OLiN
OS
^03
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
59
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H. E. THE RIGHT HON. SIR WEST RIDGEWAY,
O.C.M.a., K.C.B., E.O.B.I.
HON. LL.D. CAMBBIDOB AND EDINBITBQH.
(Governor op Ceylon, 1896—1903.)
CEYLON IN 1903:
DESCRIBING
THE PROGRESS OP THE ISLAND SINCE 1803,
ITS PRKSENT
AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES,
AND ITS
'ClneauaUe& attractions to Visitors,
USEFUL STATISTICAL INFORMATION; A MAP OF
THE ISLAND, AND UPWARDS OF ONE
HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS,
BY
JOHN FERGUSON, c.m.g.
Editor of " Ceylon Observer," " Tropical Agriculturist," ' Ceylmi Bandbook," etc.
Vice-President of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ;
President of the Ceylon Christian Lifrature Society ;
Honorary Corresponding Secretary of the Royal Colonial Institute,
• Embn ssies from regions tar remote :
From India and Ihe Golden Chersonese,
» * * »
And utmost Indian Isle Tapbobanb."- Milton
ColoillbO :
A. M. & J. FERGUSON,
1903.
[All rights reserved.~\
TO
HIS EXCELLENCY
THE RIGHT HONORABLE
SIR JOSEPH WEST RIDGEWAY, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.,
K.C.S.I., D.C.Ti., LL.D.
WHO HAS BEEN GOVERNOB OP THE ISLAND OP CEYLON
AND THE DEPENDENCIES THEREOF PROM
1896 TO 1903 INCLUSIVE : during
which period
the first railway in the jaffna peninsula was
opened; the great northern line projected
and begun ; light narrow gauge lines
first introduced ;
and numerous other important public works,
including irrigation tanks,
the colombo graving dock and drainage works,
and a complete survey op the island were
arranged for ;
a scientific stape provided to aid agriculture; and
many useful measures of legislation devised: —
to one of the most energetic, eloquent and successful
governors "^ho have ever administpired
the affairs of this island,
this little volume is
as a slight token of admiration for thirty-pour years
of varied and successful administration;
by his obedient and humble servant,
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
THE first edition ^f this work was published by Messrs.
Sampson Low, Marston, & Co., as " Ceylon in ] 883."
A second edition, under the auspices of the same firm,
was called for in a few months, and came out as "Ceylon
in 1884." The latter volume was out of print for some
time before a further issue could be made ; but the
Queen's Jubilee made it very appropriate that a third
edition, much enlarged, should appear in 1887, (published
by Messrs. John Haddon & Co.)" as "Ceylon in the
Jubilee Year." So favourably was this enlarged fourth
publication received, that "out of print" was the only
answer to numerous inquiries by 1890; and therefore
a fifth Edition called "Ceylon in 1893" (also published in
London) was prepared. This again has long ago been
disposed of and so "Ceylon in ]903" in a compact form,
has been prepared at rather short notice to supply an
urgent want for a popular, illustrated, up-to-date Handbook.
The Author trusts that this succinct and popular account
of what is the most important— whether population, trade,
or resources be. considered — of Her Majesty's Crown
Colonies, will be once again found to supply a felt want.
Thrown very much into the form of an Illustrated Hand-
book for Visitors, this volume will be found 'by all interested
in Ceylon (whether officials, merchants, planters, or home
residents with relatives in the island) to contain late
and reliable information on a great variety of topics.
The endeavour has been to bring all the chapters up
vi Preface.
to date, while several have had considerable additions,
and the closing chapter is quite new. The Appendix,
again, with some eight ^ divisions, is almost entirely new,
and includes the Lectures which the Author was enabled
to give before the Eoyal Colonial Institute and Society
of Arts during 1899 ; a good deal of information about
Uva and the new Camp at Diyatalawa organised by Sir
West Eidgeway for the Boer prisoners and to "be kept
up for Military and Volunteer exercises, and for Military
and Naval convalescents. There is also information as
to the encouragement offered for new enterprises — Stock-
raising, &o. — in the region to be opened up by Governor
Eidgeway's great Northern Eailway which will be com-
pleted by 1905. The main results of the Census of 1901
are given ; a list of Native Names of Places with their
meaning; and a Glossary of Native Terms from a paper
compiled under of&ciai auspices, and revised, — all of which
will be very useful for reference. A full Index makes
all the main "facts and figures," as well as the general
information, readily available.
Eegarding "Ceylon in 1903 " as an Illustrated Volume,
a special feature of the present edition is the separate
arrangement of most of the engravings (many of them new)
on distinctive sheets. The map of the Island (which will
be found in the pocket inside cover or bound in the
volume if required) will be found fairly correct and
convenient for reference.
Finally, the author has to express his pleasure that
permission has been given him to dedicate the present
edition to one of the ablest and most successful as well
as prosperous in the long list of British Governors of
Ceylon, and whose name will long be remembered in
the annals of the island, as well as in those of the Isle
of Man, of Ireland, of India and Afghanistan, in all
Preface. vii
of which countries, His Excellency Sir West Eidgeway
has made his mark as an Administrator.
By way of postscript, it may be mentioned that if
the " British Association for the Advancement of Science "
accept the invitation of the Ceylon Government, sent
home to the Council in July this year, to hold its
annual meeting in Colombo during either 1907 or 1908,
a new interest will be taken in scientific and literary
circles all over the world, in this "first of British Crown
Colonies," this '' Eden of the Eastern Wave," with its
interesting peoples of many races, its many attractions,
industries and resources.
Colombo, 12th Sepiembei-, i'Jus.
' CEVLON OBSERVER" PRINTIKG PRESS, COLOMBO.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Past History. Pagk.
T!he Ophir and Tarshish of Solomon — Northern and Southern
Indian Dynasties — Chinese Invasion and Connection
■with the island in ancient and modern times — ^Portuguese
and Dutch Rule — British Annexation. ... ... 1
CHAPTER II.
The Island in 1796, 1815, and bighty-bight ykaes latbk.
Extent and Topographical features — Condition of the island
previous to, and after, eighty-eight years of British
Rule contrasted
CHAPTER III.
Social Progebss in the Century.
Population — Buildings — Postal and Telegraphic Services-
Savings Bank — Banking and Currency — ^Police and Mili-
tary Defence — Medical and Education Achievements —
Laws and Crime ... ... ... ... 21
CHAPTER IV.
Legislative and General Improvements under the Rule
OF successive British Govbrnors— the need of promot-
ing co-operation and good feeling between diverse
classes and races ... ... ... ... 31
CHAPTER V.
Native Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests.
Paddy (Rice) Cultivation — Cinnamon — Coconut, Palmyra,
Kitul, Areoanut and other Palms — Essential Oils —
Tobacco Cotton — Sugarcane — Other Fruit-trees and
Vegetables — Natural Pasture — Local Manufactures ... 44
* ' Pag*.
CHAPTER VI.
The OmtuN and Rise of the Planting Industry.
Coffee introduced in 1690, by tlie Dutch— First systematically
cultivated ;in 1740— Extensive development in 1837 —
Highest level of prosperity reached in 1868-70— Appear-
ance of Leaf Disease in 1809 -Its disastrous effects. ... 60
CHAPTER VII.
THE Era op Tea, Cacao, Rubbkr a>'u otueu Nbw Prodbcts.
Tea— Cinchona — Cacao- Indiariibber— Cardaoioms — Liberian
Coffee, &c. ... ... •• ■•• ■•• 67
CHAPTER YIII.
Present Position of Agrioultuual ENTEiiPuisE, Local Industries
AND Foreign E.>:port and Import Trade.
Exports of last decade— The Plumbago Trade— Gold and Iron-
Native Industries generally flourishing— Tea and Cacao
will mate up for the fleflcieney in Coffee. ... ... 78
CHAPTER IX.
What the Planting Industry has done i'or the Mother
Country.
The swing of the pendulum : a Cycle of Prosperity from
Tea — Previous years of depression considered — Planting
profits absorbed in the past by Home Capitalists —
Absence of Reserves of Local Wealth — The accumulated
Profits of past years estimated. ... ... ... 81
CHAPTER X.
What the Planting Industry has done you Ceylon.
Population more than doubled — Revenue expanded eight-
fold — Trade sixteen to twenty fold— Employment afforded
to natives — An El Dorado for the Indian immigrant —
Coffee in the past, as Tea in the future, the mainstay of the
island — The material progress in'the Planting Districts
CHAPTER XI.
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon.
Ceylon still a good Field for Investment — Its freedom from
Atmospheric Disturbances -Shipping conveniences at
Paof..
the New Harbour of Colombo — Moderate Freights — Cheap
and Unrivalled ineans of Transport — Certain Lands avail-
able for Tropical Culture in Coconut Palms, Rubber,
Cotton, Tobacco, Fibres and other New Products
— Openings for Young Men with capital — High Position
taken by the Ceylon Planter— Facilities for personal In-
spection of Investments. ... ... ... 94
CHAPTER XII.
AlTltACTIONS EOR TUB TRAVELLER AND VISITOR.
The Voyage a Pleasure Trip — Historical Monuments, Vegeta-
tion, &c. — Variety of Climate — Colombo, the Capital —
Kandy, the Highland Capital — Nuwara Eliya the Sanato-
rium — TheHorton Plains — Adam's Peak — Uva and its long-
delayed Railway — Ancient Cities of Anuradhapura and
Polonnaruwa — Occasional Pearl Fisheries — Probable Ex-
pense of a Visit to Ceylon — The alleged inconveniences of
Tropical Life. ... ... ... ... 500
CHAPTER XIII.
The Rbvbnur and Expenditure of Ceylon.
Chief Sources of Revenue : — Grain and Customs Dues, Sales of
Crown Land and Railway Profits — Ta.Niation and Revenue. 118
CHAPTER XIV.
What its Government can do for Ceylon.
Active and independent Administrators required — The ob-
struction to Progress offered in Downing Street — Railway
Extensions — Law Reform needed — Technical, Industrial,
and Agricultural Education needs encouraging— The
Buddhist Temporalities Questions — Fiscal Reform of
Road, Excise Laws, Salt Monopoly, Pood Taxes and
Customs Duties — The Duke of Buckingham's Ceylon and
Southern India Railway Project — Ceylon and India-
Waste Crown Lands. ... ... ... ... 121
CHAPTER XV.
Social Life and Customs.
Social Life and Customs of the Natives of Ceylon — How little
Colonists may know of Village Life— Domestic Servants—
Paob.
Oasfce Restrictions — Curious Oeeupatioiis umoDg the
jjeople ... ... ... ... ... 182
CHAI>TER XVI.
F0RTHER Progress indicated and a ikw RkI'Orms caijled for.
Relation and Importance of Ceylon to India — Progress of
Christianity and Bdxioation — Statistics of Population —
Need of Reform in the Legislative Council, and Sketch
of a Scheme for the election of unofficial members —
Loyalty of People to British Rule, as evinced during
Royal Visits, and in connection with the Jubilees of
the late Majesty the Queen Empress and of the
Coronation of King Edward A'll. — Progress of Ceylon
since 1837. ... ... ... ... ... 141
CHAPTER XVII.
Sir West Ridgeway's Administration : 1890 190;! ... 147
APPENDICES.
I. — Glossary. ... ... ... ... , , i
II.— Derivations and Meaxings of the Names of some of the
Tovsrns, Villages, Districts, Rivers, and Mountains in
Ceylon. ... ... ... ... xj
III.— The Ceylon Census of 1901 :— Christian by Sect; Popu-
lation by Nationality and Religion ; Education by
Nationality and Religion ; Races in Ceylon ; Occupations
or Means of Livelihood ; The Provinces of Ceylon ;
Districts, Towns, Villages, Houses, Families and Males
and Females ; Population of Ceylon by Religion ; Popu-
lation of Ceylon by Race ; Districts and Towns in Ceylon
by their Population, Area and Density; Colombo— Area,
Houses, Persons, &c.; Cliief Towns and Villages in
Ceylon.. ... , .
...xlvi
Christian Missions in CJSYLON-Review of the Decade,
1892-1902 : by J. Ferguson :— Roman Catholics, Baptist
Mission, Wesleyan Mission, Church Mission, American
Ceylon Mission, S. P.. CJ. Mission, Salvation Army
Friends' Mission, Heuaratgoda Mission, Independent
Catholics, Bible and Christian Literature Societies. Ixxxiii
( 5 )
Paujs.
rv. — Old and New. Colombo by J. Ferguson. ... ... ciii
v.— Cbylon in 1899— by J. Ferguson. ... ...cxli
Meteorological Conditions in North Central and North-
Bast Ceylon ... ... ... ... ...clxii
VI. — Types of Races and Amusing Chaeactbes in Ceylon clxiv
VII. — Uppee Uva, Ceylon, as a Station for British
Troops. ... ... ... ... clxxiii
VIII. — Tree-geowing at a High Elevation in Ceylon — The
Best-wooded Plantation in the Island. ... clxxx
IX. — North Centeal Ceylon : How is the Wastelands opened
by the Railway to be utilised ?— Cattle Stations and
Stock-raising suggested beyond the Tank-served Rice-
lands. ... ... ... ... clxxxvi
GENERAL INDEX.
Abbotsford Estate
Acrobats, Native
Actors, Native
Adam's Bridge
Peak
Administration of Ceylou
of Justice
African Palm Oil Nut
Agricultural Education
Enterprise of Ceylon
Agriculture, Native
Tropical, Manuals on
under the Dutch
AgriciiXturist, Tropical
Agri-Horticultural Exhibitions
AlagalaPeak (Illustration)
Altitudes of Mountains
suited to Coffee
Ambalangoda
American Mission
Amusing Characters in Ceylon
Animals, Wild
Annotto Dye Plant
Anuradhapura
■ Ruins (Illustrations)
Apprentices to Tea Planters
Arabi and the Egyptian Exiles
Arabs, Cinnamon known to
Coffee Introduced by
Arehselogical Survey
Area of Ceylon
Areca Palm
PAGE.
60
139
139
7
§3, 112, clxxvii (Illustration)
!.. 121
30, clii
76
55,124
78
45, oxliv
98
5
98
124
civ
8
64, 70
106
xcv
clxiv
115
77
... 4,33,114
108,114,115,138
97
% 4:0, Illustration (lU)
49
61
130
7
54
( « )
Army— See Mn.lTABY.
Arrack
, Illicit Sales of
Rents
Astrologers
Asylums in Ceylon
^tagala
Atmospheric Disturbances, Freedom of Ceylon from
Attractions for Travellers and Visitors
Australia to Ceylon
Authorities on Ceylon
Avissawella
Pagk.
51
124
124
139
26
109
94
100
126
140, cxxxi
108
Backwaters
BaduUa {Illustration)
Baker, Sir Samuel
Balangoda
Bandarawela
Railway Extension
Bank Notes
of Ceylon
Banking Facilities
Banyan Tree (Ilhi.s/nitioi/s)
Bap.tist Mission
Baptists, Number of
Barbers
Bark, Cinnamon — See Cinnaiujn.
, Cinchona — See Cinchona.
Barnes, Governor Sir Edward
■ , Statue of (Illusttrittio)!)
Batticaloa
Beef Supply of Ceylon
Beggars
Bentota
Bhang Licenses
Bible Society
Bibliography of Ceylon
Bi rths. Registration of
8,39
clxxiii
102
109
113
38
23
32
23
80,81
Ixxxix
xlvii
139
11
21
44, 116
57
139
106
38
ci
140, cxxxi
33 '■
( 9 )
Page,
Boats, Bridge of ... H, 35 {Illustration)
Boer Camp ... ... 113
Prisoners of War in Ceylon ... ... 40
Books on Ceylon ... ... 140
Botanic Gardens, Ceylon ... ... 40,110
Breadfruit-tree ... ... ,").";
Breakwater, Colombo ... 34, 89, cxxii, oliii
Brides, Native ... ... 137
Bridge of Boats ... 11, S5 {Illtist ration)
Bridges ... ... 12,14,15
British Governors of Ceylon ... Illustration (1), 7-20,153
Rule in Ceylon ... 7—20, 145,153
Buddhism ... ... 138,142
and Caste ... ... 136
and State ... ... 32
Buddhist Fishermen, Hypocrisy of ... ... 138
^— Priests ... ... 127,130
Sects ... ... 139
Shrines (Illustrations) 101,109,114,115,130,1.34,138
Temples ... ... 3, 109
Temporalities ... ... 29,35,127
Buddhists ... ... 142
,Numberof ... ... xlvi
Buildings in Ceylon ... ... 22
Bullock Carts ... ... 19
Bullocks, Imported ... ... .57
Burghers, Status of .. ... 141
Burmese Pilgrims at Kandy (IHwstrotton) ... 134
Burnsido, Sir Bruce, Chief Justice ... ... 30
Cacao Acreage in Ceylon ... ... 151
Cultivation ... ... 74
■ Exports ... ... 74, 151
— ■ Plantations, Finest ... ... HI
Prices ... ... 98
Tree and Pods (lUttst/'ations) .. 74,76
Cambodia, Presents from King of . . ... 3
Cameron, Mr. C. A. ... ... 103
, Mrs. Julia ... .-• IO3
Canals made by Dutch
-, Mileage of
( 10 ) PAOE.
5,19
19
Canoe, Stone (Illustration) ■■■ ■■■ **'
Caoutchouc— See India-eubbkr.
Capital and Beturns ••• ■•• ^2-84
Capitalists, Prospects for ••■ ••• ^_^
Cardamom Acreage in Ceylon ••• ■■■ '■''^
Cultivation ••• •■• '*
Exports ••■ •■• 76,151
Carpenters, Sinhalese •■• •• ^°
Carriage of Produce
Carrier-Pigeons
Cart Eegistration
99
32
30
Roads ... 1<>
Carts and Carriages ... ••• 1^
Caryota Urens ... ... SS
Cassia Auriculata ... ■•. 67
Caste ... 19,3C,13M3S,13G
Cattle-rearing ... ... 57
in Ceylon, No. of ... ■■ H
(lUttstj-otfon) Proposed ... ... elxxxiv
Ceara Rubber Tree .. ... 61
Census of Ceylon ... ... 21,33,xlvi
Centipedes ... ... 117
Central Province, Chief Towns'and Villages in ... Ixxix
Gazetteer of the ... ... 39
Population, of .., ... Ixvii:
Ceylon a Central Military Station ... ... 12(>
a Good Meld for Investment ... ... 94
a Hugo Tropical Garden ... ... 101
, A Lecture on ... ... 40'
, Ancient History of ... ... 1,2,101
an El Dorado for Indian Immigrants ... 87
and King of Cambodia ... ... S
and Muhammadans ... ... 2
Antiquities ... 108,114,llo,138-
, Areaof ... ... 7
a Training Ground for Tropical Agriculturists 97
, Bibliography of ... .. 140, cxxxi
Ceylon, Buddhist Temples in ... ... ^
— , Chinese Invasion of ... ... 3
( 11 )
Pace..
Ceylon, Civilisation in ... ... 3
• , Commerce of ... ... 5,86.
Company, Limited ... ... 24'
, Configuration of .. ... 7
Contingents .,. - 40J41
, Cost of Living in .., ... IIB'
^, Expenditure of ... ... 42,118
, First King of ... ... ^
, Freedom of, from Atmospheric Disturbances ... 94
, Greek and Roman Appellations of ... 2'
in 1899 — Paper by John Ferguson, Esq. cxli
, its Relation and Lnportance to India ... 141.
, Last King of ... ... 2:
Medical College . ... 27, 33;
, Names of ... ... 2,101
, Natural Features of ... .. 8,101
Observer ... ' • . . 68,98-
, Progress in ... ... 9, 14->
, Prospects for Capitalists in ... ... 94
, Public Debt of ... ... 42:
, Revenue of ... ... 42,118
Rifle Regiment ... .. 25,30-
Steamship Company ... ... 11,>
, Topographical- Features of ... ... 7
Trade, Value of . . ... 86.
, Types of Races and Amusing Characters in {IllnsI rations)
clxiv
■ vs. India as a Tea-growing Country ... 96.
, What its Government can do for it ... 121
, Writers on ... ... 140,cxxxi
Changes of European Element ... .. 82
Characters in Ceylon, Amusing (Illustrations) . . clxiv
Charitable Allowances .. ... 10.
Chartered Bank of India, &c. ... ... 24
Cheetah Hunting ... ... 115
Chicago Exhibition ... ... 38-
Chilaw ... ... 108
China, Buddhist Temples in ... ... 3-
: — Tea ... .. 70'
Chinese in Ceylon ... .. 3-
Chocolate Tree .- •• 74
( 12 )
' Page.
'Chocho ..■ ■■• ^''
Ghristian Literature Society ... ... oi
Missions in Ceylon . . 27, 133, Ixxxiii
'Christianity and Caste ... ... 136
^— in Ceylon ... 139, 142, Ixxxiii
-Christians, Number of ■•■ ■•• xlvi
•Church of England Members, Number of ... xlvii
Mission ... ••■ 40, xciii
■Cinchona, Acreage of ... ••■ fi9
Branch (Illustration) ... ■■■ 08
Cultivation ... ■■■ 68
Exports ■•• ••• 09
, Introduction of .. ... 68
•Cinnamon Cultivation ... . . 44, 49
Monopoly ... ... 4,5
on . ... ... .56
Preparation of (Illustrations) ... ... 48
•Citronella Oil ... ... 5.5
■Civilisation and Roads ... ... 1.5
in Ceylon ... ... S
, European ... ... 139
■Civil Laws, Codification of ... ... 124
Procedure Code ... ... 30
Servants in British Colonies ... ... 121
Service, Ceylon Subordinate ... ... 130
of India and Ceylon ... ... 129
•Climate of Ceylon ... ... 96
Climbers, Coconut and Areoa Tree ... (lUustrationsj d\, cxv
Clothing of Natives ... .. 91
Clubs ... ... 36
Coal in Ceylon, Absence of ... ... 79
Coastj Palms around the .. ... 50
Cobden Club and Food Taxes in Ceylon ... _ 128
Cocoa — See Cacao.
Coconut and Areca Palms ... (Illustrations) '0, 91, cxv
Climber (lUustrat(on') ... ., cxv
Desiccated ... ... 52
Exports .. ... 52
Fibre ... ... 5-2,93
— Palm ... ... 50
— Plantation (Illustration) ... ... 50
( 13 )
Page.
Coconut Plantations, Tax on ... ... i2S
, Products of the ... . §2
Code, Penal and Civil ... ... gg.
Coffee, Altitudes suitable for ... . 64^70
^Vish (Illustrations) ... ... 68 75
-, Capital and Profits ... ga
——. — Crops, Total ... ... ga
Cultivation ... ... go
Exports .. ..60,61,66,80
Gardens, Sinhalese ... ... q%
, Introduction of ... ... 60
Land, Prices of ... ... 64
Leaf Disease ..„ ... 63,64
, Native-grown . ... 85
Plantations, Profits from ... ... 83-
, Prices of ... .. 83-
Stores and " Barbacues " (IUi(stratio7i) ... cxiv
-, Total Quantity produced in Ceylon
Coir Fibre ... ... 52,9a
.Export of ... .. 52.
Colombo, Academy ... ... 32
and the British Association ... ... cxxix
, Area of ... ... Ixxvi
, Attractions of ... ... j03
, Benefit of making it a Free Port ... 129-
-^' , Bibliography of . ... ... 140, exxxi
— Breakwater ... ... 34,39'
— .Climate of ... ... 105,109
, Density in ... Ixxvi
Described ... ... 107
, Distances from ... ... 126
Drainage ... . . 39,- 105
Electric Tramways ... ... 105, cxxi
Fl£kgsta,S (Illustration) .. .. 21
Graving Dock ... ... 39
Harbour Works ... 34, 39, cxxii, clii^
i
— , Houses in ... . Ixxvj
in the Dutch Era ... ... cv
•— ; in the Portuguese Era ... ... civ
' , Iron Works and Foundries ... ... cxxvi
Lake ... ... 107
' Page.
-Colombo, Means of Locomotion in ... ... 105
■i— Merchant's Seaside Mansion (Ilhistration) 20
•V- , Modern ... ... eii, cxii
-r-^ Museum {Illustrations) ... .. 33, 34
~ — ^, , Old ... ... 40, cii
Passengers to ... •■• 117 ,
, Pettah {Illustmtion) ... ... cxx
, Population of ... 9, 103, Ixxvi, cxx
Queen's House CmMStcation)... ... 21
, Railways and Tramways ... ... 105,cxxi
Railway Terminus (Illustration) ... cxliv
Roadstead ... ... 95, cxxv
Sanitation of ... ... cxx
, Shipping Conveniences at ... ... 95
' "Stores" ... ... 90
Street Scene (Illustration) ... ... 102
the Port for South India ... ... cxxv
under British Rule ... ... cvii
Vegetation ... ... 107
versus Trincomalee ... ... 34
, Visitors to ... ... cxxvii
Waterworks ... ... 105
■Colonial OfBce ... ... 121
•Commerce of Ceylon ... ... 5
•Communication, Means of ... ... 11, 14,15
•Commutation, Rice ... ... 119
Compulsory Labour ... ... 31
•Congregationalists, Number of ... ... xlvii
■Conjurors, No. of ... ... 139
•Conservation of Forests ... ,.. 33
■Coode, Sir John, and Colombo Harbour Works ... 11
■Coolies Earnings of ... ... 87
, How they talk English .. ... 1,35
on Estates ... ... i.^jg
■Cooly Girl Picking Tea Leaves (Illustration) ... 70
Copleston, Most Rev. Dr. R. S. ... ... 41
, Rt. Rev. A. E. ... ... 41
■Copra, Export of ... .,_ 52
Cioral Reefs ... ... jQg
•Cordiner, Rev. James ... ... 14
■Cost of living in Ceylon ... ... ng
( 15 )'
Cotton Caltivation
Mills, Colombo
-^-^ Spinners
Council Reform
Cricket and Sinhalese Lads {Ilhisti-ation)
Crime in Ceylon
Crocodiles
Crown Colonies
Land along Northern Railway
Sales
Croton Oil Seeds
Crucibles, Plumbago for
Cruelty to Animals
Cultivated Areas
Currency, Decimal
Notes
of Ceylon
Customs Duties
— and Social Life
Cycles of Depression
Page.
'•' 56
56
56
31, 144
133
30, clii
117
1,121
130
43, 119
76
78
138
11, 44-59
24
23
141
119
132
81
Dagobas in Geylon
Dancers, Native
Deaths by Accidents
, Registration of
Debt of Ceylon
Decimal Currency
Deerhorns, Trade in
Defences See Military
Delft Island
Density in Ceylon
Dependents in Ceylon
Depression, Financial
Derivations of Place Names
De Soysa, Mr. C. H.
Devil-dancers
Dhobies
Diamond Jubilee Celebrations
Ifeiry Farm in Colombo
101, 108, 114, 138 (Illustrations)
139
30
;.. 33
-42
141
79
57
Ixxvi
Ixiii
82
xl
27
(IllMStroWon) 139
{Illustration} 139
40
57
( 1« > PAG..
Dikoya ... ■•• ^^
Dimbula District ... ... •■■ ^^
Plantation (Ilhistration) ... .■ ^^
Disease, Coffee— See Coffee Leaf Disease.
Disestablishment in Ceylon ... 32, 34, Ixxxiv .
Dispensaries in Ceylon ... .■• 10,2ft
Distances from Colombo ... ... 126
Districts of Ceylon ... ... Ixiv, Ixxiv
Diyatalawa ••• ■■■ 113
as a Military and Naval Sanitarium .. 12ft
Dock, Graving— See Graving Dock.
Dolosbage, Tea in ... ... 67
Domestic Servants ... ... 134
Dress of Natives
Drinking Habits among People ... 125
Dumbara ... •. 10&
Dutch Rule in Ceylon ... ... i
, Taxation by the ... ... 128
Duties and Taxes ... 118
Dyeing Substances ... ... 79
Earners in Ceylon ... ... IxiiL
Earthquakes
Eastern Province, Chief Towns and Villages in ... Ixxx
Eastern Province, Population of ... Ixx
East India Naval Station Headquarters .., 12ft
Ebony, Export of . ... 79
Edinburgh, Duke of ... ... 33,144
Education .„ 27,33,133,139,141
Education among Christians ... ... Ixxxv
Education by Nationality and Religion . . , xlix, 1
Egyptian Exiles and Ilhtstration ... ... 40,144
Electric Tramways ... ... 105
Elective Principle, Introduction of ... ... 143
Elephant-keepers ... ... 139
Elephant Kraals ... ... 115
Elephants, (Illustration)
in Ceylon ... ... 79
Elephant-shooting in Ceylon ... .. 115
( 17 )
Elevations suited for planting — See Altitudes.
Elk Hunting
Ella Pass
EUiobi Mr. E., on Paddy Cultivation ...
Endowments, Buddhist— See Buddhist Temporahties
English as spoken by Domestic Servants
Education in Ceylon
Essential Oils
Estate Coolios
Property, Value of
Eucalypts in Ceylon
Eurasians, Number of
, Status of
European Civilisation in Ceylon
'■ — Element, Changes of
Europeans in Ceylon, Number of
Exchange Facilities
Executive Council, Enlargement of
Expenditure of Ceylon
Experimental Stations
Export Duties, Abolition of
Trade of Ceylon
Exports of Ceylon
under the Dutch
Extension of_Rail ways— See RAttWAYS.
Bye Hospital and Blind Asylum
Page.
115
114
45
134
IBa
55
133
64
elxxxi
xlvi
141
139-
82
xlvi
2a
144
42, 118
55
3a
78, 152
93
41
F.
Eacilities for Travel
Factories, Government
Fakirs
Eamilies in Ceylon, No. of
Famine and Roads
Fa-hien, the Chinese Traveller
Faviell, Mr. W. F.
Farming, Stock
Female Education
•Females in Ceylon
Ferguson, A. M., C. M. G. {Illustration.)
Ferguson, Hon. John, c. M. G. (,Illustration.)
9&
58
13»
... Ixiv, Ixxvi
l5
4
1(>
13a
27
Ixiv
98
9*
( 18 )
Pagk.
Ferguson Memorial Hall ... ... 40
•" Ferguson's View " from Railway Incline (Illustration) clvi
Fibre, Coir— See CoiR Fibre.
Fibre, Kitul— See KrruL Fibre.
Ficus Indica (rHj('st)'otioii) ... ... 81
Financial Crises ... ... 81
Fiscal System ... ... 128,142
Fish Tax ... ... 32,128
Flagstaff, Colombo (Illnstmtion.) ... ... 21
Fodder Grasses ... ... 57
Food Consumption ... ... 44,89
Taxes in Ceylon and Cobden Club ... 128
Forced Labour in Ceylon ... ... 5,31,49
Foreign Invasions of Ceylon ... ., 3
Forest Conservation ... ... 33
Forestland, Price of . . ... 64
Forest Reserves ... ., 119
Fortune-tellers ... .. 139
Freights in Ceylon ... .. qq
Friend-in-Need Societies ... .. 93
Friends' Mission ... . . g
Fruit Trees in Ceylon ... ... ,5.5
Fungus, Coffee Leaf— .See Coffee Leaf-Disease.
G,
^^"^ ... ... 106,116
Harbour (in Kstrattow) ... ... cxxxviii
Landing Jetty (mttstratioK) ... ... 40
Lighthouse (JllMstratiow) ... igg
•Game Preservation " ga ^a
«... ■'• •■• iiOj If)
Gambling ^^5
Gampola ' ,.,.,
. Sinnapittia Estate (fihtsti-otion) ]" 71
Oaols in Ceylon _ ■'' ^^ ^^
Oangaroowa Experimental Station ... '" \q
— , "View of (lllMLstration)
Gansabhawas— See Village Councils
G-as-ligliting
Oarden Cultivation
Gem-digging Pits .._ "■ '
lUo
( 19 )
Paqb.
Gems in Ceylon ... 79, 104, cxvi
Geography of Ceylon .. ... 7
Geological Survey ... ... igo
George Wall Library and Clock-Tower . 40
Giffard, Sir HarcUnge ... ... 122
Glossary . . ... i
Gneiss in Ceylon ... ... 130
Gold Currency ... . 24, 41
in Ceylon ... ... 79
Gordon Gardens ... .. 37
, Lady Hamilton ... ... 37
, Governor Sir Arthur ... ... 11,35
Governor, An Ideal , ... ... 123
Governors of Ceylon, British — [Illnstration)
, Salaries of ... ... 35
Grain — See Rice
Graphite— See Plumbago ... .. 130
Grant-in-aid System of Education ... ... 27,32
Grass-cutter, Tamil (Illiisti-atioji) ... ... 49
Grass-land in Ceylon ... ... 57
Gravelled Roads .. ... '10,14
Graving Dock, Colombo ... .. 39
Green, Dr., American Missionary ... ... 27
— Tea Leaf, Weighing of— (Illtistratioit) ... 77
Tea, Public Sale of ... ... 40
Gregory, Governor Sir William- 13,83, 38, 88; also Illustration (33)
— Lake ... ... Ill
Guavas .. ... 55
Guests at the Governor's .. ... 37
Guinea Grass ... .. 57
Gunmakers, Sinhalese ... ... 58
H.
Hakgala Botanic Gardens ... .. 112
Veak {Illustration} ... ... 113
Halsbury, Lord Chancellor . . . . 122
Hambantota ... .. 113,116
Haputale ... ._ 109, 113
Waterfalls .. ... 114
Extension— See Railways.
Pass ... ... 114
( 20 )
^ Page.
Harbour, Colombo (I»J(stratio)0 ... ■•■ cxxii
"Works, Colombo ... - cxxii, cliii
Hardy, Rev. Spence, on Ceylon ... ... 91
Harvesting Tea and Coffee ... •• 70
Hatton ... ... 112
Ha velook, Governor Sir Arthur ... .. 37
Headmen (native) and Revenue Officers .. 124
Headman, Professor ... -•• 41
Head Quarter.s of the East India jVaval Station . . 125
Health in Ceylon ... ... 88
Healthiness of Colombo . . . . 105
Healthiness of Uva .. ... 114, clxxiii
Heathenism in Ceylon ... .. 134
Heber's Hymn . . ... 49
Heights of Mountains .. ... 8
Hemileia vastatrix ... ..83, 04, 60
Henaratgoda Mission ... ... ci
Hides and Skins, Export of ... ... 79
Hill Stations— See Nuwara Bliya.
Hindus .• .. 142
, Number of .. ... xlvi
Historical Monuments of Ceylon — See JlONOMENTS.
H.M. King Ed ward VII ... ... 144
Holidays and Natives ... ... 135
Homicides in Ceylon ... ... 30
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank ... ... 24
Iloolooganga Palls (IJIitsh-atioii) ... ... 112
Horses in Ceylon ... . . 20, 79
Horton Plains ;.. ... 112
Hospitals in ("ey Ion ... ... 10,26
Hotels in Colombo ... ... 104
in Nuwara Eliya ... ... Ill
Houses in Ceylon ... . . Ixiv, Ixxvi
, No. of .. ... 22
Hurricanes in Ceylon ... ... 95
Idulgashena ... ,.. -m
Immigration Route .... ., fg
Import Duties ... ... J25
( 21 )
Page.
78
Import Trade of Ceylon
Imports of Grain— See Eice
-Value of ... ... 9
Imp I'ovement in Ceylon ... ... 86-93
Improvements, Legislative and Social . . ... 123
Independent Catholics, Number of ... ... xlvii
— Catholics ... ... ci
India and Ceylon Tea Compared ... ... 73
Indian Dynasties in Ceylon ... ... 2
Famine Relief ... .. 40
India-rubber Cultivation ... ... 40
— Tree — {Hlvsiration) ... ... 83
Indolence of Natives ... ... 135
Industrial Education ... ,,. 124
Industries of Ceylon ... ... 78
Insect Life in Ceylon ... ... 117
Inspection of Investments ... .. 98
Intoxicaats ... ... 51
Invalids Visiting Ceylon ... ... 102
Investments, Ceylon a good field for ... ... 94-99
Iron in Ceylon ... ... 79
Ironworks, Colombo ... ... ij8
Irrigation Board ... ... 47
^ Works, Kxpenditure on ... ... 46,47
Ivory Cai'vers ... ... 139
.Taffna ... ... ,11c
Jaggery Sugar ... ... 53,54
Palm .., ... 53
Jails in Ceylon— See Gaols
Jak-tree ... ... 55
Java and Liquor ... ,.. 51
Ceylon Compared ... ... 95
Jevysbury, Miss, on Ceylon ... ... 104
Jinrikshaws .. ... 108
Jubilee Celebrations in Ceylon ... ... 144
Juries and Caste in Ceylon .. ... 31
Jury, Trial by ... ... 81
Justice, Administration of ... ... 80
, Charter of .., .,, 31
^ Page.
K.
Kaffirs, First Arrival of - - 104
Kalawewa Tank ••• — ^^
Kalutara ■■• ■■■ ^^B
Railway— See Railway
Kandy - ••• '09
Girls' Industrial School ... ■•• 39
, No. of Houses in ... •• 22
Railway — See Railway
-. Temple — {Ilhistration)
Tictoria Commemoration Buildings ... 40
Kandyan Chieftain {Illnstration) —
Disturbance ... ... 32
Marriage Laws ... ... 32
Kandyans, Number of^ ... .. xlvi
Kapok ... ... 56
Kelani River Bridged ... ... 11
Tea District ... ... 108
Keolin for Pottery ... .. 3
Kings of Ceylon, Ancient ... ... 3,127
Kitul Fibre— See PiBEE
Palm ... .,. 53
Knox, Robert ... ... 140
Kraal, Elephant- See ELEPHANT KRAAL
Kurunegala ... .. 109
, Cacao in ..... ... 74
Kyle, Mr. John, and Colombo Harbour Works ... 13
L.
Labour, Compulsory, Abolished
on Roads ... ... ,12
Supply (Tamil_Coolics; ... ... 02
Lady Havelock Hospital ... ... 20,39
Horton's Walk ... ... 100
Lakes and Lagoons ... ... 8,19
Land Sales, Crown ... ,.. iig
Tax, A General ... ... 124
Languages Spoken in Ceylon ... ... 28 133
Lapidaries ... ... 139
La terite in Ceylon ... j30
l/aws of Ceylon ,,. 99
( 23 )
Page.
Layard, Sir C. P. on Rice Cultivation ... ... 38
on Paddy Cultivation ... 45
Leaf Disease — See coffee leaf disease
Leeches in Ceylon ... ... 116
Legislative Council ... ... 142
Council, Establishment of ... ... 31
Council, First Meeting in Kandy ... 41
Improvements ... ... 123
Reforms ... ... 141
Lemongrass Oil .. ... 53
Lepers in Ceylon ... ... 38
Liberian Coffee ... ... 66,76
Libraries and Reading Rooms ... ... 127
Licenses ... ... llg
, Liquor ... ... 125
Lightning Conductors, Ancient .. ... 58
Litigation and Sinhalese ... ... 29
Liquor TrafBc ... ... 51,119
Llandoff, Lord ... ... 122
Llewellyn, Mr.j and Assam Tea ... ... 67
Local Boards ... ... 33
Option and Liquor Licenses .. ... 125
Longden, Governor Sir James ... ... 34
Loyalty of Ceyjon, Marks of ... ... 144
Lunatic Asylum ... ... 34
M.
MacCarthy, Governor Sir Chas. ... ... 13
Madras Bank ... ... 24
Madulsima ... ... 114
Mahaweliganga River ... ... 8
Mail Coach, Firist, in Asia ... ... 12
Malabar Incursions of Ceylon ... ... 4
Malay Servants ... ... 135
Malays ... ... 25,135
, Number of ... ... xlvi
Maldive Islands ... ... SI
Males in Ceylon ... ... Ixiv
Maligavs^a, Kandy ... .... 109
Manchester Goods ..• ..• 56
Mango - ••• • ^^
Manuals Oil Planting &c. ••< •■• ""^
Manufacture, Native • • • ■ • ■ °°
Marawila ■•• ■■ ^^^
Markham, Mr. Clements ••• ••■ ^^
Marriages and Caste •■• ■■ ■*''
, Registration of ••■ ••■ ^^
Maskeliya ••■ •• ^^
Masons in Ceylon ■•• ■•■ 6°
Matale - - le, 74, Ul
Matara •■■ ••• 1'6, 116
IVa Plant ... •• 67
Mathews Mr., Home Secretary .. ... 122
Maturata •- •.• 113
JNlauritius and, Ceylon . . ». . 8
• Grass ... ... 57
Meteorological Conditions in North-Central and
North-Bast Ceylon .. ... clxii
Military Roads ... ... 12
Meanings of Place Names ... ... xl
Meat supply of Ceylon ... ... 57
Medical College, Ceylon ... ... 27,3.5
Expenditure and Hospitals ... ... 10, 2-j
Melons ... ... 55
Mercantile Bank of India, Ltd. ... ... 24
Military Expenditure ... ... 25
Strength of Ceylon ... ... 24, 80, 126
Station, Ceylon a Central ... ... 126
Mines, Plumbago ... ... 78
Mining Industry of Ceylon ... ... 78
Missionaries in Ceylon ... ... 133
Missions in Ceylon
Moles worth. Sir G. L. ... ... 16
Monopoly, Cinnamon, &c., — See CINNAMON
Moonlight in Ceylon ... ... 117
Monsoons ... .. 102,105
MonuQients, Historical ... ... 33,115
Moorman Tamby (lUastratioii)
Moors, Number of .. ... xlvi
Moratuwa ... ,,, iqq
Morgan, Sir Richard .- ... ... 29
(■ 25 )
Pagb.
Mosquitoes ... ... 117
Mountains, Highest ■.. ... 8, 112
reached by Train ... ... 113
Muhammadans ... ... 142
and Ceylon ... ... 2
Muhammadan Marriage Registration ... ... 35
, Number of . . . . xlvi
Municipal Institutions ... ... 142
Municipalities ... iSn
Murders in Ceylon ... ... 30
JMuseuiu, Colombo ... ... 34
Mutton supply of Ceylon ... ... 57
Mt. Laviuia ... 100
N.
Names, Ceylon, Derivations and Meanings of ... xl
Nanu'Oya ... ... 16,111
National Banlj of India, Ltd. ... ... 24
Nationalities in Ceylon ... ... 133
Native Agriculture ... .. 44
Characteristics ... ... 125,135
Food Products ... .. 44
Manufactures ... i.. 58
: Occupations— See Occupations
Products, Exports of ... ... 85
— . Social Life and Customs ... ... 133
Trade ... ... 80
-Weddings ... ... i37
Natives, Employment for ... 32,86,90,139
as Lawyers .. .' , 29
and Taxation ... ... 120
■ , Indolent Habits of ... ... 135
.Status of ... ... 141
— .Treatment of ... ... 37
and Wages ... ... 87
under British Rule ... 7-20,120-131
Natural History of Ceylon ... .., 101
Nautch Girls ... ... 139
Nawalapitiya ... ... 108,111
( 26 )
Xavigation round the Island
Negombo
New Gal way
Oriental Bank Corporation
^^ Products Introduced
Vegetables Introduced
iVilwala Ganga
North-Central Ceylon
Province, Ci-eation of ...
-^, Chief Towns and Villages in
, Resources of the
, Meteorological Conditions of
, Farming in the
, Poppulation of
North-Western Province, Chief Towns and Villages in
, Population of
Northern Province, Population of
, Chief Towns and Villages in
— Railway, Crown Land along
Note Issue, Government
Nuwara Eliya
, Climate ot
Page,
115
108
112
24
34,67
55
100
clxxxiv
33
Ixxxii
clvi
the clxii
clxxxvi
Ixix
Ixxxii
Ixx
Ixix
Ixxix
130
23
111
102
O.
Observer, Ceylon— See Ceylon Observer
Occupations in Ceylon
of Natives
Oil, Coconut
Mills and Crushers
Oil-cake— See Poonac
Oils, Essential
Orange
Ophir of Solomon
Opium Licenses
■ — , Restrictions of
Openings for men with Capital
Orchella Weed
Oriental Bank Corporation
Failure of
Oysters, Pearl— See Pearl Oysxers ...
lii
139
52
00
55
1
38
125
04
23
35
( 27 )
P.
Paojo.
Paddy Cultivation— See Rick
Tax, Abolition o£ .. ... .^g
Tax or Kent . . ... ng
Palm and Fruit Trees, Area of ... ... 55
Coconvxt ... ... 49
, Cultivation in Ceylon . . .. 49
Oil ... .. 51
, Talipot ... . . 55
Palms at Peradeni.va Botanic Gardens ... . . no
, Group ot— {Illustration)
— Planted by forced labour . . . . 6
Palmyra Palm ... .. 52
Wood, Export of . . ,.. 79
Pauadure ••• ... 106
Pansala or Buddhist Schools . . ... 28
Papaws . . , , ,55
Paris Exhibition ... . . 40
Parliament and Cro\('n Colonics ... ... 122
Parsnip in Ceylon ... ... 55
Passage, Cost of ... .. ]ifi
Passengers to Colombo ... . . 117
Pasturage .. ... 57,11,3
Pasture in Ceylon . . ... 57
Patana Grass ... ... 57
Pattipola ... ... 113
Paumben Channel ... . . 115
Pavilion, The ... ... 109
Pearl Fisheries ... 3, 41, 79, 115
Fishery Receipts ... , • • 120
Pearls .. ... 5,79
in Ceylon ... ... cxviii
Pelmadulla ... : 108
Penal Code, Ceylon ... . . 30
Penny Postage, Introduction of ... .. 32
Pensioners in Ceylon ... ... 129
People of Ceylon ... ... 133, ol
Peradeulya Botanic Gardens ... ... no
Group of Palms {Illustration)
Pidurutalagala ... . . 8,112
Pigeon Service, Carrier ... ... 32
Pilgrimages in Ceylon ... ... 34
Pine-apples ... ... 55
Pioneers of Planting in Ceylon ,„ ... 88
Plague in Bombay „ ,., 93
( 28 )
Pag_e.
Plantains ■•• ••■ ■'•^
Plantation Companies •.. — H
Planters of Ceylon ••■ — 96
Planting Districts, Climate of ... .. 103
Districts, Material Change in ... ... 90
Districts, Material Progress, in the ... 60.77
Enterprise .. .. cxlii
Industry : benefit to the Northern Country .. 81
Industry : what It lias done for Ceylon ... 86
Industry, Origin and Rise of the ... 60
Profits . . ... 82
Plumbago Industry ... ... cxv
. Mines ... ... 108
Trade ... ... 78
Point Pedro ... ... 110
Polgahawela ... .. 109
Police in Ceylon ... ... 10 '
Political Reform.'! in Ceylon . . ... .SI
Polonnaruvva ... .. 114
Polyandry, Abolition o£ ... .. 33
Pony-breeding in Ceylon ... ... 57
Poonac ..'. . . 52
Population ... ... 9, 21
of Ceylon ... ... x'vi 86
hj Nationality and Religion . . xlvii, Ixxiii
in Tank Region ... ... 21
Portuguese, Taxation by the ... ... 128
Rule in Ceylon ... ... 4
Postal Savings Ranks .. ,. 2!
Service . ... ... 22
Post and Telegraph Office, General ... ... 3!)
Pottery, Kaolin for
Poverty in Ceylon _ 39
Prairie Grass ... _ _ 57
Prakrama Baliu, King . _ _ _ 3
Precious Stones ... _ _ ■;<)
Presbyterians __ _ _ ^^^^
, Number of ... _ _ xjyj;
Press in Ceylon, The 01 3300
Price of Land in Ceylon
Priests and Education ___ ,,«
Products of Ceylon '" ., . . 1„
' "^^ ... fi- i-Q
Profits from Planting CofTee
Progress of Ceylon in 107 years ., „
Pack.
Prospects for Capitalists ... ... 94
Prosperity of Ceylon .. .. ^
Protestant Christians ... ... 142
Provinces of Ceylon «, ... ixjv
Pussellawa ... .. 112
Puttalam .. .. 108
Qaecu Victoria, Jubilee of ... ... 37
, Death of . ... 40
Quinine— See Cenchona
R.
Races in Ceylon ... 104, li, Ixxiii
in Ceylon, Types of .. ... clxiv
Railway, Colombo, Kandy ... ... 16, 33
Extension to Haputale ... ... 16
, Indo-Ceylon ... ... 7, .'59,129
, Kelani Valley .. .. 17
— , Northern ... ... 17,109'
, No. of Passengers carried by ... ... 18
Receipts .. ... 120
• Bide to Uva .. .. 103
, Seaside .. ... 17, .35,106
Statistics ... .. 17
— to Bandarawela ... . . 38, 39
to Jaflfna ... ... 41
to Kurunegala . . . . 39
— to Nanuoya .. ... J(l
to Nuwara Eliya ... , .. 41
to Yatiyantota ... ... 41
, Udapussellawa ... ... 17
Railways .. ... cliv
, Benefit of ... ... 15
Rain in Ceylon— See Monsoons
Rakwana ... ... 108
Ramboda Falls (Illustration)
■ Pass ... 112
Rameswaram Temple ... .. 116
Island ... ... 7
Ratnapura, Extension to ... .. 108
Reading Rooms and Libraries . — •• 1^7
Rebellions of 1848 ... ... 12
Reform of Laws— See Law Refoiim
Kefonns, Political and Social ...' " 7. 141
( 30 )
Page.
Rosiments in Ceylon— See Militahv
Registration oE Marriages ... .• 3a
_— o£ Titles to Land ... ... «
Keligion anrl Employment — - • 5
and State Aid .. .. 32,34
and State " .. ..142
Religions in Ceylon, Population aecordinsr to . . Ixxxvii
Rents or Land Tax .. .. 120
Returns— See Profits
Revenue Offices and Native Headmen ... ... 12t
of Ceylon ... ...42,86*118
Rice Cultivation ... ... 33, 45
, Import Duty on ... ... 118
Tax, Abolition of ... ... 38
Ridgeway, Governor Sir .1. West .. .. 39,41,147
Golf Links ... .. 39
Rifle Regiment, Ceylon ... ... 2.5
River Scenery (Illustration)
Rivers in Ceylon ... ... 8
and Lagoons ... ... 8, 19
Road Ordinance Levy .. ., 127
Tax .. ... 32
Roads ... ... 11,14,15
and Famine ' ... ... . 153
in Planting Districts ... .. 91
Robinson, Governor Sir Hercules ... ... 13,33
Roman Catholics . . 142, xlvii, Ixxxviii
—^— Catholics and Fishermen ... ... 128
Catholics in Ceylon ... .. 4
Romans and Cinnamon ... ... 49
Royal Family, Events connected with the . . ... 153
^^— Visits to Ceylon ... ... 144
Ruanweliseya Dagoba .. ... 53
Rubies — See Precious Stonk.s
Rubber Acreage in Ceylon .. 1,51
Exports .. .. J51
Ruins of Ceylon djj
Rupee Currency ^^ ,,i
Russian Firms in Colombo 10
S.
Sabaragamuwa Province, Chief Towns and Villages in Ixxxi
■, Creation of ... ... 35
^'~~ ———————, Population of ... ... Ixxii
( 31 )
Sago
Salt Monopoly and Tax
Tax, Abolition Advocated ...
Salvation Army
Salvationists, Number of
Sanatorium— See Nuwaba Eliya
Sapanwood, Exports
Sapphires
Satin wood, Export of
Savings Bank
Banks, Postal
Scenery of Ceylon
Schools
in Ceylon— See Education
Scorpions
Scotch the Pioneers of Planting
Seasons, Dry and Wet— See Monsoons
Secretary of State
Self -Government— See Legislative Reform
Sereniib, Term for Ceylon
Servants, Domestic
• Registration
Service Tenures, Temple
Sharks
Sheep Imported
Shipping Conveniences at Colombo
— , Tonnage of
Shooting in Ceylon
Siamese King and Ceylon
Silversmiths
Sindbad's Adventures
Singers, Native
Sinhalese and Litigation
and Caste
: and Planting Industry
as Tea Planters
, Status of
, Improvements among
Man and Woman (Illustration)
not a Wivrlike Nation
, Number of
Plumbago Miners
Servants
Skins, Export of
Slavery, Abolition of
Paoh.
53
119
127
xlvii
79
79
32
10
100-117
139
117
96
122
2
134
30
31
117
57
95
10
115
3
oxix
, 2
139
73
141
91-93
125
xlvi
IS
lU
IS
32
< '^ > Pag..
Snakes * ■■ ■• - ]]l
Snipe ■ •■ "*
Social Improvements •■• ••■ 1^3
Life and Customs ••• ■■■ 1^2
Reforms in Ceylon .• •■■ '^1
Soils ••• - T2.'M,IU
Sources of Revenue ■■■ •■• ^1*^
Southern India, Exports to ■■■ 49,51,54,56
—, Imports from ... 44,48,57,129
, Labour from ••■ ••• 62, 8(
, Railway from Ceylon to ... 120
Southern Province, Chief Towns and Villages in ... Ixxx
, Population of ..• ••• Ixx
Spence Hardy on Ceylon— See Hardy, Rev. Spence
Spiders ••■ — ^1^
S. P. G, Misson - - xcviil
"Spolia Zeyldnica" ••• . 40
Sport in Ceylon ... •.■ 1'5
Sports for the People ••• . . 124
Stamp Duties
Steam Navi^tion round the Island ... ... 32
Steamer Companies .. .• 05
Rates ... ... lie
Steamers calling at Colombo— See Shipping
Stewart-Mackenzie, Governor 3, \. ... ... 32
Stock-raising in Ceylon ... ...clxxxiv, 57
Storms— See Monsoons
Street Riots in Colombo ... ... 125
Sugar-cane Cultivation ... ... 50
Superstition in Ceylon ... ... 134
Supreme Court, Appointment of a Fourth Judge to ... 40
Talipot Palm ... ... 55
Palm (Illustration)
Tamarind Wood ... ... 80
.Export of ... ... 79
Tamby Moorman {Illustration)
Tamil Coolies ... ... 72,87
Coolies and Planting Industry ... ... 86
Cooly Mission ... ,.. 87, 133
Servants ... „. 134
Tamils in Ceylon ... 4^46
, Number of ,.. .,, ^Ivi
( 33 )
Page.
Tangalla ... ... 100
Tanks, Artificial . . ... B
, Restoration of ... ... 33
— , Village ... ... 46
Tanning in Ceylon ... ... 79
Taprobane of Greelis and Romans
Tarsliish of Solomon ... •.• 1
Taxes and Duties ... ... H^
Taxation in Ceylon ... ... 41, 121-9
in Ceylon and India ... ... 129
, Incidence of ... ••• 120
Tea Acreage in Ceylon- ... ... 151
, Altitudes suitable for .. ... 70
Area Cultivated ... ... 71
.Assam ... .. 07,70,
Bush {-Illustration) ...
, China and Hybrid ... . . 70
— — , Ceylon, Quality of ... ... 72
, Ceylon v. Indian or China ... — 71, 72
Consumption ,. ... 73
Cultivation ... ... 07,69
Duty ... ... 71
Exports ... 71,151
Gardens, Native ... ... 72
, Green ... 71
, Introduction of ... ...' 07
^, Labour for ... ... 72
, Labour for— See Coolies
in London Market ... ... 72
Machinery ... .. 73
Plant {Illustration) ...
Plantinf? Students ... 97
Technical College ... ... 124
Education ... ... 124
Telegraphic Service ... ... 23,32
Temple Endowments ... ... 34
Service Tenures ... ... 34
Temporalities, Buddhist ... ... 34.
Temperance in Ceylon ... ... 34,51
Temperature of Colombo
Theobroma Oaoao .. 74, {Illust-^ation)
Thoroughfares Ordinance Levy ... .„ 127
Thwaites, Dr.G.H.K.,F.E.S. ... ... 63,66
Timber Trade ,., ... 79.
( 34 )
Page.
Titles to land, Heslstration of
Tobacco Cultivation
S3
Toddy
52,50
Tom-tom-beaters
139
Tomato
55
Tonnage o£ Shipping entered and cleared ...
10
Topari Tank {Illustration
Topographical Features
7
Tortoise-shell Workers
139
Tortoises and Cruelty
138
Torture, Abolition of
31
Towns of Ceylon
91, Ixiv, Ixxv, Ixxvii
Trade and Planting Enterprise
81
of Ceylon, Value of
9
Traffic, Wheeled
19
Training School
129
Tramways, Electric
Transport Facilities
96,99
Travellers, Attractions for
100
Tree-growins at High Elevations in Ceylon,
clxxx
, Tomato, Introduced
55
Trees, Fruit
55
Trincomalee
116
Harbour (Illustration)
,,
Tropical Agriculturist
98
Trips to Ceylon,
93
from Colombo
100
Troops in Ceylon —See Militaky.
Tytler, Mr. Robert Boyd
61,7
u.
Udapussellawa ... ... 112
Uva, Climate of ... . ii3
Province ... ... 114
■ , Chief Towns and Villages in . . ... Ixxxii
, Creation of ... ., ^
, Population of ... ... ixxii
Upper, as a Station for British Troops . . . clxxiii
) Valley of . . 113
V.
Van Imhoir, Dutch Governor .„ .. o
Veddahs, Number of , , , , xlvi
( A5 )
Pagic.
Vegetables in Ceylon ... ... ,5,5
Vegetation in Ceylon .. ... 100,101
Vernaculai' Schools— See Schools and Education
Victoria Bridge ... ... 39
Victoria Buildings, Kandy ... ... 40
Victoria Memorial Eye Hospital ... ... 41
Village Councils ... ... 29,33
Life in Ceylon ... .. 133
Villages of Ceylon .. Ixiv, Ixxvi, Ixxvii
Visitors, Attractions for . . .. 100
Volunteer Corps ... ... 34
Volunteers in Ceylon ... ... 26,125
W.
Wages oE Natives .. .. 87
Wales, Prince of ... . . 34
, Prince and Princess of .. ... 40,144
War in Soutli Africa . . . . 40
Ward, Governor Sir Henry ... ... 13,32
Washers or Dhobles, 139, {Illustration)—
Wasteland Used by the Dutch
Water Supply of Colombo ... ... 33,105
Waterfalls (/KusiratioJi)
Wealth of Ceylon— See, Prosperity
Weddings, Native .. ... 137
Weligaraa .. ... 106,
Wesleyan Methodists, Number of ... .. xlvii
Mission .. ... xc
Western Province, Chief Towns and Villages in ... l.xxvii
— Province, Population of . . . . Ixvii
Wheeled Traffic ... ... 19
Wijaya Bahu III. ... . . 127
Wilderness of the Peak ■•• .. 62
Willey, Dr. ... .. 40
Wilmot-Norton, Governor Sir Robert ... . . 32
Wodehouse, Sir Philip ... .•• 127
Works on Ceylon . . . . 140
Worms, Messrs, and Tea ... ... 67
Writers in Ceylon ••• ■. 140
Yatiyantota •• ••• 108
Yodi-ete .. .• 17
ILLUSTRATIONS.
H. E. the Rt. Hon. Sir "West Ridgeway, g;c.m.g., k.c.b., k.c.s.1.,
— Frontispiece
Most of the British Governors of Ceylon ... 1
Railway Bridge over the Mahaweliganga, Peradeniya 8
" Dark Arches '' on the Railway Incline at Kadugannawa 9
A Merchant's Seaside Mansion : Mutwal, Colombo 20
Signal Tffwer, Flagstaff and Battery, Colombo ... 21
Queen's House, Colombo, and Sir Edward Barnes' Statue 2).
Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, g.c.m.g. . . 32
Statue of the Rt. Hon. Sir Win. Gregory, k.c.m.g., in front of
the Colombo Museiun . . 33
Colombo Museum . . 34
Bridge of Boats near Colombo (now removed) ... 35
Landing Jetty at Point-de-Galle ... ... 40
Kandy — Lake and Town ■ • • , ■ • ■ 40
The Pavilion (Governor's Residence) Kamly ... 41
A Cinnamon Drying Ground ... ... 48
Tying the Cinnamon in Bundles for Exportation ... 48
Stretching the Cinnamon Bark ... ... 48
Cleaning the Cinnamon on Boards ... ... 48
Cutting the Cinnamon into Lengths ... ... 48
Peeling the Cinnamon Sticks ... ... 48
Cutting the Cinnamon Sticks ... .. 48
Tamil Grass Cutter . ■ 4'.'
Coconut and Areca Palms ... ... 50
A Stone Cave or Rice-feeding Receptacle ... 51
Abbotsford Estate, Dimbula ... ... 60
Ceara Rubber Tree ... .. 61
Adam's Peak from Maskeliya Bridge ... ... 6S
Dhobies at Work . - . . 64
Liberian Coffee ... .. 68
Cinchona Succirubra (Genuine Red Bark) • ... 68
Talipot Palm in Flower ... .. 69
Tea Plant -. .. 69
Tamil Cooly Girl Picking Tea Leaves ... ... 70i
( 38 )
Pagk.
Sinnapittia Estate, Gampola . . • • 71
Cacao Tree ••• ■•• 74
Coffee Tree ... ■•• 75
Cacao Pods -•- ' ■•■ 76
Weighing Green Tea Leaf on a Tea Estate .. 77
Union of the Banyan Tree and the Palmyra Palm ... 80
Banyan Tree (Picus Indica^ ... ... 81
R. E. Lewis, Merchant, Planter, and Editor ... 87
Major Skinner, c.M.G. ... ... 88
Views on the Maliaweliganga near Kandy ... 90
Natives Climbing Arecanut Trees ... ... 91
A. M. Ferguson, Esq., c.M.G. ... ... 98
Hon. Mr. John Ferguson, c.M.G. ... ... 9H
Shrine of the Sacred Tooth, Kandy ... ... 100
A Buddhist Shrine .. 101
A Colombo Street Scene ... ... 102
An Up-country Tea Estate . , . . 103
Colombo Rickshaw ... ... 106
Young Tamil Married Woman ... ... 107
Ruins of Thuparama Dagoba, Anuradhapura ... 108
Kandy Maligawa or the Temple of the Tooth ... 109
Remains of the Old Temple Gateway, Dondraliead ... 109
Group of Palms and Allied Plants in the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Peradeniya ... ... 110
Entrance to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya... Ill
Hoolooganga Falls, Kelebokke Valley ... ... 112
Nuwara Eliya and Hakgala Peaks from Ramboda Pass US
Ruins of the Ruanwelie Dagoba, Anuradhapura ... 114
Sacred Bo-tree, Anuradhapura ... ... 115
Trincomalee Harbour ... ... 116
Trincomalee ... ... 117
Ruins of Jetawanarama,Polonnaruwa ... ... 130
of Polonnaruwa ... ... 131
Sinhalese Lads at Cricket ... ... 133
Burmese Pilgrims at Maligawa, Kandy ... 134
Lighthouse at Gal le ... ... 136
Jf ount Lavinia ... 136
■Sinhalese Village ... ... 137
A Ruined Dagoba ... ... 138
•Sinhalese Devil-Dancers ... ... 139
Bhobles at Work „. i40
( 39 )
A Gem-diggers Hut in Ceylon
Arabi and the other Egyptian Eixles to Ceylon
Coffee Stores and '' Barbaoues " (Drying Grounds)
A Coconut Climber
Colombo: Pettah across Lake
Railway Terminus Approach, Colombo
Colombo Harbour
Part of Galle Harbour
Falls of the Hoolooganga : Knuckles Road
Railway Terminus, Colombo
View of the Satin wood Bridge at Peradeniya
View of the Mahaweliganga at Gangaruwa near Kandy
Devon Falls, Dimbula
"Sensation Rock" on the Ceylon Railway Incline
View of Alagala Peak from the Railway on the Kadu-
ganuawa Incline ... ... civ
" Ferguson's View " looking towards Kurunogala from
No. 2 Tunnel on the Town Part of the Railway Incline clvi
Scene on the Nilwalaganga, Southern Province ... clvii
Veddahs at Kallodai ... ... clxi
Types of Races and Amusing Characters in Ceylon ... olxiv
BaduUa, the Capital of the Ancient Principality of Uva clxxiii
Falls on the Diyalumaoya, near Naula, Eastern Haputale clxxiv
Topare Tank, near the Ruins of Polonnaruwa ... clxxv
Falls of Ramboda ... ... clxxvi
View of Adam's Peak from Woodstock Estate, Maskeliya clxxvii
Page.
141
144
cxiv
cxv
cxx
cxxi
cxxii
cxxxviii
oxxxix
cxliv
cxliii
cxlviii
cxlix
cliv
Hon. F. North, Earl of Guilford General Sir Robert Brownrlgg. Lt.-General Sir Edward Barnes.
Sir Robert Wilmot Horton. Rt. Hon. J. A. .Stewart Mackenzie. Sir James Emerson TennenT
Sir Henry George Ward. Sir Charles J. MacCarthy. Major-General T. O'Brien.
Sir .7. R. Longde!..
Sir Arttiur H. Gordon.
sir A. K. Havelock.
MOST OF THE BRITISH fiOVWR-NTDRS m? o-cvrri^r
CHAPTER I.
PAST HISTORY.
Th$ Ophir and Tarshish of Solomon — Northern and Southern Indian
dynasties — Chinese invasion and connection with the island in
ancient and modern times — Portuguese and Dutch rule— British
annexation.
I TAKE it for granted that the readers of this work
will have some general acquaintance with the
position, history, and condition of Ceylon. Until the
establishment of Orange River Colony and Transvaal—
whose destiny is to be merged in a South African
Federation — Ceylon was the largest, most populous, and
most important of his Britannic Majesty's Crown
Colonies, which are so called bscause the administration
of their affairs is under the direct control of the
Colonial Office.
Ceylon has long been
Confess'd the best and brightest gem
In Britain's orient diadem.
There can be no danger nowadays of a member of
Parliament getting up in his place to protest against
British troops being stationed in Ceylon on account
of the deadly climate of " this part of West Africa,"
the " utmost Indian isle " being thus confounded with
Sierra Leone!
Known to ancient voyagers as far back as the time
of King Solomon (of whose Ophir and Tarshish many
believe Ceylon to have formed a part), the story of
A
2 Ceylon in 1003.
its beauty, its jewels, and its spices was familiar to
the Greeks and Romans, who called it Taprobane, and
to the Arab traders who first introduced the coffee
plant into this island, and who placed in Serendib
the scene of many of Sindbad's adventures. It was ,
also known to the Mohammedan world at large, who
to this day regard the island as the elysium provided
for Adam and Eve to console them, for the loss oi
Paradise, a tradition vised as a solatiiim by Arabi and
his co-Egyptian exiles some years ago, when deported
from their native land. To the people of India,
to the Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, Lanka, "the
resplendent," was equally an object of interest and
admiration, so that it has been well said that no island
in the world, Great Britain itself not excepted, has
attracted the attention of authors in so many different
countries as has Ceylon.
There is no land, either, which can tell so mucli
of its past history, not merely in songs and legends,
biTt in records which have been verified by monuments,
inscriptions, and coins ; some of tlie structures in and
around the ancient capitals of the Sinhalese are more
than 2,100 years old, and only second to those of Egypt
in vastness of extent and architectural interest.*
Between 543 B.C., when Wijaya, a prince from Northern
India, is said to have invaded Ceylon, conquered its
native rulers, and made himself king, and the middle
of the year 1815, when the last king of Kandy, a
cruel monster, was deposed and banished by the
British, the Sinhalese chronicles present iis with a
list of well-nigh 170 kings and queens, the history of
whose administrations is of the most varied and
interesting character, indicating the attainment of a
degree of civilisation and material progress very
unusual in the East at that remote age. Long,
peaceful, and prosperous reigns— such as that of the
* See "Buried Cities of Ceylon," by S. M Bqnows, c.o.s.,
published by A. M, & J'. Ferguson,
Past History. 3
famous king Tissa,, contemporary witli the North Indian
emperor Asoka, 250 B.C.— were interspersed with other
administrations chiefly distinguished by civil dissensions
and foreign invasions. The kings of Ceylon, however,
had given sufficient provocation to foreign rulers when
in the zenith of their power. In the twelfth centnry
the celebrated king Prakrama Bahu not only defeated
the rulers of Southern Indian States, but sent an
army against the king of Cambodia, which, proving
victorious, made that distant land tributary to Ceylon.*
On the other hand, in retaliation for the plundering
of a Chinese vessel in a Sinhalese port, a Chinese
army, early in the fifteenth century, penetrated to
the heart of the hill-country, and, defeating the
Sinhalese forces at the then royal capital, Gampola,
captured the king, and took him away to China ; +
and the island had for some time to pay an annual
tribute to the country. At that time the Chinese
imported from Ceylon a certain quantity of kaolin for
pottery, which still abounds in the island. The close
connection in early times between the island and
the great Eastern empire constitutes a very interesting
* The king of Cambodia (Siam) even in the presenb day is a
tribute-offerer to Lanka, as the following paragraph from a Sinhalese
paper in 1886 wiU show :—
" Presents fbom the King of Cambodia to the Buddhist
College, Maligakanda, Colombo.— Several gold images, an excel-
lent umbrella, ornamented with precious stoiies, and a brush made
of' the king's hair, to be kept for use (sweeping) in the place where
Buddha^ image is placed, have been sent by the king of Cambodia
to the high-priest in charge of the college. Two or three priests
have also corns down to receive instruction in Pali, etc., etc.
— Lakrivikirana, April 19."
During a visit to China in 1884 nothing struck the author more
than the exact resemblance between a Buddhist temple in Canton
and one in Ceylon ; the appearance of the priests,, their worship
and oeromonies, all were alike. Outside, in that Mongolian world,
all was so different ; the country, the towns, the customs, and the
people with their pigtails, their oval eyes, and loose dress, everything
was strange and novel ; but inside this Canton temple,^ befpre the
shaven, yellow-robed monks, one felt for a moment carried back to
"Lanka," and its numerous Buddhist temples.
t Of this defeat and capture no mention is made in the Sin-
halese History, the Mahawanso ; it was only by referring to the
archives at Pekin that the facts were brought out.
4 Ceylon in 1903.
episode. Pa-hieii, the Chinese monk-traveller, visited
Ceylon in search of Buddhist books about 400 a.d.,
and abode two years in the island. He gives a
glowing account, still extant, of the splendour of
the capital Auuradhapura, then in its zenith, with its
brazen (brass-covered) palace, great shrines and monas-
teries, with " thousands " of monks, dagabas, and of the
splendours of the Perahera (Procession of the Tooth).
Ceylon was, however, exposed chiefly to incursions
of Malabar princes and adventurers with their
followers, from Southern India, who waged a constant
and generally sviccessful contest witli the Sinhalese.
The northern and eastern portions of the island at
length became permanently occupied by the Tamils,
Avho placed a prince of their own on the Kandyau
throne ; and so far had the ancient power of the
kingdom declined, that Avhen the Portuguese first
appeared in Ceylon, in 1505, the island was divided
under no less than seven separate rulers. Ceylon,
in the Middle Ages, was " the Tyre of Eastern and
Southern Asia."
For 150 years the Portuguese occupied and controlled
the maritime districts of Ceylon, but it was more of
a military occupation than a regular government, and
martial law chiefly prevailed. The army of Roman
Catholic ecclesiastics, introduced under Portuguese
auspices, alone made any permanent impression on
a people who were only too ready to embrace a
religion which gave them high-sounding honorific
baptismal names, and interfered seldom, if at all,
with their continued observance of Buddhistic feasts
and ceremonies. The Portuguese established royal
monopolies in cinnamon, pepper, and musk ; exporthig,
besides cardamoms, sapan-wood, areea-nuts, ebony,
elephants, ivory, gems, pearls, and small quantities
of tobacco, silk, and tree cotton (the "kapok" of
modern times).
The Dutch, who by 1656 had finally expelled the
Portuguese rulers from the island, which the Lisbon
Past History. 5
autliorities had said "they had rather lose all India than
imijeril," pursued a far more progressive administrative
policy, though, as regards commerce, their policy was
selfish and oppressi-\-e. Still confined to the low-country
(the king of Kandy defying the new, as he had done the
previous, European invaders), the Dutch did much to
develop cultivation and to improve the means of
communication — more especially by canals in their
own maritime territory — Avhile establishing a lucrative
trade with the interior. The education of the people
occupied a good deal of official attention, as also their
Christianisation through a staff of Dutch chaplains;
but the system of requiring a profession of the
Protestant religion before giving employment to
any of the peoijle speedily confirmed the native love of
dissimulation, and created a nation of hypocrites, so
that the term "Government Christian," or "Buddhist
Christian," is common in some disti'icts of Ceylon
to this day.
The first care of the Dutch, however, was to
establish a lucrative commerce with Holland, and
their vessels were sent not only to Europe, but also
to Persia, India, and the Far East ports. Cinnamon
was the great staple of export ; * next came pearls (in
the years which gave successful pearl-oyster fisheries
in the Gulf of Mannar); then followed elephants,
pepper, areca or betel nuts, jaggery-sugar, sapan-wood
and timber generally, arrack spirit, choya-roots (a
substitute for madder), cardamoms, cinnamoii oil, etc.
The cultivation of coffee and indigo was begun, but
not carried ou to such an extent as to benefit the
exports.
Agriculture was promoted by the Dutch for an
essentially selfish purpose, but nevertheless good
resulted to the people from the system of forced labour,
* Tho peeling of cinnamon, the selling or exporting of a single
stick, save by the appointed oflficers, or even the wilful injury of
a cinnamon plant, were made crimes punishable by death by the
Dutch. See the Index for the Cinnamon Industry.
6 Ceylon in 1903.
as in the case of the planting of coconut palms
along the Avestern coast, from Colombo soutliAvardg,
which, so late as 1740, was described by Governor
Van Imhoff as waste-land to be surveyed and divided
among the people, who were bound to plant it up.
At the end of last century, when the British superseded
the Dutch in the possession of the maritime provinces
of Ceylon, the whole of the south-Avestern shore, for
nearly 100 miles, presented the unbroken grove palms
which is seen to this day.
From 1797 to 1802 Ceylon was placed under the
East India Company, who administered it from Port
St. George, Madras; but in the latter year it was
made a CroAvn Colony ; the Hon. P. North, afterwards
Earl of Guilford, continued as administrator, and was
therefore the first governor of Ceylon. It soon became
evident there could be no settled peace until the
tyrant king on the Kandyan throne — hated by his
own Nobility and Countrymen— Avas deposed, and the
whole island brought into subjection to the British
Crown. This Avas accomijlished in 1815, Avhen, at the
instigation of the Kandyan Chiefs aud people them-
selves, Wikkrama Raja Sinha, the last king, was
captured and deposed, and exiled by the British to
Southern India.
So great Avas the value attached to Ceylon as
the " key of India " owing to the grand harbour of
Trincomalee, as well as to its supposed fabulous wealth
in precious stones and A'aluable produce, that, at the
general peace, Britain chose to give up JaA^a to the
Dutch, and retained this little island, although inferior
in area, population, and natural resources.
CHAPTER II.
THE ISLAND IN 1796, 1815, AND EIGHTY-EIGHT YEARS
LATER.
Extent and topographical features -Condition of the island previous
to, and after, eighty-eight years of British rule contrasted.
HAVING now arrived at the British period, it may be
well to give some idea of the condition of Ceylon
and its people in the early part of this century, and to
compai'e the same with what is realised after British
government has been established for eighty-eight years
throughout the whole island.
The position of Ceylon as a " pearl-drop on the brow
of India " with which continent it is almost connected
by the island of Ramisseram and the coral reef called
Adam's Bridge *, is familiar to all who have ever
glanced at a map of Asia. To that great continent
it may be said to be related as great Britain is to
Europe, or Madagascar to Africa. In extent it com-
prises nearly sixteen million acres, or 24,702 square
miles, apart from certain dependent islands, such as the
Maldives. The total area is about five-sixths of that of
Ireland, but is equal to nearly thirty-seven times the
' An Indo-Geylon connecting Railway was first brought before the
British public by the author in a paper read before the London Cham-
ber of Commerce on April loth, 1897. It was treated as a chimerical
scheme at the time, but some years later was discussed at a Meeting of
the Imperial Institute; and the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, has lately
(December ls)u2) appointed a Commission to coneider the railway gauges
in Southern India and Ceylon with reference to future connections.
At present an Indian metre gauge line is made to Paumben, and it
is proposed to carry it over to Bamisseram (there is also some talk of
opening a new port near Paumben) ; while in Ceylon, the 5J-feet
gauge runs to Anuradhapura ?ind Jajflna,
8 Ceylo7i in 1903.
superficial extent of tlie island of Manritins, M-liich
sometimes contests with Ceylon the title of the " Gem
of the Indian Ocean." One-sixth of tliis area, or about
4,000 square miles, is comprised in the hilly and mount-
ainous zone which is situated about the centre of the
south of the island, while the maritime districts are
generally level, and the northern end of the island is
broken up into a flat, narrow peninsula and small islets.
Within tlie central zone there are 150 mountains or
ranges between 3,000 and 7,000 feet in altitude, with ten
peaks rising over the latter limit. There are about 250
recorded Trigonometrical points over 1,000 feet in altitude
in the island. The highest mountain is Pidurutalslgala
(8,296 feet, or nearly 1,000 feet higher than Adam's Peak,
7,353 feet), which was long considered the highest,
because to voyagers approaching the coast it wa,s
always the most conspicuous, mountain of Ceylon.
The longest river, the Mahaweliganga (the Ganges of
Ptolemy's maps), has a course of nearly 200 (190) miles,
draining aboiit one-sixth of the area of the island before
it reaches the sea at Trineomalee on the east coast.
There are twelve other large rivers (large especially in
the rainy season) running to the west, east and south,
(besides numerous tributaries and smaller streams); but
none of these exceed 90 miles in length. The course
of the Kelani Ganga, the large river near Colombo, is
about 60 miles, and tliat is also the length of the Kalu-
ganga near Kalutara. The rivers are not favourable
for navigation, save near the sea, where they expand
into backwaters, which Avere taken advantage of by the
Dutch for the construction of their system of canals all
round the western and southern coasts. Steamers
ply between Colombo and Negombo along this narrow
canal and lake. A similar service on the Kaluganga
has not proved a success.
There are no natural inland lakes, save what remains
of magnificent artificial tanks in the north and east of
the island, and the backwaters referred to on the coast.
The lakes which add to the beauty of Colombo
K-^'l
THE " DARK ARCHES," ON THE RAH.WAY INCLINE AT
K ADUG ANN AWA .
The Island in 1796, 1815, and in 1903.
(416 acres), Kandy (451 acres) Lake Gregory, Nuwara
Eliya (142 acres), andKiirunegala (101 acres), are artificial
or partly so. Giant's Tank is said to have an area of 6,380
acres and Minnery and Kalawewa each exceed 4,000
acres.
Most of the above description of mountain, river
and tank, was true of Ceylon at the beginning of the
century even as it is now ; but in other respects how
altered! It is impossible to get full and exact inform-
ation as to the condition in which the British found the
island and its people in the early years, and up to the
subjugation of the Kandyan division in 1815. But from
the best authorities at our fcommand we have compiled
the following tabular statement to show at a glance a
few of the salient points in which the change is most
striking, by far the greater part of the change having
taken place within the reign of Queen Victoria ':—
CEYLON.
In 1796—1815.
In 1903.
Population
From f to 1 million
3,650,000
No. of houses
2g,000_^iled]___
1 600,000
Population of the
Capital, Colombo . .
■Military force
28J)fla
159.0O0
"Xooo
2.3G6
Cost of ditto
£leu,uui)
£140,000
.Imperial share . .
£160,000
£40,000
Volunteer corps
nU
2,436
Cost
ml
£18,000
Police
nil
2,000
Cost
nil
£60,000
Revenue
/■£226,000
( £320,000
/£ 1,803,000*
[£1,798,000
Expenditure
Trade : —
Imports— value ..
£266,790
£7,508,.500\.
£6,000,000/T
Exports — , , . .
£206,583
(local Customs' value
really worth much
more)
• More properly Rupees 27,045,000.
t In 1901 the total values in local currency were— Imports,
RU2,627,000; Exports, R89,909,000.
10
Ceylon in 1903.
In 179§— 1815.
Boads
Bridges
Railways
Canals
Tonnage of Shipping
entered and cleared
Government Savings
Bank : —
Deposits
No. of Depositors
Post Office Savings
Banks
No. of Depositors
Exchange and Depo-
sit Bank Oifioes . .
Annual volume of
business in Colom-
bo Banks' Clearing
house
Govt, note issue . .
Educational expendi-
ture
No. of schools
No. of scholars . .
The press
Medical expenditure
No. of civil hospitals
and dispensaries ..
_ r
Civjl servants :
Bevenue officers,
judges, magis-
trates, etc.
Charitable allowances
from general re-
venue
Post of&ces
Total No. of letters
No. of printed matter
despatched
Money order of&ces . .
Telegraph wires
Sand and gravel tracks
none
1-20 miles
75,000 tons
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
£.3,00)
(for schools and clergy)
170
4,500
Govt. Gazette only
£1,000
nil
6
£3,003
No Poor Law
4
not known
nil
nil
nil
Tn 1903.
Metalled, 2,600 miles
Gravelled, 660 miles
Natural, 400 miles
Too numerous to men-
tion
367 miles *
170 miles
9,030,000 tons
£270,000
27,700
150
55,000
14
about, £13,300,000
£1,000,000
£66,000
4,000
220,000
45 newspapers and
periodicals
£90,000
375
48
42
£8,000
Friend in Need Society
for Voluntary Belief,
£2,000. No Poor Law
340
22,000,000 .
4,548,386
150
2,100 miles
• Besides about 203 miles more under construction and about
90 miles of line, being surveyed or enquired into.
The Island in 1796, 1815, and in 1903
11
Area cultivated (ex-
clusive of natural
'pasture)
Live stock : —
Horses,* cattle,
sheep, goats, swine,
etc.
Carts and carriages
In 1796-1815.
400,001 acres
250,000
50
In 1903.
1,000,000
30,000
[For a fuller statistical statement, and for more detailed informa-
tion still, see the latest edition of Ferguson's " Ceylon Handbook and
Directory for 1903-4.]
There is, of course, an immense amount of
improvement which, cannot be tabulated, even if we
extended our comparison in this form to much greater
length. The greatest material change from the Ceylon
of pre-British days to the Ceylon of the present time
is most certainly in respect of means of internal
communication. If, according to Sir Authur Gordon
(now Lord Stanmore) as quoted by Charles Kingsley
in "At Last "— the iirst and most potent means of
extending civilisation is found in roads, the second
in roads, the third again in roads, Sir Edward Barnes,
when Governor of Ceylon (1821 to 1831), was a ruler
who well understood his duty to the people, and he
was followed at intervals by worthy successors.
When the English landed in Ceylon in 1796, there
was not in the whole island a single practicable road,
and troops, in their toilsome marches between the
fortresses on the coast, dragged their cannon through
deep sand along the shore. Before Sir Edward Barnes
resigned his governmejit in 1831, every town of
importance was approached by a carriage-road. He
had carried a first-class macadamised road from
Colombo to Kandy, throwing a "bridge of boats"
* Of 21 003 horses imported between 1862 and 1903, the greater
portion has been bought by native gentlemen, traders, coaoh-
owners, etc.
l2 Ceylon in 1903.
(which was, only iu 1893, superseded by aii iron bridge)
over the Kelani river near Colombo, erecting other brid-
ges and culverts too numerous to mention en route, and
constructing, through the skill of General Praser, a
beautiful satin-wood bridge of a single span across
the Mahaweliganga (the largest river In Ceylon) "at
Peradeniya, near Kandy. On this road (72 miles iu
length) on the 1st of February, 1832, the Colombo and
Kandy mail-coach — the first mail-coach in Asia — was
started ; and it continued to run successfully till the
road was superseded by the railway in 1867.
There can be no doubt that the jjermaneut conquest
of the Kandyan country and people, which had
baffled the Portugviese and Dutch for 300 years, was
effected through Sir Edward Barnes' military I'oads.
A Kandyan tradition, that their conquerors Avere to
be a people Avho should make a road through a rocky
liill, was shrewdly turned to account, and tunnels
foi-med features on t-«o of the cart-routes into the
previously almost impenetrable hill-country. The spirit
of tlie Highland chiefs of Ceylon, as of Scotland
seventy years earlier, was effectually broken by
means of military roads into their districts ; • and
although the military garrison of Ceylon has gone
down from 6,000 troops to 2,300, and, indeed, althougli
for months together the island has been left with
not more than a couple of hvindred of artillerymen,
no serious trovible has been given for about eighty-five
years by the previously warlike Kandyans or the
Ceylonese generally. The so-called " rebellion " of 1848
is not deserving of mention, since it was so easily
quieted that not a single British soldier received a
scratch from the Sinhalese rabble during the brief
conapaign.
So much for the value of opening up the country
from a military point of view. Governor Barnes,
however, left an immense deal to do in bridging tlie
rivers, in the interior, and in constructing and extending
district roads ; but of this not much was attempted
'The Island m 1796, 1815, and in 1903. l3
until the an-ival of liis worthiest successor, Sir Henry-
Ward. This governor, with but limited means, did
a great deal to open up remote districts, and to
bridge the Mahaweliganga at Gampola and Katugas-
tota, as well as many other rivers which in the wet
season were well-nigh impassable. He thus gave a
great impetiis to the planting enterprise, which may
be said practically to have taken its rise in the
year of Queen's Victoria's accession (18.37). For the res-
toration and construction of irrigation works to benefit
the rice cultivation of the Sinhalese and Tamils, Sir
Henry Ward also did more than any of his predecessors.
He, too, began the raihvay to Kaudy, which was
successfully completed in the time of his successors,
Sir Charles MacGarthy and Sir Hercules Robinson.
In Sir Hercules Robinson, Ceylon was fortunate
enough to secure one of the most active and energetic
governors that ever ruled a Crown colony. He came to
Ceylon in his prime and left his mark in every province
and nearly every district of the country, in new
roads, bridges, public buildings, and especially in
the repair of irrigation tanks and channels and the
provision of sluices. He extended the railway from
Peradeniya to Gampola and Xawalapitya, some seven-
teen miles ; and he laid the foundation of the
scheme through which, vmdei- his successor, the late
Sir William Gregory, the Colombo Breakwater was
begun. By this great undertaking, through the
engineering skill of Sir John Coode and the firm of
Messrs Coode, Son & Matthews and their local
representatives, Messrs. Kyle Sr. and Bostock, there has
been secured for the capital of Ceylon one of the
safest, most convenient and commodious artificial
hai'bours in the world.
To Sir William Gregory belongs the distinction
of having spent more revenue on reproductive ijublic
works than any previous governor of Ceylon. The
roads in the north and east of the island, which
were chiefly gravel and sand tracks, were completed
14 Ceylon in 1903.
ill a permanent form, and nearly every river was
bridged. The North-Central Province, a purely Sin-
halese rice-growing division of the country, was called
into existence ; and large amounts were invested
in tanks and roads ; planting roads were extended ;
about fifty miles were added to the railway system, and
preliminary arrangements made for a further extension
of some sixty-seven miles. When Governor Gregory
left in 1877, there were few rivers of any importance
left unbridged, a large extent of previously unoccupied
cou.ntry had been opened up for cultivation, and an
impetus given to both natives and the European
colonists in the extension of cultivation, especially
of new products, which alone saved the island from
a serious collapse in the years of commercial depression
and blight on coffee which followed. After 1877 not
many miles of wevr road were added by Sir James
Longden ; but Governor Gordon greatly impi'oved
existing roads, and made several extensions besides
constructing some important bridges, especially in the
new and rising Kelani Valley tea district. Later on, we
shall see what progress was made between 1890 and 1903.
It is a great matter to be able to say that, whereas the
the Rev. James Oordiuer, chaplain to the Governor
of Ceylon in 1807, could write "Strictly speaking,
there are no roads in Ceylon," now, after a century
of British I'ule, about 2,600 miles of first-class metalled
roads, equal to any in the world, have been con-
structed, besides about 660 miles of gravelled roads for
light traffic, supplemented by 400 miles of natural
tracks available in dry weather to traverse districts
where as yet there is little or no traffic. The main
roads are those from Colombo to Batticaloa via Rat-
uapura, Haputale, and Badulla, right across the
island ; from Colombo to Trincomalee via Kandy,
and another branch via Kurunegala, also right across
the breadth of the island, but north instead of
south of the Central Province ; from Jaffna southwards
through the centre of the island to Kandy, and
thence to Nuwara Eliya and Badulla, and by a les6
The Island In 1790, 1815, rmd in 1903. 15
frequented route to Hambautota on the south cog.st ;
from Kandy to Mann4r on the north-west coast— the
grreat immigration route ; and the main roads on
the coast, Colombo to- Galle and Hambantota, and
north to Mann4r and almost to Jaffna. Subsidiary-
first-class roads, especially in the Central Province,
are too numerous to mention.
The benefit which this network of roads has con-
ferred on the people it is impossible to over-estimate.
Secluded districts have been opened up, and markets af-
forded for produce which previously "« as too often left
to waste ; settlements, villages, and even large towns,
have sprung up, within the last sixty-five years along-
side roads where previously all was jungle and
desolation, and means of employment have been
afforded to a people who had scarcely ever seen a coin.
As in India, so on a smaller scale in Ceylon, it
is a recognised fact that there is no more effectual
preventive of famine than internal means of communi-
cation, whether by road, rail, canal, or navigable river.
There has probably never been a year in which
India, within its widely extended borders, did not
produce enough food to supply all its population ; but
unfortunately there has been no means of getting the
superabundance of one district transferred to the
famine area in another part of the continent. So in
Ceylon, in years gone by, there has been great scarcity
and mortality in remote districts Avithout the central
Government at Colombo being made properly aware of
the fact, or being able to supply prompt relief. The
mortality from fever and food scarcity in some parts of
the country must thus have been very great before
British times.
Roads, again, are great educators, but in this they
are surpassed by railways in an Oriental land. The
railways in India and Ceylon are doing more in these
modern days to level caste and destroy superstition
than all the force of missionaries and schoolmasters,
much as these latter aid in this good work. They also
10 Ceylon m 1003.
greatly help to promote migration from overcrowded to
unoccupied districts and in this education is a great help.
The railway between Colombo and Kandy, projected
originally about sixty years ago, Avas not seriously
taken in hand till the time of Sir Henry Ward. After
many mistakes and alterations of plans, it was
successfully completed under the skilful engineering
guidance of Mr. (now Sir) G. L. Molesworth, K.C.S.I.
(afterwards consulting engineer to the Government of
India), the late Air. W. F. Faviell being the successful
contractor. The total length is 741 miles, and, including
a good deal of money unavoidably wasted in dissolving
and paying off a Company, it cost the colony, from first
to last, as much as £1,738,413 ; but the line (on the broad
Indian gauge of 5 ft. 6 in.) is most substantially
constructed, including steel rails on inclines, iron-girder
bridges, viaducts, a series of tunnels, and an incline
rising 1 in 45 for 12 miles into the mountain zone, which
gives this railway a prominent place among the remark-
able lines of the world.
Between 1867 and 1877, the railway was extended
by Sir Hercules Robinsoji, on the same gauge, for
17 miles from Peradeniya to Gampola and Nawalapitiya,
rising towns in the Central Province ; and by Sir
William Gregory for 17i miles from Kandy to MAtale,
a town on the borders of the Central Province ; while in
low coiintry the latter governor constructed a seaside
line from Colombo, through a very populous district,
to Kalutara (27| miles), and also some 3i miles of wharf
and breakwater branches.
To Governor Gregory's time also belongs the
inception and practical commencement of the extension
from Nawalapitiya to the principality of Uva (67 miles),
of which 41i to Nanu-oya were commented in 1880, and
finished in 1885. This line includes two long inclines,
with gradients of 1 iu 44, a tunnel 614 yards long,
and the end of the section at Nanu-oya is 5,600 feet
above sea-level, within four miles of the sanitarium
and town of Nixwara Eliya (6,200 feet above sea-level),
The Island in 1796, 1815, and in 1903. 17
This extension, however, only touched the borders of
Uva, one of the richest parts of the country, an ancient
principality, which Sir Arthur Gordon separated from
the Central and constituted into a separate province.
Governor Gordon, after some doubt and delay at first,
became thoroughly convinced of the importance of
the work of extending the railway from Nanu-oya into
Uva as far as Haputale or Bandarawela Cfor 25 to 29
miles;, as originally suggested in 1872 in the memorial
drawn up by the author of this volume and presented
to Sir William Gregory. It took some years of hard
work on Sir A. Gordon's part to overcome the objections
of the Colonial Office, but at length sanction was
obtained for the Haputale section, and a commencement
made in December 1888, while the spring of 1893 saw
the opening of the line to Bandarawela. Sir West
Ridge way's administration will always be connected
with the great Northern Railway of 200 miles from
Kurunegala to Jaffna and the coast ; as also with the
introduction of light narrow-gauge (2^ feet) lines to
Kelani Valley, Nuwara Eliya and Udapussellawa.
In all there are now about 367 miles of railway
open in Ceylon, besides the 12 miles to Yatiyantota
and 19 to Udapussellawa nearly completed. Then there
is the remainder of the line to Jaffna (165 miles), with
the light line 19^ miles to Nuwara Eliya and Udapussel-
lawa from Nanuoya about to opened. This will give a
total of about 563 miles due to be complete by the
beginning of 1903*; but only the mainline to the hill
districts and that from Colombo to Matara may be said
* The following note will le useful for reference ;—
Railways Open ;— miles Under Consteuction :— Miles
r<»i. .«>./> voniiv in Awissiwella- Yatiyantota ... \i
Cokmbo-Kandy ... 74} Pallai-Kurunegali ...165
Feradeniya-Banoarawela ... 91 N^nuoya-UJapussellawa ... 19
Kandy-Matale ... 17} Total 198
Polgihaweli-Kurnnegala ... 13 Grand Total 6621
Colombo-Matara ... 9'} BEING Surveyed:.-
Breakwater & Wharf ... 2} Awissawella to Eitnapura
Kangesanturai-Pallai ... 83 ,, „ (about) ... 20
o 1 ™u„ A™!a™o,..iio q«a Under Commission OP EN(ioiRY:—
Colorobo-Awissawella ... 36| Colombo tj Negombo-Chilaw
Total Sbef Puttilatu ... §0
18 Ceylon in 1903.
to have been working long enongh to afford a fair test of
the traffic and the benefit to colonists, natives, and the
country generally. The seaside line, however, has a
wonderfully large passenger traffic, and it also secures
profitable freight. Altogether 122 miles of railway are
the free property of the colony ; while the debt on the
remaining 440 miles will not much exceed two-and-a-half
millions sterling, if allowance is made for contributions
to sinking fund up to date and for the amounts paid
from surplus revenue.
The main line to Kandy has more than repaid its
cost in direct profit, apart from tlie immense benefits
it has conferred. It is sometimes said that this railway
and other lines in Ceylon, constructed as tliey were
mainly for the planting enterprise and with the
planters' money, confer far more benefit on the
Europeans than on the native population. An answer
to this statement, and an evidence of the immense
educating power of our railways, is found in the fact
that during the past thirty -five years over three-hundred
millions of passengers have been carried over the lines,
of whom all but an infinitesimal proportion were
natives (Sinhalese and Tamils chiefiy). On the
Kandy line alone it would have taken the old coach,
travelling both ways twice daily and filled each
time, several hundred years to carry the above
number of passengers. There was scarcely a Kandyan
chief or priest who had ever seen, or, at any rate
stood by, the sea until the railway into the hill
country was opened in 1867, Avhereas, for some time
aSter the opening, the interesting sight was often
presented to Colombo residents of groups of Kandyans
standing by the sea-shore in silent, awe and admiration
of the vast ocean stretched out before them and the
wonderful vessels of all descriptions in Colombo harbour.
This experience will probably be repeated next- year in
the case of grey-bearded Kandyans from the sechided
glens of the Wanni and North- Central Proviiice. As
regards, further Railway Extensiouy^' besides ithe light
The Island in 1796, 1815, and in 1903. 19
lines to Ratnapiira and Puttalam, the connection of
Trincomalee and Batticaloa in the low-country and of
Badulla in the hill country, with our Railway system,
deserves attention.
In pointing out that the Dutch (equally with the
Portuguese) constructed no roads, we must not forget
that the former, true to their home experience, con-
structed and utilised a system of canals through the
maritime provinces along the western and south-western
coast. In this they were greatly aided by the backwaters,
or lagoons, which are a feature on the Ceylon coast,
formed through the mouths of the rivers becoming blocked
up, and the waters findingan outletto the sea at different
points, often miles away from the line of the main
stream. The canals handed over by the Dutch at first
fell into comparative disuse, but within the last fifty
years they have been repaired and utilised, and there
are now about 175 miles of canal in the island. In
some parts, however, as between Colombo and Puttalam,
the canal, being crossed by many rivers which in
monsoon time bring down much silt, gives much
trouble and the delay in traffic is so great that a light
railway (alongside for passengers and light traffic
especially) is now being urged. On the other hand,
at Batticaloa, the re-opening of an old Dutch Canal
is called for.
With the construction of roads wheeled traffic be-
came possible, and a large number of the Sinhalese
speedily found very profitable employment, in connec-
tion with the planting industry mainly, as owners and
drivers of bullock carts, of which there must be from
15,000 to 20,000 in the island, besides single bullock-
hackeries for passenger traffic, not to speak of the
numerous jinrickshaws (man-power carriages, intro-
duce first in 1884 from Japan) in all the towns. In
nothing is the increase of wealth among the natives
more seen, in the Western, Central, and Southern
Provinces, than in the number of horses and carriages
now owned by them. Forty-five to fifty years ago to
^
Ceylon in 1903.
see a Ceylonese with a horse aucl conveyance of his
own was rare indeed; now the number driving their
own carriages, in the towns especially, is very remark-
able. The greater number of the horses imported
during the past forty years— the imports during that
time numbering 20,000— have certainly passed to the
people of the country.
"AT. • " ^i" [ o
jav' Ji^.! /-a"
jj ,9 <<
» - ■ '*?" •■. 4.-- ^- tj] .
QUEEN S HOUSE, COLOMBO AND SIR EDWARD BARNES STATUE.
SIGNAL TOWEB, FLAGSTAFF AND BATTERY, COLOMBO,
CHAPTER III.
SOCIAL PROGRESS IX THE CENTURY.
Population— Buildings-Postal and Telegraphic Services— Savings Bank
— Banking and Currency— Police and Military Defence —Medical
and Education Achievements — Laws and Crime.
HAVING thus described more particularly the vast
change effected in British times by the construction
of communications all over the island, we must touch
briefly on the evidences of social progress given in our
table (pages 9, 10).
The increase in population speaks for itself. It is
very difficult, however, to arrive at a correct estimate of
what the population was at the beginning of the century,
as the Dutch could have no complete returns, not
having any control over the Kandyan provinces. The
first attempt at accurate numbering was in 1824, by
Governor Barnes, and the result was a total of 851,440,
or, making allowance for omissions due to the hiding of
people through fear of taxation, etc., say about a million
of both sexes and all ages. As regards the large
estimate of the ancient population of Ceylon located in
the nothern, north-central, and eastern districts, now
almost entirely deserted, we are by no means iiiclinfed,
with the recollection of the famous essay on "Populous.
ness of Anci«nt Nations," to accept the estimates
published by Sir Emerson Tennent and other en thusias--
tic writers. There can be no doubt, however, that; a.
very considerable population found means of existence
in and around the ancient capitals of Oeylpn, and in
the. great Tank region of the north and east,- a region.
22 Ceylon in 1903.
■which affords scops for a great, though gradual,
extension of cultivation by both Sinhalese and Tamils
in the future. At present it must be remembered that
fully tAvo-thirds of the popu.lation are found in the
south-western districts and mountain zone, occupying a
good deal less than half the area of the island, and that
there are large divisions, once the best-cultivated
with rice, with noiv perhaps only half a dozen souls
to the square mile.*
As regards the number of inhabited houses, in 1824
there were not more than 20,000 with tiled roofs in
/ the island ; that number lias multiplied manifold,
I but the 600,000 now given refer to all descriptions of
inhabited houses, some of these being huts roofed
with coconut leaves. The improvement in the resi-
dences of a very large proportion of the people is,
however, very mar-ked : and the contrast between
the old and modern homes has been well described
as being as great as that between a begrimed native
chatty (clay- vessel) and a bright English tea-kettle.
r In the town of Kandy, which has now about 4,800
I dwelling-houses— the large majority substantially built,
many of two stories— ninety years ago no one but
the tyrant-king was allowed to have a tiled roof, or
any residence better than a hut. In all the towns,
and many of the villages of the island, substantial,
public buildings have been erected ; revenue offices,
court-houses, hospitals and dispensaries, prisons, schools,
and post and telegraph offices. A great change for
the better in respect of these institutions was effected
,by Governors Robinson and Gregory, and still more
has been done by some of their successors notably
since 1896 by Governor Ridgeway.
Further evidences of the good done through a
liberal and enlightened administration we find in an
admirable internal postal service, made possible by the
roads through which every town and village of any
• The Suoerintendent of the Census of 1901 in his Report bases an estimate on
ancient records which works out a iiopulation for Ceylun of 10 million in 1301 a,d, •
Social Progress in the Century. 23
eonsequence is served ; the total number of post-offices
is 340 supplemented by nearly 85 telegraph stations,
there being 2,100 miles of telegraph-wire in the island ;
while, in addition, the Postal-Telegraph Department
has opened over 150 postal savings-banks in all the towns
and important villages, with 50,000 to 60,000 aeeounts.
This is apart from a long-existing Government savings
bank, with about 28,000 depositors, owning deposits
to the -amount of perhaps four million rupees. There
were abovit 510,000 telegraphic messages sent from
Ceylon in 1001, and 22,000,000 of letters were received
in and despatched from Ceylon in 1901. In the Post
and Telegraph Departments altogether there are
nearly 1,100 employees.
With the rise of local trade and foreign commerce,
chiefly through the export of planting prodvicts, came
the need of banking and exchange facilities, and
the call for these led to the establishment of a local
Bank nearly sixty years ago. This was superseded,
however, soon after, by the Oriental Bank Corporation,
which gradually secured by far the larger share of
local business, so that the Ceylon branches became
among the most important and profitable of this
well-known Eastern bank. This gradually tempted
its managers to depart from legitimate business by
lending its capital too freely on planting, produce,
and estates, and when this bank closed its doors in
March 1884, nowhere was the shock more widely or
acutely felt than in Ceylon. The effect and distrust
among the natives would have been' greatly aggravated
were it not for the bold step taken by Governor Sir
Arthur Gordon in extending an official guarantee to
the bank's note issue, which eventuated in a. reform
long advocated by the author, namely, a Government
note issue, much to the advantage of the people
and the local exchequer. For, now, the circulation
of Government notes approximates to fourteen millions
of rupees. Nor was any loss sustained from taking lip
the notes of the Oriental Bank, -VYhich, iij fact, ought
24 Ceylon in 1903.
never to have closed its doors. The gradual liquidation
of its affairs showed its solvency. The New Orienta
Bank Corporation, founded upon the old Bank, prospered
for some years, until owin^ to losses in Australia,
Persia, the Straits, etc., it had to close in June 1892. The
plantations that fell to the Oriental Bank creditors
were mainly taken over by a Limited Company, and
have been worked at a profit. Ceylon credit suifered
a good deal in the coffee era from plantation companies,
chiefly through the " Ceylon Company, Limited,"
which, though so named, was really founded to take up
bad business in Mauritius, where its heaviest losses
were sustained. — Other banks and agencies working and
generally prospering in Ceylon are those of the Mer-
cantile Bank of India Ltd. (which as the Chartered
Mercantile Bank of London, India and China, opened
in Ceylon in 1854) ; the Bank of Madras, (dating here
from 1867); the National Bank of India, from 1881 in
Ceylon ; and (opened in 1892 on the fall of the New
Oriental Bank) the Chartered Bank of India, London
and Australia, and the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank-
ing Corporation. It may be mentioned that Sir Hercules
Robinson gave Ceylon, in 1872, the benefit of a
decimal currency in rupees and cents of a rupee,
thus placing it in advance of India, where the cumbrous
siibdivisions of the rupee into annas, pice, and pies
still prevail ; in this respect Ceylon is indeed in advance
of the mother-country. Next by an Ordinance passed
in 1902 gold was made legal tender at 15 rupees to the
sovereign ; and with reference to a scarcity of silver
which resulted, a Ciirrency Commission has been con-
sulted as to whether we should have a Ceylon rupee as
well as an increase of subsidiary coinage supplied.
We need scarcely say that, at the beginning of
British rule, there Avas no post-office, and for many
years after the service was of the most primitive,
although expensive kind ; nor were there ijolice or
volunteer corps in those days ; but there was an
army corps ("infantry, artillery, and even cavalry,
Social Progress m the Century. 25
altogether 5,000 to 6,000 men) kept up for many years,
out of all proportion to the necessities of the case.
The home authorities had the idea hundred years
ago that the hidden wealth* of Ceylon would enable
a handsome annual subsidy to be paid to the treasury of
the mother-country after all local expenses of Govern-
taent were defrayed. In place of that, so long as Ceylon
remained a mere military dependency, it was a dead loss
to, and drain on, the imperial treasury. By degrees, how-
ever, it was seen that four British and as many native
(Malay, Tamil, and Kaffir) regiments were not required,
and, the force being cut down, it was decided by a
Commission, appointed by the Secretary of State in
1865, that Ceylon should bear all the military expendi-
ture within its bounds, the local force being fixed
at one regiment of British infantry, one of native
(the Ceylon Rifles), and one brigade of artillery, with a
Major-General and staff. The Ceylon Rifles again were
disbanded a few years later, in 1873. The island)
therefore, has cost the Home Government very little-
most years nothing at all— since 1865. On the othei^
hand, the military force in Ceylon has been utilised very
frequently for imperial and inter-colonial purposes.
This will be alluded to later on, but we may men-
tion here that Governor Gordon, in 1883, was in-
strumental, in view of the depression of revenue
resulting from the failure of coffee, in getting the
annual military contribution reduced to 600,000 rupees
in place of about a million formerly paid. The smaller
amount' was a very fair appraisement of the responsibi-
lity of Ceylon, considering that no internal trouble
beyond the capacity of the large body of police and
■volunteers can be feared. But with returning pror
sperity, through tea cultivation, to Ceylon came a
renewed demand for an increased contribution, and
in 1892 this was fixed at £81,000 per annum, subject
to revision after 1896, and so in 1897-8, an Ordinance
(No. 2 of 1898) was passed, making the contribution
• 111 her Pearl Fisheries, Mines and Gem-pits.
D
26 Ceyton in 1903.
Qi p. c. of the General Revenue, less Land Sales and Rail-
way Charges (working expenses and interest and sink-
ing fund)— but never to exceed three-fourths of total cost
of the Garrison estimated at £151,250. The Colony is also
liable for any buildings or land required by the Military
outside of Trincomalee, less any land or buildings given
up or not required which may be sold and a fund formed.
At the same time, the charge for Volunteers, including
Artillery, Light Infantry, Mounted Infantry, and Plan-
ters' Rifle Corps, or abovit 2,500 strong, exceeds 260,000
rupees and the total expenditure for Military exceeds
two million rupees. The colony might now, so far as
her own necessity is concerned, dispense with a
British Regiment, though retaining a battery of Royal
Artillery always in Colombo. This would save the
Colony— even after doing full justice to the Local-
Forces— quite a million of rupees a year which would
enable many very desirable important and urgent
public works to be effected. At the same time a British
Regiment or more could not be more conveniently
stationed in the East for Imperial purposes, than
in Ceylon
In no direction has more satisfactory work been
done in Ceylon by the British Government than through
its Medical and Educational Departments. Here are
branches which give the natives a vivid idea of the
superiority of English over Portuguese or Dutch rule,
and, to judge by the way in which hospitals, dispen-
saries, and schools are made use of, it is evident that
the Sinhalese and Tamils value their privileges.
Of civil, lying-in, (Lady Havelock Hospital for
women), gaol, contagious diseases, and an Bye Hospital
and Asylum being built (1903) at the initiation of Lady
Ridgeway as a Queen Victoria Memorial, and other
hospitals, with lunatic and leper and incurable asylums,
and outdoor dispensaries, there are now quite 50b in
the island, in or at which over a million persons are
treated annually, more than three-fourths being, of
oourse, for trifling ailments at the dispensaries. There
Social Progress in the Cenhiry. 27
are about 500 Colonial surgeons, assistants, health
officers, vaccinators, etc., on the Government staff under
the control and direction of an Inspector-General and
Principal Civil Medical Officer.
In this connection, the Ceylon Medical College,
founded by Sir Hercules Robinson in 1870, most heartily
supported by his successor. Governor Gregory, and
liberally endowed and extended by two wealthy Sinha-
lese gentlemen, Messrs. De Soysa and Rajapakse, and
further improved by additions to the staff by Governor
Ridgeway, is worthy of mention. Out of some 500
Ceylonese students entered, about 150 have qualiffed
and obtained licences to practise medicine and surgery ;
about as many more are 'hospital assistants and dis-
pensers; some have taken service under the Straits
Government; while others have gone home to qualify
for degrees of British Universities. The college has a
Principal, a Registrar, and nearly a dozen lecturers
with a qualified lady tutor for female students ;
and the Ceylonese have already shown a peculiar
aptitude for the profession, surgeons of special, even of
European eminence, having come from their ranks. We
must mention here the good work done by the late
Samuel Fisk Green, M.D., of the American Mission, in
his Medical classes for native students long before the
Government College was founded, and in his translation
and compilation of medical text-books, treatises, etc.,
in Tamil. In this way 87 natives were trained as
medical practitioners by Dr. Green ; while his works
upblish in Tamil covered 4,500 pages octavo.
In Education, generally, although there is still an
immense deal to do, Ceylon is far in advance as com-
pared with India. This has been chiefly through the
agency of the several Christian Missions at work in the
island which have done a noble work, more especially
in female education ; but Sir Hercules Robinson gave a
great impetus to education by the establishment of an
admirable grant-in-aid system, while Sir W. Gregory
and his successors, more specially Sir West Ridgeway
28 Ceylon in 1903.
extended the work, multiplying especially Government
vernacular schools. Latterly special attention has been
given to agricultural and technical education : a Tech-
nical College and Training College has been established
and in connection with Experimental Gardens (under
the auspices of the separate Botanic Gardens Depart-
ments) in different parts of the country, much good is
likely to be effected. The great improvements in the
educational, as well as in some other special, depart-
ments of recent years, is very much owing to the
employment, as their heads, of public servants with
local experience, in place of importing "fresh blood," a
penchant which has cost the colony a great deal up to
fifteen years ago. Under the previous system a half-pay
naval officer has been sent out by the Colonial Office as
Director of Prisons, and an impracticable theorist as
Director of Public Instruction, while other depart-
ments have similarly suffered. At present the pro-
portion in Ceylon is one pupil to every fourteen of
population; in India it is about one to every 120,
while in Great Britain it is, we suppose, one to every
five or six. In other words, while practically all
children of school-going age are being served educa-
tionally in Great Britain, only three-fifths of those in
Ceylon get some education, while two-fifths of the
children get no instruction whatever at present.
Visitors always remark on the large number of the
people in Ceylon, of the domestic servants especially,
who understand and speak English, as compared with
their experience on the continent of India. In ancient
times each Buddhist temple had its pansala or school;
but although such pansalas are still kept up in some
low-country districts, in the Kandyan country for
many years the priests have neglected their duty in
teaching and other respects. They are entirely inde-
pendent of the people throvigh the endowments in
land left by the Kandyan Kings, and these have in
this case proved a curse instead of a blessing to the
priesta themselves, as well s^s to the people, Six
Social Progress in the Century. 29
Arthur Gordon in place of .boldly making the attempt
to utilise a large portion of these "Buddhist Tem-
poralities," hitherto worse than wasted, for popular
vernacitlar and agricultural instruction, devised an
ordinance to secure a check on the priests and lay-
managers ; but not much result has followed and
further legislation has been required. It is to be
hoped that most of the property will someday be
utilised by express ordinance for the benefit of the
mass of the people in promoting vernacular education.
Stirred-vip, however, by the work of the Missionaries,
the Buddhist and Hindus have of years established
College's and Schools of their own in Colombo, Jaflfna
and at several outstations. In the low-country there
are fcAv temple endowments.
Educated Ceylonese are now, in many cases, find-
ing it difficult to secure openings in life suited to
their taste ; the legal pi-ofession has hitherto been
the most popular, it being occupied almost entirely
by them as notaries, attorneys or solicitors, advocates,
barristers, and even judges. In this way Sir Richard
Morgan, born and educated in Ceylon, rose to be
attorney-general, chief jixstice, and knight. In 1892
Sir Harry Dias, a Sinhalese Barrister, retired as judge
of the Supreme Court after many years' service ; Sir
Samuel Grenier, knight, followed Sir R. Morgan to
high office, and other Ceylonese fill important offices
at present as Judges of the Supreme, Kandy and
other Courts, Crown counsel, district judges, magis-
trates, leading barristers, and solicitors, as well as
physicians.
The fondness of the Sinhalese for litigation is pro-
verbial and has come down from the time of Djiteh:
their cases in court abound, even to disputing about
the fractional part of a coconut-tree. The revival of
native Village Councils (Gansabawa) by Sir Hercules
Robinson, has done much to prevent litigation in
the expensive law courts, with which many hundred
of advocates and proctors are connected, Crim
30 Ceylon in 1903.
generally is represented by a daily average of about
2,500 coiivicted prisoners in the goals of the island, a
large number being for petty thefts and assaults,
but many for serious crime, through the rash use of
the knife under passionate impulse. Homicides are
still far too common among the Sinhalese in rural
districts from this cause. Four to six times as many
murders are committed every year in Ceylon— a
Buddhist country!— as are committed in the United
Kingdom in proportion to population. The total of
convictions in all the courts is now about 80,000 a year.
Not 1 per cent of these are women, the explanation being
that the native women do not " drink " or ' gamble,"
the two chief causes of crime among the Sinhalese
and Tamils. The wearing of open knives (now for-
bidden by law) and the habit of perjury aggravate
crime among the Sinhalese. About 150 natives lose
their lives annually from snake-bites and wild beasts
— bears, cheetahs, elephants, buffaloes, etc. ; while more
than that number are killed by falling from trees-
coconut palms chiefly. The cost of the administra-
tion of ju-stice for the criminal class— police, courts,
gaols, etc,— cannot be less than Rupees 2,400,000 or
£160,000 per annum. A penal code after the fashion
of that of India was arranged for by Sir Bruce
Burnside, as Chief Justice of the island, and success-
fully introduced in 1885; and a Civil Procedure Code
was passed in 1889. A successful system of Cart and
Servants' Registration is at work, the credit of which
is due to Sir G. W. R. Campbell, K.C.M.G., who also
reorganised the police to take the place of the Ceylon
Rifle Regiment disbanded in Governor Robinson's
time*
CHAPTER IV.
LEGISLATIVE AND GENERAL IMPROVEiWENTS UNDER THE
RULE OP SUCCESSIVE BRITISH GOVERNORS— THE
NEED OF PROMOTING CO-OPERATION AND GOOD
PEELING BETWEEN DIVERSE CLASSES AND RACES.
AMONG the political and social reforms introduced
into Ceylon by the British during the present
century may be mentioned the abolition by the
first Governor, the Hon. F. North, of torture and
other barbarous punishments abhorrent to English
feeling, and the relaxation during the time of his
successor of the severe laws against Romanists ; this
was twenty years before Catholic Emancipation was
granted in England. Trial by jury was first intro-
duced by a new charter of justice in 1811 ; but it
was not till 1814 that all caste and clan distinctions
in the jury-box and all slavery were finally abolished.
A new and much improved charter of justice, the
establishment of a Legislative Council with ten official
to six unofficial members,* an order in Council abo-
lishing compulsory labour, the establishment of a
* Sir Arthur Gordon in 1889 got the number of unofficials. in-
creased to eight, their term of office not usually to last beyond five
years, so as to extend the educating process of assisting in legisla-
tion among the Ceylonese; the members are nominated by the
Governor with the aid of various public bodies and opinions,
through the press, to represent (1) the Low-country Sinhalese, (2)
the Kandvan Sinhalese, (3) the Tamils, (4) the " Moormen " (Arab
descendants, etc.), (5) the Eurasians (Burghers), (6) the Planters,
(7) the Merchants, and (8) the General European community. Now
the time has arrived for adding two more unofficial members and for
Including one or two unofficials in the Executive Council, besides
generally liberalizing the Legislature after the pattern shown in
India and other Dependencies.
32 Legislative and General Improvements.
free press, the relinquishment of the cinnamon mono-
poly, the institution of a Government savings-bank
and the Colombo Academy, all served to mark the
years between 1830 and I8i0, when such enlightened
Governors as Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton, and the Right
Hon. J. A, Stewart-Mackenzie, administered Ceylon
affairs.
During the next decade a tax on fishermen of one-
tithe of all the fish taken was abolished ; the bonds
of slavery were Anally removed ; great efforts were
made to extend education and medical relief to the
masses, and the important planting industry took its
first start ; a wise and most useful law for the improve-
ment of roads, exacting six days' labour per annum,
or its value, from all able-bodied males between eighteen
and fifty-five years of age, was passed ; the last attempt
at disturbance by some of the Kandyans was quickly
suppressed without the loss of a single life ; the colony
passed through a commBrcial and financial crisis, and
on the ruins of the Bank of Ceylon the Oriental Bank
Corporation arose.
In 1850 there was commenced in Ceylon jthe most
successful service with carrier-pigeons ever known in
connection with the press. The Ceylon Observer carrier-
pigeons travelled regularly between Galle (the mail
port) and Colombo with budgets of news, including Cri-
mean a^d Indian Mutiny war news, for over seven years,
till 1857, when they were superseded by the telegraph.
All official connection between the British Government
and Buddhism was closed in 1855, the year in which
Sir Henry Ward commenced to rule, and a new impetus
was given to native and European industry by useful
legislation. The restoration of irrigation works, the
construction of roads, the commencement of a railway,
the reorganisation of the public service, the intro-
duction of penny postage (with a halfpenny rate for
newspapers), the establishment of steam navigation
round the island and of telegraph communication be
tween the principal towns, the reform of the Kandyan
iJ"
THE HON. SIR ARTHUR HAMILTON GORDON, G.O.M.G
GOVERNOR OP CEYLON, 1883-1890.
THE BT. HON. SIR WILLIAM GEEGORY, K.C.M.G., GOVERNOR
OP CEYLON, 1872-77,
Erected by the inhabitants of the Island in front of the Colombo Museum, in
comniemci-ation of the many terefits conferred by him upon the colony
during his adminiswaticn of the Oovernment.
Ceylon in 1903. 33
marriage laws, and the abolition of polyandry, also
marked this period.
The following decade, 1860-70, is chiefly distin-
guished for Governor Sir Hercules Robinson's energetic
and most useful administration, with measures for
the civil registration of marriages, births, and deaths,
and of titles to land; the opening of the railway to
Kandy ; the publication by the people of Sinhalese and
Tamil newspapers ; the formation of the towns of Col-
ombo, Kandy, and Galle into municipalities, with
Boards composed of elected and official members ; the
revival of gansabhawas, or village councils ; the adoption
of a grant-in-aid scheme for promoting the education
of the people ; the abolition of export duties ; the found-
ing of the Ceylon Medical College ; and the visit in
1870 of H. R. H. the Duke of Edinburgh.
The next decade in the history of Ceylon has its
interest in the very prosperous, busy, and successful
Government of Sir William Gregory. The first system-
atic census of the population was taken in 1871. Meas-
ures were adopted for the conservation of forests and
for preventing the extinction of elk, deer, elephants,
etc. ; the registration of titles was provided for ; Col-
ombo, Kandy, and Galle were much improved, arrange-
ments for a good water-supply to each town being
made ; while for the sanatorium (Nuwara Eliya) and
seven other minor towns a bill was passed establishing
Local Boards on the elective principle ; the gansabhawas,
or village councils, were improved and encouraged ;
an immense impetus was given to rice cultivation,
100 village tanks being repaired every year, besides
larger works; the North-Central Province, in purely
native interests, was formed, and the great lines of
communication between the north and east were per-
manently opened ; Anuradhapura, the ancient capital,
was cleared of jungle, and rendered a healthy revenue
station ; gaols, hospitals, and schools were greatly im-
proved, gaol discipline being put on a new footing ;
B
34 Legislative and General Improvements.
pilgrimages on a large scale injuriously affecting public
health were discouraged and practically stopped ; scien-
tific education was provided for ; temperance was
promoted by the reduction of the number of licences
granted to grog-shops ; gas lighting was introduced into
Colombo ; the stoppage of all payments from the reve-
nue in aid of religion (" Disestablishment ") was arran-
ged for ; the industry in the growth of new products—
tea, cinchona, and cacao— took its first systematic
start; an enactment dealing with service tenures in
connection with temples was passed ; road and railway
extension were actively taken in hand ; a public
museum was erected and well filled at Colombo ; and in
1875 H. R. H, the Prince of Wales visited the island,
and laid the first stone of the Colombo Breakwater
designed and constructed by Sir John Ooode, and since
successfully completed (in 1888) by the resident engi-
neer, Mr. Kyle. A Northern Arm and Graving-dock
for the Imperial Navy (in supersession partly of
Trincomalee), as well as for commercial purposes,
has been fully supported by the Admiralty, who
bear half the cost. A good deal of work upon it has
now been done (1903).
Soon after Sir James Longden assumed the reins of
government, a period of depression, owing to the failure
of coffee, set in, though in 1877-9 very large revenues
were collected. A Volunteer Corps was established
under Governor Longden's patronage; and the first
section of the Uva railway to Nanu-oya was commenced
by means of a public loan ; but almost the only important
work undertaken out of revenue during this Governor's
rule of six years was an extensive lunatic asylum
costing R600,000, and deemed beyond the requirements
of the colony, being built on a scale likely rather to
astonish than benefit poor rural Sinhalese lunatics,
when taken from jungle huts to be lodged in brick and
mortar palaces. An increase to the fixed expenditure of
the Colony naade in 1878 in Governor Longden's time,
BHID.^'S OP BOATS NEAR COLOMBO, (NOW REMOVED.)
Ceylon in 1903. 35
included an addition of R10,000 to his own salary.*
Sir Arthur Gordon assumed the Government of Cey-
lon at the end of 1883, and continued to direct aifairs till
the middle of 1890. A period of renewed activity in
useful legislation and material improvement was
eagerly anticipated ; taut the new Governor, indefatig-
able in his work, was much hampered by financial
depression. Still, no less than one hundred and sixty-
three , ordinances were added to the local statute-
book in the six years, though only a few of these
were of first-class importance, and two of them— a
Mnhammadan (Polygamous) Marriage Registration Act,
and the Buddhist Temporalities Measure— Ayere deci-
dedly backward steps in their conception and carry-
ing out ; but the great acts and works of this Gov-
ernor are found in his persistent advocacy of Rail-
way extension into Uva ; hig guaranteeing the Oriental
Bank notes and so preventing a financial crisis,
and his estatalishment of a Government note issue
which is every year taecoming a greater financial
success, now giving an income of over R200,000 a year.
Quite as noteworthy was Sir Arthur Gordon's Ad-
ministration for an unprecedented expenditure on
Irrigation Works, and liberal votes for roads (two
hundred and sixty-one miles opened), bridges, hospitals,
public instruction, and for railway extension in the
lowcountry along the sea-side to Bentota. The province
of Uva was created out of the Central Province in
1886, and in 1889 Sabaragamua was separated from
the Western and (rather unwisely) made a new province.
The Colombo Breakwater, on Sir John Coode's ad-
mirable design, was completed, and the Harbour has
since been fully utilised as the great steamer-calling
and coaling port of the East.
A failure appertaining to Sir Arthur Gordon was in
not promoting and cementing that good feeling be-
* Making the salary of the Governor of Ceylon K80,000 per annum.
Rather a contrast to that of the Dutch Governors, which was £30 per
month (besides rations and allowances), but then they were expected
to make a fortune in other, not to say corrupt and secret, ways 1
§6 Legislative and General improvements.
tween the governing and governed classes, and
-especially between the different races and ranks,
embraced in the very varied community of Ceylon,
which Sir William Gregory, above all his predecessors,
was successful in fostering. In the time of the latter
Governor, Europeans, Burghers (European descend-
ants), and natives, co-operated more cordially, and
supported the Government more trustfully, than at
any period before or since. His successor (Sir James
Longden) was too antiquated and sleepy in his ideas to
promote this desirable state of feeling, or any other
movement beyond the bounds of red-tape official
routine ; while Governor Gordon, by his favour of
ceremonial supported by high-caste natives and by
ill-judged special patronage of Buddhist priests at his
levees, etc., created distrust, and undid much of the
good effected during 1872-77. A frank, genial, straight-
forward administrator, free of all official prejudice
or predilection for outward ("caste") show, recognising
merit wherever it is to be found, and good work for
the benefit of the body-politic, no matter by whom
promoted, has nowhere a more encouraging or fruit-
ful field to work in than Ceylon, and this is why,
as has often been said, a governor, straight from
"the free air of the British House of Commons,"
generally proves a bright success, socially if not
administratively, in this first and most important of
Crown Colonies. It may not be known to people
in England, interested in our tropical dependencies,
how much evil cliques— official and otherwise— pro-
moted to some extent by "club" life, are working,
and are likely still further to work, in India and
Ceylon. The Englishman carries his "club" with
him— it has been said— wherever he goes, and has the
undoubted right to do so; but it is a question whether
in Crown dependencies, "public servants," not exclud-
ing the King's Representative, drawing their salaries
and pensions from taxes paid by the people at large,
have the right to patronise clubs which practically
Ceylon in 1903. - 37
exclude His Majesty's native-born subjects^ without
exception, no matter what their merit or degree ;*
and still more whether occult influences should dic-
tate (through aide-de-camps and private secretaries)
who are to be honoured, if not received at "Queen's
House." It was to the credit of Sir William Gregory
that he never allowed himself to be restricted by the
sneers of would-be colonial "society" dictators, but
sought out and marked by his attentions merit and
good work, wherever he found them. In this way
Sinhalese, Tamils, and Burghers (and not merely a few
"high caste" families favoured by narrow-minded
officials) found their industry and integrity noticed
by the Governor, who again had at his table, as
honoured guests, the heads and chief workers in the
various Missions and principal Educational Institutions,
whether Christian or secular, Hindu or Buddhist,
showing his personal interest in every thing or per-
son calculated to advance the colony and people
committed to his care by Her Most Gracious Majesty
the Queen. This was following the example of such
Governors as Sir Robert Brownrigg, Sir B- Wilmot
Horton and Sir Stewart Mackenzie in earlier years.
Sir Arthur Gordon's Administration was marked
by one very notable event in the Queen's Jubilee, which
was fittingly observed with due ceremonial in June 1887
(as fully related in the 1893 edition of this book). The
death, early in 1889, of Lady Gordon, universally
esteemed as she was, excited deep regret in the Colony.
The "Gordon Gardens^" inaugurated in the Fort Ward,
Colombo, will keep alive the memory of Sir Arthur and
Lady Hamilton Gordon in Ceylon for many years to
come.
Sir Arthur Elibank Havelock, K.O.M.G., succeeded
to the Government of Ceylon in May 1890, and while
» This was written in 1887, and since then (1891-92) some
of the chief authorities in India have expressed views similar
to the above in respect of public servants and institutions
which ar3 regulated by distinctions of race.
38 Legislative and General Improvements.
continuing the active beneficial policy of his predecessor
in respect of Railway extension and other desirable
public works His Excellency, after a few months'
experience, chose to recommend the abolition of the
" Paddy " rent or tax, the 6nly branch of Land Revenue
in the island. Unfortunately, this levyj on rice cultiva-
tion was removed without touching the corresponding
Customs duty on imported rice, so ebtablishing Protec-
tion in its worst form. This abolition was given effect
to by Lord Knutsford as Secretary of State, in
opposition to the opinion of nearly the whole Civil
Service and four previous Governors of Ceylon, the last
of whom, Sir Arthur Gordon, had prepared the way for
the removal of all the obnoxious features of the Paddy
tax without destroying the just principle of an internal
rice levy balancing the Customs duty. So that since
1892, a large proportion— from three-eighths to one-half—
of the population have been eating rice free of tax,
while the majority including the estate coolies, some of
the poorest of our public in the towns and villages, pay
10 per cent ad valorem ; and this arrangement was
approved of by the Cobden Club.
In 1891 it was estimated there were from 1,500 to
2,000 lepers in Ceylon; but Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson's
" bad fish" theory is not generally accepted by local
medical men. The sanction of Railway Extension to
Bandarawela was received this year. The Colony
made a great show in the Chicago Universal Exhi-
bition in 1892. The death in London of Sir Wm.
Gregory, as also in 1893 of Sir C. P. Layard, senr.,
were greatly regretted. The evil of the Government
system of licensing opium and bhang shops led to a
memorable public meeting supported by representa-
tives of all races in October 1893, eventuating in the
most numerously signed Memorial ever seen in Ceylon,
28,000 persons all writing their own names calling
for restrictions. Afterwards in 1897, Sir West Ridge-
way granted a Commission of Enquiry, and this led
to legislation of a repressive character— forbidding
Ceylon in 1903. ' 39
the importation of bhang and doubling the customs
duty on opium, but still maintaining licensed opium
shops, through which local consumption rapidly-
increased ; and it became evident that the same re-
gulations as in England should apply in Ceylon for
a people who never used opium until within the past
50 years of British rule. The Railway Extension to
Kurunegala was opened on 14th February, and of the
Bandarawela section on Brd September, 1894. Active
operations towards the construction of Northern
Breakwaters for Colombo Harbour were begun this
season. Early in 1895 the foundation was laid of the
" Lady Havelock Hospital for Women" and the
opening of the Victoria Bridge over the Kelani river
in May and the occupation of the new General Post
and Telegraph Office in August, were two notable
events in 1895. Sir Arthur Havelock's term of Govern-
ment ceased in Septembei? and Sir J. West Ridgeway
arrived in the succeeding February.
The Administration of 1896-1903 is the subject of a
special closing chapter ; but we may mention a few of
the principal events here. Lady Ridgeway opened the
new Hospital for Women on October 12th, 1896, and the
foundation of a Kandy Girls' Industrial School and
Home was laid in November, while the " Ridgeway
Golf Links" in Colombo were inaugurated in Dec.
The Bubonic Plague in Bombay occupied much
attention and a Commission was appointed early in
1897. Mr. Mansergh, ex-President of the Institute of
C. B., arrived in January to report on Colombo
Drainage; the first volume of Mr. Justice Laurie's
" Gazetteer of the Central Province" appeared ; and
the construction of a Graving Dock at Colombo to
cost £318,000— divided between Ceylon and the Ad-
miralty—was settled. In April a paper by Mr, J.
Ferguson on a proposed Railway to connect India
and Ceylon was read before the London Chamber of
Commerce ; and it was afterwards read before the
Imperial Institute in April 1898, The despatch of a^
40 Legislative and General Improvemets.
Address to the Queen-Empress and the celebration
of the Diamond Jubilee occupied much attention in
June. The establishment of two Russi an Fir ms in
Colombo in March 1898, opened a new era inthe
trade in Ceylon tea for Russia. A Commission to
consider an Agricultural Department for Ceylon
resulted in a Mycologist, Entomologist, advising
Analytical Chemist, and Experimental Station Curator
being added to the Royal Botanic Gardens' Staff,
Peradeniya, and besides useful Circulars, the publica-
tion of quarterly " Annals of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Peradeniya," was commenced. Later on a
Mineralogist or Geologist was appointed and Dr.
Willey, P.R.S., becoming Director of the Colombo
Museum (in May 1902) soon began the issue of a
quarterly entitled "Spolia Zeylanica." The cultivation
of India-rubber secured much attention from 1899
onwards. The Centenary of the Church Mission was
celebrated in April. Preparation for the Ceylon Court
at the Paris Exhibition and the War in South Africa
occupied attention. A Lecture on " Ceylon" before
the Royal Colonial Institute and on " Old Colombo''
before the Society of Arts, both in November,
by Mr. J. Ferguson, attracted attention. The
first Ceylon Contingent was despatched to South
Africa for the War, February 1st, 1900. The opening
of the Planters' Victoria Commemoration Build-
ings, including "Ferguson Memorial Hall" and
" George Wall Library and Tower," took place on
February 17th. Boer prisoners, eventually number-
ing close on 6,000, arrive at Diyatalawa from August
onwards. The first public sale of Green Tea in
Colombo took place in October ; and the Ceylon
Relief Fund for the Indian Famine closed at about
R210,000. Memorial services in connection with the
death of the Queen-Empress took place in January-
February 1901; while the visit of the Prince and
Princess of Wales in April excited much enthusiasm.
Appointment of a Fourth Judge to the Supreme Court
was sanctioned in August. Last of the Bgyptiaa
LANDING JETTY AT POINT-DE-GAI.LB
KANDY— LAKE AND TOWN.
I HE PAVITJON" (governor's RESIDENCE) KANDY.
Ceylon in 1903. 41
Exiles was pardoned and Arabi Pasha and family
allowed to return to Egypt, September 1901. The gold
sovereign was declared legal tender in Ceylon at R15 in
< )ctober ; and a Commission appointed to enquire into
"Incidence of Taxation" in November. In January 1902,
arrived Professor Herdman, p.r.s., invited by Governor
Ridgeway, to investigate our Pearl-oyster fisheries
and advise as to conservation and culture of the
oysters. Governor Ridgeway opened the first section
of the Jaffna Railway on March 10th, and on 17th
presided at a Public Meeting in the Covmcil Chamber to
promote an Bye Hospital and Blind Asylum as memo-
rials to Queen Victoria.. A second Contingent of 100 in-
fantry for South Africa left April 22nd. Dr. Coplestonj
Bishop of Colombo, was transferred to Calcutta as
Metropolitan Bishop in May 1902, and his brother, the
Rev. E. A. Copleston, was consecrated as his successor
in the JBishopric of Colombo, 30th August 1903. The
first section of the Kelani Valley, and second section of
Jaffna Railway were opened on September 15th, 1902. An
extension by the Secretary of State of the term of office
of Sir West Ridgeway till October 1903 gave general
satisfaction. On 8th May, 1903, a meeting of the
Legislative Council took place for the first time in
the Pavilion, Kandy : and in March the Governor
accompanied by his Executive and Legislative Coun-
cillors and staff together with Lord Crewe and
several visitors, inspected the Pearl Fishery in
progress at Madawachchi, and then went on to
Paumben and Tataparai Cooly Immigration Dep6ts.
Some important public mattei-s were dealt with in the
Legislative Council in June and July and it was
determined to send an invitation to the British Asso-
ciation to visit Colombo in 1907 or 1908. The
foundation-stone of the Victoria Memorial Eye Hos-
pital was laid by Lady Ridgeway (who had initiated
the Memorial) on 6th August. The railway to Nuwara
Bliya was opened for goods in August and for pas-
sengers a little later. The railway to Yatiyantota
P
42
Legislative and General Improvements.
was opened by the Governor in September. In an
elaborate state document Sir West Ridgeway reviewed
his Administration in opening the Legislative Council
in October ; and in November he gave up the reins
of Government and returned to Europe. Handsome
farewell souvenirs were presented to Lady Ridge-
way by the ladies of the Oeylonese and European
communities.
It is interesting to compare the Revenue, Expen-
diture, Public Debt incurred, and Sale of Crown Lands
under successive governors. The periods of activity
and energetic administration were those of Governors
Ward, Robinson, Gregory, and Gordon. The returns
are as follows : —
Revenue and Debt foe Successive
Governors.
1850-54 Sir G. Anderson
1855 60 Sir H. Ward
1861-65 Sir C. MacCarthy
1866-71 Sir H. Robinson
1872-76 Sir W. Gregory
1877-82 Sir J. Longden
1883-89 Sir A. Gordon
1890-95 Sir A. E. Havelock
1896-03 Sir W. Ridgeway
Annual Revenue.
Public Debt,
Minimum.
Maximum.
Imposed.
&
£
408,000
429,000
—
476,000
767,000
—
752,000
978,000
£801,000
925,000
1,124,000
250,000
1,174,000
1,467,000
6(10,000
1,216,000
1.702,000
1,250,000
1,240,000
1,540,000
750,000
1,529,988
2,098,281
1,750,000
2,197,457
2,843,516
1,400,000
Here more particularly is the total amount of
revenue received within each administration :—
Total Revenue Collected by Successive
Governors.
R.
Sir Henry Ward (1854-60) .. ... ... 30,600,000
Sir Hercules Robinson (1865-71) ... ... 60,400,000
Sir Wm. Gregory (1872-77) ... 80.750,000
Sir Jas. Longden (1878-83) ... ... ... 85,619,310
Sir Arthur Gordon (1884-89) .. ... ... 79,668,991
Sir A- B. Havelock (1890-95) ... ... 127,449,505
Sir .J. W. Ridgeway (1896-1903) 206,275,475
Ceylon in 1903. 43
Here, finally, is how the alienation of Crown Lands,
under successive Governors, compares : —
Acres £ Average.
Per Acre.
Governor Sir H. Ward in six years, 1855
to 1860, sold ... ... ... 111,596 for 199,884 115 9i
Governor Sir Charles MaoCarthy and
General O'Brien in five years, 1861 to
1865, sold ... ... ... 156,893 for 3C7,117 119 If
Governor Sir Hercules Eobinson in six
years, 1866 to 1871, sold ... ... 226,926 for 341,562 110 1
Governor Rt. Hon. Sir W. H. Gregory
in six years, 1872 to 1877 sold ... 269,905 for 612,036 2 5 4
Governor Sir Jas. Longden in six years,
1878 to 1883 sold, ... ... 148,836 for 375,395 2 10 SJ
Governor Sir Arthur Gordon in 1884-89,
sold .. ... ... ... 114,828 for 217,911 118
Governor Sir A.E. Havelock in six years,
1890-5 sold ... . . ... 87,327 for 231,041 2 12 11
Governor Sir J. West Kidgeway in seven
years, 1896-1902 sold ... .. 185,313 for 408,526 2 4 1
Total : acres £1,301,624 £2,693,832 £2 6i
CHAPTER V.
NATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND MANUFACTURING INTERESTS.
Paddy (Rice) Cultivation— Ciniiiimon— Coconut, Pnlmyra, Kitul,
Arecanut, and otlier Palms— Essential Oils— Tobacco— Cotton-
Sugarcane— Other Fruit-trees and Vegetables — Natural Pasture
— Local Manufactures.
WHETHER or not Oeyloii was in ancient times the
granary of South-Eastern Asia, certain it is
that long before the Portuguese or Dutch, not to
speak of the British, era, that condition had lapsed,
and so far from the island having a surplus of food
produ.cts, the British, like their European predecessors,
had to import a certain quantity of rice from South-
ern India to feed their troops a.nd the population of
the capital and other chief towns.* There can be no
doubt as to the large quantity of rice which could
be grown around the network of tanks in the north
and east, which have been lying for centuries broken
and unused in the midst of unoccupied territory,
and are noAV being gradually restored with a Railway,
shortly to be opened from Kurunegala to Jaffna,
under the enlightened policy of Sir West Ridgeway,
as sanctioned by Mr. Chamberlain.
Driven from the northern plains by the conquer-
ing Tamils, the Sinhalese, taking refuge in the moun-
tain zone more to the south and west, found a
country in many respects less suited for rice than
for fruit and root culture ; but yet, under British
* Old Sinhalese records show that rice was imported into Ceylon
from the Coroniandel Coast in the second century before Christ.
Ceylon in 1903. 45
as under native rule, rice or paddy-growing continues
to be the one most general and favourite occupation
of the Sinhalese people, as indeed it is of the Ceylon
Tamils in the north and east of the island. Agri-
culture, in their opinion, is the most honourable of
callings ; and although in many districts fruit and root-
that is, garden— culture would prove more profitable,
yet the paddy field is more generally popular.
Nowhere in Ceylon are there tracts of alluvial
lands so extensive as those which mark the banks
and deltas of rivers in India, and the average return
of rice per acre in Ceylon, under the most favourable
circumstances, is considerably below the Indian
average. It was the opinion of one of the most
experienced of Ceylon civil servants— Sir Charles P.
Layard, who served in the island from 1829 to 1879—
that the " cultivation of paddy is now the least
profitable pursuit to which a native can apply him-
self ; it is persevered in from habit, and because
the value of time and labour never enters into his
calculations." This view has since been contested
(inl885) by an experienced revenue officer, Mr. E. Elliott,
who shows that rice cultivation is fairly profitable ;
but his calculations refer chiefly to select districts,
rather than to the island generally. In some parts
of the Western, in the Matara division of the South-
ern, and in the Batticaloa district of the Eastern
provinces, profitable rice fields may be the rule, and
large crops are also grown under irrigation in the
North-Central Province ; but an experiment made under
European auspices during recent years near Tangalla
in the South has not been a success. On the principle,
therefore, of buying in the cheapest and selling in the
dearest market, it would appear that many of the
rice cultivators in Ceylon could more profitably turn
their attention to plantation and garden products,
such as coconuts, areca or betel-nuts, pepper, cinnamon,
nutmeg, cacao, tea, cardamoms, and fruits of all
tropical kinds (putting tea on one side for the present)
46 Native Agricultural & Manufacturing Interest.
then, selling the produce to' advantage, they could
buy rice from southern and northern India and
Burmah more cheaply than they can produce it. But it
is impossible, even if it were politic — which we doubt— to
revolutionise the habits of a very conservative people
in this way ; and, therefore, so soon as the sale of forest
land to planters, and the introduction of capital for
the planting enterprise, put the Government in posses-
sion of surplus revenue, Sir Henry Ward acted wisely
in turning his attention to the restoration and repair
of such irrigation works ' in the neighbourhood of
population as he felt would at once be vitilised for
the increased production of grain. In this way he
changed a large extent of waste land into an expanse
of perennial rice culture, for the benefit of the industri-
ous Mohammedans and Hindus of the Batticaloa district
in the Eastern Province. Similarly, lie spent large
sums for the benefit of the Sinhalese i*ice cultivators
in the southern districts.
Sir Hercules Robinson conceived a statesmanlike
law, by which expenditxxre on irrigation works, chiefly
village tanks, on terms far more liberal to the people
than any offered in India, formed a part of the annual
budget. Most cordially was this policy supported by
his successor. Sir William Gregory, who, moreover,
entered on an undertaking of greater magnitude than
any previously recorded in British times : namely,
the formation of a new province around the ancient
capital of Ceylon, and the restoration of tanks and
completion of roads and bridges within its bounds,
sufficient to give the sparse Sinhalese population every
advantage in making a start in the race of prosperity.
At a considerable expenditure, spread over four or
five years, this was accomplished, and a population of
of some 60,000 Sinhalese and Tamils were thereby more
directly benefited than they had been by any of their
rulers, native or European, for several centuries back.
Curiously enough, not the Sinhalese but the Tamils—
who have been called " the Scotchmen of the East,"
Ceylon in 1903. 47
from their enterprise in migrating and colonising
—have been taking chief advantage of tlie expen-
diture in this north-central region— an expenditure con-
tinued by Governor Longden, and to a still more marked
degree by Governor Gordon, who entered on very large
and important works in restoring the Kalawewa and
Yodi-ela Irrigation tanks and channels. The formation
of a permanent Irrigation Board for the colony, with a
settled income in a proportion of the land revenue, was
another step of the last mentioned governor in the
interests of rice culture — commendable so long as the
Paddy tax was continued, but quite indefensible in the
form adopted by Governor Havelock, who having no land
revenue, takes his Irrigation votes out of the Customs
duty paid chiefly by townspeople and plantation coolies-
More justifiable is the course adopted by Sir West
Ridgeway, by order of Mr. Chamberlain, of spending by
degrees RoOO,000 on Irrigation Tanks, out of a public
loan partly to be covered by surplus revenue. The
amount expended on Irrigation Works during the thirty-
six years, 1867 to 1903, the end of Sir West Ridgeway's
term of government, is nearly as follows : —
Spent on Irrigation Works by Govbenoes.
Sir H. Bobinson
1867-71
R630,921
Sir W. Gregory
1872 77
E 1,650,944
Sir J. Longden
li^78-83
B 1,379,947
Sir A. Gordon
1884-90
E3,200,000
Sir A. Havelock
1891-9.5
E2,(I12,283
Sir West Ridgeway
1896-1903
R4,162,990
Total in 36 years R13,037,085
Before its abolition, Governor Gordon expended all the
net proceeds of the Paddy rent or tax on Irrigation
Works. Special encouragement to other branches of
agriculture in certain districts would do much good;
and this is what Governor Ridgeway has aimed at, as
may be seen further on. Revenue officers should est-
ablish annual district Agricultural Shows for produce
and stock, with suitable prizes.
The effect of the liberal policy above described, of
successive governors, from Sir Henry Ward on to Sir
48 Native Agricultural & Manufacturing Interest.
West Ridgeway, has undoubtedly been to bring a
far larger area under grain cultivation now than was
the case at the beginning of the century, but it is impos-
sible, in the absence of a cadastral survey, to give
the exact extent. This is, however, now being carried
out, thanks to our present Governor's enlightened
policy.
It is estimated that there are now 620,000 acres
under rice or paddy, and about 120,000 under dry grain,
Indian corn, and other cereals. And the striking fact
is that, so far from the import of grain decreasing as
the local production has extended, the reverse has been
the case. In this, however, is seen the influence of the
expanding planting enterprise: sixty years ago, when
coffee planting wa.s just beginning in Ceylon, the total
quantity of grain required from India was an annual
import of 650,000 bushels ; now, it is as high as between
nine and ten million bushels. The import in 1877,
the year of the Madras famine, when Ceylon planters
had to provide for 170,000 fugitives from Southern India,
besides their usual coolie labour force, amounted to
6,800,000 bushels ; but in 1900, with an increased popu-
lation, it was 9,600.000 bushels.
The disposal of the increasing local production
simultaneously with these imports is explained by the
rapidly increased population in the rural districts,
and the much larger quantity of food consumed in a
time of prosperity. In the early part of the century
the average Sinhalese countryman consumed, probably,
only half the quantity of rice (supplemented by fruit
and vegetables) which he is now able to afford. Our
calculation is that about two-fifths of the grain con-
stmed is locally produced against three-fifths im-
ported.*
Turning from the main staple of native agriculture to
garden produce, we have to note that, while the Dutch
• For further information see paper on " Food Supply of
Ceylon," by the author, in 'Ferguson's Ceylon Handbook and
Directory " and also papers on " Grain Taxation in Ceylon," quoted
by Sir William Gregory in despatches to Earl Carnarvon.
PEELING THE STICKS.
STRETCHING THE CINNAMON BARK.
CLKANING THE CINNAMON ON BOARDS.
CUTTING THE CINNAMON INTO LENGTHS.
^^:^::^
^;:t?r .-'teCS.^cjslS^
^»J^a^"'«s^>vV***«^
A CINNAMOX DRYIiXG GROUND.
CUTTING CIXXA.MOX HTIOKS.
TAMIL GRAS8-CUTTBB.
Ceylon, in 1903. 49
monopolies in cinnamon, pepper, etc., were probably-
worked at a loss to the Government, even with forced
labour at their command, the export of the cinnamon
spice was insignificant as compared with what it has
become under the free Britisli system. There can be
no doubt that Ceylon cinnamon is the finest in the world,
celebrated from the middle of the fourteenth century
according to authentic records, and one of the few
products of importance indigenous to the island. It
was known through Arab caravans to the Romans,
who paid in Rome the equivalent of £8 sterling per
pound for the fragrant spice. Ceylon (called by De
Barras the " mother of cinnamon" ) has, therefore,
svell earned the name " Cinnamon Isle," whatever
may be said of its " spicy breezes," a term origin-
ally applied by Bishop Heber, in his well-known hymn,
to Java rather than to Ceylon. The maximum export,
attained by the Dutch was in 1738, when 600,000 lb.,
valued at from 8s. id. to 17s. 8cZ. per lb., was sent to
India, Persia, and Europe from Ceylon. In the com-
mercial season, 1881-82, Ceylon sent into the markets
of the world, almost entirely through London, as
much as 1,600,000 lb. of cinnamon quill bark, and nearly
400,000 lb. of chips, the finest bark being purchasable
at the London sales for from 2s. Qd. to 3s. per lb.;
while in season 1885-86 the export was 1,630,000 lb. quill
and 550,000 lb. of chips, and the price had fallen almost
50 per cent, in six years. In 1902, the export of cinna-
mon was as high as 2,555,313 lb. in bales and 1,763,679 lbs.
in chips, but the London price is so low as to leave
only a small margin for the cultivator. The above
quantity is yielded by an area of about 45,000 acres,
cultivated entirely, and almost entirely owned, by
the people of Ceylon.
■ Of far greater importance now to the people, as
well as to the export trade of the island, is its
I'alm cultivation, which has enormously extended since
the time of the Dutch, especially in the maritime
50 Native Agricultural & Manufacturing Interests.
districts. European capital has done much in turn-
ing waste land into coconut plantations ; bvit there is,
also, no more favourite mode of investment for the
native mercantile, trading, and industrial classes of
the people (Sinhalese and Tamils), who have greatly-
increased in wealth during the past sixty years,
than in gardens and estates of coconats, arecas,
palmyras, and other palms and fruit trees. Within
the Dutch and British periods a great portion of the
coastline of Oeylon (on the west, south, and east),
for a breadth varying from a quarter of a mile to
several miles, and extending to a leiigth of 150 miles,
has been planted with coconut palms. Afterwards
in British times, a great extension of planting took
place on the coast.of the North- Western Province, and
in the nothern and eastern coast districts. Then, thirty
to forty years ago, attention in Colombo was turned to
inland districts, such as the delta of the Maha-oya
(river), and these have been planted with coconuts as
far as thirty to forty miles from the coast. More
recently, a great deal of coconut cultivation has taken
place from Madampe and Chilaw to Puttalam on the
north-west, and around Anuradhapura in the North-
Gentral Province, where there are now several hundreds
of thousands of palms planted, nearly half of them
in bearing, thanks very much to Mr. levers' energetic
encouragement of native agriculture in all forms ;
while Sir West Ridgeway's term is distinguished by
the opening of a quite new coconut district at Tirukovil
in south Batticaloa where 5,000 acres have been planted.
In the Jaffna peninsula, the natives have chiefly planted
the equally useful palmyra. One or two palms, to-
gether with a little rice and a piece of cotton cloth, are
capable supplying most of the wants of a family.
It has been commonly remarked that the uses of the
coconut palm * are as numerous as the days of the
year. Percival, early in this century, relates that a small
• See "All about the Coconut Palm," published by A. M. & J,
Ferguson, Colombo^
COCONUT AND ABECA PALMS.
Ceylon in 1903. 5l
ship from the Maldive Islands arrivedat Galle which was
entirely built, rigged, provisioned, and laden with the
produce of the coco-palm.* Food, drink, domestic
utensils, materials for building and thatching, wine,
sugar, and oil are amongst the many gifts to man
of these munificent trees. Unlike the other trade
staples (tea, cacao, rubber, cinchona bark, and cinnamon)
by far the largest proportion of the products of the
cocount palm — nuts, oil, arrack (intoxicating spirit),
leaves for thatch, fences, mats and baskets, timber,
etc.— are locally utilised.
Arrack (in varying quantities, according the de-
mand in the Madras Presidency) is exported, but the
export is not to be compared with the large local
consumption, wliich unfortunately increases with the
increasing wealth of the people. The British are
blamed for regulating and protecting the arrack, and
liquor traflflc, but the consumption was pretty general
before the British came to Ceylon. It is evident,
though, that here taverns have been too freely
established— and still worse, under tlie "renting"
system, illicit selling of arrack, winked at— and the
Ceylon authorities should take a leaf out of the
Dutch policy in Java, where the consumption of in-
toxicating liquors among natives is very rigidly
restricted. Our calculation is that 9 to 10 millions of
rupees are spent by the people of Ceylon on intoxicants,
against not much more than a fifth of this amount
devoted to education by the people, missions, and
the Government. Legislation to place the sale of such
drugs as opium under the same restrictions as in
England, is urgently required in Ceylon. A good many
millions of coconuts are annually exported, but the
chief trade is in coir fibre from the husk, and still
* The food value of the coconut is not generally understood :
some years back the crew of a wrecked vessel cast away on a
South Sea Island subsisted for several months on no other food
than coconuts and broiled flsb, and added to their weight m
that time.
52 Native Agricultural & Manufdcturitig Interests.
iiioi'd in the oil expressed from the kernel of the
nutj used in Europe as a lubricator, for soap-making,
and dressing cloths, and (partially) for candle-making
and lighting purposes : African palm oil and petroleum
are its great rivals. The maximum value of the
products of coconut palm exported may be taken at
about the following figures : oil, £500,000 ; coir, £15,
000 ; arrack, £2,000 ; " copra " (the dried kernel sent
to Europe to be expressed), £260,000; "poonac" (the
refuse of the oil, or oil-cake, used for cattle food),
£50,000 ; nuts, £50,000 ; miscellaneous products, £5,000 ;
making a total of over £1,000,000 ; while the value of
produce locally consumed must be nearly one and a
half million sterling per annum, and the market value
of the area covered with coconuts rather over than
under fifteen millions sterling. The local vise of coco-
nuts is sure to increase with railway extension and
the development of the interior of the island. There
are perhaps fifty millions of coconut palms cultivated
in Ceylon, covering about 650,000 acres, all but about
100,000 acres being owned by natives themselves. The
annual yield of nuts cannot be much under 1,000
millions, allowing for trees devoted to " arrack," the
sap being collected to ferment into the spirit rather
than allowed to form fruit. The largest oil-expressing
mills in the world .are in Colombo with splendid
hydraulic presses. There are nearly 2,000 native oil-
crushers driven by bullocks, apart from steam establish,
ments in Colombo, Negombo, etc., owned by natives
as well as Europeans, while the preparation of the
fibre affords occupation to a large number of the people.
A new industry of recent years is desiccating coconut
for confectionery purposes, and 50 million nuts are now
annually used in about a dozen mills to prepare 16
millions lb. of the desiccated product exported to Europe,
America, Australia, etc.
After the coconut tvee,thex>Silmyra.(Borassusfldbelli-
formis) has been regarded as the richest plant in the
Ceylon in 1903. 53
East. Both i-equire from eight to twelve years to come
into bearing, but they are supposed to live from 150 to
800 years.* By many the palmyra is thought a richer
tree than the coconut, and it is especially adapted to the
drier regions of the north and east of the island. It is
estimated there are eight millions of palmyras owned
by the people in the Jaffna peninsula, the edible pro-
ducts of which supply one-fourth of the food of
300,000 inhabitants. The Tamil poets describe 800
different purposes to which the palmyra can be
applied, and their proverb says " it lives for a lac t
of years after planting, and lasts for a lac of years
when felled." The timber is prized for house-building
purposes, especially for rafters, being hard and dur-
able. Besides there being a large local consumption,
as much as £8,000 worth is sometimes annually ex-
ported from Ceylon ; while of jaggery sugar about
20,000 cwt. are made and there is also a fibre got
from this palm, the cultilvation of which covers
40,000 acres, yielding perhaps over a hundred millions
of nuts annually ; this nut is much smaller than the
coconut. The cultivation of the palmyra by the
natives or by prison labour under Government auspices
on the sandy wastes in the north, north-west, and
south-east of the island has been strongly advocated ;
it is very easy and inexpensive; an outlay of fourteen
rupees per acre for ten years would be sufficient, and
then the jaggery would begin to yield returns. A
beginning has been made in the Hambantota district
and the North-Central Province.
The kitul or jaggery palm (Caryota tirens), known
also as the bastard sago, is another very valuable
tree common in Ceylon. Jaggery sugar and toddy
wine are prepared from the sap, the best trees yield-
ing 100 pints of sap in twenty-four hoiirs. Sago is
manufactured from the pith, and fibre from the
* See William Ferguson's Monograph on " The Palmyra Palm,"
t A lac or lakh equals X00,000.
54 Native Agricultwrat & Manufacturing Interests.
leaves for fishing-lines and bow-strings, the fibre from
the leaf-stalks being made into rope for tying wild
elephants. Of the fibre, from £3,000 to £7,000 value
is exported annually ; of the jaggery sugar, £2,000
worth. The quantity used in the country is very
great. This palm is found round every Kandyan's
hut; indeed it has been said by Emerson Tennent
that a single tree in Ambagamuwa district afforded
the support of a Kandyan, his wife, and children.
The area covered is, perhaps, equal to 30,000 acres.
The trunk timber is used for rafters, being hard and
durable.
The cultivation of the Areca catechu (which is
compared to "an arrow shot from heaven" by the
Hindu poets) was always one of the chief sources of
the Ceylon trade in ante-British times. In the Portu-
guese era great quantities of the nuts were exported,
and these formed this chief medium of exchange for
the proportion of grain which the natives of Ceyloa
have for centuries drawn from Southern India. The
Dutch esteemed the areca-nut a very great source of
revenue, and they made an exclusive trade of it.-
They exported yearly about 35,000 cwt. About the
same quantity was annually shipped between 1806 and
1813. Twenty years as many as 150,000 cwt. of nuts
were shipped in one year; but latterly 100,000 cwt.
is the maximum. The export is almost entirely to
Southern India. An areca-nut tree requires six years
to come into full bearing. It grows all over the low-
country and in the hills up to an elevation above
sea-level of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. Some coffee
estate proprietors around Kandy in the early days
planted areca-nuts along their boundaries, thereby
forming a capital division line, and the cultivation has
anew attracted the attention of colonists in recent
years, especially in the Matale and Udagama districts.
The chief areca gardens owned by natives are, however,
to be found in the Kegalla district. The home consump-
Ceylon in 1903. 55
tion is very large, and the area covered by the palm
must be equal to 70,000 acres. The annual value of the
exports of areca-nut produce is from £60,000 to £100,000.
There are numerous other palms, more especially
the magnificent talipot (Corypha umbraculifera), which
flowers once (a grand crown of cream-coloured, wheat-
like blossom twenty feet high) after sixty or eighty
years, and then dies, and which is freely used for native
huts, umbrellas, books, etc. ; the heart also being, like
that of the sago palm, good for human food.
The bread-fruit tree, the jak, orange, and mango, as
well as gardens of plantains and pine-apples, melons,
guavas, papaws, etc., might be mentioned among pro-
ducts cultivated and of great use to the people of Ceylon ,
in fact, there is scarcely a native land-owner or cultivator
in the country who does nob possess a garden of palms or
other fruit trees, besides paddy fields. The total area
cultivated with palms and fruit trees cannot be less than
from 1,000,000 to 1,100,000 acres (in addition to 100,000
acres under garden vegetables, yams, sweet and ordinary
potatoes, roots, cassava, etc.) ; and although by far the
major portion, perhaps four-fifths, of the produce is con-
sumed by the people, yet the annual value of the export
trade in its various forms, from this source, averages
well over a million sterling, against less than £90,000 at
the beginning of the century. Among food products
recently added to the list of easily grown fruits and
vegetables, are the tree-tomato, chocho, a parsnip, and a
small yam, all introduced from the West Indies, and
already very popular with the Sinhalese, especially of
the Uva Province. Mr. Nock, of the Hakgala Gardens,
has also introduced several new English varieties of
potatoes and other vegetables. Agricultural Schools
and the Experimental Station— all established by Sir
West Ridgeway— are sure to benefit the native horti-
culture and agriculture.
Besides coconvit oil, there is an export of essential
oils expressed from citronella and lemon-grass, froni
56 Native Agricultural & Manufacturing Interests,
ciunamon and cinnamon leaf, which, valued at £25,000 to
£30,000, is of some importance to a section of the
community.
Of more importance to the people is their tobacco, of
which about 25,000 acres are cultivated, the greater part
of the crop being consumed locally, though as much as
50,000 cwt. of unmanufactured leaf, valued at £150,000,
have been exported to India, in one year. Of late years
European planters have given some attention to the
cultivation ' of tobacco, as well as cotton, but without
much success.
H The natives have always groAvn a little cotton in
/certain districts, and at one time a good deal of
llBotton cloth was manufactured at Batticaloa,
/but the industry has almost entirely ceased, being
(driven out by the cheapness of Manchester goods.
The establishment of cotton mills at Colombo, and
the consequent local demand for the raw material,
gave an impetus for a time to the cutivation of the
plant, and a good deal was done by the late
Dr. Trimen and the District Agents of Government
to encourage the natives in cotton-growing 10 years
ago. Now (in 1903) the Government has begun experi-
ments in its gardens with special cotton seed, and
Mr. Willis, the present director, is hopeful of seeing
a successful industry follow along the Northern Railway.
A new industry which has sprung up of recent years,
however, is the collection of the short-stapled cotton
from the pods of the silk-cotton tree {Bombax Mala-
baricum), exported under the name of "Kapok'
(a Malay term) to Australia and Europe, to stuff chairs,
mattresses, etc. As much as 2,000 cwt., worth £3,000,
is expoi'ted of late years. A small quantity of this
tree cotton was annually exported from Ceylon so
a r back as the time of the Portuguese.
Sugar-cane is largely grown in native gardens for
use as a vegetable, the cane being sold iu the bazaars,
Ceylon m 1903 §?
and the pith eaten as the stalk of a cabbage would
be. At one time the eastern and southern districts
of the island were thought to be admirably adapted
for systematic sugar cultivation ; but after plantations
on an extensive scale had been opened by experienced
colonists and a large amount of capital sunk, it was
found that, while the cane grew luxuriantly, the moist
climate and soil did not permit of the sap crystallising
or yielding a sufficiency of crystallisable material
There is, however, still one plantation and manufactory
of sugar and molasses in European hands, near Galle.
Before leaving the branches of agriculture more
particulary in native hands, we may refer to the large
expanse of patana grass and natural pasturage, especi-
ally in the Uva and eastern districts, which is uti-
lised by the Sinhalese for their cattle, a certain
number of which supply the meat consumed in the
Central Province. By far the greater portion, how-
ever, of the beef and mutton required in the large
towns of the island is (like rice, flour, potatoes, and
other food requisites) imported in the shape of cattle
and sheep, to the value of £100,000, from India. In some
years the return has been over £140,000, but that was
chiefly through the demand for Indian bullocks for
draught purposes. There is no doubt scope for the
energy of the people of Ceylon to meet the local
demand for such food supplies, although the natural
pasturage is, as a rule, rather poor. But this difficulty
can be met by the cultivation of other grasses-
Guinea and Mauritius grass, which grow freely with
a little attention, are some of the best fodder grasses
in the world and are easily cultivated in Ceylon.
At high elevations, the "prairie grass" (of Australia)
is successfully grown. Stock-raising experiments along
the Northern Railway have been urged of late
and a dairy farm in Colombo and pony-breeding
establishment in the island of Delft are steps in
the right direction by Government.
H
58 Native Agricultural & Manufacturing Interests.
Native Manufactures.
Of Manufacturing Industries Ceylon has a very
poor show. The Sinhalese are good carpenters, and
supply furniture and carved work in abundance;
both they and the Tamils make good artisans; witness
the roll of workmen in the Government Public "Works
and Railway Factories of Colombo, and the Colombo
Ironworks, where ocean-going steamers are repaired,
as well as a great variety of machinery is turned
out, such as steam-engines, water-motors and cea, coffee,
and oil-preparing machines. The Sinhalese were dis-
tinguished as ironworkers in very ancient days ; they
knew nothing about firearms until the Portuguese
era, and yet they soon excelled European gunmakers
in the beautifully-worked muskets they turned out
for their king. Even now there are ironsmiths who
make muskets in the villages, within 20 miles of
Colombo, for some 35 to 40 rupees ( say £2 10s. ), which
can scarcely remunerate for the time given to them
in their primitive mode of working. They were early
workers in brass and glass, as their ancient ruins
show, and they must have known a little about
electricity, for it is related in the Mdhawansa
that King Sanghatissa, A. D. 234, placed a glass
pinnacle on the Ruanwelli Dagoba, to serve as a
protection against lightning. Of late years, the natives
have watched with interest the introduction ot rail-
ways, the electric telegraph, telephone, and light, as
well as bicycles and rickshaws, both of which are now
fi-eely made locally; and when suitable electric motors
are made available, and the numerous and splendid
streams and waterfalls of the hillcountry afford ready
force for utilisation, they will be still more delighted.
Any contrivance for saving human labour has a great
attraction to the Sinhalese Buddhists. Native cotton
spinners and weavers were at one time common, but
the industry is dying out ; very little tobacco is manu-
factured ; the making of mats, baskets, and coir-rope
Ceylon in 1903. 59
gives some employment. The masons of the country
are now chiefly Moormen ; though the Sinhalese
must have done much in the building of tanks and
other huge erections in ancient times. Fishing and
mining plumbago and search for precious gems, as
well as hunting, afford a good deal of employment.
Workers in ebony, tortoiseshell, and porcupine
quills, and in primitive pottery, are also numerous
among the Sinhalese.
CHAPTER VI.
THE ORIGIN AND RISE OP THE PLANTING INDUSTRY,
Coffee introduced in 1690, by the Dutcli— First systematically culti-
vated in 1740— Extensive development in 1837 — Hightest level
of Prosperity reached in 1868-70— Appearance of Leaf Disease in
1869— Its disastrous effects.
llfE now turn to the great planting industry which
T T began in coffee, and has been succeeded by tea (now
by far the most important staple), cacao, the chocolate
or cocoa plant, not to be confounded with the coconut
palm, rubber trees, cardamoms, cinchona, etc. : to these
the past rapid development and prosperity of the island
are mainly due, and on them its future position as a
leading colony must still chiefly depend.
It was long supposed, and Emerson Tennent adopted
the opinion, that the Arabs first introduced coffee into
India and Ceylon, and that the shrub was grown in the
latter before the arrival of the Portuguese or Dutch)
though the preparation of a beverage from its berries
was unknown to the Sinhalese, who were said only to
use the young coffee leaves for their curries, and the
delicate jasmine-like coffee flowers for ornamenting the
shrines of Buddha. But the late Dr. Trimen, F.R.S.,
the accomplished Director of the Ceylon Royal Botanic
Gardens, shewed conclusively that coffee was unknown
in tropical Asia until the Dutch introduced it in to Java
in 1690 : it was brought thence by them to Ceylon
probably about the same year.
The first attempt at systematic cultivation was made
by the Dutch in 1740, but, being confined to the low
9 I"
p a
& •«
O s
s — / ^
H S
J '2
CO
O s»
o I
1^ "CtjjC^"
--'- j«Si >^
I,
■^\i
THE CBARA RUBBER TREE.
A specimen of rapid gmvth in Ceylon (Siii.bnwallii Estate); 17 ft. Muh
10 in. in circwnferrrence, and only nine mmiths old.
Ceylon in 1903. 61
country, it did not succeed, and they seem never to have
exported more than 1,000 cwt. in a year. The Moormen
(Arab) traders and Sinhalese, having once discovered the
use of coffee, kept up the cultivation and trade; but
when the British took Ceylon, and up to 1812, the annual
export had never exceeded 3,000 cwt. So it continued
until the master-mind of Sir Edward Barnes designed
and opened road communication between the hill country
and the coast, and began to consider how the planting
industry could be extended, and the revenues of the
country developed. The Governor himself led the way,
in opening a coffee plantation near Kandy, in 1825, just
one year after the first systematic coffee estate was
formed by Mr. George Bird, near Gampola. These
examples were speedily followed, but still thej progress
was slow, for in 1837, twelve years after, the total export
of coffee did not exceed 30,000 cwt.
It is usvial to date the rise of the coffee planting
enterprise from this year, which witnessed a great rush
of investments, and the introduction of the West India
system of cultivation by Robert Boyd Tytler, usually
regarded as the "father" of Ceylon planters. An im-
mense extension of cultivation took place up to 1845, by
which time the trade had developed to an export of close
on 200,000 cwt. Then came a financial explosion in Great
Britain, which speedily extended its destructive influ-
ence to Ceylon, and led to a stoppage of the supplies
required to plant and cultivate young plantations.
Much land opened was abandoned, and for three years
the enterprise was paralysed ; but nevertheless the
export continued to increase, and by the time Governor
Sir Henry Ward appeared, in 1855. confidence had been
restored, and all was ready for the great impetus his
energetic administration was to give ; thus in twenty
years, the coffee enterprise had come to be regarded
as the backbone of the agricultural industry of the
island, and the mainstay of the revenue. The Sinhalese
soon followed the example set them by the European
62 The Origin & Rise of the Planting Industry.
planters, and so widely and rapidly developed their
coffee gardens throughout the hill-country, that between
1849 and 1869 from one-third to one-fourth of the total
quantity of coffee shipped year by year was "native
coffee."
The opening of the "Wilderness of the Peak'—
Dimbula, Dikoya, and Maskeliya — under the auspices of
Sir Hercules Robinson, led to the highest level of pro-
sperity being reached in 1868, 1869, and 1870, in each of
which years the exports slightly exceeded a million
cwt., of a value in European markets of not less than
four millions sterling, against 34,000 cwt., valued at
£120,000, exported in 1837 : a marvellous development in
thirty years of a tropical industry !
In 1869 the total extent cultivated on plantations
(apart from native gardens) was 176,000 acres, and the
return from the" land in full bearing averaged Over 5
cwt. an acre, a return which should, under favourable
circumstances, give a profit of from £7 to £10 an acre,
or from twenty to twenty-five per cent, on the capital
invested. Nothing could be brighter than the pro-
spects of the colony and its main enterprise in 1869 : Sir
Hercules Robinson's administration, then in mid-course,
was most beneficial ; the railway between Colombo and
Kandy, two years open, was a grand success ; and with
an unfailing supply of cheap free labour from Southern
India, remarkable facilities for transport, and a splendid
climate, the stability of the great coffee enterprise
seemed to be assured.
Its importance was fully realised through the statis-
tics of the actual extent cultivated which were for
the first time compiled, in full detail (by the author),
and although it began to be felt that the good land
at the most suitable altitude had all been taken up,,
and most of it brought under cultivation, yet no one
doubted the comparative permanency of such planta-
tions under a liberal, scientific system of cultivation,
Ceylon in 190a. 63
But in this same year there first appeared an enemy,
most insignificant in appearance, which in less than a
dozen years was fated to bring down the export of the
great staple to one-fifth, and a few years later to one-
twelfth, of its then dimensions, and that notwithstand-
ing a wide extension of the area under cultivation.
This enemy was a minute fungus on the leaf, new to
science, and named by the greatest fungoid authorities
Hemileia vastatrix, from its destructive powers, now
popularly known as " coffee-leaf disease.''
First appearing in one of the youngest districts,
at a remote corner, it rapidly spread all over the
coffee zone, being easily distinguished by the appear-
ance of bright orange spots on the leaves, which
subsequently wither and drop off. At first it was
treated as a matter of little moment by all but the
late Dr. Thwaites, P. R. S., the Director of the Ceylon
Botanic Gardens, and for several years it apparently
did little harm, crops being only slightly affected,
and any decrease being attributed to seasonal in
fluences rather than to a minute pest which, it was
supposed, only served to remind the planter of
the necessity of more liberal cultivation. Another
cause, moreover, served most efliectually to blind
the eyes of all concerned to the insidious progress
of the pest, and the gradual but sure falling-off
of crops, namely, a sudden and unprecedented rise in
the value of coffee in Europe and America— a rise
equivalent, in a few years, to more than fifty per
cent. This great access of value to his returns more
than sufficed to compensate the Ceylon planter for
any diminution of crop. It did more : it stimulated
the vast extension of cultivation already referred
to, into the largest remaining reserve, known as
the "Wilderness of the Peak, extending from Nuwara
Bliya thorough a succession of upland valleys in
Dimbula, Dikoya, and Maskeliya, to the Adam's
Peak range, an area of forest, covering some 400
square miles, having the most delightful climate in
64 The Or gin & Rise of the Planting industry.
the world, but until this time ( 1868-69) regarded as
too high and wet for coffee. This region had been
previously utilised as a hunting-ground by an occa-
sional party of Europeans or Kandyans ; the pilgrims'
paths to Adam's Peak, winding their way through
the dense jungle, and intercepted by a succession of
large unbridged rivers, were then the only lines of
communication. The^irush into this El Dorado had
begun in the time of Sir Hercules Robinson, who
energetically aided the development by extending
roads and bridging rivers, thus untilising some of
the large surpluses which the sale of the lands and the
increased customs and railway revenues afforded him.
A cycle of favourable— that is, comparatively dry-
seasons still further contributed to the success of the
young high districts, so that coifee (which had pre-
viously been supposed to find its suitable limit at
4,000 or 4,500 feet) was planted and cultivated pro
fitably up to 5,000 and even 5,500 feet. All through
Governor Gregory's administration the high price of
coffee and the active extension of the cultivated area
continued, the competition becoming so keen that
forest-land, which ten or twenty years before would
not fetch as much as £2 an acre, was sold as high as
£15, £20, and even £28 an acre. Even at this price
planters calculated on profitable results ; but there
can be no doubt that speculation, rather than the
teachings of experience, guided their calculations.
Between 1869 and 1879 over 400,000 acrfes of Crown
land were sold by the Ceylon Government, bringing in
more than a million sterling to the revenue, and of
this 100,000 acres were brought into cultivation with
coffee, at an outlay of not less than from two to
two and a-half millions sterling, almost entirely in
the upland districts referred to.
Meanwhile the insidious leaf-fungus pest had been
working deadly mischief. High cultivation, with
Ceylon in 1S03. 65
manure of various descriptions, failing to arrest its
progress, the aid of science was called in, special in-
vestigations took place, its life-history was Avritten ;
but the practical result was no more satisfactory to the
coffee planter than have similar investigations proved
to the potato cultivator, the wheat farmer fighting
with rust, or the vine grower who is baffled by the fatal
•phylloxera. Less deadly than the phylloxera, the
leaf -fungus had nevertheless so affected the Ceylon
coffee enterprise that, in the ten years during which
cultivation had extended more than fifty per cent.,
the annual export had fallen to three-fourths of the
million cwt. The same fungus had extended to the
coffee districts of India and Java, with similar results
in devastated crops, but in the greatest coffee country
of all— Brazil— the impetus to an extension of culti-
vation which the high prices from 1873 onwards had
given was not checked by the presence of this fun-
goid, or other coffee diseases, and from thence soon
began to pour into the markets of the world such
crops as speedily brought prices to their old level
reacting disastrously on the Ceylon enterprise, which
had at the same time to encounter the monetary
depression caused by the collapse of the City of Glas-
gow Bank and other financial failures in Britain.
Misfortunes never come singly, and accordingly a
series of wet seasons crowned the evils befalling the
planters in the young high districts, while the older
coffee lower down began to be neglected, so enfeeb-
led had it become in many places under the repeated
visits of the fungus. This so disheartened the coffee
planter that he turned his attention to new products,
more especially cinchona, and later, tea, planted
among and in supersession of the coffee, as well as
in new land. Tea especially succeeded so well, as
will be fully related farther on, that coffee over
a large area has been entirely taken out, and
the area cultivated has been reduced from the
maximum of 275,000 acres in 1878 to not much more
I
66 The Origin & Rise of the Plcmiing Industry,
than 5,000 acres in 1903! The result is that in the
present season (1903), in place of the million cwt. exported
thirty-two years ago, the total shipments of coffee
from Ceylon will not exceed 10,000 cwt., and it is
impossible to revive the industry in the face of the
leaf-fungus which always fastens on any young coifee
if planted. All this refers to the cultivation of the
Arabian species of coffee (Coffee Arabica) ; the industry
in the Liberian variety came feifter, and is dealt with
under " New Prodiicts." The mitigation of the
disaster— the silver lining to the dark cloud which
came over the prospects of the majority of Ceylon
coffee planters— is dealt with in the next chapter.
At an early stage in the history of coffee leaf disease
in Ceylon, one cause, and that perhaps the chief, of
the visitation had become apparent in the limitatioii
of cultivation to one plant, and one only, over hundreds
of square miles of country which had previously been
covered with the most varied vegetation. Nature
had revenged herself, just as she had done on Ireland
when potatoes threatened to become the universal crop
as well as on extensive wheat fields elsewhere, and
on the French vineyards. The hemileia vastatrix
was described by Dr. Thwaites as peculiar to a jungle
plant, and finding coffee leaves a suitable food in 1869
it mviltiplied and spread indefinitely. It could not be
said that the fungus thus burst Out in Ceylon
because of coffee being worn out or badly cultivated,
for it first appeared in a young district upon vigorous
coffee, and it afterwards attacked old and young,
vigorous and weak trees, with absolute. impartiality.
The true remedy, then, for the loss occasioned by
this pest— apart from the wisdom of the old adage
not to have all one's eggs in one basket— lay in the
introduction of New Products.
CHAPTER VII.
THE ERA OP TEA, CACAO, RUBBER AND OTHER
NEW PRODUCTS.
Tea — Cinchona — Cacao — Indiarubber — Cardamoms— Liberian
Coflfee, etc
TEA cultivation was said to be tried in Ceylon in
the time of the Dutch, but there is no reliable
evidence of this tradition, and Dr. Trimen did not
believe it ; * for although there is a wild plant
{Cassia auriculata), called the Matara tea plant, front
which the Sinhalese in the south of the island are
accustomed to make an infusion, yet nothing was
done with the true tea plant till long after coffee was
established. Between 1839 and 1842, under the auspices
of Governor Stewart-Mackenzie and others, experiments
were made with the Assam tea plant at Peradeniya
and Nuwara Eliya, but without permanent results.
A little later, the Messrs. Worms (cousins of the
Rothschilds, Avho did an immense deal in developing
Ceylon) introduced the China plant, and, planting up
a field on the Ramboda Pass, proved that tea would
grow well in the island. Mr. Llewellyn about the same
time introduced the Assam plant again into Dolosbage
• The late Dr. Trimen was kind enough to report to me
(September 1892) as follows :— " Bennett, in his ' Ceylon and its
Capabilities,' gives a figure, a good one, o£ the real tea plant which,
he says, was collected near Batticaloa (I think in 1826), but fi-om
the text he clearly confused it with our Matara tea, the leaves
of the 'Kanawara' (Cassia auriculata). Still I think true tea
may have been grown in some gardens in Ceylon, as it was certainly
in the Botanic Gardens at Kalutara before 1824, the date of Morris's
Catalogue. Assam tea was. ^nt from Calcutta ai. early as , 1836,
and planted at Nuwara Eliya,' ,
68 Ceylon in 1903.
district, but no commercial result came from these
ventures. Attention was, however, frequently called
to this product^ and in 1867 a Ceylon planter was
commissioned to report on the tea-planting industry
in India. In that same year the attention of planters
was also first turned to the cinchona plant, which
had been introduced six years earlier to India and
Ceylon by Mr. Clements Markham. The Director of
the Botanic Garderi, Dr. Thwaites, however, found
great difficulty in getting any planter to care about
cultivating a "medicine plant," and when the great
rise in prices for coffee came, all thought of tea and
inchona was cast to the winds, and the one old
profitable product, which everybody— planters and
coolies alike— understood, was alone planted.
Very early in his administration. Sir William
Gregory, to his special credit be it said, saw the
necessity for new products, and he used all his personal
and official influence to secure their development,
introducing a new feature into the Governor's annual
speech to the Legislative Council in special notices of
the progress of tea, cinchona, cacao, Liberian coffee,
and rubber cultivation. The influence of the principal
journal in the colony (the Ceylon Observer) was earnestly
cast into the same scale, and practical information to
aid the planter of new products Avas collected for it
from all quarters, more especially from the tropical
belt of the earth's surface.*
Cinchona,
When Governor Gregory arrived in 1872 only 500
acres of cinchona had been planted, but before he left in
1877 not only had these increased to 6,000 acres, but the
planters had begun thoroughly to appreciate the value
of the new product, its suitableness for the hill-country
* In June 1881 the monthly periodical, tlie Tropical Agricul-
turist, was started by the author £rom the Ceylon Observer Press for
the special purpose of tn eetinp; the requirements of planters. It circu-
lates all round the tropical belt of the world, and haS received high
encomiums in Britain, United States, West Indies, South America
and Australia,
SIBERIAN COPPEB.
CINCHONA SUCCIRUTRA (GENUINE BED BARE,)
TALIPOT PALM IN FLOWER,
THE T5!A PLANT,
■Neiv ProdmiU. 69
and climate of Ceylon, and the profits to be made from
judicious cultivation. The great: rush, however, took
place on the failure of coffee in 1879 and the next three
years, so that by 1883 the area covered by this plant
could not be less than 60,000 acres. The enormous bark
exports which followed from Ceylon so lowered the price
(involving the great blessing of cheap quinine) that it
became no longer profitable to cut bark in the native
South American cinchona groves, or to plant further in
Ceylon or India. (In Java alone, with its rich soil, did
cinchona planters persevere, carefully tising seed only
from the very best trees as per analysis of barks.)
Attention, therefore, in Ceylon began in 1884 to be
diverted from cinchoiia: nevertheless the exports
from the existing area continued high, and the area
still under cinchona, making allowance for what was
planted throughout the tea and coffee plantations, con-
tinued up to 1887 at not less than 30,000 acres with
several (perhaps forty) million trees above two or three
years, of all descriptions of cinchona, growing thereon.
The export of bark, which was 11,547 lb. in 1872, rose
to 15,892,078 lb. in 1887; but since then, with the great
reduction in price (quinine falling in fourteen years from
12s. to Is. an ounce), the cultivation began to be super-
seded by tea, and the export has fallen down to less
than half a million lb. in 1902. If only the price of bark
were sufticient, Ceylon could continue to grow cinchona
bark ; but Java is now the great source of supply, and its
bark, for the reason already given, is much richer. Very
great mistakes were locally made at first in cinchona-
planting in, the use of immature seed and by the choice
of unsuitable species and unsuitable soil, but the Ceylon
planters rapidly qualified themselves to be successful
cinchona growers, if only prices of bark had kept up ; and
a few still try to supplement their staple (tea) with
fields or belts of cinchona.
Tea.
It had long been the conviction of many who have
studied the climate and the character of Ceylon soils
'to Peyton in 1903.
that the country is far more fitted to become a great tea
producer than ever it was to grow coffee. It is now
i-ealised, too, that a large proportion of the area opened
with the latter product— apart from the appearance of
leaf fungus altogether— would have done much better
under tea. Unlike India, there is never in the low
country, western and south-western, or in the central
(the hilly) portions of Ceylon, a month of the year
without some rain, the annual fall in this region ranging
from 80 to 200 inches, while the alternate tropical
sunshine and moisture form the perfection of climate
for the leaf -yielding tea-shrub. Untimely downpours,
which so often wrecked the blossoms and the hopes of
the coffee planter, do no harm to the leaf crop of the
tea planter. Not only so, but the harvesting of tea
leaf is spread over eight or even ten months of the jear.
If a fresh flush of young leaf fails from any cause this
month, the planter has generally only a few weeks to
wait for another chance, and, save for the "pruning"
and the very wet season in Ceylon, the tea planter can
look for some returns nearly all the year round. Very
different was the case with coffee, the crop of which
for a whole year was often dependent on the weather
during a single month ; or even a week's (or a day's)
untimely rain or drought might destroy the chance of
an adequate return for a whole year's labour. Even in
the favoured Uva districts there were only two periods
of harvesting coffee in the year. Again, while the zone
suitable for the growth of coffee ranged from 1,500 or
2,000 to 4,500 or 5,000 feet above sea-level, tea seems to
flourish equally well (the Assam indigenous kind, or good
hybrid) at sea-level and Tip to 4,000 feet, and (a hardy
hybrid or China kind) at from 3,000 to 6,000 and even
to close on 7,000 feet above sea-level. The tea shrub
is found to be altogether hardier and generally far
more suitable to the comparatively poor soil of Ceylou
than ever coffee was, and indeed the Sinhalese regard
it as " a jungle plant." Nevertheless it took many years
to convince Ceylon planters of the wisdom of looking
TAMIL COOLY-GIRL PICKING TEA-LEAVES.
<
o
&
3
P
New Products. 71
to tea ; and for some years even after it was gone
into in earnest, much less progress was made than
in the ease of cinchona. There were good reasons
for this in the greater cost of tea seed, and the much
greater trouble entailed in the preparation of the
produce for the market. Beginning from 1873 with
an extent planted of 250 acres, in ten years this area
increased to about 35,000 acres, Avhile in the siicceeding
year, 1881, this was doubled, as much being also added
in 1885, and a large extent in 1886, so that before the
Jubilee Year of Queen Victoria's reign closed, there were
not less than 150,000 acres covered with the tea plant
in Ceylon. Five years more added over another 100,000
acres, so that in 1893 the industry extended to
255,000 acres in all ; while in the next decade, although
a check came to planting in 1900, through low prices,
the total extent covered with tea is not under 385,000
acres. The tea export from Ceylon of 23 lb. in 1876
rose to 7,849,886 lb. in 1886, to over 78,000,000 in 1892,
and to over 149 millions lb. in 1902; while for 1903,
the estimate is 1-54 millions for black and green tea
together. There are still considerable reserves of Crown
land suitable for tea, for, as already said, it is found to
produce, profitable crops on land a few hundred feet
above sea-level, as well as at all altitudes. up to the
neighbourhood of Nuwara Bliya, approximating to 7,000
feet; while the Sinhalese may be expected to grow
tea in their own gardens, at any rate for local con-
sumption. But all this depends on a profitable price:
at present there is no encouragement to plant another
acre in Ceylon or India. Consumption has been
checked by the high customs duty in Britain— 6d a lb.
—on what is practically a purely British Industry ;
while the United States has no duty ! When Russia
and England reduce their customs' levies consumption
will certainly increase, and there may be a need to plant
more; but not so at present. The manufacture of
Green Teas for the American market begun in
72 Ceylon in 1903.
grew to an export of nearly 2,800,000 lb. in 1902 and
is likely to be 11 or 12 millions lb. in 1903.
The rapid development of the tea-planting industry
in Ceylon during the past fifteen to seventeen years
constitutes the most interesting and important fact in
the recent history of the island. The future of the
colony depends upon this staple now far more than
on any other branch of agriculture, and so far tlie
promise is that the industry will be a comparatively
permanent though only moderately profitable one. On
favoured plantations, with comparatively flat land and
good soil (tea loves a fiat as coffee did a sloping hill-side)
tea crops have already been gathered in Ceylon for
some years in succession in excess almost of anything
known in India. With unequalled means of communica-
tion by railway and first-class roads — with well-trained,
easily-managed, and fairly intelligent labourers in the
Tamil coolies*, with a suitable climate and soil, and,
above all, with a planting community of exceptional
intelligence and energy in pushing a product that is
once shown to be suitable for cultivation, the rapid
development of our tea enterprise from the infant of
1876-80 to the giant of 1893-1903 may be more easily
understood. Ceylon teas have been received with excep-
tional favour in the London market. The teas are of a
high character and fine flavour, perfectly pure, which is
more than can be said of a large proportion of China and
Japan teas. It was therefore expected by competent
authorities that as the taste for the good teas of
Ceylon and India spread — one never enjoys a common
or adulterated tea after getting accustomed to one of
good flavour — the China teas, to a great extent, would
fall out of use. This has been fully realised, Ceylon
and Indian teas having now driven China almost en-
tirely out of consumption in the United Kingdom.
* One risk in regard to the f u ture is with reference to a sufficiency
of immigrant labour from Southern India to cone with the require-
ments of tea, cacao, cardamoms, and rubber. Only in a few districts
do the Sinhalese come to the help of the planter,
Xew Products 73
The great danger, as already mentioned, is of prices
falling too low to be remunerative. Still, if there is to
be a struggle, there can be little doubt that the avetage
Ceylon tea planter can hold his own. The consumption
of his staple is spreading evet-y year, and if the English-
speaking people of the United States, Canada, and
South Africa only did equal justice to the tea with
their brethren in the United Kingdom and Australia,
and if Russia's requirements increase year by year,
the demand would then be fully up to the supply. More-
over, tea can be delivered more cheaply from Ceylon
allowing for quality, than from either India or China
As was the case with coffee, the preparation of the
new staple in Ceylon is in a fair way to be brought
to perfection. Improved machinery has already been
invented by local planters and others to save labour
to counteract the effect of unsuitable weather (for
withering the leaf, etc.), or to turn out teas with better
flavour; and yet the industry cannot be said properly to
be more than a quarter of a century in the island. Its
beneficial influence on local business, export trade, and
revenue has been, of course, widely felt. The Sinhalese,
in a few districts, are working for the tea planters,
and native tea-gardens were freely planted up on low-
country roadsides, until the fall in price came. But
to meet a local consumption, the process may go on
until there is a wide area covered with tea under
native auspices. The cultivators will probably often
sell their leaf to central factories owned by colonists;
but there is no reason why, as times run on, they
should not manufacture for themselves, the product
being chiefly used for local consumption. The
atmosphere of planting, business, and even official
circles in Ceylon just now is highly charged with
"tea," and the number of Tea Patents (for prepar-
ing machi nes), of Tea publications,* Tea Brokers, Tea
*8ee the "Ceylon Tea Planters' Manual," Tea and other New
Products "Planters' Note Book," "Tea Tables," and TroptcoJ Agn-
fJSPubUshedJ by A.-M. & J. Ferguson^ Colombo.
J
New Products. 75
of preparing the bean for the London market, and
further improvements are under consideration.* The
mycologist at Peradeniya has done good service in investi-
gating and checking canker in cacao trees. There is
fair encouragement in prices and demand to continue
cacao cultivation ; but further planting in West Indies
and West Africa may lead to overproduction,
Cardamoms spice is another product, the culti-
vation of which has benefited a good many Ceylon
planters, the export rising from 14,000 lb. in 1878 to
422,109 lb. in 1891, and 616,000 in 1902, until here again
" overproduction " is the cry. The greater portion used
to be sent to India, where there is a large demand
in the Presidency towns ; but now the quantity sent
to the United Kingdom is three times as much and
sufficient to seriously affect the price in the London
market. It is, indeed, a significant fact that, in
respect of serveral products, practically receiving no
attention from our planters twenty five, years ago,
Ceylon has assumed a prominent if not a leading
position in ibhe markets of the world. We refer to tea,
cacao, and cardamoms (by and bye, , we trust) for
the supply of which, as pf cinnamon, coconut oil,
and plumbago, this colony is. pre-^emineht. t
The Caoutchouc, or indiariibber trees of commei'ce,
from South America and Eastern Africa, are ofrecen
introduction, but their cultivation and growth in
certain of the planting districts of Ceylon— Kalutara
Udugama, Matale and Kelani Valley especially—
have so far given very satisfactory results. The
growth of the trees of the Para and Oastilloa
kinds has been excellent, and much is now known
* See pamphlets on "Cacao Cultivation," published by A. M. & J
Ferguson, Colombo. Also in Appendix No. II. Mr. J. Fergusons
Paper before the London Chamoer of Commerce, 2oth June, 1892
t See Ml'. J. Ferguson's Paper before London Chamber of Com-
merce June 25th, 1892 ; Pamphlet on Cardamoms Cultivation,
etc.," has been published by A. M & J. Ferguson, Colombo.
76 Ceylon in 1903.
about the mode of harvesting the rubber aud the
industry has in a small way been proved to be
profitable.* There is an enormous demand for rubber
in arts and manufactvires in the United States as
in Europe, and much encouragement therefore to give
attention to this product. In 1903, it is estimated
that the equivalent of 12,«00 acres are planted with
rubber trees, and the largest export yet made is of
21,168 lb. in 1902; but the first half of 1903 showed
22,538 lb. sent away, and prices for Ceylon biscuit
Para rubber have been as high as is. Gd. a lb.
Among minor new products Liberian coffee was
introduced from the "West African Republic of that
name (in 1875-79 chiefly), in the hope that its large
size and strong habit would enable it, at the low
elevation in which it grows, to resist the leaf -fungus ;
but this hope has not been realised, and although
the acreage planted (615 acres in 1903) is giving fair
crops, there is no attempt to extend this area for
the present, t Coffee trees in bearing were not long
ago reported in the Wanni of the Northern Province,
and an experiment is likely to be made by the
European planters on a grant of land eastward of
Minneri Lake. Experiments with hybridised coffee
plants are being made in the Peradeniya Gardens;
but there is not much hope of a coffee industry
ever springing up again.
Cotton (room for a large industry if experiments
by Government with special seed succeed along our
great Northern Railway), tobacco (exciting the atten-
tion of Europeans), areca, coconut palms, pepper,
camphor (very promising in a small way) African palm-
oil nut, nutmegs, cloves, croton oil seeds, coca, kola,
• See Mr. J. Ferguson's Paper before London Chamber of
Commerce, June 25th. 1892; and "All About Bubber," third
edition, published by A. M. & Ferguson, Colombo.
+ See Mr. J. Ferguson's Paper before London Chamber of
Commerce, June 2oth, 1&92; and "Liberian Coflfee," illustrated,
published by A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.
THE CACAO POD.
EoAih containimj tmiity-four seeds in pulp, whioh, when prepared, give
the Chooalate of Commerce.
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New Products. ' 77
and annotto dye plant are among the other products to
which, by reason of the reverse in coffee, and depression
in tea, planters in the hill and low country of Ceylon
have been turning their attention in isolated cases,
with results more or less satisfactory. In the variety
of all the industries detailed in the foregoing pages,
it is felt there is sufficient guarantee to warrant the
belief that the coffee leaf -fungus will prove eventually,
if it has not already proved, a blessing in disguise
to the island, its colonists, and native people. The
latter suffered with their European brethren, not only
through the disease affecting their coffee gardens, but
much more through the absence of employment in
so many branches which the prosperous coffee enter-
prise opened out to them. Some years back. Dr.
Conan Doyle in one of his stories dealing with Ceylon,
referred to the great crisis which overtook its coffee-
planting industry and led to cinchona, cacao and tea
as substitutes, in these words: — "Not often is it that
men have the heart, when their one great industry is
withered, to rear up in a few years another as rich to
take its place, and the tea fields of Ceylon are as true a
monument to courag'e as is the lion at Waterloo. My
story concerns the royal days of coffee-planting in
Ceylon, before a rooting fungus drove a whole
community through years of despair to one of the
greatest commercial victories which pluck and ingenuity
have ever won." Tea plantations are now filling up
the blanks left by coffee, so far as field and picking
work is . concerned ; while many of the natives, led
by their chiefs and intelligent headmen and villagers,
are themselves planting new products— tea and cacao
especially— and so following the example of the
European planters. In this way the Planting enter-
prise in all its ramifications in Ceylon is fraught with
the promise of a greater and more reliable pro-
sperity than ever appertained to coffee alone in its
palmiest days.
CHAPTER VIII.
PRESENT POSITION OF AGRICULTURAL, ENTERPRISE, LOCAL
INDUSTRIES, AND FOREIGN EXPORT AND IMPORT TRADE.
Exports of last decade— The Plumbago Trade— Gold and Iron-
Native Industries generally flourishing- Tea and Cacao will
make up for the Deficiency in Coffee.
TO sum up and show at a glance the present position
of the export trade arising from our agricultural
enterprise and local industry, we give opposite a
tabular statement of the staple expoT-ts and their
distribution for 1893-1902.
There are a few headings in this export table
that we have not touched on yet, and the principal one
of these is plumbago, or graphite. This is the only
mineral of commercial importance exported from
Oeylon. ^ The mining industry is entirely in the hands
of the Sinhalese; mines of from 100 to 200 and even 300
feet depth are Avorked in a primitive fashion, and the
iinest plumbago in the world for crucible purposes is
obtained. Wars and rumours of war influence greatly the
demand for plumbago and activity in British, American
and other arsenals in 1900-1 created a great boom in Oeylon
plumbago which nearly doubled in price for a time ; but
the reaction was not pleasant. However the industry has
taken a great start of recent years, the average export
increasing about 50 per cent, within the decade; the
valiTe of the trade averages about £700,000 per annum,
and this mining industry has sprung up entirely within
the last fifty-five years. *
,_ /j^f* Monoeraph on "Plumbago," by A. M. Ferguson contri-
buted to.theKoyal Asiatic Society's Journal (Ceylon) in 1885.'
Posilion of Agriculture and Trade. 79
Mention may be made of the precious stones found
in Ceylon and exported in certain quantities, the chief
being rubies and sapphires and cat's-eyes. "Pearls"
are included in the customs returns with "precious
stones," and the total value of all recorded in any one
year for exports has never exceeded £9,000 ; but the large
proportion of both pearls and precious stones taken
out of the island, on the persons of natives or others
leaving, would not be entered at all in the customs
returns. A successful Pearl Fishery in 1903, yielding
perhaps £30,000 to £40,000 net to Government, is expected
to be followed by a series in successive years ; and
much is expected in oyster culture of Professor
Herdman and Mr. Hornell.
Gold is freely distributed in the primary rocks of
Ceylon, but it has not been fovind in paying quantities.
Rich iron ore is very abundant, but there is no coal.
Native arrivals show that there were at one time 60
gold and 16 silver mines in Ceylon, but they must
have been on a very small scale.
Of other minor exports affording some trade to
native huntsmen are deer-horns, the trade in which
indicates a considerable destruction of deer, so that
a law has been passed to protect them as well as
other game and elephants. Of elephants in forty years,
Ceylon has sent away about 2,217, chiefly to India, for
service, or show at the Rajahs' courts. The highest
return was 271 in 1865; latterly^ however, few have
been exported. As some compensation, about 21,124
horses have been imported into Ceylon in the past forty
years. The export of "hides and skins " is considerable,
and might be more important were it not for the
Sinhalese habits of cutting and marking the hides of
their cattle. The local industry in tanning is very
limited, though the materials are at hand to extend
it considerably- There is also much scope for the export
of dyeing (as well as tanning) substances. The export
trade in timber— apart from ebony— is considerable,
so Ceylon in 1903.
such as satinwood, palmyra, tamarind, etc., to a total
average value of £20,000 per annum.
It will be observed that the branches of trade more
particularly in the hands of the natives— the products of
the coconut palm, cinnamon, arid minor exports — are in
a sound, flourishing and progressive condition. The case
is very different with coffee, and the significance of the
change will be understood when it is remembered that
between 1865 and 1878 the average export of coffee
shipped was equal in value to more than double of all the
other exports put together. But instead of four or five
millions of pounds' worth of coffee, we are now reduced to
a value of less than £100,000. Here, however, come in
the new products, tea, cocoa, cardamoms, rubber;
while to tea belongs the honour of representing
our planting enterprise par excellence, by as great a
value in export as was ever reached by coffee ; while
the otlier products now tried, help to place us in a
stronger position than in coffee days— apart from the
great lowcountry industry in coconut and otlier palms.
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CHAPTER IX.
WHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOR
THE MOTHER-COUNTRY.
The Swing of the, pendulum : a Cycle of Prosperity from Tea-
Previous Tears of Depression considered— Planting profits
absorbed in the past by Home Capitalists— Absence of
Reserves of Local Wealth— The accumulated Profits of past
years estimated.
SINGE 1888, when the success of the tea-planting
enterprise became fully established, Ceylon has
entered on a period of comparative prosperity, as
indicated by her trade and revenue statistics. How
long it may last is another question. In tropical
experience the alternate swing of the pendulum from
bad times to good times and vice versa is fully recognised.
For ten or eleven years previous to 1889 financial depres-
sion and scarcity of capital prevailed, and this result
can readily be understood when a succession of bad
coffee seasons, involving a deficiency in the planters'
harvests of that product equal to many millions of
pounds sterling, is taken into consideration. There
have been periods of depression before in the history
of the Ceylon planting enterprise, and these, curiously
enough, have been noted to come round in cycles in
eleven years Thus, in 1845, wild speculation in opening
plantations, followed by a great fall in the price of
coffee and a collapse of credit, arrested progress for
a time; in 1856-57, a sharp financial shock affected the
course of prosperity which had set in ; and again,
in 1866-67, the fortunCvS of coffee fell to so low an
82 Ceylon in 1903.
ebb that a London capitalist, who visited the island,
said the most striking picture of woe-taegone misery
he saw was the typical "man who owned a coffee
estate." Yet this was followed by good seasons and
bounteous coffee harvests.
The depression which set in during 1879 was,
however, the most prolonged and trying. True, agri-
culture nearly all over the world had been suffei-ing
from a succession of bad harvests, more particularly
in the mother-country ; but there are certain grave
distinctions between the conditions of a tropical colony
and lands in a temperate zone. In Ceylon a generation
among European colonists has usually been considered
not to exceed ten years— not at all on account of
mortality, for tlie hills of Ceylon have the perfection
of a healthy climate, but from the constant changes
in the elements of the European community — the
coming and going Avhich in the past made such a
distinct change in the broad elements of society every
ten or certainly every fifteen years.
Those colonists who made fortunes in "coffee" in
the island— only 10 per cent, of the whole body of
planters, however— did not think of making it their
permanent home. The capitalist who sent out his
i money for investment got it back as soon as possible,
where, as in many cases, he did not lose it altogether.
The "accumulated profits," made during the time of
prosperity, which at home form a reserve fund of
local wealth to enable the sufferer from present
adversity to benefit by past earnings, were, so far as
the planters were concerned, wanting in Ceylon. We
had no reserve fund of past profits to fall back upon,
no class of wealthy Europeans enriched by former
times of prosperity living amongst us and circulating
the liquidated products of former industry, when
the period of adversity and depression arrived.
Ceylon, in fact, in the best coffee days, used to
be a sort of "incubator" to which capitalists sent
The Benefit to the Mother-Country. 83
their eggs to be hatched, and whence a good many
of them received from time to time an abundant
brood, leaving sometimes bvit the shells for our local
portion. Money was sent out to Ceylon to fill its
forests and plant them with coffee, and it was returned
in the shape of copious harvests to the home capitalist,
leaving in some cases the bare hillsides from whence
their rich harvests were drawn. Had the profits from
the abundant coffee crops in those past days been
located here and invested in the country and its soil,
a fund of local wealth might have existed when the
lean years came, manufactures might now have been
flourishing, a number of wealthy citizens of European
origin might have been living in affluence, and we
might have possessed resources to help us over the
time of adversity and depression.
The total amount of coffee raised on the plantations
of Ceylon since 1849 is about 22,500,000 cwt., and there
were produced previously (excluding native coffee in
both cases) about 1,000,000 cwt. at the least, making
a grand total of coffee of 23,500,000 cwt. as the produce
of imported capital. Including interest and all items
of local cost, we may safely say that this coffee has
been produced for £2 5s. per cwt., and has realised
at the least £3 net on an average ; it has therefore
earned a net profit of £17,000,000. The coffee so produced
has been yielded by plantations of not more than
320,000 acres in the aggregate, after including a due
allowance for lands abandoned; and the average cost
of the estates, including the purchase of the land,
has certainly not exceeded £25 per acre, involving
a total capital of £8,000,000. There should, therefore,
have been a sum of £9,000,000 of liquidated profit
returned to the capitalist, besides the refund of his
principal, and there would still remain the existing plant
of say 200,000 acres of land under cultivation by means
of the said capital, worth at least £10 per acre, or
altogether £2,000,000— thus shqwing a total profit of
£11,000,000. --Looking at some tracts of land which have
84 Ceyton in 1903.
been relegated to weeds and waste— tracts which for
long years poured forth rich harvests for their owners—
the question will force itself upon us : What would
now have been the conditions of these lands if their
owners had been settled on them, and their families,
homesteads, and accumulated profits had remained to
enrich the island ? Fortunately, tea has enabled most
of this waste land to be profitably replanted. It is
strange that, though Ceylon can show many outward
and visible signs of material wealth since the establish-
ment of the planting enterprise, in a greatly increased
revenue, big public works, railways, roads, harbour
works, tanks, irrigation canals, and public buildings,
and in a native population greatly raised in the scale
of civilisation and in personal and home comforts, yet
there are few, if any, wealthy Europeans in the island.
There are not a few natives, however, who have
amassed fortunes. In the case of Europeans, riches,
if they have been heaped up, have gone elsewhere—
that is, to the Mother-country out of Ceylon ; while
there were no large local incomes (save among a limited
number of natives) to meet the era of short crops
and financial disasters which began in 1879.
Of course, we are now looking at the Ceylon
planting enterprise from the colonial point of view.
When a financial crisis comes, and home capitalists
find they cannot realise and sell their property through
the absence of local purchasers, they are apt to speak
disparagingly of the colony which has done so much
for their brethren, if not for themselves, in years gone
by, and which will yet give a good return on capital
invested in the future.
Fortunately, within the past generation, a con-
siderable change has taken place in the conditions of
planting in Ceylon. An unusually large number of
younger sons, and others with a certain amount of
capital of their own, have settled in the higher and
healthier districts— possessing in fact one of the finest
"the Benefit to the Mother-Country. 85
climates in the world— and have formed comparatively-
permanent homes, in the midst of their tea as well
as coffee and cinchona fields. The number of resident
proprietary and of married planters has largely-
increased within the past twenty years, notwith-
standing depression and difificiilty, and with the return
of prosperity through tea, further settlement in this
way may be anticipated.
As regards the native cultivation of exportable
articles, the profits from six or seven million cwt. of
native-grown coffee shipped, and from coir, coconut
oil, plumbago, cinnamon, etc., have, of course, come
back and enriched the people in a way which is visible
on all sides, and is more particularly striking to old
colonists. There is a very large number of wealthy
native gentlemen enriched by trade arid agriculture
within British times, and nearly all the property in
the large towns, as well as extensive planted areas,
belong to them; while, as regards the labouring
classes, the artisans and carters, the benefit conferred
by planting expenditure will be more particularly
referred to in our next chapter.
CHAPTER X.
WHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOR CEYLON.
Population more than doubled — Revenue expanded eightfold — Trade
sixteen to twenty fold — ^Employment afforded to Natives— An
El Dorado for the Indian immigrant— Coffee in the past, as
Tea in the future, the mainstay oE the Island — The Material
Progress in the Planting Districts.
WHAT British capital and the planting enterprise
have done for Ceylon would require an essay-
in itself to describe adequately. In 1837, when the
pioneer coffee planters began work, Ceylon was a
mere military dependency, with a revenue amounting
to £372,000, or less than the expenditure, costing the
Mother-country a good round sum every year, the
total population not exceeding one and a half million,
bvit requiring well-nigh 6,000 British and native troops
to keep the peace.
Now we have the population increased to over
three and a half millions, with only about 1,500 troops
(apart from 2,500 Volunteers) largely paid for out of
a revenue averaging £2,000,000, and a people far better
hoiised, clothed, and fed, better educated and cared
for in every way. The total import and export trade
since planting began has expanded from half a million
sterling in value to from eight to ten millions sterling,
according to the harvests. During the sixty-five years
referred to some fifty to fifty-five millions sterling have
been paid away in wages earned in connection with
plantations to Kandyan axemen, Tamil coolies, Sin-
halese carpenters, domestic servants, and carters.
R. E. LEWIS, MERCHANT, PLANTER, AND' EDITOR, 1841-1870.
■^"^^^M^
^^*
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MAJOR SKINNER C.M.G
[The great "Roaflmakor" o£ Ceylon where he woi-kecl over 50 years.
T1%e Planting Industry and Ceylon.
A great proportion of this lias gone to benefit South-
ern India, the home of the Tamil coolies, of whom
close on 200,000 over and above the usual labour
supply were saved from starvation in Ceylon during
the Madras famine, 1877-8. In fact, Ceylon at that
time, mainly through its planters, contributed nearly
as much aid to her big neighbour as the total of
the "Mansion House Fund" subscribed in the
United Kingdom.
According to official papers there are several millions
of people in Southern India whose annual earnings,
taking grain, etc., at its full value, do not average
per family of five more than £3 12s., or Is. 6d.
per month— equal to id. per head per day. Incredible
as this may appear, it is true, although with better
times now perhaps Id!, would be a safe rate per caput.
Half-a-crown a week is enough to keep an Indian
peasant with wife and two or three children in
comfort; but there are eight millions people who
cannot get this, or even 2s., perhaps only Is. 6d!., for
each family per week. No wonder that to such a
people the planting country of Ceylon, when all is
prosperous, is an El Dorado, for each family can there
earn from 12s. per week, and save from half to three-
quarters the amount. The immigrant coolie labourers
suffered from the short crops of coffee and depression
like their masters ; but of late years, with the revival
of profitable industry through tea, with medical care
provided, cheap food, comfortable huts, and vegetable
gardens, few labouring classes in the world are better
off. Nor ought we to forget the Tamil Cooly Mission,
which is doing a good work in educating and Christian-
ising many among the Tamil coolies, mainly supported
as it is by the planters.
Our calculation is that from each acre of tea, cacao,
or coffee land kept in full cultivation in Ceylon five na-
tives ("men, women, and children) directly or indirectly
derive their means of subsistence. It is no wonder then
88 Ceylon in 1903.
that, with a population increased in Ceylon within the
planting era by one hundred per cent., four to five
times the quantity of cotton cloth is consumed, and
ten times the quantity of food-stuffs imported into
Ceylon. As a contrast must be mentioned a calculation
made respecting the British pioneers of planting— the
men who worked say from 1837 to 1870— which showed
that only one-tenth of these benefited themselves
materially by coming to Ceylon. Ninety per cent, lost
their money, health, or even life itself. Latterly the
experience is not so sad, especially in respect of health.
The British governors of Ceylon have repeatedly
acknowledged that the planting enterprise is the main-
stay of the island. None have more forcibly shown
this than Governor Sir William Gregory, who, in
answer to the remark that the general revenue of
the colony was being burdened with charges for railway
extension and harbour works, benefiting chiefly the
planting industry, said : " What, I would ask, is the
basis of the whole property of Ceylon but the planting
enterprise? What gave me the surplus revenues, by
which I was able to make roads and bridges all over
the island, causeways at Mann4r and Jaffna, to make
grants for education and to take measures to educate
the masses — in short, to promote the general industry
and enterprise of the island from Jaft'na tO Galle—
but the results of the capital and energy engaged in
the cultivation of coffee? It follows, therefore, that,
in encouraging the great planting enterprise, I shall
be furthering the general interests of the colony."
Sir William Gregory was able to create a new province
in Ceylon, entirely occupied by the poorest and
previously most neglected class of natives— namely,
the North-Central Province— with roads, bridges,
buildings, forest clearings, and irrigation works, solely
by the surplus revenues obtained from the planting
enterprise.
The pioneer planter introduces into regions all
but unknown to man a host of contractors, who
The Planting IndMstry and Ceylon. 89
in their turn bring in a train of pedlars, tavern-
keepers, and others, eager to profit by the expendi-
ture about to take place. To the contractors succeed
the Malabar coolies, the working bees of the colony,
who plant and cultivate the coffee, and at a subsequent
period reap the crop. Bach of these coolies consumes
monthly a bushel of rice, a quantity of salt and other
condiments, and occasionally cloth, arrack, etc., the
import, transport, and purchase of which find employ-
njent for the merchant, the retail dealer, the carrier,
and their servants ; and, again, the wants of these
functionaries raise around them a race of shopkeepers,
domestics, and others, who, but for the success of coffee
planting, would have been unable to find equally
profitable employment.
Nor are the results bounded by the limits of the
colony. The import of articles consumed, as well as
of products exported, gives employment to hundreds of
seamen and to thousands of tons of shipping that,
but for this increased trade, would never have been
built. The larger demand for rice stimulates and cheers
the toil of the Indian ryot ; the extended use of clothing
benefits the Manchester spinners and weavers and all
dependent on them ; a host of employees and middlemen
are busy furnishing tinned and other provisions in
food-stuff's for a planting colony ; while the increased
demand for the implements of labour tells on Birming-
ham and Sheffield, which also benefit, as regards the
tea ihdustry, by the demand for varied machinery,
for sheet lead, hoop iron, and a host of other requisites.
Who shall say where the links of the chain terminate,
affecting as they do indirectly all the great branches
of the human family ?
Then again, when plantations become productive,
how many different agencies are called into operation.
Tea and cocoa require a host of manipulators in the
factories Where, as a rule, all is prepared for shipment;
but there is transport to, and handling at, the shipping
L
90 Ceylon in 1903,
port. Coffee requires far more attention at the seaport,
for on arrival in Colombo the parchment of coffee
has to be peeled, winnowed, and sized by the aid of
steam machinery ; cardamoms are picked and sorted ;
cinchona bark is packed by hydraulic machines ; and
sometimes tea is re-bulked and re-fired : all these,
agencies provide employment for engineers, smiths,
stokers, wood-cutters, etc.
Colombo " stores " in their best days (mainly
through the drying, picking, and sorting of coffee)
gave occupation to thousands (estimated at 20,000)
of the industrious poor natives, and enabled them to
support an expenditure for food, clothing, and other
necessaries, the supply of which further furnished
profitable employment to the shopkeeper, merchant
seaman, etc. This is, of course, still true to a certain
extent. In fact, it is impossible to pursue in all their
ram.ifications the benefits derived from the cultivation
of the fragrant berry which was once the staple
product of Ceylon. Other results, too, there are-
moral ones— such as must sooner or later arise from
the infusion of Anglo-Saxon energy and spirit into
an Eastern people, from the spread of the English
language, and, what is of more importance still, the
extension of civilisation and Christianity.
The material change in the planting districts and
the Central Province of Ceylon within the last sixty-
five years has been marvellous. Villages and towns
have appeared where all was barren waste or thick
jungle ; roads have been cut in all directions ; and
prosperous villages have sprung up like magic in "The
Wilderness of the Peak." Gampola, BaduUa, Nuwara
Eliya, and M4tale, which each consisted of a rest-house
and a few huts, and Nawalapitiya, which had no
existence at all in 1837, are now populous towns ; while
Hatton, Talawakele, Lindula, Nanuoya, Panwila,
Teldeniya, Madulkele, Deltota, HaldummuUa, Lunu-
VIEW ON THE MAHAWELI GANGA • THR
LEVVBLLB PBRRV NEAR KANDY.
VIEW ON MAHAWELI GANGA NEAR KANDY.
NATIVES CLIMBING ABBCANUT TREES.
The Planting Industry and Ceylon. 91
gala, Passara, Welimada, Balangoda, iRattota, Rak-
wana, Yatiyantota, etc., are more than villages.
Some of the planting grant-in-aid roads, carried
through what was dense forest or waste land, are lined
for miles with native houses and boutiques, as also
with native cultivation in gardens or fields. The
change cannot be better described than in the words
of the Rev. S^ence Hardy, of the Wesleyan Mission,
who, after spending twenty-two years in Ceylon,
between 1825 and 1847, returned to England, and re-
visited the island in 1862. Mr. Hardy was accustomed
to travel through nearly all the Sinhalese districts.
Writing in 1864, he says :— " Were some Sinhalese
a/ppuhamd to arise, who had gone down to the grave
fifty years ago, and from that time remained uncon-
scious, he would not know his own land or people;
and when told where he was he would scarcely believe
his eyes, and would have some difficulty with his ears ;
for though there would be the old language, even that
would be mixed with many words that to him would
be utterly iinintelligible. Looking at his own country-
men, he would say that in his time both the head
and the feet were uncovered, but that now they cover
both ; or perhaps he would think that the youths whom
he saw with stockings and shoes and caps were of
some other nation. He would be shocked at the
heedlessness with which appus and naidas and every-
body else roll along in their bullock-bandies; passing
even the carriage of the white man whenever they
are able by dint of tail-pulling or hard blows; and
when he saw the horsekeepers riding by the side of
their masters and sitting on the same seat, there would
be some expression of strong indignation. He would
listen in vain for the ho-he-j/oh of the palanquin-
bearers and their loud shouts, and would look in vain
for the tom Johns and doolies, and for the old lascoreens
with their talipots and formal dress. He would be
surprised at seeing so many women walking in the
road and laughing and talking together like men, but
92 Ceylon in 1903.
with uo burdens on their heads and nothing in their
hands, and their clothes not clean enough for them
to be going to the temple. He would perhaps com-
plain of the hard road, as we have heard a native
gentleman from Kalpitiya do, and say that soft sand
was much better. He would wonder where all the
tiles come from for so many houses, and would think
that the high-caste families must have multiplied
amazingly for them to require so many stately
mansions ; and the porticoes, and the round white
pillars, and the trees growing in the compound, bearing
nothing but long thin thorns, or with pale yellow leaves
instead of green ones, would be objects of great
attraction. He would fancy that the Moormen must
have increased at a great rate, as he would take the
tall chimneys of the coffee stores to be the minarets
of mosques, until he saw the smoke proceeding from
them, and then he would be puzzled to know what
they could be. In the bazaar he would stare at the
policemen and the potatoes and the loaves of bread,
and a hundred other things that no bazaar ever saw
in his day. And the talk about planters and barbacues,
coolie immigration, and the overland and penny postage,
and bishops and agents of Government, and the
legislative council and banks, newspapers and mail-
coaches, would confuse him by the strangeness of the
terms. He would listen incredulously when told that
there is no rajakariya, or forced labour, no fish tax :
and that there are no slaves, and that you can cut
down a cinnamon tree in your own garden without
having to pay a heavy fine. Remembering that when
Governor North made the tour of the island, he was
accompanied by 160 palanquin-bearers, 400 coolies, 2
elephants, and 50 lascoreens, and that when the adigar
-^hselapola visited Colombo he had with him a retinue
of a thousand retainers, and several elephants, he
would think it impossible that the governor could go
on a tour of inspection, or a judge on circuit, without
white olas lining the roadside, and triumphal arches,
The Planting Industry and Ceylon. 93
and javelin men, and tomtoms, and a vast array of
attendants. He would ask, perhaps, what king now
reigns in Kandy, and whether he had mutilated any
more of the subjects of Britain. From these supposed
surprises, we may learn something of the changes
that have taken place in the island, but we cannot
tell a tithe of the whole."
If this was true when the veteran missionary wrote
in 1862, the picture might well be heightened and
intensified by the experiences of 1903, for the progress
in the second half our late good Queen's reign ; and
the beginning of King Edward VII.'s reign among the
people of Ceylon is not less remarkable than it was
between 1837 and 1862.
As to the comparative freedom from poverty
and sufFering which distinguishes the lower classes,
the vast masses of the natives of Ceylon, more especially
in the rural districts where nearly all have an interest in
field or garden, it must be remembered that they live as
a rule in the most genial of climates, where suffering from
cold is impossible and the pangs of hunger are almost un-
known, little more than a few plantains a day being
sufficient to support life in idleness, if so chosen. Sir
Edward Creasy, in his "History of England," says:
"I have seen more human misery in a single winter's
day in London than I have seen during my nine
years' stay in Ceylon." In the larger towns, there are,
of course, a good many very poor people, for whom some
provision is made through Priend-in-Need Societies,—
there being no poor law or rates. Occasionally, special
subscriptionsare raised for the poor among the merchants
and planters, while the Government makes grants to the
Societies and has certain chaifitable votes.
CHAPTER XI.
PRESENT PROSPECTS FOR CAPITALISTS IN CEYLON.
Ceylon still a, good Field for Investment— Its Freedom from
Atmospheric Disturbances— Shipping Conveniences at the New
Harbour of Colombo — Moderate Freights— Cheap and Unrivalled
Means of Transport— Certain Lands available for Tropical
Culture in Coconut Palms, Rubber, Cotton, Tobacco, Fibres and
other new Products— Openings for Young Men with Capital—
HighPosition taken by the Ceylon Planter— Facilities forpersonal
Inspection of Investments.
WHAT we have said in tlie previous chapter will show
the value of the planting enterprise to the settled
inhabitants and to the government of Ceylon. We have
also pointed out the immense advantages gained in com-
merce and profits by the Mother-country. The British
Capitalist, who, during the period of deficient coffee
crops, grievously lost confidence in Ceylon, has within
the past sixteen years found cogent reason to forbear
condemnation, and to look still on this colony as still
in the lead of British dependencies for the judicious
investrnent of capital.
The situation of Ceylon in the Eastern World is pe-
culiarly favoured in certain respects. The atmospheric
disturbances which periodically agitate the Bay of Ben-
gal, and carry, in hurricanes and cyclones, destruction to
the shipping in the exposed Madras roadstead and the
deviated Hooghly, seldom or never approach the north-
eastern shores of this island. If Java and the rest of the
Eastern Archipelago boast of a far richer soil than
is to be found in Ceylon, it is owing to the volcanic
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon 95
agency which makes itself known at frequent intervals
by eruptions and earthquakes, the utmsot verge of
whose waves just touches the eastern coast of the
island at Battiealoa and Trincomalee in scarcely
perceptible undulations. On the west, again, Ceylon
is equally beyond the region of the hurricanes which,
extending from the Mozambique Channel, visit so often
and so disastrously the coasts of Madagascar, Mauritius,
and Zanzibar. The wind and rain-storms which usher
in periodically the south-west and north-east monsoons
sometimes inflict slight damage on the coffee and rice
crops, but there is no comparison between the risks
attaching to cultivation in Ceylon and those experienced
by planters in Java and Mauritius.
The same absence of risk holds good with reference
to the formerly opened roadstead of Colombo, and the
island shipping trade, which has for years been nearly
all centred there.
Except for an occasional gale from the south-west,
there was no special danger to be guarded against,
and the risks to vessels lying at Colombo were much
less than to those at Calcutta, Madras or Bombay.
But the delay in the transaction of shipping business,
owing to the prevalence of a heavy surf and a stiff
breeze during monsoon months, was more than
sufficient to justify the very substantial breakwaters,
graving dock, and allied harbour works which are now
successfully drawing to full completion at Colombo.
The capital of Ceylon is now the great central mail
and commercial steamer port of the East. All the
large steamers of the P. & O. Company, Orient,
the British India, Star, Ducal, and most of the
Messageries, Nord-Deutscher Lloyds, Austro-Hungarian
Lloyds, Bubattino, the Clan, Glen, City, Ocean, Anchor,
Holts, and other lines for Europe, India, Ohina,^ the
Straits, and. Australia, call at Colombo regularly. One
consequence of this, valuable to the merchant and
96 Ceylon in 1903.
planter, is the regular and comparatively moderate
freight offered to most of the world's markets.
There is no tropical land— indeed there are few
countries anywhere— so thoroughly served by railways
and roads, canals and navigable streams, as are the
principal districts of Ceylon at the present day. The
means of cheap transport between the interior and the
coast Ca few remote districts only excepted) are
unequalled in the tropics. Indian tea planters confess
that their Ceylon brethren have a great advantage
over them in this respect, and still more so in the
abundant supply of good, steady, cheap labour, trained
by long experience to plantation work. A more forcing
climate, too, than that of Ceylon does not exist under
the sun ; while noAV that the country is fully opened,
the risks to health are infinitesimal compared with
those of pioneers in new countries or of the tea planters
in the Terai of India. Whatever may be said of the
inimical effects of bad seasons on coffee — too much rain
at blossoming time — there can be no doubt of the
advantage. of abundance of moisture and heat for tea,
and it is in respect of the fitness of large tracts of
undeveloped country for tea production that we would
especially ask for the attention of British capitalists.
Indian tea planters, who have come to see how
tea is growing in Ceylon, confess that we are bound
to rival Northern India. Tea, of as good quality as
that from Assam, can be placed on board ship at
Colombo for less per pound than Indian tea on board
ship at Calcutta. But tea (although the principal)
is only one among a list of valuable tropical products
which Ceylon is well fitted to grow.
As a body, Ceylon planters are the most intelli-
gent, gentlemanly, and hospitable of any colonists in
British dependencies. The rough work of pioneering
in the early days before there were district roads,
villages, supplies, doctors, or other comforts of civili-
sation, was chiefly done by hard-headed Scots; men
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon. 97
bivouacked iu the trackless jungle with the scantiest
accommodation under tropical rains lasting for weeks
together, with rivers swollen to flood-level and impass-
able while food supplies often ran short, as none could
be got across the wide torrents. All these and many-
other similar experiences are of the past in the settled
planting districts of Ceylon, although there are outlying
parts where pioneers can still rough it to their hearts'
content. In the hill-country the pioneers about twenty
years ago began to be succeeded by quite a different
class of men. Younger sons with a capital, present
or prospective, of a few thousand pounds, educated
at public schools, and many of them University men,
found an opening in life on Oeylon plantations far
more congenial than that of the Australian bush or
the backwoods of Canada. Of course, some of these
did not succeed as planters, as they probably would
not have succeeded at anything in the colonies ; but
for well-inclined young men of the right stamp, not
afraid of hard work, Ceylon still presents an opening
as planters of tea, Liberian coffee, cacao, coconut palms,
etc., provided the indispensalDle capital is available.
The usual mode, and the safe one, is to send the
young man fresh from home, through the introduction
of some London or Colombo firm to study his business
as a planter, and to learn the colloquial Tamil spoken
by the coolies, under an experienced planter two or
three years. In prosperous times such young assistants
were taught and boarded free in return for their help,
and began to earn a salary after a year or so. Now
a fee for board and teaching (£50, or at most £100 for
a year) may be needful ; but only capitalists or young
men who are to pioneer elsewhere should at present (1903)
come to the island, the situations for working planters
being all fully taken up. At the same time nowhere
in the whole wide world can young men learn so
thoroughly the management of native free labourers,
the mysteries of tea, coffee, cacao cinchona, palm plan
ting, etc., or be so well equipped as tropical agriculturists
M
98 Ceylon vn 1903.
as in Ceylon. Ceylon planters and machinists have
taught the rest of the tropics how to grow and prepare
coffee properly; more is known in it about the mysteries
of cinchona bark culture than anywhere else ; the Ceylon
tea planter had made his mark in the production
of fine teas. Ceylon "cocoa" has already fetched the
highest prices in the London market, just as she sends
thither the finest cinnamon, cardamoms, coconut-oil,
coir, etc. It may truly be said that the Press of Ceylon
has greatly aided the planters in acquiring this pre-
eminence. The Ceylon Observer has sent special
correspondents to report on the tea regions of Assam
and Darjeeling ; on the cinchona gardens of the Nilgiris
and of Java ; to West Africa to learn all about Liberian
coffee, and to South and Central America to ascertain
the progress of coffee ; while its manuals on coffee, tea,
cinchona, cacao, indiarubber, coconuts and areca palms,
cardamoms and cinnamon planting, on gold and gems,
are known throughout the tropics. Of late years, since
1881, a monthly periodical, the Tropical Agriculturist,
published at the same office, has been effectually
bringing together all the information and experience
available in reference to everything that concerns
agriculture in tropical and sub-tropical regions. This
is merely mentioned, en passant, in part explanation
of the high position taken by the Ceylon-trained
planter, wherever he goes.
After the depression of 1879 many Ceylon plantation
managers and assistant superintendents had to seektheir
fortunes elsewhere ; and, indeed, the planting districts
of Southern India may be said to be offshoot settlements
from Ceylon, while in Fiji, Northern Australia, the
Straits Settlements, Burmah, North Borneo, East,
Central and West Africa, there are Ceylon planters
pioneering and building up a planting enterprise.
The convenience afforded by quick passages in
large steamers via the Suez Canal, and by railways
and roads in Ceylon, is such that capitalists can now
THE LATE A. M. FERGUSON C.M.G., COLOMBO, CEYLON.
The oldesf, Newspaper Editor in Asia— Editor of the " Ceylon Observe!^."
/
N.
HON. MR. JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G.
Editor of the "Ceylon Observer" &c., &c.
General Kuropean KepreEentative in the Ceylon Legislative Council.
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon. 99
inspect their property in Ceylon with as much ease
and pleasure as they would have in a two months'
trip to the Highlands of Scotland or to the South of
Europe; and it is becoming quite a common thing
for the retired proprietor or business man to run out
to Ceylon for the winter months. How different the
case was thirty years ago 1 We remember a Glasgow
capitalist owning a property worth £100,000 in Ceylon,
coming out to see it, and after getting to Nuwara
Eliya, within forty miles of the property, refusing
to go further, so bad were the roads ; and he, a man
of sixty-eight or seventy, returned home without ever
having seen the plantation ; he ultimately sold his
interests to a Limited Company at a considerable profit !
The carriage of produce from the estates to
Colombo, from 100 to 200 miles, used often to take
as much time and cost as much as the freight 15,000
miles round the Cape. From the remotest planting
districts to Colombo carriage sometimes still costs in
time and money as much as freight to London via
the Canal ; but, as a whole, Ceylon is magnificently
roaded, has a very considerable proportion of railways,
especially of first-class mountain lines, with an ample
supply of cheap labour, and a particularly favourable
climate.
Finally, let the capitalist know that obnoxious
laws connected with land and commerce, based on the
Roman-Dutch system, have either been or are shortly
to be reformed. Codes have been framed, and
antiquated laws bearing on mortgages and other
business transactions will be superseded.
CHAPTER XII.
ATTRACTIONS FOB THE TRAVELLER AND VISITOR.
The Voyage a Pleasure Trip— Historical Monuments, Vegetation, etc.
— Variety of Climate— Colombo, the Capital — Kandy, the High-
land Capital — Nuwara Bliya tlie Sanatorium — The Horton Plains
— Adam's Peak— Uva and its long-delayed Railway— Ancient
Cities o£ Auuradliapura and Polonnaruwa — Occasional Pearl
Fisheries— Probflble Expense of a Visit to Ceylon— The Alleged
Inconveniences of Tropical Life.
TO the traveller and visitor Ceylon offers more attrac-
tions even tlian to the capitalist and would-be'
planter. It is a joke with disappointed men that the
stranger can see on the hills of Ceylon the graves
of more British sovereigns than of Kandyan Kings 1
But the latter are not wanting, and no dependency
of Britain— India not excepted — presents more attrac-
tions than Ceylon to the intelligent traveller, to the
botanist, the antiquarian or the man of science, the
orientalist, or even to the politician and the sociologist.
Visitors from America and North India have said that
Ceylon, for natural beauty, historical and social in-
terest, is the "show-place of the universe," and that,
as such, it might well in these days of travelling
sightseers, be leased by either a Barnum or Cook !
The voyage of twenty-one to twenty-five days from
London to Colombo (of fourteen to eighteen from
Brindisi or Marseilles) on a first-class steamer of
any of half a dozen lines competing at from £50 to £55
for the single, or less than double for the return
passage, is at the proper season of the year— Sep-
tember to March or April— a pleasure trip of the most
A BUDDHIST SHRINE.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 101
enjoyable and instructive kind. The calling by some
steamers at Gibraltar, Malta, Port Said, Suez, and
Aden affords instruction and pleasuse of a high order ;
while the beauty of Ceylon vegetation and scenery
the interest attaching to her people, towns, and ancient
cities and monuments, amply reward even the worst sea
traveller for the unpleasantness of a voyage. Tennent
well says that Ceylon, from whatever direction it
may be approached, unfolds a scene of loveliness and
grandeur unsurpassed, if it be rivalled, by any land in
the universe. Its names— "Lanka, the resplendent," of
the Brahmins ; the " pearl-drop on the brow of Ind,''
of the Buddhists ; " the island of jewels," of the
Chinese ; the land of the hyacinth and ruby," of the
Greeks ; and "the home of Adam and Eve after losing
Paradise," according to the Mohammedans— as Arabi
and his fellow-exiles said soon after their arrival —
will show the high esteem in which it has been held
both in the East and the West.
As for its history, as already mentioned, no region
between Chaldea and China can tell so much of its
past deeds as Ceylon,, while the ruins of its ancient
capitals in palaces, temples, d4gobas, and tanks are
only second to those of Egypt. These ruins are all
now rendered accessible in a few days' trip by railway,
coach, and other conveyance from Colombo, without
risk or incovenience, and at very little expense
to the traveller.* ,
As to vegetation and natural history gene-
rally, Ceylon is one huge tropical garden, pre-
senting objects of intense interest to the botanist
and zoologist, from the coral reef and pearl oys-
ter banks around its coasts, and the palms and
creepers bending down to meet "the leaguelong
rollers thundering on its shores'," to the grassy pathways
» See Burrows' 'Guide to the Buried Cities of Ceylon"; also Guides
to Colombo, to Kaudy, Nuwara Bliya, and Kurunegala piblished
by A. M. &. J. Ferguson.
102 Ceylon in 1903.
running up to hills clothed to their summit with the
most varied forest trees, or to the plateaux of Nuwara
Eliya and the surrounding plains— "the Elysium of
Ceylon"— where, at an elevation of over 6,000 feet in
grass, and j&owers, and trees, a bit of
"Europe amid Asia smiles."
There, is snug cottages, wood fires and blankets are
often required to keep away the cold. In one day the
visitor can pass from Colombo, with its average
temperature of 81°, to the sanatorium, with its wintry
comforts, and temperature falling to freezing-point
occasionally, but averaging 57*; or, now that the
Uva railway is open — he can pass on the same
evening to a nearly perfect climate at an average
temperature of 63° on the Haputale range. During
March, April, and May — "the season" at the sanatorium
—the weather is very equable, comparatively dry,
and delightful. September, and part of August and
October, are very pleasant, and often January and
February, as well as December sometimes ; but thin
ice on the water, and hoar frost on the herbage, are
then not uncommon. The very wet months are June,
July, and December. Sir Samuel Baker lived eight
years continuously at Nuwara Eliya, and speaks very
highly of its healthfulness.* Indian civilians and other
residents declare that Nuwara Eliya is more pleasantly
accessible to them than most of their own hill-stations,
the short sea-voyage from Calcutta or Bombay being
an additional benefit to many who come from the hot
dry plains of Central India. For invalids, the marine
boarding-house at Mount Lavinia, as well as the
Colombo seaside hotels, are very safe and suitable
places of resort.
The perfection of climate, in an average of 65° all the
year round, is found at 5,000 feet, among the bungalows
* See Sir Samuel Baker's " Eight Years " and "Kifle and Hound
in Ceylon."
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 103
of Dimbula, Dikoya and Maakeliya, or of Uva, with its
drier and at times more pleasant climate. The wet
season of the south-west monsoon (June and July) is
sometimes rather trying to residents in the districts
west of Nuwara Eliya. With the Uva railway open,
visitors are now able to pass easily to the ancient
principality, now province of Uva, where the weather
is bright and dry in these months. It is no
wonder then that parents and others, with their
sons, daughters, or other relatives settled in Ceylon,
should have begun to visit it in order to escape the
trying winter and spring months in England. Not a
few who used to winter in Egypt find it nearly as
convenient and more interesting to come on to Ceylon.
The late Mr. C. A. Cameron and his wife, Mrs. Julia
Cameron Cthe well-known artist and friend of Tennyson),
even when in advanced years (approaching in Mr.
Cameron's ease to or over fourscore), made the voyage
across more than once to visit and stay for considerable
periods with their sons settled in the island. One
London lady past middle life, who ventured to visit hei'
daughter in Ceylon, dreaded the voyage so much that
her leave-taking was of the most solemn and desponding
character ; but her experience was so entirely pleasant
that she has since repeated the winter visit several
times, and now declares that the trip to "the city" from
her residence in a cab is more dangerous and trying to
the nerves than the voyage from the Thames to Colombo
in a first-class steamer. Of late years winter visitors
from Europe and hot-weather refugees from India have
been numerous, apart from "globe-trotters" calling
in ; while the large number of passengers by the mail
and commercial steamers to and from Australia, China,
India, etc., who land for a day or more, give Colombo,
and sometimes Kandy, a very busy appearance.
Colombo, the capital, a city of close on 160,000 inhabit-
ants, with its fine ai'tiflcial harbour (projected by Sir Her-
cules Robinson and continued by Sir William Gregory
and Sir West Ridgeway) has much to interest the visitor
104 , Ceylon in 1903.
in its beauitful drives over the smoothest of roads
through the " Cinnamon Gardens ": its lake, and the Ke-
lani river, although Sir Edward Barnes's bridge of boats
has been recently superseded by a modern iron screw-
pile bridge ; its public museum, erected by Sir William
Gregory, and containing objects of interest from, all
parts of the island ; the old Dutch church, containing
the tombs and monuments of Dutch governors ; the
bungalows and gardens of the Europeans ; its hospitals
and other public institutions ; still more unique are
the crowded native parts of the town, teeming
with every variety of oriental race and costume — the
effeminate light brown Sinhalese, the men as well as
women wearing their hair tied behind in knots (the
former patronisingcombs, the latter elaborate hairpins),
the darker and more manly Tamils, Hindus of every
caste and dress, Moormen or Arab descendants, Afghan
traders, Malay policemen, a few Parsees and Chinese,
Kaffir mixed descendants,* besides the Eurasians of
Dutch, or Portuguese, or English and native descent.
Colombo has three first-class, besides minor hotels,
and the stranger is soon surrounded by native pedlars,
especially jewellers with their supply of gems, from
rare cat's-eyes, rubies, sapphires, and pearls to first-
class Birmingham imitations.
The scene to the new-comer is bewilderingly interest-
ing; visions of the "Arabian Nights" are conjured up,
for, as Miss Jewsbury sang after her visit some fifty
years ago : —
" Ceylon ! Ceylon 1 'tis nought to me
How thou wert known or named of old,
As Ophlr, or Taproban^,
By Hebrew kina;, or Grecian bold :—
* Kaffirs first arrived In Ceylon as a company of soldiers sent
from Goa to help the Portuguese against the Sinhalese in 1636-40.
The first British Governor (the Hon. t\ North) actually purchased
a body of Kaffir soldiers from tlie Portuguese Government at Goa,
besides sending an officer to try and "crib" Malaya from the
eastward {Straits and Java)! Major Skinner went on a legitimate
recruiting expedition to the Straits and Java in the early "thirties"
to get Malays for the Ceylon Rifles, but was not successful.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 105
'•To me thy spicy-wooded vales,
Thy dusky sons, and jewels bright,
But image forth the far-famed tales—
But seem a new Arabian night.
'• And when engirdled figures crave
Heed to thy bosom's glittering store —
I see Aladdin in his cave ;
I follow Sinbad on the shore."
Although the mean temperature of Colombo Is
nearly as high as that of any station in the world
as yet recorded, yet the climate is one of the
healthiest and safest for Europeans, because of
the slight range . between night and day, and be-
tween the so-called "seasons," of which, however,
nothing is known • there, it being one perpetual sum-
mer varied only by the heavy rains of the monsoon
months— May, June, October, and November. But
in the wettest months it rarely happens that it
rains continuously even for two whole days and
nights; as a rule, it clears up for some hours
each day.
Waterworks have been constructed, at a heavy
cost, to convey water from mountain streams, dis-
tant thirty miles, to serve Colombo. When the
works and distribution over the city are completed
—an additional pipe to increase the supply is now
being laid — and when the drainage (now taken in
hand by Mr. Mansergh) is complete, Colombo will
more than ever be entitled to its reputation of
being one of the healthiest (as well as most beauti-
ful) cities in the tropics, or indeed in the world.
A convenient system of electric tramways is worked
over two long and populous routes affording one
of the best and easiest means of seeing the city and
people ; while, besides the railway through one side of
the town, there are numerous conveyances of different
descriptions for hire at very moderate rates, more
108 Ceylon in 19a3,
especially "jinirickshaws" (man-power carriages), pecu-
liar to Japan and the Far East.*
There are several places of interest in the neigh-
bourhood of Colombo that are well worth a visit.
A seaside railway line runs for 98J miles as far as
MAtara, which may erelong be extended 24 miles to
Tangalla. This passes through several interesting
stations and towns :— Mount Lavinia, with its command-
ing hotel, originally erected as a Governor's residence;
Moratuwa, the scene of a flourishing church in connec-
tion, with the Wesley an Mission ; P&nadur6, with its
backwater and fishing ; Kalutara, the Richmond, of
Ceylon ; Bentota, the old half-way station, famous ,for
its oysters and river ; Ambalangoda, for its sea-bathing;
Galle, for its picturesque harbour and surroundings ;
Weligama for the bay and village so dear to Haeckel; and
M&tara, with its star-fort and blue river, the NilwalA-
ganga. The railway runs nearly all the way under an
avenue of coconut palms, diversified here and there by
jak, breadfruit, and other fruit trees, and close to the
seashore with the waves breaking over coral reefs and
a cool breeze generally blowing. The enjoyment of the
scene to a lover of natural beauty is indescribable : the
cool shade of the palm groves, the fresh verdxire
of the grass, the bright tints of the flowering
trees, with occasional glimpses through openings
in the dense wood of the mountains of the interior,
the purple zone of hills above Avhich the sacred
mountain of -Adam's Peak is sometimes seen, all
* "Jinirickshaws," which have become very popular in Ueylon
towns, in Colombo, Kandy, and Nuwara Eliya especially, were freely
introduced in 1884, on the suggestion of the author, after a visit to
the Straits, Chma, and Japan, where he noted the '"rickshaws" and
wrote of their peculiar fitness for Colombo roads. Mr. Whittall, an
ex-HouR Kong resident, introduced the first " 'rickshaw " some time
before, but little notice was taken of it till after the letters appeared.
Bicycles have of late years become very common and are freely used
even by Sinhalese wearing "comboys" or petticoats.
32
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Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 107
combine to form a landscape, which, in novelty and
beauty, is unsurpassed: —
" So fair a scene, so green a sod,
Our English fairies never trod,"
Returning to Colombo, we may remark on the
great variety of vegetation presented to the visitor,
apart from the palms (coconut, areea, kitul, dwarf,
etc.), the shrubs, such as cinnamon, the crotons, hibiscus
and cabbage Irees, the aloes and other pla;nts, or the
many fruit trees of the gardens. The winding, ubiquit-
ous lake, too, adds much to the beauty and health
of the city.
As Miss Martineau wrote, fifty years ago, in her
political romance, " Cinnamon and Pearls " :— "The Blue
Lake of Colombo, whether gleaming in the sunrise
or darkening in the storms of the monsoon, never
loses its charm. The mountain range in the distance is
an object for the eye to rest lovingly upon, whether
clearly outlined against the glowing sky, or dressed in
soft clouds, from which Adam's Peak alone stands
aloft, like a dark island in the waters above the
firmament.''
Nor is Edward Carpenter writing in 1891 (" Adam's
Peak to Elephanta"^ less complimentary, when he
says:— "Everywhere are trees and flowering shrubaand,
as one approaches the outskirts of the town, the
plentiful broad leaves of coco-palms and bananas
overshadowing the roads. Nor in any description of
Colombo should the fresh- water lake be forgotten,
which ramifying and winding in most intricate fashion
through the town, and in one place coming within
a hundred yards of the sea, surprises one continually
with enchanting glimpses. I don't know any more
delightful view of its kind— all the more delightful
because so unexpected— than that which greets the
eye on entering the Port Railway Station at Colombo.
You pass through the booking-office and find your-
108 Ceylon in 1903
self on a platform which, except for the line of
rails between, might be a terrace on the lake itself;
a large expanse of water with wooded shores and
islands, interspersed with villas, cottages and cabins
lies before you ; white-sailed boats are going to
and fro ; groups "of -dark figures, waist-deep in water,
are Washing clothes ; . children are playlufc ^ 8»nd
swimming in the water; and when, as 1 saw it
once, -the evening sun is shining through , the
transparent, green fringe of banana palms which
occupies the immediate foreground, and the calm
lake beyond, reflects like a mirror the gorgeous hues
of sky and cloud, the scene is one which, for effect
of colour, can hardly be surpassed."
A delightful country to -pass through for
vegetation, river, lake and plantation scenery is that
between Colombo and Negombo and on to Chilaw and
Puttalam, some 80 miles ; but the coach journey is not
very comfortable, although its early supersession by a
railway is hoped for. The vegetation up to Negombo,
and indeed Marawila, is about the richest in the island.
Some of the finest cinnamon and coconut plantations
are en route. A great many Roman Catholic churches
are noted, many of the people being descendants of the
converts of Francis Xavier.
An interesting excursion from Colombo is by
railway and coach for 60 miles to Ratnapura, " the City
of Gems," running for the first Similes by narrow-gauge
railway which, at Avissawella, enters into one of the
most extensive tea-growing districts, although the
coach for the "City of Gtems" has to go 24 miles
further.. Railway extension from Avissawella to Ratna-
pura is looked for erelong. If the traveller chooses he
can pass from Avissawella through this Kelani tea
district by rail to Yatiyantota and drive by carriage
thence to join the railway at Nawalapitiya. When
he goes on by coach to Ratnapura, Pelmadulla, and
RakwAna, he ought to see all about "gem-digging"
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REMAINS OP THE OLD TEMPLE GATEWAY,
DOXDRA HEAD. CEYLON.
Attractions for the: TrcmielUr and Visitor. 109
pits and plumbago mines, and he can also see the
pla,ntations ; while, should he pass on by road via
Baiangoda to Haputale, he will pass through magni-
ficent scenery and come to very fine tea and coffee
fields.
The mildness of the climate of Colombo, the
murmur of cricket and insect life at night," and the
brilliancy of the moonlight, strike the stranger,
although the closeness of the atmosphere then is
sometimes felt to be oppressive, and the attention
of mosquitoes at certain seasons is far from pleasant.
But the low-country can easily be exchanged for the
hills. In four hours one passes from Colombo by
a splendid railway running through interesting
country,* surmounting an incline which is one of the
greatest railway ascents in the Cat least, tropical)
world, 1,600 feet above sea-level, to the last capital
of the native kings of the island— Kandy— a town
of 27,000 people. Kandy is uniquely beautiful : the
most charming little town in the world, travellers
usually describe, it. It is situated in a valley sur-
rounded by hills, and boasts an artificial lake, Bud-
dhist and Hindu temples, including the MAlig&wa,
the most sacred Buddhist temple in the world ;
this contains the so-called relic of Buddha's tooth,
to which the kings and priests of Burmah, Siam, and
Cambodia send occasional offerings, and which is held
in reverence in portions of India, Thibet, and even
China and Japan. "The Pavilion," one of the three
official residences of the Governor in the island, with its
gardens and grounds, surmounted by the public " Lady
Horton's Walk " on a hill-range overlooking the Dumbara
valley, will attract attention. The view of the town
*From Polsahawela, the half-way station, a railway is also
open to Kurnnegala, the capital of the North-Western Province,
the residence of the kings of' Ceylon from 1319 to 1317 A. D„ and
romantically situated under the shade of ^Jtagalla , (the Rock
of theTusked Elephant), 600 feet high. TheXorth- Western Province
is a favourite field for sportsmen, and the great Northern Kail way
of Ceylon begins at KurUnegala and ,- passing by Anuradhapura, runs
for nearly 200 milss to the coast beyond Jaffna at Ean^santurai,
110 Ceylon in 1903.
from any of the hillsides surrounding it is surpassingly-
interesting,*
Between Colombo and Kandy extensive paddy or
rice cultivation can be seen in the low-country; also
plantations of coconut palms ; and more inland fields of
tea, with some of Liberian coffee and chocolate trees ;
while higher up the Kandyans' terraced rice-fields may
be noted.
The Botanical Gardens at PerMeniya, three miles
from Kandy, "beautiful for situation exceedingly," as
well as full of interest in the vegetation, are well worth
a visit, t
The group of palms at the entrance has always been
an object of admiration to strangers, and it shows how
well adapted Ceylon is to be the home of this family!
We print an engraving of this group, and append here
the—
Names op Palms, etc, in Group.
(See List of JUustratiorvs.) ■
1. Corypha umbraculifera (Talipat)— highest plant in the centre;
2. Phytelephas macrocarpa (Ivory-nut Palm)— in front of
foregoing, and behind native servant.
3. Cycas ciroinalis (called erroneously "Sago Palm")— imme-
diately to the left of preceding, in front.
4. Areca Catechu— directly behind the Cycas, and with its head
of leaves amongst those of the Talipot.
5. Yucca gloriosa — a cluster of shoots of this in front ; to the left ,
of the Cycas.
6. Cocos uucifera (Coconut)— immediately behind the Yucca.
7. OnoospermafasciculataC'Kattoo Kittool")— behind, between
the Talipot and Coconut.
8. Acrocomia sclerocarpa— behind the Yucca, and with its trunk
a little to the left of that of the Coconut.
9. Livistona sp.— ai the extreme left of the group.
10. Livistona Chinensis ("Mauritius Palm ")— behind and
directly to the right of the Talipot.
' See Skeen's and Burrows' Guides to Kandy, etc., published
by A. M. & J. Ferguson.
t An interesting little guide-book and list of plants, etc., have
been prepared by the late director, Dr. Trimen, and improved by his
successor, and are available.
IHM /,///////.
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'I'-
ENTRANCl!) TO THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS,
PERADENIYA, NEAR KANDY.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. Ill
11. Livistona sp.— Immediately to the right of the coolie, in front.
12. Oreodoxa regia (Cabbage Palm)— directly behind No. 11 ;
trunk large, smooth, bulged above the middle.
13. Sabal Palmetto ("Palmetto" of the Southern States of
America)— to the right of the group, in front.
14. Bloesis Guineensis ("Palm Oil Palm" of Africa)— with
numerous long spreading leaves; behind and overtopping
No, 13, and to the extreme right of the groun.
From Kandy a visit to the Dumbara valley, five
or six miles by road, or to M4tal6, twenty miles by
railway, will show some of the finest cacao (chocolate)
plantations ; while southward, the railway journey to
Gampola and Nd,walapitiya, for 17 miles, and then on
for forty-two miles, rising by successive inclines to a
point 5,290 feet above sea-level at Nanu-oya, near
Nuwara Bliya, will carry the visitor through long
stretches of tea plantations, with a sprinkling here
and there of cinchona trees and some coffee fields.
These are placed amidst enchanting mountain scenery,
with rivers, forests, waterfalls and gorges that nothing
can surpass. Altogether, the railway ride from
Colombo to NAnu-oya, nearly 130 miles, and rising
from sea-level fully one mile in the air, is one of the
most varied and interesting in the world.* The journey
is made by a flrst-elass broad-gauge railway, with a
refreshment ear attached, in seven to eight hours,
without any change of train or carriage.
NAnu-oya is only about four miles from Nuwara
Eliya, by a fine road, but there is now a light 2^-
feet gaixge railway running up to the heart of the
sanatorium. There is good hotel and boarding-house
accommodation; the "Gregory Lake," due to Sir
William Gregory, is a fine feature ; a grand golf links,
racing, tennis, croquet and hockey grounds ; public
park and garden, and Hill and United Clubs, reading
rooms and libraries are available. Sir West Ridgeway
has done an immense deal for Nuwara Eliya : its water
* See " Guide to Ceylon Railways and Railwaj Extensions, with
Notice of the Sanatorium," compiled and published by A. M, Si
J. Ferguson, and Burrows' " Guide to Nuwara Bliya."
112 Ceylon in 1903.
supply, lighting, conservancy, roads and buildings.
Plantations of tea and cinchona, and the finely
situated and admirably kept Hakgala experimental
gardens, are in the neighbourhood. The summit of
the highest mountain in Ceylon, Pidurutal^gala, 8,296
feet, or 2,000 feet above the Plains, can be easily
attained in a walk before breakfast; while a
trip- to the top of the far more interesting
Adam's Peak (sacred alike to Buddhists, Hindus,
Mohammedans, and even Roman Catholics) can he
readily arranged by leaving the railway at Hatton.
Thence a good road runs to a point on the mountain
breast about 3,000 feet from the summit, which is 7,353
feet high. The climb up Adam's Peak is a stiff one,
particularly the last portion, where steps are cut out,
and even chains fixed in the rock, to prevent the
climber from slipping or being blown down the side
of the precipice in stormy seasons. The view from
the top in clear weather is ample reward for all
trouble, and the projection of the shadow across the
low-country to the sea as the sun rises is a sight,
once seen, never to be forgotten.
Another interesting trip is the drive from Nuwara
Eliya down the old mail-coach road by Ramboda Pass,
famousf or its waterfalls and outlook, through Pussellawa
to Gampola, Prom Nuwara Eliya, too, excursions can
be made to Udapussellawa and Maturata districts or
to New Galway, calling at Hakgala on the way. Again,
from- Nuwara Eliya a day's ride suffices to reach the
Horton Plains, 1,000 feet higher; and there, as well
as between these two points, is a large extent of upland
in a delightful climate, well suited for comparative
settlement by Europeans. At any rate their children
could be kept here in rude health until twelve to
fourteen years of age; and the soil is well fitted for
small farms and vegetable gardens, as well as for
growing cinchona and the finer qualities of tea.
Cricket, tennis, as well as other sports, and shooting
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Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 113
trips enliven the planter's labours. As a sanatorium
for British troops, this site is unequalled, both for
climate and accessibility.
Already the surrounding districts, served by road
and Railway, and having villages, . stores, churches,
clergymen, and doctors, are beginning to be regarded
as the comparatively permanent homes of many of the
planters. Nuwara Eliya and the Horfcou Plains border
on the Uva Principality, with its comparatively ' dry
upland climate, where so deliciously pleasant and
health-giving is the air that to breathe it has been
compared to a draught of the pure juice of the grape.
This: country is now most readily approached by flrst-
class railway rising from Naniioya. until at Pattipola
summit level is reached in 6,200 feet, and then traversing
tunnels . and winding down until at Haputale the
elevation is 4,500 feet and a grand- view of the low-
country to the seaside at Hambantota is obtained;
at Diyatalawa the old camp of the Boer prisoners
(now a camp for military and naval convalescents) is
noted; while at the terminus at BandArawela, about
4,200 feet above sea-level, 160 miles from Colombo, the
perfection of climate in Ceylon is reached. Probably
there is not such an attractive railway ride in the
world of its length as that from Colombo into Uva. The
"railway journey through th& dividing -mountain range
and the burst into the grand Uva amphitheatre of moim-
taih range, embracing rolling patanas (gr-assy: plains),
richj' onjtivated valleys with sparkling, streams and
glistening irrigation channels, will be full of an interest
of its own to travellers. The effect of the tunnels and
the open spaces between, when trains are I'unning, will
be most striking. Emerging from a tunnel, travellers
will suddenly behold spread out as a vaSt panoralna the
grassy prsiiries, the green rice fields, the glancing rivers
and the grand mountain ranges, of the valley of UVa;
a marked contrast to- the alternating tea cultivation
and foi'est expanses of the western side of the ?pange.
The scene will repeevtedly appear and disappeai? as if at
114 Ceylon in 1903.
tte command of a magician, until the series of tunnels
arid of wooded hills give place to the open and preci-
pitous ranges which stretch from Idulgashena to the
Haputale Pass, whence the sea will be visible on the
eastern side of island. A waterfall in Eastern Haputale,
one of the divisions of Uva, is supposed to be the
highest in Ceylon, though in Maturata and Madulsima
there are rivals, while the Ella Pass and the view
of the low-country and sea coast from the hill
range is very striking.* The Province of Uva too, perhaps
more than any other in Ceylon, will offer attractions
and opportunities to the planting settler and
capitalist for investment, its soil and climate being
generally considered the best in the island for the staple
products of the colonist as well as for the fruits and
vegetables cultivated by the natives. In the park
country division of the province, there is also rich
pasturage for feeding cattle, while opportunities for
sport, from snipe to elephants, are presented on all
sides. As already stated, civil and military ofiieers,
merchants and others, from India, are now beginning
to regard Ceylon, with its seaside boarding-establish-
ments, and its comfortable accommodation at Nuwara
Bliya . sanatorium, as more desirable than Indian
hill-stations during the hot season.
From Kandy the trip to the ancient capitals of
Anur&dhapura and Polonnaruwa, from ninety to sixty
miles to the north and east, can easily be arranged
* "Perhaps there is not a scene in the world which oombines
sublimity ana beauty in a more extraordinary decree than that
which is presented at the Pass of Ella, where, through an opening in
the chain of mountains, the road from Badulla descends rapidly to
the lowlands, over wliich it is carried for upwards o£ seventy miles,
to Hatnbantota, on the south coast of the island. The ride to Ella
passes for ten or twelve miles along the base of hills thickly wooded,
except on those spots where the forest has been cleared for planting
coffee. The view is therefore obstructed, and at one point appears
to terminate in an impassable glen, but on reaching this the
traveller is startled on discovering a ravine through which a torrent
has forced its way, disclosing a passage to tlie plains below, over
■which, for more than sixty miles, the prospect extends, unbroken by
a single eminence, till, far in the distance, the eye discerns a line of
light, which marks where the sunbeams are flashing on the waters
of the Indian Qeean."— ^merson. Tennent.
Attractions jor the Traveller and Visitor. 115
for the visitor ; and from amid the ruins of AiMir4dha-
pura (2,000 years old) one can despatch a telegram to
friends at home in England or America, or post a
budget of news. Very shortly (by 1905) the visitor
can pass from Colombo to AnurMhapura all the way
by railway, and in the following year go on if he pleases
by the same locomotive train to Jaffna.
For sportsmen there is elephant shooting in the far
south in the Hambantota district, or in the Eastern Pro-
vince, or outlying northern districts; elk hunting round
Nuwara Eliya ; or wild buffalo, bear, boar, or wild
hog, and cheetah hunting in the forests of the north
and east.*
We have already alluded to the prospect of succes-
sive pearl-oyster fisheries off the north-west coast, for
which Ceylon has been famous from time immemorial ;
and which can be readily visited, as steamers fly to and
fro during the fishery. A very successful one of nearly
44,000,000 oysters, briaging in nearly 1,223,355 rupees
to the Ceylon Government, was held early in April-
May 1908. The primitive mode of diving for and
gathering the oysters by a particular caste of native
divers (who are paid by one-third of the oysters taken),
their sale by Government auction, and the business
in pearls with thousands of dealers and their followers,
who collect from all parts of India in the hope of a
good fishery taking place,— all this is full of novelty.t
A further interesting trip to the visitor, is that
round the island by one of the well-found steamers
of the Ceylon Steam Navigation Company ; a week
suffices for this, including the passage northward
through Pa,umben Channel, with a visit to the far-
•■Blepbaiit kraals— a system of capturing elephants peculiar
to Gevlon— are now of rare occurrence, being organised only on
special occasions. Herds of as many as 200 elephants and 100 wild
hogsliave been seen at onetime in Ceylon.
+ For particulars of the " Pearl Fisheries " see Fergiison's
"Cevlon Euindbook and Directory," for successive years. Also" see
"Gold, Greiris and Pearls" compiled by J. Ferguson.
116 Ceyton in 1903.
famed Rameswaram temple, to Jaffna and its garden-
peninsula and interesting mission-stations ; to Point
Pedro, the ultima thule; Trincomalee, the naval
headquarters in the Indian Ocean, with its niagnifleent
harbour ; Batticaloa, with its fine lake (singing-fish),
coconut and rice culture ; Hambantota and its salt
pans ; perhaps M4tara, and its three rivers as well as
beautiful surroundings ; and Point-de-Galle.
The cost of living in Ueylon at hotels ranges from
8s. or 10.9. per day upwards, board and comfortable
accommodation by the month being available at from
£8 to £10 for each adult. A lady and gentleman leaving
England early in November, and returning by the 1st
of May, spending four clear months in a comfortably-
furnished bungalow in the hill-country of Ceylon, could
do so for a total cost of from £250 to £300, including
cost of trips to the points of interest in the island ; the
greater portion of this amount being for passage-money
to and fro, which now ranges from £60 to £90 for
return tickets. An individual visitor could, of course,
do the trip for less. With further competition there
can be no doubt— for the steamers' margin of profit
allows of a considerable reduction*— that the day is
not far distant when £35 should secure a first-class
passage between Ceylon and England, and £50 a
return ticket extending over six months. Before
the Suez Canal opened £100 was the single rate of
the overland route.
It may be averred that little has been said about
the drawbacks to life in, or even to a visit to, Ceyloni
The tropical heat in the low-country must be endured ;
but, if found trying, a single day's journey will carry
the visitor to a cool region. As to the detestable
leeches described by Tennent as infesting every
country pathway, and the poisonous snakes, the visitor
• A first-class passage by mail steamer can at present be obtained
for Melbourne or Sydney for very little more than to Colombo,
which Is only half way; tliis is an anomaly which must shortly
be removed.
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ir^-!;i!| !
AttroAitions for the traveller and Visitor. Ill
may be months, or even years, in Ceylon without
ever seeing the one or the other, being no more
troubled by them than by the enormous crocodiles
in the river or the voracious sharks round the coast.
Repulsive insects, such as centipedes, scorpions, and
large spiders, are also rare in any well-ordered
bungalow ; while mosquitoes are only occasionally
troublesome, and that chiefly in the low-country. The
hum of insect life, as soon as day closes, in the
moist, warm, low-country at once arrests the ears
of new-comers, though local residents become so
accustom.ed to it as not to hear it until their attention
is specially directed to it. The brilliancy of moon-lit
nights, especially of a full moon, in the tropics is
generally a great treat to strangers ; so also are the
stars and constellations of the Southern Hemisphere,
including the bright fixed star Canopus and the
interesting as well as brilliant constellation of the
Southern Cross. The monotony of perpetual summer,
and of days and nights of about the same length all
the year round, affords one point of strong contrast
to England, but is pleasing, rather than otherwise,
to the visitor.
No less than from 25,000 to 30,000 passengers call
at Colombo during each year, bound to England,
Europe generally or America, or to Australia, India;
the Straits, or China.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OP CEYLON.
Chief Sources of Revenue: — Grain and Customs Dues, Sales o£ Crown,
Land and Railway Profits— Taxation and Revenue.
UNTIL 1828 there was an annual excess of expenditure
over revenue in Ceylon : but between 1829 and 1836
the balance was on the right side, owing chiefly to a
series of successful pearl fisheries. From 1837 to 1842,
and again from 1846 to 1849, expenditure once more
exceeded revenue ; but from that time there was a
surplus, and the amount of revenue quadrupled within
twenty-five years, owing to the rapid development of
the planting enterprise— the sale of Crown forest lands
largely contributing — until in 1877 it attained a
inaximum of R17,026,190. After that, owing to the
falling oft" in the cojffee crops, the revenue Avent down,
until in 1882 it reached R12,161,570. Then a gradual
recovery set in, but there was no marked improvement
until the Tea enterprise became fully established in
1887-8. Since then the improvement has been most
marked, so that for 1902 the revenue reached the
unprecedented amount of R28, 435,000.
The main sources of the Ceylon General Revenue are
found in import duties on the rice imported from India
for feeding the coolies and others directly or indirectly
connected with the great planting enterprise of Ceylon,
including a large proportion of the urban population.
This import duty also bears on all the population
of the big towns, and on a considerable proportion
of that of the villages. The Sinhalese and Tamil rice
Tlie Revenue and Expenditure of Cei/lon. 119
cultivators barely grow enough grain to support chem-
selves and their dependents. To balance this import
duty Cor rather previous to its existence) there was up to
1892 an excise collection on locally-grown grain by
means of a Government levy, the remains of the old
tithe or rent paid to the native kings. This rent
had been greatly reduced by the application of com-
mutation, so that the import duty on grain had
become decidedly protective of local industry. But
not content with this, it pleased Lord Knutsford, as
Secretary of State, and Sir Arthur Havelock to abolish
the internal grain levy or " paddy" rent altogether from
January 1st, 1893, without, however, touching the
corresponding Customs duty ; and this was approved
by the Cobden Club. The other most productive im-
port duties are those on wines, spirits, hardware,
and cotton goods. Altogether the Customs bring in
between a quarter and a fifth of the entire revenue.
The annual income from the railways, all held by
the Government (and 122 out of 368, shortly to be over
600, miles the free property of the Colony), now makes
up more of the general revenue than do Customs duties
or nearly one-fifth of the entire revenue. "Licences"
(to sell intoxicating drinks, chiefly arrack) unfortun-
ately yield between one-eighth and one-ninth of the
total ; and the "Salt-tax" and " Stamps " together make
up one-seventh of the general revenue. Sales of Crown
lands, chiefly to planters, used occasionally in former
years to be as prbductive as the Customs ; but latterly the
extent of land offered for sale, and the consequent reve-
nue, have greatly fallen of. Among the rules guiding the
Forest Department formed of recent years is one pro-
hibiting the the sale of Crown forest land 5,000 feet
above sea-level and upwards, or on the ridges of
mountains or banks of rivers below that height.
It is now felt that a great mistake was made
sixty years ago in not keeping the proceeds of land
sale^ in a separate fund as capital to be expended
in reproductive public works, apart from the general
121 Cerjlmx in 1903.
revenue. The same may be said of the surphis of
the large railway receipts after providing for working
expenses and interest on debt with sinking fund.
Had this been done, the expenditure on fixed establish-
ments wovild not have been allowed to increase year
by year, as if the general revenue from Customs,
land sales, and railway profits dependent on the
planting enterprise, were a permanent source of
income. The railway profits were for many years
almost entirely due to the carriage of coffee from
the interior to Colombo, and of rice, general goods,
and manure for the plantations. Now tea (and tea
requisites), with cocoa, cardamoms, coconuts and other
new products, make up the main freight on the line,
In addition to the Customs the railway profits, land
sales, the excise on the sale of spirits, stamp duties,
and the monopoly or tax on salt, as the main sources
of revenue, we have an occasional contribution of
from R100,000 to R1,000,000 from a pearl fishery. The
latter is one of the most acceptable, but one of the
most uncertain, sovirces of Ceylon wealth. We trust
the series of Fisheries begun in 1903 will long continue.—
A commission to consider the incidence of taxation
in Ceylon, appointed by Governor Sir West Ridgeway,
is now sitting, and we trust, as the result of its report,
that the taxation of the Colony will be placed on a
wise, equitable and permanent footing.
CHAPTER XIV.
WHAT ITS GOVERNMENT CAN DO FOR CEYLON.
Active and Independent Administrators required— The Obstruction
to Progress offered in Downing Street— Railway Extenaions
—Law reform needed— Technical, Industrial, and Agricultural
Education needs encouraging— The Buddhist Temporalities
Questions— Fiscal Reform of Road, Excise Laws, Salt Monopoly,
Food Taxes and Customs Duties— The Duke of Buckingham's
Ceylon and Southern India Railway Project— Ceylon and India-
Waste Crown Lands.
AS regards the wants of Ceylon, its government is a
paternal despotism ; and the Governor and Secret-
ary of State (with his Colonial Office advisers) being to
a great extent irresponsible rulers, much depends on
their treatment of the island. There can be no doubt
that in the past progress has been made in spite of,
rather than with, the prompt, zealous co-operation of
DoAvning Street. In support of this view we would
quote from a review in the London Spectator of a
recent work on the " Crown Colonies of Great Britain":—
" The system of Crown Colonies is supposed to be
that of a benevolent despotism, a paternal autocracy. It
is in many cases that of a narrow and selfish oligarchy.
It is supposed that the Colonial Office exercises a
beneficial supervision, and is everywhere the guardiaii
angel of the bulk of the population in all the British
Colonies. The supposition that a few Civil Servants,
most of whom have never lived out of England, or
engaged in any trade or business but that of clerks in
the Colonial Office, could really exercise any such power,
p
122 Ceylon in 1903.
is extravagant on the face of it. There are more than
thirty Crown Colonies, as various and widely scattered
as Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Malta, Heligoland, Jamaica,
Honduras, Ceylon, and Sierra Leone. How could any
body of officials in London, however large, highly
educated, and capable, adequately exercise any form of
real control or intelligent supervision over such a mixed
lot of disjecta membra ? As for the Secretary of State,
who is changed, on the average, once a year, it is
impossible that he can be more than a flgure-head, or
have any real voice in the determination of anything
except large questions of policy when there is Colonial
trouble. Parliament is, however, supposed to exercise a
control." But this control is limited to questions put
from time to time in the House of Commons-,- the answers
to which are supplied in the first instance by the same
Colonial Office clerks, and in the last resort by the
people who are to be controlled, the actual administra-
tors of the various Colonies.*
An active, energetic, independent Governor, how-
ever, exercises an immense influence, especially if he is
at the same tirae frank, free from a weakness to connect
his name with showy, but hasty legislation, risky and
unsound though apparently beneficial revenue changes,
is opposed to inquisitorial, underhand proceedings, and
is inflexibly just. Every department of the public
service, indeed almost every individual officer, feels the
effect of such a rviler's presence, j\ist as the whole
administrative machinery goes to rest and rust in
this tropical isle when the fountain-head of authority
* A curious circumstance in connection with tlie last Unionist
Government was that two of its promiuenli members were eitlier
born in or had close relations with Ceylon. Lord Chancellor Halsbury
still in tlie Ministry) is a nephew of Chief Justice Sir Hardinge
Giifard, who administered Justice in Ceylon in 1820-27 and whose
portrait in oils Lord Halsbury has sent out for our Supreme
Court ; while Mr. Mathews, Home Secretary, now Lord Llandaff,
was born in Colombo, where his father lived and died as Advocate-
Fiscal (Attorney-General) and Judge about the same time, the
son lately erecting a memorial brass to his father's memory in
St. Peters' Church, Colombo.
What its Ooverivment can do for Ceylon. 123
and honour is found to be somnolent and indifferent
himself.
Statesmen bred in the free air of the House of
Commons, as a rule, make the best governors of Crown
Colonies ; at least three or four in the Ceylon list —
Governors Wilmot Horton, Stewart Mackenzie, Sir
Henry Ward, and Sir William Gregory— had such a
training, and stand out pre-eminently as among our
best administrators, although eqvially able and useful
were some others — Governors Sir Edward Barnes, Sir
Hercules Robinson, and Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon —
who had no parliamentary experience. To the latter
category maybe added Sir J. West Ridge way, certainly
one of the best sovereign representatives and ad-
ministrators Ceylon has ever had.
Ceylon wants a governor who has his whole heart in
his work, is ready to sympathise with all classes and
races, to see provinces, districts, and public works
for himself — by journeys on horseback where necessary
— open to receive counsel as to proposed legislation from
the most diverse quarters, while deciding for himself
after giving it due consideration ; a Governor, moreover,
not easily led away in his councils or provinces by
oflBcers, it may be of lf)ng experience but with special
" hobbies," nor by oriental gossip or suspicion, which if
once listened to leads into one quagmire after another.
Such an administrator will always be the best gift
that Britain can offer to the natives and colonists
of Ceylon, provided that his hands are not tied by
the Colonial Office in Downing Street.
The only large public works at present under
construction in Ceylon may be said to be the Ratnapura
Railway extension, the Railway from Colombo to
Chilaw and, if possible, Piittalam ; an extension from
Matara to Tangalla ; and several light railways in
the planting districts, as well as roads there and in
the low-country.
In legislative, administrative and social improve,
ments there is still a good deal to do : law reform in^
124 Ceylon in 1903.
improved Mortgage, Bankruptcy, Registration, and
other measures— in fact, a complete codification of our
Civil Laws— is urgently wanted; while education, es-
pecially in the vernacular, has to be promoted.
Still more needful is the extension of the system
of technical, industrial, and agricultural instruction.
Something has been done by the establishment of a
Technical College as well as a Training School, and
of agricultural instruction and inspectors ; but we can
only speak of this as "a beginning."* It is felt by
many that Ceylon junior civil servants, like those of
Java, should pass at an agricultural college and spend
one or two years on arrival in the island at Government
experimental gardens or plantations, t The influence of
the personal example and precept of the revenue officers
of Government over the headmen and people in getting
them to try new products or extend cultivation is
immense ; experimental gardens to supply the natives
with plants and seeds, and to show them how to
cultivate the same, ought to be multiplied, and bonuses
ofllered for the growth of certain qualities of new
products in different districts. One advantage of a
general land levy would be that official attention would
be given to a variety of products. Another beneficial
reform would be the official establishment of an agri-
horticultural exhibition, with holidays and sports for
the people, in connection with each Kaehch^ri (district
revenue station) in the island.
In Administration, much good may be done by
the discouragement, indeed stern suppression, of illicit
sale of arrack and the substitution of the "Still"
* "I believe that the most important thine; you can do for
education in India [and Ceylon] is to throw as much weight as
you can into the Scientific as against the Literary scale."—
Sir E. M. Grant-Duff.
t Lecturing in August 1903 in Colombo, upon "Early British
Rule in Ceylon " and the great success of military-political
administrators, we recommended that Civil Service cadets should
be made to study and pass an examination in the lines and work
of such men as Sl?inner, Campbell, Forbes, Stewart, Davy, &c,
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 125
for the "Renting" System ; also the suppression of
gambling among the natives, a common concomitant
of drunken lazy habits, indeed of assaults, theft, burg-
lary, and other crimes. There is sufficient legislation
perhaps ; it is the strict and impartial administration
of the law towards Europeans and natives alike that is
required. Gambling being a chief obstacle to the
progress and well-doing of large numbers of the
Sinhalese, Tamils, Malays, etc., all public servants, at
the very least, should be instructed to be most careful
personally, as well as administratively, to discourage
betting, lotteries, and gambling among all classes.
Both Governor and Secretary of State should see to
this. There is also need for official discouragement
of drinking habits among the people by a refusal
to open any new liquor shops or arrack taverns, by
dfeereasing the number now is existence, and by
experimenting with, if not sanctioning, a modified
form of "local option" in certain districts. There are
other evil arrangements afcer European precedent,
bearing on public morality, which ought to be sup-
pressed and kept out of Ceylon.
A step of much practical importance in legislation
is the placing of opium under the -same restrictions
in Ceylon as in Europe ; and Ceylon is quite ripe for a
legislative and administrative experiment of this kind.
The people of Ceylon are perhaps the least warlike
of any nation under British rule : not a soldier has
sustained a scratch here since 1817, when the Kandyan
kingdom was finally subdued. Street riots in Colombo
through religious feuds or dearness of rice, at rare
intervals, only require the sight of a red-coat to subside ;
a few artillerymen (a picked company of the local
volunteers would do) with a light field-gun would
be sufficient to cope with the most formidable gathering
that could possibly take place as a breach of the peace.
There are now 2,500 Volunteers of all arms in
-Ceylon costing R200,000 a year; while the Military
126 Ceylon in 1903
Contribution for less than 1,500 is two millions rupees.
An abatement of tWs contribution in view of the largely
increased. local Force should have important results.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that, for imperial
purposes, Ceylon is a most central and usef vil station for
even more than one regiment of infantry with a good
staff. This will be readily seen from what has happened
during the past thirty -five years. Sir Henry Ward sent
the 37th Regiment at a day's notice to Calcutta in 1857
to the aid of Lord Canning against the mutineers, those
troops being the first to arrive ; in 1863 the troopship
Himalaya took the 50th Regiment from Ceylon
to New Zealand to aid in suppressing the Maoris ;
later on, part of the Ceylon garrison did good service
in China, the Straits, and Labuan ; in 1879 the 57th
Regiment was despatched at short notice to Natal;
and, with equal expedition, the 102nd was sent thither
in 1881, when the colony was practically denuded of
infantry without the slightest inconvenience.
Ceylon is by far the most central British military
garrison in the Bast ; its first-class port, Colombo, is
distant 900 miles from Bombay, 600 from Madras, 1,400
from Calcutta, 1,200 from Rangoon (Burma), 1,600 from
Singapore, 2,500 from Mauritius, a little more from
Madagascar, about 4,000 from Natal, 3,000 from Hong
Kong, 3,000 from Premantle or Western Australia, and
about 2,200 from Aden. Its value, therefore, as a station
from whence troops can, at the shortest notice, be
transferred to any one of these points, should make it
the Malta of the Eastern Seas ; indeed its hill station at
Diyatalawa in a perfect climate (see Appendix No. VII)
served by railway, as already mentioned, might be
made the sanatorium for troops in Southern India.
It is now to be a convalescent station for naval as well
as military invalids from all Eastern stations.
It is generally felt— and in this view high naval as
well as militarj' authorities agree— that the head-
quarters of the East India naval station might well
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 127
be removed from Trincomalee to Colombo, since flrst-
class harbour works have been constructed at the
latter ; and this would probably be done now that the
construction of a Northern Arm to the Breakwater,
and of a Graving Dock are taken in hand.
There are reforms urgently needed in connection
with the wide area of lands (much lying waste and
unutilised) with which certain Buddhist temples are
endowed, and revenues of which are now comparatively
wasted without benefit to the people, the majority
of whom would gladly vote for their appropriation
to the promotion of vernacular and technical, especially
agricultural, education in each district. It is recorded
that King Wijayo Baliu III., who reigned in Ceylon
in 1240 A.D., established a school in every village, and
charged the priests who superintended them to take
nothing from the pupils, promising that he himself
would rewai'd them for their trouble. This was prob-
ably done by temple endowments now by no means
usefully employed very often*. The multiplication of
Reading Rooms and Libraries in the island is desirable,
as also a Free Public Library in Colombo. The small
anmial levy under the Roads or Thoroughfares Ordi-
nance on every able-bodied man between eighteen and
fifty-five in the island (the Governor, Buddhist priests,
and a few more, alone excepted) has been productive
of much good — in providing a net work of district
roads— since it was drafted by the late Sir Philip
Wodehouse over fifty years ago. But in some districts,
the tax, small as it is, leads to a good deal of trouble
and expense through defaulters ; and its collection is
everyw^here, even in the towns, attended with a certain
amount of corruption and oppression. This will,
however, grow less as education advances. A liberal
modification, if not abolition, of the Salt tax would
* The land belonging to the temples is eery considerable, but
generally unremunerative, being mostly jungle : the temples are
said to have insufficient capital to cultivate or exploit the land.
i— Mr.S.L,. Crawford's Beporf for 1903.
128 Ceylon in 1903.
be a great boou. This tax, though not felt by the
prosperous, undoubtedly presses hard on many poor
persons, while it debars agricultural improvement in
certain directions, — salt is rich in soda, a most valuable
article of manure — and affects the health of 'the people
in the remoter districts.
In the estimation of the reformers of the Cobden Club
there used to be a financial reform of greater importance
than any of these, namely, the abolition of the "Food-
taxes of Ceylon," or the levy made on locally-grown
grain crops, and the customs duty imposed on imported
rice. But while the internal tax, inherited from the
Sinhalese rulers as a rent, has been abolished, the
Cobden Club to its shame says nothing now about
the one-sided, unjust and protective customs duty on
rice. The only substitute possible for both this and
the customs duty is a general land -levy, and to that
complexion it must come at last, unpopular though
it may be with the natives, when the Cadastral
Survey is finally completed.
The fiscal reformers of 1892 would have done well
to have studied, before abolishing the paddy rent, the
history of the fish-tax established by the Portuguese,
continued by the Dutch, superseded by the British
by a licence for boats, which nearly stopped fishing
altogether. The old form had to be resumed, but the
tax was reduced again and again, without in the least
benefiting the industry, for the fishermen simply caught
less, having no longer duty to pay, and when the
tax was finally abolished by Government, the Roman
Catholic priests stejjped in, and continued it, without
demur from the fishermen, who are mostly of that
Church. In the same way, grain cultivators who have
had their tax or rent remitted, have been known to
allow a portion of their fields to go out of cultivation
in view of no rent to pay—so much less work to do
was their idea of the benefit of remission of taxation-
while in a large number of cases, the cultivator, the
What its Government can do for Ceylon. l29
goyiya, has had no advantage from the remission of
the rent or paddy-tax, the proceeds going to the
Moormen and other creditors, headmen and compara-
tively well-to-do la^ndowners.
Of course, the removal of all customs duties and
the inauguration of Colombo as a free port will add
immensely to the importance of Colombo and the
colony. And no doubt the day is fast approaching
when, in this respect, the system of taxation in Ceylon
and India must approximate. In people, in trade,
and other important respects, the two countries are
closely allied ; and they will be further identified when
the grand scheme which the Duke of Buckingham,
as Governor of Madras, propounded to Sir William
G-regory, of connecting the railway systems of Ceylon
and Southern India, is carried out; the object is to
serve the very large passenger traffic in coolies and
traders, as well as to carry the produce of Southern
India to the safe and commodious Colombo harbour—
the Madras harbour works being a great failure.. The
Indian railway system now reaches to Paumben and
will shortly cross to Rameswaram : the Ceylon railway
will soon be open to Madawachchi— the'connecting line
should not be long in coming (see papers by J. Ferguson
on Indo-Ceylon Railway read before the London
Chamber of Commerce and Imperial Institute). One
great difference between the two countries is the
miich larger Covenanted Civil Service, and number of
European officials generally, in Ceylon, in proportion to
population and area, than in India. Of course, the
individual salaries are much lower here, but it is a
question whether the island has not too many public
servants of the higher ranks, and whether there is not
room for reform in the system of administration such as
was referred to by Sir Emerson Tennent in his Financial
Reports over fifty years ago. The pension list of Ceylon
is becoming a serious burden to the colony, and some
steps are urgently called for to prevent a continuance
of growth such as has been experienced of recent years.
q
iSO Ceylon in 1903.
Sir West Ridgeway's scheme for an uncovenanted
subordinate service has done much good. At the same
time, in a country situated like Ceylon, agriculture
in one of its many forms ought to be kept steadily
before educated burghers and natives alike, as the
one sure means of affording a livelihood. Tea planting,
we are glad to think, has done much for young
men of these classes ; in the tea factories room has
been found for a large number of intelligent young
men of the country, as tea makers, clerks, etc., and
many of the natives cultivate tea-gardens of their own,
besides trying other new and profitable products.
A reform tending to extend local industry would
be the throwing open, at a merely nominal price, of
Crown waste' lands, at present unsaleable, along the
Northern Railway, or the leasing of large blocks at
nominal rents for experiments in cotton, tobacco
fibre and stock-raising.
The exploration and clearing of the "Buried
Cities "—Pol onnaruwa as well as AnurMhapura, both
ancient capitals of the Sinhalese kings— has latterly
been done much more energetically. Mr. H. C. P.
Bell, the Government Archaeologist in charge of the
exploration, is decidely the right man, but he should
be liberally supported.
A geological survey of Ceylon is much required
in the interests of industry— mines of plumbago as well
as gemming and other branches — as well as of science.
Sir West Ridgeway tried hard to get a survey staflf, but
so far has only secured a mineralogist.
Two of the most mysterious rocks in our earth's
crust are abundant here, laterite and graphite. Where
the iron of the one came from and the carbon of the
other, even the most accomplished geologists would
be chary of dogmatically affirming. About low level
laterite we are able to say something, but gneiss or
other rock passing into laterite on the top of a hill
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 131
is another question. Equally difficult is it to say
whether graphite was deposited from water or solidified
from gas ; and why the mineral should have so strong
an affinity to quartz, is, we believe, amongst the as
yet unsolved problems of a science, the scope and
definiteness of which have been, respectively, greatly
expanded and largely settled by the Indian department.
CHAPTER XV.
SOCIAL LIFE AND CUSTOMS.
Social Life and Customs of the Natives of Ceylon— How Little
Colonists may know of Village Life— Domestic Servants— Caste
Restrictions— Curious Occupations among the People.
THE variety of race, colour, physiognomy, and
costume among the people in the busy streets of
Colombo — especially the Fettah, or native market-place
—at once arrests the attention of the stranger. But,
save what he sees in the public highways, and may
learn from his servants, the ordinary colonist may
live many years in the island without learning much
of the every-day life and habits of the people of the
land, whether Sinhalese or Tamils, in their own villages
and homes. There is a beaten track now for the
European to follow, be he merchant or planter, and
there is so much of western civilisation and education ou
the surface that the new comer is apt to forget very
soon that he is in the midst of a people with an ancient
civilization and authentic history of their own,
extending far beyond that of the majority of European
nations; and with social customs and modes of life,
when separate from foreign influences, entirely distinct
from anything to which he has been accustomed.
The foreigners who see somewhat of this inner life
of the people, especially in the rural districts, are the
civil servants and other public officers of Government,
and the missionaries. Now, as regards the work
of the latter, the average European planter or merchant
returning home after six, ten, aye, or even twenty
<l
IB
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Social Life and Customs. 133
years in Ceylon, too often declares that the missionaries
are making no way in Ceylon, that they live comfortably
in the towns, and content themselves with ordinary
pastoral duties in their immediate neighbourhood, and
in fact, that they (the colonists) never saw any evidence
of mission work or progress among the natives, unless
it were through the catechists and other agents of
the Tamil Cooly Mission visiting the plantations. Now
the way to meet such a negative statement would
be by an inquiry as to whether the colonist had ever
interviewed a missionary to the Tamils or Sinhalese,
whether in Colombo, Kandy, or Galle, to go . no further,
and had asked to accompany him to his stations.
Had he done so, he could have been taken to village
after village, with its little church and good, if not
full, attendance of members, presided over in many
cases by pastors of their own people and in some
instances supported by themselves. He would have seen
schools of all grades— mission boarding-schools for
native girls and lads, and training institutions for the
ministry. Now, just as this branch of work in the
rural districts of Ceylon is unknown to many scores,
if not hundreds, of European colonists who never trouble
their heads about anything beyond their own round
of immediate duties or pleasures ; so it is, for an even
wider circle, in reference to the social life and customs
of the natives.
Education has made such strides that, in the towns,
English is rapidly becoming' the predominant language
among all classes. In India all foreigners leai-n a
native language, and domestic servants never think
of speaking English, even if some few of them
understand it. Here, in Ceylon, English is almost
imiversally in domestic use, and there is scarcely a
roadside village in Ceylon now where the traveller
could not find some person to speak English, or interpret
for him. The coolies on the plantations are different ;
with few exceptions they only know Tamil, and the
planters have to learn that language colloquially.
134 Ceylon in 1903.
Civil servants pass examinations in the languages.
Very amusing are some of the servants, occasionally,
Tvho are only beginning to acquire English, or who
try to show a command beyond their depth; like
the Sinhalese "appu" (butler) who, one day, on being
remonstrated with by his Christian mistress for
attending some tomfooleries of ceremonies at a temple,
replied, Yes, he knew better, but he only did it " to
please the womens" (his wife and daughters!), the hold
of superstition and heathenism in Ceylon, as elsewhere,
being strongest on the female portion of the househdld.
On another occasion a horsekeeper (Tamil grooin),
coming to report to his master that his horse had
gone lame, expressed himself thus, holding up his
fingers in illustration, "Sar, three legs very good;
one leg very bad !" Some of the letters and petitions
in English of budding clerks, or warehousemen, or
other applicants for situations, are often comical in
the extreme. Both Sinhalese and Tamils make the
most docile and industrious of domestic servants. Of
course, there are exceptions, but ladies who have
been for some years in Ceylon, after visiting "home"'
again, or especially after going to Australasia or
America, are usually glad to get back to their native
servants.
Caste in Ceylon has not so much hold on the people
as it has in India, and in respect of domestic service,
only one-half to one-third the number of men-servants
is required here, in consequence of one man making
no objection to different kinds of work. Sinhalese
"appus" and "boys," with their often smooth cheeks,
and hair done up in a knot, surmounted by a comb,
and with white jackets and long "comboys" (long
petticoats), are frequently taken for female servants,
the latter having no comb, but a silver or other pin
in their hair, and only taking service as ayah (nurse),
or lady's attendant. In the hotels passengers fre-
quently make the mistake of supposing they are at-
tended by maid, instead of men, servants, The
Social Life and Customs. 135
Sinhalese have, indeed, been called the women of
the human race, and the story is that in trying to
make soldiers of them, the British instructors in the
early days never could get them not to fire away their
ramrods !
Of course there are some bad native servants, but
they are the exceptions ; at any rate a good master
and mistress generally get good service. But some-
times robberies do occur in households, and usually
then some one or other of the servants has been
conspiring with outside thieves. A few colonists prefer
Malay servants.
The demand for holidays is often a nuisance, and the
saying is that native servants must have half a dozen
grandfathers each from the number of funerals of
grandfathers they have to attend. The fact is that
the Western habit of constant work does not suit
the Oriental taste at all, the proverbial saying of the
Buddhist Sinhalese being, "Better to walk than to
run, to sit down than walk, and best of all to go
to sleep."
We have said that caste has not a great hold in
Ceylon ; but in one point of social life it is still
almost universally observed, — there can be no marriage
between persons of different castes. Your servant
may be a man of higher |caste than your wealthy
native neighbour driving his carriage, and yet the
"appu" would probably never consent to allow his
daughter to marry the son of the rich, lower caste
man. Christianity is working against caste, and
among native Christians there are many cases of
caste being disregarded ; but on the other hand, when
the Duke of Edinburgh was entertained by a Sinhalese
gentleman of medium caste, it was stated that Sinhalese
officials (including a Christian chaplain) of the Vellala
(agricultural) caste absented themselves from the enter-
tainment where all were expected to appear, because
136 Ceylon in 1903.
they could not enter the grounds or house of a man of
the Piaher caste. The most striking case in recent times
in Oeylon was that of a young girl of good family in a
Kandyan village, who fell in love with the son of a trader
in the same village, of greater wealth but lower caste
than her father, who was a decayed Chief. The lad
and girl had seen each other in school days, and
acquaintance had ripened into more tlian friendship,
and they were bent on defying caste, family opposition,
and any other obstacle to their marriage. But a young
brother of the girl haughtily forbade the courtship,
threatening his sister with vengeance if ever he saw
her with the young trader. The lovers planned a
clandestine match, so far that (being both Buddhists)
they should get married by civil registration before
the magistrate. They stole away one morning, and
were mixing in the crowd usually awaiting the opening
of the magistrate's court in county towns, when the
young chief, finding out what had happened, rushed
up and peremptorily ordered his sister home. She
refused and clung to her lover, when the brother
suddenly drcAV a knife from his girdle and stabbed
her to the heart. She fell dead on the spot; the
murderer holding the knife aloft and shouting, in
Sinhalese, "Thus I defend the honour of my
family," and going to the scaffold a few weeks after
exulting in his deed. Education and the railway
are, however, aiding Christianity to weaken the
hold of caste, and the people of Ceylon will, before
many generations have gone by, have learned that—
" Honcur and shame from no condition rise,
Act well your part, there all the honour lies " ;
and that —
" From yon blue heavens above us bent,
The ^aud old gardener and his wife,
Smile at the claims of long (or caste) descent."
It is a striking evidence of the slight influence of
Buddhism that here, in its sacred or holy land, where
MOUNT I.AVINIA,
Social Life and Customs. 137
it has prevailed for over two-thousand years, caste,
which was thought to be condemned by its founder
and its tenets, still exercises a baneful influence over
the Sinhalese people. All castes, however low, were
supposed to be eligible to Buddha's priesthood ; but
in peylon ordination gradually became the privilege
of the Vellala caste alone, until a Sinhalese of a lower
caste went to Burmah and got ordained, the second
priestly order being open to three castes outside the
Vellalas, but refusing any of other castes— so making
two castes of priests in the island! In other Buddhist
countries, Biirmah, Siam and Thibet, caste does not
exist in any similar form. A stanza from a Ceylon
Buddhist work runs as follows—
" A man does not become low caste by birth,
Nor by birth dcfes one become high caste ;
High caste is the result of high action—
And by actions does a man degrade himself to a caste
that is low."
Native weddings, with the peculiarities of each
'nice- Sinhalese, Tamil, or Moormen (Mahommedan) — ai'e
sometimes very curious, and, as the parties are
generally rather proud than otherwise of Europeans
being present, there is no difficulty about getting an
invitation. The ybuthfulness of the bride— perhaps
thirteen to fifteen years — and the quantity of jewellery,
literally weighing her down (collected ftnd borrowed
from^ all the family circle of relatives for the
occasion), are two peculiarities. There are scarcely any
uiimarried native women, and, as is always the case
in a naturally ordered community, the males exceed
the females in number. The Sinhalese have no army
or navy or flow of emigration to supply, and no
artiflcial customs to interfere with or delay the
marriage of their daughters. Of the influence of the
Buddhist and Hindu religions upon the people, enough
is said elsewhere; but we may just refer here to the
fact that a people bred under the influence of tenets
(Buddhist) forbidding the taking of life, have developed
B
138 Ceylon in 1903.
some of the most cruel and exquisite forms of torture
known to history in reference to the lower animals.
A law had to be passed forbidding the roasting of
tortoises alive, in order to get the tortoise-shell of a
finer lustre than if taken from the dead animal ; and
only the other day a military officer discovered in
Colombo that native cooks were in the habit of cutting
out the tongues of the living turkeys, in order that
the fle.sh, when cooked, might be the more tender.
But a long list of such instances might be given, as
well as illustrations of the hypoci'isy which makes
Buddhist fishermen say : " We do not kill the fish,
we take them out of the water and they die of
themselves ! " Householders put out the old dog or
at on the highway for the wheel of a passing vehicle
to go over and kill, so that they may have no sin ;
or shut up the deadly snake in wicker-work on the
river to be carried to the sea; while early in the present
century it was the custom to expose old and helpless
human beings in the jungle, each with a bowl of rice
and chatty of water, to die without troubling their
relatives, or to be devoured, as was often the case,
by beasts of prey. And all this in one of the most
bigoteid of Buddhist districts— Matara— in the south
of the island. It was in the same district a veteran
missionary demonstrated the hypocrisy of a catechist,
of whom he had authentic accounts that, while
professing to be doing certain work as a Christian
teacher for the sake of a salary, he was in heart a
Buddhist, attending all the temple ceremonies. In a
remote village there was no check, and on being
questioned by the missonary, while sitting in a room
together, he utterly denied that he had any belief in
Buddhism. Taking a small brass image of Buddha
from his pocket, the missionary placed it on the
table, when immediately (as all Buddhists should do)
the would-be catechist sprang to his feet, placed his
hands before his forehead with a low obeisance towards
the image, and then slunk from the room discomfited I
Social Life and Customs. 139
Among the more curious occupations of the people,
as related in the census, are such novelties as 1,753
devil-dancers, 121 exhibitors of trained animals, 224
conjurors and fortune-tellers, 216 actors, dancers and
singers, 10 acrobats, 1,325 tom-tom beaters, 9 nautch
girls, 276 astrologers, 20,849 (8,224 women) dhobies or
washers, 2,763 barbers, 156 elephant-keepers and
trainers, about 102 fakirs and devotee-beggars, 411
lapidaries, 3 ivory carvers, 39 workers in tortoise-shell,
and 410 in jewellery, etc. The census of 1901 showed
there were 7,331 Buddhists priests in Ceylon, but of
three different sects— the Siamese ordination, Amara-
para or Burmese, and Bamanya or reformers.*
European civilisation and Christianity are both
taking a firm hold of the people. Education is desired
by the natives, perhaps not yet for its own sake, but as
a means of advancement, as very few good posts are
to be obtained in which English is not needed. Boarding
schools for native boys and girls are the very best
educational and mission agency, and ought to be greatly
multiplied.
Once in our Government or Mission schools (and edu-
cation, especially in the villages, is mainly in the hands
of the missionaries) children acquire new habits of
industry and perseverance and in time come to regard
truthfulness as desirable and care for others, whether
of their own blood or not, as a duty. Though Buddha
led a most self-denying life and taught others to do the
same, yet his example had made small impression on
his followers, and philanthropy was not regarded
as a duty by the Sinhalese or their priests. Now it
is different. Each of our missions can quote many instan-
ces of noble generosity and hearty zeal for the welf ai-e
of the people.
We have merely touched the , skirts of topics in
this chapter, which might well require for their
•The main results of the census of 1901 will be found tabulated
in Appendix III.
140 Ceyion in 1003.
treatment a volume in themselves. Those interested
in the subject may be referred to good old Robert
Knox's veracious account of his sojourn, as a prisoneif
among the Kandyan people for twenty years— 1659 to
1680— or to more modern books, in Percival's, Cordiner'sj
Davy's, Selkirk's, Porbes's, Pridham's, or Emerson
Tennent's histories, with Spence Hardy's " Eastern
Monachism," " Jubilee Memorials," and " Legends of
the Buddhists."
DHOBIES AT WORK.
CHAPTER XVI.
FURTHER PROGRESS INDICATED AND A FEW
REFORMS CALLED FOR.
Relation and Importance o£ Ceylon to India— Progress of Christianity
and Kducation— Statistics of Population— Nee(^ of Reform in the
Legislative Council, and Sketch of a Scheme for the Election
of Unofficial Members— Loyalty of People to British Rule, as
evinced during Royal Visits, and in connection with tlie
.lubilees of Her late Majesty the Queen-Empress and of the
Coronation of King Edward VII. —Progress of Ceylon since 1837,
CEYLON, in a social and political way, bears the same
relation to India and the Par East that England
has done to the European continent. Mr. Laing, when
Finance Minister for India, confessed it was most
valuable to law-makers and administrators in the
Indian Presidencies to have Ceylon under a separate
form of Government, and to have experiments in
administrative and legislative reforms tried here, which
served as an example or a warning to the big neigh-
bouring continent, the peoples being allied in so many
respects. There is, for instance, no distinction made
between native and European judges and magistrates
in Ceylon ; and the acting Chief Justice, lately, was
a Eurasian, a Sinhalese barx-ister only retired eleven
years ago from being Judge of the Supreme Court
after fifteen years' service, while the second Puisne
Justice is now (1903) a Dutch descendant ; and other
Ceylonese fill the responsible offices of Solicitor-General
and Crown Counsel as well as District Judges and
Magistrates of the Colony. Again, in Ceylon, we have a
decimal system of currency, a great step in advance
142 Ceylon in 1903
of the cumbrous Indian system, and we have entire
freedom of all religions (including Christianity) from
State patronage and control. On the other hand,
Ceylon is now much behind India in its fiscal system,
the unwise action of Lord Knutsford and Sir Arthur
Havelock giving us Protection and discriminating
taxation on rice— the staple food of the people— in
their worst form.
The progress of Christianity and education among
the people is greater than in any other Eastern State,
and should Buddhism, the religion of over two
millions of Sinhalese, fall here, it would have a
great effect on the millions of Burmah, Siam, and
even China, who look to Ceylon as the sacred
home of Buddhism. The kings of Burmah and
Siam especially continue to take an interest in,
and make offerings to, the Buddhist ," temple of
the tooth" at Kandy. Roman Catholicism has been
propagated since the arrival of the Portuguese in the
sixteenth century ; while English Protestant missions
have worked in Ceylon since 1811. The Roman Catholic
number about 288,000, the Protestants 62,000, against
2,142,000 Buddhists and demon worshippers, 827,000
Hindus, and 246,000 Muhammadans.
Some allusion should be made to more than one
local movement in Ceylon for a reform in the system
of government, and more especially in the liberalising
of the Legislative Council. Sir Hercules Robinson,
while opposing this claim, originated municipal
institutions in the three principal towns, as a means
of training the people in the art of self-government.
The working of these has, however, unfortunately,
not been so successful as was hoped, and one reason
is a curiously Oriental one, namely, that respectable
Ceylonese consider it derogatory to go and ask the
people below them— of ten ignorant and poor franchise-
holders— for " the honour of their votes." " Honour
comes from above, not from below," they say; and
Legislative Reform. 143
so the better classes of natives abstained from the
Municipal Boards, and left many disreputable men
to get in. A reformed and restrictive municipal
constitution law, just passed, may work better. But
as regards the Legislature, the occupation of one of
the seats allotted to the Ceylouese by nomination of
the Governor has always been greatly coveted, and
an object of ambition to every rising man in the
country. Sir Arthur Gordon very liberally got two
additional native seats provided— one for the Kandyan
Sinhalese and one for the "Moormen" (chiefly Arab
descendants). He also secured a reform in the old
practice of granting M'hat was practically life seats,
by limiting the term of ofSce for unofficial members
to five years, at the option of the Governor — it ought
to be permanently fixed. A change of membership in
this way cannot fail to be beneficial to the community,
by educating and testing an increasing number of
Ceylonese for piiblic life. There is no reason, however,
why even two more unofficial seats should not be added
to the Legislative Board. Indeed, the elective principle
might, under due safeguards, be applied in the nine
provinces of the island, —under a severely restricted
franchise to begin with,— so giving nine elected
unofficial members, to whom might be added two or
four nominees of the Governor, from among the trading
or other native classes not adequately served by the
elections ; while the planting and mercantile nominated
memberships continued. Elections and nominations
could take place every six years, or on the advent
of each new Governor, and a few more privileges might
be accorded to the members, such as the right of
initiating proposals, even where such involved the
expenditure of public money up to a certain moderate
limit. The Governor, for the time being, could always
command a majority against any unwise scheme, and
his own veto, as well as that of the Secretary of State,
would continue operative. Some such improvement
of the Legislative Council— which has continued
144 Ceylon in 1903.
witliout change for about seventy years, or since the
days of Governor Sir Robert Wilmot Horton in 1833—
cannot long be delayed, and if asked for on broad,
grounds by a united community, it might well be
granted before the close of the century. A movement
in the Legislative Council in 1908 may lead to reform*;
Another practical reform of importance would be the
ensuring that four out of the six members of the Execu-
tive Council— that is, the Colonial Secretary, Attorney-
General, Auditor-General, and Treasurer— should always
be trained public servants of the colony, with local
experience. The farce has been seen even in recent
years of a Governor and his five Executive advisers
in Ceylon, not counting half a dozen years of local
experience between them. Then, one if not two of
the unofficial members of the Legislative Council
should be added to the Executive Council. We
must also plead, as we have personally urged on
the Secretary of State, that ("now especially there
are four Judges) one Judge of the Supreme Court
of the Colony should always be taken from among
the senior Judicial Civil Servants, who, trained from
the magisterial to the highest district benches, not
only know the language and laws, but also the habits
and local customs of the people, far better than any
Colombo lawyers or English judges that can be selected.
Ceylon was honoured with a visit from H.B.H.
the Duke of Edinburgh in 1870, from H.R.H. the Prince
of Wales (now King Edward the VII.) in 1875, from
the young Princes Albert and George of Wales in
3881, and again from the present Prince and Princes?
of Wales in 1901. On each occasion the loyalty and
devotion of the people to the British Crown, and their
warm personal interest in the happiness and welfare
of their sovereign, were very conspicuous. This was
still more shown in connection with the Jubilees of Her
late Most Gracious Majesty the Queen-Empress Victoria,
And on the Coronation of the new King-Emperor, whet)
IHK EGYPTIAN EXILES.
Jubilee Celebration. 145
all classes and races vied with each other in the
endeavour to do honour to the occasion. Liberal
support has been given to the Imperial Institute, dear
to the late Queen ; while, as a local memento of Her
Majesty, a Home for Incurables and an Eye Hospital
are established in Qolombo.
From the official record of British progress in fifty
years, prepared by Governor Gordon on the Occasion
of the Jubilee celebrations in 1887, we quote the few
items referring to Ceylon : —
In 1838 the Legislative Council of the Colony, created but not
completed in 1833, received its full complement of members.
In 1814 the last remains of Slavery were wholly abolished.
In 1818 a slight insurrectionary movement tooli place in a part
of the Kandyan districts, which is only worthy of mention in
order to contrast it with tlie loyalty of all classes ten yeavs later
on which the Governor of Ceylon was able safely to rely when
in 1857 he sent all the available troops in this Island to assist
in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny.
In 1856 Sir Henry Ward commenced the restoration of the
long-neglected Irrigation System of the Island ; and in 1857 the
ancient Village Councils were revived, chiefly with a view to the
promotion and enforcement of Irrigation Works.
In the same year the first sod was out of the first Railway
in Ceylon.
In 1858 Ceylon was united with India by the Electric Telegraph.
In 1865 the Municipalities of Colombo and Kandy were esta-
blished.
In 1838 the general scheme of Public Education now in force
was adopted by the Legislature.
In 1870 legislative measures enabling the tenants of Temple
Lands to commute their services were adopted and in the same
year the Ceylon Medical School was established.
In 1871 the powers of Village Councils were largely extended
and Village Tribunals instituted.
In 1875 the first stone of the Colombo Breakwater was laid
by His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.
In 1881 an Ordinance, which however did not come fully
into effect until 1886, was passed, withdrawing pecuniary aid,
S
146 Ceylon in 1903.
saving in the case of vested life-interests, from all Bcelesiastical
Bodies.
In 1883 a Code of Criminal Law and Procedure was passed
which came into operation at the beginning of 1885.
In 1885 Currency Notes were first issued by the Government.
In 1886 the Colombo Breakwater was completed.
The Population of Ceylon, which in 18S7 was estimated at
1,243,066, and on the first census taken in 1871 was found
to be 2,405,287, in 1887 amounted to about 3,000,000. [In 1903 it
is over 3,600,000.]
The Revenue, which in 1837 was £371,993, amounted in lf67
to £969,936, and in 1886 to Es. 12,682,549. [In 1903 about Bs . 28,000,000.]
The number of miles of Main Roads open in 1837 was about
450 ; in 1887 it was 3,343. [In 1903 about 5,700 miles.]
The number of Estates in the hands of European Settlers in 1837
probably did not exceed 50; in 1887 [and 1903] it was over l,5tO.
The development of Agricultural Industry which these figures
denote is, in itself, the most remarkable feature in the History
of Ceylon during Her Majesty's reign. It is a development which
has changed the physical appearance of the country, and profoundly
modified its social condition, and whicli is due to the energy and
perseverance of men who have shown that they can bear advers-ity
with fortitude as they sustained prosperity with credit.
CHAPTER XVII.
SIR WEST RIDGEWAY'S ADMINISTRATION :- 1896-1903.
GOVERNOR Ridgeway will long be remembered in
Ceylon for his extended, prosperous and suc-
cessful administration. Only two previous British
Governors— both military men— ruled as long, namely.
Sir Robert Brownrigg, 1812-1820; and Sir Edward
Barnes, 1820 or, more properly, 1821-1831. If the last-
mentioned was the great " Roadmaker," Sir West may
Avellbe called the great- "Railway-maker," for he has
made himself directly responsible for three separate
lines— the Northern, on the broad gauge, from Kurune-
gala through Anuradhapura and Jaffna to the sea,
198 miles, Avhich will be opened throughout by 1905;
the Kelani Valley line, 2i-feet gauge, of 48 miles opened
this year ; and the Nuwara Eliya-TJdapussellawa line,
also 2|-feet gauge, 19 miles, to be completed in 1904.
Then, in Sir West Ridgeway's time, with the consent
of Mr. Chamberlain, so much as five million rupees
were allotted to "Irrigation," a separate department
formed, and, apart from detached works, a whole chain
of restored tanks and irrigating channels arranged
alongside the Northern Railway from Kurunegala for
150 miles northwards. No wonder, therefore, though
anticipations as to a great increase bf rice-growing,
and to the introduction of industries in cotton, gingelly,
fibres, &e., as well as in stock-raising, are entertained
for the next decade in North Ceylon. Then, again,
the administration just closing has seen vast additions
to the Colombo Harbour Works, in north-west and
148 Ceyton in 1903.
north-east breakwaters ; in a graving dock as well
as patent slip ; coaling depot reclamations ; new jetties,
warehouses, &c.; while there is a proposal for a "wet
dock" in the Blomendahl swamps capable of taking
in 30 of the largest ocean-going steamers. This,
however, may be checked by the plans of the South
Indian Railway Company to cut a ship canal and
establish a dock, coaling and shipping dep6t, near
Paumben, in connection with their railway. Sir West
Ridgeway is a firm believer in railway commimicatiou
being established between India and Ceylon ; and one
of his last acts is to provide for a survey and estimates
for the last section in Ceylon from Madawachchi to
the end of Mannar island. As already mentioned,
the aiithor of this book first brought this project
of an Indo-Ceylon Railway, before the London
Chamber of Commerce in 1897 and before the Imperial
Institute in 1898. There can be no doubt that Colombo
— bound to be one of the first artificial harbours in
the world — is well fitted to be the port for Southern
India. Other railway projects favoured by Governor
Ridgeway are— an extension to Ratnapura and perhaps
Pelraadulla ; a light railway from Colombo to Negombo,
Chilaw and Puttalam ; and later on a line to connect
Trincomalee (in which the War Office and Admiralty
should help) and Batticaloa with the Ceylon railway
system. Then every provincial capital and town of
any importance would be connected by railway, just as
they are already by telegraph ; while the postal system
goes everywhere now in the island. Another great
work arranged for the Colony by Governor Ridgeway
is a Topographical, Trigonometrical and Cadastral
Survey, as well as Land Settlement, and investigation
into Waste Lands — all measures of the first importance
and most successfully carried out. In new roads and
bridges, and public buildings, a great advance has
also been made. Nearly 300 nnles of new roads, 300
new bridges, and a large number of hospitals, police
and laAV court buildings have been made since 1896, A
sir West Ridgeioay's Administration. 149
new Victoria Memorial Eye Hospital as suggested by
Lady Ridgeway, a new Technical College, and Law
Courts are among the additions to Colombo; but a
grand central railway station has still to follow. The
notable additions to the scientific staff of the Botanic
Gardens will always make this rigime remarkable ;
for the Colony has now got a thoroughly equipped
Advisory Board in respect of all branches and diseases of
tropical a griculture. The duplicating of the water sup-
ply of Colombo, and a beginning as to a scientific scheme
of drainage, are great improvements ; while arrange-
ments have also been made in respect of providing a
good water supply to several other towns. Much has
been done for the improvement of Kaudy and Galle ;
but especially of the Sanatorium, Nuwara Bliya, which
ought to attract visitors in the season more freely than
ever before. The reorganization of the Civil and
Clerical Services, as of several other Public Depart-
ments, is among Governor Bidgeway's special successes ;
but he has failed to suppress serious "crime" — mainly, we
think, becaiTse of the arrack-renting system and its
concomitant evils in prevalent Hlicit sales ; and he
has also failed to stop the public indiscriminate sale
of opium through licensed shops. Most admirable have
been the Governor's plans for regulating cooly immi-
gration so as to keep out plague and cholera, and
the result has been a great triumph in perfect immu-
nity. The Geological Survey has yet to come ; but
the Governor has given us a mineralogist and a
gold-prospecting expert; but of far more importance
he has set Professor Herdman, F.B.S., and Mr. Hornell,
P. Z. S., to investigate our pearl oyster fisheries and
to promote oyster culture; and His Excellency has
seen the first (March- April 1903) of what we trust Avill
prove a long series of successful pearl fisheries. The
Government Arch^ologist has had every encourage-
ment in his important Avork at Anuradhapura
and Polonnaruwa, our two famous "Buried Cities"—
the former of Avhich is sure to be thronged with
150 Ceylon in 190S.
visitors when the railway next year brings it
within a few liours of Colombo. In 1908 we hope
to welcome the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science to Ceylon, an invitation having
gone to the Conneil from Sir West's Government
to hold the annual meeting that year in Colombo.
Education has made immense strides during the past
eight years, and about three-fifths of all the children
of a school-going age have been, or are being, taught,
leaving only two-fifths to be overtaken. The Volunteer
Forces have received special encouragement from Sh'
West Ridgeway who arranged for, first, a Ceylon Contiu.
gent of Mounted Infantry to go to the War in South
Africa and afterwards a Contingent of the Planters'
Rifle Corps (infantry). One great service rendered by the
Governor and Ceylon to the Imperial Government
was in the reception and interning of 5,000 Boer prisoners
at the Diyatalawa (IJamp for over two years — the said
Camp in the healthiest part of the, Uva Highlands,
being now available for the annual excercises of the
Volunteers (who, of all forces, including cadets, now
aggregate nearly 3,000 and do not cost so much as
R200,000 to the general revenue — against ten times
that amount paid in "Military Contribution"). The
Diyatalava Camp will also be used as a Military and
Naval convalescent station and for various other
useful purposes.
We may now add a few figures to justify the
application of "Prosperity Ridgeway" to our latest
Governor. In 1896 the General Revenue was R21,974,573,
in 1902 it was R27, 198,056 and for 1903 it is certain to
exceed R28,500,000, including the proc'eeds of the
Pearl Fishery. The Public Debt— notwithstanding an
addition of £1,400,000 in 1902 for Railways, Harbour
Works and Irrigation— does not much exceed 2J years'
revenue even now, and could be all paid off if the
railways belonging to the Colony were sold as going
concerns. The Census of 1901— full details of which
are given in an appendix— shoAved a great increase in
Sir Weiil Ridrjcicay's Administration.
131
population (so that now the island ean)iot have much
less than 3,700,000 souls)— a sure index of prosperity ;
Avhile -in respect of the staples of our planting
entei'prise, here are some figures and remarks applica-
ble to the past eight years : —
The progress of the Tea Planting Industry (and Its allied
products) during the term of Sir West Eidgeway's Government
may be readily seen from the following statistical table :—
EXTENT PLANTED
IN ACRES:
Tea.
Cacao.
Cardamoms.
Rubber.
1896
330,000
21,000
4,850
100
1897
350,000
23,1 CO
5,050
300
1898
370,000
25,260
5,153
750
1899
385,000
27,000
6,300
900
1900
... 392,000
29,000
0,841
1.200
1901
388,000
31,500
7,530
2,500
19^2
... 385,000
as,ooo
8,621
4,350
1903
386,000»
35,000*
9,746
11,630
SXPOl
n'S OF TEA
AND ALLIED PRODUCTS:
Tea lb.
Cacao
cwt.
Cardamoms
lb.
Rubber
lb.
1896
...108,141,112
31,
452 595
17,591
1897
...116,054,567
34,503
532,830
8,981
1898
...110,769,071
36,982
531,473
2,792
1899
...129,894,156
42,475
449,959
7,910
190O
...148,431.639
33,476
537,455
8,233
1901
...146,299,018+
44,549
559,705
7,392
1902
.. .148,991,241+
60,455
615,922
21,168
1903
...154,fl00,000tfr
70,000a
650,n00ft
22,512 (for 4 yr.)
For several years now, the tea industry has had the great
advantage of a watchful and competent scientific staflf, under Mr.
Willis's direction, at Peradeniya, and various insect and fungoid
pests have been kept in check or entirely removed through attention
to timely warnings and Instructions. There is still, in many
districts, great need for watchfulness and care ; but it is satisfactory
to know that, on the whole, the Governor leaves the tea enterprise
in the field as in the n)arket, in a healthy and even vigorous
condition — this being testified to by the satisfactory reports
recently published on the condition of the very oldest (up to 36
years) and richest tea plantations in the island. The good done
* Including native gardens. 1 Including greet; teas, a Estimated,
152
Ceylon in 1903.
la developiue; a fresh demand for our teas in America and on the
Continent of Europe, tlirough the cess and planting commissioners,
must not bo overlooked. The outlay on the Paris Exhibition in
this department was, for this reason, well bestowed; and greater
results may be anticipated for Ceylon tea, from what will be
shown and done at St. Louis Exhibition in the coming year.
In ISaS, out of a total tea export of 97,939,871 lb. only 12,186,532
lb. were diverted from the London market; in 1902 no less than
45,447,309 lb. went to other countries out of a total export of
148,991,241 lbs. This can be seen more clearly as follows :—
EXPORT
TO UNITED
KINGDOM
& OTHER
COUNTRIES.
To United
To
To
To other
Kingdom.
Russia.
Australia.
countries.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
1895
... 85,753,339
333,548
9,379,561
2,473,423
1902
... 103,543,932
11,,599,553
18,718,794
15,128,962
The Cacao planting has been intimately connected with the
old coffee industry (now practically defunct) as well as with tea ;
and its expansion in the 8 years of Sir West Ridgeway's rule, from
21,000 to about 35,000 acres, including native gardens, while the
export of the product has nearly doubled in the same time from
31,000 cwt. to over 60,000 cwt.— is very satisfactory.
Cardamoms is another product cultivated along with, or
alongside of tea, in certain of the planting districts ; and it has
increased greatly in importance as an industry since 1895. The
area under cultivation has just about doubled from 4,830 to 9,746
acres; the export rising from 415,593 lb. to 016,922 Ih. Latterly
there has been a fear of overproduction here as in tea ; but the
steps taken to interest new markets, in Australia and America
as well as in Europe, may be hoped to prevent any further
lowering of price.
Most satisfactory in every way is the development of the
new industry in the growing of trees yielding Indiabubbbb in
certain of our planting districts. We all agree that there is no
risk of overproduction here and Ceylon rubber has already secured
a very high character and good price, in the London market.
Long may these be maintained Early in 1898 very few Para
rubber trees can hav,e been planted out. Now of all kinds, the
calculation is that the equivalent of nearly 12,000 acres are
planted, and the total export this year is likely to reach to from
50,000 lb, to 60,000 lb, This is the beginning of a trade whiob
Sir West Ridgeway's Administration. 153
may well expand during the next Ave or six years to annual
shipments ot from IJ to 2 million lb. worth perhaps between
£300,000 and £400,000 sterling. It is quite evident too that in place
of being limited to 10,000 acres as was thought a few years ago,
rubber (in its several ready-growing and remunerative species)
may yet cover as great an extent as cacao or 35,000 to 40,000
acres in Ceylon and the trees on this and ought, when in full
bearing, to yield from 7 to 8 million lbs. a year of the crude product
which is so much in demand in Europe and America.
Finally, we need only mention the events of national
and imperial importance connected with the Royal
Family : — the enthusiastic celebration of the Diamond
Jubilee of our beloved Queen-Empress in 1897 ; the
lamented death of the Good Queen in 1901 ; followed
seven months after by the visit to Ceylon of T. R. H.
the Duke and Duchess of York (now Prince and
Princess of Wales) and then in the Coronation and its
enthusiastic celebration in the first of Crown Colonies,
while its Governor— Sir West Ridgeway— represented
all the Eastern Colonies in Westminster Abbey.
IN CONCLUSION.
A very interesting chapter might be written on
"What the British have done for Ceylon"— not only
in material improvements, and provision against famine,
by roads, railways, irrigation works, etc., but through
"the Roman Peace" protection of life and property,
strict and impartial administration of justice, the great
spread of education, and the promotion of health and
alleviation of suffering and disease through the
multiplying of hospitals, dispensaries, and doctors, the
construction of waterworks and drainage, etc. What
would happen if the British left Ceylon might be
judged from the standing feud (sometimes issuing in
riots) between the Buddhists and Roman Catholics ;
and between the Sinhalese and Moormen (Muham-
madans) in certain districts. The decennial census
T
134 Ceylon in 1S03.
was the great event of 1901— the main results will be
found in Appendix III.
Nowhere in the British Empire are there more loyal
or contented subjects of Her Most Gracious Majesty than
in " Lank4," " the pearl-drop on the brow of India "
^
HIS EXCELLENCT THE HON. SIR HENR-^ ABTHDR BLAKE, G.C.M.G.
CHAPTER XVIII.
CEYLON'S NEAV GOVERNOR: H. E. SIR HENRY BLAKE,
G.c.M.G.*— Dec, 1903.
{Reprinted from the "Ceylon Observer" Dec. 3rd, 1903.)
GOVERNOR Gregory— who by the way was a warm
personal friend of our new Governor— said in 1872
that Sir Hercules Robinson had so thoroughly and
successfully administered the affairs of Ceylon up to the
very hour of his quitting office, that it seemed to him
nothing was left for him to do beyond routine work,
save to carry out his predecessor's design for the
improvement of Colombo Harbour. Sir William
Gregory, as it turned out, was very much mistaken. He
had to break his predecessor's spell of " Nawalapitiya
and finality" in regard to Railway extension up-country ;
he began the seaside liae to Galle on his own responsi-
bility ; he created the North-Central Province ; vastly
improved Kandy as well as Colombo (giving it for the
first time a mnseum) and Nuwara Eliya (Lake Gregory
and Queen's Cottage, among other things)— while doing
much in many directions towards social and adminis-
trative improvement for the benefit of the community.
Active and successful as Sir West Ridgeway has been
* His Excellency was appointed Governor of Ceylon on September
1st, and arrived in Ceylon on December 3rd 1903. His career
ptevious to this appointment was as follows:— Born at Limerick,
January 18tb, 1840 -son of the late Peter Blake, County Inspector
of Irish Constabulary. Cadet Irish. Constabulary. 1859 ; Residenli
Maeistrate, 1876; appointed Special Resident Magistrate, 1882;
Governor of Bahamas, 1884-87 ; Newfoundland, 1887-88 ; appointed to
request of Legislature and publii
extended in 1894, and again in 1896 ; Governor of Hongkong, 1897-1903.
156 Ceylon in 1903.
durina; his specially prolonged term of administration,
it cannot for a moment be said that he has left nothing
beyond routine for his successor to take up. It has
been Sir West's fortune to set agoing not a few public
works, to inaugurate several experiments, and to appoint
more than one Commission with the completion,
outcome or results of which, his successor must have
both official connection and responsibility. Sir Henry
Blake will have to gather up the loose strings of not a
few important public questions much discussed and
even reported on during the past year or two, without
final decisions being arrived at. A very big question
indeed— one of the most momentous that has been
opened up since the days of Sir Emerson Tennent, or the
Ceylon League, or the Cobden Club interference with
the paddy rents— is that of the local "Incidence of
Taxation, " on which the Commission presided over by
the Hon'ble the Lieut-Governor has yet to make its
Report, although it is understood that several Sub-Com-
mittees (on Arrack, Education and Medical Cess,
Customs, Salt, Railway Rates, &c.)have completed their
labours. A few weeks back, Mr. Harold Cox, the Secret-
ary of the Cobden Club, attacked Mr. Chamberlain
in a very pointed letter, for decrying the influence and
significance of that body, and soundly asserted that its
object had ever been at all times and in all countries to
promote Free Trade principles and practice. We have
not seen Mr. Chamberlain's rejoinder, if indeed he made
one ; but what a crushing reply might be given from the
experience of Ceylon where the Cobden Club was
instrumental in moving a Tory Secretary of State (Lord
Knutsford) to abolish the immemorial rent (or tax, or
levy) on locally-grown rice (or paddy), while agreeing to
say nothing against the 10 per cent ad valorem Customs
duty on the rice imported for the urban population (and
estate coolies) including some of the very poorest and
most heavily-taxed people in the Island. Eleven years
have gone by, and neither the Cobden Club nor Mr. Harold
Cox has ever made the slightest movement to promote
Ceylon's New Governor. 157
Free Trade, to get Protection abolislied, or to remove a
very considerable, objectionable, nay iniquitous Food
Tax in Ceylon ! Whatever else may be the outcome of
the Incidence Commission, we trust the duty on grain
will be abolished, even if export duties on all the staples
are imposed, pending the day— after Surveys and Land
Settlements are finished,— for a scientific system such as
is administered in India. Under this heading of Tax-
ation and Revenue, Sir Henry Blake will also find there
is much room for a reform of the Arrack Monopoly and
the entire suppression of illicit sales both of arrack and
palm " toddy" more or less intoxicating. Not only do
we think the revenue may be increased, rather than
diminished, by the abolition of renters ; but we think
such a reform has a direct bearing on the suppression of
serious Crime, a matter which baffled GovernorRidgeway
to cope with successfully— through legislation, the
headmen or the police— and which almost, more than
anything else, has been left for his successor to investi-
gate and, if possible, check and diminish. Where arrack
is distilled, illicitly sold or intoxicating toddy vended to
coolies and villagers, and where ignorance most prevails?
— in such districts, as a rule, crime prevails. With the
spread of primary and industrial education, — it used to
be an established fact, that no artificer (carpenter, iron-
worker, mason, &c.) was ever found in gaol— with the
strict enforcement of law in regard to the sale of all
intoxicating drink, and with the introduction of ''penal
servitude in the Andamans" as a new and much-dreaded
punishment, serious homicidal crime among the Sin-
halese ought greatly to decrease- Speaking of arrack
— to the use of which, unfortunately, the Sinhalese have
been accustomed from time immemorial, though
forbidden in their Buddhist teachings— brings us to
"opium" which has never been prepared or used by
them as a drug, practically, until within the past fifty
to sixty years, and only to any appreciable extent since
the British Government licensed opium shops in the
towns a,nd villages thirty years ago, and more freely
158 Ceylon in 1903.
within the past ten years. The result is that the annual
import of the drug has run up from 800 to 1,000 lbs. fifty
years ago, to over 20,000 lbs. —a serious matter as laying
the foundation of an " opium habit " among a people
already specially effeminate and only too ready to fall
into the lazy, helpless, if not worse, state which opium
promotes. Sir Henry Blake knows far too -much of
opium in China and other countries, for us to say more
now than refer His Excellency to the debate of last
Session in the Legislative Council, and to express the
hope that before he leaves Ceylon it may be His
Excellency's felicity to meet the views of the Sinhalese,
Kandyan, Muhammadan, Burgher and Gsueral Euro-
pean representatives as expressed on that occasion.
Public Instruction in Ceylon in all its branches,—
including technical, industrial and agricultural— is in a
state of transition. The same may be said to some
extent of the work of the Scientific Department in con-
nection with the Royal Botanic Gardens, from which
much good has already come and much more is
expected.
The continuance to completion of important
Surveys, the promotion of Land Settlopent, the con-
struction of much-needed new roads and bridges, and
the restoration of irrigation tanks now well in hand,
will all mark the period of Sir Henry Blake's adminis-
tration. It should see the final disposal of the Colombo
Harbour Works in Breakwaters, the foundation-stone
of the first of which was laid by His present Majesty
Avhen Prince of Wales in 1875, Sir William Gregory
being Governor. There is also our Graving Dock to be
finished, although not so large as one or two Sir Henry
Blake has left in process of construction at Hongkong.
Then comes the railway which ought to be opened right
through the island to Jaffna by Governor Blake, who
has also to see the proper completion of the Udapussel
lawa Hill line ; but His Excellency must not be content
to open merely Avhat his predecessor started. We hope
it will be Sir Hemy Blake's happiness to have his name
Ceylon's New Governor. 169
identified with at least two Railway extensions which
are certain to be financially prosperous, namely, the
branch to Ratnapura and the line from Colombo north-
wards to Negombo, Ohilaw, and Puttalam ; while,
possibly, there may be an extension of the Southern
Seaside line to Tangalla and Hambantota ; of a feeding
hill line to Badulla and Passara — and if the /Admiralty
and Home Government do their duty, a line to Trinco-
malee (and Batticaloa), and the promotion of an Indo-
Ceylon Railway via Mannar and Rameswaram, — the
extension from Madawachchi to Mannar island being as
good as guaranteed in connection with the Cooly
Immigrant Labour route and supply
It will be seen from this hurried sketch that, apart
from every-day matters of Administration, and educa-
tional, philanthropic and social calls on his attention,
Sir Henry Blake is likely to have as many large and
important questions come iinder his attention as had
any of his predecessors. We trust the same experience
of a period of prosperity in Agriculture CTea, Cacao and
Palm planting especially), in general Import and Export
Trade, and in Revenue returns may be continued in 1904
and onwards as prevailed from 1896 to 1903. Much is
rightly expected from a series of successful Pearl
Fisheries and from the imijortant investigation and
experiments inaugurated by Professor Herdman and
Mr. Horiiell. To His Excellency the Governor and Lady
Blake, personally, we tender the heartiest welcome in
the name of the people of all races and classes in Ceylon,
and we trust the Divine blessings will rest on their
aspirations and labours, and that, when the time comes
for retirement, they will have no cause to look back on
their stay in Ceylon with any feeling save that of satis-
faction and thankfulness.
APPENDICES.
Ceylotn in 1903.
APPENDIX I.
GLOSSAEY.
[H. = Hindustani ; A. = Aryan ; P. = Pali ; Tel. = Telugu.]
Ac/iiri. — Blacksmiths ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
Achchila. — A. Eandyan form of the word araohohila, q. o.
Adappxn. — A customs headman in the Northern Province.
Adig&r. — (From Skt. adkihari.') Superintendent, prime minister, or chief
officer of state under the kings of Kaudy.
Adikar. — The chief revenue officer of a division in. the Mann&r District.
A^ipalla. — ^The lower layers of stacked paddy on a threshing-floor,
allowed to the watcher as a perquisite.
A^uhku. — Dressed provisions supplied to an officer travelling on duty, as
distinguished from pehidum raw provisions, q. v.
Aga/re. — Deniya, low land between hills ; high land attached to a field ;
tributary stream.
Agas. — First-fruits of a crop ; offering of first-fruits.
Agata or Agdwata, — (From ago, end, and ata direction.) Lower side
of a paddy field or range of paddy fields.
Agubalannd. — The headman who tasted the food of the Kandyau king.
Ahaskamhe. — The tight rope (literally "air-rope") used in rope dancing,
which is a service of tenants of the Badulla Dewale.
Ahampa^iyar. — Those who attend to any business in the interior of
temples and palaces.
AhgiXa. — Contribution of rice or paddy on the occasion of a procession
at a dewale ; first-fruits offered for the protection of the crops by the
Aloffii. — ^A mark to assist the memory ; a tally, e.g., in counting coconuts
one is put aside to mark each hundred : those thus put aside are
called alagu.
Alis-ilU netuwa. — Without disloyalty or carelessness.
Aliyandure. — The morning music at a temple.
AVmirahi^oTt.wlmaria.') — A cabinet, wardrobe,cupboard,chest of drawers.
Ami/tii (Aumany'). — Held in trust or deposit ; applied especially to the
collection of revenue direct from cultivators or renters by officers of
Grovernment, upon the removal or suspension of an intermediate
claimant.
ii Glossary.
Aviarapura Samdgama. — (Prom Amara'pura the capital of the Burmese
Empire, and sam&gama a society.) The Amarapura sect of Buddhists
in Ceylon who are in communion with the monks of Burma. This
sect was introduced into Ceylon about 1800 a.d. by Ambagahapitiye,
a monk of the Halagama caste.
Ambalama. — A native resthouse or halting-place. (From the Tamil
ainhalam — v. madavi.') '
Ampa^^ar. — Barbers ; also the name of A Tamil caste,
Amuna. — A dam ; also a measure of grain, equal in the District of
Colombo to six bushels, in the Kandyan-oountry four bushels. The
measure varies in different parts of the Island, It generally consists
of four pelas ; v. pela. Also the extent of land sown by the above
measure : as a measure of arecannts = 24,000.
ATUimestdraya. — A shed in which lights are kept at dewale festivals.
Anda, Ande. — Share, or, more appropriately, half share, Anda land
is that which is delivered by the proprietor to another to cultivate
on condition of delivering to him half the crop as rent. This is
the usual condition on which fertile fields are annually let,—
(D'Oyly,) The term is now applied to other shares than half
given by the cultivator of a field to its proprietor : thus tunen-anda
is one-third share, liataren-aiida one-fourth, and so forth. Half
share is sometimes called hari-anda (from hari equal, and cmda share)
to distinguish it from other shares,
Anda-mnttettu. — (From anda and muttettu.') Those muttettu lands which
are cultivated on the condition of giving half the crop to the
proprietor, as distinguished from ninda-muttettu, q. v.
Anda-praceni. — (Corruptly anda-paraveni^ Signifies lands originally
the property of Government, abounding with jungle, which have
been cleared and cultivated by individuals without permission.
One-seventh part of the produce of these lands (in the first place)
is given as walahan, and then the seed corn is deducted ; after
which one-half of the remaining produce is appropriated to Govern-
ment and the other by the goyyas. The cultivators or the persona
who converted them into fields are entitled to one-half the soil
of this description of land, which they may either sell or mortgage
and which is heritable. —( Cfej/Zojj Almanao, 1819.)
Audi.— Pilgiim, religious mendicant, fakir,
Anga, A^ge.— The uppermost part of a field ; small fields detached from
the main tract of fields.
Angama. — A magical ceremony performed to inflict an injury on some
one.
Afufudalupat. — Small villages dependent on large ones given for the
performance of some sort of service, as that of dhoby, tom-tom
beater, devil-dancer, or jaggery-caste people.
Ceylon in 1903, iii
Ammt.—(¥io-m the Tamil.) A dam across a river, to fill and regulate
the water in the irrigation oharmels cut from it.
Aniyam ^lapata.—Hhs temporary bottom of a Beld ; i.e., when a portion
of land is cleared for cultivation, and when only the upper half of
it is asweddumized, the bottom of the asweddumized portion is
aniyam elapata ; when the remainder is also asweddumized the bot-
tom of it is pahala elapata, and aniyam elapata no longer exists.
Aniyam Pangima. — (From aniyam unfixed, and^anywttia a share or por-
tion.) Portion of land for which there is no fixed service.
j4BAe/%a.— Horn-pulling, The ceremony of pulling horns or forked
sticks to propitiate the goddess Pattini in times of epidemics,
^MMa,— (Skt. o?j(i.) The sixteenth part of a rupee.
Anwm^tirUa.—k respectful term for a luvpv,r6.l&, q. v. ; one' through
whom the pleasure of the demyo is known.
Anwn&yalub Cm!ci»«^.— Assistant or second chief monk.
Appit. — An honorific. In colloquial use the word " appu " has come to
mean "butler " among Europeans,
Appuhimi. — ^A respectful term applied to one of a higher grade than
appu.
Ara. — (From the Tamil aru.) A stream.
ArachcMla, Araohehi. — An ; officer over a village or group of villages,
and in rank below a Tiorala in the Kandyan and below a muliandiram
in the low-country,
Arracli, Arahltu, or Arukhi. — A fermented liquor from the juice of the
coconut palm, probably a dialectical modification of the Arabic
&rak. (Si^. araliku^
ArAwa. — A portion of land newly asweddumized and lying detached from
the range of paddy fields,
Asgiri Yih&raya. — The college of Buddhist monks at Asgiriya, Kandy,
Askanuliumhurv,. — (From as aside, and Mnv, or hon a corner.) Exterior
fields lying towards the boundary of the range, or at a distance from
the centre. Border fields which, in remote districts, have certain pri-
vileges, light taxation, &c., in consideration of their being subject
to danger from wild beasts.
Aswan&ta. — (From as aside, wana jungle, and ata direction.) An un-
cultivated portion of a field bordering a jungle, v. Wandta.
Asweddwna, — Land recently converted into a paddy field.
Asweddmnize. — A verb anglicized from the above, " to convert into a
paddy field."
'Atapattu Araehehi. — Arachchi of the Atapattu,
Atapattu Lehamia. — The 16kama (writer or secretary) of the Atapattu.
Atav u Mvidiyansi, — Mudaliyar of the Atapattu.
iv Glossary.
Atapattijt, Piruwa. — The department of the Atapattu.
Atapattuwa. — The peon or messenger staff of a disiwa.
Atihari. — A petty irrigation headman in the Eastern Province.
Atmaga. — ^A portion of jungle outside a field to preserve it from wild
animals, sometimes cultivated with fine grain. A common term in
the Matara District.
Attanayaharala. — Custodian, storekeeper, overseer ; corresponding to
wannakwdla (accountant).
Atuliirala, Atiikoralayd. — An assistant to a koraXa.
Atvwa. — A granary, v. Siua, the corresponding word used in the
Kandyan districts.
Awatewahirima. — Ministrations ; daily service at a dhoali.-
Sa^ahelayo. — Potters ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
Badallu. — Gold and silversmiths. Sinhalese caste.
BadawediUa. — Land granted by Goverimient to certain individuals in
consideration of offices held or services rendered by them.
Ba^awetiya. — A hedge or belt of jungle bordering a field or a garden.
Bad,de. — Division when it occurs as the latter partiof a, compound word
e.g., Maggonbadde, Maggona Division.
■BaddeminihA. — A respectful term for a tom-tom beater.
Badukar ay a.— Deed of lease.
Balana panguwa. — The share of the produce of a garden given to the
occupant by the owner for taking care of it.
BiXapiiMa. — A separate portion of a paddy field of a, small extent
cultivated for the exclusive benefit of an individual cultivator.
Bila-vn. — (From BtiXa young, and vA paddy.) A kind of paddy sown
after the expiration of the proper season, as it ripens sooner than
other descriptions of paddy.
Bali. — OfEerings to propitiate the planets.
Balltt/m. — A large dug-out canoe.
BamibAnetima. — A wlckerwork frame on which a man walks, carrying it
along at Diyakeplma. [Diyah^pima is the ceremony of striking the
water with a sword at a certain place in the Mahaweli-ganga or the
Kalu-ganga, and putting some water into a pot, which is then con-
sidered holy water.]
Bamhipidima.: — Sprouting of bambu. Applied to a paddy disease : a
blight which affects the young paddy plants, due to unusually pro
longed rains. From want of sun the young plant fails to mature
the ear, and a shoot of grass like a bambu leaf appears in its stead,
V. Halpanpidima.
Barfa, — The wordjof Buddha.
Ceylon in 1903. v
Banda. — An honorific title in the Kaudyan districts.
Bim4arawatu. — (From Ban^ara^ or more correctly bhandagdra., a store-
room, a treasury ; and luaUn gardens.) Gardens belonging to the
royal store or treasury, i.e., gardens belonging to Government. Most
of them were planted by the Dutch Government. The whole of their
produce was annually rented by Government for its own benefit,
but in a few instances some of these gardens were planted by indi-
viduals who possess the planting share of the trees only, in such
proportion as the nature of the soil will admit ; i.e., those gardens on
the coast pay annually to Government two-thirds of the produce of
the trees (chiefly coconut trees), and the remaining one-third or
planting share is enjoyed by the planter ; and those gardens situated
in the interior pay half to Government. — (^Ceylon Almanao, 1819.)
Bandarawaliya. — Certain noble families in the Kandyan country.
Ban^iriya. — The designation by which the one-fifth share paid to Govern-
ment by the holders of the paddy fields in the batgavi is known.
Bande, Bvmde. — Tel. A fine for trespass by cattle — (Wilson.) (The
Sinhalese word wandiya fine, or payment of compensation, is
evidently of the same origin.)
BwtikglwXl. — Etymology doubtful : 1, a warehouse ; 2, the office of a
harbour master ; 3, name of street in Colombo.
Barapen. — Remuneration given to copyists ; hire given for important
services, as the building of a ■tiltdre, making of images, and copying
sacred books.
BasnAydlta Nilame. — Principal or lay incumbent of a dewile or Hindu
temple.
Baigam. — ^Corruptly iajjam. (From l)at rice, and gama a village, lit. a.
"rice village.") There are four villages known as the "four
batgam," or " bajjam," in the Gangabada pattuwa of Matara
They were originally given to certain families on condition of
service, but when that service, was no longer exacted, the holders or
occupants (called Nay Ides) of these lands were required to give up
to the State one-fifth of the produce of their fields, which one-fifth
part is designated ianddriya, and belongs absolutely to the Crown: —
(Cairns.)
Batgamayi. — 1 he name of a Sighalese caste, commonly called Paduwo.
Batliawdpu-nama. — Name given when a child is first fed with rice.
Batta. — ^Additional allowance. Extra pay or allowances to officers
employed on special duties or in distant places. — (Wilson.)
Bazaar.— ^■a the dialects which have not a x bdjdr.) A market, a daily
market, a market place.^(Wilson.)
Biche-de-mer. — Sea islug or trepang. A species of Holothuria much
esteemed as a delicacy by the Chinese.
vi Glossary.
Beinma. — The bund or earthen dam closing the outlet of the valley in
which the water of a tank is retained.
Be-ri. — A tom-tom. As a measure of capacity equal to 5 kurunies or
20 nelies.
Bevawai/d.— Tom-tom beaters ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
Berl-Beri. — An acute disease of a dropsical nature.
Bet ma. — A divison, especially of a water-courae,into channels or branches
Betiiierdla. — The officer in charge of a number of villages belonging to
a temple, corresponding to a i-'uhhw.
Bliang. — An intoxicating pieparation of hemp.
Bimimlutu, — Fees levied for the privilege of cremation.
Bindunliada. — A breach in a bund.
Binna. — Corruptly beena. That species of marriage among the Kandyans
where the husband is received into the house of the bride, and abides
therein permanently, t; Diga.
Binfenna. — (Sabaragamuwa.) Term applied to Kolonna korale and parts
of Atakalan and Meda koraJes, where the climate does not permit
of el-wi cultivation ; also a division of Uva.
Bisokotuica, — A square shaft or well sunk through the bund of a tank
to the bottom of a sluice leading from the inside of the tank to the
fields outside. " It is probable that the well served as an. entrance
to the sluice for the purijose of cleaning it, removing roots, pieces of
wood, or other obstructions. It is true that a man might enter the
sluice from the outside for that purpose, but without the well he
would be in darkness ; and it is only in the embankments of large
tanks that the well is found. Besides, in the event of the sluice
gates getting out of order, supplementary gates could be put to the
sluice in the well while they were being repaired." — (_Ceylim
Almanac, 1857.)
Bisna, — A granary, round, of wickerwork, and plastered with mnd. v.
Atuwa,
Bodel Kamer ( Dutch). — Testamentary or estate funds deposited with the
Loan Board, v. Budali.
BdgaJia. — Tne b6-tree (^Ficus religiosa). Gautama, the Buddha of the
present age, is said to have attained Buddhahood whilst seated at
the foot of a bo-tree at Buddha Saya in India. The tree is believed
to exist there still, and is an object of worship to the Buddhists.
The bo-tree at Anuradhapura, planted there in the reign of Devanan-
piyatissa, 306-266 B.C., is said to be the right branch of that tree.
Bdla-atta. — A bundle of leaves, generally of gurulla, set up at a field to
show that it had been appropriated by the party setting it up, and
that no one had a right to enter upon it for the purpose of culti-
vating it. Also a broom made of leaves,
Ceylon in 1903. v«
Bombay Duoh. — A small fish, Harpodon nehereus, eaten fresh, and also in
the well-known dried state.
Bmdique.—f^iom the Portuguese hytiea or loteca.') A small native shop
or booth.
Brahma. — The first deity of the Hindu triad ; the creator of the world.
Brahman, Brahmun. — (Dialeotically iahman or bohmam, or in Tamil
parappan or piramanan. Corruptly braman, bramiH, &c. Skt.
Brdhiitana.y A man of the first order or caste of Hindus, properly
charged with the duty of expounding the vedas, and conducting the
ceremonies they enjoin. In modern times engaged not only in such
duties, but in most of the occupations of secular life. — (Wilson.)
Brinjal. — Solawum melungena. Called in the West Indies "the egg
plant."
Bubula.- — A spring of water, often used for purposes of irrigation.
BudaU. — Estate of a deceased person. i'. Bodel Kamer.
Btiddlia. — (From the root BudliM to know, to comprehend. P. Buddho,
Buddha.) The founder of Buddhism ; a being who has attained
perfect knowledge ; the enlightened.
Buddha Varsliaya. — The Buddhist era. It is reckoned from the death of
Grautama Buddha, 513 B.C.
Bulat-huruUa. — A fee of a few Hdis given by a complainant to the
headman. Lit. a bundle of betel leaves, inside which the money is
generally placed.
Bund. — A dam or dyke ; a raised bank or mound of earth constructed to
confine the waters of a tani
Bungalow. — Probably from banga, Beng., a thatched cottage, such as is
usually occupied by Europeans in the provinces or in military
cantonments. — (Wilson.)
Burgher. — (Dutch burger a citizen.) 1, Dutch descendants ; 2, a generic
name in Ceylon for Eurasians.
Cabob. — tA specific kind of curry of meat in small pieces placed on
skewers alternately with onions and green ginger.
Cabooli. — Laterite, disintegrated gneiss, used for gravelling roads and for
buildings. It hardens on exposure to the air, and is impregnated
with iron peroxide.
Cadjan. -A Malay word. The plaited leaf of the ooooanut palm used for
thatching houses.
Candy. — A. measure of weight used in South India and Ceylon, varying
from 500 to 600 lb.
Caravel, Carvel. — Frequent in old Portuguese narratives. A round built
vessel, 'i.e., not long and sharp like a galley. Perhaps connected
with the Celtic " coracle."
viii Glossary.
Cashew, Cadju. — The tree, fruit, or nut of the Anareardiwn occideiitale.
Introduced into the East Indies from America. The nuts, containing
much oil, are called " promotion nuts " and " coffin nails."
Catamaran. — A raft formed of three or four logs of wood lashed together.
V. Teppain,
Chaityaya. — (Pali Clietiya, Elu Seya.) A depository of the relics of
Buddha.
CItaJikiUyar. — Tanners and shoemakers. A Tamil caste.
Chdnar. — Toddy-drawers. A Tamil caste.
Cha^du. — Equivalent to Durave. The name of a Sighalese caste.
Chanli. — A large kind of shell found especially in the Gulf of Manaar.
The right-handed chank with its spirals opening to the right is
highly prized. Chanks are used as horns for blowing at temples,
and also for cutting into armlets and other ornaments. Another
name is " conch." (Skt. saiikha).
OiMipoy. — A Hindu word meaning " four feet," a common bedstead.
Chattiriyar. — Warriors (_Kshatnya). A Tamil caste.
Chayahkarar. — Dyers. A Tamil caste.
CJmdi. — Low jungle, small bushes.
Cheltlfu. — A mill worked by bullocks for expressing oil from copperah, q.v.
Chenibu. — A small pot, usually made of brass or copper.
Cliempa(}iiiar. — A tribe of fishers.
Ckena, corruptly for "liena." — Jungle land burnt and cleared at intervals
of years and sown with fine grains and vegetables.
Cheidyar. — Weavers. A Tamil caste.
Clietty. — A trader, merchant. A Tamil caste.
Chit, — A note or letter.
Chitpar. — Sculptors, stone-cutters, masons. A Tamil caste.
Chittirahli&rar. — Painters. A Tamil caste.
Chiviy&r. — Palanquin bearers. A Tamil caste.
Chdliya VelUlar. — Velldlas from the S61iya country, about Tanjore and
Trichinapalli.
CMnaltar (or Tuluhiar'). — Moormen.
Chow-chow. — Pigeon-English for mixed preserves imported from China.
Choya root. — A root (Hedyotis umbellata') affording a red dye called
" Indian madder."
Chule. — A torch of coconut or other leaves.
Chunam. — Prepared lime, chewed with betel leaf, areoanut, and tobacco.
Also lime for mortar, and especially fine polished plaster.
Coil-. — The fibre of the coconut husk from which rope is made. Thence
a synonym for rope itself.
Gei/lon in 1903. ix
Comhoij. — A cloth or skirt worn by the natives of Ceylon.
• Conjee. — Rice water or gruel; ' - , .
C'ooly. — A hired labourer or carrier of burdens.
Copra, also Coprah and Copperah. — The dried flesh of the coconut used
for the expression of its oil. The refuse is caXieA. poonac, ([. i\
Cowle. — Arab. Juml. A written agreement. Used, in the Northern
Province for " conditions of sale."
Coyta. — A Public Works Department tool ; a bill-hook.
Crediet Briereii. — Promissory notes of the Dutch Government in Ceylon.
Cutchery, also XavhcMH, Kacceri. — In Ceylon the use of this word is
entirely conflned to the revenue office of a Government Agent or
Assistant Agent. In India an office of administration or court-house.
Dagaha, Ddijeba, or Dagoha.- — (From da relics, and gaba or geba a womb,
a receptacle.) A bell-shaped structure in which the relfcs of Buddha
or other holy personages are deposited.
Djladd. — The canine tooth-relic of Buddha.
Daladi Malijawa. — (From ddlada the canine tooth-relic, and mAligmca
a palace, a mansion.) The temple of Buddha's togth-relic at K!andy.
DaVumuri. — The turn of a tenant to supply betel for a temple or proprietoa'.
Dalupota.—Jja,nA lately brought into cultivation as a paddy field, or more
recently than an original field.
DalupotJtdrayi. — A sub-tenant, garden-tenant; one who has asweddu-
mized land belonging to a mvlpangultdrayd (original tenant).
Bardnda. — The upper side of a field.
Deliet-ata. — A roll of betel leaves given to a monk.
Z>(-'7i(ie;m»«(i.— Cutting of limes : a magical ceremony to avert the evil
influence of stars or demons.
Bflium . — Presents.
Demala Gattai-u.—i¥iom Bemala Tamil, and] gaitaru ca.Tpii-ves.') A
Sinhalese caste so-called, supposed to be the descendants of Tamil
captives taken by Sinhalese kings. These people are found chiefly in
the villages of Indigastuduwa and Bondupitiya in the Pasduntorale
of the Western Province ; Wallambegala and Xxalkanda in the
Bentota-Walallawiti k6rale; and Galahenkanda and some other
villages in the Gangabada pattu of Galle in the Southern Province.
Beniya. — A narrow valley running up between the spurs of a range of
hills and cultivated with paddy ; high ground, asdistinguished
, Irom low or marshy ground.
Bepa-ila. — A water channel constructed along an ;embankment ; an ela
having two sides or banks, which have^ to be;.kept ;in repair by the
cultivators, as distinguished from the majority of elas, which have
Imt cue side or bank.
X Glossary.
Depd-wella. — A ridge or bank running through fields, either as a boun-
dary or as a path, and which the cultivators of fields lying on either
side of it are bound to keep in repair.
Dewdlagama. — (From dewdle a Hindu temple, and gama a village.) A
village or land belonging to a diioale or temple of some heathen
deity.
DewaU.—k. temple dedicated to a god.
Dewa-ndgara. — The (divine) Sanskrit characters or Sanskrit alphabet.
Dewa(a.—A path between two fences or hedges.
Dhal. — (Hindu ddl.") A kind of pulse resembling split pease.
Dhdtu. — Belies.
Dholy. — (Hindu dhoht^ A washerman.
Bhoni. — A nundecked vessel. The word is used generally for a native ship.
Diga (J)eega). — That species of Kandyau marriage where the bride leaves
her parents and lives permanently with her husband. The opposite
of Sinna, q. v.
Digge. — Porch of a dewdle, to which alone worshippers have access.
Dhdwa. — Governor of a Province in the Kandyan kingdom.
Disdwan^. — The jurisdiction of the above.
Bivel. — (From the root div, to live.) Lands granted to individuals for
their maintenance in consideration of certain services rendered or
offices held by them.
Diwa Nilame. — Principal lay officer of the Dalada Maligawa (p'llace of,
the tooth-relic).
Diyabetma. — See Batma.
Diyatara. — ^Fields which are irrigated by means of tanks and channels
and not dependent on rain, as distinguished from malan kiimbuni,
which are dependent on rain for irrigation.
Diyawadana Nilame.— Anofhex term for the Dlwa Xilamc.
Diyaicdraya.—ijeiom diya water, and wdraya turn or season.) The turn
for water, ontime for each range of fields to receive water from an ela
which irrigates different ranges of fields in rotation.
Dola. — A natural water-course.
Diwa.—A field ;or place between rising grounds, and into which water
flows during rains,
J)ubsah.—iFzom 8kt. dwi-bhdshd of two languages.) An interpreter
ship's purveyoi'.
Stigganna Nilame. — A personal attendant on the king.
JDugganm Pemiaa.— The class from which the personal attendanteon th«
king were selected.
Burdwe. — The name of a Sinhalese caste.
Durayd-—h. headman of the Wahumpura, Badde, and Paduwa castes.
Ceylon in 1903. xt
ElfittayA.—Ihe juvenile attendant of a Buddhist monk.
Edanda. — ^A small foot-bridge over a stream, usually a single log with
(occasionally) a hand rail.
Elielagaha.— Tree or post set up at a dewale at a lucky hour in the month
of !^helaas a preliminary to perahera.
Ma.— A water-course ; a channel for carrying water from a tank or
stream to the fields.
Ela-agata. — Lower end of a water-course.
Ela-anmna. — Water-course and its dam.
Ela-mmlata. — Upper end of an ela or water-course.
Ela-poUa.— Portion of the ela aesigned to each cultivator to keep in
repair.
Ella. — A I rapid ; a water-fall.
Ehi. — The old Sinhalese language.
ElvMulikarar. — Scribes. A Tamil caste.
jEi5a«a.— Applied to a Sinhalese lady of a Kandyan family of the Vellala
caste,
Etani. — Bather lower than the above.
Fanam. — Six cents, from Sinhalese panama, q, v.
Fathom. — Six feet. In the West, a measure of depth of water ; in
Ceylon, a measure of distance and of length.
Gaha^a-gama. — (From gabada a store, and gamia a village.) A I'oyal
' village.
Gaba^d Nilame. — OfSoer in charge of the royal stores of the Kandyan
king.
Oa^i. — The respectful term for a Rodiya. The name used by a Kodiy^
for his caste.
Galialayo, Gahalagamba^ayo. — Executioners, scavengers.
Galioni. — Cloth covering of pingo loads of presants.
Gajan&yalM Mlame.~Of&oer in charge of the elephants of the Kandyan
king.
Gal-addo. — ^Workers in precious stones ; lapidaries.
Galgdna Han,gi4iy&. — Chief of stone-cutters.
Gallatgama. — "A species of village much in the nature of a ninda
village, and sometimes bearing that name." — (D'Oyly.)
Gallimt. — The fruit of Tarminalla oliebula, Sig. aralw. Plentiful in the
Bintenna of XJva, and largely exported under the name of Mijro-
bolans, ^. v.
Gama. — A village. The Sinhalese word gama properly signifies a village,
but in the Kandyan country it is also frequently applied to a single
estate or a single field. The latter is often called par^guwa or shares
jxii . , Qtossxry,;
Gamarala. — A village chief or headman..'
Gammahe.—k village headman, a headman of Veddas.
Gan Araeliohi. — An araehchi of a village.
Gai}a-dewiyi, — (Skt. ■Ganes/ia.') Sou of Siva, the god of wisdom and re-
mover of difEoulties and obstacles, addressed at the commencement
pt all undertakings and. at the opening of all compositions.
Gaiigataya. — ^Leg of an animal killed in the chase and given to the pro-
prietor of the land whereon it was killed.
Gamiile. — The service field in a village held by the rjammahe, or the village
headman, for the time being.
Share under a gam-wa-sama, the -district of ' a village headman,
(gammahe) or (gamarala), who enjoys the paggu or share. He
must accommodate all the persons who come from the landlord to
the village, and carry his messages to the tenants and others. He
must also supply provisions in some cases.
Gansahkawa. — Village council or tribunal.
Gaimmsavm.-^l'he tenement held by the Gamdrdlas of villages from the
Grown subject to certain serVifees.
Gimnanda. — A term for a Kodiya.
Gattaru. — A low caste, supposed to be descendants of captives, or con-
demned thieves, &c. •
Gautama. — The name of the Buddha of the present Italpa or age;
Gawettnwa.—A. small box for cash or jewellery;
Gawwa. — A measure of distance, about four English miles.
Gehar&la. — Storekeeper, whose duty it is to measure the paddy, rice, oil,
&c., received into and issued out of a temple gahacldtoa (store).
Gedaranama ; Geiiama. — House name ; family name.
(fentoo. — (Boxt, gentio.') Heathen generally, not including Moham-
medans, found in old books, but now obsolete.
Geu)atupai}ama.T~Keu% .paid for possession of houses and gardens.
Ghaut.— A landing place j steps on the bank of a river ; a quay ; a wharf
where customs are commonly levied ; & pass through the mountains ;
the mountains themselves, especially applied to the eastern and
western ranges of the south of India, &c.
Go^a-hima.—TLigh. land.
Oo^a-humhura.—The highest land in a tract of fields.
Godown.~(Bexig. gvdain, liom .the Malay gadang.') An outhouse, a
. warehouse, a place where household implements or goods are kept.
The " black hole " was nothing else than a godown.
6otama,—c. Gautama.
Goyan, or more correc'.ly j'oj/aw.— Standing corn, paddy plants. '
Goyifjama.-^T&Q name of a Sinhalese caste ; also called Veliaias.
Geylpn in '1903. xui
bfoyi-gdnawd. — Smoothing the bed of a field, heing the last process
preparatory to sowing.
Goyipola. — High or low ground under cultivation.
Goyiyd.-^A cultivator.
Grantha.—K book, a metre or measure ; the grantha alphabet used in the
south of India in writing Sanskrit.
Gravet.-^K post or station. Kaiaivat-liatara, the Four Gravets or bouji-
daries of Colombo and other towns.
Gunny hag. — (From Sanskrit goni a saok.) The popular and trade name
for coarse sacks made of jute.
GtirmnneM. — A term of respect in addressing a tom-tom beater,
Guruwo. — A mixed race (or caste) or Sinhalese and Moors who profess
the Mohammedan religion.
GyvMuma. — A modern word, of which the derivation is uncertain*
Usually applied to a small meeting at which horse- racing is com-
bined with athletic and other sports.
Hackery. — A native cart drawn by a bullock.
JBakdure. — The service of blowing conch-shells in. daily servi<5e in a
dewaU.
HaJige^iya. — A conch-shell or cj^ank, q.t:
Eahird. — Jaggery makers. Name of a Sinhalese caste.
Haldgatua. — The name of a Siighalese caste.
IIdlpan-pidmna.-~-Th.e sprouting of the rice-rush applied to a paddy
disease ; a blight which affects the young plants, due to the unusually
prolonged rains, v. Bamiu-piduma.
Ilaljiiitu.^-The bark of the lial tree ( Vateria indica, Lin.) used by the
sweet-toddy drawers to prevent the toddy from fermenting.
Haliiwadiana Nilame. — Officer in charge of the royal robes at the
Kandyan palace.
Sdmi. — An honorific suf&x of names in Si^hales^.
Hdmini. — A respectful term applied to the wife of a rdlahdmi, drg^hchi,
or liarikdnama.
JIdmu. — Honorific title of sons and daughters of Mudaliy^irs.
Sandiram.—A kind of paddy.
ffanduruwd, — Another term for Goyigama caste. ■
Hangafa. — the piruwata .(or cloth) lent by_the dhoby.
Bangarammu.—A. respectful term for Wah<mipv,raya, j'. r. Hence
applied to persons of low caste when employed as domestic servants
in the Kandyan country.
Hanndli. — Tailors ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
xiv Glossary. '
Bern,. — Corruptly clteiia, q. v. High jungle ffround cultivated at
intervals, generally of from five to fourteen years, but in some cases
at longer intervals. The jungle is cut down and burnt for manurei
and the land is then sown with hill paddy, fine grain, &c,
Henaya. — A term for a washer or dhoby, q. i:
JJfnde-du}-e. — The evening music at a dewale.
Hfrenapata or H^runpata. — A field asweddumized subsequent to th«
formation of the original field, and in another direction from it.
Hewttpamte. — Soldiers. The body guard of the Maha Mudaliyar.
Hewawasam. — Belonging to the military class.
Hetepma. — More correctly setepma, corruptly lietekma, resting-place. A
distance supposed to be equal to an English mile.
mWiammitiya. — Kegister of ploughed lands under the Kandyan Govern-
ment.
Hill paddy. — ^A kind of paddy grown without irrigation on chenas and
high lands.
Minna. — ^Hill, hillock.
IlinndwS. — ^Washers for people of the Halagama caste. The name of a
Sinhalese caste.
Hopper. — A colloquial term for a cake of rice flour.
Hoo. — Hallo or hi. A loud call, and thence applied to the distance at
which a loud cry can be heard.
Hulawaliya. — A headman of the Rodiyas, q. v.
HuwiyavM. — A magical incantation to injure a human being.
-A ceremony used to ward ofE the effects of a
Hurikiri Achohila. — Officer who supplied fresh milk to superiors when
travelling.
Hiinno. — Lime burners ; also name of a Sinhalese caste.
Huwandlram. — (All spelt suwandiram.) A certain share of the' produce
of a paddy field given to the irrigation headman. The proportion
so given varies in different parts of the Island. In the Southern
Province it is l/48th.
I^aiyar. — Shepherds and cowherds. Tamil caste.
I(}ar}ge or i^ama. — The principal building where visitors of rank are
lodged in a village. .
Iliala flapata.—litAt portion of a field which is nearest to the tank
which irrigates it, as distinguished tfompahala flapata, g. v.
Imprest,— A.n advance, e. g., of travelling expenses.
Imuyara. — The limitary dam or ridge of a field.
Ismatta, — v. Anga,
Geylon in 1903. xv
I Uamliaranawa. — To emancipate a slave.
Ittanhere. — (Prom ittaij, act of emancipating, and here a deed.) A deed
of emancipation.
Jamhudvipaya. — The terra cognita of the Buddhists ; also the Continent
of India.
Jat. — Caste, nature, kind. Planters use it of the tea plant as being of
good or bad jat or stock.
Ji,taha-pota. — ^The book of birth-stories of the life of Gautama Buddha
in the various stages of his existence, of which 550 are recorded.
Hence the book is sometimes called Pansiya-panas Jntalia-pota,
" The Book of tlie 550 Birth-stories."
Jatalta-imime. — The right of inheritance by the father's side, from
jataha birth, and nnime right, inheritance.
Jerque. — Examination by Customs officers.
Jinrihsha — A light two-wheeled vehicle drawn by a man in the shafts'
introduced by Americans into Japan and thence into Ceylon.
Jungle. — (Skt. jangala, a forest or thicket.) Any tract overrun with
bushes or trees.
Kabdb v. Cabob.
Kahooh v, Cabook.
Kaeheheri v. Cutchery.
Kadaiyar, — Lime burners. Tamil caste.
Eadawata v, Gravet.
Kaduttam. — A marriage certificate or promissory note expressing the
amount of dowry among Moors.
Kahadiyara. — The sprinkling of water by -a, Kapurala in religious
ceremonies.
Eahawarm. — ^An ancient gold coin. (P. Kahapana, Skt. Karshapana.')
KailtltUavar. — Weavers. Tamil caste.
Kalaive(j,(li. — A threshing-floor.
Kalam. — A threshing-floor.
Kalanda. — An apothecaries' and jewellers' weight equal to \ of an oz
avoirdupois weight, Kalanchu,
KalaHchu. — A weight equal to about 73 grains avoirdupois ; 16 make a
palam.
Kdlapotam. — The season of cultivation in Jaffna corresponding with the
Sinhalese wa/ia and munmari in the Eastern Province.
K&laveUdnamai.—OiiXtvj&tion of grain at the proper season of the year,
Kalingnla.—A. sluice ; a dam or bank of stones,
J^allar. — ^Lit. thieves,
xvi Glossary.
Kiimata. — Threshing-floor, when cattle are used.
Kanade. — ^A measure of arrack equal to two bottles.
KanaJckajrlllai. — An accountant.
Kanatta. — Land overgrown with low jungle ; scrub.
Kandiya.—K bank or bund of a water-course.
Kandm-a. — ^A mountain stream.
Kangani. — An inferior officer below the . rank of an drachchi ; an
overseer of a, number of coolies ;emplDyed in public works or on an
estate.
A?mjj(i»'.-^Brassf ounders. The name of a Tamil caste.
Kanuhpravew. — These were originally forests or jungles of large extent
cut down and cleared by individuals, which they sowed once every
seven or eight years. These lands were free from all tax under the
Dutch Government, but since the present Government took possess-
ion they are subjected to pay one-tenth of their produce, and the
remaining nine-tenths are divided between the gcyiy&s and the
person who originally cleared them, or their heirs.
KapuraXar—Ihe officiating priest of a diwdle or Jidvila, q. v.
' Kapuwa. — A less respectful form of above.
KliraiMihi(j,% Velldlar. — Vellalas from the south of Madras.
Karaiyar (called also MtMmrar, Valaiyar, JS'ulaiyar — The name of a
Tamil caste.
Karaha Sangliayd. — There are two bodies bearing this name, one at the
Malwatta and the other at the Asgiriya College in Kandy, The
managing body of the above colleges consists of twenty priests.
Karawe. — The name of a Sinhalese caste.
KAriyaltarannd. — An irrigation headman ; in some parts of the Southern
Province Mayiiral ; lit. " an executive officer."
Kartika-mangalU.—A. Kandyan festival in honour of the gods, celebrated
generally the night of the full moon in the month of Kartika
(December).
Kasaltdra Liltaina. — Officer in [charge of the whip-crackers, or persons
appointed to walk with whips in front of the adigdrs.
Kdtamaran v. Katamaraii.
Kataragama Sewiyi.—The Indian god of war. The deity presiding at
Kataragama D6w41e.
KatawalM. — Evil mouth, corresponding to evil eye.
Kattddiyd.^A devil-dancer ; an inferior officer in the Kandyan country.
Xetta.—A billhook,
KdinMlU or' KatupulU.—Hh.e messenger or police staff of an Adigar
under the Kandyan Government. ■
I. — Dry grain, • • ' ■
Ceylon in 1903. xvii
Ke^agan. — Palanquins, fitted up (with sticks) for the occasion, to take up
the insignia of the Dewiyo in procession.
Kfdapan. — Correspondence between the Kandyan and the English Govern-
ments.
Kedgeree. — A preparation of fish with rice, a common breakfast dish.
KfU Kir&la. — Officer in charge of forests ; Conservator of Forests.
KeTmlama, — ^A kind of fields cultivated without irrigation.
Kim. — A tank or reservoir.
Kerimura. — The regular services of a diw&U held on Wednesdays and
Saturdays.
KepnviJia4a. — An opening made in a tank for the purpose of irrigating
fields.
Xere. — A document or deed.
Ketajpegima. — Treading down the clods in a field.
KhaH. — A kind of yellowish cotton cloth much used by soldiers in th«
field and by sportsmen.
Kinnaru. — Mat weavers ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
Kist, — (Vernacularly modified as Rgti, Beng. ; EJiist, Mar. ; Kisti, Tel. ;
Kisti or Mstv, Karn.) Instalment, portion ; the amount paid as
instalment ; the period fixed for its payments ; as a revenue term, it
denotes the portion of the annual assessment to be paid at specified
periods in the course of the year,
KoehcMyar. — Emigrants from Cochin.
Ko^itviwdklm, Liliwma. — Officer in charge of the gingals (artillery) in the
Kandyan kingdom.
Ko^ituwahlm Mukandirama. — The Muhandiram of the G-ingal Depart-
ment.
Kolaltetiya. — Stack of reaped corn,
Kollar. — Ironsmiths. Tamil caste.
Koma^di, — A class of Chetties. Tamil caste.
Kompamawidiyd. — The Sighalese name of Slave Island in Colombo.
Xonde. — A chignon ; the bunch or knot in which the Sinhalese (both
men and women) tie up their hair.
Eonsiptwa, Konseduwa. — The Sinhalese forms of the Dutch word for
court of justice.
Kirdla. — A revenue officer under a Bat€mahatmaya in the Kandyan
country corresponding to a Muhandiram in the low country.
Edrale. — A divi|ion or district in a Province.
Koratuwa. — ^A separate enclosure in a large garden or estate planted with
coconuts, betel, or vegetables. Much used in the Matara District,
Kottalhadd4 Muldch&riyd.~-B.eaA of the artificers or smiths.
Kottalladde- Vid&ni.—Ihe headman of smith villageSi
3
xviii Glossary.
Kotiu. — An enclosure [for storing salt by the manufacturers in tho
Futtalam District.
-Koviyar. — Slaves and descendants of slaves.
Komi. — A Hindu temple.
Kulam. — ^A tank.
Kum&r.ih&mi. — ^A lady of rank.
Kumbaha. — A wooden pipe placed underground through which water
is conveyed from one division of a field to. another, v. Kwnbiisita.
KumbalVu. — Potters. Sinhalese caste.
Kumhura. — A paddy field, v. Wela S., and Vayal T,
Kunammaduwa. — The establishment of palanquin bearers of the kings of
Kandy.
KuppAyama. — ^A Rodiyfe village ; habitation of a Rodiya.
Kuraliltan. — Eleusine coracana. A small grain, of pungent flavour, much
eaten by the poorer classes in the form of cakes. It is grown en
cheuas.
Kuramar. — Fowlers, snake catchers, and basket makers ; also the name of
a Tamil caste.
Kurumpar. — ^Blanket weavers ; also the name of a Tamil caste.
Kv/nilihal. — ^Non-Brahman priests from Vetharniam, near Point Calymere.
Kui"uip,ya. — A measure of grain, about one-eighth of a bushel ; the
extent of land that can be sown with the above measure.
Kuruwe. — The Elephant Department of the Kings of Kandy.
Kurvwe Leliama. — ^A headman of the Kiiruwe, or Elephant Department,
Kusavar. — ^Potters. Tamil caste.
Kshatriya. — Skt., the name of the second or military and regal caste, or
a member of it ; the warrior, the king. — (Wilson). According to
the Buddhist Pali authorities, tKe Kshatriyas form the first order
or caste, and the Brahmans the second.
iae.— (Skt., but current in all dialects ; sometimes modified as Zak, or
more commonly L<h, or in compounds LaltlC). A hundred thousand,
or Lac or Lahh, commonly, though not exclusively, applied to coin,
as a L&lih of rupees 100,000 rupees ; or at 2s. the rupee £10,000.—
(WUson).
Lachcliam.—A. measure of capacity and of sowing extent used in Jaffna.
It is about one-fifth of a bushel. Twenty-four lachams go to the
acre in paddy and eighteen in varaku culture. ■
L&duru. — Leprosy.
Ldhou—X measure of capacity containing about i neli or quarts.
Lama-etanA, ; Zama-c<<mi.— Honorific terms of address to females.
Landa. — Low jungle land.
Ceylon in 1903. xix
L ind wind. — An unwholesome wind which blows seawards. It prevails
in Colombo during the north-east monsoon.
Lanka. — ^A name of Ceylon. The oldest name of Ceylon in the literature
connected with the religion of G-otama Buddha, and derived from
its beauty and perfection. — (Turnour.)
Laseoreen. — Derived from the Persian lashkar, a native soldier. Survives
now in Ceylon as a guard of honour only.
Leaguer. — A measure of arrack equal to 150 gallons.
Lebhe. — ^A Mohammedan priest ; also an honorary affix of Mohammedan
names.
LegVftngi. — Dormitory' ; monk's cell.
Liltama. — Writer, secretary, registrar.
Leham MahaimayL — The above, with the addition of the honorific affix
Lena.—K cave ; a cave temple.
Ziwaya. — Salt pan.
lAyadda. — ^The bed of a paddy field.
lAyana Appu. — ^A writer ; a clerk.
Liyana Arachchi. — A writer holding the rank of drachohi,
Liyana Mnhandirama. — A writer holding the rank of muhandiram.
Liyana Sdla. — Another term for a clerk, with the honorific rila.
Likuruwd.—BrasatounievB. The name of a Sinhalese caste.
MadaJiu. — A sluice, v. Bisokotuwa.
Madam. — A shed or ambalam, ([. v.
Ma4amemimha.—X respectful term for guruwo, q. v.
Madaran.—h. fine paid by a cultivator to a proprietor of land for culti-
vation.— (Armour) = ground rent. Also applied to grain commu-
tation tax.
Itadappali Velldlar.—A class of Vellalas, supposed to be descended from
the ancient Tamil kings of Jaffna.
3Ia4appuHr&la.—Of6.cei in the Nata Dfiwale, who sweeps out the sane-
' tuary, cleanses and trims its lamps.
Ma-del. A large fishing net or seine made of coir yarn. i'. Nul-dfl.
Madige.—The Bullock or Carriage Department of the kings of Kandy.
Ma^iMngajf. -Taxes, tolls, &o., levied at the hadawata (gravets) or
mwrapola (stations for guards) on travellers or traders crossing it.
Ma4uwa.—An open shed or verandah.
Magulp6rutoa.—(Jiom.magul auspicious, andi^orMtua a boa,rd.) Aboard
or platform on which the bride and bridegroom are made to stand
while the marriage ceremony is being performed.
XX Glossary.
Mahabadde. — Another term for Halagama caste.
Mahi Brahma. — The highest of the gods ; the first person in the Hinda
triad (Brahma Vishnu, and Siva).
JUalia harvest. — The paddy crop sown in August-September and reaped
in February-March.
Maha Lehama. — The principal writer or secretary.
Maha Mudiyanse. — Maha Mudaliyar.
Maha-na^uwa. — The great court under the Kandyan Government.
Ma)ia NayaliM Uim&mi. — Principal Buddhist High Priest.
Maha Nilanie. — ^Another term foe Adigar ; lit, " the great officer."
Maha^unndnsS. — A term for a Buddhist monk.
Mahatmaya. — Sir, Mr.
Maha YidAn4. — A rank above an arachchi and below a muhandiram.
Maha Viddna Muhandirama. — ^A rank higher than the above.
Maha Vidini Mudiyanse. — A rank still higher.
Malieliada. — Pingo of raw provisions given regularly once a month to a
temple or chief by the tenants of the mulpanguioa in a village.
Mala-fla. — (From mala dead, and ela a water-course.) An artificial
water-course which dries up at some seasons of the year. Malaaola
is a natural water-course which does the same.
• Malapala divel are malapald lands, wholly belonging to and remaining
in the possession of Government, but conditionally and temporarily
granted for cultivation to certain classes of petty headmen, as a
remuneration for their services in connection with the husbandry
of their district, and occasionally for other services. One-fourth of
the produce of lands of this tenure is given to Government, but its
right over the whole soil, and to provide for its occupation, in
undoubted and absolute. As regards gardens of this tenure, the
Goverimient is entitled to one-fourth or one-fifth of the produce.—
(Cairns.)
* All the Governments — both European and native— which preceded the
British in Ceylon generally paid all native office-holders,inot in money, but
by a grant of land to be cultivated by the office-holder by way of remuner-
ation for his services, and to be held by him soilong as he continued in office.
When compulsory services werel abolished, and the Government ceased to
exact the services formerly rendered by the holders, virtute ojffiei, of masjo-
palddivel and other lands, the right of the Crown to the absolute ownership
of these lands appears to have been overlooked, and they consequently are
now held free of service, on the favourable terms originally granted in
consideration of certain services to be rendered without other payment by
the holders.
Ceylon in 1903. xxi
Malapald ; Malapi.lw. — (From mala dead, and palv, deserted, or voided
by death.) Lands originally held by private persons which have
revertei to the Crown through failure of other heirs. In the Dis-
trict of Matara all produce grown on such lands pay half to
Government. Previous to division between the] cultivators and
Government as lord of the soil, one-seventh is invariably deducted
as compensation to the reapers and threshers under the designation
of walahan, the cultivator being put to the additional expense of
providing at his sole cost the seed corn, on which he is charged
interest in kind at the rate of 50 per cent. It sometimes happens
that the Government abates its claim to the half where the soil is
poor and difficult to work. In such cases one-third or one-fifth il
levied, and the residue left to the cultivator. — (Cairns.)
Maleyydlikal, — Emigrants from Travancore.
MalwatU Viliari. — ^The Buddhist College or establishment of Malwatta
in Eandy.
Mam/inoty. — A hoe.
Manch&di. — A seed weighing four grains, used by jewellers.
Man^apaya. — A shed or hall erected on festival occasions and adorned
with flowers, &c. ; an open temple.
Mmj4appaya. — Covered court or verandah attached to a diw&U.
Maniyagar. — The chief revenue officer of a division in Jaffna.
Mantra. — A prayer, a prayer of the Veda, a mystical or magical formula,
the prayers or incantations of the Tantras, counsel, advice.—
(Wilson.)
MarahMl. — A land measure in the Northern Province — about one-fifth
of an acre.
Mar&la. — A mortuary belonging to the king, which amounted to one-
third part of the movables of the deceased.
Maravai: — ^A class of Tamils, mostly residents of the country ruled by
the Raja of Ramnad.
Mdraijd. — A god, the enemy of Buddha ; death personified.
Mariwglla. — Custom-house.
Mdruwenakumiura. — (From mdi'uwenawd to change.) A field, the
tenure of which is subject to change.
Mdruwena panguwa.— (From maruwena changing, and ^ajj^Kwa a share.)
A land held by a tenaut-at-will, as distinguished from praveni
panguwa, q. v.
Matalut, ddm.— Alms given for the benefit of the soul of the deceased.
Mauldnd. — H. and A. The title of a person of learning or respectability ;
teacher ; doctor ; in the Maratha countries the usual designation of
the Mohammedan village schoolmaster,— (Wilson.)
xxii Glossary.
Maund.—'B.., &o., mana, from the A. manu (Hebrew, ma-mi); mahMa,
Uriya ; mamigu, Tel. A measure of weight of general use in India,
but varying in value in different places. Pour principal varieties
are specified by Mr. Princep :— (1) The Bengal imund, containing
40 se7-s ; (2) the maund of Central India, consisting of half of this
quantity, or 20 sers ; (3) the maund of Guzerat, consisting of 40 sers,
but of lesser value, making the Bombay mcmnd 28 lb. avoirdupois ;
and (4) the maund of Southern India, fixed by the Madras Govern-
ment at 25 lb.— (Wilson).
Maw-urume. — Inheritance by right of the mother.
Mdyd.—Avi [ancient division of Ceylon between the Deduru-oya and
Kalu-gagga. i: Pihiti and Buhmu.
Mayoral.— See Kariyakaranna. An irrigation headman in parts of the
Northern and Southern Provinces.
MedahimM. — A middle crop or harvest between the yala and iiiaha
seasons, v. Muttes.
Mfttihe. — ^An honorific term applied to females.
Meniligerima. — Gemming.
Minindorv, tffia or mahatmaya. — Surveyor.
Miniranpatalaya.—'PlVimha^o pit (mine).
Mohott&la. — A clerk or secretary.
Mohottiyar. — A rank in the low-country below a Mudaliyar and abov«
a Muhandiram.
MohoUi Mtidiyanse.^A rank in the low-country higher than a Mohotti-
yar, but below an effective Mudaliyar.
Mohurrum. — Sacred, unlawful, prohibited ; the first month of the
Mohammedan year, in which it was held unlawful to make war.
Among the Shias this month is held in peculiar veneration, as being
the month in which Hasan and Hasaiti, the sons of Ali, were killed :
their deaths are the subject of public mourning during the first ten
days, when fasting and self-denial are also enjoined. — (Wilson).
Mohur. — Corruptly Molmr, H. and P. A seal, a seal ring ; a gold coin of
the value, in accounts, of 16 rupees. — (Wilson.)
Mwdali. — A rank or title conferred by the kings of Kandy.
Mudaliperuwa. — A title class. The class of persons holding the rank
of mudali.
Jl/M^^iya?'.— Jugglers ; itinerant beggars. The name of a Tamil caste.
Mviiiyansi. — Mudaliyar.
Muluindiram,, — A rank so called, below a Mudaliyar and above an
irachchi,
Mulaia, — Upper side of a range of fields.
Jt/iM»-to«» jr.— Pepper brolii or pungent soup.
Ceylon in 1903. xxiii
Miilpata.—A field orginally asweddumized, as distinguished from hfrena-
pata, or li^rwnpata, q.o.
Multen; MuIiiten.—¥ooA offered to a god or king.
Mulietemnew^dima.—The carrying of the irmlutenkada (pingo-load of
food) from the kitchen into the sanctuary.
Munm&n.—'niQ Tamil paddy crop, which corresponds to the Siflhalesa
maha harvest.
Muruten. — v. Muluten.
MutalikaL—A. class of Yellalas. Tamil caste.
Muttes.—A kind of paddy ; a middle crop between the two regular
seasons of the yala and the viaha harvests, g. v.
Midtetfu. — A field which is sown on account of the king or other pro-
prietor, temporary grantee, or chief of a village, as distinguished
from the fields of the other inhabitants of the village who are liable
to perform services or render dues.— (D'Oyly.) Of. anda muttettu
and ninda mutettu.
Mutukimidima. — Pearl fishery.
NachcJiereen or AateMrry. — Kwakkan, g.v. (Indo-Portuguese.)
N&olichiri. — An honorific term applied to females of the smiths, potters
&c.
Na^duvar. — Dancers, trumpeters, tom-tom beaters. Tamil caste.
Nagari. — H., &c. (fem. of Ndgara). Relating to a town or city ; applied
especially to the alphabet of the Sanskrit language, sometimes with
Bewa, divine, prefixed, as BSvavmdgiri. — (Wilson.)
Nmde. — A term of,respeot to a man of an inferior caste ; e.g.^ smiths,
fishers, potters.
Nalavar. — A low-caste, peculiar to the north of Ceylon.
NaMhirdla, Namiurdlx. — A headman corresponding to an overseer ; a
term in use in Moorish villages.
JVampdri. — ^Brahmins from Travancore.
Kcmehey. — Wet or mud cultivation ; paddy cultivation.
Nawandarmd.— (i6\.(li or silversmith; also the name of a Sighalese
caste.
Ndyaha. — ^A leader in general, and particularly a Buddhist chief monk.
Nayuda. — (Commonly written Naldu or Naidoo, Telugu.) A title
added to the names of respectable persons among the low or Sudra
caste. — (Wilson.) This is probably the origin of the Sinhalese term
Ndyide applied as a term of respect to a man of inferior caste. ,
Nehata. — A star ; a constellation.
Neltatiyd. — ^A term for a tom-tom beater ; an astrologer.
Neli.—A. measure of capacity, about one quart.
xxiv Glossary.
Netra pinliatim.—The festival of painting the eyes of an image of Buddha
when first made.
A'ilaJiarayd.— A tena,at ; a tenant-at-will, as distinguished from pangv-
Mlame.—An officer, or office.
NilapUu ; NUapaU.—Q'Piom nila and palu.') Are lands formerly held
ece officio under Grovernment, but which from failure of male heirs, or
because the office itself may have been discontinued, are again in
direct fpossession of [the Crown. There is no other distinction
than the name and its origin between these and malapala lands
— (Cairns.)
Nilapaiiguwa. — (From nila and panguwa.") It is the land possessed on
condition of cultivating the mutteltu, or performing other menia.
service, or both, for the proprietor, grantee, or chief of a village.
The possessor of such land is called Nilah&rayi,. In some instances
he is the proprietor, and cannot be displaced so long as he performs
the service ; in others, a tenant-at-will, and removable at pleasurel
-(D'Oyly.)
NiU. — An office : service.
l^indagama. — (From nitida exclusive possession, and gama a village). A
village which, for the time being, is the entire property of the
grantee or temporary chief ; if definitively granted by the king, with
sannas, it becomes paravini.— (If Ojly.')
Ninda mwttettu. — Is a vmttettu land sown entirely gratuitously for the
benefit of the proprietor, grantee, or chief by other persons, in
consideration of the lands which they possess (as distinguished from
anda-rrmttettv, q. r.). — (D'Oyly.)
MschaladS. — Immovable property.
Niyara. — The narrow ridge separating the beds of a paddy field.
Niil-del — A large fishing net or seine made of cotton twine.
Od&ei (called also Tachelian). — Carpenters ; also the name of a Tamij
caste.
OddiyAr. — ^Those who sink wells or make tanks ; men employed generally
at earthwork.
OZa.— The leaf of any kind of palm, especially, though not exclusively,
applied to the leaf as used for writing upon. — (Wilson.)
Oil. — Dancers ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
on ViddnS. — ^Vidan6 over the Oliya caste, or dancers.
Oppam. — ^A license ; liai yoppa/m, a signature.
Orchilla weed. — A lichen. Tamil mara p&si, from which a kind of dye i%
obtained ; one of the exports from Ceylon,
Geylon in 1903. xxv
Oftt.— Tithe ; one-tenth of the produce. Sir John D'Oyly gives the
following explanation of the term. " Otu is of three kinds : (1) A
portion of the crop equal to the extent sown, or to one and a half or
double the extent sown in some paddy fields or ehenas. It is the
usual share paid to the proprietor by the cultivator from fields which
are barren or difficult of protection from wild animals, particularly
in the Seven Korales, Sabaragamuwa, Hewaheta, and some ohenas in
Harispattu. In many royal villages in the Seven Korales are lands
paying otu to the Crown. (2) The share of one-third paid from a
field of tolerable fertility, or from a good chena sown with paddy.
(3) The share .which the proprietor of a chena, sown by another
with fine grain, cut first from the ripe crop, being one large basket
full, or a man's burden." — (Sir J. D'Oyly, Transactions of the
Eoyal Asiatic Society, vol. III., 1831.)
Owita. — Low land, which mayjbe used for the cultivation of yams or fine
grain.
Oya. — A river or stream smaller than a ganga and larger than an ela.
P&da Q}oaf). — A large fiat-bottomed boat.
Paddamin. — A seaport town.
Pad^&ni. — Descendants of Patans, class of Mohammedans.
Pa^(}un4th&rar. — Silk oloth makers.
Padmoi. — ^Palanquin bearers ; also the name of a Sighalese caste.
Pahala elapata. — v. Iliala Elapnta, of whicb it is the opposite.
PaisA. — (Corruptly Pysa, Pyee, Pice, H., &c.; Mar. 'Paisi.') A copper
coin which, under the native Groveram ent, varied considerably in
weight and value. The Company's Paisd is fixed at the weight of
100 grains, and rated at 4 to the annd or 6<t to a rupee. la common
parlance, it is sometimes used for money in general.
Pakltudam. — Curiosities, valuable presents.
P.ilam. — A weight, one-sixth of a pound avoirdupois.
Palata. — A division of a country. A district.
Pali. — Fines. Compensation or satisfaction.
Pali. — The language in which the Scriptures of Buddhism are written in
Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, and other countries. The language of
Magadha, q. u.
Pali. — ^Washers for low castes.
Pallir. — ^The name of a low and servile Tamil caste, or of an individual
of the caste, most commonly the slaves of the Velldlas or agricultural
tribes- ; they are much upon the same footing as the Pareyan, but
hold themselves superior to him, as they abstain from eating the
flesh'of the cow.
xjcvi Glossary.
Pallm-u. — A subdivision of the Pali caste.
Palli. — A. small town, a village ; in Tamil, a school or mosque. It is no
doubt the same word as the H. and Beng. terms, but is in more
general use, especially in combination, when it is corruptly written
poly, as in Tnehinopoly, properly, THsirA-palli, the city of the Giant
Trisird,. It is also the name of a servile tribe of Hindus in the south,
similar to the Pallar, but who are more especially the bondsmen or
slaves of the Brahman proprietors of land.
Pdmmaduwa. — (From p&n lamps, and madiiwa a temporary building.)
A ceremony in honour of the goddess Pattini, in which a number of
small torches are lighted up by the hapuwa, q. o.
Pana/m. — Money. In Sinhalese, pan/imj, equal to 6 cents, v. Faruxm.
Pandal. — A temporary shed or booth ; structure of cloth or basketwork
supported on posts for giving shelter to persons assembled on any
festive occasion, as at the marriage ; also any shed.
Pan^iiranhal. — Non-Brahman priests and devotees.
Panddri. — A class of agriculturists.
PajidUd. — ^Vernacularly Pandit or Pundit, A learned man ; a scholar.
Pundurumila. — A Kandyan term for a fine.
Pa-^guwa, — ^A share ; an estate, a field.
PanguMrayd. — The holder of a panguwa. This term is confined to
pravfoi holders. See also Pravini MlaMrayd.
Panilihila. — A term applied to a tom-tom beater.
PaniltMyd. — A headman of low caste. An elephant catcher, elephant
trainer ; a barber as used in the low-country.
PanivA^aUrayi,, Pay^alt&raya. — A Kandyan term for a headman of
inferior rank ; petty headman.
Panivndakarana Nilame. — An attendant on the king, corresponding to
lord in waiting.
Pamala.— Pali. (From panna leaf, said a hall.) The hut of an ascetic
made of branches and leaves ; a hermitage ; the residence of a
Buddhist monk.
Pdpp&r or Pirdmanar. — Brahmans.
Paraiyar. — Pariah.
Parcma. — Weight equal to 560 lb.
Parar^gi. — Feringltee, European or Portuguese. An obstinate chronic
disease endemic in Ceylon, superficially resembling syphillis.
Paravar. — Those who live on the seashore ; now applied exclusively to
Para/vas who are immigrants from Tuticorin.
Parrah. — A measure equal to 5 kurunies.
Pdrwuoa. — A large flat-bottomed boat.
Ceylon in 1903. xxvii
Pasaloswaha. — Full moon ; fifteenth day of a lunar month j last day of
ihe first lunar fortnight.
Pase Budu. — (Skt. Pratyeha Budaha, Paoholielia Buddha.) An order of
Buddhas inferior to the supreme Buddha.
Pata. — A measure, one-fourth of a seer.
Patab^ndd. — A headman of the Karawe caste.
Patabendi Arachchi. — A rank generally held by people of Karawe
caate.
Patdb^ndiiiama. — A title conferred by the kings of Eandy by tying on
the forehead a metal plate or a piece of embroidered silk.
Pataiia. — Undulating country covered with mdrnd grass or brushwood and
destitute of trees, resembling the English downs.
Pathadia. — Priest's kneeling cloth or leathern rug.
Pdtra. — Alms-bowl of a Buddhist monk.
Pattini Beviyd. — The goddess Pattini, the patroness of chastity.
PaUirippuwa. — ^An elevated place or a raised platform in the vidiya
(street) of a diwale.
Pattuwa, — A subdivision of a Province.
Pawara. — Threshing floor when men tread out the corn. v. Kamata.
Payokchal. — Water for irrigation.
Payindapar}guwa. — OfBce lands, the appurtenance of the office, but
belonging to the Crown.
Pe. — ^Tree, occurs as a suffix to names of certain villages ; as Halpe,
Nikape.
Pehidum. — Raw provisions supplied by the people to an officer travelling
on duty, v, AdvMm.
Pela.—A watch-hut.
Pela. — ^An extent of paddy land which can be sown by the contents of a
measure containing about 1^ bushel; i ■p&las equal to 1 amuna,
g.v.
Pel^ssa. — Lair or kennel of an animal, bed of a hare, &o.; a grove of trees
of the same kind by which certain villages take their names, e.g.,
Bogahapelessa, Dematagahapelessa.
Pfminiten, PeminUenwahaiisi. — Your honour ; a term of address to
officials or superiors.
Peon. — A messenger of a Public Department or office. From the Portu-
guese ; lit. "a footman."
Perahanha^a. — Water strainer of a monk or devotee, used to obviate
destruction of animal life by swallowing insects.
xxviii Glossary.
Peraliera. — A procession, a festival. The Perahera takes place in Esala
(July-August), oommenoing with the new moon in that month and
continuing till the full moon.
The most celebrated of these processions is held at Kandy. It is
a Hindis festival in honour of the four deities, Natha, Vishnu.
Kataragama, and Pattini ; but in the reign of King Klrtisirl (17i7
1780 4.D.) a body of monks who came over from Siam for the purpose
of restoring the XJpasampada ordination objected to the observance
of this Hindu ceremony m a Buddhist country. To remove their
scruples the king ordered the dalada relic of Buddha to be carried
thenceforth in procession with the insignia of the four deities ;
neverthelss the Perahera is not regarded as a Buddhist ceremony.
Perudan. — Food given to monks according to turns arranged among the
tenants.
Feruwa. — District of a petty headman ; family descent.
Petm an. — Footpaths.
Pettah. — The town attached to a fortress. Sig. PUahotuwa; Tarn
PoraJioita,
P§ya. — A measure of time, equal to 24 minutes, measured by an hour
Pioe, Pie. — v. Paisa.
Pioottah. — A well sweep or long lever bearing a line and bucket on the
long arm for raising well water.
Pidawilla. — Land offered by individuals to temples, private dedications
or endowments.
Pidinna, — An offeiing to a demon.
Pilumarala, — A Kandyan term for a cook,
Pihiti. — ^An ancient division of Ceylon to the north of the Deduru-oya,
V. Maya and Riilimm.
Pila — Verandah or porch of a native house.
Plllewa. — High land appurtenant to and adjoining a paddy field, used
often as S, threshing floor.
Pinattu. — The pulp of the palmirah fruit.
Pinda^jdta.— Food [received into the alma-bowl of a Buddhist monk ; a
term specifying that particular sort of alms which consists in the
food being placed in or thrown into the bowl of a monk while on his
rounds.
Pingo.—A. load suspended from the two ends of a pole carried on the
shoulder.
Pinkama. — A meritorious act or religious festival.
Pinmari. — The paddy crop sown during the earlier months of the year.
V. Yala and Munmari,
Pinpa^i. — Charitable allowance.
Geylon in 1903. xxix
Pinpara.—Vse^ in the North-Central Province for village paths con-
structed by the inhabitants under Gagsabahawa rules.
Pirttdliya.— (From pin charity, and tdliija a pot or vessel.) A pot or
vessel of water placed on the roadside for the use of travellers.
JPirit. — Protection ; proteotionary formula ; a collection of short hymns
and sermons publicly read on certain occasions with a view to ward-
ing off the influence of evil spirits.
Plrlwena. — ^A college attached to a Buddhist monastery.
Pisaehi. — ^A ghost or goblin of malevolent character.
Piua/nkotuwa. — ^Lunatic asylum.
Pitaka. — A division of the sacred writings of Buddha ; lit. a " basket."
PitahattaU. — The exterior of a dewdU, outside the sanctuary ; the tenants
who serve outside the sanctuary.
Pitaoana. — (And simply loana.') A spill water, generally blasted out of
rock or along a natural rocky channel.
Piyadi. —A tax of three-eighths of a pice for every ten coconut trees, and
the same for three jak trees bearing fruit, levied by the Dutch
Government from gardens of a certain description. — (^Ceylon Alma-
nac, 1819.)
Plya-uiume. — Paternal inheritance, r. Maw-urume.
PiyaviUa. — The carpet or cloth spread on the ground by the dhoby on
duty for the hapurala to walk upon, or at the entry of a distin-
guished visitor.
Plantain. — This word in Ceylon corresponds with banana in the West
Indies ; JJusa satua.
. Polwakara. — Arrack of the first distillation.
Pommelo. — The gigantic species of orange (Abrus decumana') called shad
dock in the West Indies ; also pummelo and pampelmoose.
Pongal. — Incorrectly Pongol from the yexhponltgu lilratu to boil or bub-
ble (to boil rice). A boiling or bubbling up ; the boiling of rice,
whence it becomes the name of a popular festival held by the Hindus
in the Madras Provinces on the entrance of the sun into the sign of
Capricorn, or on the 12th January, the beginning of the Tamil year,
when rice is boiled and distributed. The festival lasts several days,
but the chief celebration is confined to the first three days.
Poomo.—PinndJiJiu. The residue after expression of the oil from coco-
nuts, rape seed. Sec. ; oil cake, used for feeding cattle.
Pdruwa.—A flat board used for levelling the mud of a paddy field.
Potdna.— High land subject to inundation; the upper portion of an
abandoned tank or field.
Potdwa.—A spill water, usually in the earth bank of an ela ; a collection
of water from a bank, retained by a bund, for use below after it has
pagsed over the upper fields.
XXX Glossary.
Pi . The days on which the moon changes, held sacred by the
Buddhists.
Poyage.—k building in which certain priestly rites are practised on
pdya days.
PcaBe'rai.^(Corruptly paraveni.') Paraveni land is that which is the
private property of an individual proprietor^ land long possessed by
his family, but so-called also, if recently acquired in fee simple.—
(D'Oyly.)
Praveni cmde.^-Anda prai;eni.
Praveni divel. — (From praveni and dk-el.') Divel lands which have
become private property. One-fifth of the produce of these lands
is given to Government.
Praveni nilaharaya. — The proprietor of a heritable pangu in a ninda
village, who cannot be displaced by the superior lord so long as he
performs the service in consideration of which the pangv, is held.
The same as PaiiguUraya.
Praveni pangmoa. — Tlhs pangu held by a praveni nilaharaya, q. v.
PvidgaWka. — Belonging to an individual. Pudgaliha wastuwa is
property belonging to individual priests, as distinguished from
Sanghiha wastuwa, property belonging to the body of priests in
comirwn.
Piijii. — An offering, a festival. Curruptly Poojd. v. Pdya.
Pulam. — A rice field in Mannar and the Wanni ; cultivation of the bed
of a tank.
PuUimal. — Earrings.
Pululi-atta (Matale), Pululi-goha (Sabaragamuwa). — Tender cocoanut
branch used for decoration. Gok-atVi, commonly used in maritime
districts.
Punehey. — Dry grain cultivation, v. Nancliey.
Purai. — A watch-hut.
Parana. — A field lying fallow.
Purdtia. — Lit. "old," the especial designation of a class of work of which
eighteen principles are enumerated, in which the ancient traditions
of the Hindus, and legends and doctrines belonging to the chief sects
as Saivas and Vaishnavas, are embodied.
PuranTtetmna.^-'Evcit turning over the ground in large clods with the
viamoty in paddy cultivation.
Pwrappd^n. — ^Vacant, or without owner. A land becomes pura'ppddv.
either in failure of heirs or by abandonment.
Puruk-goia. — v. PuluJi-goha.
Quintany. — A Public Works Department tool ; a jumper.
Ceylon in 1903. xxxi
BafiaM).— Washers ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
B iJiat (Skt. Arhat').—&. rahat ; one who has attained the last of the four
paths or stages of sanctificatiou leading' to Mvwana ; a being
entirely free from evil desire, and possessing supernatural power.
Balm. — An asura, to whom the eclipses are ascribed ; the ascending node
RalatbaUa. — Small temples or dependencies of the Kandyau Pattin.
Dewal6 ; also a kind of dance of the nawabadda or nine trades.
Baja, Bajd. — A prince, a king.
BajadeJima. — Levee.
Bajagedara. — King's House.
Rajakariya. — Royal, or Government compulsory service.
Rahshaya. — A demon, a monster.
Rala, RalahdmA. — Honorific title.
Raminnamik&ya. — (Rimwnna a term for lower Burmah, and nikdya
society or sect ^ sarndgama.} A sect of Buddhists introduced into
Ceylon about 1870 A.D. by Indasabha Terurmdnse of Ambagahawatta.
Monks of this sect lead a very self-denying life, and profess to
observe Buddha's precepts more strictly than monks of the two sects
Amarapura and Siam.
Ban-hivige. — ^The royal howdah in which the insignia of certain deities
are taken on the back of an elephant.
BatemaJiMtmayd. — Chief revenue officer of a Kandyan Province.
Bateminihd. — A term for a Velldla.
Batmahera, BatTtahera. — Signifies what of right belongs to the Crown.
It is a term used to describe all waste and uncultivated lands to which
no private title can be shown, and includes all Government forests,
henas, &o. It never applies to paddy fields, except in cases where
by unauthorized appropriation of such Government lands portions
may have been worked or improved into a condition suitable for
grain cultivation. The tax on such fields and gardens, where the
claim of the appropriator is admitted on the ground of long posses-
sion, is one-tenth of the produce (in the case of the gardens, it it
asserted by some authorities and denied by others, that Govemmens
can claim one-tenth of the soil as well as the produce). There are,
however, in the maritime districts ratrndhera lands granted by the
Dutch to private individuals, on condition of their conversion into
fields and gardens, the produce to be taxed at one-tenth. — (Cairns.)
Batninda. — Lands cultivated by Government, whose sole property they
are.
Retti.—A. class of Telugu-speaking Tamils.
Riguwa. — Warehouse, custom-house.
Relapdna. —&ton% revetment on inner slope of the bund of a tank to
prevent scour by waves.
xxxii Glossary.
RIM. — A Kandyan silver coin, about eightpenoe in value.
Ritta. — The fourth, ninth, or fourteenth diys of the lunar fortnight
They are considered as unlucky days.
Miyan-i. — ^A cubit.
Rodiyd. — An outcast.
Ruhwnuraia.- — An ancient division of Ceylon to the south of the Kalu-
ga^ga. V. Maya and Pihiti.
Rupee. — (From Skt. rupya silver.) A silver coin, the general denomi-
nation of the silver currency of India, and the standard measure of
value The weight, intrinsic purity, and value in shillings of
the present "Company's rupees" is as follows : —
Weight. Pure Contents. s. ' d.
Ti: grs. 180 ... 165 ... 2 OJ
As, however, silver is subject in the London mint to a seigniorage of
nearly 6 per cent., the London mint produce of the Company's
rupee, if of full weight and standard value (11 dwta. fine), should
bel«. 11<?.— (Wilson.)
Now much depreciated. — H, W.
Sale. — An assembly, a council. Skt. Sabha. v. Gansayh&wa.
SabUwa. — Another form of the same word. v. Gansahhawa.
Sadhu. — -An expression of joy. Well done ! good !
SasiDa)'.— Followers of the rules of Saivam, the religion that owns Siva
as the godhead.
Saliawarshaya, — .in era in general, but the terms is applied especially to
that which is reckoned from the reign of a prince of the South of
India named Siillvdhana, commencing in the 79Lhyear of theOhristian
era, and to be identified with the latter by adding 78^. — (Wilson.)
Sahi'aya. — The Chief Diety of the six lower heavens ; god Indra.
Sahwala. — A system of worlds, the Universe.
Sahyawansa. — The royal race to which Gautama Buddha belonged.
Salagama. — Another form of Halagama.
Stniaiiala. — The mountain Samanala (Adam's Peak), on the top of which
Buddhists believe that there is the impression of Buddha's left foot.
Soman Dewiyo. — The tutelar deity of Samanala (Adam's Peak).
Sdmanera. — A novice ; a monk who has not received the rite of Vpa-
sampadd ordination.
Sangha.—The associated brotherhood of Buddhist monks.
Sdnghika.— Belonging in common to the above. i>. Pudgalika.
Sannasa.—A. royal grant, usually on copper, but sometimes on silver
or stone. PI. sannas.
SannS. — A translation, a paraphrase.
Oeylon in 1903. xxxiii
i. — A Hindu of the fourth order, who has renounced the world
and lives by mendioauoy. The term is now applied to a variety of
religious mendicants, some of whom wander singly about the country
subsisting on alms. The Sannydsi is most usually a worshipper of
Siva.
Saramdrugam.' — Lands held in rotation, so that each proprietor may in
turn enjoy the fertile and unfertile parts.
Sarong. — A Malay word. A body cloth or kilt. It differs from the
ordinary cloth in being stitched together at the ends.
Seer. — A measure of capacity about equal to a quart,
Sliaddooh. — v. Pommelo.
Shroff.- QSaraf, Saravh, Sarapi, SarApii, Sardbv, corruptly Saraff
Sharaf, Shroff, H.) A money changer, banker, or cashier.
Shuck. — lu planting slang, sick, seedy, ill.
SikinMga. — Fine grain.
Sihh. — (H. Sikha, from Siskya, Skt.) A scholar, a disciple ; the name
of the people of the Punjab, as the disciples or followers of Nanak
Shah.-( Wilson.)
Sil. — Religious precept or observance.
Sildlehhanaya. — Inscription on a stone.
Simd. — Boundary ; a consecrated place having certain limits, in which
monks are ordained and other religious rites performed.
Sinnakkaraya. — Deed of transfer.
Sipiriyd-gS. — Jail.
Sirapoham. — The season of cultivation in Jaffna, corresponding to yala in
Sinhalese and pinmdri in the Bastern Province.
Siihydrmsishya Parampardwa. — Succession from pupil to pupil of a monk
of Buddha ; pupilary succession.
Sittuwa. — A document, generally applied to a document or order written
on a palmirah or talipot leaf, v Chit.
Siva. — The third person of the Hindu triad — the Destroyer.
Siyam Samdgaiua. — (Prom Siyam Siam, and Samdgama society.) The
Siamese sect of Buddhists in Ceylon introduced by King KIrtisrI,
Bajasigha, 1750 A.D.
SUha. — A Sanskrit stanza.
SoAa^e'.— Clappers of bamboo tied around the necks of cattle.
Solosmasthdne — Sixteen sacred places in Ceylon, viz., Mahiyaugaga'
Nagadlpa, Kelaniya, Digahayapi, Sri Padaya, Mutiyaiigapa, Tissa-
maharama, Abhayagiri, Euwanweli, Lowamahapaya, Mirisaweti,
Silachaitya, Divaguha, Kataragama Kiriwehera, J6tawanaramaya,
Srlmah4b6dhiya, and Thdparama.
Sramana — A Buddhist monk,
5
xxxiv Glossary.
Sri — Prosperity ; signature of the kings of Ceylon,
Svoa/nny — A coxswain (in the Master Attendant's Departments) ; Anglo-
Indian Seaeunny ; Arab SuUtan, a helm.
SiUra — A discourse or sermon of Buddha.
Sweet potato — The yam or root of Batntas edi/Us grown in chenas, and
yielding heavy crops.
Taprohane^v. Tmnraparni.
Tadapapu-redda — Country-made cloth of coarse texture ; the annual
per}uma, or present, q. t.
Tattar — Goldsmiths ; also the name of a Tamil caste. A goldsmith is
familiarly known as " Tattan " up-country.
Tahanchi-Jioda, Tahnndihad i — Penum-kada gi-ven to a Disawa (K^galla)
TaiyatMrar, Panar — Tailors ; also the name of a Tamil caste.
Talwakara — Arrack of the second distillation.
Talagaha — The talipot tree.
TalaiMdrar — Mahouts, elephant-keepers. Tamil caste.
ralapata — ^Leaf of the talipot tree.
Tal&wa — An open glade, or meadow.
Tali — The marriage necklace of Tamil and Moor women.
Tambaklia—A. composite metal, copper mixed with gold. Pinclibeclt.
Tamhy — ^Younger brother ; a term of respect used by an elder to a
younger person implying kindness ; a term used in addressing a
Moorman.
Tampiran. — A class of devotees,
Tdmraparrfi. — An ancient name of Ceylon — Ta/mbapanni in Pali. Hence
the Taproiane of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
TanalM. — A kind of fine grain.
Tan&yama. — ^A resthouse ; a division of country attached to a resthouse.
Tan^al. — The master of a dhoni. Tindal.
Tangama. — Fourpence.
Tappal.—(^e\. and Earn. Tappalu; Mar. TapU; Guz. TapiiZ.) The
post ; the carriage and delivery of letters.
lit. — (H., &c., Tat ; Mar. Tat.') Canvas, sackcloth. Tati, more usually
Tatti and Tati. A matted screen, a frame of wiokerwork.
T&tar. — Slaves ; itinerant beggars.
Tattumi/ru'wa. — A field, h6na, or other land cultivated by the joint
owners in turns : thus, if a field belongs to three families in
tattumAru possession, each family will cultivate the whole field
every third year ; if it were held in common, each family would
take one-third of the produce every year. The rotation of the
members of the family among themselves is called ha/ram&ruwL
Ceylon in 1903. xxxv
Tdvddi. — A tank which has no village attached to it. Common in the
Northern Province.
Tdvaldm. — A number of oxen laden with merchandise ; pack cattle.
Tawalla. — The upper part of the bed of a tank cultivated when the water
is low.
Teapoy — A small tripod table, from the Hindu Tipai. The first part of
the word has no connection with tea, as is popularly supposed.
Tee — The metallic decoration on the top of a dagaba representing the
ehatra, or umbrella, emblematic of royalty.
Tegvpatraya — Deed of gift.
Teppam. — A raft. v. Katamaram.
Termmdme. — A Buddhist monk of a superior order.
Thero.—Ihe Pali form of the above.
Tomhuwa. — A register (Dutch).
Timba. — A measure of capacity equal to four kurunies. A timba is rather
larger than a laha, q. o.
Timilar. — Ferrymen ; also those who dwell on the seashore.
Tirwwa. — Duty on goods.
'Msarana. — The three helps, viz., Buddha, his doctrines, and the associated
brotherhood of monks.
Tompar. — Jugglers and pole-dancers. Tamil caste.
Tom-tom. — A small drum, especially one beaten to bespeak notice to a
public proclamation ; it is laxly applied to any kind of drum. —
(Wilson.)
Torana. — A triumphal arch.
Totamuna. — Originally a seaport. Now applied to certain divisions on
the sea-borde, e.g., Kalutara totamuna.
Tottam. — An estate or garden.
Tripitaka. — (From trl three, and pital/a a basket, a receptacle.) The
three divisions of the sacred writings of Buddhism, namely, the
Abhidharma, Vinaya, and Sutra Pitakas,
Tudapata.—ATo. order or grant given by word of month and recorded on
an ola.
Tukliuwa.—A weight of 50 lb.
Tuldna. — A division of country, a district. The term is peculiar to the
District of Nuwarakalawiya,
Tun-bo. — The three Bohodis, i.e., the dageb, which are the receptacles of
Buddha's relics, bo-trees used by Bnddhas, and image-houses
erected in commemoration of Buddha.
xxxvi Glossary.
lunhawul lands. — This term is applied to waste lands wliich during the
Dutch occupation of Ceylon were given to be cultivated on the
following condition: One-third of the land to be planted with
cinnamon for the exclusive use of the Dutch East India Company,
the remaining two-thirds to be planted with cocoanut, jak, and
other fruit trees for the use of the grantee. If the plantation was
not made the whole land reverted to the Company.
Twppottiya. — Cloth of ten yards worn round the waist of Kandyans.
Turampar. — Those who wash the clothes of outcasts.
Udaiydr. — The chief revenue officer of a subdivision in the Northern
and Eastern Provinces.
U(J,^ltldya. — A Kandyan musical instrument ; a small kind of drum.
TTkas. — Mortgage.
JJliyam. — Corruptly oelian. Service due to a deity, a guru, a superior
by birth ; a natural obligation ; the obligation of a slave to his
master.
Ziluvar. — A class of Vellalas from Kogkag or Travancore.
Z/lp^nye.—The bathing establishment of the kings of Kandy.
Xlndiyal. — Draft ; a bill of exchange.
TIparaja. — A sub-king.
JJpasaka. — A lay devotee.
Upasampada. — Ordination to the order of Upasampada or that of superior
monk.
JJpasilid. — A female lay devotee.
Vpayanapata. — Is a field orginally asweddumized, as distinguished from
/lerenapata, q. v.
Uppida. — Sheaf of corn.
Vaddai Vit&nai. — Superintendent over a small tract of fields.
Vatti. — Interest.
Vaishnavar. — Followers of Vishnu.
Vaisya Vallui: — The priests of Pariahs. They are generally learned in
Tamil literature, and pursue the occupation of astrologers.
Vdidyar. — ^Merchants, traders. There are different classes, according to
the merchandise they deal in. This word corresponds to hanian in
Northern India.
Vajindr, — Washers ; also the name of a Tamil caste.
Vaniu. — Skt. wanya wild forest. Parts of the Northern and North-
Western Provinces.
Vdntu U/mehe.—A chieftain of Wanni district.
Vanidyd, — An oil man ; one who keeps a ohekku, tj. v.
Geylon in 1903. xxxvii
Vanniyar. — Chief revenue officer of a division in the Eastern Province.
Vdralihudi. — A cultivator of the soil, goyiya, ryot.
Varmn. — Rent of land ; the share due to the cultivator of a field.
Varampv,. — A low ridge in a tilled piece of ground ; a boundary.
Yaydl. — A rice field ; ground fit for rice cultivation ; any open field or
place.
VaykhU. — ^Water-course.
V6da. — Skt. The general name of the chief scriptural authorities of
the Hindus ; it is most correctly applied to the four canonical
works entitled severally the Rig- Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and
Atharva.-Veda, but it is extended to other works of supposed inspired
origin in the sense of a science or system, as Ayur-Veda, the
science of life, i.e., medicine ; Dhanur-Veda,- the science of the bow,
or archery ; Gandharva-Veda, the science of music, so named from
the heavenly musicians or Gandharvas. — (Wilson.)
Ved4i- — A Vedda ; a hunter. Supposed to be the descendants of the
aborigines of Ceylon.
Veddiivay. — Corresponds to the Sinhalese term waJekada, q,- v.
Veli.—X field.
Vili. — A fence.
Vihhishana.—A. god, brother of Ravana, the tutelar deity at Kelani.
Viddna Arachchi. — A revenue officer in the low-country in charge of a
village or number of villages. Corruptly vidahn aratehy,
Vadna Miihandirama. — A rank higher than the above.
Vidane Durayd. — A headman of the Paduwa caste.
Viddne Henayd. — A headman of the Washer caste in the Kandyan
country.
Viddne — (From vidlidna karanawd to order, to manage.) An inferior
officer so named. Corruptly mdalm.
Vihdraya. — A Buddhist temple or monastery.
Villu. — A pond or tank.
Fis/i»M.— The second person of the Hindu triad— the Preserver ; the
tutelary deity of Lagka.
Wdlianse.— An affix to names as a term of respect.
Wa/imtpurayo.—A.not'h.ev term for jaggery-makers, signifying cooks,
cooking being one of the occupations of this caste. Also the name
of a SigJialese caste.
Wajjankdrayo.— Tom-tom beaters ; also the name of a Sinhalese caste.
Wakature.—A. fieldjof circular shape.
Wakksida.—A gap made in a bund to let water into the fields.
xxxviii Glossary.
Wdlahan. — One-seventh of the produce of a paddy field given to those
who are employed in reaping and threshing the corn.
Walawwa. — A house ; ai;erm applied to the house of a chief or a man of
high rank.
Walawwe-Mahatmayd. — The lady of the house.
Wall-del. — Nets for night fishing.
Wdna. — Spill of a tank.
Wandta. — Reservation round a field.
Waniialmrdla. — Accountant.
Waiise. — Caste, race.
Wardgama.— Coin varying from 6s. to 7s. 6d,
Was. — The four months of the rainy season from the full moon of July
to the full moon of November, during which period Buddhist priests
are perniitted and enjoined to abstain from alms pilgrimage, and to
devote themselves to stationary religious observances. — (Tumour.)
Wdsala. — Palace gate.
Wasama. — Service-holding ; family name ; branch of service as Hewa-
wasama (military service) ; a district or division of a petty headman.
WaMrurdla. — Tenant whose duty is to open and close the doors of the
sanctuary in a diwdle, to sweep it out, to clean and trim the lamps.
Watl.oruwa. — A list, an inventory. Particularly a list of lands and of the
share of produce due to the Government. A doctor's prescription is
hehet wattdruwa.
Waturdwa. — Swampy ground which cannot be drained.
Wedardla — A term for a native doctor.
We^awasan. — Service praveigi lands.
Weikkiya. — A district or division of a petty headman.
Wela. — A field ; a common ending of place names.
Weldivayd, Weldurayd. — An irrigation headman of a low caste.
Wel-iiddTie, Wel-viddne Araehehi. — An Irrigation headman,
Wella. — A dam, an embankment. A common suffix of place names, e.<j.
Avisawella.
Wella. — A sandy place. A common suffix of place names, e.g., Hanwella.
Wesainnni. — The deity presiding over demons.
Wewtimkaraija. — Planting voucher, i.e., an agreement between the
owner of a garden with the planter as to the terms on which the
latter will plant fruit trees, &c.
Wihadu Lekama. — A writer of the paddy wattoru. c. Wattdruwa.
Wibadu Arachohi. — An arachohi attached to the Paddy Tax Department.
Wihararjama. — (From wihara and gama, a village.) A village or land
belonging to a Buddhist temple.
Ceylon in 1903. xxxix
Wila. — A swamp or field, the higher parte only of which can be
cultivated ; a small pond.
Winna. — Grove. Used as a suffix denoting certain villages, as Damba-
winua, Nawinna.
Wiynltolamila. — Hire of buffaloes for threshing paddy.
Yahd — A demon. The term is also applied to the aborigines of
La^}k4, who were expelled by Wijaya, the first Si(jhalese king.
Yahvnnetima. — A devil ceremony ; dancing to propitiate the demons.
Yala. — The yala harvest, sown in March-April and reaped in August-
September.
Yala. — A score, 20 ammiams' extent, or 20 amunaiiu of grain, or 20 head
of cattle. — (Armour.)
Ydmawna, Yapammu. — Smelters of iron. Their service consisted in
giving a certain number of lumps of iron yearly ; in burning
charcoal for the forge, carrying baggage, assisting in field work and
at devil ceremonies. They pull the talimana (pair of bellows) for
the smith and smelt iron.
Ywntra. — A magical diagram. A machine.
Yata. — Barley.
Y&ya. — A tract of paddy fields.
Yelamuna. — One and a half fummams or six pdlas.
Voduna. — Pali and Skt. yojana, equal to 4 gam, or 16 miles.
Yon&. — A Moorman (disrespectful).
Yotta. — Wooden trough with a long handle for baling water.
Zebw. — A whimsical word applied in zoological books to the humped
domestic cattle of the East.
xl
Ceylon in 1903.
APPENDIX II.
DERIVATIONS AND MEANINGS.
OF THE NAMES OF SOME OP THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS
VILLAGES, DISTRICTS, RIYBES, AND
MOUNTAINS IN CEILON.
f As corrected and revised by the late B. Gunasekara, Esq.,
Mudaliyar, Chief Sinhalese Translator to Government ; the laie
K. 0. B. Kumarakulasingam, Esq., Mudaliyar, Tamil Interpreter to
H. E. the Governor and Chief Tamil Translator, Colonial Secretary's
OfBce ; W. P. Ranasinha, Esq., Proctor, Supreme . Court,
M.c.B.R.A.s. ; A. M. Gunasekara Esq., Mudaliyar of the Retjistrar-
General's Office ; and others.)
[It mnst be borne in mind that each word admits of so many inter-
pretations that it is impossible in most case? to give the correct meaning
or derivation of words without studying the history connected with the
objects indicated by them.]
Aranayaka —Jungle
Asgiriya — Horse mountain
Atakalankorale —Eight- Jaiom Korale
Atulugamkorale--Korale in which
Atulugama is
Awissawella — Unreliable dam-
Agarapatana —Plain of pits
Akkaraipattu —Division at further
bank or shore
Akmimana —Forest of Akmi trees
Akuramboda —Bordering Akuram, a
temple
Akuressa - Gravel heap (?)
Alagalla —Yam rock
AlaKola-ella Yam leaf rapid or
waterfall
Alawatugoda —Yam -garden villx"';
Alawwa —(Ghost village ?)
Alutgama —New village
Alutkurukorale — Newly apportioned
korale
Alutnuwara — New city
Aluwiiiara — Illuminated or bright
wihara
Amba^iamuwa -Mango village
Ambalangoda — Restnouse village
Ambalantota — Besthouse ferry
Ambawela —Mango field
Ambepussa — Mango bush
Ampifiya . —Horn-plain
Anamaduwa —Shed of the forest
Andiambalama Resting place of the
mendicants (Andi-
yas)
Angulana —Forest of Angulu
trees*
Anuradhapura —City of Anuradha
Badalgama — Silversmiths' village
Badulla - Badidla-tree village
Balangoda — View mound
Balapitimodara— Embouchure of the
f^a^a-fish plain (or of
warriors, being in-
habited by the ' 'He-
wapanne " people of
the " Salagama "
caste)
Balapitiya — £aZii-flshplain(ordo.)
Balane —The view
BambaLapitiya — C ontracted from
Bam bwwalapitiya,
plain of fhebambu
forest
Bambarabotuwa-Bee-guUet or swarm
Bambigaha- [tree
totupala Ferry of the Bamii
Bandaragama - Treasury village
Bandarawela —Royal field
Batalgala — Sweet-potato rock
Batgala —Rice rock
Batagalla —Bamboo rock
* Forest of canoes.— W.P.E.
Place Names and their Derivations.
xli
Batawatta
Batticaloa
Batticotta
Battuluoya
Beliatta
Beligalkorale
Belihuloya
Bentota
Beruwala
Biblle
Bingiriya
Bintenna
Bogawantalawa-
Bogawatta"" —
—Bamboo garden
— Madakalapiitth^ mud-
dy lake
—Round fort
— Rice-grain river
— Hibiscus garden (from
Beliwatta)*
— Beli rock korale
-River of thefeZi stakes
or slimy river
—Dreaded of terrific
ferry
— Beru-f 6rest(f orest of a
kind of water plants)
—Bubble
— Subterranean rock
— Level surface plain
Happy or prosperous
plain
Bo-tree garden or gar-
den of minor culti-
vation
■Chaft" or barren village
■Bo-tree plain
Betel village
■Betel store plain
-Buddha's hall
Bolgoda -
Bopatalawa —
Bulatgama —
Bulatfcohopitiya-
Buttala -
Chammanturai —Small vessel port
Chavakachcheri-Milay village [water
Chilaw — Salapanif diving in
Chinnachcheddi-
kulam —Small Cheddi tank
Colombo -'From /Co;am6a,seaport
Copay — [valley
Dambadeniya — Damha tree plain or
D a m b a g a s- [trees
talawa —Open glade of Damba
DambuUa —Da^tiba cave
Dandagamuwa —Timber village
Darawella —Firewood bank
Uehigampal- Korale in which Dehi-
— gampola is
-Lime-tree meadow
—Lime-tree forest
— Double rock
— Breadfruit ferry
— Doubleriver mouth
DemalaHatpattu-Seven pattus of the
Tamils
Dewamedi Hat-
pattu Temple Hatpattu
Dikoya —Long river
Dikwella —Long beach
Dimbula -HimJmJ trees village
Diyatalawa —Water plain
Dodanduwa —Orange island
Dodangaslanda— Orange trees grove
Dolosbage - Twelve divisions
Dondra — FromDewnndara,city
of the gods
Dullewa —Fibrous plant tanks
iga
korale
Dehiowita
Dehiwala
Dekande
Deltota
Demodara
Dumbara —(A contraction of Udr
umbara), the flg
country
Blbedda —Cold junglet
Elkaduwa —Cold brookt
Blpitiya —Cold plain t
Eravur —Place which one can-
not reach.
Erukkalampiddi-CaJotrom's gigantea
hillock
Eruvil — Cowdung tank
Elalal —
Etapola - Tusker's place
Etusala - Elephant rock
Galagedara -
Galawela
Galboda -
Galkandewat^a -
Galklssa
Galle
Gallena-kandu-
ra-oya —
Gamma duwa -
Gampaha —
Gampola —
Gandara —
Gangabodapattu
Gaura-Eliya
Gaurakele
Gingaranoya
Gimgathena
Gintota -
Giriulla
Giruwapattu
Gonapinuwela -•
Habarana
Hakgala
Hakmana
Haldummulla
Hapitigam
Haputale
Hamhantota
Hangranoya
Hanguranketa
Hantane
^lanwella
Harispattuwa
Hatarakorale
Hatkorale
Hatton
Heneratgoda
Hettimulla
Hettipola
Hewa Eliya
■Stone house
-Rook field
-Rocky bank
Rock hill garden
-Rocky inlet of the sea
-Rocky place
[stream
•Rock cave mountain
-Village shed
■Five villages
River city.
■River mouth (?)
-River bank pattu
-White or beautiful
plain § [jungle
-White or beautiful
[took fire
-Hena(chena which
-Gin ferry, (month of
Gin river)
-Rocky village
-Rocky pattu [swam
-Field where the elk
— Htibarala forpst
— Conch rock ||
--Walk
—Corner where Sal(ysi-
teria) was given
— Hare plain vulage
—Sapu plain
—Sampan ferry
—Stream where the
fighting occurred
—Field of hidden gold If
—Slaughter place or
place of signs
- Coarse sand village
—Ha rasiy a-pattuwa
(pattuwa of the 400.)
—Four korales
— Seven korales
—From Hatton estate
— Senerat'a mound
- Ofaetties' corner
— Chettiea' place
—Soldiers' plain
' " Hibiscus Branch " is the literal meaning of the word,- but there is a word
" Beliaf which means a notice of sale. Perhaps a place where such notices are
affixed- W.P.R. + HUl paddy jungle. -W P.R. t Hill paddy plain.— W.P.R. § Plain
of the Gawaras (Bubelus baffelus)? — D.W.F. || Far more in appearance like "jaw"
mountain— and does not "Hakka" mean "jaw '?'— Compiler. If Field devoted
to the Sangharatna or Priesthood.— W,P,R.
xlii
Ceylon in 1903.
Hewasamkorale-
Hewaheta
Hikliaduwa
Hinidunaa
Horana'
Hor gasmuUa -
Hoiekele
Horetnduwe
Hunasgiriya
Hunugaloya
HunuKatugala
Hunupitiya
Idama
Ilakkumbura
Imaduwa
Imbulpitiya
Indibeclda
Ja-ela
Jaflna
-Korale of the soldiers'
villages
-Sixty soldiers
-From Spppikaduwa,
oyster creek *
-Hill vapours 1
"Hora forest
- Nook of hora trees
- I'orest of hora trees
-Headland of the hora-
tree
- mountain which looks
like a lying-down
hrse
—Lime-stone rock river
-Coral stone rock
- Chunam plain
— Land propertj
—Iluk field
— Arrow shed or boun-
dary hut
—Cotton tree plain
— Date palm forest
—Malays' canal
—From Yalppanan^ a
lute-player (the land
of the lute player).
Kadawata
R adawela — <
Kadugannawa -
Kadnwela
Kaikawala
Kakkapalliya —
Kalmunai
Kalpitiya
Kaluganga -
Kalupahana —
Kalutara -
Kamburnpitiya ~
KandabadapattU'
Kantalai
Kandana
Kandapola
Kandy
Kankesanturai -
Kappittawatta -
Kankkaddu-
miilai
Karunkodditivu
Karftvranella — :
Katana
Katubedda
Katugampola
Katugastota
Katukenda
Katukurunda
Katunayaka
Kawatai"u-oya
Kavts
Gravet
Corner field
Battle field
•Sword field
■Strongly-g u a r d e d
place
-Crow church or Moo-
rish church
-Rock point
■hal, stone ; p i d d i,
hillock
-Black river
-Black stone
-Black river ferry
-Smiths' village
-Pattu bordering the
mountain
-Tamil for Gangatala,
country along the
bank of the river
-Hill forest
-Hill city
-Hill town X
-Port of Gaiigesan .
god of Ganges
Captain's Garden
Charcoal bund corner
-Km'unkoddi (black
kind of Aponogelon
mono8tachyon)i3lsbnA
'Dark coloured rapid
Kegalla
Kehelwatte
Kekirawa
Kelaniganga
Kelaniya
Kelewatte
Kelebokka
Kendangamuwa-
Kesbewa
Kiklimana
Kilakkumulai -
Kimbulapitiya -
Kjnigoda
Kiriga.lpotta
Kirindiwela
Kitulgala
Kochchikade -
Kollupitiya
Kolonna
Koralawella
Kosgoda
Koslanda
Kotadeniyawa -
Kotagala
Eotahena
Kotapola
Kotmale
Kotiyagala
Kotte
Kudaoya
Kuduhugala
Kukulkorale
Kumbalgama -
Kumbalwela
Kumbukan-oya -
K II r a u a-
Katunayeka -
ICurunegala
Kuniwiti Korale-
- Firewood forest
-Thorny jungle
-Thorny village
-Thorn-tree ferry
-From a tree of the
same name
—KatukuruTidu tree
Tiltoge
-Chief thorny bush
-Dutch name for Vrka-
vattwai, port guard-
ing the country
-Paddy field rock §
—Plantain garden
-Cucumber village
-Eiver of Kelaniya
—Happy or fortunate
place
—Jungle garden
-Jungle recess
-Village of the Kenda
forest
-Turtle village
— [nook
-Bas*'ern corner or
-Plain of the crocodile
-Milk-stone slab
-Fields of tares
-Kitul-palm rock
-Chillie boutique
-Gram plain
(Korale
-Sandy^ beach of the
-Jak village
-Jak grove
-Timber meadow
-Short rock
-Timber chena
-Timber village
-Tower mountain
-Tiger rock
-Fort
-Small river
-Bent or crooked
mountain
-Fowl korale
-Potter's village
■Potter's field
Kiimhuk forest river
Small elephant rock
Bound korale
Labugama
Lindula
Lunawa
Lunugala
—Gourd village
-Place of the well-
spring or well-
bordering village
—Salt village
—Salt rock .
WPir?Ff^^S-j.S"r%S™?^°' ^'^T^PE t Small tree forest. -
« " T „■«,* Jr^ XA<mda m the old name Senkhanda mUa MOffara-W.P.E.
S ' I am not at all convinced of the correctness of this renSng hut as i
cannot give a better one leave it alone."-W.P.a....A corresrKmdent rives the
meaning a " Rock on which a meal was partaken^-.-COMPiSK^ ^
Place Names and their Derivations.
xliii
Lunupokuna — (Tanque Sal gad
Salt tenk
Madampe — Topeof JfaAadamCbig
berry) trees
Madampitiya —Plain of the big berry
trees
Madawalatenna -Mire (slough) plain.
Madampela — Resting huts row
Madulkele —Madol forest
Madulsima —Madol boundary
Magampattu --Great village pattu
Maggona —Furious village
Hana Eliya —Great plain
Mahahunupitiya--Great chunam plain
Mahaiyawa — [tain
Mahakudugala —Great crooked inoun.
Mahamodera —Great ferry
Mahanuwara —(Kandyl Great city.
Mahaoya —Great river
Mahara — Country yielding a
great tax
Mahawela —Great field
Hahaweliganga — Great sandy river
Malabo "
IMalimboda
Mallakam
Manippay
Mankiuam
Manmunai
Mannar
Mantai
Mapalagama
Maradana
•Great gain
. . Bank of the great well
-"Wrestling village
-"Deer tank
— Earth point
— " They tucked up
their clothes."
—Great fruit village
— Ma/radom grove i
forest
Maradankada- MarMan boutique
wela — iield
Marawila — Jfara lake {Mara,
kind of trees)
Maskinawattaganga
Fish gamboling place
- Great plain
—Great ferry
—Higher village
— Higher country
—Great forest rapid
—Centre field
— Centre korale
— Centre great city
Miyanagala(?)— (Fern rock?)
Maskeliya
Ma tale
Matara
Matugama
Maturata
Mawanella
Medakumhura
Medakorale
Medamahanu-
wara
— Western division
— Mahinda's mound
Minuwangoda — Minuwan mound
" — Mi-tree plain hill
—Village of sweetness
—Chilly garden
— (Mutwal) from Muwa-
dora, mouth of the
(KeUini) river
Monamgala — Peacock rock
Moragam —Mora tree rock
M o r a t umulla— Moratuwa comer
Melpattu
Mibintale
Mipitikanda
Mirigama
Miriswatte
Modera
Moratuwa
Morawaka
MuUaittivu
Muturajawela
Nadukadu
Nainamadama
N a m u nukula-
kanda
Nanuoya
Naranmulla
Nawadunkorale-
Nawalapitiya ■
Neboda '
Negorabo
Nikaweratiya ■
Nilambe
Nildandahena ■
Nintavur
Nuwara Eliya -
N u warakala-
wiya
Ohiya
Palai
Pallegama
Palolpitiya
Palugama
Pamunugama
Panadure
Panankamam
Panawalkorale
Pandu'uppu
Pannala
Panwila
Paranagama
Parana kuru-
korale
Pasdiimkorale
Pasaara
Pasyala
—Mora loft *
—From Monaraieaka,
Peacock's bend
—Jasmine island or
sylvan tract island
—King's pearl field
--Country and jungle
—Naina's resting place
—Hill of the nine peaks
IHiU of the peak of
worship— D.W.F.l
-Ointment-stream [ner
—Mandarin orange cor-
— Nine-given Korale f
—Iron-wood forest plain
— ^a-tree village
—Honey village (Miga-
muwa)
—iVifcffl fire- wood village
—Green mango
—Green-timber chena
—Solely-owned country
—Light of city. [Plain
of the Koyal city ? —
D W.F.]
"Kala tank of the city
[According to Knox
from Nuwara a city,
kaha tuiTueric and
I av(K, put into the
river "-But is it not
from the three great
t a-n k s within its
bound aries, Nu-
warawewa, K a I a-
wewa & Padawiya ?
-D.W.F. ]
—Head of the stream
from Oya-iha
--Den
--Lower village
-Plain of the Palol tree
-(Wilson's Bungalow)
Deserted village
"Granted village
-Rocky feny
--Palmyra village
•- Jak-f orest korale
•The abode of Pandu
--Grass village
-Bulrush pond
-(Fort MacDonald)—
Old village
"Old division korale
-Five divisions
-Korale which supplied
earth, or the Korale
which was gi v e n
afterwards X
—Five arrows
-Five yalas (of paddy
sowing extent)
*From "Moratugaha," a shrub which is largely found growing wild in
the Cinnamon Gardens near Moratuwa.— C' D. D. Silva, Muhandiram T"Ko*aIe
ofthenineyojanas" (a ^oian(i=12 English Miles).— A.M.G. J " Korale of the five
yojanas,"-A,M.G. & W.K.P,
xliv
Pattipola
Payiyagala
PelmaduUa
Peradeniya
Pesalai
Pidurutalagala
P i 1 a na
Pitigalkoiale
Polgahawela
Polonnaruwa
Potuhera
Geylon in 1903.
Pugoda
Punulpitiya
Pundaluoya
Pussellawa —
Puttalam
Puttuv
Puwakpitiya
Badella
Kagalla
Bajakadaluwa
Rakwana
Ramboda
Rambukkana — .
Rangala
Ratgama
Ratmalana
Ratnapura
Rattota
Rayigamkorale
Bltigala
Ruwanwella
-Cattle fold
-Purse ditoh *
-Huts district
-Guava plain
-Beautiful [rock
-& t a c k-of -straw-like
-Pila forest
Sandy rock korale
-Coconut tree field
-tinhalese form of the
Pali word Pulasthi-
nagara or city dedi-
cated to Pulasthi.
"From potivehera^
inferior dagoba in
whicli books were
enshrined
-Flower village
-Ash-pumpkin plain
-Pundalu tree river or
the river of leeches
■Village of the Pusviela,
creepers
■Puttu (new), alam
(salt pan).
-New country
-Arecanut plain
-From Radd-ella, Dho-
by's stream or rapid
-Toddy hill
-Demon forest I-
-(Golden Bank?) Bor-
der of the forest
'Rambuk (cane J)
thicket
-Gold rock
■Royal village
-Forest of red blossoms
-City of gems
-Washers ferry §
-Rayigama's korale
-Treacherous mountain
-Gem sand
Sabar agamuwa
Salpitikorale
Siduwa
Sinigama
Sita Ella
Sita Kanda
Situlaganga
Siyanekorale
— M ountaineers'
village U
-Korale of the sal flour
or plains ||
-Lion's islet
-Sugar villaee [Chinese
vUlage ?-"-D.W.F.]
— Sita's (or cold) stream
- Sita's (or cold) moun-
tain
-Cold river
--H u n d r e d relations
korale a
Sripadaya
Suduganga
Talankanda
Talatu-oya
Talawakele
Talpepattu
Tampalakamam
Tanamalwila -
Tangalla •
Telcteniya
Tellippalai
—Holy foot
Peak)
— White river
[Adam's
Tempola
Tihagoda
Tispane
Tissamaharama-
Totapola
Trincomalee
Tumpane
Tunmodara
Tunukkai
Udagama
Udagoda
Udapalata
Udugahapattu
Udugampola
Udufcinda
Udunuwara
UdupihUla
Udupila
Ukuwala
Ulapane
Umaoya
Urakanda
Urugala
Utuwankanda •
U V a
Valluvettiturai -
Vavuniyavilan-
kulam
Veyangoda
Wadduwa
Walaha
W a 1 a 1 1 awiti-
korale
Walapane
Walasmulla
Wangle oya
Wanni
Wariapola
-Flat mountain [river
"Talipot palm-leaf
-Jungle of the plain
-Palmyra grove divi-
sion
"Mudland faim
—Grass flower lake
-Resting place
—Oil plain
-Pi-obably for Tellup-
palai, a stage where
palanquin-bearers
change [place
-From Panpola, water
-Thirty mounds
-Thirty plains [Tissa
-Great monastery of
— Fen-y ; fording place
— Three-cornered [rock
or sacred unbending
[rock
- Three river mouths
—(A piece?)
—Upper village
—Upper village
—Upper provmce
— Upperside division
-Upper vUlage
—Upper Einda
—Upper city
—Upper spout
—Upper match or upper
side party
—Sugarcane forest
— Uma's oya
— Hog rock
— Pig rock
— Camel rock
— Girape country 6
—VeUiweddi shrub port
Woodapple tank of
— Vavumyan
— AVhiteant hiUc
-Resting-place
-Bear vUlage
-Bears' corner
-Winding rivt»r
-Wild d
-Watering-place
* Mr. Banasinha does not agree with this rendering.— Compiler. [Has it any
reference to lingum stones?— Cor.) -[ "Protection rock." — B. G, t Sachcharum
Procerum—Vf. P.n. i " Royal ferry."— W. P. R. t " Village of the Veddaa. "—
A.M.G. & W.P.B. II " Korale in which Salpltiya is."- A.M.G. a "Hundred chief-
tain korale —A.M. G. & The late Wm. Hall ascribed the ( rigin of the word to
" Uvah ! "-an exclamation of sudden surprise or joy.— Compiler [From Huwa,
which is known from the Malmoanm to have existed long before Lusitanian.' set
foot in Ceylon.-D.W.F. c " Land of the iJatom forest."— W P. B. d "Trading
place "—A, M.G. Colony of ohe Wanniyas.— Cor.
Place Names and their Herimiions.
xlv
' Watagoda — Bonii4 village
WataTela — Bound field [plain
Wattala -iFroni Waltala, jungle
Wattegama --Garden village
Waturugama —Water village
Weligama —Sandy village
Weligatta —Sand pit
Welimada — Sandy mud
Wellabodapattu— Pattu near the shore
Wellasaa — One hundred thou-
sand fields
Wellawatta — Beach garden
Wellawaya —
Weragoda
Weraketiya
Werellagama
We-uda
Weweltalawa
Wiyaluwa
Yakdesaa
Yakdessngala
Yatawatta
Yatiyantota
Yatinuwara
— Wihara village
—Group of vriharas
—Werella tree village
—Village above the
—Cane plain [tank
—Dry land
—Village of the devil-
dancer
—Demon-priests rock
—Lower garden
— Yatiyana ferry
—Lower city
^^jU
stvi Ceylon in 1903.
APPENDIX III.
THE CEYLON CENSUS OF 1901.
Fkom the valuable Report on the Census issued by the energetic
Superintendent (Mr. P. Arunaohalam, CCS.) we gather the following. The
fourth decennial Census of Ceylon was taken on the night of 1st March,
1901, and employed 591 Supervisors and 10,919 Enumerators.
The total population of Ceylon exclusive of the Military, Shipping, and
Prisoners of War is 3,565,954 (1,896,212 males and 1,669,742 females) which
for 25,332 square miles gives 141 to the square mile, the greatest density
being 643 in the Western and the lowest 20 per square mile in the North-
Central Province. Colombo is now a capital city and a central steamer port
with 155,000 people. (For 1903 it may be reckoned to have close on 160,000).
Th6 rates of increase of the Island's population in the decade since 1891 is
so large as 18'6 percent., a sure sign of prosperity though allowance must
be made for continuous and increasing Cooly Immigration from Southern
India. There are 598,076 occupied houses in the Island. The table of
nationality gives the following result :—
Europeans ... ... 6,300
Burghers and Eurasians ... ... 23,482
Low-country Sinhalese ... ... 1,458,320
Kandyan Sinhalese ... ... 872,487
Tamils ... ... ... 951,740
Moors (Mohammedan) ... ... 228,034
Malays do, ... ... 11,902
Veddahs (Aborigines .') ... ... 3,971
Others ... ... ... 9,71S
[One practical deduction from the above is that the Low-country Sinha-
lese at once deserve a second representative in the Legislative Council.
The " others " include some 70 nationalities or races from Abyssinians to
Kaf&rs, Armenians and Jews to Chinese. Among "Europeans," English
come first, then Scotch and Irish ; while, curiously enough, we have more
French (198) than German (163) residents.— As regards "religions," herein
a summary for the Island : —
Christians ... ... ... 349,239
Buddhists ... ... ... 2,141,404
Hindus ... ... ... 826,826
Mohammedans ,., ... 246,118
Others ... ... ... 2,367
The total number of " Christians " given in the census for 1891 w»s
302,127, so that the increase of 47,112 in the decade is not quite equal to
the increase in total population ; but allowance must be made for the
The Ceylon Census of 1901.
xlvii
large immigration of Hindus from Southern India in the interval. Then
of the Christians, 287, fl9 are Roman Catholic, leaTing 61,820 for all "Pro-
testant " denominations (including 1,718 "Independent Catholics " who re-
pudiate the Pope). In 1891 the Roman Catholics numbered 246,214 and
other Christians 55,91 3 — so that the former have increased in a greater ratio
than the latter. — Avery serious revelation as regards the work of the Govern-
ment is made in the tables of " Education by Nationality and Religion,"
the total number of persons able to read and write any language being
only 773,190 ; while no fewer than 2,790,235 are unable to read and write,
and of this so large a number as 1,553,078 are females. Making allowance
for the very young and old, this shows a most unsatisfactory state of affairs ;
and if the mass of Sinhalese and Tamils are to be advanced materially as
well as morally, there can be no doubt that Government should add
greatly to its elementary Vernacular Schools, including industrial teaching
and inculcating habits of thought such as Sir Antony Macdonell desiderates
for the people of India. If proper advantage is to be taken of the Northern
Railway and Irrigation works in Ceylon, the stimulus afforded by education
must be applied to the people, and the lesson that would thus be taught in
little Ceylon might prove a most valuable one for its big neighbour — India.
With reference to immigrants from India, it is interesting to leari that the
India-bom population was 10 per cent, of the total population in 1881, 88
per cent, in 1891, and 12-2 per cent, in 1901. The total Tamil population
increased by 5-3 per cent, in 1881-1891, and by 31"5 per cent, in 1891-1901.
Nearly the whole of this increase was by immigration.
The total number of Towns and Villages in Ceylon is 12,898 ; Chief
Headmen's Divisions 112 ; Districts 20 ; Provinces 9.
CHRISTIAN BY
SECT.— CEYLON.
TOTAL-
Baptist—
Males
182,632
Males
1,733
Females
166,607
Females
1,576
RoMiN Catholic—
CONGEEGATIONALIST* —
Males
149,685
Males
1,188
Females
137,734
Females
1,258
Church of England—
Salvationist—
Males
17,740
Males
618
Females
14,7.74
Females
493
Presbyterian —
Independent Catholic^
Males
1,688
Males
914
Females
1,649
Females
804
Wesleyan Methodist—
Other ChbistiansT-
Males
7,673
Males
1,493
Females
7,318
Females
1,001
(See Review of Christian Mi
ssion in Ceylon for the yeari
1891-1901
further.)
* Chiefly belonging to American Mission, Jaffna, f Including Member*
of Society of Friends,
xlviii
Ceylon in 1903.
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The Geyton Census of 1901.
Races iii Ceylou.
STATEMENT SHOWING ALL THE RACES OF THE
POPULATION OF CEYLON, 1901.
(.Exclusive of the Military, the Shipping, and the Piisoners of War.)
MiiiCP.
Females.
Males. Females
Abyssinian
1
Jew
4
2
Afghan
193
77
Kafar
166
152
African
10
2
Maharati
72
47
American
32
27
Malagasy
2
4
Arab
306
139
Malay
. 0,418
5,484
Armenian
1
—
Malayali
668
164
Australian
13
13
Maldivian
12
1
Austrian
6
3
Manx
2
2
Baluchi
1
1
Mappillai
1
—
Batavian
2
—
Moor
. 126,798
101,236
Belgian
20
11
Negro
24
29
Bengali
1,320
704
North Indian ..
4
—
Brazilian
—
—
Norwegian
2
British
13
4
Parsi
96
43
Burgher and
Pattani
444
357
Eurasian
11,681
11,801
Persian
5
_-
Burmese
124
101
Portuguese
13
5
Canadian
6
5
Punjabi
24
6
Cauarese
310
298
Eajput
23
2
Cape Colonist ...
—
2
Roumanian
—
1
Chinese
26
13
Russian
31
20
Circassian
—
1
Scotch
627
299
Cochinese
2,388
278
Siamese
5
3
Dane
2
1
Sinhalese (Low
Dekhani
3
1
country)
. 759,834
698,486
Dutch
10
3
Sinhalese
East Indian
28
2
(Kandyan) ..
. 458,179
414,308
Egyptian
IS
5
Soudanese
—
2
English
2,469
1,613
Sikh
46
7
European (other-
Spanish
1
S
wise unspecified)
■62
29
Swede
11
9
French
132
66
Swiss
6
4
German
81
82
Syrian'
9
2
Goanese
~ 33
9
Tamil.
. 520,409
431.331
Greek
2
2
Tasmanian
—
3
Gujerati
2
—
Telugu
113
72
Hindustani
133
37
Turk
2
1
Hungarian
1
1
Veddah
2,028
1,943
Indian
• 191
22
Welsh
44
12
Irish
283
237
West Indian
1
—
Italian
32
10
Unspecified
121
72
Japanese
6
—
i
lii
Ceylon in 1903.
OCCrPATIOi\S «¥ MTIOiVALITy Ai\D SEA, 1901.
EXCLUSIVE OF THE MILITARY, THE SHIPPIXG, AND
PEISONBRS OF WAR.
THE
OccnpaLion oi" Means of Liveliliooil.
CEYLON.
A. — G OVERNMENT,
Admhiistratioii.
Civil Service of the State —
In the employ of the Government
Service of Local or Municipal
Bodies —
Municipal or Local Board service
Defeoice.
Army —
M ilitary service
Volunteer service
Navy and Marine —
Naval service ...
Jf— Pasture akd Agriculture.
Provisloiis dnd care of Afiimals.
Stock breeding and dealing —
Cattle breeders, dealers
Covirherds, shepherds
Elephant dealers
Horse breeders, dealers
Pig breeders, dealers
Sheep and goat breeders, dealers
Training and care of animals —
Cattle shoers ...
Elephant trainers, keei^ers
Mule drivers
Veterinary surgeons, farriers ...
Agriculture.
Landowners, tenants, and labourers —
Cocoa plantations : ovfners, mana-
gers, superior staff
Cocoa plantations : labourers and
other subordinates
Cinnamon plantations : ovruers,
managers, superior staff
Cinnamon plantations: labourers,
and other subordinates
Eauners.
JItiles. Females.
DETE
Males.
;nuexts.
Females
1723
676
14055
23987
681
73
439
921
429
25
—
168
22
522
39
iol
—
190
561
49
26
48
1571
101
816
12S9
4081
323
802
762
6
—
2
6
4
—
4
4
fi
3
—
—
153
3
44
57
5821
430
1368
2068
73
51
80
156
i
249
—
45
99
1
257
392
482
1
353
571
1660
724
1575
2288
4338
2894
1226
1663
559
68
497
768
0907
1731
3922
5260
The Oeyton Genstis of 1901.
liii
occupation or Means of Llrelihootl.
CEYLON.
Copoanut plantations : owners,
managers, superior staff
Cocoanut plantations : labourers,
and other subordinates
Cottee plantations : owners, mana-
gers, superior staff
Coffee plantations': labourers and
other subordinates
Cotton plantations : owners,
managers, superior staff
Cotton plantations: labourers
and other subordinates
Citronella plantations : owners,
managers, superior staff
Citronella plantations : labourers
and other subordinates
Landed proprietors (otherwise
unspecified...
Paddy land owners
Paddy land cultivators
Cultivators (otherwise unspeci-
fied)
Sugarcane plantations : owners,
managers, and superior staff . ..
Sugarcane plantations : labourers
and other subordinates
Tea plantations : owners, mana-
gers, superior staff
Tea plantations: labourers and
other subordinates
Tabaoco plantations : owners,
managers, superior staff
Tobacco plantations : labourers
and other subordinates
Planters (otherwise unspecified)
Vegetable and fruit growers ...
Labourers (otherwise unspecified)
Agriculture training, and super-
vision and forests —
Estate agents ... ....
C — Personal Services.
Personal, Hovsehold, and Sanitary
Services.
Personal and domestic services^-
Barbers
Dhobies ... ...
Domestic servants
tfardeners
AU Bitces.
Earkers. DMPEHDEXTS.
HaleS'. Females, Males. Females.
33282
14825
40654
59964
20706
4390
13875
19984
97
30
55
64
368
1
195
86
115
270
177
155
275
459
101
513
686
1641
2965
1531
1822
23636
126745
169438
12078
47553
48209
28651
136696
134013
41955
205292
209958
66002
9503
54236
87669
88
10
43
96
161
99
144
217
3838
197
2149
3957
173224
135392
32134
36729
22957
4776
15473
27143
1671
632
6985
74658
256
64
1029
80952
966
414
5216
37533
1663
701
8068
62529
739248 318109 511786 77902r
75
13S
2732 31 1404 2888
12625 8224 9162 13024
31289 25584 4462 8682
803 45 246 446
liv
Ceylon in 1903«
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLON.
Governesses
Grooms
Talipot bearers ...
Watchers
Personal uon-domestic services —
Bar-keepers
Club, lodge, bungalow-keeper!! ...
Hotel managers, keepers, eating-
house keepers, resthouse keepers
Sanitation —
Scavengers
S — Prbpabation and Supply of
Material Substances.
Food, DniiJt, and Stimulants.
Provision of animal food —
Butchers and meat-sellers
Collectors of birds' nests
Fishermen
Fishmongers
Milk, butter, ghee sellers
Oyster dealers ...
Poaltry, egg sellers
Miscellaneous ...
Provision of vegetable food —
Bakers
Bread, rice-cake sellers
Confectioners ...
Coconut sellers ...
Copperah sellers
Curry stufE sellers
Greengrocers . . .
Jaggery manufacturers
Jaggery dealers
Oil millers
Oil sellers
Poonac sellers ...
Sugar manufacturers
Sugar sellers ...
Eice, paddy, gram sellers
Kiee pounders and huskers
Vegetable sellers
All llooes.
EAENEES. DEPENDENTS.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
2438
5
1451
36
"21
1
766
1
584
2
1529
3
1132
51343
339il
16625
27706
219
142
1
4
96
95
193
136
924
401
841
1291
1285
406
1032
1620
.S72
02
107
207
737
1
455
829
6
,,,
1
8
24086
616
17692
32243
5123
2729
4727
6862
652
249
417
580
364
14
37
80
412
24
280
445
318
16
205
308
31698
3049
2381-1
41355
1082
4138
1723
2506
2496
10043
3308
5383
643
486
334
605
1224
544
1220
1855
310
16
211
329
-2865
462
1793
2480
1448
904
1206
2128
191
255
298
232
142
182
129
192
121
6
103
152
1741
966
1477
2271
38
4
15
14
8
31
23 '
30
23
1
13
9
4034
3282
3385
4940
60
4074
1650
1813
191
109
142
208
16617 25503 17090 25147
The Ceylon Census of 190],
Iv
Occupatiou or Meaus o£ Livelihood,
CEYLON.
Provision of drink, ooiidiments,and
stimulants —
Aerated water manufacturers ...
Aerated water dealers
Arrack distillers
Arrack sellers, tavern keepers . . .
Betel, areoanut sellers
Brewers
Cacao sellers
Cinnamon dealers
Coffee and tea seller*
Grocers
Liquor-shopkeepers
Opium sellers ...
Salt makers
Salt sellers
Tobacco, cigars, snuff makers ...
Tobacco, cigars, snuff sellers
Toddy drawers ...
Vinegar sellers
Water sellers ...
Waterworks service
Liglit, Mnng, and Forage.
Lighting —
Candle makers ...
Candle sellers ...
Electric light service
Gasworks services
All Kaces,
EARNERS, DBPENDIfSTS.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
Fuel and Forage —
Coal contractors
Coal labourers ...
Coal owners
Charcoal burners
Firewood sellers
Grass sellers
Straw sellers ...
Building materials —
Brick, tile makers
Brick, tile sellers
Limestone pickers
Limestone sellers
Lime burners ...
Lime sellers
Stone worker* ...
19
1
19
34
5
...
2
9
196
6
235
255
1512
19
865
1329
2081
2649
2330
3414
22
21
9
8
109
8
78
89
20i
12
184
277
353
256
205
370
126
11
53
96
234
1
126
198
90
2
37
78
79
255
87
122
3h
87
298
533
2012
17
556
1444
3851
333
2325
4066
8512
6778
10645
7
5
14
162
"" 36
65
104
38
36
42.
39
19953
3753
14289
23124
12
8
12
6
"' 1
5
5
1
.>*
1
1
172
2
64
125
191
3
78
143
21
16
18
908
"'l5
266
618
49
38
66
79
""24
87
102
1225
1207
1160
1646
600
542
374
670
209
58
175
269
3091
1846
2116
3289
2777
64
1738
2947
276
6
303
481
106
2
55
87
23
—
37
55
870
47
304
432
443
405
872
574
1338
112
931
1485
!i338
636
3710 6061
Ivi
Ceylon in 1903.
Occnpation or Heans of Lirelihood,
CEYLON.
All Races.
EARNERS. DEPBSDEKTs.
3Iales. F«male9, Males. Females,
rtificers in buildings
Building contractors
126
1
122
209
Masons
9069
11
5648
10125
Thatchers
18
2
7
11
Whitewashers ...
49
4
49
86
Tramway plant —
Tramway factories, operatives,
and other subordinates
Vehicles cmd Vessels.
Carts, carriages, &c. —
Carriage builders
Carriage sellers ...
Ships and boats —
Shipbuilders, boatbuilders
Ship chandlers & marine store
dealers
Supplementary Sequiremenfs.
Paper —
Palm-leaf binders
Stationers
9262
198
Books and prints —
Pookbinders
Booksellers
Printers, compositors
Watches, clocks, and scientific in-
struments —
Watch and clock makers, re-
1388
5826 10431
162
or,
53
105
7
7
4
72
60
109
29
...
15
31
29
...
28
69
58
...
43
100
3
15
.„
7
18
18
7
18
224
3
142
264
257
2
144
216
807
4
423
870
709
1350
pairers
Watch and clock sellers
Other scientific instrument
makers, menders
Other scientific instrument sellers
222
11
S
3
21
137
1
301
2
12
10
Carving and engraving —
Engravers
Ivory carvers ...
Rubber stamp makers
Typefounders ...
Wood and ebony carvers
244
23
3
'H
13
21
166
12
1
3
8
325
22
1
5
3
16
44
...
24
47
The Ceylon Census of 1901.
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLON.
Toys and curiosities —
Cnriosity dealers
Tortoise-shell workers ..]
Toy makers and sellers
Music and musical instruments —
Musical instrument makers and
repairers
Musical instrument sellers ..!
Bangles, necklaces, beads, & sacred
threads —
Beads, bangles sellers
Flower garland makers and
sellers
Glass bangle makers and sellers
Furniture —
Furniture dealers
Do. makers
Harness —
Harness makers and sellers
Saddlers
Whip makers ...
Tools and machinery —
Bicycle repairers
Knife and tool grinders
Do. makers
Do. sellers
Mechanics
Arms and ammunition—.
Firework sellers
Gun makers, menders
'4esotile Fairies and Dress.
Cotton—
Cotton spiimers...
Do. trsders ...
Do. weavers...
Weavers (otherwise nnspccifled)
All
EARNERS.
Males. Females,
40
39
21
100
Ivii
PEFBNDENtS.
Males. Females.
204
32
34
20
86
175
55
78
24
157
9
...
7
3
20
...
8
14
127
5
10
67
S
146
4
152
10
80 '
164
154
50
3
151
. 24
231
31
17
7
27
54
35
89
1
...
1
._
72
—
42
:i7
1
...
6
...
s
1239
62
618
1292
1246
62
B22
1292
1
2
2
7
...
1
9
— .
-«.—
8
...
3
11
S13
874X
721
1649
...
. -4
8
4
146
80
S7
125
607
49
821
803
1066 3844 1112 2581
iViii
Geylon -in- 1903.
Occupation or Means o£ Livelihood.
OETLON.
Jute, hemp, flax, coir, &o. —
Broom makers ...
Coir manufacturers
Coir dealers
Fibre sellers
Hemp manjif aoturers
Net makers , ...
Eope makers
Dress —
Drapers, cloth, dealers
Dress hirers
Dress sellers
Hat makers, repairers, sellers ■ ...
Lace makers
Tailors, milliners, dressmakers &
darners
Umbrella sellers
All Eaces.
Eabnees. dbpendents.
Mjilea Females. Males. Females.
9
4
U
10
1688
28295
5794
6224
1031
1491
1143
1815
62
44
68
99
55
1291
250
810
KS
368
142
177
1-15
21S
121
198
3078
31711
7532
9333
4319
39
2583
3416
7
32
9
15
41
42
26
51
8
68
7
10
69
5952
534
867
2564
3561
2009
3482
30
— ■
26
44
Xrtiih'! and Prccii.iis Sto>ii'>i.
Gold, silver, and precious stones-
Gem diggers
Goldsmiths
Gilders and platers
Gem dealers
Jewellers
Lapidaries
703S
9694
5194
7684
378
11:!
183
■267
54
4683
9857
o
2
7
135
4
50
96
397
13
314
597
408
3
292
541
Brass, copper, and bell-metal —
Brass, copper, and bell-metal
woi'kers
Do. do. sellers...
Tin, zinc, quicksilver, lead, and
plumbago —
Plumbago mine workers
Do. dealers
Do. factory labourers
..Do. mine owners
Workers in tin, zinc, quicksilver,
and lead
Iron and steel —
Sellers of iron and hardware ..
Workers in iron and hardware ..
8590
.5454 11281
773
101
18
1
583
80
10S9
140
874
19
663
1229
150.55
1180
272
39
21.39
no
365
1
4615
1068
202
38
7430
1640
375
45
420
4
2619
211
6134
448
169C6
9938
209
5148
J9
34
157
3390
258
6242
5357
53
3547
6500
The Ceylon Census of 1901.
lix
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLON.
Gloii, Earthen, and Stone W'ln-es—
Glass and china ware —
Glass and china ware dealers
All Eaoes, ,
EAKNBHS. DEPENDENTS.
Males. Pamales/ Slales. Females.
50
31
50
Earthen and stone ware —
Grindstone makers, menders, and
sellers ... ..:
Makers of pottery
Sellers of po ttery
Wood, Cane, and Leaves, djc.
Wood and bamboos —
Carpenters
Coopers
Sawyers
Timber dealers
W<X)d-cut,ters
Cane work, matting, .a«d leaves —
Basket makers ... ..
Cadjan makers and sellers
Cane workers ...
Comb makers and sellers
Fan makers
Mat weavers
Tat makers
Drugs, Cfums, Dyes, Sfc.
Gum, wax, resins, and similar forest
producer-
Wax, honey, and forest produce
collectors
.So
6
30
38
863
2592
2506
32.35
174
129
132
150
3072
2727
2699
.2399 19736 1723
3123
;21902
45
14988
27420
176
102
212
5869
1
3801
5979
915
41
859
1412
568
27
117
430
698
29130
20180
35721
150
■ 1907
.505
758
159 •
■ 1810
420
704
268
60
159
260
355
13
■ 284
478
51
44
44
90
1070
15848
3278
4649
46
5t
33
52
5991
12
15
Drugs, dyes, pigments, &c. —
Chemist and druggists ...
Cinnamon, Citronella, oil manu-
facturers . . ...
Do. do.
Dyers
Dye root diggers
Do. sellers
Ink makers and sellers
Perfume, incense sellers
Soap manufacturers
Soap sellers
269
701
41
129
117
393-
165
9
...
9
7
72
'"' 10
56
79
300
11
167
457
26
54
28
45
1
13.
5
9
2
...
1
2
10
4
8
1
1
1
11
7
5
■778
Ix
Ceyion in 1903.
Occupation or Means o£ Livelihood.
CETLpN.
Leather, Si'c.
Leather, horn, and bones —
Bone pickers
Bone dealers
Hides, horn sellers
Shoemakers, sandlexnakers
Tanners
Taxidermists
All BaecB.
Eabnehs. Dependents.
Males, females. Males. Females
1
2
1
18
1
3
8
41
34
75
89.5
'" 10
616
1222
.S2
2
19
60
11
10
18
99;j
Vi
684
1384
B— Commerce, Tkansport, and Sto-
rage.
Commeree.
Money and securities —
Bankers, money lenders
Moneychangers
General Merchandise —
Accountants, managers, shroffs,
cashiers, &c. ...
Merchants
Mercantile clerks
Do. peons
686
51
637
507
5310
3428
329
9574
173
173
7.54
13
1
773
247
5
252
393
6
399
412 465
3421 5844
1617 2720
136 312
5586
9341
Dealing unspecified —
Basket women and pingo carriers
Hawkers, pedlars, &c
Salesmen
Shopkeepers and other tradesmen
Do , clerks, &o.
121
3530
1072
1325
295
21
145
253
3482
8
428
601
30649
.5693
17458
27711
500
7
135
242
35047
9259 19238 30132
Middlemen, brokers, and agents —
Auctioneers
Brokers
Clerks employed by middlemen ...
Contractors for labourers, emi-
gration agents, &c.
Contractors (otherwise unspeci-
fied)
Farmers of arrack, other liquor,
opium, &c.
Do tolls, ferries, &c.
Benters (otherwise unspecified)...
26
237
458
"2
37
178
131
65
350
244
106
...
76
163
958
43
772
1297
123
254
29 ■■
4
3
■" 6
151
126
40
218
198
41
2191
58
1511
2576
The Ceylon (lensus of 1901.
Ixi
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLON.
Tramport and Storage.
Road —
Cart drivers
Cart owners
Coach proprietors
Coachmen
Pulanquin bearers
Rickshaw drawers
Tavalam men ...
Transport contractors
Do. coolies
Water : —
Boatmen
Boat owners
Divers
Dubashes
Harbour works service
Shipowners
Shipping agents
Steam boat service
Stevedores, ship coolies
Storage and weighing : —
Warehouse owners, managers,
and superior staff
Warehouse workmen and other
subordinates
P — Pbofessions.*
Learn a')td Artistic Professions.
Religion —
Astrologers ....
Buddhist priests
Catechists, bible women
Church, chapel service
Devil dancers ...
Hindu priests ...
Hindu temple service
HisBionaries,clergymeB,ministers
Monks, nuns, lay brothers
Mohammedan priests
Mosque service ...
Salvationists
Seminarists
Upasakes,sanna8is,fakirs,devotees
Vihara, Buddhist temple, service
All Il!U!es.
EAHNERs. , Dependents.
Mnles. Females. Males. Females.
15015
...
7263
12567
1182
56
940
1405
20
1
4
16
151
86
177
12
5
10
1188
316
581
382
2
273
448
4
*■■
3
6
3
4
5
18287
59
8894
15215
3542
12
2257
4249
419
7
257
508
49
42
54
51
...
48
81
407
10
102
294
12
1
11
31
30
1
14
27
25
R
23
56
545
1
122
322
5080
35
2876
5622
249
1
193
306
1070
22
374
731
1319
23
.567
1037
276
264
386
7331
• ••
...
244
84
266
394
137
18
124
290
1751
2
1662
2196
737
1
427
947
B96
30
356
810
398
60
553
654
23
51
2
100
507
■ ■•
394
622
186
1
160
288
25
29
12
10
35
5
86
...
35
14
11
20
4359
3
291
54
16740
298 4508 6771
* Does not include those in the service of the Government,
Ixil
Ceylon in 1903.
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLOX.
Education —
All Baces.
eahnees Dependents.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
Pundits
7
3
11
Teachers
3126
1507
2110
3525
3133
1507
2113
3536
Literature —
Authors, editors, journalists ...
111
96
146.
Baua book or ola book
writers
94
4
49
76
Reporters, shorthand writers ...
IS
10
21
Service in libraries and
literary
institutions
...
51
1
26
67
274
5.
181
310
Law —
Barristers, advocates, proctors ...
.366
464
825
Lawyers' clerks and
articled
clerks
1011
7
699
1272
Notaries public
268
...
351
555
Petition, pleading, drawers, and
translators
155
1
161
312
Stamp vendors
...
74
1
64
130
1874
9
1739
3094
Medicine —
Apothecaries
...
23".
6
95
165
Compounders ...
104
15
52
77
Dentists
...
13
6
12
Midwives
893
171
253
Nurses
...
18
Oculists
si
9
31
55
Physicians, surgeons,
medical
practitioners ...
340
13
319
522
Vaccinators
7
5
11
Vedaralas
3350
74
3098
5136
~._
4080
1028
3777
6231
Engineering and survey-
Civil engineers ... •
108
...
35
83
Diraughtsmen ...
46
...
33
54
Land surveyors...
170
■ ■•
149
278
Mining engineers
8
3
4
332
2.19
419
Natural science-
Astronomers
17
15
27
Botanists
2
1
Persons ennfaged in scientific
pursuits
...
13
7
17
32
■ *•
22
40
The Ceylon Census 0/ 1901.
Ixiii
Occupation or Heaus o[ Livelihood.
CEYLON.
Pictorial, art, and sculptures-
Artists
Painters*
Photographers ...
Sculptors
Tattooers
Music, acting, dancing, fco. —
Actors, dancers, singers
Bandmasters and players
Music teachers ...
Nautch girls
Piano timers
Tom-tom beaters
All Races.
EAKNERS. DEPENDENTS.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
66
i
45
93
702
i
517
866
69
2
34
64
.BO
1
11
38
2
...
2
2
869
11
609
1063
196
20
105
175
138
i
50
94
131
12
56
157
.>•
9
4
9
2
1
3
1319
6
1017
1583
Sport.
Sport —
Bird catchers
Book-makers
Huntsmen
.Tookeys
Games and exhibitions —
Acrobats
Exhibitors of trained animals .
Fortune tellers and conjurors .
1786
51
1263
2021
4
3
150
10
39
1
2
136
3
3
235
4
167
39
139
245
10
107
210
i'4
14
3
71
126
1
115
220
Cr — Unskilled Labour not Agsei-
CnLTUEAL.
Earthwork and General Labmir.
Earthwork, &c. —
ArohsBological Department coo-
lies, &c.
Forest Department coolies
Irrigation Dept. coolies, over-
seeis, &c.
Miners
-Boad coolies, overseers
Survey Department coolies
Well sinkers, ...
General labour--
Geheral labourers
327
114
93
11771
28
18
8
200
14
30
336
27
61
422 65 110 176
45 9 26 37
10465 3078 3252 5405
606 19 117 -. 215
26 ... 20. !i<. 41
3197
sseg .
37493 10753 18079
6962
32502
* Mpohanic-painterg, Clear Jy,—C&jnjpiW',
Ixiv
Ceylon in 1908.
Occupation or Means of Livelihood.
CEYLON.
All Buces.
Eaenbes. ■ depekdents.
Males, Females. Hales Females
Iiidefimite and Disreputable Oecujmtions.
Indefinite —
Uncertain or not returned . . ,
73S
<01
392
703
Disreputable —
Gamblers
i
...
Prostitutes
...
46
i
7
i
46
i
T
H.— Means op Subsistence In-
dependent OP Occupation.
Property and alms-
Beggars
House rent, shares, and other
333S
2508
1310
1240
442
1059
1846
property not being land
130
139
133
264
Mendicants
42
11
12
20
3510
2658
1385
2130
Ab the State expense —
Exiles
5
• ■•
...
Inmates of asylums
41
42
64
62
Juvenile offenders
/
1
128
11
Pensioners
1248
393
863
1736
Prisoners whose previous occu-
pations have not been specified
9
6
4
5
1814
Grand Total
1144593 490814 751619 1178928
The Provinces of Ceylon.
Their Aeea, Density op Population, and Pbkcentage of Total
Aeea and Total Population.
Province.
Area
in Square Persons.
Miles.
Pesons :
per
Square
Mile.
Percent'
iiseof
Total
Area.
Percenl-
age of
Total
Populat-
Ceylon
.. 25332 3565954
141
Western Province
.. 1432 920683
643
5-65
25-82
Central Province
.. 2299 J 622832
271
9-08
17-47
Forthem Province
,.
. 8363J 840936
101
13-28
9-56
Southern Province
.,
. 2146} S667S6
261
8-47
15-89
Eastern Province
. 403Bi 173602
43
15-93
4-87
Korth- Western Province
. 29964 353626
118
11-83
9-92
North-Central Province
,. 4002* 79110
20
1.5-8
2-22
Province of tJva
,,
,. 3154i 186674
59
12-46
.5-23
Province of Sabaragamuvvfi ..
, 1901J 321756
169
7-5
9-Og
The Ceylon Oensiis of 1%1.
Ixv
PROVINCES, DISTRICTS, TOWNS, VILLAGES, HOUSES, FAMILIES,
AND MALES AND FEMALES.
Number of Population.
Hroyincerpislvict, ai
■ Cliief fteadman'S
' t «D?viiiSii.
GEYLON.
CEYLON (^Including
the; Military, tlpe
Shipping,, and Pri-
soners of ;War)
CEYLON Excluding
the Military, the'
• Shipping! and Pri-
soiere bl War) ...
TheMUtary :..
The Shipping
Prisoner? of War
P.V
II
Hi
& .■■- •
i
28 12870 598076 664311 ?578.332 1908272 1670060
28 12870 598076 664311 3565954 18S6212 1669742
3360 3136 224
4105 40ll 94
4913 4913 ...
W^stprn I^ravince ...
"The Military
The Shipping
Prisoners of War ...
5
1533
161157
176083
920683
1599
2556
504
489350
1470
•248B
504
431333
129
70
C^Wal Province ...
'The Military ;..
. Prisoneia of Wax ....
5
1635
67498
75667
622832
• 171
8
339219
161
8
283613
10
Nortiiern Province ...
; The Shipping : .;:„;.
Prisoners of War ...
4
. 739
63959
76544
340936
1047
2
171724
1026
2
169212
21
Southern Province ...
TheShiipping ! ...
Eastern ProViHce i r . . .
TheMlUtafy ;...
The ShippiUg : 1 ...
5,
2
1 ...(.
1531
-.452
105625
■ 33467
112464
41343
566736
189
173602
592
94
288715
189
90516
512
94
278021
83086
80
!
North-Western Pro-
vince ^ ; ; !•:
The Shipping
1 3;
3573
72696
80325
353626
219
195711
216
157915
3
North-Central Pro-
'vince -
1
1093
1S171
19615
79110
43273
35837
Province of Uva ...
The Military
• . Prisoners of War ...
1
■ 888
23755
30394
186674
998
4399
100936
993
4399
85738
5
Province of Sabara-
' gamuwa' ...
2
1426
48448
9
61876 ■
321755
176768
144987
Ixvi
Ceylon in 1903.
Number of
Province. District, and
Chief He.idman's a
Division. g
Western Province.
Colombo Municipality 1
The Military
The Shipping
Prisoners of War
Colombo District
(exclusive of
Municipality) ... 1
The Military
The Shipping
Prisoners of War
Negombo District ... 1
The Shipping
Kalutara District ... 2
The Shipping
Central Province.
Kandy District ... 3
The Military
Prisoners of War
Matale District ... 1
Nuwara Eliya District 1
The Military
North-'rn Province.
JaSna District
The Shipping ...
Prisoners of War
Mannar District
The Shipping
Mullaittivu District... 2
Soutliern Province.
Galle District ... 1
The Shipping
Matara District ... 2
Hambantota District 2
The Shipping
Eastern Pro ci /ice.
Batticaloa District ... 1
The Shipping
Trincomalee District 1
The Military
The Shipping
North- WesternPrntince,
Kurunegala District... 1
Puttalam District ... 1
The Shipping
Chilaw District ... 1
Ota
Population.
S
27268 30113 154691 91638 63053
1178 1049 129
2203 2136 67
156 156 ...
693
67524
76212
387886
421
110
348
200574
421
110
348
187312
350
27893
28234
148249
77384
76865
...
127
124
3
'490
38'472
41524
229857
116
119754
116
110103
864 41866 48152 377591 204318 173273
125 115 10
430 15136 16255 92203
341 10496 11260 153038
46
50056 42147
84845 68193
46 ...
1 262 55051 67284 300851 149185 151666
1 220 5262 5318
'2 257 3646 3912
910
2
24926
137
15159
898
2
14123
128
8416
12
10803
9
6743
735 48389 51062 258116 129869 128247
176, 176
381 37542 41543 203750 104007 99743
415 19694 19859 104870 54839 50031
13 13
346 27893 34581 145161
68
106 5574 6762 28441
592
26
74835 70326
15681
512
26
12760
80
3002 52219 57299 249429 137564 111865
287 6324 7378 29779 17091 12688
219 216 • 3
284 14153 15648 74418 41056 33362
The
Ceylon
Census of 1901.
Ixvii
Number of
Population.
Province., District, and
a!
n
lO
a!
m
i
Cliiet Headman's
&c
&§
S
9
■Q
"3
Division.
^
^
gg
g
m
«
a
o
EH
g
gw
£
l|
£
North- Central
' Promnce.
Annradhapura Dis-
trict
1
1093
19471
19615
79110
43273
35837
Promnce of Vva.
Badulla District ...
1
888.
25755
30394
186674
100936
85738
The Military ...
...
• ••
998
993
5
Prisoners of War
...
...
...
...
4399
4399
...
Prov. of Saharagamuwa.
Batuapura District ...
1
526
21838
23578
132964
73603
59361
Eegalla District
1
900
26610
28298
188791
103165
85626
Western Province.
Colombo Mtmioipality.
Fort Ward
126
126
1279
1164
115
Pettah Ward
1367
1375
Y561
6271
1290
St. Paul's Ward
3039
4180
20260
12614
7646
St. Sebastian Ward ...
...
1782
1783
9349
5640
3709
Kotaliena Ward
...
5702
6370
33350
18277
15073
New Bazaar Ward ...
3554
8836
17470
9785
7685
Maradana Ward
5421
5805
30377
17318
13059
Slave Island Ward ...
3482
3713
16764
9854
6910
KoUupitiya Ward ..
...
2795
2925
18281
10715
7566
The Military ...
...
...
...
1178
1049
129
The Shipping ...
...
2203
2136
67
Prisoners of War
...
156
156
Coloinbo District (ex-
clusive of the Muni-
cipality). *
Alutkuru Korale South
The Military ...
Prisoners of War
Hewagam Korale ...
Estates
Salpiti Korale
Estates
The Military ...
The Shipping ...
Prisoners of War
Siyane Korale East ...
Estates
Siyane Korale West...
Estates
115
13179
14334
69599
34793
84806
...
233
143
90
...
337
337
...
• •■
...
283
283
...
120
11623
13223
68995
37151
31841
1..
...
...
4348
2458
1890
99
16940
20829
99966
50692
49274
...
• •>
...
1003
601
402
• ■•
84
84
..•
• •.
...
110
110
■•.
...
• ..
65
65
...
155
9165
10127
51527
27446
24081
>*•
92
63
39
204
16617
17699
91799
47035
44764
.,.
. , *'
■ 324
202
122
Ixviii
Geylon hi 1903.
Number oi
I
Population.
Province, District, and
Ta
i
w
CD
Chief Headman's
i a
P.CC
13
n
CO
f^
Division.
^ -
g§
§
V
g
Negumibo District.
^ g
qM
A
(£
1
g
Ne^ombo Local Board
1 ...
3770
3770
19819
10020
9799
The SMppinff ...
127
124
3
Alutkuru Korale North
!!! 205
I's'sss
l'8'486
95252
48986
46266
Estates
... .■•
1363
874
489
Hapitigam Korale ...
... 145
-5790
5978
31638
17392
14246
Estates
177
112
65
Kalutara District.
Kalutara Local Board
1 ...
1993
2416
11500
5821
5679
Kalutara Totamune...
1 208
18713
20904
104218
61555
52663
Estates
...
95
61
34
The PhippiBg-
...
116
116
Pasdun Korale East...
'.'. '"78
4308
4393
24059
13700
10359
Estates
.,
2557
1501
1056
Pasdun Korale West
... 65
4513
"4790
23294
12564
10730
Estates
9632
5603
4029
Kayigam Korale
... 139
"8945
"9021
49821
26345
23476
Estates
...
4681
2604
2077
Central Province.
Kcmdy District.
Kandy Municipality
1 ...
'J 615
5270
26386
15049
11337
The Military ...
125
115
10
Prisoners of War
...
8
8
...
Harispattn
.'.V 129
6369
8'l66
33431
16954
16477
Estates
...
2768
1617
1151
Pata Dumbara
.'.'.' "l38
7427
8798
40181
21024
19107
Estates
...
14605
8201
6404
Pata Hewaheta
33
2834
3241
13917
7375
6542
Estates
13040
7286
5754
Tumpane
... "iio
2255
2358
11734
6139
55'^o
' Estates
101
63
38
Uda Bulatgama
1 59
2978
3123
16367
9873
6494
Estates
84663
46440
38223
Uda Dumbara
... 143
4184
4978
20398
« 10565
9833
Estates
7439
4094
8345
XJdu Nuwara
'.'.'. '"92
2965
3127
15647
8037
7610
Estates
1163
663
500
TJdaPalata
"i '"84
4'863
5551
25663
13729
11984
Estates
24919
13789
11130
Yati Nuwara
76
3'376
3540
18473
9629
844
Estates
6746
3791
2955
Matale District.
Matale Local Board ...
1 ...
966
1021
4951
2981
1970
Matale South
... 173
6155
6857
28324
14831
13493
Estates
..*
17666
9931
7735
Matale East
... 121
3462
3719
14550
7787
6763
Estates
...
8300
4654
3646
Matale North
... 136
4553
4658
18242
9767
8475
- Estates
.«•
• ••
170
105
66
The Ceylon Census of 1901.
Ixlx
Number of
Province, District,, and ^
Ohiet Headman's !
Division. i
i
Nwwara Miya District.
Nuwara Eliya Local
Board
Estates
The Military
Kotmale
Estates ..i
UdaHewaheta
Estates
Walapane
5 o
617
125 3311
"il8 3773
'"98 2795
716
3321
4346
2877
Population.
4106
920
46
16213
78252
16973
14997
12182
9395
2609
475
46
9629
43586
8798
8158
6425
5165
1497
445
6584
34666
8175
6839
5757
4230
Northern Province.
Jaffma Distriot.
Jaffna Division ... 1
Estates
Prisoners of War ...
Valikamam East
Valikamam yorth
The Shipping
Valikamam West
Vadamaradchi East
Estates
Vadamaradchi West
The Shipping
Tenmaradchi
Estates
Pachohilaippalli
Estates
Karaichchi
Punakari
Estates
The Islands
The Shipping
Delft Division
Tunukkai
Mannar Distriet.
Mannar Island Divi-
sion ... 1
The Shipping
Mantai Division
Nanaddan Division
The Shipping
MuUaittivu District.
Maritime Pat tus ... 1
Vavuniya North
Yayuniya South ,,. 1
9
8046
10753
45659
23073
22586
18
10
8
...
2
2
18
4377
4960
24408
12236
12172
28
7723
9077
44319
82
22004
82
22315
'21
8559
10911
45860
21994
23866
9
1055
1065
4240
2176
2064
7
■4
3
27
8142
9361
48301
247
22658
247
25643
34
7520
9587
37444
18850
18594
204
109
95
'21
1062
1333
5510
3069
2441
566
347
219
25
"468
"551
2879
2147
732
23
937
1212
4715
• 2695
2020
102
80
22
18
6339
7366
32075
15370
16705
581
569
12
' 3
"690
"934
3906
1965
1941
26
133
174
638
398
240
44
2237
2266
9936
64
5232
64
4704
"90
1288
i'293
7582
4758
2824
86
1737
1759
7408
4133
3275
....
73
64
9
27
1592
1666
6663
3560
3103
72
567
631
2500
1477
1023
158
1487
1645
5996
3379
2617
Ixx
Geyl
'on in
1903.
Number of
Population.
Province, District, and
|i
3^
1
Chief Headman's
3g
"TiZ
g
<a
ffl
Division.
8W
1
S
ii
d
H i>
o"
iS
fS
s
S
Southern Proviiice,
Galle District.
Galle Mtmioipality ...
1 ...
6550
6842
37165
18773
18392
The Shipping ...
...
151
151
Galle Four Gravets
(beyond Municipal
limits) and Akmi-
mana
41
3892
4121
20606
10429
10177
Estates
651
345
206
Gangaboda Pattuwa. . .
... 45
5873
6054
29749
15319
14430
Estates
...
...
...
2702
1596
1106
Wellaboda Pattuwa ...
... 272
12829
13580
64891
32010
32881
Estates
...
1385
905
480
The Shipping ...
...
26
25
>>.
Talpe Pattuwa
'1. 159
9773
10239
51332
25310
26022
Estates
...
...
60
35
25
Walallawiti Korale ...
... 165
8307
9002
43161
21621
21640
Estates
...
...
403
228
175
Hinidum Pattu » a ...
53
1165
1224
6111
3298
2813
Matara District.
Matara Local Board ...
1 ...
2003
2391
11848
6007
5841
Matara Four Gravets
(beyond Local Board
limits)
34
2734
2914
15087
7446
7641
Wellaboda Pattuwa ...
30
7583
8883
42571
21194
21377
Weligam Korale
1 96
10250
11454
54411
27459
26952
Morawak Korale
67
3410
3650
15852
8646
7206
Estates
...
...
3072
1755
1317
Kandaboda Pattuwa...
58
4777
5343
25545
13211
12334
Gangaboda Pattuwa. . .
96
6785
6908
35031
18096
16939
Estates
...
333
194
139
Hamhantota District.
Hambantota Four
Gravets
1 ...
495
565
2843
1534
1309
The Shipping ...
...
IB
13
Magam Pattu (exclu-
sive of Hambantota
Four Gravets)
60
1500
1592
7636
4494
3142
Girnwa Pattu East ...
66
2147
2150
11646
6113
5633
Giruwa Pattu West ...
1 289
15552
15552
82746
42698
40047
Eastern Province.
Battioaloa District.
Batticaloa Local Board
1 ...
1827
2408
9969
6159
4810
The Shipping ...
...
68
68
...
ManmunaiPattuNorth
60
4899
6242
24862
12485
12377
Estates
20
20
ManmunaiPattuSonth
25
1227
1516
8173
4249
8924
Bintenna Fa,ttu
44
819
8J9
4380
2426
1954
The Ceylon Census of 1901.
Ixxi
Number of
Population.
Province, Diatrict, and
2 S,
|i
3
(D
1
Chief Headman's
s
H^
I
i
"S
Division.
Sw
<U
"«
1
B >
&.
CM
a
14
Chammantnrai
34
1598
1903
9123
4728
4395
Eravur and Riikam
Pattns
26
2999
3583
14382
7687
6695
Estates
...
...
187
129
58
Koralai Fattu
42
2B73
2557
10835
5943
4892
Estates
85
59
26
Eruvil and Porativn
Pattus
39
2364
2949
13814
7270
6544
Estates
.••
35
33
2
Karaivakn and Nintar
Tur Pattus
20
6380
8227
31188
15273
15915
Estates
.«.
...
52
43
9
Akkarai Fattu
'.'.'. "34
2651
3593
14396
7311
7085
Estates
...
...
163
129
34
Panavra Pattu
'.'.'. "22
756
784
3477
1872
I6O5
Estates
20
19
1
Trinoomalee District.
Trinoomalee Local
Board
1 ...
2085
2892
11295
6125
5170
The Military ...
...
...
592
512
80
The Shipping ...
...
26
26
...
KaddukkulamPattu. . .
30
'702
765
3452
1990
1462
Estates
...
29
29
...
Koddiyar Pattu
34
1580
1613
7145
3917
3228
Tampalakamam Pattu
42
1207
1492
6520
3620
2900
North-Western Province,
Kv/rvMegala District
KurunegalaLooalBoard
1 ...
1222
1342
6483
4013
2470
Hirlyala Hatpattu ...
... 367
5962
6383
30022
17294
12728
Estates
••> •>•
...
264
172
92
Weudawili Hatpattu . . .
... 480
8288
12082
42941
23433
19508
Estates
...
...
3121
1904
1217
DambadeniyaHatpattu
... 409
8402
8727
41584
22483
19101
Estates
••• ...
...
...
1102
708
394
De warned! Hatpattu...
... 584
7453
7817
32059
17380
14679
Estates
*■• ■•■
...
595
415
180
KatugampolaHatpattu
... 615
li637
11662
53312
29377
23935
Estates
...
763
485
278
Wanni Hatpattu
.'.'. 547
9255
9286
37183
19900
17283
Pnttal nil District.
Puttalam Local Board
1 ...
1219
1320
5115
2786
2329
The Shipping ...
...
70
68
2
Demala Hatpattu
'.'.'. isi
1177
i'735
7256
3944
3312
Kalpitiya Division ...
70
2070
2267
8197
4992
3505
Estates
...
56
43
13
The Shipping ...
,
...
149
148
1
Puttalam Division ...
86
1868
2656
8428
5015
3113
Estates
■t> ■••
...
...
427
311
116
Ixxii
Gey ton in 1903.
Province, District, and
Chief Headman's ^
Division. o
&
o
Chilaw District. H
CMlaw Local Board ... 1
Pitigal Korale Norti
Estates
Pitigal Korale Central ...
Estates
Pitigal Korale South ...
Estates
North-Central Province.
AnuradkapurSi District.
Anuradhapura Town 1
Nuvraragam Palata
Hurulu Palata
Kalagam Palata
Tamankaduvya Palata ...
Province of Uva.
Badulla District.
BaduUa Local Board ... ]
Yatikinda Division ...
Estates
Bintenna Division
Buttala Division
Estates
Wellaway a Division
Estates
XTdukiuda Division ... ..
Estates ... ..
The Military
Prisoners of War
Wellassa Division
Estates
Wiyaluwa Division
Estates
Prov. of Sabaraganiuwa.
-Ratnapura District.
RatnapuraLocal Board
Kuruwiti Korale
Estites
.\a\vadun Korale
Estates
Atakalan Korale
Estates
Kadwata Korale
Est.ttes
Kolouua Korale
Estates ... .]
Kukulu Korale ,.', \]
Estates ... \\
Meda Korale .,,
Estates
Number of
Population.
109
750
2319
S
Pa
845
2607
110 5697 6243
'"65 5387 5953
4168
11034
709
28308
2391
27509
299
2280
6312
480
15523
1583
14670
208
446
358
221
68
852
7491
5561
4209
1358
111
" 64
130
101
"ioo
72
65
42
"40
878
7492
5579
4264
1402
1126 1255
5202 5353
5924
22263
26288
1866 2248 10551
2816 3541 15694
1180
152^ -~4£a2189e- 8558
yr T.. 9707
222 5519 fl94 31763
.1. 10825
998
4399
136 3695 V^ ^3114
335
73 39W- '420^ 17019
T.. ... ^^453
*
692
4928
593
3504
1945
1992
i'515
103 2669
767
5063
4671
3962
2349
2136
1520
3110
4084
29427
1597
23814
3447
17877
2742
9696
3572
10293
2023
7613
1390
13518
1871
3293
11832
14299
5509
676
4882
5744
16707
5986
12409
196
8858
1856
2440
16484
932
13042
2008
9859
1460
5146
1955
5542
1154
4409
781
7331
1060
a
Is
1888
4722
229
12785
808
12839
91
3672 2351 1321
30262 16541 13721
22514 12122 10392
16854 9011 7843
5808 3248 2560
2631
10431
11989
5042
7005
504
3676
3963
15056
4839
5
10705
139
8161
1597
1644
12943
66,
1077;
143!
801
9
455O
161'
4751
869
3204
609
6187
811
The Ceylon Census of J901.
Ixxiii
Number of
Province, District, and
Chief Headman's
Division.
Kegalla District.
Kegalla Local Board...
Paranakuru Korale ...
]<!states
Beligal Korale
Estates
Galboda Korale
Estates
Kinigoda Korale
Estates
Atulugam Korale
Estates
Dehigampal Korale ...
Estates
Panawal Korale
Estates
Lower Bulatgama ...
Estates
166
239
143
'120
"78
"81
"26
"47
405
4782
6407
4120
3036
2061
3159
1J32
i'508
3
a
Bh
479
4782
7523
4428
3036
2062
3208
1156
1624
Population.
2340
26114
5298
37933
725
21350
466
16248
65
11716
6128
17202
8650
6362
3701
8027
16466
1312
13945
3041
20466
437
11257
281
8800
43
6548
3324
9895
4735
3570
2027
4465
9019
1028
12169
2257
17467
288
10093
185
7448
22
5168
2804
7307
3915
2792
1674
3562
7447
Population of Ceylon by Relig-ion, 1901.
CEYLON :
Persons.
Males.
Females
Christians
349239 ...
1826.32 ...
166607
Buddhists
2141404 ...
1124305 ...
1017099
Hindus
826826 ...
450666 ...
376160
Mohammedans
246118 ...
137302 ...
108816
Others
2367 ...
1307 ...
1060
Total ...
3,565,954 ...
1,896,212 ...
1,669,742
Populatioi
Of Ceylon by Race, 1901.
CEYLON :
Persons.
Males.
Females.
Europe*.ns '
6300 ...
3852 ...
2448
Burghers
23482 ...
11681 ...
11801
Lowcountry Sinhalese
1458320 ...
759834 ...
698486
Kandy an Sinhalese ...
872487 ...
. 458179 ...
414308
Tamils
951740 ...
520409 ...
431331
Moors
228034 ...
126798 ...
101236
Malaya
11902 ...
6418 ...
5484
Veddahs
3971
20:^8 ...
1943
Others
9718 ...
7013 ...
1,896,212
2705
Total ...
3,565,954
1,669,742
10
Ixxiv
Ceylon in 1903.
Districts of Ceylon.
Their Population, Abba, .
AND Density, 1901
I.
DiSTBIGT. Population.
Western Province,
Area
in Square
Miles.
Number of
Persons per
Square Mile
Colombo Muuioipalifcy
Colombo District (exclu-
sive of the Municipality)
Nesombo District
Kalutara District
154,691
387,886
148,249
229,857
10
5501 ..
247i ..
623* ..
.. 15,469
704
599
369
Central Provi/iee.
Kandy District
Matale District
Nuwara Bliy a District ...
377,591
92,203
153,038
911
925^ ..
462i ..
414
100
331
Northern Province.
Jaffna District
Mannar District
MuUaittivu District
300,851
24,926
15,159
1,265
943i ..
...^ 1,154J ..
238
26
13
Sovthern Proviiwe.
Galle District
Matara District
Hambantota District
258,116
203,750
104,870
652J .
481i .,
1,012| .
396
423
104
Eaxtern Province.
Batticaloa District
Trincomalee District
145,161
28,441
... 2.871i .
i;i65
51
24
KortU- Western Province.
Kurunegala District
Puttalam District
Chilaw District
2-19,429
29,779
74,418
... 1,844J .
889» .
262i .
135
33
284
North- Central, Province.
Anuradhapura District ...
79,110
... 4,002} .
20
Province of Uva.
-
Badulla District
186,674
3,154J .
59
Province of Sabaragamvwa.
Ratnapura District
Kegalla District
132,964
188,791
1,259
642
IOC
294
The Ceyton Census of 1901.
Towns in Ceylon.
Ixxv
Their Population, Area,
AKD Density.
. Name op Town.
Western Province.
Population.
Area
in Square
Miles.
Number of
Persons per
Square Mile.
Colombo
Moratuwa
Negombo
Kalutara
Panadure
... 154,691
... 29,600
... 19,819
... 11,800
3,815
10
8|
... 1
... 15,469
... 3,610
... 2,734
... 6,900
... 3,846
Central Province,
Kandy
Matale
Nuwara Eliya
Gampola
Nawalapitiya
... 26,386
4,951
5,026
3,791
3,451
11
::: 4 ;
* .
i .
... 2,399
.. 19,804
... 1,031
.. 5,686
.. 8,502
Sort/iern Province.
Jaffna
Mannar
MuUaittivu
Vavuniya
... 33,879
5,332
1,308
56G
1
3
2f .
,.. 4,517
.. 5,332
436
252
Soutltern Provinoe.
Galle
Matara
Weligama
Hambantota
Tangalla
.. 37,165
.. 11,818
7,583
2,813
2,333
6i ,
u .
li .
i .
.. 5,718
.. 7,899
.. 3,033
.. 1,895
.. 13,998
Eastern Province.
•
Batticaloa
Trinoomalee
9,969
... 11,295
1
.. 7,975
.. 11,295
North- Western Province.
Kurunegala
Puttalam
Chilaw ...
6,483
5,115
4,168
1^ .
8§ .
i .
.. 4,322
593
.. 5,557
North- Central Province.
Anuradhapura
3,672
5f .
683
Province of Vva.
Badulla ...
5,921
3y; .
.. 1,951
Province of Sataragamitwa.
Batnapnra
Kegalla ...
4,084
2,310,
2} .
i .
.. 1,815
.. 2,674
Ixxvi
Ceylon in 1903.
Ceylon.
VILLAGES, HOUSES. FAMILIES, PERSONS, AND DENSITY,
1871—1901 (EXCLUSIVE OF ESTATES).
> S
'A
5 s e! :£
1^ ta
i5 !« !<5 a t< p, p<
1871 12,069 389 018 494,175 2,277,828 -48 189 6-9 4-6
1881 12 438 477,917 f 32,193 2,553,243 -49 205 6-3 48
1891 .. 13,088 535,621 659,886 2,746,627 -62 SIO 6-1 49
1901 .. 12 898 698,076 664,311 3,124,363 -51 242 62 4-7
•a
15
19
21>0
13'6
la
p
o
»
41-7
34-0
30-3
27-1
■!, P ^ g
•t- n
488
436
411 ■
Colombo,
AREA, HOUSES, PERSONS, DENSITY OF HOUSES AND
PERSONS, AND INCREASE PER CENT. OF HOUSES AND
PERSONS IN THE TOWN OF COLOMBO AND ITS
WARDS, 1881—1901.
Avea in Acres. Houses. PersoHS,
1881.
1891.
1901.
1881.
1891.
1901.
1881.
1891.
1901.
Fort
220
220
228
81
96
126
1,008
1,630
1,279
Pettah
92
92
113
1,203
1,141
1,367
6,965
7,961
7,661
St. Paul's
143
l43
167
3,295
3,419
3,039
16,465
16,322
20,260
St. Sebastian
116
116
116
1,433
1,576
1,782
7,851
7,943
9,349
Kotaheua
. 1,649
1,649
1,684
6 003
.6,142
6,702
26,692
27,936
33,360
Kew Bazaar
289
289
289
2,866
3,119
3,654
1^,064
14,605
17,470
Maratlana
. 1.297
1,297
1,297
3,454
4,611
6,421
17,201
23,662
30,377
Slave Island
313
313
313
2,321
2 903
3,482
11,426
13,622
16.764
Kolliipitlya
. 1,928
1,928
1,990
1,963
2,330
2,795
10,340
13,449
18,281
Total
6,047 6,047 6,192 21,669 24,345 27,268 110,602 126,825 154,691
No. of Houses' No. of Persons No. of Persons Increase per Increase per
Name of per Acre per Acre. per Honse. Cent of Houses. [Cent of Persons.
'l881 1891 1901 1881 1891 1901 1881 1891 190ri881-1891 1891-19011881-1891 1891-1901
Port .. -4 -4 -6 6 7 6 12-4 161 101 17-3 32-6
Pcttah .. 13-1 12-4 11-6 76 86 64 5-8 70 6-5 —6-2 19-8
St.Panl'.s .. 28-0 23-9 19-4 108 114 129 4-7 4-8- 6-7 38 — IIU
St. Sebastian 12-4 13-5 I5'4 63 68 81
Kotahena.. 3,1 31 3-4 Ifi 17 SO
New Bazaar 9-9 10-7' 12-2 48 50 60
Maradana.. 27 3-5 4-2 13 18 23
Slave Island 7-4 0-2 111 36 43 54
Kollnpitiya 10 1-2 1-4 6 7 9
Total
3-6 4 4-4 18 21 26 6'1 6'2 6-7 123
12-0
61-8
-16 4
- 50
241
5-1
6-0
6-2
9-9
13-1
81
17-7
6-3
5-4
6-8
1-8
10-9
4-7
lf4
4-9
46
40
8-8
13-9
3-1
20-5
6-0
81
6-6
33-5
17-6
;7-o
28-9
49
4-7
4-8
26-1
19-9
19-2
231
6-3
6-8
6-5
19-3
200
301
35-9
t2-6
The Geyton' Census of 1901.
Ixxvli
Chief Towus aud Villages in Ceylon.
[The following is a list of all the towns and villages in the Island
containing a population of 1,000 and upwards according to the Census of
1901, arrnged iy population for each dutrict.']
WESTERN
PROVINCE.
Colombo District.
Population.
Population
Colombo Municipality
154691
Dematagoda
... 1546
Wellawatta
... 4253
Erawwala
... 1516
MoratumuUa
... 3631
Bokolagama
... 1513
Koralawella
... 8390
Gangodawila
... 1513
Moratuwella
... 3116
Nawagamuwa
... 1510
Rawatawatta
... 3080
Heiyantuduwa
... 1505
Galkissa ...
... 2895
Hinatiyana
... 1500
Sea street (Negombo)
... 2887
Krillapone East
... 1499
Bgoda TJyana
... 2691
Makola North
.., 1455
Welikada ...
... 2682
Udammita
... 1447
Horampella
... 2225
Katukurunda
... 1442
KendaUyaddapaluwa
... 2092
Kurana Katuneke
... 1430
Eatmalana North
... 2053
Weboda ...
... 1428
Ratmalana South
... 2033
Kandana ...
... 1416
Kalubowila West
... 2030
Hiripitiya
... 1400
Ragama ...
... 2018
Hanwella Ihala
... 1374
Wattala ...
... 1959
Koratota ...
... 1367
Kurana ...
... 1952
Biyagama...
... 1351
Pitipana ...
... 1924
Kimbulapitiya
.. 1350
Pitipaua ...
... 1903
Dedigoniuwa
... 1323
Boralesgomuwa
;.. 1902
Biyanwila Ihala
... 1309
Avisawella
... 1840
Mampe
... 1301
Kottawa ...
... 1791
Gonawela
... 1298
Laksapatiya
... 1783
Gonahena
... 1290
Dehiwala...
... 1747
Angulana
... 1268
Talangama South
... 1706
Gampaha Medagama
... 1267
Walgama ...
... 1695
Kandawala
... 1265
Idama
... 1686
Lunugama
... 1263
Weligampitiya
... 1681
Peliyagoda Pattiya
... 1257
Pita Kotte
... 1659
Etgala ...
... 1252
Talangama North
... 1654
Bomiriya Pahala
... 1238
Btul Kotte
... 1642
Maha Hunupitiya
... 1236
Egoda Kolonnawa
... 1636
Niwandama
... 1232
Fdugampola
... 1629
Karagampitiya
... 1230
Dandugama
... 159b
Panagoda
.. 1224
Feliyagoda Gangaboda
... 1585
Bolawalana
... 1215
Doranagoda
... 1578
Koohchikada
... 1210
Embaraluwa
... 1567
Indibedda
.. 1197
TJyana (Lunawa)
... 1566
Nawala
... 1191
Sagonna ...
... 1557
Katuneke
... 1188
Botale ...
... 1517
Narahenpita
... 1134
xxvin
Ceylon in 1903,
Population.
P(
jpulatic
Homagama
... 1180
Dalupota
1070
Tihariya
... 1170
Kossinna
1069
Hunupitiya 2nd Division 1171
Assanawatta
1067
Nag-oda
... 1157
Hunupitiya 1st Division
1064
Grand street (Negombo) 1153
Kehelella
1064
Batagama South
... 1152
Asgiriya
1058
Puwakpitiya
... lliS
Kelanimulla
1050
Kalubowila East
... 1142
Yatiyana
1047
Eaddoluwa
... 1140
Mobadale
1046
Kanuwana
... 1123
Kumbaloluwa
1043
Welisara
... 1117
Pallansena North
1041
Hunupitiya
... 1116
Hokandara North
103S
Welihena
... 1101
Mirihana
1038
Padukka'--
... 1097
Batagama North
1036
MitotamuUa
... 1092
Tumbowila
1032
Eahatuduwa
... 1091
Makewita
1029
Weliweriya East
... 1079
Katubedda
1014
Madelgamuwa
... 1076
Petiyagoda
1012
Kadawana
... 1076
Siduwa
1011
Battaramulla
... 1075
Tudella
1009
PeriyamuUa
... 1072
Willorawatta
1004
Biyanwila Pahala
... 1070
Asgiriwalpola
1002
Kalutaro
s Dutriot.
Population
P
opulati
Desastra Kalutara (within
Migahatenna
1315
Local Board Limits)
. . 4299
Malamulla
1313
Panadure
... 3845
Diyalagoda
1290
Welapura Kalutara
... 3736
Maradana
1276
Talpitiya
... 2795
Kaluwamodara
1275
Pattiya North
... 2380
Horana.
1256
Potiipitiya
... 2137
]\uda Paiyagala
1249
Katukurunda
... 2091
Alutgama
1228
Wekada
... 2031
Rayigama
1224
Kuda Waskaduwa
... 2004
KalamuUa East
1222
Molligoda
... 1745
Pohaddaramulla
1207
Mahagama
... 1668
Kuda Wadduwa
1191
Maha Paiyagala
... 1569
Bombuwala
1180
Maggona East
... 1491
Pinwatta
1179
Alutgama East
... 1467
Etagama
1178
Nalluruwa
... 1466
KalamuUa West
1175
Horetuduwa
... 1463
Millewa
1111
Alutgamwidiya
... 14B1
Kumbuke
1087
Kehelwatte
... 1424
TJduwa
1086
Dodangoda
... 1424
G-odigomuwa
1039
Walane
... 1398
UdahamuUapattiya ...
1023
Maha Waskaduwa
... 1382
Ittapana
1023
Pattiya South
.. 1373
Alubomulle
1020
Dinagoda
... 1372
Miwananpalana
1009
Maha Wadduwa East
... 1349
Moragalla
1001
Kuda Hinatiyangala
... 1340
The Ceylon Census 0/ 1901.
CENTRAL PROVINCE.
Ixxix
Population.
Kandy Municipality ...26386
Nuwara Bliya Local Board 5026
Mat^le Local Board ... 4951
Gampola Local Board ... 3791
Nawalapitiya Local Board 3451
Atabage TJdagama, Kandy
District... ... 1579
Population-
Hatton .. 1440
Halloluwa Udagama,
Kandy District ... 1193
Uduwela, Kandy District ,1190
Kadugannawa ... 1066
Kahatapitiya, Kandy
District ... 1002
NORTHERN PROVINCE.
Jaffna
District.
Population.
Population
Jaflrna Town
... 33861
ICoppay South
... 2303
Chankanai...
... 5942
Chandiruppay
... 2260
Karaitivu West
... 4450
Thumpalai
... 2246
Karaitivu East
.. 4400
Puloli East
... 2223
Alaveddi
... 42H4
Tholpuvam
... 2181
Tellippalai West
... 4126
Alvay North
... 1999
Vaddukkoddai West
... 3955
Madduvil South
.. 1964
Karaveddi West
... 3902
Palali ...
... 1960
Chavakachoheri
... 3813
Surasalai ...
... 19.S6
Cliullipurani
... 3809
Muntuvil . . .
... 1934
Elalai
... 3464
Alvay South
... 1928
Tellippalai East
... 3388
Koppay North
... 1918
Vaddukkoddai East
... 3289
Chunuakam North
... 1911
Kondavil ...
... 3225
Kokkuvil West
... 1909
Misalai
... 3219
Madduvil North
... 1893
Manippay..,
... 3183
Puttur East
... 1892
Thaaakkarakkurichclii
... 3098
Thunnalai South
... 1799
Neerveli ...
... 3046
Mallakam
... 1770
Point Pedro
;.. 2999
Imaiyanam.
... 1742
Uduvil ...
... 2981
Aohchuveli South
... 1709
Mathakal ...
... 2896
Siruvilam
... 1708
Valvedditurai
... 2856
Narantanai
... 1659
Navali
... 2812
Puttur West
... 1614
Kokkuvil East
... 27.50
Nunavil
... 1613
Puloli West
... 2734
Mandaitivu
... 1690
Karampan
... 2688
Inuvil
... 1600
Punkudutivu East
... 2615
Kidavidditoppu
... 1590
Karaveddi North.
... 2610
Arali South
... 1570
Kaitadi ...
... 2602
Ohiruppiddi
... 1566
Punkudutivu West
... 2588
Thunnalai North
... 1557
Karaveddi East
... 2483
Analaitivu
... 1543
Urumparay
... 2474
Thavadi
... 1506
Velanai East
... 2473
Xavatkuli
... 1494
Chutumalai
... 2460
Mayiliddi North
... 1487
Puloli South
... 2429
Saravnaai
... 1443
Karouavay South
... 2.S58
Delft East
... 1412
Anaikkodai
... 2349
Vimankamam
... 1393
Karonavay North
... 2321
Tirunelval East
... 1384
Ulayiddapuram
... 2313
Velanai West
,.. 1373
Ceylon in 1903.
Population.
Population
Delft West
.. 1333
Kadduvan
... 1218
Vasavilam
.. 1325
Vidattaltivu
... 12H
Mulay
.. 1323
Irupalai
... 1193
Naiynati vu
.. 1318
Delft Middle
... 1161
Chunuakam
South
.. 1313
Kudattanai
... 114*
Avarankal
.. 1293
Periyavilan
... 1121
Alvay West
.. 1292
Thavalai lyathalai
... 1119
Eattaimeiii
.. 1267
Mirrusuvil
... lOfii
i'unnalaikkaduvaa
.. 1251
Varani North
... 1054
Palai
.. 1246
Valluveddi
... 1047
Polikandi
.. 1239
Karampai kuriohchi
... 1021
3/iilliaUivn District.
Population.
Mullaittivu
...
...
... 130S
SOUTHERN PROVINCE.
Galle Distriet.
Population.
Population
G-alle Municipality
... 37165
Ginimellagaha
... 1197
Talpe
... 2007
Gammeddegodde
... 1173
Gintota Welipiti-moda
ra ... 1831
Ihala Kimbiya
... 1147
Malalagama
... 1750
Koggala
... 1123
Kitiilampitiya
... 1442
Pitiwala
... 1086
Walpita
... 1407
Pahala Kimbiya
... 1075
Ganegama South
... 1351
Narawala
... 1061
Brahmanawatugoda
... 1334
Metaramba
... 10.50
PatabendemuUa
... -.326
Ihalagoda
... 1012
Baddegama North
... 1.W7
Modarapatuwata
... 1009
Patuwata
... 1302
Baddegama East
... 1007
Bussa
... 1297
Balapitiya
... 1000
Slatara I
District.
Population.
Population.
Matara Local Board
... 11848
Kongala
... 1.594
Dewundara South
... 3606
Muratamura
... 1564
Dikwella, Sinhalese
... 3418
TJrulamuwa East
... 1527
Denepitiya, Sinhalese
... 2949
Narawelpita
... 1520
Gandara
... 2598
Kadawidiya
... 1518
Dodampahala
... 2538
Kotapola
... 1428
Pategama
... 2529
Urugamuwa West
... 1411
Bambareuda North
... 2357
Wattegn.tna
... 1390
Kottagoda
... 2,326
Malimmiada I
.. 1389
Kirindamagin Ihala
... 2235
Wepotaira
... 1341
Kamburugamuwa
... 2184
Parahera
... 1S31
Midigama Bast
... 2040
Naotunna
... 1313
Walgama
... 1983
Kekanadure
... 1312
Mirissa North
... 1981
Witiyala Pahala
... 1306
Denegama
... 1722
Kapugama East
... 1290
Bambarenda South
... 1653
Tallalla South
... 1264
Mirissa South
... 163£
Talaramba
.„ 1254
ITdnwa East
Batigama
Foramba Eananka
Karagoda Uyangoda I
Paraduwe
Kotawila
Hittettiya
Midigama West
Witiyala Ihala
Population.
... 1218
... 1211
... 1208
I'M
... 1139
... 1119
.... 1117
... 1092
... 1087
SKS of 1901.
Ixxx
Population
Madiha
... 1086
Walliwila
... 1063
Kadawedduwa
... 1062
TJda Aparekka
... 1059
Polwatta
... 1055
Telena
... 1053
Palle Aparekka
... 1047
Pilatuduwa
... 1030
Samhwntotn District.
Getamauna
Hambantota
Medaketiya
Tangalla
G-alagama
Kudawellakela
Kammuldeniya Nortli
Pallattara
Taraperiya
Kadurupokuna
Population.
... 2733
... 2686
... 2215
... 2137
... 1738
... 1728
... 1696
... 1562
1556
... 15il
Population,
Puwakdandawa ... 1431
Sitinamaluwa .... 1388
Kahawatta ... 1380
Nakalugamuwa East ... 1329
Tissamaharama ... 1286
Kudahilla ... 1236
Mahahilla ... 1228
Ambala ... 1175
Nakalugamuwa West ... 1089
Ranakeliya ... 1081
EASTERN PROVINCE.
Battioaloa District.
Population.
Population.
Battioaloa Local Board
... 9969
Pottuvil
... 1835
Kattankudi
... 9420
Oddamavadi
... 1786
Eravur
... 6487
Naippaddimunai
... 1738
K arunkoditti vu
... 6289
Palukamam
... 1710
Chantamarupu
... 5886
Periyakallaru
... 1683
Chammanturai (Moorish) 4483
Valichchenai
... 1428
Nintavur
... 4394
Talankuda
... 1355
Kalmunaikkudi
... 4161
Miravodai
... 1355
Arappattai
... 2869
Tampiluoil
... 1335
Karativu
... 2610
Vantarumulai
... 1317
Marutamunai
... 2476
Mandur
... 1272
Turainilayanai
... 2326
Panduruppu
... 1197
Kalmunai
... 2290
Oluvil
... 1191
Kalutaral
... 2284
Koddaikkallar-
... 1118
Addalaickenai
... 2134
Tettattivu
... 1092
Chittandikudi
... 1896
Trincomdl
Ampilanturai
',e District.
... 1028
Population.
Population
Trineomalee
... 10614
Mnttnr (Moor)
... 1725
Periyakiniyai
... 2180
Chinnakiniyai
... 1186
XI
Ixxxii
Ceylon in 1903.
NOETH-WESTEEN PEOVINCB.
Knrwnegala Distriet.
Population.
Kurunegala ... 6483
Pttttalain District.
Population.
Puttalam ... 5115
Chilaw District.
Population.
Population.
Chilaw ...
Ulhitiyawa
Pahalakatuneriya
Wennappuwa
Mudukatuwa
Uddappuwa
Kirimetiyana
... 4168
... 2073
... 1999
... 1838 .
... 1490
... 1486
... 1277
Nainamadama West
Ihala Walahapitiya
Marawila
Boralessa
Haldanduwana
Btiyawala
... 1198
... 1102
... 1087
... 1086
... 1060
... 1017
NOETH-CENTR
iL PROVINCE.
A nuiYifJhapiira District.
Population.
Anuradhapura ...
PROVINCE
OF UVA.
... 3672
Badulla Distriet.
Population.
Badulla
...
... 6924
PEOVINCE OF S.
S.BARAGAMUWA.
Rainei]mi
a District.
Population
Population.
Eatnapura ... 4084
Balangoda ... 1848
Kendangama Ihalagama ... 1434
Nivitigala ... 1338
Gilimale JSorth ... 1303
Bibilegama ... 1276
Gilimale South ... 1226
Kumbumgamuwa ... 1200
Niyangama ... 1161
Morahela ... 1144
Bambarabotuwa Kuda-
bage ... 1096
Eratna ... 1076
Marapona .. 1074
Bllawala ... 1061
Madampe ... 1020
Kegalla
District.
Population.
Population
Kegalla ...
Dedigama
Diwela ...
... 2340
... 1652
... 1271
Dehiowita
Maniyangama
Talduwa
... 1217
... 1163
... 1070
[The total number of towns and Tillages in Ceylon is given as 12,898, in
3,762 of which there is a population between 1 and 60 ; in 2,686 between
50 and 100 ; in 5,202 between 100 and 500 ; in 829 between 500 and 1,000 ;
in 310 between 1,000 and 2,000; in 88 between 2,000 and 5,000; in 12
between 5,000 and 10,000 ; in 4 between 10,000 and 20,000 ; in 4 between
20,000 and 50,000 ; and in 1 over 100,000.]
The Getjhn Census of 1903. kxxiii
CHEISTIAN MISSIONS IiXT CEYLON.
EEVIEW OF THE DECADE : 1892-1902.
{By J. Ferguson.)
Introduction.
Ceylon has an area of 25,332 square miles and the population by the
Census of 1901 was 3,565,954. Allowing 1'8 per cent, per annum increase
and for cooly immigrants, the population of 1902 is probably 3,619,443.
The races embraced in the 1901 Census were : (See page 259.)
The Island is divided into nine Provinces, of which the Tamils occupy
chiefly the Northern and Eastern, with a considerable number of Moham-
medans in the latter ; the Tamil cooiy immigrants are chiefly in the hill
country of the Central, TTva, and Sabaragamuwa Provinces, with a certain
proportion in Colombo where also is a large portion of the Mohammedans.
The Sinhalese are strongest in the Western and Southern Provinces and on
the coast of the North-Western Province ; while the Kandyan Sinhalese
are in the Central, North-Western, and North-Central, the Uva, and
Sabaragamuwa Provinces.
Introduction of Christianity.
Christianity first reached Ceylon with the arrival of the Portuguese
in 1505. The Dutch concurred the Maritime Provinces and ousted the
Portuguese authorities in 1656. The British took possession in 1796, and
in 1815 sent away the Kandyan King as a prisoner and assumed the
government of the whole Island. The Portuguese Government favoured
the baptism and conversion of all its subject population. The Dutch gave
no appointment and no favour to a native who did not profess to be a
Protestant. The British Government told the people it was neutral as
regards religion. Keshub Chunder Sen has protested against " the denation-
alization so general among native converts to Christianity, who abandon
the manners and customs of their country, and so are estranged from their
countrymen, forgetting that Christ was an Asiatic' ' The great laxity of the
companions and successors of Xavier upon the Malabar and Ceylon coasts,
in the matter of caste, signs, and customs, is supposed to explain much of
their wonderful success among the natives of Southern India and Ceylon.
As Emerson Tennent in his " History of Ceylon " says : " The fanatical
propagandism of the Portuguese reared for itself a monument in the abiding
and expanding influence of the Roman Catholic faith. This flourished in
every province and hamlet where it was implanted by the Franciscans,
whilst the doctrines of the Reformed Church of Holland, never preached
beyond the walls of the fortresses, are now extinct throughout the Island,
ixxxiv • CeytoH in 1903.
with the exception of an expiring community at Colombo." This latter
statement is both an exaggeration and a false prophecy. The Wolf endahl
Dutch Reformed Church, now free of State aid and control, is a flourishing
community with branch Presbyterian Churches, albiet its services are all in
English and its ministers Scotch or Irish Presbyterians.
Of the Evangelical Missions in Ceylon, the Baptist Mission agents came
first, arriving in 1812 ; the Wesleyansin 18H ; the agents of the American
Board of Foreign Missions in 1816 ; and the Church Mission in 1818 ; while
a number of agents of General Booth's Salvation Army under "Major"
Tucker (formerly Commissioner in the Indian Civil Service) arrived in
1885-6. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel has had agents since
1840 ; but their activity chiefly dates from the appointment of a Bishop of
Colombo in 1845. The Society of Friends commenced a Mission in 1896 ; and
there are also several members of Faith Missions.
The Roman Catholic agents are to be found in nearly every town and
district of the island ; but they are strongest along the coast among the
fishermen, especially the North-west Coast from Colombo northwards and
in the North and East of the island. The Baptist Mission has its stations
chiefly North and East of Colombo ; near Chilaw ; in Kandy and Matale
and Sabaragamuwa. The Wesleyan is the largest of the Protestant Missions
with stations in every Province save in the North-Central and Sabara-
gamuwa, and it works amongst the Sinhalese, Tamils, Mohammedans, and
Portuguese. The American Mission (Independents) is confined to the
Northern Province among the Tamils, and is closely allied with the
American Madura Mission. The Church Mission stations are also extended
to the Tamil as well as Sinhalese Provinces and aie in all save the Eastern
Province.
Result of withdrawal of State aid fko.m Anglican and
Presbyteeian Churches.
It should be mentioned that, in 1881, the connection of the British
Government with the endowment of religion by ecclesiastical votes from
the general revenue to the Bishop of Colombo and a number of Episcopal
and Presbyterian Chaplains was discontinued by Ordinance, provision being
made for existing incumbents. There remain now only two chaplains
drawing State salaries and the transfer of Bishop Copleston to Calcutta
ends the vote for a Bishop. The result has been very cheering in bringing
new life and Christian liberality into the Churches affected, which are now
in a much more satisfactory condition than when connected with the State.
The Synod of the Anglican Church and the Presbytery of the other meet
regularly ; provision has been made for a Bishopric Endowment Fund as
well as for clergy funds, and Mission work is by no means forgotten.
Education : Analysis of. 1901 Census.
I think it well to begin with an analysis of the results of last year's
Census so far as it bears on Eeligioij and Missions ; and I take up Education
The Oeylon Census 0/ 3901. Ixxxv
first ; for ability to read and write at least one's own language, though not
indispensable to the planting' and development of Christianity, must be
acknowledged to be a very important aid to the vsorb of the Christian
JMissionaiy; The total numbers able to read and write any oiie language
in all Ceylon in the three decades were thus given :—
Total.
Census of 1881 ... ... 404,411
Do. 1891 ... ... 603,047
Do. 1901 ... ... 773,196
The proportions of the above (in which males and females are included
to the whole population) are : —
1881. 1891. 1901.
Percentage of males ... 24-6 ... 30-0 ... 34-70
Do. females ... 2-5 ... 4-3 ... 6-92
Considering the greater attention given to education by the Government
as well as by Churches and Missionaries, and the revival of Buddhism
with special attention to schools, which, as well as Hindu schools, get
grants-in-aid for secular results from G-overnment, the figures representing
the progress made in the last decade are disappointing. The percentage
proportions are affected by the large immigration into Ceylon year by year
of ignorant Tamil coolies ; but nothing can get over the fact that, while
nearly 200,000 were added to the number able to read and write between
1881 and 1891, only 170,000 were so added between 1891 and 1901. To show
how greatly the Government educational work had increased in these
intervals we may extract the following from the report of the Director of
Public Instruction : —
1881. 1891. 1901.
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Expenditure of Public Revenue on Education 482,841 508,361 907,596
Total Pupils in Government and Aided Schools 84,757 116,601 183,261
The total pf scholars in Ceylon is given for 1901 at 218,479 in 3,972 schools
and about 118,000 of those pupils are in Vernacular schools. But a great
lead of attention has been given by Churches and Missions, too, to higher
education through English schools and colleges during the past decade,
and that may be one explanation of the tot&,l added to the number of those
who can read and write being less in the past than in the previous decade.
Thk illiterate amoxg the Chbistian Community.
But of most interest to us is to contrast the progress and state of
education among the different religions ; and it may make the matter more
expressive if we give figures this time representing those " unaile Co read or
Ixxxvi
Ceylon in 1903.
write any language" Here are the proportions according to the Census of
1901 out of the whole population : —
Males. Females.
Unable to read or write : — Per cent. Per cent.
Christians
Buddhists
Hindus
Mohammedans
45
65
74
65
(over)
70
95
97
96
nearly
It is rather startling to find 81,761 male and 116,501 female Christians
returned as unable to read and write their language even if we maie
allowance for infants. There is good reason to suppose that the vast
proportion of these illiterate " Christians" belong to the Roman Catholics,
who, while very active of recent years about higher education in Colleges,
Convents, &c., cannot be doing much 'or their poorer native adherents in ■
the villages, seeing that in the Archdiocese of Colombo with "a total
Catholic population of 204,769," the " total number of school children is
29,784"; while the Wesleyan Mission alone against a total Christian
(VVesleyan) community of about 15,000 has 29,918 children in school. I
have not got the total of children attending Eoman Catholic Schools
throughout the island (the diocese of Jaffna has 6,798), but at a liberal
calculation it cannot exceed 43,000 to 45,000 against a total of adherents of
287,419 ; whereas Protestant 51 issions numbering little over 60,000 adherents,
count at least 75,000 children in school. If it be the case that Roman
Catholics do not care to receive the children of heathen parents into their
schools, whereas Protestant Missionaries welcome all, some of the difference
may be explained ; but it would seem as if the Roman Catholic do not
do their full duty towards their own people by providing vernacular
teaching in the villages. The progress made with education among the
Buddhists and Hindus may be still further seen from the following figures
showing the progressive decrease in the number of illiterate : —
1881.
1891.
1901.
ble to read or write : —
Per cent.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Christian — Males
58-6
50-0
45
„ Females ...
86-4
78'3
70 nearly
Buddhist— Males
76-5
71-3
65
„ Females ...
98-6
97-4
95 nearly
Hindus — Males
80-2
76-7
74
„ Females
99-0
98'2
97 over
Mohammedans — Males
73-1
69-5
65
„ Females
98-5
98-5
69 ;,
Female education is very slowly advancing among the heathen ; and still
more slowly among Mohammedans. Hindu figures are affected by cooly
immigrants. Among Christians Ithe female rate of progress is better than
that for males. And, indeed, the Buddhist male percentage exceeds the
latter, no doubt owing to a multiplying of vernacular schools.
The Ceylon Census of 1901. Ixxxvii
It may be worth noting that only 76,137, are returned as able to read
and write English, or 2-13 per cent, of the whole population; and that
a large number of Tamil males professing Hinduism (7,379) than of Tamil
males professing Christianity (6,255) can read and write English, but the
Tamil females with this qualification number 1,820 Christians and only
395 Hindus.
In the same way there are more male Sinhalese Buddhist (15,836) than
male Sinhalese Christians (11,879) able to read and write English ; but
fewer females (4,614 Christians to 2,324 Buddhists).
Religions in Cbtlox.
Of the total population last year : —
Buddhists (largely demon-
worshippers) ... 2,141,404 and represent 60 per cent.
Sivaites (Hindus) ... 826,826 „ 23 „
Mohammedans ... 24'G,118 „ nearly 8 ,,
Christians ... 349,239— Roman Catholics 8-03 1
Independent (1,718) -05 \ 9-8 „
Protestant 60,102 1-70 )
Others ... 2,494 ... ... 0-2
^he progress cf Ohkistianity is thixs given :• —
1881. 1891. 1901.
Total No. of Christians
267,977
302,127
349,239
Percentage to total population
9-71
10-04
9-80
Roman Catholics
208,000
246,214
287,419
Other Christians
60,000
55,913
61,820'
It is worth mentioning that 7 male and 6 female Moors and 1 8 male and
8 female Malays were returned as Christians ; also 43 male and 33 female
Veddahs. On the other hand, 8 male and 11 female Europeans were
returned as Buddhists in last Census, against 1 of each in 1891. There
were 66 male and 74 female Burgher or Eurasian Buddhists ; 17 male and
10 female Moor Buddhists ; 7 male and 12 female Malay Buddhists ; and
11,994 male and 6,054 Tamil Buddhists — very probably ignorant Tamil
servants so returned. There are also one male and one female European
Hindu, and one female European Mohammedan returned.
The above return shows a very poor rate of progress for Protestant
Christianity : the number for 1901, being properly 6,002 shows an increase
of only 4,189 on 1891, or about 7J per cent.; while the whole population
has increased by 18J per cent, (due partly to cooly immigration) and Roman
Catholics (who took special pains through bishops and priests to get all
their people counted) increased by 16-73 per cent. The Roman Catholics
* This includes 1,718 Independent catholics ( who have broken with the Pope's
adherent over the Goanese Settlement) ; these were counted as Eoman Catholics
in 1891,
Ixxxviii Ceylon in 1903.
inolude only 787 Europeans and 10,461 Burghers, leaving 276,168 native
adherents ; -while the Protestant Christians include 5,'t27 Europeans and
12,842 Burghers, which numbers, if deducted from their total of 61,102,
leave only 42,833 for all native adherents.
Christian Chukch and Mission Ebview.
"We may now give the total of adherents of the different denominations
in 1901, and the total of natives, apart from Europeans and Burghers, thus:—
Denomination. Total. Natives.
Church of England ... 32,514 21,244
Presbyterian ... ... 3,337 ,„??^
Wesleyan ... •■. H,991 12,629
Baptist ... ••• 3,309 2,922
Congregationalist ... 2,446 2,411
Salvationist ... ... 1,011 957
Independent Catholics ... 1,718 l,61d
Other Christians ... 2,494 1,580
In connection with the above it is interesting to note how the different
races in our Island population are represented among the Christian
community, thus : —
Races.
Low-conntry Sinhalese
Kandyan
Tamils
Malays
Moors
Veddahs
Others
. That is as far as the Census enables us to go. There were no returns for
Christian denominations, apart from Roman Catholics, in the Census of
1891, and therefore no means of comparison. We have to depend on the
various Mission Reports and the resident Missionaries for information to
enable anything like a review to be made.
Roman Catholics.
Our appeal for latest information to the Secretary of the Roman Catholic
Archbishop has not met with a response. Ceylon has now, besides the
" Archdiocese of Colombo " with its Archbishop, five Roman Catholic
Bishops — one of Colombo as Coadjutor to the Archbishop, one each of
Jaffna, Galle, Kandy, and Trincomalee, which are separate dioceses ; but
these four divisions do not include more than 84,000 of Roman Catholic
community .against 205,000 in the Colombo Archdiocese. There has been
great activity not only in multiplying dignitaries, but in promoting high
education among the Roman Catholics during the past decade ; and this
has been stimulated by the arrival in Ceylon ,and locatioji at Kandy of a
1 Catholics.
Other Christians.
78,405
25,282
2,921
2,230
93,646
15,584
10
3
23
3
23
53
1,140
384
The Ceylon Census of 3901. Ixxxix^
Delegate Aposbolio to the East Indies from the Pope, His Excellency
Monseigneur L. M. Zaleski, Archbishop of Thebes. A great deal of money,
much of it, it is believed, lent from the papal treasury, has been invested
in valuable property in Colombo and Kandy, and in the latter towii as
"General Seminary for India" has been established in a large new block
of buildings specially erected, for which, besides the Rector, there is a staff
of ab9ut a dozen Reverend Ministerial and Scholastic Fathers and Brothers
There are, at present, about 70 students drawn from all parts of India
and Ceylon to be trained as Priests, gt Joseph's College, Colombo, with
over 700 pupils, is about the best equipped in the Island, and a large property
has been acquired and new buildings erected for the College and School,
St. Benedict's Institute is an older institution, with close on 800 pupil,
and nearly every Ceylon town now has its college, high school, seininarys
monastery or convent school. As already shown not so much is done for
the mass of the poor people's children ; and there must be a large propoition
of Roman adherents who are illiterate, unable to read and write. Altogether
there must be about 200 Roman Catholic Priests of many races and
nationalities in Ceylon, besides lay professors and a large number of
Reverend Mothers and Sisters. Clearly a great start has been made in
higher education, in acquiring property, multiplying . colleges, convents,
and schools and press offices. But we should like to see more attention given
to enlightening the ignorant of the professing Roman Catholic community
as well as some of the Muhammedans and Heathen. Some years ago a
leading Roman Catholic assured a pro-Buddhist Government official that
the Roman Catholic policy was not one of aggression on Buddhiem, but was
directed chiefly to the care and teaching of their own people. This was
afterwards denied, or rather it was denied that the statement had been
made, although published by the late Sir John F^ Dickson.
It is not easy to give a proper idea of the work of Roman Catholic presse
in Ceylon ; but they have become increasingly active of late. Two news-
papers are published in English — one at Colombo and one at Jaffna— the
former being conducted with considerable enterprise and having a circula-
tion of 1,000 (bi-weekly) and the Jaffna weekly paper printing 800 copies.
Baptist Mission.
We next take the Baptist Mission in Ceylon as the oldest among Protes-
tant Missions, dating from 1814. It was strongly manned at one time and
had an active press in Kandy ; but for many years there have been only two
European Missionaries and sometimes only one in the field ; with the
veteran Mr. Waldook's return, three are now on the list, and there is a
prospect of the Home Committee sending another Missionary shortly. In
the Rev. C. Carter, now retired to new Zealand, the Mission had perhaps the
most competent European student of the Sinhalese language, and his Sinha-
lese Bible, English-Sinhalese Dictionary, Grammar and other works are much
prized. During the decade, the most notable work has been the development
12
xe Ceylon in 1903.
of self-support among the native Chiirolies, 19 of whioli are now altogether
or nearly, independent of aid from England. The formation of a Native
" Baptist Union " and " Lanka Mission'" has fostered a laudable spirit of co-
operation and brotherliness, as well as of evangelisation, which should bear
good fruit ia the early future. In education the Grirls' Boarding School has
been a continuous success for well-nigh 50 years. A monthly little paper
in English and Sinhalese, the Baptist IiiteUigencei; is conducted with much
zeal. For the decade, the statistics show no increase, save in respect of the
English-speaking, self-supporting Cinnamon Gardens Church, which is
flourishing and in Sunday School work. Here is a summary of " approxi-
mate statistics " extracted from the annual Keports of the Baptist Mission-
ary Society (London), for 1892 and 1902 :—
1891-2 1901-2
European Missionaries
Missionaries' Wives and Lady Helpers
Superannuated Missionaries ...
Pastors of Self-supporting Churches
Evangelists and Colporteurs ...
Evangelist Pensioners
Stations and Sub-stations
Baptisms
No. of Christian Members
Day School Teachers
Sabbath School Teachers
Day Scholars ...
Sabbath Scholars
In the Sabaragamuwa and North-Central district, only occupied of recent
years, a great deal of preliminary work has had to be done amongst an
extremely backward and ignorant people ; while in the districts long
occupied, the Buddhist revival and the small number of Agents have
operated against progress.
Wesletan Mission.
We come next to the Wesleyan Mission, one of the most widely extended,
best manned and most prosperous in its evangelistic, pastoral, educational
and press work in Ceylon. There are two distinct branches : (1) to the
Sinhalese in the South and West of the Island, which, however, includes work
among the Tamils, in Colombo especially, and a limited Portuguese-speaking
class ; and (2) to the Tamils in the North and East. There are three
" districts " with separate Chairmen (Colombo, G-alle, Kandy) in the former ;
and one (Jaffna) for the latter ; but all meet in one Synod. The Statistics
and Reports show progress all along the line and much good work through
ladies in medical, hospital, nursing as well as educational and evangelistic
work ; and in successful industrial schools ; while Wesley College has
become a power for good in Colombo. The Statistics given opposite are
extracted from the minutes of a Synod held early in 1893 as compared with
results published in January, 1902,
2
3
—
2
—
1
1
7
24
19
1
99
80
45
24
1,055
1,033
68
63
95
113
3,297
3,196
1,201
1,493
The Geyton Census of 1901. xoi
In the early days some o£ tlie greatest masters of Sinlialese, Pdli, and
Buddhistical lore — Clough, Gogerly, and Spence Hardly — belonged to the
Sinhalese Mission ; but the distraction of multiplied work in English and
Schools allowed their successors, within the decade, far less time to master
the vegrnaoular. It may be a question whether the work in the two langua-
ges should not be done by different agents. The Missionaries in the North
and Bast have nearly always become masters of Tamil because they have
little English work to district them. A great deal has been done— more
than the finance figures show — towards the self-support of native churches
in the Wesleyan Mission.
Much progress has been made in the Southern Province — one of the
darkest and most ignorant parts of the island ; and from a letter of the
acting Chairman (Mr. Prince) I quote as follows : —
" The most remarkable as well as most hopeful figures are the increase
of 31 preaching places (all in heathen villages where we have no Christians,
and almost entirely supplied by lay preachers) and the increase of over
100 per cent, in Sabbath Schools, and of 82 per cent, in the number of
scholars attending. This is Foundation work, and is full of hope for the
future. In the Southern Province, where Buddhism is strong, and the
people greatly prejudiced, where Spence Hardy declared that "to win a
convert was like taking the prey from the jaws of the lion," an increase of
22 per cent, in the decade in the Church membership may be considered full
of encouragement. This is increased to 33 per cent, if the "Members on
trial " are included, and the great bulk of these are converts from heathen-
ism. It may be added that we lose annually at the rate of one-fifth of our
membership by removals out of the District. Most of these go into the
Western Province, particularly to Colombo.
Wesleyak Mission, Ceylon : 1892-1902.
a ^
1 1„-
»•
1
Total attending
^ g W
A
^
s
School.
t
Chapels & pre
places.
Ministers, Eu
and Natr
Evangelists.
1 1
Christian C(
nity.
Sunday Sch
Teacher
I
3
i
5
1 1
1 «
1
1
Girls. r
Boys.
Total.
1892 ..249 64* 59
152 4,652 11.699 722
241 13,120 623 280 20,132 6,830 14,456 21,295
1902 ..306 64 58
199t 5,969 15,339 977
47 1,317 3,640 255
337 17,777 877 373
96 14,657 254 93
29,918 9,515 21,490 31,005
Increase 57 . . . .
9,7881
2,676 7,034 9,710
* 18 European and 46 Native Ministers,
t Besides 223 Glass Leaders,
+ Or 48 per cent.
xcii • Ceylon in 1903.
Financial Rs.
Support of Ministry, 1892... ... ... 19,051
Do. 1902... ... ... 23,115
Increase ... 4,0Ci
Grand Total including Extension, Auxiliary Fund, Chapel Income, School
Feec, Government Grants, &c. : — Rs.
In 1892 ... 99,702
In 1902 ... 195,846
Increase ... 96,144
"We have added to our agency two Bible-women — one at Matara, one at
Tangalla — and the work of the latter, who has a large number of women
meeting weekly for religious instruction, is yielding much fruit. A large
number of boys' schools have been made into mixed schools providing some
Christian instruction for the girls. We need, however, a much more
aggressive policy in regard to " Women's work for women," and ought to
have three European ladies for the training of Bible-women, the manage-
ment of a iJoarding School, and Medical Mission work. There is ample scope
amoiig the thousands of heathen women in the backward district of this
Province."
The increase is also very remarkable in the Kandy District during
the decade — more so than the statistical returns indicate ; for, as the
Chairman, Mr. Rigby, writes —and this is true of all Protestant Missions : —
" The tendency during the decade has been to apply our rules of member-
ship more stringently. This is true of the whole Mission. As to the Day
Schools the increase is considerable, and it should be borne in mind that
through the decade there has been a great outbreak of Buddhist educational
activity, which we do not deplore, except that it sometimes takes the form
of a deliberate attack on our schools. Our progress has been steady
and uneventful except so far as the ' Happey Valley ' goes. The most
remarkable development has been in the direction of self-support. That
seemed a wild dream of the future in 1891. It has now been achieved
in some of our churches and is within sight for others. We have really
done on a small scale the thing Missionaries are here to do— we have
created self-supporting and self-governing churches."
As already remarked the Colombo District has seen the varied work of
the Missions greatly advanced in its many departments. Of late a spirit
of active evangelisation has revived all over South Ceylon. Sunday services
in the vernacular are held in nearly every school as well as chapel of the
Mission. (Mr. Spence Hardy's " Jubilee Memorials " of the South Ceylon
Mission published in 1863 is one of the most interesting books ever written
of any Mission and people).
In respect of the important work in the North and East— the Tamil
Provinces— I have an interesting report from the Acting Chairman,
The Get/ion Census of 190i. xciii
Mr. Restaiiok, who expects^ to be at tlie Conference, and from this a few-
questions are made': —
" In the ten years under review the most prominent features of our work
have been — (1) A Revival in the Churches (1S92-3-4) concurrent with
increased evangelistic success, (2) Progress in the organization of the
churches ; (3) Increase of numbers in Schools, but especially in English
Schools ; (4) DevelojDment of Female Education especially in English.
" Prohleins of the ivture. — (1) Evangelism is slow, and though the pace
of progress has been accelerated, it is not yet sufficiently rapid. We have
no large depressed classes who gain socially by becoming Christians. There
are no homogenous masses who are likely to come over in communities.
Intelligence and education are commoner th^n in India, and a man needs
individual treatment, and clear and reasonable presentinent of truth. This
subject has occupied our attention during the whole decade, and by the
assistance of our Committee in England we are going to detach a Missionary
as Evangelist, who will be also a Commissioner to report upon the prospects
of the most important branch of our work. (2) The increase of school
work is interesting, but enlarges our burden of semi-secular engagements.
It is true that we estimate that more than 60 per cent, of our converts
came to us in connection with educational work, but the requirements of ,
the Department of Public Instruction are yearly growing greater, and
there is too much to do. We shall have to clearly understand our own
requirements and our limitations in this matter. (3) Race misunder-
standings have been an obstacle which appears no smaller as the peoples of
the island advance in prosperity and education. They are partly unavoida-
ble, as the gulf which separates rape from race is to be bridged over .only by a
sympathy and knowledge which are uncommon. Christ can fill it up, and
I suppose that only the f orebearance, charity, and understanding of Christian
brotherhood will solve a problem which has hurt many and grieved more.
^ " The total number of adult baptisms during the ten years has been : —
No.
53
80
... 103
No.
1892
60
1899
1893
86
1900
1894
105
1901
1895
82
1896
86
1897
92
1898
73
—or an average
of 82
a year.
820
A. E. Restarick."
The Wesleyan Mission Press is always at work and is a power for good.
In 1901 the outturn was represented by 457,807 copies or 10,285,086 pages.
Chukch Mission,
We now icome to the Church Missionary Society's work which date^
from 1818 and which enters every Province, save the Eastern, including
the special Tamil Cooly Mission. Progress is reported in all depaitinents,
xciv Ceylon in 1903.
and Ladies and Lay-workers have come freely to the aid of the regular
Missionaries during the decade. Zenana work among the Muhammedans
of Colombo is a new feature, and schools for the daughters of Kandyan
Chiefs and others of the better classes of Ceylon, are doing great good in
up-country and in Colombo. The veteran Missionary, Mr. J. Ireland Jones,
who wrote the "Jubilee Memorials" of the Church Mission in Ceylon in
1868, and who has now given over 40 years to Mission work, is still in the
field, and is as earnest after the Evengelisation of the Sinhalese as ever he
was. From the local Secretary of the Church Mission (the Re v. A. E. Dibben)
we have received a very clear and concise Statistical Review for the decade,
accompanied by explanatory remarks as follows : —
COMPAEATIVE STATISTICS OF CffiyLON MISSION, 1891-1901'.
Increase
1891.
1901.
Decrease.
Native Adherents (viz.. Christians
and Catechumens)
8,056
10,175
+
2,119
Communicants ...
2,666
3,525
+
859
Native Pastors and Assistant Mis-
sionaries
15
19
+
4
Parent Committee's Grants to
Native Churches ... Rs. 2,456 Rs.
, 1,575
— Rs
1. 831
Contributions from Native Chris-
tians ... ...Rs. 13,939 Rs.
22,618
+ Rs. 8,679
Number of Missionaries | w™g^*
17
i
18
17
+
+
1
13
Educational.
Higher Schools and Colleges
4
, 6
+
2
Students in Schools and Colleges
500
852
+
352
Vernacular and Anglo-Vernaoular
Schools
265
277
+
12
Scholars
13,500
17,061
+
3,561t
Among the features noticeable are : —
1. A decrease in the number of conversions from Buddhism.
2. Increased demand for Education.
3. The success of Girls' Boarding Schools (in connection with which I
might name the Clarence Memorial School at Kandy for the daughters of
Kandyan Chiefs, now full to overflowing with over 50 girls. This,
however, is C. B. Z. M. S., not C. M. S.).
4. Marked and steady progress towards self-support (financially) of
Native Churches.
5. . Growing restlessness and discontent among Native Pastors.
6; Satisfactory results from Evangelistic work on Tea Estates, but
growing difficulty of conducting educational work, on account of the early
age at which children begin to work in the field.
* Missionaries wifes not included, f Or 26 per cent, increase.
The Ceylon Census of 1901. xcv
We may take it that most of the 1,132 Kandyan Sinhalese returned as
'Church of England "- in the Census belong to the interesting Kaudy
Itinerating Mission of the Church Mission, begun by the late Mr. Higgens
and Mr. Ireland Jones, and continued under the supervision of Mr. Garrett
and Mr. Sydney Symons, The Tamil Cooly Mission has had a very
encouraging measure of success during the past few years, and the way
in which many of the Christians among the Tamil coolies appreciate their
privileges (scanty enough) is an example to all other Christians in the
Island, as is also their liberality in respect of giving in proportion to their
means.
American Ceylon Mission.
We oome next to the American (Congregational) Mission in North Ceylon
for which an interesting Report by the Rev. R. C. Hastings has been
received on the decade's work, well deserving to be given in full ; but
which we tabulate to some extent to meet the exigencies of space :
1891. 1901.
Foreign Missionaries, Wives and Lady Missionaries 7 12*
Prof esBors in Colleges and Wives ... ... 2 4
Native Pastors ... ... ... 13 15
„ Cateohists and Evangelists (same number in both years.)
Bible-women ... ... „ „
Native Churches ... ... ... 15 18
„ Members (Communicants) ... ... 1,521 2,100
„ Contributions ... ... Rs. 7,064 Rs. 10,214
„ Support of Pastorate partly out of above Rs. 5,000 Rs. 7,641t
Village Schools ... ... ... 130 138
„ Scholars ... ... ... 8,800 10,500
College, High Training, and Boarding Schools ... 4 6
Pupils ... ... ... ... 250 (about) 377
But these figures give a very inadequate idea of the work, and if Mr.
Hastings' Report cannot be reproduced, at least the following quotations
should be given : —
"American Ceylon Mission.
Established, Oct. 1816, in the Jaffna Peninsula.
Ten years : 1892-1901.
" I.— Missionaries. — The number of Missionaries is nearly twice as large
as that at the close of 1891. At the close of the decade (December 31, 1901)
we have four ordained men with their wives, and four single ladies. One
of the ordained men, his wife, and two of the single ladies are physicians.
There are also, in addition to the above, two American Professors (one
ordained) and their wives, teaching in Jaffna College. During the decade
* iDclncUng one Missionary and wife an* two single ladies, qualified Medical;Practitioners.
t Besides Es. l.COO for tw new societies started ;— ^ttideuts and Womens roreigp.
MlHionary Society,
xcvi Ceylon in 1903.
13 new Missionaries, men and women, have joined the Mission, and 7 have
left. Two only have been removed by death, —one after 4(i years of service,
and the oth^r after 28 years. Of the 7 who have severed their connection
with the Mission, 3 had served for 25 years each. Another worked here for
between 5 and 6 years, but is now connected with one of the Missions in
Chini. Three left the Mission owing to ill-health or other causes after
only a few months' service. Two others, who were formerly connected
with the Mission, after 6 years' absence from the field, returned and spent
two years and then went back to America. Of the present staff of 12, only
3 were connected with the Mission ten years ago. The one who has been
here the longest, counts 28 years of service.
"II. Native force. — Two years ago we had 13 Tamil pastors. Two of
these have died during the decade, and one has left for the Straits
Settlements where he is pastor of a flourishing Tamil congregation under
the M. B. Mission. Four have been inducted into this sacred oflice, and
one other, after several years' absence in Singapore, has returned and taken
iup work again in our Mission. This makes a total of 15. The number of
catechists orl preachers is slightly less than ten years ago, while the
number of teachers is ■ slightly larger. The number of Bible-women
employed is about the same. Two of our 15 pastors are in higher edu-
cational work, and two others are working as catechists without charge of
an organised church.
" III. Native churcli.— (1) We had 13 organized churches a decade ago,
13 of which were presided over by pastors. Since then 3 new churches
have been organized making 18 in all, but only 11 of these have pastors.
One-third of our churches are without ordained pastors. In other words
while native congregations have increased, the number of ordained men
ready and willin;^ to take charge of these small churches has not increased
proportionately, a state of affairs which is causing no little anxiety to
the Mission.
" (2) Substantial progress has been made in the erection of new build-
ings for the worship of God, and in the re- modelling and repairing of old
churches. In one village a large fine building is being put up at a cost of
Rs. 10,000. Another congregation is repairing their house of worship at a
cost of Rs. 2,000. Another practically rebuilt their church a few years ago
at a cost of Rs. 5,000. Five new chapels have been built and dedicated at an
average cost of Rs. 1,000 each.
" (3) The membership has increased by 38 per cent. In 1901 we had
1,521 communicants' ; at the close of last year we had 2,100. Nine hundred
and thirty have been received into full membership on confession of their
faith, a large proportion of them from Sivaite families. Most of our
converts come from our boarding schools for girls and boys. The number
of adherents has increased but slightly.
"(4) The contributions from purely native sources in 1891 were
Rs. 7,06i97 ; in 1901 Rs. 10,213-73, or a gain of 44 per cent, ' This does not
The Geylon Census of IdOl. xcvii
include about Ks. 1,000 raised for the Students' Foreign Missionary Society
and the Women's Foreign Missionary Society, which would raise the per-
centage considerably. The position of the pastor is better financially than
10 years ago. At that time only about Es. 5,000 went to to the support of
the pastorate ; last year Rs. 7,611 was contributed for this purpose. The
amount raised for the Native Evangelical Society (Home M issionary) has
increased, but not so much proportionately.
" (5) Two new Societies have been started in the past three years. One
is called the ' Students Foreign Missionary Society' and has for its field of
operation the Tondi District in South India. The other is the ' Women's
Foreign Missionary Society' and for the present they are working in
connection with the Student Mission. The raising of funds for these two
infant organizations has not in the least lessened the contributions for the
home work.
"IV. Educational Work. — (1) The number of our village schools remain
about the same, though the number of pupils has increased by 20 per cent
We have 135 schools with 10,500 pupils. Of these six are English with
over 800 pupils, the remaining being purely vernacular. Of the 324
teachers in the 135 village schools, over three-fourths are Christian. In
all the higher institutions the teachers are all Christian, and only boarders
are taken as pupils. The College gets no Government grant nor does the
Girls' English School. The two Girls' Boarding and the two Training
Schools earned Rs. 5,417 of Government grant in 1901. The tuition fees
collected from all these schools amounted to about Us. 9,800.
'• The Industrial School earned Rs. 1,779 during the year, mainly from
carpentry and printing.
" Our schools are becoming more and more a force for good. A large
proportion of our annual gain of church membership comes from our
Boarding Schools for boys and girls.
" (2) Divinity School. — No new class in Theology has been taken since
the one started in 1891 for a three years' course, but arrangements are
being made to start one in 1902, and we hope that a few candidates may
be enrolled every other year, at least during the next decade. Perhaps the
most discouraging feature of our whole work lies in the fact that so few
are coming forward for the work of the Ministry.
"V. Medical Work. — Great progress has been made in the past ten
years. In 1891 we were just reviving our medical work after having been
without a Medical Missionary for 18 years. A commodious building was
put up at Manipay as a General Hospital at a cost of nearly Rs. 20,000. A
Medical Missionary (his wife also an M.D.) was sent out from America,
and an efficient staff of native helpers employed. A few nurses were also
trained. The receipts the last year from fees were Rs. 1,160 and from
sales of medicines, dressings, &c., Rs. 3,750. A hospital for women and
children was started two or three miles distant, and buildings put up at a
cost of overs Rs. 60,000 including the land. Two Lady Doctors, one from
Scotland and pne from America, took charge in 1899, and it has been well
13
xcviii Ceylon in 1903.
patronised ever since. The past year the receipts from fees were Rs. 1,675
and from medicines, &o.. Es. 3,175. A nurses' class was started, and it
is hoped that every year from now on some may be sent out qualified to do
nursing in the homes of the people. Two branch dispensaries are main-
tained at the extremes of our field, and are doing good work."
One important matter is that Mr. Hastings shows "communicants'"
2,100, very nearly equal to the total number of adherents — 2416 — given in
the Census. It is quite evident from this that in the case of the American
Missions and probably in that of other Protestant Missions in Ceylon —
many non-communicating adherents or attendants in public worship did
not return themselves as such.
S. P. Gr. Mission.
We next come to the Anglican Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
whose agents first came to Ceylon in 1840, though not till 184.5, when
the first Bishop of Colombo arrived was the Mission specially fostered. It
has been the peculiar care of the four successive Bishops, and especially of
Dr. Copleston (now Metropolitan of Calcutta), who, notwithstanding a
reduction in the grants from England in the ten years from £1,600 to £700,
has nevertheless maintained the work of the various stations, at some of
which much good has been done. On the whole Mission, however, there
is no evidence of an advance against heathenism ; but rather of fewer
adherents. To account for this, the Rev. M. J. Burrows, Hony. Secretary
S. P. G , Ceylon, reporting from Buona Vista Mission in the Southern
Province in November, 1900, makes remarks which are more or less appli-
cable to the whole of Buddhist Ceylon, comprising three-fifths of the popu,
lation : —
" The Congregation at Buona Vista is but very small. Some of the
members have gone away and are doing well as Christians elsewhere-
Some have fallen back into Buddhism. But the few there are, are, on the
whole, exemplary in their lives, and keen in their interest in their church.
Considering how poor they are, they subscribe, I think, liberally for church
purposes, and some of those who have left the station continue to send
help from time to time.
"It would naturally be expected that new converts would be regularly
added to our number. But this is the case to a very small extent. The
whole character of Buddhism has changed during the last few years.
Whereas some time ago the mass of the people knew nothing of Buddhism
and had for their religion little more than devil-worship. Buddhism is jiow
a. popular force opposed to Christianity. It is taught in schools which vie
with our own, and are like them supported by Government Grants. It
takes care to familiarize its adherents with all the stock objections to
Christianity. By its institution of ' pan-sil ' it continually presents to its
disciples an elevated morality, requiring them to observe these five
precepts — not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to be impure, not to drink
The Ceylon Census of 1901. xcix'
strong drinks. It upholds outward acts of benevolence and easy religious
duties as so many ways of acquiring' merit. It appeals to men's pride
representing man's own efforts as sufficient without any help from God.
And finally it is supported by the tradition of the past and the strong feel-
ing of conserratism and attachment to ancient customs by which the
Sinhalese are peculiarly animated : they are now from a kind of patriotism
setting themselves in many ways against Western fashions, and reverting
in dress and manners to ancient usages.
" Such in brief outline is popular Buddhism among the intelligent people
of these thriving and populous districts. It is not to be expected that
under such circumstances conversions would be many, particularly when
the example set by Christians, both European and Natives, often is so little
better (and not seldom worse) than that of the Buddhists themselves."
Mr. Burrows then adds what is certainly not correct for other districts —
some close by— considering the advance made by the Wesleyan and Church
Missions : —
" The scriptural phrase ' a door is opened ' cannot in my opinion be applied
to this part of the Island : rather having been opened in the past, it is now
shut. But I imagine that it is none the less needful to maintain at its
highest efficiency all that can be done for the strengthening of those already
within the fold, and gathering others one by one as opportunity offers,
although it may be a question whether this is the district in which it is
wise to spend money on schools for heathen children."
We now give the Statistics of the Missions whose seven stations are con-
fined to the Eastern (Batticaloa); the Western (Dandugama, Kurana, and
Galkissa), and the Southern (Matara, Tangalla, Buona Vista, and Galle)
Provinces — presuming that the figures for 1891 not being available we give
those for 1896 :—
Stations
Villages
European Clergy (some Pastors of English
Churches)...
Native Clergy
Churches and Chapels
Catechists and Readers ...
Baptised Persons ..." ,.. '
Communicants and Catechumens
Native Contributions ... ...
Schools of all kinds
Masters and Mistresses
• Pupils— Boys and Girls ... ... !
Minor Missions.
We now come to certain Minor Missions. The Presbyterians have no
regular Mission in Ceylon, but Wolfendahl Dutch Reformed Church has
begun some good work in this direction through Catechists, and counts 283
native adherents.
1896.
1901.
7
7
17
17
5
5
7
t
—
12
10
,205
2,094
682
429
Es. 1,565
29
29
96
78
,798
2,612
c Ceylon in 190B.
The Friends commenced an interesting Mission in the Matale District —
largely industrial — ^in 1896 under Mr. and Mrs. Malcomson, whose hands
have lately been strengthened by three more Missionaries, Mr. Long and
Mr. & Mrs. Annet.
The f oUomng Statistics have been placed at our disposal : —
Feibnds' Mission in Ceylon.
Chukch Statistics.
Statistics for 1901.
Regular indoor meetings ... 12
Adherents about ... 78
Native Helpers.
Average attendance ... 225
Sunday Schools ... 13
„ membership 324
Preacher.', male
Teachers, „
„ female
Other native helpers
Voluntary helpers
4
10
6
3
6
Educational STA:TiSTicg.
Schools ... ... 15
Total pupils under instruc-
tion ... ... 569
Medical Statistics.
Total ...
29
Dispensarie.s ... 1
Out-patients ... 1,764
Visits to patients ... 2,320
The Mission was begun in 1896. It now has three male and one female
European Missionaries, and one female European Missionary in England.
Salvation Army.
The Salvation Army began work in Ceylon with a great flourish of
trumpets in 1883; and Commissioner Tucker and his wife paid several visits
during which he promised us faithfully, there should be no interference"
with other Protestant Missions— a promise by no means kept by his
followers. Latterly, however, the Mission has been much more quietly
carried on, and some good work has been done in Colombo by a Prison and
Rescue Brigade. For such work the Army's Agents are, as a rule, much
better fitted than for evangelistic or teaching work in the vernacular.
Strangely enough, although Colombo is the headquarters, the Census shows
but a, small number of professing " Salvationists " in town :— 13 men and
8 females, European, are doubtless nearly all Agents. The adherents
include 33 Burghers or Eurasians ; 44 Tamils ; 1 Moorman ; and 212 Low-
country Sinhalese, against 697 Kandyan Sinhalese and 3 others— in all 518
males and 493 females — so that the large majority are Kandyans, we fear
in villages first occupied by the Church Mission near the foot of the hills.
1 he Army figures, in their latest report, differ a good deal from the Censns,
as may be seen from the following extract :— " The present strength of the
Ceylon territory is about 2,000, of whom about 125 are ofacers (men and
women) with 40 stations. There are also 30 village schools and two village,
banks."
The Ceylon Onsws 0/ 1901. <^
Hbnaratgoda Missios.
The Henaratgoda (Faith) Mission, 18 miles from Colombo, was established
by the Rev. J. Gelson Gregson and his daughter, the late Mrs. Liesohing,
about eight or nine years ago ; and a second agency has been opened at
Katugastota near Kandy. There are fire or six European Lady- workers
and they are assisted by one or two Eurasian helpers.
Independent Catholics.
We cannot make any account of the 1,718 "Independent Catholics reported
in the Ceylon Census ; for, save in rebelling against the Pope's authority,
on the old Goa cause of quarrel, they do not differ from other Roman
Catholics, and are destined, we should say, to re-enter the Pope's body of
adherents.
Bible and Christian Litebatuee Societies.
Finally we come to the two great literary Auxiliaries of Missions, the
Bible Society and the Christian Literature Society. They are both doing a
most important and widespread work in Ceylon, and from the indefatigable
Secretary, Mr. Graoie, we have the following brief summary of Statistics : —
■'During the last 10 years the Ceylon Christian Literature and Beligions
Tract Societal has printed 3,738,S35 copies of publications, and it has effected
a eirculation of 3,775,-5i9 copies."
"It has eight depots throughout the Island and employs five Colporteurs."
Bible Society.
Circulation of Scriptures in South Ceylon during last ten years.
Portions.
19,590
91,762.
38,062
1,046
English ' ...
Sinhalese ...
Tamil
Portuguese
Other Europea:
languages
a and Indian
Total ...
Bibles.
10,330
5,037
2,809
245
New Tests.
3,574
6,991
2,012
165
404
18,421
13,146
150,460
Total circulation : 182,027 copies.
The Colombo Auxiliary of the Bible Society at present employs 19 Bible-
women and 3 Colporteurs.
The above figures do not include those for Jaffna and Kandy AuxiliaHes
which we quote ^f rom the latest Home Report as follows : —
Kandy Auxiliary Bible Society : Circulation 1901-02 :— English, 596 ;
Sinhalese, 2,856 ; Tamil, 1,056.
Jaffna Auxiliary Bible Society :— English, 861 ; Tamil, 12,176.
cii G&ylon in 1903.
Conclusion.
In conclusion we have to say that the course of our present inquiry has
convinced us that the number of nominal adherents to the Protestant
division of Christianity is inadequately given in the Ceylon Census of 1901,
owing to the indifference and ignorance of many of the natives, and to
omission of the Missionaries and Ministers to warn or advise their people
beforehand, as the Roman Catholic Bishops and priests did very z ealously.
The inadequacy of the Census is clearly demonstrated by the case of the
Congregationalists (American Mission) in the Jaffna Peninsula who,
counting nominal adherents, must nnmber a total considerably above the
Census figures. But at best the total of Protestant Christians is compara-
tively poor, and does not indicate much gain from heathenism (always
excepting one or two leading Missions'! during the decade. Much
preparatory work in sowing the seed, by evangelical preaching and opening
schools, has been done in some of the most densely ignorant and darkest
districts in the Island. Where Buddhism is strongest, there is invariably
found the largest population of illiterate people, although it was the
special duty of the Buddhist monks to teach the boys of every village at a
" temple " school. Where their temples are endowed with land, they have
utterly neglected this duty, as a rule, for generations, and otherwise offered
a bad example in many cases to the people.
Sevteral interesting and successful experiments with Industrial Schools
have been made in Ceylon, and flourishing institutions of this kind now
exist.
Much has been done in promoting self-support and a spirit of
co-operation and love of evangelical work among the existing native
churches. Education has made great strides ; but more has to be done in
elementary vernacular teaching to get at the masses. The ladies have
taken a more prominent part than in any previous decade in medical,
hospital, nursing, as well as educational, zenana, and direct evangelistic
work.
Perhaps the most unfailingly satisfactory and successful branch of
Mission work has been found in the Boarding Schools for girls as well as
for boys ; but especially for the girls. If a Christian philanthrophist were
to stipulate that his wealth had to be devoted solely to that branch of
Mission operations which had been found to give the most uniformly
satisfactory results, we fancy the vote of the Missionaries, as of Christian
laymen, in Ceylon, would go by a large majority in favour of Girls
Boarding Schools.
Ceylon in 1903. ciii
APPENDIX IV.
OLD AND NEW COLOMBO.
{By J. Ferguson.')
Thursday, November 23, 1S99 ; Sir Thomas Sutherland,
G.C.M.G., LL.D., M.P., in the chair.
Introductory.
Thk following paper was suggested by one on "Calcutta," read
before this Society on 1st June last, by Sir Charles Cecil Stevens,
K.C.S.I. ; but on that occasion it was especially the Port and Trade
of Calcutta, with reference to successive improvements in the naviga-
tion of the Hugh that was dealt with ; while, in the case of Ceylon,
my object is to. present you with a rapid sketch of the founding of
Colombo on the sea-ooast, and of its history under the Sinhalese, the
Portuguese, and Dutch, and then to treat more in detail its rise under
the British G-overnment to be the commercial and political capital of
the island, and, later still, its claim to be the great steamer calling and
coaling port between Asia and Australasia, with one of the most
convenient and commodious of artificial harbours in the world.
Incidentally, I will endeavour, however, poorly, to present you with a
word-picture of one of the most beautiful and interesting of tropical
cities, with its people — ^their social life, industries, and trade —
representative of nearly every Eastern land, and offering in the native
bazaars an ever-varying scene of marvellous kaleidoscopic effect.
" Old Colombo " — with the history of the town from its foundation
to its occupation by the British in 1796 — might well form the subject
of a paper in itselt. But I must content myself with a very brief
outline, and first of all would mention that the rocky headland,
forming a small shallow harbour, was the Jovia Extremum, or Cape of
Jupiter, of Ptolemy. According to old Sinhalese authorities Kolamba
means a port of call for vessels, and there we have the origin of the
name, and not, in fanciful modern derivations, one of which actually
connected this far Eastern port with the name of the great Genoese
navigator and discoverer of America, Columbus. The first authentic
notice of the town seems to be by the Mohammedan traveller, Ibn
Batuta, who visited the island about 1346. He writes : — " We started
for the city of Kolambti, one of the finest and largest cities of the
eiv Old and New Colombo.
island of Serendib. It is the residence of the Wazir, Lord of the Sea,
JS,lasti, who has with him about 500 Habshis (Abyssinians)." By an
old Chinese writer the port is spoken of as Kao-lang-wu or Ko-ling-lo.
The PcmTUGUESE Era.
Strangely enough, in view of what we are told of the town as
described in 1346, when the Portuguese arrived in 1505 or 1506 they
seem to have found at Colombo no more than a few huts covered
with cadjans or dry plaited cocoanut leaves, the Sinhalese King at
the time having his residence at Gotta, some miles inland. In
occupying Colombo, with its natural advantages for the shelter, during
a great part of the year, of the small vessels of those days, the
Portuguese at first erected a few buildings for trading pvu-poses, a
store for cinnamon, a residence for their factor, &c. ; and it was not
till 1518 that they constructed a fort which, however, was dismantled,
for some reason unknown, a few years later, and then the Portuguese
made their headquarters at Cotta, the Sinhalese monarch having
formed an alliance and come under their protection. This alliance
was very displeasing to the majority of the native chiefs and people,
and war broke out, forcing the Portuguese once more to fortify
Colombo. One story told is that from the scarcity of lime, shiploads
of shells of pearl oysters were transferred from Aripo, to be made
into mortar for the fort walls. The warlike Sinhalese king — Raja
Sinha or Lion King — besieged Colombo in 1563-4, and fortifications
must then have existed ; but these were greatly extended later on, for
the account of the long but ineffectual siege of 1585-7, by the same
monarch, with 50,000 men and 2,000 elephants, shows that the walls
(mounting upwards of 200 guns) extended as far as they did when
the Dutch besieged the town 70 years later. Several churches,
convents, and monasteries had been built, and there was a Chamber
•with aldermen, and names were given to various suburbs now included
in the town. Building outside the fort commenced some years later,
and by 1613, we are told by one writer that the houses were getting
near to the Kelani river, the present northern boundary of the city. I
will attempt no further description of Colombo in Portuguese times ;
but will allow you to gather some idea from the plans which will be
shown you on the screen later on. But I may mention that the trade
o£ Colombo, in the time of the Portuguese, scarcely repaid them for
the expenditure required for its protection in the almost continuous
wars with the Sinhalese and their allies, the Moormen — or Arab
descendants— who bitterly resented the advent of Europeans to take
away via the Cape of Uood Hope, the trade they had so long controlled
Old and New Colombo. cv
by way of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, with overland caravans-
Conquering and administering the maritime provinces, the Portuguese
Captain-General of Colombo, took the title of King of Malwane, and
strictly prohibited trade to every other nation, even to the Sinhalese.
Royal monopolies were formed of cinnamon, pepper, and musk, while
cardamoms, sugar, and ebony, arecanuts, elephants, ivory, gems,
pearls, and some silk, tree cotton, and tobacco were included in the
exports. Vessels came for these commodities from Persia, Arabia
Bengal, and China, as well as from Europe or the Cape.
The Dutch Era.
Meantime, towards the end of the 16th century the Dutch had formed
a trading " company for distant lands,'' and soon after the first flee
started round the Cape for the East. On 30th May, 1602, the first
Dutch ship seen in Ceylon anchored off Batticaloa on the east coast, and
the admiral in command entered into an alliance with the Kandyan
King and this had momentous consequences for the Portuguese, even-
tually leading to their expulsion from the island which their monarch
had said he " would rather lose all India than imperii." The conflict
between the two European powers for supremacy in Ceylon commenced
in 1638, and culminated with the great siege of Colombo nineteen
years later. Very elaborate accounts of this siege, lasting from October,
1655, till 12th May, 1656, are extant ; but I must only mention that
the Portuguese offered a most determined, strenuous defence, and
although assisted by the Kandyan king with an army of 40,000 men,
the Dutch lost their General, 3,000 men killed, besides the wounded,
and were reduced to the last strait before victory was attained. Of
the Portuguese and native soldiers in the Fort, numbering perhaps
1,500, only a small percentage survived to surrender. Upwards of 900
noble Portuguese families were, at the time of the siege, residing with-
in the town, besides 1,500 families of those connected with the Courts
of Justice, merchants and traders — some of these left with the remnant
of the garrison for India ; many settled in Kandyan territory, especially
at Ruanwella, under the auspices of the Sinhalese king, while the rest
are represented by mixed descendants who use a, patois of Portuguese
in Colombo to the present day.
Refusing to give up their conquests, the Dutch found themselves in
turn attacked by the native king, whom, however, they defeated and
very soon became masters of the seaports and lowlands of Ceylon,
doing their very utmost to develop trade and avoid war. Among other
improvements due to the Dutch and which benefited Colombo, was the
item of canals to the north and south of the capital ; ■yvhile
14
cvi Ceylon in 1903.
cultivation in cinnamon, pepper, coffee, and cocoanuts was encouraged.
A new fort was built at the capital after a substantial and scientific
plan by Cohorn, and the Dutch were determined to retain what they
deemed the gem of their Eastern possessions. Just as the Portuguese
burnt all the cinnamon for which there was no sale at the end of each
season, the Dutch made it a crime punishable by death for any native
to harvest bark or cut down a cinnamon bush even in his own garden,
so strict was their monopoly, and they esteemed the cinnamon growing
between Coloijibo and Negombo as the best in the world ; while they
encouraged trade from the Government stores — no private trading being
allowed — with all parts of the East as well as Holland. If time and
space permitted, an interesting picture might be sketched of the
settlement and li^e of the Hollanders — the officials and citizens or
burghers— in Colombo for the last 100 years of their occupation ; of
their public spirit in respect of canals and in founding churches and
some schools ; but also of their harsh treatment of the natives,
thousands of whom they kept as slaves, and of their selfishness and
extortion in respect of trade. Notwithstanding the great value which
they attached to their possessions, it is amusing to read in the account
of a Belgian physician, who resided 18 months in Ceylon in 1687-89,
that in his estimation the whole island (save for its cinnamon) was
not worth as much as an ordinary village in Brabant or Flanders ; the
fruits not worth describing ; the cattle so thin as scarcely to be eatable ;
while the harvest of fish for a year was not worth as much as the fish,
that came into the market of Antwerp on a single Friday. The Kelani
Eiver, north of Colombo, he regarded as about half as broad as the
Scheldt at Antwerp. He described Colombo as divided between an
old town and a new one or castle or fort. The old town was an oblong
quadrangle 1,000 by 700 spaces, divided by three streets both ways, .=o
the city was made' up of 12 squares or cubes. But I must content
myself with showing you, later on, plans of Colombo in the times of the
Dutch, by the help of the lantern.
Colombo in 1796.
On 16th February, 1796, the Dutch Governor surrendered Colombo
to the British, who took possession in the name of William of Orange
Holland being at the time in the hands of the French.
In " Walsh's Military Reminiscences " there is a description worth
quoting of the town at the time of its capitulation to the British :—
Colombo, the capital of the Dutch in Ceylon, is a place of considerable
consequence and strength from its natural position, as well as from its
works, whicl were numerous and in good condition. The fort, which is
Old and New Cotomho. cvii
extensive, contained many capital dwelling-houses, including the Governor's
palace, which is a most superb buildingf. The Peltah had also several good
houses, ohui'ches, &o., in it ; and in the place, altogether, were many
respectable inhabitants. Without a chance of relief it would have been
madness to have [held out ; and by an early capitulation private property
was preserved. Colombo is also a place of great traffic by sea, the roadstead
being extremely safe and commodious, particularly during the north-
eastern monsoons.
On the surreiider of Colombo, many of the principal Dutch
iahabitants left for Batavia ; but the clergy, judicial officers, and the
bulk of subordinates employed in the different departments continued
at their posts ; and their descendants are found in Colombo to this day
in the majority of our lawyers, physicians and teachers, and of the
Grovernment clerks, a most worthy body of public servants. The
dominion of the Dutch had lasted about the same time as that of the
Portuguese, name]y,-140 years : the latter left their mark in the very
considerable number of Roman Catholics among the natives, to whom
high-sounding names were given in Baptism ; while the chief
inheritance from Holland was the code of Roman Dutch law.
Eakly British Rule.
For some years the change to British rule made little difference to
Colombo ; indeed, up to 1815, when the Kandyan kingdom was
formally annexed, the island was expected to be given back to Holland;
but in that year it was finally decided to retain Ceylon and to give the
much larger and richer Java in exchange to the Dutch. With the
advent of Sir Edward Barnes as Governor in 1824 a..neweraof activity
began, through the opening of the island by military roads, the cons-
truction of a bridge of boats over the Kelani River and the starting of
the first mail coach in Asia between Colombo and Kandy. Sir Edward
also built at a cost of £30,000, a palatial residence for himself at Mount
Lavinia, on an eminence jutting into the sea, seven miles from
Colombo, and here and in the neighbourhood some strange episode-
occurred in those early days when Ceylon was a mere military depens
dency. On one occasion, inthe adjacent cinnamon gardens, the Chief
Justice and Major-General commanding in the island exchanged pistol
shots in a duel about a triflingj difference of opinion ; and many other
stirring experiences are related in the autobiography of the late Major
Skinner, the great road-maker of Ceylon, who served the colony in the
most admirable way for over 40 years. In the time of Governor Sir
Robert Wilmot Horton, 1832-37, Moormen arid Tamils were allowed
for the first time to own house property in the Pettah and Fort
cviii Ceylon in 1903.
of Colombo, a privilege which the Dutch would never grant. The
first Savings' Bank, Royal Academy or College, and the Legislative
Council with unofficial members date from the same time, as also the
establishment of the Press and of the Indian rupee currency. Steps
were taken by Governor Stewart Mackenzie for the complete abolition
of slavery, and this was finally consummated in 1845 ; although the
name of " Slave Island " still adheres to the peninsulai' division of
Colombo in the midst of the lake, because there the Dutch kept their
slaves — an arrangement due to the fact that one night the slaves of a
certain Dutch household in the Fort rose and murdered the whole
family. After that, all the slaves in the Port, after the day's work
was done, were collected in punts and rowed out into what was nearly
an island and there kept under guard until the time came to return and
engage in their daily toil. A description of Colombo in the Thirties
comes to us in verse from the pen of a military officer, Captain
Anderson, who wrote "Wanderings in Ceylon": —
" Hence, let the eye a circuit take,
Where gently sloping to the lake,
A smiling, lively scene appears,
A verdant isle, its bosom rears,
With many a lovely villa grao'd,
Amid embow'ring cooos plac'd !
Here once, to all but int'rest blind,
The Colonists their slaves confln'd ;
But now the name alone remains.
Gone are the scourges, racks, and chains 1
When Britain sought the eastern world,
And her victorious flag unfurl'd,
She came to heal, and not to bruise,
The captive's fetters to unloose ;
And 'tis her brightest boast and fame,
That nought is left beyond the name
Yet here the African remains,
Though broken are his slavish chains, , ^
Prepar'd to conquer or to die
For her who made his fetters fly.
As soldier of a free-born state,
He feels his dignity and weight ;
And with alacrity and zeal.
The sable warrior learns to wheel,
But view him at the set of sun,
His military duties done.
His native glee will then be seen
In antic frolics on the green ;
Old and Neiv Colombo. cix
See him with sparkling eyes advance
To tread his own Mandingo dance,
And view his smiling jettj bride, i j
In cadence moving by his side ;
Then own no joys the sonl can move,
Like those of liberty and love 1 "
The " Africans " referred to were Kaffirs inported to work as pioneers
on the roads, which the Sinhalese were too lazy to do, after the
rajahariya, or forced labour, imposed on them by their own rulers, and
by the two preceding European Powers, was abolished under the more
civilized and benign administration of the British. Kaifir descendants
are still to be noted among the many races and nationalities — some 70
in all — comprised in the population of Colombo.
I have said that the colony was a mere military dependency for many
years : five or six infantry regiments,, with artillery, Eoyal Engineers,
and even a troop of cavalry being maintained at the expense of the
Imperial Government up to the Forties — so that Colombo, as the head-
quarters of a Lieut.-General and StafE and of most of the troops, was
a lively place from a military point of view. When such regiments as
the 90th (Perthshire) Light Infantry, with its band playing remini-
scences of " The Lass o' Gowrie " —
" 'Twas on a simmer's afternoon,
A wee befor'e the sun gaed doon
My lassie wi' her braw new gown
Cam' o'er the hills to Gowrie " —
were paraded with the 18th Royal Irish, its music reiterating this
inquiry —
" Oh, say were you ever at Donnybrook fair ?
An Irishman all in his glory was there.
With his sprig of shillelagh and shamrock so green ! " —
and the 95th, or Ceylon Rifles, band giving " British Grenadiers," —
Colombo had a large and lively garrison. But from a commercial and
trading point of view the town was then very insignificant. We date
the practical beginning of the coffee planting enterprise in Ceylon
from 1837, although Governor Barnes and Geo. Bird had started
plantations 13 years earlier ; and I have often heard my relative and
predecessor in the Ceylon Observer — the late A. M. Ferguson— say how
depressing was the sight of Colombo roadstead when he entered it
with Governor Stewart Mackenzie in November, 1837, with only one
or two of Messrs. Tindall's barques of 400 to 500 tons representing the
tonnage for imports from and exports to Europe, the whai-ves silent
6t Ceylon in 1903.
and almost lifeless, and a general appearance of do-nothingness about
the place. The planting industry wrought a wondrous change, for in
40 years the coffee exports rose from 30,000 to 1,000,000 cwt.'per
annum, and steamers as well as sailing ships were required to carry
the trade even before the opening of the Suez Canal introduced so-
complete a revolution in our Eastern shipping experience. I may
mention here that the export of tea has now attained a heavier net
weight, in 125 million pounds, than ever cofEee reached ; while Ceylon
products exported, which represented a shipping tonnage of 120,431
in 1888, had risen by 1897 to 245,830 tons, and must altogether require
a freight of about 280,000 tons. Of this, tea makes up about 46 per
cent, and the produce of the coconut palm about 41 per cent.
Colombo Forty Tears A.go.
But now, having touched on Colombo as seen in the Thirties and
Forties, the years of a big garrison, small trade, and the start of a
planting, I must show what it was lilie in the Fifties after our great
Governor Sir Henry "Ward gave so great an impetus to roads, bridges,
and iiTigation works through Major Skinner's department, and through
Captain (afterwards General) Gosset, R.E., multiplied land surveys and
sales, while he further started the great railway between Colombo and
Kandy. I have had two pictures presented to me in writing, one by an
official, the present Master Attendant of Colombo (Capt. Donnan), who
has lived to see the breakwater which he first advocated for that port in
1864 completed ; and the other from a planting friend, Mr. Wade
Jenkins. Both landed in Colombo over 40 years ago. Capt. Donnan
says he found in 1858 about a dozen sailing vessels from 300 to 1,000
tons at anchor in the outer roads, and perhaps a dozen or more native
craft in the inner roadstead, and it seemed to him shipping operations
were carried on safely and with some expedition ; but he changed his
mind when the monsoon set in. To Mr. Jenkins, in 1857, Colombo
seemed a busy but truly oriental city, the Europeans few and far
between ; while coaches and sailing ships were in evidence where
railways and steamers now prevail. There was but one hotel and one
boarding-house (and those insignificant) in the plat:e ; but mercantile
hospitality made up for this deficiency, and indeed the whole of the
little European civil community seemed to regard each other very
much as one family, and newcomers— generally arriving round the
Cape, which was the almost invariable route for ladies and children,
with a voyage of 85 to 105 days— were heartily welcomed as dear
friends from the homeland. Such was my own experience on landing
in Ceylon in November, 1861 ; but it was my good fortune to voyage
Old. and Neiv Colombo, exi
out, not by the Cape, but by the P. and O. steamel- Pera, under
Commodore Jameson, from Southampton to Alexandria, to spend some
days in Cairo before the European, era, when that town truly repre-
sented the " Arabian Nights ;" and to voyage from Suez to Point de
Galle in the same Company's Simla, which often gave u-s a London
mail even in those far-off days in 18 or 19 days. I found the mail
coach journey from Galle to Colombo one of special and continuous
interest, being never out of sight of a wayside hut or coconut palm
for the whole lengeth of 72 miles ; while the naked native children,
sitting on mother earth and clapping their sides as we galloped by,
seemed the perfection of contentment with little, nay with absolutely
nothing, save the banana they longed to pluck from the plant over-
shadowing them. I found the road near Colombo crowded with
native pedestrians, with hackeries — tiny gigs drawn by small Sinhalese
bullocks with deer-like legs and feet — or with the larger bandies drawn
each by a pair of large Indian bullocks. There were a few carriages
as we got to the city, many being of the old palankin shape, but seldom
occupied by any save pale-faced Europeans, and the respectful attitude
of the natives as these passed by was remarkable. Here, again, the
last thirty years has wrought a marked change ; there are as many
horses and carriages used in Colombo now by wealthy natives as by
colonists, and the rule of " Jack is as good as his master " is almost too
freely illustrated as the hackeries of Sinhalese dash by and race, and
even pass, the equipages of Europeans, of the respectable Dutch
descendants, and of their own wealthy brethren. In 1861 we drove
through Colpetty, the fashionable southern suburb, and across Galle
Face, the maidan of Colombo, where all Society of an afternoon " eat
the air," and ride on soft turf, di-ive on the smooth gravelled road, or
promenade on the unequalled seaside walk constructed by order of Sir
Henry Ward in the interests of the ladies and children of Colombo.
Driving over a drawbridge across the moat, and passing through a
heavy gateway with ponderous iron-studded doors guarded by a mili-
tary sentry, the coach entered the old Dutch fort, built nearly 200
years earlier, and drove along a street shaded by rows of light green
hibiscus trees with tilip-like flowers, merchants' offices and military
quarters facing each other, while right in front was the campanile
tower, built by Governor Ward to serve the double object of a clock-
tower and lighthouse and still advantageously used for the same
purpose, although nearly everything else is much clianged in the Fort
Ward of Colombo. On the other hand the Pettah, or native town,
with its rows of one-storey shops and bazaars, stands much the same,
with cf tain exceptions to be noted hereafter ; while, in 1861, the
cxii Ceylon in 1903.
principal bungalows lay along the Colpetty, Slave Island, and Mut-
wal roads the Cinnamon Gardens, or New Colombo, being as yet un-
built on.
Modern Colombo.
The first great change in modern Colombo took place in 1869 when
Governor Sir Hercules Robinson got authority to demolish Cohorn's
fortifications, obsolete as they were for purposes of defence, and
requiring 6,000 men properly to man them. The levelling of the walls
and filling up of the moat made the Fort much more accessible and
healthy, an important matter since here all the banks and nearly all
the mercantile offices, big retail stores, and Government offices, as well
as some of the principal hotels, are. found. Facing the sea, on the
site of the old wall, military barracks were erected, and this handsome
range of buildings, in an unequalled position for fresh air, is among
the finest barracks for British troops in all the east. The military
married quarters and hospital were at the same time erected on the
side of Galle Face, and altogether these buildings added much to the
appearance of the western side of the city. The disbandment of the
local rifle regiment followed, most of the Malays and Sepoys being,
however, drafted with their consent into a newly-constituted police
force, and very much under their old oflBcers. New banks and mer-
cantile offices of two stories now became the rule in the Fort, the
landlords and builders being chiefly wealthy natives, only too ready to
invest their capital in big houses when assured of adequate rent. The
old Oriental Bank, under its able and veteran manager, Mr. George
Smyttan DufE (still alive and I suppose the doyen, as well as about the
most successful of eastern bankers), first led the way with a massive
block of buildings. This is now occupied by the Hongkong and
Shanghai and Chartered Banks ; while we have besides in the Fort
suitable and handsomely located branches of the Mercantile Bank and
Bank of Madras, and more lately, though it has become almost our
leadingjoffice, of the National Bank of India. This brings me to the
later building developments within the Fort in the rise and expansion
of the Grand Oriental Hotel and Wharf and Warehouse Company, of
the Bristol Hotel, of a number of fine mercantile and public offices—
notably om- new General Post Office— and last of; all the Victoria
Arcade erected under the auspices of the Fort Land Company, which
the present Governor has happily called the Fort Improvement Com-
pany, and in whose block, among others, the agency of the Peninsular
and Oriental Company finds a fitting office. The lower portion (as
in the case of the Grand Oriental Hotel) is fitted up for shops, prin-
cipally dealers fn the gems and curios for which Ceylon is famous,
Old and New Golomho, cxiii
and the Victoria Arcade afCords a nice place of rest and shelter to
passengers or other visitors, while the first floor is occupied by offices,
and above are residential flats, a new feature in Colombo. This
modern block of building is a great improvement on the old godowns,
and ofEers a pleasing indication of enterprise to fresh arrivals, as do also
the new offices of the National Bank of India, to be followed by hand-
some stores and offices for our greatest importing house (Csirgills,
Limited), and further on the handsome block now being erected for
Mr. Davis of Melbourne.
But I must also refer to the rise of " a new Colombo " in that
portion of the city known as Cinnamon Gardens, and which was all
covered with cinnamon bushes from Turret road eastwards within my
time. "With wise prescience the Government first laid out an extensive
park and flower gardens, and then sold the surrounding land for
building purposes. Here, then within the past thirty years has sprung
up a large number of residential bungalows in what is a favourite
division of the town, intersected by delightful gravelled roads called
after successive British governors. The most prominent building, and
perhaps the most stately, with the finest site in the island, is the
Colombo Museum, which we owe to the aesthetic taste and progressive
spirit of Governor Sir Wm. Gregory, Mr. J . G. Smither being the very
competent architect ; just as Mr. Tomalin designed the new General
Post Office, perhaps our next most imposing public edifice. At the
farther end of the Cinnamon Gardens division, a Lunatic Asylum has
been erected on a somewhat cumbrous plan ; and in another direction
will be found the group of buildings comprising the extensive Civil
Hospital of Colombo in all its divisions, and the Medical Schools, much
being due to private munificence, more particularly of the philanthropic
Sinhalese De Soyza family, whose head first came into prominence
through his splendid entertainment to H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh
in 1870 at his Bambalapitiya residence, since known as Alfred House.
Time would fail me to remark on all the noteworthy edifices and
institutions in the capital of Ceylon ; but mention must be made of the
grand old Wolfendalh Church, crowning an eminence overlooking
the native town, and erected in 1746 for the Keformed Dutch
Presbyterians. It is a massive building, and contains the graves of
many of the Dutch Governoi's, whose names and arms are carved on the
stone floor, or hung on the walls. Governor Gregory took a special
interest in this structure, and presented some artistic windows to it.
Then there is the Anglican Cathedral and College at Mutwal ; St.
Lucia's lioman Catholic Cathedral, and the several churches and
chaples, mosques and temples, educational colleges and hig;h schools in
' " \5' ■
cxiv Ceylon in 1903,
different parts of the town, belonging to the different religious bodies
as well as the colleges and schools of the Government. Then the town
hall and market buildings should not be forgotten, any more than the
public hall, with its fittings for concerts or theatricals. The law courts
and several departmental offices are worthy of attention.
I have alluded to the Victoria Park, and it is satisfactory to know
that in other parts of the town provision has been made for open
spaces and recreation grounds, — the Campbell Gardens, the extensive
Havelook racecourse, the golfing, hockey, and cricket grounds, the
racquet court and Galle Face esplanade being prominent. The success-
ful hold which the English game of cricket has taken on all classes of
Ceylonese is sure to strike the visitor, who may see brown-skinned,
bare-backed, and bare-headed Sinhalese urchins playing the game as
well as they can under their cocoanut palms with a branch of the tree,
stripped and cut to make a bat, while the ball is of coir fibre, and the
wickets, &c., are equally improvised after the simplest fashion. On
the other hand, the Colombo Colts Cricket Club, composed of burghers
and native young men, have achieved a name for themselves right over
the island and beyond its limits, by defeating teams of young English-
men, many of them fresh fi-om leading public schools. Another sight
worth mentioning as showing the great advance of the people of
Colombo, apart from the colonists, is thus referred to in a contribution
before me : —
Only the other day an immense throng was gathered on the Galle Face,
behind the modern club house, to witness the Colombo inter- Collegiate
Cricket Match, hundreds of fine equipages clustered about the enclosure,
gaily and fashionably-dressed ladies and their husbands, brothers and sons
filled the seats, and a big crowd encircled the ground all round. — with not
a single JEwropean amongst them all,"
Local Industries.
I must now refer to some of the industries specially associated with
Colombo, and more particularly to those in native hands as of most
general interest. But first let me say that in the height of the coffee-
growing enterprise, 20,000 men, women, and children (chiefly Sinhalese
and Tamils) found employment in the large factories and stores of the
merchants scattered over the town, where the coffee was cleaned,
prepared, sorted, and packed for shipment. Tea, on the contrary, is
prepared and packed on the estates ; but there is a considerable
amount of work still done in the Colombo stores, in sorting, blending,
and repacking such teas as are sold"^at the local public sales ; also in
dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark,|and the remnant still
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A COCONUT CLIMBER.
Old and New Gotombo. cxv
left of coffee. Of greater interest will be found a visit m the proper
season to a cinnamon store (such as that of Lady de Soyzaj where
the ingenious scraping, peeling, drying, and quilling of the bark can be
witnessed, all done very cleverly, though simply, by the special Chalia
caste of cinnamon peelers. Cinnamon may be said to be the oldest of
all exports from Ceylon ; for no doubt it was included in the spices
traded for by the Arabs, who brought gold, silver, ivory ,_ peacocks, and
apes (all found in Ceylon) to Solomon ; while in the time of Augustus,
Ceylon cinnamon was sold in Rome at the equivalent of £8 a pound
weight, and so down through the centuries when Venice and Genoa
commanded Eastern trade, followed by Portugal, Holland, and Britain,
until now the finest of our cinnamon can be got for less than 2s. a lb.
Then we have in Colombo, some very extensive cocoanut oil mills,
with hydraulic power, and fibre machinery, and mills for desiccated
cocoanut — all well worth a visit.
Plumbago.
Next in interest, perhaps, are our Gems ; but first I will take the
one mineral of commercial importance, namely, graphite or Plumbago.
It may not be generally known that Ceylon is the chief source of supply
for this form of crystallised carbon, allied not simply to petroleum,
peat, and coal, bat also to amber and the diamond. It is so largely
used in these modern days for the manufacture of metal-melting
crucibles, especially in England and the United States, that the supply
has not heea equal to the demand, and the prioe has lately trebled,
although our export ia enormously increasing, so bringing wealth to a
large number of Sinhalese, and exciting much interest as to the best
means of extending the mining industry. One Ceylon estate pro-
prietor, recently deceased (Mr. C. Tottenham) brought out a Cornish
mining engineer to develop a mine on his land, and this has been done
with success, both in an engineering and financial point of view, and
now several large capitalists are beginning to turn their attention to
Ceylon plumbago mines. One leading Sinhalese owner of mines (Mr.
de Mel) confessed some 15 years ago that one plumbago mine had
given him a net return of £2,000 a year for H years. The export is at
present steadily increasing ; and a very interesting sight in Colombo is
to visit plumbago stores, where large numbers of women and children
are employed picking out all foreign substances— such as pieces of
ironstone— from the plumbago, and grading it according to quality
before it is packed for shipment. The Ceylon trade in plumbago was
first opened about 70 years ago, but by 1860 the total export was under
50,000 cwt., while last year (1898) it was 473,075 cwt.; and up to
cxvi Ceylon w 1903. '
October 31st of the current year, 528,986 cwt. had been shipped —
indicating an export of over 600,000 cwt. for 1899, while the value has
risen from £25 to £75 per ton for the best quality. 1,692 plumbago
mines and pits were reported in the island in 1898, and 412 "gem-
quarries." The most complete account of the plumbago industry is
contained in a monograph by my relative, the late A. M. Ferguson ;
but it is impossible to do justice to the mineral resources of the Island
in this and other respects until we have a Geological and Mineralogical
Purvey of Oeylon — an undertaking I have long been pressing for —
and which I am glad to think is, at last, about to be secured by our
present energetic G-overnor. I believe it is no secret that the geologi-
cal staff at present employed by Lord Oromer in Egypt is, in a few
months, to be transferred to Oeylon ; and so we may look forward not
only to the wealth of the island in plumbago being approximately
defined, but also to the settlement of long- vexed questions in reference
to the existence of gold in paying quantities, of ironstone of a wonder-
fully pure character, and of the various precious stones so long
associated with the island.
Gems.
Ceylon rubies, sapphires, catseyes, and other precious gems which,
with all their brilliancy, are simply crystallised clays), have been
famous from time immemorial, and an industry is maintained in
digging for the same up to the present time, in which some thousands
of natives find a more or less precarious means of existence. The
result of their labours cannot be tested, for most of the gems found,
are privately sold and either transmitted by Colombo dealers to
jewellers in London or Paris, or sold to the agents of Indian rajas and
other purchasers. Almost the first experience of passengers and
visitors as steamers anchor in Colombo, or on the boats, wharves, or if
not, on each side of the first avenue entered, is to be accosted with
"Buy one ring," or " one very fine safiire, sar," or it maybe a ruby or
other stone :
" And as engirdled figures crave
Heed to thy bosom's glittering store,
We see Aladdin in his cave,
We follow Sinbad on the shore."
The shops of numerous native dealers are full of such gems, as well
as of jewellery, carved ivory, tortoiseshell, and other work ; but the
origin ,of a good many of the stones and rings may be traced to
Birmingham ; and in Governor Gregory's " Autobiography," several
Old and N$w Colombo. clxvid
experiences are speoiflcally related which may be taken as fairly
illustrating a not uncommon experience ; indeed, few residents in, or
visitors to Ceylon, do not know of the ring with "stone '' offered at
£50, £20, £10, or £5, and eventually sold as a bargain (because a
piece of glass) at a rupee or less ! Still there can be no doubt that
valuable gems have been found in Ceylon from time immemorial.
Many Eastern nations knew Lanka of old to be the land of the
hyacinth and ruby. The name " Ratnapura " (the capital of the
gemming country) means the " town of gems ;" and not unfrequently
now an exceptionally fine ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, catseye, or
large piece of Alexandrite fresh from the Ratnapura or Matara district,
is placed on show in Colombo by its native owner. Europeans have
tried to develop this industry ; experts like Mr, Barrington Brown
have reported favourably of the hidden riches ; but the difficulty has
always been to prevent the clever appropriation of gems when found
in the clay by the native workmen, who can pick them up with their
toes, conceal them in their hair or swallow them. To check this, an
ingenious machine working on the principle of the specific gravity of
precious stones and metals has been invented by Mr. W. S. Lookhart,
M. Inst. C.E. (who had experience to guide him in the Burma ruby
mines), and a " Ceylon Prospecting Syndicate " sent out a Set of this
machinery capable of dealing with 50 tons of gravel a. day. The
patent machine worked admirably, and many gems were the result ;
but owing to the pits not being sunk deep enough to get to the gem-
clay, the return so far has not proved a, financial success, although I
am glad to learn that with increased capital the company is likely to
go to work on a larger scale, and develop what I feel sure ought to be
a very profitable industry. Good gems such as are found in Ceylon
are at this moment in great demand in London and Paris, and I
cannot see why with such reliable and advantageous machinery financial
success should not be achieved so soon as the lower beds are struck
Mr. Lockhart will exhibit a diagram of his patent on the screen later
on, and although I have no personal connection with the enterprise, I
feel it right to refer to an invention that may have important result,
for Ceylon (and other countries), not only as regards precious stones,
but also precious metals, especially gold where found in the alluvial.
Whether the geologists will be able to widen the gem-yielding area —
at present confined to two districts, Ratnapura, or Rakwana and
Matara — remains to be seen. Sir Samuel Baker some years before
his death paid a visit to Ceylon — with which his name as sportsman,
agriculturist, and author was closely related 50 years ago — in connec-
tion, I believe, with gem or gold exploration ; but nothing came of it.
cxviii Geylon in 1903.
Gem-digging, like gambling, has great attractions for the Sinhales
and probably 50,000 of them altogether find employment in connection
with plumbago mining and gem-digging ; while the old industry of
smelting with charcoal the iron ore found in many parts of the
country has almost entirely died out. It is possible, however, that if
any large quantities of this ore (with from 70 per cent, upwards of
pure metal) were found on the banks of a navigable stream, it would
pay, with cheap freight, to transport it to Europe, so adding to the
trade of Colombo. No coal, not even in the form of anthracite — long
supposed to be present — has been found in Ceylon.
Pearls.
Before passing away from Ceylon gems, familar to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, as well as to the Hindus and Chinese, I must refer
to another allied precious product derived from the pearl oyster
fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Known and famous from very early
times, the native kings had for one of their titles, " Master of the
Fisheries of Pearl." When titles were being sought for the sons of
H. R. H. the Prince of Wales (some 25 years ago) I remember
suggesting that Eastern cities should not be forgotten, that the then
second son, now the Duke of York, might well be made Duke of
Bombay, Colombo, or Calcutta, or Prince of Kandy. My suggestion
was copied into the London Times ; but in the following week Punch
improved on it by showing that Prince George at his then age would
probably prefer to be '' Prince of Sugar-candy ! " The existence of
pearl fisheries for generations off the coast, and the absence of
limestone in the low-lying country of Ceylon, was evidenced, as
already mentioned by the Portuguese when they built the first Fort
of Colombo early in the 16th century, carrying many shiploads of
pearl shells from Arippu to burn them for lime to use as mortar.
There are no records of results in Portuguese times ; but the Dutch
frequently had good fisheries for several successive years, alternating
with as many annual blanks. Thus in the four years, 1747-50, the
Dutch netted pearls to the value of £130,000. Then in the first four
years of our occupation, 1796-00 the British got a revenue of no less than
£342,000. After that, fisheries fell ofE grievously till 1814, which
gave £105,000, and than a comparative blank till 1828, when four
years yielded £120,000 ; the years, 1833 to 1837, gave £108,000 ; but
then came a long interval with no fishery till 1855, since when the
richest returns were £51,000 in 1863, £60,000 in 1881, £80,000 in
1888, and over £96,000 in 1891. For eight years now there has been
Old and New Colombo. cxix
np fishery.* Altogether the British Government has secured from
this welcome source of revenue, this " harvest of the seas," no less
than the equivalent of £1,000,000 sterling after deducting all expenses.
The accounts have been kept very carefully for 60 years during which
345,000,000 of oysters were fished, two-thirds of which were sold by
auction for Government, the rest going to the divers, the average
price being £2. 10s. per 1,000 ; one year, in 1860, the price rose to
nearly £13 (again, in 1857, falling to IBs.) according to the size of
the pearls found, a perfectly round pearl of large size and silliy
white lustre being greatly valued by Indian rajas, who would pay up
to £200 for such a one. Pearl oysters are of mature age in the sixth
year ; but they often die ofE then, so that fisheries have to be fixed
for the fourth or fifth year to make sure of the harvest, the informa-
tion being obtained by annual inspections with native divers on the
banks where the oysters locate and breed. Several Governors of
Geylon have taken a special interest in trying to guard against the
many enemies to which the pearl oyster is liable ; and Sir Hercules
Bobinsou (afterwards Lord Rosmead) had out a trained naturalist
who during several years wrote interesting reports on the results of
his investigation, but failed to suggest anything practicable by which
we might guard against adverse currents sweeping of the oyster beds,
or shoals of voracious skates which sometimes devour the young
oysters by millions ; and to such or similar causes, the present veteran
inspector of our pearl banks (Capt. Donnan) attributes the fact
that there has been no pearl fishery since 1891, and that there is no
prospect at present of one for some years to come. But considering
all that science and practical skill have done in the breeding of the
edible oyster off the British, French, and Italian coasts, and of the
increased knowledge of ocean currents and marine zoology generally
within the past twenty years, I think the time has come for a fresh
scientific inquiry into the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of
Mannar, by calling in the most competent naturalists and experts
available. In this inquiry the Indian might well join with the Ceylon
Government, because the former owns certain banks in the proximity
of Tuticorin which occasionally yield a fishery.
Silversmiths.
Pearls, like gems, give occupation to a separate caste of the
Sinhalese — the silversmiths, after whom a special street in the native
town is called — and a large number continue to manufacture jewellery,
* Since then, there has been a fishery in March, 1903, yielding a total of
44,000,000 oysters, the Grovernment share of which realised ^55,152 at
Us, 15 to the £,
cxx Geylon in 1903.
there being some 500 " silversmiths' workshops " in the Western
Province. Operations are carried on in a very simple way, so far as
tools are concerned, and generally as they were 1,500 or 2,000 years
ago. Tamils or IMoormen, as well as Sinhalese now engage in the
occupation. Gems are often badly out by the natives, and their mount-
ing is also not secure. A great deal of tortoise-shell work is found in
the bazaars, as also carvings in ivory, ebony, &c., and there is a wide-
spread trade in local pottery ; while the shops with locally-made
furniture should be visited, and Mr. Don Carolis especially has made
a name not only in Oeylon, but in India, Australia, and even in London,
for some of his cabinet work An annual Art Exhibition in Colombo
affords some encouragement to local talent, not only in painting,- but in
photographing, designing, and in art metal work. The native lace of
the Sinhalese, women should be mentioned ; it is freely offered for
sale to passengers and visitors, and some is both good and cheap ; while
purchasers have the satisfaction of encouraging many industrious
villagers, most of whom owe their training to mission schools.
Population.
Before dealing with industries, I should have specified the details of
the population of Colombo. At the beginning of the century the
estimate was thai; the town held 30,000 to 50,000 people. The first
regular census, that of 1871, gave a total of 95,000 including 2,500 for
the military and the stations in the harbour ; 1881 gave 112,000 ; 1891
made it 128,000; and it is with good reason supposed that the population
now equals 150,000, including Tamil immigrants from Southern India
Every Eastern race will be found represented, and the native streets and
bazaars present a most striking picture as the effeminate Sinhalese men
with their long black hair tied in a knot surrounded by a comb — the
women of the human race — are contrasted with the darker, sturdier
Tamils, all the fat Nattucotta Chatties, or still more with the big
stalwart Moormen— many of them veritable father Abrahams or
Ishmaelites ; while one or two Chinese, some Kaffirs, Afghans, Bengalis,
and a sprinkling of the paler and richer Parsees of Bombay, add further
variety.
Sanit4,tion, &c.
As regards the amenities of the city^ it cannot yet be said to be
altogether well lighted, although gas introduced 20 years ago (chiefly
through the efforts of Sir John Grinlinton) with incandescent lamps,
and even electric lighting of recent times in the Fort hotels, clubs &c.
have made a grest inrp^ c ^ ement. Colombo is a town of magnificent
distances, and it diOFcult to overtake its requirements fully in light-
RAILWAY TERMINUS APPROACH, COLOMBO.
Old and New Colombo. cxxi
ing. More important is a good supply of pure water, and this was
brought to us by Mr. Bateman and his lieutenant, Mr. Burnett, by a
Boheme which tapped a hilly region, specially reserved, some 30 miles
off. The piping is now being duplicated so as to make the supply
adequate for all requirements ; but Bombay in its experience of plague,
the germs of which revel in a damp soil, has taught us the danger of
an Eastern town becoming water-logged through provision by means
of adequate drainage, not being made to take away the waste or surplus
water supply. Colombo — ^in the flat portion of its Pettah, or native
town, especially — stands much in need of systematic drainage, and the
present Governor has had a survey, report, and estimate from a leading
London sanitary authority, Mr, James Mansergh, M.Inst.C.B., on
which, we trust, action may ere long be taken. The disposal of sewage
by burning and burying is efEectually carried out, and sanitation is as
well attended to as it can be in a tropical town without systematic
drainage, and with a people, many of whom do not understand that
" cleanliness is next to godliness."
Time would fail me to speak of social progress among the people,
of what the different Christian Missions with their schools have done
to educate and uplift them — English being freely spoken and read by
the natives in Colombo — or, again, of the drawbacks in the multiplied
sale of arrack and other intoxicating drinks, and of opium which, so
far as Ceylon is concerned, ought to be confined as in England to
icensed apothecaries. Steps are being taken to mitigate these evils.
Railways and Tramways.
I now come to what the railway has done for Colombo. The grand
mountain line to the interior, to Kandy, Matale, Nawalapitiya, Dimbula,'
and Uva, has concentrated the vast bulk of the planting traffic on the
capital; and the new line about to be made to the north of Jaffna must
still most centralize trade, especially in imports and exports. Sir
Wm. Gregory carried a seaside line (extended by Sir Arthur Gordon
to Galle and Matara), so as to traverse a considerable portion of thei
city, and in seven to nine stations from Maradana, through Pettah,
Slave Island, and KoUupitiya, to serve a teeming town and suburban
population as efEectually as do the metropolitan underground lines.
This is now to be supplemented by a line through Cotta (a district
that feeds Colombo with working people, fruit, &c.), to the Kelani
Valley tea district, and I maintain that the Government should lose no
time in carrying this new 2J-ft. line through the city to the north
and on to Negombo (if not to ChUaw and Puttalam), so as to serve a
16
cxxii Ceylon in 1903.
dense population, a large number of whom is continually on the move
between the Pettah, Mattakkuliya, Ja-ela, Negombo, &c.
Through the enterprise of Messrs. Boustead Bros., their home
supporters and engineers, Colombo has had for sometime now a
system of electric tramways at work on certain roads in the town, and
so far they have done well and in every way given satisfaction. Alto-
gether the double line of tramways laid in Colombo cover two routes
of 3^ miles each on the 3J-feet gauge. The cars are neat and
convenient and are well patronized, the people taking readily to this
mode of locomotion, stimulated by the low fares charged. Consider-
ing that only two routes in the city are so far served, it is remarkable
that a maximum of 25,000 passengers a day has been attained out of a
total population of 150,000. *
Colombo Harbour Wokks.
I have now to deal with the most important public undertaking in
connection with Colombo, namely, the breakwater and other works,
which are going to make it one of the most commodious and convenient
artifioal harbours in the world. I need not refer to the steps or
*The following more explicit facts respecting the Colombo Electric
Tramways and Lighting may be given : — (1) Two routes, each 3J miles of
double line, out of a proposed five routes converging from all parts of the
town to a point within the Fort of Colombo, are already in operation. (2)
The traffic is quite abnormal, and the present rolling stock has proved quite
insufficient to carry the passengers wishing to ride. About 15,000 a day
are now travelling in ten to twelve oars, which ply from 6 A.M. to 10 P.M.
The rolling stock will shortly be doubled. (3) The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. (4)
The power-house contains three units, one of 225 and two of 150 kilometres:
a fourth unit of BOO kilometres is now being added. (5) A large and
rapidly-increasing lighting business is being worked from the power-house
through a small sub-station within the Fort of Colombo. A feature of this
business is a considerable day load caused by the use of slow speed oar-
bladed fans, which have entirely superseded the punkah. Arc lamps are
now being erected along the main tramway routes, and alternating plant
is being put down at the Power Station to serve the G-alle Pace Hotel, the
Club, and the various residential portions of Colombo. When the remain-
ing routes are opened to traffic a possible goods business developed along
the tramway routes, and the lighting mains extended throughout Colombo,
the undertaking will be far the largest and most complete thing of its
kind in the East.
Old and New Colombo. cxxiii
reports which led Governor Sir Hercules Robinson finally to
determine on, and Sir William Gregory to carry out, a breakwater at
Colombo on the designs of the late Sir John Coode and executed
under his direction by Mr. John Kyle. The foundation stone was
very auspiciously laid by H. R. H. The Prince of Wales during his
visit to the East in 1875. This grand wall, 4,212 feet long, took ten
years, and an outlay of £705,000 to complete. It changed an open
roadstead into a harbour completely sheltered on the most exposed or
south-west side ; but there was still liability in certain months to
storms from the north-west and north-east, and after much local
discussion the Government at length decided to go on, and with Mr. J.
H. Bostock, resident engineer, Messrs. Coode, Son, and Matthews are
now carrying out two additional arms : (1) a north-east breakwater
from the Mutwal shore to be 1,000 feet long ; and (2) an intermediate
or north-west breakwater, 2,200 feet long, leaving two openings —
800 feet between it and the south-east arm and another of 700 feet
between the central and the north-east arms. These two additional
arms, with lighthouses and connected works of land reclamation,
coaling depots, and other conveniences, are estimated to cost £527,000,
the value of the work executed to the end of last year being £166,000.
These works were commenced in April, 1894, and the firm estimated
for completion in eight years, so that if nothing unforeseen occurs this
extended harbour should be available for use in 1902.
Still more — apart from a patent slip, costing £33,000, now being
made —a first class graving dock has been sanctioned by Mr. Chamberlain
for Colombo, half the cost (of £318,000) being borne by the
Admiralty, on condition of Her Majesty's ships of war having a
special claim to attention. Governor Sir "West Ridgeway cut the first
sod of this work on the 1st of March last with some ceremony, and
the engineer, Mr. Matthews, as representing his firm, stated on that
occasion : " The dock will be the largest of its kind in the Eastern
Seas. It will be 600 feet in length on the floor, 113 feet in width
betvreen copings, and 63 feet at the bottom. Its entrance will be 85
feet in width, while it will have a depth of 32 feet over the sill at
high water and 30 feet at low water of ordinary tides. To facilitate
ingress and egress, a guide pier 700 feet in length will be formed on
the north side of the entrance channel. It is estimated that this
work will occupy about five years."
By 1903 or the beginning of 1904 the Colombo Harbour JWorks,
costing from first to last not much less than £2,000,000, may be
expected to be complete ; and with the convenience of a first class
cxxiv Ceylon in 1903.
graving dock, as well as safe and commodious harbour, it is possible
that the Admiralty may consider the prudence of removing the naval
headquarters from Trincomalee to Colombo. Be that as it may,
there will be no want of steamers to occupy the harbour. Already as
many as 15 to 20 large ocean-going steamers (five or six of them being
often Peninsular and Oriental Company's mail steamers) have been
counted at anchor in one day, and the tendency is steadily to increase
as the central position of Colombo as a calling and coaling port — apart
from local trade — is more and more realized. When the breakwaters
are completed the harbour will have an area of about 640 acres or one
square mile, and will thus exceed the great National Harbour at Dover
(now being made from designs by the same eminent firm of engineers),
if the area of the " commercial harbour " already made be excluded.
The depth of water inside the Colombo harbour will range to as much
as 40 feet, and provision will be made for mooring to buoys quite 30
large ocean-going steamers.
The entrance to the dock will be made specially convenient, and
there are to be separate coaling depots for the Admiralty and for
commercial purposes, while all the chief steamer companies or their
agents will have their own coal stores. The justification for all this
outlay on the part qf Colombo is found, first, in the determination of
the great British mail steamer company represented by our Chairman
to shift its place of call from Point de Galle to Colombo ; nearly
all other steamer companies — ^mail or commercial — trading with
Eastern or Australasia doing the same. Then there is the splendidly-
central position of Colombo, with reference not only to India and
Australasia, but also in regard to the Southern and Eastern Africa,
the Straits, Eastern Archipelago, and China. Then there is the
marvellous exemption of the port (and indeed the whole island) from
the hurricanes which periodically devastate Mauritius ; from the
destructive cyclones which sometimes range in the Bay of Bengal, but
have never come farther south than the north of Ceylon ; and thirdly,
from the earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which disturb Java and
and other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Verily there was some
reason for the first Mohammedan voyagers deciding that Ceylon must
have been the home of Adam and Eve, and they accordingly proceeded
to name the most prominent mountain Adam's Peak, and the coral
reef between the island and India, Adam's Bridge ! So heartily did
Arabi and his fellow Egyptian exiles share this belief, that they at
first treated their banishment to Ceylon with great satisfaction, and
have certainly been as well off there as they would have been
anywhere else in the world.
Old and New Colombo. cxxv
I have a few figures here to show the advance of the Port of Colombo,
beginning with the period 1835 to 1861 when steamers were practically
unknown in its waters : —
Shipping Arrivals at Colombo.
Year.
Ships.
Barks.
Briga or
Sohooners.
1835
25
17
9
1845
25
32
13
1857
56
127
75
1861
82
90
131
The tonnage of the 303 vessels in 1861 could not exceed 100,000,
against a return now of some 3,000 vessels arriving, representing over
3,000,000 tons. The total tonnage for the port of Colombo in and out
was 500,000 in 1870 just after the opening of the Suez Canal ; it
reached 1,400,000 tons in 1880, was over 4,000,000 tons for 1890, and
is now in excess of 6,000,000 tons a year. Apart from the ready and
economical freight thus provided to nearly all parts of the world for
the exports of this island, as many as 25,000 passengers call at Colombo
in the year, some for a few hours, others for a day or two, while the
practice of spending a week or two or a month in the island is
becoming common, and the day is approaching when Ceylon should
rival Sgypt as a place of winter resort. Already it is becoming a place
of holiday resort for residents in many Indian towns and stations at
Bangoon and Singapore. In this connection it may be mentioned that
Colombo has three first-class hotels, the finest in the East, besides that at
Mount Lavinia, seven miles out, where there is a favourite marine hotel
with good sea bathing. Then, if Colombo is thought too hot to stay
in long, Kandy 1,650 feet above sea-level (where the nights are
comparatively cool) has two good hotels, besides boarding-houses.
Hatton at 4,000 feet has an Adam's Peak Hotel, and the sanatarium,
Nuwara Eliya, at 6,200 feet, has also first class hotel accommodation.
Colombo the Port for Southern India.
Returning to the harbour it is evident to anyone who will study the
map [not reproduced] and note the absence of any good harbour on the
Indian Malabar Coast up to Bombay and on the Coromandel side, save
what is afforded at Madras, that Colombo is destined to become the chief
port for Southern India. Already passengers find it convenient to
come there, assured they can find large steamers for the West, East, or
South, and when railway communication — now extending to Paumben
in India, and shortly, no doubt, to Mannar in Ceylon (as well as
cxxvi Ceylon in 1903.
North of JaflEna) is united— as united it must be one day — across
Adam's Bridge, and by the islands of Mannar and Rameswaram, we
may expect produce and imports, as well as passengers, to pass to and
from Colombo. I have already dealt with this subject in a paper read
a few years ago before the London Chamber of Commerce, and after-
wards at the Imperial Institute, and so need say no more now, than
that two eminent engineers, having examined the route, have
pronounced it feasible ; and that if the military and strategic, as Well
as commercial, interests of the Indian and Imperial, as well as the
Ceylon, Governments are fairly considered, the financial problem ought
not to be insoluble. As a preparation for that day, I hold that the
Ceylon authorities, as guided by the Colonial Office, ought to aim at a
less restricted and more liberal policy in regard to Custom's tariff and
dues at Colombo. The free port of Singapore, with its marvellous
prosperity, is the example that should be aimed at, and when the
cadastral survey of Ceylon begun by Governor Ridgeway is complete,
fiscal changes leading to a notuble reform in the interests of the port
of Colombo and of an Indo-Ceylon railway, ought to be practicable.
Ieonwokks and Foundries.
In connection with the harbour I must not omit to notice the
prominent and useful part taken by the Colombo Ironworks, covering
three acres and located close to the inner harbour, and the great
service rendered there in the past, in cases of disabled steamers, broken
screw shafts or blades, or other casualties. The spirited proprietors,
Messrs. Walker, Sons & Co., Limited, have provided a complete set
of salvage gear ; but steamers are so well built now and so well
engineered, that there are seldom serious breakdowns, and the heavy
work of the firm is connected with the planting enterprises, not otily
of Ceylon but Southern India, the Straits, Java, and even more distant
parts of the world for tea, coffee, cacao and coconut oil machinery.
Altogether tibout 1,000 Ceylonese find employment in these works,
supervised by some 30 European engineers ; and no fewer than 200
steamers a year are served, the majority only requiring attention in
light jobs. The same firm manages a steamer service round the island,
which gives the outposts of Ceylon communication every week with
Colombo. It has also promoted a Ceylon Brick and Tile Company
which is now manufacturing bricks in the neighbourhood of Colombo
of special excellence. There are other foundries and factories doing
useful work in Colombo and employing larger numbers of natives,
notably those of the Railway and Public Works, Messrs. Cave's,
Hutson's, Colombo Commercial, and Eastern Produce and Estates'
Old and New Colombo. exxTii
Companies, &o. ; ■ but the Colombo Ironworks established the first
foundry and is by far the largest. A solitary Cotton Spinning and
Weaving Mill has not been a success so far, though in the hands of
enterprising Parsees, it has now entered on a new career, I trust of.
prosperity of in every way. Colombo is the scene of great activity
in printing, publishing, and newspaper offices, chiefly in English, but
also in the vernacular, an indication of the rapid spread of education.
It is generally credited with publishing the most complete statistical
handbook and directory of any Colony of the British Empire ; while
five daily English journals indicate greater enterprise than is found,
even in Bombay, Calcutta, or any other town in the East. In this
connection our Buddhist fellow-subjects show considerable emulation,
both in educating and publishing, and it is a great pity that the people
were not some years ago given a voice in regard to the disposal of
Buddhist temporalities or endowments, which might do much to
promote the vernacular, industrial, and technical instruction of the
masses. I ought to say something about the Military Defences of
Colombo, but that is a thorny subject. There are several batteries,
and there can be no doubt of the importance of adequately protecting
this great coaling and trading station ; but although much money has
been spent, a good deal has gone on what are now admitted to be
blunders, such as the fortifications which broke up the amenities of
the Galle Face esplanade to no useful end. We can only trust that
the latest batteries designed will meet with the full approval of our
best military authorities. Here I should mention how useful the
battalion of infantry stationed in Ceylon has proved in reference to
military necessities elsewhere The 37th regiment was sent from
Ceylon at short notice to Calcutta for the Indian Mutiny ; the Ceylon
Rifles to Labuan, Hongkong, and the Straits ; the 50th to New
Zealand for the Maori War in 1863 ; the 57th and Dublin Fusiliers to
South Africa ; and Sir West Ridgeway has offered Mr. Chamberlain
the Highland Light Infantry, now in Ceylon, to go to Durban from
Colombo at any time, — our native poulation being most peaceable.
Visitors arriving in Colombo.
It only remains to indicate in a few words what is most likely to
impress a stranger arriving in Colombo. First, I never tire of quoting
the pithy sentence with which Sir Emerson Tennent, the great
historian of Ceylon, opens the first volume of his fascinating work.
" Ceylon," he says most truly, " from whatever direction it is
approached, unfolds a scene of loveliness and grandeur unsurpassed, if
cxxviii Geylon in 1903.
it be rivalled, by any land in the universe.'' Under favourable
circumstances the towering and majestic cone of Adam's Peak, over
7,000 feet above sea level and the subsidiary range of purple hills,
should be noted as the coast is approached at break of day. The
coral reef encircling a great part of the island is indicated by the
snowy foam as the swell of the Indian Ocean breaks upon it. Anon,
Colombo harbour is entered, and the rows of palms belting the shore
to north and south divide attention with the evidences — in tower and
spire rising above dense vegetation — of a considerable city, still more
emphasized by the abundant shipping and lively scenes within the
breakwater. Acquaintance is made with the curious outrigger canoes
of CJeylon — so often confounded by writers with the catamarans of
India — as safe as many lifeboats and manned by almost nade humanity.
Ashore, a kaleidoscopic scene of the many races already indicated as
constituting the population, with every possible variety of skin and
dress, arrests the traveller; nor are modes of conveyance less varied from
the jinricksha (man-power carriage of the Japanese) introduced some
15 years ago and multiplied in thousands to the old-fashioned gharry
or light American wagon with its ample cover from the sun. A
visit to the Pettah and fruit market may be followed by a drive along
the most delightful carriage roads in the world in the Cinnamon
Gardens division of the city, while the wealth of vegetation in every
direction makes one feel he is entering one vast botanic garden. The
headquarters and boarding schools of several of the Christian Missions,
and even a Buddhist College and Schools, deserve a visit ; also the
Technical and Agricultural Colleges. Wherever the visitor travels over
the ten square miles included in the municipality — for Colombo has
its Mayor and Council board — there is novelty and variety in man and
Nature awaiting him. In some parts he may find himself in a perfect
labyrinth of shady avenues, or lanes and flowery dells, or lagoons. In
another his conveyance will be climbing a steep street lined by old-
world buildings of Portuguese or Dutch design, or again by the
shutters and dead walls which indicate the seclusion of Hindus and
Mohammedans in their family life. The seven miles drive through
Colombo and beyond to Mount Lavinia, on the other hand, show the
Sinhalese living almost in the open air, and their work and domestic
duties may be watched in the open huts under their palms or plantains
or jak fruit trees ; while frequently there is a mingling of fowls, pigs,
pretty little hump-backed bullocks, and little brown-skinned children,
which is bewildering. No one, I think, has ever seen Colombo
(indeed, Ceylon) and said he was disappointed and unstirred in interest
and curiosity.
Old and New Colombo. cxxix
The British Association and Colombo.
May I be permitted before I close to allude to a suggestion made
during the recent session of the British Association at Dover, and
received with a fair measure of approval by some of the savants and
members assembled there ? It is that the meeting of this body for
1903 or 1904 should take place at Colombo, Ceylon. At first sight
" impossible " seems to be the word to apply to this proposal ; but the
more it is considered, the more possible I feel sure it will be considered
to be. In the first place the British Association has been twice to
Canada, and it is quite time some other division of the Empire was
favoured with a visit. Cape Colony is out of the question for a few
years to come ; any of the Australian capitals is too far away ; and
Colombo, though not so important in some respects, is far more central
than Bombay or Calcutta. Visitors to meet the Association might
well be expected from all parts of India, from Burma, the Straits, and
even China, as well as Australasia ; and we may feel sure that the
novelty and interest of a meeting in a tropical town, in the most
beautiful island in the world, would attract a considerable gathering.
The town, and especially the island, would in themselves be full of
interest to a large proportion of the savants of the Association. Ceylon,
the pearl of the British Crown Colonies among the most beautiful of
tropical islands, is a little less in size than Ireland, with a varied
population of over 3,000,000 (some 70 races being in all represented).
It has been described as a vast and most interesting botanical garden.
The presence of a certain number of aborigines in the Veddahs at once
makes it of special importance to the Anthropologist and Ethnologist ;
while our Sinhalese people in their history, their language, customs,
and religion — Ceylon being the sacred land of Buddhism, and so
regarded by Burmese and Siamese, as well as to some extent by
Chinese — are full of interest to scientific men in many departments.
The island has been wonderfully opened up by first class roads and
railways, including a mountain line rising 6,200 feet above sea level,
which is among the finest in the world, and which saves much time in
reaching the jungle homes (if such they may be called) of the Veddahs,
who live by hunting. Then the railway, projected by our present
Governor Sir "West Ridgeway and sanctioned by Mr. Chamberlain,
and which will be finished by 1903, will be of special interest to learned
visitors inasmuch as it wiU connect Anuradhapura — the ancient capital
of the Sinhalese— with Colombo, involving but a few hours' journey,
and so make the far-famed "Buried Cities" of Ceylon with their
dagobas, temples, and palaces easily accessible. Not only Anuradha-
pura, but Mihintale, the rock fortress of Sigiri, and the second ancient
17
cxxx Ceylon in 1903.
capital Pollonnaruwa, could be yisited, and the results of the ArchaBolo-
gical Survey, liberally promoted by the present Government of Ceylon,
could be inspected and judged on the spot. For the Greologist, Ceylon,
with its primary rocks and absence of fossils, may be less interesting :
but as the scene of successful gem-digging for rubies, sapphires, &c •
from time immemorial, and as the great source in these modern days,
of graphite and plumbago — its one mineral of comriiercial importance —
the island has an interest of its own ; and a geological survey about to
be commenced under Governor Ridgeway's auspices ought to have
some important and interesting results by 1903. , The fauna of the
island are well worth attention, and the coral reefs around the island
as well as the Maldives, are even now the subject of elaborate investiga-
tions at the competent hands of Mr. Stanley Gardiner ; while the
pearl fishery of the Gulf of Mannar, in its history and successful
operation, as well as enforced suspension for many years at a time,
ought to furnish a subject for Zoological discussion of peculiar interest
and practical value. For the Economist there is much to be noted in
connection with native life'and history, the 'system of public instruc-
tion in all its grades, the hospitals and asylums, as well as in the ancient
and modern cultivation of cinnamon and palms, especially the coconut
and palmirah ; and in the rise within British times of great flourishing
industries in cofEee, cinchona, tea, cacao, and rubber growing, maintained
on a system of free labour and giving employment to some hundreds
of thousands of Tamils from Southern India. Extensive operations
in railway extension (including certain feeding lines on a very narrow
gauge) just sanctioned by Mr. Chamberlain, and the grand breakwaters
and graving dock now under construction at Colombo, should afford
much of interest to the Mechanical Engineer, who could not also fail
to appreciate the good work shown in many of our river bridges and
roads. Competent authorities from India and other surrounding
countries might be expected to attend with papers of much interest in
several departments ; while there should be no lack of visitors from
India and the Colonies, if not from Europe. Ceylon has now some of
the finest hotels in the East, not simply in Colombo, but in Kandy
Hatton, Nuwara Eliya, and Galle. There would, I am sure be
abounding hospitality for the Association ofiicials and other savants
if a visit were arranged. The Government, which commands the
railways and many other means of making a visit profitable and
interesting, would, I am sure, feel any aid required to be a good
investment, inasmuch as a Session of the British Association in
Colombo would be a very valuable advertisement for the Colony, its
attractions, industries, and resources. A large body of educated
Old and New Colombo. cxxxi
intelligent, and loyal natives, both in Ceylon and India, could not fail
to be specially interested in a visit of the British Association, and
many would be ready to take a useful part in the proceedings, while
all would rejoice in the means afforded by special lectures, papers,
discussions, and excursions of adding to their knowledge and of
meeting the leaders of the scientific world. Of course, there are
difliculties, chiefly : (1) in the length and cost of the voyage to and
from Europe ; and (2) in arranging for a suitable time of year. The
best time for visiting Ceylon is between February and May, but
it is not easy for British Association leaders, especially University
workers,, to leave at that time. For such August-September would be
more suitable, and these are by no means unfavourable months in
Colombo. The Red Sea passage in August is very hot, but with
modern swift steamers the ordeal is a brief one and seldom trying on
a first experience. There would be no chance of steamers being
overcrowded at that season, and if a meeting of the British Association
to Colombo were decided on, we have no doubt that the publio-spirited
Chairman of the Peninsular and Oriental Company and his fellow
directors would offer every facility possible to make the meeting a
success. In any case I must hope that many of my hearers may be
able to visit the island that has been described as an Eden of the
Eastern wave, and its capital, Colombo, among the most beautiful and
most healthful of tropical and oriental cities.
We may now take the slides, and I would wish to acknowledge the
courtesy and help given in respect of representations of the Harbour
Works by Mr. W. Matthews, the Drainage area by Mr. Mansergh, and
the Gemming operations by Mr. Lockhart, who each will explain these
slides in a few words. I am also indebted for information to Mr.
Donald Ferguson, Mr. Edmund Walker, and Mr. Boustead, while for
the slides about to be shown I have to thank Mr. Martin Leake and
the Ceylon Association, Mr. W. S. Bennett, and Mr. Jordan.
[The illustration of the City of Colombo is reduced from a plan lent
by Mr. James Mansergh, V.P. Inst.C.E., and that of Colombo Harbour
from one lent by Mr. W. Matthews, M.Inst.C.E.]
Bibliography op Ceylon and Colombo.
Principal Writings on Ceylon at present (or shortly) availahle.
" Ceylon," by Sir J. Emerson Tennent, Kt., two volumes, illustrated
(Longmans) — five editions — out of print — copies procured occasionally.
(Apply A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.)
" Ceylon : its attractions to Visitors and Settlers," by John
Ferguson. (" Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute," No. 5, Session
1891^92— April, 1892.)
cxxxii Geylon in 1903.
" One Hundred Years of British Rule in Ceylon," by L. B. Clarence,
retired Judge of the Supreme Court of ^^eylon. (" Journal of the
Royal Colonial Institute," No. 5, April, 1896.)
'• Murray's Handbook for India and Ceylon."
" Fifty Years in Ceylon : an autobiography of the late Major
Skinner, C.M.G." (A. M. & J. Ferguson, "Observer" Office
Colombo.)
" Two Happy Years in Ceylon " (illustrated), by Miss Gordon-
Cumming. (Blackwood ; 1891.)
"Palms and Pearls, or Scenes in Ceylon"- (illustrated), by Alan
Walker. (R. Bentley & Son ; 1892.)
" Picturesque Ceylon." A series of volumes, profusely illustrated,
by H. W. Cave, M.A. (H. W. Cave & Co., Colombo.)
" India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, &c.," with two maps. (Kegan
Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd , London, 1899.)
" The International Ceography," by 70 authors, with 488 illustra-
tions (" Ceylon," by J. Ferguson). Edited by Hugh Robt. Mill, D.Sc.
(London : &eo. Newnes, Limited, 1899.)
" Ceylon Handbook an d Dii-ectory for 1898-99," by J Ferguson
(A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.)
"Guide to Colombo," by George Skeen, 1899, illustrated. (A. M.
& J. Ferguson, Colombo).
" Guide to Kandy and Nuwara Eliya," also " Guide to the Buried
Cities" (illustrated), by S. M. Burrows, M.A. (A. M. & J. Ferguson,
Colombo) .
" Manuals on the Cultivation and Preparation of Coffee, Tea, Cacao,
Rubber-yielding Trees, Spices, Fibres, &c.," edited by J. Ferguson.
(A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo )
" The Tropical Agriculturist for Planters" (published monthly),
edited by J. Ferguson. (A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.)
" Ceylon in 1900 " (illustrated), by John Ferguson. Being a fifth
edition of a popular history and guide to the island. (In the press.)
(A. M. & J. Ferguson.)
Mr. W. Matthews, M.Inst.C.B., remarked that after the very clear
reference to the Harbour Works at Colombo given by Mr. Ferguson
in his admirable paper, it would not be necessary for him to refer at
any length to the works in question. He might, however, be permitted
to point out that the necessity for extended harbour accommodation
at Colombo was brought about by the following causes : (1) By the
necessity for increasing the area of sheltered water, due to the great
expansion of trade ; (2 the desirability of affording shelter during the
Old and New Colombo. cxxxiii
north-east monsoon when choppy seas prevail, which were inconvenient
to passengers in landing and embarking, and also in the conveyance of
goods to and from ships and the shore ; the crowded condition of the
margin of the harbour and of the shore fringe thereof, at the southern
end of the existing sheltered area, where traffic was only carried on
amidst considerable congestion at the Custom-house premises. The
necessity for increased warehouse accommodation in connection with
the Custom-house departments entailed the removal of the existino-
coal dep6ts further north, and this could only be done by increasing
the shelter. On these grounds, therefore, the additional sheltering
works were authorized. The necessity for the Graving Dock arose
from the fact that at present there is no dock suitable for berthing
a warship of any magnitude between Malta and Hongkong and Malta
and Australia respectively. Mr. Matthews showed some slides of
the harbour works in progress, and explained the special features
of each. He pointed out that during the south-west monsoon heavy
ocean rollers strike the existing breakwater and throw up immense
masses of spray, rising sometimes to a height of 100 feet. For six
months in the year the sea beats continuously on this work, namely,
from May to October when the south-west monsoon prevails. From
October to May, the period of the north-east monsoon, smooth water
is predominant at sea, but as above intimated, occasionally a wind wave
is generated during the daytime which proves inconvenient to the
carrying on of the business of the port. Mr. Matthews referred to the
labour which is available for the carrying on of the works, which
consists generally of Tamils imported from Southern India, who do
most of the work corresponding with navy operations in England.
The skilled work is generally performed by the Sinhalese who are good
artisans. About 700 convicts are employed generally in quarry
operations. A considerable proportion of these have been incarcerated
for the use of the knife. With regard to diving operations, although
sharks undoubtedly exist in these waters, no case has occurred during
the twenty-five years since the commencement of the works, of a diver
having been attacked.
Mr. William S. Lockhart, M.Inst. C.E., in explaining the series
of views illustrating mining and washing for precious stones, said
Mr. Ferguson had mentioned the various stones found in Ceylon.
The most important of them, however, were the sapphires. There
were sapphires of all colours, but the most beautiful — the cornflower
blue— came from Ceylon. There were a great many other stones,
all of value, and, next to the sapphires, rubies and cat's-eyes were
the most important. They occurred in alluvial beds on the surface,
cxxxiv Ceylon in 1903.
from which the stones were obtained by open workings. Some also
came from deBper-seated beds, consisting of the dibris of decomposed
rocks, but the workings might all be classed under the head of soft
earth mining. The upper beds were worked open cast, and the
deeper beds, none of which were more than 200 feet in depth, by
timbered pits and stope". The gravel was brought up to the surface,
n.nd there the question of theft, which had ever been a bar to the
development of this industry, came in. After having been washed
the gravel had to come to the picking table, and as picking and
stealinij seemed even more inseparable in Ceylon than elsewhere
it was from these picking tables, when the mines were conducted
under European management, that the best gems always disappeared.
To illustrate how clever the workmen were in this direction, he must
narrate an incident which occurred to a friend of his whom he met on
a P. & O. Steamer. His friend had been to Ceylon ostensibly to
shoot big game, but incidentally to pick up sapphires, and in the
,course of his wanderines had come across a mine worked by natives
iunder European management. Having been shown round he fell
nto conversation with the manager as to the skill, of the native
pickers, he raising the further question, as to whether they did not
occasionally pass stoces over. The manager took half-a-dozen small
sapphires, put them into a basket with some gravel, and then
called one of the men and told him to pick it over. He did so
and his friend stood over him the whole time, 'n a quarter
of an hour his task was completed, and the result was that no
sapphires were found. The visitor turned round to the manager
with a suspicion of triumph in his eye, but the manager quietly said to
the miner : " Now where are those stones ?" and he took them all six
out of his mouth, so that he not only had not missed them, but had
conveyed them into his mouth under the spectator's very eye. There
were no serious difficulties in connection with the work, except theft.
[A map of Ceylon having been thrown on the screen, he pointed out
the position of what is known as the gem-district, and also others
where gems and alluvial gold are found] . The next view was a photo-
graph taken in an open cast gem mine worked under European
management. The last slide showed a diagram of the machinery
that had now been introduced to wash the gravel and secure the
precious stones, or gold, without having recourse to the picking
tables at all. The plant shown was the one Mr. Ferguson had
mentioned. It was capable of washing about 50 tons of gravel
per day, and was driven by a small 6 horse-power ;engine. The
gravel was shot (as the diagram showed) into the first machine
Old and New Colombo. cxxxv
which was called a " grizzley ;'' here the clay was scrubbed down and
the large stones and rubbish ejected, and the portion containing the
sapphires then passed on to a puddling machine, which washed out
what was left of the clay and the fine sand. The remainder was
gravel between l-8th inch and 1 inch mesh, and this was carried up by
an elevator to a classifier, which screened it into eight sizes, each of
, which then passed to one of eight separators. These separators were
the essential part of the plant, and took the place of the picking tables.
Their action was simple, and, by taking advantage of the slightly
greater specific gravity of precious stones, these separators were able
to select them from the valueless quartz and other materials of which
the gravel was composed. The mine manager alone had access to the
receivers into which the precious stones found iheir way, and as the
total deposit was not greater than could be dealt with by the European,
stafE, the services of the native picker were not required at all. The
entire cost of treatment by this machinery was under 6d. per ton, and
it was believed that it solved the problem of dealing successfully with
alluvial deposits containing precious stones and gold. When more
plants of this character were set to work it was to be hoped that gem-
ming in Ceylon would become the important and profitable industry
the well known extent of the gem-beds would seem to warrant.
DISCUSSION.
The Chairman said there was really very little time for discussion
of this paper, buf fortunately for him he was not called upon to
discuss it. His simple duty was to propose a vote of thanks
to Mr. Ferguson for the trouble he had taken. They would all agree,
especially those who had been in Ceylon, that he had biought before
them a picture, not of Colombo only, but of the beautiful Island of
Ceylon, such as they had bardly realised. Some years ago a dram^itic
author wrote a letter to a newspaper saying his object in a certain
play was to bring the scetit of the hay-fields across the footlights, and
those who had been in Ceylon must feel that Mr. Ferguson had been
successful in bringing the scent of the cinnamon gardens into a lecture
room in London. The story had so admirably told was a story of
which Englishmen were thoroughly proud, a story of progress and
prosperity— not by any means unalloyed prosperity — but prosperity on
the whole, such as could be obtained by hard work and by employing
those natural advantages which most of our colonies possessed in a
greater or less degree. In reflecting on the subject it was gratifying
to know that the -progress which Mr. Ferguson had described in
connection with Colombo and Ceylon was by no means confined to
cxxxvi Ceylon in 1903.
that Colony. FrOm the Mediterranean to the furthest point of the
East, including Egypt, which must almost be considered a Colony
of Great Britian, India, Singapore, Hongkong, in every direction they
found the same progress and prosperity as had been described in
connection with Colombo, and they found also that English spirit of
loyalty prevailing throughout which made our Empire homogeneous,
both in time of peace and in a time of war. He had intended to make
a speech about Ceylon himself, but after listening to Mr. Ferguson he
thought discretion would be the better part of valour. He had
intended to go back much further than Mr. Ferguson, whose history
belonged to a somewhat modern era, and to tell them something about
the voyages of the Phoenicians to Ceylon in old times, because there
he should have been on ground where no one could contradict him,
because the history was not written. They were all familiar with the
fact that gems were very numerous in Ce3'lon, and they would not
doubt his statement when he assured them that, when the Queen of
Sheba visited Solomon, she had a necklace made of cat's-eyes, and that
Solomon amongst his numerous domestic circle had a very large
collection of Ceylon sapphires. Whatsoever the facts of that history
might be, of one thing they were confident, that the trade in gems
and spices was about the most ancient in the world. The trade in
spices was one in which ancient Egypt was peculiarly interested, while
the trade in gems was one in which the whole world, male and female,
but especially female, was interested. They knew that that admirable
ancient character, the Emperor Nero, burned more cinnamon and cassia
at his wife's funeral than had been imported into Rome throughout the
whole year, but he was not sure whether that was a testimony to the
virtues of the wife or to the satisfaction he felt in assisting at that
ceromony. Turning to the graver matters which Mr. Ferguson had
been discussing, he might concur unquestionably in the view he had
expressed that the Colony of Ceylon had the greatest possible reason to
be proud of that great work, the creation of the harbour of Colombo,
and equally proud of her success in the wonderful trade in connection
with tea. Those who visited Ceylon in the days before the break-
water was made could have no idea of what the appearance of a place
like Colombo or Point de Galle was during the prevalence of the
south-west monsoon. He himself was more familiar with Point de
G-alle at the time when the whole of the transhipment work in
connection with the P. & 0. steamers had to be carried on under
circumstances of such extraordinary difficulty, owing to the weather
which prevailed during the south-west monsoon, that he even now
was filled with astonishment and wonder that it was carried on at all.
Old and New Colombo. cxxxvii
In connection with this point Mr. Ferguson had told them how un-
fortunately there had hitherto been no coal discovered in Ceylon,
but he could assure him that if he would employ the engineer who
made the breakwater to drain the harbour at Point de Galle, he would
find there were a few million tons of coal which had been lost from
the P. & 0. steamers. If the work which had been explored was
creditable, the history of the tea trade in connection with India and
Ceylon partook almost of the nature of the marvellous. It was hardly
more than 40 years since Robert Fortune was travelling in China
collecting the plants to make the first beginning of tea cultivation in
India, ani now between India and Ceylon the actual development of
the tea trade amounted to upwards of 260,000,000 lb., and very
curiously he read only the other day in a letter that during the last
year 1,000,000 lb. of Indian or Ceylon tea had actually been exported
to China. Another point which he thoroughly appreciated was the
desire that Colombo should become as far as possible a free port,
because there was nothing more mischievous in the world than to lay
taxes on shipping. He regretted to say that this broad statesmanlike
principle was not so well recognised as it ought to be. If Govern-
ments were wise they would look at such great examples as Mr.
Ferguson had alluded to in Singapore, and to the still greater example
in Hongkong, where commerce in shipping was of gigantic proportions,
and had been achieved wholly and solely byt he fact that the port
was free from taxes and dues of every possible kind. He must also
endorse the view which had been expressed as to the desirability,
almost the necessity, that an Island so interesting as Ceylon
should be much more widely known to the public than it was. The
means of transit were safe, speedy, and economical, and if people
would take into consideration how much profit the great section of the
public which now spent its time and wasted its money on the Riviera
every winter, more particularly at Monte Carlo, would derive from
passing a similar length of time in Ceylon — that they could economize
by travelling on anyone of the numerous lines of steamers that
connected this country with that island, and there was no way of living
so economical as on a steamship — if the public would only realise and
carry out that idea as widely as possible they would benefit themselves
to an enormous extent, and they would benefit Ceylon. Incidentally
they might even do a little good to the P. & 0. Company, but that
was the last thing he thought of in connection with a great public
interest of this kind. He desired to thoroughly endorse Mr.
Ferguson's wish that the British public should be brought more into
contact with that marvellous spirit of the East, which was so splendidly
18
cxxxviii Oetjlon in 190B.
shown in Ceylon and which was at the same time so fascinating and so
impossible to describe.
Sir John Gkinlinton, in seconding the vote of thanks, said Mr.
Ferguson had given them the result of more than thirty years'
experience of Ceylon, and though he was there even before Mr.
Ferguson it was impossible for him to add anything to what he had
said. Mr. Ferguson had referred to the lighting of Colombo, and he
must admit it had not been perfect, inasmuch as the municipal revenues
had not, in the past, been large enough to admit of a greater^number
of lamps, but within the last ten days a telegram had been received
saying that the municipality had arranged to increase the number of
lamps, and they were to be of the incandescent type, so that the town
would soon be lit much better than many large English cities. The
great prosperity of Ceylon was attributable to the advent "'of the
planter, to the work which had been done in coffee and tea,iand to the
effect of the admirable laws which existed under which everybody
lived, European and native. The secret of the success of the British
Empire throughout the world was the equity of its laws, and he was
.quite certain there was not a single native in Ceylon who would"not as
soon, or sooner, be tried by an English judge than by one of his own
people.
The vote of thanks having been passed unanimously,
^ Mr. Ferguson, in reply, expressed his gratification at the meeting
being presided over by the Chairman and representative of a company
whose name was a household word in England. The P; & 0.
Company, which started as the Oriental Company in the Mediterranean,
had developed and enlarged its borders to an enormous extent, and,
though there were other companies of a similar character, it still
represented the British commerce and home life to those in the East
in a way no other company could do.
Sir Chaelks. Kennedy, K.CM.G., C.B., expressed on behalf of the
Society his great satisfaction at the success of that inaugural meeting
of the section. They had begun the meetings of that section in the
most auspicious manner. They were pleased to have as a Chairman
one who both personally and also as representative of that great
company which it would be found when the history of these latter years
came to be fully written had done very much to promote British im-
perial and commercial interests, and to promote the welfare and com-
fort of the large number of passengers who travelled by its steamers.
Sir Henry Trueman Wood writes : —
" I was sorry that the length of the discussion on his paper prevented
me from keeping my promise to Mr. Ferguson to say something
PART OP GALLB HARBOUR.
Old and New Colombo, cxxxix
about his proposal that the British Association should be invited to
meet in Ceylon. The suggestion is an important one and ought to be
carefully considered, not only with reference to a meeting in Ceylon
but with regard to the larger question of meetings of the Association
outside the limitg of the United Kingdom. Up to the present only two
such meetings have been held— one at Montreal in 1884 and the other
at Toronto in 1897. But there is, I think, no real reason w'hy the
work of the Association should not be extended over the whole of the
Empire. Of course there are difficulties, but these will disappear.
When it was proposed to hold a meeting in Canada, the idea was'
scouted as im'pi:acticable. It has since been found to be perfectly easy.
No doubt the difficulties increase with the distance, but as they jeere
overcome in the first instance as regards Canada, so they oughtto be
overcome with regard to the more distant portions of the Empire.
" The most important point is to secure a fit representation of British
Science. It must be remembered that the Association consists largely
of two classes— men of science who do the work, and the more
numerous members who, taking an interest in scientific matters, haye
joined at the difEerent towns where the meetings have been held. This
numerous and important class supplies the funds which the Asspoiatjon
is enabled to devote to research purposes ; but those who compose it
cannot in any sense be regarded as representative men of science. No
meeting can be successfully held unless a sufficient attendanceof the
former class is secured. As a rule, men of science are not men of
wealth or men of leisure. It is only those who have retired from the
active pursuit of their professions who can ever expect to get a three
months' holiday in any year, and that amount of time would certainly
be required for a visit to Colombo, not to say, to Sydney or to
Melbourne. A very large proportion of the workers of the Association
belong to the professorial class. It is, of course, hopeless for them to
think of getting away for months at a time, especially in the winter,
the only suitable time for meetings in many of our colonies, nor as a
rule can they afford so costly a trip.
"But if there is evidence of a desire among colonial men of science
that they should have meetings of the Association in their own
countries, and the Council of the Association can have sufficient
evidence of this.disire, they ought, I thiiik, to consider the matter
carefully and try if they cannot elaborate a scheme by means of which
the operations of the Association should be extended through the whole
of the Empire. If it seems likely that a sufficient number of well-
known scientific men would be willing to go to the Antipodes for
a meeting, then let a meeting be organised at the Antipodes. If but
cxl Geylon in 1903.
a small number of scientific missionaries could be relied upon, then a
solution might be found in the organisation of simultaneous or supple-
mentary meetings of the Association which could be held without
interfering with the regular sequence of the meetings in England. It
is a grievance which is felt by many, especially of the older members
of the Association, who are unable or disinclined to undertake foreign
expeditions, that the regular sequence of meetings in England should
be broken by holding meetings in distant parts of the Empire.
" I would venture, therefore, to express the hope that if invitations
are received from Ceylon and from other portions of the Empire, the
Council of the Association will appoii.t a Committee with a view to
the preparation of a scheme by which the limits of the Association's
regular work should be enlarged, and arrangements should be made
for holding meetings in Colonial as well as in British cities. It would,
in most cases, I imagine, be possible to get together a suflficient number
of representatives of the different sections of the Association to enable
such meetings to be organised, and they could not fail to do good by
bringing Colonial scientific meu and scientific institutions more closely
into touch with the institutions and the men of the mother-country.
In the meantime I hope that Mr. Ferguson will continue his efforts,
and that the result of his labours may, at all events, be that the Asso-
ciation will receive a formal invitation to hold a meeting at such an
extremely attractive centre as Colombo would appear to be."
Ceylon in 1899. cxli
APPENDIX V.
CEYLON IX 1899.
By John Feeguson, Esq. (af Colombo).
Bead at a Meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute held at the Whitehall
Rooms, HStel Metropole, on Tuesday, November 7, at 8 P.M.,
Sir Cecil Clbmenti Smith, G.O.M.G., in the Chair.
-In the spring of 1892 I had the honour of lecturing before the Royal
Colonial Institute on "Ceylon : Its Attractions to Visitors and Settlers,"*
and in April, 1896, Mr. Justice Clarence, in connection with the celebration
of the centenary of British rule, read a Paper on " One Hundred Years of
British Rule in Ceylon."f It may be asked what has ooctirred during the
interval to justify a third Paper, even on the first and most progressive of
Crown Colonies. And, in reply, I can only say that a few years often
make a marked difference either for good or evil in the condition of a
tropical Colony ; that, in the case of Ceylon, the latter part of the decade
now closing has witnessed special progress in nearly every branch of
Administration connected with the island. It has seen a great spread of
education (almost the beginning of technical instruction) ; of social and
sanitary improvement and of material prosperity among the native popula-
tion ; an increase of irrigation and other public works ; a re-organization
of the Civil Service; a new start in regard to surveys -topographical,
cadastral, trigonometrical, and archseologioal ; with the prospect at an
early date of an Agricultural Board, with a scientific staff and experimental
stations. We have had, in the closing years of the century, a rapid
extension of cultivation under the coconut and other palms, both by
natives and Europeans ; the full establishment of a great planting
enterprise, chiefly in the hands of Colonists, in tea, and subordinately in
cacao and cardamoms, with experiments in rubber-yielding trees and other
minor products. A new interest and much additional activity in mining,
especially in plumbago, our one mineral, so far of commercial importance;
and, consequent on all this, but especially on the rise in tea-planting,
a marked advance in the trade and revenue of the island. Then, again,
great progress has been made in the harbour works (with the addition of
a first class graving dock) which are to make Colombo one of the best
* Proceedings, Royal CoUnial Institute, Vol. XXIII., p. 209.
t Ihid, Vol. XXVII., p. 314.
cxlii Geylon in 1903.
equipped and most convenient, as it is already the most central, port in
eastern waters between Asia and Australasia, and between China and Bast
or South Africa. Still further, there has been a revival of activity in
respect of railway extension, so that after witnessing the completion of one
of the grandest and most profitable mountain railways in the world, we are
now on the eve of extensive works — both on the existing broad and on a
very narrow gauge— which, whatever may be thought of them in design
and detail, cannot fail to exercise much influence on the future of the
Colony, more especially in regard to districts as yet untouched by European
enterprise, and, unfortunately, very little occupied by the natives.
We have here, then, a considerable catalogue of topics that may fairly be
brought before you this evening. But, before doing so, I think it well to
refer, in the briefest possible manner, to a few of the salient facts connected
with the development of the island.
The Planting Enterprise,
Following the pioneer, Mr. Geo. Bird, General Sir Edward Barnes dis-
tinguished himself by encouraging systematic coffee cultivation, by
opening a plantation of his own near Peradeniya. That was in 1825 ; but
it was not till 1837 that a considerable impetus was given to the industry
through the introduction of the West Indian mode of cultivation by a
young Aberdonian, Bobert Boyd Tytler, who had learned in Jamaica, and
who, many years after, became the pioneer in cacao cultivation. I am not
going to dwell on the wealth and trade which the great coffee industry
brought to the island. Doubtless Ceylon proved the grave of many British
sovereigns ; but the money spent so freely benefited vast numbers of the
native Sinhalese and Tamils, and the numbers of roads and bridges,
villages, and even towns, which sprung up where all had been waste land
and jungle, and the way in which native cultivation followed that of the
European planter, attested to the great change wrought through the
influence of "coffee " throughout the mountain zone of Ceylon. With the
energetic administration of Governors Sir Henry Ward, Sir Hercules
Robinson, and Sir William Gregory, the export of coffee by 1877 rose to a
million cwt., worth, in the markets of Europe, between four and five
millions sterling. I need not give more than a sentence to the decline and
fall of this great industry, or to the ten years' conflict of the planters with
the leaf fungus, which wrought such widespread ruin, and drove away 400
to 500 of the European planters to seek new scenes of labour. From 800
to 900, however, remained at their posts, and, by the strictest economy, with
the aid of cinchona cultivation as a bridge, they carried on until the day
came that tea, a much hardier plant, was found to grow where coffee had
failed, and indeed to have a sphere so wide that from sea-level to close on
7,000 feet, it is found to flourish, where soil and rainfall are favourable,
and, if allowed, would no doubt " flush " or crop well on the top of Adam's
Peak or Pidurutalagala. In respect of tea, again, I am not going into
Ceylon in 1899. cjiliii
detail ; but I muat mention that among the pioneers of the canchona and tea
era, the Colony cannot forget the names of G. D. E. Harrison and W.
Martin Leake (and their manager, the late James Taylor), the late A. M.
Ferguson, and Sir G-raeme Blphinstone. Nor should the special aid given
from the Royal Botanic Gardens at Peradeniya and Kew, through the late
Drs. Thwaites and Trimen, be overlooked. The former first sounded the
alarm about the coffee fungus, while he urged attention to cinchona and
tea ; and Dr. Trimen did more than any other to encourage the cultivation
of cacao, now an important subsidiary industry, just as his successor, Mr.
Willis, is doing so much for the planting of rubber-yielding trees.
The rise of Ceylon from a mere military dependency to be the first of
Crown Colonies is demonstrably due to the enterprise which, Sir Henry
Ward and Sir Wm. Gregory acknowledged, gave them the surplus revenue
which they were enabled to devote to Hospitals, Schools, Public Works,
including irrigation tanks all over the island. As a present member of the
Civil Service has well put it : —"The well-being of the native, the success
of the civilian, the efficiency of the Government, are bound closely up with
the good fortune of the planting industry. For the sinews of Ceylon are
represented by her customs and railways, the two sources of revenue which
are most closely affected by the ruin or success of the planter." Between
1837 and 1877 the general revenue of Ceylon increased from i to 17
millions of rupees, and then it fell, by 1883, with the decline of coffee, to 12
millions, and no Colonial Governor had ever a harder task — discharged
most manfully and with marvellous success — than fell to Sir Arthur
Gordon, during his six years of office, in keeping up a progressive adminis-
tration, and the credit of the Colony, so as to secure railway extension and
irrigation works, in spite of extremely limited nieans. His successor reaped
a splendid harvest of revenue from the rapid spread of "tea," so that Sir
Arthur Havelock saw the revenue rise to 21 millions of rupees ; while our
present ruler. Sir West Ridgeway, has already 25 millions to deal with, or
considerably more than double the maximum controlled by Sir Hercules
Robinson when he administered Ceylon.
I may as well here indicate a few of the statistics bearing on the above
revenual development. The export trade in Ceylon tea began in 1873 with
23 lb. By 1 879 it rose to 100,000 lb. ; in 1889 to' 3i, 000,000 lb. ; and 1899 wiU
probably show a total export of 125,000,000 lb. There are now of all ages
about 380,000 acres, including native gardens, cultivated with tea ; and were
it not for the check given by fixing the value of the rupee at li'. id. (a
blessing in disguise to planters, as discouraging over-production) we should
ere now have seen 400,000 or more acres covered with our staple product.
Many of us hoped that the Indian Currency Commission would have com-
promised by selecting Is. M. as the value of the rupee, and in the interests
of the general development of India and Ceylon this would have been better.
But, considering 'how very gradually, though surely, Indian and Ceylon
tea is getting into consumption in &e United States, Russia, and the rest
of the Continent of Europe, it may, as I have said, be just as well that for
cxliv Ceylon in 1903.
sometime to come we should be content with having attained practically
our maximum production of tea in Ceylon.
When the very commendable efforts of the planters, by means of a self-
imposed cess, to advertise their teas in the United States, and, more recently,
throughout the Continent of Europe, take fuller effect, there will he room
for a greater outturn from Ceylon. A good deal of progress has been made
in North America, and there are promising openings, I am glad to learn
from a City friend, in several parts of South America, where Ceylon begins
to take the place of Mate tea. Much is expected from the Paris exhibition
next year, where the Ceylon Court and Tea, as well as other products, will be
greatly in evidence ; and you. Sir (addressing the Chairman), will preside
over a Commission having the interests of the Colony at heart. Altogether no
effort is being spared by the producers and by many merchants to bring
their pure, wholesome teas, carefully prepared in factories equipped with
the latest and best machinery and other appliances, under the notice of
likely consumers in all parts of the wcrld. The direct trade to countries
other than the United Kingdom fostered by Public Sales in Colombo was
represented last year by a total of 2.Si million pounds against 96 million
pounds to London, and the proportion has been well maintained — indeed,
improved — during the present year.
It goes without saying that the tea plant has enemies, and much has
lately been heard of fungoid blights which have for many years damaged
tea in Assam. It must never be forgotten, however, that tea is a far
hardier plant than coffee, and its crop is one of leaf, not of fruit, with
chances extending over nine out of twelve months in the year, in place of
only one or two gatherings of coffee cherries. Tea can be pruned down, and
all affected portions burnt in a very complete way, without much loss of
time in cropping. So far as I can judge, therefore, with the attention
henceforward to be given to pests and to judicious liberal Icultivation, the
tea industry of Ceylon in the large majority of districts and estates is a
stable, reliable enterprise for many years to come.
Minor Products.
Turning to some of the other estate products there is cacao cultivation
which, begun, practically, some twenty years ago, now covers 23,000 acres
in Ceylon, the export rising from 10 cwt. in 1878 to 37,000 in 1898, while it
promises to exceed 40,000 cwt. in the present year. There is no prospect of
this product being overdone in Ceylon, the area of rich sheltered land
suited to its cultivation being very limited.
We have next Cardamoms— a spice for which there is a special demand
in the Indian Presidency towns as well as in Europe. Some 6,000 acres are
planted with cardamoms on Ceylon plantations, the export rising from
16,000 lb. in 1880 ta 531,473 lb. last year.
For poor old coffee there is little or n«» hope of revival in Ceylon, and from
the million cwt, of the " seventies " the export fell to a little over 13,000 owt.
Ceylon in 1899. cXlv
last year ; but in 1899 there appears to be an increase, though it can only
be temporary ; for the Liberian variety does not seem to succeed any more
than the Arabian.
The brief record of cinchona planting in Ceylon is a thing by itself > full
even of romantic interest. Dr. Thwaites did all in his power to make Sir
Cletnent Markham's historic expedition to the Andes a practical success, so
far as Ceylon was concerned ; but at first ottr planters scorned the idea of
cultivating a medicinal plant ! A few, however, listened to the good old
botanist, and-gave his Succirubras and Offieinalis a trial as avenue trees, or
in corners as shelter belts. When these were successfully tested and coffee
had failed, there commenced a rush into cinchona all over the hill country,
and with continuous groves in many cases proprietors thought they were on
the road to fortune ; but, alas ! an export of little more than a million lb.
in 1880, when quinine was Vis. the ounce, was followed in 1884, and
following years by 12, 13, and 15 million lb., and the quinine value came
tumbling down to 1*. id. an ounce, at which rate it did not pay to harvest
the bark in Ceylon. Lately there has been some revival in price, and the
export being very low, less than a million pounds last year, it is thought
cultivation may prove profitable if judiciously carried out in favourite
districts.
There has, of course, been an element of romance running right through
the history of planting in Ceylon — from the early days when young men
went out on a four or five months' voyage round the Cape to supervise the
clearing of jungle in the hill country. They lived often far remote from
neighbours, while district roads and bridges were as yet unknown, and food
supplies scarce and often difiScnlt to get. But the time came when
prosperous plantations were dotted over successive districts, and cosy
bungalows invited consorts from the old country, and brothers began to get
out their sisters who eventually got exchanged ! In the dark days of
depression the ladies took their full share in the brave struggle, and the
reward came with the success of tea in a country thoroughly opened up
with roads and railways, doctors and hospitals, churches and clergymen
tennis, golf, and cricket grounds, and a most enjoyable climate over a large
portion of the highlands of Ceylon. Many of the coffee planters who had
left us [returned, and noW we number nearly 1,600 on tea and cacao
plantations.
Native Agricultural Industry.
But I must now turn to native agricultural industry, and first as to rice,
which has been grown as far back as history extends in Ceylon, and there
is no doubt that the destruction of tanks by the Tamils led to a woeful
contraction of cultivation. But so far back as trading records exist, Ceylon
has been dependent on India for part of its supply. There was no attempt
to restore irrigation works by the Portuguese or Dutch, or until " coffee "
gave a surplus revenue, and then Governor Ward, followed by Sir Hercules
Kobinson, Sir William Gregory, and Sir Arthur Gordon, did much to.
19
exlvi Oeylon in 1903.
promote an extended industry in rice growing by reetoring large tanks and
reviving village communities, so that the maintenance of channels and even
the repair of the smaller tanks could be done by the people interested, the
Government providing sluices and engineering supervision. A check on
this commendable work took place when the paddy rents were abolished in
1892, it being vainly thought by some that freedom from this immemorial
levy, together with the " protection " of a ten per cent, import duty on
Indian rice, would lead to greater industry on the part of the natives and
to increased production ; but there is no sign of this (save in one interesting
experiment under European direction), and the importation of Indian rice,
in place of falling off, has steadily increased during the past seven years.
Our present Governor, Sir West Ridgeway, however, took in hand the re-
organization of the Irrigation Department last year, and with a free hand
given to an able and experienced officer, Mr. Henry Parker, we may expect
to see some notable results in which, perhaps, other cultivation besides rice
may share.
I may next refer to the second great branch of planting in Ceylon, and
the one more particularly in the hands of the Ceylonese of all races and
classes, namely, that of palms, and notably of the coconut, palmyra, areoa
and betel palms, and with this I may couple the cultivation of cinnamon
and of certain fruits and vegetables. It is a singular fact that so little is
made of the coconut and of cinnamon in the old native annals — of the latter
especially because there can be no doubt of the spice being indigenous to
Ceylon, as evidenced by the wild cinnamon trees in the central jungles
With very few exceptions, Sinhalese own all the cinnamon gardens ; and
the same is true of the larger proportion of the coconut palm estates and
gardens in Ceylon, though Tamils, Moormen, Eurasians, and Europeans are
all found among the proprietors of this favourite branch of cultivation.
The coconut must have originally floated to the shores of Ceylon from its
native habitat in the Eastern Archipelago, and its first growth in the
Southern Province is associated with the legend of the Kusta Rajah, or
leprous king, who benefited by drinking the milk of this new tree.
Gradually the cultivation extended round the coast. The Dutch, by a
system of forced labour, compelled the villagers between Colombo and
Kalutara to plant up certain tracts of country with this valuable palm.
In British times not much was added to cultivation before the middle of the
century ; but when the new enterprise in coffee brought money into the
hands of a host of native cart contractors, artificers, renters, and traders
of a;il the native races, the planting of coconut gardens became a favourite
mode of investment; and since 1861 I have watched the occupation, in
this way, of the Maha-oya valley for 30 to 40 miles inland from Negombo,
and also the opening of new districts at Madampe, Chilaw, and Puttalam
in Kumnegala to the south of Batticaloa, and in different parts of the
Western, Central, and Southern Provinces. When coffee fell the extension
of coconuts nearly stopped, but, with the return of general prosperity
under tea, renewed activity has been observed in opening coconut land,
Ceylon in 1899. cxlvii
wisely encouraged by the sale of suitable Crown laud in several new districts
of late years ; even now if the food of the mass of the population as well
as the export trade is considered, it may be a question whether the
coconut palm is not the most important tree in Ceylon. During the past
40 years, I reckon, the cultivation has extended from 250,000 to about
600,000 acres with 50,000,000 of palms, yielding an annual crop of about a
thousand million of nuts, of which not more than one-third is exported in
the shape of coconut oil, coir fibre, copra or poonac, desiccated coconut
for confectionery, etc., iind nuts — the whole of this export being worth, in
a good year, about 1,000,OOOZ. sterling. The rest of the crop is utilised tor
the food of the people, apart from a certain number devoted to the
intoxicating spirit arrack and to sweet as well as fermented toddy. What
the coconut is to. the south, the palmyra is to the dry north of Ceylon, to
the Tamils of the Jaffna Peninsula and of Mannar, etc., and there can be
no good reason why this, cultivation should not be greatly extended in the
drier portions of the island.
I must dismiss the other palms, fruit and vegetable cultivation, of the
island in a word. Betel-nuts are exported to a value of £60,000 to £70,000.
No doubt the day will come when a trade in preserved fruit will spring up
between Ceylon (as it has already done between Singapore) and Europe.
It is the custom now-a-days to despise Oriental fruits as wanting in flavour.
Maoaulay, writing from Calcutta, said he had seen no fruit on his table he
would not readily exchange for a pottle of strawberries in Covent Garden;
bub those who have enjoyed a really good "rupee" mango in Ceylon or
India (or a feast of mangosteens) will scarcely condemn all Eastern fruit,
hut may rather believe the story of the Duke of Wellington feasting on the
first mangoes sent from -Bombay to the Queen's table, he being the only
gentleman present acquainted with a fruit which he had often enjoyed
thirty years earlier when in India !
Altogether we reckon that 3^ million acres are cultivated or utilised as
pasture land out of a total of 15,800,000 acres in the island. There is, there-
fore, plenty of room for expansion with some at least of the existing and with
new products. Many of the intelligent natives are full of enterprise in
extending' palm, banana, and other favourite products when land is made
available, and they often only want a lead in regard to trying new plants.
Still, in most cases — in regard to growing rice, fruit, and vegetables— moral
(or may I say official) pressure, to say the least, has to be put on Sinhalese
and even indigenous Tamils to get them to utilise advantages within their
reach. The influence of the headmen on the ordinary villagers is great, and
that of the civil servants — as the medium of natives honours — is paramount.
But some continuous system of agricultural improvement is required, and
this, I am glad to think, is likely to be established as the result of a Com-
niission appointed by the present Governor. An Agricultural Board,
including representative members of all races and classes, is likely to be
the. outcome, and this-, under the direct eye of the Governor, may be
cxiviii Geyton in 1903.
expected to do much for tlie improvement of old, and the development of
new, industries, such, for instance, as pepper growing, which, under the
Dutch, was an important industry in several native districts, I should
like to see cadets for the revenue service get a training at an Agricultural
College in England for a year or two, as is done, I believe, with civil
servants intended for Java ; because it often happens now that a district
officer, who has taken a warm interest in native agriculture and live stock,
is succeeded by a man who never rides about, cares nothing a,bout agricul-
tural improvement, and does not know anything whatever about live stock,
in which the property of many of the rural Sinhalese find Tamils largely
consists ; and so he neglects or abandons experiments set agoing by his
As an adjunct to the Agricultural Board, the Scientific Staff at the
Peradeniya Botanic Gardens is, I believe, to be enlarged, so that, besides the
present capable Director, Mr. Willis, and his practical assistants (Messrs.
Nock and Macmillan) there will be a thoroughly trained entomologist
(Mr. B. B. Green already appointed) ; a mycologist, cryptogamist, or fungo-
logist^-I do not know which term is preferable— to be sent out shortly
from England ; and an analytical chemist, at present represented by Mr.
Kelway Bamber, who is in a fair way to remain for a number of years in
Ceylon. It may be thought that such a staff will be chiefly available for
industries in European hands, but that would be a great mistake.
Already Mr. Green has done good service to rice-growers in advising about
their enemy, the paddy weevil. The palms l;ave their enemies, about which
a, good deal has yet to be learnt. Many natives are interested iu cacao and
tea, and many more are likely to try rubber-tree planting when the Euro-
pean pioneers of the 1,600 acres already planted in Ceylon have be-'un
to. show profitable returns. A reproach of long standing against
Ceylon, of being so far behind Java in respsct of a scientific staflf
to assist agriculture, is thus in a fair way to be removed, and Mr.
Chamberlain is likely to have the felicity of sanctioning the appointment
erf an Agricultural Board in Ceylou on the recommendation of Governor
Sir V^est Ridgeway, just as he has recently appointed an Imperial Agricul-
tural Department for the West Indies, headed by Dr. Morris, C.M.G., so well
known for good work in Ceylon and at Kew.
Before leaving the subject of agriculture and planting, I may be allowed
to mention that what seems a fair, if not moderate, estimate of the value
of the whole of such property in Ceylon, works out .to a total of £15,500 000
and when the time comes for getting rid of the present abnormal;
one-sided, and unjust tax on imported rice imd other food stuffs, aud iadead
for going a long way towards making Colombo a free port— so thai; it may
still further share the great prosperity of the sister port of Singapore
—there should be little difficulty in raising, by means of a general land-levy:;
a sum equal to the deficiency so created in the customs. As an indispen-
sable preliminary to such readjustment of taxation, Sir West Ridgeway has
■■ t 1)
(Ceylon in 1899. cxlix
already promised a Commission to consider the Incidence of Taxation ; and
although action on the report of such a body (even when made) could not
well be taken till after the cadastral survey of the island is further
advanced, still it is well to make a start in the proper direction, and
to look forward to the day when a more equitable collection of taxes
for the Ceylon administration, after the pattern set in India, can be
attained. Ever since 1892 there has been a growing conviction among
observant officials, as well as other residents of experience, that the million
of rupees given up by the Government in the land paddy or rice levy has
not gone to benefit the mass of cultivators or poorer class of Sinhalese and
Tamil agriculturists, but has passed mainly into the pockets of well-to-do
landowners, money-lenders, and other niiddlemen ; while it has been
clearly proved that the remaining customs rice-tax is a heavy burden
on the poorest class of townspeople, a.s well as on the estate coolies, who
have nothing but imported rice to look to.
My space will not allow me on this occasion to enter on the import ant
Plumbago mining industry, further than to say that the export (likely to
be 600,000 cwt. this year) has very largely increased, owing to the price in
England and America trebling during the past few years. The promised
geological survey to begin in 1900 will do much to develop this industry
as well as gem digging ; and we want science (zoologists) also to help us
in regard to our pearl-yielding oysters, of which no fishery has been had for
several years.
The mention of zoology reminds the of certain branches of Ceylon trade
connected with its fauna : the export of elephants, for instance, and the
utilisation of tamed elephants in road, railway, and other public works.
There is no reason to believe that the number of wild elephants in our
jupgles in the south-east and north-eaet of the island is falling off, and in
the past thirty-six years no fewer than '2,800 elephants have been exported
from Ceylon of a nominal value of £80,000 ; but in reality worth three
times that amount if they arrived safely at their destination, whether it be
a European or American menagerie, or more frequently a Rajah's court in
India. Hunting and fishing give employment to a large number of natives,
and the local trade in dried deer flesh, as also the export trade in horas and
skins, is a considerable one ; while a large portion of the food of the
maritime natives (as of the colonists) is obtained from the surrounding
ocean, largely by Buddhist fishermen, who tell you they do not kill the fish,
but only take them out of the water —they die of themselves ! Neverthe-
less, a considerable quantity of satt-fish has to be iinported for native Use
in Ceylon, showing there is great room for a local industry of the kind.
A G-ame Preservation Society, lately started by public-spirited planters and
a few officials, indicates the fear entertained of the indiscriminate slaughter
of deer— of which we have several species in Ceylon — going too far ; and
much good will be done for the benefit of the people, as well as of i sports-
men and Government, by the close seasons now ordained and other
measures of protection afforded.
cl Ceylon in 1903.
Of manufacturing or industrial pursuits, apart from agriculture and
mining, there is a singular lack in Ceylon. A good many . weavers' looms
(1,182 in all) are still worked in the Eastern and Northern Provinces. There
are 2,216 oil mills reported in the island, and twelve sugar mills still at
work in the Southern Province.
The People.
In considering the people of Ceylon I would say that a fair estimate
based on the experience of the last census and the impetus to immigration
of recent years, justifies my putting the present population of the island at
no fewer than 3,400,000, of whom 2,250,000 will be Sinhalese, 800,000
Tamils, 210,000 Moormen (Arab descendants), 11,000 Malays, 1,200 Vedd'i'^s
with 10,000 of various races, against about 25,000 Eurasians or European
descendants, and not more than 6,500 Europeans all told. Altogether in
Ceylon we have the representatives of some seventy races or nationalities,
so that our native streets and bazaars in the large towns present one of the
most varied and interesting assemblages of peoples to be seen anywhere on
the face of the globe. As to the advance in material prosperity of the
mass of the people during the past sixty years, I need only point to the
figures for population ; no community could increase as the Sinhalese and
Tamils of Ceylon have done without being blessed with material comfort,
peace, and good government. As an old and eloquent missionary has said:
" Were some Sinhalese Appuhami to arise, who had gone down to the
grave eighty years ago, and from that time remained unconscious, he
would not know his own land or people He would listen incredulously
when told there is no rajakariya, or forced labour, and no fish tax , and
that there are no slaves, and that you can cut down a cinnamon tree in
your own garden without having to pay a heavy fine."
Again the same writer has said that the improvement in the homes of
many of the people within his time was as great as the contrast between
a begrimed native chatty (clay vessel) and a bright English tea-kettle. ,
What the British Government has done in Ceylon (as in India) in the
maintenance of public health alone in medical treatment, hospitals
asylums, and dispensaries, in enforcing sanitary regulations, together with
provision for water supply in the chief towns, is beyond all praise; No
native ruler in Oriental history has any record of this kind to show, and
no feature of our administration is more acceptable to the natives than the
provision made through dispensaries and hospitals. In this connection
T must refer to the successful campaign fought by our present Governor,
his executive and medical officers, against the introduction of plague into
the island during the past two years. No doubt our proximity to the
wjuator, high rate of temperature, and large amount of sunshine have
much to do with our exemption ; but still these did not save Madras or
Southern India, and nothing but the constant watchfulness maintained at
Colombo and other ports prevented plague cases, with the bacilli which
Ceylon w 1899. eli
actually appeared in our harbours, from finding a lodgment ashore; and
spreading throughout the island.
As regards educjation the natives "of Ceylon owe a special debt oE
gratitude to the various missionary bodies at work in the island since 181i
for giving the first general impetus to the instruction of the people. The
Dutch Government, pastors, and teachers did a limited amount of work in
their day, but it was not till the time of Sir Hercules Robinson that the
British Government awoke to a due sense of its duty and endeavoured to
to meet the wants- of a rising generation. Even then teachers in the
vernaculars of the people could only be got from the mission schools.
Within the past thirty years a great advance has been made, and even the
Buddhists and Hindus have begun to take advantage of the admirable and
equitable system of grants-in-aid provided by the Government. We are ten
times further advanced in public instruction in Ceylon than in India, but
still only one child in 6 or 7 of a school-going age is being instructed, so
that much remains to be done. Let it never be forgotten that female
instruction in India and Ceylon was unheard of until the present century.
In making liberal grants for public instruction, the present Government of
Geylon has given special attention to technical and industrial teaching and
training. A technical college, as lately remodelled, is doing good practical
work, while a reformed agricultural school with experimental stations is
to form part of the scheme under the new Agricultural Board.
In this connection I may be permitted to refer to the improved appear-
ance of our Ceylonese youth, in the towns especially, under the influence of
Western instruction and athletic training. In the favourite English game
of cricket many of them greatly excel, and there can be no doubt that
public money expended in training and maintaining a Volunteer Infantry
Corps, while providing a useful body for supplementary defence, has done
much to improve the physique and bearing of many of our young men.
Detachments of Volunteer Artillery and " Mounted Infantry ""are composed
of patriotic Colonists, so that, so far as internal peace is concerned,
the British Infantry Regiment now stationed in Ceylon can at any time be
spared for service in South Africa, and can be readily transferred from
Colombo to Durban. The Colony pays a very considerable military
contribution to the Imperial Government, and lately some sharp criticism
has been locally applied to the mode and amount of levy ; but no Colony
is more loyal or attached to the British Grown, or more ready to make
sacrifices in any time of the Empire's need, if such chould arise, than the
first of Crown Colonies, Ceylon.
One of the most practical reforms introduced by the present Governor of
Celyon has been a reorganization of the Civil Service, by which not only
have the position and prospects of a body of honourable cultured public
servants been improved, but greater efficiency of administration has been
secured. This is an important matter, for there can be no doubt of the
confidence reposed by the mass of the people in our revenue and judicial
oflioers, and it is greatly owing to their labours that the Sinhalese and-
clii Geylon in 1903,
Tamils are now in so advanced and contented a position. Some visitors
have written of Java as the model Colony, pointing to the unequalled
comfort and submission of the Javanese natives. This is very. much
accounted for by the Dutch Govei-nment denying to the natives the equal
rights and opportunities for education and advancement which are open to
the Ceylonese as to Her Majesty's subjects everywhere in the British
Empire. Still further, Sir West Ridgeway's experience of- the Indian and
home services has been utilised with beneficial effect to place the Sutvey
Department of thfe Colony on an entirely new footing — a departure which,
with an increased staff and far more systematic arrangements, is likely to
give us the topographical, -cadastral, and trigonometrical surveys of
the island within a reasonable period of time, and so to enable long-
delayed fiscal and administrative reforms to take effect.
Something has also been done to stir up the Public Works Department of
the Colony, but without the same measure of success, for I believe it is a
fact that, with abundance of labour available and every encouragement
from the Executive, this body, year by year, does not overtake the money
voted for useful and often urgent public works. There is evidently room
for inquiry, and possibly for weedinsf out incompetent, while properly
encouraging and rewarding really efficient, oiBcers in this department.
AdministeatiojSt op Justice and Crime.
An attempt has recently been made in a portion of the Loudon as of the
local press to cast discredit on the administration of justice, and to hint
that life and property are not properly protected in Ceylon. There is, in
my opinion, no justification for sweeping statements of this kind, and I
think the vast majority of Colonists— especially of the older residents — as
of intelligent Ceylonese, will bear me out in this view. I am far from
spying that our police and judiciary are perfect, or that the laws need no
improvement — some people think we have too much " law," and it is a fact
that no people on the face of the earth are fonder of litigation than many
of the Sinhalese. Indeed, villagers in Ceylon seem, in too many
cases, to regard the British law courts established in their midst
as affording a laudable means of spending a considerable portion
ot their time, and many cases in court are started with no
desire of settlement, but by repeated postponements to secure a holiday trip
with relatives and friends from time to time, while, owing to the subdivi-
sion of property under the Roman-Dutch law, litigation is sometimes carried
on about the fractional part of a few coconut palms or other fruit trees.
An improved and simple system of registration following perhaps on the
cadastral survey, which is being energetically pushed on, will be the best
check on the many land cases and disputes now prevalent, and will also
put the vexed question of waste lands on a proper footing. No impartial
person, acquainted with the native propensity to trespass on Crown and
even private property, and with the advantage that can be taken of native
ignorance by speculators of their own or European race, can say that the
Ci'j/lon in \>i'^'^. cliii
action taken by the present G-overament is otherwise than reasonable a;ttfl
jilsti and in the best inteteats of the people themselves in endeavouring to
secure a speedy adjustment of claims to forest, chena, waste, and unoccupied
lands. The Supreme Court found fault with some technical points— sinije
correoted-rin the original legislative enactment, but its principle has been
most generally approved, and for the administration of the law two of the
most qualified and reliable members of the service (true friends of the
natives) have been chosen. As regards the general policy of the Ceylon
Groverntaent towards the natives, I need only mention that, in the past
thirty years, free grants have been issued, after inquiry, for 40,000 acres to
the people, while a large extent has been granted at half value and a still
lai^gcr area of clearly proved encroachments has been transferred at a
moderate valuation. I have the utmost confidence in the two officials—
Meesrs. Lewis and Booth— who are working under the Ordinance; they are
sure to give careful consideration to all hnnS,fidi>. individual or village claims,
while at the same time firmly resisting dishonest claims and land jobbing.
Returning to the admitted prevalence of crime in certain districts of
Ceylon, I am among those who attribute it largely to the spread of two
great evils, the drinking of arrack and other intoxicating drinks and
gambling. Oertaih reforms in the administratiou of the arrack monopoly are
.urgently required, and some I have formally placed before the Government,
as also for checking the spread of an opium habit among a people who never
grew, and until this century never used, opium. The hasty use of the knife
in quarrels Is one of the weaknesses of the rural Sinhalese, and various
remedies have been proposed. The most efiicient, in my opinion, for this
^nd similar serious crimes would be banishment to the Andaman Islands —
the Indian penal convict station. Nothing (not even hanging). is more
abhorrent to the Sinhalese Buddhists than transportation across the seas
into penal servitude.
It is a striking fact that serious crime is most rampant where ignorance
and Buddhism most prevail, and where arrack-distilling is carried on.
Recognizing that the prompt administration of justice is one of the first
necessities -of an advancing community and a deterrent of crime, I think
the time may be near — if it has not come — when a fourth judge should be
appointed to the Bench of the Supreme Court to aid in appeals and criminal
sessions, and for this post I have a very decided opinion that a senior- judi-
cial officer from the Oivil Service should be chosen, as is so freely done in
.India, On the whole, I think the jury system, as reai,odelled.of late years,
-works well in Ceylon, though it involves a vary heavy tax on Colonists
native pjrisoners invariably exercising the choice given to them, by asking
for an English (rather than a Sinhalese or Tamil) speaking- jury, which, of
coit);ge, includes a proportion of Europeans and Eurasians. • -
Haebour Works.
I must now turn to some of the. great public works whicbhave benefited
Qej^Ionrduring the present generation, and though .jrail-wajs should- come fir^,
cliv Geylon in 1903.
I will first, with your permission, speak shortly of the Colombo Harbour
Works. Designed by the late Sir John Coode, and since his lamented death by
his firm, Messrs. Coode, Son, and Matthews, these works (when completed, say
by 1902) are certain to constitute Colombo one of the largest and best pro-
tected harbours in the world, with an enclosed area of 600 acres, a first class
graving dock (half the cost of which is to be borne by the Admiralty), and
numerous other shipping conveniences. The total cost to the Colony from
first to last of harbour improvements, land reclamations, and docks is not
likely to be much less than £2,000,000; but the investment is fully justified
by the growing importance of Colombo as the great callit^ and coaling
port for mail and commercial steamers in the Indian Ocean, the total ton-
nage (inwards and outwards) having risen from 446,110 tons in 1869 — the
year in which the Suez Canal was opened— to 6,200,000 in 1898, while a
further steady addition may be anticipated, with the possibility, some years
hence, of the naval headquarters being transferred from Trincomalee to
Colombo when the graving dock is complete.
Railways.
I now turn to Railways. Sir Henry Ward gave the first great impetus
to railway construction in Ceylon ; but it was not till 18C7 that the Colombo
and Kandy line, seventy-four miles, was opened during the Government
of Sir Hercules Robinson, who extended it for seventeen miles, and then
proclainied his belief in his terminus Nawalapitiya spelling " Finality." In
the interests mainly of the Ilva planting divisions of the country, I began
a campaign in 1872 for railway extension from Nawalapitiya to Haputale.
which resulted in Sir James Longden getting sanction in 1878 for a first
division of forty-one miles through Dikoya and Dimbula, while not till
March 1888 did Governor Sir Arthur Gordon (after a series of very trench-
ant despatches) get sanction for the final twenty -five miles into Uva ; while
•the same indefatigable Governor arranged for the extension of Sir William
Gregory's seaside line to Galle and Matara and for the approval of a
Kurunegala 'extension, afterwards carried out by Sir Arthur Havelock.
Including the Matale branch of seventeen miles (made during the time of
Governor Gregory), the Colony has now 297 miles of first-class railway, 121
of which are the free property of the Colony, while the total income in
excess of charges and interest forms a most important part of the general
revenue. In this connection I may mention that the Dimbula-tTva
extension has well fulfilled the financial expectations of its advocates, not-
withstanding that, by an unfair system of accounting, the Departmental
Reports up to 1897 appeared to show that the Uva section was worked at
a loss. His Excellency Governor Ridgeway ordered .this to be rectified in
accordance with an appeal I personally ventured to make, and now the
traffic, properly divided, shows a very considerable and steadily growing
profit from this TJva extension, although justice has not yet been done in
opening feeding roads, one fully equipped railway station (Ambawel»)
"SENSATION rock" ON THE CEYLON RAILWAY INCLINE.
VIEW OF ALAGALLA PEAK FROM THE RAII^WAY ON
THE KADUGAXNAWA INCLINE.
he King of Kandy sometimes ordered criminals to ho flung fruni the tup
of this mountain as a mode of capital punishment.
Geyton in 189&. civ
having been left for c o fewer tlian six years without a cart road of any kind
leading to or from it.
■ In this connection I may be allowed to mention that some relaxation of
the ordinarily wise policy of reserving Crown lands above 5,000 feet, seems to
be required to enable portions, at least, of the waste land between Dimbnla
and Uva to be utilised, and so to yield traffic to the railway. It seems
anomalous for a locomotive line to run for some ten miles through waste
land, none of which.yields traffic. By-aud-by, by a system of leases with
conditions as to planting certain portions with timber trees for most of the
existing so-called "forest" i,« no more than scrub — it is possible that the
Patana, chena, and " forest " might be made available to private enterprise,
either for plantations or for a series of gardens for the cultivation of fruit
and vegetables for the Colombo market.
I now turn to the important revival of enterprise in Railway Extension
which has marked the administration of the present Governor of Ceylon.
Agitation for a; railway to Jaffna, the populous peninsula in the north of
the island, commenced some thirteen years ago ; but successive Commissions
of Inquiry could show nothing to justify action until early in 1897, a joint
CommisBion of officials and urofficials saw their way to recommend a light
broad-gamge exto sion from Kurnnegala to Anuradhapura, with a feeding
line on a 2 i -feet gauge from the latter town to Jaffna. Of this Governor
Eidgeway approved, and so recommended to the Secretary of State ; but
Mr. Chamberlain, acting, it is supposed, on the advice of the Oonsulting
Engineer, refused to make any change of gauge at Anuradhapura, and
decided that this Northern Railway must be on the broad gauge all the
way.
Realising; some years before that the home authorities were very unlikely
to sanction any northern extension scheme that involved a " break of
gauge," as they had always resisted that policy in respect of our taountain
line, I endeavoured to demonstrate the wisdom of crying " finality " for the
broad-gauge at Kurunegala. I pointed out to the late Sir C. Huttou
Gregory that the existing heavy traffic of the inland districts of Ceylon was
almost entirely served by the existing brOad-gauge system,' that the chief
problem now was how to send locomotive lines through the Northern and
eastern divisions of the island, and that, having regard to the absence ffll
hundreds of miles of both population and traffic, it would be wise to devise
the very simplest and cheapest form of locomotive line. In connection
with a proposal to unite the Indian and Ceylon railway systems rla Adam's
Bridge, fathered by Mr. Shelf ord and Sir George Bruce, I became a strong
advocate for starting afresh from Col«mbo on a metre-gauge up the western
coast, which for sixty miles had population and traffic — such a line passing
from Puttalam to Anuradhapura, to Jaffna, and eventually to Trincomalee
and perhaps Batticaloa. A new interest was later on given to the introduction
of a narrow-gauge, by the adoption of a 2 J-feet line by Sir West Ridgeway
(with Mr. Chamberlain's sanction) for a Colombo Kelani Valley Railway of
some fifty miles to traverse one of the most populous low-country districts
oivi Geyton in t903,
^through Cotta and AvisaWella) in the island, and with very'heavy plant-
ing traffic at several of its stations. The anomaly, therefore, became all the
greater of having a oj feet broad-gauge (more costly in working than in
first construction — a big waggon to do a wheelbarrow's work), through one
of the poorest districts in Ceylon north of Kurunegala, and for eighty
miles north of Anuradhapura, where there was no cultivation and where
none giving adequate results could be mentioned as capable of introduction
unl^s water by irrigation works was first provided. Accordingly steps
were taken in England to urge on Mr. Chamberlain, by deputation, the
advisableness of reaching the north by way of the west coast with a
smaller railway ; but the Secretary of State adhered to his decision for a
broad-gauge all the way from Kurunegala to Jaffna, or rather to the
northern port, Kangesanturai, of nearly 200 miles, involving a total cost
exceeding 11,100,000 rupees ; and (although part of this is to be taken from
surplus revenue), without much prospect of the working expenses, interest,
and sinking fund for the required loan being provided by the traffic for
many years to come.
Before I go further, let me admit that there is something to be said for a
broad-gauge to Anuradhapura and Mannar in view of the possible future
change of the South Indian line to I'aumben to the standard gauge, and
His BxcelleuoySir West Ridgeway has always been a firm be'iever in the
future connection of the railway systems of our island and the continent.
Had the broad-gauge been adopted only to Mannar, the feeding lines in the
north and east of Ceylon on the 2^ feet gauge could have been connected
through Puttalam with Colombo.
Resources op the Noeth-Centkal Pkovince.
But it is clear now that the time for speculation as to what should or
might be in regard to Railway Extension to the north is past, and we must
face the inevitable ; and although I have been among the most persistent
opponents of the policy adopted— a policy which, for the first time, sends a
Ceylon Railway for over 150 miles through -a, country almost devoid of
population and traffic — I am nevertheless now ready, as an old Colonist
with a warm interest in the land of my adoption, to make the best of what
must be, and to endeavour to find out how the evils anticipated may be
mitigated, and all possible advantages be ensured and, if possible,
strengthened. Our present Governor, it is understood, returns to Ceylon,
with instructions and full power to carry a locomotive line — a " light
broad-gauge railway " it is called — from Kurunegala to the extreme north
of the island forthwith. Every possible economy, I believe, is to be observed
both in the construction and the working of this line j there are to be no
extravagantly built stations, and old rolling-stock from the existing lines is,
as far as possible, to be utilised. I have been unable to get from practical
planters any encouragement as to the possible occupation and cultivation
of the country between ten miles north of Kurunegala and the neighbour-
hood of Anuradhapura. It is said to be too dry and poor for palm
^fi\^ I \i
o
o
(£
S
S
O
CO
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a
E-i
O
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o
Geyton in 1899. clvii
cultivation ; but I am glad to learn that certain Crown forests are likely to.
be benefited by this section, and that their value should be increased by it
There is first of all Kalugalla forest, said to cover 10,000 acres, and to
contain fine palu, ebony, and halmilla timber trees ; and next, before the.
railway enters the North-Central Province, it should touch the great reserve
known as Palekelle, of some 33,000 acres with ebony and halmilla. Our
present experienced Conservator of Forests (whose Indian training and
personal ability have in my opinion, met with rather scant o£Scial recogni-
tion in Ceylon) is, I believe, of opinion that the railway may foster the
development of an industry in charcoal- burning, according to the latest
approved methods. The demand for fuel is rising In Colombo, and charcoal
is easy of transport, and can, I am told, be made of very suitable fir^t-class
woods. As regards the North-Central Province, any one who travels along
the roads would be apt to think that the bulk of the country is " forest " ;
but in reality there is no more than a belt, and inside there is only low
chena or scrub, and only here and there are blocks of forest with palu, ebony,
and satinwood to be found. Once past Madawachchi, however, and into the
Northern Province, and we get again into good tiniber in ebony and satin-i
wood with the finest pain (a specially hard, durable wood), in the island.
Of course, what is really wanted to make these forests more valuable is an
increase of population and a consequent larger and cheaper supply of labov r
Whether the railway will induce this to come from what is generally
termed " overcrowded Jaffna," or whether coolies can be got from Southern
India, remains to be seen. At present, owing to the want of labour, forest
work is very expensive ; but undoubtedly this northern railway must have
a beneficial eSeot in regard to timber utilisation and forest managemeat.
Still, it will be a poor look-out if " timber " and charcoal should be the only
articles to look to for 150 miles or so until Jaffna is reached, And thi^
makes one deeply regret that the advice of an old missionary to the Tamils
(the late Rev. J. Kilner) given thirty years ago, was jjot adopted, Jle
advocated the planting of palmyra nuts alon:g the north road all the way
from Jaffna to SambuUa. If this had been attended to by the road coolies,
it must have cost very little, and avenues of this slow-growing but useful
palm— so well suited for a dry country — would have done much to induce
village settlements in this unoccupied land. I have just been reading of
the wonderful change the roadside cultivation of fruit trees has wrought
in the past twenty years in many parts of Europe, particularly in Belgium
Southern Germany, and France. In little Belgium alone, according tp
statistics for 1894, over 2,875 miles of roads planted witli 741,571 fruit trees
are yielding a very large value per annum. There may be a lesson here for
Ceylon, in the districts which we want occupied and opened up; but when
all is said, one thing must precede occupation and cultivation) and that is
a water supply, or means of securing water. It is, therefore, the opinion of
many thoughtful observers that irrigation works should haVe preceded
railway expenditure. But if it be true, as at present rumoured, that Mr.
Chamberlain has empowered the Governor of Ceylon to simultaneously go
clviii Ceylon in 1903.
ahead in these dry northern districts,' with a liberal restbratioi arid repair
of irrigation tanfes,.'a good deal' no doubt may be accomplished by the time
the Jaffna Kailway is opened.* ' Of course, the cultivation of rice, the staple
food of the people, now so -largely -imported, is the first consideration.
Some people think cotton should be profitably grown ; but with Tinnevelly
cotton at present abundantly produced at so cheap k rate, one is not
sanguine of much profit here. But I have what is perhaps a more startling
suggestion to make. It was my fortune to travel home this time from
Colombo with a fellow-countryman (a Scot from the far north) with largo
and varied experience in sugar cultivation — sixteen years in Demerara first,
and later ten years in the Straits Settlements — and he surprised me as to
the profitable nature of the crops of sugar now being grown in Penang,
although the yield per acre was far less than in Java ; and, further,that a
good market for all Ifee sugar produced was found in China, through
reliable CSiinese merchants buying the crop in advance on the spot. Con-
versation turned on waste land in Ceylon, and the north and east being
tef«pred to, iay friend, who represents large English capitalists, expressed
himself ^s resolved to visit the country to be traversed by this northern
railway. I have collected for him all the meteorological information
avaiislble, and embodied it for difierent stations along the route and for
others at the mouth of the Mahaweliganga, in a table which will be found
in an appendix to this paper. The question of rainfall is an all-important
one to the sugar cultivator ; but' at the same time, if irr^ation is made
available toBnpplement a deficient supply, the industry might do well.
Now, I am quite prepared for an incredulous smile as to sugar cultivation
eiver paying in Ceylon. It has been- tried, I will be reminded, and many
thousands of pounds sunk in the south, vrest, and centre of the island by
men of experience in Mauritius and elsewhere ; but all to no avail. Let
■me, however, recall the fact that, because of an unfortunate experiment by
the Messrs. Worms in the "■forties," it was firmly believedamong Ceylon
planters for thirty years that Tea cultivation could never be properly
carried on in the island I It is just possible, therefore, that, tried by skilful
men with all modern appliances and greatly increased experience, sugar
may still be found a profitable crop in some parts of our island, and not the
least in the North and East. ■ One advantage the pioneer cultivator ■would
have would be a local market with the protection of our present iifiport
duty. Ceylon imports at present as much as 100,000 cwt; of sugar, most of
which pays a customs duty of three rupees per cwt. Of course, a great
■^ Since ivrlting tte above, ucws lios'como from Ceylon that at the opening oJ the Legislii-
taie the ActlngiGovernor announcea that of a total of 50,640,000 rupees to he spent ou the
Jaffna, Kelani, and UcJapnssellawaKailways.anaon Irrigation ■Works, half must be proviciofl
from the General Revenue. This ■vriil mean an unfair bnrden, in my opinion, ou the
consumers of imported rice (who contribute largely to the surplus— rather less than half our
-people eating free rice, while more than half pay a customs tax), and it may seriously
■interfere with reproductive public works required to maintain the present prosperity of the
. slaud— the railway to luttulam being-one.
Cdylon in 1899. clix
atti-aotio? to any one beginning in Northern Ceylon would be the prosRect;
of a cheaper and steadier, labour supplythan can be commanded in the^
Straits. "
Competition in the labour market, whether by railway contractors or
sugar cultivators, will probably disturb the minds ,of our tea and other
planters ; but when it is remembered that there are some ten or twelve
millions of natives next door to us in Southern India never far from the
verge of scarcity, to whom two rupees a week per family of four (father,
mother, and two children) is contentment, there ought to be abundance of
coolies for all our work in Ceylon if proper agencies are used to secure and
import it. , .
I have only one further suggestion to make in this connection, and that is.
the need of fish culture in the tanks and even in the rice fields, not only in
the north but all over Ceylon. In Java I have it on good authority that
the native farmers reckon the " harvest " of fish gathered from their rice
fields as scarcely inferior in importance to that of the harvest of grain ;
while fish in tanks are fed jn Java with masses of hibiscus (or shoe) flowers
and pieces of oilcake.
Let me, an conclusion, repeat that the responsibility of saddling Ceylon
with this northern railway as designed is a serious gne, and that it must lie
with the Colonial Office rather than the local Government. - At the same
time, as it haste be, we must make the best of it and endeavour to devise'
means of mitigating loss and gradually securing a' profit, . As for the narrow,
locomotive line from Colombo to Kelani .Valley', there can be no doubt it
will pay handsomely from the first day of opening, and the same may be
said of the similar line likely- to be made simultaneously from Nanuoya
through Jfuwara Eliya to Udapussellawa. To secure still more railway pro--
fits and so to compensate for loss on the northern line, I would' strongly,
recommend the Government to extend the 2 J-feet line through the Northern
portion of the city of Colombo to Negombo and Chilaw and even td
Puttalam. Such a railway would pay handsomely on its own merits, woulct
serve a teeming, prosperous population on the first half, and would develop
much fresh coconut land along.its second section.
I must now draw this discursive account of recent and prospective
progress in Ceylon to an end. I hopel have left the impression that the
principal industries of the island are in a sound and promising condition ;
that the administration is decidedly progressive ; and that the people arc
advancing in comfort and intelligence. I know it is the opinion of its
present Governor, of leading Colonists and officials, that Ceylon only
requires to be better and more widely known to be still more appreciated.
Sir West BiJgeway, who came to us from the Isle of Man (anasland that'
prospers mainly through its visitors), fully sbaredthe opinionlong felt by
us I Id colonists that Ceylon ought to be regarded as a show-place for'
travellers from all parts of the globe. As a winter resort it has much to
rpoommend it, and yre )iave now the finest hotels iii the Eagt in ColoqibOi
clx Geylon in 1903.
Mount Layinia, Kandy, Hatton, Nuwara Eliya, Bandarawela, &c., with
every variety of climate between — as extremes — 90° and freezing point, but
in which snow and fogs are unknown. The sanatarium is being especially
made attractive, with a view to meeting the reqtnirements of visitors as well
as of local residents, and here nearly all home outdoor sports can be
enjoyed.
Conclusion.
In conclusion, may I briefly indicate what the ordinary visitor may
anticipate as likely to interest him in Ceylon ? The ancient and modern
names applied to the island raise high expectations when they include
Lanka the Resplendent, a pearl-drop on the brow of India, the Eden of the
Eastern Wave, and so on ; but they are fully justified when we find that,
from whatever side it be approached, Ceylon unfolds a scene of loveliness
unsurpassed if it be equalled by any other land in the universe. There is
no more interesting and beautiful town than the capital, Colombo, and the
vetriety of race and dress in its bazaars, and the delightful drives in its
" Cinnamon Gardens," never disappoint the stranger. Coco palms fringe the
shores until they seem to kiss the waves breaking over the coral reefs, and
each has its owner and often its mark, so that Dr. Norman MacLeod, when
he landed at Bombay, exclaimed : — " Oh, India, that the very hairs of thy
head should be numbered "! Inland, as the visitor travels by the comfort-
able railway train to Kandy, he may note cinnamon and fruit-tree culture;
a wide expanse of glistening rice-fields dotted with gardens and villages on
knolls surrounded by trees, in wiich the arrowy slender areoa and the
graceful kitul, jaggery or sugar palms may be noted ; while he may have
the good fortune to see that finest of tropical floral displays, a talipot palm
in flower (the palm which only flowers once in its life, after sixty to eighty
years of growth, sending a column of cream-coloured wheat-like blossom
some 20 feet above its own stem of 50 to 80 feet, which lasts for three
months and then the whole tree dies down).
As the visitor approaches the hills he will be enabled to mark the culti-
vation of cacao (the chocolate or cocao yielding plant) with its large
pendent scarlet pods, of Liberian oofEee with dark red cherries, possibly of
one or other of the india-rubber yielding trees, and even of tea. Climbing
the Kadugannawa Pass excites interest in ever- varying mountain and low-
land scenery, in the terraced rice-fields of the Kandyans, in the first glimpses
of the far-famed Boyal Botanic Gardens at Peradeniya, and in the approa-
ches to the uniquely beautiful and historically interesting little mountain
capital of Eandy. Then comes the farther railway trip to Matale and a
■«isit to the caves of Dambulla : the ancient rock fortress of Sigiri or the
buried cities of Anuradhapvra and Polonnaruna, with monuments of antl-
c[uity almost rivalling those o( Thebes, Or, starting fjrom Eandy upwards
.irjwiv LifM '
Geylonin 1899. olxi
by train, the visitor rises from Gampola and Nawalapitiya to Hatton,
whence an excursion can be made to the tOp of Adam's Peak, and an
unequalled view of the Peak's shadow and the country got from the summit;
while continuing in the train he passes thi-bugh the largest continuous
scene of tea cultivation in the world, the plantations of this evergreen
shrub being diversified by groves, belts', or shade of eucalypti, grevilleas,
and other introduced ornamental trees, while streams and waterfalls lend
life to the valleys, and cultivation is everywhere framed by the forest-clad
everlasting hills. Here Sir Samuel Baker hunted for eight years in his
youthful prime, when as yet there wassoaroely a single plantation between
G-reat Western and Adam's Peak, while now there are 300 tea estates, as
many planters, and some 150,000 coolies and dependent natives. Nuwara
Eliya is reached from Nanuoya in a short journey by coach (soon to be
superseded by rail), and from the Grand Hotel or Hill Club, the highest
mountain top in the island (8,296 feet) can easily be attained in a morning's
walk, while a drive to the Hakgalla Gardens is only second in interest to
the visit to Peradeniya. Continuing the railway jouruey from Nanuoya
(where a full mile in altitude above the sea has been attained) suoimit level
is reached at 6,210 feet, and soon after the grand Uva amphitheatre with
its rolling patanas and circlet of hill ranges bursts into view, and twenty
miles of a wonderful descent is made by the train. If so inclined the visitor
can pursue his journey by coach to BaduUa, and onwards by a good road to
the east coast at Batticaloa with its lake of singing fish, visiting the Veddahs,
or wild men of the jungle, on the way, or having some sport with wild
elephants. A steamer service round the island affords ready communication
with Batticaloa, Trinoomalee, Jaffna, &o. Altogether there is.no more
wonderful or interesting railway journey for its length in the world (and
personally I have been able to compare a good many famous railway lines
in Europe, America, and Australia) than this Ceylon ridfe.of 143 miles from
Colombo to Bandarawela on our first-class mountain railway ; and the
intelligent traveller will remember that it is not alone for its scenic beauty,
natural vegetation, or cultivated gardens and fields that interest should be
aroused, but that all around are places and spots full of historic memories
— that, in fact, in Sinhalese annals every valley has its battle and every
stream its song — that from the peak of AUagalla the prisoners of the
Kandyan King were hurled to execution— that Kandy itself is the centre of
many centuries of royal rule that controlled the fate of scores and hundreds
of European prisoners, Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British, many of
whom lived, married, and died in the country — that at Gampola we are
passing through ancient royal doniains, and that, as we rise to the mountain
plateaux, we enter a region consecrated in Sinhalese legend and Hinidu epic
poetry to the adventures of Sita and Rama, whose names still remain in
stream and plain to testify to the connection with far-off if not preiiistoric
times. And yet the interest and myStery tothe stranger now is n6t more
of the past than of the present, and iaust find vent in some such words as
21
clxii Ceylon in 1903.
those so well expressed in the tribute of an English poetess who visited the
island abont the middle of the present century : —
Ceylon ! Ceylon ! 'tis nought to me
How thou wast known or named of old
As Ophir, or Taprobane,
By Hebrew King or Grecian bold.
To me, thy spicy-wooded vales,
Thy dusky sons and jewels bright,
But image forth the far-famed tales —
But seem a new Arabian night.
And when engirdled figures crave
Heed to thy bosom's dazzling stoie,
I see Aladdin in his cave :
I follow Sindbad on the shore.
Yet these, the least of all thy wealth,
Thou heiress of the eastern isles.
Thy mountains boast of northern health,
Where Europe amid Asia smiles.
APPENDIX.
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN NORTH-CENTRAL
AND NORTH-EAST CEYLON.
WITH BEPEEENCE TO THE EEQUIBEMENTS OP SUGAR CULTIVATION.
Altitudes, Rainfall, Distribution, Periods of Drought, and of average
Temperature at certain selected stations.
Revised up to Date.
1. Mankulam, marked in map at two places, one with " Railway Station,"'
R.S., &c. &c. Height above sea, 167 feet. Rain observations, nine
years ; an average annual fall of 58"21 inches on seventy-two days
average. Greatest fall in twenty-four hours, 9*70 inches. In 1901
total fall was 31"57 inches. Average rainfall each month : —
January, 3-15 ; February, 1-24 ; March, 1-19 ; April 2-50 ; May, 1-30 ;
June, 0-57 ; July, 0-86 ; August, 1-54 : September, 4-82 j October, 8'83;
November, 16'34 ; December, 15'87 inches.
2. VAVUNiyA (also R.S.), 318 feet up ; observed two years ; fall, 50-36 on
93 days ; greatest fall in twenty-four hours, 3-90. Average mean
temperature, 80-3°. Greatest drought recorded, 101 days, June-
September, 1891. Average monthly fall :— January, 4-40; February,
0'92 ; March, 2-05 ; April, 6-75 ; May, 4-79 ; June, Q-Ol ; July, 1-03 ;
August, 0-86 ; September, 2-11 ; October, 8-69 ; November, 12-06 ;
December, 7-61 inches. (In 1901 the total fall was 46-88 inches.)
Ceylon in 1899. clxiii
Madawachi (K. Station), 285 feet high ; observed eleren years ; total
fall, 49-91 inches on seventy-four days. Greatest fall in twenty-four
hours, 6-70 inches. Monthly fall :— January, 268 ; February, 1-28 ;
March, 1-80; April, 5-18; May, 2-68; June, 1-18 ; July, 1-09;
August, 2-62; September, 2-15; dctober, 7-31; November, 9-99 ;
December, 11-92 inches. (In 1901 the total fall was 25-10 inches).
Anokadhapuea (R.S.)— 295f eet high ; observed thirty-three years ;
54-41 inches on 104 days ; 9-32 inches greatest fall in twenty-four
hours. Greatest drought, 121 days, May-September, 1884. Average
annual mean temperature, 80-2°. Monthly fall : — January, 3-04 ;
February, 1-42 ; March, 2-78 ; April, 7-56 ; May, 3-70 ; June, 1-51 ;
July, 1-01 ; August, 1-76 ; September, 3-00 ; October, 8-46 ; November,
11-04 ; December, 9-12 inches. (Total fall in 1902, 60-71 inches).
Tbincomaleb, 12 feet above sea ; 33 years observed ; rainfall, 63-45
inches average on 110 days; 8-21 inches greatest fall in twenty-four
hours. Longest drought 104 days, February-May, 1884. Average
annual mean temperature, 81-3°. Monthly fall : — January, 5-73,
February, 2-20 ; March, 1-65 ; April, 2-08 ; May, 2'30 ; June, 1-38 ;
July, 2-02 ; August, 4-32 ; September, 4-64 ; October, 7-92 ;
November, 14-04 ; December, 15-17 inches. (In 1902 the total fall
was 77-31 inches).
Kanthalai, 150 feet up ; twenty-five years observed ; 65-26 inches
average annual fall on sixty-two days ; 8-50 inches greatest daily
fall. Monthly fall : — January, 7-16 ; February, 2-59 ; March, 1-66 ;
April, 3-53; May, 4-06; June, 1-11; July, 1-93; August, 3-14;
September, 3-51 ; October, 7*89 ; November, 13-75 ; December, 14-93
inches. (Total fall in 1901, 21-07 inches).
Allai, 95 feet above sea ; observed twenty-five years ; 72-37 average
annual fall on fifty-seven days; 8-25 inches greatest daily fall.
Monthly fall :— January, 7-87 ; Febi-uary, 2-67 ; March, 2-31 ; April,
2-04 ; May, 3-15 ; June, 1-98 ; July, 1-83 ; August, 4-80 ; September,
4-79 ; October, 9-18 ; November, 15-37 ; December, 16-38 inches.
(Total fall in 1901, 75-82 inches.)
ixiv Ceylon in 1903.
APPENDIX VI.
TYPES OF RACES AND AMUSING CHARACTEKS IN CEYLON.
(Being Sketches and Caeioatures given in the "Souvbnibs
OP Ceylon," by A. M. Feugtjson.)
The Kandyan Adigae (" the supreme one ") represents a dignity next
in rank to the Kandyan Sovereign. These were the first, second, and third
Adigars, conjoint Prime Ministers, Commanders in Chief, and Judges of the
Appellate Court.. After being long extinct, the dignity has been revived
of late, years. The folds of stiff muslin worn by the Kandyan Hesidmen
give them an odd appearance, and led a late facetious Judge of the Kandy
District Court to place to their .credit the invention of crinoline. At
Pavilion levees and on other state occasions the Kandyan Chiefs still appear
in full. dress, and their coronet-like caps relieve the effeminate effect of
"all this muslin," and show to advantage when compared with the comb-
adorned heads of
The Maeitime Sinhalese Mudaliyaes. — The figure represents one of
these, the highest Native Chiefs in the low country ; for the rank of
Maha Mudaliyar (Great Mudaliyar) is the very highest in the Maritime
Districts. Mudaliyar, or Mudiyanse, is a military term about equivalent to
the rank of Captain of a district, and in the olden days, even in the
Dutch times, each Mudaliyar had his guard of Lascoreens or native soldiere.
Originally there was a Korala, the highest civil authority, and a Mudaliyar,
the highest military power, in each korale or county. But collisions o£
authority led to the suppression of the civil rank in the Dutch time, and
the concentration of all power, civil and military, in the Mudaliyar — whose
sword, worn conspicuously at levees and on other full-dress occasions
attests the origin of the rank. The effect is not more ludicrous than' the
sword which forms an essential part of the court-dress of England; though
here, in Ceylon, every interpreter of the Supreme Court or of a Govern-
mint Agent's Kachcheri (ofHoe), and of a, District Court, with all
Secretaries of District Courts who are natives, are eco officio Mudaliyars.
The Mudaliyars of Korales are the Government Agents' right hands in
matters of revenue, title to lands, &c. ; and the Government can reward
meritorious servants of Government, or natives in private life who dis-
tinguish themselves by acts of public spirit, with the much-coveted
distinction of Mudaliyar of the Governor's Gate. For instance, Mudaliyar
of the Gate, de Soysa of Moratuwa, received his hign rank for opening a
road in Hewaheta. In former days the different castes had each its
headman, but these are now abolished and officers for the different
districts only are appointed, irrespective of caste ; the offices being open
Sketches' and Garicatvres. clxv
indeed, to all competent natives, as is the use of velvet, a fabric which
was once restricted to Maha Mudaliyars by a sumptuary law. This law
regulated the most minute particulars of the dress of headmen, and
rendered it penal for private individuals to ape their betters in such
matters. All such laws have now been swept from our Statute Book.
The representative of the Sovereign can still make a belted Mudaliyar, but
the meanest in Ceylon may dress like the highest if he chooses. In our
"Ceylon Directory" for 1863 we wrote respecting the female comb and
European coat of the Sinhalese, in noticing the figures of the bridegroom
and bride, that " the singular adoption by the rougher sex of an article
elsewhere peculiar to females, is by some traced to the influence of the
wife of a Portuguese Governor." [As a cure for the untidiness of long
and loose tresses, she made presents of combs, the use of which soon
spread.] The full-dress coat which covers the Sinhalese " Comboy " is
undoubtedly of Bortuguese origin. But different in appearance as the
men of the broadcloth and comb and those of the muslin and the cornered
cap are, they are merely representatives of sections of the same Sinhalese
race, the Highlander diifering in his bearing from the Lowlander, as all
Highlanders do, and differing, moreover, in having longer retained his
independence of foreign domination.
The figui-e of a Lama Etbna, or Sinhalese lady of rank, is somewhat
too European to be characteristic ; and the reproduction of a photograph
of a Kandyan lady does but scant justice to the original. W hat the Kandyan
notions of beauty are may be gathered from the following description
supplied to the late Dr. Davy by a Kandyan Chief i —
"Her hair should be voluminous, like the tail of the peacock, long
reaching to the knees, and terminating in graceful curls ; her eyebrows
should resemble the rainbow ; her eyes the blue sapphire and the petals
of the manilla flower. Her nose should be like the bill of the hawk.
Her lips should be bright and red, like coral or the young leaf of the
iron-tree. Her teeth should be small, regular, and closely set, and like
jasmine buds. Her neck should be large and round, resembling the
benigodea. Her chest should be capacious ; her breasts firm and conical,
like the yellow coconut ; and her waist small, almost small enough to
be clasped by the hand. Her hips should be wide ; her limbs tapering ;
the soles of her feet without any hollow ; and the surface of her body
in general soft, delicate, smooth, and rounded, without the asperities of
projecting bones and sinews."
The full-dress costume of a Sinhalese lady is well represented in the
figure of the bride ; the ordinary female dress is shown on the cofEee-
picier and ayah, and in the two figures, especially that to the left in the
illustration of Demonolatry.
Whether the Sinihalese were " always here," as some think, or whether
they came over with Wijayo five centuries or so before the Christian
eia, certain it is that they are the people of the country, speaking a
clxvi Ceylon in 1903.
language spoken nowhere else, except in the roots which are common to all
the Indo-Uermanio tongues.
Very different are the cases of the two races represented by other
figures. " The Chbtty," who is kin to the great Tamil family of
Southern India, and the so-called " Mookman " [see engravings of Trader
and Mason], who traces his origin, however remotely, to Arabia, are
each a sojourner in the land, and were, in historic times, strangers to it.
The Tamils [see engravings of Jaffna Tamil, Tamil Females, sind Roman
Catholic Tamil and his wife, with that of the Natucotta Ohetty], off-
shoots from the great Scythian race of Southern India, made themselves
a footing by war ; the " Moors " are said to have sought an asylum from
persecution, but both have distinguished themselves in the walks of
(Oriental) enterprise and commerce. Indeed, the word " Chetty " signifies
merchant, and much of the native and intermediate trade of Ceylon is
carried on by the "Nattucotta Chetties." But these are men from the
Coast of Coromandel, turban-wearers, and bearers of the insignia of
heathenism, while the figure with the Portuguese cap and huge jewelled
rings distending his ear lobes, is a representative of the " Christian Chetties
of Colombo "—a class largely employed as brokers, shroffs, bill collectors,
and clerks. More strictly native are the Tamil man and his wife, but these
also being Christians (as the emblem worn by the male figure shows) there
is a good deal of European modification in the man's dress. An unsophis-
ticated Tamil would content himself with three pieces of cloth : one bound
round the loins ; one thrown over the shoulders, like the Highlander's plaid ; ■
and the third worn on the head. [See engraving of Jaffna Tamil.] The
Moormen equally with the Chetties speak Tamil, which would seem to show
that they came directly to Ceylon from Southern India. The tradition is
that seven, wifeless Arabs, fleeing from their enemies, settled and married
in Alutgama and so spread. The Mohammedans of Ceylon are bigoted, but
not aggressive. They are the Jews of Ceylon and are found everywhere,
as pedlars, lapidaries, jewellers, masons, and shopkeepers. In the Kandyan
country they have devoted themselves with much success to the pursuits
of agriculture,
A Pbttah Shopkebpek, such as we have represented in full dress, may
often be seen driving as fine a horse and waggon as can be sported on the
Galle Face — the " air-eating " resort of Colombo society. There is no mistak-
ing our old friend " Tamby," the Master Mason, in the corner. The dress
in this case, including the absurd funnel-shaped calico cap, is most truthful
and characteristic. In the Kandyan country the Moormen are industrious
agriculturists, and in former times much of the inland traffic was conducted
by them by means of tavalam or pack bullocks,
" Papa ! don't the Moormen marry 1" was the question put by a rather
sharp child, when he first saw the page of engravings and his eye rested
on the solitary Tamby. The fact is that these Mussulmans have a great
repugnance to allowing their women to be seen ; and an artist whom we
asked to represent a Moor lady said he could only draw a female figuer
Ske/chcf^ and Caricnttirps. clxtii
completely draped with no part of the body visible, save the ring-adorned
ankles. For the present, therefore, we cannot gratify the curiosity of
those who would wish to see what a Moorwoman looks like, but we trust
to add a Ceylon Mussulmanee on a future occasion.
Time was, when with British merchants the word of a Moorman, but
especially that of a Chetty, was deemed as good as his bond. There was
a species of "socialism" which prevailed amongst the Chetties especially,
which gave the European merchant additional security. But with the wild
speculation of the cotton crisis and the extension of commerce, things have
altered rather for the worse. The native who contracts to deliver cotton or
coffee insists on heavy money advances, while he gives a promissory note at
a long date for the Manchester goods he buys — a note not invariably
honotired.
Akin to the Moormen in religions profession, though widely different
in race, are the Malays, who have found their way to Ceylon from the
Straits of Malacca, mainly as soldiers of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. Let
us hope that the female sweetmeat-seller is anything but a representative
of Malay beauty. The Malays have been highly prized for their soldierly
qualities, and it becomes now more than ever a matter of anxiety to recruit
the Ceylon Rifles, as a wing of the corps is to form a portion of the garri-
son of the Straits. There were formerly several Ceylon regiments, one of
which was made up of Kaf&rs from the Mozambique coast.
The Paesees — descendants of the Ancient Persian race, and still fire
worshippers — are mere sojourners in Ceylon, their headquarters being
Bombay and Surat in Western India. The few residents here are, without
exception, engaged in commerce. In physique and fairness of skin, they
can scarcely be distinguished from Europeans proper.
The " Appoo," or head Sinhalese servant, in full dress of snow:y white, in
going to market is not likely to neglect the sacred duty of the brotherhood,
that of charging a percentage on the purchases made for " master." The
Ceylon servants differ from those of India in that the majority of them
speak English very well indeed, far better than most Europeans can speak
any native language. Their masters, especially young men who may Tiave
an old servant, generally shout " boy ! " (properly Bhaee, the Hindustani for
brother) when they want attendance, there being no bells hung in the
Ceylon houses ; but the servants greatly prefer to be called " appoo,"
which signifies gentleman. The Ceylon servants are not faultless, but there
are worse in the world. The Sinhalese seems to have little aptitude for
equestrianism as they show for navigation, and a Sinhalese groom is as rare
as a white crow or a perfectly straight coconut tree. The "Hoesbkeepbbs "
employed by Europeans are universally Tamils from Southern India, and
so are±he grass-cutters, who are usually the wives or female relatives of
the horsekeepers. The grass-cutters forage for natural grasses, which they
take from the ground, roots as well as leaves, and after washing the grass,
bring a bundle twice a day to their employers. Of course, those who have
Guinea grass plots can dispense with grass-cutters ; but Guinea grass, while
clxviii Ceylon in 1903.
luxuriant in wet weather, is apt to fail in seasons of drought. As the best
grass grows on the roadsides, and as the road officers wish to preserve this
sward, while the grass-cutters seize every occasion to pare it off, the relations
between the two classes is that of chronic w&rf are. It would be unjust not
to acknowledge the natural talent of eloquence possessed by this class of
people, eminently by the females. Their vocabulary may be limited, but
for emphasis of tone and energy of gesture they can bear comparison with
the oi'ator who
" Shook the Senate and fulmined all Greece."
As their discussions are usually carried on in the open air, they can never
put in the plea, " Unaccustomed as I am to isublic speaking."
The cheapness of arrack in Ceylon does not improve the character of
the horsekeeper class in Ceylon, and a drunken horsekeeper is a spectacle
as common as that of a drunken Sinhalese house servant is rare.
The Immiokant Laboukbbs who work on the tea, &c., plantations
are of the same race with the horsekeepers, but they rarely take spirits
to excess ; and the large majority of them succeed in the object for
which they come to Ceylon,— that of saving rupees to enable them to
return to their "country"; that country being amongst the rice lands
of Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Madura, the palmirah groves of Timievelly
or the coconut " topes " of Travancore, rich enough to clear away
encumbrances on their patrimonial fields, to add to those fields, or to
become for the first time landholders on their own account. Immigration,
carefully regulated as it is in the interests of the weaker and less in-
telligent class, is an equal blessing to sparsely peopled Ceylon and the
overcrowded population of Southern India. Happily no plantation in
Ceylon has ever been opened by means of slave labour (the mild prJedial,
slavery which existed amongst the natives was finally abolished in 1844),
and consequently the relations between the Europeaa planters and their
Tamil labourers are generally of a happy character. The Tamils are not
strong (many of the poor creatures come to Ceylon resembling locomotive
skeletons), but they are docile and good-tempered, and soon learn to
perform very fairly all the details of estate work, —their small, lithe
hands giving them eminent facilities for the important operations of
pruning and handling the coffee bushes. Large numbers of these people
are settling in Ceylon, acquiring competence as cart drivers, landowners,
small traders, &o.
To return to the Sinhalese. The Dhoby or Washerman (there are no
native washerwomen) is as invariably Sinhalese (except in the purely
Tamil districts of the north and east of the Island) as the attendants on
horses are Tamils. These dhobies wash clothes beautifully white, but they
require careful looking after, or they will lend out articles of clothing or
exchange bad for good. They must be warned, also not to " Europe " the
clothing too much, or they will beat them on flat stones in waterpools until
cotton clothing is better fitted for the use of the paper-maker than that of
Sketches and Garicatures. clxix
the owner. "Fast colours" very often yield to the bleaching, of these
dhobies. The Baubeb is a welcome daily visitor to young gentlemen, who,
though they may not boast of much beard, delight in receiving, and by
means of the barber retailing, such gossip as that " The Dutch have taken
Holland," that " Smith is going to get married to Brown's wife, " &o. The
services of the Wateemast will be required in a large portion of Colombo to
boat over and distribute the drinking water from the wells in " Captain's
Garden " (a peninsula jutting out into the lake opposite the Pettah), until
the projected works for bringing the waters of the Eelani into Colombo
are in operation. The Queen's House Lascorebn, clad in scarlet jacket and
plumed hat, is one of the half-dozen attendants provided for the Governor,
to receive visitors, go messages, accompany the vice-regal carriage, &o.
The lascoreen survives as a reminder of the abortive attempts made to
convert the Sinhalese into soldiers. A former Colonial Secretary said that
you never cquld be certain that they would not fire the ramrod at you.
Whatever they may have been in the time of the great Raja Singha, the
Sinhalese are not now distinguished for military instincts or aspirations
Of the Buddhist Priest and theToDDT-DBAWEE we have already spoken;
but we must not overlook the useful and industrious Pisheeman, remark-
able for his broad-brimmed straw hat and thick military coat, contrasting so
strangely with his nude lower limbs. He represents a class composed very
largely of Roman Catholic Christians, Xavier and other early missionaries
having found ready converts amongst the fisher caste all over India. In
a MS. note attached by Mr. Vandort to his sketch of the fisherman, he
writes : — " Being a dovout Catholic, the fisherman dedicates a portion of
his earnings to his patron saint, St. Anthony. He also gives up, according
to old usage, 'an unlimited quantity of fish to the members of the barbers'
community, who thus levy a tax on the fishermen for assisting them at
weddings, funerals, &c. Like all sailors, the fisherman is very supersti-
tious ; a certain public Government functionary in the employ of the
Fiscal of Colombo [the executioner] derives a handsome profit (whenever
he has assisted in turning off any unfortunate gallows bird) in selling
pieces of the cord used on such occasions, the lucky possessors of which
attach them to their nets to ensure miraculous draughts of fishes." The
liberality with which these people support the faith they profess is
calculated to put to shame more enlightened and richer Christians. Besides
extraordinary contributions, the fishermen have almost universally agreed to
bestowt he tenth of the produce of their labour, which Government relin-
quished about a score of years ago, on the churches of their persuasion.
The cry of " Kaddela ! kaddela ! kaddelay ? " which the Tamil pulse-
selling woman sends forth is dear even to European children in Ceylon, who,
however, listen with still greater delight to the cry of the sweetmeat-seller,
" Seeni-sakeree-metai I "
On the Malay " Pasong Woman " Mr. Vandort writes : — " Chiefly met
with on Thursdays (the day before the Mohammedan sabbath), ' Pasong '
22
gIxx Ceylon in 1903.
is a sort of sweet pudding made with rice-flower and jaggery, with a frothy
head of coconut milik, and rolled up in conical envelopes of plantain leaf,
very difficult to be procured on any day except Thursdays. Malay women
wear a, dress similar to that worn by Moorish women ; the only difference
is that the wrapper or overall is worn much more open by the Malays, and
the material is not muslin, but a thick checked camboy or sarong. Tha
nose-rings, necklaces, anklets, and the rest of the dress is the same as those
worn by the Moorish women. Having already noticed the musical
mechanic, we would simply say in regard to the "minstrel priest." so
called, that Hindoo sacerdotal beggars are, by the laws of Ceylon, exempt
from the penalties with which those laws visit other able-bodied vagrants ;
just as those- professional (but well-to-do) mendicants, the Buddhist priests,
are put in the same category with the Governor, the military, and
immigrant labourers as exempt from the six days' labour on the roads, or
their money equivalent enacted from the adult males, of all other classes in
the colony.
The truth as well as the cleverness of the Law Court Oddities will be
recognized by those who know what law and litigation are in Ceylon. The
whole population, men, women, and even children by their representatives,
would seem to be engaged in endless lawsuits. The law of inheritance, as
it exists amongst the natives, has a good deal to do with this. The people
dearly prize land and fruit-bearing trees, and most of the litigation
refers to such matters as the title to "undivided shares" of land and the
right in an almost infinitesimally fractional part of a coconut tree. The
following statement, by a party to a land case, will show what is the
nature of the questions which bewildered English magistrates have to hear
and decide : —
" By inheritance through my father I am entitled to one-fourth of one-
third of one-eighth ; through my mother also to one-fourth of one-third
of one-eighth. By purchase from one set of co-heirs I am entitled to
one-ninety-sixth ; from another set, to one-ninety-sixth more ; from another
set, to one-ninety-sixth more ; and from a fourth set of co-heirs to one-
one-hundred-and-forty-fourth."
Caste and clasS distinctions are not now recognised by the laws of
Ceyloii. In the period of Dutch rule the case was very different, and even
in the early years of the British Government caste distinctions were not
only upheld but enforced. One of those worthy Dutch magistrates whom
the British continued in oflBce after the capitulation, was in the habit of
mixing up legislative and judicial functions after the fashion illustrated
by the following decisions, in which Mynheer's English must not be too
severely criticised : —
" Pantura Magistrates' Court, 15th March, 1815.
"Sentenced Dinetti Carolis Silva Cangan to pay a fine of Rds. 10, that
he, being a Chalia, allowed a married flsherwoman to remain in his garden
without the foreknowledge of her husband, nor of the police vidau of the
Sketches and Caricatures. clxxi
Tillage. And his son Dinetti Siman Silva do bail himself in Bds. 25, and
two sureties for Rds. 25, that he shall not go to the house of complainer's
wife, neither talk with her.
"'Saturday, 25th Feb., 1815, appeared Paniloewege Nicholas, of Labu-
gama, 28 years old, hea(?en [heathen, F.] ; and requested to marry with
Punchy Hamy. Appeared Punchy Hamy, of Labugama, old 18 years,
hearfen, and complains that she cannot remain at the Police Vidan,
Ritiellege Don Juan ; because he beats her she went out of his house to
t e above Paniloewege Nicholas, as she is acquainted with him from a
long time ; and requested to marry with him. Ritiellege Don Juan,
Police Vidan, admitted that he had bated Poentjee Hamy. Ordered that
Paniloewege Nicholas, of Labugama, do marry according to their law,
with Punchy Hamy of Labugama."
The laws of Ceylon are now administered after a different f ashioQ.
The bar affords an attractive field for the educated burgher and native
youth, and the profession would be overcrowded, but for the inveterate
litigation mania of the people. The Honourable Mr. Morgan, the able
Queen's Advocate of Ceylon, tells with great glee, a story of a native
client of his, whom he had not seen for some time, and who apologised
for neglecting to visit him by saying, " Oh, Sir, I was ashamed to see your
face, as I had no case to bring to you I " The figures, as freely limned by
Mr. Vandort, tell their own tale. There is — ■
-the Justice
In fair round belly with good capon lined,
With eyes severe-
Full of wise saws and modern instances."
His dignified position (flanked by "sword" and "mace, with registrar,
marshall, and crier in attendance), the envy and the hope of the contem-
plative student, who sits listening to the opposite counsel, as they quote
" Archibald's Reports, " Taylor on Evidence," The Principles of the Roman
Dutch Code, as laid down by Voet (pronounced Foot), or Van Leuwen," or
" The Mysteries of Kandian and ' Country ' Laws." The absorbed native
jurymen (who keenly appreciate the difference with which they aie
appealed to as " gentlemen," and who, on the whole, give fair verdicts),
remind one of the question to which Thurlow's personal appearance gave
rise, "I wonder if ever human being was as wise as Thurlow looks" ;
while the terrified expression with which the bewildered witness regards
the stately interpreter (who never— no never— receives visitors and gifts,
and never settles cases at his private residence), is a striking contrast to
the impudent air of the well-conditioned criminal, with whom prison
fare and gentle exercise have evidently agreed. If the prisoner's garments
are somewhat scanty, the same cannot be said of the dark policeman,
tortured and made hideous by the incongruous uniform, introduced by
a former superintendent, who brought with him to the island implicit
faith in the effect even of the dress of the Irish constabulary. While we
clxxii Ceylon in 1903.
are writing Mr. Campbell, the present superintendent, is superseding
this stiff and inappropriate dress by one better suited for Asiatics and a
tropical climate. The relations of a proctor in full practice to a client
destitute of a full purse are significantly indicated in^ the figures of the
two characters ; while all the penalties of the law of libel staring us in
the face prevent our even hinting at the possibility of an argentine
argument having influenced the non, est inventus of the fiscal's peon or
messenger. It is a curious fact, however, that some of the best known
men of the community are, by some mysterious process, "not to be
found," when sought for, at the instance of disconsolate creditors,
although they placidly dwell in their usual abodes and pursue their
ordinary avocations visible enough to the eyes of their neighbours . But
the crier, in stentorian tones, adjourns the Court in the name of "My
Lord, Queen's Justice 1 " and we shut up — our book.
TJ'p^er Uva, Ceylon. cJxxiii
APPENDIX VII.
UPPER UVA, CEYLON, AS A STATION FOR
BRITISH TROOPS.
(By " Anopheles," in United Service Magazine.)
The transport by sea of a large body of troops after the experience
of the South African War, excites little comment, and with our extensive
mercantile marine now presents comparatively few difficulties, provided
careful arrangements have been previously made. The ease and celerity
with which the British troops were dispatched from India to Natal was
a momentous movement, the wide-reaching consequences of which are not
yet, perhaps, fully appreciated. But it is well laiowu in military circles
that the Indiaii contingent prevented the Boers, on the outbreak of hostilities,
from carrying their victorious arms to the Indiaii Ocean. At the same
time it is fully recognised in the same circles that the Indian Government
was reducing the number of white troops to an extent which would be
dangerous or impracticable if any unruly native population or harassed
frontier had been engaging its attention.
In the recent Chinese troubles (and further troubles in the near futiue
are likely to again arise) the Indian Government was called upon for aid;
thus in our last two campaigns India has on each occasion been called upon
for troops, and on each occasion she has gallantly responded to the call.
It is the opinion of all thoughtful men that to rely on India foT troops
in an emergency is a dangerous proceeding. More particularly at the present
time when our restless Northern neighbour is pursuing his usual tractis
in Manchuria and Thibet. From her geographical position "India is admirably
situated to deal with any crisis in the Oriental region; on the one hand
she can strike rapidly to the west, and on the other equally rapidly to
the east; but when by so doing she renders herself open to attack, and
a staggering blow delivered to her would have such far-reaching consequences,
it is a matter of serious moment to weaken her, unless the point at issue
is one of vital moment. It is with" diffidence that I, a non-combatant,
mention the word strategy, or deal even in a cursory manner with questions of
that military science ; but I think even a layman can grasp the strategical
importance of the geographical position of India when he considers that
officers still on the active list have seen India sending troops to Persia,
Cyprus, Egypt, the Soudan, the Cape, and China more than once. Granted
that she has done this with impunity in the past, it by no means follows
that it would be good policy to do so in the future. What would
have' been the coliditiou of Natal, and indeed the state of affairs at the
Cape at the present moment, if India from internal causes had been prevented
from sending a contingent to South Africa? The point I wish to bring
to notice is this— that judging by our recent military histoiy it is not
only advisable, but perhaps vitally important, to have ready at hand, to^ send
in any direction, and at the shortest possible moment, a well-equipped,
clxxiv Ceylon in 1903.
healthy body of men, complete in every detail, to those portions of the
globe where hitherto India has been called upon to send her troops. Now,
what are the conditions necessary to fulfil the above ?
(1) A favourable geographical position.
(2) A country not liable to either external or internal attack.
(3) Proximity to a good harbour with sufficient shipping.
(4) Proximity to a railway.
(5) An extensive country fit for military purposes.
(6) Adequate local supplies, such as cattle, fodder, etc., etc.
(7) A healthy climate for the troops.
A glance at an atlas will, without argument, satisfy conditions 1 and 3.
The geographical position of Ceylon is practically the same as India.
Colombo is the Clapham Junction of the East, where all the large Orient
liners of the P. & O., Orient, Clan, and other Companies call regularly,
and where, consequently, the shipping necessary for the dispatch of troops
could be obtained and collected. The new breakwater and batteries, now
imder construction, will make Colombo secure from the elements and the enemy.
Condition 2 is amply fulfilled. The insular position of Ceylon dqes
not allow of its invasion as long as we command the sea, and the loyalty
of, the native population is such that the present Govemoj, Sir West
Ridgeway, unhesitatingly offered the services of the only English regiinent
in the colony for duty at the Cape dur&g the dark days of 1899.
The Ceylon Goveimn^t Railway meets my fourth condition. It passes
close to the country I am about to describe, and has stations at Diyatalawa
and Bandarawela, in close proximity to ground in every way suited for
a military camp, and within ten hours' journey of Colombo.
With regard to 5 ; Ceylon, to the majority of people, conveys the idea
of a hot, moist, tropical country, enervating to a high degree, if not actually
vmhealthy. But the hill station of Nuwara Eliya, at any rate, is now JDecoming
known, and it Will not be strange to many to learn tiiat other parts of
the hill districts of Ceylon boast of an almost English climate. I may
remark, parenthetically, in many respects a good deal better! i am not
however, advocating the claims of Nuwara Eliya. It is far too enclosed
for the manoeuvres of any but a very small body of troops, and even the open
country in its near neighbourhood (the Barrack and Moon Plains) is so studded
with bogs and morasses that the movements even of a company ^yonld be
largely confined to the high road. At the present some thirty or forty
sickly men regain their stamina there, after the enervating climate of the
low coimtry. Hitherto the Sanatorium has been open from the middle of
September till the burst of the south-west monsoon at the end of May
or beginning of Jime. Nuwara Eliya,* from a social point of view, with
its race-course, golf links, club, and so forth, is a pleasant place enough in
fine weather, but can scarcely become a station for practical, serious soldiering.
In the neighbouring Province of Uva can, however, be found all the conditions
necessary for the military training of 10,000 or more infantry in a healthy
country, and with unrivalled climate. This appears such a startling statement
that 1 propose to enter somewhat fully into the physical characteristics
* Nuwaia Eliya baa a rainfall of 99-37 inches, and 212 rainy days ; average of 26 7-13
years.
FALLS ON THE DITALU.MAOVA, NEAR NAULA,
EASTERN HAPUTALE, 535 FEET HIGH,
(Srom a Photograph by the late B. F. Qrigaon.)
Tipper Uva, Ceylon. clxxv
of the Province, its climate, and the health of the troops at present
stationed there.
I cannot better describe the scenery of Upper Uva tlian by quotations
from an aocoimt of a prolonged tour made through the Province in March,
1819, by Dr. John Davy (brother of the famous Sir Humphrey Davy), taken
from his 'Account of Ceylon,' published in 1821. Dr. Davy was on the
medical staff of the Army in Ceylon, with the title of Physiciaai to the
Forces. He travelled from Colombo to Uva via Ratnapiira, and entered
the Province from the Haputale (south) side, over the Idalgashena Pass
and from no point of view is the glorious scenery of Upper Uva seen
to better advantage.*
He says : —
"The next stage is to Velaugahena, eight miles distant across the
Idalgashena, the summit of which is about 4,700 feet above the level of
the sea. This is the principal pass froin Saffragam (Eatnapura) into Upper
Ouva. The weather being fine, the feeling of the fatigue was lost in the
enjoyment of the magnificent scenery of the mountains. . . , On the top
of the pass the path takes a turn, and brings one suddenly in view of Upper
Ouva, consisting of an extensive surface of green, grassy hills, walled roimd
by lofty blue mountains, laid out like a map at one's feet. The sight of
such a country was quite a treat, and the eye at liberty wandered with
delight from hill to hill, and from moimtain to mountain. ... On looking
found the country it has the appearance of a magnificent amphitheatre,
sixty or eighty miles in circumference, formed of a succession of steep,
smooth, green, conical hills, and of deep, narrow glens, remarkably free from
wood, enclosed on every side by mountains varying in prependicular height
from 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
Dr. Davy visited Uva again later in the year 1819. His first tour was
In March. On the second occasion he made his trip from the Nuwara Eliya
side (about twenty miles north-west of Diyatalawa),; and proceeded only
as far as Fort MacDonald, six miles north of the camp. He says :—
"About three o'clock in the afternoon we emerged entirely from .the
forest, and had immediately, from our commanding height, a most extensive
view of Upper Ouva, which appeared laid out before us like a magnificent
map. The first object in the prospect that arrested attention was Namina-
cbole-Kanda, rising in the eastern horizon, of a light blue colour, and
surpassing every other mountain in the circle that surrounds Upper Ouva
as jUuch in massive form as its apparent height. With the general appearance
of the country I was disappointed : its surface was not fresh and green as
when I viewed it the first time from the Idalgashena, reminding me of
the hills in England in spring, but of a light yellowish-green colour, as if
parched and withered ; nor were its mountains of the intense blue which
I then so much admired, but of a dazzling aerial hue. This appearance of
the country having suffered from a long drought was greatly heightened
by the clouds of smoke in which many parts of it were enveloped, and
which, driven before the wind, had a singularly wild effect giving the idea
that the ground was not only parched, but in a state of conflagration. . . .
»the camp of the Boer rrisoners at Dlyatilawa ia six miles from Haputale nt the
southern edge of the plateaux^
clxxvi Ceylon in 1903.
There is another and striking peculiarity of Upper Ouva that deserves notice
and requires explanation. I mean its undulating surface of hills and valleys,
rounded and smoothed as equably as if, instead of primitive rock, they
consisted of chalk and clay."
The amphitheatre of hills surrounding the plains of Uva on the west and
north effectually prevent the clouds and rain of the south-west monsoon
from reaching them. Sir Samuel Baker, in his 'Eight Years in Ceylon,'
gives the following accomit of this curious phenomenon seen during the
south-west monsoon, when, while the western side of the island is enveloped
in mist and rain, the wet weather terminates abruptly at Hakgalla, and
the panorama of Uva is seen in all its beauty. He says : —
"Prom June to November the south-west monsoon brings wind and mist
across the Newara Eliya moxmtain. Clouds of white fog boil up from the
Dimboola valley, like the steam from a huge cauldron and invade the
Newara Eliya plain through the gaps in the mountains to the westward.
The wind howls oyer the high ridges, cutting the jungle with its keen edge,
so that it remains as stunted brushwood, and the opaque screen of driving
fog and drizzling rain is so dense that one feels convinced there is no sun
visible within at least 100 miles. There is a ctu:ious phenomenon, however,
in this locality. When the weather described prevails at Newara Eliya, there
is actually not one drop of rain within four miles of my house in the direction
of Badulla (Uva). Dusty roads, a cloudless sky, and dazzling sunshine,
astonish the thoroughly soaked traveller, who rides out of the rain and
mist into a genial climate as though he passed through a curtain. The wet
weather terminates at a mountain call Hakgalla. This bold rock, whose
summit is about 6,500 feet above the sea, breasts the driving wind, and seems
to command the storm. The rushing clouds halt in their mad course upon its
crest and curl in sudden impotence around the craggy summits. The deep
ravine formed by an opposite mountain is filled with vanquished mist, which
sinks powerless in its dark gorge ; and the bright sun, shining from the
east, spreads a perpetual rainbow upon the gauze-like cloud of fog which
settles in the deep hollow. This is exceedingly beautiful. The perfect circle
of the rainbow stands like a fairy spell in the giddy depth of the hollow, and
seems to forbid the advance of the monsoon. All before is bright and
cloudless: the lovely panorama of the Uva coimtry spreads before the
eye for many miles beneath the feet. All behind is dark and stormy ; the
wind is howling, the forests are groaning, the rain is pelting upon the hills.
The change seems impossible; but there it is, ever the same, season. after
season, year after year, the rugged top of Hakgalla struggles with the
storms, and ever victorious the cliffs smile in the sunshine on the eastern
side ; the rainbow reappears with the monsoon, and its vivid circle remains
like the guardian spirit of the valley.
I can do little more than refer to a very interesting paper on " The Botany
of the Ceylon Patenas," by Mr. Pearson, B. A., published in the proceedings of
the Linnsean Society, vol. xxxiv. page 300, which will repay perusal. He enters
very fully into the origin and present condition of this open country, and
draws a somewhat close comparison between it and the savannahs of South
America. He roughly estimates the extent of this patana, savannah or down
country, as extending over 300 square miles, the far greater portion of which
PAtLS OF BAMBODA.
I'll
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H
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Upper Uva, Ceylon. clxxvii
is in Upper Uva, He summarises his conclusions as follows:—
"An examination of such evidence as exists with regard to the origin of the
patanas of Uva, and their western extensions of the slopes of the central ridge,
leads to the following conclusions. On the Uva slopes below 4,500 feet
(the lower limit of the Rhododendron) the peculiarities of the climate have
co-operated with the periodically recurrent grass-fires to transform an open
forest J Ipw xerophjtic trees with an undergrowth of grass (i.e. a savannah
forest such as is still found on the eastern boundary of the plateau) into barren
grassy plains. These plains, being almost completely denuded of soil, must be
regarded as being of the nature of a permanent savannah, the natural re-
afforestation of the greater part of which is impossible under the present
climatic ponditions."
The above descriptions, written years ago by Davy and Baker, apply equally
well to the present condition of the country. I may say that its general
appearance is very similar to the South Downs of England, more particularly
their Steep escarpments in the neighbourhood of the well-knowh Berkshire
White Horse. In place, however, of the elastic turf which makes those downs
the finest galloping ground in the world, the hills are covered with a short,
coarse grass which frequently grows in clumps, which makes progression on
horseback somewhat difficult. In the convolutions of the hills where the
ground is (hajshy, small clumps of trees and jungle grow thickly, preserved by
the wet from the' summer grass-flres. These marshes, unless the coimtry is
well known, likewise impede the horseman, who is liable to be badly bogged
if he Mideavours to ride over them. In spite of these diSBculties anddrawbacks
a flourishing pack of foxhounds (the Errebodde hunt) holds its annual meets
oh these downs, and many a good gallop is enjoyed by thfe sporting planters in
pursuit of the wily "Jack." The hills are composed of gneiss, for the most
part unstratified, but in many places convoluted and distorted. Above this is
the mica-schist, occasionally gametiferous, in many sections on the hill sides
it lies beautifully stratified directly on the underlying gneiss ; in other places
qiiartz is interposed, and its presence has no doubt given rise to speculation
as to its being aiuiferous. Bands of iron pyrites are not uncommon. The soil
is composed of these disintegrated rocks with outcrops of gneiss. It is • a
little difScult to say how far Government rights extend, for as far as I can
gather no complete survey of the country has as yet been made. But the
question of the destruction of crops by the movements of troops is one of no
great moment as thfere is but little cultivation, and the few paddy fields in the
folds of the hills are of limited extent, and can be easily avoided.
I am told by competent authority that the country cannot be surpassed for
instructional purposes in scouting and outpost duties. If anything it is too
difficult, owing to the irregular and confused character of the ground. lam
informed that many parts of the surrounding amphitheatre of hills, with their
rocky, steep and frequently precipitous sides, closely resemble the kopjes of
South Africa. As a country for infantry, both mounted and dismounted, it is
unrivalled, but owing to the absence of roads and other drawbacks it is at
present not suited for artillery.
The climate is a decidedly good one, certainly for nine months out of the
twelve. Prom October to January the north-east monsoon brings very wet
weather with violent thunder-storltls ; towards the end of Jahuafy the weather
?3
clxxviii Ceylon in 1903.
clears and becomes fine and warm in the daytime and very cold at night, hoar
frost being probably not imknown on the patanas. The burst of the south-
west monsoon in May, which brings wet weather to the Colombo side -of the
island, only produces a few showers, but a persistent wind blows from this
direction until September and the gradual setting, in of the other monsoon.
From the middle of June to the end of September men would take little harm
from bivouacking in the open air, as the nights are perfect and not too cold.
The maximum shade temperature in siunmer is probably not more than eighty-
four degrees, and the minimum fifty degrees. The rainfall is between fifty and
sixty inches,* the far greater quantity falling in October, November and
December. In such an ideal climate and situation, 4,000 feet above the level of
the sea, at the present is the camp for the Boer prisioners at Diyatalawa in
the Province of Uva. And in this camp some 6,000 men have lived a healthy
"but monotonous life for the last twelve months; monotonous because 5,000 of
them are prisoners, and the remainder British soldiers occupied in the deadly
monotonous duty of looking after them. If Diyatalawa can justify itself as
one of the healthiest stations in the East when its occupants are prisoners and
jailors, how much more is it likely to justify it were it occupied by men in the
full enjoynient of their liberty ?
By the time these lines are in print it is possible that the war will be over
and the prisoners, or many of them, will be returning to their own country.
What is to become of Diyatalawa camp, with everything now ready for the
occupation of some 6,000 troops ? Will it be sold for old iron or bekep t
permanently as a station for British troops? It would be a real boon if
only the English regiment in the island was stationed here instead of being
broken up into fragments at Colombo, Kandy, Trinoomalee and Nuwara Eliya
where the routine duties of a garrison inevitably tend to mental stagnation and
professional deterioration. i
When dealingwith the sanitation of an area, the most correct method of
coming to a right conclusion regarding it is by enquiring into the diseases of
the native population, and discriminating between the preventible diseases
and those that are dependent on local conditions. This method should be
followed in preference to that frequently adopted of judging of a locality by
the health of those newly arrived in it. In this instance the latter method
would be particularly fallacious, inasmuch as of the two British regiments
stationed here, one came from the hardships of the investment of Ladysmith,
and the other from the malarious district of Dum-Dum, after long service
in India. In spite of these drawbaclcs, the medical officer in charge of the
former of these regiments writes in most enthusiastic terms of the physique
and healthiness of the men after they had had four months' experience of the
place, i.e. after they had got rid of the diseases they liad brought with them or
contracted from the Boers. The latter regiment has been here for nearly nine
months, and was in a very sickly condition on anival. Some seventy men have
been either invalided home or sent away for change, but how far their
complaints were due to local causes or were legacies from Dum-Dum and
elsewhere is difficult to say, but India has probably most to answer for. With
regard to malaria, which was rife in the regiment on arrival, it is noteworthy
* Eandarawella, three miles from Diyatalawa and with a similar climate his a raiii-
iall cf 64'89 inches ; 40'81 of which falls in the north-fast monsoon. It has 127 lainy
daycj average of twenty-flye years. Compare Nuwara Kliya.
Upper Uva, Ceylon. clxxix
that an examination in August of 600 men, which included a draft of 150 men
direct from home, showed that only two men had had an attaolc of malarial
fever for the first time here, one of these was a man of the draft. It is
interesting in this oonnnection to note that only three specimens of the genus
Aiiophdes have so for been captured here; one by Mr. Green, the Government
Entomologist, and two by myself. If the species had been abundant, many
more of the fresh ai'rivals would surely have been infected with the malarial
parasite, with such a large number of malarious cases open to the attacks of
the mosquito.*
The native population is remarliably free from disease : the Colonial surgeon
informs me that malarial fever is not endemic in the villages round Diya-
talawa camp, but it is frequently introduced by the villagers who go on
pilgrimages to such malarious places as Tissamaliarama and Wellawaya. He
also states that the last quarter is the most unhealthy time of the year.
Cholera is occasionally imported from the low country, and venereal diseases
are not imcommon.
A final word as regards supplies. The campis about Iialf a mile from the
railway, from which supplies are sent into the camp by means of an serial train.
Wood in adundance is obtained from the neighbouring Government forests ;
the water is good, and can be obtained in reasonable quantity even in the dry
weather. Slaughter cattle and vegetables can be obtained to a certain extent
locally. The country is suitable for mounted infantry, but fodder is scarce,
even the grass which springs up after the periodical burning is very coarse and
lacks nourishment ; it could be used for bedding? but some method would have
to be found to rid it of the ticks' of which there are a great number. To
buy up the paddy fields and cultivate them with guinea grass (P. viaximiim)
or Mauritius grass (P. ™«t!Cttm) would be a serious question. But a trial on an
extensive scale on the hill sides should be made of {Paspalum dilatumat), which
grows well at Ootacamund and is a valuable grass for cattle. It is supposed
by many to be of Ceylon origin and flom-ishes on any poor soil, provided it has
plenty of water, and at a suitable elevation it will stand the extremes of heat
and cold. It is thought very highly of by the farmers of Victoria and New
South Wales.
♦ Iji the month cj August, with an average strength of 862, the f veiago number of
sick was twenty-seven, one-third of which were venereal eases. These figures tend to
show that the siokoess in tlie reglmciW.was not duo tff local conditions.
cikx^ - Ceylon in 1903.
APPENDIX VIII.
TREE-GROWING AT A HIGH ELEVATION
IN CEYLON.
THE BEST-WOODED PLANTATION IN THE ISLAND.
We suppose we may, without presumption, spealc of the Tea and Cin-
chona plantation (Abbotsford) identified with the name of the late Mr.
A. M. Ferguson— and with that of his son, the present proprietor, — as
without exception, "the best-wooded" private estate in the island. The
late proprietor took a special delight in getting seeds and plants of trees
likely to grow in the soil and at the elevation of Abbotsford from every
quarter he could hear of in India, Australia, Java, the Straits and En-
gland or Scotland. There were, of course, many failures ; but also many
successes in his introductions and for the last six years of his life he
had the great advantage of the counsel and aid of the present Manager
of the Estate who knew a great deal about Forestry before ever he camo
to Ceylon. The result is that, so far as the introduction and cultivation
of a great variety of Australian Eucalypts and Acacias, Javanese "Albiz-
zias," Himalayan Toons, Birches and other trees, Japanese and English
Firs, with pines and oaks; and a considerable variety besides, — Abbots-
ford presents an "experimental plantation" in Upper Dimbula, comparable
— longo intervallo — to even the "Hakgala Gardens" on the other side of
the range facing Uva. Indeed the experienced and enthusiastic Superin-
tendent of Hakgala was, some time ago, astonished and delighted to see
the conjunction in Lower Abbotsford of so many palms — ^Australian Coryplias
and even Caryota flourishing: diflicult if not impossible to grow in his
colder climate — along with English, Himalayan and Japanese introductions.
One of the lincsL English oaks wis have seen in the island is hero— a tree
of, perhaps, '!'> feet high; but, curiously enough, it practically stopued
growing six years ago and does not now make an inch a year in growth.
An oak and a paJra, within a, few yards of each, form an interesting
conjunction. We have not seen the Gangaroowa "Albizzias" — ^which are
realising R15 each, no doubt greatly because of their proximity to the
Kandy timber market— but it would be hard, we think, to beat the trees
of this description on Abbotsford, some of them 17 to 18 years old and
great giants. Auracarias here and there diversify the outlook. One of the
most strikingly handsome trees, scattered over the plantation, is the
Himalayan Birch tree (Betula Acuminata)* which, though not tested yet,
■ We only identified the tree c n our return to Culombo and from what is snid by
Dr. Watt in his " Economic Products," it wUl be spen that we are a little wide of
the mark as to the value of the timber ; —
"Betula acuminata, Wall; Brandis, For. Fl., 468 ; Gamble. Man. Timb., 372.
Habitat.— A large tr<'e, met with in the Himalaya, from 6,00) to 8,00 J feet, in
the Khasia.Hil^, the mountain'! ol M;inipur and the Naya Uilh lu Kailabiin.
tree droivincj in Geylon. clxxxi
must offer a very substantial timber, perhaps too hard to work by the
carpenter (in a land where bobbins are not in request)— but at amy rate
invaluable for rough building work on an estate and for firewood if the
necessity should arise.*
ETj-OALYPTS.
Along the roadside, too, there are some magnificent trees of Eucalyptus
paiiciflora ; while there is one specimen of the attractive E. FicifoUa (rare
in Ceylon) with its peculiar scarlet blossom : while higher up we noted
grand specimens of E. Calophylla. Very striking also is the giant Eucalypt
— E. Amygdalina or white gum— to which species in Australia belong
the highest trees in the world. Here they grow to, perhaps, 100 feet ;
and the contrast is intei-esting between the red {E. Rostrata), and the
other two giuns growing alongside : —
THE KED, WHITE AND BLUE!
Of blue gum (globulus) not many trees remain; for the reason that
they have chiefly supplied firewood for the Factory tea driers (power is
got from the river fortunately) during the past ten years, so that there
has been no trenching on the forest reserve.f A curious discovery abont
the blue gum was that, while flourishing apace on the lower division up
to 5,500 feet, it did not grow at all well on Upper Abbotsford— although
strangely enough there are magnificent trees in and aromid Nuwara Eliya
still higher up. The late Mr. Ferguson and his Manager were so con-
vinced as to the comparative failure of this tree that they gave special
warning to the Government Forest Officers not to waste time and money
by trying plantations of it in the adjacent jungle clearings; but their
advice was not heeded, with the result that today the five-acre clearings
planted with blue gums in the jungle by the old road to Nuwara Eliya
*' Properties and Uses: — Fibre. — The bark when mature peels off in larger slabs than
in any of the other species, and is thereti re not so serviceable f ' r the purpo ei
to wh!ch tlie others are put.
•'Food — On tlie mountain tracts of North-East Manipur, bordering en the Naga
Hills, the Lalmpas cut off the 6ark in largo .'■labs just before the leaves appear, The
inner layer of these slabs is carefully separated from the liber and sun dried. This
is either eaten like 1 iacuits, <v it is reduced to flour and cooked as an article of
food. The tree is much prized by these naked savages, and in early spring yields
a comiderable portion of their diet. This remarkable fact does not appear to have
been observed 1 y any traveller, previous to my exploration in 1880 of the hill tracts
of Manipur, and apparently the nutritious properties of the bark have not leen
discovered by other Indian hill tribe.". (See remarks under B. alba.)
".Structure of the Wood.— White, moderately hard, close-grained. Weight 11 lb.
per cubic foot.
" It is very little used, but Wallich says it is hard and esteemed In Nepal for all
purposes where strength and durability are required. "The wood is close-grained
and takes a fine satin polish. It is particularly good for door panels, and the
examples in the Government House at Naini Tal show that it Is a valuable acquisition
for ornamental work.' (Atkinson's Him. Dist. X., N.-W.-P. Uaz., 818.)"
* This is as true In regard to timber planking, &c., ai for fuel— all the limber
required for buildings, linss, &a , has been got for many years by cutting and sawing
introduced trees without touching original reserves, and we fancy the Abbotsford
Manager conld more than conflim the useful flsnres sent tor pui^licaiion lately
ly Mr. ilaclurc of JIiiMkuliyu.
clxxxii Ceylon in 1903.
are poor aSairs— and stand as exhibitions of stunted- failures. The blue;
gum tree serves well for factory (fuel) purposes save that the, exuded.
giuB is apt to fix on the flues and in the case of steam-engine boiler-
flues, especially, to choke up the channels. Even in a domestic stove,
the flue has been foimd blocked up after a time and has required ham-
mer ssaA chisel to cut out the adhering giun which had become almost
as solidly fixed its if it were part of the iron!
. One of the most attractive of the Eucalypts is iJ. Cltriod,ora (the
lemon-scented gum tree, from the pleasant odour of the crushed leaves
or broken stems). Several fine Specimens (as indeed of all the Eucalypts)
are to be seen at Hakgala, and with us at Nuwara Eliya ; but wo
hear that the finest show of the lemon-scented, perhaps, on a
private estate, is found at Mr Gordon's bungalow on Rappanhanuock,
Udapussellawa. Altogether there must be over a score of different Eucalypts^-
many of them strikingly handsome trees^-in the plantation ; but curi-
ously enough there is no specimen of E Pilularis which attracted attention
some time ago on Carlabeok, for its size and good timber. It is curi-
ous to notice the resemblance and the difference between the barks of
three prominent Eucalypts— Jarrah (E. Marginata), Red gum (Rostrata)
and Iron Bark (E. Crebrfi) — all doing well as growing trees.
Some of the Greyilleas here vie jn size with the other large trees
mentioned, and they and the "toons" {Ceclreia toona of the Himalayas)
are freely scattered over the property. But the former (the " silky oak"
of Queensland) may be taken to have reached the limit of successful
cultivation, it regard be had to its full growth as a timber tree, on the
neighbouring estates — Maha Eliya and Calsay — ^and again on Tangakelle,
Ouvahkelle and Elgin which present a wonderful sight in the uniform and
numerous interesting belts of grevilleas, where we can recall the wide expanse
of cultivation being without a tree some years ago. Perhaps E. Robusta —
which has become a favourite in these parts as at Nuwara Eliya — is a quicker
grower than the Grevillea ; while it also supplies a substantial timber. A
grove of these between Abbotsford and Tangakelle shows very regular and
successful growth ; but the striking fact here is the way in which self-sown
cinchonas have sprung up among the gums, groups of fine healthy plants
showing how well shade agrees with the] far-famed Peruvian introduction. Had
cinchona originally been grown under shade in Ceylon, we might even now-
rival Java in om- exports.
A Sl'KCIAL FAVOURITE,
But we must not forget to notice what is, in om- experience, tlie best timber
tree to grow in and around Nuwara Eliya and perhaps (judging by the specimens
here) lower down, Acacia Melanoxylon. It is really a valuable cabinet wood,
when fully grown ; and we recall the late Rev. W. Oakley, the veteran Church
Missionary, showing us with pride a book-case and other cabinet-work he had
made out of some Melanoxylon trees, having all the markings and dark
colouring of Nadoon or Walnut. No straighter or more handsome tree in
our opinion grows about Nuwara Eliya, nor one which better resists monsoon
bursts and windstorms, apt to level or break the tops off a good many
gums and other trees. On Abbotsford, and especially on adjacent Dessford,
there is a large number of the finest specimens (for growth) we Imve seen
of Melanoxylon ; but, alas, for the exigencies of the sittiation— as well as
Tree Grovmifj in Ceylon. clxxxiii
because of distance from market and absence of demand— a good many
are being levelled and out up for fuel purposes. It is a fact, however, that
this tree, like most of the Acacias, is not a favourite with tea planters,
because of its tendency to spread and throw up suckers, especially where
the soil is stirred for cultivation purposes. On a piece of land reserved
for timber trees this propensity does not so much matter : in fact it constitutes
an economical means of planting up waste bits of land in or near the
Sanatariiun, where the tree 'flourishes apace, and in its lofty as well as,
symmetrical, pyramidal shape, it oilers aif attractive feature as an avenue
tree, or in groups at certain vantage points.
ORNAMENTAL AND FRUIT TREES.
A very attractive-looking tree in its youthful prime — seed got from Java —
is Acvocar-pus grandis ; as also Sivietnia macrophylla, 'Mahogany plants from
Peradeniya, but of slow growth up here; while Dr. Thwaites' favourite
Pehlmbiya (Sinhalese name of Filickm decipiens, which he used to recommend
to planters is not much more than a shrub at an elevation which not only
sees certain palms but a flue jak tree come to fruit ; as also mango-trees
in full bearing !
Of " Cupressus '' and " Cryptomeria " there are many flue specimens on
Abbotsford — though Hakgalla Gardens are the true show-place for giant
trees in great variety of these. A tree which is encouraged as a good and
handsome grower, especially suited as a windbelt, is "the Himalayan Bucklartdia
splendid specimens of which in huge well-formed trees (80 feet high or
so), we observed on our way to Darjeeling 'from the terai upwards. It
is very much used at Darjeeling for planking and for doors aiid windows.
BAMBOOS.
A feature on Abbotsford — and "one which could be turned to mercantile
account if a town like Colombo were near at hand-^is the niunerous groups
of bamboos, of the giant variety especially, along the riverside and in maniy
of the ravines, varied with the tiny (and medium) varieties useful for basket
making. The present Manager had to clear out a great many chunps' of
bamboos from ravines as not so useful as water or Mauritius grass.
CINCHONAS.
Revisiting Abbotsford after au interval of two or three years, one of
the most pleasant sights was the number of healthy vlgdrons-looking cinchona
stems rising above and diversifying the tea fields, chiefly Succirubra and
Hybrid. The " smoother velvety leaves in some cases denote an approach
to the more delicate and richer varieties. Altogether there must be quite
100,000 of these healthy stems from the old roots and from self-sown plants ;
while one of the original plants left to grow by the roadside, which was
nieasured in our presence, is 72 feet high by 36 inches in girth at a
foot above the ground. The age of this giant is 19 years.
clxxxiv C'n/loii. ill, 1903.
APPENDIX IX.
NORTH-CENTRAL CEYLON:
HOW IS THE WASTE LAND OPENED BY THE RAILWAY TO
BE UTILISED?
CATTLE STATIONS AND STOCK-RAISING SUGGESTED BEYOND
THE TANK-SERVED RICE-LANDS.
The question will soon come up before Government as to what is to be done
with the vast extent of jungle-covered waste land in our North-Central
territory, outside the limits of tank-benefited areas, or land capable of being
asweddumised ? We are indebted to Mr. Duncan Skrine for some thoughts and
suggestions on the subject, which, we think, are well worthy the consideration
of Goverimient. In addition to his prolonged experience in Ceylon, as planter
and merchant, Mr. Skrine adds » thoroughly practical acquaintance with
English farming and stock-raising. Now, interested as Mr. Skrine was, through
his late friend, Mr. Bowden Smith, in Railway Extension to the North, he has
during his present stay of fifteen months in the island, endeavoured to make
himself acquainted with a considerable part of the coimtry to be traversed.
For this purpose, he has twice visited the North-Central Province and he
has been struck by the fact that even at the end of the dry season there, when
every blade of grass seemed to be burnt up, the live-stock did not appear to be
suffering, and in fact looked in better condition than the cattle in the' wetter
South-West portion of the Island. This, to some extent, corresponds with our
experience of Southern India whence, indeed, a great number of cattle, goats,
so-called sheep, and poultry are annually imported into Ceylon, a great portion
of which, we believe, might be reared in the North-Central regions of our
island. That is a consummation devoutly to be wished ! How to attain it is
the question, and Mr. Skrine is of opinion that if clearing work is done in
regard to the chena and scrub, leaving the big trees alone, cattle, and goats
especially, will thrive amazingly and greatly improve the grass nud other
provender in the country beyond and aroimd Anuradhapura. The question Is,
who is to begin the work? Well, it is not unnaturally suggested that
Government should lead the way. For purposes of health and sanitation alone
Government would do something around each railway station ; and if, while'
about it, 200 acres are cleared in each such case, and stock introduced, an
object lesson of special value could be offered to native capitalists and others.
Besides, Government will probably be obliged to provide large stocks of
firewood for locomotive use, along the route ; and the clearing work will, in
this way, be profitable in itself. Indeed, it is no doubt the intention of the
Forest Department to utilise the Railway to carry valuable timber to market
from the jungles of the North, and this will mean a good deal more clearing,
with resulting profits from such marketable timber as well as from firewood,
North- Veniral Ceylon. clxxxv
But in view of the suitableness of much of the North-Central country, when
cleared, for stock-raising, it is possible that Government may be approached
in another way. We will know how terribly large divisions of Australia —
nearly all the interior districts in fact— have suffered from drought of late
years ; and yet there are never wanting capitalists " to take up land " in the
Southern colonies for sheep or cattle, as the case may be, and to spend large
amounts on their "home stations, " on artesian wells for watering their flocks
or herds, and on buildings for their employees. Now, if the Government of
Ceylon were prepared to Jease some blocks of 10,000 acres each for stock-
raising, on easy terms, we think it very probable that Australian " Squatters "
would be attracted. The great attention to them of our North-Central
country would be proximity to a railway ; cheap and willing labour in Tamil
immigrants ; plenty of timber — too much indeed, but the value of firewood
would probably repay cost of clearing, even if it were stipulated that large
trees should be untouched; facility for introducidg suitable • stock (in cattle
and goats) from India to live on and improve the fodder, until gradually by
crossing, better breeds were seoured,aoolinlatizBd and established ; and, lastly,
possible facilities for watering stock in connection witli tanks. Whence would
come the squatter's, or rather Stock-owner's, return, it may be asked ? N ot
likely from wool, even if sheep were tried ; but rather from the local market
for cattle, sheep and goats we should say. Here are the imports into Ceylon
of live stock for some years taken from our " Directory ": —
Horses... ... ... No.
„ Nominal value
Cattle ... ... ... No.
„ Nominal value
Sheep and Goats ... ... No.
„ Nominal value
This is apart from the import trade in frozen meat from Australasia which,
however, would probably be unaffected for many long years, if at all. In view
of the successful experiment on the island of Delft, it is quite possible that
the breeding of horses or good ponies would enter into stock owners' calcula-
tions ; but, in any case, they will see from the above figures that there is ready
for them a local trade demand, for close on 30,000 cattle and over 100,000 sheep
and goats per annum, of a nominal value as entered at the Customs (there
being no import duty of nearly Rl,400,000 — in reality, as sold in the local
market, of probably double that amount or certainly not under two million
rupees or £133,000. Such a local market is surely good enough to secure the
attention of some enterprising Australiaji stock capitalists accustomed to
cattle or sheep runs in the hot and often arid regions of Central or Northern
Australia, in Queensland, New South, Wales, &c. We shall endeavour to
bring the matter under the notice of some of these gentlemen as well as of the
Australian press. The first question they will ask, of course, will bei-^How is
it known that cattle, &c., will thrive in your North Central country ? Our
answer is based on the experience of Mr. D. W. H. Skrine (with the training
and observation of an English farmer as well as a Ceylon planter) namely, that
he has seen cattle looking better at the end of the dry season in Aimradhapura
district than in the comparatively wet South-Western division of the island ;
24
1895.
1900.
1901.
627
534
453
R179,290
199,190
154,850
18,381
26,530
29,093
R410,550
613,230
650,940
68,910
96,330
111,733
R332,570
514,520
683,260
clxxxvi , Ceylon in 1903.
and further that a, great deal of North-Central country is probably better
fitted for oatttej sheep and goats than is much of the country in Southern.
India whence we now import 140,000 head per annum. — Ceylon Observer, Aug.,
23, 1902.
FARMING IN THE NORTH-CENTEAL PROVINCE.
Editor, Ceylon Observer.
Sept. 4, 1903.
Dear Sir, — I was glad to read that article of yours, setting forth the
capabilities of the territory along the Northern Railway route for the rearing
and fattening of stock. I have long been of opinion that there is a great
future for the country which is being gradually reclaimed from the decadence
into which it had fallen for centuries, before the sagacity and political
humanity of Sir William Gregory stepped In to arrest the decimation of
its inhabitants and to rescue them from the sufferings induced by bad and
insufficient water and ill-nourishing food. The cattle I have seen in and .
about Anuradhapura were of the sleekest ; and Mr. (afterwards Sir Graeme)
Glphinstone told me that he sent the cattle, for which he could not find
food and accommodation enough on his upcountry estates, to graze and fatten
in the Bintenne country, until they were wanted for milk and for draught,
when he seut-away a new batch to make place for them. Even better suited
than for cattle should the climate be for sheep and goats, which notoriously
breed fast and which also revel in dry and arid tracts. There is always
a market for' these, as the annual imports you have quoted show ; but. while
the idea of inducing stockbreeders of Australian ejsperience to come- over is. an
excellent one, I do not think the new enterprise need be wholly , oi;.' even
greatly, dependent on their aid. There, are men in our midst, Eiifopean
and Ceylonese, who will take up the industry, as sodn as the line' is 'opei^
and thp'-e is practical demonstration of the accessibility <oi suitable iAserves.
But ' ' i~ Government must adopt a liberal policy towards them. Perhaps
some of the older planters will be able to say whether others than Elphinstone,
adopted the plan I refer to above. — Yours truly, BOS.
DATE DUE
IfTteriib
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