strengthened by the new demands made
upon them, and by new ones which sprang up everywhere as
the occasion required. But the bulk of the new comers succeeded
remarkably well, and many of them were soon in a position to
assist those who came after them, and to contribute to charities
from' which they received assistance but a short time before, or
to found new charitable institutions which were conducted in a
manner more suitable to the character of the immigrants.
The number of applicants to Jewish charitable institutions
was increasing, and so was the number of people who crowded
the districts in the larger cities where Jews live together. But
in both cases there was going on a continual change, due to the
steady inflow of new immigrants, on the one hand, and on the
other to the steady rising in the social and economic scale, and the
continued departure to other and better neighborhoods or to other
cities. The same people did not apply for charity or dwell in
tenement houses long. They soon made room for those who
came after them, and what seemed to the superficial observer a
solid, unmovable mass of poverty and helplessness which pre-
sented a very difficult problem, was in reality in a state of con-
stant flux. This transient, fleeting mass slowly spread over the
country, until we find communities of Jewish immigrants prac-
tically in every city in the Union, and hardly a place without
some individuals of that class, Most of those Jewish immigrants
living in smaller places, as well as almost all of them who' live in
more comfortable quarters in the large cities or their suburbs,
The New Immigrants as Workingmen. 271
passed through the tenement house districts or the so-called
"Ghetti"; which proves that the distribution considered by some
as a desirable process which must be artificially accelerated, is
actually being accomplished by the free movement of individuals
and is hardly noticed.
The number of those who remained, though temporarily, in
the congested centers of population, especially in New York, was
very large, and was constantly becoming larger, because more
immigrants came in each year than the number of those M'ho left
those centers. This mass was hardly affected by the small with-
drawals from it for the purpose of colonization. It was too large
and was replenished too fast to be able to disperse as small traders
over the country or to go in business even on a small scale in the
cities, as did the smaller number of Jewish immigrants who came
in the former periods. And so, after all deductions are made, in-
cluding those who went to become farmers and those who went
to become peddlers, of those whose intelligence and the learning
which they brought with them enabled them, sometimes with a
little aid, to pursue their studies; and those whose business
acumen or the small capital which they brought, enabled them
to engage in trade and to^ prosper in a short time — after all these
deductions, there remained a very large class, steadily increasing
by the excess of arrivals over departures, which could do the
only thing which poor people can do in a country where capital
is abundant and industries flourish — go to work. The Jewish
immigrants soon began to fill the factories and the shops, espe-
cially those of the clothing trade, which was then to a certain
extent already in Jewish hands. The trades to which they flocked
began to extend fast; immigrant workers themselves soon ven-
tured to open small shops, where they employed those who came
after them. While wages were comparatively small and "sweat-
ing" was common, the earnings were so much above what the
poor man can make in Russia, and the standard of living so
much higher than the one to which the laborer is accus-
tomed over there, that even those who' worked under what an
272 History of the Jews in America.
American would consider the worst circumstances, soon saved
enough money to begin sending for their famihes, their relatives,
and even their friends. The great mass was solving its own
problem by hard work and by thrift; it built up and multiplied
the industries in which it was occupied, and thus made it easy to
absorb the newcomers year by year and to become a part of the
great industrial army which is doing the work of the country.
Thus there arose a third and new class of Jewish immigrants,
unlike the first or Sephardic small groups who came here usually
with large means and took their position among the higher
classes as soon as they arrived ; also unlike the second and larger
groups of German, Polish and Hungarian Jews who came in
the second period, most of whom began as peddlers and artizans,
but ultimately became merchants or professional men. Among
the immigrants of the third period, which began in 1881, there
were many men of means and skilled men who at once joined the
better situated classes. There were also among them a large
number who took up peddling or petty trade with various de-
grees of success. But the agriculturists and the industrial
workers, or proletariat, are distinctive features of the new period.
The colonist was mostly assisted and usually failed; then he
joined the trading or the working classes in the cities. The in-
dustrial classes took care of themselves and fared much better.
Even their new problems presented difficulties which were more
apparent than real. The seeming persistence in errors which are
characteristic oi those who are here only a short time is easily
explained when it is considered that in cities like Philadelphia or
Chicago there are always thousands, and in New York there are
always tens of thousands, of Jewish immigrants from Slavic
countries who came to this country within the last year. So
there is always at hand a mass which is not aware of what a
similar mass — which to the outsider seems the same — did a year
before ; and what seem to be repetitions year after year of the
same actions which lead to the same results or to the same lack
of results, are actually experiments made but once by each sue-
Radical Tendencies. 273
cessive wave of immigration and soon abandoned, only to be
taken up later as a novel experience by those who come later.
As the worker succeeded the trader, so the political extremist
comes to the fore in this period, as the radical in religious matters
did in the former. Many of the "intellectuals" sympathized with
the revolutionary movement in Russia, and were infected by the
Socialistic virus which is the bane of that movement and has made
its success well nigh impossible. While the German or Austrian
revolutionary of the "forties" or "fifties'' wanted nothing for his
fatherland which the people of the United States did not already
enjoy, the Russian theorist was dreaming of a social revolution
and of fantastic victories for the peasantry and the proletariat
which should put Russia far in advance of the civilization of the
"rotten West." There was plenty of opportunity under the free-
dom of speech and of the press prevailing in this country "to
continue the struggle against capital" among the sweat-shop
workers. For a while the Socialist agitator became the most
active leader among the immigrant masses; the "maskilim," or
half-Germanized, Hebrew scholars were forced into the back-
ground, and the large Orthodox majority confined itself to the
ever-increasing number of synagogues and kept C|uiet, as usual.
But as the years went by and the immigrants of the beginning of
the period became more Americanized and more conservative, it
became clear that radicalism was a passing phase in the develop-
ment of the Russian-Jewish immigrant, that the largest number
outgrow it in several years at the utmost, and that the extreme
movements depend almost entirely on the new arrivals who are
attracted by its novelty, and on those who cater to them. Ex-
cepting what may be described as a pronounced tendency to
Socialism in the Yiddish sensational press — differing in degree
more than in kind from the general press of that type — the So-
cialist movement has not held its own proportionally among the
Russian immigrants, and the fears of some of their friends that
the neighborhoods where the noisy agitation was carried on
would develop into politically Socialistic strongholds, were dis-
pelled almost before the first decade of this period was over.
CHAPTER XXX.
COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES AMONG THE NEW COMERS.
Congregational and social activities among the new comers — Ephemeral
organizations — The striving after professional education — Syna-
gogues as the most stable of the new establishments — "Landsleut"
congregations — The first efforts to consolidate the Orthodox com-
munity of New York — The Federation of Synagogues — Chief Rabbi
Jacob Joseph — Other "chief rabbis'' in Chicago and Boston — Promi-
nent Orthodox rabbis in many cities — Dr. Philip Klein — The short
period in which the cantor was the most important functionary in
the Orthodox synagogue — Synagogues change hands, but are rarely
abandoned.
A large majority of the Russian immigrants, like the over-
whehning majority of the Jews in Russia, were Orthodo.x Jews,
and the younger men who were temporarily attracted by the rad-
ical movements which were, in Russian fashion, mostly anti-
religious, began drifting back into the synagogues as soon as they
grew older and became more settled and more Americanized.
The older and the middle-aged needed congregational life from
the moment of their arrival, and this gave rise to the establish-
ment of a surprisingly large number of new synagogues in all
places where the new arrivals settled. The situation in New
York is again typical; the twenty-nine congregations in 1872 in-
creased more than tenfold in about sixteen years, Avhich far
exceeds the growth of charitable institutions, of labor-organiza-
tions and of fraternal or self-education societies, all of which
were springing up at that time in large numbers. The legal re-
strictions which make the organization of any form of societies
a difficult matter in Russia, were to some extent responsible for
274
Organization and Education. 275
the formation of numerous organizations here for the most va-
riegated number of purposes. The ease with which a cliarter or
papers of incorporation could be obtained, tempted many to form
themselves into organizations to enjoy that privilege; while the
equally novel experience of being permitted to form organiza-
tions without obtaining charters, to hold meetings and elect of-
ficers without fear of interference by the authorities, was another
strong inducement to overdo things in the matter of organiza-
tions. But that same lack of experience was also the cause of
unfamiliarity with voluntary corporate existence and of inability
to hold the organization together after it was formed. A large
percentage of the societies formed existed only a short time; the
same was true of all forms of organizations, especially of labor
unions. Only those which were subject to the discipline of a cen-
tral body — notably lodges which form part of the larger and bet-
ter conducted orders — showed a better proportion of survivals.
The conditions prevailing in Russia were also largely the cause
of the disproportionately large number of young people who at-
tempted, by their own efforts or assisted by their often hard
pressed parents, to study for the professions. Under the educa-
tional restrictions in Russia only the highly gifted or the children
of the wealthy could hope to enter the higher institutions of learn-
ing; here the same opportunities were open to all alike, with free
education up to the universities. It was natural for the. poor to
strive to make use of those opportunities, and to spare no efforts
to enter the ranks of the college graduates, who are looked upon
by the Russian populace as superior beings.
But in the course of years, as the proportion of those who
are more Americanized became larger, and the newer arrivals,
though they kept on coming in' increasing numbers, were in a
constantly diminishing minority as compared with the entire mass
of immigrants, there was a decrease in the number of hastily con-
ceived and immature organizations, and a larger proportion of
those which were formed had sufficient strength to survive. Of
late years there has been even a slackening of the rush for higher
276 History of the Jews in America.
or professional education among the children of the poorer
classes; which is also partly due to the more exacting require-
ments for entrance into the better class of colleges and universi-
ties.
All these economic, fraternal and educational activities — the
last, of course, only as far as it concerns adults who could not
benefit by the public school system — and the agitation about
political and economic questions, and, to some extent, even the
occupation of the immigrants, were novel experiences and largely
temporar)^. The only activity which might be considered as
normal, and to which there was a constant reversion even among
those who abandoned it abruptly — one may almost say, violently
— was that relating to the synagogue. As compared with other
institutions, a surprisingly small number of congregations formed
by the immigrants succumbed; and the steady increase in the
number and solidity of these religious establishments, as well as
of the Talmud Torahs, or religious schools, and later of the
Yeshibot or strictly Orthodox Talmudical academies, are the best
proof of Israel's taking root in the United States. Most of the
work of a public or semi-public character in the new Jewish set-
tlements or communities, including even the work of numerous
charitable institutions ministering to wants which are due to the
exigencies of immigration, cannot in the nature of things be
otherwise than temporary, even if they last for decades. It is
only the building of synagogues which represents that continuity
of Jewish existence throughout the centuries, which unites us
with the Jews of other countries and other times, and demon-
strates the ability and the willingness of the Jewish masses to
support the old faith under all circumstances.
These thousands of small synagogues all over the country, of
which there are now about eight hundred in New York, bear also
strong marks of Slavic, especially Russian, influence. The only
place where it was safe for Jews to gather and have intercourse
in that country was the synagogue, which for that reason served
not only as a house of worship, but also as a meeting room, and,
"Landsleut" Congregations. 277
to some degree, as a club house. Here it served all these pur-
poses for the old-fashioned Jew, to whom the new social organiza-
tions which grew up here remained strange or became repugnant
after a short contact. In addition to this, the — exceedingly un-
churchlike — small synagogue is usually composed of members
who come from the same town in the Old Country, or from: the
same district. The "landsleute" meet there, receive the newest
arrivals and the latest news from home; It is not unfrequently
made the headcjuarters for extraordinary charitable activity when
the home town is visited by a conflagration or a "Pogrom.''
The tendency is to break away from those little synagogues and
to join larger ones in the more comfortable neighborhoods, as
well as to enlarge them by admitting members who hail from
other towns and even from other countries. But the changes are
mainly accomplished by slow transition, the gaps which are left
by departures are easily filled up by new arrivals; so that the
transformation is much nearer to a slow process of evolution than
to the "decay of Judaism in this country" of which many are
complaining. The earliest manifestation of this new development
was the first effort v/hich was made, less than a decade after the
beginning of the new immigration, to consolidate the Orthodox
Jewish community of New York under the leadership of a great
rabbinical authority, and to raise the expense of the new insti-
tution by the same method by which the Jewish communities of
Russia are financed — by an income from the Kosher-meat
business.
In Russian-Poland, as in Germany or Austria, members of
the Jewish community pay a direct tax for the support of the rab-
binate and the communal institutions, and while the Jewish tax-
payers elect the officers who assess them, the tax or "etat"
is collectible by force, i. e., with the aid of the police authorities,
if it is not paid voluntarily. Only those members of the com-
munity who pay comparatively larger sums are entitled to vote
for communal officers, so that the poorer classes are taxed without
being represented in the governing body of the community, and
278 History of the Jews in America.
the very poor are not taxed at all. In Russia proper, mcluding
Lithuania and the balance of the "pale of settlement,'' where the
masses of the Jews dwell, the "Korobka" or tax on Kosher meat
(more correctly a tax on the slaughtering of animals for Kosher
food) takes the place of the "etat" of Poland and the "Kultus-
steuer" of some western countries. This indirect tax, which rests
more heavily on the poor, is less felt and therefore considered les3
burdensome, though it is and always has been hated by the Jewish
masses in Russia. The absolute separation of Church and State
in this country made any form of enforced taxation out of the
question. And when the want of a recognized religious authority
for the large mass of Orthodox Jews of New York began to be
seriously felt, and the question of providing for his salary and for
other communal needs of a general nature, for which the individ-
ual synagogues did not feel themselves bound to provide, became
a subject for discussion among the public spirited Jews in the
community, the plan of a control over the business of Kosher
meat, over which the new rabbi should have complete religious
supervision, suggested itself as the only practicable solution of
the problem.
A Federation of Congregations, comprising about fifteen of
the more important Orthodox synagogues, was consequently
formed in 1888, and one of the greatest rabbinical authorities of
Russia, Rabbi Jacob Joseph (b. in Krozh, government of Kovno,
Russia, 1840; a. 1888; d. in New York, July 28, 1902), who was
at that time the preacher of the old Jewish community of Wilna,
was brought over as Chief Rabbi of the Federation. He was re-
ceived with great honor by the Orthodox masses, and was recog-
nized by them as the greatest rabbi that ever came to this country.
But the federation of synagogues soon fell to pieces; the scheme
of controlling the supervision of the Kosher meat supply failed
almost from' the beginning. There was too muqh prejudice
against a form of "Korobka" even among the Orthodox masses,
despite the fact that they continued to pay, as they still do, a
higher price for Kosher meat, and a systematization of the busi-
Chief Rabbi Jacob Joyeijli.
2711
Rabbi Joseph and other Chief Rabbis. 281
ness could produce a large revenue for communal purposes with-
out a further increase in the price. Many independent Orthodox
rabbis did not submit to the authority of the great rabbi ; his in-
fluence was weakened, and several years afterward he fell the vic-
tim of a severe illness, which incapacitated him for hard work or
for leadership. But the failure of the system was due to the im-
possibility of conducting Jewish affairs in America after patterns
designed in and for Russia. The chief rabbi personally was
revered by the multitudes of religious Jews, and when he died
after a lingering illness, his funeral (July 30, 1902), though it
was marred by a disturbance in which a number of persons were
injured, was one of the most imposing ever seen in New York.
Several other attempts to choose chief rabbis, with the hope of
uniting or solidifying under them the Orthodox congregations of
a large city, were not more successful. The most notable of them
was the selection, by a union of congregations which was formed
for that purpose in Chicago, of another great Talmudical scholar.
Rabbi Jacob David Wilowski (Ridbaz, b. in Kobrin, government
of Kovno, 1845), ^s its chief rabbi in 1903. Rabbi Wilowski,
Wfho was Rabbi Joseph's predecessor in Wilna, first came to the
United States in 1900 in the interest of his great work on the
Talmud Yerushalmi. It was during his second visit to this coun-
try that the effort to detain him as the spiritual head of a united
Orthodox community in the second largest city of the New
World was made. But a strong opposition, which centered
around Rabbi Zebi Simon Album, made his position untenable,
and he resigned after holding it for ten months. After travelling
for more than a year over the United States, he left (1905) for
the Holy Land and settled in Safed, where he still resides. It was
again seen in his case, and confirmed because it occurred fifteen
years after the importation of the first and greatest chief rabbi in
the greatest Jewish community, that both the rabbis and the re-
ligious laymen are too independent here to submit to a chief rabbi,
regardless of his importance as a Talmudical authority. The
last to assume the title was Rabbi Gabriel Zeeh Margolioth (b. in
282 History of the Jews in America.
Wilna, 1848; a. 1906), who is considered the greatest rabbinical
scholar among the Orthodox rabbis of the United States. Rabbi
Margolioth held the office of Chief Rabbi in Boston about four
years, until his removal (1911) to New York to become rabbi
of the "Adat Israel."
In most of the other large cities there are prominent Orthodox
rabbis who are held in high esteem and recognized as spiritual
leaders of the religious masses, although their actual jurisdiction
extends only over the one or several congregations of which they
are the appointed rabbis. The best known of that class in New
York was the "Moscower Rab" Chayyim Jacob Vidrevitz (b. in
Dobromysl, government of Mohilev, 1836; a. 1891 ; d. in New
York, 191 1 ). Among the living, Rabbi Moses Zebullon Mar-
golioth (b. in Krozh, 1851 ; a. 1889), formerly of Boston; Rabbi
Abraham Eliezer Alperstein-(b. in Kobrin about 1854; a. 1881),
formerly of Chicago; and Rabbi Shalom Elhanan Jaffe (b. in
Wobolnik; government of Wilna, 1858; a. 1889), formerly of St.
Louis, are among the better known of the numerous Orthodox
rabbis of New York.
Outside of New York Rabbi Abraham Jacob Gerson Lesser
(b. in Mir, government of Minsk, 1835 ; a. about 1880), fomierly
of Chicago, and for about the last ten years in Cincinnati, is con-
sidered the dean of the O-rthodox rabbis in this country. He is
the author of several rabbinical works, one of which was trans-
lated into English by Mr. H. Eliassof. Of about the same age
is the nestor of the Chicago rabbinate. Rabbi Eliezer Anixter,
who occupied the rabbinical position there for about forty years.
In Philadelphia Rabbi Bernhard Louis Levinthal (b. in Kovno,
1864; a. 1 891) occupies a leading position and is perhaps the
most Americanized of the strictly Orthodox rabbis in the coun-
try. Rabbi Moses Simon Sivitz (b. in Zittawan, government of
Kovno, 1853; a. 1886), formerly of Baltimore (1886-89), 3''"'
Rabbi Aaron Mordecai Ashinsky (b. in Reygrod, Russian-Po-
land, 1866), formerly of Detroit, Mich., and Montreal, Canada,
are the foremost representatives of the Orthodox element in Pitts-
Orthodox Rabbis. 283
burg, Pa. Rabbi Asher Lipman Zarehy (b. in Kovno, 1862; a.
1892), formerly of Brooklyn, N. Y. (1892), and of Des Moines,
la. (1893-1903), is at the head of the United Orthodox Hebrew
Congregations of Louisville, Ky.
The number of prominent Orthodox rabbis among the immi-
grants who came from other countries than Russia is compara-
tively very small. The Hungarians, who belong to an earlier
period, slowly draw nearer tO' the German and American element
m religious matters. The Austrians or Galicians, who began to
arrive in larger numbers somewdiat later than the Russians, took
a longer time to settle down tO' local conditions, and being at
liberty to return to their old home whenever they liked, the large
number who went back, only to return again in a few years, re-
tarded the gradual development of their communal life. They
are, on the other hand, much more successful, relatively, in their
social organizations, such as lodges and "landsleut" societies, on
account of the larger liberty of organization which they enjoyed
at home. Their leading rabbi in New York was Rabbi Naftali
Reiter (born in Hungary, 1844; a. 1887; d. in New York, 1911),
who officiated as rabbi of the Congregation Magen Abraham
Dukler (Attorney street), the leading Galician synagogue of New
York from 1893 until his death. The leading Hungarian rabbi
of New York is Dr. Hillel ha-Kohen or Philip Klein (b. in Ba-
raeska, Hungary, 1849; ^- 1891), who occupies a unique position
in the Jewry of New York and of the country, being recognized
as a Talmudical authority, and at the same time possessing the
secular learning obtained by studying at the University of Ber-
lin. Dr. Klein was rabbi of Libau, Russia, for ten years before
he came to this country to officiate as rabbi of the Hungarian
Congregation Oheb Zedek of New York, which position he still
holds.
:li ^ :)! :{c ^
At the beginning of the period of development among the
Jewish immigrants from Slavic countries it was, ho\vever, not
the rabbi, but the hazzan or cantor who was considered the most
284 History of the Jews in America.
important functionary of the Orthodox congregation, especially
of the larger ones. The number of wealthy members was insig-
nificant, and while the smaller congregations holding services in
rented rooms could subsist on the modest contributions and dona-
tions from regular attendants and from those who came occa-
sionally for the high holidays or on account of marriages, the
naming of newborn children, "jahrzeiten," etc., the large syna-
gogue with a building of its own, which was usually heavily mort-
gaged, often had a hard struggle for existence. The rabbi, unless
he was a popular preacher, was considered as a somewhat super-
fluous burden ; he received only a small salary, or none at all,
having to rely for a living on the emoluments of the rabbinical
office. But a popular cantor attracted new members and also
large audiences on the special occasions when a charge for admis-
sion was made. His salary was therefore considered a profitable
investment, and some of the best known cantors of Russia were
induced to come to America, especially to New York.
The most renowned among the synagogue singers who were
brought over in that period were Israel Michalovsky (b. in Su-
walki, Russian-Poland, 1831; a. 1886; d. in New York, 1911),
Israel Cooper (b. in Alusenitz, government of Kamenetz-Po-
dolsk, 1840; a. 1885; d. in New York, 1909), and Pinhas Min-
kovsky (b. in Byelaya Tzerkov, 1859), who, after spending a short
:ime in New York, returned, in 1892, to Odessa, whence he came.
But the circumstances under which the influence of the cantor was
predominant were abnormal and could not last long. The im-
provement in the general material conditions, the increase in the
number and proportion of wealthy members, and the growing
sense of duty and responsibility in religious matters, helped to
bring the rabbi nearer to the front, where he belongs. There are
even now many excellent and well paid hazzanim in the large
cities, and the Orthodox rabbis are yet far from the security of
tenure and of income which is enjoyed by the rabbis in the Old
World. But some sort of an equilibrium has been restored, and
the rabbinate has gained, morally as well as materially.
Changes in Synagogues. 285
In the last few years many of the larger synagogues in the
older Jewish neighborhoods of the great cities have been again in
a precarious financial condition, which is due to the removal of its
older and wealtheir members to the more fashionable quarters or
to the suburbs. But no one would think now, as it was thought
a quarter century before, of attempting to strengthen the position
of a snyagogue by the importation of a famous hazzan. In many
cases the well-to-do older members feel it to be their religious
duty to keep up the large synagogues which they built in districts
which are now inhabited mostly by the poorer and later arrivals,
though they themselves now live too far to reach it, and have
built new synagogues in their new neighborhoods and have even
engaged English-speaking rabbis to deliver sermons. In other
instances the immigrants of latter years are ready and willing to
take over the synagogues, sometimes by the simple method of
joining as members and obtaining control by becoming the ma-
jority. It also happens that the synagogue itself is removed to a
location to which most of the members have moved, and the old
building is sold to a smaller or to a newly formed congregation.
But, as it was stated above, the number of congregations which
disbanded, and of synagogue buildings which are abandoned for
other purposes, is small. The continuance of immigration and the
steady increase among the earlier comers of the number who affili-
ate themselves with the religious communitv obviates the neces-
sity of giving up old religious organizations at the time when
new ones are being established all over the country.
CHAPTER XXXI.
NEW COjVTMUNAL AND INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES.
The Jewish Alliance of 1891 as the first attempt to form a general or-
ganization in which the immigrants of the latest period should be
officially recognized — Some of the prominent participators— The
new Exodus of 1891— The Baron de Hirsch Fund— Various activi-
ties — Decrease in the numbers and proportion of the helpless and
the needy— The American Jewish Historical Society— The Jewish
Publication Society of America— The Jewish Chautauqua — Partici-
pation in the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893— The Council
of Jewish Women.
In less than a decade after the first influx from Russia, an at-
tempt was made to estabhsh some form of co-operation between
the immigrants of the new period and the American or American-
ized Jews who belonged to the former periods. The latter were
complaining that the burden of charities was becoming too heavy,
while from the former, especially from the more intelligent immi-
grants who were interested in Jewish matters, there arose even at
that early date a demand for recognition and a share of respon-
sibility in communal work. The theory that the two elements,
described respectively as the German and the Russian, must be
brought nearer together, and that the latter element must be pre-
pared to take over the hegemony of the Jewish community from
the former, just as the German took it over from the Sephardim,
was already then, as it is to some extent still now, a favorite with
Ihose who consider themselves representatives of the immigrants.
And it was the effort to apply part of this theory to practice, and
perhaps, according to some, to put it to the test, that a call was
286
The Jewish Alliance. 287
issued for a convention of the Jewish Alhance of America, which
met ir: Philadelphia on February 15, 1891.
Nineteen cities were represented, some of them as far as San
Francisco, Cal. (by Bernhard Marks), and Portland, Ore. (David
Solis-Cohen). Boston was represented by David Blaustein (b. in
Lida, Russia, 1866; a. 1886), who later became eminent as an
educator and communal worker. The Hon. Simon Wolf (b. in
Rhenish Bavaria, 1836; a. 1848), a recognized representative in
Washington of the Jews of the country, came from the capital.
There were twenty delegates from Baltimore, including Samuel
Dorf and B. H. Hartogensis. Chicago sent six men, including
Dr. A. P. Kadison and Leon ZolotkofT (b. in Wilna, 1865 (?);
a. 1887). Among the seven delegates from New York were the
Russian immigrants Nicholas Aleinikoff and P. Caplan, and the
native American, Ferdinand Levy (b. in Milwaukee, Wis., 1843),
who served in the Union army with his father and two brothers
during the Civil War, and held various offices in New York City
and in Jewish fraternal organizations. The largest contingent
was, of course, from Philadelphia, its fifty-four delegates includ-
ing many well-known men from both elements, like the inventor,
Louis E. Levy (b. in Bohemia, 1846), Dr. Solomon Solis-Cohen,
a native of Philadelphia; Blernhard Harris, who was chosen sec-
retary, and Dr. Charles D. Spivak (b. in Krementshug, Russia,
1861 ; a. 1882), who was president of the temporary organization.
A constitution was adopted and a permanent organization
formed, of which a well known local Jewish philanthropist, Simon
Muhr (b. in Bavaria, 1845: d. in Philadelphia, 1895), was elected
president; Simon Wolf, treasurer, and Bernhard Harris, secre-
tary. The board of trustees which was elected included, as repre-
sentatives of New York, the communal leader, Daniel P. Hays
(b. in Pleasantville, N. Y., 1854), and the educator, Henry M.
Leipziger (b. in Manchester, England, 1854). There was some
enthusiasm in numerous communities for the plan which was "to
unite Israelites in a common bond for the purpose of more efifect-
ually coping with the grave problems presented by enforced emi-
288 History of the Jews in America.
gration . . ." and thirty-one branches were formed through-
out the country/ But the entire plan came to nothing. In Feb-
ruary, 1892, the Jewish Alhance was consolidated with "The
American Committee for Ameliorating the Condition of the Rus-
sian Refugees," which was organized in New York apparently for
the purpose of heading off the activity of the Alliance. Both
organizations were soon forgotten, and the historical value of
the Alliance consists chiefly in its having been the first formal
manifestation of a desire which was partly satisfied in an entirely
different manner fifteen years later by the formation of the
American Jewish Committee.
There was another recurrence of persecutions in Russia in the
same year, which did not take the sensational form of massacre
and pillage, but had as much or even more effect in forcing Jews
to leave the country. Relentless expulsions from Moscow and
from villages in which the Jews have dwelt peacefully and on
good terms with their neighbors forced tens of thousands to leave
the country, and as many of theni now had relatives or friends
in the United States, it was natural for them to turn their faces
towards the New World. Conditions were again favorable, for
several reasons. The tide of general immigration, which fell from
788,992 in 1882 to 334,203 in 1886, rose after some vaccillations
in the following three years to 455,302 in 1890, to 560,319 in
1891 and to 623,084 in 1892. In the year ending June 30, 1893,
which includes a few months of the hard times which began in
the spring of that year, the num]}er of immigrants was still as
high as 502,917, and it is onl}^ in the following twelvemonth,
when only 314,467 arrived, and in 1895, when immigration fell
to 279,948, which was the lowest number since 1879, that the de-
terrent effects of the panic of 1893 were visible.
Not only had the Jews in general made progress in the de-
cade after 188 1, and were better able to cope with the new sit-
uation because they discovered their own strength in the work
" See Morais, Tlic Jews of PliiladelpJiia. Constitu- p. 142, and also
tion of the lavish Alliance of America, etc., Philadelphia, 1891.
The Baron de Hirsch Fund. 289
of helping their less fortunate brethren, and had also learned by
experience that the new element adjusted itself to the new sur-
roundings with remarkable rapidity, but there was also a new
agency to assist in the work of helping some of the newcomers
to find their way to work and independence. The great Jewish
philanthropist, Baron Maurice de Hirsch (b. in Munich, Bavaria,
183 1 ; d. in Hungary, 1896), some time before the new increase
of immigration from Russia, created and endowed the Baron de
Hirsch Fund for the ameliorating of the condition of certain Jew-
ish immigrants in the United States. The fund, which he orig-
inally endowed with the sum of $2,400,000 (and which had
grown later to nearly a million more), was incorporated under
the laws of the State of New York, February 12, 1891, the trus-
tees being: M. S. Isaacs, president; Jacob H. Schiff (b. in Frank-
fort o. t. Main, 1847; a 1865), vice-president; Jesse Seligman (b.
in Bavaria, 1827; d. in California, 1894), treasurer; Dr. Julius
Goldman (who later became president), honorar}^ secretary. The
other trustees were Henry Rice (b. in Bavaria, 1835; a. 1850),
who for many years was president of the United Hebrew Chari-
ties of New York; James H. Hoffman and Oscar S. Straus (b.
in Germany, 1850; a. 1854), of New York, and Mayer Sulzberger
(b. in Hildesheim, Baden, 1843; a. 1848) and William B. Hack-
enburg (b. in Philadelphia, 1837), of Philadelphia. Adolphus S.
Solomons (b. in New York, 1826; d. in Washington, 1910) was
the first general agent. The present trustees are: Eugene S. Ben-
jamin, president ; Jacob H. Schiff, vice-president ; Murry Gug-
genheim, treasurer; Max J. Kohler, honorary secretary; Nathan
Bijur, Abram I. Elkus, Henry Rice, Louis Siegbert, S. G. Rosen-
baum, all of New York City ; Mayer Sulzberger, W B. Hacken-
burg and S. S. Fleischer, of Philadelphia. H. L. Sabsovich suc-
ceeded A. S. Solomons as general agent.
The trustees of this fund, which has an annual income of about
$125,000, at first used the amount at their disposal in relieving
the immediate necessities of the refugees, and in order to make
the immigrants self-supporting, a number of them were given in-
290 History of the Jews in America.
struction in the work which is required in the manufacture of
clothing, white goods, etc. The United Hebrew Charities of
New York was made the agent through which the material neces-
sities were relieved, and certain sums are still granted by the
fund to institutions which make a specialty of assisting immi-
grants. On the other hand, the fund itself is receiving assistance
from the Jewish Colonization Association (I. C. A., to which
Baron de Hirsch left a large share of his fortune) in the activi-
ties which it carries on through the Jewish Agricultural and In-
dustrial Aid Society for the encouragement of farming, and the
Industrial Removal Office, for the distribution of workingmen
from the crowded centers of population to places further inland
(both of these institutions were organized in 1900). When the
great pressure due to the rapid immigration had somehwat re-
laxed, the trustees carefully matured their plans of education and
of colonization, doing a large amount of good with the various
forms of instruction, including technical as well as elementary
knowledge : while the colonization plans, which resulted in the
establishment of the colonies which have been mentioned in a
former chapter, meet with so many difficulties that progress is
made at a less rapid pace.
The Jews of America were thus even better prepared to re-
ceive a large number of Jewish immigrants at the beginning of
the last decade of the nineteenth century than they were ten years
before. There was also at this time a smaller number and a much
smaller proportion of helpless people among the Russian refu-
gees, for those who lived in the interior of Russia, outside of the
"pale of settlement", and would have remained there had it not
been for the expulsions, were as a rule active and fairly successful
men, and therefore better able to take care of themselves than
those whom poverty or lack of employment forced to emigrate.
IMany more found relatives and friends here than in 1881-82, and
among those who were here there were also many more who
could be of assistance to new arrivals than in former times. As
a matter of fact, Jewish immigration from the Slavic countries
Immigrants need less Assistance. 291
had then assumed its natural form, which it has retained ever
since, except in the years following the massacres in the present
century. Most men come to kinsmen or personal friends, who
are willing and able to assist them in finding their way. A large
majority consists of wives and children, of parents and other
n-ear relatives, who come because they were sent for and because
the breadwinner or the most energetic member of the family has
previously established himself here and demands their precense,
or feels certain that they will soon be able to provide for them-
selves. The helpless Jewish immigrant wdio has nowhere to go
and nothing to do when he arrives, is now very rare, and has
been rare for the last two decades.
The number of the new immigrants needing assistance imme-
diatel}' after their arrival had been reduced to such a small frac-
tion that those having the interest of the Jewish masses at heart
began to express their opinion that it would perhaps be better if
organized charity would leave them alone altogether. At first
this opinion was uttered mostly in -the Yiddish press or at meet-
ings of immigrants. But in time there came not only a still fur-
ther improvement in the general condition of the Jews, and also
a further diminution in the number of helpless immigrants, but
the voice of the immigrant-citizen became more potent in com-
munal affairs. The folly of appeals, in which the wants of that
class were exaggerated, became apparent; a large number of the
employees of charitable institutions, and even some of the direc-
tors, were nowf Russian or Galician or Roumanian Jews, with a
closer acquaintance with the needs, and also with the lack of
needs, of the new arrivals. Much of the friction due to the re-
sentment against help, which was rendered sometimes with more
ostentation than the circumstances required, was obviated under
the altered conditions, and the ground was prepared for a new
co-operation of all elements of tlie community.
The foundation about this time of the American-Jewish His-
torical Society, whose objects are the collection and preservation
of material bearing upon the history of the Jews in America, may
292 History of the Jews in America.
be taken as an indication that the times were now again consid-
ered normal in the Jewish community. It was organized in June,
1892, with Oscar S. Straus as president, and Dr. Cyrus Adler (b.
in Van Buren, Ark., 1863) as secretary. The latter is now (since
1899) its president, and Albert M. Friedenberg and Dr. Herbert
Friedenwald, secretaries. It has thus far issued twenty annual
volumes of its "Publications," which form an invaluable collec-
tion of material on the subject, much of which has been used in
the preparation of this work. The president and both secretaries,
as well as its curator, Leon Hfihner, and some of its officers and
members of its Executive Council, like Professor Richard J. H.
Gottheil (b. in Manchester, England, 1862; who came here with
his father, Rabbi Gustave Gottheil (1827-1903) of Temple
Emanuel, New York, in 1873), of Columbia University; Pro-
fessor Jacob H. Hollander (b. in Baltimore, 1871), of Johns
Hopkins University, and Max J. Kohler (b. in Detroit, Mich.,
1871), are among the most important contributors of papers and
monograms on various historical subjects to the publications of
the society.
Another society of a kindred nature, but appealing to a wider
circle, The Jewish Publication Society of America (organized in
Philadelphia, 1888; incorporated there 1896), began to attain
prominence about that time. It has published for distribution
among its members and also for sale to the general public about
sixty books on a large variety of subjects, some of them, like the
English edition of Graetz's History of the Jews, Schechter's
"Studies in Judaism" and the earliest works of fiction by Israel
Zangwill, are highly valuable. Morris Newburger (b. in Hohen-
zollern-Sigmaringen, 1834; a. 1854) was its first president and
held the office for fourteen years, until he was succeeded by the
present incumbent. Edwin Wolf, in 1902. The leading spirit of
the society is the chairman of its Publication Committee, Mayer
Sulzberger, the eminent communal leader and Jewish bibliophile,
who has been a Judge of the Court of Common Pleas in Phila-
delphia since 1895. The secretary of that committee, Henrietta
Miss Sadie American.
203
The Jewish Publication Society. 295
Szold, has done much useful work in translating or preparing for
publication a considerable part of the works which the society has
published.
This society is the third of its kind in the United States. The
first, which was called the "American Jewish Publication So-
ciety," was founded by Isaac Leeser in 1845, ^"d in the same
year an auxiliary society was established at Richmond, Va. It
published fourteen works between that year and 1849; but went
out of existence after its plates and books were destroyed by fire,
in 185 1. The second. The Jewish Publication Society, was estab-
lished in New York in 1873, by Leopold Bamberger, Benjamin
I. Hart, jNIyer Stern, Edward Morrison and several others of
New York, \Villiam B. Hackenburg (b. in Philadelphia, 1837)
of Philadelphia and Simon AVolf of Washington. Rabbis Gus-
tave Gottheil, Moses Mielziner (b. in Schubin, Posen, 1828; d.
in Cincinnati, 1903, where he had been Professor of Talmud in the
Hebrew Union College since 1879, and Wise's successor as presi-
dent) and Frederick de Sola Mendes (b. in Jamaica, W. I., 1850;
since 1874 rabbi of Congregation Shaarey Tefilla) ; Marcus Jas-
trow of Philadelphia, and Maritz Ellinger (b. in Germany, 1830;
a. 1854; d. 1907), editor of the "Menorah" and of the "Jewish
Times," constituted its publication committee. It existed only for
two years.
The Jewish Chautaucjua Society, "for the dissemination of
knowledge of the Jewish religion by fostering the study of its
history and literature, giving popular courses of instruction, issu-
ing publications, establishing reading circles, holding general as-
semblies, and by such other means as may from time to time be
found necessary and proper," is also a product of this new period
of spiritual and literary activity in the American-Jewish world.
It was founded in 1893 by Dr. Henry Berkowitz (b. in Pittsburg,
Pa., 1857; since 1892 rabbi of the Congregation Rodeph Sha-
lom, Philadelphia), who is still its chancellor. It now has about
three thousand members.
The World's Columbian Exposition, which was held in Chi-
296 History of the Jews in America.
cago in the year 1893, offered the Jews on opportunity to par-
ticipate in the great event in diversified ways. AVhat they did
and what they exhibited as artists, scientists, manufacturers and
merchants does not belong to the subject of this work, which is
mostly concerned with Jewish matters. But the Jews partici-
pated, as such, in the World's Parliament of Religions which was
held in Chicago at that time. Among the separate denomina-
tional congresses which constituted that Parliament was also a
Congress of Jewish Women, the first of its kind ever held. This
congress resulted in the organization of the National Council of
Jewish Women, "to further united efforts in behalf of Judaism
by supplying means of study ; by an organic union to bring about
closer relations among Jewish women ; to furnish a medium of
interchange of thought and a means of communication and of
prosecuting work of common interest ; to further united efforts in
the work of social betterment through religion, philanthropy and
education." Hannah G. Solomon and Sadie American, respec-
tively chairman and secretar)' of the congress, were elected presi-
dent and secretary of the council. In 1896 the word "National"
was eliminated from the name, on account of the entrance of
sections from Canada. The council now consists of more than
sixty sections and is doing noble work in pursuance of its pro-
gram. Miss American still retains the office of secretary, while
Mrs. Solomon was succeeded as president by Mrs. Marion L.
Misch, of Providence, R. I.
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE LABOR MOVEMENT AND NEW LITERARY ACTIVITIES.
Difficulty of securing- data for the history of the Labor Movement
among Jewisli immigrants — John R. Commons' characterization of
a Jewish labor union — A constantly changing army of followers
under the same leaders — The movement under the control of the
radical press — The leaders as journalists and literary men — They
popularize the press and teach the rudiments of politics — The voter
—The "Heften" — Keo-Hebrew periodicals — The Yiddish stylists —
The plight of the Hebraists.
Any attempt to give even the merest outline of the history
of the labor movement among the immigrant Jews in the United
States would lead into a maze of unreliable iigures, exaggera-
tions, and conflicting statements, not only between opponents, but
also among those most friendly to their cause. The Russian
Jew, in America, like the Russian himself at home, has not yet
learned to divorce trade unionism from politics ; his labor organ-
izations are either organized and managed by Socialistic agita-
tors and politicians, and in the end split from within on account
of the continuous wars among the adherents of various schools
of Socialistic principles and tactics ; or, if it is not Socialistic, and
would not permit the machinery of its organization to be used
foT the benefit of the party — or, rather, of one of the Socialistic
parties — it is opposed, and sometimes ruined, by open attacks or
by neglect. And so it comes that as long as a labor ur.ion is
typically Jewish, i. e., as long as it differs from the American
trade union in its being much more political and being more in-
terested in a general struggle against capital or against the pres-
297
298 History of the Jews in America.
ent order of society, it leads a precarious existence. The small
number of labor unions whose members are exclusively Jewish
immigrants, which are strictly trade unions and permit their
members to have their own political views or preferences, are
usually affiliated with American central labor bodies, and belong
to the history of the labor movement of the country rather than
to one which deals with the Jews as a separate entity.
But the radicalism of the laborer as such, and the radicalism
of the union which he enters and upholds, is like the radicalism of
the immigrant in general and like his dwelling in tenement
houses : a passing phase which seems permanent because new ar-
rivals take up the place of those who are continually dropping out
from the ranks on account of their improved material and edu-
cational condition. Isaac A. Hourwich (b. in Wilna, i860; a.
1892), the economist and statistician, in his attempt to review the
labor movement among the Jews in this country, could do no
better than to quote the following characterization from the pen
of a recognized specialist on the subject :
The Jew's conception of a labor organization is that of a tradesman
rather than that of a workman. In the clothing manufacture, when-
ever any real abuse arises among the Jewish workmen, they all come
together and form a giant union, and at once engage in a strike. They
bring in 95 per cent, of the trade. They are energetic and determined.
They demand the entire and complete elimination of the abuse. The
demand is almost always unanimous, and is made with enthusiasm and
bitterness. They stay out a long time, even under the greatest of suf-
fering. During a strike large numbers of them are to be found with
almost nothing to live upon and their families suffering, still insisting,
on the streets and in their halls, that the great cause must be won. But
when once the strike is settled, either in favor of or against the cause,
they are contented, and that usually ends the union, since they do not
see any practical use for a union when there is no cause to fight for.
Consequently the membership of a Jewish union is wholly uncertain.
The secretary's books will show 60,000 members in one month and not
The Labor Movement. 299
5,000 within three months later. If, perchance, a local branch has a
steady thousand members, and if they are indeed paying members, it
is likely that they are not the same members as in the year before.'
This is, witli the modifications pertaining to time and place,
the history of practically every traaes-union organization among
the Jewish immigrants from the Slavic countries. From the first
union of Jewish tailors, which was organized in New York in
1877, through the time of the first comprehensive strike of
workers in the clotliing trade in that city in 1890, the still larger
one in 1894; down to the great waist makers' strike in 1909 and
the great strikes in New York, Chicago and Cleveland in 1910
and 191 1, the leadership has remained almost the same for
about a quarter century. Abraham Cahan (b. in Podberezhye,
near Wilna, i860; a. 1882), who was the first to deliver Socialist
speeches in Yiddish in the United States, is still practically at
the head of that movement among his countrymen. Morris
Hillquit- (b. in Riga, Russia, 1870; a. 1887) began his activity
as a Socialist leader among the immigrants before he was of age,
and is now a recognized leader of the Socialists of the country,
being also the author of a History of Socialism in the United
States. Joseph Barondess (b. in Kamenetz-Podolsk, 1867; a.
1885), the leader of the second great cloak makers' strike, who
is now a communal worker and a leader among the Zionists,
is still looked upon as a representative of the Jewish working
classes in New York. The same conditions prevail in other large
cities ; only there the movement began somewhat later, and the
local leaders seldom attained lasting prominence even locally;
for the movement is more than anything else a newspaper move-
ment, and those who control the Yiddish Socialist press in New
York are masters of the situation in every center of population
where there is a Socialist movement among the Jewish immi-
grants.
\Tohn R. Commons, in his report on "Immigration and Its Economic
Effects.'' quoted in the article "Trade Unionism" in The Jewish Ency-
clopedia, vol. XII.
300 History of the Jews in America,
As the radical press is, the means by which the unstable and
mostly temporary labor organizations are held in control, it has
played a much more important part in the entire Jewish labor
movement than the general labor press has played in the much
stronger and more lasting American labor movement. This is
again on account of its political radicalism, which appeals to a
wide circle of readers, who may be neither trade union laborers
nor even Socialists. In its latest phase of development the Jew-
ish radical press becomes a sensational afternoon paper, only
with a stronger tinge of "red" than the journal of the same type
printed in the vernacular. This preponderance of the literary
side of the movement had the results which were to be expected :
it produced better writers than labor leaders, more talented lit-
erary artists than organizers or disciplinarians. And while most
of the radical periodicals also succumbed sooner or later, they
liad a more lasting effect on the development of the immigrant
than the extremist labor organizations. This is also a reflex of
Russian conditions, where the labor movement is entirely in the
hands of the "intelligencia" or learned classes, though for an
entirely different reason, the laborers themselves being mostly
illiterate. Here every Jewish labor leader is a journalist or an
author, often both; and they belong more properly to the chap-
ters treating of Jewish literature in America.
The agitator among the immigrants has also rendered other
highly useful service, besides the impetus which he gave to the
development and popularization of the Yiddish press. The aver-
age laborer immigrant from Russia knew very little of news-
papers, although practically every one of them could read his
mother tongue — Judeo-German or Yiddish. But the Russian gov-
ernment did not permit at that time the publication of popular
newspapers, and we find, for instance, in the year 1886, three
daily papers in Russia in the old Hebrew language, which is
understood by the more educated classes, and not one in Yiddish.
But little»as the immigrant knew about newspapers, he knew less,
or actually nothing at all, about politics. The explanation of
Socialists as Teachers of Civics. 301
the aims of the one party for which the agitator wanted to win
him had to be preceded by introductory explanations of the
nature and functions of parties generally, of their utility as a
means of inaugurating reforms, and their power to carry them
out when a successful campaign places the government in their
hands. The Socialist agitator was thus the first teacher of civics,
and he was a very active worker for the cause of naturalization.
He was anxious that the immigrant workingman should become
a citizen and build up with his vote the Socialist party which the
native laborer was so slow to recognize.
But the large majority of the Jewish laborers had enough of
Socialism by the time they were entitled to citizenship ; the num-
ber of voters of that party increased very slowly, and, like the
above-mentioned case of the unions, they were not the same
from year to year. While the Jewish population was increas-
ing rapidly in some parts of New York and other large cities,
and the number of non-Jewish, or rather non-immigrant, voters
in some districts became very small or practically disappeared,
the number of Socialist votes was fluctuating, and never became
a majority or even a plurality in a district. While the leaders
were preaching that all opportunities were now gone and all ave-
nues of advancement were closed for the poor man, every individ-
ual among their followers was struggling to raise himself above
his surroundings. Americanization meant the abandonment of
extreme views on all subjects, and the naturalized immigrant,
even when he remained a manual worker, was soon voting for
one of the two great American parties. He still retained a lean-
ing towards radical reform, foi- the Russian mind is much in-
clined to theorizing; but he would now seldom go further than
support an American reformer or join one of the movements
instituted by the better elements for the purpose of purifying
city governments. But as the reform element usually signalizes
its accession to power by a severe enforcement of Sunday-dos-
ing laws and other interferences with personal liberty which
smack of persecution, the immigrant Jew usually joins the other
302 History of the Jews in America.
disappointed classes to turn the reformers out of office at the
next election.
There was a slow and steady turning away from the dry and
monotonous radical literature of that period, which was a coun-
terpart of the turning away from extreme politics. In one re-
spect the change in literary tastes or requirements amounted to
a revulsion — one might almost say, to a revolution. The first
attempt to publish in Yiddish a sensational novel in weekly or
semi-weekly installments, popularly known as "Heften," which
was made in New York about 1890, met with extraordinary suc-
cess. The number of such ventures soon multiplied, and the sales
were large in other cities as well as in the place of publication.
The Yiddish periodical press became endangered, but it saved^
and revenged — itself by beginning to publish one, two and some-
times as much as three serial stories in daily installments, a prac-
tice which in a short time ruined the business of the "Heften.'"'
It was also about this time that the "Maskilim" or half-Ger-
manized Hebrew scholars, who were forced to the background by
the domination of the radicals at the beginning of the "Russian
period," began to forge to the front again. The number of Jews
who could read Hebrew was fast increasing, the proportion of
intelligent and well-educated men being much larger among those
who were forced to emigrate than among the earlier immigrants.
Well known Hebrew scholars who arrived in that period began
the publication of Hebrew periodicals, and while none of the
publications survived, some of them existed for a number of
yea:rs and exerted a certain influence; besides contributing to
develop the talents of new writers and to lay the foundation for a
Neo-Hebrew literature in America, which is progressing slowly
but surely.
One of the first of the Hebrew editors of the new period was
Ephraim Deinard (b. in Courland, 1846; a. 1888), the author and
traveler. He established the weekly "Ha-Leomi" (Nationalist)
in New York ni 1889, and it existed for about two years. An-
other traveler and author. Wolf (or WiUiam) Schur (b. in Utian,
Neo-Hebrew Periodicals. 303
Russia, 1844; d. in Chicago, 19 10), established his weekly "Ha-
Pisgah" (The Summit), which appeared in New York and Bal-
timore in the years 1890-94 and in Chicago in 1897- 1900. The
"ha-Ibri" (The Hebrew), also a weekly, was founded by K. H.
Sarasohn and edited by Gerson Rosenzweig (b. in Karatchin, in
the government of Grodno, Russia, 1861 ; a. 1888) during the
time of its existence, from 1892 to 1898. Of the Hebrew month-
lies of that period only the "Ner he-Maarabi" (Western Light),
which appeared in 1895-97, edited first by Abraham H. Rosen-
berg (b. in Pinsk, 1838; a. 1891) and afterv/ards by Samuel B.
Schwarzberg, deserves to be mentioned.
In one respect the Hebrew and the Yiddish writers were strug-
gling with the same difficulty — that of making themselves under-
stood to the largest possible number of readers. The method
prevailing in Russia, of writing as hard or using as high a lan-
guage as possible so that the highly intelligent rer.der — the title
to which every reader of a newspaper there at that time laid
claim — should take pride in being able to understand the con-
tents, would not attract readers here as it does where scarcity of
printed matter makes the public accept with eagerness whatever
is offered. But the Hebrew writer came here with a style that
may be termed aristocratic, and the Yiddish writer, who had to
begin everything anew, had hardly any style. It was all easy as
far as the work of the agitator was concerned ; denunciations and
accusations are always easily understood, and this alone ii one o±
the reasons of their popularity. But when it came to the parts
where the writer wanted to describe or to explain, especially in
the scientific or semi-scientific articles which a public that had
no systematic schooling so eagerly devoured, the language of most
of the writers was inadequate and not easily understood.
Thus it comes that, although most of the Yiddish periodicals
of that time were advocating, some of them with great ve-
hemence, certain principles, or leading certain movements, the
earliest reputations were made by stylists who were not identified
with particular movements. The highest popularity among the
304 History of the Jews in America.
reading masses was attained by Abner Tannenbaum (b. in Shir-
wint, Russia, 1848; a. 1887), whose perspicuous writing, whether
as the author of the "Heften," which he inaugurated, or on his
favorite subject, popular science, simply could not be misunder-
stood. George Selikovich (b. in Retovo, government of Kovno,
Russia, in 1863; a. 1887), a linguist and a good Hebrew stylist,
is another writer whom everybody could easily understand, and
who acquired popularity with the public to whom Yiddish peri-
odical literature was brought down here, for the first time in its
history. Nahum Meir Schaikewitz (Shomer, b. in Nesvizh, gov-
ernment of Minsk, Russia, 1849; a. 1888; d. in New York,
1905), the novelist and playwright, also appealed to the masses
with his easy flowing style, and was a favorite here with the same
classes which used to read his works and see his plays in the
old country.
The recognition accorded to these writers, none of whom were
agitators or even party men, proves that even in the time when it
seemed that the "ghetti" or neighborhoods of the Jewish immi-
grants were seething with movements and agitations, the great
masses were not much mterested in them; though the curious
crowded the largest meeting rooms, and many who were not yet
sure of their newly found freedom were inclined to test it by par-
ticipating in a march or some other form of demonstration which
was forbidden in their old home. Some writers, on the other hand,
who followed the Russian usage of subordinating their art to the
cause which they were advocating, were extolled by their par-
tisans as great geniuses, but had a much smaller public than the
above-mentioned literati.
The writers of Hebrew, who by reason of their training and
inclination held more aloof even from their own public, have not
yet solved the great question of style; which partly accounts for
the remarkable fact that their periodical literature has actually
vanished in the two decades in which the possible number of their
readers has increased almost tenfold. Some of the best known
Hebrew literati from the Old World came here since the estab-
Plight of the "Maskilim." 305
lishment of the Neo-Hebrew periodicals which were mentioned
above; men Hke the poet Menahem Mendel Dolitzki (b. in Bye-
lostok, 1856; a. 1892); the exegete Abraham Baer Dobsevage
(b. in Pinsk, 1843; a. 1891 ; d. in New York, 1900) ; the philos-
opher Joseph Loeb Sosnitz (b. in Birz, 1837; a. 1891 ; d. in New
York, 191 o) ; the grammarian Moses Reicherson (b. in Wilna,
1827; a. 1890; d. in New York, 1903), and the knight-errant of
Hebrew literature, Naphtali Hirz Imber (b. in Zloczow, Galicia,
1856; a. i892(?); d. in New York, 1909). But neither they
nor others less known, who could perhaps be more productive
under more favorable circumstances, could accomplish much even
in those branches of literary journalism where Yiddish has not
penetrated. They were not entirely idle, and some of the re-
sults of their literary labor will be mentioned in the proper place
in a following part of this work. But they have not influenced
the Jewish spirit and have contributed little to the general intel-
lectual development of the community. The traditional war for
progress which they waged in their old homes, where they were
often the only learned or enlightened men in the community, had
no place in a world where general education is so easily accessible;
and they could not feel at home in the ranks of the conservatives,
where they belong in this country. Most of them floundered
until the rise of the Zionist movement, which they joined half-
heartedly. Many took to teaching of Hebrew, and are still wait-
ing for the expected revival of interest in Hebrew literature which
the new nationalism is supposed to produce.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
RELATIONS WITH RUSSIA, THE PASSPORT QUESTION.
The normal rate of Jewish immigration is but slightly affected by the
panic of 1893 — Oppressiveness of the Sunday Laws are felt by the
new immigrants — The Extradition Treaty with Russia — Beginning
of the struggle about the Passport Question^The first Resolution
against Russia's discrimination, introduced in Congress by Mr.
Cox in 1879 — Diplomacy and diplomatic correspondence — More
resolutions — Rayner, Fitzgerald, Perkins — Henry M. Goldfogle —
John Hay's letter to the House — More letters, speeches and dis-
cussions — The Sulzer Resolution and the last step to abrogate the
Treaty of 1832.
The large increase in Jewish immigration from Russia after
the renewed persecutions of 1891, hke the general increase in the
beginning of the last decade of the nineteenth century, lasted
only till the effects of the hard times, which began in the spring
of 1893, began to be felt. But the increase in Jewish immigra-
tion was more than ordinarily large, or what might be consid-
ered for those times as abnormal, only in one year — 1892. If
this year, in which there arrived 76,417 Jews from Russia,^ should
be eliminated, it is seen that Jewish immigration fell off much
less in proportion than general immigration. The general figures
are: 560,319 for 1891 ; 502,917 for 1893; 314,467 for 1894;
and 279,948 for 1895. The number of Jewish immigrants from
Russia for those years was: 42,145 for 1891 ; 35,626 for 1893;
36,725 for 1894, and 33,332 for 1895. The cause of it was men-
' See article "Migration" in the Jezvish Eiicvrlopedia, where the
figures are interesting but the sources do not justify complete reliability.
306
The Problems of the Period. 307
tioned in a former chapter — that the largest part of the Jewish
immigration now consisted of famihes or near relatives brought
over by those who have established themselves here. The con-
dition of those remaining- there was becoming continually worse,
while those who were here could, with a little exertion and self-
denial, save enough, even in slack times, to save their immedi-
ate relatives from the conditions which were becoming unendur-
able in Russia.
For this large and increasing mass of Russians, the relations
between the United .States and Russia were a matter of grave
concern. And tO' them, in conjunction with the Galician Jews
and the Roumanian Jews, who were, roughly estimated, nearly
half as strong numerically as the Russians, the cjuestion of the
.estriction of immigration, which was then being discussed in
Congress and in the country generally, was of most vital interest.
The fear that the oppressed Jews who were left home could not
come in now, and that there might be diiificulty even in bringing
over members of the family, sufificed to make this question over-
shadow all others in the mind of the Jewish immigrant ; to make
it not only the most important, but with many, the sole Jewish
problem.
A minor problem which had also become more acute under
the changed conditions was the Sunday Laws of the various
srates. While the laws themselves date further back, some of
them from the eighteenth century, and they were not enforced
with any more severity than before, the opportunities for con-
flict with them were now much more frequent. The Jewish im-
migrants of the former periods, who were mostly traders doing
business with their Gentile neighbors, and were also inclined
toward Reform Judaism, usually rested Sunday, for economic
reasons as well as on account of their religious views. But now
there were in many large cities, and especially in New York, large
Jewish neighborhoods where brisk trading was done among Jews
themselves. There were Jewish shops and factories in which the
owners, the managers and foremen, as well as the workers, were
308 History of the Jews in America.
Jews. And not only was the proportion of Orthodox Jews among
them very large, but even the unbelievers and the radicals among
them thought the Sunday laws oppressive and incongruous. It
was certainly not what most of them expected to find in the Land
of Liberty : to be hampered and interfered with for practices
which were then practically permissible in countries like Russia
and Austria, where the Churches rule supreme and where Jews
are harassed on every imaginable pretext.
Two incidents in the relations with Russia aroused the interest
of the Russian Jews in America at that time. The first related
to the Treaty of Extradition which was negotiated between the
two governments during the first administration of President
Cleveland, but was not pressed for ratification, owing to protests
which were made against it by Russian Jews and which were
seconded by many liberal Americans and by a considerable por-
tion of the press. But the document itself, signed by the repre-
sentatives of the two governments seven or eight years before,
remained in the State Department, and was again presented to
the Senate by John W. Foster, a former American Minister to
Russia, who held the office of Secretary of State in the last
months of the administration of President Benjamin Harrison
(1833-1901). It was ratified by the Senate in February, 1893,
and the report of its ratification and exchange with Russia was
a painful surprise for the Jews of the country, especially for the
natives of Russia. Happily the fears about the possible effects of
the treaty proved absolutely groundless. Every extradition case
under this treaty which was fought in the United States courts
was won, and, as far as it is known, not one Russian refugee who
made the plea against extradition, claiming that he was wanted
for political offences, was ever delivered to Russia.
The second occurrence pertained to a difficulty of long stand-
ing: to the general treaty between the United States and Russia
which was concluded in 1832. The number of Jews in the
United States at that time was comparatively small, and very
few of them came from Russia. The intercourse between the
The First Passport Resolution. 309
two countries was insignificant, and probably no Jew of that
time thought of going from America to Russia for any purpose.
It could therefore not have occurred to the I'epresentatives of our
Government in negotiating the treaty that Russia would discrim-
inate against American Jews who might come there. As a matter
of fact, the language of the treaty implied equal treatment for all
American citizens alike, and is much less objectionable than was
the treaty with Switzerland, which was concluded later (see
abo\'e Chapter XXIII), in which discrimination against Jews was
knowingly accepted. And while a case of discrimination against
an American-Jewish citizen in Switzerland was under consid-
eration by the State Department in Washington at the very time
when the treaty of 1855, with the highly objectionable clause, was
adopted, more than forty years passed after the adoption of the
Russian treaty of 1832 before the cpiestion of Russia's disloyalty
to the terms of the treaty attracted the attention of the American
Government, although there seems to have been some correspond-
ence about it as early as 1866.^ The name of a naturalized Jew-
ish citizen, Theodore Rosenstrauss, appears frequently in the dip-
lomatic correspondence of the State Department from 1873 ^o
1879, and his case was the cause of the following Joint Resolu-
tion being introduced in the House of Representatives of the 46th
Congress in June, 1879, by Mr. Samuel S. Cox of New York, a
member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs :
JOINT RESOLUTION IN RELATION TO TREATY NEGOTIA-
TIONS WITH RUSSIA AS TO AMERICAN CITIZENS.
Whereas, It is alleged that by the laws of the Russian Government,
no Hebrew can hold real estate, which unjust discrimination is enforced
against Hebrew citizens of the United States resident in Russia; and
Whereas, The Russian Government has discriminated against one
T. Rosenstrauss, a naturalized citizen of the United States, by pro-
1
^ See The American Passport in Russia in the American Jewish Year
Book for 5665; also The Passport Question in Congress, ibid, for 5670.
310 History of the Jews in America.
hibiting him from holding real estate after his purchasing and paying
for the same, because of his being an Israelite; and
Whereas, Such disabilities are antagonistic to the enlightened spirit
of our institutions and age, which demand free exercise of religious
belief, and no disabilities therefrom; and
Whereas, The Secretary of State, under date of April 29, 1879, ex-
presses doubt of his ability to grant the relief required under existing
treaty stipulations; therefore
Resolved, By the Senate and the House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress Assembled, that the rights of
the citizens of the United States should not be impaired at home or
abroad because of religious belief; and that if existing treaties between
the United States and Russia be found, as is alleged, to discriminate
in this or any other particular, as to any other classes of our citizens,
the President is requested to take immediate action, to have the treaties
so amended as to remedy this grievance.
After a debate, in which the fact that Enghsh Jews were per-
mitted to own land in Russia, was brought out, this Resolution
passed the House of Representatives June 10, 1879, and as far
as known was not heard of again.
In the diplomatic correspondence which followed, the American
Government insisted on its rights under the treaty and urged its
minister to claim absolutely equal treatment for all American
citizens alike, Jews as well as others. The arguments and the
mode of procedure which are now familiar to every one who is
interested in the question, were all used thirty years ago, though
the only effective remedy, suggested by the first resolution, "to
take immediate steps to have the treaties amended," had not
been resorted to. But the question of former Russian subjects
who return to Russia as American citizens, in which the prin-
ciple of expatriation and right of naturalization is involved, is
not touched upon in these early disputes. There is even a clear
intimation that the Russian Government's chief objection was
against naturalized Jews from Germany. Mr. Foster, who was
then our representative in St. Petersburg, in a dispatch dated
December 30, 1880, reports an interview which he had with
M. de Giers, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, and says:
Diplomacy and Correspondence. 311
So far as concerned Jews who are bona fide American citizens (not
disguised German Jews'), he would assure me of the most liberal treat-
raent, as he knew it was the desire of the Emperor to show all pos-
sible consideration to American citizens. If such came to St. Peters-
burg and encountered any trouble, if I would merely send him an
unofficial note, he would give them all the time I might ask for them
to remain here to attend to their business. . .
The same dispatch reports also a conversation with the
Minister of Worship, who "hstened with much interest to my
presentation of the subject. He said that a commission was now
engaged in studying the question of reform in these laws," and
"frankly recognized that the laws were not fully in accordance
with the spirit of the age." But in the end of this document Mr.
Foster acknowledges his failure to obtain what he wanted and says
that "the Russian Government was disposed to grant what we de-
sired only as a favor when my government asked it as a right"
(quoting Loris Melikov).
In a dispatch sent by Secretary of State James G. Blaine to
Mr. Foster, dated July 29, 1881, the entire subject is historically
reviewed and the principles involved are restated in strong and
lucid terms. Two passages from this dispatch are worth quot-
ing. One reads: "From the time when the treaty of 1832 was
signed down to within a very recent period, there had been noth-
mg m our relations with Russia to lead to the supposition that
our flag did not carry with it equal protection to every American
within the dominions of the empire." The second is the last sen-
tence of the dispatch and reads : "I cannot but feel assured that
this earnest presentation of the views of this government will ac-
cord with the sense of justice and equity of that of Russia, and
that the questions at issue will soon find their natural solution
in harmony with the spirit of tolerance which pervaded the ukase
of the Empress Catherine a century ago, and with the statesman-
like declaration of the principle of reciprocity found in the later
decree of the Czar Alexander II. in i860." Actual dealings with
Russia were a novel experience for American diplomatists, and
312 History of the Jews in America.
even so eminent a statesman as Mr. Blaine could believe — after
the pogroms of the spring of that year — that the question would
be solved in the same manner as in Switzerland — by the final
emancipation of the Jews of that country.
In the meantime new cases had arisen, and the question was
again brought before Congress. Representative Samuel S. Cox
of New York introduced a second resolution in the House of
Representatives on January 26, 1882, which was passed four days
later, requesting the President, if it was not incompatible with the
public service, to communicate to the House all correspondence
between the Department of State and the United States minister
at St. Petersburg, relative to the expulsion of American Israelites
from Russia, and the persecution of the Jews in the Russian
Empire. Another resolution, asking for further correspondence
on the subject, was introduced by Mr. Cox on July 31 of the same
vear and referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. He sub-
mitted the same resolution again in February, 1883, when it was
passed. There was another resolution in 1884, and more corre-
spondence in 1886 between Secretary of State Thomas F Bayard
and the American representative in Russia, with no better re-
sults than before.
The subject was taken up more earnestly than before in the
following decade. Congressman S. Logan Chipman of Michigan
introduced in the House, in February, 1892, a resolution "To
inquire into the operation of the Anti-Jewish Laws of Russia on
American Citizens." It was referred to the Committee on For-
eign Affairs and reported on April 6, 1892, in a much amplified
form, but its passage is not recorded. Mr. Irvine Dungan, of
Ohio, introduced, on June 10, 1892, a joint resolution "directing
the severance of diplomatic relations with Rlissia," which seems
not to have gone any further than the Committee on Foreign Af-
fairs. There was new correspondence, too, as the result of new
cases, and probably also as an indirect result of the resolutions
which were introduced in the House. A letter written from the
State Department in 1893 ^o Mr. Andrew D. White (b. 1832),
Rayner's Resolution. 313
the educator and historian, the greatest man who ever represented
the United States in Russia, contained the "surmise that some
strange misapprehension exists in this regard in the mind of His
Majesty's Government, which your accustomed abihty and tact
may explain and perhaps remove." The events proved that he
could do neither.
In 1894 the subject was again brought before the House, for
the first time by a representative of Jewish extraction. Isidor
Rayner (b. in Baltimore, 1850), who was successively a member
of the Maiyland Legislature, a State Senator, a representative in
Congress for three terms, the Attorney-General of the State of
Maryland, and is now serving his second term as United States
Senator from that State (beginning March 4, 1911), was then
serving his third term in the House and was recognized as one
of the ablest orators and leaders of his party (the Democratic)
in the popular branch of Congress. But his resolution, which was
introduced May 28, 1894, in which the President was "directed
to call the attention of the Government of Russia to its continued
violation of the treaty rights," met with no better fate than the
preceding ones which were introduced by non-Jews. The dis-
position of the resolutions made, however, little difference, for
the Government was urging a settlement of the difficulties as
strongly as if it was commanded by Congress to do so.
Minister Breckinridge, who was in St. Petersburg in 1895,
writing to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs in that year,
states "that it has long been a matter of deep regret and concern
to the United States that any of its citizens should be discrim-
inated against for religious reasons while peacefully sojourning
in this country." The subject was apparently taken up more
seriously now than before, and there was justification for the
belief that it would have to be settled soon. Mr. H. H. D.
Peirce, Secretary of Legation, writing in June, 1895, of an inter-
view which he had with a high Russian official, declares that the
latter admitted the force of the argument and "expressed himself
as hopeful that it would be possible to bring about a satisfactory
314 History of the Jews in America.
revision of Russian practice as regards the admission of American
Jews into the Empire." In the following month Assistant Sec-
retary of State A. A. Adee wrote to the Legation at St. Peters-
burg:
Your conclusion that it is inexpedient to press the complaint to a
formal answer at present appears to be discreet, but the Department
must express its deep regret that you have encountered in the foreign of-
fice a reluctance to consider the matter in the light in which this Govern-
ment has presented it. The Russian Government can not expect that
its course in asserting inquisitorial authority in the United States over
citizens of the United States as to their religious or civil status can
ever be acceptable or even tolerable to such a Government as ours,
and continuance in such a course after our views have been clearly
but considerately made known may trench upon the just limits of con-
sideration.
There were three more dispatches of considerable length sent
about this subject in the same year, 1895; one from Mr. Breck-
inridge to Secretary of State Richard Olney, dated July 4; the
second from Mr. Adee to Mr. Breckinridge, dated August 22,
and a third, dated October 23, from Washington to the Russian
capital, beginning with the acknowledgment of the receipt of a
set of regulations relating to the Jews in Russia and commenting
on it that : "If anything, it presents the subject in a still more
unfavorable light, for it seems that those Russian agents in a
foreign territory may in their discretion inquire intO' the business
standing of the principal of the commercial house employing a
Hebrew agent, and act favorably or unfavorably, according to
their own judgment of its importance." It continues that even
"assuming for the arguments's sake but not by way of admission,
that such a right may technically exist, the cjuestion remains
whether the assumption to exercise it in face of the temperate
but earnest remonstrances of this Government against foreign in-
terference with the private concerns of its citizens, is in accord-
ance with those courteous principles of comity which this Gov-
ernment is so anxious to observe in its relations with all foreign
states."
Fitzgerald's and G-oldf ogle's Resolutions. 315
All this was of no avail, and the question was again brought
before Congress. Representative John F. Fitzgerald (b. in Bos-
ton, 1863: now Mayor of Boston) of Massachusetts introduced
the following resolution in the House of Representatives, March
31, 1897, which was referred to the Committee on Foreign
Affairs :
Resolved, That the Secretary of State be requested to demand from
the Russian Government that the same rights be given to Hebrew-
American citizens in the matter of passports as now are accorded to
all other classes of American citizens, and also inform the House of
Representatives whether any American citizens have been ordered to
be expelled from Russia or forbidden the exercise of the ordinary privi-
leges enjoyed by the inhabitants, because of their religion.
The same resolution was re-introduced by Mr. Fitzgerald in
December, 1899, with no better results. In the meantime, a Jew-
ish banker from California, Mr. Adolf Kutner, was refused ad-
mission to Russia in 1897, and this caused Senator J. C. Perkins
of that State to introduce a lengthy resolution about this question
in the United States Senate (May 25, 1897), which was followed
by a shorter one presented in the House by Representative Cur-
tice H. Castle of the same State in December of that year.
In 1902 the question was again brought to the attention of the
House by a Representative who not only is himself a Jew, but
represents a district most of whose inhabitants are immigrant
Jews who are interested in the passport question. Henry Mayer
Goldfogle (b. in New York City, 1856), who was twice elected
Judge of the Municipal Court in an East Side district, was in
1900 elected, as a Democrat, to represent the Ninth Congress
District of New York, which includes the most thickly populated
part of the East Side, and has been re-elected at every Congres-
sional election since, serving now (1911) his sixth term. It was
during his first term that he introduced what became well known
as the "Goldfogle Resolution" and has been be^orr Congress in
one form or another for nearly a decade. Its. original form as it
was introduced, March 28, 1902, was as follows :
316 History of the Jews in America.
Resolved, By the House of Representatives of the United States,
that the Secretary of State be, and he is hereby, respectfully requested
to inform the House whether American citizens of the Jewish religious
faith, holding passports issued by this Government, are barred or ex-
cluded from entering the territory of the Empire of Russia, and
whether the Russian Government has made, or is making, any discrim-
ination between citizens of the United States of different religious
faiths or persuasions, visiting or attempting to visit Russia, provided
with American passports; and whether the Russian Government has
made regulations restricting or specially applying to American citizens,
whether native or naturalized, of the Jewish religious denomination,
holding United States passports, and if so, to report the facts in rela-
tion thereto, and what action concerning such exclusion, discrimination
or restriction, if any, has been taken by any department of the Gov-
ernment of the United States.
This resolution was amended by adding the words "if not in-
compatible with the public interest" after the word "House" in
the third line. It was passed by the House April 30, 1902.
Shortly afterwards (June 27) Senator E. W. Pettus of Alabama
introduced a resolution in the Senate requesting the President,
"if not incompatible with the public interest, to inform the Senate
as to the attitude of the Russian Government toward American
citizens attempting to enter its territory with American passports."
This was also passed by the Senate, but the reply was given to
the House before the Senate Resolution was introduced. The
essence of the letter to the House, written by Secretary of State
John Hay (1838-1905), dated May 2, 1902, that American Jews
are not at a greater disadvantage before that Government than
are the Jews of other countries; that the exclusion of naturalized
citizens of Russian origin was explained by Secretary Olney
in his report to the President in 1896 as due to circumstances
under which a "conflict between national laws, each absolute
within its domestic sphere and inoperative beyond it, is hardly to
be averted"; that the effort to secure uniform treatment for
American citizens in Russia, begun many years ago, had con-
tinued, although it had not been attended with encouraging
success; and that the Department of State send to all persons
Final Abrogation of the Treaty. 317
of Russian birth who received passports an unofficial notice show-
ing what were the provisions of Russian law liable to affect them,
in order that they might not incur danger through ignorance.
The subject has been treated officially and semi-officially in
A'arious manners since that time, but practically without results.
It came up .'•everal times in Congress, and was ably discussed
by Jewish representatives and. their friendly colleagues, hardly a
voice ever being raised in defence of the Russian Government.
There were new resolutions by Judge Goldfogle, whO' was now
recognized as the Jewish Representative in Congress ; new cor-
respondence between the State Department and the American
Ambassador in St. Petersburg; a personal letter from President
Theodore Roosevelt to Count Witte (who came to the United
States to negotiate a treaty of peace with Japan in 1905), in
which that jMuscovite statesman was begged "to consider the
question of granting passports to reputable American citizens of
the Jewish faith," and a letter from Secretary of State Elihu Root
(b. 1845; now a Senator from New York) to Mr. Jacob H.
Schiff in October, 1908, telling him that the Administration "has
urged the making of a new treaty for the purpose of regulating
the subject." It was the subject of a notable address delivered
by the well known attorney and communal worker, Louis Mar-
shall (b. in Syracuse, N. Y., 1856), at the convention of the
Union of American Hebrew Congregations which was held in
New York in January, 191 1, and was afterward brought before
President William H. Taft (b. 1857) by a delegation which was
appointed by that convention. Public men in various parts of the
country became interested in the question. They were encouraged
by an almost unanimous public press to stand up for the rights of
American Citizenship, regardless of creed, and the movement be-
came well-nigh irresistible. Numerous State Legislatures adopted
resolutions favoring the abrogation of the treaty unless tlie
American passport be fully recognized as conferring the right of
domicile in all parts of the Russian Empire. Congress was
flooded with resolutions which were adopted by Jewish organ-
318 History of the Jews in America.
izations all over the country, and many meetings were held to
express the public indignation, as well as the dissatisfaction with
the Government's dilatoriness in obtaining justice for its Jewish
citizens. The most imposing meetings were held under the aus-
pices of the National Citizens' League, a newly formed organiza-
tion, composed mostly of prominent non-Jews, of which Andrew
D. White became the chairman.
In December, 191 1, the resolution for the abrogating of the
treaty, which was introduced in the House of Representatives
by William Sulzer, of New York, was adopted with practical
unanimity. But President Taft had anticipated this action by the
instructions which he gave several days before to the American
Ambassador in St. Petersburg, to serve formal notice on Russia
that the Treaty of 1832 would be abrogated on December 31,
1912, i. e., after one full year shall have elapsed after the notice
of abrogation, as it is provided by the terms of the agreement
itself. Both houses of Congress soon afterwards approved the
President's act without a dissenting vote, and the battle was won,
as far as the American side of it was concerned. But the work
of negotiating and concluding a new treaty was perforce left to
the slow procedure of diplomacy, which is doubly slow when a
government, like the Russian, which is so unwilling to recognize
the rights of Jews, is one of the contracting parties.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
LEGISLATION ABOUT IMMIGRATION. SUNDAY LAWS AND THEIR
ENFORCEMENT.
Jewish interest in immigration — The first legislation on the subject — ■
The Nativists or "Know Nothings" — A Congressional investiga-
tion in 1838 — President Taylor's invitation to foreigners to come
and settle here — A law to encourage immigration passed on Lin-
coln's recommendation in 1864 — The General Immigration Law of 1882
— The "Ford Committee" — Permanent Immigration Committees
in Congress — Continued agitation and legislation on the subject — •
A bill containing the reciuirement of an educational test is vetoed
by President Grover Cleveland in 1897 — The last Immigration Law
of 1907 — The Immigration Commission of 1907 and its report in
1910 — Sunday Laws and their significance for the Orthodox Jew —
Laws of various States and Territories — Their effect on movements
for municipal reform — Status of the problems.
The question of immigration, or rather of its restriction, was
always of great interest to the Jews, not only because they are
great wanderers and many of them are looking for a home, but
also because to the many who came from countries where they
were persecuted or from which they were exiled, exclusion meant
a much more serious matter than to those who had a home to go
back to. The immigrants of the second period, from 18 15 to
1880, were more fortunate in this respect than those who came
very early and were harrassed by frank discrimination against
them as Jews, as was related in earlier parts of this work; and
also more than the later arrivals, many of whom were excluded
as undesirable, along with the defective and helpless of other
races and nationalities. From the time of the establishment of
319
320 History of the Jews in America.
the Government of the United States until about 1835, immigra-
tion was taken as a matter of course ; the only legislation enacted,
and practically all that was proposed, was the law of 18 19 for
the regulation of the carriage of steerage passengers at sea, which
law also for the first time provided that statistics relative to im-
migration to the United States be recorded.
The second period, from 1835 to i860, is sharply defined by
the so-called "Native American" and "Know Nothing" move-
ments, which, as is well known, were largely based on the opposi-
tion to the immigration of Catholics/ The hostility early took
the form of a political movement, and in 1835 there was a Na-
tivist candidate for Congress in New York City, where that party
nominated a candidate for mayor in the following year. It spread
over various states, and in 1845, when it held its first national con-
vention in Philadelphia, it had six Representatives in Congress
from New York and two from Pennsylvania. The chief demands
of this convention were a repeal of the naturalization laws and
the appointments of native Americans only to ofifice.
While these societies were stronger in local politics than in
national, their few Representatives in Congress attempted to make
Nativism a national question. As a result of their efforts, the
United States Senate in 1836 agreed to a resolution directing the
-Secretary of State to collect certain information respecting the
immigration of foreign paupers and criminals. In the House of
Representatives on February 19, 1838, a resolution was agreed
to which provided that the Committee on Judiciary be instructed
to consider the expediency of revising the naturalization laws
so as to require a longer term of residence in the United States,
and also to consider the propriety and expediency of providing
by law against the introduction into the United States of vaga-
bonds and paupers deported from foreign countries. This reso-
lution was referred to a select committee of seven members, and
^ See Abstract of the Report on Federal Immigration Legislation
by the Immigration Commission, issued by the Government, Wash-
ington, 1911.
The Immigration Question. 321
its report (House Report No. 1040, 25th Congress, 2d session)
was the first resulting from a Congressional investigation of any
question bearing upon immigration. It proposed a system of
consular inspection, and there was even talk of a tax of $20 to
be paid by the immigrant upon his receipt of a passport from the
consul. The bill presented on recommendation of the committee
provided heavy penalties for any master taking on board his ves-
sel with the intention of transporting to the United States any
alien passenger who was an idiot, lunatic, maniac or one afflicted
with any incurable disease, or any one convicted of an infamous
crime; it was further provided that the master should forfeit
$1,000 for any alien brought in who had not the ability to main-
tain himself.
Congress did not even consider this bill, and during the next
ten years little attempt was made to secure legislation against the
foreigner.
In a message to Congress on June i, 1841, President John
Tyler ( 1813-62) referred to immigration, in part, as follows :
We hold out to the people of other countries an invitation to come
and settle among us as members of our rapidly growing family; and
tor the blessing which we ofifer them, we reciuire of them to look upon
our country as their country, and unite with us in the great task of
preserving our institutions and thereby perpetuating our liberties.
As a consequence of the increase of immigration about the
middle of the nineteenth century, the old dread of the foreigner
was revived, and in the early fifties the Nativist politicians again
became active. The new, like the earlier movement, was closely
associated with the anti-Catholic propaganda. The new organ-
ization assumed the form of a secret society. It was organized
probably, in 1850, in New York City, and in 1852 it was in-
creased in membership by drawing largely from the old estab-
lished Order of United Americans. Its meetings were secret, its
indorsements were never made openly, and even its name and pur-
pose were said to be known only to those who reached the highest
degree. Consequently the rank and file, when questioned about
322 History of the Jews in America.
their party, were obliged to answer: "I don't know"; so they
came to be called "Know Nothings." They participated in local,
State and even in national elections, and claimed as many as
forty-three Representatives and five Senators in the Thirty-fourth
Congress. But in the end they disappeared without having
accomplished anything against immigration, adopted citizens, or
Catholics, and, as a matter of fact, some legislation favorable to
foreigners was passed during these periods of agitation. The
passenger law of 1819 was amended in 1847, ^^^d again in 184S,
in order to improve the condition of the steerage of imanigrant
ships. The act organizing the Territories of Nebraska and Kan-
sas, passed in 1854, was also favorable to foreigners, it being
provided that the right of suffrage in such Territories should be
exercised by those declaring their intentions to become citizens
and taking an oath to support the Constitution of the United
States and the provisions of the act. During the discussion of
the homestead act in 1854, which act, however, was not finally
passed until 1862, there was considerable reference to immigrants
and to whether they should be allowed to enjoy the advantages of
the act. The "Know Nothings" proposed to strike out the sec-
tion of the bill permitting the granting of land to foreigners who
had filed their intention of becoming citizens; but the attempt
failed.
Although the National Government did not assume control of
immigration until 1882, Congress in 1864, on the recommenda-
tion of President Lincoln, passed a law to encourage immigration.
It provided for a Commissioner of Immigration, to be under the
direction of the Department of State, and that all contracts that
should be made in foreign countries by emigrants to the United
States, whereby emigrants pledged the wages of their labor for
a term not exceeding twelve months to repay the expense of
emigration, should be held to be valid in law and might be en-
forced in the courts of the United States or by the several States
and Territories, and that no such contract could in any way be
considered as creating a condition of slavery or servitude. Fol-
Encouragement and Discouragement. 323
lowing the enactment of the law several companies were es-
tablished to deal in contract labor, but they were not satisfied
with the law and wanted its scope enlarged. This indirectly led
to the abolition of the entire law in 1868, and the brief period of
national encouragement of immigration was over. A campaign
against contracting for foreign labor began soon afterward,
though no legislation to forbid it was enacted until many years
later. A law, enacted in 1875, which provided for the exclusion
of prostitutes, was chiefly designated to regulate Chinese immi-
gration, and thus early touched two subjects with reference to
which the most stringent exclusion laws were to be enacted in the
period of national control over immigration, which was now ap-
proaching.
In 1876 the Supreme Court of the United States declared laws
enacted by several States to regulate and tax immigration to be
unconstitutional, and expressly recommended that Congress
should exercise full authority over immigration. This ultimately
led to the enactment of the first general immigration law, which
was approved by President Chester A. Arthur ( 1830-86) Au-
gust 3, 1882. It provided for a head tax of 50 cents on all aliens
landed at United States ports, the money thus collected to be
used to defray the expenses of regulating immigration and for
the care of immigrants after landing. It also provided that for-
eign convicts, except those convicted for political offences, luna-
tics, idiots and persons likely to become public charges, should not
be permitted to land. Aside from a law forbidding the impor-
tation of contract laborers, adopted in 1885 and strengthened by
supplementary laws in 1887 and 1888, and aside from the laws
about Chinese immigration which do not concern us here, there
was no legislation affecting general immigration for nearly a
decade, though the question was now widely discussed in the press
and there was considerable agitation for further restriction.
In 1888 the House of Representatives authorized, by resolu-
tion, the appointment of a select committee to investigate the
charo-es which wert made that the immigration laws were being
324 History of the Jews in America.
extensively evaded. The committee, known as the "Ford Com-
mittee," in its report more than sustained the charges; it praised
the immigrants of the past and deprecated those who were then
coming; and proposed a new bill which added polygamists, an-
archists and persons afflicted with a loathsome or dangerous con-
tagious disease to the excluded classes. Congress, however, did
not act upon the recommendations of that committee.
In 1889 a Standing Committee on Immigration in the Senate
and a Select Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in
the House were established. In 1890 these committees were au-
thorized jointly to make an inquiry relative to immigration. Va-
rious reports were submitted, and the conclusion was that a
radical change was not advisable, although it had been found that
throughout the country there existed a demand for a stricter en-
forcement of the immigration laws. During 1890 one or more
political parties in twenty-three States had demanded additional
regulation of immigration. Consequently a law strengthening
the existing law in several important details, but making no rad-
ical departure from the former policy, was adopted in 1891.
But the question continued to receive the attention of Congress.
There was another investigation by a joint committee in 1892,
which reported in July of that year, and still another investiga-
tion ordered by the Senate. Two new bills were proposed — one
establishing additional regulations, the other entirely prohibit-
ing immigration for one year, on account of the epidemic of
cholera then prevailing in Europe. But neither this measure,
nor the educational test which was then for the first time recom-
mended by a Congressional committee, was adopted, and the
revised immigration law, which was approved by President Har-
rison March 3, 1893, was by no means radical. The head tax
on immigrants was raised from fifty cents to one dollar by an
amendment to an appropriation act in 1894.
The agitation of the subject in Congress continued, however,
and finally both houses adopted a bill for an educational test, ex-
cluding persons physically capable and over sixteen years of age
President Cleveland's Veto. 325
who could not read and write the English language or some other
language, parents, grandparents, wives and minor children of ad-
missible immigrants being excepted. President Grover Cleve-
land (1837-1908) returned the bill with his veto on March 2,
1897. He objected to the radical departure from the previous
national policy relating to immigration, which welcomed all who
came, the success of which policy was attested by the last cen-
tury's great growth. In referring to the claim that the quality
of recent immigration was undesirable, he said : "The time is
Cjuite within recent memory when the same thing was said of
immigrants who, with their descendants, are now numbered
among our best citizens." In referring to "the best reason that
could be given for this radical restriction," the "protecting of our
population against degeneration and saving our national peace
and quiet from imported turbulence and disorder," President
Cleveland said that he did not think that the nation would be
protected against these evils by limiting immigration to those who
could read and write, for, in his mind, it was safer "tO' admit
a hundred thousand immigrants, who, though unable to read and
write, seek among us only a home and an opportunity to work,
than to admit one of those unruly agitators who can not only
read and write, but delight in arousing by inflammatory speech
the illiterate and peacefully inclined to discontent." Those
classes which we ought to exclude, he claimed, should be legis-
lated against directly. Some sections of the bill against aliens
who come regularly into the United States from neighboring
countries for the purpose of obtaining work, he declared to be
"illiberal, narrow and un-American."
On March 3, 1897, the House passed the bill over the Presi-
dent's veto by a vote of 193 to 37, but no action was taken in the
Senate, and the veto was thus sustained. The same bill was in-
troduced in the following Congress (fifty-fifth) and passed by
the Senate, but the House, by a vote of 103 to loi refused to
consider it.
By an act of June 18, 1898, Congress created an Industrial
326 History of the Jews in America.
Commission "to investigate questions pertaining to immigration,
and to report to Congress and to suggest such legislation as it
may deem best upon these subjects." The final report of this
commission was submitted to Congress in February, 1902, and
shortly afterwards a bill was introduced in the House which was
substantially in accord with the recommendations made. The
House added a literary test to this bill, but it was eliminated by
the Senate, which raised the head tax from one dollar to two.
This was accepted by the House, and the bill, as it was approved
by the President March 3, 1903, made no radical change in the
existing laws. The same may be said of the present immigra-
tion law, which was approved February 20, 1907, which, besides
raising the head tax from two to four dollars and somewhat
strengthening the provisions against the defective or undesirable
classes, made no innovation or departure from the policy of ad-
mitting all who may be expected to be able to provide for them-
selves and to become good citizens. The number as well as the
percentage of those excluded is now considerably larger than in
former years ; but the tide of immigration is not stemmed, and
after the quick recovery from the hard times which began with
the panic of 1907, there is now again a very large influx of immi-
grants, among whom the proportion of Jews is by no means
smaller than in former years.
The act of 1907 also created an Immigration Commission to
"make full inquiry, examination, and investigation, by sub-com-
mittee or otherwise, into the subject of immigration." This com-
mission submitted its report, in forty volumes, in 1910, and rec-
ommended some strong restrictions, with the view that "a suf-
ficient number may be debarred to produce a marked effect upon
the present supply of unskilled labor." It also advised that "as
far as possible the aliens excluded should be those who come to
this country with no intention to become American citizens or
even to maintain a permanent residence here; but merely to save
enough, by the adoption, if necessary, of low standards of liv-
ing, to return permanently to their home country. ... A
The Sunday Question. 327
majority of the Commission favor tiie reading and writing test
as the most feasible single method of restricting undesirable immi-
gration." Congress has not acted on these recommendations at
the time of this writing (1911).
The question of enforced rest on Sunday is much older than
the question of regulating immigration. Several States have Sun-
day laws which were in their original form enacted in the eight-
eenth century. In the Carolinas these laws have been but little
changed since Colonial times. But the reviews of these laws in
the various States and Territories, their effect on the Jews, and
the leading cases under them in various times and places, give no
adequate idea of their significance for the Orthodox immigrant
of the later period. What our best authority on the subject,
Albert j\I. Friedenberg,^ could collect and collate, contains only
a record of such cases which originated in, or were carried up to,
higher courts of record. These are usually lawsuits which af-
fected men of means, who could hire attorneys and fight the ques-
tion as a matter of principle. But these recorded cases give no
indication of the tens of thousands of arrests which were inade
in the large cities, especially in New York City, in the last years,
where the cases never went higher than the first instance, be-
cause the poor man, if he was not discharged in the Police Court,
had to pay his fine or be imprisoned. Appeals to higher courts
and insistence upon constitutional or statutory rights are out of
the question, not only on account of poverty or ignorance, but
also because of familiarity with such procedure in the Old World.
The Sunday laws are not constantly enforced in the same man-
ner, there being periods of severity and periods of lenience even
under the same local administration, and often a complete change
' See his The Jews and the American Sunday Laws in "Publications,"
XI, pp. 101-15 (also note ibid., XII, pp. 171-73), and his Sunday Lazvs
in the United States and Leading Judicial Decisions LJaving Special
Reference to the Jews in The yVmerican Jewish Year Book for 5669,
pp. 152-89.
328 History of the Jews in America.
of policy under a. new administration, though the statute or State
lavv' remains the same. The Jew of Russia or Roumania has been
too well accustomed to intermittent police tyranny for the pur-
pose of extortion at home, to be able to interpret the frequent
changes in administrative policy or in police regulations here in
any other way, and this also tends to discourage appeals to higher
courts. The question ought to be investigated not juristically
but statistically ; the number of arrests made, the loss of time and
money sustained by those who are charged with transgressing
these laws, and the contrast in the enforcement of them at various
period-s : if such facts and figures were placed before the American
people and before legislators, the attitude of many in regard to
Sunday laws would probably be changed. But the figures are
not available in a form to be used in a work like the present, and
only the hope can be expressed here that they will be collected in
the near future by one of the agencies which gather data of that
kind relating to Jewish subjects.
There is no Federal Sunday Law, although the distillation of
spirituous liquors on the first day of the week is prohibited. Cali-
fornia only prohibits labor by any employee on more than six
days out of every seven, but not specifying any compulsory day
of rest. In Colorado only trafficking in liquors and barbering
are prohibited on Sunday and in Montana there is a law against
barbering only.
In most of the other States, as well as in the Territories and in
the District of Columbia (which is also counted as a Territory),
there are more or less stringent laws, most of them forbidding
not only manual labor but also the carrying on of trade or busi-
ness. There are eleven States — Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Min-
nesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, South Da-
kota, Texas and Virginia — where servile or manual labor is per-
mitted on Sunday to those who observe Saturday as their day of
rest. In thirteen more — Connecticut, : Incliana, Iowa, Kentucky,
Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Rhode Island, West Virginia and Wisconsin — the exceptions
Sunday Laws and Reform. 329
in favor of Seventh-Day Sabbatarians affect both manual
labor and trade or business. But the statute is not al\va3's a
criterion of the observance or enforcement of Sunda}' laws in a
certain locality. Some of the laws, like that of New York, de-
cree that "it is a sufficient defense to a prosecution for work on
the first day of the week, that the defendant uniformly keeps
another day of the week as holy time, and does not labor on
that day, and that the labor complained of was done in such man-
ner as not to interrupt or disturb other persons in observing the
first day of the week as holy time." In many localities, especially
in large cities, the Sunday laws are simply obsolete, and are usually
revi\'ed in the name of Reform after the success of a Reform
Party at the polls, only to become obsolete again when that party
is voted out of office at the succeeding election. The defeat
usually comes for no other reason than the dissatisfaction of a
large number of citizens with the strict enforcement of the Sun-
day laws. Jews are by no means the only element of the popu-
lation which resents stringency in these matters. It may be said
that the coupling together of strict enforcement of the Sunday
laws with the good government movements in the large cities
has been a greater drawback to municipal reform in the United
States than any other single cause.
Of all these three problems which are of special interest to the
Jews of the United States, the first, or the passport question, seems
at the present moment to be nearest to solution. The immigration
Cjuestion is certain ,to remain open for many years to come, as
neither side of the conflicting interests who work against each
other is likely to yield in the near future. The trade unions, which
see in the immigrant a me-aace to the highly-paid laborer, and
the so-called patriotic societies, which fear a deterioration of the
American race or stock by the admixture of people from nation-
alities and races which they consider to be inferior, keep up s
constant agitation for more restrictive measures against the in-
flux of strangers. On the other hand, there is a constantly in-
creasing demand for workmen in the expanding industries, for
330 History of the Jews in America.
farm laborers and for domestic servants, and the million or more
immigrants who now arrive in a year of ordinary business ac-
tivity are so easily absorbed that their usefulness cannot be
denied. While the adoption of some restrictive legislation may
be forced on Congress by the pressure of those who agitate for
it, real restriction seems to be out of the question before the coun-
try is filled up and built up ; and this will take so long a time that
all speculations as to what may happen afterwards are at present
premature.
There is hardly any agitation for or against the Sunday laws,
as such. New and mostly restrictive measures are adopted, either
against the liquor business as a concession to the Prohibition ele-
ment, which is backed by the churches ; or against single trades,
like those of butchers or barbers, as a concession to the senti-
ment in favor of overworked laborers. The time for abolishing
the Sunday laws or for adopting explicit exemptions in favor of
Jews, making the observance of Saturday not a defense against
prosecution but a security against molestation, has not yet
arrived; but the sense of justice and righteousness is unmistak-
ably growing, and there is no doubt of the ultimate triumph of
liberal tendencies over this heritage of intolerant ages, when no-
body considered himself bound to respect the rights, especially the
religious rights, of helpless minorities.
CHAPTER XXXV.
END OF THE CENTURY. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. THE
DREYFUS AFFAIR. ZIONISM.
Jews in the Spanish-American war — Commissioned and non-commis-
sioned officers, privates and "Rough Riders" — Jews in the Navy:
Simon Cook, Joseph Strauss and Edward David Taussig — The ca-
reer of Rear-Admiral Adolph Marix — His part in the Inquiry about
the "Maine" and in the war — The significance of the Dreyfus Af-
fair — Its influence on the spread of Zionism — The American press
almost as pro-Dreyfus as the Jewish — The Zionist movement in
America — The rank and file consists of immigrants from Slavic
countries, under the leadership of Americans.
In the short war between the United States and Spain in 1898,
in which the most progressive and Hberal of modern nations was
pitted against a nation whose greatness began to wane soon after
it expelled the Jews in the year of the discovery of America, a
large number of Jews enlisted as volunteers, besides the number
who were in the regular service of the Army and the Navy. It
is roughly estimated that about four thousand Jews were found
in the military and naval forces which operated against Spain'^
most of them immigrants of the last period, of whom a consid-
erable proportion had served in the armies of Russia, Austria
and Ronmania before their arrival here. The Jewish army of-
ficers of the highest rank were four Majors, who were officers
in the army before the outbreak of the war. They were : Major
' See Preliminary list of Jeivish Soldiers and Sailors who served in
the Spanish- American War in The .American Jewish Year Book for
S66i, pp. 525-622.
331
332 History of the Jews in America.
Surgeon Daniel M. Appel (b. in Pennsylvania, 1854) and Major
Surgeon Aaron H. Appel ( b. 1856), both of whom are now
colonels in the Medical Corps of the regular army; the third
was Major (of volunteers) George \V Moses, a native of Ohio,
who graduated from the Military Academy of West Point in
1892, and was a Lieutenant in the 3rd Cavalry Regiment when
he was assigned to duty as a major of volunteers and returned
to the regular service in 1899; the fourth was Major Felix
Rosenberg of Cleveland, O., who was stationed at Fort Tho"n3.
There were also in the army about a half dozen Captains, one
of whom, Moses G. Zalinski (b. in New York, 1863), a grad-
uate of the Artillery School (1894), is now a Lieutenant-Colonel
in the regular army. There were also about a dozen Lieutenants,
most of whom graduated from the Military Academy of West
Point.
Several hundred Jews served as non-commissioned of-
ficers and privates in the regular army, or enlisted as United
States Volunteers. The bulk of the Jewish soldiers, however,
served in the regiments of State Volunteers, and were repre-
sented among the soldiers of every State of the Union, having
among them a goodly proportion of non-commissioned officers,
and also a number who held commissions from the State organ-
izations. They were naturally represented in largest numbers in
the regiments or companies which were organized in the large
cities; some companies in New York regiments containing be-
tween twenty-five and thirty Jewish recruits. At least a half
dozen Jews are known to have served in the First United States
Volunteer Cavalry Regiment (known as the regiment of "Rough
Riders"), which was organized by Theodore Roosevelt (b. in
New York City, 1858), who later served as President of the
United States, from September 14, 1901, to March 4, 1905, as
the successor of President William McKinley (1843-1901), and
then ser\'ed a full term (^larch 4, 1905, to March 4, 1909), until
he was succeeded by the present incumbent, William Howard
Taft (b. in Cincinnati, O., 1857).
The Spanish-American War. 333
There were about twenty Jewish officers of various ranks in
the iVav)' during this war, and ahnost all of them were grad-
uates from the United States Naval Academy of Annapolis, Md.
One of them, Simon Cook (b. in Illinois, 1856; d. in St. Louis,
J\Io., 1907), who was appointed to Annapolis from the old Third
Congressional District of Missouri in 1873 and graduated in
1877, served with distinction in the Philippines; and a disease
which he contracted there forced his retirement, with the rank
of Commander, before he reached the age limit of retirement.
Another Jewish officer of the Navy during the war, Lieutenant
Joseph Strauss, is still in the active service with the rank of Com-
mander (which is equivalent to the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel
in the Army). A third officer of Jewish descent attained to a
higher rank. Edward David Taussig (b. in St. Louis, 1847) en-
tered the Naval Academy in 1863 and graduated in 1867, and
was a Lieutenant-Commander (since 1892) at the time of the
outbreak of the war. He served on the Pacific and European
Stations and in the coast survey until 1893, when he was made
commander of the "Bennington." He took possession of AVake
Island (Oceanica) for the Lhiited States, and was placed in
charge of Guam when that island was ceded by Spain on Feb-
ruary I. 1899. In iqC2 he became a Captain (which is equal
to the rank of Colonel in the Army) ; in 1903 he was appointed
commander of the Navy Yard at Pensacola, Fla. He was re-
tired with the rank of Rear-Admiral (the equivalent of Brigadier-
General) in 1909.
The most conspicuous part played by a Jew in the events which
led to the war with Spain, if not in the war itself, fell to the lot
of Lieutenant-Commander (now Rear-Admiral, retired) Adolph
Marix (b. in Germany, probably of Russian parents, 1848), who
came to America in his boyhood, and entered the Naval Academy
in 1864, graduating four years later. He advanced step by step,
becoming an ensign in 1869, a master in 1870, a lieutenant in
1872, after which he was assigned to special ser\'ice in the Jndge
.Advocate-General's office, where he gained valuable experience
334 History of the Jews in America.
and became an expert in naval and maritime law. In 1893 he
was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-Commander, and in Sep-
tember, 1895, he was transferred from the command of the re-
ceiving ship "Minnesota" to be the first commander of the ill-
fated battleship "Maine," which was then put in commission. He
was transferred to the "Scorpion" in January, 1898, several
weeks before the "Maine" arrived in the harbor of Havana, where
she was destroyed by an explosion on February 15 of the same
year.
Lieutenant-Commander Marix was chosen secretary or recor-
der of the Court of Lnquiry which investigated the blowing up of
the "Maine," and he prepared the report, which was one of the
contributing causes of the war. He himself laid the ominous
document before President McKinley on March 26, 1898, and
soon returned to engage in the war which was to terminate Span-
ish dominion in the New World. In the same month he was ad-
vanced to the rank of Commander and was later advanced, by
act of Congress, two numbers for "eminent and conspicuous con-
duct in battle in two engagements at Manzanillo (Cuba), July i
and July 18, 1898. When President Taft was Governor-General
of the Philippines, Commander Marix was a naval attache in the
islands. He later rose to the rank of Rear-Admiral, and having
attained the age-limit (62), he was retired in April, 1910, after
forty-six years of service. He now resides in New York City.
By the time the Spanish War was over and Spain was stripped
of the last vestige of advantage which she gained by the discov-
ery of America, the attention of the civilized world was concen-
trated on the celebrated Dreyfus Case. The last desperate effort
of the forces of reaction to foist an anti-Jewish policy on a great
progressive nation served only to prove in the end that the world
has advanced beyond such tactics, and that the voice of Justice
cannot be stifled in a civilized community, where the people ulti-
mately decide all-important questions. Not only was France
shaken to its foundations and the existence of the Government
The Dreyfus Affair and Zionism. 335
itself endangered on account of the grievous wrong whicli
was done to the Jewish army officer, but the pntire civilized world
was aroused by the incident as it probably never was before by
the fate of one insignificant individual. It was the first and only
attempt of a real "Judenhetze" in a modern free country, and so
much depended on the outcome, that not only the Jews every-
where were intensely interested, but also their friends and their
enemies felt the full importance of the "affaire" and the bearing
which the issue must have on Jewish conditions everywhere. Had
anti-Semitism triumphed in France, it would mean that even
political liberty, universal suffrage and government by the people
could not solve the Jewish problem ; that Western Culture could
not effect the true emancipation which was expected of it, and that
other means than those suggested by the principles of the great
liberal movement of the last century — adjustment to surround-
ings, adoption of the speech and mode of life of the nations
among whom they live — must be sought to deliver Israel from his
ancient suffering even in the most highly civilized countries.
Fortunately for France, for civilization and for the Jews, anti-
Semitism was utterly defeated in the open political combat for
the first time in modern histor}^ The barrier erected by Liberty
proved sufficiently strong to stem the tide of raging injustice;
the very excitement caused by the wrong was the best warning
against the danger which the revival of medieval bigotry brings
to an enlightened country. Persecution and discrimination were
again forced back and confined to the more shady corners of
the earth, to the countries where the masses of the people are
still oppressed by tyranny and handicapped by ignorance. It
was in these countries that the Dreyfus agitation was seized
upon by the enemies of the Jews and explo'ted to the umost
extent, and it was there that many Jews began to despair.
If France could become anti-Semitic at the end of the nineteenth
century, what hope was there for the Jew in the backward
countries, in political progress and cultural development? The
full force of the victory over the French leactionaries was
336 History of the Jews in America.
known and felt only in the free countries; elsewhere the im-
pression remained that the Jews of France remained in a lament-
able position, and that the future looked as gloomy to them as is
usually the case in Russia after a new outbreak of anti-Jewish
riots.
The result of this new hopeless view of the Jewish situation
was the sudden spread of the new Zionist movement, which was
maugurated about that time on the Continent by Dr. Theodore
Herzl (1860-1904). He and his first supporters were Austrians,
they obtained their largest following in Russia and Galicia, and
in the large cities in other countries where there were num-
bers of Jewish Immigrants from slavic countries. When the
movement began to show signs of life in the English speak-
ing countries, native or assimilated Jews joined it and became
its leaders. And so it came to pass that although the Ameri-
can press, with few and unimportant exceptions, was as strongly
pro-Dreyfus as the Jewish press itself, and the victory of Justice
and liberalism was as much emphasized here as in Paris, a
limited field was prepared here for the Zionist movement, as well
as in Russia, Austria and Roumania. The old "Chowewe Zion,"
or believers in the colonization of Palestine, joined the new polit-
ical mox'ement here, as they did abroad, and the "Maskilim," or
Germanized Hebrew scholars, who were forced to the back-
ground by the advent of the popular radical leaders of the new
period of immigration, were also attracted by the new move-
ment which helped to restore the equilibrium among the intellect-
ual Jewish classes. The first Zionist societies of New York con-
sisted almost entirely of immigrants. But when the "Federa-
tion of Zionist Societies of Greater New York and Vicinity"
(organized 1897) expanded by absorbing societies outside of
New York, and became, at a convention held in New York
in July, 1898, the "Federation of American Zionists," Ameri-
can Jews were placed at the head of the movement.
Professor Richard J. H. Gottheil was elected President of the
Federation, and held the position for six years, when he was
Zionism in America. 337
succeeded, in 1904, by Dr. Harry Friedenwald (b. in Balti-
more, 1864), whose father. Dr. Aaron Friedenwald (b. in Bal-
timore, 1836; d. there 1902), was one of the first Vice-Presi-
dents of the Federation. The first Secretary was Rev. Stephen
S. Wise (b. in Budapest, Hungary, 1872), who was brought to
this country in his childhood, and is now the minister of the Free
Synagogue in New York. His successors were Isidore D. Mor-
rison, Jacob de Haas, Rev. Dr. Judah L. Magnes (b. in San
Francisco, Cal., 1877) and Miss Henrietta Szold. The Fed-
eration consisted of about twenty-five societies, having a mem-
bership of about one thousand when it was first organized. At
the Thirteenth Annual Convention, which was held in Pittsburg
in July, 191 o, it was reported that the number of societies was
215, and of Shekel payers 14,000.
The Order Knights of Zion, which has its headquarters in
Chicago, is considered as an independent Western Federation of
Zionists.
PART VII.
THE TWENTIETH CENTUEY. PRESENT
CONDITIONS.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
SYNAGOGUES AND INSTITUTIONS. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA. ROU-
MANIA AND THE ROUMANIAN NOTE.
Synagogues and other Jewish Institutions — General improvement and
moderation — The Jewish Encyclopedia — Its editors and contribu-
tors — The Roumanian situation and the American Government's in-
terest in it since 1867 — Benjamin F. Peixotto, United States Consul-
General in Bucharest — Diplomatic correspondence between Kasson
and Evarts — New negotiations with Roumania in 1902 — The Rou-
manian Note to the signatories of the Berlin Treaty — The question
still in abeyance.
More than six hundred thousand Jews arrived in the United
States from the beginning of the new exodus in 1881 until the
c-nd of the nineteenth century, and the total number in the coun-
try was now considerably more than one million. There were
Jews in more than five hundred places, and there were 791 congre-
gations, 415 educational and nearly five hundred charitable in-
stitutions of a distinctly Jewish character, according to an enum-
eration made in the beginning of the new century.^ But the
number of congregations or synagogues was very much larger,
probably more than double than the figures gathered by the enum-
' American-Jewish Year Book for 5661 (1900-1901).
338
Improvement and Moderation. 339
erators. For the American, even the American Jew, had then
not 3'et learned to take seriously those small and exceedingl)' un-
churchlike synagogues of the small congregations, of which five
or six, or even a larger number, can sometimes be found in one
block in a thickly settled Jewish neighborhood in the great cities.
A second and more thorough enumeration made in 1907 gave
to New York City alone a number of synagogues almost as large
as the one given by the statistics of 1900 to the entire country;
but the actual increase was very far from such proportions. Prob-
ably four-fifths of the congregations of New York and of the
other great Jewish centers in the East and the Middle West were
more than ten years old, and they simply escaped the notice of
former enumerators. The organizing of small synagogues is now
out of fashion ; the tendency is to consolidate the smaller ones and
to erect more fashionable and spacious buildings in the newest
neighborhoods, to which the immigrants usually move after they
leave their earliest abode in the tenement house districts. In the
fields of charity and education the. predilection for new organiza-
tions is disappearing, and there is a desire to build on more solid
foundations, and to improve and strengthen rather than form
anew. New synagogues are now built usually in new communi-
ties or in new Jewish neighborhoods, or by old congregations
who need a larger edifice.
America now had the largest community of free Jews in the
world, i. e., of Jews who labored under no special disadvantages
and who had no special difficulties, like those which are making
life a burden to the Jews of Russia or Galicia. The great masses
which arrived in the last twenty years progressed rapidly and
were becoming Americanized in every respect. There arose new
intellectual needs; the extremists had to yield to the influence of
those who were more acclim.atized, and even the most radical
periodicals began to respect the susceptibilities, if not the opin-
ions, of the other classes. The number of the educated and the
well-to-do was fast increasing, and the community was now well
prepared for "the capital event in the history of Jewish learning
in America" — the publication of the Jcivish Encyclopedia.
340 History of the Jews in America.
This monumental work, the greatest Jewish work of reference
in any language, was projected by Dr. Isidore Singer (b. in
Weisskirchen, Moravia, 1859; a. 1895) and edited by a board
of well-known scholars, of whom Dr. Isaac Funk (b. in Clinton,
O., 1839 ; d. 1912 ; of the firm of Funk and Wagnalls, which pub-
lished the work) was chairman, and Frank H. Vizitelly (b. in
London, Eng., 1864) secretary. The original editors were:
Cyrus Adler, Gotthard Deutsch (b. in Kanitz; Austria, 1859; a.
1891), Professor of History at the Hebrew Union College; Louis
Ginzberg (b. in Kovno, Russia, 1873; a. 1899), now Professor
of Talmud at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in
New York; Richard Gottheil; Joseph Jacobs (b. in Sydney, N.
S. W., 1854; a. 1900), the folklorist and statistician; Marcus Jas-
trow; Morris Jastrow, Jr.; Kaufman Kohler; Frederick de Sola
Mendes (b. in Jamaica, W. I., 1850; a. 1873), rabbi of the West
End Synagogue of New York ; Isidor Singer, and Crawford H.
Toy (b. in Norfolk, Va., 1836), Professor (now "emeritus") of
Hebrew and Oriental Languages at Harvard University. This
editorial board was given on the title page of the first volume
which appeared in May, 1901 ; but several changes were made dur-
ing the five years of its publication. From the beginning of the
second volume Herman Rosenthal became editor of the new De-
partment of the Jews of Russia and Poland, and it is due tohis
efforts that the Jews of the Slavic countries are more extensively
treated in the historical and biographical parts of the Encyclo-
pedia than was ever the case in works of Jewish science which
appeared outside of Russia. Dr. Emil G. Hirsch of Chicago suc-
ceeded Morris Jastrow as editor of the Department of the Bible,
with the beginning of the third volume. From the fourth till the
seventh volume the name of Solomon Schechter (b. in Fokshan,
Roumania, 1847; a. 1902), the President of the Jewish Theolog-
ical Seminary, appears as editor of the Department of the Tal-
mud ; and from the eighth volume to the end the name of Wil-
helm Bacher of Budapest (b. in Hungary 1850) appears as editoi"
of the Department of the Talmud and Rabbinical Literature,
succeeding both Schechter and Ginzberg. The editorial board
Prof. Gotthard Deutsch.
Immigration from Roumania. 343
was assisted by boards of American and foreign consulting edi-
tors, whicli included many of the best known Jewisli scholars and
Orientalists, and many other scholars from various countries
were among the four hundred contributors who participated in
the preparation of the work, in which the vast "Record of the
History, Religion, Literature and Customs of the Jewish People
from the earliest times to the present day" was for the first time
systematized, classified and made available in a modern scientific
manner.
'f 'f* 'I* 'P 'K
The situation of the Jews in Roumania had been growing worse
since the financial crisis of 1899, and in the last year of the cen-
tury there was a stampede of Jews from that country, some of
them walking hundreds of miles before they could find a place to
rest or until they reached a port from which they could embark
for England or America. Still, neither the Jewish immigration
in general nor the immigration from Roumania could give the
slightest cause for uneasiness to the government of the United
States, the tide of ir::migration was now again rising from the
lowest ebb it had reached since 1879 — 229,295 in 1898 — and
neither the 5,613 Roumanian Jews who arrived at the port of
New York in 1901 nor the 6,395 ^^''o came in 1902, when the
general immigration was 487,918 and 648,743, respectively, could
be taken seriously as a cause for interference or protest. There
would have been much more cause for protests of that nature af-
ter the great massacres in Russia several years later, when the
number of Jews who arrived in one year (1906) exceeded
150,000. The interest that the Government of the United States
took in the Roumanian situation is therefore believed to have been
due principally to the friendly attitude of President Theodore
Roosevelt and Secretary of State John Hay towards Jews in
general.
It was, however, nothing new for the American Government
to use its good offices in behalf of the persecuted Jews of Ron-
mania. As early as 1867, Secretary of State Seward corre-
344 History of the Jews in America.
sponded with Mr. Morris, the American Minister to Constanti-
nople, about tlie persecutions of that year; and the latter reported
having told Mr. Golesco, the agent of the Danubian princi-
palities, that the sufferings of the Jews there "has all the ap-
pearance of religious persecution, and that the confidence of the
Government of the United States would be impaired in the Gov-
ernment of Bucharest, unless the proscriptive measures against
the Jews discontinued."^
In 1870 official — or it would perhaps be more correct to call
it semi-official — relations with Roumania were established tem-
porarily, by the appointment of a consul-general of the United
States in Roumania. The man chosen by President Grant for
this position was a prominent Jewish attorney-at-law, Benjamin
Franklin Peixotto (b. in New York, 1834; d. there 1890), who
later served as United States Consul at Lyons, France (1877-85),
and when he returned to New York founded (1886) the " Me-
norah," a monthly Jewish magazine which existed for more than
two decades. The Jewish official became an intimate friend of
Prince (now King) Charles, but Roumania continued on its old
way, and the riots of Ismail and Bessarabia occurred during Peix-
otto's stay in Bucharest. "His reports to the United States Gov-
ernment resulted in that government addressing letters to its min-
isters at the various European courts inviting co-operation in the
humane endeavor to stop Jewish persecution in Roumania. Peix-
otto's reports were also the cause of a great meeting at the Man-
sion House in London, which called forth Lord Shaftesbury's
message of sympathy. Peixotto was instrumental, too, in found-
ing the Society of Zion in Roumania, an organization with simi-
lar aims to the B'nai B'rith ; and it was his influence as a United
States official, his intimacy with the European philanthropists
and the force of his own personal magnetism that finally caused
the calling of the conference of Brussels, to which he was a dele-
gate, and which culminated in the action taken by the Berlin
* See Adler, Jeix.'s in American Diplomatic Correspondence, "Publica-
tions" XV, pp. 48-73.
Peixotto, Evarts and Kasson. 345
Congress of 1878, when Roumania acquired the status of a sov-
ereign kingdom, only upon the express condition that the civil
and political rights of the Jews should be recognized." (E. A.
Cardozo, in Encyclopedia IX, p. 582, s. v. Peixotto.)
Peixotto remained in Roumania six years, and about two years
after he left Bucharest, Mr. John A. Kasson, the American Minis-
ter to Austria, wrote to Secretary of State Evarts (under date of
June 5, 1878) that in anticipation of Roumanian independence,
which was soon to be granted by the Congress of Berlin, Ger-
many, had begun negotiations with the Roumanian Government
for a commercial treaty. But Germany finally dropped the nego-
tiations because, "according to information received here, the
hostility of Roumania to the recognition of equal rights for Jews
of a foreign nationality with other citizens or subjects of the same
nationality would have practically proscribed a portion of the
German subjects." Yet Mr. Kasson proposes in the same let-
ter that : "It would be to the honor of the United States Govern-
ment if it could initiate a plan by which at once the condition of
American Hebrews resident or travelling in Roumania and the
condition of natives of the same race could be ameliorated and
their equality before the law at least partially assured." In the
following year Mr. Kasson reports about the attempt to enter
into diplomatic relations with Roumania, and about a conversa-
tion he had with Mr. Balatshano, the envoy and minister of Rou-
mania to Austria, in the course of which allusion was made to the
preliminary requirements of the Berlin treaty in respect to the
Jews. According to the letter (dated February 16, 1879), the
representative of Roumania replied "that the necessary changes
would be made in their laws to give satisfaction on this point,
and to establish for the Jews the basis of absolute equality with
other races." On November 28, 1879, Secretary Evarts writes
to Mr. Kasson:
"In connection with the subject of Roumanian recognition, I inclose
for your consideration the copy of a letter under date of the 30th ultimo
from Mr. Myer S. Isaacs, president, and other officers of tne board of
346 History of the Jews in America.
delegates on civil and religious rights of the Hebrews, asking that the
Government of the United States may exert its influence towards secur-
ing for its Hebrew subjects and residents in Roumania the equality of
civil and religious rights stipulated in Article XLIV of the treaty of
Berlin.
"As you are aware, this government has ever felt a deep mterest m
the welfare of the Hebrew race in foreign countries, and has viewed
with abhorrence the wrongs to which they have at various periods been
subjected by the followers of other creeds in the East. This Depart-
ment is therefore disposed to give favorable consideration to the appeal
made by the representatives of a prominent Hebrew organization in
this country in behalf of their brethren in Roumania, and while I should
not be warranted in making a compliance with their wishes a sine qua
non in the establishment of official relations with that country, yet any
terms favorable to the interest of this much-injured people which you
may be able to secure in the negotiations now pending with the Gov-
ernment of Roumania would be agreeable and gratifying to this De-
partment.
"I am, etc.,
"WM. M. EVARTS."
It was therefore only a continuance of its old policy when the
Government of the United States, which has — as Mr. Evarts ex-
pressed it in 1879 — -"ever feh a deep interest in the welfare of
the Hebrew race in foreign countries," again began, in 1902, to
pay attention to the pitiable condition of the Roumanian Jews.
There still existed no treaty or diplomatic relations between the
United States and Roumania, and a new attempt was made by
our Department of State to negotiate a naturalization convention,
and perhaps by these means influence that country to treat its
Jews more favorably. The negotiations were carried on through
the American legation at Athens, Greece, and Secretary Hay sent,
on July 17, 1902, a long confidential dispatch to Mr. Charles L.
Wilson, the Charge d' Affaires ad interim in Athens, which con-
tained the largest part of the famous "Roumanian Note" to the
signatories of the Treaty of Berlin, which was issued in the fol-
lowing month. AVilson's reply, dated August 8, states that "since
the draft of the treaty approved by the Department was submitted
to the Roumanian minister for foreign affairs nothing further
The Roumanian Note. 347
has been accomplished, as the Roumanian Government refused
to consider the project favorably." The Roumanian Minister to
Greece frankly admitted to the American representative that the
King was against the proposed treaty, because, "according to His
Majesty's opinion, a naturalization treaty would be most in-
jurious to Roumania, for the reason that it would complicate the
already troublesome Jewish question in that country.''
Three days after the date of that dispatch, John Hay issued,
on August II, 1902, the Roumanian Note, which was sent to the
representatives of the United States to France, Germany, Great
Britain, Italy, Russia and Turkey. The full text of this unic]ue
circular note, which made a profound impression in the entire
civilized world, is as follows :
"Department of State.
"Washington, August ii, 1902.
"Excellency: — In the course of an instruction recently sent to the
Minister accredited to the Government of Roumania in regard to
the base of negotiations begun with that government looking to a con-
vention of naturalization between the United States and Roumania, cer-
tain considerations were set forth for the Minister's guidance concern-
ing the character of the immigration from that country, the causes
which constrain it, and the consequences so far as they adversely affect
the United States.
"It has seemed to the President appropriate that these considera-
tions, relating as they do to the obligations entered into by the signa-
tories of the Treaty of Berlin of July 13, 1878, should be brought to the
attention of the Governments concerned, and commended to their con-
sideration in the hope that, if they are so fortunate as to meet the ap-
proval of the several Powers, such measures as to them may seem wise
may be taken to persuade the Government of Roumania to reconsider
the subject of the grievances in question.
"The United States welcomes now, as it has welcomed from the
foundation of its Government, the voluntary immigration of all aliens
coming hither under conditions fitting them to become merged in the
body politic of this land. Our laws provide the means for them to become
incorporated indistinguishably in the mass of citizens, and prescribe
their absolute equality with the native born, guaranteeing to them equal
civil rights at home and equal protection abroad. The conditions are few,
looking to their coming as free agents, so circumstanced physically and
348 History of the Jews in America.
morally as to supply the healthful and intelligent material for free citizen-
hood. The pauper, the criminal, the contagiously or incurably diseased
are excluded from the benefit of immigration only when they are likely
to become a source of danger or a burden upon the community. The
voluntary character of their coming is essential; hence we shut out all
immigration assisted or constrained by foreign agencies. The purpose
of our generous treatment of the alien immigrant is to benefit us and
him alike — not to afford to another state a field upon which to cast its
own objectionable elements. The alien, coming hither voluntarily and
prepared to take upon himself the preparatory and in due course the
delinite obligations of citizenship, retains hereafter, in domestic and in-
ternational relations, the initial character of free agency, in the full
enjoyment of which it is incumbent upon his adoptive State to pro-
tect him.
"The foregoing considerations, whilst pertinent to the examination
of the purpose and scope of a naturalization treaty, have a larger aim.
It behooves the State to scrutinize most jealously the character of the
immigration from a foreign land, and, if it be obnoxious to objection, to
examine the causes which render it so. Should those causes originate
in the act of another sovereign State, to the detriment of its neighbors,
it is the prerogative of an injured State to point out the evil and to make
remonstrance; for with nations, as with individuals, the social law holds
good that the right of each is bounded by the right of the neighbor.
"The condition of a large class of the inhabitants of Roumania has
for many years been a source of grave concern to the United States.
I refer to the Roumanian Jews, numbering some 400,000. Long ago,
v-'hile the Danubian principalities labored under oppressive conditions
which only war and a general action of the European powers sufficed
to end, the persecution of the indigenous Jews under Turkish rule called
forth in 1872 the strong remonstrance of the United States. The Treaty
of Berlin was hailed as a cure for the wrong, in view of the express pro-
visions of its forty-fourth article, prescribing that in Roumania the
difference of religious creed and confessions shall not be alleged against
any person as a ground for exclusion or incapacity in matters relating
to the enjoyment of civil and political rights, admission to public em-
ployments, functions, and honors, or the exercise of the various pro-
fessions and industries in any locality whatsoever, and stipulating free-
dom in the exercise of all forms of worship to Roumanian dependents
and foreigners alike, as well as guaranteeing that all foreigners in Rou-
mania shall be treated without distinction of creed, on a footing of
perfect equality.
"With the lapse of time these just prescriptions have been rendered
The Roumanian Note. 349
nugatory in great part, as regards the native Jews, by the legislation and
municipal regulations of Roumania. Starting from the arbitrary and
controvertible premises that the native Jews of Roumania domiciled
there for centuries are 'aliens not subject to foreign protection,' the
ability of the Jew to earn even the scanty means of existence that suf-
fice for a frugal race has been constricted by degrees, until every oppor-
tunity to win a livelihood is denied; and until the helpless poverty of
the Jew has constrained an exodus of such proportions as to cause
general concern.
"The political disabilities of the Jews of Roumania, their exclusion
from the public service and the learned professions, the limitation of
their civil rights and the imposition upon them of exceptional taxes,
involving as they do, wrongs repugnant to the moral sense of liberal
modern peoples, are not so directly in point for my present purpose as
the public acts which attack the inherent right of man as a breadwinner
in the ways of agriculture and trade. The Jews are prohibited from
owning land, or even from cultivating it as common laborers. They
are debarred from residing in the rural districts. Many branches of
petty trade and manual production are closed to them in the over-
crowded cities where they are forced to dwell and engage, against fear-
ful odds, in the desperate struggle for existence. Even as ordinary
artizans or hired laborers they may only find employment in the pro-
portion of one 'unprotected alien' to two 'Roumanians' under any one
employer. In short, in the cumulative effects of successive restrictions,
the Jews of Roumania have become reduced to a state of wretched
misery. Shut out from nearly every avenue of self-support which is
open to the poor of other lands, and ground down by poverty as the
natural result of their discriminatory treatment, they are rendered in-
capable of lifting themselves from the enforced degradation they endure.
Even were the fields of education, of civil employment and of com-
merce open to them as to 'Roumanian citizens,' their penury would
prevent their rising by individual effort. Human beings so circumstanced
have virtually no alternative but submissive suffering or flight to some
land less unfavorable to them. Removal under such conditions is not
and cannot be the healthy, intelligent emigration of a free and self-
reliant being. It must be, in most cases, the mere transplantation of
an artificially produced diseased growth to a new place.
"Granting that, in better and more healthful surroundings, the mor-
bid condition will eventually change for good, such emigration is neces-
sarily for a time a burden to the community upon which the fugitives
may be cast. Self-reliance and the knowledge and ability that evolve
the power of self-support, must be developed, and, at the same time,
350 History of the Jews in America.
avenues of employment must be opened in quarters where competition
is already keen and opportunities scarce. The teachings of history and
the experience of our own nation show that the Jews possess in a
high degree the mental and moral qualifications of conscientious citi-
zenhood. No class of immigrants is more welcome to our shore, when
coming equipped in mind and body for entrance upon the struggle for
bread, and inspired with the high purpose to give the best service of
heart and brain to the land they adopt of their own free will. But
when they come as outcasts, made doubly paupers by physical and
moral oppression in their native land, and thrown upon the long suf-
fering generosity of a more favored community, their immigration lacks
the essential conditions which make alien immigration either acceptable
or beneficial. So well is this appreciated on the Continent that, even
in the countries where anti-Semitism has no foothold, it is difficult for
these fleeing Jews to obtain any lodgment, America is their only goal.
"The United States offers asylum to the oppressed of all lands. But
its sympathy with them in no wise impairs its just liberty and right
to weigh the acts of the oppressor in the light of their effects upon
this country and to judge accordingly.
"Putting together the facts now painfully brought home to this Gov-
ernment during the past few years, that many of the inhabitants of
Roumania are being forced, by artificially adverse discriminations, to
quit their native country; that the hospitable asylum offered by this
country is almost the only refuge left to them; that they come hither
unfitted, by the conditions of their exile, to take part in the new life
of this land under circumstances either profitable to themselves or bene-
ficial to the community; and that they are objects of charity from the
outset and for a long time — the right of remonstrance against the acts
of the Roumanian Government is clearly established in favor of this
Government. Whether consciously and of purpose or not, these help-
less people, burdened and spurned by their native land, are forced by
the sovereign power of Roumania upon the charity of the United States.
This Government cannot be a tacit party to such an international wrong.
It is constrained to protest against the treatment to which the Jews
of Roumania are subjected, not alone because it has unimpeachable
right to remonstrate against the resultant injury to itself, but in the
name of humanity. The United States may not authoritatively appeal
to the stipulations of the Treaty of Berlin, to which it was not and can-
not become a signatory, but it does earnestly appeal to the principles
consigned therein, because they are the principles of international law
and eternal justice, advocating the broad toleration which that solemn
compact enjoins and standing ready to lend its moral support to the
Moral Effect of the Roumanian Note. 351
fulfilment thereof by its co-signatories, for the act of Roumania itself
has effectively joined the United States to them as an interested party
in this regard.
"You will take an early occasion to read this instruction to the
Minister for Foreign Affairs and, should he request it, leave with him
a copy.
"I have the honor to be
"Your obedient servant,
"JOHN HAY."
The note made a great impression on the entire civiHzed world,
but was followed by no practical results. The only government
which took any notice of it was — as could have been expected —
the British. Mr. John B. Jackson, who had in the meantime been
appointed minister of the United States to Greece and was also
accredited to Roumania, wrote from Athens (March 31, 1903)
that, having been in charge of the American embassy at Berlin
at the time when the note was received, he "understood that im-
mediately after the same instruction has been communicated to
the foreign office at London, the British Government, without
in any way making known its own views contained therein, had
addressed a communication to the other Governments which were
parties to the Berlin treaty of 1878, inciuiring what they proposed
doing in the matter. So far as I am aware, however, no action
was taken by any of these Governments, and the contents of the
circular was never formally brought to the attention of the Rou-
manian Government.
This letter, and another dated Athens, April 18, and still an-
other dated September 7, 1903, contain statements made by Rou-
manian statesmen explaining the situation from their point of
view, and observations made by Mr. Jackson himself during his
travels through Roumania. The last letter, which closes the cor-
respondence, ends with the remark that "the general feeling (in
Roumania) is that the naturalization of Jews must be a gradual
matter, as they become educated up to being Roumanians" — a
feeling much more likely to be found in America than in Rou-
mania.
352 History of the Jews in America.
There is still no treaty with Roumania, but there is an Ameri-
can Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary (the usual
designation of an ordinary minister) sent to Roumania and ac-
credited also to Servia and Bulgaria, who resides at the Rou-
manian capital, Bucharest, where there is also an American con-
sul-general. The representation is, as was the case in the time of
Peixotto, one-sided, the Roumanian Government having no rep-
resentative in the United States. The Roumanian question may
therefore be considered neither as solved nor as abandoned, but
to be in abeyance until a favorable opportunity shall present itself
for further negotiations, which may ultimately lead to the only
adjustment which can be acceptable to the United States as well
as to the Jews.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
HELP FOR THE VICTIMS OF THE RUSSIAN MASSACRES IN I9O3 AND
1905. OTHER PROOFS OF SYMPATHY.
The Kishinev massacre — Official solicitude and general sympathy — Pro-
test meetings and collections — The "Kishinev Petition'' and its fate
— Less publicity given to the later pogroms, whose victims were
helped by "landsleut" from this country — The influence of pogroms
on immigration — The frightful massacres in Russia in the fall of
igoS, and the assistance rendered by this country — A Resolution of
sympathy adopted in Congress — The 250th Anniversary of the Set-
tlement of the Jews in the United States — Relief for Moroccan Jews
proposed by the United States — Oscar S. Straus in the Cabinet.
While the correspondence about the Jews of Roumania was
still carried on by our State Department, the civilized world was
shocked by the reports of the brutal massacre of Jews in Kishinev
in the three days of April 19-21, 1903. This massacre which is
still within every one's memory, aroused the press and the people
of the United States more than the riots of 1881. "Almost from
the first, the world's indignation centered in the United States.
Served by a vigorous press, whose liberal spirit voices the pre-
vailing attitude; animated by a humanitarianism which lies at the
foundation of all our public institutions ; realizing also that Amer-
ica was the chief refuge of all victims of persecution; the people
of the United States became, again, the world's logical leaders in
a campaign of humanity."^ President Roosevelt's opening re-
mark in his speech to the Executive Committee of the Inde-
pendent Order of B'nai B'rith on June 15, 1903, when he said:
'Rabbi Maximilian Heller in American Jewish Year Book for .'5664, p. 21.
353
354 History of the Jews in America..
"I have never in my experience in this country known of a more
immediate or a deeper expression of sympathy for the victims
and of horror over the appalhng calamity that has occurred," was
fully justified.
The news filtered very slowly through the usual channels, and
more than a week passed before the enormity of the Russian
crime became fully known. On the 2gth of April the following
dispatch was sent by our Department of State :
McCormick, Ambassador, St. Petersburg:
It is persistently reported upon what appears to be adequate autho: -
ity that there is great want and suffering among Jews in Kishinev.
Friends in this country would like to know if financial aid and supplies
would be permitted to reach the sufferers.
Please ascertain this without discussing political phase of the action.
HAY.
Ambassador McCormick replied, ten days later, that it is "au-
thoritatively denied that there is any want or suffering among
Jews in Southwestern Russia and aid of any kind is unnecessary."
But the people here understood that the Ambassador reflected the
official view of the Russian Government, and efforts to raise
money for the thousands of families which were left destitute
by pillage, and for the hundreds of widows and orphans of the
martyrs, were soon made, and large sums were collected in New
York, as well as in many other places. More than seventy-five
meetings of protest and indignation were held in fifty localities
in twenty-seven States (and the District of Columbia) during the
months of May and June, the most notable of which was the one
held in New York, May 27, where Mayor Seth Low presided
and ex-President Grover Cleveland was the principal orator.
Among the largest meetings of the other places were those of
Baltimore (May 17), of Philadelphia (June 3) and of New Or-
leans (June 13). In the most cases the prominent non-Jewish
citizens, including high officials and ministers of religion, deliv-
ered addresses or expressed their sentiments in letters. Numer-
ous sermons against Russia were preached in various churches
Help for the Victims. 355
and hundreds of editorial articles appeared in all sorts of peri-
odicals. Public opinion was again, as it was twenty-two years
before, practically unanimous in condemning Russia, and in en-
couraging every enterprise for the assistance of the sufferers from
its barbarity.
The response to the appeals for material help was quick and
generous. The contributions were sent either directly to the cen-
tral office of the "Alliance Israelite Universelle" at Paris or to
one of three agencies in New York — to the Relief Committee of
which Emanuel Lehman was chairman and Daniel Guggenheim,
treasurer, and which was in communication with the "'Alliance" ;
to the Relief Committee of which K. H. Sarasohn was chair-
man and Arnold Kolin, treasurer, and which was in communi-
cation with the Central Relief Committee at Kishinev; or to Mr.
William Randolph Hearst, whose newspapers, in New York,
Chicago and San Francisco, did much to arouse the public to the
gravity of the situation, and who forwarded the money col-
lected by them to Treasurer Arnold Kohn. The sum sent to
Ivishinev from the United States through all these agencies was
set down in a report made on June 7, 1903, by the Central Re-
lief Committee at Kishinev to the "Hilfsverein der deutschcn
Juden" at Berlin, at 192,443 roubles (somewhat less than
$100,000). It is about half of the sum which was collected in
Russia itself, and a fourth of what was contributed by all the
countries of the world.
It was generally understood that little could be accomplished
by representations or remonstrances to Russia, but the desire to
do somethmg more than collect alms was very strong, and the
sentiment naturally crystallized itself in an effort to ask the Gov-
ernment of the LTnited States to use its good offices in behalf of
the Jews of Russia. A petition was framed by the Executive
Committee of the Independent Order of B'nai B'rith and sub-
mitted to the President of the United States with the request
that it be transmitted to the Emperor of Russia. The President
received the Committee cordially, and said at the conclusion of his
356 History of the Jews in America.
remarks : "I will consider most carefully the suggestion that you
have submitted to me, and whether the now existing conditions
are such that any further oi^cial expression would be of advan-
tage to the unfortunate survivors, with whom we sympathize so
deeply."
The petition was couched in courteous terms, extolling the Czar
personally and pleading that "he who led his own people and all
others to the shrine of peace, will add new luster to his reign and
fame by leading a new movement that shall commit the whole
world in opposition to religious persecution." The petition was
circulated in thirty-six States and Territories, and 12,544 sig-
natures were obtained. Among the signers were Senators, Mem-
bers of the House of Representatives, Governors (22), high ju-
dicial ofificers. State Legislators, Mayors of cities (150), clergy-
men of all denominations, including three Archbishops and seven
Bishops, a large number of other officials, and many prominent
men in the professional and the business world. President Roose-
velt consented to transmit the petition, but the Russian Govern-
ment declined to receive it, and the matter was thus ended. By
permission of the President, the separate sheets of the petition
bearing all the signatures, suitably bound and enclosed in a case
provided for the purpose, have been placed in the archives of the
Department of State.^
It was impossible to arouse the general public and even the
general Jewish public at the recurrent pogroms and massacres at
near intervals after Kishinev. But as is always the case with
Russian or Galician or Roumanian cities when they suffer from
tires, it became now the custom for all natives of an afflicted city
to form some sort of organization in the rather rare occasion
when there existed no synagogue or benevolent society of the
'See Adier, The Voice of America on Kishineff^ Philadelphia, 1904.
Among the books which appeared in the United States on this subject
are also Russia at the Bar of tlic American People, by Isidore Singer,
New York, 1904, and iVithin the Pale, New York, 1903, by the Irish pa-
triot, Michael Davitt, who was sent to Russia soon after the massacre
as a representative of Mr. Hearst's papers.
Public and Private Assistance. 357
"landsleiit," and to collect funds for the succor of the unfortunate
famihes of the victims at home. Each of the riots and mas-
sacres between Ivishinev and the terrible October days, the largest
of which occurred at Homel (September 10-14, 1903). when
eight Jews were killed and nearly one hundred injured ; at Ben-
der (May I, 1904), and at Zhitomir (May 6, 1905), where
twenty-nine were killed — each of these riots was a miniature
Kishinev among the natives of the stricken place or its vicinity
in this countiy. America became for the suffering Jews of Rus-
sia the Egypt of the time of the Patriarch Jacob, and the Russian
immigrant who settled here before was the prosperous brother
Joseph whom God sent to the New World before them to pre-
serve life. To the emissaries from Palestine and from religious
institutions in Russia, especially the Talmudical Academies or
Yeshibot, who were coming regularly to the United States for
many years to make collections among the conservative immi-
grants who prospered here, were now added emissaries from the
radical or revolutionary parties from Russia, who were enthu-
siastically received by the working classes and the radical element
in general, and their appeals for funds were seldom in vain.
The most substantial and most beneficial form of assistance
sent from here to Russia was, however, not in response to ap-
peals through Jewish newspapers or through personal represen-
tatives of causes, of parties or of institutions, but to requests
made by members of families, by relatives or by friends to be
taken out of Russia as soon as possible. While public appeals
were made for charity of various kinds and for defense funds and
similar objects, private correspondents solicited only one thing —
steamship tickets. And the private responses, while they attracted
less attention, were more generous, and in many instances verged
on self-sacrifice. This can be deduced from the results, i. e.,
from the increased Jewish immigration, which was easily ab-
sorbed and little burdensome to the general Jewish public or to
the larger charities, because most of the new arrivals had near
relatives or friends who took care of them in the short time which
358 History of the Jews in America.
elapsed until they could find employment. The increase of Jew-
ish immigration on account of the pogroms can best be seen by
a comparison of the number of Jewish arrivals at the Port of
New York, where nearly nine-tenths of them arrive, with the gen-
eral immigration for the five years 1903-07 (each ending June
30). The figures for 1903 are: Jews 58,079, total immigration,
857,046; for 1904: Jews 80,885, total 812,870; for 1905: Jews
1 03, 94 1, total 1,027,421 ; foa- 1906: Jews 133,764, total 1,100,735;
for 1907: Jews 117,486, total 1,285,349. It is seen that while
general immigration in 1904 was about 45,000 less than in 1903,
Jewish immigration was about 22,000 more. On the other hand,
while general immigration rose to an unprecedented height in
1907, and was larger than the preceding year by 185,000, the
number of Jews arriving in New York was about 16,000 less.
The Jewish immigrant is not the man who fails at home or the
adventurer who cares for no home ; he could get along very well
where he is if he were not molested, and Jewish immigration from
Russia would become as insignificant as Jewish immigration
from Germany if the former country could rise to the political and
social conditions of the latter.
The small pogroms which were designated above as miniature
Kishinevs, and even Kishinev itself, were soon forgotten or be-
gan to look very small in comparison with the frightful massacres
of the last day of October and the first days of November, 1905,
with which the Russians inaugurated their quasi-constitutional
regime. This time there were about a thousand Jews killed, the
wounded numbered many thousands, the losses by destruction
of property amounted to hundreds of millions. America again
responded nobly, and a committee, of which Oscar S. Straus was
chairman and Jacob H. Schiff, treasurer, collected considerably
more than a million dollars, from Jews and non-Jews, mainly
through the same agencies and by the same methods as the funds
for the sufl^erers from Kishinev were collected. There were again
mass-meetings at which prominent non-Jews spoke words of
I"lio!o by Dupont, ]V. Y.
HoQ. Jacob H. Schiff.
359
Congress Expresses Sympathy. 361
sympathy for the martyrs and their famihes and condemned the
government which permitted such carnage. The general press
was as friendly and sympathetic to the Jews as on former occa-
sions. When the great marcli of Jewish mourners after the mar-
tyrs took place through the streets of New York, in which nearly
one hundred thousand participated (December 4, 1905), several
Christian churches tolled their bells in expression of sympathy
with the weeping masses which passed by.
There was also an official expression of sympathy from Con-
gress. Representatives Henry M. Goldfogle and William Sulzer
introduced into the House resolutions to that effect, and a
third one as a substitute was introduced by Representative Charles
A. Towne, who, like the former two, represented a New York City
District. The House Committee on Foreign Affairs granted a
hearing, on February 8, 1906, to those interested in the passage
of the resolutions. In its final form the joint resolution was
introduced into the Senate by the late Anselm J. McLaurin of
Mississippi, and in the House by Robert G. Cousins of Iowa, and
read as follows :
Resok'ed by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled. That the people of the United
States are horrified by the reports of the massacre of Hebrews in Rus-
sia, on account of their race and religion, and that those bereaved
thereby have the hearty sympathy of the people of this country.
This resolution was adopted without debate, and unanimously,
by both houses on June 22, and approved by the President on
June 26, 1906.
On two other occasions about the same time the friendly dis-
position of the people and the Government of the United States
towards the Jews was manifested to the world. The first occa-
sion was only semi-official, when the Jews of the country cele-
brated the Two Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the Set-
tlement of the Jews in the United States, on Thanksgiving Day
(November 30), 1905. Meetings and special services were held
in more than seventy localities between November 24 and De-
362 History of the Jews in Anierica.
cember lo, but the principal celebration was in New York on
the above inentioned date, in Carnegie Hall, where notable ad-
dresses were delivered by former President Grover Cleveland,
Governor Francis W. Higgins of the State of New York, Mayor
George B. McClellan of New York City, and Bishop David Greer.
Cordial letters were received from President Roosevelt and Vice-
President Charles W. Fairbanks. The principal oration at that
memorable meeting was delivered by Judge Mayer Sulzberger
of Philadelphia. Our present Ambassador to Russia, Curtis
Guild, Jr., who was at that time Lieutenant-Governor of Massa-
chusetts, was one of the speakers at the celebration meeting which
was held in Boston, a day before the New York meeting.^
The second occasion attracted less attention, but was strictly
official. The International Conference about Morocco, which was
held in Algeciras, Spain, from January 6 to April 7, 1906, was
participated in by the United States, and its first delegate,
Henry White (Ambassador to Italy), received instruction by a
special letter from Secretary of State (now Senator) Elihu Root
to work for the protection of the Jews of Morocco. These in-
structions were accompanied by a letter received by Secretary
Root from Mr. Jacob H. Schiff, setting forth the pitiable condi-
tion of the Jews of that country and enumerating the legal re-
strictions to which they were subject. Through the exertion of
Mr. White, a provision was inserted, on April 2, in the treaty, with
which the Conference was concluded, according to which the
signatory nations guarantee the security and ecpial privileges of
the Jews in A-Iorocco, both those living in the ports and those liv-
ing in the interior. (See "American-Jewish Year Book" for
5667, pp. 92-98.) The chief value of this provision, however,
consists only in its indication of the good will of the Govern-
ment of the United States. Its practical value for the Jews of
^ Volume XIV of the Publications is devoted to the proceedings and
the addresses of this celebration. It also appeared in a separate volume
entitled Tlie Two Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the Settlement of
the Jews in the United States. New York, igo6.
^C^^^ P I^VrCMA^^
Hon. Oscar S. Straus.
363
Oscar S. Straus in the Cabinet. 365
Morocco, as far as protection from riots and massacres are con-
cerned, is hardly more than that of the well known "Article 44"
of the Treaty of Berlin regarding the Jews of Roumania. The
Jews of Morocco probably never heard of that provision, and the
credit of ameliorating their condition rightfully belongs to France,
which has, according to the latest agreement among European
Powers, become the protector, or ruler of the ShereeHan Empire.
Near the end of the same year (1906) President Roose-
velt appointed Oscar S. Straus, the author and diplomatist. Sec-
retary of Commerce and Labor. The first Jew to be thus honored
with a seat in the Cabinet has served twice as minister plenipo-
tentiary (and since he left the Cabinet, again as Ambassador) to
Turkey, and also succeeded the late Benjamin Harrison, former
president of the United States, as a member of the Permanent
Court of Arbitration at The Hague. His oldest brother, Isidor
Straus (b. in Bavaria, 1845 '• ^- i854: drowned with the "Titanic"
April 15, 1912), was a well known merchant and philan-
thropist in New York, who was a member of the Fifty-third
Congress, and has been for man)' years President of the
Educational Alliance. Another brother, Nathan Straus (b.
in Bavaria, 1848: a. 1854), who is also known as a philanthropist
and served as Park Commissioner, and, for several months, as
President of the Board of Health of New York, is two years
older than the former Cabinet Minister.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE AMERICAN-JEWISH COMMITTEE. EDUCATIONAL INSTITU-
TIONS AND FEDERATIONS.
Formation of the American Jewish Committee — Its first fifteen members
and its membership in 191 1 — The experimental Kehillali organiza-
tions — The re-organized Jewish Theological Seminary — Faculty of
the Hebrew Union College — The Dropsie College of Hebrew and
Cognate Learning — The Rabbi Joseph Jacob School — Other Ortho-
dox "Yeshibot" — Talmud Torahs and "Chedarim" — Hebrew Insti-
tutes — They become more Jewish because other agencies now do
the work of Americanizing the immigrant — Technical Schools — ■
Young Men's and Young Women's Hebrew Associations — Federa-
tions of various kinds.
The massacres of 1905 aroused and united the Jews of the civi-
hzed world, and the necessity of an organization to cope with the
situation and with similar situations in the future began to be
generally felt. The time when the Alliance Israelite Universelle,
with its preponderance of French Jews and French methods, could
act for the Jewry of all countries was now past, and only a new
oi"ganization in which each country was independently repre-
sented could answer the purpose. The same was also true, in a
more restricted sense, in the United States itself. None of the
national Jewish bodies, not even tlie Order B'nai B'rith, with its
Board of Delegates, could now assume to speak with undisputed
aitthority in the name of American Jewry as it is now constituted.
An attempt to form a representative international Committee of
Jews was made at the General Jewish Conference which was
convened at Brussels, Belgium, in the last days of January,
366
I'liulo by Outekunst, Phila
Judge Mayer Sulzberger.
367
The American-Jewish Committee 369
1906, where a resolution to that effect was adopted. But the
plan was not carried out.
Within a week after the Brussels Conference (February 3-4).
a conference was held in New York City "to consider the for-
mation of a General Jewish Committee or other representative
body of the Jews in the United States."^ A committee which
was appointed by the chairman, Judge Mayer Sulzberger of
Philadelphia, submitted its report to the conference at a subse-
quent meeting (May 19), which was referred to a Committee of
Five, with instructions to select another Committee of Fifteen,
representative of all Jewish societies of the United States, to be
increased to fifty members, if considered desirable. About a
month later, the chairman announced the following Committee
as the nucleus of the American Jewish Committee, which was
ultimately increased to sixty : Cyrus Adler, Washington, D. C. ;
Nathan Bijur, New York; Joseph H. Cohai, New York; Emil
G. Hirsch, Chicago, 111.; D. H. Lieberman, New York; Julian
W. Mack, Chicago, III; J. L. Magnes, New York; Louis Mar-
shall, New York; Isidor Newman, New Orleans, La.; Simon
W. Rosendale, Albany, N. Y. ; Max Senior, Cincinnati, O. ; Jacob
H. Schiff, New York; Oscar S. Straus, New York; M. C. Sloss,
San Francisco, Cal., and Simon Wolf, Washington, D. C.
The American-Jewish Committee was organized with sixty
members, and adopted a constitution (November 11, 1906), which
begins : "The purpose of this committee is to prevent infringe-
ment of the civil and religious rights of the Jews, and to alleviate
the consequences of persecution. Li the event of a threatened
or actual denial or invasion of such rights, or when conditions
calling for relief from calamities affecting Jews exist anywhere,
correspondence may be entered into with those familiar with
the situation, and if the persons on the spot feel themselves able
to cope with the situation, no action need be taken; if, on the
other hand, they request aid, steps shall be taken to furnish it."
The Committee was later again increased on account of the en-
' See Amerkan-Jew-ish Year Book for 5667, pp. 230, 233, 234.
370 History of the Jews in America.
largement of the representation from New York City, owing to
the organization of the "Kehillah," and last year consisted of
the following, representing the thirteen districts into which the
country was divided for that purpose :
Dist. I : Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 2
members : Ceasar Cone, Greensboro, N. C. ; Montague Triest,
Charleston, S. C.
Dist. II : Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, 2 members : Jac-
ques Loeb, Montgomery, Ala. ; Nathan Cohn, Nashville, Tenn.
Dist. Ill : Arizona, Louisiana, New Mexico, Texas, 2 mem-
bers : Maurice Stern, New Orleans, La. ; Isaac H. Kempner, Gal-
veston, Tex.
Dist. IV : Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, 3 members :
Morris M. Cohen, Little Rock, Ark. ; David S. Lehman, Den-
ver, Col. ; Elias Michael, St. Louis, Mo.
Dist. V : California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Wash-
ington, 3 members : Max C. Sloss, San Francisco, Cal. ; Harris
Weinstock, Sacramento, Cal. ; Ben. Selling, Portland, Ore.
Dist. VI : Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Wyoming, 4 members:
Henry M. Butzel, Detroit, Mich.; Emanuel Cohen, Minneapolis,
Minn. ; Victor Rosewater, Omaha, Neb. ; Max Landauer, Mil-
waukee, Wis.
Dist. VII : Illinois, 7 members : Edv^fin G. Foreman, M. E.
Greenebaum, B. Horwich, Julian W. Mack, Julius Rosenwald,
Joseph Stolz, aU of Chicago, 111.; Samuel Woolner (deceased),
Peoria, 111.
Dist. VIII : Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, 5 mem-
bers : Louis Newberger, Indianapolis, Ind. ; Isaac W. Bernheim,
Louisville, Ky. ; David Philipson, Cincinnati, O. ; J. Walter Frei-
berg, Cincinnati, O. ; E. M. Baker, Cleveland, O.
Dist. IX : New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 9 members : Cyrus Adler.
Philadelphia, Pa. ; Isaac W. Frank, Pittsburg, Pa. ; Wm. B.
Hackenburg, B. L. Levinthal, M. Rosenbaum, all of Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Isadore Sobel, Erie, Pa. ; Mayer Sulzberger, Philadel-
Photo_by_jrrover-WeigeI, Salem, Oregon.
Hon. Benjamin Selling.
The American-Jewish Committee 371
phia, Pa. ; A. Leo Weil, Pittsburg, Pa. ; Benjamin Wolf, Phila-
delphia, Pa.
Dist. X : Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Virginia,
2 members : Plarry Friedenwald, Baltimore, Md. ; Jacob H. Hol-
lander, Baltimore, Md.
Dist. XI : Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp-
shire, Rhode Island, Vermont, 3 members : Isaac M. Ullman,
X^ew Haven, Conn. ; Lee M. Friedman, Boston, Mass. ; Harry
Cutler, Providence, R. I.
Dist. XII : New York : Joseph Baroudess, Samuel Dorf , Ber-
nard Drachman, Harry Fischel, William Fishman, Israel Fried-
laender, Samuel B. Hamburger, Maurice H. Harris, Samuel I.
Hyman, S. Jarmulowsky, Leon Kamaiky, Philip Klein, Nathan
Lamport, Adolph Lewisohn, J. L. Magnes, M. Z. Margolies,
Louis JMarshal!, H. Pereire Mendes, Solomon Neumann, Jacob
H. Schiff, Bernard Semel, P. A. Siegelstein, Joseph Silverman,
Cyrus L. Sulzberger, Felix M. Warburg; 25 members.
Dist. XIII: X^ew York (exclusive of the city), 2 members:
Abram J. Katz, Rochester; Simon W. Rosendale, Albany.
Members-at-large : X^athan Bijur, New York City; Isidor
Straus, New York City.
The officers are : Mayer Sulzberger, President ; Julian W.
Mack and Jacob H. Hollander, Vice-Presidents; Isaac W. Bern-
heim. Treasurer ; Herbert Friedenwald, Secretary. The Execu-
tive Committee consists of Cyrus Adler, Harry Cutler, Samuel
Dorf, J. L. Magnes, Louis Marshall, Julius Rosenwald, Jacob
H. SchiiY, Isadore Sobel, Cyrus L. Sulzberger and A. Leo Weil.
The strength of the committee consists mainly in its personnel,
as it comprises the most influential as well as the most active
Jewish communal leaders of the country. The membership from
the large centers of population, like New York, Philadelphia
and Chicago, includes also representatives of the immigrants of
the last period, md the plan of the Jewish Alliance of twenty
years ago' to bring together the older and the younger portions
^See above, Chapter XXXI.
372 History of the Jews in America.
of the community is, to some extent, consummated in this Com-
mittee. It has made some vahiable efforts on behalf of the suf-
fering Jews in other countries, and also in the interest of a speedy
solution of the vexed Russian passport question, and it is becom-
ing recognized as the representative Jewish body in the United
States.
When the Jewish community or "Kehillah" was formed in
New York in 1909, consisting of the representatives of congrega-
tions, fraternal and educational organizations, the plans of those
who wanted to have the American Jewish Committee re-organ-
ized on a more democratic basis, and to make it the elected and
authorized representative of the Jewish masses, was partially car-
ried out. The twenty-five members of the Executive Commit-
tee of the New York "Kehillah" are the New York members of
the American-Jewish Committee. The Jews of Philadelphia have
now also formed a "Kehillah" on the same basis of representa-
tion. But these new forms of amalgamating the large communi-
ties and forming authoritative Jewish central bodies is yet in
the experimental stage, and several years, perhaps several decades,
will have to pass before their permanent existence will be assured
and justified. The great difference between the Committee and
the "Kehillahs" is, that in the first men of power and authority
who worked effectively for Jewish interests before, individually
or as leaders of communal bodies, have united to work together
in the same direction. The "Kehillahs" on the other hand, have
yet tO' create the forces which are to sustain them and make
them formidable. Their chief value consists of their being symp-
toms of the times, indicating the approach of the end of the
period of chaos in general Jewish affairs, and an inclination to
submit to representative authority in communal matters. The
most conspicuous act of the New York "Kehillah" was its founda-
tion of a Bureau of Education under the direction of the well-
known Jewish educator. Dr. Samson Benderly (b. in Safed,
Palestine, 1876), who- conducted Jewish schools in Baltimore
with marked success and is now working out his original plans
Prof. Solomon Schechter.
373
The Seminary and the Colleges. 375
in educating Jewisli teachers who should be capable of suitably
performing their duties to the coming generation. But the sound-
ness and the practicability of his plans are as problematical as that
of the "Kehillah" itself.
Much other valuable work was done in the cause of Jewish
education in the last ten years. The Jewish Theological Semi-
nary, which was reorganized in 1902, when the presidency was as-
sumed by the famous Roumanian Jewish scholar, Solomon
Schechter, now has on its faculty as professors : President and
Professor of Jewish Theology, Solomon Schechter; Biblical Lit-
erature and Exegesis. Israel Friedlaender : Talmud, Louis Ginz-
berg; History, Alexander Marx; Homiletics, Mordecai M. Kap-
lan ; Instructor in the Talmud, Joshua A. Joffe ; Instructor in
Hebrew and Rabbinics, Israel Davidson; English Literature and
Rhetoric, Joseph Jacobs. There is also now a Teachers' Insti-
tute connected with the Seminary, of which Prof. Mordecai M.
Kaplan is the principal.
The Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, which is maintained
by the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, has also been
considerably strengthened in the last few years. Its faculty con-
sists of the following professors : Homiletics, Theology and Hel-
lenistic Literature (President), Kaufman Kohler; Jewish History
and Literature, Gotthard Deutsch ; Ethics and Pedagog}^, Louis
Grossman; Jewish Philosophy, David Neumark; Biblical Exege-
sis (Associate), Moses Buttenwieser; Biblical Literature, Henry
Englander; Instructor in Bible and Semitic Languages, Julian
Morgenstern.
The youngest of the Jewish higher institutions of learning in
the United States is The Dropsie College of Hebrew and Cog-
nate Learning of Philadelphia, which was incorporated in 1907.
Moses Aaron Dropsie (b. in Philadelphia, 1821; d. there 1905),
an attorney and street railway owner of Dutch descent, be-
queathed the bulk of his fortune, amounting to nearly one mil-
lion dollars, to the foundation of that college, which was opened
in 1909. The faculty consists of: President, Cyrus Adler; Max
376 History of the Jews in America,
L. Margolis, in charge of the Bibhcal Department; Henry Mal-
ter, in charge of the Rabbinical Department; Jacob Hoschander,
Instructor Department of Cognate Languages ; Hon. Mayer Sulz-
berger, Resident Lecturer in Jewish Jurisprudence and Institutes
of Government.
An institution of an entirely different kind is the Rabbi Joseph
Jacob School, or Yeshibah, of New York, which was organized
in 1901, whose founder, Samuel S. Andron, still retains the
presidency. It is the only considerable Jewish school on the
denominational or parochial plan, where English and general
studies according to the curriculum of the public schools are
pursued together with the study of the Hebrew language, Bible,
Talmud and Rabbinical literature. It is the first attempt tO'
combine a strictly Orthodox and a thorough American educa-
tion, and, if possible, to educate American rabbis who should
be acceptable to the old style pious immigrant as well as to the
generation which is growing up here. There are other Yeshibot
in all of the large cities in the United States, but most of them
simply follow their prototype, the Talmudical Academy of the
Slavic countries, where there is no other official subject of study
except the Talmud and Rabbinical literature, and secular studies
are pursued clandestinely or not at all. In some of the Yeshibot
here, like in the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary
of New York, some concessions were made to secular studies,
but there was no attempt, and perhaps no desire, to harmonize
the systems and to supply a good American education.
The original forms of the elementary Jewish school, the pri-
vate "Cheder" and the public or semi-public Talmud Torah, is
represented among the Jews of the Slavic countries in all its
varieties, from the old-fashioned Russian school, where the He-
brew text is translated in a traditional Yiddish, which the pupil
who is born or brought up here understands but imperfectly, to
the Americanized place, where the translations are made in the
English, and the modernized Russian school, in which Hebrew is
used in interpreting the Scripture and the text books prepared
Talmud Torahs and Hebrew Institutes. 377
for the purpose. Naturally the oldest and largest Talmud Torah
of New York, the "Machzike Talmud Torah" of East Broadway
(organized 1882), of which Moses H. Phillips is president and
I. A. Kaplan superintendent, is looked upon as a model institu-
tion of its kind. There are nearly two score Talmud Torahs in
New York City, some of them attached to synagogues, but most
of them separate institutions with buildings of their own, several
of which, like the I'p-Town Talmud Torah and the one in
Brownsville (Brooklyn), are magnificent establishments, with in-
comes -which prove the material well-being of the immigrant
classes, as well as their willingness to pay for Jewish education.
There are large Talmud Torahs in every city where there is a
considerable Jewish population, and, as in many other respects,
New York conditions are duplicated in Chicago, Philadelphia
and other great centers. In the smaller towns a Talmud Torah
is now established soon after the foundation of a synagogue, and
the private teacher, who is often also the Shochet and Chazzan
or Mohel, usually antedates them both. There is one important
difference, however, between the Talmud Torah of the Old
World, especially Russia, and the same institutions here. There
the Talmud Torah is mainly for the children of the very poor,
for destitute orphans, foundlings and the like. Here the scarcity
of good private teachers, the high compensation which they re-
quire, and the limited time which could' be given to Jewish
studies, makes the organized school preferable also for the chil-
dren of parents who are willing and able to pay for tuition. Some
Talmud Torahs which are maintained by single synagogues for
their members, especially in small communities, partake of the
nature, and even of the exclusiveness, of the Sabbath School
which is an adjunct to almost every well conducted Reform Tem-
ple. I'vlks-Schidcn, or Hebrew schools for girls, have lately been
established in several sections of New York, and also in other
cities.
There are also in every large community and in some sections
of large cities educational institutions whose chief object is to
378 History of the Jews in America.
iacilitate the Americanization of the immigrants. The model
institution of that sort is the Educational Alliance (formerly
the Hebrew Institute) of New York. Some of them bear the
name Educational Society, and a large number, among which the
Chicago institution, of which Julius Rosenwald (b. in Springfield,
111., 1862) is the chief patron, prefer the old name of Hebrew In-
stitute. This class of institutions have been undergoing material
changes for the last ten or fifteen years, and those founded lately
are entirely unlike those which belonged to the earlier period. All
fear that the newcomers will not become Americanized suffi-
ciently fast has now disappeared; and, besides, the work of
Americanization which was formerly done by private charity, like
the maintenance of evening classes and even of day classes for
adult immigrants, tO' instruct them in English and elementary
knowledge, is now done by the cities themselves. Private efforts
are now made more in the direction of Jewish education and
religious or semi-religious activities, and some of the Hebrew
Institutes, notably the youngest and those established and main-
tained by immigrants themselves, are almost Talmud Torahs,
often combined with synagogues, in which the religious element
predominates, and in some of them rabbis occupy the leading posi-
tions.
Lastly, there is a class of splendid educational establishments.
founded and endowed by Jewish philanthropists, for the technical
development of the young Jewish immigrants. The most im-
portant of these in New York are the Baron de Hirsch Trade
School, the Hebrew Technical Institute (organized 1883), and
the Hebrew Technical School for Girls. Chicago has the Jewish
(formerly the Manual) Training School (incorporated 1887) ;
Baltimore its Maccabean House (incorporated 1900) ; Boston its
Hebrew Industrial School (organized 1889), and the Jewish
Educational Alliance of St. Louis, Mo., has a large industrial
school ; Cincinnati has a Boys' Industrial School ; while Philadel-
phia has the B'nai B'rith Manual Training School and the Indus-
trial Home for Jewish Girls. The Young Men's Hebrew Asso-
Federations. 379
ciations, the Young Women's Hebrew Associations and other
Jewish organizations of a Hke character in numerous places, main-
tain various classes — religious, technical, etc. — offering educa-
tional opportunities to new arrivals and to young working people
who cannoot utilize the regular institutions of public education.
The efforts to organize and to federate, which resulted in the
formation of the American-Jewish Committee, produced several
other communal federations of variegated character. The oldest
and most substantial of these is the Federation of Galician and
Bukowinian Jews in America (organized 1904), which founded
and maintains the Har Moriah Hospital in New York. There
have also lately been organized a Federation of Roumanian
Jews and one of Russian-Polish Jews. There is also in New
York a Federation of Contributors to Jewish Communal Institu-
tions and a Federation of Jewish Organizations, both of which
were organized in 1906.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE JEWS IN THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
The legend about the Jewish origin oi Chevalier de Levis — Aaron Hart,
the English Commissary, and Abraham Gradis, the French banker —
Early settlers in Montreal — Its first Congregation — Troubles of
Ezekiel Hart, the first Jew to be elected to the Legislature — Final
Emancipation in 1832 — Jews fight on the Loyalist side against Popi-
neau's rebellion — Prominent Jews in various fields of activity —
Congregation "Shaar ha-Shomaim" — Toronto — First synagogue in
Victoria, B. C, in 1862 — Hamilton and Winnipeg — Other communi-
ties — Agricultural Colonies — Jewish Newspapers.
The beginning of the history of the Jews in Canada goes back
to legend. There is a tradition that the founder of the house of
Levis, from whom descended Henri de Levis, Duke de Vontadur,
Vicero)' of Canada for some time after 1626, and his more dis-
tinguished relative, Chevalier de Levis, who was Montcalm's suc-
cessor as commander of the French forces in Canada (1759)
and later became a marshal of France, were descendants of the
patriarch Levi Ben Jacob, and a cousin of iVlary of Nazareth.^
The earliest authentic records of the Jews of Canada go back
to the period when England and France were engaged in their
final contest for the mastery of the northern part of the conti-
nent. Aaron Hart (b. in London, 1724) was Commissary in
General Amherst's army, which invaded Canada from the south,
and there were in the same army three more Jewish officers :
' See Kohler in Publications IV, p. 87. See also for the sources of
this chapter "Publications'' I, pp. 1 17-120, and the article "Canada" in
the lavish Encyclopedia.
380
The Jews of Canada. 381
Emanuel de Cordova, Hananiel Garcia and Isaac Miranda. Hart
^vas later attached to General Haldimond's command at Three
Rivers, and at the close of the war settled in that city and be-
came seignior of Becancour.
There were, of course, no Jews on the other side of the
struggle, for France at that time suffered no Jewish inhabitants
in her colonies, nor Jewish soldiers in her armies. But it was
a Jew, Abraham Gradis (d. 1780), the head of the great French
banking house founded by his father, David Gradis (naturalized
in Bordeaux, 1731; d. 1751), who furnished money and sup-
plies to the French King to carry on the unsuccessful war with
England. Abraham Gradis had founded (in 1748) the Society
of Canada, a commercial organization, under the auspices of the
French go\'ernment, and erected magazines in Quebec. Excep-
tional privileges were later granted to hnn and his family in the
French colonies, and full civil rights were accorded him in Mar-
tinique in 1779. But the house of "the Rothschilds of the i8th
century" was finally ruined by the insurrections in Santo Do-
mingo and Martinique, combined with the losses which were oc-
casioned at home by the French Revolution. (See Wolf, "The
American Jezu . . ."pp. 476-82.)
About the time of the Canadian conquest by England (circa
1760) , a number of Jewish settlers took up their residence in Mon-
treal, including Lazarus David (b. 1734), Uriel Moresco, Samuel
Jacobs, Simon Levy, Fernandez da Fonseca, Abraham Franks,
Andrew Hays, Jacob de Maurera, Joseph Bindona, Levy Solo-
mons and Uriah Judah. Lazarus David was a large land owner
and was noted as a public spirited citizen. Several of the others
held offices in the English army; there were also among them
some extensive traders, who did much for the development of the
newly acquired colony. After they had been reinforced by other
settlers, a congregation, called "Shearit Israel," was organized
in 1768, which for nearly a century remained the only Jewish
cono-regation in Canada. Most of the members were Sephardim,
and they stood in close communion with the Spanish and Portu-
382 History of the Jews in America.
guese Jews of London, who presented them with two scrolls of
the Law for the newly founded congreg'ation. At first the con-
gregation met for worship in a hall on St. James Street; but in
1777 the members built the first synagogue, at the junction of
Notre Dame and St. James Streets, close tO' the present court
house, on a lot belonging to the David family, whose founder,
the above mentioned Lazarus David, died one year previously,
and was the first to be interred in the cemetery which the con-
gregation acquired in 1775. His son, David David (1764-1824),
was one of the founders of the Bank of Montreal in 1808.
The Rev. Jacob Raphael Cohen was the first regular minister
of the Montreal congregation of whom there remains any record.
He came there in 1778 and remained until 1782, when he went
to Philadelphia, where he became rabbi of Congregation Mick-
veh Israel. The president or parnas of the Montreal congrega-
tion in 1775 was Jacob Salesby (or Salisbury) Franks, a mem-
ber of the family whose other branch played an important part
in Philadelphia in the period of the Revolution. Abraham
Franks (1721-97) supported the British in repelling the Ameri-
can invasion, while his son-in-law. Levy Solomons, who later be-
came parnas of the Montreal congregation, was commanded by
the invading American general, Montgomery, to act as purveyor
to the hospitals for the American troops. But after the death
of General Montgomery and the retreat of the American forces
from Canada, Solomons, who was never paid for the services he
tendered to the invaders, was exposed to the resentment of the
British, as one suspected of sympathy for the revolting colonists.
He and his family were expelled from Montreal by General Bur-
goyne, but eventually was permitted to return.
In 1807 Ezekiel Hart, one of the four sons of Commissary
Aaron Hart, was elected to represent Three Rivers in the Leg-
islature. He declined to be sworn in according to the usual form,
"on the true faith of a Christian," but took the oath according
to the Jewish custom, on the Pentateuch, and with his head cov-
ered. At once a storm of opposition arose, due, it is said, not to
Removal of Civil Disabilities. 383
religious prejudice or intolerance, but to the fact that his polit-
ical opponents saw in this an opportunity of making a party
gain by depriving an antagonist of his seat. After heated dis-
cussions and the formality of a trial, he was expelled, and when
his constituents re-elected him, the House proposed passing a
bill to put his disqualification as a Jew beyond doubt. But the
go\-ernor, Sir John Craig, dissolved the Chamber before the bill
could pass. After a bill, in conformity with a petition by the
Jews, was passed in 1829, and sanctioned by royal proclamation
in January 1831, authorizing the Jews to keep a register of births,
marriages and deaths, they felt encouraged and . made another
attempt to secure recognition of their civil rights. When a new
bill extending the same political rights to Jews as to Christians
was introduced in the Legislative Assembly in March, 183 1, it
met with no opposition. It rapidly passed both the Assembly
and the Council, and received the royal assent June 5, 1832. The
Jews of Canada were thus emancipated about a cjuarter century
before their co-religionists in the mother country. Mr. Nathan
of British Columbia was the first Jewish member of the Canadian
Parliament.
When Canada was convulsed in 1837-38 by the rebellion led by
Papineau and others, a number of Jews fought on the Loyalist
side. Two members of the David family held cavalry commands
under \\'etherell at the action at St. Charles, and took a distin-
guished part in the battle of St. Eustache. Aaron Philip Hart,
grandson of the commissary, temporarily abandoned his large
law practice to raise a company of militia, which rendered valu-
able service. Jacob Henry Joseph and his brother Jesse were
with the troops on the Richelieu and at Chambly. Several Cana-
dian Jews won distinction in various capacities in the first half
of the last century. Dr. Aaron Hart David (b. in Montreal,
1812; d. there 1882), a grandson of Lazarus David, was dean
of the faculty of medicine of Bishop's College ; Samuel Ben-
jamin was the first Jew elected to the Montreal City Council; and
Tesse Joseph (b. in Berthier, Canada, 1817; d. in Montreal,
384 History of the Jews in America.
1904), one of a family of merchant princes, established the first
direct line of ships between Antwerp and Montreal, and was
appointed Belgian Consul in the latter city. His brother Jacob
was connected with the promotion of early Canadian railways
and telegraph lines, and another brother, Gershom, was the first
Jewish lawyer to be appointed a queen's counsel in Canada. All
these men were officers of the synagogue, at the time when its
rabbi. Rev. Abraham de Sola (b. in London, 1825; d. in New
York, 1882), was professor of Semitic languages and literature
at the McGill University.
The Congregation Shearit Israel passed through a crisis when
the old synagogue building had to be demolished, when the land
on which it stood reverted to the heirs of David David, after his
death in 1824. It was again forced to worship in a hall, until
the new synagogue on Chenneville Street was dedicated in 1838.
It had no regular minister after the retirement of Rabbi Cohen,
until nearly 60 years later, when Rabbi David Piza was appointed
in 1840 and was, six years later, succeeded by Rabbi Abraham
de Sola, who was in turn succeeded by his son, Dr. Meldola de
Sola (b. 1853), ■^'^'ho is stih one of the ministers of the congrega-
tion, his associate being Rev. Isaac de la Penyha.
A second congregation, of Polish and German, or Ashkenazic
Jews, was organized in Montreal in 1846, but existed only for a
short time. Another effort was made about twelve years later
with more success, and the result was the congregation "Shaar
Plashomaim," which was established in 1858, Abraham Hofnung,
.M. A. Ollendorf and Samuel Silverman were among the most
active of its charter members, and the Rev. Samuel Hofnung
was its earliest minister, who was soon succeeded by Rev. M.
Pass. The first building of this congregation was in St. Constant
Street, and was dedicated in i860. In 1886 it removed to its
present edifice in McGill College avenue. It has now two rabbis.
Rev. Dr. Herman Abramowitz and S. Goldstein. In 1863 was
founded the Youner Men's Hebrew Benevolent Society (now
called the Baron de Hirsch Institute and Hebrew Benevolent So-
Montreal and Toronto. 385
ciety), through which Baron de Hirsch and his executors did
much for the education and colonization of the Russian immi-
grants who began to come to Canada in considerable numbers
after 1881. The present Jewish population of Montreal is prob-
ably about 40,000, and it has ten synagogues, besides the two^ men-
tioned above. Of these, the Bet David Congregation (established
1888) is designated as Roumanian; the Bet Israel Congregation,
of which Rev. Hirschel Cohen is rabbi, is surnamed "Chevra
Shaas" ; the B'nai Jacob Synagogue (founded 1885) is mainly
Russian. There is also an Austro-Hungarian Congregation, a
Galician ("Chevra Kadisha Jeshurun") and a Reform Temple
(Emanuel, founded 1882). There is also the usual complement
of charitable, educational, fraternal and social organizations, in-
cluding Talmud Torah, a branch of the Jewish Theological Semi-
nary of New York, and a Jewish Lads' Brigade. The Jewish
community in Montreal and in Canada generally is in many re-
spects like the communities of the United States of a similar
size. But owing to the dissensions between religious denomina-
tions, and especially the complicated school cjuestion, there is
more open partisan hostility to Jews, both on the part of the press
and in public life, than in the United States, where the govern-
ment is strictly secular.
About 1845 ^ sufficient number of Jews had settled in Tor-
onto, Ont., to begin to think about the organization of a syna-
gogue; but little was accomplished until 1852, when a ceme-
tery was purchased and the Holy Blossom congregation was
established. Mark Samuel, Lewis Samuel and Alexander Mil-
ler did much to sustain the congregation in its early struggles.
It grew in strength and numbers under the presidency of Alfred
D. Benjamin during the closing years of the nineteenth cen-
tury, and it became necessary to remove from its first building in
Richmond Street to the present commodious edifice in Bon Street
(1902). Toronto, which had 1425 Jews in 1891 and 3,038 in
igoi, now has considerably over 10,000, with about ten congre-
o-ations and several charitable and fraternal organizations.
386 History of the Jews in America.
The discovery of gold in British Columbia in 1857 l^d to the
settlement there of a number of Jews, who built a synagogue in
Victoria in 1862. In 1882 a synagogue was erected in Hamil-
ton, and several years later the Jews of Winnipeg ( who num-
bered 645 in 1891) organized two congregations. There are
now seven congregations in Winnipeg, with a Jewish population
of about 8,000. It also has among the various commu-
nal organizations a Hebrew Liberal Club and a Hebrew Con-
servative Club. North Winnipeg is now represented in the
Provincial Parliament of Manitoba by S. Hart Green (b. ab.
1885), the honorary secretary of the Congregation Shaare Sho-
mayim and the president of the local B'nai B'rith Lodge.
There are now Jewish communities in more than twenty-five
separate localities in Canada, and the total number of Jews is about
70,000 and growing very fast (it was only 16,060 in 1901).
Besides the towns mentioned, there are Jews in Berlin (Ont.),
Belleville, Brandford, Calgary (Alberta), Chatham, N. B. ; Daw-
son (Yukon Territory), Glace Bay, C. B. ; Halifax, London,
Magnetowan, Ont.; Ottowa, Quebec, Regina (Saskatchewan).
St. Catherine's, St. John, Sydney, Sherbrooke, Vancouver, Wood-
stock and Salt River, N. B. ; Yarmouth and Yorkton.
There are in Canada about a dozen Jewish agricultural colo-
nies, most of which were founded or promoted by the Baron de
Hirsch Fund. The most important of them are Bender, Hirsch,
Ox Bow and Ou'appelle. There are altogether about 700 Jewish
farms occupying more than 110,000 acres, and sustaining a farm-
ing population of about 3,000.
Montreal has a Yiddish daily newspaper, the "Canadian Eagle,"
and an English Jewish weekly, "The Jewish Times," and there
is a Yiddish weekly in Winnipeg called the "Canadian Jew."
CHAETER XL.
JEWS IN SOUTH AMERICA^ MEXICO AND CUBA.
The first "minyan'' in Buenos Ayres, Argentine, in 1861 — Estimate of
the Jewish population in Argentine — Occupations and economic
condition of the various groups — Kosher meat and temporary syna-
gogues as indications of the religious conditions — Communities in
twenty-six other cities — The Agricultural Colonies — Brazil — The
rumor that General Floriano Peixotto, the second president of the
new Republic, was of Jewish origin — Communities in several cities
— The Colony Philippson — Jews in Montevido, Uruguay — Other
South American Republics — Isidor Borowski, who fought under
Bolivar — Panama — Moroccan Jews are liked by Peru Indians —
About ten thousand Jews in Mexico — Slowly increasing number in
Cuba, where Jews help to spread the American influence.
The immigration statistics of the modern Argentine Republic,
which began to be collected in 1854, did not count the Jews, as
such, and there is practically no records of the first settlement
of Jews there, which took place in the second half of the nine-
teenth century. It is related that there was a "minyan" in Buenos
Ayres on Yom Kippur, 1861, which was kept up irregularly for
ten years, and was composed of English, French and German
Jews. During the yellow fever epidemic of 1871 almost all of
them, who were agents or representatives of business houses, fled
the capital, and the "minyan" in that year was held in a little town
where most of them met. This little community organized a
"Congregacion Israelita" and built the first synagogue, before
Jews from Russia began to go there in considerable numbers.
A congregation of Moroccan Jews, "Congregacion Israelita La-
tina," was organized in 1891.
387
388 History of the Jews in America.
The report of the Jewish Colonization Association for 1909,
which contains a study of the Jewish population of Argentine,
estimates the number of Jews living in Buenos Ayres at 40,000,
and that of the interior towns — outside of the colonies — at
15,000 more. If we add to it the number of about 20,000 living
in the colonies Moiseville (Santa Fe), Clara, San Antonio, Santa
Isabel, Lucienville (Entre Rios), Mauricio, Baron de Hirsch
(Buenos Ayres) and Berriasconi (Pampa), in addition to the
Jewish immigration for the last three years, which averages
about 9,000 or 10,000, it seems certain that there are now
in the Republic of Argentine over 100,000 Jews, which means a
lai'ger number than in any country of the New World outside of
the United States.
About eight-tenths of the Jewish population of Buenos Ayres
are from Russia. The earliest settlers among them, who are
now also the wealthiest, are former colonists of the I. C. A. (as
the Jewish Colonization Association of Paris is designated). The
remainder is divided into about 3,000 Turkish, Arabian and
Greek Jews; 1,000 Moroccans and Italians; 1,500 French, Ger-
man, English and Dutch, etc. The first two groups contain many
wealthy merchants, but the great majority consists of dealers in
second-hand goods and of peddlers. The last group, which is
the oldest, consists of merchants of the higher grades. Among
the Russians there are also a large number of business people,
but a very large number are artisans in various trades. As to
their date of arrival, the English, French and German are the
oldest, as stated above. Some Moroccan and Italian families
have lived there about thirty years, but the majority of that
group came in the last decade. The earliest Turkish Jews came
there less than fifteen years ago, but the great majority of them
came about 1905. The Russians began to come in considerable
numbers about the time of the establishment of the first colonies,
and they still keep on coming in increasing numbers.
There are in Buenos Ayres about one hundred Jews engaged
in the liberal professions, two-thirds of whom are natives of
The Jews of Argentine. 389
Russia. The communal institutions leave much to be desired, but
there has been some improvement lately, and it is reported that
a large Jewish hospital will be erected there in the near future.
The religions conditions are indicated by the fact that about
7,000 kilograms of "Kosher" meat was sold there .daily in 1909,
and that on Yom Kippur of that year services were held in not
less than twenty-four different places, including the temple. M.
Samuel Halphen, a former religious teacher, was lately chosen
rabbi of Buenos Ayres, while Dr. Herbert Ashkenazi, who
studied at Berlin, and was chosen by the I. C. A. as chief rabbi
of the colonies, also resides in that city.
The Jews are now scattered all over Argentine, and some can
be found in almost any locality, especially in the provinces of
Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, Entre Rios and Cordoba. The above-
mentioned inc|uiry^ deals with the Jewish population of twenty-
six cities besides the capital, beginning with Rosario, Santa Fe,
which has among its 173,000 inhabitants more than 3,000 Jews,
2,500 are Russians, 359 Orientals and Moroccans and about 100
French and Germans. The cemetery was acquired in 1905 and
the congregation was organized in 1907. In Santa Fe, which
has less than 600 Jews, the Moroccans bought a cemetery as
early as 1895. Parona has a small community of less than 300,
with a Socicdad hraelita Argentina de Bencficencia, which was
founded in 1897. But most of the communal institutions and
the communities themselves are less than ten years old,, which
means that Jews are just beginning to spread over the country.
A majority of the Jews in the interior towns of Argentine are
former colonists, and most of them are doing tolerably well.
Their presence in a free and progressive country, where they can
be useful to themselves and to their neighbors, must therefore
be credited to the I. C. A. which has thus accomplished some
^ Enguete sur la Populatioyi Israelite en Argentine, in the "Rapport
de I'Administration Centrale . . ."of the I. C. A. for 1909. Paris,
1910, pp. 251-308.
390 History of the Jews in America.
g'l ;ocl, even for those whom it could not, for various reasons, turn
mto successful farmers.
The largest share of attention was, however, paid in the last
two decades to that part of the Jewish population of Argentine
which has settled in the agricultural colonies established by the
I. C. A. As early as 1889 independent attempts had been made
by Jewish immigrants from Russia to establish colonies in Ar-
gentine, but it was not done on a well-ordered plan, and later
these colonies and colonists were absorbed by the Jewish Colo-
nization Association. The oldest and most successful colony,
Moiseville, founded by Russian immigrants in 1890, before the
establishment of the I. C. A. was re-organized by that association
in 1891. Mauricio, in the province of Buenos Ayres, was estab-
lished about the same time, and the large group of colonies in the
province of Entre Rios, which is collectively called Clara (after
the Baroness de Hirsch), was founded in 1894. Despite the
friction which caused many colonists at considerable expense, to
leave the places where they were settled, and despite the prej-
udice which was aroused against the entire colonization scheme
by these seemingly interminable quairels, the agricultural colonies
in .\rgentine, as a whole, are succsssful and their future is bright.
The colonists are fast paying off their debts to the association
which assisted them to settle there, and many of them are even
chafing under the limitations which prevent them from paying
off more rapidly. The centers of Jewish population, both agricul-
tural and — indirectly — urban, which were thus artificially created
by the munificence of Baron de Hirsch, have become healthy and
natural, and are now attracting independent immigration. There
are now, as stated above, nearly 20,000 souls in the colonies, but
more than a fourth are described as non-colonists. There are
44 schools with more than 3,000 pupils in the colonies, and the
statistical tables from year to year show a slow and solid progress,
which augurs well for the future of the Jews in Argentine.
5j- ^ 'I* 'P ¥
There were, as far as known, but very few Jews in modern
The Jews of Brazil. 391
Brazil, even under the humane and scholarly Emperor Dom
Pedro II. ( 1825-91 ), who was well versed in Hebrew, and main-
tained friendly relations with several Jewish scholars in Europe.
The immense country attracted but few Jews after the Emperor
was deposed and a republican form of government instituted in
1889. There were some rumors at that time that General Flori-
ano Peixotto, one of the leaders of the revolution, who was the
first Vice-President and the second President (1891-94) of the
new republic, \\as of Jewish origin. But like die statements
about the Jewish ancestry of Christopher Columbus and many
other notables, they could never be verified, and there is not
available sufficient genealogical material in either case to prove
or disprove assertions of that nature.
In igoo a number of Roumanian Jews went to Brazil, but
effected no permanent settlement. A list of the leading mer-
chants of the various cities in Brazil, which was published by
the Bureau of American Republics about 1901, discloses a large
number of names unmistakably Jewish, most of them apparently
of German origin (Jmnsli Encyclopedia, s. v. Brazil). The for-
mation of a Jewish community in Rio de Janeiro, the capital of
Brazil, was reported in January, 1905 (in the South American
Journal of London), and a report in the Jewish Emigrant of St.
Petersburg, the Russian organ of the I. C. A., five years later
(1910, No. 20), tells of Jewish merchants in many large cities of
Brazil, including Rio Grande, Pelatas, Sao Gabriel, etc., and of
Porto Alegra, Rio Grande do Sul, where a community was then
about to be organized. The existence of a synagogue in Para,
"where they worship on the festivals," was reported in 1910.
{Jczcish Chronicle, Oct. 21, 1910.)
The chief interest of the Jewish world in the Jews of Brazil
is, however, concentrated on the agricultural colony, Philippson,
in the state of Rio Grande, where there are now settled about
400 Russian Jews, mostly from Bessarabia. It was founded
by the I. C. A. about six years ago, and is now under the
392 History of the Jews in America.
direction of M. Leibowitz, one of its former oldest employees in
Argentine. The colony is in a flourishing condition, and it is
being constantly enlarged, while new settlements are projected
in the same part of the country. Here, too, like in Argentine,
the colony attracts some Jewish immigration, and it was also the
cause of the establishment of small Jewish settlements in the
nearby towns of Pinhal, Santa Maria, Cruz Alta, etc. The num-
ber of Jews in Brazil is now estimated at 3,000.
There are, according to the report mentioned at the beginning
of this chapter, about 150 Jews in Montevido, the capital of Uru-
guay, South America, most of whom came there from Buenos
Ayres. About half of them are from Russia, the remainder hail
from Greece, France and Alsace, and Roumania. They are en-
gaged in various occupations and theiir material condition is not
bad. Ten young Russian Jews joined the army and three of them
attained the rank of sergeant. There is hardly any religious ac-
tivity, except for a "minyan" held on Yom Kippur. Matzoth for
the Passover are brought from Buenos Ayres, and a "Mohel"
is also usually brought from there when the occasion arises.
There are several thousand Jews scattered over the other re-
publics of South America, but they are mostly recent arrivals
and unorganized, and very little is known about them. It is
probable that the Polish-Jewish military adventurer, Isidor Bo-
rowski (b. in Warsaw, 1803; killed at the siege of Herat, Af-
ghanistan, 1837), who fought under the great hero of South
American independence, Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) in many
battles,^ was then the only Jew in that part of the world. Even
at present, the number of Jews in the countries liberated by Boli-
^'ar is insignificant. There are about 500 Jews in Venezuela,
mostly in the capital, Caracas, where the first Jewish congrega-
tion was founded in 1899. (American-Jewish Year Book 5660,
p. 289). According to the writers of the American chapter in
Outlines of Jewish History by Lady Magnus, for which — as
stated in the preface — "Lady Magnus is in no wise responsible,"
'See Jew. Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, p. 326-27.
Bolivia, Panama and Mexico. 393
Jewish congregations were formed in Caracas and Coro, Vene-
zuela, in the middle of the nineteenth centur}', presumably by
Jews who lived there formerly as Maranos. But if these con-
gregations existed at all, they must have been short-lived, and
it is not certain that even the latest "first congregation" of 1899
is still in existence.
Haidly anything is known of Jews in Bolivia or Colombia, but
it is certain that a considerable number are now to be found in
the diminutive Republic of Panama, through which the great
isthmian canal is now being cut by the United States. There
were enough Jews in the city of Panama before that time to ac-
quire a cemetery about 1905. The Alliance Israelite Universelle
of Paris assisted a number of Moroccan Jews to settle in
Peru, where they were reported as doing well and being better
liked by the Indians than either Europeans or Chinese. But the
climate does not agree with them, and many of them leave
Peru as soon as they save a sufficient amount of money. About
100 Jewish residents, Moroccan, French and English, who
own the largest stores and rubber plantations, are found in
Iquitos, Peru, which was at one time an Indian village. There
is a small community of Russian Jews in Lima. A number of
prosperous Jewish merchants are located in Santiago, Chile, and
in other cities of that republic, but there is no record of religious
organization or of communal activities.
The number of Jews in Mexico is estimated to be not far
from 10,000, mostly Syrians, Moroccans and French Alsatians.
But as far as it is known, there is among them no organization
and no religious life except an occasional "minyan" on the high
holidays.
There is also a slowly increasing number of Jews in Cuba,
mostly at Havana, where Moroccan and Syrian or Turkish Jews
came to trade long ago ; but since it was liberated from the Span-
ish yoke by the United States, Jewish immigrants from Europe,
who formerly lived in the United States, settle there and help to
spread the American influence.
CHAPTER XLI.
MEN OF EMINENCE IN THE ARTS.SCIENCES AND THE PROFESSIONS.
Jews who attained eminence in the world of art and of science — Moses
J. Ezekiel — Ephraim Keyser — Isidor Konti — Victor D. Brenner —
Butensky and Davidson — Painters: Henry Mosler, Constant Mayer,
H. N. Hyneman and George D. M. Peixotto — Max Rosenthal and
his son, Albert — Max Weyl, Toby E. Rosenthal, Louis Loeb and
Katherine M. Cohen — Some cartoonists and caricaturists — Musi-
cians, composers and musical directors — The Damrosch family, Ga-
brilowitsch, Hofifman and Ellman — Operatic and theatrical man-
agers and impressarios — Playwrights and actors — Scientists: A. A.
Michelson, Morris Bloomfield, Jacob H. Hollander, Charles Wald-
stein and his family — Charles Gross — Edwin R. A. Seligman, Adolph
Cohn, Jaques Loeb, Simon Flexner and Abraham Jacobi — Eabian
Franklin — Engineers: Sutro, Gottlieb and Jacobs — Some eminent
physicians and lawyers — Merchants and financiers.
While the social and poHtical success of the Jews in a country
are usually taken as an indication of its liberalism and the equal-
ity of its citizens, regardless of their creed, the contribution of
Jews to its intellectual and artistic achievements is the best proof
that this ecjuality brings its own reward for the general good.
We have seen in the preceding chapters how the Jews of the
United States assisted in the material development of the coun-
try, how they participated in the battles for its independence and
for its preservation, and how they are now doing their share
of the country's useful work as working men, as business men,
as professional men, etc., some of them having occupied before,
and others occupying now, prominent positions in various walks
of life. It remains now to cite several instances of Jews who at-
394
Moses Jacob Ezekiel. 395
lained distinction in the noble callings of the artist and the sci-
entist, reflecting glor)' on their professions, as well as on the
country of their birth or adoption.
Moses Jacob Ezekiel (b. in Richmond, Va., 1844), the sculp-
tor, now residing at Rome, is probably the greatest Jewish artist
that this country has produced. He was educated at the Vn--
ginia Military Institute, from which, after serving as a Con-
federate soldier in the Civil War, he graduated in 1866. He
then studied anatomy at the Medical College of Virginia, and in
J 868 removed to Cincinnati, going from there a year later to
Berlin, where he studied at the Royal Academy of Art. He was
admitted to membership in the Berlin Society of Artists for his
colossal bust of Washington, which is now in the Cincinnati Art
Museum, and he was the first foreigner to win the Michael Beer
prize. During a visit to America in 1874 he executed in marble
the group representing "Religious Liberty" — the tribute of the
Independent Order of B'nai B'rith to the centennial celebration
of American independence. The statue was unveiled in 1876 in
Fairmount Park, Philadelphia (see the frontispiece). Upon his
return to Rome Ezekiel leased a portion of the ruins of the Baths
of Diocletian (Emperor of Rome, 284-305) and transformed
them into one of the most beautiful studios in Europe. He has
been elected a member of various academies and received other
distinctions. Among his best known productions are : busts of
Eve, Homer, David, Judith and Liszt; the Fountain of Neptune,
for the town of Neptune, Italy; the Jefferson Monument, for
Louisville, Ky. ; Virginia Mourning Her Dead, at Lexington,
Va., and a dozen heroic statues (of Phidias, Raphael, Michel-
angelo, Titian, Rembrandt, etc.), which are placed in the niches
of the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington.
Ephraim Keyser (b. in Baltimore, Md., 1850) is another
prominent Jewish-American sculptor. He was educated at the
public schools and the City College of Baltimore, and later
studied at the Royal Academies of Fine Art in Munich and Ber-
lin. He maintained a studio in Rome from 1880 to 1886, lived
396 History of the Jews in America.
in New York from 1887 to 1893, when he settled in his native
city as instructor in modelHng at the Maryland Institute Art
School, and also (since 1902) at the Rhinehart School for Sculp-
ture. Among his best known works are the statue of Major-
General Baron De Kalb, erected by the United States Govern-
ment at Annapolis, Md., the tomb of President Chester A. Arthur
at the Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y., and portrait busts of well
known men.
Isidore Konti (b. in Vienna, 1862; a. 1890) executed the
most important of his works after he came to the United States.
He did much decorative, monumental and ideal work for the
Chicago Exposition in 1893, for the Dewey Arch, the Buffalo
Exposition af 1901 and the St. Louis Exposition of 1904, having
made for the latter more than twenty different groups. Among
his other works are a marble fountain at Yonkers, N. Y., where
he resides, and a group representing South America for the build-
ing of the International Bureau of American Republics in Wash-
ington. Konti received numerous medals for his work here and
abroad, and is a member of various societies of artists, numismat-
ists, etc.
Victor David Brenner (b. in Shavly, Russia, 1871 ; a. 1890),
the medallist and sculptor, is now best known to the general pub-
lic as the designer of the "Lincoln penny." He received awards
from the Exposition and the Salon in Paris, 1900; from the
Buffalo Exposition of 1901 and the World's Fair of St. Louis
in 1904. He has works in the Paris Mint, Munich Glyptothek,
Vienna Numismatic Society, Metropolitan Museum of Art of
New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Julius Butensky (b. in Novogrudek, Russia; a. 1905) is
another sculptor and medallist of the younger generation who
did his best work since he came to this country, of which the
best known is the statue at the Metropolitan Museum of Art of
New York representing "The Beating of Swords Into Plow-
shares" ; and a medal presented to Henry Rice (b. in Germany,
1835) on his retiring from the presidency of the United Hebrew
Painters and Cartoonists. 397
Charities of New York. Joseph Davidson, also a native of
Russia, who came here as a child and developed his talent in
New York, is one of the youngest sculptors whose work has
attracted favorable attention.
Henr)- Mosler (b. in New York, 1841), the genre painter,
occupies a prominent position among American artists. He was
taken to Cincinnati when a child, and began to study art there
at the age of ten. In 1863 he went to Europe, where he con-
tinued his study of art, first in Dueseldorf and later in Paris.
He came back to Cincinnati in 1866, but returned to Europe in
1874, and spent the following twenty years in Munich and Paris.
A picture which he exhibited in the latter city in 1879 was after-
wards purchase;l by the French government for the Luxemburg
gallery, being the first work so purchased from an American
artist.
Constant Alayer (b. in Besancon, France, 1832), the French
painter, who arrived in the United States in 1857 and lived
here more than a generation before he returned to his native
country, was among the best known artists of his time here. Her-
man Naphtali Hyneman (b. in Philadelphia, 1849), who studied
for eight years in Germany and France, and George D. M. Peix-
otto (b. in Cleveland, O., 1857), eldest son of Benjamin F. Peix-
otto, are recognized as masters among American portrait painters,
the latter also having done notable work as a mural decorator.
Other well-known Jewish ,:rtists are: Max Rosenthal (b. in
Turek, Russian-Poland, 1833; a. 1849), who was artist for the
Government during the Civil War, making illustrations for re-
ports of the United States Military Commission, and who after-
wards etched many historical portraits and painted a considerable
number of pictures; Albert Rosenthal (b. in Philadelphia, 1863),
widely known as etcher and painter of portraits of famous Ameri-
cans, his son and pupil; Max Weyl (b. in Germany, 1837;
a. i8ss). best known as a landscape painter, and Toby" Edward
Rosenthal ( b. in New Haven, Conn., 1848), who won medals
in Europe and America, a genre and portrait painter, who re-
398 History of the Jews in America,
sides in Munich, Bavaria; Louis Loeb (b. in Cleveland, O.,
1866; d. in New York, 1909), a painter and illustrator; Miss
Katherine M. Cohen (b. in Philadelphia, 1859), a well-known
sculptor and painter.
Among the caricaturists or cartoonists of the day deserve to
be mentioned Frederick Burr Opper (b. in Madison, O., 1857) ;
Henry (Hy) Mayer (b. in Worms, Germany, 1868; a. i88C,)
and Reuben Lucius Goldberg (b. in San Francisco, 1883)..
The number of Jews who achieved distinction as musicians,
composers of music, musical directors, etc., is very large, and
only a few of them can be mentioned here. Dr. Leopold Dam-
rosch (b. in Prussia, 1832; d. in New York, 1885) came to
New York in 1871 as conductor of the Arion Society, and soon
became very successful, both as a violinist and as conductor of
his own compositions. He was successively director of the Phil-
harmonic Society, of the Symphony Society and of the Metro-
politan Opera House of New York. His older son, Frank H.
(b. in Breslau, Germany, 1859), who was director of music of
the New Yark public schools for eight years, is (since 1905) at
the head of the Institute of Musical Art in that city, which was
founded by a becjuest made for that purpose by the late Solomon
Loeb. A second son, Walter Johannes Damrosch (b. in Bres-
lau), the composer and director, married Margaret J. Blaine, the
daughter of the great American statesman, James G. Blaine, who
was a candidate for the presidency in 1884. A daughter of Dr.
Damrosch is married to David Mannes, the director of the New
York Music School Settlement.
Among the eminent Jewish musicians who frec|uently visit
the United States are the pianist, Joseph Gabrilowitsch, a na-
tive of Russia, who married the only surviving daughter of the
great American humorist, Samuel L. Clemens (1835-1910, bet-
ter known as "Mark Twain"), Joseph Hoffman, and Mischa
Ellman, the violinist, likewise a native of Russia.
In the operatic and theatrical world Jews are predominant
as managers and impressarios. The best known among them
The Drama. Science. 399
are David Belasco (b. in San Francisco, Cal., 1859), who is also
a dramatic author; Abraham Lincoha Erlanger (b. in Buffalo,
N. Y., i860), whose brother, Mitchell Louis, was elected a jus-
tice of the Supreme Court of New York County in 1906; Daniel
Frohman (b. in Sandusky, O., 1853), and his brother, Charles
(b. there 1860).
Charles Klein (b. in London, Eng., 1867) is a well-known
playwright, two of whose most successful plays, "The Auction-
eer" and "The Music Master," were especially written for David
Warfield (b. in San Francisco, 1866), also a Jew, who is in the
iront rank of the theatrical profession in this country. These
plays were produced under the management of David Belasco,
and it presents only one of many such instances on the American
stage in which the author, the actor or actress playing the lead-
ing part and the manager, or impressario, are all Jews. Oscar
Hammerstein (b. in Berlin, 1847; a. 1863) is an inventor, play-
wright, builder and manager of theatres and opera houses, who
has rendered valuable service in the development of operatic
productions in the United States. Sydney Rosenfeld (b. in
Richmond, Va., 1855) is the author of dramas, operettas and
musical plays which have found much favor with the public.
In the world of science many Jews have attained eminence as
original investigators and as imiversity professors. Professor
Albert Abraham Michelson (b. in Strelno, Germany, 1852) was
brought as a child to San Francisco, and was from there ap-
pointed to the U. S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., grad-
uating in 1873. He was an instructor in physics and chemistry
at the Naval Academy in 1875-9, and was in the office of the
Nautical Almanac in Washington until 1880, when he resigned
from the United States Navy. After spending several years
studying in Germany and France he became professor of physics
at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, O. (1883-9).
For the following three years he occupied a similar position at
Clark LTniversity, in ^^'orcester, Mass. Since 1892 he has been
professor and head of the department of physics in the University
400 History of the Jews in America.
of Chicago. He is a member of various learned societies here and
abroad, including a corresponding membership in the Academy
des Sciences of the Institute de France. He won numerous prizes
and medals for his great scientific achievements, some of which,
like the Copley Medal, awarded by the Royal Society of London,
and the Nobel Prize for physics (both in 1907), indicate that he
is recognized as one of the greatest scientists of the age. He is
best known as the discoverer of a new method for determining
the velocity of light. His younger brother, Charles Michelson
(b. in Virginia City, Nev., 1869), is editor of the "Chicago
American," and their sister. Miss Miriam (b. in Calaveras, Cal,
1870), is a dramatic critic and has also written numerous short
stories and several novels.
Maurice Bloomfield (b. in Bielitz, Austria, 1855), who was
brought here at the age of twelve, is a prominent Sanskrit scholar
and is recognized as the chief living authority on the Atharva
Veda. He has written several important works on his special
subjects, and has been professor of Sanskrit and Comparative
philology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Md., since
1881, Jacob H. Hollander (b. in Baltimore, 1871), who was ap-
pointed by President McKinley special commissioner to Porto
R.ico and later treasurer of that island colony, is professor of polit-
ical emonomy at the same university. Professor Hollander was
appointed by President Roosevelt United States special agent on
taxation in Indian Territory (1904), and was in the following
year sent as special commissioner to the Republic of San Domingo
to investigate its public debt, and was the confidential agent of the
Department of State with respect to Dominican affairs. Since
1908 he has been the financial adviser of the Dominican Republic.
Professor Hollander takes an active interest in Jewish affairs, and
has contributed valuable papers on Jewish history to the publica-
tions of the American-Jewish Historical Society, of which he is
an officer.
Professor Charles Waldstein (b. in New York, 1856), the
In the World of Science. 401
great authority on Greek art and archeology of Cambridge Uni-
versity, England, is another American-Jewish scholar of the
highest type, who is interested in Jewish matters. Among many
other books, he wrote The Jeivish Question and the Mission of
the Jeivs (1899). Louis Waldstein, the pathologist and author
(b. in New York, 1853), and Martin Waldstein (b. 1854), the
chemist, are his older brothers. Lewis Einstein (b. in New York,
1877), formerly secretary of the American Embassy in Constan-
tinople, and later secretary of legation in Peking, who has re-
cently been appointed by President Taft as United States Min-
ister to the Republic of Costa Rico, is a brother-in-law of Pro-
fessor Waldstein.
Charles Gross (b. in Troy, N. Y., 1857; d. 1909), professor
of history and political science at Harvard University, who was
at the time of his death considered the chief authority in the
world on English mediaeval and economic history, was one of the
vice-presidents of the American-Jewish Historical Society, and
contributed to our historical literature a profound study on
The Exchequer of the Jczvs in the Mediaeval Judiciary of Eng-
land, and an English translation of Dr. Kayserling's notable work
on the participation of the Jews in the discovery of the New
World.
Professor Edwin R. A. Seligman (b. in New York, 1862), a
member of the well known family of financiers and philanthro-
pists, who began to lecture on economics in Columbia University,
New York, in 1885, and has been professor of political economy
there since 1891, is a recognized authority on the question of taxa-
tion and the author of standard works on the subect. Adolphe
Cohn (b. in Paris, France, 1851 ; a. 1875), a son of the French-
Jewish philanthropist, Albert Cohn (1814-77), has been profes-
sor of romance, languages and literatures at Columbia since
1891. Jaques Loeb (b. in Germany, 1859), the eminent biologist,
who taught at American universities for about twenty years, is
now at the head of the department of experimental biology in the
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. The
402 History of the Jews in America.
head of that institute is hkewise a Jew, Dr. Simon Flexner (b. in
Louisville, Ky., 1863), formerly professor of pathology and anat-
omy at Johns Hopkins University (1891-99) and at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania (1899-1904). His serum for the cure
of cerebro-spinal meningitis is one of the great medical achieve-
ments of the age.
Dr. Abraham Jacobi (b. in Westphalia, 1830; a. 1853), who
came to New York after his participation in the revolutionary
movement in Germany in 1848, was for more than fifty years
professor of the diseases of children at the University of New
York (Columbia, 1870-1902). He was highly honored on the
occasion of the eightieth anniversary of his birth in 1910, and
was in the following year elected president of the American
Medical Association.
Fabian Franklin (b. in Eger, Hungary, 1853), a nephew of
Michael Heilprin, came here as a child and was educated in
Washington. He was a civil engineer and surveyor from 1869
to 1877, and a professor of mathematics at Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, 1879-95. For the following thirteeti years he was editor
of the "Baltimore News," and is now (since Oct., 1909) asso-
ciate editor of the "New York Evening Post."
Adolph Heinrich Joseph Sutro (b. at Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhen-
ish Prussia, 1830; a. 1850; d. in San Francisco, 1898) was
educated at the polytechnic schools of his native country, and
when he came to America he was soon attracted by the discov-
ery of gold in California, and from there went to Nevada. He
projected and later (1869-79) built the Sutro tunnel under the
Comstock lode, and when it was finished he settled in San Fran-
cisco, of which city he was elected Mayor in 1894. It was said
that he owned about one-tenth of the area of San Francisco, in-
cluding Sutro Heights, which he turned into a beautiful public
park and which became the property of the municipality after
his death. His library, which consisted of over 200,000 volumes,
contained over 100 rare Hebrew manuscripts.
In Professional Life. 403
Abraham Gottlieb (b. in Bohemia, 1837; a. 1866; d. in Chi-
cago, 1894) grachiated from the University of Prague, and was
engaged as an engineer in the construction of an Austrian rail-
road when he went to America and settled in Chicago. When
he was elected president of the Keystone Bridge Company, he re-
moved to Pittsburg (1877). In that capacity he constructed
many bridges in various parts of the country, inctluding the
Madison Avenue bridge in New York City, He returned to
Chicago in 1884 and was for a time connected (as consulting
engineer and as chief engineer of the construction department)
with the World's Columbian Exposition. He also took an active
interest in Jewish affairs, and was for a time president of the
Rodeph Shalom congregation in Pittsburg, and later of Zion
congregation, Chicago.
Charles M. Jacobs (b. in Hull, England, 1850), who designed
the tunnels which connect the Pennsylvania Railroad and the
Long Island Railroad with the center of New York, is an Eng-
lish Jew, who is considered to be the greatest authority on tunnel
building, both here and abroad.
Jews are well represented in the front ranks of the medical
and the legal professions. Among the eminent physicians, be-
sides those mentioned formerly, are men like Dr. Isaac Adler
(b. in Alzey, Germany, 1849; a. 1857), Dr. Max Einhorn (b. in
Grodno, Russia, 1862; a. 1884), both of New York; Dr. Jacob
da Silva Solis-Cohen (b. in New York, 1838) and his brother,
Solomon (b. in Philadelphia, 1857), who reside in Philadelphia,
and Dr. Nathan Jacobson (b. in Syracuse, N. Y., 1857) oi the
Syracuse University. Samuel Untermyer (b. in Lynchburg, Va.,
1858) of New York, Louis D. Brandeis (b. in Louisville, Ky.,
1856) of Boston, Levy Mayer (b. in Richmond, Va., 1858) of
Chicago, and Judge Max C. Sloss (b. in New York, 1869, re-
cently re-elected Justice of the Supreme Court of California) of
San Francisco, are but a few of the Jewish lawyers who have
attained eminence in their profession.
404 History of the Jews in America.
While the number of Jews who are prominent in commerce,
finance and industry is considerable, and some families, like the
Gug-genheims, Lewisohns, Schiffs or Strauses of New York, and
men like Julius Rosenwald and Edward Morris (b. 1866) of
Chicago, stand high in the world of large affairs, none of them
is classed among the small number of immensely wealthy Ameri-
cans. It is rather in the diffusion of wealth, in the large number
and large proportion of well-to-do and affluent, than in the pre-
eminence of the Jew as the greatest of capitalists, that the con-
dition of the Jews in America is seen to the best advantage.
CHAPTER XLII.
LITERATURE : HEBREW AND ENGLISH. PERIODICALS.
Curiosities of early American Jewish literature which belong to the
domain of bibliography — Rabbinical works: Responses, commen-
taries and Homiletics — Hebrew works of a modern character — Ehr-
lich's Mikra Ki-Peshuto and Eisenstein's Ozar Israel — Neo-Hebrew
Poets and literati — Jewish writers in the vernacular — ^"Ghetto
Stories" — Writers on non-Jewish subjects — Scientific works —
Writers on Jewish subjects and contributors to the "Jewish En-
cyclopedia" — A. S. Freidus — Non-Jewish writers about Jews —
Daly — Frederic, Davitt and Hapgood — Journalists, editors and pub-
lishers — The Ochs brothers; the Rosewaters — Pulitzer and de
Young of Jewish descent — The Jewish denominational press in
English — The "Sanatorium."
Jewish literature in the New World, as in almost all countries
of the Old World, begins with Hebrew works of a religious na-
ture, and branches out on one side into the special dialect which is
spoken by the Jews among themselves, and on the other — into
the vernacular. The strictly religious work is not the only one
written in Hebrew for any length of time, for there is always a
movement towards secular knowledge, which usually begins with
a tendency to study Hebrew for its scientific value rather than
for its sacredness. In modern times this process of development
can be traced clearly in Germany, Holland, Poland and Russia,
as well as in America, although here we are yet at the very be-
ginning of our literary activity, and what has been accomplished
until the present time may in the future be of more interest to
the bibliographer than to the historian of literature. All that
was written here by Jews for Jews in Hebrew, Judeo-Spanish
405
406 History of the Jews in America.
and English until about the middle of the nineteenth century,
including the works and periodicals that have been mentioned
in the preceding chapters, while the authors or editors were under
consideration, mostly belongs to the domain of curiosities.'^ It
was only in the second half of the last century, when the number
of Orthodox Jews and of those able to read modern Hebrew
was fast increasing, that a serious attempt to write books for
them was made in this country.
The strictly rabbinical woi^ks, like "responses" on disputed
points of religious law or practice, commentaries on parts of the
Talmud, and homiletic works, represent the continuation of the
most ancient form of Jewish literature, and deserve to be treated
first. According to Mr. Eisenstein, the honor of being the author
of the first book of American "responsa" belongs to Rabbi Josep
Moses Aronson (d. in New York, 1874), author of Matai
Moshc, a work which, like numerous others by 'orthodox rabbis
of this country, was printed in Jerusalem. Other rabbinical
works, of which there were written in this country a larger
number than is generally supposed, include Heker Halakah
(New York, 1886), by Rabbi Aaron Spivak, formerly of Omsk,
Russia ; Sefer Har-El on tractate Bikkurim of the Jerusalem Tal-
mud by Rabbi Abraham Eliezer Alperstein (Chicago, 1886) ;
Shod Ke-Inyan (Jerusalem, 1895), by Rabbi Shalom Elhanan
joffe (b. in Russia, 1845) ! ha-poteah, zve-hahotem, by Rabbi
Benjamin Gitelson of Cleveland (New York, 1898); Torat
Meir on Rashi's Talmudical commentary, by Meir Freiman
(New York, 1904) ; Ycgiot Mordecai on the Talmud by Mor-
decai Garfil (Piotrkow, 1907) ; Bet Abraham, by Rabbi Abraham
Eber Hirshowitz (Jerusalem, 1908). The venerable Rabbi A. J-
G. Lesser is the author of Bet ha-Midrash (Chicago, 1897), which
' Those who want to follow up the Subject, which is by no means
uninteresting, are referred to Early Jewish Literature in America, by
Geo. A. Kohut, in "Publications" III, pp. 103-47, and to J. D. Eisen-
stein's The Development of Jewish Casuistic Literature in America,
ibid XII, pp. 139-47.
Eabbinical and "Haskalah" Works. 407
contains homiletics and halaka, and Rabbi Moses Simon Sivitz
of Pittsburg (b. 1855) is the author of four books on various
rabbinical subjects, all printed in Jerusalem. The number of.
works on "derush" or homiletics is still larger, and includes
ha-Emet ha-Ibriah (Chicago, 1877) and Or Hayc Lebabot
( New York, 1885), by Jehiel Judah Levinsohn (d. in New York,
1895); Atcret Zchi, by Rabbi Zebi Lass (New York, 1902)
Nchmad le-Mare, by Zeeb Dob Wittenstein (Cleveland, 1903)
Shebil ha-Zohab, by Rabbi Baruch Kohen (New York, 1903)
Maasch Hosheb, by Rabbi H. S. Brodsky of Newark (New
York, 1907). Teomc Zcbiah (Chicago, 1891), by Baruch Et-
telson (1815-91), on some difficult passages in Agadah, and
Shaare Deah (New York, 1899), by Rabbi Shabbetai Sofer, be-
long to the same class, though of a somewhat different nature.
The first substantial Hebrew book printed in America, Abne
Joshua (New York, i860), by Joshua Falk ben Mordecai ha-
Kohen, though nominally a rabbinical book, actually belongs to
the more secular class of literature, which borders on Haskalah.
The same can also be said of Holzman's Einck Rephaiin (New
York, 1865), and perhaps also of Ttib Taam in defense of the
Jewish method of slaughtering cattle for Kosher food, by Aaron
Zebi Friedman of Stavisk ( 1822-66), which is said to have been
translated into English, German and French.' Ha-Mahnaim
(New York, 1888), by Mayer Rabinowitz, and Wolf Schur's
Ncsah Israel come nearer to the spirit of modernity or "enlight-
enment," while works like ha-Dat wc-ha-Torah (New York,
1887) and Meziat ha-Shcm ■n'C-ha-Olam (ibid, 1893), by Shalom
Joseph Silberstein (b. in Kovno, 1846; a. 1881), go far in the
direction of free thinking. Valuable contributions to the Science
of Judaism were made by Nehemiah Samuel Libowitz (b. in
Kalna, 1862; a. 1881), author of a biography of Leon Modena
(New York, 1901) and other works; by Benzion Eisenstadt, au-
' See Dr. B. Drachman, Neo-Hehraic Literature in America, appended
to the Seventh Biennial Report of the Jewisb Theological Seminary
Ass'n (New York, 1900).
408 History of the Jews in America.
thor of Hakme Israel be-America (ibid, 1903); by Arnold B.
Elirlich (b. in Wlodowka, Russia, 1848), autbor of a remarkable
commentary on the Bible which he calls Mikra Ki-Peshuto (Ber-
lin) ; by Abraham H. Rosenberg (b. in Pinsk, 1838; a. 1891), of
whose Osar he-Shemot, a Cyclopedia of Biblical literature, four
volumes were issued in New York ; and by Judah David Eisen-
stein, a prolific writer in Hebrew and English, who is now editing
the Osar Israel, a Hebrew Encyclopedia, of which seven volumes
have appeared, and to which the editor is himself the principal
contributor of articles. Rabbi Mordecai Zeeb (Max) Raisin (b.
1879) is the author of a short "History of the Jews in America"
in Hebrew, which appeared in Warsaw, Poland, in 1902.
Of literature in the restricted sense, or fiction, hardly anything
worth mentioning was written in Hebrew in America. But the
study and writing of neo-Hebrew cannot be thought of without
the production of poetry, and some collection of Hebrew songs
possessing considerable merit were published in this country,
mostly by authors who acquired their reputation abroad before
arrix'ing in this country. The poetical works of Naphtali Hirz
Imber, Menahem Mendel Dolitzki and Isaac Rabinowitz ("Ish
Kovno," d. in New York, 1900, aged 54) belong to that class, and
the same can be said of the quasi-scientific works of Joseph Loeb
Sossnitz (1837-1910) and Ephraim Deinard (b. 1846), who has
recently compiled a list containing about six hundred names of
works in Hebrew and Yiddish which appeared in the United
States. * There were also some earlier writers of Hebrew poetry
in America, notably Moses Aaron Schreiber, who composed the
Centennial poem Minhaf Yehudah in 1876, and the hazzan Hay-
vim Weinshel (1834-1900), author of Nitci Naamonim (New
York, 1891). Gerson Rosenzweig, the epigramatist and author
of the excellent Talmudical parody, Maseket America, who has
also translated the American national songs into Hebrew, came
here a young man, and his talent is more distinctively American.
The Hebrew periodical literature, which begins with Hirsch
Bernstein's ha-Zofah be-Erez ha-Hadashah {i8yo-y6) , which was
Neo-Hebrew Periodicals. 409
mentioned in a former chapter, was never securely established in
this country up to the present time. Most of the Hebrew Jour-
nals or magazines, like Deinard's weekly ha-Lcomi and Rosenz-
weig's monthly Kadimah, existed for less than a year. The Hekal
ha-Ibriyah, edited by N. B. Ettelsohn and S. L. Marcus in Chi-
cago, appeared from 1877 to 1879 as a supplement to their Judeo-
Cierman Israclitische Presse. Michael Levi Rodkinson (Frum-
kin, d. m New York, 1904, aged 59), who later prepared a trans-
lation of parts of the Babylonian Talmud into English, edited his
weekly ha-Kol in New Yorkfor about two years (1889-90). Wolf
Schur's he-Pisgah, which was later called ha-Tehiyah, appeared
irregularly in New York, later in Baltimore, and still later in
Chicago, during the last decade of the nineteenth century. The
monthly Ner ha-Maarabi, edited by Abraham H. Rosenberg and
later by Samuel Schwarzberg, existed less than three years
(1895-97), and another monthly, ha-Modia la-Hadashim, edited
by Herman Rosenthal and Abraham H. Rosenberg (1900-1), had
a still shorter life. The weekly ha-Ibri, which was founded by
K. H. Sarasohn and edited by Gerson Rosenzweig, appeared regu-
larly from 1892 to 1898. Moses Goldman (b. 1863; a. 1890)
began the publication of his ha-Lcom as a monthly in 1901 ; it
later appeared for several years as a weekly and afterwards for
a short time as a daily. Since its suspension America had no
other Hebrew periodical until the neo-Hebrew litterateur, Reuben
Brainin, began to publish in New York (1911) his weekly ha-
Deror, of which fifteen numbers appeared. Rosenzweig's monthly
ha-Deborah and Rabbi T. Isaacson's ha-Rdbbani, also a monthly,
are now the Hebrew periodicals appearing -in the United States.
•J^ :^ :^ ^ :^
The contribution of Jews to American literature consists mostly
of descriptions of Jewish life, and of what has lately became
known as "ghetto stories." Emma Lazarus, whose work was de-
scribed in a preceding chapter, did not confine herself to Jewish
themes, and was followed in this respect by other Jewish writers
of her sex, like Mary Moss, the critic ; Martha Morton, the play-
410 History of the Jews in America.
Wright, and Emily Gerson Goldsmith, the author of Juvenile
stories. Annie Nathan Meyer, the founder of Barnard College
(Columbia University, New York), also belongs to this class of
writers,- while Martha Wolfenstein (1869-1906) of Cleveland,
O., belongs to the front rank of the other class of writers who
attempted to depict Jewish life in this country or abroad. To
the latter class belong Herman Bernstein (b. 1876; a. 1893), who
writes on Russian as well as on Jewish subjects; Rudolph Block
(b. in New York, 1870), the journalist, who writes of Jewish
life under the pen-name "Bruno Lessing" ; Ezra S. Brudno (b.
1877) ; Abraham Cahan, the labor leader and Yiddish journalist;
Isaac K. Eriedman (b. in Chicago, 1870), and James Oppenheim
(b. in St. Paul, Minn., 1882), who has also written on other
than Jewish subjects. To the same class may be added Rabbi
Henry Iliowizi (b. in Russia, 1850; d. in London, Eng., 1911),
who has lived in the United States more than twenty years and
has written poetical and prose works, mostly on Jewish and
Oriental subjects. Bret Harte, the poet and novelist, was of Jew-
ish descent, but he cannot be considered a Jewish author.
The works written on scientific subjects by Jews who have
attained eminence in various branches of knowledge, some of
whom were mentioned in the preceding chapter, are of a com-
paratively high standard of value. To these may be added the
works of the art critic, Bernhard Berenson (b. in Wilna, Rus-
sia, 1865), who now resides in Italy; of the anthropologist, Eranz
Boas (b. in Germany, 1858), of Columbia University, and of
the statistician, Isaac A. Hourwich (b. in Wilna, i860; a. 1891),
who is also an occasional contributor to the Jewish press. Morris
Hihquit (b. in Riga, Russia, 1869; s. 1886), the Socialist leader
and historian of Socialism in the United States, has likewise
often written for various radical periodicals. Arnold W. Brun-
ner (b. in New York, 1857), the architect, has written works on
"Cottages" and on "Interior Decorations."
A considerable number of works on a variety of Jewish sub-
jects were written by American-Jewish scholars. David Werner
Martha WoHenstein.
411
Works about Jews in English. 413
Amram (b. in Philadelphia, 1866) wrote The lavish Law of
Divorce (1896) ; Maurice Fishberg (b. in Russia, 1872; a. 1890)
is the author of The Jews: a study of Race and Environment
(191 1) ; Julius H. Greenstone (b. in Russia, 1873) wrote on The
Messiah Idea in Je-wish History (1906) ; while'lVIax J. Kohler,
Geo. A. Kohut, Henry S. Morals and numerous others wrote on
American- Jewish history in separate works, in the "Publications"
and in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Isaac Markens (b. in New
York, 1846) is the author of The Hebre-a's in America (1888),
whose valuable material, like that contained in the works of the
others mentioned here and in the notes, was utilized in the prep-
aration of the present work. Abraham Solomon Freidus (b. in
Riga, Russia, 1867; a. 1889), the eminent Jewish bibliographer
at the head of the Jewish department in the New York Public
Library, which contains one of the most valuable collections of
Hebraica and Judaica in the world (donated by Mr. Jacob H.
Schiff), is the author of bibliographical lists of Jewish subjects
and of "A Scheme of Classification for Jewish Literature," which
is of great value to Jewish bibliophiles and librarians. Alois
Kaiser (1840-1908) and William Sparger are authors of A Col-
lection of the Principal Melodies of the Synagogue (Chicago,
1893), and Platon G. Brounoff (b. in Russia, 1863), the com-
poser, has published, among other works, a volume of Jewish
folk-songs.
The most notable of the books on Jewish subjects written by
Gentiles in the United States is The Settlement of the Jews in
North America, by Charles P. Daly (1816-99), which was one of
the sources of the present work. Dr. Madison C. Peters has writ-
ten several popular and sympathetic works about the Jews ; while
Harold Frederic's The Ne-w Exodus (New York, 1892) gives a
vivid description of the conditions in Russia at the time of the
renewed expulsions from Moscow and other places in 1891.
Hutchins Hapgood, author of The Spirit of the Ghetto, and Myra
Kelly (Mrs. Allan INIacnaughton ; d. 1910) are among those who'
attempted to describe the Jewish immigrant in his new surround-
414 History of the Jews in America.
ings in the thickly settled quarters in the first period after his
arrival, when he was in many respects unintelligible to himself, as
well as to others.
As journalists, editors and publishers of newspapers, a number
of Jews have occupied, and still occupy, prominent positions. Mor-
decai Manuel Noah was one of the influential newspaper men of
New York in his time (see above p. 162). Edwin de Leon,
who has also been mentioned in a former chapter, was the editor
of the Southern Press of Washington, which was at that time
considered the representative organ of the southern people at
the national capital. Barnet Phillips (b. in Philadelphia, 1828;
d. 1905) was for more than thirty years connected with the New
York Times, which is now published by Adolph S. Ochs (b. in
Cincinnati, 1858), who married a daughter of Rabbi Isaac M.
Wise. A younger brother, George Washington Ochs (b. in Cin-
cinnati, 1861), is now at the head of the Public Ledger, oi Phila-
delphia, and still another brother, Milton Barlow Ochs (b. in
Cincinnati, 1864) was managing editor of the Chattanooga
Times and is now the publisher of the Nashville American. Mor-
ris Phillips (1834-1904) was the chief editor and proprietor of
The New York Plome Journal for a generation. Edward Rose-
water (b. in Bohemia, 1841 ; a. 1854; died in Omoha, Neb.,
1906) was for many years the editor of the Omaha Bee, which
became under him one of the great newspapers of the Middle
West, and is now edited by his son, Victor Rosewater (b. in^
Omaha, 1871), who was a member of the Republican National
Committee for the State of Nebraska. Philip Rapoport (b. in
Germany, 1845) was for nearly twenty years editor of the In-
dianapolis Tribune. Samuel Strauss, of Des Moines, la., owned
the Register and Leader there, and w^as later publisher of the
Nezv York Globe. Joseph Pulitzer (b. in Hungary, 1847; a.
1864; d. 191 1 ) of the Ne7v York World was of Jewish descent,
and so is Michael Harry de Young (b. in St. Louis, 1848), who
owns and edits the San Francisco Chronicle. Solomon Solis
Carvalho (b. in Baltimore, 1856), the son of the artist, Solomon
tiiordecai Manuel Noah.
415
Periodicals in the Vernacular. 417
N. Carvalho, is the general manager of W. R. Hearst's news-
papers. A large number of Jews hold various positions on the
staffs of newspapers and magazines all over the country, from
editors, literary, dramatic and musical critics down to reporters.
Many are also engaged in the business parts of the work, as
publishers, advertising managers, etc.
The most important of the older Jewish periodicals in the
vernacular were mentioned in former chapters. The Menorah
Monthly, which was for many years edited by Moritz EUinger
(b. in Bavaria, 1830; d. in New York, 1907), was the best Jewish
magazine in America, as well as the one which existed for the
longest tiine. The New Era Illustrated Mabazine, which was
published for several years by Isidor Lewi (b. in Albany, N. Y.,
1850), of the editorial staff of the Nezv York Tribune, was an
other valuable periodical. The Zionist Maccabean is now the
only Jewish monthly magazine published in America. There is
one semi-monthly, the B'nai B'rith Messenger, of Los Angeles,
Cal. (established 1897), and over twenty weeklies, most of which
are of only local interest. The more important are : The Ameri-
can Hebrezv of New York, established 1879, by Philip Cowen
(b. in New York, 1853) ; the American Israelite and its Chicago'
edition, founded by Isaac M. Wise in 1854; The Emanuel of San
Francisco, Cal., which was founded in 1895 by Rabbi Jacob
Voorsanger (b. in Amsterdam Holland, 1852; d. 1908); The
Hebrezv Standard of New York, established 1883 by Jacob P.
Solomon (b. in Manchester, Eng., 1838; d. in New York, 1909) ;
The Jewish Comment of Baltimore, established 1895, of which
Louis H. Levin (b. in Baltimore, 1866) is the editor; The Jewish
Exponent of Philadelphia, established 1886; The Jewish J^oicc
of St. Louis, established, in 1884, and still edited by Rabbi Moritz
Spitz (b. in Hungary, 1848) ; the Reform Advocate of Chicago,
established, in 1891, and still edited by Dr. Emil G. Hirsch. One
bi-monthly which deserves to be mentioned is the Sanatorium,
edited since 1907 by Dr. C. D. Spivak (b. in Kremenchug, Rus-
sia, 1861) and published as the organ of the Jewish Consump-
tives' Relief Society of Denver, Colorado.
CHAPTER XLIII.
YIDDISH LITERATURE^ DRAMA AND THE PRESS.
Viddish poets of the United States equal, if they do not excell, the poets
of the same tongue in other countries — Morris Rosenfeld — -"Ye-
hoash" and Sharkansky — Bovshoer and other radicals — Zunser — Old
fashioned novelists — The sketch writers who are under the influence
of the Russian realistic writers — Abner Tannenbaum — Alexander
Harkavy — "Krantz," Hermalin, Zevin and others — Abraham Gold-
faden and the playwrights who followed him — -Jacob Gordin and
the realists — Yiddish actors and actresses — The Yiddish Press — The
high position attained by the dailies — Weekly and monthly pub-
lications.
Judeo-German or Yiddish literature has attained in this coun-
try a respectable state of development, and some of the better
work done here compares favorably with the same kind of work
in Russia. This is especially true of poetry and of the drama,
though the first consists mostly of ballads or short lyrical songs,
and the last rarely goes beyond adaptation. Morris Rosenfeld
(b. in Russian-Poland, 1862; a. 1886) is considered the best
Yiddish poet in the New \A'orld, and some of his works have been
translated into English and several other European languages.
Solomon Bloorngarden ("Yehoash," b. in Wirballen, Russia,
1870; a. 1892) is hardly less gifted, and the songs of Abraham
M. Sharkansky (1867-1907) rank with the best in the language.
The late David Edelstadt, Morris Winchevsky (b. in Russia,
1856; a. 1893) and I. Bovshoer (b. in Russia, 1874; incapaci-
tated by sickness 1899) are the radical poets, in whose songs
the tendency often overshadows the art. The old, popular bard,
Eliakim Zunser (b. in Wilna, Russia, about 1840; a. 1889), has
418
Yiddish Writers ; Tannenbaum, Harkavy. 419
written some excellent songs since he came to this country. The
most Jewish, and in some respect the greatest, of all Yiddish
song writers, Abraham Goldfaden (b. in Russia, 1840; d. in New
York, 1908), belongs as a poet, even more than as a playwright,
to the Old World.
Of the old-fashioned novelists Nahum Meyer Schaikewitz
("Shomer," b. in Russia, 1849; d. in New York, 1905); Moses
Seifert (b. in Wilkomir, Russia, about 1850; a. 1887) and the
Hebrew poet, Dolitzki, are the best known representatives. Those
who follow new methods are mostly sketch writers under the
influence of the Russian realists, and they include, among others:
Jacob Gordin (b. in Russia, 1853; a. 1890; d. in New York,
1909), Bernhard Gorin ("Goido," b. in Lida, Russia, 1868; a.
1893), Leon Kobrin (b. in Russia, 1872; a. 1892), Z. Libin (b.
in Russia, 1872; a. 1893), and David Pinski, all of whom have
also written for the stage and for various periodicals. Of the
numerous writers, or rather translators and adapters, of long
sensational stories which appeared serially in Heften or in news-
papers, and later in bulky volumes, only one, the originator, de-
serves to be mentioned.
This one is Abner Tannenbaum (b. in Shirwint, Russia, 1848;
a. 1887), the most useful Yiddish writer in America. His easy
style made his writings intelligible to people who were not used
to read at all, and he has thus helped to create the large audience
whom he has been instructing for more than twenty years by his
translations of stories containing much information about the
physical and technical world, like those of Jules Verne, and by
his innumerable articles on popular scientific and historical
subjects.
Alexander Harkavy (b. in Novogrudek, Russia, 1863; a.
1882) has done much useful work for the Jewish immigrant from
the Slavic countries in another direction, by writing a number
of manuals of the English language, Yiddish-English, Russian-
English, Hebrew-English, dictionaries, vocabularies, phrase-
books, conversation books, letter writers, etc. He has also con-
420 History of the Jews in America.
Iribiited much to Yiddish periodicals and edited several oi them,
including- The H cbrcK'- American JVcekly (New Yoi"k, 1894), in
which the Yiddish text was translated into English line by line.
"Philip Krantz" (pen-name for Jacob Rombro, b. in Podolia,
1858; a. 1890) is the author of several instructive works, in-
cluding a History of Culture and an English Teacher for Jezvs.
David M. Hermalin (b. in Vaslin, Roumania, 1865; a. 1886) has
written and translated a number of works of a variegated char-
acter, from treatises on methaphysical subjects to extremely
realistic stories. Israel J. Zevin ("Tashrak," b. in Russia, 1872;
a. 1889), who has developed a typically American-Jewish humor,
has published a collection of his humorous stories and descrip-
tions of life among the semi-Americanized Jewish immigrants.
Similar collections by other humorists, like A. D. Ogus and D.
Apotheker (d. 1911), have also appeared in the last few years.
Benjamin Feigenbaum, Dr. Abraham Kaspe and other radical
propagandists have written many books and pamphlets of a quasi-
scientific nature, mostly with the object of expounding their the-
ories to the masses. B. R. Robbins was the publisher of a "His-
tory of the Jews'" in Yiddish, the only work of that nature com-
piled in America.
The popular orator, Hirsch Masliansky (b. in Sluzk, Russia,
1856; a. 1895), is in a class by himself as the author of a book
of Yiddish Sermons (1908).
The Yiddish drama, which grew less independently than any
other part of its literature, attained its freest and highest devel-
opment here. The melodramas and operettas of Abraham Gold-
faden, several of which were written in this country, still remain
the best pieces in the entire Yiddish repertoire, and bid fair to
survive the more serious works of the later period. A large ma-
jority of the plays written or translated or adapted for the Yid-
dish stage in the United States belong to the same class as the
Goldfaden plays, and in many of them his influence is clearly dis-
cernible. The most productive and successful playwrights of this
class are, in order of their priority in this country : Joseph La-
Playwrights and Actors. 421
temer (b. in Roumania about 1855; a. 1883), Moses Horwitz
(b. in Stanislan, Galicia, 1844; a. 1884; d. in New York, 1910),
and N. M. Schaikewitch and recently his son, Abraham S.
Schemer. Rudolph. Marks (Rodkinson), Feinman and Thoma-
shefsky, the actors ; Seifert, Sharkansky, Hermalin, Solaterevsky,
Anshel Shor and others have written occasionally, with more or
less success. ■
Jacob Gordin was at the head of a more serious school of Jew-
ish dramatists in America, whose effort to introduce — also by
translations and adaptations — the problem-play, the psychological
play and the realistic play, on the Yiddish stage, began a new
epoch, which is now practically ended. His good style and
technique insured for some of his pieces a considerable popular-
ity for a time, and they are now much played in the revived Yid-
dish theater of Russia. Z. Libin and L. Kobrin were for a time
his most consistent followers, and several other literary men have
attempted to follow in his footsteps. But aside from the tem-
porary popularity of some plays, the school itself, which was
founded on Russian ideals and conceptions, could not take root
here. Bernhard Gorin and David Pinski have also written plays
that possess literary merit, and so have several others who can-
not be classed as followers of the new school.
The most talented actors and actresses of the original troupes
which the founder of the Yiddish theater, Goldfaden, organized
in Roumania, Russia and later in Austria, came to this countrj'
at various periods during the last three decades. They, together
with other able players and managers who learned much from
their American colleagues, have brought the Yiddish stage here
to a higher state of development than it has reached in other coun-
tries. The most prominent among them are Jacob P. Adler (b.
in Odessa, 1855; a. 1886) and his wife, Sarah; Sigmund Mogu-
lesco (b. in Bessarabia, 1858), who arrived about the same time;
Mrs. K. Lipzin; Mrs. Bertha Kalich, who has left the Yiddish
lor the American stage: Boris Thomashefsky (b. in ICiev, 1866;
a. 1881) and his wife, Bessie; David Kessler, Regina Prager
422 History of the Jews in America.
Mme. Lobel, Bernhard Bernstein, Moskovich, Thornberg (d.
191 1 ), Mrs. Epstein, Mrs. Abramowich, Blank, Glickman, Fish-
kincl, Graf, Gokl, Mr. and Mrs. Tobias, Mr. and Mrs. Tanzman,
and others. Moritz Morrison, the German actor, occasionally
appears on the Yiddish stage, and lately Rudolph Schildkraut, a
native of Roumania, who was for some years prominent on the
German stage in Europe, has settled as a Yiddish actor in New
York.
Almost all the authors of Yiddish works mentioned above, and
many of the playwrights, have written, or are still writing, for the
Yiddish press, which has attained here its highest development,
influenced by the example of the American newspapers, the Yid-
dish press has in the last two decades, by the directness of its
appeal, by the attention it pays to news and questions in which its
readers may be interested, and by keeping" in touch with the cur-
rent of life, reached a height far above the level of Yiddish news-
papers in countries where their potential audience is much larger.
The Jewish Gazette of New York \z now the oldest periodical in
the world which is printed in Hebrew characters, and the younger
popular weekly, Dcr Aincrikaiicr (established 1904), has probably
outdistanced all Jewish magazines of the past and the present.
The Yiddish daily papers occupy the front rank among the for-
eign language newspapers in the United States in regard to cir-
culation, probably because the sufferings of the Jews in the Slavic
countries causes the immigrant Jew to remain interested in peri-
odicals which bring the news and discuss the ciuestions of his old
home country, longer than is the case with non-Jewish immi-
grants. The oldest of the Yiddish dailies is the Jezvish Daily
News, now edited by Leon Zolotkoff, founder and for many years
editor of the Jez^'ish Courier of Chicago (established as a weekly
1887; daily since 1891), The next in age is the J'olksadvokat,
which was established as a weekly in 1887, from which grew
the Daily Jczii'ish Herald (1894), which in 1905 became the
IVarheit, edited by Louis Miller. The socialistic Forward, of
which Abraham Cahan is the editor, was established in 1897, and,
Yiddish Journals and Journalists. 423
like the other two, appears in the afternoon. The Jezvish Morn-
ing Journal, the fourth New York Yiddish daily, was founded in
1901 by Jacob Saphirstein (b. in Byelostok, Russia, 1853; a.
1887), its present managing editor; and it has also a Philadelphia
namesake, under the direction of Jacob Ginsburg.
The Jewish Press of Chicago, the Jewish Daily Press of Cleve-
land, O., and the Jezmsh Daily Eagle of Montreal, Canada, of
which Reuben Brainin is the editor, complete the list of Yiddish
daily papers in America. Of the weeklies, the Freic Arbcitcr
Stini.mc (est. 1899) is mildly anarchistic; the Jewish Labor
World (est. 1909) is the organ of the Chicago radicals; Dcr
I\ibetzer is the oldest of the humorous illustrated periodicals ap-
pearing in New York. There are also several trade papers, like
the Neue Post of the garment workers and Der Yiddishe Backer
of the bakers' union, etc.
The conservative Volksfremid, edited by Josephr Selig Click,
has appeared in Pittsburgh since 1889; Das Yiddishe Folk is the
Zionist organ, established in New York 1909 and now edited by
Ab. Goldberg; and Dcr Yiddishcr Record of Chicago began to
appear in 1910. The monthly Ziikunft has had a checkered
career since 1892, while Ch. J. Minikes' Yom Tob Blatter has
appeared several times each year since 1897.
A class of professional writers and editors, some of them spe-
cialists of marked ability, grew up to supply the needs of the
Yiddish publications, especially of the daily newspapers. Besides
those mentioned above it includes among others : Gedaliah Bublik,
J. L. Dalidansky, William Ecllin, L. Elbe, J. Entin, Jacob Fish-
man, Dr. Eornberg, Jos. Friedkin, Israel Friedman, J. Gonikman,
Dr. B. Hoffman, S. Janowski, E. and N. ICaplan, Z. Kornblith,
A. Liesin (Wald), Jacob Magidoff, Ch. Malitz, Abraham Reisen,
Bernhard Shelvin, Joel Slonim, Nathan Sovrin, J. M. Wolfson,
Dr. Ch. Zhitlovsky and Israel Ziony. Of those A^ho departed this
life, M. Bukansky (1841-1904) and John Paley (1871-1907)
deserve to be mentioned among those who contributed to the ad-
vancement of Yiddish newspaperdom in America.
CHAPTER XLIV.
PRESENT CONDITIONS. THE NUMBER AND THE DISPERSION OF
JEWS IN AMERICA. CONCLUSION.
Dispersion of the Jews over the country and its colonial posses-
sions — The number of Jews in the United States about
three millions — The number of communities in various States —
The number of Jews in the large cities — The number of the
congregations is far in excess of the recorded figures — The process
of disintegration and the counteracting forces — The building of syn-
agogues — Charity work is not overshadowing other communal activi-
ties as in the former period, and more attention is paid to afiairs of
Judaism — The conciliatory spirit and the tendency to federate — Self-
criticism and dissatisfaction which are an incentive to improvement
— Our great opportunity here — Our hope in the higher civilization
in which the injustices of the older order of things may • never
reappear.
Jews are living at present ( 191 1 ) in every State and Territory
of the United States, and there are small communities in Hawaii,
Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands. There are some forms of
lewish organizations, synagogues, lodges or cemetery associa-
tions in more than 750 separate localities, from places where there
is only a "minyan" on the High Holidays at the beginning of
the Jewish year, to the immense Jewish community of New York
City, which is estimated to consist of nearly 1,000,000 souls.
Wherever actual figures as to the number of Jewish inhabitants
in smaller places and the number of synagogues in larger cities
are obtained, they are usually far in excess of the published
figures and estimates, and there seems to be justification for
placing the number of Jews in the country at not far below
424
The Scattered Communities. 425
3,000,000, if not actually at that number. While the largest coni-
munities,, as well as the largest number of communities, remain
in .the East and the Middle West, the dispersion is much more
extensive than is generally supposed.
There are, for instance, nearly forty cities and towns, in Texas,
which have Jewish communities ; other Southern States, like
Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi and Virginia, have each about, or
nearly, half that number, and Arkansas, Georgia, North Carolina,
South Carolina and Tennessee about ten each. Each of the new
States of Arizona and New Mexico^ have three or four Jewish
communities, Oklahoma has five ; Florida, in the extreme South,
and -Maine, the furthest North, each have about a half dozen;
California has more than both of them together ; Washington has
three, and Oregon one. Of the other far Western States Utah
has two communities, Montana two, Nevada one, Idaho one,
Wyoming one and Colorado nine.
-Coming to the nearer Western States and toward the border
States, we find four communities in Nebraska, eight in Kansas,
twelve in Missouri, thirteen in Iowa, eight in Kentucky and five,
in West Virginia. North Dakota has five, Minnesota eight, while
Wisconsin, with nineteen, and Michigan, with twenty-four, show
the result of proximity to the great Central States where Jews
have been settled in considerable numbers for the last two gen-
erations. Among those States Illinois has the largest number
cf Jews,- owing to the great community of Chicago, while the
number of cities containing Jewish communities — twenty-three —
is somewhat smaller than that of Indiana, which has twenty-six,
and of Ohio, with its twenty-seven. We notice the same in the
two greatest States in the East, where, if we consider Greater
New York City as one community, the number of places contain-
ing Jewish organizations is slightly less than in Pennsylvania,
which has sixty-two such places. New Jersey has more than
forty, and of the New England States Massachusetts leads with
thirty-five, and Connecticut is second, having twenty. Rhode
Island has seven ; Vermont and New Hampshire four each. The
426 History of the Jews in America.
list is completed with one community in the District of Colum-
bia, five in Maryland and one in Delaware.^
Philadelphia and Chicago are, besides New York, the only two
cities which contain about 100,000 or more Jews each. Boston
has about three-fourths of that number, Baltimore, Cleveland
and St. Louis about 50,000 each, and after them come in the
order named : Newark, San Francisco, Pittsburg and Cincinnati
(with about 30,000' each) ; Detroit, Buffalo, Providence and
Jersey City, each having about half of that number, while
Rochester, Syracuse, New Haven, Milwaukee, Louisville, New
Orleans and Kansas City belong to the class which have 10,000
or more. The twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul would
belong to that class if they were considered as one, which they
really are. Washington, the national capital, belong to the class
of cities having between 5 and 10,000 Jews, which includes
Albany, N. Y. ; Columbus, Ohio; Dallas, Tex.; Denver, Colo.;
Fall River, Mass. ; Hartford, Conn. ; Lidianapolis, Ind. ; Los
Angeles, Cal. ; Memphis, Tenn. ; Omaha, Neb.; Paterson, N. J.;
Portland, Ore. ; Scranton, Pa. ; Seattle, Wash., and Trenton, N. J.
There are some old and important settlements containing less than
5,000, but the number which would have to be included in a class
of communities of that size is too large to be mentioned.
Congregations are continually being organized and synagogues
built in localities where none existed before, thus showing a
gradual dispersion of Jews to all parts of the country, while new
houses of worship in the large cities usually owe their erection to
consolidation or to the settlement in new neighborhoods. But
onl}' the buildings which are entirely devoted to religious services
are apt to be noticed by those making records or gathering statis-
tical material, while the small congregation which worships in a
' The figures are based on the exhaustive though necessarily incom-
plete Directory of Jewish Local Organizations in the United States, which
appeared in the "American-Jewish Year Book" for 5668 (published in
1907), and allowance must be made for some omissions, as well as for in-
creases in the last five years.
Widespread Communal Activities. 427
private dwelling is usually overlooked. The statistics about
Jewish congregations in the United States are for this reason
n7ore defective than the figures about any other phase of Jewish
activity, and the total given by the above mentioned Year Book
(for 5669, p. 65), /'. c, 1745, for the entire country, should be
doubled to be nearer the truth, even if the lowest estimate of the
number of Jews in the country is accepted as the most probable
one.
If it must be admitted that a process of disintegration is going
en, in which the pessimist sees something worse than a trans-
formation or re-adjustment to new conditions in a new world, it
is, on the other hand, obvious that a strong effort is made to
counteract the forces of dissolution. The various elements of the
community, representing many countries and different strata of
immigration, are coming together in a conciliatory spu'it, as if
instinctively impelled to co-operate. The widespread activity in
the building of synagogues, in which many whose attitude was
formerly indifferent, and e\'en hostile, now participate, is only one
phase of the attempt to preserve Judaism in this country. Much
is done for charity and for Jewish education, the latter receiving
more attention than ever before. The public school systems of
most of the larger cities, following New York's example, have
taken over the largest part of the work which was done before
in Jewish institutions to Americanize the immigrant. Not only
the proporton, but the actual number, of the dependents on charity
is decreasing, and while the needs of Jewish charitable institutions
are still great, more attention can now be paid to specifically Jew-
ish matters than at the time when the problem of the material
wants of the immigrants was overshadowing every other com-
munal activity.
The attempts to organize on a more general scale, and to con-
solidate or federate existing organizations, which are frequently
made and are more often successful than in the preceding periods,
are the clearest manifestation of the spirit of the times in Ameri-
can Jewry. In most of the large cities outside of New York the
428 History of the Jews in America.
in:portant local Jewish charities are now federated, and the plan
of federation is continually gaining in favor. The federations, of
which there are now more than a dozen, and many other benev-
olent institutions of large and of smaller communities, are rep-
resented in the National Conference of Jewish Charities of the
United States (organized 1899). _ ■
There is also noticeable in our communal life, as in Am'erican
public life in general, that tendency to self-criticism which often
degenerates into slander — that eternal dissatisfaction with thiiigs
accomplished and with present conditions, which implies a sincere
desire to achieve still better results. While this discontent and
the poor opinion which many of us have of the spiritual condi-
tion of the Jews in America are of immense value as incentives
to improvement, it dims the eye of the foreign observer, especially
if he comes from ^. country where complacency and self-praise are
the rule. It may still be too early to summarize the communal
activities of the Jews in America, or to attempt to indicate how
-far we have approached the solution of the most pressing problems.
But signs of throbbing life are visible everywhere, and the interest
of the individual Jew in Jewish affairs is increasing. There is,
therefore, every reason to believe and to hope that the opportunity
which is afforded here to set the Jewisht house in order — the best,
and perhaps the first, in the diaspora — will be utilized to its full
extent by the future generations of native American Jews.
We are happy to have no Jewish problem here, in the sense in
which the term is understood in the backward countries of the
Old World. We need not waste a part of our best energies in
repelling attacks from an anti-Semitic press or a Judophobe
party, and our usefulness to ourselves as well as to our neighbors
is thereby enhanced. Members of strange and hostile races and
nationalities get along together in this country much better than
anywhere else in the past or the present time, and their native
children emerge from the "melting pot" united by a patriotism
and a desire for improved conditions and improved relations
v.'hich characterizes the American. The secularity of the Gov-
Conclusion. 429
trnment and the diversity of religious beliefs preclude the spread
of the denominational bigotry which is the real cause of the per-
secution of the Jews in other countries; while the liberty and
equality which are vouchsafed to every citizen must themselves
he lost before the unfavorable conditions which prevail elsewhere
can confront us here. The Jew can become an American and
at the same time preserve his religious distinctiveness, which he
can lose only by his own negligence or disloyalty. Let us hope
that those who now earnestly work to strengthen and build up
Judaism in America will be successful, and that the fate or Divine
Providence which has preserved us for thousands of years
brought us here to participate under new circumstances in the ad-
vancement to a higher civilization in which the injustices of the
older one may never reappear.
INDEX.
Aaron, Jonas. 76
Abonb. 51
Aboab da Fonseca, Isaac. 38. 39, 40
Aboab. Raphael, 4,3
Abraham, Xoah, 93
Abraham, rinhas, 61
.\bramovitz. Rev. Herman, 384
Abrams family ot New Hampshire, 109
Abrams, John. 110
Abrams, William, 110
Abravanol, Don Isaac. 12. 17
Adams, Charles Francis, 225
Adams, Dr., 117
.Wee, A. A., 313, 314
Adler, Sergt. Abraham, 163
Adler, Cyrus, 200 (Xote), 292, 340, 344,
356, 369, 370, 371, 375
Adler, Danljmar, 151
Adler, Elkan X., 22, 24
Adler. Dr. Felix, 177
Adler, Jacob r., 421
Adler, Rev. Liebman, 151, 155, 208
Adler, Dr. Samuel, 176-77
Adler, Sarah. 421
Adrian. ,See Hadrian
Agricultural Colonies, 266 ff. (in Can-
ada). 386 (in Argentine), 390
Aguilar, Rabbi Jacob d', 38, 40
Aguilar, Raphael d', 38
Alabama, 370. 425
Alamo ^lonument, 160
Alaska Commercial Co., 157
Albany, X. Y., 175, 253, 426
Album, Rabbi Zebi Simon, 281
.Vlbuquevque. Alphonso d', 18
Albuquerque, Francisco d", 18
Alcoran, 23
Aleinikoff, Xicholas, 287
Aleppo, 30
Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, 254
Algociras, Spain. Conference of, 362
Algiers, Xoali as American Consul
There, 129
Alliance, N. J., 209
Alperstein, Rabbi Abr. Eliezer, 282, 406
Ambrosius. Moses, 63
American Jewish Committee, 288, 306-
72
American .Jewish Historical Society, 291
American. Sadie, 296
Amerigo, see Vespucci
Amesbury, Mass., 110
"Am 01am." 202
Amram, David Werner, 413
Andrade, Salvator d', (Note), 65, 67
Andron, S.. 376
Anixter, Rabbi Elizer, 282
AnnaiTOlis, Md.. .Naval Academy of. 333
Anti-Jewish Riots, see "I'ogroms"
Apotheker. David, 420
Appel, Major .iaron, 332
Appel, Major Daniel M., 332
"Ararat," City of Refuge for the Jews
on Grand Island, 132
Argentine, 27
Argentine, 387 ff.
Aries. Isaac. 45
Arizona, 370. 425
-Vrkansas. 328, 370, 425
Atonson, Rabbi Joseph Moses, 406
Arthur, Tresident Chester A., 323, 396
Aryans, 3
Ash, Rabbi Abraham Joseph 189 190,
191
Ashinsky, Rabbi Aaron Mordecai, 282
Ashkenazy. Dr. Herbert, 389
Astor, .John Jacob; 70
Augusta, Ga., 144
Austria, 331
Autos da fe, 26, 27, 42
Avila. Bishop of, 13
Avilar, Capitein Jacob, 46
431
432
Index.
B
Bachcr, Prof. Wilhelm, 340
Bahia, 34, 33
Baker, E. M., 370
Balatshano, Roumanian Minister, oATt
Baltimore, Md., 125 £E„ 176, 184, '-.'A,
2.52, 282, 287,. 354, 372, 378, 4U«
Bamberger, Herman, 152
Bamberger, Leopold, 295
Bamberger, Simon, 140
Bai'badoes, 53-57
Baron de Hirsoli Fund, 269, 289
Baron de Hirsch Institute, 383
Barondess, .Toseph, 299, 371
Barsimon. Jacob, 63 (Xote), 6G
Basle, Switzerland. 201
Baum, Abba, 190
Bavaria, 243
Bayard, M. L., 269
Bayard, Tlioma.s F., 312
Beaconsfield, Earl of, 227
Beeston, Sir William, Governor of Ja-
maica, 38
Belasco, David, 399
Beiinfante, 60
Belisario, Family, 60
Belleville, Ont., 386
Belmonle, Benvenide, Poetess, 46
Bender, 357
Benderly, Dr. S., 372
Bendit, Solomon, 154
Bendor, Canada, 386
Benedict Brothers, 150
Ben,iam>n, Aaron, 93
Benjamin, Abraham, 189
Benjamin, Alfred D., 385
Benjamin, Eugene S., 289
Benjamin, Judah P., i48, 221-28
Benjamin, M. of Svirlnam, r,i>
Benjamin, Natalie St. Martin, 222
Benjamin, Philip and Rebeccah de llen-
dez, 221
Benjamin, Samuel, 383
Benjamin, Rev. Wolf, 107
Bennet, James Gordon, 133
Beral, physician, 14
Berenson, Bernhard, 410
Berg, Emanuel M., 155
Berkowitz, Dr. Henry, 295
Berlin, Ont., 386
Bernal, Family, 60
Bernays, Consul to ZHrich, 205
rernheim, I.saac W., 370, 371
Bernstein, Bernhard, 422
Bernstein, Herman, 410
Bernstein, Hirsch, 230
Bessarabia, riot of, 344
Bien, Julius, 247
Bijur, Nathan. 289, 369, 371
Bindona, Joseph, 381
Blaine, James G., 311, 398
Blaine, Margaret, 398
Blank, actor, 422
Blaustein, David, 287 ' "'
Bloch or Block, family of St. Louis, 142
Blochf H.' F., 157"
Bioch, Wolf, 142
Block, Eliezer, ]42
Block, Rudolph, 430 "'
Bloomfleia, Ocn. Joseph. 123
Bloomfleld, f"rof. Jlaurice, 400
Bloomgarden, Solomon, 418
Blum, Isidor (quoted)', 1^4
Blumenberg, Gen. I,eopo'.d, 234. 235
B'nai B'rith, Ind. Order, 247
Boas, Prof. Franz, 410
Bock, Mathias, Governor of Curacao, 51
Bolivar, Simon, 392
Bolivia, 392
Bories, Rev. H., 137'
Borowski, Isidor, 392
Bosquila, Rabbi, 73
Boston, Mass., 252, 282, 287, 362, 378,
426
Bousignac, Capt.^ Henri de, 228
Bovshoer, T.^ 418
Brackenridge, Thomas, 125, 126
Braganza, family, owners of Jamaica,
.57.
Brainin, Reuben, 409, 423
Brandeis, Louis D., 403
Brandford, Canada, 386
Bi-ftvo, 60
Bravo, Alexander, 60
Brazil, 17, 29, 34, 396
Breckenridge, Minister to Russia, 313,
314 , . . ■
Brenner, Victor D., 396
Bvesler, C. F., 154
Bresler, Louis', 154
Bridgetown, Barbadoes, 57
British American Colonies, naturaliza-
tions in, 60
; British Columbia, 383
British West Indies, 55
Brittannia, 3
Index.
433
Brodsky, Rabbi H. S., 407
Brooklyn, X. Y., 253
Bi-ounofr, Platoa G., 413
Bi-udnd, Ezra S.. 410
Brunner, Arnold W., 410
Brussels, Belgium, ?eo
Bubllk, G., 4:;3
,Bucbauan. president James. 203
Bucharest, 352
Buckingham, Solomon. 138
Buenos Ayres, Argentine. 387 S.
Buffalo, X. Y., 253, 42(J
Bukansky. M.. 423
Burgos, 15
Burgoyne, General. 382
Burlington, la., 153
Bush, David. 108
Bush, Isidor, 108
Bush, Lewis, 00, 108
Bush, Math:as, 7C
Bush, Solomon. 90
Butensky, .Tulius, 396
Butler, Pierce (Note), 222
Buttenwieser, Dr. M., 375
Butzel, Henry M., 370
Ciihallera, Diego, 21
Cahan, Abraham, 299, 410, 422
Calgary, Alberta (fan.). 380
California, 155, 234, 328, 370, 403, 425
Calle, Alphonso de. 14
Campanell, Mordecai, 73
Canada, 84, 380 fl
Canon Law, 4
Cantors, their temporary prominence,
284
Capelle. Joseph, 109
Caplan, 1'., 287
Carabajal (CarvalhoVi. fami'y. 25
Caracas, Venezuela, 392
Cardoze, 51
Cardozo, family, 60
Cardozo, Abraham Nunez, 79
Cardozo, K. A. (quoted), 345
Carciozo, Isaac, 156
Carmel. N. J.. 269
Caro. Joseph, 15
Carregal. Kabbi E. II. I., 75
Carriiho, Ishac, 47
Carrilon. Kabbi B. ('.. of Surinam, 49
Carvalbo of California, 155
Carvalho. Isaac. 47
Carvalbo, S., 414
Carvalho, Solomon X., 417
Caseres, Benjamin de. 55
Casere's, I-tcnrique de. 45
Caseres. Henry de, 55
Cass, Lewis, 204
Cassard, French Commander, 46
Cassef, Seiig'lDr. I'aulus), 6
Casthunbo, Isaac, 37
Castillc, 5
Castle, Uepresentativc Curtis H., 315
Castro. Abraham de, 40
Castro County. Tex., 161
Castro, Ileni-y, 161
Castroville, Tex.', IGl
Catholics, 86, 110, 117, 320
Cayenne, 40, 43. 53. 56
Ceuta'.^' Xorth ' Africa. 11
Chan (CahnV), S. Joseph, 140
Charitable Institutions, 248-9. 270
Charities, National Conference of Jew-
ish. 428
Charles I., King of Iloumania, .'!44
Charles V., Emperor, 21, 22
Charleston, S. C, 70, 102, 139, 168, 251
Chase, Gov. Salmon P., 194
Chatham, X. B., 386
Chaviz, 51
Chicago, 111., 150 ff., 177, 249, 252, 272,
281, 282, 287, 372, 378, 403, 425, 426
Chili, 26
Chipman. S. Logan, 312
Chuck, Jerahmeel. 190
Church Councils, 4
Cid, Israel Calobi, 45
Cincinnati, O., 137 ff., 175, 244, 378,
426
Cisnei-os, Cardinal Ximenes de, 21
Civil War, 218 ff.
Claiburn, Ala., 144
Clara, group of colonies, Argentine. 380
Clay, Henry, 200
Clemens, Samuel L. ("Mark Twain"),
398
Clement VII., Pope, 29
Clement VIII., Pope, 26
Cleveland, President Grover, 308, 325,
354, 362
Cleveland, O.. 141
Cobral, Pedro Alvarez, 17
Cochin, IN
Coen, Abraham, 39
Cohen, family of Richmond In Balti-
more, 125
434
Index.
Cohen, six brothers In the Confederate
Army, 229
Cohen, three brothers from Arkansas,
230
Cohen, Emanuel, 370
Cohen, Rev. G. M., 141, 142
Cohen, Rev. Henry (quoted), 161
Cohen, Hev. Hirschel, 385
Cohen, Israel, 190, 191
Cohen, Israel I., 117
Cohen, Jacob, 65
Cohen, Uev. Jacob, 141
Cohen. Jacob, 107
Cohen, Jacob I., 117
Cohen, Jacob I., Jr., 117
Cohen. Jacob J., 125, 127
Cohen, Rev. Jacob Raphael, 106, 382
Cohen, Leib, 190
Cohen, Lewis, 138
Cohen. Max, 154
Cohen, Jloses, 79
Cohen, Kabbi, 75
Cohn, Prof. Adolphe, 401
Cohn, Albert, 401
Cohn, Joseph H., 369
Cohn, Miss Katherine M., 398
Cohn, llorris M., 370
Cohn, Nathan, 370
Colorado. 269, 328, 370
Columbia, 392
Columbus, Christopher, 12, 13, 15, 16,
o7, 391
Columbus, O., 426
Commons, John K., 299
Cone, Cesar, 370
Connecticut. 269, 328, 371, 425
Cook, Commander Simon, 333
Cooper, Israel. 284
Corcos, Rev. J. M., 01
Cordoba, Argentine. 389
Cordova, de. family. 60
Cordova. Emanuel de, 381
Cordova, Ilakam de, 61
Cordova. Jacob de, 101
Cordova, l*edro de, 21
Cordozo, J. M., 200
Coro, Venezuela, 302
Coronel. David, Senior, 37
Costa. Abraham da, 79
Costa, Bento da, 45
Costa, David de, .")0
Costa. Isaac da. 45. 79
Costa, Joseph da, 63 (note), 65
Costa Rica, 401
Council of Jewish Women, 296
Cousins, Robert G., 361
Coutinho. Henriquez
Coutinho, Isaac Jeraso, 56
Cowen, Philip. 417
Cox, Representative Samuel S., 309
312
Cozens, Isaac, 154
Cozens, Sophie, 154
Craig, Sir John, 382
Cresquas, Jatudah (Judah), 11
Cromwell, Oliver, 55
Cruz Alta, Brazil, 392
Cuba, 14, 393
Cuffo, see Hucefe
Curasao, 40, 51, 52-54
Cutler, Harry, 371
D
Dalidansky, J. L., 423
Dallas. Tex., 426
Daly, Judge Charles r. (quoted), 63,
69, 256. 413
Damascus Affair, 194-98
Damrosch, Frank H., 398
Damrosch, Dr. Leopold. 398
Damrosch, Waller J., 398
Daniels, Aaron, 148
Dark Ages, 1
Davenport, la., 153
David, Dr. Aaron Hart. 383
David, David, 382, 383
David, Lazarus, 381, 382
Davidson, Israel, 375
Davidson, Joseph, 397
Davidson, Samuel, 142
Davilar, Samuel Uz. 47
Davis, .TeCferson. 224
Davis. Mrs. .Jefferson, 226
Davitt, Michael, 356
Dawson, Yukon Territory, 386
De Haas, .Jacob. 337
Deinard, Ephraim, 302, 408
Delaware, 108, 371, 426
De LiMm, David Camden, 162, 230
De Leon, Edwin, 162, 414
Dembitz, Lewis X., 215
Denver, Col., 426
Des Moines, la., 153
Detroit, Mich., 154, 252, 426
Index.
435
Deutseh, Prof. Gotthai-d, 340, 375
De Young, Micliael H.. 414
Itias. Lewis, r,i',
Dinkelspifl. Key. j,_ 14:^
District ol" Coliimliia. 32S, ;)71, 426
Dittoulioeler. A. J., l>h;
Dobsevage, A. D., 3(i,"i
Dohm Clivistlan Willielm v., 49
Dolitzlii, M. M., 3(1.".. 408, 421
Hongan, Governor, 67
Dongan, Irvine, 312
Dorf, Samuel, 287. 371
Draeliman, Dr. Bernard, 371, 407 (note)
Drago, Isaac, 45
Dreyfus Case, 334-5
Dropsie College, 375
Dropsie, Gabriel, 162
Dropsie, Moses A., 375
Dubs, I'resiflent ot Switzerland, 205
Dubuque, Iowa, 153
Ducachet. Dr., 198
DutHeld,' John, 107
Dutch, 30, 32, 33
Dutch Guiana, see Sui-inam
Dutcli West India Company, 35, 63
Dutch West Indies, 51
Dyer, Isidor, 160
Dyer, Leon, 160. 103
East Jersey Bill of Rights. 109
Easton, Pa., 76
Ebron, David. 26
Eckman. Rev. Julius. 157
Edelstadt, David. 418
Edlin, William, 423
Educational Institutions, 248-9, 276
Ehrlich, Arnold B., 408
Einhorn, Dr. David, 175, 178, 203, 208
Einhorn, Dr. Jlax, 403
Einstein, Lewis, 401
Einstein, Col. Max, 236
Eisenstadt. Ben Zion, 407
Eisenstein, J. D., 189. 192, 406, 408
Elbe, L., 423
Eliassof, H. (quoted), 152, 282
Elkus, Abr. I., 289
Elllnger, Moritz. 295, 417
Bllman, Mischa, 398
Elmira, N. Y., 233
Emanuel, Albert, 159
Emanuel, Rev. Baruch M., 143
Emanuel. Gov. David, 144
England, 137, 130, 227, 381
Englander, Dr. Henry, 375
ICnrlques, Jacob Joshua Bueno, 58
En Riquez, Josliua Mordecai, 52
Entin, J.. 423
Ephraim, Rabbi. 15
Epstein, Ellas, 154
Epstein, Mrs., 422
Erianger, Abraham L., 399
Erianger, M. L., 399
Rntre Rlos. Argentine, 389
EiKch und Giuher'n Encyclopedia, 6
Espafiola, 20
Ethiopia. 3
Ettelson, Baruch. 407
Ettelson, N. B., 259, 409
Etting, Reuben, 125
Etling, Solomon, 107, 124, 125, 127
Evansville. Ind., 152, 252
Evarts, William M.. 345
Expulsion from Portugal, 5
Expulsion from Spain, 5, 13
Ezekiel. Jacob (quoted), 117, 194
Ezekiel, ilos^s Jacob, 395
Fairbanks, Charles W., Vice-President,
362
Falk, Joshua, 190, 407
Fallmouth, Jamaica, 60
Faquiu, Juceif., 11
Faro, Solomon Gabbay, 58
Fass, Rev. M., 384
Fassbinder, Rev. Wolf. 141
Fay, Theo. S., 202, 203, 204
Federation of American Zionists, 330
Federations. 379
Feigenbaum. Benjamin, 420
Feinman, Sigmund, 421
Felsenthal, Dr. Bernbard, 152, 177-78,
208
Ferdinand of Aragon, 5, 12
Ferrena, Gaspar Diaz, 37
Flddletown, Cal.. 156
Field, Dr. Henry M., 83 (note) -
Fillmore, Pre.=-ident Millard,, 199
Financiers, 404
Fine, Solomon, 153
43S
Index.
Fischel, Hai-r>;, 371
Fisc'hnian, William, 371
Fislilici-g, Dr. Maiu-ice, 413
Fishliind, -iT2
Fisliman, Jacob, ■j^2'->
I''i(zgerald. Jolm V., 31"»
Fleisclior, S. S., 28«
Flexnoi-, Dr. Simon, 402
Florence, family, 144
Florida, 370, 425
Fogg, George G.. 204, 203
Folk, Kev. M., 154
Folsom. Cal., il56
Fonseca, family, 60
Fonseca, Kev. Abraham Lopez de, 53
Fonseca, Alaus de, 45
Fonseca, Fernaiulez dc, o.sl
Fonseca, I. aac de, 52
Fonseca. ..I psepli Nunez de, 52
Ford — Commi.tee on Immigation, 324
Foreman, Fdwin G., 370
Fornberg. Dr., 423
Foster, .Tohn \V., 308, 310
Forsyth, John, 196, 197
Fort Wayne, }32
France, 85, 335. 347, 381
Franco, Alexander, 152
F'ranco, Daniel, 152
Franco, Solomon, 72
Frank, Abraham, 157 .
Frank, Isaac W., 370
Franklin, Benjamin, 107
Franklin, Prof. Fabian, 402
Franklin, Dr. Leo M., 154
Franklin, Louis, 155
Franks, Abr.. 381, 328
Franks. David, 76, 90, 100
Franks, David S.. 88, 89
Franks, Isaac. 89
Franks, Jacob, 154
Franks, Jacob S., 382
Fraso, Jacob, 55
Fraternal Organizations, 247-8
Frazon or Frazicr, Joseph, 72
Fredric, Harold, 413
Freemasonry, see Masonry
"Free Sons of Benjamin." 247
"Free Sons of Israel," 242
Freidus, A. S., 413
Freiman. Meir, 406
French Revolution, The, 116, 122
Frera. David. 03 (note), 65
Friberg, J. Walter, 370
Friedberg. Albert M. (quoted), 109, 193,
199, 208, 292, 327
Friedenwald, Dr. Aaron, 337
I'liedenvvakl, Dr. Harry. 337, 371
Friodenwald, Dr.' Ilerbert, 299
I'riecikin. Joseph, 423
Friedlander, Aaron Joel, 154
Friodliinder, Dr. Israel, 371, 375
Friedlander, Morltz, 150
Friedman. Aaron Zebi, 407
Friedman, Isaac K., 410
Friedman, Israel, 423
Friedman, Joseph, 154
Friedman, Lee N., 371
Friedman, Col. Max, 237
Frohman, Charles, 399
Frohman, Daniel, 399
FiiTd, Rabbi; 142
Funk and Wagnalls, 340
Funk, Rev. Isaac K.. 340
Gabai, David, 59
Gabrilowitsch. Joseph. 398
Galveston, Tex., 160, 161, 230
Gama, see Vasco da Garaa
Garcia, Plananiel, 381
Crarfil, Jlordecai, 406
Gaspar da Gama, 17, IS
Gaston, William, 119
Georgia, 77, 370, 425
Gerechter, Rev. Emanuel, 154
Germanic Kingdoms, 3
German-Jewish Congregations. 251, see
also Union of American Hebrew Con-
gregations
German Period of Immigration, 135 ff.,
243
Germany. 347
Gerstle Lewis, 157
Giers, JI. de, 310
Ginsberg, Jacob, 422
Ginzberg, Dr. Lewis, 340, 375
Gittelson, Rabbi Benjamin, 406
Glace Bay, C. B. (Can.). 286
Gladstone, William E., 227
Glazer, Rev. S. (quoted), 153
Glick, Joseph Selig, 423
Glickman, Ellis, 422
Glidden, John, 196
Goa, 17. 30
Goldberg, A., 423
Index.
437
Joldbei-g, R. L.. 398
Joldfaden, Abraham, 41i1, 420. 421
Joldfogle, Henry Mayer 313. 317, 3fll
Joldman, Dr. .lulius. 2x:i
lOldman. Hoses, 40ft
Joldsmid, Sir Francis II.. 00
Joldsmitli, brothers in the ('onlederale
Army, 230
Joldsmith, Emily Gersou, 410
Joldsmith, 1., 143
Joldstein, Rev. S., 384
ioldstuclver. A., 143
iomez, family, 60
iomez, Ijouis Moses, 68
jonikman, J,^ 423
Jootman, .\. H,, 202
jordin, Jacob, 419, 421
Jorin, Bernhard, 419, 4 21
iottheil, Dr, Gustave, ITT, 292, 20.i
TOttheil, I'rof. Richard (note), 42, 292,
3.36, 340
Jotthelf, B. H., 143
Jottlieb, Abraham. 403
Jottlieb, ,J., 1.jO
irace, WllUam R., 262
iradis, Abraham. 381
Jradis, David. 381
Jraf, actor, 422
irant, Bres. U. S... 234. 262, 344
irass A'alley, 1.36
jlratz, Bernard, 76, 106, 124
Jratz, Michael, 76
iratz. Rebeccah, lOT
Jratz, Simon, IIT
Jreat Britain, 347, 351
ireece, 3
Jreen, Abraham, 148
;reen, S. Hart, 386
Jreen Bay, ^^'is.. 1.34
Jreenebaum, Henry, 1,32
rreenebaum, X. E., 370
Jreensfelder, Isaac, 152
rreenstein, Elijah, 190
treenstone, ,Tnlius H.^ 413
Ireer, Bishop David, 302
iries, Dr, iloses J., 141
Iross, ri-of. Charles, 11, 401
rossman. Dr. Louis, 1 33, 373
rotius, Hugo, 3T
nam, 333
uggenheim, Daniel, 333
uggenheim, Murry, 280
uggenheims, 404
uild, Curtis, Jr., 362
Guinea, 11
Gutheim, Rabbi ,Iamcs K., 140
Gutterect, family, 60
H
Hackenberg, Wm. B., 28ft. 295, 370
Hadrian, Pope, 21
Hahn, Dr. Aaron, 141
Haiti, 20
Halifax, N. S., 286
Halphen, Samuel, 389
Hamburg, 30
Hamburger, Samuel B., ."171
Hamilton, Ont., 386
Hapimerstein, Oscar. 399
Hapgood, I4utchins, 413
Harby. Levi Myers, 160, 230
Ilarkavy, Alexander, 419-20
Harris, Asher Lcmel, 192
Harris, Bernhard. 287
Harris, Ilaym, 148
Harris, Henry. 140
Harris, Hyman, 190
Harris, Rev. Maurice H., 371
Harrison, President Benjamin, 3(t8, 324,
365
Hart, A,ron, 380, 381
Hart, Aaron Philip. 383
Hart, .\braham, 237
Hart, Benj. L, 295
Hart, Ephvaim, 103
Hart, Ezekiel, 382
Hart, .lohn, 191
Hart, Myer and his family, 7(>, 77
Hart or Harte, ZachariaU, 111
Harte, Bret, 410
Hartford, Conn., T5, 426
Hartogensis, B, I-L, 287
Havana, (.'uba, 393
Hawaii, 424
Hay, .John, 310, 343, 346, 347. 331
Hayman or Hyman of Louisville, 143
na.ys, Andrew. 381
I-Iays, Benjamin. 124
Hays, Daniel P., 287
riay.-i. David, 109
Ilay.-i. .lacub, 124
Hays, Mo^cs Michael, 145
Hays, Solomon, 107
Hearst, Wm. R., 355, 356
Hebrew Institutes. 378
Hebrew Union College, 244
438
Index.
Ileilprin, Trof. Angelo, 211
Heilprin, Luuis^ 211
Heilprin, Michael, L'oS-12, 266, 269
Ileilprin. J'inhas Jlendel, 208
lleimau. Jlarcus, 154
Hein, Alex., I.j-t
Heller, Dr. Maximilian, 2.52, 303
Hendricky. l^.enjamin
Hendricks, Isaac, 144
Henrique, Jacob Cohen, 63 (note)
Henrlques, Abraham, 48
Henriques, DaYld Gomez, 58
Henrlques, Jacob, 59
Henry, the Xavlgator, 11
Henry, H. A., 141
Henry, Jacob, 119, 126
Henry, Jacob. 158
Henry, Patrick, 113, 114
Herat, Afghanistan, 392
Hermann, D. M., 420, 421
Herrera, Abraham Cohen, 39
Herschell, Rabbi Solomon of London,
ISO
Hershman, Key. A. M., 155
Hertz, Dr. Joseph, 109
Hertzman, Kev. E., 142
Herzl, Dr. Sigmund, 198
Herzl, Dr. Theodore, 336
Heydenfeldt, Elkam, 156
Heydenfeldt, Solomon, 156, 208
Heyster, Gen., 95
Higgins, Gov. Francis W. of N. Y., 362
Hilfman, Rabbi P. A. (quoted in notei,
42
Hlllquit, llorris, 299, 410
Hirsch, Adani; 154
HIrsch, liaroness Clara de, 390
Hirsch (Colony; , Canada, 386
Hirsch, Edward, 216
Hirsch, Dr. Emil G., 178, 340, 369, 417
Hirsch, dialer, 210
Hirsch, Baron Maurice de, 289, 290, 385,
390
Hirsch, Dr. Samuel. 178
Hirsch, Solomon^ 215
Hirshowitz, liabbl Abraham Eber, 406
Hoboken, .\. J., 253
Hoffman. Dr. B., 423
Hoffman, Isaac, 141
Hoffman, James II., 289
Hofnung, Abraham, 384
liofuung, Key. Samuel, 384
Holland, see Dutcb
Hollander, Dr. J. H. (quoted), 45, 124;
292. 371, 400
Holy Office, see Inquisition
Holzmau, Eli.iah, 256, 407
Ilomel, 357
Ilorwich, B., 370
Horwitz, Moses, 421
Iloschander, Jacob, 376
Hourwich, Isaac A., 298, 410
Houston, Sam, 161
Houston, Tex., 161
Hiibsch, Rev.. Adolph, 183
Hucefe, 18
Iliihner, Leon (quoted), 0.3, 68, 119, ]44
292
Hyman, Samuel I., 371
Hyneman, Herman Naphtall, 397
Idaho. 370, 425
Illinois, 216, 230, 328, 370, 425
Illiowizl, Rabbi Henry, 410
Illon, Jaude, 52
Illowy, Rev. Bernhard, 107, 142
Imber, Naftali Herz, 305, 408
Immigration, 135-37, 242-3, 254, 261,
288, 306, 319 fE., 338, 343, 358, 385
Immigration Commission of 1907, 320
Independent Order Brlth Abraham, 247
Indiana, 152, 236, 328, 370
Indianapolis, Ind., 152, 252, 426
Indians, supposed to be the lost Tribes
of Israel, 14 ; persecuted by the In-
quisition, 21
Inquisilion, 12, 20, 22, 24
Iowa, 153, 328, 370, 425
Iquitos, Peru, 393
Isaac, Abraham, 110, 111
Isaac, David. 117
Isaac, Isaiah, 117
Isaac, Adjutant-General Moses, 237
Isaacs, Col,, 90
Isaacs, Abraham, 111
Isaacs, Prof. Abram S., 179
Isaacs, Alexander, 148
Isaacs, M. S.. 289, 345
Isaacs, Samuel, 158
Isaacs, Samuel Hillel, 190
Isaacs, Rev. Samuel Mayer, 179
Isaacson, Rabbi I., 409
Isaaks, Xoah, 48
Isabella, Queen, 5, 12, 20, 28
Index.
439
Ismail, riot of, 344
Israel, David, 63
Israel, Isaac, 93
Italy, 3. 347
Itamarica, Brazil, 38
Jackson, Andrew, 131
Jackson, Cal., 155
Jackson. John B., 351
Jackson. Rebeccah, wife of M. M. Noah,
134
Jacob, Moses, 117
Jacobi, Dr. Abraham. 402
Jacobs, Benjamin. 05
Jacobs, Charles M., 403
Jacobs, Rev. George, 61
Jacobs, Gerrit, 47
Jacobs, Hart, 93
Jacobs, Rev. Henry S., 184
Jacobs, Dr. Joseph, 194, 262 (quoted),
340. 375
Jacobs, Morris, 148
Jacobs, SamueL 153
Jacobs, Samuel, 381
Jacobson, Dr. Nathan, 403
Jaffe, Joshua A., 375
Jaffe, Rabbi Shalom Elchanan, 282, 406
Jaime, King of Mallorca, 11
Jalomstein, Mordecai, 256, 259
Jamaica. W. I., 45, 57-61
Janowski, S., 423
Jarmulowsky. S. (d. 1912), 371
Jastrow, Prof. Joseph, 186
Jastrow, Dr. Marcus, 185-86, 295, 340
Jastrow, Trot. Morris. 186. 340
■Jefferson, Thomas, 113, 115, 125, 241
Jersey City, 253, 426
leshurun, 51
fesu Maria, Cal., 156
'Jew Bill'' of Maryland, 125 tf.
Jewish Alliance of America, 287
Jewish Chautauqua Society, 295
'Jewish Chronicle" (quoted), 391
Jewish Colonization Association (I. C.
A.), 290, 388, 389
'Jewish Encyclopedia," 339
Tewish Publication Society of America,
292
fewish Theological Seminary, 183
foachimsen, Philip J., 235
oao, Iving of I'ortugal, 16
John III., King of Portugal. 39
Johnson. President Andrew. 235
Johnson. David Israel. 138, 140
Johnson. Edward J., 159
Jonas, Abraham, 138
Jonas, Abraham, 216-17
Jonas, Ben.i. F.. 217
Jonas, Charles I-I., 216
Jonas, Edward, 138
Jonas. George, 138
Jonas, Joseph, 137, 139, 140
Jonas, Lyon, 105
Jonas, Moses, 139
Jonas, Samuel, 138
Jones, Israel I., 143
Jones, Solomon. 143
".Jooden Savane" (Savannah of the
Jews), 46
Joseph, Gershom, 384
Joseph, H., 155
Joseph, Chief Rabbi Jacob, 278
Joseph, Jacob, 384
Joseph, Jacob I-Ienry, 383
Joseph, Jesse. 383
Joseph, Samuel,. 139
Josephson, Manuel. 103, 107
Jost. historian (quoted), 194
Juan I. of Aragon. 11
Juana, Queen of Castille, 21
Judah, Hart, 140
Judah, Uriah. 381
K
Kadison, Dr. A. P., 287
Kaiser, Rev. Alois, 413
Kalich, Bertha. 421
Kalisch. Rev. Isidor, 141. 154, 155, 183
Kalisch, Judge Samuel, 1£3
Kalm, Peter, 70
Kamaiky, Leon, 371
Kansas, 269, 322, 328, 370. 435
Kansas City. Mo., 253, 426
Kaplan, E., 423
Kaplan, Prof, M. M.. 375
Kaplan. N.^ 423
Kaspe, Dr. Abraham, 420
Kasson. Minister .John A., 345
Katz. Abr. J., 371
Kaufman, David S., 159
Kaufman, Sigismund, 212
Kayserling, Dr. M., 11. 20. 37, 85, 401
440
Index.
"Kehillah" of New York, 370, 372
Kelly, Myra, 413
Kempnei", Isaac H.j 370
Kennedy, Rev. Mr., 198
Kennedy, Thomas, 125
Kentucky, 216, 328, 370, 425
Keokuk, la.. 153
■■Keshcr Shel Barzel," 247
Keyser, Ephraim, 395
Kiev, Russia, 2G2
Kingston, Jamaica. 60-61
Kishinev, 353 £f., 358
Kleeberg, Rev. L., 143
Klein, Charles, 390
Klein, Mayer, 151
Klein, Dr. Philip, 283, 371
Knefler, family, 152
Knefler, Gen. Frederick. 233
'"Knights of Zion," 337
"Know Nothing" I'arty. 223, 320, 321-2
Kobrin, Leon, 419, 421
Kohen, Rabbi Baruch, 407
Kohler, Dr. Kaufman, 155, 340, 375
Kohler, Max .J.. 114 (note), 207, 243
(note), 289, 292, 380, 413
Kohn, Abraham, 150, 151. 217
Kohn, Arnold, 355
Kohn, Julius, 150
Kohn, Moses, 150
Kohut, Dr. Alexander, 186
Kohut, George A., 72, 189, 406, 413
Konti, Isidor, 395
Kornblith, Z., 423
Kossuth, Louis, 189, 211
Krantz, Philip, 420
Kraus, Adolph, 247
Krauskopf, Rabbi Joseph (note), 244
Krouse, Robert, 153
Krouse, William, 153
Kruttschnitt, Julius, 222
Kunrcuther, Rev. Ignatz, 151
Kursheedt, J. B., 195
Kutner, Adolph, 315
I-
Labatt, A. C, 156, 158
Labor Movement Among Immigrants,
297 n.
Lacovla. Jamaica, 60
Lafayette, Ind., 152
Lagarto, Rahbi Jacob, 38
Laguna, Daniel Israel Lopez, 61
Lamport, Nathan, 371
Lancaster, Pa., 76
Landauer, Max. 370
Landis, C. K., 25
Landsberg, Rabbi Max, 253
Langdon, Rev. Samuel, 82
Las, Rabbi Zebi, 407
Lasker, Alexander, 154
Laski, David, 190
Lateiner, .Joseph, 420-1
Lateran. Council of, 4
Lawrence, Amos, 145
Lazard, brothers, 156
Lazarus, Aaron, 111
Lazarus, Emma, 73, 265-G, 409
Lazarus, Michael, 79
Lecky, the Historian, 81
Lee, Gen. R. B., 226
Leeser, Rabbi Isaac, 171-72, 198
204, 292
Leghorn, Italy, 43
Lehman, David S., 370
Lehman, Emanuel, 355
Lelbowitz, M.. 392
Leipziger, Henry M., 287
Leon, de. 51
Leon, Jacob de, 93
Leopold, L. M., 151
Lerma, Bernardino de, 15
Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole (quoted), S
Lesser, Rabbi Abr. J. G. 282, 40(
Lessing, Bruno, see Block. Rudolph
Leventrite, Aaron, 141
Levi, Alexander, 153
Levi, Barnard, 77
Levi, Barnet, 138
Levi, Leo N., 247
Levi, William, 110
Levie, Solomon Joseph, 47
Levin, Ellas. 48
Levin, Louis II., 417
Levinsohn, Jelilel Judah, 407
Levinthal, Rabbi B. L., 282, 370
Levis, family, 380
Levy, brothers in the Confederate A
230
Levy, Aaron, 95 (note)
Levy, Aaron, 117
Levy, Abraham, 190
Levy, Abraham, 222
Levy, Asser. 63 (note), 66, 67, Id
Levy, Benjamin, 76, 95
Levy, Daniel, 108
Levy, Ferdinand, 287
Index.
441
Levy. Hayman, 71). 93, 103
Levy. Hyman. .Ti-., 7(;
r.evy, Isaac. 14-1
l.pvy. .Tacob. 1!10
r-evy, Cougressman .lofft-i-son M.. 241
f.evy. .Tonas ]'., 21S
Levy, Joseph, lln
Levy, .lu.sepli, i:!s
Levy, Liunel, 233
Levy, Louis Edward. 88 (nole). 287
Levy. Louis X., 241
Levy, iloses. lOS
Levy, Hoses Albert. KiO
Levy, Myers, 109
Levy, N'athau, 76
Levy. Xathan, 109
Levy, Xatbaniel, 93
Levy, Sampson. 7(i. 108
Levy, Samuel, 144
Levy, Samuel. 157
Levy, Simon, 381
^evy. Commodore Uriah Philips, 238-41
Levy, Zeporah, 70
Lewenstein, Rabbi M. .T.. of Surinam,
49
Lewi, Isidor, 417
Lewisohn, Adolph, 371 (see also 4(14)
Libin, Z., 419, 421
Libowitz, X. S., 407
Lichtenstein. Benjamin. 180. 190
Lieberman, D. M., 369
Liiesin, A., 423
Mlienthal, Dr. Max, 141. 172-7.5. 194
Lima, Peru, 22, 26, 393
Lincoln, Abraham, 20.-,. 212, 213, 216,
217, 322
Lindo, iloses, 79
Jpman, Ilev. Jacob, 107
jipzin. llrs. K., 421
jisbon, 18, 74
jterature, 405 ff., 418
:,obel, JIme., 422
..oclce, John, 78
Loeb, Jacques (deceased), 370
joeb, Prof. Jacques, 401
,oeb, Louis, 398
Meb, Solomon, 398
,ondon. Out., 386
,ong, Jacob, 134
,ongfellow, H. W., 73
jopez, Aaron, 73, 98, 99
,opez, Moses, 101
iOrls-Melihov. Itu sian Minister, 311
,os Angeles. Cal., 155, 426
Louis, Nathan, 133
Louisiana, 145, .'170, 425
Louisville. Ky.. 14:!. 232. 283. 426
Louzada, Uavid Karucb, 56
Low. Setb, Mayor of New Yorli, 354
Luceua, Alinibam d'. 63. 63, 66, 08
Lumbrozo, Jacob. 77
Luna, (:Jonzolo de, 26
Luther, Martin, 23
Lutherans, persecuted by the Inquisi-
tion, 23
Lynch, Sir Thomas, Governor of Jamai-
ca, 37
Lyon, Abraham de, 78
Lyon. .S'jlomon, 107
Lyons. Henry A., 156
Lyons, Dr. Isaac. 160
Lyons, Jacob, 158
Lyons, Rev. Jacques Judah. 180
Lyons, S., 143
Lyons, Samuel, 95
Macedonia, 3
Machado, M., 46
Machol, Rabbi M., 142
Mack. Julian W., 369, 370, 371
MacMahon, John V. L., 125
Madison, Ind., 177
Madison, James, 96, 113, 114
Magidotf, Jacob, 423
Magnes. Dr. J. L.. 337, 369, 371
Magnetowan. Canada, 386
Magnus, Lady, 392
Maimonides College, 183, 249
Maine. 328, 371, 425
"Maine" (Battleship), 334
Malaga, 12
Malitz, Ch., 423
Mallorca, King Jaime of, 11
Malter, Prof. Henry, 376
Manasseh ben Israel, 14. 37
Manitoba, 386
Manitato, Minn., 153
Mann, A. Dudley, 199, 202
Mannes, David, 398
Mansa, Bishop Alphonso, 21
Mansfield, M., 157
Manuel. Dom. King of Portugal. 16. 28
Marache, Solomon, 76
?jEirchena, 51
Marco, Surgeon, 14
442
Index.
Marcus, Rev. Samuel, 155
Marcus, S. L., 250, 409
Marcy, William L.. 2012
Margolioth, Rabbi Gabriel Z., 281
.Mai-golis, rrof. Max L., .375
Margolis, Rabbi M. Z., 282, 371
Mai-ix, Rcar-Admiral Adolph, 333-4
Marliens, Isaac (quoted), 138, 142. 215,
235, 413
Marlis, Bernhard, 287
Mai-iis, Isaac, 153
Marks, .loseph, 76
Marlts, Rudolph, 421
Markstein. D., 143
Marranos. 8, 12, 19, 26, 29, 30, 41
Marshall, Louis, 317. 369. 371
Martinique, 123, 381
Marx, Prot. Alex., 375
Marx, Samuel, 156
Maryland, 77, 124 fE., 371, 425, 426
Marysville, Cai., 156
Masllansky, Hirsch. 420
Mason, James Murray, 225
Masonry, 73, 94, 110, 128, 132, 216
Mass, Sam-uel, 159
Massachusetts, 328, 371, 425
Massacres of 1391, 7. See also "Pog-
roms"
Maurera, Jacob de, 381
Maurice of Nassau, 37
Mauricio Colony, Argentine, 390
Mayer, Annie Nathan, 410
Mayer, Constant, 397
Mayer, Henry ("Hy"), 398
Mayer, Rev. Jacob, 141
Mayer, Jacob, 157
Mayer, Leopold. 152, 157
Mayer, Levy, 403
Mayor, Nathan, 191
Mayei-. Gen. William, 285
Mayhew, Rev. Jonathan, 81
McClellan, Mayor Geo. B., (if N. i'., 362
McGregor, la., 153
McKinley. President William. 332. 334,
400
McLaurin, Senator Anselm J., 301
Media, 3
Mehatob, Isaac and Judith, 42
Meisels, Rabbi Berush, 185
Memphis, Tenn., 426
Mendes, Rev. Abraham P., 101
Mendes, Rabbi Frederick de Sola. 340
.Mendes, Dr. H. P., 371
^Menken, Solomon, 138
Mera, Isaac, 45
Jlercado, Abraham de, 37, 55
Jlercado, Raphael do, 55, 56
Meridian, ^Miss., 252
Jlerzbacher, Rabbi L., 177
ilesa. Isaac, 63 (note)
Mesquita, Abraham de, 48
Messing, Rev. Henry J. Messing, 142
Mesya. Daniel, 45
Mexican War, 161-63
Mexico, 24 ff., 158, 393
Meyer, Gen. .Vdolph, 230
Mcza, de. 51
Michael. Ellas, 370
Mlchalovsky, Israel, 284
Michelson, Prof. Albert A., 399-400
Michelson, Charles, 400
Michelson, Miriam, 400
Michigan, 154, 230, 269, 328, 370, 425
Middle Ages, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8
Middleman, Judah, 189, 190, 191
Mielziner, Prof. Moses, 295
Miller, Alexander, 385
Miller. Louis, 422
Milwaukee, Wis., 154, 426
Minikes, Ch. J.. 423
Minis, Isaac, 78
Minkovsky, Pinhas, 284
Minneapolis, Minn., 426
Minnesota, 153, :!28, 37
Mirabeau, Count, 116
Miranda, 381
Miranda, Isaac, 76
Misch. Marion L., 119 (note), 296
Mississippi, 370, 425
Missouri, 269, 328, 370, 425
Mobile, Ala., 143
Mogulesco, Slgmund, 421
Moise, Isaac and Jacob, 144
Moiseville, Colony, Argentine, 390.
Monis. Judah, 72
Monroe, Jame.s. 130
Monroe, La., 252
Montana, 328, 370, 425
Montellore, Mr. (probably Joshua), 60
Montefiore. Sir Moses. 145
Montel, Solomon, 48
Montevideo, I'ruguay, 392
Montgomery, Ala., 143
Montgomery, General. 382
Montigo Bay, Jamaica, 60
Montreal. Que., Canada. 381. 386
Moors, 5
Index.
443
Mora, DoQ Fi-ancisco de, 37
Morals, Henry S., 108 (quoted), 172,
183, 288, 413
Morals, Sabato, 180-83, 189, 208
Morales, Dr. C. M,. 61
Mordecal, Abraham, 143
Mordecai, Major Alfred, 111
Mordecal, Gratz, 111 (note)
Morderai, Gen. J. nandolpb. 230
Mordecal. Jacob, 111
Mordecal, Moses, 7ti, 111. 117
Morgenstern, Dr. Julian, 375
Morocco, 36-j
Morris. Minister to Turliey, 344
Slorrls, Edward. 404
Morris, Robert, 89, 95, 129
Morrison, 295
Morrison, Isldor D., 337
Morrison, Moritz, 422
Morton, Martha, 410
Moses, brothers of Alabama, 230
Moses,, family of New Hampshire, 109
Moses, Abraham. 73
Moses, Major George W., 332
Moses, Isaac, 95
Moses. Lieut-Col. Israel, 163
Moses, Capt. Mayer, 123
Moses, fol. Nathan, 123
Moses, rinhas, and his five brothers,
138, 140
Moses, Raphael and his sons, 229
Moses. Col. Raphael J.. 230
Moskovlch, actor. 422
Mosler, Henry, 397
Moss, Mary, 409
Motta, Jacob de la, 93
Motthe, Jacques de la, 62
Mucate, Jacob, 37
Muhr, Simon, 287
Myers. Asher. 106
Myers, Capt. Isaac, 88
Myers, Levy, 117
Myers, Capt. Mordecai, 123
Xaiir, Capt., 47
Xacogdoches. Tex., 159
Napoleon III., 201, 225
Nassi, David. 43, 45, 46, 47
Nassi, Isaac, 48
Nassl, J. C, 49
Nassl, Joshua, 47
Nassi. Samuel 45. 46
Natchez. Miss.. 252
Nathan, Rabbi, 142
Nathan, of British Columbia, 383
Nathan, Joseph, 77
Nathan. Moses, 138
Nathan, Simon. 106
Nebraslta, 322, 328. 370, 425
Neo-Christlans, 29
Neto, Rabbi Isaac, 45
Neuman, Dr. S., 371
Neumark, Trof. David, 375
Nevada, 370, 425
Nevada City, Cal., 155
New Amsterdam, 40, 52. 62 fE.
Newark, N. J., 183, 253, 426
Newbauer. Leopold, 154
Newberg, I'., 150, 151
Newberger, Louis, 370
Newberger, Morris, 292
New Ilampsblre. 109. 110. 371, 425
New Haven, Conn., 7.". 426
New Jersey, 109, 269, 328, 370, 425
Newman, Isldor, 369
Newman, Lieut. -Col. Leopold C, 237
New Mexico, 370, 425
New Orleans, La., 140, 144-48, 252, 354,
426.
Newport. R. I.. 72, 98 ff.
New York. 40, G2 ff., 102, 104, U.S. 164,
179, 236. 2.'".5-6, 262. 271, 272, 274,
277, 282, 299, 301, 307, 329, 332, 354,
301, 362, 360, 371, 377, 378, 425
Nicea, Council of, 4
Nicholas I., Emperor of Russia, 254
Nieuhoft (quoted), 38
Ninette, daughter of Judah P. Ben.iamiu,
228
Noah, Joel, 155
Noah, Manuel Mordecai. 93, 94, 128
Noah, Mordecal Manuel, 128-34, 414
Nones, Benjamin, 93
North Africa, 7
North Carolina, 80, ino ff., 117 ff., 370,
425
North Dakota, 269. 328, 370, 425
Nuevos Christianos, 20
Nunez family, 00
Nunez, Jacob, 45
Nunez, Samuel, 77, 78
444
Index.
Oberman, Judali. 192
Ochs, Adolph, 414
Ochs, George W., 414
Ochs, Milton B., 414
OfEenbacli, 159
Oglethorpe. General James Edward, 77
Ogus, A. D.. 420
Ohio, 236, 328, 370, 425
Oklahoma, 328. 425
Oliveira, 51
Olivera, David de, 79
OUendorf, M. A., 384
Olney, Richard, 314, 316
Omaha, Neb., 253, 426
Oporto, 34
Oppenheim, James, 410
Oppenheim, S., 73 (note). 108 (notej,
123
Opper, Frederick B., 398
Orange-Nassau, Prince William Charles
of, 54
Order Brith Abraham, 247
Oregon, 157, 215, 269, 370, 425
Ottawa, Ont., 386
Ottolenghi, Joseph. 78
Owensboro. Ky., 252
0.x Bow, Canada, 386
rackeckoe, Moses, 73
I'aducah. Ky.. 252
Valey, John, 423
I'anama, 302
raplueau's Rebellion, 383
Para, La, 51
I'ara. Brazil. 391
Parahibo, Brazil, 38
I'avamaribo. Surinam. 42, 45, 48
Pardo, Rabbi David, 45
Pardo, Isaac R, de. 45
I'ardo, Rabbi Joshua, 53, 61
I'arona, Argentine. 38!)
Passport Question, 306 ft.. 329
I'aterson. X. .T., 42<t
Pedro. Emperor Dom. of Brazil. 301
I'eirce, H. H. D., 313
Peixotto, Benj. F.. 344, 379
Poixotio, Gen. Floriano. ;;!!!
Peixolto. George D. M., 397
Pellatas, Brazil. 301
I'enn, William, 75
Pennsylvania, 75, 118, 237, 370, 425
Pensacola, Fla.. 338
Penyha, Rev. Isaac de la, 364
Peoria, 111., 152
Pereira, Abraham, 56
Pereire, Isaac, 45
Pereire-Mendes, Rev. Abraham. 61
Periodicals, 256 ff., 302. 409, 417, 422
Perkins, Senator J. C, 315
Pernambuco, see Recife
I*erreire, 51
Persian Gulf, 3
I'eru, 30, 27, 393
Peters, Dr. Madison C, 413
I'ettus, Sen. E. W.. 316
I'hiladelphla, 57, 75, 04, 102. 105 it.,
171, 186, 198, 249, 262, 272, 282, 287,
354, 372, 377, 378, 426
Philip II., 22
Philip III., 23
Philippine Islands 424
Philippson, Colony, Brazil, 391
Philips. Asher, 148
Phillips, Barnet, 414
I'hilips, Feibel, 190
Fhllipps, Col. Frederick, 69
Phillips, Henry M., 108, 128
Phillips, Jonas, 85, 128
Phillips, ilorris, 414
Philips. Moses H.. 377
Phii:ip-i, /.alegman, 108
Phillipson, Rev. David (quoted), 138,
370
I*hoenicians, 2, 3
Pierce, President Franklin, 163, 202
IMmenta, Moses, 79
Pinalo, Francisco, 15
Pinhal, Brazil, 392
I'inheiro, 18
Pinner, iforitz, 212
Pinski, David, 410, 421
Pinlo, broihers, 75
Pinto fami'y, .39, 93
Pinto, Abraham, 47, 93
I'into, Isaac. 46
I'into. Jacob, 94
Pinto. Solomon, 94
Pinto, William, 93
Pittsburg. Pa., 282, 426
Piza, Rabbi David, 384
Plotz, Abraham. 148
"l*ogroms" or -Vnti-Jewish Riots, 262;
535
Index.
445
I'olak. Jakob Ai'ons, 47
I'ollock, Gov. James of Pennsylvania,
236
rolonies, Myer, 105
Pombal. llai-quis de, 42
Porter, David, 197
Port Gibson, Miss., 252
Portland, Ore., 157, 287. 426
Porto Alcgro, Brazil, 391
Porto Uico, 21, 424
I^ortsmouth, X. H., 110
Portugal, 5, 0, 28, 33
Poznanski, Rabbi Gustave, 168
I'rager, Eegina, 421
IM'ovidence, U. I.. 426
I*ulitzer, Joseph, 414
386
Ciu'appelle, Canada,
•■Quebec Act," 84
Quebec, Canada, 381, 386
Quevedo, Fra Juan, 21
Quincy, 111., 216
Quixano, Moses Mendes, 59
iiabinowitz, Isaac, 4()S
liabinowitz, Mayer, 407
Uaczker, Leibel. 190
iiaisln. Dr. Max, 408
Uamsay, Dr., 198
Randolph, ISeverly, 114
Ranke, tbe bistorian, 5
Raphall, Isidor, 190
Rapliall, Rev. Morris Jacob, 180, 208
Rapoport, I'hilip. 414
Rau, Rev. Moses, 107
Rayner, Isidor, 313
Recife, 35, 3C, 37, 38, 40
Reese, Michael, 156, 249
Regina, Canada, 38C
Kegio, Abraham Levi, 56
Rehiue, Zalma, 171
Reiner. Abraham, 190
Reisin, A., 423
Reiler, Rabbi Xaftali, 283
Religious Sects in the Colonies, 84
Republican Party, 212
Rhode Island, 72, 73, 118, 328, 371,
425
Ribiero, Francisco, 34
Rice, Henry, 289
Richmond, Va., 102, 116-17, 171, 180,
184, 198, 233, 295
Riesser, Gabriel, 198
Rievera, Jacob Rodrigues, 73
Rigio, Antonio Rodrigo, 56
Rindskopi', Lobel, 154
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 38, 391
Rio Grande, Brazil. 391
Rittenhouse, David. 107
Robbins, B. R., 420
Rochester, N. Y., 253. 420
Rodkinson. Michael L., 409
Roman Empire, 3
Roos, Rev. J. S., 42, 47, 48
Roosevelt, President Theodore, 317, 332,
343, 353, 356, 362, 365, 400
Root, Elihu, 317, 302
Rosario, Argentine. 389
Rosenbaum. M., 370
Rosenbaum, S. G., 289
Rosenberg. Abraham H., 303, 408-9
Rosenberg, Major Felix, 332
Rosenberg, Jacob, 150
Rosendale, Simon W., 369, 371*
Rosenfeld, A.. 141
Rosenfeld, Morris, 418
Rosenfeld, Sydney, 399
Rosenhayn, X. J., 269
Rosenstraus, Theodore, 309
Rosenthal, Adolph, 152
Rosenthal. Albert, 397
Rosenthal, Herman, 266, 269, 340, 409
Rosenthal, Dr. J. M., 152
Rosenthal, Max, 397
Rosenthal, Toby Edward, 397
Rosenwald, Julius, 370, 371, 378, 404
Rosenzwelg, Gerson, 303, 408-9
Rosewater, Edward, 414
Rosewater. Victor, 370, 414
Rothschild, Baruch Solomon, 190
Rothstein, Joshua, 190
"Rough Riders," 332
Roumania, relations with, 331, 343-52
Rubifrayn. see Ephraim, Rabbi, 15
Rudiger, Bishop, 4
Riilf, Dr. Isaac (quoted), 255
Russia, relations with. 306 ff.. 34T, 331
Russian Period of Immigration, 260 ff.
Russian-Poland, Immigration from, 189,
254
446
Index.
Sabayo, 17
SabsoTJch, Prof. H. L., 269, 289
Sacramento, Cal., 156
Sagres, 11
St. Catherine's, 386
St. John, N. B.. 386
St. .loseph, ilo., 2D3
St. Louis, Mo., 142, 249, 253, 378, 426
St. Paul, Minn., 153, 252
Salomon, Edward S., 152, 234
Salomon, Haym, 95-97, 106
Salomon, Haym M., 97
Salomon, William, 97
Salt River, N. B., 386
Salvador, Francis, 79
Salwen, Mayer, 191
Sampson, Solomon, 105
Samuel, Lewis, 385
Samuel, Marl<, 385
Samuels, brothers, 153
Samuels, .Joseph, 140
Samuels, Capt. Morris, 153
Samuelson, Simha, 192
San Antonio, Tex., 161
Sanchez, Gabriel, 15, 16
Sanchez, Juan, 20
Sanchez, Rodrigo, 14
San L'raucisco, Cal., 155 ff., 234, 252,
287, 402, 426
Santa Fe, Argentine, 398
Santa Maria, Brazil, 392
Santangel, Louis de, 12, 15, 16
Santiago, Chile, 393
Santo Domingo, 20, 381, 400
Sao Gabriel, Brazil, 391
Saphirstein, Jacob, 422
Sarasohn, Kesriel II., 250, 303, 355, 409
Sasia, Cal., 156
Savannah, Ga., 78, 102, 144, 252
Schafferstown, Pa., 77
Schaikewitz, X. M. (Schomer), 304
Schechter, Prof. Solomon, 340, 375
Scherpcnhuitzen, Van, 46
Scheusses, Henry de, 47
Schift, Jacob 11.. 289, 317. 358, 362,
369, 371, 413
Schildkraut, Rudolph, 422
Schillei'-Szinessi, Rabbi, 254
Schloss, Simon, 159
Schomer. Abraham S., 421
Schreiber, Moses Aaron, 408
Schur, William, 302, 407, 409
Schwab, Rev. Isaac, 157
Schwarz, Tobias^ 190
Schwarzberg, Samuel B., 303, 409
Scovil, Joseph A. (quoted), 256
Scranton, Pa. 426
Seattle, Wash. 426
Sebastian, King, 29
Sects, religious, in the Colonies, 84
Seddon, Secretary of War, 221
Seeligsohn, Henry, 160, 163
Seeligsohn, Michael, 160
Seitert, Moses, 419, 421
Seixas, Benjamin, 105
Seixas, Rev. Gershom Mendes, 104, 105,
106, 139
Seixas, Rev. Isaac B., 171
Seixas, Moses, 99, 101
Seixas, Theodore J., 195
Seligman, brothers, 156
Seligman, Prof. E. R. A., 401
Seligman, Jesse, 289
Selibovicli, George, 304
Selling, Benjamin, 370
Semel, Bernard, 371
Seminole War, 162
Semites, 3
Senior, Abraham, 12
Senior, Max, 369
Sewall, J. M., 110
Seward, William H., 204, 205, 343
Shaftesbury, Lord
Shannon, Joseph, 156
Sharkansky, A. M., 418, 421
Sharp, Rev. John, 68
Sheftal, Levi, 102
Sheftal, Mordecai. 79, 94
Shelvin, Bernhard, ' 423
Sherbrook, Canada. 386
Shreveport, La., 252
Shor, Anshel, 421
Shubert. Nathan, 150
Sicily Island, La., 266
Siegbert, Louis. 289
Siegelstein, Dr. P. A., 371
Silberman, Jacob, 154 .
Silberstein, Shalom Joseph, 407
Silva, de, family, 60
Sllva, Aai-on de. 4.")
Silva, Antonio Jos^ da, 41
,Silva, Francisco Maldonado de, .27
Silva, Rev. de, 143
Silverman. Emanuel, 154
Index.
447
Silverman, Rev. Joseph, 371
Silverman, Samuel, 384
Simon, Abraham de la, C3 (note), 64
Simon, B., 157
Simon. ,Toseph, ot Lancaster, 76
Simpson, Samson, lill
Singer, Dr. Isidor, ,^40, 356
Sivitz, Rabbi Jloses Simon, 282, 407
Slidell, Thomas. 222, 225
Slonim, Joel, 423
Slnss. r.ouis. 15G
Sloss, H. C, 369, 370, 403
Soarez, family, 60
Sobel, Isidor, 370, 371
Sobramonte, Don Thomas de, 25
Socialism, 273, 301
Sofer. Rabbi S., 407
Sola, Rev. Abraham de, 384
Sola, Rev. Meldola de, 384
Solaterevsky, 421
Solis-Cohen, David, 287
Solis-Cohen, Dr. Jacob da Silva, 403
Solis-Cohen, Dr. Solomon, 287, 403
Solomon, Hannah G., 200
Solomon, J. P., 417
Solomon, Rev. M. H., 61
Solomons, Adolphus S., 289
Solomons, Israel. 155
Solomons, Levy. 381, 382
Sombart, Werner, 4 (note)
Sonnenschein, Rev. H. S., 142
Sopora, Cal., 155
Soria, 15
Sosnitz, Jos. L., 305, 408
Sousa, Don Luis^ 34
South, Jews of. see Civil War
South America, 387 ff.
South Carolina, 78, 370, 425
South Dakota. 269, 328, 370
Soiithey, Robert (quoted), 35
Sovrin, Nathan. 423
Spain, 3, 5, 6, 7
Spanish-American War, 331 —
Spanish Jews as land owners, 4
Spanish Town, Jamaica. 60
Sparger, Wm., 413
Speyer, 4
.Spiegel, Col. Marcus M., 235-6
Splnosa, Cardinal Diego de, 23
Spitz, Rabbi Moritz, 142, 417
Spivak, Rabbi Aaron, 406
Spivak, Dr. Charles D., 287, 417
Stern, Morris, 370
Stern, Myer, 293
Sterne, Adolphus, 159
Stiles, Ezra, 73, 74, 82
Stockton, Cal., 155
Stolz, Rev. .Toseph, 370
Straus, Isidor. 36,'j, 371
Straus, Nathan, 365
Straus, Oscar S., 71 (note), 81, 289,
292, 358, 3G5, 369
Strauss, Command?r Joseph, 333
Strauss, Samuel, 414
Stroock, Sol. M. (quoted), 200
Stuyvesant, Peter, Governor of New
Netherland, 52, 63, 75
StyHt, Capt. Michael, 163
Sueiro, Ephraim, 37
Sulzbacher, Rev. Moses, 107
Sulzberger, Cyrus L., 371
Sulzberger, Mayer, 171, 289, 292, 362,
369, 370, 371, 376
Sulzer, Representative William, 318, 361
Sumero-Accadians, 2
Sunday Laws, 307. 327 ff.
Surinam, 40, 42, 43, 45
Sutro, Adolph, 156, 402
Switzerland, Passport Question, 199-205
Sydney, Canada, 380
Synagogues and Temples, 250 ff., 274,
338, (in Canada), 385
Syracuse, N. Y., 253, 426
Szold, Adele (note), 265, 337
Szold, Dr. Benjamin, 184
Szold, Miss Henrietta, 185, 295
Taft, President Wm. H., 317, 318, 332,
3.34, 401
Talmud Torahs, 276, 376-7 (in Canada),
385
Tamarica, Brazil. 38
Tannenbaum, Abner, 304, 419
Tanzman, Mr. and Mrs., 422
"Tashrak," see Zevin, Israel I.
Taussig, Rear-Admiral Edward David,
333
Taylor Falls, Minn., 153
Technical and Training Schools, 378
Temple of Jerusalem, destruction of, 13
Tennessee. 425
Texas, 158 ff.. 328, 370, 423
448
Index.
Thomas, B. S., 125
Thomushefsky, Bessie, 421
Thomasbefsky, Boris. 421
Thorman, Simsou', 141
Tliornberg, 422
Thorowgood's "Work on the Indians as
Jews, 14
Tliree Uivers, Can.. 382
Tim, B. L., 143
Tintner, Uabbi Moritz, 142
Tobacco, discovered by Torres, 14
Tobias, Mr. and Mrs., 422
Tobias, Josepli and Micliael, 79
Toronto, Ont., 385
Torres, Louis de, 13, 14
Touro, 51, 53
Touro, Abraham, 101
Touro, Rabbi Isaac, 74, 98
Touro, Judah, 101, 124, 144 ft., 207
Towne. Charles A., 3G1
Toy, Prof. Crawford H., 340
Trenton, N. .T.. 426
Triest, ^Montague, 370
Tucacas. Venezuela, 53
Tucuman, 2G
Tunis, M. ii. Noah, as American Consul
Tbere, 130
Turkey, Tre.tty with, ot 1808, 130, 347,
365
'Jyler, Trcsident .7ohn, 321
Ullman, Isaac M., 371
rilman, Samuel, 233
Union Army, .Tews in The. see Civil War
Union of American .Hebrew Congrega-
tions, 244
United Hebrew Charities of New York,
248, 289, 290
T'ntormyer, Samuel. 403
Utah, 370, 425
Van Buren, Martin. 194, 19S
A'ancouver, B. C, 386
\'an Ilorne, Capt. Cornelius, 69
A'iisco, da Oama, 16, 17
Vaz family, 00
^'pciuho, .loseph, 11
Velasco. Tex., 158
Velosino, .Tacob de, 40
Venezuela, 392
Vermont, 123, 371, 425
Vespucci, Amerigo. 17
A'icksburg. Miss., 252
Victoria, B. C, 380
■\'idaver, Kev. Henry, 107
A'idrevitz, Rabbi Chayyim Jacob, 282
Vieyra, 36
Vincente, .Tuan, 26
Virginia, 113 tt., 2fi9, 328. 371, 425
Vizitelly, Frank II., 340
Voorsanger, Eabbi Jacob, 417
Aossius, The Old, 37
Waco. Tex., 161
Wake Island, Oceanica, 333
Waldsteln, Trof. Charles, 400-1
Waldstein, Louis, 401
Waldsteln, Martin, 401
War of 1812, 123 ft,
Warburg, Felix JI., 371
Warfleld, David. 390
Washington, 370, 425
Washington, D. C, 252, 420
Washington, George, 90, 99 ff. (his Cor-
respondence with Jew.s)
Washington, L. 0., 226
Webster, Daniel, 145, 200
Weigel, Abraham, 142
Weil, Isaiah. 144
Weil, Leo, 370, 371
Weinberg, Alex. B., 162
Weiuschel, llayim, 408
Weinstock, Harris, 370
Weiss, Simon, 159
West Jersey, 109
West Virginia. 328, 370, 425
Weyl, Max, 397
White, Andrew D., 312, 318
White, Henry Ambassador, 362
Wilcox, John A.. 201
Willeken, Commander, 35
Willemsted, Curacao, 51, 53
William of Orange. 32
Williams, Roger, 71
Wllloughby, Lord, 43
Wilmington, Del., 108, 111
Wilmington. X. C, 120
Wilowski, Rabbi .Jacob David, 281
Wilson, Charles L., 346
Index.
449
Wilson, James, 96
Wint-hevsKy, Morris, 418
Winder, Gen., 125
Winnipeg, Man., 380. 386
Wisconsin, 154, 328, 370, 425
Wise. Rev. Isaac M. 1:1. 175-76, 203,
414, 417
Wise, Dr. Stephen, 337
Wister, William, 107
Wltte. Count Serge, 317
Witteustein, Zeeb Dob, 407
Wolf. Benjamin, 117
Wolf, Benjamin, 370
Wolf, Edwin, 202
Wolf, Simon (quoted). 33, 83, 88, 133,
130, 218. 233. 287. 205. 360, 381
Wolfeustein. Martha, 410
Wolff, A., 160
Woodbine, X. J., 269
Woodstock, Canada, 38G
Woolf, Moses, 152
Woolft, J. Meyer, 47
Woolner, Samuel, 370
World's Columbian Exposition of 1893,
180, 295, 403
Wormscr, Isaac, 151
Worthington, Col. V.'. (i. D., 125, 120
Wyoming, 370, 425
Y
Yarmouth, Canada, 386
"Yehoash," see Bloomgarden, Solomon
Yelisavetgrad, Russia, 262
Yeshibot, 270, 376
Yonkers, X. Y., 390
York, Duke of, afterwards King .lames
II., 07
Yorkton, Canada, 386
Young Men's Hebrew Associations, 378
Young Women's Hebrew Associations,
379
Yulee. David, 207
Zacuto, Abraham, 12. 16, 17
Za'.inski, Lieut. -Col. Moses U., 332
Zamora, 15
Ziirtati. Joshua, 40
Zarhi, Rabbi Asher Lipman, 283
Zevin, Israel I., 420
ZhitlOYSky. Dr. Charles, 423
Zhitomir, 357
Ziegler, Isaac\ 150
Zionism, 330-7
Ziony, Israel, 423
Zirndorf, Dr. Henry. 155
ZoUschan, "Das Rassenproblem," 3
Zolotkoff, Leon, 287, 422
Zunser, Kliakum, 418
Zuntz, Alexander, 105
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11