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UT
PLATE VIII.
WILD CAT
PRINTED BY
WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED,
PREFACE.
Tue Author, in his Preface, has exhausted the material for an
introductory notice to this little work, for the scope of which I
must refer the reader to Mr. Lydekker’s own words. It is a
significant fact that in the present day no author pretends to
write a complete account of his subject, who does not take
some notice of its Paleontological aspect, and I feel myself
very fortunate in having secured the assistance of such a well-
known Palzontologist as my friend Mr. Lydekker for this
record of our British Mammalia, past and present.
Mr. Lydekker is not an advocate for the adoption of the
Scomber scomber principle in zoological nomenclature. I feel
convinced, however, that the absolute justice of retaining
every specific name given by Linnzeus will some day be recog-
nised. Thus, in my opinion, the correct title of the Badger
should be A/eles meles (L.) ; of the Otter, Lutra lutra (L.); of
the Roe-deer, Capreolus capreolus (L.); of the Common Por-
poise, Phocena phocena (L.); of the Killer, Orca orca (L.).
R. BOWDLER SHARPE.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
ALTHOUGH memoirs relating to particular groups have from
time to time made their appearance, no Monograph of the
British Mammals as a whole has been published since the
second edition of Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” in 1874. Since
that date considerable advances have been made with regard to
our knowledge of the geographical distribution of our Native
Mammals, while the careful study of nomenclature instituted of
late years, has rendered it necessary that many of our Mammals
should be known by scientific names different from those by
which they have been commonly designated in the older works
on Natural History. These two circumstances would alone
justify the issue of the present volume; but there is a further
justification for its appearance, in that it contains, for the first
time in a work of this nature, brief notices of the species ex-
terminated within the historic period, with a further section
devoted to the fossil forms.
The Author makes no claim to being an observer of the
habits of British Mammals; and he has accordingly drawn
largely from Macgillivray’s excellent “Manual,” published in
the original issue of the “ Naturalist’s Library.” Indeed, the
present volume may be regarded almost as a new edition
of that excellent, although now somewhat antiquated, work.
When necessary, Macgillivray’s observations have, however,
been added to or modified; and the Author’s best thanks
are due to Mr. A. Trevor-Battye and Mr. W. E. de Winton for
vi AUTHOR’S PREFACE,
many original observations on the subject of habits. Thanks
are also due to Mr. J. E. Harting, from whose numerous papers
on British Mammals, especially his volume on the species
recently exterminated from our islands, and also his Report on
the “Vole-Plague,” a large amount of matter has been culled.
My acknowledgments must likewise be tendered to Mr. A. G.
More, of the Dublin Museum, for much important informa-
tion kindly communicated by letter on the subject of Irish
Mammals.
Although attention has been especially directed to-the sub-
ject of distribution, it has not been deemed necessary to give
the name of very county from which the more uncommon
species have heen recorded.
RICHARD LYDEKKER.
SYSTEMATIC
INTRODUCTION ee ee
ORDER CHIROPTERA mo. etal
FAMILY RHINOLOPHID.2...
I, Rurnotopuus, Desm..
1. ferrum-equinum {Schieber}
2. hipposiderus (Bechst.) ...
FAMILY VESPERTILIONIDA
I. PLecotus, Geoffr. :
I. auritus (L.) 6 dus site
II. Synotus, Keys. and Hes
1. barbastellus (Schreber)...
III. Vesreruco, Keys, and Blas,
I. serotinus (Schreber)
2. discolor (Natt.) ...
3. noctula (Schreber)
4. leisleri (Kuhl)... i's
5. pipistrellus (Schreber) ..
IV. VEsPERTILIO, L. 4
1, dasycneme, Boie
. daubentoni, Leisl.
. nattereri, Kuhl ...
. bechsteini, Leis],
. murinus, L,
. mystacinus, Leisl.
ORDER INSECTIVORA et
FAMILY ERINACEIDA .., tee
I, ERINACEUS, L. ... si ee <8
I, europceeus, L. en tea azo
Aun hw np
vill SYSTEMATIC INDEX.
FAMILY TALPIDA ... wae we ve tae tn ae 62
I. Tapa, L. as aa awl ans ies ase ie we 63
I. europea,L, ... ae oe ak sib ae we 64
FAMILY SORICID. ... an a ice se sa we 74
I. Sorex, L. ae sie sea we ae ae ai we 75
1, vulgaris, L, aes ge ae fen ein ube ek 5
2. minutus, L. Ras ce ae ie Ae otk we 79
II. Crossopus, Wagl. ess ie ii cee cae are ve 20
1. fodiens (Pall.) ... ans ae iss ate sis w. 80
ORDER CARNIVORA ... is i or wee sin « §=84
FAMILY FELID sie as eas ae av ae vo 86
I. Feuis, L. A oy ae ‘ive aes ae iets - 87
I. catus, L.... or he Sis dv, oe ae -. 88
FAMILY CANIDZ ... a ie we ev vee oe 94
I. Canis, L. 2 Per é fs ae ats aia see 95
a. lupus, L. “ ae bee FE: oe a oe 95
2. vulpes, L. we si ee a vis aa v- 98
FAMILY MUSTELID/AZ aes a oe ais se se 104
I, Mustera, L. ... 28 by act oe bas ae ses 105
I. martes, L. dian a eis rr Sat see ws 106
2. putorius, L. wae set sat sis ee aide wee IIL
3. erminea, L. an eas ae ce ia ae we 116
4. vulgaris, Erxl. ... a a ize re oe see 122
II. MELEs, Storr. ... wae ae see ates oc sie wee 125
I. taxus (L), is ea ane da sing ‘int we 126
III. Lurra, Erxl.... one oc =e aot wee aa soe 134
I. vulgaris, Erxl. ... sis aia ait e sige woe 135
FAMILY URSID __... a oes sia sia is ws 140
I. Ursus, L. oe seis de sg ae ae seh + 141
I. arctos, L. age we is are sto a oe 141
FAMILY PHOCID ... au ie i vi a see 142
I, HaLicHervs, Nilss. ... aos ane aia in si vee 144
1. grypus (Fabr.) ... oe ae wee oak as oe 145
SYSTEMATIC INDEX,
IL. Puoca, L.
I. vitulina, L.
2. hispida, Schreber
3. groenlandica, Fabr.
III, CysropHora, Nilss. ...
I. cristata (Erxl.)
FAMILY TRICHECHIDA
I. TricuEecuus, L.
I. rosmarus, L.
ORDER RODENTIA
FAMILY SCIURID& ...
I. Scrurus, L.
1. vulgaris, L.
FAMILY CASTORIDAL
I. Castor, L. ive vee
1. fiber, L. ... ane
FAMILY MYOXIDZ. ..,
3. MUSCARDINUS, Kaup.
1. avellanarius (L.)
FAMILY MURID se.
I. Mus, L. ... ais dn
I, minutus, Fall.
. sylvaticus, L.
. flavicollis, Melchior
. musculus, L.
. rattus, L.
. decumanus, Pall.
An pw hd
II, Microtus, Schrank ...
1. agrestis (L.) wv
3. glareolus (Schreber)
3. amphibius (L.) ... .
x SYSTEMATIC INDEX.
FAMILY LEPORIDZ ... roe
I. Lepus, L. Gs ‘as
I. europeeus, Pall. on
2. timidus, L.
3. cuniculus, L.
ORDER UNGULATA
FAMILY BOVID/E
I. Bos, L. ...
I. taurus, L.
FAMILY CERVIDAZ
I, Cervus, L. 28
1. elaphus, L.
2. dama, L. ‘
II. Capreouus, H. Smith
I. caprea, Gray. ... ie
III. RANGIFER, H. Smith ave
I. tarandus (L.)
FAMILY SUID
de Busy Dy set
1. scrofa, L,
ORDER CETACEA
FAMILY BALASNIDAE
I, Barena, lL...
I. australis, Desm.
II. MEGAPTERA, Gray...
1. boops (Fabr.)
III, BALainoprerA, Lacép. ...
1, sibbaldi (Gray) ... sea
2. musculus (L.) ...
3. borealis, Less. ...
4. rostrata (Fabr.) ...
FAMILY PHYSETERIDA
I, Puyserer, L, ... a
3%. macrocephalus, L.
PAGE
» 219
. 220
. 221
. 225
. 229
#233
234
see 235
+ 235
«238
» 239
+. 240
se 246
++ 249
.. 249
295, (252
» 253
254
ve 258
- 255
+ 259
» 259
. 260
- 260
+ 262
vee 262
++ 264
see 264
ss 266
. 268
- 271
+ 273
a 273
» 274
SYSTEMATIC INDEX.
II. ElyperGonon, Lacép.
I. rostratus (Miill.)
III. MrsopLopon, Gerv.
1. bidens (Sowerby)
IV. Ziputus, Cuv. i
I. cavirostris, Cuv.
FAMILY DELPHINIDA
I. Monopon, L. ...
I. monoceros, L. ...
II. DELPHINAPTERUS, Lacép.
1. leucas (Pall.)
III. PHoc@na, Cuv.
1. communis, Less,
IV. Orca, Gray ... Sais
1. gladiator (Bonn. iv
V. GLOBICEPHALUS, Less. wi. prs see
I. melas (Traill.) ...
VI. Grampus, Gray
I. griseus (Cuv.)
VII. LAGENORHYNCHUS, Gray ...
1, albirostris (Gray)
2. acutus (Gray)
VIII. DELPHINUS, L. ... ah
1. delphis, L.
IX. Tursiops, Gerv. ete
I. tursio (Bonn.)
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN
I. The CAVERN and BRICK-EARTH PERIOD ...
II. The Forest-BeD and CraG PERIODS
III. The LowEr TERTIARY PERIOD ...
xi
PAGE
a0 9276
-. 276
see 279
- 279
. 282
. 282
. 282
. 283
.. 283
.. 284
ve 284
we 285
s. 286
ans 287
-+. 287
1 289
. 289
. 290
. 291
ses 292
++ 293
ws 204
vee 295
«++ 296
++. 296
- 297
. 298
. 298
s+ 208
» 319
LIST OF PLATES.
I.—Greater Horse-shoe Bat
II.—Long-eared Bat se
III.—Pipistrelle :
IV.—Reddish-Grey Bat
V.—Common Hedge-hog
VI,—Common Shrew ite
VII.—Water-Shrew ...
VITI.—Wild Cat
IX.—Fox awe See
X.—Pine-Marten
XI.—Polecat ... re
XII.—Stoat in summer dress
XIII.—Stoat in winter dress ...
XIV.—Weasel . g in
XV. —Cerron Badzer
XVI.—Common Otter... ii
XVII.—Common Seal ...
XVIII. —Harp-Seal
XIX.—Common Squirrel
XX.—Common Dormouse
XXI,—Harvest-Mouse...
XXII.—Wood-Mouse
XXIII.—Black Rat soos
XXIV.—Common Field: Vole ...
XXV.—Bank-Vole
XXVI,—Water-Vole
XXVII.—Common Hare
XXVIII.—Mountain-Hare Ae
XXIX.—Cnhillingham Cattle
XXX.—Red Deer ain
XXXI.—Fallow Deer ... vee
XXXII.—Common Roe ... ac
Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum
Plecotus auritus.
Vesperugo pipistrelius.
Vespertilio nattereri.
Erinaceus europaeus,
Sorex vulgaris.
Crossopus fodiens.
felis catus.
Canis vulpes.
Mustela martes.
Mustela putorius.
Mustela erminea.
Mustela erminea.
Mustela vulgaris.
Meles taxis,
Lutra vulgaris,
Phoca vitulina.
Phoca grenlandica,
Scturus vulgaris.
AMuscardinus avellanarius,
Mus minutus.
Maus sylvaticus,
Mus rattus.
AMficrotus agrestis.
Microtus glareolus.
Microtus amphibius.
Lepus europaeus,
Lepus timidus.
Bos taurus,
Cervus elaphus,
Cervus dama.
Capreolus caprea.
BRITISH MAMMALS.
INTRODUCTION.
ACCORDING to the admirable classification proposed by Dr.
A. R. Wallace, the British Islands come under the category of
“Continental” Islands ; that is to say, they are islands of large
size, composed to a great extent of sedimentary rocks, and
situated near to a continent, with the fauna and flora of which
their own animals and plants agree to a greater or less extent.
Many islands of this class have evidently been united to the
continents to which they are adjacent, at no very remote
epoch; and this is attested in our own case not only by the
shallowness of the English Channel and the North Sea, but
likewise by the similarity of the geological formations on the
two sides of the Channel, as well as by the fact that there is
not a single indigenous species of British Mammal that is not
likewise met with on the Continent. That there are certain
continental Mammals now unknown in a living condition in
our islands is, indeed, true, but of this we have an adequate
and sufficient explanation. Before discussing this point it may,
however, be well to mention that the second group of islands
in Dr. Wallace’s classification are termed ‘‘ Oceanic” Islands.
These are generally of small size, situated either in mid-ocean,
where they rise abruptly from great depths, or, if near to a conti-
5 B
2 LLOVD’S NaiURAL History.
nent, separated therefrom by exceedingly deep water. Instead
of largely consisting of ordinary sedimentary rocks, formed in
seas of moderate depth, they are in most or ail cases composed
of coral or igneous rocks ; and as their fauna and flora are of a
totally different type from that of the continents to which they
are nearest, it is evident that they have always existed as
islands. “
To unite the whole of the British Islands to the Continent
would require an elevation of one hundred fathoms at the
most ; and that these islands formerly stood at a much higher
elevation than is at present the case, we have abundant evi-
dence. There occur, for instance, on many parts of our coasts,
submerged forests belonging to a comparatively late period,
which are now only partially exposed at very low spring-tides
after stormy weather, when they are seen to contain stumps of
trees rooted in their natural position in the soil, mixed with
deposits, containing remains of existing kinds of plants and
animals. Such submerged forests occur near Torquay in
Devonshire, and Falmouth in Cornwall, as well as on various
parts of the coast of Wales, and in Holyhead Harbour. In
the case of Falmouth it is estimated that the submergence has
been close on seventy feet. Again, on the east coast of Eng-
land, at Cromer in Norfolk, we have another submerged forest
or older date, which belongs either to the base of the Pleisto-
cene, or the upper part of the Pliocene period, and is known
as the “forest-bed.” Moreover, the occurrence of thousands of °
teeth of the Mammoth, as well as remains of other Mammals
which lived during the Pleistocene epoch, or the one imme-
diately preceding our own, on the Dogger Bank, in the North
Sea, affords further testimony that this area formed at no very
distant epoch a connecting land-link between Britain and the
Continent.
If we need turther evidence of this subsidence, we have it
INTRODUCTION. 3
ai the nuniérous ancient valleys and river-channels which are
met with in various parts of the country, running at depths of
from one hundred to more than two hundred feet below the
present level, and frequently cutting right across the present
lines of drainage, and connecting valleys now completely
separate. Completely choked with deposits of sand and mud,
and showing no evidence of their existence in the present con-
figuration of the country, these ancient drainage channels have
been revealed to us by the borer, and afford incontestable
evidence of a very extensive subsidence. The evidence of this
submergence indicates, therefore, that at no very distant epoch
portions, at least, of the land must have stood at least two
hundred and fifty feet higher above the sea than they do at
present, and probably considerably more; and such an eleva-
tion would, in the opinion of Dr. Wallace, have been amply
sufficient to unite England with the Continent.
We may admit, then, that during, or about, the period when
the Norfolk forest-bed (which, we may state, antedates the
Glacial epoch) was deposited, the British Islands were connected
with the Continent, and doubtless also with one another. And
it would appear from the researches of paleontologists that
their Mammalian fauna was then in all probability identical,
or nearly so, with that of the Continent. For instance, apart
from a host of extinct species, into the consideration of which
it will be unnecessary to enter on this occasion, it appears that
during the forest-bed period there existed in England the
Russian Desman (AZyogade moschata), the Continental Field-
Vole (Aficrotus arvalis), and the more arctic Glutton (Guo
Zuscus) and Musk-Ox (Ovibos mo..hatus). And there is evidence
that at the later period of the caverns and brick-earths there
were many other Continental forms, such as the Lemming
(Cuniculus torquatus), two species of Suslik (Spermophilus), the
Elk (Ades machlis), the Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), &c., &c.
Ba
4 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
It should be added that the evidence of the non-existence of
these forms during the period of the forest-bed is merely of a
negative nature.
On the other hand, at the present day, Britain lacks a very
large number of the species of Mammals now inhabiting the
Continent, and this deficiency is much more marked in the
case of Ireland than it is in England and Scotland; while
if we take into consideration Reptiles and Amphibians, which
are much less readily dispersed than are Mammals, the dis-
crepancy is still more marked.
In dealing with the Mammals, we must of course omit all
the purely aquatic forms, such as Seals, Whales, Porpoises,
Dolphins, &c., and confine our attention to those which pass
the whole ora large portion of their time on land. - On the
other hand, it is obvious that we have no right to exclude species
like the Wolf and Wild-Boar, which have been exterminated by
human agency, during the historic period ; and we accordingly
reckon all such as part and parcel of the present British fauna.
The following list includes the various species of terrestrial
Mammals which are known to have inhabited the British
Islands during the historic period, the writer being indebted to
Mr. A. G. More, of Dublin, for those found in Ireland.
Greater Horse-shoe Bat (RAinolophus ferrum-equinum).
Lesser Horse shoe Bat (Rhinolophus hipposiderus), I.
Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus). I.
. Barbastelle Bat (Syxotus darbastellus).
. Serotine Bat (Vesperugo serotinus).
. Noctule Bat ( Vesperugo noctula).
. Hairy-armed Bat (Vesperugo leisleri). I.
. Pipistrelle Bat (Vesperugo pipistrellus). 1.
. Daubenton’s Bat ( Vespertilio daubentont). I
. Reddish-grey Bat (Vesfertilio nattereri). I.
. Bechstein’s Bat (Vespertitio bechsteint).
~
Rr OD PNW AN PW NH &
=
INTRODUCTION.
12. Whiskered Bat (Vespertilio mystacinus). 1.
13. Hedge-hog (Zrinaceus europeus), 1.
14. Mole (Zalpa europea),
15. Common Shrew (Sorex vulgaris).
16. Lesser Shrew (Sorex pygmaeus). 1.
17. Water-Shrew ( Crossopus fodicus).
18, Wild Cat (Felis catus).
19.*Wolf (Canis lupus). I.
20. Fox (Canis vulpes). I.
21. Pine-Marten (Mustela martes). §.
22. Polecat (Mustela putorius).
23. Stoat (AZustela erminea). 1.
24. Weasel (Mustela vulgaris).
25. Badger (dees taxus). I.
26. Otter (Lutrva vulgaris). I.
27.*Brown Bear (Ursus arctus). I.
28. Squirrel (Sc‘urus vulgaris). 1. (? introduced.)
29.*Beaver (Castor fiber).
30. Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius).
31. Harvest-Mouse (Aus minutus).
32. Wood-Mouse (Aus sylvaticus). 1.
33. Yellow-necked Mouse (Aus flavicollis).
34. Common Mouse (Aus musculus). I.
35-{Black Rat (Mus rattus). 1.
36.tBrown Rat (Mus decumanus). 1.
37. Common Field-Vole (A@icrotus agrestis).
38. Bank-Vole (Microtus glareolus).
39. Water-Vole (Microtus amphibius).
40. Common Hare (Lepus europaeus).
41. Mountain-Hare (Lepus timidus). 1.
42.tRabbit (Lepus cuniculus). I.
43. Wild Cattle (Bos taurus).
44. Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). I.
45-tFallow Deer (Cervus dama). J.
6 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
46. Roe Deer (Capreolus caprea).
47-*Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). I.
In this list No. 11 has but little right to a place, having only
been taken once in Britain. Three other Bats, namely Ves-
perugo discolor, Vespertilio dasycneme, and Vespertilio murinus,
which have been recorded from England, are altogether omitted,
since the first was almost certainly introduced, while the other
two have no claim to be regarded as habitual denizens of our
area. The four species marked with a * are extinct, and per-
haps Wild Cattle should be included under the same heading.
The Reindeer is not mentioned, since its existence within the
limits of the British Islands during the historic period is very
doubtful. Those species which have been introduced have a
tT prefixed to their names; while such as occur in Ireland have
the affix “I.” It is not improbable that the Common Mouse
should be included under the former heading.
Omitting the latter, together with those forms which are cer-
tainly known to have been introduced, and likewise disregard-
ing Bechstein’s Bat, we thus have a total of forty-one terrestrial
Mammals which can be regarded as indigenous inhabitants of
Britain during the historic period ; five, or perhaps six, of these
being extinct. Out of these only twenty-three are found in Ire-
land ; and since the Squirrel was probably introduced into that
island, while three species are now exterminated, the list of
truly indigenous living Hibernian terrestrial Mammals is re-
duced to nineteen. On the other hand, it is stated by Dr.
Wallace that Germany possesses nearly ninety species, and
even Scandinavia as many as sixty; although it is probable
that these numbers include the introduced species mentioned
above.
We have now to account for this discrepancy between the
British and Continental Faunas; and here we may state that
the Glacial period, during which the greater part of Britain
INTRODUCTION, q
appears to have been covered with an ice-sheet similar to that
now enveloping Greenland, occurred subsequently to the
deposition of the Norfolk forest-bed, but attained its maximum
before that of the brick-earths of the Thames Valley and the
loam filling our caves. The relations of these later deposits
are, however, far from being fully understood ; and it is quite
probable that some of the beds indicating a comparatively
mild climate were laid down during warm interludes in the
Glacial period, which would account for the curious oscillations
of southern and northern forms of Mammals met with in our
later deposits.
With regard to the date when the last union of Britain with
the Continent took place, Dr. Wallace, in his “Island Life,”
writes that this “was comparatively recent, as shown by the
identity of the shells [found in the later deposits] with living
species, and the fact that the buried river-channels are all
covered with clays and gravels of the Glacial period, of such a
character as to indicate that most of them were deposited
above the sea-level. From these and various other indications
geologists are all agreed that the last continental period, as it
is called, was subsequent to the greatest development of the
ice, but probably before the cold period had wholly passed
away.”
In referring to the poverty of Britain as compared with the
Continent in species, the same author observes that “the for-
mer union of our islands with the Continent is not, however,
the only recent change they have undergone. There is equally
good evidence that a considerable portion, if not the entire
area, has been submerged to a depth of nearly two thousand
feet, at which time only what are now the highest mountains
would remain as groups of rocky islets. This submersion must
have destroyed the greater part of the life of our country ; and
as it certainly occurred during the latter part of the Glacial
8 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
epoch, the subsequent elevation and union with the Continent
cannot have been of very long duration, and this fact must have
had an important bearing on the character of the existing
fauna and flora of Britain. We know that just before and
during the Glacial period we possessed a fauna almost, or quite,
identical with that of adjacent parts of the Continent and
equally rich in species. The submergence destroyed this
fauna ; and the permanent change of climate on the passing
away of the Glacial conditions appears to have led to the ex-
tinction or migration of many species in the adjacent continen-
tal areas, where they were succeeded by the assemblage of ani-
mals now occupying Central Europe. When England became
continental, these entered our country; but sufficient time
does not seem to have elapsed for the migration to have been
completed before subsidence again occurred, cutting off the
further influx of purely terrestrial animals, and leaving us with-
out the number of species which our favourable climate and
varied surface entitle us to. . . . . The depth of the
Irish Sea being somewhat greater than that of the German
Ocean, the connecting land would there probably be of small
extent and of less duration, thus offering an additional barrier
to migration, whence has arisen the comparative zoological
poverty of Ireland.”
It will be apparent from this that Dr. Wallace attributes the
clean sweep, which he considers to have been made of the an-
cient British fauna, not to the ice-sheet at the epoch of maxi-
mum glaciation, but to a submergence of much later date,
It does not appear, however, that the evidence that the sub-
mergence in question took place at such a late date is by any
means decisive; and other geologists attribute the disappear-
ance of the greater part of the fauna to the ice-sheet itself, a
view with which we ourselves are more inclined to agree. On
the other hand, as we shall presently see, another writer disputes
INTRODUCTION. 9
the clean sweep of the fauna altogether, and thinks it may have
survived in the southern part of England, whence it again
spread northwards with the return of more favourable con-
ditions ; although with the loss of such forms as were unable
to withstand a considerable amount of cold. On this latter
view it is considered that Britain was never connected with
the Continent after the passing away of the Glacial period.
To make matters more intelligible, we may give a summary
(taken from Mr. Horace Woodward’s “ Geology of England ”)
of what Prof. James Geikie considers to have been. the
sequence of physical changes in Britain subsequent to the
deposition of the Norfolk forest-bed, arranged in chronological
order.
1. Deposition of Norfolk forest-bed, and indications of ap-
proaching cold.
2. “Till” deposits of Cromer, and the lowest Boulder Clay
(an ice-formation) of other parts; this being a period of eleva-
tion of land, accompanied by severe glacial conditions.
3. Period of considerable submergence, during which marine
sands and gravels were deposited in many parts, reaching nearly
to the summit of Moel Tryfaen ; this epoch being apparently
equivalent to Dr. Wallace’s great period of submergence.
4. Period of elevation of land, during which a large portion
of Britain was covered with sheet-ice, and the greater part of
the Boulder Clay was deposited ; this being the period when,
according to the more general view, the country was unin-
habited by the greater part of the Mammals with which it is
now populated.
5. A period of less severe climatic conditions, during which
the brick-earths and cavern deposits were laid down, and the
climate gradually changed from intense cold to temperate and
genial; Arctic and Southern animals visiting Britain, according
16 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY,
as the conditions were the more favourable to the one or the
other.
6. A period of severe glacial conditions, with glaciers and
coast-ice, chiefly affecting Scotland, and the north of England
and Wales.
7. Period of the retreat of the ice, when a few mountain-
glaciers alone remained, and Britain was probably insulated.
8. Britain again continental ; summer and winter tempera-
tures more excessive than now; great forests largely prevalent.
Incoming and spreading of the existing fauna.
g. Period of final insulation of Britain ; the climate being
moist, the great forests tending to disappear, and peat-mosses
prevalent.
1o. The present condition of things. *
Whether, therefore, the disappearance of the continenta
fauna in Britain be attributed to submergence or to the direct
action of the ice-sheet, it will be apparent that both Mr.
Wallace and Professor Geikie are at one in considering that
Britain has been connected with the Continent at two distinct
epochs, and that the present fauna did not make its appearance
till the second continental period.
While admitting that both these high authorities are right in
regard to the disappearance of the original continental fauna
from the greater part of the islands, Mr. G. W. Bulman,
however, in a paper contributed to Watural Science for
October, 1893, disputes the contention that its disappear-
ance was total, and consequently urges that there is no need
for a second connection with the Continent after the first
severance. ;
This writer bases his contention of the survival in our
islands of a part of the original fauna from the southern extent,
of the ice during the period of maximum intensity of the
INTRODUCTION. II
Glacial epoch, apparently agreeing with Professor Geikie in
regarding the subsidence that has taken place in Britain as
not being sufficient to have exterminated either the fauna or
flora, and consequently attributing such extermination as he
admits to have taken place, solely to the ice-sheet. He is of
opinion that during the Glacial period the ice-sheet did not, at
most, extend further south than the latitude of London, and
that it very possibly stopped short of this. Taking the former
view, he remarks that “this would leave the counties of Kent,
Surrey, Sussex, Hants, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, Cornwall,
and part of Wiltshire free from ice. As far as space, then, is
concerned, we have an area capable of affording an asylum to
a considerable number of our plants andanimals. If, however,
the Boulder Clay was not formed beneath the ice, then the
latter probably did not extend so far south as the latitude of
London, and the area fitted to form an asylum for our pre-
glacial flora and fauna increased.”
After going into the consideration of the nature of the
climate of countries lying on the borders of ice-sheets, and also
noting that the limit of the ice-sheet marked by the Boulder
Clay would be the extreme winter extension of the ice, which
must have receded to a certain extent during the summer,
while mention is made of the circumstance that the Gulf-
stream probably then, as now, warmed our western and south-
ern shores, Mr. Bulman adds that during the greatest glacia-
tion of Britain there may have been areas fitted to preserve
temperate forms of life besides the southern counties already
mentioned.
After referring to certain instances in our flora and fauna
which are considered to prove survival from the pre-glacial
epoch, the author proceeds to argue that, had the alleged
second continenial conneciion been a fact, it must in all
probability have been of such duration as would have per-
12 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY
mitted the whole of the post-glacial continental Mammals to
have reached Britain. And he adds that if it can be shown
that the continental forms missing from our present fauna are
those most likely to have been exterminated by the cold, or
least likely to cross the separating sea—and if, in addition, they
are species calculated to migrate as quickly as those which
are common to this country—then there will be a further argu-
ment against the second continental period.
Without offering a definite opinion on a question so bristling
with difficulties as the above, we may say that, so far as Mam-
mals are concerned, we do not think that anything decisive
one way or the other can be deduced from the considerations
referred to in the last sentence. Ifthe ancestors of our pre-
sent Mammals did survive the whole Glacial period in the
south of England, there would of course be no difficulty in
regarding them as having repopulated England and Scotland
at its close. The case is, however, more difficult with regard
to Ireland, which, on this hypothesis, must at the same time
have been separated from the sister-island, since here, too, we
must have had an area in which the present Irish Mammals
survived the cold period. If, however, those that now exist
there then survived, why did not at least as many persist there
as in England, seeing that the Irish climate was probably then,
as now, milder than that of England? It can hardly be urged
that the area free of ice in Ireland was too small for all the
species, seeing that animals of the size of the Red Deer and the
extinct Irish Deer are known to have lived in Ireland within the
recent period, and must, consequently, on the hypothesis under
consideration, have been among the survivers ; it being evident
that an area of land sufficiently large to have supported such
creatures would perfectly well have also maintained such existing
English Mammals as are unrepresented in the Irish fauna.
The great objection that Mr. Bulman seems to have to the
alleged post-glacial connection of Britain with the Continent is
BaTS, 13
the amount of earth-movements which it must necessarily have
entailed. Although we are averse to calling in such movements
unnecessarily, we confess that, in our opinion, his theory does
not account for the poverty of the Mammalian fauna of Ireland
as compared with that of the rest of Britain in the perfect
manner in which that of Mr. Wallace does; and until this
is done we prefer to incline towards the latter, which, it must
be remembered, is to a considerable extent supported by the
submerged forests and ancient deserted river-channels of Eng-
land.
Whether, however, the one theory or the other of the re-
population of England be adopted, we have to remember that
the present impoverished Mammalian fauna of Britain, as com-
pared with the Continent, is due to the direct or indirect
action of the Glacial period, the effects of which have been so
far-reaching both on inanimate and animate nature in the
Northern Hemisphere.
THE BATS. ORDER CHIROPTERA.
The special modification of the bones of the fore-limb for
the purpose of flight, coupled with the presence of a leathery
flying-membrane extending from the front of the fore-limb,
connecting together the toes, or fingers, of the same, then
joining the hind-limbs, and likewise connecting together the
two latter, with or without the intervention of the tail, at once
serves to distinguish sharply the Bats from all other members
of the Mammalian class. They are likewise the only Mammals
endowed with the power of true flight, like birds; the long
flying leaps of the Flying Squirrels and the Flying Phalangers
being nothing more than a prolongation of an ordinary leap by
the aid of a parachute-like expansion of the skin of the flanks,
without any special modification or elongation of the bones of
the fore-limbs,
Referring in some detail to the structure of the fore-limb,
t4 LLOYD'S NATURAL HiSTORY.
which in this group it will be convenient to designate as the
arm, and its extremities as fingers, it will be seen from the
accompanying figure of the skeleton of the same that all the
bones are characterised by their slenderness and elongation.
The first finger, or thumb, remains, however, comparatively
short, and is furnished with a well-developed claw; but the
remaining four fingers are greatly elongated, so that the third,
fourth, and fifth, which are devoid of any trace of a claw, are
en as
Skeleton or the Right Fore-limb of a Bat. 4%, bone of upper arm, or
humerus; 7.w., bones of the fore-crm, or radius and ulna; fx., thumb ; 24.,
claw of same ; mc., metacarpus ; pz. ph'., bones of second and filth fingers.
absolutely longer than the fore-arm; the elongation attaining
its maximum in the third, or middle, finger. Between these
long spider-like fingers the wing-membrane is tightly stretched
when the limb is expanded; while when at rest the whole
structure can be compactly folded along the sides of the body,
Apart from the total absence of feathers, those who have even
the most elcnenlary acquaintance with anatomy will not {ail
Bats. 15
‘to see how totally different is the structure of a Bat’s wig from
‘that of a bird.
Another peculiarity connected with these animals is that the
‘knee is directed backwards, instead of forwards in the ordinary
manner. Moreover, in the great majority of the members of
the Order, a cartilaginous process or spur extends from the
inner side of the ankle to aid, after the manner of a yard-arm, in
supporting the membrane connecting the two hind-legs.
In all the Bats with which we have to deal in the present
work the cheek-teeth are furnished with sharp cusps, admirably
adapted to seize and pierce the insect-prey on which these
little animals subsist ; these cusps being generally arranged on
the crowns of the upper molars in the form of the letter W. As
the number of the teeth is of considerable importance in the
systematic arrangement of the members of the order, it may
be well to mention here that the maximum number of teeth
present in the Order is thirty-eight. When the whole of these
thirty-eight teeth are present there are always two pairs of
incisors in the upper, and three in the lower jaw; while in each
jaw there is a single pair of canines, three pairs of pre-molars,
and three of molars.*
All Bats are nocturnal and crepuscular in their habits, the
majority of the insect-eating species (to which group all the
British forms pertain) spending the greater portion of the time
during which they are active on the wing, in search of their
prey; and crawling slowly and with apparent difficulty. During
their flight they are aided in finding their way in the dark by the
peculiarly sensitive nature of the wing-membranes, or of cer-
tain leaf-like appendages growing from the upper surface of the
nose. Throughout the day-time they usually hang suspended
* It may be well to mention here that the pie-molars are those teeth of
the cheek-series (that is those situated behind the tusks, or canines) which
have deciduous predecessors, or baby-teeth, while the molars are not so pre-
ceded. The incisor teeth are those in the front of the jaws in advance 7f
the tusks.
16 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
head-downwards from the claws of the hind feet in dark and
sequestered situations, although they are also capable of hang-
ing in an upright position suspended by the claws of the
thumbs. In the winter, the whole of the British species
hibernate, generally in the former posture, although they
occasionally venture out on warm evenings.
Since Bats are essentially animals characteristic of the
warmer regions of the globe (where the great group of Fruit-
Bats is alone represented), it is not surprising to find the
number of British species comparatively small. As a matter
of fact, there are fifteen species of Bats reputed to occur in the
British Islands, but several of these are of rare occurrence,
while of two, only single examples (which in one case may
have been accidentally imported) have been taken within
our limits. Only twelve species can therefore be regarded * as
in any sense thoroughly British. Out of the whole fifteen,
thirteen belong to the large and widely-distributed Family
Vespertilionide, while the remaining two are referable to the
Rhinolophide.
As regards their reproduction, Bats are slow-breeding ani
mals, the female producing, at most, two young at a birth.
These are carried about by their parent, tightly clinging to the
fur of the body, and protected during the periods of quiescence
by the enfolded wings, until they are able to fly about by them-
selves in search of their own nutriment.
Since Bats are, on the whole, less interesting than many
other British Mammals, our notices of the various specics will
be comparatively brief.
THE LEAF-NOSED BATS. FAMILY
RHINOLOPHIDA.
The Bats of this family derive both their scientific and
popular names from the presence on the muzzle of a number
of leaf-like processes of skin around the nostrils, which form
HORSE-SHOE BATS. 17
their most characteristic feature, and one by which they can
be distinguished at a glance from all the other British represen-
‘tatives of the Order. It may be added that the ears are large
.and generally separated from one another, while they are
devoid of an inner earlet, or tragus. There are several other
_ peculiar features connected with these Bats, but since these are
not required to distinguish them from their British cousins of
the next family, we shall content ourselves by observing that
the two pairs of upper incisors are quite rudimentary, while
the anterior pre-molar tooth in the upper jaw is reduced to an
extremely minute size.
From the great development of the nose-leaf (which must be
regarded as a highly sensitive organ of perception), coupled
with other features in their organisation, the Leaf-nosed Bats
must be considered as the most highly organised and special-
ised members of the insect-eating division of the Order. Un-
known in the New World, as wellas in a large part of Oceania,
these Bats are distributed over the temperate and tropical
regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, where they are represented
by several genera, and a large number of species. The two
British members of the family belong to the under-mentioned
and typical genus.
GENUS RHINOLOPHUS.
Rhinolophus, Desmarest, Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat. vol. xix. p.
383 (1803).
First hind-toe with two joints, and each of the others with
three; a distinct anti-tragus (or secondary earlet) separated by
a notch from the outer margin of the ear.
These two features serve to distinguish the members of this
genus from all the other representatives of the Family, but a
' few additional peculiarities may be noticed.
‘The incisors comprise two upper and three lower pairs, and
5 Cc
18 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
the same numbers hold good for the pre-molars; the molars
being three pairs ineach jaw. The nose-leaf consists of three
portions, of which the anterior is horseshoe shaped, usually
with a deep median incision in front, the posterior is erect and
pointed, while the middle one, which is situated between and
behind the nostrils, is flat in front, and bent up behind into an
erect process, usually consisting of two flat moieties, of which
the front one is placed transversely, and the hinder one longitu-
dinally. The ears are lateral and free ; and the tail (which, as
in all British Bats, is enclosed in the membrane connecting the
hind-limbs) is relatively short.
The members of the genus have a distribution co-extensive
with that of the family.
I. GREATER HORSE-SHOE RAT. RHINOLOPHUS FERRUM-,
EQUINUM.
Vespertilio ferrum-equinum, Schreber, Saugethiere, vol. i. p. 174
(1775).
Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, Leach, Zool. Miscell. vol. iii. p.
2 (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 12
(1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 119
(1878).
(Plate L.)
Characters.— Size medium; second upper pre-molar tooth
placed close to the canine, and the minute anterior upper
pre-molar placed externally to the line of the two teeth just
mentioned ; second lower pre-molar very minute, and placed
externally to the line of the other teeth. Ears acutely pointed,
and rather shorter than the head ; posterior nose-leaf without
a large internal hollow ; lower lip with a single median vertical
groove. General colour reddish-brown with a greyish tinge;
under-parts pale grey, approaching white. Length of head and
body about 24 inches ; of tail 14 inch.
Although there is no difficulty im distinguishing this species
i
GREATER HORSE-SHOE BAT.
HORSE-SHOE BATS. 19
by its superior size from the other British representative of the
genus, the above-mentioned minute characteristics are necessary
to differentiate it from its foreign allies, some of which approach
it very closely.
Distribution—This species has a very wide geographical dis-
tribution, ranging over the greater part of Europe, Africa, and
Asia north of the Himalaya. Its northern range is, however,
not so extensive as that of the next species. In Britain it
appears to be essentially a southern form, being seemingly
very rare even in the midland counties, and quite unrepre-
sented in the north, as well asin Scotland. First discovered as
a British species at Dartmouth, it has been taken in many
localities in the south and west of England, such as Bristol,
Colchester, Rochester, and the Isle of Wight. Its favourite
haunts are old stone buildings, such as castles and churches,
and caves ; and it is especially common in the well-known cave
of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, of which it has probably been an
inhabitant ever since the age of the Mammoth, since its fos-
silised remains have been found there in association with those
of the latter and other extinct animals. It may be mentioned
that, on the Continent, this Bat is also very generally found in
caves, sometimes in enormous numbers, and, what is more
remarkable, usually in colonies composed entirely of either
male or female individuals. This Bat is not recorded by
Thompson from Ireland, and is probably unknown there.
Habits—The Greater Horse-shoe Bat makes its appearance
rather late in the evening; and when on the wing shows a
preference for the neighbourhood of trees, and flies high in
the air, though its flight is not so powerful as that of its
smaller cousin. Its favourite food is said to be fern-chafers.
On the wing this Bat appears nearly, or quite, as large as the
under-mentioned Noctule, but it is said to be easily dis-
tinguished from the latter by the relatively wider wings.
c2
20 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Il, LESSER HORSE-SHOE BAT. RHINOLOPHUS HIPPOSIDERUS.
Noctilio hipposideros, Bechstein, Naturgeschicte Deutschland’s
p- 1194 (1801).
Rhinolophus hipposideros, Leach, Zool. Miscell. vol. iii. p. 2
(1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 96 (1874) ;
Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 117 (1878).
Rhinolophus hipposiderus, Blanford, Faun. Brit. Ind. Mamm.
Pp. 277 (1891).
Characters.—Size small ; second upper pre-molar tooth sepa-
rated from the canine by a distinct interval, in the middle of
which is the minute anterior pre-molar; second lower pre-molar
placed nearly in the line of the other teeth, in the angle
between the two adjacent teeth. Ears rather shorter than the
head, sharply pointed, with the outer margin deeply excavated,
and separated from the large anti-tragus by a deep angular
notch ; posterior nose-leaf longer than broad, with the sides
slightly emarginate, and the extremity blunt; lower lip with a
single median vertical groove. General colour light brown,
with the under-parts light greyish-brown; young individuals
being frequently darker than the adult. Length of head and
body about 13% inch; of tail, 134 inch.
Distribution—The range of this species is not quite so ex-
tensive as that of the last, since in Africa it appears to be only
known from the north-eastern regions; in Europe it extends,
however, somewhat more to the north, reaching as far as the
Baltic. First recognised as an English species in Wiltshire,
this Bat resembles the last in being mainly confined to the
southern counties. Unlike the last, however, it has been
taken in Ireland, where it occurs in the counties of Galway
and Clare. In the latter county it was found hibernating in
caves among plantations, the entrances to which were more or
less thickly hung with plants ; and in all cases the two sexes
occurred in separate colonies.
TYPICAL BATS. 21
Inhabiting caves and buildings in the daytime, this species
is so similar in its mode of life to the last, that scarcely any
observations on this point are necessary. It is, however,
stated to fly stronger and at a higher elevation, and not to be
so partial to the neighbourhood of trees.
THE TYPICAL BATS. FAMILY VESPERTILIONID.
The members of this, the largest family in the whole Order,
are readily distinguished from the Rhinolophide by the absence
of a leaf-like expansion on the nose, and by the presence of
an earlet or tragus in the ear. These characters suffice, there-
fore, to distinguish them from the other British Bats, and
likewise to differentiate them from the allied family of the
Nycteride, in which both the appendages in question are
present. Since they fail, however, to distinguish them from the
other two families of insect-eating Bats, we have to add certain
other characteristics. These are that the tail is either contained
completely within the membrane connecting the hind legs, or
is produced but a very short distance beyond its free margin ;
while, when the wings are folded and at rest, the first joint of
the third or middle finger is extended in the line of the arm,
instead of being folded back upon its metacarpal bone.
All these Bats have comparatively long tails, and minute
bead-like eyes, while their ears take origin from the sides of
the head, and not from the forehead. Although there are
always three pairs of lower incisor teeth, in the upper jaw
there may be either one or two pairs of these teeth, which are
in either case widely separated from one another in the middle
line. As regards the pre-molars, the number of pairs of these
teeth in the upper jaw varies from one to three, the anterior
ones being always small, and in some instances situated in-
ternally to the general line of the teeth; in the lower jaw there
may be either two or three pairs of these teeth.
22 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
The typical Bats have a cosmopolitan distribution, so far as
the temperate and tropical regions of the world are concerned.
The majority of the species are included in the two genera, Ves-
pertilio and Vesperugo, and although the more typical representa-
tives of each of these are markedly distinct from one another,
yet there are certain intermediate forms which connect them
so Closely, that their definition is a matter of some difficulty.
Under these circumstances, the obvious course would be to
unite the two genera, were it not that the number of species is
so great that, if this plan were adopted, each genus would be in-
conveniently large and unwieldy.
THE LONG-EARED BATS. GENUS PLECOTUS.
Plecotus, Geoffr., Descript. de ?Egypt. p. 112 (1812).
Crown of the head flat, or only slightly elevated above the
line of the face; upper incisor teeth closely approximated to
the canines, and thus widely separated in the middle line.
Ears very large, with the inner margins united at the base, and
the outer borders severally terminating behind the angles of
the mouth ; earlet, or tragus, very long, narrow, and tapering.
Nostrils placed at the extremity of the muzzle, in form elon-
gate, narrow, and crescentic ; upper surface of muzzle hairy,
flat and depressed in the middle line, but swollen and elevated
at the sides—sometimes to such a degree as to form a roof
behind the nostrils over the middle region ; no grooves in the
front of the muzzle below the nostrils. Two pairs of both
incisor and pre-molar teeth in the upper jaw; and three of the
latter in the lower.
There are but two species of Long-eared Bats, one of which
is an Old World, and the other a North American form,
THE LONG-EARED BAT. PLECOTUS AURITUS.
Vespertilio auritus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 47
(1766).
PLATE
TYPICAL BATS. 23
Plecotus auritus, Geoffr. Descript. de ’Egypte p. 118 (1812) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 72 (1874).
(Plate II.)
Characters—Ears enormous, not greatly inferior in length to
the head and body, sub-oval, with the tips broadly rounded,
and their inner margins joined near the base, above which is a
prominent rounded lobe. Wings arising from the base of the
toes ; feet slender ; tail as long as the head and body, with its
tip just projecting beyond the margin of the membrane ;* fur
soft. General colour brown, usually becoming fawn-coloured
or light brown above, and whitish beneath; at least the basal
halves of the hairs being black. Length of head and body
about 134 inch; of tail slightly less, or the same.
Distribution—This species has a very wide geographical dis-
tribution, extending from Ireland through Europe and Nor-
thern Africa to the Himalaya, and probably inhabiting the
greater portion of temperate Asia. In the British Islands it is
one of the most common and widely-distributed members of
the Order, ranging over the greater part of Scotland, and re-
ported to occur through the Inner Hebrides, where it has been
taken, at least, in Mull and Islay. It has been doubtfully
recorded from Lochabar, and has been once taken at Tor-
castle. In Ireland it appears to be distributed in suitable
localities throughout the island. A specimen obtained many
years ago by the late Leonard Jenyns (afterwards Blomefield)
in the Isle of Ely, was described as a distinct species under
the name of Llecotus brevimanus, on account of certain
differences in the relative proportions of the limbs and
coloration; it is now known to be nothing more than an
individual variety.
Habits—Essentially an inhabitant of the open country, and
* In the relative length of the ears and tail, the illustration is not quite
true to nature,
24 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
not resorting to the neighbourhood of trees and plantations,
this Bat, writes Macgillivray, in the original issue of the
“ Naturalists’ Library,” flies, like the Pipistrelle, “but it pos-
sesses considerable agility, and turns with ease in every direc-
tion. It rises with facility from the ground, or even from the
bottom of the box in which it may be kept. When it alights,
it clings by the hooks of its fore-limbs and by its hind-claws.
In climbing it moves the fore-feet alternately, advancing
slowly, and in an awkward manner, which is still more apparent
when it crawls on a level surface. It adheres to the slightest
asperities, and retires to the corners of the deserted apart-
ments of old buildings, steeples, and the crevices of rocks,
where it suspends itself by the hind-feet, which are, as in other
Bats, eminently adapted for the purpose, the claws being very
acute, and of nearly equal length. When springing off from a
wall, it raises its fore-legs first, stretches out its head, and
erects its ears, which had been folded down, and it retains
them erect when flying. When preparing for repose, it brings
the fore-feet close to the body, the cubital- [elbow] joint pro-
jecting and in contact with the knee, incurvates the tail, folds
up the lateral membranes neatly, and brings the ears back-
wards, curving them along the sides of the head and body,
so as to resemble a ram’s horn; the tragus, or small anterior
appendage, projecting forward. Its voice is a low chirping
squeak ; and when teased or frightened, it ulters a querulous
note, like the wailing of a very young child.”
To this it may be added, that when the great ears are laid
back in the manner described, the upstanding earlets look
exactly as though they were the real ears. On the Continent
this species is described as frequenting hollow trees for repose
fully as much as buildings ; and everywhere its long winter
sleep generally seems to be continuous and unbroken, so that
it is only seen abroad from the late spring to the early autumn.
TYPICAL BATS. 25
Thompson states, however, that a specimen he once obtained
from an uninhabited house in the month of January did not
exhibit any symptoms of torpidity, flying readily in the room
in which it was placed. The same writer observes that “ when
the roofs of old houses are being repaired or taken down in
the north of Ireland, numbers of these Bats are often dis-
covered. The Pipistrelle frequents similar places, but is prob-
ably less gregarious, as I have not known it to be found so
plentifully under similar circumstances, although it is more
frequently seen flying about.”
In connection with the shrill cry of this species, it may be
mentioned that many persons, whose ears are not attuned to
receive such high-pitched sounds as those of others, are totally
unable to hear them. It may, therefore, be that when a num-
ber of Bats are on the wing, while the air will be rent with
their piercing cries to one person, to another absolute silence
will reign.
GENUS SYNOTUS.
Synotus, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ. p. 55
(1840).
Ears united by their inner margins on the forehead, rather
large, and with their outer margins also carried forward in
front of the eyes to terminate on the upper lips, so that the
eyes are enclosed within the bases of the ears ; earlet triangular
above and narrowed towards the tip ; nostrils opening on the
upper surface of the extremity of the muzzle, in front of a
naked space, margined by the raised edges of the face; upper
lip divided on each side by a deep vertical groove passing
down from each nostril; the space between these grooves
being swollen. Feet slender, with long toes ; tail nearly equal
to, or exceeding the body in length; skull considerably
elevated above the plane of the short muzzle; the upper
26 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
incisor and pre-molar teeth numerically the same as in Plecotus ;
but two pairs of lower pre-molars present instead of three.
This genus, as now restricted, is represented only by the
under-mentioned species and an allied Indian form, known as
the Eastern Barbastelle (Syzotus darjilingensis).
THE BARBASTELLE BAT. SYNOTUS BARBASTELLUS.
Vespertilio barbastellus, Schreber, Saugethiere vol. i. p. 168
(1775):
Barbastellus daubentonit, Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 63
(1837); 2nd ed. p. 81 (1874).
Barbastellus communis, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ii.
P. 494 (1838).
Synotus barbastellus, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere
Europ. p. 55 (1840).
Characters——Ears broad, and when laid forward, extending to
a point midway between the eye and the end of the muzzle,
tips shortly truncated, inner margin regularly convex and
slanting much backwards; outer margin concave, with a small
projecting lobe at the junction of the upper with the middle
third; earlet broad at the base, then narrowed opposite the
middle of the straight inner margin, and thence thinning to
the acute tip. Fur soft, deep black, with an indistinct greyish
tinge on the tips of the hairs. Length of head and body about
1% inch; of tail the same.
Distribution.—The Barbastelle ranges over Southern and
Central Europe, Northern Africa, and the greater part of
temperate Asia north of the Himalaya. In Britain it is a
comparatively rare und local species, seemingly not known to
the north of the Lake District, and unrecorded from Ireland.
First discovered in our islands at Dartford, Kent, it was sub-
sequently taken in a chalk-cave at Chiselhurst, in the same
TYPICAL BATS. 27
‘county ; while it has also been recorded from Warwickshire
(where it is not uncommon), Cambridgeshire, Northampton-
Shire, Norfolk, and Suffolk. According to Mr. Montagu
Browne, a single example was taken in Leicestershire about
‘the year 1876; and the Rev. H. A. Macpherson informs us
‘that a few examples were captured many years ago near Car-
lisle, which seems to be the northern limit of its range in
Britain. Their presence in Cumberland, writes the observer
-last mentioned, can only be accounted for on the supposition
that they are summer migrants into the district ; the fact that
Bats do migrate, either occasionally or periodically, being well
ascertained on the testimony of several trustworthy observers.
Habits. Nearly allied to the Long-eared Bat, the Barbastelle
is a species of delicate constitution, and becomes torpid very
early in the autumn. It appears early in the evening, and flies
higher and more rapidly than the Long-eared Bat. The Indian
Barbastelle is remarkable for its habit of squeezing itself into
chinks and crevices, which are so narrow as to render it a
marvel how the creature gets in.
Bell states that he has seen a white and also a parti-coloured
‘individual of this species; while a variety from Warwickshire
‘ had, when fresh, the fur of the under-parts tinged with purplish-
red or rose-colour.
GENUS VESPERUGO.
Vesperugo, Keyserling and Blasius in Wiegmann’s Archiv. fiir
Naturg. 1839 p. 312 (1840).
Ears separate, never very long, and generally shorter than
‘the head, with the outer margin ending behind the angle of the
: mouth, and some distance in advance of the base of the ear-
let ; end of outer margin usually consisting of a rounded lobe,
or anti-tragus, and the inner margin turned in near its base,
where its rounded edge forms another lobe; earlet or tragus
28 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
generally short and obtuse, with the outer margin more or less
convex, and the inner one either straight or concave. Muzzle
usually short, broad, and blunted, with prominent glandular
swellings between the eyes and nostrils, giving an abnormal
width to the face; sides of hinder part of head and tip of
muzzle sparsely haired. Tail shorter than head and body; a
small additional membranous expansion behind the spur on
the ankle, and the membrane connecting the hind-legs ter-
minating in a salient angle. Number of incisor teeth generally
as in the preceding genus ; but the upper pre-molars sometimes
reduced to a single pair, although there are always two pairs of
these teeth in the lower jaw. Wings generally arising from
the bases of the toes.
The numerous species of this, the largest genus of the Order,
have a cosmopolitan distribution, except as regards the Polar
Regions ; but they are most numerous in the temperate and
sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
I. THE SEROTINE. VESPERUGO SEROTINUS,
Vespertilio serotinus, Schreber, Sadugethiere vol. i. p. 167
(1775).
Scotophilus serotinus, Gray, Mag. Zool. vol. ii. p. 497 (1838) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 44 (1874).
Vesperugo serotinus, Keyserling and Blasius in Wiegmann’s
Archiv. fir Naturg. 1839 p. 312 (1840); Dobson, Cat.
Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 191 (1878).
Characters. —Ears moderate, with broadly rounded tips, which,
when laid forwards, are nearer to the nostrils than to the eyes;
their inner margins slightly convex, with a rounded basal lobe;
outer margins straight, or very slightly concave in the upper
half, then convex, slightly emarginate opposite the base of the
TYPICAL BATS, 29
earlet, and ending in a convex lobe behind the angle of the
mouth ; earlet, or tragus, broadest immediately above the base
of the inner margin, thence gradually narrowing to the rounded
tip, the inner margin straight or slightly concave, and the outer
convex, with a small lobe at the base. Head flat; muzzle flat
and thick, with swollen glandular sides; front of face nearly
naked, but a slight fringe of hairs on the upper lip. Thumb
with a callosity at the base ; wings arising from the metatarsus
close to the base of the toes; extra membrane near spur very
narrow. Upper inner incisor teeth, when unworn, with bifid
extremities ; all the lower incisors trifid, and closely crowded
together. Colour generally dark smoky-brown, with the under-
parts varying from yellowish-brown to yellowish-white ; but in
examples from desert-regions the upper-parts are buffish-brown
and the lower surface paler. Length of head and body about
234 inches ; of tail 2 inches.
Distribution.—This species is rare and local in the British
Isles, but is one of the most widely distributed members of
its Order, ranging over temperate Europe, Asia, and North
America, being likewise found in North Africa, as well as in
Kashmir and Yunnan. It also occurs in parts of South
America. It has been said to occur in the neighbourhood of
London, and has been taken at Folkestone and the Isle of
Wight, and probably occurs in several of the other southern
counties, although it is most likely often overlooked and
mistaken for the Noctule. It is not recorded from Ireland.
Habits.—As indicated by its specific name, the Serotine is a
Bat which makes its appearance late in the evening, but differs
from the majority of its genus in the slowness of its flight,
which is, moreover, fluttering. Then, again, whereas most of the
members of the present genus differ from the majority of Bats
in producing two young at a birth, the Serotine is peculiar in
that but a single offspring is born ata time. A late hiberna-
30 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
tor, it is never seen abroad in cold and damp evenings, or at
such times as a strong wind is blowing, preferring for its
aerial peregrinations those nights which are warm and still ;
when, in the full summer, its favourite haunts are gardens,
orchards, and the outskirts of woods. During the daytime it
generally takes up its abode in the hollow stems of trees, and
even in winter never congregates in large colonies. As its
slow and fluttering flight lacks the sharp turns and twists
characterising the members of the genus Vesperugo generally,
it is evident that, as regards habits, the Serotine is an alto-
gether aberrant and peculiar species. It may be added that
it is the only truly British representative of the sub-genus Ves-
perus, in which the upper pre-molars are reduced to a single
pair, and the wings arise from the base of the toes; the next
species being scarcely entitled to rank as a member of ‘the
British fauna.
II, THE PARTI-COLOURED BAT. VESPERUGO DISCOLOR.
Vespertilio discolor, Natterer in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm. p. 43
(1817).
Scotophilus discolor, Gray, Mag. Zool. vol. ii. p. 297 (1838);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 31 (1874).
Vesperugo discolor, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ.
p. 50 (1840); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 204
(1878).
Belonging to the same sub-division of the genus as the
Noctule, the Parti-coloured Bat may be distinguished not only
by its inferior dimensions, but likewise by the earlet, or tragus,
being relatively shorter and expanded above, so that its greatest
width is above the margin of its inner margin. The additional
lobe of membrane near the spur on the ankle is also broader
and more distinct. Colour of upper-parts dark brown, with
TYPICAL BATS. 31
the terminal fourth of the hairs shining yellowish-white; under-
parts similar, with the terminal fourth ashy. Length of head
and body about 2 inches ; of tail, 134 inch.
An inhabitant of the mountainous regions of Continental
Europe and temperate Asia, as well as Northern Africa, the
sole claim of this species to be recognised as British appears to
rest on a single example obtained many years ago by the late
Dr, W. E. Leach at Plymouth, now preserved in the British
Museum. As suggested by Bell, it appears highly probable
that this specimen may have been imported in the rigging of
some vessel from the Continent.
Il], THE NOCTULE, OR GREAT BAT. VESPERUGO NOCTULA.
Vespertilio noctula, Schreber, Saugethiere vol. i. p. 166
(1775).
Vespertilio magnus, Berkenhout, Synops. Nat. Hist. Gt. Britain
p. 2 (1789).
Vespertilio altivolans, White, Nat. Hist. Selborne, letter 37
(1789).
Scotophilus noctula, Gray, Mag. Zool. vol. ii. p. 497 (1838) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 17 (1874).
Vesperugo noctula, Keyserling and Blasius in Wiegmann’s
Archiv. fiir Naturg, 1839 p. 117 (1840) ; Dobson, Cat,
Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 212 (1878).
Characters—The Noctule is our first representative of the
second or typical sub-division of the genus, differing from the
last in the presence of two pairs of upper pre-molar teeth, of
which the front pair are very minute. This species, together
with the next and two Malayan forms, is further distinguished
from all other members of the genus by the wings arising from
the ankle, instead of from the bases of the toes. The following
are the specific characters of the Noctule, as distinct from the
other members of the sub-genus.
32 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Size large, ears thick, bluntly rounded, nearly as wide as
long, and when laid forwards extending but little in front of
the eyes; their outer margin convex and turned backwards,
slightly notched below the base of the earlet, then forming a
thick convex lobe in front of the notch, and ending behind the
angle of the mouth ; inner margin nearly straight above, and
convex inferiorly ; basal lobe somewhat rounded; earlet, or
tragus, short, expanded above, curved inwards, with a broad,
rounded tip; outer margin highly convex, with a small pointed
projection at the base, inner margin concave. Head very
broad and flat, with the swellings at the sides of the muzzle very
prominent, and the projecting nostrils directed outwards and
downwards, with a hollow space between them. Thumb short,
with a short callosity at the base; feet thick, with short toes;
origin of wings as above; only the tip of the tail projecting be-
yond the margin of the membrane connecting the hind-legs.
General colour light yellowish-brown, only slightly paler on the
under-parts, and the hairs of the back and sides becoming
paler at the base; in some examples the general colour red-
dish-brown. Length of head and body about 3 inches; of
tail, 2 inches. :
Distribution.—The Noctule is spread over the greater part of
temperate Europe and Asia, and likewise ranges over a con-
siderable portion of Africa. In Britain it is mainly a southern
form, being abundant in many of the southern and midland
counties of England, and ranging as far west as Cornwall, but
becoming gradually more scarce as we proceed northwards, and
being quite unknown in Scotland. The most northern locality
which Bell was able to ascertain for this species was North-
allerton, in Yorkshire, but it has been recorded by the Rev.
H. A. Macpherson from Carnforth, on the coast of Lancashire,
and it is possible that certain large Bats observed at Bowness-
on-Solway during the summer of 1888 may have pertained to
TYPICAL BATS. 33
the present species. In Wales the Noctule appears to be un-
known; and it is not recorded by Thompson among the Mam-
mals of Ireland. There is, however, reason to believe that it
is an inhabitant of the latter island, as may be gathered from
the following extract from a paper on Bats by Mr. Harting,
who writes that in the Zoologist for 1874 “Mr. Barrington
gave a very interesting account of the discovery, in June, 1868,
of a colony of large Bats in the demesne of the Duke of Man-
chester at Tandragee, county Armagh, and of the subsequent
capture of several (presumably of the same species) at the same
place in May, 1874. Mr. Barrington identified them as V.
eisleri, observing ‘ they were all of the hairy-armed species. I
have presented two specimens to the British Museum.’ These
two specimens were examined by Dr. Dobson in 1876, and he
pronounced them to be immature examples of V. noctula.”
This seems to establish the occurrence of the latter species in
Treland, where, however, it may well be accompanied by the
Hairy-armed Bat. In England it appears to be more common
in some of the midland counties than elsewhere.
Habits.—The first notice of the habits of this species in
Britain was from the pen of Gilbert White, who remarks that
in Hampshire it is a rare species, flying ata great height in the
air when in pursuit of its food, and retiring early in the sum-
mer. In his native village, this observer states, indeed, that he
never saw the Noctule abroad before April nor after July ; but
subsequent observations have shown that in the same neigh-
bourhood it may frequently be seen in August and September,
while in Cambridgeshire it has been recorded as late as
November.
With the exception of the Mouse-coloured Bat, the Noctule
is the largest of the British members of the Order, and it is
essentially a gregarious species, collecting in large numbers for
its winter sleep. Upwards of one hundred and eighty-five
5 D
34 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Bats, taken from beneath the roof of Queen’s College, Cam-
bridge, on a single night very many years ago, and sixty-five on
the following evening, were, indeed, referred to this species ;
but, as Bell remarks, it is probable that these were not sub-
mitted to a careful examination, and may, therefore, have in-
cluded members of other species. Generally frequenting well-
wooded districts, and feeding chiefly on cockchafers and other
large beetles, the Noctule usually selects a hollow tree for its
diurnal resting-place in summer. Indeed, Bell states that he
has never known one taken from any other situation. A later
observer states, however, that he has known these Bats select
thick ivy as a place of concealment; while Mr. Harting
records having seen them resort to the thatched roofs of
cottages in Sussex, where they crept up beneath the eaves,
For their winter haunts they select indifferently either hollow
trees or the roofs of buildings.
Since this Bat appears early in the evening, its title of ‘‘Noc-
tule” is somewhat misleading, although it is too well established
to be changed; the name of Great Bat being decidedly no
better. In the high regions of the air, where it delights to fly,
on account of the abundance of beetles to be met with there,
its flight is powerful and sustained ; and when on the wing it
gives utterance to a sharp and harsh cry. As mentioned by
White, these Bats have a strong and offensive odour, which
renders a colony of them exceedingly unpleasant to have any-
thing to do with. Although in some English examples which
were kept in captivity it was found that only a single offspring
was produced at a birth, the experience of continental observers
shows that there is more commonly a pair. When first intro-
duced into the world, the young are perfectly naked, as well as
blind.
It is stated that when hibernating in winter, the Noctule
generally associates, after the manner of many of its kindred,
TYPICAL BATS. 35
in separate colonies of males and females ; such, at least, being
the experience of Mr. J. Gurney, who further states that the
number of females is greater than that of the males. Mr.
Harting mentions, however, that he knew of an instance where
a solitary pair of Noctules, taken from a hollow tree in the
Bishop of London’s park at Fulham, proved to be male and
female. The same observer also draws attention to the cir-
cumstance that during repose, while the tail of the Horse-shoe
Bat is carried bent upwards and forwards over the back, in the
Noctule it is carried bent downwards and backwards between
the legs.
IV. THE HAIRY-ARMED BAT. VESPERUGO LEISLERI.
Vespertilio leisteri, Kuhl, Deutsch. Flederm. p. 38 (1817).
Scotophilus leisteri, Gray, Mag. Zool. vol. ii. p. 497 (1838);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 26 (1874).
Vesperugo leisleri, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ.
p- 46 (1840); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p.
215 (1878).
Characters—Closely resembling in external form a small in-
dividual of the preceding species, the Hairy-armed Bat may be
distinguished by the following characters. Thus, whereas in
V. noctula the outermost pair of upper incisor teeth have their
basal transverse diameters equal to only half those of the outer-
most lower incisors, in the present species the two dimensions
are equal. Moreover, in the present species the lower incisor
teeth are arranged in a regular semi-circle, with scarcely any
overlapping of one over another, in place of being closely
crowded. Length of head and body about 23 inches ; of tail,
1% inch.
In common with the Noctule, the present species has a band
of fine short hair running down the under side of the fore-arm
D2
3 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
to the wrist, and it is from this character that the Hairy-armed
Bat derives its common English name.
Distribution.—Ranging over the greater part of Europe and
temperate Asia, the present Bat appears to be a rare species
in Britain, although this rarity is doubtless owing to its being
frequently mistaken for the Noctule. In the main, it appears
to be confined to the western counties of England, having
been recorded from Worcester, Gloucester, and Warwick ;
but, according to Mr. Montagu Browne, it is unknown as far
north as Leicestershire, as also in the Lake District. It has been
obtained from more than one Irish locality—notably Belfast.
Habits——Much apparently remains to be learned regarding
the habits of this Bat, there being a discrepancy in the accounts
given by Continental and British observers. While all are
agreed that it makes its appearance early in the evening,
Blasius, for instance, states that it also resembles the Noctule
in frequenting the neighbourhood of trees, and flying at a con-
siderable altitude with a similar powerful flight. On the other
hand, Bell writes that its flight is totally different from that of
the latter, observing that ‘* whilst the Noctule may, throughout
the whole of the summer, be seen taking its regular evening
flight, night after night, near the same spot, the Leisler’s Bat,
on the contrary, will be seen once, perhaps for a few minutes
only and then lost sight of. It appears to affect no particular
altitude in its flight, any more than it preserves any regular or
prescribed beat. When the weather is fine, you may see this
Bat passing on in a kind of zig-zag manner, apparently uncertain
where to go, generally, though not always, at a considerable
elevation, and in a few minutes it is gone.”
V. THE PIP.STRELLE OR COMMON BAT. VESPERUGO
PIPISTRELLUS.
Vespertilio pipisirellus, Schreber, Siugethiere vol. i. p. 167
(1775).
PLATE Ill.
OR COMMON BAT.
TYPICAL BATS 37
Vespertilio pygmaus, Leach, Zool. Journ. vol. i. p. 560 (1825) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 31 (1837).
Scotophilus pipistrellus, Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed.
Pp. 34 (1874).
Vesperugo pipistrellus, Keyserling and Blasius in Wiegmann’s
Archiv. fiir Naturg. 1839 p. 321 (1840); Dobson, Cat.
Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 223 (1878).
(Plate 711.)
Characters.—Although belonging to the same sub-generic
group as the two preceding species, the Pipistrelle is at once
distinguished from both of the latter by the membrane of the
wings arising from the base of the toes, in the manner charac-
teristic of the genus generally. The present species belongs
to a sectionof the typical sub-genus, characterised by the carlet
being widest at a point slightly above the base of the inner
margin. The following are its special characters.
Ears sub-triangular, with the tips rounded, and the outer
margins nearly straight for one-third the length below the tips,
and then suddenly curving out into a prominent lobe, there
being a slight concavity opposite the base of the earlet, in
front of which is a prominent convex lobe. Earlet as above,
a little inclined forwards, the tip rounded, the inner margin
very slightly concave, and the outer one convex with a small
lobe at the base, above which there is a very shallow concavity.
Muzzle blunt, with well-developed lateral glandular swellings,
behind which the face is depressed ; the whole of the region
of the muzzle as far back as the eyes, sparsely haired. Feet
small, with the lobe of membrane behind the spur well de-
veloped. Inner pair of upper incisor teeth with bifid crowns, in
which the outermost cusps are smaller and more posteriorly
situated than the inner ones ; the outer incisors either longer or
shorter than the external cusp of the inner pair. General
colour of fur rather deep rufous brown, becoming paler on
=
38 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
the under-parts, the basal half or three-fourths of every hair
being black. Length of head and body, about 12 inch; of tail,
12 inch.
Distribution—The Pipistrelle ranges from Northern Africa,
over the greater part of temperate Europe and Asia, as far
south as Kashmir and Gilgit ; it is replaced in India and the
adjacent countries by the closely allied Indian Pipistrelle (V.
abramus), distinguished by its more completely naked muzzle
and the form of the incisor teeth, which ranges eastwards as
far as Northern Australia, and, in summer at least, is found in
Central Europe, and even in Sweden. In the British Islands the
Common Pipistrelle appears to be universally distributed, being
found from one end of Ireland to the other, and ranging from
the south of England to the extreme north of Scotland, in-
habiting even the outer Hebrides. °
It may be mentioned here that, although the Pipistrelle is
the smallest of the British Bats, it was long confounded with the
much larger Vespertilio murinus, which, as being the com-
monest Bat on the Continent, was not unnaturally assumed to
be the most abundant species on this side the Channel, where,
however, it happens to be rare. After persisting for a long
period, this error was finally rectified many years ago by the
late Rev. Leonard Jenyns (Blomefield), who was one of the
pioneers in British vertebrate zoology.
Habits.—Writing of the habits of the Pipistrelle, or, as it is
called in many parts of the country, the “Flitter-mouse,” Mac-
gillivray observes that, “from the middle of spring, but earlier
or later according to the warmth of the season, to the middle
of October, sometimes commencing as early as March, and
continuing till November, this Bat may be seen after sunset
in the neighbourhood of towns and villages, over the streets of
cities or the roads, in the alleys and lanes, or along the course
of brooks and rivers, fluttering with an unsteady motion, and
TYPICAL BATS, 39
apparently undetermined course. Its flight is not rapid, like
that of a bird, but rather resembles that of a large Moth or
Butterfly. It turns and winds in all directions, flying at
various heights from ten to twenty or more feet, and some-
times as high as the tops of the trees, but more commonly at
an elevation of about fifteen feet. It is attracted by a white
handkerchief, or any other body, thrown up in the air, for
which reason boys are fond of tossing their caps at it. Some-
times it has been caught upon the fly-hooks of a fishing-rod
hung over a bridge. It continues its flight until dark, and
probably during the night, as well as in the morning twilight ;
and reposes through the day in the corners and crevices of old
buildings, towers, and steeples. As its food consists entirely
of insects, and especially the nocturnal Lepidoptera, it is forced
by the increasing cold of winter to relinquish its pursuits, and
betake itself to some secure retreat in a ruined building or
cavern, where it remains until the returning heat arouses it
from its torpor. In this state it is found suspended by its feet
in chimneys, crevices, or corners, or jammed into a hole or
fissure. A frequent place of retirement is under the roofs of
houses, and especially churches ; but it presents great variety
in its selection, and I have obtained specimens from the hollow
of a decayed tree near Duddingston.”
“The Pipistrelle rises with facility from a flat surface, and is
capable of advancing on the ground with considerable celerity,
and ascends a vertical plane, provided it be somewhat rough,
without much difficulty. In confinement it feeds on flies and
raw meat.”
From its hardy nature, as indicated by its northern range in
Britain, the Pipistrelle is by no means continuous in its winter
slumber, any unusually warm day being sufficient to awaken
the little creature. During the mild winter of 1893-94, I
observed on the evening of January the 2oth one of these
40 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Bats flying near my own house in Hertfordshire ; and in the
north of Ireland Thompson states that it may frequently be
seen abroad in mid-winter. Occasionally it may be observed
fluttering about in a half-dazed state in the full sunlight. Al-
though, in the passage above-quoted, Macgillivray states that its
chief food consists of moths, we should rather be disposed to
consider that flies and gnats of various kinds form its main
subsistence.
With regard to the number of young produced at a birth,
there appears to be a marked difference between Continental
and British examples. Thus, while Blasius states that all the
females with young examined by him on the Continent had
two, British specimens seem, as a rule, to produce but one;
this being confirmed by the observations of Daniell in Eng-
land, and Hyndman (as quoted by Thompson) in Ireland. *
Bell has noted the interesting fact that the tip of the tail in
this, and certain other Bats, affords assistance in climbing.
After mentioning that a small portion of the tail, in most mem-
bers of the present Family, projects beyond the edge of the
membrane connecting the hind-legs, he proceeds to observe
that “not only does the animal employ the tail in horizontal
progression—in which case it assists in throwing forward the
body, by being brought into contact with the ground on either
side alternately, corresponding with the action of the hinder
foot on the same side,—but in ascending and descending a
rough perpendicular surface, this little caudal finger holds by
any projecting point, and affords an evident support. This is
particularly conspicuous when the Bat is traversing the wires
of a cage, in which situation the fact was first observed.”
When flies or moths are offered to a captive Pipistrelle,
these are seized by the mouth alone without any aid from the
wings. The creature, after seizing its prey, bends down its
head upon the chest as if for the purpose of preventing their
TYPICAL BATS. 41
escape. Every portion of such insécts, including even the
wings, is consumed.
GENUS VESPERTILIO.
Vespertilio, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 47 (1766).
This genus, in which are included the whole of the six re-
maining British Bats, may be at once distinguished from Ves-
berugo by the presence of three pairs of pre-molar teeth in the
upper jaw, the number of teeth on each side behind the canine
being thus six, in place of five or four. Together with certain
allied genera, it is further distinguished from Vesperugo and ~
its allies by the outer margin of the conch of the ear com-
mencing abruptly nearly opposite the inner margin of the ear-
let, or tragus, instead of near the angle of the mouth. The
thin and narrow ears are also, generally at least, as long as the
head, instead of being triangular or rhomboidal, and shorter
than the latter ; while the long and narrow tragus, if curved at
all, is inclined outwards instead of inwards. Then, again, the
muzzle is narrow and hairy in front, instead of being nearly
naked, with lateral glandular swellings. From its nearest
allies of the same group, Vespertilio is distinguished by the
simple and scarcely projecting nostriis, the aperture of which
is crescentic, as well as by the small size of the two an-
terior pre-molar teeth, as compared with the last tooth of the
same series.
Although containing fewer species than the last, the present
genus has a wider geographical distribution than any other in
the entire Order, its range including the whole of the temper-
ate and tropical regions of both hemispheres. From their
close similarity to one another, the majority of the species are
exceedingly difficult to distinguish. The Old World species
may, however, be thrown into two groups, or sub-genera,
according as to whether the feet are relatively large or of
42 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
moderate size; two of the British species belonging to the
former, and four to the latter group.
I, THE ROUGH-LEGGED BAT. VESPERTILIO DASYCNEME,
Vespertilio dasycneme, Boie, Isis 1825 p. 1200; Dobson, Cat.
Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 295 (1878).
Vespertilio limnophilus, Temminck, Monogr. Mamm. vol. ii.
p. 176 (1839).
Characters.—Belongs to the group in which the feet are
relatively large, measuring from the wrist to the end of the
claws more than one-fourth the length of the fore-arm, and
the heel-spur also long, extending fully three-quarters the
distance from the ankle to the tail. This species is also readily
distinguished from the other members of the same group by
the form of the earlet, which has a blunt rounded tip, the inner
margin slightly concave, and the outer convex, thus resem-
bling the same appendage in the typical sub-genus of Ves-
perugo. The ears also are shorter than the head, and the face
less hairy than in other species,—characters which again recall
the last-named genus. On the upper surface, the fur is dark at
the base and light brown at the tips of the hairs; while
beneath, the hairs are black at the base and white at the tips.
Length of head and body about 22 inches ; of tail, 2 inches.
Distribution—The Rough-legged Bat has long been known
as an inhabitant of Continental Europe, whence it extends
eastwards through temperate Asia, and has often been stated
to be a visitor to the south of England, although it is not
mentioned in the second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadru-
peds.” Its right to be regarded as a British species appears to
rest on the evidence of a specimen captured on the banks of
the Stour, which was noticed by Backton in the “ Proceed-
ings” of the Linnean Society, for 1853, p. 260, and regarded as
a variety of V. daubentoni, although subsequently referred by
TYPICAL BATS. 43
Tomes (Zoologist, 1854, p. 361) to the present species. It is
probably this example which is entered in Dr. Dobson’s “ Cata-
logue of Chiroptera in the British Museum,” as being of British
origin.
Il. DAUBENTON’S BAT, VESPERTILIO DAUBENTONI.
Vespertilio daubentonii, Leisler, in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm.
p. 51 (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd. ed. p. 60
(1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 297
(1878).
Vespertilio emarginatus (nec Geoffr.), Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 26
(1835).
Vespertilio edilis, Jenyns, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1839 p. 73.
Vespertitio daubentoni, Blanford, Mamm. Brit. India p. 331
(1891).
Characters—This, the second representative of the long-
footed group, has the wings arising from the sides cf the feet
just below the ankle, while the ears when laid forward extend
to the tip of the nose. Ears with the tips rounded, but not
very broadly, and the inner margin regularly convex, and the
outer straight or slightly concave for nearly the upper half of
its length, below which it becomes suddenly convex. LEarlet
moderately pointed, about half the length of the ear, its inner
margin straight, and the outer slightly convex, with a rounded
lobe projecting just above the base. Face in front of eyes
partially naked, and a rather tumid area between the eyes
and nostrils. Upper incisor teeth nearly equal in size, with
widely divergent cusps; middle upper pre-molar clearly visible
externally, and about one-third the height of the first. Colour,
brown above and dirty white beneath ; at least the basal half
of all the hairs being dark brown. Length of head and body
about 1%y inch ; of tail, 13 inch.
Distribution. Daubenton’s Bat is an inhabitant of Northern
44 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Africa and tho greater part of temperate Europe and Asia. It
appears to have been first recognised as a British species by
the late Rev. Leonard Jenyns (Blomefield), who provisionally
identified it with the Vespertilio emarginatus of Geoffroy—an
identification which was subsequently corrected by Bell. In
Britain it appears to be pretty widely distributed, although
more common in the southern and midland counties than
further north, and very variable in this respect, even in the
former districts. ‘Thus, whereas Bell speaks of it as being
very common in some parts of Warwickshire, Mr. Montagu
Browne records only one specimen known to him from
Leicestershire. Only a single example appears to have been
recorded from Yorkshire (Zoologist, 1891, p. 395). At an
early period of its British history it was obtained from near
Winchester ; and Bell records it from Durham, while the Rev.
H. A. Macpherson notices one specimen captured on the
Carlisle canal in 1852, and a second near Ulswater, eleven
years later. Although somewhat rare even in the Lake District,
this Bat extends into Scotland, having been long known from
Aberdeenshire, and recently recorded from the extreme north-
east of Banffshire. Some years ago, as the writer is informed by
Mr. Harvie-Brown, great numbers of these Bats were discovered
in an old vault in the castle of Gight, in Aberdeenshire, but
immediately after their discovery and disturbance they forsook
their old quarters, and their new habitation has not been
discovered. Since this species is not mentioned by Messrs,
Harvie-Brown and Buckley as occurring either in Sutherland,
Caithness, Argyllshire, or the Hebrides, it may be presumed
that its range does not include the extreme north of Scotland.
In Ireland it has been recorded from Kildare, Derry, and
Donegal, and probably occurs elsewhere, although it is rare.
Habits—The essential peculiarity in the habits of Dauben-
ton’s Bat is its extreme partiality for water, on the surface of
RBEDDISH-GREY BAT.
TYPICAL BATS. 45
which it skims in the evening in a manner not unlike that of a
Swallow by day. Thus, in describing the appearance of some
Bats which he believed referable to this species, the Rev. H. A.
Macpherson writes that ‘‘they flew actively over the water,
frequently dipping, sometimes two or three times in succession,
apparently feeding, their shadows being reflected as they hovered
over the water, and the motion of their wings recalling the flight
of the Common Sandpiper. They flew uniformly low over the
water. Sometimes one would approach the margin of the lake,
but they seemed to obtain most of their prey in the centre of
the latter.” Generally making its appearance soon after sun-
set, this Bat, after hawking for a short time for flies and gnats,
usually returns to the shore to rest for a time before con-
tinuing its flight in quest of food. During the period of its
active life, its favourite haunts for repose are trees; but, as we
have seen above, it may retire for its winter torpor to under-
ground or deserted chambers of old buildings.
III. THE REDDISH-GREY BAT. VESPERTILIO NATTERERI.
Vesperlilio nattereri, Kuhl, Deutsch. Flederm. p. 33 (1817);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. §4 (1874); Dobson,
Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 307 (1878).
(Plate IV.)
Characters,—This species brings us to the second or short:
footed group of the genus, in which the foot is of moderate
size, measuring less than one-fourth the length of the fore-arm,
while the spur on the foot extends only about one-half the dis-
tance from the ankle to the tail. The present species may
be characterised as follows.—Earlet narrowing above, sharply
pointed, and curved outwards ; wings arising from the base of
the toes; fur of neck and shoulders scarcely longer than that
of head and body; ears longer than the head; membranc
46 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
connecting the hind-legs with its posterior margin fringed
with stiff hairs; tail as long as the head and body. Fur very
long and dense, on the upper-parts dark brown with light
reddish tips; on the under surface, darker at the base, with
the terminal third of the hairs white. Length of head and
body about 14 inch ; of the tail the same.
The fringed inter-femoral membrane serves to distinguish the
Reddish-grey Bat not only from all the other British species,
but likewise from all other members of the genus, with the
exception of the West African Welwitsch’s. Bat, which is re-
markable for its orange-and-black wings.
Distribution The Reddish-grey Bat seems to be an exclu-
sively European species, ranging from Ireland in the west to
the Ural Mountains in the east, and from the southern
districts of Sweden in the north to the Alps in the south. In
England, although somewhat local, it appears to be not un-
common in several of the southern and midland counties, but
seems to get scarcer as we go north. It is recorded by Bell
from near London, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Kent,
and Norfolk; Mr. Montagu Browne notes its presence in
Leicestershire ; and in the Lake District a colony was dis-
covered, according to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, in the
summer of 1886, in an old outhouse at Castletown. In the
‘second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds,” this species
was daid to be unknown in Scotland, but there is a specimen
in the British Museum from Inverary, Argyllshire, presented
by the Duke of Argyll, showing that the statement in question
is incorrect. In Ireland it has been taken at least in the
counties of Dublin, Cork, Longford, and Wicklow, but is very
rare.
Habits—When on the wing above the observer’s head, this
Bat may be easily recognised by the light colour of its under-
parts ; its whole coloration being, indeed, of a lighter shade
TYPICAL BATS. 47
than in any other British member of the order. This charac-
teristic is noticed by Mr. Montagu Browne, who captured one
of these Bats among a colony of Pipistrelles in a church in
Leicestershire. Thus he writes that “the flight of the two
species varied much, the Pipistrelles flying quicker, and con-
stantly changing the direction of their flight in a zig-zag kind
of manner, whereas the flight of Natterer’s Bat was more fully
sustained, and much more direct, though somewhat slower.
A marked difference between the flight of the two species was
not so much the greater spread of wing as the evident breadth
of the wing-membrane. Most noticeable, however, was the
greyish-white tint of the under-part of the body; and this was
readily observed, not only when flying in the light of the
lamps, but when the animal was high up, or in the darkest
parts of the church—so much so, indeed, that the people who
were assisting constantly exclaimed ‘Here comes a white-
waistcoated one.’” Essentially a gregarious species, the
Reddish-grey Bat seems invariably to select either buildings—
and preferably their roofs—or caverns for its retreat. Bell
records the discovery of an enormous colony in the year 1848
between the ceiling and roof of Arrow Church, near Alcester.
“Here,” he writes, “the Bats were seen adhering, by all their
extremities, to the under surface of the row of tiles which
forms the crest or ridge of the roof, and others clinging to them
until a mass was made up three or four inches thick, six or
seven wide, and about four feet in length.” Instead of the
repose which ordinarily characterises such an assemblage,
these Bats were in a constant state of unrest and turmoil, those
on the outskirts of the mass striving (probably for the sake of
warmth) to make their way into the interior, which was as
strenuously resisted by the occupants of the inside places.
Numbers of dead and dried young ones, which had probably
fallen from their mothers, strewed the floor of the chamber.
48 LLoYpb’S NATURAL HISTORY.
IV. BECHSTEIN’S BAT, VESPERTILIO BECHSTEINI.
Vespertilio bechsteinit, Leisler, in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm. p.
3o (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 52
(1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 308
(1878).
Characters—From the preceding species, Bechstein’s Bat may
be readily distinguished by the posterior margin of the mem-
brane connecting the hind-legs being naked; and by the
length of the tail being less than that of the head and body.
Ears oval, and considerably longer than the head. Fur light
reddish on the upper-parts, and greyish-white beneath ; the
bases of the hairs, both above and below, being dark brown.
Length of head and body about 2 inches ; of tail, 134 inch.
Dobson remarks that in general form this species resembles
Vespertilio murinus, “but is readily distinguished from that
species by the proportionately much longer ears, by the very
different form of the tragus, by the wing-membrane extending
quite to the base of the toes, and also by its considerably
smaller size.”
Distribution.—Like the last species, this Bat appears to be
confined to Europe, its range extending in one direction from
the south of England to the south of Russia, and in the other
from Sweden to the Alps. So far as we are aware, this species
is only known as British upon the evidence of some specimens
captured many years ago in the New Forest, and now pre-
served in the British Museum, and it has therefore a very
doubtful claim to rank in our fauna.
Habits.—In marked distinction to the Reddish-grey Bat, this
species is described as being an exclusively forest-haunting
form, taking up its winter quarters in hollow trees, and never
resorting to buildings or‘caves, Never associating with other
members of its order, it generally flies about in small parties,
which seldom exceed a dozen in number.
TYPICAL BATS. 49
Vv. THE MOUSE-COLOURED BAT. VESPERTILIO MURINUS.
Vespertilio murinus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 47
(1766; 2” parte) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 48
(1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 309
(1878).
Vespertilio myotis, Kuhl, Deutsch. Flederm. p. 36 (1817).
Vespertilio blythit, Tomes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857 p. 53.
Vespertilio africanus, Dobson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4
vol. xvi. p. 260 (1875); id. Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus.
Pp. 310 (1878).
Characters—Although, as already mentioned, the Mouse-
coloured Bat closely resembles the preceding species in general
external characters, it belongs to a sub-group distinguished by
having the earlet or tragus straight, and sharply or bluntly
pointed, instead of being sharply pointed and curving out-
wards. The following are the essential characteristics of the
present species :—
Crown of head slightly elevated ; muzzle blunt ; a somewhat
swollen area between the eye and the nostril, and the sides of
the face and the end of the upper surface of the nose nearly
naked, although the upper lip carries some long hairs. Ears
large, generally reaching, when laid forwards, just beyond the
end of the muzzle; their tips bluntly pointed; the inner
margin moderately convex to the base, where it is joined at a
right angle to the basal lobe ; outer margin concave below the
tip, with a shallow notch opposite the base of the earlet, suc-
ceeded by a convex lobe, terminating opposite the base of the
inner margin. Earlet of moderate length, narrowed above, and
sub-acutely pointed, with the inner margin more or less nearly
straight, and the outer with a small convex basal lobe, then con-
vex for about half its length, and finally straight. Wings arising
from the metatarsus ; only the extreme tip of the tail projecting
beyond the edge of the membrane connecting the hind legs,
5 E
5° LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
the basal part of which is well haired on its upper surface.
Anterior upper pre-molar tooth about half the height of the last ;
and the middle one small and generally placed somewhat
internally to the line of the other teeth. General colour vary-
ing from greyish- to reddish-brown, the under-parts being pale
brown, with a suffusion of white, and the bases of all the hairs
dark. Length of head and body about 234 inches ; of tail 234
inches.
Distribution—The Mouse-coloured Bat—the largest represen-
tative of the Order recorded from Britain—is an inhabitant of
the greater portion of temperate Europe and Asia, as well as
northern Africa. Eastwards it ranges as far as the north-
western Himalaya and Kashmir, the variety from the latter
region being distinguished by its shorter ears; while, its
northern range includes Denmark and the southern districts
of England. The claim to rank as a British species originally
rested upon the evidence of certain specimens captured in the
gardens of the British Museum in Bloomsbury, some time
previously to the year 1835. It is suggested, indeed, in the
second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds ” that, owing to
the confusion which, as remarked above, formerly existed
between the Mouse-coloured Bat and the Pipistrelle, the speci-
mens in question did not pertain to the present species at all.
If, however, a skin in the British Museum entered in Dr,
Dobson’s “Catalogue of Chiroptera” as of English origin, be, as
is most probably the case, one of the specimens in question,
and if there be no doubt as to the Jond~ide British origin
of the latter, then we cannot refuse to admit the right of
the Mouse-coloured Bat to a place in the English fauna. The
alleged occurrence of the species in Dorsetshire was subse-
quently contradicted (Zoologist, 1887, p. 234). It has in-
deed been subsequently recorded by Mr. A. G. More, from
Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, on the evidence of certain
TYPICAL BATS. 51
large Bats shot there by Mr. F. Bond, which have been
referred to the present species ; but in a ‘Guide to the Isle
of Wight,” published in 1876, Mr. More pointed out that the
identification was incorrect, and that the Bats in question were
really Noctules.
Habits—On the Continent, where this Bat is one of the
most abundant species, it appears abroad late in the evening,
and flies at a low elevation. Never associating with other
species, it congregates by hundreds in the roofs of churches
and other buildings, as well as in caves; and is reported to be
extremely quarrelsome in disposition—so much so, indeed,
that many individuals in a colony are often found with the
membranes of their wings torn to rags, and some of the bones
broken. Although its proper food is insects, specimens kept
in confinement in India have been known to kill some of their
fellows and eat a portion of their flesh. But a single offspring
is produced at a birth, and the little one may be found cling-
ing to the body of the female from the latter part of May till
about the middle of July, after which it is able to shift for itself,
VI. THE WHISKERED BAT. VESPERTILIO MYSTACINUS,
Vespertilio mystacinus, Leisler, in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm.
p. 58 (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 67
(1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 314
(1878).
Vespertilio siligorensis, Hodgson; Horsfield, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2 vol. xvi. p. 102 (1853).
Characters.—Whereas in the preceding species the wings
arise from the metatarsus, or sides of the feet between the
ankle and the toes, in the Whiskered Bat they take origin from
the base of the outer toe. This feature, coupled with the
absence of any accessory lobe of membrane near the spur on
E 2
52 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
the ankle, and the presence of a number of long hairs on the
face, extending down to and covering the upper lip, will suffice
to distinguish the present species from all the other British
Bats. The ears are as longas the head, and their outer margins
strongly convex in the lower half. In colour the fur is brown,
with a more or less rufescent tinge above, and greyish on the
under-parts ; the bases of all the hairs being dark brown or
black. Length of head and body usually about 13 inch ; of
tail, 12 inch.
Distribution..—This Bat ranges over the greater part of Europe,
extending from Ireland in the west, to Central Russia in the
east, and from Finland in the north to Spain in the south; it
is likewise found over a large portion of Asia, having been
recorded from Syria, Nipal, Sikhim, and Pekin. It likewise
inhabits Africa north of the Sahara. In England, although
local, it does not appear to be rare, having been recorded by
Jenyns from Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire, by Yarrell
from Colchester, by Bell from Chiselhurst in Kent and from
Warwickshire, by Montagu Browne from Leicestershire, and by
Macpherson from the Lake District ; while in Dobson’s ‘ Cata-
logue of Chiroptera” examples are mentioned from the Isle of
Wight and Hastings. Although not included by Thompson
in his account of Irish Mammals, it is stated by Kinahan to
have been obtained from county Clare; but it appears to be
unknown in Scotland.
Habits.—-Essentially a solitary species, although occasionally
seen in small companies attracted by an abundance of food,
the Whiskered Bat appears to frequent, for the purposes of
hibernation, either hollow trees, the roofs of buildings, or
caverns; the specimens alluded to above from Colchester
and Chiselhurst having been taken in chalk-caves. It makes
its appearance early in the evening, and flies swiftly in a manner
very similar to the Pipistrelle; it often exhibits a preference
THE INSECTIVORES. 53
for the neighbourhood of water, over the surface of which it
skims. Towards the latter part of June, or the commencement
of July, the female produces a single young one.
THE INSECTIVORES. ORDER INSECTIVORA.
Closely allied in the structure of their teeth and many other
portions of their organisation to the Bats, the small and mostly
terrestrial Mammals, commonly known as Insectivores, may be
distinguished from the Chiroptera on the one hand, by the
absence of wings and the normal conformation of the fore
limb, and from the land Carnivora on the other by the circum-
stance that a pair of teeth in each jaw are not specially modified
to act one against each other with a scissor-like action. Their
feet, which are always more or less nearly plantigrade, are
generally furnished with five toes, carrying claws, and, with the
exception of an aberrant West African genus, collar-bones, or
clavicles, are invariably present. As a rule, the distinction
between incisor, canine, pre-molar, and molar teeth is less well
marked than in the majority of Mammals ; but such distinctions
do exist. The number of incisor teeth in the lower jaw is
never reduced to a single pair, and the molar teeth have well-
developed roots and short crowns—the latter surmounted with
sharp cusps, which may be arranged either in the form of the
letter W (as in all the British representatives of the Order), or
ina V.
Although there is a remarkable difference in the external
form of the various members of the Insectivora, some being
robust, while others are slim, and some, again, having a coat
of softest velvet, and others a covering of hard spines, yet
nearly all are characterised by the elongation of the muzzle,
which projects considerably beyond the extremity of the lower
jaw. Unlike the Bats, where they are situated on the breast,
the Insectivores invariably have their numerous teats placed
54 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
on the abdomen; and the number of young is always large.
Their low degree of organisation is indicated by the circum-
stance that the main lobes, or hemispheres, of the brain are
perfectly smooth, and do not extend backwards so as to cover
the hinder portion of thé brain, or cerebellum. Indeed, it
appears that the Insectivores are the most lowly organised of
all the placental Mammals, exhibiting many signs of affinity
with the Marsupials, of which they may prove to be the direct
descendants. It may be added that their structural resem-
blances to the Bats point to the conclusion that the latter are
the highly modified descendants of some very primitive and at
present unknown members of the Order.
With the exception of the Tree-Shrews of India, the whole
of the Insectivores are nocturnal creatures, skulking during the
day in obscure corners or holes, or even, as in the case of the’
Mole, being entirely subterranean in their habits. Save for
the so-called Flying-Lemur of the Malayan region, which is but
doubtfully included in the Order, Insectivores, as their name
implies, feed exclusively on insects, worms, molluscs, and such-
like creatures. The majority are purely terrestrial in their
habits, although a few, like the British Water-Shrew, are
aquatic, while the Oriental Tree-Shrews are arboreal, and the
Flying-Lemur takes flying leaps from tree to tree in the manner
of a Flying-Squirrel.
Their geographical distribution is somewhat peculiar, from the
fact that while they are abundant in Africa, and still more so
in Madagascar, both of which are well-known harbours of
refuge for creatures of a low type, yet they are totally unknown
in South America, which is another haven for such feeble
animals. Although unknown in Australia, they are otherwise
fairly well distributed over the remaining regions of the
globe.
The British repzesentatives of the Order, all of which, as
THE NEDGE-HOGS. 55
already mentioned, belong to the group characterised by the
W-like arrangement of the cusps of the upper molar teeth, are
classified under three families, of which the first is
THE HEDGE-HOGS AND THEIR ALLIES. FAMILY
ERINACEIDA.
Although the well-known spiny covering of the Hedge-hogs
would, by non-zoological readers, be regarded as the most
characteristic feature of the Family to which these creatures
belong, yet, as a matter of fact, it is of no real importance.
Thus, for instance, while similar spines occur in the Tenrecs of
Madagascar, which belong to another family of the Order (per-
taining to the group with a V-like arrangement of the cusps on
the upper molars), in the so called “‘ Gymnuras” of the Oriental
region, which are included in the present Family, such spines
are totally wanting. Under these circumstances naturalists
have to resort to other characters by which to define the
Family. Since, however, these are somewhat technical, and
require a certain amount of anatomical knowledge for their
proper comprehension, we shall not allude to them here, as it
is sufficient for the purposes of this work to state that in
Britain the Family is represented solely by the Hedge-hog,
which cannot possibly be confounded with any other of our
native animals.
THE HEDGE-HOGS. GENUS ERINACEUS.
Erinaceus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 75 (1766).
The genus may be shortly defined as including those mem-
bers of the family in which the back and sides are covered with
short spines, and the tail is short and rudimentary.
Hedge-hogs have a total of thirty-six teeth, there being ten
pairs in the upper and eight in the lower jaw. Of these, there
56 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
are three pairs of incisors, one of canines, three of pre-molars,
and three of molars. In the lower jaw, while the number of
canines and molars is the same, there are but two pairs
both of incisors and pre-molars. In the upper jaw, the inner
pair of incisors are conical and vertically-placed teeth, widely
separated from one another in the middle line, while the
lower incisors incline almost horizontally forwards.
The spines clothing the bodies and sides of the Hedge-hogs,
which are generally marked with fine longitudinal grooves, are
inserted in a layer of tissue beneath the skin by small knob-like
terminations resembling pins’ heads, and may thus be likened
to pins stuck through a piece of soft leather. Beneath the skin
lies a thick layer of muscle—the panniculus carnosus—which
is much more developed than in any other Mammal, and by
its contraction enables the creatures to roll themselves up into
the well-known ball-like form, when the head and limbs are
completely concealed from view, and only a uniformly formid-
able array of radiating spines exposed.
Hedge-hogs are exclusively Old World animals, and are
distributed over the main portion of the three great continents,
although they are unknown in Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma,
and the Malayan region. As a rule, the numerous species are
exceedingly like one another, both as regards external appear-
ance and their general structure, although, somewhat curiously,
the European species differs in certain respects from the whole
of the rest.
I. THE COMMON HEDGE-HOG. ERINACEUS EUROPEUS.
Erinaceus europeus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 75
(1766) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 102 (1874).
(Plate V.)
Characters—Both the third upper incisor and the canine in-
serted by single roots; the fur usually long and coarse.
‘SOH- FOqSH NOWNOOD
HEDGE-HOG. 57
Length of head and body, about 10 inches; of tail, 1%
inches. ;
The two characters above-menticned at once serve to dis-
tinguish this species from the whole of the other members
of the genus, in all of which the third upper incisor and canine
teeth each present the rare and remarkable peculiarity of being
inserted by two distinct roots ; while the fur is shorter and
much less coarse.
Differing from all other British Mammals by its coat of
spines, the Hedge-hog is the largest indigenous representative
of the Order to which it belongs. The muzzle is conical, and
the body oblong and convex above, while the legs are so short
and the feet so completely plantigrade, that the abdomen
almost touches the ground when the creature is walking. The
short, broad, and rounded ears are less than half the length of
the head ; the eyes are of moderate size; and while the whole
of the back and sides are protected by spines, the face and
under-parts are clad with stiff and brittle fur, the tip of the
muzzle being naked and black. In colour the spines are dirty
white, with a brown or blackish ring somewhat above the
middle, while the hair on the face and under-parts is yellowish-
white. The rather long claws are moderately curved, and
much compressed, but are evidently not adapted for burrowing.
The female has six pairs of teats.
Distribution.—T he common Hedge-hog ranges overthe greater
part of Europe, and extends eastwards through-Asia as far as
Amurland. In Englandit is generally distributed, although in
many parts the fashion so prevalent of grubbing up hedgerows
to make large fields has resulted in a considerable diminution
in its numbers. Abundant in the Lake District, it crosses the
border into Scotland, where it is mainly characteristic of the
southern and central counties, and some years ago it seemed
to be chiefly confined to Clackmannan, Stirling, Dumbarton,
58 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
and Perth, in the counties north of the Firths of Forth and
Clyde. Now, however, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown
and Buckley, its range seems to be extending somewhat, pro-
bably owing to artificial introduction ; but it is quite unknown
in the Isles—that is to say, at least, as an indigenous animal.
In Sutherland and Caithness it is, according to the testimony
of the same writers, “still unknown in the west, and, so far as
known to us, in all other parts of the counties. Though pet
specimens have been introduced, and have escaped, there is
no evidence that they have established themselves in a wild
state.” In Ireland, Thompson says that the Hedge-hog is found
everywhere in suitable localities.
Habits.—Like neariy all the members of the Order to which
it belongs, a purely nocturnal animal, the Hedge-hog, or Urchin,
as it is termed in many parts of England, reposes during the
day in some snug and safe retreat, generally situated beneath
the roots of some old tree or stub, in a hedge-bank, thicket, or
a crevice in a rock or wall. During the winter the Hedge-hog
passes its time in a state of complete torpor, apparently never
awakening, and therefore requiring no store of food, which in
the case of an animal subsisting on insects and other creatures
it would be impossible to accumulate. Although insects com-
pose a considerable portion of its diet, the Hedge-hog by no
means subsists entirely on them, nor, indeed, on invertebrates
generally, since almost all animals that it is able to kill, appear
to be equally acceptable as food. As Mr. Harting remarks, while
the animal under consideration exhibits a partiality for slugs,
snails, worms, and beetles, it has been ascertained that it like-
wise consumes eggs, chickens, young landrails and game-birds,
mice, young rabbits and hares, frogs and snakes, not even
the noxious viper being safe from its attack. With regard to
their depredations on young game-birds a recent writer in
Land and Water states that a few years ago he lifted some
HEDGE-HOG. 59
pheasants’ eggs from the road-side and put them under a hen.
The coop was placed outside the poultry-yard and near an old
summer-house which stood among shrubs, and was thickly
covered with creepers. The birds came out in due time, but
soon began to disappear. Rats were at first blamed, but as no
traces of their presence could be detected, the keeper was set
to watch, with the result that Hedge-hogs were proved to be
the delinquents.
A writer in the ze/d bears testimony to the egg-stealing pro-
pensities of these animals. He states that ona certain date there
was a duck’s nest near his house containing five eggs. “On the
following morning,” he writes, “there were only two. On the
following night I put down a common rabbit-trap at the nest,
let into the ground, and covered over. About ten p.m. I heard
something crying out (similar to the noise made by a hare
when in distress). Upon going there 1 found a very large
Hedge-hog in the trap. I took it out, killed it, and set the
trap again. About eleven there was another large Hedge-hog in
the same trap, which I killed, and set the trap again. I went
again the next morning at five and found another Hedge-hog
in the trap, making three Hedge-hogs caught the same night in
the same trap. Since then the duck has been sitting in the
same nest undisturbed by anything.” This evidence, although
circumstantial, appears to be pretty conclusive, and it is con-
firmed by another instance narrated by the same writer. In
this second case a pheasant’s nest with fifteen eggs was found
to have nine destroyed ; each of the damaged eggs having been
apparently bitten half through. The six remaining sound eggs
were taken home and a small quantity of strychnine inserted
into each through a small perforation, after which they were
sealed up and returned to the nest. The next morning two of
the eggs were partially eaten, while near by lay a Hedge-hog.
stone dead.
60 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
In attacking a snake a Hedge-hog proceeds with extreme
caution, seizing a favourable opportunity to give the reptile a
bite, and then immediately rolling itself up into a ball till it is
enabled to repeat the attack, and so on till the snake finally
succumbs. ‘If the snake happens to be a viper,” writes Mr.
Harting, “still more caution is displayed; for the latter in-
variably strikes at the Hedge-hog on being bitten, and it requires
a remarkably quick ‘shut up’ to avoid the viper’s fangs. The
result in this case is very different ; the viper repeatedly strikes
against the sharp spines of the Hedge-hog, and in so doing be-
comes lacerated to such an extent that it eventually succumbs
to its self-inflicted injuries.” Frogs, according to the same
observer, are boldly attacked at once without the slightest
hesitation, and torn almost limb from limb.
In gardens frequented by Hedge-hogs, these animals may
often be observed on the paths and lawns in the dusk of a
summer’s evening in search of beetles or worms. The latter
are seized as they issue from their holes, and are eaten in a
methodical manner, the Hedge-hog commencing at one end and
working steadily on till he reaches the other.
It is not often that the observations of Gilbert White on the
habits of British animals are incorrect, although this is the case
with regard to one on the food of the Hedge-hog. He states
that these animals were in the habit of eating the roots of the
plantains growing in his garden at Selborne; and the state-
ment has been admitted into the works of other writers on
British animals, although it has been shown that the destruc-
tion of the plants in question is due to a nocturnal cater-
pillar.
Although generally a silent creature, the Hedge-hog gives
vent to a peculiar sound, which has been described as some-
thing between a grunt and a squeak; and the cry of these
animals when trapped has been already incidentally mentioned.
HEDGE-HOG. or
In regard to its senses, it appears from the observations of the
late Colonel J. Whyte that although the power of vision is not
very highly developed, hearing and smell are extremely acute.
From observations made by the same gentleman on a captive
specimen, it would seem that these animals keep on the move
throughout the night, travelling the whole time at the rate of
some six miles an hour in search of their prey, except of course
during those intervals in which they are engaged in devouring
the latter.
With regard to the breeding-habits of Hedge-hogs, some
difference of opinion has prevailed among naturalists. Writing
from observations made on continental specimens, Blasius
states that the number of young produced at a birth varies
from four to eight, and that these are usually born during the
months of July or August. On the other hand, Bell writes
that “the female produces from two to four young ones early
in the summer, though the difference in their size in the
autumn, when they are often found by sporting dogs, would
seem to point out a somewhat variable period of birth.” The
latter discrepancy was explained by Dr. Dobson, who ascer-
tained that a second litter is often produced in the autumn ;
and the same observer further came to the conclusion that the
number of young in a litter does not exceed four, in which
respect he is in accord with Bell. Mr. Harting, however, in
an interesting paper published in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society for 1892, under the title of “Vermin of
the Farm,” states that the number of young in a litter is more
frequently five or six, and that he has known two instances
where seven were produced. The period of gestation does
not exceed a month. At birth the young are blind, and
covered with soft and flexible white spines, which, however,
soon harden and assume their adult coloration. The young
are born in a comfortable, well-roofed nest of dried leaves,
62 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
grasses, and occasionally moss; the same or a similar nest
being used for the winter-slumber
In conclusion, it may be mentioned that, in spite of its
spiny armour, the Hedge-hog has two deadly enemies in the
persons of the Fox and the Badger; and where those two
animals abound, the number of Hedge-hogs, as Mr. Harting
observes, will be small.
THE MOLES AND DESMANS. FAMILY TALPIDZ.
Since the sole British representative of this Family is the
Common Mole, we shall not spend much time in pointing out
the distinctive Family characters, merely stating that all the
Talpide may be distinguished from the Zrinaceide by the
absence of the central fifth cusp found on the two anterior
molars of the latter; while from the Soricde they differ in
that the first pair of lower incisor teeth are not hook-like and
directed forwards ; and likewise by the presence of zygomatic
arches, or cheek-bones, to the skull.
Although the Desmans, which formerly inhabited England,
but are now confined to the Continent, are aquatic in their
habits, the great majority of the members of the Family have
their fore-limbs more or less specially modified for digging in
the ground. This modification shows itself especially in the
very forward position of the fore-limbs, which in the most
specialised types are extremely short, and furnished with very
wide and powerful feet. Their forward position is brought
about by the shortness of the collar-bones and the anterior
extension of the breast-bone; while the shortness of the
limbs is due to the extraordinary form of the arm-bone, or
humerus, which, in place of being long and slender, in the
True Moles is almost square, and about as unlike its represen-
tative in ordinary Mammals as can well be conceived. The
MOLES. 63
Desmans, it should be observed, which depart from the typical
Mole type, may be regarded as connecting links between the
Moles and Shrews.
THE TRUE MOLES. GENUS TALPA.
Tailpa, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766).
Body almost cylindrical, and passing imperceptibly into the
head without any well-defined neck ; limbs, especially the front
pair, completely modified for digging; fore-feet normally
turned outwards, instead of downwards, very broad and flat,
and furnished with large, nail-like claws, their breadth being
increased by a large sickle-like bone on the inner side. All
the bones of the fore-limb very short; and the collar-bones
frequently as broad as long. ‘Tail short; no external ears;
eyes very minute and entirely hidden by the fur, which is
short, soft, and velvety, with its component hairs set vertically
in the skin, and not directed backwards. Usually forty-four
teeth,* of which in each jaw three pairs are incisors, one
canines, four pre-molars, and three molars ; incisors chisel-like
and set in a semi-circular row ; upper canines long, conical, and
inserted in the jaw by double roots; the lower canines similar
in character to the incisors.
Moles are among the few existing placental Mammals which ~
retain the typical number of forty-four teeth, though this fea-
ture was not uncommon among their extinct ancestors of the
early portion of the Tertiary period.
The True Moles are an exclusively Old World group, where
they are represented by eight species, which are confined to
Europe and Asia. In addition to the Common Mole, a second
species is found in Europe to the south of the Alps ; while of
the Asiatic forms only two occur to the southward of the
Himalaya.
* In some species the first pair of upper pre-molars is absent, thus
reducing the number of teeth to forty-two.
64 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
THE COMMON MOLE. TALPA EUROPCA.
Talpa europea, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 115 (1874).
Lalpa vulgaris, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 19 (1846).
Characters.—Tail about one-fourth or one-fifth the length of the
head and body, slender, nearly of equal diameter throughout,
and haired ; upper surface of hind feet thinly clothed with fur ;
eyelids open. Fourth upper pre-molar tooth without distal
internal basal process, and the corresponding lower tooth
smaller than the first of the same series. General colour some
shade of black, varying from bluish-black to sooty-black, but
occasionally grey, cream-colour, or even white. Length of
head and body about 5% inches; of tail, 12 inch.
It may be noted that as the European Hedge-hog differs from
all its congeners in the characters of its teeth, so the Common
Mole is distinguished from all the other members of its genus
in that its minute eyes are not covered with a continuous mem-
brane ; and it is, therefore, capable of receiving impressions of
light. In this respect it is accordingly a rather less specialised
creature than its kindred ; and the existence of these perfect,
although useless, eyes, is of itself a sufficient proof that Moles
are descended from animals which lived on the surface of the
earth, and that their completely subterranean habits have been
gradually acquired.
Although some shade of black, generally with a more or less
well-marked greyish sheen, is the normal colour of the Mole,
variations from this are by no means uncommon ; and Bell
records grey, dark olive-brown, pied, yellowish-white, and
wholly or partially orange Moles, while he notes some speci-
mens with an orange patch on the chest, although elsewhere of
the normal hue. Albino spevimens are also from time to time
met with ; while there is alrnost every transition between the
MOLES. 65
colours mentioned above. Piebald specimens appear to be the
most uncommon of the normal variations. A white Mole with
a red throat is on record; and Mr. Harting mentions a ‘speci-
men captured in Fifeshire in 1880, which had a white head,
while elsewhere it was of the normal colour.
Distribution.— Although unknown in Ireland, the Mole ranges
over the greater part of Europe and Asia north of the Hima-
laya, occurring as far eastwards as Japan, and it is also found in
the Altai mountains. In England it is so universally distributed
as to require no special mention; and it probably occurs in
most or all parts of Wales, being common even in the ex-
treme west of Anglesea. Always more or less abundant in the
Scottish lowlands, the Mole appears to have been formerly
very rare or unknown in the more northern districts, but during
the latter decades of the present century has been gradually
extending its northward range. In Sutherlandshire, according
to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, it is still steadily on the
increase, having been very rare about 1840 in Durness, where it
is now common, as it is, in suitable localities, throughout Caith-
ness. Although unknown in 1791 in the Lismore district, it
subsequently made its way into the Kintyre isthmus of Argyll-
shire, and is now found in many parts of that county. The
writer last mentioned further states that “the Mole is said to
have been accidentally introduced into Mull—where it is now
quite common—about eighty years ago—say about 1808—in a
boat-load of earth brought from Morven. The earth was a
peculiarly fine loam, intended for making the floor of a cottage
when mixed with clay and smithy ashes.” Quite recently it
has made its appearance in the adjacent island of Ulva. It
appears, however, still to be absent from the other islands.
Similar testimony might be adduced as to the gradual spread
of this animal in other northern counties of Scotland, but the
foregoing is sufficient to show that ere long it will probably be
5 : =
66 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
found everywhere on the mainland, where suitable conditions
for its peculiar mode of life exist. ‘The increase of cultivation
and of communication between remote districts will probably
account for this widening distribution of the Mole ; for it is
almost impossible to believe that its introduction into certain
districts can be due, as in the case of Mull, to accidental im-
portation by human agency.
In Ireland, as already mentioned, the Mole is quite unknown.
Geologically, the Mole is a comparatively ancient animal,
dating at least from the period of the so-called forest-bed of the
Norfolk coast, which is assigned by some geologists to the top
of the Pliocene, and by others to the base of the succeeding
Pleistocene epoch.
Habits—Every writer who has described the organisation
and habits of the Mole has commented on the admirable
adaptation of the creature to the necessities of its surroundings.
Passing nearly the whole of its time beneath the ground, the
Mole leads an existence of continuous labour—an existence to
our ideas which appears dull enough, but which nevertheless
may not be devoid of enjoyment of a certain kind. So swift
and rapid, when in suitable soil, are its subterranean move-
ments, that the creature has been not inaptly said to swim
through the earth. Such rapidity of movement through such
a resisting medium necessarily entails, however, an enormous
drain on the Mole’s vital powers, to sustain which a vast and
almost continuous supply of food is essential to its well-being.
Hence even a very short period of deprivation of food speedily
results in death.
As special instances of adaptation we may note the following
structural peculiarities in the Mole. In the first place, the
cylindrical body, sharp muzzle, and short limbs, present the
least possible impediments to the creature’s subterranean pro-
MOLES. 67
gress ; while the absence of external ears, and the rudimentary
condition of the eyes, are likewise subservient to the same pur-
pose. Not less important is the vertical position of the hairs of
the fur, which admits of either backward or forward progress in
the tunnel with equal facility. Then, again, the broad, shovel-
like fore-paws, armed with strong claws and turned outwards,
are the very best instruments we could possibly conceive for
tunnelling and shovelling backwards the earth; these being
worked by muscles of immense power, attached to bones which,
by their shortness and width, are calculated to afford the
maximum development of strength. Lastly, we must not omit
to mention the long, pointed, and mobile snout, furnished
with an extra bone at its tip, and the large series of small but
sharp teeth, which are equally well adapted for seizing and re-
taining the worms and grubs which form its food.
Regarding the general mode of life of the species, we may
quote from the summary given by Macgillivray in the original
edition of the “ Naturalist’s Library.” He says that its food
consists mainly of earth-worms, “in quest of which it burrows
its way in the soil, extending its subterranean excursions in
proportion as its prey diminishes in number ; but the excessive
and unremitting labour required in this pursuit, were it carried
on at random, is rendered unnecessary by an instinct which
compels it to excavate a series of runs or galleries, along which
it can walk without inconvenience, and from different points
of which it proceeds, forcing its way into the hitherto unper-
forated soil. In forming its subterranean paths, it works with
its fore-feet, which, as has been seen, are admirably adapted
for scraping away the earth and throwing it backwards, pro-
pelling itself forward by its hind-feet, which are disposed in the
usual manner. When it has thus excavated an extended series
of walks, it can run along them to any point without difficulty,
and finds security in them from the pursuit of many enemies,
F 2
68 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
although man employs them as a sure means for entrapping
ib? *
After mentioning that we are mainly indebted to the obser-
vations made many years ago by Le Court for our knowledge
of the construction of the Mole’s runs and habitation, the
author proceeds to say that “each individual appropriates
to himself a district, or space of ground, in which he forms
a kind of fortress under a hillock in some secure place, as
beneath a bank or near the roots of a tree. In this eminence,
of which the earth is rendered very compact, is formed a
circular gallery, communicating with a smaller gallery, placed
above it, by several passages. On the level of the lower, or
larger, gallery is a roundish cavity, or chamber, communicating
with the upper by three passages. From the outer gallery
branch off a number of passages, which run out to a variable
extent, and, forming an irregular curve, terminate in what may
be called the high-road, which is a long passage proceeding
from the outer circular gallery, and at the same time communi-
cating directly with the central cavity. It extends to the
farthest limit of the domain, is of somewhat greater diameter
than the body of the animal, has its walls comparatively
compact, and communicates with the numerous passages by
which the domain is intersected. By this principal passage the
Mole visits the various parts of its hunting-ground, burrowing
to either side, and throwing out the earth here and there, so as
to form heaps or mole-hills. As it traverses this path several
* Tam indebted to Mr. Aubyn Trevor-Battye for some observations on
British Animals, which will be read with interest. Concerning the pre-
sent species he writes as follows :—‘‘ With regard to the question of vision,
I can state that a Mole which I kept for some time in captivity would take
worms from my fingers. When I swung a worm about in front of his face
he would—nose in air—follow it backward and forward with his head.
Whether he saw it or only smelt it (in which case his quickness of scent
was simply marvellous), I am unable to say.”
MOLES, 69
times daily, it is in it that snares are laid for its capture. The
excavations vary in their distance from the surface according to
the nature of the soil and other circumstances. In deep, rich
earth they are sometimes nearly a foot in depth, while in
gravelly or clayey ground, covered with a thin layer of soil, they
are often scarcely an inch. Often, also, the Mole burrows
quite close to the surface of rich, loose soil which has been
ploughed, and sometimes runs along it, forming merely a
groove or trench. The principal object of its pursuit is the
earth-worm, but it also feeds on larve, and occasionally
devours frogs, lizards, and even birds.* Its voracity is excessive,
insomuch that hunger urges it to exhibit a kind of fury, and it
is found to perish in a very short time if deprived of food. It
drinks frequently, and forms passages to brooks or ponds in
the vicinity of its residence. During winter, when the cold forces
the worms deeper into the ground, it follows them in their re-
_ treats, driving its galleries and alleys to a corresponding depth.”
On the above notes Mr. Trevor-Battye observes :—“ Mac-
gillivray’s remarks require some modification. It is not strictly
true that ‘ each individual appropriates to itself a district,’ for
Moles have often, I think generally, a common system of runs
used by various individuals from many different points. Thus
I have known as many as twenty-four full-grown Moles to be
taken in a single trap in one position, in a single run through a
gateway.” As to its feeding on larvee, he says :—‘ A curious
case came under my notice where some Moles had made a raid
on the larvee of cockchafers. Here they had been working
half their time above ground, driving short shafts down into
the roots of the sward, so that a friend thought at first that
Rooks had been at work.”
* We have ventured to make a verbal alteration in this and a subsequen
sentence, where statements given hypothetically are now known to be
certain.
70 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
It may be mentioned here that, as a general rule, the Mole
exhibits a marked preference for light soils, such as old
pastures, warrens, downs, or recently manured ploughed lands,
in all of which the earth can be tunnelled with comparative
facility. Occasionally, however, it frequents clayey or barren
districts. A peculiarity in its habits is that it works during the
day at certain regular hours, which are observed with extra-
ordinary punctuality. Continuing his account, Macgillivray
observes that during the winter the Mole “ retires at intervals
to its fortress, in which it has formed a bed of dry leaves
or grass, to enjoy a profound repose; but in spring it quits
this habitation, and rests during the warm season in a mole-
hill.
“On the surface, to which it sometimes makes its way, it
can run with considerable speed, but, if not in the immediate
vicinity of its hole, is easily overtaken. It is more especially
in the early part of the day that it is thus occasionally met
with. When a meadow which it has frequented has been
inundated, the Mole has been seen to swim with great vigour ;
and instances are known of its making its way to islands in
lakes and rivers.
‘The males are more numerous than the females, and the
former sometimes engage in desperate combats. The number
of young produced at a birth varies from three to seven,
and the period of parturition is from April to the end of
summer ; but whether more than one litter has been produced
in a year has not been ascertained. The nest is generally
found beneath a large mole-hill, and is formed of a mass
of leaves, grass, fibrous roots, and other vegetable sub-
stances.”
With regard to the appearance of the Mole above ground,
Mr. Trevor-Battye sends me a note :—“ This often happens
in the evening, especially in July and August, when the animals
MOLES. q1
are searching for white slugs and larve of Zipule, &c., in
damp places, and this always occurs when the season is dry.
Moles pair as early as February and commonly in March, and
any mole-catcher will tell you that the latter month is the best
time for Moles to run.”
In reference to the number of young produced at a birth, it
may be added that four or five is the most usual complement,
as few as three or as many as six being rare; and we are not
aware whether more than one instance of the occurrence of as
many as seven ison record. ‘The period of gestation is given
by Bell at two months or more, while by Jesse it is set down
at one month only. Naked, and of course blind, at birth,
the young are able to follow their parents in about five
weeks, when they have attained nearly three-fourths their
full dimensions.
The voracity of Moles almost surpasses belief, their stomachs
being frequently found absolutely crammed full of worms,
some of which show every appearance of having been swallowed
whole. Writing of a captive specimen, Alston states that it
would devour an amount of food which he estimated as exceed-
ing its own weight in the course of a single day. During the
first three days of its captivity it consumed three or four dozen
earth-worms, a large frog, a quantity of raw beef, the body of a
turkey-poult, and part of a second, as well as one or two black
slugs.
From the testimony of more than one person well acquainted
with their habits, it has been thought that, in some cases at
least, Moles will accumulate a store of worms for use during
those portions of the winter when the ground is too hard for
tunnelling, except at great depths. These are said to be kept
in a basin-shaped cavity in clayey soil, with the bottom beaten
hard so as to prevent the worms from making their escape by
boring; while according to one statement the worms themselves
72 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
are partially disabled by a bite from the teeth of their captor.
More information is, however, required as to these stores of
worms, and when they are consumed. In regard to the latter
point, Mr. Harting observes that it seems doubtful whether
the worms could live long in such a state of confinement, for
if unable to make their escape they themselves would die for
lack of nourishment. There is, moreover, another circumstance
connected with the winter-life of a Mole. Thus, if it be true
that during a frost the animal descends lower down in the soil
until it comes to the level where worms are to be found, we
should like to know how it disposes of the soil dug out in
making ifs tunnels, as it would be clearly impossible to
throw up the ordinary mole-hills through the frozen earth
above. i
Concerning these worm-basins, Mr. Trevor-Battye writes to
me :—“I strongly doubt this statement. I think it has arisen
from the fact that during the winter the Mole does drive down
tunnels almost, and sometimes quite, perpendicularly. These
are frequently found to end (sometimes at depths of four feet)
in a circular expansion, of which the inside is certainly smooth.
I have always supposed that Moles lay up for the winter in
these ; but the whole question of their hibernation wants making
clear. As you dig down to these chambers with a spade, you
will notice that all the earth is not removed from the shaft, nor
is this necessary. A Mole can work backwards and forwards
underground quite easily, without removing earth in the form
of a mole-hill. There are numerous questions regarding the
history of the Mole still to be settled. Why, for instance,
should this species and a Badger die from a slight tap on the
nose?”
Some difference of opinion has long obtained as to whether
the Mole is injurious or beneficial to the agriculturist, al-
though it is pretty generally admitted that to the gardener it is
MOLES. 73
an unmitigated nuisance. On this subject Macgillivray writes
that “ by destroying vast quantities of worms and grubs, the
Mole may be considered as conferring a benefit on the agricul-
turist; and by perforating the soil, and throwing up the
earth, it has been by some alleged to improve the natural pas-
tures, especially in hilly districts, but in the cultivated grounds,
and particularly in gardens and nurseries, the injury which it
inflicts by its incessant labour is more obvious than any benefit
that is derived from them, and, in fact, sometimes very great.”
. This was written in pre-Darwinian days, when the importance
of worms in improving and renovating the soil was quite un-
recognised, and it is therefore perhaps more than an open ques-
tion whether their destruction is an advantage. On the other
hand, the quantity of grubs and other noxious creatures which
the Mole consumes undoubtedly renders the creature service-
able to the farmer. On the whole, some of those best entitled
to give an opinion on the subject, are in favour of not destroy-
ing the Moles on agricultural land. It is, however, essential
that on pasture land the mole-hills should be knocked about
and spread in the early spring, before the grass is allowed to
stand for hay, when the fine earth of which they are composed
forms an excellent top-dressing.
The Mole has several enemies which do not redect whether
or not it is valuable to man, and kill it ruthlessly whenever they
have the opportunity, the chief of these being Weasels, Owls,
and Buzzards. That Weasels kill Moles has been demonstrated
on more than one occasion, when they have been seen carry-
ing off the bodies of their victims ; while in the case of Owls
the occurrence of the remains of Moles among their castings
affords decisive evidence. In the case of the Buzzard, Mr.
Harting remarks that the bird, ‘in the vicinity of mole-hills
will take up a position on some tree and watch until it sees a
Mole working near the surface, when it will instantly drop
74 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
down and seize it. In this way (ée., by watching and jumping
down) Buzzards destroy numbers of Rats and other vermin, for
which good service they deserve to be protected, instead of
being shot and trapped at every opportunity.”
In conclusion, it may be mentioned that in the north of
England the Mole is still very often des'gnated by its Saxon
name of Afouldiwarp (or earth-turner), while in the west it is
more commonly known as the Want, and in the midland
counties as the Hoont, or Woont ; these names being doubtless
synonyms derived from the old Danish designation Wand.
THE SHREWS. FAMILY SORICIDA.
Different as is the appearance of the Moles from the Shrews,
the two groups, as already stated, are so closely connected by
the Desmans, that we have to resort to details of structure to
differentiate them. The Shrews may, however, be distinguished
by the circumstance that the skull has no bony zygomatic
arches, or cheek-bones, and that its auditory bulla, at the base
of the region of the internal ear, is imperfectly, instead of fully,
ossified. A more ready means of recognising a member of
the present Family is afforded by the characters of the first
pair of incisor teeth, which, in both jaws are very much
larger than any of the others. In the upper jaw these teeth
are curved and hook-like, with a more or less strongly marked
basal cusp on the hinder edge ; while in the lower jaw they
are elongated and project nearly horizontally forwards, some-
times with a slight upward curvature at the tip. Canine teeth
are totally wanting in the lower jaw, and in the upper they are
similar in character to the outer incisors and anterior pre-
molars, so that a Shrew has no tooth which can be termed a
tusk. In the lower jaw there are invariably six pairs of teeth,
of which the first two are incisors, the third a pre-molar, and
COMMON SHREW.
SHREWS, 75
the remaining three molars. On the other hand, in the upper
jaw the number is variable, ranging from seven to ten pairs.
The Family, which contains a large number of representatives,
has a wider geographical distribution than any other of the
Order, ranging over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia,
Africa and North America, as well as many of their islands.
In habits, most of the Shrews are terrestrial, although a few,
and among them one British species, are aquatic.
In popular estimation these animals (as their common
designation of Shrew-Mice indicates) are often confounded
with Mice, although the two groups have not the most remote
affinity with one another. A glance at the dentition will, of
course, at once serve to decide to which group any given
specimen pertains.
THE TRUE SHREWS. GENUS SOREX.
Sorex, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766).
Teeth thirty-two in number, with their tips coloured reddish-
brown ; ear well-developed ; tail long, and covered with more
or less nearly equal hairs; limbs normal, and adapted for
walking. Habits terrestrial.
The genus is represented by a large number of species,
ranging over Northern Africa, Europe, Asia north of the
Himalaya, and North America, but unknown in India and
the adjacent regions.
I. THE COMMON SHREW. SOREX VULGARIS.
Sorex vulgaris, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 1:2 vol. i. p. 73 (1766) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 141 (1874).
Sorex araneus, Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 109 (1837, nec
Linn.).
Sorex tetragonurus, Herman, Obs. Zool. p. 48 (1870).
(Plate VI.)
Characters—Ear small, rounded, and scarcely projecting
76 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
above the level of the fur; tail, although somewhat variable
in length, always shorter than the body, four-sided, with the
angles rounded off, its width nearly equal throughout, and its
whole length clothed with short, close, and somewhat stiff
hairs. Fur usually of a reddish mouse-colour on the upper-
parts, and greyish beneath. Length of head and body, 234
inches ; of tail, 134 inch, or rather more.
In common with the other members of the genus to which
it belongs, the Shrew is an elegant little creature, with thick,
soft fur, a long, slender and pointed muzzle, and a short body
—the latter being more or less arched when the animal is at
rest, though capable of being depressed when in motion. Al-
though the term “reddish mouse-colour” perhaps best expresses
the more usual tint of the fur oi the upper-parts, there is a
considerable amount of individual variation in respect of
colour, some examples tending to a more decidedly rufous
hue, while others incline to blackish. The grey of the under-
parts is likewise variable in shade, being in some cases darker,
and in others lighter than usual, while it has been known to
show a yellowish tinge. Not very uncommonly the fur has a
faint suspicion of white, giving a somewhat speckled appear-
ance ; and spotted or pied Shrews have been met with.
In the older works on British zoology the common Shrew
was described under the name of Sorex avaneus, under the
impression that it was the same as the so-called Spider-Shrew
of the Continent. The latter, as was pointed out by the late
Rey. Leonard Jenyns (Blomefield), who contributed so largely
to our knowledge of British vertebrated animals, is, however, a
totally different creature, and is now assigned by zoologists
to a distinct genus.
In size the common Shrew may be roughly compared to an
ordinary Mouse, although in build it is more slender and
delicate. On each side of the body is situat-d a gland
SHREWS. 77
covered by two rows of coarse hairs, which secretes the well-
known odour so characteristic of Shrews in general, and which,
in one Indian species, is so strongly developed as to render
uneatable any article of food with which the creature may
have come in contact.
Distribution.— The common Shrew is one of the comparatively
few Mammals which have an almost circumpolar distribution,
its range extending from England across Europe and Asia,
north of the Himalaya into North America. It is, however,
not a little remarkable that an animal with such an exceedingly
wide geographical range should be totally unknown in Ireland.
In England and Wales it appears to be universally distributed,
and it likewise ranges throughout the mainland of Scotland.
Although it has been recorded from Iona, it now appears
that throughout the Hebrides the genus is represented only by
the Lesser Shrew. Fossil remains, originally assigned to the
Water-Shrew, appear to indicate the existence of the present
and perhaps also the next species in the Norfolk forest-bed,
which, as we have seen, is at least as old as the early part of
the Pleistocene epoch.
Habits——Nocturnal and retiring in its habits, the Shrew is
but seldom seen in a living state, although in summer even-
ings its shrill squeaking cry may often be heard in woods, hedge-
rows, and dry meadows, which are its favourite haunts. We
say in a living state advisedly, since, in the autumn, numbers of
dead Shrews are often to be seen on garden-paths and lanes,
which have succumbed to a mortality, the cause of which is
by no means clear. During the summer months these little
creatures form well-marked runs among the stalks of grass of
meadows ; and, although they are generally found in those in
which the soil is dry, they are by no means wanting in damp
and marshy situations. During the winter they retire beneath
the roots of trees or bushes, to the deserted holes of other
78 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
small Mammals, or other secure nooks, where they pass the
cold months in a state of profound torpor. Although their
chief food consists of worms, insects, and grubs, they also con-
sume many of the smaller slugs and snails, while Jesse states
that they will occasionally kill and eat young frogs. In the
spring the female Shrew (perhaps with the aid of her mate)
constructs of grass, leaves, and other herbage, a dome-shaped
nest, with an entrance on one side, which is generally placed
in a hedge-bank or some hollow in the grass. Here in due
course she usually brings forth from five to seven naked and
blind young, although occasionally there may be as many as
ten in a litter. The breeding-season extends from the end of
April to early in August. In disposition the Shrew is one of
the most combative and pugnacious of animals; and many
fights, probably between rival males, terminate fatally ; while,
if two or more of these animals be confined in a cage or box,
they invariably fight to the bitter end.
It might be supposed that to such combats are due the
number of dead Shrews so often encountered in autumn,
although it is pretty evident that their death is due to some
other cause. It has been suggested that Owls and Cats, which
are supposed to kill, but not to eat, Shrews, are the cause of the
destruction ; but it is now ascertained that Shrews are eaten
by the former, while from the situation in which their bodies
are frequently found, it is scarcely likely that Cats are
the murderers. In addition to those destroyed by Owls, it is
said that a certain number of Shrews fall victims to the
voracity of their cousin the Mole.
Perfectly harmless to man, both as regards his person, his
cattle, and his crops, the Shrew was long the victim of a
curious superstition, as is illustrated in a well-known passage
from the writings of Gilbert White, which will bear one more
repetition. Writing of his native village of Selborne, this
SHREWS, 719
charming and quaint chronicler observes :—‘ At the south
corner of the plestor, or area, near the church, there stood,
about twenty years ago a very old, grotesque, hollow pollard
ash, which for ages had been looked upon with no small
veneration as a Shrew-ash. Now a Shrew-ash is one whose
twigs or branches, when applied to the limbs of cattle, will
immediately relieve the pains which a beast suffers from the
running of a Shrew-Mouse over the part afflicted ; for it is
supposed that a Shrew-Mouse is of so baneful and deleterious
a nature, that wherever it creeps over a beast, be it Horse, Cow,
or Sheep, the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish,
and threatened with the loss of the limb. Against this
accident, to which they were continually liable, our provident
forefathers always kept a Shrew-ash at hand, which, when once
medicated, would maintain its virtue for ever. A Shrew-ash
was made thus: Into the body of the tree a deep hole was
bored with an auger, and a poor devoted Shrew-Mouse was
thrust in alive, and plugged in, no doubt with several quaint
incantations long since forgotten.” One touch from the twig
of such an ash was sufficient to restore an afflicted animal to
health,
ll, THE LESSER SHREW. SOREX MINUTUS.
Sorex minutus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766).
Sorex pygmeus, Pallas, Zoog. Rosso-Asiat. vol. i. p. 134
(1831); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed.. p. 148a
(1874).
Sorex rusticus, Jenyns, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1838 p. 417.
Characters.—Size smaller than that of the last species, from
which it may be distinguished by the following characters : The
third upper incisor is not longer than the canine,* and by the
proportionately shorter fore-arm and foot. Tail usually shorter
* It should be noted that the Shrews are now considered to differ from
other placental Mammals in having four pairs of upper incisors, the outer-
most being the one here reckoned as the canine.
‘
80 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
than the head and body, with a thick covering of hairs. General
colour brown above, and white on the under-parts. Length
of head and body about 2 inches ; of tail, 134 inch.*
Distribution.— Although far less abundant in England than
the common Shrew, the Lesser Shrew hasa wider distribution in
the British Islands, being found not only in Ireland, but like-
wise in the Hebrides, in both of which localities it is the sole
representative of the genus. Elsewhere it extends through
Europe and Northern Asia as far eastward as the island of
Saghalin, although unknown in North America. In the north
of England it appears to be even more uncommon than in the
south.
This Shrew is the smallest British Mammal, and indeed, with
the exception of another member of the same genus, the smallest
Mammal in Europe. In habits it appears to agree in alf re-
spects with its larger relative.
THE WATER-SHREWS. GENUS CROSSOPUS,
Crossopus, Wagler, Isis 1832 p. 275.
Teeth thirty in number, with their summits stained brownish-
red, Ears small, but not truncated ; tail with a fringe of long
hairs on its lower surface, and the feet also fringed. Habits
aquatic,
The genus is represented solely by the under-mentioned
species.
THE WATER-SHREW. CROSSOPUS FODIENS.
Sorex fodiens, Pallas, in Schreber’s Saugethiere, vol. iii. p. 571
(1778) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 115 (1837).
Sorex remifer, Geoffr. Ann. Mus. vol. xvii. p. 182 (1811);
Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 119 (1837).
Sorex daubentonit, Geoffroy, Joc. cit.
* Mr. De Winton says that the best distinctive character for recognising
the species is the extremely small size of the teeth, which require a lens to
detect them.
Ma@SHS — 4ALVM
TIA
WATER-SHREW. 81
Sorex bicolor, Shaw, Nat. Miscell. vol. ii. pl. 55 (1791).
Sorex ciliatus, Sowerby, Brit. Miscell. p. 1¢3 pl. xlix. (1805).
Crossopus fodiens, Wagler, Isis 1832, p. 275; Bell, British
Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 149 (1874).
Crossopus remifer, Wagler, tom. cit.
Amphisorex pennanti et A. linneanus, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. vol. ii. p. 287 (1838).
(Plate VIL.)
Characters.— Larger than either of the British species of Sorex,
with the tail about two-thirds the length of the head and body.
In colour, typically black above and white beneath, with a
sharp division between the two, but frequently with the black
of the back extending to a portion or the whole of the inferior
surface, while in some cases the latter may be tinged with
rusty. The stiff fringing hairs of the tail and feet white.
Length of head and body about 3% inches ; of tail, 2/5 inches.
The great variation in the colouring of the Water-Shrew gave
rise to the idea that there were two British representatives of
the genus, although it is now well ascertained that such varia-
tions are merely individual.
Distributio.—The Water-Shrew is met with in suitable
localities in many parts of Europe, whence it extends eastwards
through Northern Asia as faras the Altai Mountains. Through-
out most districts in England and Wales it is far from uncommon
in the neighbourhood of brooks and streams, although, from the
nature of its habits, it is not often seen, unless special search be
made. According to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, although
they seem to be rare in the Lake district, yet the number of
specimens killed by Cats, together with the presence of their
remains among the dédris rejected by Owls, shows that this is
not really the case. Both the dark and pied varieties are met
with in this part of the country. In Scotland, as a whole, the
Water-Shrew appears to be a less common animal than in
5 a
82 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
England. In Sutherland it is, however, said to be far from rare,
although the dark variety appears to be less common there
than in other parts of the country. Hitherto its presence has
not been detected in the Hebrides or any of the other Scotch
islands ; and it is quite unknown in Ireland.
Habits.— Residing in long winding burrows excavated by itself
in the banks of rivulets, brooks, ditches, or ponds, the Water-
Shrew is fully as active in the water as a Water-Vole or
Otter. In search of food, writes Macgillivray, “it makes
excursions upon the water, and dives with ease to the bottom.
In swimming, it presents a singular appearance, its sides being
apparently expanded, its body lying so lightly as to be two-
thirds out of the water, its tail extended along the surface ; and
it paddles away seemingly with little effort, scarcely causing a
ripple, although its speed is considerable. I have seen it
sporting as it were in the water, several individuals swimming
about in different directions, sometimes shooting along in
curves at an accelerated rate. It is a very timorous animal,
and on the least apprehension of danger, dives and gets close
to the bank, or swims directly to its hole.”
An earlier writer, Dovaston, describes the graceful move-
ments of this Shrew as follows. Lying close to the bank of the
pool in which one of these creatures was disporting itself, he
writes :—“ I repeatedly marked it glide from the bank, under
water, and bury itself in the mass of leaves at the bottom ;—
I mean the leaves that had fallen off the trees in autumn, and
which lay very thick over the mud. It very shortly returned,
and entered the bank, occasionally putting its long sharp nose
out of the water, and paddling close to the edge. This it
repeated at very frequent iatervals, from place to place, seldom
going more than two yards from the side, and always returning
in about half a minute. I presume it sought and obtained
some insect or food among the rubbish and leaves, and retired
WATER-SHREW. 83
to consume it. Sometimes it would run a little on the surface,
and sometimes timidly and hastily come ashore, but with the
greatest caution, and instantly plunge in again. . . . .
Wherf@under water, it looks grey, on account of the pearly
clusters of minute air-bubbles that adhere to its fur, and
bespangle it all over. It swims very rapidly; and, though
it appears to dart, its very nimble wriggle is clearly discernible.”
The food of the Water-Shrew consists mainly of various
kinds of water-insects, their larvee, crustaceans, and fresh-water
snails. In the spring it appears to be specially fond of the
larvee of the Caddis-fly ; and in searching for fresh-water Shrimps
the animal is in the habit of turning over the stones at the
bottom of clear streamlets. It will also prey at times on the
fry. of fish, one of the Duke of Sutherland’s gamekeepers having
watched one of these Shrews attack a shoal of young Salmon
which had just been liberated from the hatching-house into a
small brook. This fish-eating propensity is likewise proved
from the observations of Mr. Buckley; while there is also
evidence that this Shrew will at times eat the flesh of dead
mammals or birds. Mr. Trevor-Battye tells me that a colony
of these animals, which he found in Kent, inhabited a garden-
pond for a great number of years, where they showed a great
partiality for frog-spawn.
The long, winding burrow already alluded to, which is ex-
panded at its extremity into a rounded chamber, serves not
only as a dwelling-place, but likewise as a nursery. In this
grass-lined chamber the female, early in May, gives birth to
from five to ten young ones; five or six being apparently the
most usual number. When able to run about, the young are
described as most sportive and amusing little creatures, chas-
ing one another up and down the small paths radiating from
the entrance to the burrow.
It is said that at times the Water-Shrew will seek its food,
G2
84 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
which probably then consists mainly of terrestrial insects,
at a considerable distancé from the water. That it cannot
long exist without its favourite element is, however, evident
from a statement quoted by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, that in
the Lake district during the droughts of 1859 and 1863 these
animals suffered severely.
Although the Water-Shrew was not definitely recorded by
naturalists as a native of Caithness till the year 1872, yet there
seems a strong probability that it was long known to the in-
habitants of that county under the somewhat remarkable name
of Zavellan. What was really the animal thus designated was
long a disputed point, although Pennant inclined to the
opinion that it was the one under consideration, his view being
confirmed by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley. Other,
writers have, however, assigned the name toa Lizard. That
the Water-Shrew does inhabit Caithness was proved during a
flood in the autumn of 1872, when several were seen carried
down the river near Wick on bundles of corn and hay.
THE CARNIVORES.—ORDER CARNIVORA.
Formerly included in the same order as the Insectivores, the
Carnivora form a very well-defined natural group, which, so
far as existing forms are concerned, may be distinguished from
the preceding Order by the following characters. In the case
of the more typical representatives of the Order, a pair of
cheek-teeth is specially modified to act one against the other
with a scissor-like action, at least the anterior outer portion of
both the upper and lower tooth being converted into a cutting
blade ; this blade in some cases, as in the Cats, forming the
whole of the tooth, while in others, as among the Bears, it
constitutes but a small moiety thereof. On the other hand, in
those members of the Order such as the Seals and Walruses,
which do not possess these specially modified and so-called
CARNIVORES. 85
flesh-teeth, and are aquatic and mainly marine in their habits,
the limbs are converted into paddle-like flippers. Accordingly,
we may define the Order as including Carnivorous Mammals
having either a pair of specially modified flesh-teeth in each
jaw, or with both pairs of limbs converted into flippers.
In connection with these flesh-teeth, it may be observed
that while in the upper jaw the pair thus named form the last
of the pre-molar series, that is to say, they are preceded by
milk-teeth, in the lower jaw they form the first of the molar
series, or those which have no such predecessors.
Mentioning a few of the leading characteristics of the Order
generally, it may be observed that the feet frequently have five
toes each, and never less than four; such toes (except in the
case of some of the Seals, where they are reduced to more or
less well-developed nails) being furnished with claws. In no
case is the first toe of either the fore- or hind-limbs capable of
being opposed to the other. The teeth are always divided
into incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars; the incisors
almost always comprising three pairs in each jaw, of which the
outermost are larger than either of the others, and the canines
being well-developed and assuming the form of distinct tusks.
The pre-molars always have sharply-pointed crowns, and in
some cases, as in the Seals, the whole of the cheek-teeth are
thus acuminate. Among the Bears and Badgers, however, the
molar teeth (with the exception of the first, or flesh-tooth, in
the lower jaw) have the crowns broad and flattened, and more
or less adapted for grinding ; although in such cases they never
have folds of enamel penetrating the crown. Owing to the
fact that the lower jaw is articulated to the skull by means of
a half-cylindrical hinge, or condyle, the motions of the jaws are
limited to a vertical plane, and they are thus incapable of a
lateral grinding action. In all Carnivores the stomach is simple;
and the teats are placed on the abdomen. Unlike the Insecti-
86 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
vora, the collar-bones, or clavicles, are never complete, that is
to say, they never articulate with both the shoulder-blade and
the breast-bone, while they are frequently altogether wanting.
In place of the smooth brains of the Insectivora, the Carnivora
have the cerebral hemispheres indented by complex convolu-
tions.
The typical, or terrestrial, Carnivores (inclusive of the Otters),
have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although unknown in
New Guinea, an represented in Australia only by the Dingo.
The members of the group now living in Britain belong mostly
to the Mustelide ; other families being represented only by the
Fox and Wild Cat. The Seals and their allies are mainly
characteristic of the colder seas.
THE CATS. FAMILY FELID,
With the exception of Australasia and Madagascar, the Cats
are cosmopolitan in their distribution, and are distinguished
from other Carnivores by the following collective characters.
In the skull the hollow bone found at the base of the hinder
region below the entrance into the internal ear is bladder-like,
rounded, and divided into two chambers by a vertical internal
partition, while the tube leading into the chamber of the
internal ear is very short. The head is characterised by its
short and rounded form, and the small number and specialised
character of the cheek-teeth, of which there are only three or
four pairs in the upper jaw, and three in the lower. Of these,
the flesh-teeth are the most characteristic ; that of the upper
jaw consisting of a large three-lobed external blade, and a
rather small inner tubercle situated at the internal front angle
of the tooth, while the opposing lower tooth is simply a
cutting two-lobed blade, without any tubercular heel or ledge
at its hinder extremity, or any trace of a cusp on its inner
border. Behind the upper flesh-tooth, which is the last of the
CATS. 87
premolar series, there is a minute transversely-elongated
molar, which appears to be quite functionless; while in the
lower jaw the flesh-tooth, which is here a molar, forms the last
of the whole series. The toes, of which there are five in the
front, and four in the hind, limb, are provided with long,
sharp, and curved claws, capable, except in the Hunting-
Leopard, of being completely retracted within protecting
Skull of Wild Cat.
sheaths. In the intestine the blind appendage, or cecum, is
short.
In walking, these animals tread solely on their toes, which
are provided on the soles with soft pads, and they are accord-
ingly described as digitigrade.
In habits they differ from the Dogs and Foxes in that they
never combine in packs for the purpose of hunting their prey,
while thay are mostly expert climbers.
THE TRUE CATS. GENUS FELIS,
Felis, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 60 (1766).
Including the whole of the representatives of the family,
with the exception of the Hunting-Leopard (Cynalurus), this
genus is characterised by the complete retractibility of the
88 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
claws, and the full development of the tubercle on the inner
side of the upper flesh-tooth.
THE WILD CAT. FELIS CATUS.
Felis catus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. 1. p. 62 (1766);
Bell’s British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 220 (1874).
(Plate VIII.)
Characters——General colour yellowish-grey, with an inter-
rupted longitudinal dark stripe down the back, two dusky
bands on the cheeks, and numerous obscure transverse stripes
of the same colour on the body and limbs ; tail of uniform thick-
ness throughout, equal in length to less than half the head and
body, and ringed and tipped with black. Length of head and
body of male about 34 inches ; of tail, 114 inches.
In general aspect, form, and coloration, the Wild Cat ré-
s2mbles large “ Tabbies” of the domestic breed; many speci-
mens of the latter which have escaped from captivity and
taken to a roving life in the woods, being frequently mistaken
by the inexperienced for true Wild Cats. From the domestic
species, the Wild Cat differs, however, by the proportionately
longer body and limbs, and the shorter and thicker tail ; the
fur being also more abundant than in the old original English
breed, when not crossed with the Persian. Conforming in
general external configuration and appearance to the type
characteristic of the great majority of the members of the
Family to which it belongs, the Wild Cat has the general
ground-colour of the soft and long fur yellowish-grey, tend-
ing in some individuals to pale reddish-brown. In addition
to some black spots near the muzzle, the face is marked
with two black stripes, commencing between the eyes, and
gradually increasing in width, and diverging as they pass
backwards between the ears to the hinder part of the
neck. Commencing between the shoulder-blades, a broad,
irregular black or blackish longitudinal stripe traverses the
WILD CAT, 89
whole length of the back, from which diverge numerous
paler transverse bands, gradually becoming lighter in tint as
they descend the flanks, until they are finally lost in the
nearly white area of the under-parts. Usually the tail is
ringed with nine black bands upon a grey ground; the first
five of these bands being the narrower, and not meeting
below, while the terminal black area is the largest of all,
being often as much as two inches in length; it is at the same
time the deepest in tint. Barred externally with horizontal
bands of black, the limbs have their inner surface yellowish-
grey, like the upper surfaces of the feet, while the soles of the
latter are black. The claws are yellowish-grey.
Writing in the volume on British Mammals in the original
issue of the “Naturalist’s Library” of the coloration of the
hairs themselves, Macgillivray states that in the Wild Cat “the
softer hairs or fur are, in general, of a pale purplish tint, and
pale reddish at the extremity; the longer hairs white at the
base, then black, afterwards yellowish-red, with the tip black.
Others, however, are first white, then black, yellowish-black,
and finally reddish. There are a few very long white hairs on
the loins inferiorly and laterally. On the white parts the hairs
are of that colour from the base; on the bright red inter-crural
part they are for a short space at the base bluish. The ter-
minal rings of the tail have the hairs entirely black, but the
black hairs of the feet have their base paler.”
In addition to her considerably smaller dimensions, the
female Wild Cat may be distinguished from the male by her
generally paler coloration.
Distribution Ranging over a considerable portion of Con-
tinental Europe, namely, France, Germany, Poland, Switzer-
land, Hungary, Southern Russia, Spain, Dalmatia, Greece,
and part of Turkey, and thence extending eastwards into the
forest regions of Northern Asia, the Wild Cat was formerly
go LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
widely distributed in Britain, although it appears never to have
been a native of Ireland. At the present day it is restricted
only to the northern districts of our islands, and is there be-
coming year by year morerare. This sole British representative
of the feline family is proved, both by tradition and by the dis-
covery of its fossilised remains in cavern and superficial de-
posits, to have originally ranged over the whole of such parts ot
England as were suited to its habits. Such remains have been
discovered in the Pleistocene brick-earths of Grays, in Essex,
in company with the remains of Mammoths, Hippopotami,
Rhinoceroses, and other Mammals now either totally extinct,
or long since banished from Britain to warmer climates.
They also occur, in association with similar creatures, in the
caves of Bleadon (in the Mendips), Cresswell Crags (Derby-
shire), Kent’s Hole (near Torquay), Ravenscliff (Glamorgan-
shire), Uphill (in the Mendips), and the Vale of Clywd, while
quite recently they have been discovered in a fissure in the
Wealden rocks near Ightham, in Kent.
When the Wild Cat disappeared from the south and mid-
land counties of England, appears to be quite unknown; but
there is evidence that it lingered till a comparatively late date
in the wooded parts of the Lake district, although it does not
seem ever to have been numerous there during the historical
period. According to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, there is
historical evidence of the existence of this animal in the Lake
district in the year 1629, and again as late as 1754; while in
the intervening period there are to be found in the parish
records numerous entries of the sums disbursed for the de-
struction of these marauders. Ata still later date, Gilpin, when
describing a tour made through the district in 1772, says that
the mountains around Helvellyn, “and indeed many other
parts of the country are frequented by the Wild Cat, which
Mr. Pennant calls the British Tiger, and says it is the fiercest
WILD CAT. gr
and most destructive beast we have. He speaks of it as being
three or four times as large as a common Cat. We saw one
dead, which had been hunted on the day we saw it; and it
seemed very little inferior, if at all, to the size he mentions.”
By 1795 Wild Cats seem to have become very scarce in the
mountains of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; and the last
authentic occurrence of one of these animals in the district
appears to have been in 1843, when a fine specimen is stated
to have been killed near Loweswater. It is true that the
occurrence of the Wild Cat has been recorded in these
districts in quite recent years —even as late as 1871—but all
such records appear to have been based on large feral speci-
mens of the Domestic Cat.
In Scotland, though still lingering, the Wild Cat is rapidly
decreasing in numbers. According to Messrs. Harvie-Brown
and Buckley, while it has become extremely rare in Assynt
during the last few years, it is still not uncommon in the Reay
Forest, where it is preserved by the Duke of Westminster.
These authors write that “one keeper in Assynt killed no less
than twenty-six Wild Cats between 1869 and 1880, but of
these only three during the last six years. Another keeper
killed ten between 1870 and 1873, but no more until the
winter of 1879-80, when he killed four, one of which is
described as a monster.” In Caithness the Wild Cat is still
more rare, only four having been recorded as being killed
during some ten years before 1880. Writing in 1882 of its
present limits in Scotland, the former of the two authors just
quoted said that the Wild Cat is “extinct all south and
east of a line commencing, roughly speaking, at Oban, in
Argyllshire, passing up the Brander Pass to Dalmally, follow-
ing the boundary of Perthshire, and including Rannoch Moor.
Thence continued north-eastward to the junction of the three
counties of Perth, Forfar, and Aberdeen ; thence across the
g2 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
sources of the Dee northward to Tomintoul in Banffshire ; and
lastly from Tomintoul to the city of Inverness. Northwards
and westwards of this line the animal still keeps a footing.”
In Argyll at this date it had receded to the more mountainous
districts, where, however, it was not very uncommon. In the
Hebrides the Wild Cat is unknown.
Although existing in North Wales till a comparatively late
period, it does not appear that the animal is now found within
the limits of the Principality.
In spite of many assertions to the contrary, it may now,
owing to the careful investigations undertaken by Dr.
Hamilton, be taken as certain that the Wild Cat was never
an inhabitant of Ireland; all the records of its occurrence
there being based on specimens of the Common Cat which
had reverted to a wild state, the latest of such supposed
instances of the occurrence there of the true Wild Cat having
been published in 1885. The first writer to dispute the
existence of the Wild Cat in Ireland was the late William
Thompson, of Belfast, who, in his “Natural History of
Ireland,” published in 1856, wrote that the creature in question
“cannot be given with certainty as a native animal.” Never-
theless, in the second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds,”
which appeared in 1874, the statement from the first edition
that the Wild Cat exists in “some parts of Ireland” was
allowed to reappear without note or comment; and it was not
till the appearance of Dr. Hamilton’s paper in the ‘“‘ Proceedings”
of the Zoological Society for 1885 that the Wild Cat can be
said to have been authoritatively removed from the list of Irish
Mammals,
Habits.—Like the rest of its family, truculent and savage in
its disposition, and endowed with, in proportion to its size,
singular strength and activity of body, the Wild Cat is now the
only really formidable wild animal to be met with in the
WILD CAT. 93
British Islands, where it always inhabits wooded, and generally
mountainous, districts. In the most secluded and inaccessible
parts of such regions the Wild Cat makes its lair, which may
be situated either in some dense thicket, in the hollow stem of
a decayed tree, or in a cleft or crevice of the rocks, and there it
rears its young. Sometimes, however, the female selects in pre-
ference the deserted hole of a Badger or Fox in which to litter ;
and we have heard of the nest of one of the larger birds being
chosen as a nursery. The young, which are born during the
early summer, are usually five or six in number, and closely
resemble ordinary domestic kittens. After being suckled by
the female till such a period as milk no longer satisfies the
needs of their appetites, they are fed by her on mice and small
birds till such time as they are capable of taking care of them-
selves and capturing larger prey, when they are freed from
parental control.
All who have had any experience of game and game-
preserving are well acquainted with the enormous amount
of damage that an ordinary Domestic Cat, which has taken
either to occasional poaching or to a thoroughly wild life, will
inflict on the denizens of their coverts, moors, or warrens.
From its larger size and more powerful build, the Wild Cat is
a still more serious enemy to game of all kinds ; while in the
neighbourhood of human habitations it is likewise a foe to
poultry and pigeons. No wonder, therefore, that game-
keepers wage incessant war against the Wild Cat, shooting and
trapping it whenever the opportunity presents itself ; indeed,
the wonder is that the creature has managed to survive as long
as it has. From the extreme boldness and ferocity of its
disposition, an angry and wounded Wild Cat, when brought to
bay, is no mean antagonist, even for an armed man ; and
several instances are on record where these creatures have
inflicted considerable harm on their assailants before finally
succumbing.
94 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY,
Relation to Domestic Cats—It has long been a question whether
the Domestic Cat is a descendant of the Wild Cat, or whether
its origin is to be traced to some other species of the Fedde.
On the whole, the available evidence is in favour of the latter
view ; and it is probable that the Caffre or Egyptian Cat
(felis caffra) of Northern Africa is the real progenitor of
“ Pussy.” It is, however, a well-ascertained fact that the
various smaller wild species of Cats will interbreed with the
Domestic Cats of their respective countries; and it is accord-
ingly highly probable that the prevalence of ‘‘tabbies’ among the
Domestic Cats of Europe generally, and England in particular,
may be largely due to intercrossing with the Wild Cat. On the
other hand, in India, where Domestic Cats are frequently
spotted, it is quite likely that the whole race may have origin-
ated from a wild spotted species very markedly distinct from
the striped Caffre Cat. It may be added that during the
Pleistocene period the range of the latter species extended into
South-western Europe, so that there were ample opportunities
for its domestication, even if this did not take place in
Egypt.
THE DOGS, WOLVES, AND FOXES. FAMILY
CANID:.
Easily distinguished therefrom externally by their long,
sharp muzzles, as well as general appearance, the Dog-tribe
differ from the /é#d@ in many important structural features.
In the skull, for instance, the auditory bulla, although bladder-
like and rounded, is not divided into two chambers by a
vertical partition; while the teeth are much more numerous
and different in form. Then, again, the blind appendage, or
cecum, of the intestine is of considerable length, and generally
folded upon itself. Except in the Hunting-Dog (Zycaoz) of the
Cape, the toes are numerically the same as in the Cats; but
WOLF. 95
the claws are blunt and non-retractile, the feet being digiti-
grade.
As regards the teeth, the upper flesh-tooth, or last pre-
moiar, differs from that of the Cats in having only two lobes to
its external blade; while the lower flesh-tooth, or first molar,
has a large tubercular heel at its hinder extremity, and generally
a small cusp on the inner side of the second lobe of its blade.
The pre-molars (inclusive of the upper flesh-tooth) are four in
number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws; and
there are two upper molars, of triangular form, and generally
three lower molars, although in certain Asiatic species the
hindmost of these, which is always minute, may be absent.
Comprising several genera, the Family has an even wider
distribution than that of the Cats, since it is represented by a
species in Australia, which may, however, have been introduced
by human agency. In habits, many of the Canide differ from
the Aezde by hunting their prey in packs; while none are
climbers in the proper sense of the word.
GENUS CANIS.
Canis, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol..i. p. 58 (1766).
Although the Indian Wild Dogs are often separated as Cyex,
while the Foxes are divided off under the title of Vu/#cs, the
genus Canis is here taken to include the great majority of the
members of the Family, with which its distribution is co-
extensive. Under these circumstances it will be unnecessary
in a work of the present nature to give its distinctive
characters.
I. THE WOLF, CANIS LUPUS.
Canis lupus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 58 (1766).
Characters—Belonging to the typical group of the genus, in
which the skull is characterised by the presence of air-cells ia
96 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
the region of the forehead, and the smooth and convex form
of the triangular process marking the hinder border of the
socket for the eye, while the tail is less than half the length of
the head and body and is only moderately bushy, the Wolf
possesses the following special features. Size large; fur long
and thick, with a woolly under-fur. General colour rufous or
yellowish-grey, more or less mingled with black in some
specimens; under-parts whitish ; tail frequently tipped with
black ; under-fur of back pale slaty or light brown, with coarse
whitish hairs intermingled. Length of head and body, from 3%
to 334 feet; of tail, 18 or 19 inches, inclusive of the hair at the
tip. Great individual variation obtains as regards colour,
some specimens being much paler than usual, while others are
nearly, or quite, black.
Extinction in Britain—The fate which is impending over the
Wild Cat in Britain has long since befallen its canine cousin
the Wolf, on which account the latter species, together with the
Bear and the Beaver, is generally omitted in works on the
Mammals of Britain. If, however, ornithologists are right in
including the Great Auk, now totally extinct, and the Caper-
cailzie, which, after complete extermination, has been reintro-
duced into our islands, in works on British birds, there can be
no question as to the claim of the above-mentioned Mammals
to a place in the British fauna, since whether the extermination
took place forty or four hundred years ago is a matter of no
moment.
Distributed over the greater part of Europe, and ranging
eastwards through Asia north of the Himalaya, while the North
American form is apparently not specifically distinct, the Wolf,
during the Pleistocene period, seems to have occurred over the
whole of the British Islands. The earliest horizon in which its
remains occur is the so-called ‘‘forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast,
which belongs to the very earliest portion of the Pleistocene
WOLF, 97
period, if, indeed, it should not be assigned to the preceding
Pliocene epoch. Lupine remains are also commonly found in
the brick-earths of the Thames Valley and other parts of the
south of England; while they likewise occur in most or all of
the British caverns, inclusive of those of the Pentland Hills in
Scotland, and of Shandon in Ireland.
Although the records of the gradual extermination of the
Wolf from Britain are unfortunately far from complete, such as
exist have been carefully examined by Mr. J. E. Harting, from
whose writings the following extracts are taken. During the
Saxon period so numerous were these animals in England, and
so terrible were their devastations during the winter, that
January was commonly designated the “ Wolf-month,” and the
attempts of the pre-Norman sovereigns to reduce their num-
bers appear to have made but comparatively small impression
upon them. During the twelfth century Wolves were still
‘abundant in the New Forest and other districts of Hampshire,
while in the “ Book of St. Alban’s,” written about 1481, wolf-
hunting during the winter months is mentioned as a royal and
noble sport. Comparatively soon after this date, that is to
say, some time between the years 1485 and 1509, during the
reign of Henry the Seventh, it appears, however, that, under
the inducement of rewards for their destruction, Wolves finally
became extinct in England. In Scotland, on the other hand,
as might have been expected from the nature of the country,
they flourished to a much later date, the numbers of these
animals during the reign of James the Fourth, at the close of
the fifteenth and commencement of the sixteenth centuries
being very great, and at times increasing to an alarming extent.
By 1620, if we may judge from the price (46 13s. 4d.) paid
for a single skin, it would appear, however, that they had be-
come scarce, and for many years it was commonly believed
that the last Scottish Wolf was killed in the year 1680. This,
5 H
98 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
however, is now known to be incorrect, it being wel} ascer-
tained that these animals survived to a much later date, not
improbably, indeed, nearly to the middle of the eighteenth
century in Sutherland, where tradition points to the last Wolf
having been slain in the year 1743.
Much the same story is told with regard to Ireland, where
in the middle of the seventeenth century, a special Order in
Council was promulgated in Dublin relating to the destruction
Skull 0. Fox.
of Wolves, on account of their apparently increasing numbers
at that date. Even as late as about the year 1700 they still
existed in the great forests on the borders of counties Wicklow
and Carlow. When their final extermination was accomplished
history telleth not, although it was probably some time between
the years 1766 and 1770, inclusive.
As being no longer an inhabitant of Britain, it will be un-
necessary to enter into the consideration of the habits of the
Wolf.
Il. THE FOX. CANIS VULPES,
Canis vulpes et C. alopex, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 59
(1766).
Vulpes moniinus, Blyth, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal vol, xi.
p. 589.
“ee
FLV Id
FOX. Q9
Vulpes flavescens, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 18
(1843).
Vulpes vulgaris, Bell (ex Brisson), British Quadrupeds p. 252
(1837); 2nd ed. p. 225 (1874).
Vulpes alopex, Blanford, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887 p. 635; id
Mammals of British India p. 153 (1888).
(Plate IX.)
Characters—As the typical representative of the Vulpine
group of the genus, the Fox differs from the Wolf in the ab-
sence of air-cells in the forehead of the skull, as well as in the
upper surface of the triangular process defining the hinder bor-
der of the socket for the eye being concave. This group is
further characterised by the more slender build of the body,
the longer and more bushy tail, which always considerably ex-
ceeds half the length of the head and body, and the pro-
portionately shorter limbs. The ears are large ; the pupil of the
eye, when seen in a strong light, forms a vertical ellipse, and
the number of teats is only six, against ten, or more rarely
eight, in the Wolf group.
The present species may be defined as a large, and in winter
richly coloured, Fox, its general colour in Britain being reddish-
brown above and white beneath, with the backs of the ears
black, and the tip of the tail white. Length of head and body
from about 27 to 34 inches; of tail, from 12 to 15 inches.
In the ordinary British Fox there is no great amount of
variation in colour ; the upper-parts being reddish-brown,
mixed with some white hairs on the shoulders, thighs, flanks,
rump, and tail. The muzzle is blackish, the inner surfaces
and edges of the ears whitish, their outer surfaces black, with
slight spots of white ; the tail pale reddish, with the tips of the
long hairs brownish-black, and the extremity white. The
lower portion of the cheeks, the under part of the neck, as
well as the chest and under-parts generally, together with the
H 2
100 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
inner surface of the thighs, a narrow line down the front of the
hind-legs, and the hinder and inner surfaces of the fore-legs, are
white. The front portion of the feet is black, that colour
extending upwards nearly to the elbow and knee; the whiskers
are likewise black ; while the hair on the soles of the feet is
deep red, the claws being light brown.
There are, however, certain racial or individual variations in
the colour even of the British Fox. Macgillivray, for instance,
observes that the largest race, “or that which occurs in the
Highland districts, has the fur of a stronger texture and of a
greyer tint, there being a greater proportion of whitish hairs on
the back and hind-quarters, while two or more inches of the end
of the tail are white. The Fox of the lower districts is consider-
ably smaller, more slender, of a lighter red, with the tail also
white at the end. Individuals of a smaller size, having the
head proportionately larger, the fur of a darker red, the lower
parts dusky or dull brownish-white, and the tip of the tail
either with little white or none, occur in the hilly parts of the
southern division of Scotland. The skull of the Highland Fox
appears remarkably large and strong beside that of the ordinary
kind, and the breadth is much greater in proportion.”
Occasionally Foxes are killed in England with the tip of the
tail grey or black ; and a pure white Fox was killed in 1887
by the Taunton Vale Hounds, in the West Somerset country. Of
more interest is the circumstance that some time previous to
1864, a young Fox was killed in Warwickshire in which the
whole of the under parts were of a greyish-black hue. The
coloration of this individual resembled that obtaining in the
Foxes of Southern Europe; and assuming it to have been a
native-bred animal, the occurrence of an individual of this
southern race in England is a matter of some importance from
a distributional point of view. In Wales, as Mr. W. E. de
Winton tells me, a blackish-brown form of Fox sometimes
occurs.
FOX. Ior
Regarding the Warwickshire specimen, Mr. Trevor-Battye
remarks :—“ I agree about the interest of this specimen, but it
raises a question. By this time the native blood must be pretty
well diluted, and I suspect that we should find, had we proper
means of enquiry, that our Foxes are now larger than they were,
say, thirty years ago. The Swedish Fox, imported of late years
into this country, is a decidedly larger animal than the native
English Fox—larger even, I believe, and I have seen many
examples of both forms, than the ‘Greyhound’ Fox, as the
gillies call the inhabitant of the Scottish hills.”
Distribution.—The ordinary variety of the Fox extends over
the whole of Northern and Central Europe, being replaced in
the south by the above-mentioned black-bellied race. In
Central Asia we meet with a third variety, known as the Yellow
Fox, and characterised by its general pale yellowish coloration,
and the thickness of the tail, although it still retains the black
ears and white tip to the tail of the English race. Nearly
allied to the last is the handsome Himalayan variety, commonly
termed the Mountain-Fox, which differs so remarkably in its
winter dress from the typical form as to have been long regarded
as a distinct species. In this variety the colour of the fur of
the back varies from chestnut to iron-grey, and the shoulders
are frequently ornamented by a dark transverse stripe, while
the throat and under-parts are more or less dusky. In its
black-backed ears and white-tipped tail it resembles, however,
the South European race. Yet another race, commonly known
as the Nile Fox, inhabits Egypt.
In North America we have other Foxes, now regarded merely
as geographical races of the British species ; one of these being
the well-known Cross-Fox, taking its name from the presence
of a more or less well-defined dark shoulder-stripe. Lastly,
the beautiful and valuable Silver Fox of the same regions is
nothing more than a dark-coloured variety of the same widely-
spread and variable species.
ra
102 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
In Britain, as we learn from the evidence of its fossilised
remains, the Fox is one of the oldest Mammalian inhabitants
of the country, its earliest occurrence being in the sandy beds
of the Red Crag of the East Coast, which belong to the upper
portion of the Pliocene period. Its remains are likewise met
with abundantly in the brick-earths of the Thames valley and
other parts of England, as well as in nearly all the English
caverns and some of those of Ireland. They do not appear,
however, to have been recorded in afossilised state from Scotland.
To a large extent, owing to its preservation for the purpose
of hunting, the Fox is still a common animal throughout
England; but had it not been for this artificial protection it
would doubtless, in the more cultivated and open southern
portions of the country, have shared the fate that has befallen
the Wild Cat. In Scotland the Fox, according to Messrs.
Harvie-Brown and Buckley, is almost universally distributed
on the mainland ; but is absent from all the islands, with the
exception of Skye. There is, indeed, a statement that “the
Fox was at one time common in Mull, but has been long since
killed out” ; even, however, if this be true, it is most probable
that its occurrence there was due to accidental or intentional
importation. Of its occurrence in Ireland, Thompson,
writing more than forty years ago, observes that “the Fox,
like the Otter, is still found in suitable localities throughout
the island, wherever it can remain in spite of man. In many
parts of the country this species is abundant, but in no district
of which I am aware have so many been taken as on the
mountains in the south of the county of Down.”
It may be added that in the north of England the short-
legged race inhabiting the open low grounds is commonly
termed the “ Terrier-Fox”; while to the larger long-legged and
long-muzzled mountain race the name of “ Greyhound-Fox ” is
applied.
FOX. 103
Habits—The habits and history of the Fox, or rather the
British variety of the same, are so well-known as to require
but brief notice ; and we shall accordingly content ourselves
with extracting Macgillivray’s admirable summary from the
original edition of the “Naturalist's Library.” The Fox, he
writes, ‘‘resides in burrows, which it excavates for itself in
sandy or gravelly soil, in woods or thickets, or on shady
banks or the slopes of hills, remaining concealed all day, and
coming abroad towards evening. Its food consists chiefly of
the flesh of Mammals, birds, and reptiles. In the wilder
parts it often destroys lambs, and in the more populous
* frequently commits great havoc among poultry; but its
favourite game are Partridges, Grouse, Rab'vits, and Leverets.
Insects and worms have also bzen found in its stomach, and
in the maritime districts it has been known to frequent the
shores in quest of crustaceous and mol'uscous animals,”
“Tt is said to live in pairs, and the young, from three to
five in number, are born towards the end of spring. The
female exhibits great courage and address in defending them.
The sagacity of the Fox is proverbial, and frequently enables
it to escape the snares laid for it. Marvellous stories are
related respecting the stratagems which it employs to elude
pursuit; and although many of these may be exaggerated,
there can be little doubt that its instinctive vigilance and
cunning are great. When obtained young, it may be domes-
ticated so far as to allow a person with whom it is acquainted
to handle it, but cannot be depended upon, as it exhibits no
gratitude towards benefactors, forms no strong attachment,
and is ever ready to embrace the opportunity of making its
escape. it is said to attain the age of fourteen or fifteen years
in captivity.”
It may be added that the habit of burrowing is by no means
universally characteristic of the species. the Himalayan variety
104 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
living in thickets or on cultivated land in such shelter as it can
find ready to hand,
In conclusion, it may be mentioned that there has been
much discussion as to whether the Fox will interbreed with the
Domestic Dog. On this point Mr. Trevor-Battye writes: ‘I
admit that this is hard to prove. But I myself believe in such
instances. I know a Dog at this moment at Pett, near Has-
tings, which is credited with being the offspring of such a
combination. And anyone who saw him would, I will under-
take to say, believe it without proof. It leans to the Fox in
its habits, the texture of its hair, its brush, and its voice, which
it seldom uses. It is beyond question that the North Ameri-
can Indians, the Crees for example, with whom I stayed for
some time, are in the constant habit of tying up their dogs
away in the bush, in order that they may pair with the Wolves,
and the morose result of this alliance every hunter knows.”
On the other hand, although such interbreeding has often been
asserted to have occurred, several such alleged instances having
recently been recorded in the sporting papers, in the opinion
of some of those best qualified to give an authoritative judg-
ment on the subject, such unions are quite unknown. Mr. W.
E. de Winton, however, writes to me on this subject: “In the
pack of Otter-hounds hunted by the late Hon. Geoffrey Hill,
there was one which, he told me, was a cross bya Prairie
Wolf. In the Worcester Museum is an animal, killed near
Ledbury about two years ago, which is undoubtedly a cross
between a Fox and a Dog. It was shot wild, and can only be
the result of such an union,”
MARTENS, WEASELS, OTTERS, ETC. FAMILY
MUSTELIDA.,
The third great Family of Carnivores represented in the
British Isles, which includes the Martens, Weasels, Badgers,
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 105
Otters, and their allies, differs widely both from the Fedde
and the Cazide in the structure of the base of the hinder
part of the skull. In place of the bladder-like and rounded
auditory bulla characterising the two latter groups, in the
present family this portion of the skull is depressed, with no
dividing partition, its inner border being the most prominent,
and thence it gradually slopes away towards the tube conduct-
ing to the internal ear, of which tube the lower lip is prolonged.
The intestine is devoid of any blind appendage (czecum) ; and
the toes are always five in number on each foot.
The present Family is specially distinguished from others,
in which the above features occur, by the following points:
The upper molar teeth are reduced to a single pair, which are
peculiar in that their inner border is wider than the outer ;
while (with the exception of the Indian and African Ratels,
where they are reduced to one) there are two pairs of molar teeth,
the first of whichis the flesh-tooth. The number of pre-molar
teeth is very variable, even within the limits of a single genus.
Having, with the exception of Australasia, a world-wide
distribution, the members of this Family present none of that
external similarity of form so characteristic of the repre-
sentatives of the two preceding families ; and they exhibit a
similar diversity of habit ; some, like the Martens and Weasels,
being more or less fitted fur climbing, while others, like the
Badgers, are burrowing animals, and others, again, like the
Otters, aquatic.
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. GENUS MUSTELA.
Mustela, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 66 (1766).
The members of this genus, together with certain allied
forms which are generally separated and have no representa-
tives in the British Isles, collectively constitute a special sub-
family of the AMwstelide. ‘Terrestrial and more or less arboreal
106 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
in their habits, all these animals have short and partially-webbed
toes, with short, sharp, compressed, curved, and frequently
partially retractile claws. The upper molar tooth is trans-
versely elongated, and consequently wider than long. In all
cases the body is much elongated, while the limbs are short.
In the genus Juste/a the relative length of the body and
limbs, like that of the tail, is subject to considerable variation ;
the feet are nearly or completely digitigrade ; and the claws are
partially retractile. Whereas in the typical forms, or Martens,
the number of pre-molar teeth is four pairs in each jaw, in the
Polecats and Weasels they are reduced to three.
On account of this difference in the number of their teeth,
coupled with their more elongated and snake-like bodies, many
naturalists separate the Polecats, Stoats, and Weasels from the
Martens as a distinct genus (Puéorivs) ; although, to our think-
ing, such a sub-division is quite unnecessary.
I. PINE MARTEN. MUSTELA MARTES,
Mustela martes, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 67 (1766).
Martes sylvatica, Nilsson, Skand. Fauna vol. i. p. 41 (1820).
Martes abietum, Fleming, British Animals p. 14 (1828); Bell,
British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 217 (1874).
(Plate X.)
Characters.—Four pre-molar teeth; tail, with the hair, as
long as the body; general colour rich brown ; throat and chest
yellow; upper flesh-tooth with its outer margin concave; upper
molar (last tooth) simply rounded externally.
It was long thought that two species of Marten inhabited
the British Islands, namely, the present species and the Beech-
Marten (AZ, foina), the latter being distinguished by its white
throat and chest, narrower skull, the convex outer border of
the upper flesh-tooth, and the notch on the outer side of the
upper molar. It was, however, definitely shown by Alston in
PLATE X.
THE PINE-MARTEN.
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 107
the “ Proceedings” of the Zoological Society for 1869, that the
Beech-Marten is not found within our limits.
The Marten has the body of moderate elongation and slen-
derness, and the tail relatively long ; the head being somewhat
triangular in form, with the muzzle pointed, the eyes prominent,
and the ears large and rounded. The body is covered, during
the winter at least, with fur of two kinds, the outer fur being
very long, glossy, and ash-coloured at the base, with some shade
of brown at the tip, but varying in intensity on the different
regions of the body, the middle of the back, the tail, and the
outer surfaces of the limbs being darker than elsewhere. The
throat and chest are yellow, and the remainder of the under-
parts are greyish ; while the edges and insides of the ears are
whitish. The under-fur is yellowish-grey. The length of the
head and body is about 18 inches; and that of the tail, inclu-
sive of the hair at the tip, about 13 inches.
Distribution. The range of the Pine-, or, as it is sometimes
called, the Yellow-throated, Marten includes the whole of Nor-
thern Europe; but it is replaced in North-eastern Asia by the
closely-allied Sable (AZ zidedzina), in which the fur is still longer
and silkier, and consequently of greater value. On the other
hand, the Beech-Marten occurs throughout the greater part of
Europe, although not in the extreme north, and ranges east-
wards into Western Asia, where it extends probably through-
out a large portion of the higher Himalaya.
Occurring in a fossil state in the Norfolk forest-bed, as well
as in the caves of Bleadon, Long Hole, Ravenscliff, and Sprit-
sail Tor in England, and in that of Shandon in Treland, the
Pine-Marten was probably at one time a common animal
throughout the forest-clad districts of the country. It has,
however, now practically disappeared from the greater part of
the southern and midland districts of England, although occa-
sional stray examples are now and then met with. Even,
108 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
indeed, in a county with so much wild country in it as Leices-
ter, the Marten, according to Mr. Montagu Browne, appears to
have been completely exterminated, although it was at one
time exceedingly abundant there. It still lingers, however, in
Suffolk and North Devon, and, it is believed, in Epping
Forest, and has been lately recorded from Hampshire. In the
Lake district of Cumberland the species is, however, still fairly
common, and is regularly hunted during the winter with a few
couples of Beagles or Foxhounds, accompanied by several
Terriers. Although most numerous in Cumberland, the Marten
is also found occasionally in the mountainous districts of
Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and around Furness
in Lancashire. It is likewise found in North Wales.
In Scotland, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley write that
the Marten now appears to be scarcer than the Wild Cat, “being
extinct in many places frequented by the latter, but, curiously
enough, it has survived overa larger area up toa later date, that
is to say, that while the boundaries of the country at present
inhabited by the Wild Cat are easily defined, and are gradu-
ally contracting, the occurrences of the Marten are more
sporadic, often turning up in localities, far distant from one
another, where no records had previously occurred for many
years.” Mr. W. E, de Winton tells me that there is no doubt
that it existed on the islands of Lewis and Harris up to about
twenty years ago.
In Thompson’s time the Marten was found all over Ireland
in suitable localities, but was even then becoming scarce, and
its numbers have doubtless considerably diminished since that
date, although it is not uncommon in Kerry.
Commenting on a note relating to the distribution of the
Marten, by Mr. J. E. Harting, Mr. Barrett-Hamilton writes
that “I have been for some time collecting notes on the
distribution and life-history of this animal in Ireland, and
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 109
indeed of all our native Irish Mammals. I had at first contem-
plated the publication of a list of localities in Ireland where
the Marten has been found of late years, but an accumulation
of notes has convinced me that this animal is much more
common in the wooded parts of Ireland than is generally
supposed, and consequently that such an article would be
almost as unnecessary as one on the distribution in Ireland of
such common Irish Mammals as the Otter or Badger. I think
the statement that ‘at one time, in all probability, the Marten
must have been generally distributed in Ireland, but as civilisa-
tion has extended inland from the east and south, and as
woods have been cut down, and the country opened up by
railways, drainage, and cultivation, so has this animal been
gradually driven into the wilder portions of the north and west,’
needs considerable modification. No doubt the Marten is now
being driven out from the east and south, but it is only of late
that this has been the case, and I contend that even in the
more highly-cultivated parts of the eastern counties of Ireland
it would be an impossibility to name a county in which the
animal has not occurred recently. Taking the eastern counties
from north to south, Mr. Harting’s own notes establish its
occurrence more than once in Antrim in 1893, while in Down
(again quoting from the same article), ‘amidst the wild and
broken ground of the Mourne Mountains, . . - the Marten
will probably for some time yet to come defy the efforts of its
would-be exterminators.’ From Louth and Meath I have no
records by me, but there is little doubt that stragglers are still
occasionally found in those counties, since they lie quite close
to more favoured counties. From the small county of Dublin
there is no recent record, but the outer parts of the county are
not so far from the woods of Wicklow, which are still one of
the strongholds of the Marten; and even in Wexford, ‘ the
madel county’ of Ireland, its occurrence has been noted as
IIo LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
late as June, 1892, a fact which is not at all surprising
when we consider that Wexford comes next to Kilkenny, a
county in some parts of which the Marten is still plentiful.”
Habits.--An excellent climber, the Marten during part of the
year is a denizen of woods and plantations ; but, as we shall
see below, in some districts at least is to be found in the open
rocky country. Occasionally it has been known to take up its
abode near a farmyard, and to wage war on the smaller denizens
thereof. As a rule four or five young form a litter, but the
number may vary from two to seven; andasat least two litters
are produced in a year, the Marten may be regarded as a
prolific animal, so that it is only as the result of continual
persecution that it is so rapidly becoming exterminatede Its
usual food comprises such birds as it can kill, together with
their eggs, the smaller mammals, and reptiles.
Writing of the habits of these animals in the north of
England, Mr. F. Nicholson says that when hunted, “ they
usually make at once for the rocks and crevices, going at a
great pace at first, but are soon run into unless they succeed
in reaching some hole in a crag where hounds and huntsmen
cannot follow. They fight desperately with both claws and
feet. When before hounds on level and snow-clad ground they
proceed with a succession of astonishing long leaps, often six
or seven feet apart. They do not usually come down to the
wooded parts of the country except for breeding purposes, but
the greater part of the year they follow the screes and higher
fell-ground. Though they senerally come down to the woods
in the valleys in April s..1 May to have their young ones,
selecting some old Magpie’s nest or Squirrel’s drey for a home,
still they sometimes breed in the rocks near the tops of the
highest hills. It is only at such times that the Marten is
easily trapped, for, unlike the Polecat, it does nét approach a
given spot by one track. ‘hey do not seem so suspicious of
1X
“LVOTOd
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 11T
traps as some wild animals, or as the Polecat. If you find
traces of, or see the latter about a building, you will most likely
find a run near by which it frequents, and a trap has only to be
set, and it will be taken ; not so with the Marten, as it is only
by accident that it is captured in this manner.” The writer
then goes on to say that, owing to their partiality for Rabbits
and their unsuspiciousness of baited traps, where the latter
animals are systematically trapped, a considerable number of
Martens are accidentally caught.
If taken at a sufficiently early age, Martens can be readily
tamed, when they display considerable attachment to their
owners ; and since they lack the disgusting odour of the Pole-
cat and most other members of the Weasel tribe, they form
rather agreeable pets.
Although much less valuable than that of the Sable, the fur
of the Pine-Marten is of considerable commercial importance,
an average of about three thousand skins being yielded annually,
according to Mr. Poland, by Courland and Lithuania alone.
Although of late years considerably depreciated in price, good
Marten skins even now fetch about ten shillings each in the
market.
Il. THE POLECAT. MUSTELA PUTORIUS.
Mustela putorius, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 67 (1766) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 203 (1874).
Fetorus putorius, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ.
p. 62 (1840).
Putorius fetidus, Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mus. p. 64 (1843).
Putorius vulgaris, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 112 (1846).
(Plate XI.)
Character.—Size medium ; body very long and slim; tail and
limbs relatively short; three pairs of pre-molar teeth in each
jaw; fur long, dark brown, with the under-fur yellowish ;
head blackish with white markings in the neighbourhood of
112 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
the ears and mouth. Length of head and body about 17
inches ; of tail, including hair at the end, 7 inches.
The Polecat, Fitchet, Fitchet-Weasel, or Foumart (= Foul
Marten), as it is indifferently called, is the largest British re-
presentative of the sub-genus P2z/orius, which includes the whole
of the remaining species of Afuste/a. Macgillivray, in the
original edition of this work, describes it as follows : ‘‘ The head
Polecats and Moorhen.
is of moderate size, oblong, or oval-triangular, when viewed from
above, with the muzzle rather rounded; the ears short, and
broadly rounded ; the neck of moderate length and very thick ;
the body very long; the feet short and strong. On the
anterior limb the first toe is very short, the fifth or outer a little
longer, the fourth next, the second a little shorter than the
latter. On the hind-foot the first toe is also very short, the
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 113
second longer than the fifth, the third longest, but the fourth
almost equal. The eyes are small, with the iris dark brown ;
the. claws rather long, compressed, arched, and a greyish-
yellow tint. The under-fur is very soft and woolly ; the pile
long and rather coarse, but smooth and glossy. The general
colour is dark brown, the long hairs brownish-black, the under-
fur yellowish ; the lower parts of the neck and body, with the
feet and tail, darker than the rest, the sides yellowish-brown ;
the lips white, as are the ears anteriorly and along the tip
behind; and between the eye and ear is a brownish-white
patch.*
Distribution.—The geographical range of the Polecat includes
the greater portion of Europe, its northern limits extending
to the south of Sweden, and in Russia to the White Sea ; it is,
however, unknown in the extreme south, and its predilection
for a cool climate is indicated by the circumstance that during
the summer it ascends in the Alps far above the forest limit.
In England, owing to the relentless persecution of gamekeepers,
it is one of.those species fast approaching extinction, being
now but rarely met with in most of the southern and midland
counties. Mr. Montagu Browne, for instance, writes that in
Leicestershire and Rutlandshire it is becoming increasingly
rare, and will soon be exterminated. In the Lake district,
where these animals were once so abundant that in one unusually
good season as many as thirty-nine were killed, we are told by
the Rev. H. A. Macpherson that within the last thirty years,
* Mr. W. E. de Winton writes :—‘* The winter fur becomes pale and
faded before it is shed in May. By the first of June the fur is entirely
changed in both sexes, The female, or ‘Jill,’ changes her entire coat
directly she has young, at the end of April or beginning of May. The
male, or ‘Hob,’ changes his more leisurely throughout the month of
May. He is then known as the ‘Black Ferret,’ and has a beautiful
purplish-black coat. As in all Mustelida, the male is half as big again as
the female. Ihave kept Polecats alive, and know where they are still
fairly plentiful.”
2 J
114 LLOYD’s NATURAL HISTORY.
mainly owing to the employment of steel traps, they have
become very scarce. The narrow strip of marshy and heavily-
timbered country extending from Bowness is, however, still a
stronghold for this much-persecuted creature, and one from
which it will with difficulty be completely exterminated. Al-
though to southern ears the idea of hunting such an insig-
nificant animal with hounds appears absurd, yet Foumart-
hunting was at one time a favourite sport of the Westmore-
land dalesmen; the hunts generally taking place during the
night in midwinter. Much the same story is told with regard
to Scotland, in many parts of which it has become well-nigh
exterminated. Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley observe
that the causes which have operated in the case of the Marten
have likewise reduced the numbers of the Polecat. ‘ Rabbit-
trapping has proved fatal to it; for whilst the increase of
Rabbits has provided abundance of food, it has been the
indirect means of causing the decrease of the species by the
agency of steel traps. Inland localities, formerly inhabited by
Polecats, have been deserted by them, for, drawing down
towards the sandy burrows to prey upon the Rabbits, they
themselves became an easy prey.” In the Hebrides and other
islands the Polecat seems to have always been unknown.
Although Thompson had doubts of its occurrence, there
appears good evidence that the Polecat, in his time at least,
was an inhabitant of the woods of Kerry, Down, and other
parts of Ireland.
Habits.—A dreaded enemy to all game-preservers, the Pole-
cat possesses, for its size, a remarkable combination of strength
and agility. Dwe:ling generally in woods and copses, or thicket-
clad hills, it selects as a retreat and hiding-place either an
empty Rabbit-burrow, a crevice among the rocks, or even the
cavities in a heap of stones. In such a spot the female, during
May or June, gives birth to from four to six young. Remaining
PLATE XII
Wyman &Soxs Limated
STOAT IN SUMMER DRESS.
MARTENS POLECATS, AND WEASELS, I15
quiet during the day, and issuing forth towards evening, the
Polecat, writes Macgillivray, when settled in the neighbourhood
of a farm-yard, will, at times, commit “great depredations
among the poultry, sucking the eggs, and killing the chickens,
grown-up fowls, and even turkeys and geese. Not satisfied
with obtaining enougl to allay its hunger, it does not intermit
its ravages until it has destroyed all within its reach, so that
the havoc it makes is not less subject of surprise than of
indignation to those on whom it has inflicted its unwelcome
visit. It generally perforates the skull of its victim, and is said
to devour the brain first, as well as to suck the blood. If un-
disturbed it sometimes satisfies its hunger on the spot, and in
the midst of its slaughtered victims, but in general it carries its
prey to some safe retreat. Its ferocity, cunning, and extreme
agility, render it a great enemy to game of all kinds; and it
destroys the eggs of Pheasants, Grouse, and Partridges, seizes
the birds on their nests, pursues Rabbits into their burrows,
and frequently seizes on young Hares. Besides birds and
—s
Skull of Polecat.
mammals, it also feeds on fishes and frogs, which have, in
some instances, been found in its nest.” Our illustration, which
is taken from Bewick, commemorates an instance when a
Polecat was frequently seen to resort to the bank of a river
for the purpose of catching Eels, which were carried off to its
retreat, where no less than eleven were discovered.
Mr. ‘Trevor-Battye writes :—‘‘The Polecat is an expert
12
116 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
swimmer. Kept in captivity it shows a great fondness for
water, and will not hesitate to plunge in and pick up food
from the bottom of a bath full of water. Captive Polecats
are frequently early overtaken by blindness.”
Although both the Polecat and the Stoat are regarded—and
on the whole rightly—as unmitigated vermin, to be ruthlessly
destroyed whenever met with, there can be no doubt, as Mr.
Harting remarks, there was a time, before the days of strict
preserving, when both these animals lived among game of all
kinds without causing any diminution in the numbers of the
latter. Indeed, it is by no means improbable that they were
an actual advantage, since by killing off all the weakly and
maimed individuals of the various kinds of game they led toa
survival of the fittest.
The Ferret is a pale-coloured and almost albino domesticated
variety of the Polecat, which is, however, much improved by
crossing with the dark-coloured wild race. Mr. Trevor-Battye
says :—“ A wild-caught Polecat, though always difficult to
handle, can easily be worked like a Ferret for Rats; andin this
work they are far superior to Ferrets, owing to their extreme
agility. They do not delay in the hole, but, on the Rat bolting,
follow it out and catch it in a couple of bounds.”
III THE STOAT, OR ERMINE. MUSTELA ERMINEA.
Mustela erminea, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i, p. 68
(1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 191
(1874).
Fetorius erminea, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ.
p. 69 (1840).
Lutorius ermineus, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 116 (1846).
(lates XII. and XTI1.)
PLATE XI.
STOAT IN WINTER DRESS
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 117
Charaéters.—Size considerably smaller than the last; fur
short ; tail shorter than the *body; colour reddish-brown
above, with the chin and under-parts, as well as the inner
surfaces of the limbs and the feet, yellowish-white ; tip of tail
black. In winter, in high latitudes and altitudes, the colour
is yellowish-white, with a black tip to the tail. Length of
head and body of male about 1034 inches; of tail, 614 inches ;
female considerably smaller.
Although by non-zoological persons the Stoat or Ermine is
often confounded with the Polecat, it is, in addition to its
smaller size, such a very different-looking animal that there
ought not to be the slightest difficulty in distinguishing between
the two. Macgillivray, in the original edition of the “ Na-
turalist’s Library,” describes it as having the body “much
elongated, and of nearly equal thickness in its whole length ;
its neck rather long and nearly as thick as the body; its head
oblong, flattened above, with a rather obtuse muzzle ; the tail
of moderate length, and the fur short. On the fore-foot the
first toe is very small, the second longer than the fifth, the
third longest, the fourth a little shorter; under the last joint
of each is a bare tubercle. On the hind-feet are also five bare
tubercles, and the toes have nearly the same proportions as
those of the fore-feet ; the soles covered with hair. The ears
are rather large, broad, and rounded, with a slit in the pos-
terior margin, forming a lobe there. The pile is shortish and
soft; the hairs acuminate, a little flattened, and slightly
curved or undulated ; the under-fur very soft and woolly ; the
moustache-bristles long ; the coarse hairs on the terminal half
of the tail very long.”
The most remarkable peculiarity about the Stoat, and one
whereby it differs widely from all its congeners, is the assump-
tion, in the colder portions of its habitat, of the yellowish-white
118 LLOYD’s NATURAL HISTORY.
winter-dress. Universal in the higher regions of Scotland,
this change takes place comparatively seldom in the south ot
England, while in the northern counties, although frequent, it
is by no means general. Somewhat curiously, the change
from the brown to the white dress does not appear by any
means always coincident with the advent of winter, or even
the approach of cold weather, Stoats having been often killed,
even in the south of England, which had undergone a partial
change of colour during the early autumn. Mr. Harting states,
indeed, that he knew an instance of a pure white Stoat being
killed in Monmouthshire in the beginning of August. It is
possible, however, that this may have been a case where the
white coat was retained throughout the year ; since, according
to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, the Stoats on the sum-
mit of Ben Nevis are to be seen at all seasons in their white
winter-dress. Much discussion has arisen how the change
from brown to white in the fur takes place, Bell observing that
“this is effected not by the loss of the summer coat and the
substitution of a new one for the winter, but by the actual
change of colour in the existing fur.” This theory has, how-
ever, been called in question ; and it is now generally admitted
that Macgillivray was right when he attributed the change to
growth of new hairs differing in colour from those of the old
coat. With regard to the spring change, he writes that “so
early as the end of March, and the beginning of April, if the
weather be mild, the colour of the upper-parts changes toa
dull brownish-red, but the lower remain white, and the black
hairs of the extremity of the tail are the same at all seasons.
This change is not effected by an alteration in the colour of
the same hairs, but by the gradual substitution of brown for
white hairs. . . . On the whole, it appears to me that in
spring, and the beginning of summer, when the animal had
assumed its white colour in winter all the red hairs that
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 11g
appear are new. ‘Towards December, earlier if the weather be
very cold, later if less so, the hairs of the upper-parts become
white. In an individual obtained in December, 1834, the
colour was a mixture of white and brownish-red. The hairs
of the latter colour were not in the least degree faded, and
those of the former were much shorter, and evidently just
shooting ; so that the change from brown to white would seem
to take place by the substitution of new white hairs for those of
the summer-dress. But in mild winters the hairs retain their
red colour, and if new hairs come in, they are also red; if the
weather become colder, the new hairs that appear are white,
although the old hairs do not vary; and, if there are alterna-
tions of severe cold and temperate weather, the animal becomes
mottled.” Owing to the mild climate in Ireland, the Stoat,
which is there very common, does not, according to Thompson,
undergo a seasonal colour-change.*
Distribution. Unlike the two preceding representatives of
the genus, the Stoat is a circum-polar animal, ranging through
Northern Europe, Asia, and America. Commonly distributed
throughout the British Islands, it appears in England to be
less abundant than the Weasel, although the reverse of this
obtains in Scotland. In the latter country this animal is an
inhabitant of the Hebrides and other islands, but, according to
Mr. de Winton, it is absent in Lewis. In common with those
of the Polecat and Weasel, fossilised remains of the Stoat have
been found in several of the English caverns.
Habits——As regards its mode of life, Macgillivray writes that
* I have received the following note from Mr. W. E. de Winton :—
‘‘ The changes of fur are the same in all the A/ustelide. The Stoat is,
normally, yellow in winter and brown in summer. The' female turns
white in winter more often than the male, and is generally flecked
with white, even in summer, in old animals. White males are hardly
known in England. The male has a yellow stain through the whole
pelage, and is paler than the female.”
120 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
“the Stoat frequents stony places and thickets, among which
it finds a secure retreat, as its agility enables it to outstrip even
a Dog in a short race, and the slimness of its body allows it to
enter a very small aperture. Patches of furze, in particular,
afford it perfect security, and it sometimes takes possession of
a Rabb-t’s burrow. It preys on game and other birds, from the
Grouse and Ptarmigan downwards, sometimes attacks poultry
or sucks their eggs, and is a determined enemy to Rats and
Voles. Young Rabbits and Hares frequently become victims to
its rapacity, and even full-grown individuals are sometimes
destroyed by it. Although, in general, it does not appear to
hunt by scent, yet it has been seen to trace its prey like a Dog,
following its track with certainty. Its motions are elegant,
and its appearance extremely animated. It moves by leaping
or bounding, and is capable of running with great speed, al-
though it seldom trusts itself beyond the immediate vicinity of
cover. Under the excitement of pursuit, however, its courage
is surprising, for it will attack, seize by the throat, and cling to
a Grouse, Hare, or other animal strong enough to carry it off,
and it does not hesitate on occasion to betake itself to the
water.” The young, usually from five to eight in number, are
born in April or May, and are blind for nine days after birth.
They remain with the mother till the autumn, and are full-
grown by the following spring. It may be added that the
Stoat is an expert climber, having been known to ascend trees
for the purpose of attacking birds on their nests and eating
their eggs or young. Mr. de Winton writes :—“ Old Stoats
whose teeth are worn are inveterate egg-eaters. I took forty-
two Pheasant’s eggs from one hole in May, 1894, and have
got the skin of the old ‘ Hob’ who amassed this larder.”
In the autumn large parties of Stoats have, on several occa-
sions, been encountered on the march, as though they were un-
dertaking a kind of migration, and at such times they are stated
“THSVEM
ahi
ee. thet Mad i)
St ale
“Sa .
Sos
“ATX FLWTd
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 121
to be actually dangerous to man, as the whole body will, with
but slight provocation, proceed to attack anyone who attempts
iG bar their progress. They have also been observed to com-
bine in hunting Rabbits and Hares, which they follow by scent
like a pack of hounds in full cry. The curious kind of para-
lysis which seizes a Hare or Rabbit whena Stoat, or even the
dimunitive Weasel, is on its track, is too well known to need
more than passing mention. At such times the hunted Rodent,
after running a short distance, stops, incapable of further
movement, until its relentless foe comes up and speedily puts
a term to its existence. If taken in such a paralysed con-
dition, a Rabbit will be found to have its eyes closed, its heart
palpitating violently, and its limbs almost useless ; and it is
not till left alone for several minutes that it will revive.
Although, owing to the shortness of its fur, the British Stoat
in its winter-dress is of no great commercial value, the longer
furred skins from Northern Europe and America, constituting
the “ermine” of the fur-trade, have a very high value indeed, and
are imported in enormous numbers. The Russian skins are
sold in bundles of forty, constituting a “timber,” of which the
present market price varies from twenty to thirty shillings, al-
though as much as nine pounds has been realised. Accord-
ing to Mr. Poland, to whose work on “Fur-bearing Animals,”
we are indebted for the foregoing details, over 5,000 Ermine
skins were sold in London in 1891 by the Hudson Bay Com-
pany alone; while in 1836 the enormous number of 264,606
were imported.
Of late years Stoats have been introduced into New Zealand
for the purpose of checking the spread of Rabbits; no less
than 3,000 Stoats and Weasels having been sent out from
Lincolnshire in 1885.
An albino Ermine with a white coat in summer, and lacking
the usual black tip to the tail, is on record.
122 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
IV. THE WEASEL. MUSTELA VULGARIS.
Mustela vulgaris, Erxleben, Syst. Rég. Animale p. 471 (1777);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 182 (1874).
Feetorius vulgaris, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthicre
Europ. p. 69 (1840). :
Putorius vulgaris, Richardson, Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. i. p.
145 (1829).
5 (ae (Plate XIV.)
Characters.—Smaller than the last species, from which it is
readily distinguished by the absence of a black tip to the re-
latively shorter tail ; no seasonal change of colour.* Average
length of head and body of male about 814 inches; of tail, 234
inches; the corresponding dimensions in the female being
about 7 and 2 inches.
To describe in detail the form and general coloration of
the Weasel would be but to repeat the statements given under
the heading of the Stoat, although the Weasel is a redder ani-
mal than the latter.
Distribution. Having, like the Stoat, a circum-polar distribu-
tion, the Weasel, although common throughout England,
Wales, and Scotland, appears to be unknown in Ireland,
where, however, the first-mentioned animal has usurped its
name. It is true that in the Zoologist for 1877 the occur-
rence of the Weasel in county Mayo is reported; but even if
the animal seen were rightly identified, it is possible that it may
have been introduced. In the north of Scotland, Messrs.
Harvie-Brown and Buckley state that Weasels are common on
the mainland ; “and there is not much reason to believe that
their numbers have sensibly decreased, though kept, no doubt,
* Mr, de Winton writes to me :—-‘ The Weasel is paler in colour in
winter. I believe that none of the Afste/tde shed their hair in autumn.
The white dress is assumed by a change of pigment, as well as by an
accession of white hairs.”
MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 123
in wholesome check by the efforts of keepers and trappers.”
The species is, however, quite unknown in the Hebrides and
other Scottish islands.
Habits.—Nearly akin to the Stoat in its mode of life, the
Weasel, from its inferior dimensions, has the advantage over
the latter of being able to pursue in their tortuous underground
tuns both the Field-Vole and the Mole; and from its relent-
less pursuit both of the former and the common Rat, this little
Carnivore ought to receive all encouragement at the hands of
the farmer, more especially in districts subject to seasonal
““Vole-plagues.” We by no means intend to imply that the
Weasel, like other benefactors of the human race, has not its
faults—-quite the contrary; but, taking all in all, we have little
hesitation in saying that the benefits it confers far outweigh
the injuries it inflicts. That it has a partiality for small birds,
and that it may make an occasional onslaught on the smaller
denizens of the poultry-house, may be freely admitted ; but the
former depredations are necessarily limited to a few weeks in
the year, while the latter are few and far between.
In addition to hunting Voles and Rats in their subterranean
retreats, the Weasel will likewise pursue them if they attempt
to escape by ascending trees or shrubs, as, among his other
accomplishments, he is an excellent climber. Whether the
Weasel is of sufficient size to carry off hens’ eggs in the same
manner as the Stoat, that is, by taking one between the chin
and chest, and holding it there safely by bending down the
head, we are unaware.
Writing in the original edition of the “ Naturalist’s Library,”
of the habits of this species, Macgillivray states that it will
pursue Rats and Mice “into barns, granaries, and corn-stacks,
despatching them generally by a single bite which perforates
the brain. In the fields and pastures it has been seen follow-
ing its prey by scent, turning and doubling on the track, and
124 LLoyp’s NATURAL HISTORY.
pursuing it even into the water. Among grass or herbage it
frequently raises itself on its hind-legs to look around, and in
a place of security will sometimes allow a person to make a
near approach to it. . . . Whenits nest is plundered, it
defends itself against all assailants, springs upon the Dogs, and
even attempts to vent its fury upon their masters. It produces
five or six young ones, and is said to litter two or three times
in the year.” The extreme playfulness and activity of a litter
of young Weasels is well described by Bell.
“To the extreme boldness of the Weasel on occasion,” writes
Mr. Trevor-Battye, “the following fact bears witness. In Sep-
tember, 1892, at about one o’clock in the afternoon, when
walking along a high road in Kent, a Weasel ran across the
road in front, and disappeared in a hole. In a moment it re-
appeared, and began quartering the ground with that undu-
lating rapidity characteristic of this creature. It was quite
regardless of my presence, and presently disappeared again.
I moved down the bank, and noticing a movement at the
mouth of a little hole, put my hand quickly down and caught
a large Field-Vole. As I picked it up, the Weasel followed my
hand, and would I am sure have jumped at it for the Vole: but,
without thinking, I stupidly threw down the Vole, which the
creature seized instantaneously, and carried off into the hedge.”
That the Weasel will take to the water when in pursuit of
its prey is mentioned in Macgillivray’s account, but it does not
appear that it will voluntarily swim for any long distance. An
instance is, however, recorded by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson,
of one of these little animals being taken while swimming across
Ulleswater, ata point where the lake is three-quarters of a mile
in width.
Occasionally, though very rarely, the Weasel is stated to
turn white in winter, the tail then retaining its reddish hue,
although becoming paler than ordinary.
BADGER. 125
The Weasel is subject to considerable variation in size,
which once gave rise to the idea that there might possibly be
two species. Thus Gilbert White wrote that “some intelligent
country people have a notion that we have, in these parts, a
species of the genus Afus/elinum, besides the Weasel, Stoat,
Ferret, and Polecat ; a little reddish beast, not much bigger
than a Field-Mouse, but much longer, which they call a Cane.”
It is, however, now ascertained that the so-called Cane, or
Kine, is nothing more than an unusually small female Weasel.
Such very small, although fully adult, females have been re-
corded not only from Hampshire, but likewise from Kent and
Sussex.
As an example of the pugnacious habits of the Weasel, we
may mention that (as we are informed by Mr. Harvie-Brown)
there is in the Banff Museum an extraordinary mummified
group of these animals, found in a hole of an old tree-stump,
all the members of which evidently perished while fighting
together.
THE BADGERS. GENUS MELES.
Meles, Storr, Prodromus Méthod. Mamm. p. 34 (1780).
The Badgers and their allies, which are assigned to several dis-
tinct genera, represent the second sub-family of the Afes/edide,
and are characterised as follows. The feet are elongated, with
straight toes, and the claws uon-retractile, slightly curved,
rounded, and blunt, those on the fore-feet being especially
elongated. The upper molar tooth, although variable, is gener-
ally very large and elongated longitudinally. In habits the
members of the sub-family are mostly terrestrial and burrowing
animals, and the group has a wide geographical distribution,
although unrepresented in South America.
From their plantigrade feet, short ears and tail, and some-
what Bear-like general appearance and gait, the more typical
Badgers were long classed with the Bears, and even in the
126 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds” the Common
Badger will be found described as the sole existing British
representative of the family Urside. It is, however, now well
ascertained that such resemblances as these animals present to
the Bears are for the most part superficial, and that their true
affinities are with the Weasel tribe.
As a genus, the true Badgers, or those included under the
head of AMeles, may be defined as follows :—Upper molar tooth
very large and longer than broad, exceeding the flesh-tooth in
length; bony palate not greatly produced backwards ; head
pointed, with the nose prominent, and the ears small and
rounded ; body thick and heavy ; limbs short and stout ; feet
plantigrade ; tail short. Number of teeth 38, of which four on
each side of both the upper and lower jaws belong to the pre-
molar series.
The members of the genus are confined to the northern
half of the Old World, and do not range into India, although
represented in Persia.
It may be mentioned as a peculiarity of the Badger group in
general, although the feature is more developed in some genera
than in others, that the lower jaw is so strongly articulated to
the skull, by means of overhanging processes from the latter,
that it is almost or quite impossible to disarticulate it without
fracture. This is the secret of the terrible biting power of
these animals.
THE COMMON BADGER, MELES TAXUS.
Ursus meles, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 70 (1766).
Meles taxus, Boddaert, Elenchus Animal. vol. i. p. 80 (1785);
Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 158 (1874).
Meles vulgaris, Desmarest, Mammalogie p. 173 (1820).
(Plate XV.)
FLV 1d
“adaodavg
AAS
peg
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eirgeryy
BADGER. 127
Characters——General colour yellowish-grey, washed with black;
under-parts and limbs black ; face white, with a black longitu-
dinal streak on each side passing through the eye and ear.
Length of head and body about 27 inches ; of tail, 734 inches
With regard to the nature and coloration of the pelage,
Macgillivray writes as follows :—“ On the “head and face the
hairs are adpressed, and of ordinary texture ; on the lower-
parts coarse, but of the nature of fur or under-hair; on the
upper-parts of two kinds, a coarse fur and still coarser and
longer, stiffish, undulated, flattened, and pointed hairs. The
head, chin, and hind-neck are white, with a broad brownish-
black band on each side from before the eye over the ear, of
which the tip is white, down the back of the neck. The throat,
fore-neck, middle of the breast, fore-limbs, and hind-feet are
brownish-black ; the upper-parts and sides light grey, variegated
with black, a large portion of each hair near the end being of
the latter colour; the long hairs at the tip of the short tail
whitish.” It may be added that the long hairs of the body
are three-coloured, namely reddish, white, and black, and it is
the blending of these that produces the well-known “ Badger-
colour.” The soles of the feet are completely covered with
hair.
Distribution Ranging over the greater part of Northern
Europe and Asia, the Badger was formerly an abundant animal
in the British Isles, where it has left its remains in the
Pleistocene deposits of Kent, as well as in many English
caverns, and likewise in Shandon Cave, Ireland. Owing to
its shy and retiring habits, and the secluded nature of the spots
in which it takes up its subterranean haunts, the Badger, or, as
it used to be called in many parts of England, the “Brock,” is
very generally supposed to be an exceedingly rare, if not a
nearly exterminated, animal in our islands. This, however,
is very far indeed from being the case, and Badgers occur
128 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
sporadically in most English counties ; while in some districts,
owing to the protection they receive at the hands of land-
owners, they are actually on the increase. Within the last
thirty years the presence of Badgers has been recorded in up-
wards of twenty-nine English counties. Its former abundance
in England 1s attested by the frequency with which its title
enters into the names of places, and it is curious that in all these
cases it is the ancient name of “Brock,” and not the more modern
one of “Badger,” that is employed in the compound word. Thus
we have, as pointed out by Mr. Harting, the names of Brockhurst, .
Brockenhurst, Brockenborough, Brockford, Brockhall, Brock-
hampton (in four counties), Brockham Green, Brockholes (in
two counties), Brock-le-Bank, Brocklesby, Brockley (in four
counties), Brockmoor, and Brockworth. The name Brock, it
may be observed, apparently refers to the striped face which
forms such a characteristic feature in the animal under con-
sideration. As an instance of the apparent increase in the
number of Badgers in certain parts of England, we may mention
that, in Leicestershire, according to Mr. Montagu-Browne, they
now breed in several places and seem to be more abundant
than formerly. On the other hand, in certain districts where,
from the wild nature of the country, they might naturally have
been expected to have survived, they have been more or less
nearly, if not completely, exterminated. Thus in the Lake
district, according to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, Badgers
appear to have been completely extirpated since the end of
the first third of the present century, when a few individuals
still survived on the fells of Windermere and Cartmell. It is
true that a few solitary Badgers are now and then recorded
from the districts in question, but these are all stated to be
individuals that have escaped from confinement. We may
mention, however, that Badgers have been re-introduced on
one or two estates in Westmoreland, so that there is some
BADGER, 124
hope that, under due protection, the county may be partly re-
populated with these interesting animals.
In Scotland Mr. Harvie-Brown states that the Badger occurs
pretty generally throughout the mainland, but that it is not a
native of any of the islands, although it has been introduced
into Jura and upon Ailsa Craig. In all districts it appears,
however, to be much less common than formerly. In
Thompson’s time (civciter 1855), the Badger was stated to main-
tain its ground throughout Ireland, probably in every county,
examples existing some ten years previous to that date within a
few miles of the city of Belfast.
Habits.—A nocturnal animal, living generally in pairs, though
several have not unfrequently been observed in company, the
Badger passes its days securely concealed in its burrow, which
is generally excavated in some unfrequented part of a wood or
thicket, in the side of a hill densely covered with bushes, or in
a deserted quarry, whence it issues forth to feed in the evening
or during the night. Although having but a single entrance,
the ‘‘earth” is described as consisting of several tortuous pas-
sages, opening out at their extremities into larger chambers.
Its food consists mainly of roots of various kinds, fruits and
nuts, birds’ eggs, together with the smaller mammals, reptiles,
frogs, and insects. It is also particularly fond of the grubs of
wasps, which are dug out from the nests and extracted from
the combs without any fear of the stings of the adult insects,
against which the thick fur of the Badger appears to afford an
effectual protection. Except that it may destroy a certain
number of the eggs of game-birds, the Badger is harmless
alike to the game-preserver and the farmer; and the persecu-
tion to which in this country it has always been subject at the
hand of man, is due rather to the innate desire of killing and
hunting, than on account of any actual damage inflicted. It is
true, indeed, that these animals are frequently charged with
5 K
130 Liovp’s NATURAL HISTORY.
killing and otherwise interfering with young Foxes ; on which
account a war to the death is too often waged against them
by over-zealous huntsmen. This charge has, however, been
effectually disproved, several writers recording instances where
the cubs of Badgers and Foxes have been inhabitants of
the same “earth,” where they have lived together in perfect
good-fellowship and harmony. Mr. Trevor-Battye says that
the only harm the Badger does in the above direction is by
re-opening Foxes’ “earths” that have been stopped. Mr.
de Winton writes :—‘‘ Badgers sometimes frighten sheep at
night, when they are feeding on turnips in pens, and I have
had some harm done by them, as the sheep are very fat and
heavy-coated, and hurt themselves over the feeding troughs,
This is the only damage which Badgers have done to me, and I
have lived side by side with them all my life, and have had*
many as pets.”
Having formed a bed of soft grass at the bottom of the bur-
row, the female Badger brings forth in the spring from three
to four young ones, which do not make their appearance
abroad until they have attained a considerable size. Writing of
the breeding habits of some Badgers on his estate near Lough-
borough, the late Mr. A. Ellis, who had especial opportunities
of making observations, states that “the Badger breeds later than
the Fox, and it was the middle of March this year [1877] before
the preparations for the coming family were made. These
consisted in cleaning out the winter-bed and replacing it by a
quantity of dry fern and grass, so great that it would seem im-
possible the earth could receive it. In June the first young
Badger appeared at the mouth of the earth, and was soon
followed by three others, and then by their mother. After
this, they continued to show every evening, and soon learnt to
take the food prepared for them. The young are now [Octo-
ber] almost full-grown, and, forgetting their natural timidity.
BADGER. 131
will feed so near that I have placed my hand on the back of
one of them. The old ones are more wary, but often feed
with their family, although at a more cautious distance. Their
hearing and sense are most acute, and it is curious to see them
watch, with lifted head and ears erect, then, if all is quiet,
search the ground for a raisin oradate. But the least strange
sight or sound alarms them, and they rush headlong to earth
with amazing speed.” As is so generally the case among the
Carnivora, the young of the Badger are born blind, and remain
so for several days after birth. It is generally stated, in the
case of the Badger, that the young open their eyes on the
ninth day; but Dr. A. Nehring records an instance where a
litter, born in the Zoological Gardens at Berlin, did not do so
until the eighteenth day after birth.
A remarkable peculiarity in regard to the Badger is the
length and variability of the period of gestation. The mini-
mum duration of pregnancy does not appear to be fully ascer-
tained, although Dr. Nehring is of opinion that it cannot be
less than six months. Instances are on record where female
Badgers that have been kept in solitary confinement have
brought forth young after periods of ten and twelve months ;
and one very important one is recorded by Captain F. H.
Salvin, in which a Badger gave birth to one litter on February
27th, and to another on the sixteenth of the same month in
the following year, showing that in this case the period of ges-
tation was about seventeen days short of a twelvemonth. In
other instances, however, the period is much longer, reaching
in two of these to at least fifteen months. The probable ex-
planation of these discrepancies is that in certain cases, as in
the Roe-deer, the impregnated ovum undergoes a period of
quiescence before development; such retardation of develop
ment being not improbably induced by captivity, which nearly
always interferes more or less with the reproductive process of
animals,
K 2
132 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY,
On the gestation of the Badger Mr. Trevor-Battye sends me
the following note:—“ Asa rule, no doubt, the Badger pairs
in October and the young are born in March or April. I lived
for many years close to a stronghold of Badgers and had un-
usual opportunities for watching them. It has been said and
written that Badgers do not breed till two years old. This is
wrong. Some years ago J had a pair which were probably about
six weeks old. They were called Gripper and Nancy. They
would rest on my lap while feeding, and used to sit up and beg
like Dogs. Their hearing and power of scent were remarkable.
They were in a closed square yard, but if any of the dogs came
near, even following a path which ran at a distance of about
six or seven yards, they would instantly jump off my lap and
disappear into a corner. These animals could walk and trot
backwards with the greatest ease. I have never seen this
mentioned ; yet it is worth noticing because the movement is
characteristic of the Mustelidz, not being shared to my know-
ledge by any other Mammal—not, for instance, by the Bears,
As I was leaving home I was obliged to send off my Badgers.
They went to a friend in the New Forest. Here they escaped
from confinement and took up their quarters under some
faggots in an outhouse. They paired that October and made
their nest (the contents of which would have filled a big wheel-
barrow and more) inthe beginning of April. But poor Gripper
came back one night with a trap on his foot. The chain of the trap
got wound round somehow in the burrow and held him prisoner.
So he died; and Nancy forsook the earth and went to breed
elsewhere. In those days I did not understand maceration.
But, as I wanted Gripper’s skeleton, I boiled him in the copper
outside, after he had been dead a month. Out of this Badger
soup I collected even the smallest vertebra. ‘To stink like a
Badger’ is a lying libel on the living animal ; it was not over-
stated in the case of Gripper dead—and boiling !”
BADGER. 133
With reference to the carnivorous propensities of the Badger,
Thompson writes that ‘‘one gentleman, who kept a young
Badger in confinement, reports that it was very fond of Rats,
Mice, and birds, and that it devoured a pet Blackbird which he
highly prized. At Tollymore Park (County Down) and Glen-
arm (County Antrim), where Badgers are numerous, they are
sometimes taken in traps baited with Rabbits ; and I was in-
formed by a gamekeeper, at the latter place, that they are
destructive to young Rabbits in the nest, and, in such cases,
do not make use of the Rabbits’ entrance, but delve out a
Skull of Badger.
circular hole immediately above the nest. From the peculiar
footprint of the Badgers, always to be seen about these holes,
he knows that they were the depredators.” While admitting
the truth of this latter statement, and also that a Badger may
occasionally get hold of a sitting Pheasant, Mr. Harting con-
siders that the harm done by Badgers to game-preserves is
almost infinitesimal, Pheasants, except during the breeding-
season, being at roost in the trees, and the Rabbits feeding in
the open outside the coverts, at the time when these animals
leave their lairs for the nocturnal prowl.
No account of this animal would be complete without some
mention of the sport of Badger-baiting, which, although now
134 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
illegal, was formerly a favourite with our ancestors. The
creature was placed in a tub lying on its side, and attacked by
Terriers or other Dogs, whose object was to draw the Badger:
from its place of security. As Bell remarks, it would be diffi-
cult to say whether in this so-called sport, the cruelty were
greater to the persecuted Badger or to his canine tormentors.
Since, through the intervention of a London paper, the title of
which need not be mentioned, a regular trade is even now
carried on in live Badgers, the suspicion arises whether
Badger-baiting is really as extinct as is commonly supposed.
To procure Badgers for the above-mentioned sport or other
purposes, the usual plan was to place a sack within the margins
of the “earth,” with its mouth upwards and secured by a
running string, at such time as the owner was ascertained to
be absent from his dwelling. The surrounding coverts were
then drawn with a few couple of hounds, which generally suc-
ceeded in finding the Badger and hunting him to his hole, on
attempting to enter which he was of course securely bagged
beyond the possibility of escape.
THE OTTERS. GENUS LUTRA.
Lutra, Erxleben, Syst. Régne Animale, p. 445 (1777).
The Otters, all of which, with the single exception of the
Sea-Otter, are included in the present genus, form the sole
representatives of the last sub-family of the Mustelide, the
characters of which are as follows:—The feet are short and
rounded, with the toes webbed, and the claws small, curved,
and blunt. The head is remarkably broad and flattened ; and
the upper molar tooth is large and nearly square. In habits,
all the species are thoroughly aquatic.
The genus Zwéra is chiefly distinguished from the Sea-Otter
by the cheek-teeth being furnished with a number of sharp
PLATE XVI.
COMMON OTTER.
OTTER. 135
cusps, instead of being smoothed and mammillated, as well
as by the moderate development of the toes of the hind-
feet. Retaining the elongated bodily form and short limbs
characterising the more typical J/ustelida, the true Otters
generally have the feet completely webbed, and either clawed
or clawless. The soles of the feet are for the most part
naked, although in the hinder pair the naked portion does
not extend backwards to the heel. The flattened head is
elongated and furnished with very small ears; and the fur is
close, compact, and short, with a woolly under-fur ; the tail
being of medium length. There are generally four pairs of
pre-molar teeth in the upper, and three in the lower jaw; the
first of the upper ones is, however, always very small, and
situated on the inner side of the canine, and in some species
may be wanting.
All Otters have such a strong family resemblance, that the
distinction between the various species is in many cases a
matter of considerable difficulty ; but, fortunately, there is but
one, and that the typical, representative of the genus within
the limits of our area. With the exception of Australasia and
the extreme north, the genus is practically cosmopolitan; and its
representatives are mainly fluviatile and lacustrine in their habits,
THE COMMON OTTER. LUTRA VULGARIS.
Mustela lutra, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 66 (1766).
Lutra vulgaris, Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Animal. p. 448 (1777);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 167 (1874); Blan
ford, Mammals of British India, p. 182 (1888).
Lutra nair, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxvii. p. 247
(1823).
Lutra indica, Gray, Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. i. p. 580 (1837),
(Plate XVI.)
136 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Characters.—Size large; claws well-developed on all the toes ;
upper edge of naked portion of muzzle projecting backwards
in the middle, and concave on either side, where it runs up to
the hinder edge of the nostril; tail more than half the length
of the body General colour deep brown, with a more or less
rufous tinge; woolly under-fur white at the base, then brown,
and usually paler at the tips, especially in Indian examples ;
under-parts whitish; fur of chin and throat white throughout,
elsewhere white at the base and tip, and brown in the middle.
Length of head and body, from 25 to 29 inches; of tail, from
15 to 16 inches.
Distribution.—This species has a wide distribution in the Old
World, ranging over the whole of Europe and Asia north of the
Himalaya, while it is represented in India and some of the
countries on the east of the Bay of Bengal by a form which
is now generally regarded as a mere variety. In the British
Islands its fossilised remains are found in the Norwich Crag,
belonging to the upper part of the Pliocene period, in the
overlying forest-bed of the east coast, the brick-earths of the
Thames valley, as well as in several of the English caves. At
the present day it is still pretty generally distributed over the
country, although becoming scarce in the more cultivated
districts where the rivers are small. While, for instance, it is
stated to be rare in Leicestershire and Rutland, as also in
Hertfordshire, in the wild and rocky districts of Somerset,
Devon, and Monmouthshire it is still abundant, as it is in the
streams and lakes of Westmoreland and Cumberland. It
would be difficult indeed, as observed by the Rev. H. A.
Macpherson, to find any part of Britain more exactly suited to
the needs and habits of this animal than is the Lake district of
the two counties last mentioned. In the north of Scotland,
according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, the Otter,
although scarce, from incessant persecution, in the east of
OTTER. 137
Sutherland, is still far from rare in Caithness, while it is
abundant in Argyllshire and the Isles. Some idea of its
former numbers may be gathered from the fact that between
the years 1831 and 1834 rewards were paid for upwards of
263 Otters killed on the estates of the Duke of Sutherland
alone. In Ireland, forty years ago, Thompson wrote that the
Otter still survived in suitable localities throughout the country
and along the coast, in spite of persecution. :
Habits.—Feeding almost exclusively on fish, which it pursues
not only in rivers and lakes, but also in the open sea, the
Otter, writes Macgillivray, in the north of Scotland and the
adjacent islands, “resides among the blocks, or in the caverns
along the coasts, and subsists on marine fishes, seldom appear-
ing in the streams or lakes except in winter, during very stormy
weather. In the south of Scotland, and in many parts of
England, it inhabits the fresh waters. On shore it runs with
considerable speed, but does not bound like the Weasels, and,
in fact, is rather plantigrade than digitigrade. In the water it
exhibits an astonishing agility, swimming in a nearly horizontal
position with the greatest ease, diving and darting alcng
beneath the surface with a speed equal, if not superior, to that
of many fishes. It is capable of remaining immersed for a con-
siderable time, but on seizing a fish it cannot devour it in the
water, but must bring it to shore for that purpose, not always,
however, carrying it to its ordinary retreat, but generally to the
nearest point that seems to afford temporary security. While
eating, it holds its prey down with its fore-feet, or, if small,
secures it between them, and commencing at the shoulders,
devours the fish downwards, leaving the head and tail. While
thus occupied it is sometimes visited by Gulls and Hooded
Crows, which, however, do not venture to attack it, but wait
until it has finished its meal, contenting themselves with the
remnants. It is alleged that it destroys great quantities of
138 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Salmon, which may be the case when it inhabits rivers and
estuaries, but in the open sca it feeds on a variety of fishes.
Along the coast it generally finds a safe retreat in caves, of
which the upper part is filled with blocks of rock, or beneath
large stones; but in rivers and lakes it seeks refuge among
the roots of trees, or burrows a hole for itself in the banks.
Although properly piscivorous, it has been known to attack
young domestic animals, and I found the stomach of one
killed in June filled with a curious collection of larve and
earth-worms.”
The foregoing description, it will be observed, applies chiefly
to the habits of the Otter in the rivers and on the coasts of
Scotland; those of our readers desirous of becoming ac-
quainted with the haunts and habits of the animal in the
rivers of the south of England should peruse a graphic chapter
in a little work entitled “ Forest Tithes,” by an author who
writes under the mom-de-lume of “A Son of the Marshes.”
On the Upper Indus I have known a pair of Otters take up
their abode among the timbers of a wooden bridge. In sport-
ing phraseology, an Otter’s lair is spoken of as its “holt.”
When a burrow is excavated by the animals themselves it may
vary considerably in size and depth, but one described by Mr.
Buckley, discovered on one of the Scottish islands, seems to
be the longest and most complex on record. This tunnel, which
was bored in peaty soil, amongst the burrows of the Storm-
Petrel, was upwards of fifteen feet in length, with a diameter of
about a foot, except near the extremity, when it became about
four inches narrower. ‘ Here and there it was widened out into
most evident circular or oval chambers, and the sides and
roof were smooth and glossy, rubbed and polished by the
passage to and fro of the animals’ fur. The habitation had a
cunning and gradual incline from upwards into the peat-bank
from the entrance. The latter was simply an uneven, rough,
OTTER. 139
grassy-edged, and semi-concealed doorway in the face of the
peat slope.”
In the month of March or April, the female gives birth in the
lair—whether this be a burrow as above described, or merely a
hollow beneath the roots of some large tree, or a fissure among
rocks—to from three to five young ones, after a gestation of
only nine weeks. The young remain with their parents for a
considerable period ; and, in India at least, family-parties of
six or seven nearly full-grown individuals may be seen to-
gether, these sometimes contriving to drive a shoal of fish into
shallow water, where they may be easily captured. Although
in this country mainly nocturnal in its habits, in less frequented
regions the Otter may often be seen abroad well on in the day-
time. Everywhere these animals kill far more prey than they
can possibly eat, which is one of the reasons why their presence
in a river is so cordially detested by fishermen.
When taken young, the Otter may be easily tanied, and may
be trained without much difficulty to exercise its fish-catching
skill for its owner’s benefit.
Otter-hunting, either with Otter-hounds or Fox-hounds, is a
favourite sport in Devon and Somerset, in the Lake district, and
also in Wales. The hounds should be laid on the trail, or
“foil,” of the Otter as soon as possible after daybreak, since
on many soils the scent soon disappears under a strong sun.
Formerly the Otter was struck at on every possible opportunity
with a barbed spear termed an “ Otter-grains,” until finally
despatched ; but the use of this weapon has happily been dis-
continued in the Lake district, as we learn from the Rev. H.
A. Macpherson, and elsewhere.
Although from its comparatively small numbers the Otter is
not much hunted in this country for the sake of its beautiful
pelage, on the Continent this forms an important trade.
According to Mr. Poland, Scandinavian skins, from their large
140 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
size, thick fur, and dark colour, are among the most esteemed ;
and some idea of the numbers of these animals killed and the
importance of the trade may be gathered from the fact that
upwards of about ro,o00 skins are annually sold at the Easter
fair at Leipsic, these varying in value from five to thirty shillings
each, according to size, colour, and quality. The same authority
tells us that during the winter of 1885-86 more than 4,000 of
these animals were killed in Prussia alone.
THE BEARS. FAMILY URSIDA.
Although closely allied to the Mustelide in the structure of
the hinder part of the base of the skull, the Bear family (in
addition to the vastly superior bodily size of the great majority
of its members) may be readily distinguished therefrom by tke
greater number of their molar teeth, of which there are two
pairs in the upper, and three in the lower jaw, or the same
as in the Dogs. In character these teeth are, however, very
different from those of the latter, the two upper ones being
oblong and much longer than broad, with the crown finely
tuberculated, and adapted for a mixed, rather than a purely
flesh diet. Moreover, the flesh-teeth (the last pre-molar in the
upper, and the first molar in the lower jaw) are exceedingly
unlike those of the Dogs, being small in proportion to the
molars, and having the suctorial structure so characteristic of
Carnivora in general but little developed. All Bears are large,
heavily-built animals, with thoroughly plantigrade feet, armed
with strong curved claws, well adapted for digging, short ears,
and a mere apology for a tail.
Generally adepts in climbing, but, in spite of the fossorial
characters of their feet, not excavating burrows for their own
habitation, Bears are distributed over the greater part of the
globe, with the exception of Africa south of the Atlas mountains,
and Australia Save for one species from India and another
BEAR, 141
from Tibet, they are all included in the typical genus, the
distinctive characteristics of which it will be superfluous to
indicate in the present work.
THE TRUE BEARS, GENUS URSUS,
Crsus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 69 (1766).
THE BROWN BEAR. URSUS ARCTUS.
Ursus arctos, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 69 (1766),
The Brown Bear, being a species exterminated within the
British Islands during the historical period, has the same claim
as the Wolf to be regarded asa British Mammal. Being, how-
ever, thus extinct within our area, and at the same time such a
thoroughly well-known animal, we think that we shall best
serve the interests of our readers by omitting all description,
and confining ourselves to a brief notice of the records of its
extermination. For these, as in the case of the Wolf, we are
indebted entirely to Mr. J. E. Harting, who has so thoroughly
investigated what remains of the history of the exterminated
Mammals of our islands.
We may premise that the Brown Bear (which is still far from
uncommon in many parts of the Continent), under a variety of
local races, has a wide distribution in the Old World, ranging
over the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia, and ex-
tending as far south as the Western Himalaya and the valley
of Kashmir. In North America it is represented by the closely
allied Grisly Bear. Although there is some difficulty in dis-
tinguishing between the different species of Bears of this group
by their skulls and teeth alone, it is now well ascertained that
remains of the Brown Bear have been obtained from the
brick-earths of the Thames valley, the fens of Cambridge-
shire, various superficial deposits in Scotland and Ireland, and
also from several of the English caves. It should be added
142 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
that some Ursine remains, from English and Irish, havé been
assigned to the Grisly Bear (Ursus horribilis), but the writer is
by no means assured that this reference is correct.
Documentary evidence proves the existence of th: Bear in
England during the eighth century; and it is likewise on
record, that in the time of Edward the Confessor, the town of
Norwich was compelled annually to furnish a Bear for royal
sport, such Bears being in all probability native British animals.
It is likewise probable that the performing Bears which were led
about England during this period by itinerant minstrels were
also captured in the British Islands. During both the
Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods it would appear, however,
that the great Caledonian forest of Scotland was the principal
stronghold of these animals; Caledonian Bears being well-
known in the Romanamphitheatre. There are even traditions
still extant in the Highlands, together with certain Gaelic place-
names, apparently referring to the former existence of Bears in
these districts.
At what precise period the Brown Bear became extinct in
Britain, there is, unfortunately, no means of ascertaining.
That it disappeared at an earlier date than the Wolf, is, how-
ever, certain ; and it has been considered probable that it had
ceased to exist before the tenth century.
With regard to Ireland, Thompson writes that “I am not
aware of any written evidence tendiag to show that the Bear
was ever indigenous to Ireland, but a tradition exists of its
having been so. It is associated with the Wolf as a native
animal in the stories handed down through several generations
to the present time.”
THE TRUE SEALS. FAMILY PHOCIDZ.
The whole of the Carnivora treated of above, together with
their foreign allies, collectively constitute the typical group of
SEALS, 143
the Order, and are known as the true Carnivores, or Carnivora
Vera; of which the leading characteristic, as already mentioned,
is the presence of a pair of specially modified flesh-teeth in
each jaw, the fore-feet, and generally also the hinder pair,
being of the normal type, although in the Sea-Otter the latter
are flipper-like. On the other hand, in the Seals and Walruses,
which now claim our attention, there are no flesh-teeth, and
both pairs of limbs are modified into flippers. From the latter
feature, this second great sub-ordinal group of the Order is
known as Carnivora Pinnipfedia, or Fin-footed Carnivores.
The massive and more or less conical form of the body in
the Seals and their allies is too well known to demand more
than casual mention. The limbs, which are relatively short,
have their upper segments more or less completely enclosed in
the skin of the body ; while they are provided with five toes
each, connected together by webs. Unlike the land Cari-
vores, the first and fifth toes of each foot are stouter and
generally longer than the three middle ones. The tail is
always short.
In regard to their teeth, it may be mentioned that, whereas only
in the Sea-Otter among the true Carnivores are there less than
three pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, in the present group
such a reduction is invariably the case; while very frequently
also there are only two pairs of these teeth in the upper jaw.
In the cheek-teeth the pre-molars (generally four in number in
e.ch j.w) are nearly similar to the molars ; the latter being
generally reduced to a single pair, although in some instances
there are two pairs in the upper jaw. The milk-teeth are shed
at an exceedingly early age—sometimes even before birth,—
and are consequently of no functional importance whatever,
while collar-bones are totally wanting.
In habits, the whole of these animals are thoroughly aquatic;
and they are, asa rule, inhabitants of the sea, although some
144 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
ascend rivers, and a few are found in land-locked lakes. Al-
though their movements on land are awkward and ungainly in
the extreme, the members of one family (the Eared Seals, of
which there are no British representatives) pass the whole of
the breeding season on shore, during which prolonged period
they undergo a complete fast.
The true Seals, or Phocide, which are the most specialised
representatives of the entire group, are characterised by the
circumstance that the hind-flippers, when on land, are ex-
ended backwards parallel to the tail, and are thus incapable
of taking any share in those movements which, by courtesy,
may be termed walking; this mode of progression being
effected mainly or entirely by a kind of jumping movement of
the body. All these Seals are further characterised by the
total absence of any externally projecting ear; the passages to
the brain opening flat on the surface of the sides of the head.
Although the number of incisor teeth is subject to some
degree of variation, the pre-molars and molars collectively
always form five pairs in each jaw; these teeth generally
having three well-marked cusps arranged longitudinally, with
sometimes a smaller fourth cusp posteriorly, but being occa-
sionally simple.
The British Seals, aXhough not numerous, include represen-
tatives of three distinct genera.
GENUS HALICHGRUS.
Halicherus, Nilsson, Faun, Skandinav. vol. i. p. 377 (1820).
Three pairs of upper, and two of lower incisor teeth; cheek-
teeth (é.¢., molars and pre-molars) mostly with single roots,
and simply conical without accessory cusps. First and fifth
toes of the hinder flippers not much longer than the three
middle ones; and the webs on their feet not projecting be-
yond the extremities of the toes,
SEALS. 145
The genus is represented solely by the under-mentiored
species.
THE GREY SEAL. HALICHG@RUS GRYPUS.
Phoca grypus, Fabricius, Skriv. af. Nat. Selksk. vol. i. pt. 2, p.
167 (1791).
Halichzrus griseus, Nilsson, Faun. Skandinav. vol. i. p. 377
(1820).
Phoca gryphus, Fischer, Synops. Mamm. p. 239 (1829).
Halicherus gryphus, Bell, British Quadrupeds, p. 278 (1837),
and 2nd ed. p. 262 (1874).
Halicherus grypus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus.
p- 34 (1866).
Characters——General colour yellowish-grey, becoming lighter
on the under-parts, with dark grey spots and blotches ; but,
as in most Seals, there is considerable of variation in tint
according to age. ‘Total length of male, about 8 feet.
Distribution.—The range of this species is restricted to the
shores of the North Atlantic Ocean, where it is far more com-
mon and more widely distributed on the European than on the
American side. Its chief haunts appear to be the British and
Scandinavian coasts; its northern limits being seemingly
marked by the Baltic, the Gulf of Bothnia, and Iceland. This
Seal was first recognised as an inhabitant of the British seas in
the year 1836; and while rare on the southern coasts of Eng-
land, it is exceedingly abundant on the western and southern
shores of Ireland, as well as in the Hebrides and Shetlands.
The specimens taken on our southern coasts must be regarded
in the light of stragglers from more northern regions ; one of
these having been taken many years ago in the Severn, while a
second was captured on the Isle of Wight in 1857. It has
likewise been recorded from the Welsh coast. On the more
southern coasts of Scotland this Seal is likewise rare, but it be-
5 L
146 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
comes more numerous as we proceed north. Thus, although.
now diminished in numbers, a few are still to be found in
suitable localities on the coast of Caithness, where they have
been said to breed in the rocky caverns. According to Messrs.
Harvie-Brown and Buckley, they “also occur in some num-
bers on Eilean-nan-roan, off the Kyle of Tongue, where speci-
mens have been seen over eight feet long. They are most
numerous on the outer island. At Souliskeir, to the north of
Cape Wrath, they were once abundant, and parties of fisher-
men used to go from Orkney and the north Sutherland coast
Skull ot Grey Seal.
to kill them in October.” The same authors state that, al-
though restricted and rare in the Inner Hebrides, it still fre-
quents the more remote Outer Hebrides in some numbers,
although, for obvious reasons, they refrain from mentioning its
favourite haunts. They add that there are “few localities,
even among the Isles, where they could be observed with any
degree of regularity. We know of one single, very hoary, and
very large individual, frequenting a portion of coast, and
having done so unmolested for many years. What his age
may be, it is vain to speculate upon, but he certainly has been
known and recognised by natives for a very long series of
SEALS. 147
years, frequenting always the same reachof shore. That great
Grey Seals breed also even far in among the Inner Hebrides
seems to be perfectly certain from notes in our possession, but
it is quite open to doubt if such an occurrence as the birth of
a Grey Seal has ever taken place anywhere upon the coast of
the mainland ” of Argyllshire.
On the southern and western coasts of Ireland these Seals
appear to retain their hold more than elsewhere, and they like-
wise seem to congregate in larger parties than in most other
places, at least a dozen having~ been seen together. Even
here, however, their numbers appear to be diminishing
steadily, although the persecuted creatures have, fortunately
for themselves, now become so shy and wary as to make it
very difficult to approach within range. A large specimen
shot by A. G. More, on a rocky island off the coast of Con-
nemara, in 1869, measured exactly eight feet in length, and
weighed close upon four hundred pounds; but Scottish
examples are stated to reach fully nine feet from the tip of
the nose to the extremity of the hind-flippers.
Habits.—In habits the Grey Seal is essentially an insular
and oceanic species, generally associating in pairs, although
occasionally, as we have seen to be the case on the Irish
coasts, consorting in small parties. In the Hebrides they take
up their quarters in the most exposed situations ; and produce
their young in September or October, or even as late as
November. When first born, the young Seal is clothed with
white hair, which is retained till such time as the creature is
able to take to the water, when the adult dress is assumed.
In Scandinavia, on the other hand, it is stated that the breed-
ing season is not till February ; a difference which Bell sug-
gests may be due to the difference in the climate of this region
from Britain, although it does not appear to us that this ex-
planation is adequate.
L 2
148 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
It may be mentioned that, like all the other British species,
the Grey Seal has no under-fur, and therefore does not yield
“ seal-skin.”
GENUS PHOCA.
Phoca, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 55 (1766).
Distinguished from the preceding genus by the relatively
smaller and more pointed teeth, and by those of the cheek-
series having accessory cusps, and mostly double roots. The
head also is rounded, instead of flattened, and the muzzle
naked and not truncated, while the brain-cavity of the skull is
proportionately much larger.
The short front-flippers are furnished with five stout, some-
what compressed and curved, and rather sharp claws ; while,
those of the hind-feet are narrower and less curved.
The genus includes several species from the northern hemi-
sphere, among which are the majority of those frequenting the
British coasts.
I. COMMON SEAL. PHOCA VITULINA.
Phoca vitulina, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i, pe 56 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 240 (1874).
Phoca variegata, Nilsson, Skandinav. Faun. vol. i. p. 359
(1820).
Callocephalus vitulinus, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxix.
p- 544 (1826); Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus.
p. 20 (1866).
(Plate XVII.)
Characters.—Considerably smaller than Halicherus grypus, to
which it closely approximates in general coloration, the upper-
parts being yellowish-grey spotted with black and brown, while
the under-parts are light silvery-grey. Cheek-teeth crowded
together, and placed obliquely in the jaws. Total length, from
4 to § feet.
WHS NOWWOD
UAX B&LV 1d
SEALS. 149
Distribution. This Seal, the second of the two species which
alone breed on the British coasts, has a wider and also a more
northerly distribution than the Grey Seal, being found not
only on both sides of the North Atlantic, but likewise in the
North Pacific. Northwards its range includes Spitsbergen,
Greenland, and Davis Straits; while southwards it is found
commonly on the northern shores of France and Holland, but
is stated to be rare in the Baltic. Formerly abundant, in
such localities as are suited to its habits, throughout the
British coasts, this Seal has now practically disappeared from
those of the more southern and eastern counties of England,
although even there an occasional straggler now and then
Skull of Common Seal.
makes its appearance, one such instance having occurred not
many years ago at Brighton. On the more rocky shores of the
western counties, as well as in Wales, it is, however, still far
from uncommon; the same being the case in the northern
English counties. On the coasts of the Lake district, where
the shore is generally sandy and without islands, it is, how-
ever, decidedly rare, although, according to the Rev. H. A.
Macpherson, a few old individuals occur now and again both
in Morecambe Bay and in the main channel of the English Sol-
way. On the coasts of the mainland of Scotland this species
150 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
may be still met with in considerable numbers, although
it is less abundant than formerly, even in the Hebrides and
other islands. On the coasts of Sutherland and Caithness,
Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley write that it is not un-
common in some localities, especially in the Firths of the
north coast, and occurring all along the coasts in the west.
Another resort on the east coast is a sand-bank at the entrance
of the Dornoch Firth, visible from the town of Tain, where
Seals used to lie in large numbers, until persecuted by long-
range punt-guns. Although it has long been known that this
Seal will often ascend rivers for long distances in pursuit of its
favourite Salmon, it is not so much a matter of common know-
ledge that it will take up its residence for longer or shorter
periods in inland fresh-water lakes. The authors last mentioned
have, however, collected evidence of the occurrence of many
of these Seals both in Loch Awe, in Argyllshire, and also in
Loch Shiel. On the Irish coasts—and more especially on the
west and east—the common Seal was formerly abundant in
suitable localities, although even in Thompson’s time they were
becoming scarce in Belfast Bay, where a portion of the coast,
where they were once common, bears the name of, “ Craig-a-vad,”
or “Seal” rock.
Habits —Unlike the Grey Seal, the present species is essen-
tially gregarious, congregating in herds of as many as two or
three dozen individuals, which, when in repose, may be seen
lying on the shore as closely packed as possible, with their
heads all turned seawards. In spite, however, of its northern
range it is not an Ice-Seal, never frequenting the ice-fields or
ice-floes of the polar ocean, but generally resorting to sheltered
fjords and caves, where food is abundant, and the depth of
water not too great to render its capture a matter of difficulty.
Macgillivray writes that it “frequents estuaries, sea-lochs, bays,
and the channels between islands, where it may be seen
SEALS. 151
occasionally protruding its head above the surface, sometimes
following a boat or vessel ata distance, but generally keeping
beyond reach of shot. It feeds exclusively on fishes, in pur-
suit of which it can remain several minutes immersed. At
low water it often betakes itself to rocks or small islands, on
which it reposes until the return of the tide; and I have seen
droves of twenty or more individuals thus basking in the sun.
In estuaries they sometimes repose on the sands, where they
are liable to be surprised, if the water be distant, for their
movements on land are exceedingly awkward, and their hurry
in endeavouring to escape when approached forms an amusing
sight, as they seem to tumble about in a ludicrous manner, throw-
ing themselves headlong into the water from the rocks. When
there are caverns on the coast, they find a more secure retreat
in them, since, if attacked, they can escape by diving.”
While in the sea, the Common Seal lives largely upon Floun-
ders; but it is also especially fond of Salmon and Sea-Trout, and
itis in pursuit of these latter that it so frequently ascends long
distances up rivers. The young—usually one, but occasionally
two in number—are born in June, or thereabouts, after a gesta-
tion of nine months, Although the new-born young are clothed
in a coat of white hairs, as in the case of the Grey Seal, yet it
appears that instead of being retained for two or three weeks,
as in the latter, this is replaced by the adult coat very shortly
after birth, the offspring at the same time taking to the water.
The fondness of Seals for musical sounds is well-known, and
the following account, communicated to Macgillivray by a
resident in the Hebrides, illustrates this very graphically. ‘In
walking along the shore in districts where Seals were abundant
in the calm of a summer afternoon,” writes the narrator, “a
few notes of my flute would bring half-a-score of them within
thirty or forty yards of me; and there they would swim about,
with their heads above water, like so many black dogs,
i§2 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
evidently delighted with the sounds. For half-an-hour, or,
indeed, for any length of time I chose, I could fix them to the
spot, and when I moved along the water’s edge they would
follow me with eagerness, like the Dolphins, which, it is said,
attended Arion, as if anxious to prolong the enjoyment. I
have frequently witnessed the same effect when out on a boat-
excursion. The sound of the flute, or of a common fife,
blown by one of the boatmen, was no sooner heard than half-
a-dozen would start up within a few yards, wheeling round us
as long as the music played, and disappearing, one after
another, when it ceased.
“Other occasions occurred during my residence in these
islands of witnessing the habits of these creatures. While
my pupils and I were bathing, which we often did in the _
bosom of a beautiful bay in the island, named, from the
circumstance of its being the favourite haunt of the animal,
Seal-Bay, numbers of them invariably made their appear-
ance, especially if the weather was calm and sunny, and
the sea smooth, crowding around us at the distance of a few
yards, and looking as if they had some kind of notion that
we were of the same species, or at least genus, with them-
selves. The gambols in the water of my playful companions,
and their noise and merriment, seemed, to our imagination, to
excite them, and to make them course round us with greater
rapidity and animation. At the same time, the slightest at-
tempt on our part to act on the offensive, by throwing at them
a stone or a shell, was the signal for their instantaneous dis-
appearance, each, as it vanished, leaving the surface of the
water beautifully figured with a wavy succession of concentric
circles.
“ On hot days in summer I have seen great numbers of them
stretched in groups on the rocks at the bottom of Seal-Bay,
which had been left dry by the receding tide. There they
SEALS. 153
would lie lazily along, basking in the warm sun, like so many
large swine, and nearly of the same colour.
“The fishermen on the island used to assert that, Jike many
other animals both of the land and the water, they never repose
without stationing a sentinel on the watch. I cannot posi-
tively confirm this, but I have often observed that during the
general slumber one of the number, but not always the same
individual, would raise its head for a second or two, turning it
half round, and again stretch itself in repose. Ever and anon,
too, we would hear from some one of the group a melancholy
moan coming slowly over the surface of the deep, wild and
savage in the sound.”
The proportionately much larger capacity of the brain in the
Common, as compared with that of the Grey Seal, would naturally
suggest that the former is a far more intelligent creature than
the latter; and actual experience proves this to be the case.
Thus, whereas the Grey Seal isa dull and phlegmatic animal,
exhibiting no signs of pleasure in musical sounds and display-
ing no attachment to its owner when in captivity, the present
species can be readily tamed, and exhibits not only a high
degree of affection for its master, but likewise great general
intelligence. A well-known story is related in Maxwell’s ‘Wild
Sports of the West ” of a Seal which had been captured young
in Clew Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, and tamed by the
servants of a neighbouring landowner. There it remained for
upwards of four years, and so great was its attachment to the
house, that after being carried out to sea three times and there
left, it returned home on each occasion. With unspeakable
cruelty, on the last of these occasions, the poor animal had
been deprived of its sight, but even then it returned after an
interval of eight days. Another individual, which was tamed
by an Irish gentleman in 1819, appeared, according to Thomp-
son’s account, ‘‘ to possess all the sagacity of the dog, and lived
154 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
in its master’s house and ate from his hand. In his fishing
excursions this gentleman generally took it vith him, upon
which occasions it afforded no small entertainment. When
thrown into the water, it would follow for miles the track of the
boat, and although thrust back by the oars, it never relinquished
its purpose ; indeed, it struggled so hard to regain its seat that
one would imagine its fondness for its master had entirely
overcome the natural predilection for its native element.”
From the value of its skin, and the amount of oil yielded by
its fat, this Seal is much hunted by fishermen, which has re-
sulted in the diminution of its numbers already alluded to.
Although the flesh of the adult is dark-coloured and somewhat
rank, that of the young is tender and by no means unpalatable.
Unless killed outright by the first shot, when in the water, they
are liable to be lost, as they dive immediately on being struck,
and are seldom seen again. Moreover, even if killed, unless
the boat is rowed up speedily and the body secured, it will
likewise be lost, as a dead Seal, more especially if it be in poor
condition, immediately sinks to the bottom.
Il. RINGED SEAL. PHOCA HISPIDA.
Phoca hispida, Schreber, Saugethiere vol. iii. pl. 86 (? 1776);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 247 (1874). *
Phoca fetida, Fabricius, in Miuller’s Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 8
(1766) ; without description, and the name subsequently
withdrawn by its author.
Phoca annullata, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, p. 362 (1820).
Callocephalus discolor, ¥. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix., p.
545 (1826).
Pagomys fetidus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p.
23 (1866).
Characters.—Very similar in external appearance to the last,
but of somewhat smaller size, and the colour of the upper
SEALS. 155
parts blackish-grey, generally marked with more or less distinct
oval whitish rings; under-parts whitish; hair soft, and nearly
erect. Cheek-teeth not crowded together, and placed in a
straight line. ‘Total length, generally from 3 to 4 feet.
The skull may be distinguished by the pre-maxillary bones
(those carrying the incisor teeth) running up some distance by
the sides of the nasals, instead of not touching them at all, or
only at the tips; while the hinder foramina on the palate open
either on or behind the suture between the maxille and pala-
tine bones, instead of in the maxille themselves.
Distribution. But a very rare and casual visitor to the British
coasts, the Ringed Seal is an essentially northern species, in-
habiting the Arctic Ocean and the shores of the North Atlantic
and North Pacific, being especially plentiful among the ice-
floes of Davis Strait, but in Greenland mainly confined to the
northern districts. An undoubted example of this Seal was
taken on the Norfolk coast in 1846, and sold in a fresh con
dition in the Norwich market ; and there is some evidence that
the species occasionally visits the Hebrides. It is also stated
by Mr. J. Cordeaux that an example occurred on the Lincoln-
shire coast so recently as the year 1889. Sir William Turner
records its remains from the glacial clays of various parts of
Scotland.
Habits.—On this point it will suffice to say that this specics
is an Ice-Seal, dwelling in the neighbourhood of the coast-ice
of the northern oceans, and seldom visiting the open sea. In
such situations it preys on fish which are captured in a hole
kept open, by some means not fully known, in the ice; passing
such portions of its time as are not occupied in fishing, in sleep.
The single offspring is born late in the winter or early in the
spring on the solid ice, and is stated to take to the water
before shedding its baby-coat of light-coloured hair, which is
156 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
usually retained for about a month after birth. The skin,
although used for clothing by the natives of Northern Green-
land, is not so much valued as that of the Common Seal.
lll, THE HARP-SEAL, PHOCA GRENLANDICA.
Phoca grenlandica, Fabricius, in Miiller’s Zool. Dan. Prodr. p.
vill. (1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 252
(1874).
Callocephalus grenlandicus, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix.
P- 545 (1826).
Pagophilus grenlandicus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit.
Mus. p. 25 (1866).
(Plate XVIII.)
Characters—General colour tawny-grey or yellowish-white,
sometimes spotted; males with a somewhat harp-shaped or
crescentic blackish mark crossing the shoulders and extending
down each flank, and the muzzle also dark-coloured. Cheek-
teeth separated, and arranged in a straight line. Total length,
from 4 to 5 feet.
The skull may be readily distinguished from that of either of
the preceding species by the circumstance that the free hinder
margin of the bony palate is almost entire, instead of being
deeply and acutely notched; while the two branches of the
lower jaw, in place of diverging at once, are nearly parallel in
front.
According to Jukes, the young of the Harp-Seal are white
until they are six or seven weeks old, during which period they
are termed “White-coats” in Newfoundland; at the age of one
year, small spots make their appearance, and in two years
larger spots ; while it is not till the third year that the males
(then called “Saddle-backs”) assume the characteristic dark
harp-shaped markings.
PLATE XV.
HARP -SEAL.
SEALS. 157
Distribution.—As arctic in its distribution as the preceding
species, the Harp, or, as it is often called, the Greenland Seal, is
an equally rare and casual visitor to the British Islands, and,
indeed, it is only recently that a skull has been definitely
identified as pertaining to a British specimen. The general
distribution of the species is the same as that of the Ringed
Seal, since it occurs in the northern seas of both hemispheres.
As regards its occurrence in Britain, two Seals killed in the
Severn in 1836 were referred to this species by Bell, and
although doubts were subsequently thrown on the correct-
ness of this identification, the same gentleman maintained its
Skull of the Harp-Seal.
accuracy. Gray also identified with this species the skin of a
young Seal taken in the Thames at Isleworth in 1858; and
Macgillivray provisionally did the same with another from the
Firth of Forth. More satisfactory is the evidence with regard
to an immature Seal captured in Morecambe Bay in January,
1868, the skull of which is now preserved in the museum at
Kendal; Sir William Turner (Journ. Anatomy and Physiology,
vol. ix. p. 163) confidently assigning it to the species under
consideration. Regarding its alleged occurrence in the Scottish
Isles, Mr. H. D. Graham (Proc. Wat. Hist, Soc. Glasgow, vol. i.,
158 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
p. 53) gave an account of three Seals seen by himself in West
Loch Tarbet, off Jura, which he confidently identified with the
Harp-Seal; and three others have been reported from Loch
Scridain, in Mull. Mr. Harvie-Brown records a Seal shot at
Kintradwell some time previous to 1870 as referable in all pro-
bability to this species ; while he adds that one killed, although
lost, by himself in the Hebrides, was likewise a Harp-Seal.
Finally, a Seal shot in county Galway, about the year 1856,
is considered to indicate the right of this species to be included
in the list of Irish Mammals.
Habits—Like the Ringed Seal, the Harp-Seal is found chiefly
on, or in the neighbourhood of, ice, frequenting both the solid
ice-fields and the detached floes. It differs, however, from that
species in that it does not make a breathing-hole in the ice for
fishing. Writing of its habits in Spitsbergen, Professor Alfred
Newton writes that the Harp-Seal “is of a sociable disposition,
and we saw it in herds of not less than fiftyin number. These
were very fond of swimming in line, their heads only above
water, engaged in a game of ‘ Follow-my-leader,’ for, on the first
Seal making a roll over or a spring in the air, each Seal of the
whole procession on arriving at the same spot did the like, and
exactly in the same manner.” In addition to consuming large
quantities of Salmon and other fish, this Seal likewise feeds
upon molluscs and crustacearis. During the month of March,
while on the field-ice, the female Seal gives birth to her offspring
which may be either one, two, cr even, it is said, occasionally
three innumber. The white baby-coat is retained by the young
Seal for two or three weeks ; and it is not till after losing this
that it takes to the water.
THE HOODED SEALS. GENUS CYSTOPHORA.
Cystophora, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna vol. i. p. 382 (1820).
This genus differs from the two previously mentioned in that
HOODED SEAL. 159
the incisor teeth are reduced to two pairs in the upper, and toa
single pair in the lower jaw; the total number of teeth thus being
only thirty. The cheek-teeth, with the usual exception of the
last, are inserted in the jaws by a single root each; and the
first and fifth toes of the hind-feet are much longer than the
three middle ones, and are provided with small rudimental
nails, while the webs connecting the toes project in the form of
lobes considerably beyond the extremities of the latter. On
the nose of the adult male is an inflatable sac lying beneath
the skin, capable of being dilated so as to form a kind of hood
extending backwards to cover the head.
HOODED SEAL. CYSTOPHORA CRISTATA,
Phoca cristata, Erxleben, Syst. Regne Animal. p. 590 (1777).
Cystophora cristata, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, p. 327 (1820);
Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 41 (1866) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 257 (1874).
Cystophora borealis, Nilsson, of. cit., p. 383 (1820).
Stemmatopus cristatus, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix.
Pp. 551 (1826).
Characters.—In this, the only species of the genus, the general
colour of the fur of the upper-parts is dark grey, marked with
spots of a still deeper shade ; the under-parts being lighter and
uniform. Total length, from 7 to 10 feet.
Distribution—This large and curious member of the Seal
family is an inhabitant of the colder regions of the North Atlantic,
although not extending to the extreme north, which probably
accounts for its not being circum-polar. Migratory in its habits,
occurring in South Grcenland from April till June, and again
making its appearance in August, some few individuals straggle
as far south as Iceland and Northern Scandinavia, while still
more rarely others make their appearance now and then on the
160 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
coasts of Britain, or even of France. The first undoubted
British example of this species was taken in the River Orwell
during the summer of 1847; it was a very young animal, and
its skin is preserved in the museum at Ipswich. A second
young specimen was seen on a rock in the sea at St. Andrews
in the summer of 1872, and was killed with stones. Other
specimens are more or less vaguely reported to have been taken
on the Scottish coasts ; while it is not improbable that a Seal
seen many years ago near Westport, in Ireland, belonged to
the present species.
Habits.—The Hooded, or, as it is often called, the Bladder-
nosed Seal, is especially characterised by its migratory habits,
to which allusion has already been made, and the extreme
ferocity of its disposition, Not only do the males fight to-
gether for the possession of females to add to their harem
(this being one of the few species of true Seals which are
polygamous), but when attacked on the ice they will boldly face
their adversaries, instead of precipitately fleeing, after the
general custom of their tribe. On such occasions the sac on
the nose is inflated, as if with the purpose of terrifying the
assailants. The chief food of this Seal is stated to consist of
Cod and Flounders ; and the species spends the greater part
of its time on the ice, upon which the young are born in the
spring.
THE WALRUSES. FAMILY TRICHECHIDA.
The Walruses, of which there is but a single existing genus,
differ structurally from the true Seals in that, when on land,
the hind-flippers are bent forwards under the body, and aid in
terrestrial progression; this being a feature in which they
resemble the Eared Seals (O¢ariida). In the absence of
external ears they agree, however, with the true Seals. Their
WALRUS. 161
dentition, on the other hand, is quite unlike that of either of
the other two Families of the sub-order, the upper canines
forming enormous downwardly directed tusks, while all the
other teeth are inserted by single roots, and have very simple
crowns, which in those of the cheek-series are flattened.
THE WALRUSES, GENUS TRICHECHUS,
Trichechus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 49 (1766).
Size very large; head rounded, with relatively small eyes,
and the muzzle short and wide; tail rudimental; the five toes
of the fore-feet of nearly equal length, and furnished with
minute flattened nails; in the hind-feet, the fifth toe slightly
the largest, and, like the first, with a nail like those of the fore-
feet, the nails of the three middle toes being long, narrow, and
pointed ; the webs of the hind-feet projecting in advance of the
toes in the form of lobes. In the adult only eighteen teeth,
forming a pair of small incisors in the upper jaw, and another
of enormous canines ; the lower canines being small, and very
similar to the pre-molars, of which there are three pairs in each
jaw.
THE WALRUS. TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS.
Trichechus rosmarus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 49
(1766) ; Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 36
(1866) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 269
(1874).
Rosmarus arcticus, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso.-Asiat. vol. i. p. 269
(1811).
Odobenus rosmarus, Allen (e Malmgren), North American
Pinnipeds, p. 23 (1880).
Characters-—Muzzle furnished on each side with a bunch of
quill-like bristles ; hair short and closely pressed to the skin, of
5 M
162 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
a greyish-brown colour, but becoming lighter with age, and in
very old individuals to a great extent disappearing, and leaving
the body nearly naked. Total length, from 12 to 15 feet.
Distribution.—Essentially an inhabitant of the frozen regions
of the north, the Walrus, or Morse, has but slight claim to be
regarded as a British animal, so far at least as the historical
period is concerned. Typically from the North Atlantic and
Arctic Oceans, this species may probably be regarded as
likewise an inhabitant of the North Pacific, since, in our
Skull of Walrus,
opinion, the view taken by the American naturalists that
the Pacific Walrus is entitled to rank as a distinct species is
untenable. Apart from certain early references to its reported
occurrence on the coast of Scotland, the first definite record of
the occurrence of the Walrus within our limits is one given by
Macgillivray, who states that the example in question was shot
while reposing on a rock at Caolas Stocnis, in the island of
Harris, during the winter of 1817. This specimen, which was
actually seen in the flesh by its describer, measured ten feet
WALRUS. 163
in length, and yielded two barrels of blubber. A second
example was killed in the summer of 1825 on the island of
Edday, in the Orkneys ; while two years later a third is stated
to have been seen in Hoy Sound. A fourth was killed in the
spring of 1841 on the island of East Haskar, near Harris ;
while two others are reported to have been seen in the
Orkneys—the one in 1857, and the other somewhere about
the same date.
The discovery of a skull, now preserved in the Cambridge
Museum, in the peat near Ely, would seem to indicate that in
former times ilie Walrus not only visited the shores of the
eastern coast, but that it ascended the larger rivers. Its
former occurrence on the same coast is confirmed by a lower
jaw dredged from the Dogger Bank (where teeth of the
Mammoth are so commonly obtained), now in the British
Museum. :
At a still earlier epoch, when the climate was probably
much colder than at the present day, Walruses (which have
been referred to an extinct species) appear to have been by no
means uncommon on our eastern coast, where they were
doubtless resident. Fragments of the tusks of these animals
have been disinterred not only from the so-called “forest-bed” of
Cromer, in Norfolk, but likewise from the still older Red Crag
of Suffolk and Essex, which belongs to the upper portion of
the Pliocene epoch.
Habits.—In the case of animals like the Walrus, whose only
claim to be regarded as British rests on the occurrence of some
half-dozen stragglers which have wandered or been carried
from their northern home, our notice of habits will be of the
briefest. It may be mentioned, however, that Walruses are
essentially gregarious animals, which in former days con-
gregated on the ice or shores of the Arctic regions in herds
often comprising hundreds of individuals. Their food con-
M 2
164 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
sists mainly of molluscs and crustaceans, grubbed up from
the mud by the aid of the tusks; and for crushing the hard
shells of these the other teeth are most admirably adapted.
Whether, as alleged, the tusks are also employed in aiding the
creature to climb up on the ice, is a point in regard to which
there is a difference of opinion among observers. The young,
usually one, but occasionally two in number, are born on the
ice from April to June, and are tended and defended by the
female with remarkable solicitude and bravery.
THE RODENTS, OR GNAWING MAMMALS.
ORDER RODENTIA.
THE possession of a single pair of chisel-like incisor teeth in
the lower jaw, which grow continuously throughout life, and are
opposed by a similar pair of upper teeth, is of itself a sufficient
character to distinguish the Rodents, or Gnawing Mammals,
from all the other British representatives of the Class to which
they belong. In the lower jaw only this single pair of incisors
is developed, and the same is the case in the great majority of
the members of the Order as regards the upper jaw, although
in the Hares and Rabbits, as well as in their foreign cousins the
Pikas, a small and functionless second pair of upper incisors is
to be found behind the large ones. These chisel-like incisor
teeth have, as an almost invariable rule, a coating of hard
enamel only on their front surfaces, the result of which is that
they have a cutting-edge formed and kept continually sharp by
the action of gnawing food and other hard substances. Since
these teeth form a segment ofa circle and grow continuously
throughout the life of their owner, if one by any chance happens
to get broken it results that the opposing tooth, having nothing
to wear against it, grows to a great length beyond the gums,
curving round, and sometimes actually piercing the skull of its
RODENTS. 165
unfortunate owner. Although in many cases the enamel on the
front of the incisor teeth of Rodents is of the ordinary white
colour, in others it is stained some shade of yellow, brown, red,
or even black.
Behind these incisors there occurs a long tooth-less gap,
owing to the total want of canines. Then follow the cheek-
teeth, which are generally only four in number on each side
of both the upper and lower jaws, owing to the loss of the
anterior pre-molars, there being never more than three pairs of
the latter teeth, while in some cases they are totally wanting.
The cheek-teeth have flattened crowns adapted for grinding ;
and while in some cases these are surmounted by blunt tuber-
cles, they are more generally inter-penetrated by in-folds of the
enamel from the sides or summits, or both, by which in the
worn state they are divided into laminze, or have islands of
enamel on the grinding surface.
The lower jaw is articulated to the skull by a knob, or con-
dyle, elongated longitudinally, and thus permitting of the back-
wards-and-forwards “ munching ” movement so characteristic of
these animals when eating.
The feet are either completely, or almost completely, planti-
grade, and are usually furnished with five toes, generally armed
with sharp claws, although in a few instances these terminal
appendages partake more of the nature of hoofs. In nearly
all cases collar-bones are present, although these may be incom-
plete, or even rudimentary. In no case is the socket for the
eye in the skull surrounded by a ring of bone.
In number the Rodents exceed any other of the Mammalian
Orders; and they have likewise a wider geographical distribution,
being practically cosmopolitan and represented even in Aus-
tralia. They are, however, by no means evenly spread over
the globe, and attain their greatest development in South
America. Jn accordance with this general numerical superi-
166 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
ority, we find their British representatives exceeding in this
respect the terrestrial members of any other Order belonging to
our fauna.
With the exception of one South American species, existing
Rodents are mostly animals of comparatively small size, many
being very minute. Although some are aquatic, and others
arboreal in their mode of life, the majority are terrestrial. By far
the greater number are exclusively vegetable feeders, and
there are scarcely any which do not eat vegetable food of some
kind or other. Consequently they are, of all Mammals, the
most harmful to the agriculturist.
Although the Order is divided into a very large number of
Families, only four are now represented in the British Islands,
two of which have but a single species each. Within ‘the
historic period a fourth Family—the Beavers—was, however,
represented by its typical member within our area,
THE SQUIRRELS AND MARMOTS.
FAMILY SCIURIDZ.
Confining our attention throughout our description to the
British representatives of the Order, the Squirrels may be
defined as Rodents with cylindrical hairy tails, having cheek-
teeth furnished with roots and carrying tubercles on their
crowns, and by the presence of two pairs of pre-molars in the
upper, and one pair in the lower jaw, the first pair of upper
pre-molars being, however, often minute, and not unfrequently
shed at an early age.
With the exception of Australasia, this numerous Family is
cosmopolitan in its distribution, and while its typical represen-
tatives—the Squirrels—are arboreal, the Marmots are terres-
trial.
“THUaINOS NOWNOO
“xx « divid
SQUIRREL. 167
THE TRUE SQUIRRELS. GENUS SCIURUS.
Sciurus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12,.vol. i. p. 86 (1766).
Tail long and bushy ; ears generally well developed and
often tufted ; feet adapted for climbing, the front pair with the
first toe rudimentary. Teats four to six in number. First pair
of upper pre-molar teeth minute, and frequently shed at an
early state. Collar-bones complete.
THE COMMON SQUIRREL. SCIURUS VULGARIS,
Scurus vulgaris, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 86 (1766) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 276 (1874).
(Plate XIX.)
_ Characters.—General colour brownish-red on the upper-parts,
and white beneath; tail very bushy and coloured like the body;
ears tufted during a portion of the year; first upper pre-molar
tooth frequently shed. Length of head and body, about 3%4
inches ; of tail, exclusive of hair, 7 inches, with the hair,
8 inches.
The Squirrel is subject to certain variations of colour accord-
ing to age and the time of the year, and there seems likewise to
bz some difference due to locality. After mentioning that the
female is smaller, and generally of a lighter colour than the
male, Macgillivray writes on this subject as follows :—In
younger individuals the colour is redder than in adults, in
which it is seldom destitute of a grey tinge; ‘“‘and I have seen
some in which the grey predominated over the red. In April
and May the hair of the upper-parts assumes a singularly
faded appearance, losing its gloss and assuming a light yellowish
tint. In the latter month the process of depilation commences,
to be completed by the end of June, when the ears are desti-
tute of tufts. It appears that the long hairs which fringe the
ears are not proportionately longer than the rest until Novem-
168 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
ber, that they then gradually elongate, attain their extreme
development in spring, and remain un-shed till June. In the
northern regions of Europe the grey colour in winter is more
decided, and the fur of denser and finer texture.” Bell adds
that towards the end of summer the tail not unfrequently
becomes more or less decidedly cream-coloured. A variety
inhabiting the Alps and Pyrenees is characterised by the back
being dark brown, mottled with yellowish-white, while the
under-parts are pure white.
Distribution.—The distribution of the common Squirrel is
extensive, ranging from Ireland across Europe and Asia,
Skull of Squirrel.
north of the Himalaya as far as Japan, while in the opposite
direction it embraces Northern Italy in the south and Lapland
in the north. It will be obvious, however, that, from the nature
of its habits, the animal is only found in more or less well-
timbered districts. Throughout the whole of England the
Squirrel appears to be pretty generally distributed in suitable
localities. According to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, there
appears, however, to be some degree of probability that the
existing breed has not inhabited the Lake district for much
more than a century. Whether, however, the animal was
originally indigenous to the district, and was destroyed by the
felling of the forests, and afterwards again introduced, or
whether it was originally unknown there, has not been decided,
SQUIRREL. 169
Occurring throughout the lowlands, the Squirrel was formerly
present in the north of Scotland, but, according to Mr, Harvie-
Brown, appears to have become extinct towards the close of
the last century—not improbably owing to the severe winter of
1795. In Sutherland it seems to have reappeared in 1859,
but it was not till ten years later that, by the construction of a
railway bridge, it was enabled to enter the east of that county.
Since that date these animals have thriven and multiplied ;
although they are still unknown in Caithness, as they are in
Argyllshire and the Hebrides. Apparently distributed over the
whole or the greater part of Ireland, they seem to be in general
less common there than in England ; and it is not improbable
that the species was introduced.
From the nature of its habits, remains of Squirrels are
unlikely to be found in cavern-deposits, and it does not appear
that any have hitherto been obtained therefrom. A limb-bone
has, however, been disinterred from the “forest-bed” of the
Norfolk coast, indicating the occurrence of the animal in our
eastern forests at the comparatively remote epoch when that
formation was deposited.
Habits.— Writing of its mode of life, Macgillivray observes :—
“The agility of the Squirrel, its lively disposition, and beautiful
form, render it a general favourite. It is amusing to watch it
in its arboreal excursions, when you see it ascending the trunk
and branches with surprising speed, running out even on
slender twigs, always, when in motion; keeping its tail depressed,
occasionally performing leaps from one branch to another,
and when alarmed, scampering away at such a rate that you
almost expect to see it miss its footing and fall down headlong.
It feeds on nuts, beech-mast, acorns, buds, and the bark of
young branches; generally, while eating, sitting on its haunches,
with its tail elevated, holding the object between its paws, and
170 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
dexterously unshelling the kernel, from which it even removes
the outer pellicle before munching it. It does not reside
entirely on trees, but frequently resorts to the ground, where it
moves with nearly equal agility, leaping like a rabbit. The
female produces three or four young ones about Midsummer,
which are deposited in a nest, formed of moss, fibrous roots,
grass, and leaves, curiously interwoven, and placed in a hole,*
or in the fork between two large branches.
“ Tn autumn it lays up a store of provisions for winter, but
usually in an irregular manner, depositing nuts in different
places in the ground, and in holes in trees. When the cold
weather commences, it becomes less active, and often dozes
for days in its retreat, but it does not become completely
torpid; and I have seen it abroad in the midst of a most,
severe snow-storm. If the weather be comparatively mild, it
exhibits its usual activity, feeding on ba.k and twigs.”
The latter sentences of this account show conclusively that it
has long been a well-known fact that Squirrels do not hibernate
in the proper sense of the word, and, therefore, render super-
fluous a notice of a discussion which recently took place on
this subject in the pages of the Zoologist. One observer,
quoted by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, states that even,
during the severe snow-storms in the spring of 1881, Squirrels
never failed to pay their accustomed daily visits to his house in
Cumberland ; while a second mentions that in the same county
he would feel sure of finding traces of these animals whenever
snow lies on the ground, adding that they dread damp and wet
far more than cold.
That the Squirrel is decidedly a harmful creature to the
owners of plantations, must, we think, be admitted; since the
* With reference to this remark, Mr. Trevor-Battye writes :—‘ This, in
my experience, is not an unusual position for a nest, but a fir-tree bough is
much the commonest situation, though the nest is often fovnd ina fork,
where the branches of a beech-tree separate off,”
SQUIRREL, 171
damage it does to the buds and bark of young trees, especially
birch, sycamore, larch, and other conifers, is frequently very
great. Mr. Harting states that ‘‘ in plantations of Scotch fir,
larch, and occasionally spruce, they attack the trees in spring,
between April and June, when the sap is in full flow, biting off
the outer bark and consuming the inner. This stops the flow
of sap, which then becomes dry and resinous, and the first
high wind blows the top off.” Sometimes, indeed, the bark is
peeled off in rings completely round the stems or branches of
young trees, thus killing them at once.
In addition to the various kinds of vegetable food already
mentioned, it has been ascertained that Squirrels will eat
bilberries, truffles, and other fungi ; truffles being searched out
by scent and dug out. Oak-galls seem to be rather a puzzle to
Squirrels, which have been observed opening one after another
of these growths, as if in search of a kernel, although it is just
possible that grubs may have been the object. Less generally
known is the fact, that these Rodents will devour both young
birds and eggs; such nests as are situated in holes of trees
being, according to Mr. Harting, those most generally plun-
dered. One instance is on record where a Squirrel was seen
to kill and partially eat a fully-fledged Starling ; while in another
case one out of a flock of Sparrows was the victim. This
carnivorous habit, however, is only a depraved taste on the
part of certain individuals, as when a Kestrel visits the Phea-
sant-coops.
As is well-known, if taken at a sufficiently early age, Squirrels
can be readily tamed and domesticated, when they form in-
teresting and amusing little pets.
Formerly, according to Mr. Poland, the fur of the common
Squirrel was at one time largely employed in England for boas,
no less than two-and-three-quarter millions of skins having
been imported in the year 1839. Since that date, however,
172 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
the trade has gradually declined, and is now mainly carried on
in Germany. The backs are used for several purposes, the
whitish under-parts are employed for the linings of cloaks,
while the tails are used in the manufacture of boas, and also as
trimmings. The so-called ‘“(Camels’-hair” paint-brushes are like-
wise made from Squirrel’s hair.
THE BEAVERS. FAMILY CASTORID.
The members of this Family are aquatic Rodents, differing from
the Sciuvide in having but a single pair of pre-molars in each
jaw, and in all the cheek-teeth being rootless and having re-
entering foldings of enamel on their crowns, which become
perfectly flat by wear; while, in the one existing genus, at
least, the tail is broad, depressed, and naked, and the hind-
feet are webbed. Moreover, the skull is devoid of projecting
processes on its upper surface defining the hinder border of
the socket of the eye.
GENUS CASTOR.
Castor, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 78 (1766).
Upper molar teeth sub-equal in size, with one fold of enamel
on the inner, and three on the outer side. Form massive ;
fur soft and thick; tail as above; hind-feet with an additional
rudimentary claw on the second toe.
THE EUROPEAN BEAVER. CASTOR FIBER.
Castor fiber, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 78 (1766).
Castor fossilis, Goldfuss, Nova Acta. Ac. Cas. Leop.-Car. vol.
xi. p. 488 (1823).
Castor europaeus, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 190 (1846).
Characters.—Since the Beaver is no longer an inhabitant of
the British Isles, it will be unnecessary to describe it, and it
BEAVER. 173
will suffice to point out that it differs from the North American
Beaver (C. canadensis) by the greater length of the nasal bones
of the skull, which extend upwards beyond the line of the
anterior border of the sockets of the eyes.
Distribution The Beaver was formerly distributed over the
greater part of Europe, and extending from the British Islands
through France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Poland, and Livonia,
to Lapland, and thence through the Scandinavian Peninsula,
but, through incessant persecution, it has been exterminated
from most of its ancient haunts, although solitary individuals, or
small colonies, are still met with in certain parts of the Continent.
It might have been supposed that, in the remote regions of the
north, the animal would still flourish in numbers, although such
appears not to be the case, the last known Lapland Beaver hay-
ing been killed previously to 1830. There is, however, still a
thriving colony in Norway. In Northern Russia the rivers
Dwina and Petchora, respectively discharging into the White
Sea and the Arctic Ocean, were the resort of Beavers as late as
1842, but there appear to be none left now. Formerly extend-
ing as far east as Amurland, in the basin of the Ob, in Western
Siberia, they are exterminated in the valley of the Irtish,
although they lingered in the tributary of the Ob, known as
the Pelyin, up to 1876. From the Yenisei, in Eastern Siberia,
they have completely disappeared ; but information is required
with regard to the Lena.
In the British Isles the Beaver has long since been as com-
pletely exterminated as the Wolf and the Bear, although evidence
of its former existence within the historic period is afforded
either by the names of places or documentary records or
tradition ; while the abundance of semi-fossilised remains attests
its existence in still earlier epochs. For most of this evidence
naturalists are indebted to the researches of Mr. J. E. Harting
174 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Of its existence within the historic period in England, there
appears to be neither documentary nor oral evidence; and we
are therefore compelled to rely on the circumstantial evidence
of place-names. Among these, may be mentioned Beverage
in Worcestershire, Bevercater in Nottinghamshire, Beverley in
Yorkshire, Beverstone in Gloucestershire, and Beversbrook in
Wiltshire. Moreover, about a mile to the north of Worcester
a small brook enters the Severn known as Barbourne, or Beaver-
bourne, while near by is an island known as Beaver Island, and
higher up the river a second island called Beverege, or Beaver-
age, likewise giving the name to an adjoining hamlet, which
is the one alluded to above.
Turning to Wales, we find Beavers’ skins mentioned in the
year 940 among the laws of Howel Dha; while Giraldus in
1188 makes reference to the fact that Beavers were then living
in one of the rivers of Cardiganshire. It may be added that
the name of Llyn-yr-Afange, which is said to be applied to
more than one piece of water in the Principality, means the
Beavers’ lake.
With regard to Scotland, the historic evidence is unfortu-
nately somewhat doubtful. Giraldus states, indeed, from hearsay,
that Beavers were still occasionally seen in his time in Loch
Ness, and Boethius made a similar statement in 1527; but
Alston considered that by this date the Beaver had ceased to
exist in Scotland. That it will flourish there, is demonstrated
by the colony introduced by the Marquis of Bute into the island
from which he takes his title.
If the foregoing evidence is scant and somewhat unsatis-
factory, the semi-fossilised remains of the Beaver found in
many parts of England, and also in the south of Scotland, afford
conclusive testimony as to its former abundance. In various
superficial deposits, such as the fens of Cambridgeshire and
Lincolnshire, the turbaries of the Lea valley at Walthamstow
DORMICE. 175
in Essex, such remains are of more or less common occurrence,
and are frequently found in a fine state of preservation. Some
of these deposits, such as those of the Thames valley, un-
doubtedly belong to the Pleistocene period, but at least a
portion of the fen-peat may be pretty safely assigned to the
pre-historic epoch. The counties from which such remains
have been obtained include Berkshire, Berwickshire, Cam-
bridgeshire, Dumfriesshire, Essex, Hampshire, Lincolnshire,
Norfolk, Perthshire, Roxburghshire, Wiltshire, and Yorkshire.
Remains of the Beaver have likewise been obtained from Kent’s
Hole, near Torquay, in company with those of the Mammoth,
Hairy Rhinoceros, and other extinct animals ; and likewise from
the so-called “ forest-bed ” of the Norfolk coast.
In the case of Ireland, we have neither the evidence of history
nor of fossil remains, and it is therefore quite likely that the
range of the Beaver never included that island.
Following our general rule with regard to exterminated
species, we shall not give any account of the habits of the
Beaver. It may be mentioned, however, that the use of the
additional claw on the second toe of the hind-foot is at present
quite unknown, and that those who have an opportunity of
observing the American Beaver in its native haunts will do
good service by ascertaining what this may be.
THE DORMICE. FAMILY MYOXID.
The Dormice are small arboreal Rodents, with long Squirrel-
like tails, large ears and eyes, and short fore-limbs, and may
be distinguished from all other British represen‘atives of the
Order by having a single pair of pre-molars in each jaw,and by all
the cheek-teeth being rooted, and having their crowns inter-
penetrated by transverse enamel-folds, which in some cases
assume a very complicated pattern. Internally these Rodents
are distinguished from all other members of the Order by the
176 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
circumstance that the intestine is devoid of a blind appendage
or cecum. The collar-bones are well-developed, and the first
toe of the foot is rudimentary.
Dormice are found only in Africa, Europe, and Asia north
of the Himalaya. Although not numerous in species, they have
been divided into several genera; but on the whole, it seems pre-
ferable to retain only the under-mentioned one for the common
Dormouse, and to refer the whole of the remaining members
of the Family to the typical genus, AZyoxus.
GENUS MUSCARDINUS.
Muscardinus, Kaup, Nat. Syst. Europ. Thierwelt, p. 136 (1829).
Tail cylindricat; cheek-teeth with flat crowns and complex
infoldings of enamet; lower end of the cesophagus thickened
and glandular.
COMMON DORMOUSE. MUSCARDINUS AVELLANARIUS.,
Mus avellanarius, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 83
(1766).
Myoxus muscardinus, Schreber, Saugethierc, vol. iv. p. 835
(1792).
Myoxus avellanarius, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 295 (1820) ;
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 281 (1874).:
Muscardinus avellanarius, Kaup, Nat. Syst. Europ. Thierwelt,
p. 139 (1829); Flower, Cat. Osteol. Mus. R. Coll. Sur-
geons, pt. ii. p. 603 (1884).
(Plate XX.)
Characters —General form rather stout ; colour of upper-parts
light tawny, beneath paler and yellowish; an elongated white
patch on the throat and front of chest ; tail rather shorter than
head and body. Length of head and body, about 3 inches ;
of tail, 234 inches,
i
Q
H
4
Aa
DORMOUSE.
DORMICE. 177
This beautiful little animal, with its prominent black eyes,
has a rather large head, a pointed muzzle, and rounded ears,
which are equal to about one-third of the head in length.
Both fore-and hind-feet are adapted for grasping, and although
in the former the first toe, as in the Squirrel, is rudimentary,
in the hind-foot all five toes are well developed.
Distribution—The Common Dormouse is distributed over
the greater part of Europe, although not apparently ranging
any distance into Northern Asia, even if it occurs there at all,
and is the only British representative of the Family. In many
continental countries the Fat Dormouse, or “ Loire” (AZvoxus
giis), is, however, much more abundant than the present species,
which is known in France as the “ Loirot.” Generally found in
woods, plantations, or hedge-rows, but occasionally met with in
open fields, the Dormouse appears to be spread over the southern
and central districts of England, although much more abun-
dant in some localities than others. In the writer’s experience,
one of the districts where it may be found in great numbers
is the country on the borders of Hertfordshire and Bucking-
hamshire, between Hemel-Hempsted and Aylesbury, where one
or more nests are almost sure to be met with, even in the
open country, during a day’s shooting. In the Lake district,
according to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, it occurs locally in
the more thickly-planted portions of the country, but has not
been detected in the eastern parts of Cumberland and West-
moreland. In Scotland, certainly so far as the north is con-
cerned, it appears to be unknown, and it is also stated by
Thompson to be wanting in Ireland.
Habits.—Deriving its specific name from its fondness for
hazel-nuts, the Dormouse is especially partial to oak-woods
with an undergrowth of hazels. In the stumps of the latter its
winter-nest is very generally made, although, as already said,
5 x
178 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY,
this may be situated on the ground in an open field, while in-
stances are on record where the deserted nest of a Thrush or
Blackbird has been taken possession of and fitted up to suit
the requiremeuts of its new occupants. In addition to nuts,
its food, according to Mr. Harting, comprises ‘‘ acorns, seeds
of the hornbeam and other forest-trees, grain, and fruit of dif-
ferent kinds, particularly grapes. In confinement, a bit of
apple or pear is generally eaten with relish. The Dormouse
will also suck the eggs of small birds, as a Squirrel will do, and
it seems to be not generally known that it is insectivorous.”
In evidence of the latter habit the author quoted states that
captive specimens have been known to eat aphides, nut-weevils,
and caterpillars of various kinds.
Although so much resembling a diminutive Squirrel, both
in form and habits, sitting up on its haunches and grasping its
food with its fore-paws in true Squirrel-like fashion, the Dor-
mouse is structurally much more nearly allied to the Mice, and
its resemblance to the former animal is doubtless due to
adaptation to a similar mode of life. Confirmation of this is
afforded by the circumstance that certain arboreal Mice are
exceedingly Dormouse-like in appearance.
The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the habits
of the Dormouse is the length of time occupied by its hiberna-
tion, which sometimes extends uninterruptedly over a period
of as much as six months, That this hibernation is, however,
generally broken, is indicated by the circumstance that the Dor-
mouse lays up a winter-store of provision ; and, according to
Bell, an unusually mild day is sufficient to waken the little
creature from its slumbers, when it consumes a portion of its
hoard, and once more curls itself to resume its sleep. Ex-
tremely fat at the commencement of its hibernation, by the
time spring comes round the creature is much reduced in
bulk. While adult Dormice commence their hibernation as
DORMICE, 179
early as the middle of October, the young ones are much later
in retiring from active participation in the affairs of the world.
A full account of the hibernation of the Dormouse will be
found in the Zoologist for 1882, in which the variation in its
temperature, its loss of fat, and the number of respirations
during its sleep, as well as the length of the period of torpidity,
are fully recorded.
The female Dormouse gives birth to her offspring in the
spring, and the young, usually four in number, are born blind,
but open their eyes in a few days, and are very speedily able
to shift for themselves. Bell gives reasons for believing that
in some cases a second litter may be produced in the autumn.
In the first dress the young are of a mouse-grey colour, except
on the head and flanks ; and it is only gradually that the red-
dish-brown hue of the adult is required.
If a sleeping Dormouse be found during the winter, and
taken to a warm room, it soon awakens,* but after a short in-
terval relapses into torpidity. Writing many years ago, Mr.
Salmon observes that on one occasion he chanced to find “a
little ball of grass curiously interwoven, lying on the ground.
It was about eight inches in circumference, and on taking it
up I soon ascertained, by the faint sound emitted from the
interior on my handling it, that it contained a prisoner. I
bore my prize homeward for examination, and on making a
slight opening, immediately issued forth one of those beautiful
little creatures, the Dormouse. The heat of my hand and the
warmth of the room had completely revived it from its torpor.
It appeared to enjoy its transition by nimbly scaling every part
of the furniture in all directions. It experienced no difficulty
in either ascending or descending the polished backs of the
* Mr. Trevor-Battye says that if warmed suddenly into waking, a Dor-
mouse will die at the end of a minute or two, its heart beating with extreme
rapidity, like a clock ‘running down.”
N2
180 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
chairs, and when I attempted to secure it, it leaped from chair
to chair with astonishing agility for so small a creature. On
taking it into my hand, it showed not the least disposition to
resent the liberty; on the contrary, it was very docile. On
being set at liberty, it sprang at least two yards on to a table.
In the evening I placed my little stranger, with its original
domicile, in a box, of which on the following morning I found
it had taken possession, and again relapsed into a state of
torpidity.”
Even if fully adult when captured, Dormice are readily tamed;
and in this state form, it is almost superfluous to add, favourite
pets of children,
THE MICE AND VOLES. FAMILY MURID&.
The members of this extensive and cosmopolitan Family
differ from all the other British representatives of the Rodents,
in having only three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, owing to
the absence of pre-molars. These molar teeth are very variable
in structure, being sometimes furnished with roots and sur-
mounted with tubercles, while in other cases they grow through-
out life and thus never develop roots, while their tall crowns
are divided into semi-detached prisms by angular infoldings of
enamel. The first toe of the fore-foot is rudimentary; the
tail is generally nearly naked and scaly ; and complete collar-
bones are present. The general bodily form of the more
typical members of the family is so well known that the term
“‘rat-like” forms a recognised standard of comparison in zoo-
logical, if not in popular, language.
The British representatives of the Family are divided into
two great sections or sub-families, readily distinguished by the
character of their molar teeth; the first of these including the
MICE AND RATS. 181
Mice and Rats, and the second the Voles. In Britain each
section is represented by a single genus only, although there
are several other foreign genera in both.
In habits the majority of the British forms are mainly terres-
trial, although one species is aquatic, and all are able to climb
with more or less facility.
THE MICE AND RATS. GENUS MUS.
Mus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 79 (1766).
Molar teeth furnished with roots and surmounted by tuber-
cles ; the latter forming three longitudinal rows in the teeth of
the upper jaw ; incisors narrow, and devoid of grooves on their
front surfaces. Eyes and ears large; extremity of muzzle
naked ; first rudimentary toe of fore-foot with a short nail in
place of a claw; tail long, tapering, and nearly naked, with
overlapping scales arranged in rings ; fur soft, and (in British
species) without an intermixture of spines.
Light and active in their movements, and bright-eyed in
appearance, the Mice and Rats, in addition to the distinctive
character of their molar teeth, are specially distinguished from
their British allies by their pointed muzzles, long scaly tails, and
large ears. Purely terrestrial in their habits, they generally fre-
quent houses, farm-buildings, stables, and corn-ricks, rather
than the open fields, although the Harvest-Mouse is to a certain
extent an exception to this rule.
The genus includes a larger number of species than any
other in the whole Mammalian class, and, with the remarkable
exception of Madagascar, is distributed over the whole of the
Old World. Its head-quarters aie, however, the Tropical Re-
gions of that Hemisphere, whence there is a gradual diminution
in the number of species, as we proceed north and south, till, in
the Sub-Arctic region, they become very few.
182 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
I. THE HARVEST-MOUSE. MUS MINUTUS.
Mus minutus, Pallas, Reise, vol. i: Append. p. 454 (1778);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 286 (1874).
Mus messorius, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vol. ii. p. 62 (1801).
(Plate XX.)
Characters.—Size very small; tail and ears relatively short,
the latter being about one-third the length of the head;
colour of upper-parts yellowish-red, that of under-parts white ;
the line of demarcation between the two being sharply defined.
Length of head and body about 234 inches; of tail nearly
the same. The general form is rather more slender than in
most members of the genus, and the head is rather narrow,
with the eyes somewhat less prominent than is usually the
case. .
Distribution.— Ranging over the greater part of Europe with
the exception of the extreme north, the Harvest-Mouse is an
inhabitant of most districts in England, although much more
abundant in some than in others. In the Lake district, it appears
to have been only observed on two occasions, which leads the
Rev. H. A. Macpherson to suggest that in both cases it had been
accidentally introduced, and that it is not truly indigenous,
In Leicester and Rutland, it is stated by Mr. Montagu Browne
to be rare; and the writer has never observed it in the dis-
trict of Hertfordshire where he resides. On the other hand,
in Cambridgeshire, Devonshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire
(where it was first recorded by Gilbert White as a member of
the British fauna), Warwickshire, and Wiltshire, it seems to
be fairly abundant. In Scotland it has been recorded by
Macgillivray from Aberdeenshire, Fifeshire, and near Edin-
burgh, but is unknown in the more northern counties. Al-
though not definitely recorded by Thompson from Ireland,
it has been subsequently stated to exist there, but the writer
PLATE XX!
HARVEST —-MOUSE.
MICE AND RATS. 183
is informed by Mr. A. G. More that its reputed occurrence is
based on young specimens of the Wood-Mouse.
Habits.—Next to the Lesser Shrew, the smallest of British
terrestrial Mammals, the Harvest-Mouse differs from the other
British representatives of its genus in not frequenting gardens,
or the neighbourhood of houses or other buildings, although
it is often found in corn-ricks, to which it is carried in the
sheaves of wheat. After mentioning his discovery of a nest in
Fifeshire, Macgillivray states that this “was composed of dry
blades of coarse grass, arranged in a globular form, and placed
in the midst of a tuft of Azra cespitosa, at the distance of about
nine inches from the ground. It contained six or seven naked
and blind young ones. The young are said to vary from five
to nine; and as it litters several times in the season, it is
occasionally numerous in corn-fields, on hedge-banks, and in
dry pastures. Its food consists of seeds, especially of corn and
grass, insects,and worms. In wheat-stacks it is often foundin
great abundance, but in general it forms burrows in the ground,
in which it deposits provisions for the winter. Bingley relates
that he fed one with insects, which it always preferred to
any other food; and the individual represented in the plate,
here reproduced, devoured an earth-worm, which at first, by
twisting round its body, upset it. Like the other species, it
may be kept in confinement, but is said not to become so
familiar as the Wood-Mouse.”
In connection with the latter point, it may be mentioned
that Mr. Harting has been successful in getting these pretty
little creatures to breed in captivity, and also to rear their
young ones, which became so tame as to allow themselves to
be handled without attempting to bite, and also to take food
from their owner’s hand.
As a general rule, the nest is built between three or four
184 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
corn-stalks, to which it is firmly attached, at some little distance
from the ground; and so compact and firm in its structure,
that, as Gilbert White tells us, when detached, it may be rolled,
with its living freight, across a table without sustaining the
slightest damage. So light is the Harvest-Mouse—its weight
being only about one-fifth of an ounce—that it can ascend a
wheat-stalk and feast on the corn in the ear ; its descent being
facilitated by its partially prehensile tail. In possessing an
imperfect power of prehension in that appendage, the creature
is unique among British Mammals. The-nest generally has a
small aperture on one side, through which the female gains
access to her young; this aperture being carefully closed
during her absence. Since, in a short time after birth, the
young, when numerous, more or less completely fill the nest,
it would appear impossible for the female to pass the periods
of repose within it.
Il, THE WOOD-MOUSE. MUS SYLVATICUS,
Mus sylvaticus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 84 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 293 (1874).
(Plate XXII.)
Characters—Size small; ears more than half the length of
the head ; tail nearly as long as the head and body ; colour of
upper-parts bright reddish-grey ; under-parts whitish, with a
patch of light brownish on the breast. Length of head and
body about 4% inches ; of tail nearly the same.
Resembling the Common Mouse very closely, as regards
form, but slightly exceeding it in size, the Wood-Mouse may be
readily distinguished by its coloration and longer tail, as well as
by its very long hind-feet, which are white. It is very generally
known as the Long-tailed Field-Mouse, but since the term “Field-
Mouse,” with or without a prefix, is applied indifferently to this
FSNQOW- doom
MICE AND RATS. 185
species and to the Voles, we prefer the use of the name Wood-
Mouse.
Distribution—The general distribution of this species is prob-
ably very similar to that of the Harvest-Mouse, although, per-
haps, it may not range as far north as Siberia, where the latter
is found. In the British Islands it is universally distributed,
its range including the Inner and Outer Hebrides and the
whole of Ireland. Many years ago the late Rev. Leonard
Jenyns (Blomefield), called attention to a small dark variety
from the mountains of Kerry, which it was thought might
prove to be a distinct species.
Habits—Although its name would imply that woods were
the favourite resorts of this species, yet, as a matter of fact, it
is more commonly found, during the summer, in thickets,
hedges, corn-fields, and gardens; while in winter it resorts for
shelter to barns or other out-buildings, as well as corn-stacks ;
and Thompson records an instance where a specimen was taken
in an inhabited house in Belfast.
Feeding on corn of all kinds, as well as bulbs, nuts, acorns,
and various smaller seeds, together with insects and grubs, the
Wood-Mouse is an unmitigated nuisance to the farmer and
gardener ; the amount of good it does by the consumption of
such animal food as it devours, going but a small way to-
wards recompensing the damage it inflicts on newly-sown
crops of all kinds. Moreover, although this Mouse makes a
regular winter retreat, it does not become torpid,—or at all
events does so only for very short periods—and consequently
needs a large supply of food during the cold season, so that the
unfortunate farmer or gardener has to support the creature from
one year’s end to another. As a rule, the retreat takes the
form of a burrow in the ground; but instances are on record
where deserted birds’ nests have been occupied and fitted up,
while regular nests are often made in hedge-banks, or even in
186 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
standing grass. At other times old Mole-runs are selected as
dwelling places. In such safe retreats, of whatever nature
they may be, the Wood-Mouse during the summer and autumn
accumulates enormous stores of provender for its winter con-
sumption ; acorns, beech-mast, nuts, peas, beans, and corn,
being gathered in by the pint. It is not only the loss of
these various seeds that the farmer has to deplore, for, in
districts and seasons when Wood-Mice are very abundant,
pigs learn to hunt for and root up these hidden stores, and
may then do much damage, both to pasture and arable land.
Breeding several times in a season, after a gestation of only
three weeks, and producing from five to seven young in a
litter, the Wood-Mouse is one of the most prolific of Rodents,
famous as are many of these animals for their rapidity of in-
crease. Some idea of the rate at which they propagate” may
be gathered from some interesting observations published by
Mr. R. M. Barrington in the Zoologist for 1881, by whom
several of these Mice were kept in captivity. It is probable,
however, that the number of young in a litter would not be so
large as in the wild state. One of these captive specimens,
when about five and a half months old, gave birth to a litter of
three on the 7th or 8th of March. Observation was kept on
this female (A), and a second one (B), with the following
result :—
Interval since
last litter.
March 7 or 8 A 3 young ... _
” 19 B 5 ” one as
” 3I A 3 ” eee 24 days
April 18 B 5 ae 29 4,
” 24 sits A 3 ” nes 24 55
May 1 ase B 5 5 ive 23) 55
” 17 A 4 ” tee 23»
June 12 A (?) Ae 3; Par 26 ,,
suly 9 A(?) 4 » ast 27
MICE AND RATS. 187
Had not one of the adult females made its escape in the
beginning of June this record of the number of young pro-
duced by a couple of Wood-Mice in less than five months
would probably have been still larger. ‘ During April,” writes
the narrator, “we had twelve to twenty Mice, young and old,
in the nest; they all slept together, and it was certainly a
curious sight to see fathers, mothers, and children of all ages
and sizes in the nest, the young of different ages suckling the
same mother at the same time, and the mothers appearing to
suckle each other’s young indiscriminately.”
To counteract this extreme prolificness, it is fortunate that
the Wood-Mouse has a large number of enemies. Foremost
amongst these are Kestrels, Owls, Stoats, and Weasels; while
many of these Mice are killed by Foxes, which seem especially
fond of them and their cousins the Voles. Rooks and Crows
are also stated to aid in the extermination of these pests by
digging up the nests and young with their strong beaks; while
several other of the larger birds probably occasionally assist in
the destruction.
Mr. Trevor-Battye writes :—“ In the dry summer of 1893 the
Black-headed Gulls breeding on Scoulton Mere (as I was as-
sured by the keeper), frequently brought ‘Mice’ to their
nests, killing them by dropping them from a height. The
Mice were probably of this species.”
The Wood-Mouse is as readily tamed as the Dormouse,
and will soon learn to permit itself to be handled without re-
sentment, although it always displays considerable timidity.
Specimens have been kept in confinement for upwards of two
years.
It may be mentioned that some imperfect lower jaws ob-
tained from the “forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast are apparently
referable to the present species.
MICE AND RATS. 189
true for many generations, if not permanently. There is like-
wise some variation in size.
With a tapering head and rather pointed muzzle, the Com-
mon Mouse has smaller eyes and ears than the Wood-Mouse,
the latter being rounded, and also shorter and narrower than
in that species; the limbs, tail, and whiskers are likewise
relatively shorter than in the allied form.
Distribution Although it has received a large number of
synonyms, to which it is unnecessary to allude here, it appears
that the Common Mouse has a practically cosmopolitan range,
at least so far as regions inhabited by Man are concerned. At
one time, indeed, it was thought that the Indian Mouse was a
distinct species, but this has now been shown not to be the
case. It is, however, somewhat curious that, according to Mr.
Blanford, there are certain parts of India, namely, the Punjab,
Sind, Rajputana, and portions of the North-West Provinces,
where the Common Mouse is totally unknown.
That the species had not originally its present cosmopolitan
distribution, and that it has spread fari passu, with the ad-
vance of Man, may be taken for granted. Which country con-
stituted its original homie, it seems, however, quite impossible
to decide. It has been frequently urged that the Common
Mouse is a comparatively late immigrant into the British Islands,
but if paleontologists are right in assigning to it certain
fossilised remains found in the Pleistocene deposits of the
Thames Valley and some of the English caves, it is quite certain
that this cannot be the case.
Habits—In the case of such a familiar animal as the Com-
mon Mouse, it is unnecessary to say much in the way of its
habits, and we therefore content ourselves with quoting Mac-
gillivray’s account, premising that, although generally found in
human habitations, the creature also sometimes frequents gar-
190 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
dens' and fields in the neighbourhood of towns and villages.
Macgillivray observes that, in spite of its sombre coloration,
the activity of this little creature and its graceful movements
render it not uninteresting to the observant naturalist. “It is
pleasant to sit quietly at midnight watching one which has
ventured from its retreat and stolen to the hearth in quest of
crumbs. It glides along, now slowly, now by sudden starts,
and on finding some fragment of food, sits on its haunches,
lays hold of it in its fore-feet, and raising it up, nibbles it, or,
if apprehensive of danger, runs off with it toits hole. Although
extremely timid, Mice sometimes exhibit considerable boldness,
and venture quite close to a person who does not molest them.
Their agility is astonishing, and to escape when pursued they
perform extraordinary feats. I have seen one leap from the
top of a stair-case upon a table, a distance of twelve feet,
apparently without receiving any injury. If seized in the hand
they bite severely, but if caught by the tail and thus suspended,
are unable to turn upon their persecutor. Although when in
small numbers they are scarcely injurious to a house, yet, owing
to their fecundity, they soon become very destructive, devour-
ing meal, flour, bread, cheese, butter, tallow, in short, almost
every article of food that comes in their way, and often gnaw-
ing clothes, leather, and furniture. Their great enemy, the
Cat, is not always able to extirpate them, so that the additional
aid of traps and poison is required. The ravages of this
species are not confined to houses, for it often betakes itself to
the fields, and nestles in the corn-stacks, which are found
towards the base traversed by its tortuous runs. The ground
beneath is also filled with them, and on removing a stack num-
bers almost incredible are often met with. Besides Man, and
his allies, the Cat, the Dog, and the Ferret, the Mouse has many
powerful enemies, all of which, however, are unable to extirpate
it, for it litters many times in the year, producing from five to
PLATE XXII.
BLACK RAT
MICE AND RATS. 1g1
seven at a birth, and thus in favourable localities soon increases
to a great extent. Its nest is composed of straw, hay, woollen
cloth, linen, and other substances, generally gnawed into small
fragments; and the young are at first blind and naked, but
grow so rapidly that in a fortnight they are able to shift for them-
selves.”
_ To this it may be added that subsequent observations have
shown that the number of young in a litter may vary from four
to seven, and that the female commences to breed consider-
ably before a year old,
When poisoned in houses, both Rats and Mice have an un-
pleasant habit of retiring behind skirting-boards, canvased
walls, and similar situations, to die. To detect their exact
position when this happens, the best plan is to close the door
and windows, and to introduce into the room two or three blue-
bottle flies, which will soon settle on the spot behind which
lies the defunct Rodent.
Vv. THE BLACK RAT. MUS RATTUS,
Afus rattus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 83 (1766):
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 302 (1874); Blan-
ford, Mamm. Brit. India, p. 406 (1891).
Mus alexandrinus, Geoffroy, Descr. de l’Egypte, vol. ii. p.
753 (1812).
Mus rufescens, Gray, Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. i. p. 585 (1837).
Afus nitidus, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 267
(1845); &c., &c., &e.
(Plate XXTIT.)
Characters—Size large ; build relatively light; head slender
ears large; tail thin and exceeding the head and body in
length. In the typical English variety the fur of the upper-
parts is greyish-black, and belowash-colour. Size very variable ;
192 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
in the English variety, length of head and body about 7 inches;
of tail, 734 inches.
Having a wide geographical range, the Black Rat is an ex-
ceedingly variable species, and, as is usually the case in such
instances, has received an almost bewildering number of aliases,
In addition to the typical form alluded to above, the following
more important varieties may be noticed.
The Alexandrine Rat (Mus alexandrinus), from Southern
Europe, Egypt, Palestine, and Gilgit, is a southern variety
characterised by its softer reddish or greyish fur, and by the
under-parts being usually white.
A third variety is the Tree-Rat (AZus rufescens), from India,
Ceylon, and Burma, which is very similar to the preceding,
but of inferior dimensions.
Next we have the Hill-Rat (AZus nitidus), from Nipal and
Sikhim, distinguished by its shorter tail.
More remarkable than all is the Andamanese Rat (A/us an-
damanensis), distinguished from the Tree-Rat by the intermix-
ture of a number of spines with the fur. From the characters
of the skull, which can alone be relied upon in distinguishing
allied Muride, Mr. Thomas has, however, shown conclusively
that this form cannot be specifically separated from the Black
Rat.
Distribution—The distribution of the typical variety of the
Black Rat has been pretty fully worked out by Mr. J. E.
Harting, who has devoted a chapter in a volume entitled
“Essays on Sport and Natural History” to this species. It
appears to be spread over the greater part of Europe, with
the exception of the extreme north, being unknown in Lap-
land. In Sweden, where it was formerly plentiful, it seems to
be now nearly exterminated ; and the same is stated to be the
case in most parts of Germany, although in certain districts it
has been reported to be on the increase. In France and Spain
MICE AND RATS, 193
we know little more than that it is uncommon; while in
Southern Italy it has been driven away by the Alexandrine
Rat. In Northern Africa and Egypt, on the other hand, it
appears still to hold its own. Further eastward it becomes
more rare, but it occurs in the Caucasus, Georgia, and the
Caspian district; while it has been introduced by vessels
into parts of India, the Philippines, and even New Zealand.
It was introduced into the New World about 1554, and
is now found in both continents, as it is in the West
Indies.
That the Black Rat was introduced into Britain from the
Continent, appears to be evident from the circumstance that
it is not mentioned as occurring here previous to the fifteenth
century, coupled with the fact that its remains are unknown in
the English cavern-deposits. It would seem, however, that
subsequently to its introduction it became pretty generally dis-
tributed in England and Wales until routed out by the Brown
Rat, and was known even in the Orkneys. There, however, it
is now completely exterminated, as it is in most districts of our
area. In Argyllshire and Caithness it is unknown, but one
specimen was‘taken in Sutherland in 1879; while a small
colony was observed near Pitlochry in 1860, and specimens are
occasionally taken in old houses in Edinburgh. Unknown in
Northumberland, a colony existed in 1879 at Stockton-on-Tees,
in Durham ; and in 1883 it was stated still to linger among the
farms of Westmoreland. It would be tedious to mention the
isolated occurrences of specimens of this Rat which have been
recorded from various English counties from time to time
during the last few years, more especially as many of these—
and notably such as have been taken in or near sea-port towns
—have in all probability been imported by vessels.. It may be
mentioned, however, that it still survived in Norfolk up to
about 1834, while occasional specimens were met with for
5 fe)
194 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
twenty years later. In Warwickshire, where it is now extinct,
it was not uncommon even so late as 1850.
In Ireland, remarks Mr. Harting, the Black Rat has been
met with in various counties, and in localities widely distant
from each other; but there is no evidence to show that it was
ever plentiful, and it must now be regarded as very rare.
Habits.—Although a weaker animal than its supplanter the
Brown Rat, the habits of the species appear in this country to
be similar to those of the latter. In the East, where beth the
typical form (which has probably been introduced into India in
ships) and the above-mentioned varieties occur, it frequently
exhibits very different habits. Mr. Blanford, in his “Mammals
of British India,” observes, for instance, that “this Rat is
found both on the ground, where it burrows, and in trees,
where it builds nests among the branches. In the Laccadive
Islands, and other places, it inhabits the crowns of cocoa-nut
palms, and is said never to descend to the ground, but to live
on the nuts, and to do great damage by biting them off when
unripe. It is common in houses everywhere, often living on
the roofs. It feeds chiefly on fruit, grain, and vegetables, but
is more or less omnivorous, though less carnivorous than the
M. decumanus.”
In England, when abundant, it used apparently to frequent
the same situations as the last-named species, and was an equal
pest to the farmer and owner of granaries. It is not in any
way owing to its want of fecundity that it has been so nearly
exterminated in this country, since it breeds several times
during the year, producing from seven to nine blind offspring
in each litter.
“Tn feeding,” writes Macgillivray, “this species holds the
object, if small, between its fore-feet, sits on its haunches with
the body bent forward, and the back arched, while its tail is
curved along the ground. It runs with great agility, and
MICE AND RATS. 195
exhibits much liveliness in all its actions; is remarkably
cleanly, taking care to remove whatever may happen to adhere
to its fur, feet, or head; and, although occasionally quarrel-
some, it, for the most part, lives a peaceful life in its own com-
munity. In affectionate concern for its young, it is not sur-
passed by any other animal, and were it not an unwelcome
guest in our dwellings and stores, but confined itself to the woods
and pastures, we should place it among the most interesting
of our native quadrupeds. Its voracity, however, and the
ravages which it makes among our corn and provisions, and
its prolificacy, render it injurious and therefore hateful; at
least, such it was when it abounded in the country, but in
Britain its existence is, to appearance, nearly ended.”
VI. THE BROWN RAT. MUS DECUMANUS.
Mus decumanus, Pallas, Glires, p. 91 (1779); Bell, British
Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 308 (1874).
Mus hibernicus, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 523
Eagle Clarke and Barrett-Hamilton, Zoologist, ser. 3 vol.
xv. p. 1 (1891).
Characters—Somewhat larger than the last, from which it
differs by the shorter head and more obtuse muzzle, smaller
ears, and relatively shorter tail, of which the length is less
than that of the head and body. General colour greyish-
brown above, and whitish beneath. Length of head and body,
about 9 inches; of tail, 734 inches.
' A Rat, of which the typical specimen measured 734 inches
from the muzzle to the root of the tail, was described in 1837
from Ireland by Thompson, under the name of AZ. hibernicus,
and had black fur on the upper-parts, with a white patch on the
chest. By its describer it was regarded as nearly allied to the
Black Rat, of which Bell was disposed to regard it merely asa
O02
196 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
variety. Subsequently it was considered that it might be a
hybrid between the present and the preceding species ; but, in
the article referred to above, Messrs. Eagle Clarke and Barrett-
Hamilton finally came to the conclusion that it must be
regarded as a black, or melanistic race of the Brown Rat.
This variety has been recorded from several counties in the
east of Ireland, mostly from the neighbourhood of the coast.
In addition to this form, pied and white varieties are known ;
the latter being true albinos, with red eyes.
Distribution — Being carried by vessels to all parts of the world,
and thus having become a complete cosmopolitan, the Brown
Rat was a later immigrant into Britain than its darker relative.
As to the exact date of its arrival in our islands, there is still
some uncertainty, and it is probable that the question will never
be decided with exactness. Waterton, who detested this inter-
oper with a hatred only less cordial than that which he bestowed
on the Hanoverian dynasty, maintained that the first specimens
were brought over from the Continent bya vessel which reached
our shores soon after the year 1688, even if they did not arrive
in the very ship which carried the first of the line of Hanover.
It is, however, probable that this date is considerably too early.
From the testimony of Pallas, it may be taken as certain that
large troops of the Brown Rat, migrating westwards from
Central Asia, succeeded in crossing the Volga in the year 1727,
whence they populated the whole of Russia, and subsequently
the rest of Continental Europe. They are reported by Erxleben
to have reached Paris in 1750, and to have been carried to
England twenty years previously to that date. Professor Boyd-
Dawkins is, however, of opinion that the Brown Rat had
reached this country a little before 1730, and we may perhaps
therefore put the date of its arrival as 1729, or 1728. Be this
as it may, no sooner had the intruder obtained a foothold on
British soil than it at once commenced an internecine war
MICE AND RATS. 197
against the weaker Black Rat, with the calamitous results to
the latter already described.
There is another question connected with the migrations of
the Brown Rat which has likewise given rise to a considerable’
amount of controversy among naturalists, namely, as to the
country which has the doubtful honour of being the original
birthplace of this unmitigated pest. India was suggested by
Pennant as being probably the parent-country, but Mr. Blanford
states that the Brown Rat was certainly not indigenous there,
and that Chinese Mongolia may with more likelihood be re-
garded as its centre of dispersion.
It may be added that the terms “Norway,” and “Hanoverian”
Rat, which used frequently to be applied to the present species,
are pure misnomers.
Habits.—Not only is the Brown Rat a larger and more power-
ful animal than its black cousin, but it is even more prolific,
breeding several times in the course of a season, and com-
monly producing from eight to ten young ones at a birth,
while the number sometimes rises to a dozen or even mote,
and never seems to be less than four. It is likewise a more
carnivorous creature, frequenting slaughter-houses and such-
like places, where it frequently swarms, and consumes, not
only such offal as it can procure, but picks clean all the bones
of animals left accessible to its attacks.
Macgillivray observes that “in cities it frequently inhabits in
great numbers the drains and sewers, whence it makes its way
into the houses. In maritime towns it often takes up its abode
in the quays, among piles of wood, in buildings along the
shores, or wherever it finds a secure retreat. But it is not con-
fined to cities and villages, but establishes colonies in farm-
steadings, on the banks of canals and rivers, and even in
islands at a considerable distance from the mainland, or upon
198 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
larger islands, to which it has been introduced by shipping.
Thus, on many of the islets of the Hebrides it is found in
considerable numbers, feeding on grass, shell-fish, and crusta-
‘ceans, and burrowing in the banks ; for although not essenti-
ally amphibious, like the Water-Rat, it does not hesitate on
occasion to betake itself to the water, and troops have been seen
swimming from one island to another.
“Tt is a very cleanly animal, for even when its residence is a
ditch or sewer in the midst of all sorts of filth, it almost in-
variably preserves itself from pollution; and in parts remote
from towns its fur is often possessed of considerable beauty,
although, on account of the injury it inflicts upon us, and the
abhorrence with which in childhood we are taught to regard it,
few persons will be apt to discover much beauty in a Rat. Its
food consists of almost every kind of animal and vegetable sub-
stance eaten by other quadrupeds. In granaries and corn-
fields it is extremely destructive, committing its depredations
in the former by night, and in the latter feasting at leisure in
the heart of the stacks, where it produces its young, and whence
it cannot be expelled until they are taken down, when the quan-
tity of grain it has destroyed is sometimes found to be enormous.
In houses it feeds on bread, potatoes, suet, tallow, flesh, fish,
cheese, butter, and, in fact, almost everything that comes in its
way, including leather and articles of apparel. It gnaws its way
through planks, partitions and chests; burrows with facility
under the floors and walls; nestles behind the plaster, or in
the roofs ; and when numerous becomes a source of perpetual
annoyance. In the poultry-yard it sometimes destroys the young
chickens, and sucks the eggs; and in game-preserves commits
similar depredations. Instances of its mutilating infants, and
even of it attacking grown persons, are known; and when
hard pushed it will sometimes turn on a Dog or Cat, and
defend itself with great vigour. In the fields it devours great
MICE AND RATS, 199
quantities of corn, beans, peas, and other kinds of agricultural
produce ; and, as it is extremely prolific, it often inflicts serious
injury. When provisions fall short, it migrates, sometimes in
large bodies, to a more favourable station ; and when settled in
a place where its supply of food is ample, rapidly increases to
an astonishing extent.”
On board ship Rats are, if possible, a greater nuisance than
on shore, as all can testify who have had the misfortune to sail
in a Rat-haunted vessel. Sometimes they will even enter the
cabins and gnaw the toe-nails of the sleepers down to the quick,
if their feet happen to be uncovered. Ivory would not at first
sight appear a very tempting kind of food for Rats. Neverthe-
less, according to the testimony of Frank Buckland, these
animals do much damage to the tusks stored in the docks. As
they select for their attacks those which contain the largest
amount of animal matter, and as such are the most suitable for
the purposes of the manufacturer, a Rat-gnawn tusk is sure to be
one of the finest quality.
It has been mentioned above that Rats will suck the eggs of
poultry, and it is also well known that in many cases this is not
done in the hen-house, but the eggs are bodily removed to
safer quarters. How this removal is accomplished has not,
however, at present been ascertained. Mr. Trevor-Battye
writes to me :—‘ Rats move eggs along the ground by rolling
them against their chests. How they move them unbroken
from a height I have never been able to find out. The only
Rat I ever had a chance of obtaining at this form of depredation
dropped the egg and broke it.” That these animals can display
considerable ingenuity in overcoming mechanical difficulties is
proved by an anecdote related by Mr. T. W. Kirk, of the
Wellington Museum, New Zealand. In this instance two Rats
combined their efforts in order to get a four-inch biscuit
between the bars of a building which were only two inches
200 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
apart, which was effected by tilting the biscuit. What is equally
noteworthy in this case, is the circumstance that after one of
these Rats had in vain attempted the task single-handed, he left
it, and soon returned accompanied by a comrade, thus showing
that these animals have some rapid means of communicating
their ideas.
In addition to the various kinds of provender above
mentioned, the Brown Rat will also eat snails—both land and
fresh-water; the dédris which it leaves of the latter being
generally considered as the work of the Water-Vole. An
instance is also on record of a Rat entering the water and
dragging forth with some difficulty a young Eel. That these
animals are: likewise chargeable with cannibalism is probably
well known to most persons living in the country, as it isa
common occurrence for one caught in a trap to be set upon
and devoured by its companions. Mr. Trevor-Battye ob-
serves :—‘ When Frogs are spawning, the Rat is fond of
catching them, and eating the contents of their insides. A
heap of dead Frogs, all treated in this way, may often be found
at a Brown Rat’s favourite resting-place by the side of a pond.”
With regard to the damage caused by the Rat to game-
preservers, Mr. Harting, after many years’ practical experience,
is of opinion that not only is this animal one of their worst
enemies, but is likewise very frequently the means of bringing
unoffending creatures to death. ‘‘He is a great devourer ot
Pheasants’ food (to say nothing of young Pheasants), and when
the latter are gathered under the foster-hen at sundown, the
Rat may be seen issuing stealthily into the grass-ride, where
the food has been scattered, helping himself to all he can
find. This is the opportunity for the Brown Owl to render
important service. Gliding off the low branch of a tree in the
direction of the Pheasant-coops, the bird swiftly and noise-
lessly approaches, and qa Rat is carried off ere he has time to
VOLES. 201
realise the presence of an enemy.” Too often, alas! the Owl
is rewarded by a shot from the keeper’s gun, under the
mistaken idea that it is after the Pheasants.
As a final indictment against the Rat, it must be mentioned
that, according to Jesse, it will sometimes inflict damage upon
fruit-trees growing against walls by eating the buds and young
leaves.
Says Mr. Trevor-Battye, ‘‘Rats are remarkably clever
climbers. I have seen a Rat more than once running nimbly
all about the small branches of an oak-tree, and collecting
lichen ; presumably for a nest-lining.”
THE VOLES. GENUS MICROTUS.
Microtus, Schrank, Fauna Boica, vol. i. p. 72 (1798).
Head with a blunt, rounded muzzle, and short ears, which
are almost buried in the fur ; tail short and hairy ; soles of the
feet naked; molar teeth generally growing continuously, and
thus not developing roots, and composed of two longitudinal
rows of triangular prisms set alternately to one another.
The Voles are more clumsily-built animals than the Mice,
and have less agile movements; while, in addition to the
points noticed above, their limbs are relatively shorter and
their eyes smaller. They comprise a considerable number of
species distributed over Europe, North America, and Asia
north of the Himalaya, a few just impinging on the north-west
frontier of India. Instead of frequenting the neighbourhood
of human habitations and other buildings, like the Mice, the
Voles are inhabitants of the open country, burrowing and
forming runs in meadows and fields, or dwelling by the sides
of rivers and ponds. All of them appear to be strictly
vegetable feeders.
As to their affinities, the Voles show but distant kinship with
202 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
the true Mice, but are closely allied to the Hamsters (Cricetus),
of which there are no existing British representatives.
Although the Hamsters have rooted and tuberculated molars,
their tubercles, instead of forming three longitudinal rows, as in
the Mice, are arranged in two such rows. By the develop-
ment of such tubercles into prisms the root-less molars of the
Voles have originated ; and it is interesting to notice that in
some of the extinct species of the latter these teeth, although
composed of the same prisms, are shorter and show more or
less distinct roots. We may accordingly regard the Voles
as forming a highly-specialised side-branch which has taken
origin from the Hamsters.
Till within the last few years, the Voles have been almost
universally known by the generic name of Arvicola ; but it has
been discovered that the title under which they are here entered
antedates the latter by one year, and, therefore, by the rules of
zoological nomenclature, has to be employed. _In this particular
instance the substitution of a strange name for one which had
become so well-known, is much to be deplored ; but it will be
obvious that if exceptions are once made in enforcing the rule
of priority in nomenclature, it cannot be logically maintained
elsewhere.
I. COMMON FIELD-VOLE. MICROTUS AGRESTIS.
Mus agrestis, Linn., Fauna Suecica, p. 11 (1761).
Mus gregarius, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 84 (1766).
Arvicola agrestis, Fleming, British Animals, p. 23 (1828) ; Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 323 (1874).
Microtus agrestis, Lataste, Le Naturaliste, 1883, p. 349, id.
Act. Soc. Linn., Bordeaux, vol. xxxviii. p. 36 (1884).
(Plate XXIV.)
Characters.—Size small ; tail one-third the length of the head
and body ; soles of hind-feet with six naked pads; colour of
“ATOA- OTST
Axx FLV Id
VOLES, 203
upperparts dull greyish-brown; beneath greyish-white; feet
dusky ; first and second upper molar teeth with five prismatic
spaces, and the third with six ; in the lower jaw the first molar
having nine such spaces, the second five, and the last three.
Length of head and body about 334 to 434 inches; of the
tail, 134 inch.
In the allied Microtus arvalis of the Continent, the second
upper molar has only four prismatic spaces.
Distribution.— This species ranges over the greater part of
Europe, from Finland in the north to Northern Italy in the
south, and from England and Spain in the west to Russia in
the east. In the British Islands it extends all over England
and Scotland, inclusive of the Hebrides, but it is not found in
Lewis, and is unknown in Ireland. While abundant in the
more northern districts of the Continent, in the south it is ex-
ceeded in numbers by JZ. arvalis.
Habits.—The Field-Vole, or, as it may be generally termed, the
Short-tailed Field-Mouse (in contradistinction to the Wood-
Mouse, or Long-tailed Field-Mouse), is the most mischievous of
all Rodents to the farmer, from the fact of its occasionally
appearing in enormous numbers, as is likewise the case with
its continental ally, Af avvalts. An exhaustive account of the
habits of the latter has been given by Brehm, and since the two
species appear to have somewhat similar modes of life, we can-
not do better than quote therefrom. He observes that the food
of the Voles “consists of every sort of vegetable substance.
When they can obtain seeds, they feed only on these, but at
other times they content themselves with fresh grass and herbs,
roots and leaves, clover, fruits, and berries. Beech-mast and
nuts, corn, turnips, and potatoes are badly attacked by them.
When the corn begins to ripen, they assemble in hordes in the
fields, bite the stalks through at the base till they fall over, then
204 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
gnaw them through, above, and drag the ears into their burrows,
During the harvest they follow the steps of the reapers from one
crop to another, devour the corn that has dropped among the
stubble, gather the ears up which have fallen in binding up the
sheaves, and at last find their way to the stack-yard, where they
find provision for the winter. In the woods they collect the
fallen haws, juniper-berries, beech-mast, acorns, and nuts in their
burrows. During the hardest weather they fall into uninter-
rupted hibernation, but when milder weather returns they rouse
up, and feed on their stores. They are incredibly voracious,
and require much to satisfy them ; but they cannot do without
water.
“Field-Voles are very gregarious, and live socially together,
at least in pairs, but mcre commonly in great hordes, and there-
fore they link one burrow to another. They multiply with
extreme rapidity. Even in April we find from four to eight
young in their warm nests, which lie from one to two feet below
the surface of the ground, and are softly lined with fine frag.
ments of grass or hay, and moss; and in the course of the
summer the female produces young from four to six times more.
It is highly probable that the young of the first litter are them-
selves ready to breed in autumn, and the amazing increase in
their numbers is thus easily explained.
“Under favourable circumstances,’ says Blasius, ‘ the Field-
Vole multiplies in an incredible manner. Many instances are
known in which a large part of the harvest has been destroyed
over large tracts of country by their inordinate increase, and
more than a thousand acres of young birch-trees have been
destroyed by their gnawing the bark. Those who have never
experienced such a Vole-year can hardly form a conception of
the almost incredible swarms of Voles in the fields and planta-
tions. They often appear in a particular neighbourhood with-
out their gradual increase having been observed, as if they had
VOLES. 205
suddenly come upon the earth by magic. It is possible that
they sometimes migrate suddenly from place to place. But
their rapid multiplication is generally foreshadowed for weeks
beforehand by the increase of the Buzzards.’
* During the twenties, the Lower Rhine was repeatedly visited
by such a plague. The fields were so undermined in places
that you could scarcely set foot on the ground without touching
a Vole-hole, and innumerable paths were deeply trodden
between these openings. On fine days it swarmed with Voles,
which ran aboutopenlyand fearlessly. If they were approached,
from six to ten rushed to the same hole to creep in, and un-
willingly impeded each other’s progress by crowding together.
It was not difficult in the crush to kill half-a-dozen with one
blow from a stick. All seemed to be strong and healthy, but
mostly rather small, and for the greater part were probably young
ones. Three weeks after I revisited the place. The number
of Voles had actually increased, but the animals were apparently
in a sickly state. Many had mangy places or sores over the
whole body, and even in those which appeared sound, the skin
was so loose and delicate that it could not be roughly
handled without destroying it. When I visited the place for
the third time, four weeks later, every trace of them had
disappeared ; but the empty burrows and passages awakened
a much more dismal feeling than when they swarmed with life.
People said that the whole race had suddenly disappeared from
the earth as if by magic. Many may have perished from a
devastating pestilence, and many have been devoured by their
fellows, as happens in captivity; but people also spoke of the
innumerable hosts that had swum across the Rhine at several
places in the open day. No extraordinary increase was noticed
anywhere over a wide area ; but they seem to have disappeared
everywhere at the same time, without reappearing elsewhere.
Nature must have put a stop to their inordinate multiplication
206 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
at the same period. It was fine warm autumn _ weather,
apparently favourable to them to the last moment.
“In order to give some idea of the hordes of Voles which
sometimes appear in certain districts, it may be mentioned that
in 1822, in the district of Zabern, 1,570,000 Voles were caught
in fourteen days; in the district of Nidda, 590,427; and in
that of Putzbach, 271,941.
“In the autumn of 1856, says Lenz, there were so many
Voles in one district of four leagues in circumference between
Erfurt and Gotha, that about 12,000 acres of land had to be re-
ploughed. The sowing of each acre at current wages 6s., and
the ploughing-up was estimated at 1s. 6d.; so that the loss}
amounted to from £2,000 to £4,500, and probably much more.
On a single large estate near Breslau 200,000 were caught in
seven weeks, and delivered to the Breslau manure factory,
which then paid a pfenning (half-a-farthing) per dozen for them.
Some of the Vole-catchers were able to supply the factory
with 1,400 or 1,500 per day. In thesummer of 1861, 409,523
Voles and 4,707 Hamsters were caught and counted in the
district of Alsheim in Rhenish Hesse. The local authorities
paid 2,523 gulen (about £164) for them !
“In the years 1872 and 1873 it was just the same, and local
complaints arose in all parts of the country about the Vole-
plague. It might be compared to one of the plagues of Egypt.
Even in the day, on the sandy plains of the Mark of Branden-
burg, thousands of Voles were counted in particular fields, and
in the rich corn-lands of Lower Saxony, Thuringia, and Hesse,
they abounded to a fearful extent. Half the harvest was
destroyed, hundreds of thousands of acres were left untilled,
and thousands of pounds were spent on their destruction.
Agricultural Societies and Governments were implored to seek
ways and means of staying the plague.”
In Britain “ Vole-plagues,” as they are called, have occurred
VOLES. 207
several times, and we cull the following particulars from the
Government Report on the most recent of these. The first on
record took place in the year 1580, in the hundred of Danesey,
in Essex, when it is stated that the roots of all the pasture-grass
were destroyed by these pests. The second occurred during
the years 1813 and 1814, and extended over the Forest of
Dean, in Gloucestershire, and the New Forest, in Hampshire,
An account of this plague has been furnished by Lord Glen-
bervie, from which it appears that about 98 per cent. of the
Rodents composing the horde belonged to the present species,
while the remaining 2 per cent. were Wood-Mice. Upwards
of 30,000 Voles were destroyed by various means in the Forest
of Dean, and 11,500 in the New Forest.* In 1874 and 1875 a
similar plague made its appearance in Wensleydale, and lasted
till about 1876, during which time the Field-Voles appeared in
such numbers in the pasture-farms of the hill-districts of the
borders of England and Scotland, and parts of Yorkshire and
Wensleydale, as to destroy the grazing-ground. Reporting on
this irruption, Sir Walter Elliot writes that “the district most
seriously affected consists of a cluster of farms at the head of
Borthwick Water, which falls into the Teviot, three miles above
Hawick. The centre of the group is Howpasley, which, with
Craikhope, Wolfcleughhead, and part of Craik, all in the parish
of Roberton, belong to the Duke of Buccleuch ; adjoining them
are Ramsay-cleughhead and Hislop, in the parish of Teviot-
head, and the estate of Tushielaw. Beyond them is Lang-
shawburn; which was too close to escape such dangerous
neighbours, as were other farms in Eskdalemuir parish ; while
* Mr. W. E. de Winton writes to me:—‘‘The Voles in the above-men-
tioned plagues have, I think, been proved to be the ‘Bank’ Voles. This
animal is the only Vole which frequents woods, and its principal food, at
all seasons, consists of seeds, bark, and shoots, and it is this species which
does the damage in the woods. I have opened the bodies of many, and
have invariably found the stomach filled with a yellow substance like pease
pudding, while the stomach of the Field-Vole contains chewed grass.”
208 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
several in Ettrick-head and Tema Water were attacked in a
greater or less degree, but not to be compared with the first-
mentioned six farms. In Nithsdale and Western Dumfries,
the parishes of Tynron, Penpont, and Durisdeer were among
those that suffered most.
‘*For two or three years previous to 1876, the Voles had
been observed to be on the increase. In the spring of 1875
the ground, which had been covered with snow since Decem-
ber, was found to be riddled with holes under the wreath-
drifts, and denuded of herbage, by the Voles that had found
shelter there. Great numbers were seen throughout the sum-
mer, when cutling the bog hay. The shepherd at Craikhope
described the children as ‘amusing themselves by hunting
them from morning to night, as long as they could find nothing
better to do, so that each day,’ he believes, ‘they destroyed
hundreds, and the dogs devoured them till they made them-
selves sick!’ In the autumn of the same year they continued
plentiful. The farmer of Howpasley, when cutting a four-acre
field of corn, observed numbers to be driven inwards by the
reaping-machine, so that when only a spot in the centre of about
twenty feet by five remained, he made one of the men take a
scythe and cut it slowly, a woman lifting behind. The others
surrounded them, and killed the Mice as they came out ; and
somewhere between eighty and a hundred were thus destroyed,
most of which were eaten by six dogs present. ‘I used to
kill scores of them,’ he adds, ‘with a stick while walking over
the hills.’
“ The same thing was observed, in a greater or less degree,
wherever the conditions of the ground were favourable to
them. A correspondent to a county paper relates that when.
‘removing a two-years’ crop of hay in the autumn of 1875 from
a meadow sloping down to the Bowmont, on the farm of Sour-
hope, near Yetholm, two to four nests were found under every
VOLES, 209
tick, each with six to nine young ones, the nest lying in a
cavity from which runs diverged in every direction. Great
numbers were killed by the boys assisting. One little fellow
got seventy-nine full-grown ones for his share, and his straw-
hat was brimful of young ones.’
“Their numbers, already redundant, were augmented by
the mild winter of 1875-6, and in the succeeding spring they
made their presence felt in the doomed farms. During the
three months from February to April they completely destroyed
the pasturage of the bog-land in Borthwick water, and were
then driven to the bents. Notwithstanding the means used for
their destruction, which, however, were not very skilful, the
swarms showed little diminution. .The public journals sug-
gested a trial of the plan which had been so efficacious in the
New Forest, where holes were dug into which they fell, but
the hint came too late. More efficient auxiliaries appeared in
the shape of Hawks, Foxes, Weazels, &c., attracted by the
abundant prey. Buzzards, which have long been strangers to the
district, again made their appearance. A shepherd in Eskdale-
muir saw seven of the rough-legged species (Avchibuteo lagopus)
on the wing at the same time, and the short and long-eared
Owls were observed in still larger numbers. By the middle of
April the herbage was so much impaired that the Voles them-
selves began to feel the want of food, and the occurrence of
severe frost, with a sprinkling of snow, about the middle of
the month, completed their discomfiture. Many died of star-
vation, and by the end of May they had mostly disappeared.
““When the Committee of the Farmers’ Club made their in-
spection, they found that fully one-third of the pasture in the
places visited had been destroyed. The true bog-grass espe-
cially, on which the sheep mainly depend in April and May,
had been eaten down to the roots. The ground was strewed
with dried stalks and blades, mixed with tufts of fur. limbs, and
5 P
210 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
other remains of the depredators. The sheep were in deplor-
able case; several had died; and the emaciated ewes, too weak
to make good nurses, suckled their lambs with difficulty.
Numbers of these had perished in consequence, and the sur-
vivors were poor and weakly.”
In 1892 another alarming plague of Voles made its appear-
ance in the south of Scotland, the districts chiefly affected
being the northern boundary of Dumfriesshire, east of Thorn-
hill, and the north-west of Roxburgh, where between 80,000
and go,000 acres are reported to have been affected. The
border-districts in the south of Selkirk, Peebles, and Lanark,
as well as the parishes of Carpshain and Dairy, in the extreme
north of the stewardry of Kirkcudbright, suffered in a minor
degree. Reporting 2n the plague in Roxburgh, Mr. R. F.
Dudgeon writes as follows :—
“The districts of this county affected by the plague are the
west and south-west portions of Teviotdale adjoining the coun-
ties of Selkirk and Dumfries, and the south-west portion of
Liddesdale. The gross area of the farms seriously affected may
be stated as between 30,000 and 40,000 acres.
“The Voles, although more or less numerous than usual for
the previous two years, multiplied to an alarming extent during
the spring and summer of 1891. A correspondent in Teviot-
dale describes them as now swarming in millions. They
apparently first attack the deeper boggy and rough pasture-
lands, which are destroyed to the extent of nearly four-fifths
of their area; one-half of the area of the hill-farms in the dis-
tricts named may be said to be in bog or rough pasture, and I
think that I should not be far wrong in stating that some
12,000 to 15,000 acres have been rendered entirely useless by
reason of the plague. As the bog or rough pasture becomes
foul or exhausted, the Voles spread to the barer lea-land, and
even to the heather, which they bark, at the same time biting
VOLES, 2ii
off the young shoots. The grasses are first attacked close to
the surface of the ground, and the stalk is consumed as far as
it continues white or succulent ; young shoots are also nipped
off; and grass tufts are to be seen completely eaten through,
what is left by the Voles being absolutely valueless. Sheep are
suffering severely in the districts affected; large portions of
many flocks have been removed to winterage, wherever that
can be found, artificial food and purchased hay is being given
to the stock on many hirsels ; the lightness of last year’s hay-
crop and the present high price of purchased fodder, cakes,
and corn adds very considerably to the difficulties of the far-
mers. Plantations are in some instances attacked, buds being
nipped off, and bark peeled. The arable land attached to
some of the farms is not appreciably affected, although I am
informed by one of my correspondents that during the leading
of his corn last autumn Voles were discovered under nearly
every stook, nests were also found, as well as eaten corn ; fears
are entertained that the seed-corn may be attacked, espe-
cially in lea land, where the Voles can work their way up the
furrows.”
The reporter attributes the immediate cause of the outbreak
to the unusual roughness of the pastures during the winter of
1890-91, and the mildness of the weather at that time, whereby
the Voles gained an extraordinary advantage in the shape of
shelter from their natural enemies, as also in facilities for
breeding.
After various remedies had been tried, with more or less in-
different success, the Voles seemed gradually to decrease in
numbers, till by the beginning of 1894 affairs had resumed
their normal conditions. In regard to the possibility of check-
ing such epidemics, Brehm observes that, unfortunately, man is
powerless; and although various remedies, such as inoculation
w:ch bacilli, have been tried, we are much inclined to agree with
P2
212 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
him. He writes that “all the means of destruction which have
yet been devised seem insufficient to check the inordinate
multiplication of these greedy hosts. Only Providence and the
useful predacious animals, to which man is so hostile, can help
him. ‘Borers’ have been used with good results, with which,
where the soil permits it, holes are made in the ground 12-18
cm. in circumference and 60 cm. deep. When the Voles fall
in, instead of burrowing their way out, they devour each other.
When the fields were being ploughed, children followed with
sticks, and destroyed as many as possible. Smoke has been
driven into the burrows, poisoned grain thrown in, whole fields
saturated with a decoction of strychnine or spurge. In short,
every means has been adopted to get rid of this terrible pest;
but in general all these methods have proved nearly useless,
and some of them, especially poisoning, highly dangerous.
The most efficacious poison not only destroys all the Voles in
a field, but likewise their worst enemies, and consequently our
friends, Foxes, Martens, Stoats, Weazels, Buzzards, Owls, and
Rooks, besides Partridges, Hares, and domestic animals, from
Pigeons to Horses and Oxen—a sufficient reason for abstaining
altogether from the use of poison. It is painful to all natura-
lists and lovers of animals to see the enemies of the Voles, as
in 1872, poisoned and destroyed instead of cared for and pro-
tected. Short-sighted people—farmers who cared more for
hare-hunting than for making the best use of the land—were
delighted when they found, besides dead Voles, hundreds of
poisoned Rooks, Buzzards, Owls, Foxes, Weasels, and Stoats ;
but they did not consider what mischief they had entailed upon
themselves in their senseless efforts to destroy the Voles. It
was not the destruction of the useful but despised Vole-killers
that concerned them, but when Hares, Partridges, and domestic
animals were also poisoned, they were at last induced to give
up the use of poison. Till then, the warnings of far-seeing
aIOA MNVE
AXX @2LVId
VOLES. 213
advisers were disregarded. ‘The hints which they had given,
both verbally and in print, that laying poison in the fields might
perhaps benefit the infected land, but not agriculturists, were
not appreciated till too late. Besides poison, smoking out the
Voles was tried on suitable ground with satisfactory result.
All the holes were stopped up, and poisonous coal and sulphur-
smoke (bisulphide of carbon) was allowed to pour into the
burrows which the Voles reopened : but this efficacious mode.
of destroying them could not be employed everywhere, and
was very expensive. People knew not what to do, because
they had neglected to destroy the Voles at the proper time.”
It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that fossil remains of
the Common Field-Vole have been obtained from the Pleisto-
cene brick-earths of the Thames Valley, and likewise from
Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire, and Kent’s Hole Cavern near
Torquay. A fact of still more interest is the occurrence of
jaws of the continental AZ arva/s in the “ forest-bed” of the
Norfolk coast, and also in a fissure near Frome, in Somerset-
shire.
Il, THE BANK-VOLE. MICROTUS GLAREOLUS.
Mus glareolus, Schreber, Sdugethiere, vol. iii, p. 680 (1774).
Arvicola pratensis, Baillon, in F. Cuvier’s Hist. Nat., Mamm.,
vol, iv. Tabl. gén. p. 4 (1834); Bell, British Quadrupeds,
p. 230 (1837).
Arvicola riparia, Yarrell, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 109;
Jenyns, British Vertebr. p. 34 (1835).
Arvicola glareolus, Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 327
(1874).
Arvicola (Evotomys) glareola, Newton, Geol. Mag. decade 2,
vol. viii. p. 258 (1881).
Microtus glareolus, Lataste, Act. Soc, Linn. Bordeaux, vol.
xxxvili. p. 36 (1884).
(Plate XXV.)
214 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Characters.—Size nearly as in the last ; tail about one-half the
length of the head and body, and thickly haired ; colour of
upper-parts rich reddish-chestnut, the flanks grey, and the
under-parts nearly white; tail dark brown above and white
beneath. Molars developing distinct roots in the adult; the
first and third upper molars with five prismatic spaces, and the
second with four ; in the lower jaw, the first molar with seven,
and the other two with three such spaces. Length of head
and body about 334 to 4 inches; of tail, 14 inches.
In the rooted molars of the adult, this species differs widely
from the preceding; and, accordingly, while the latter is
assigned to a separate sub-genus known as Agricola, the present
form is sub-generically distinguished as Zvotomys.
Distribution. First recognised as a British species by Yarrell, |
the Bank-Vole ranges through England and Scotland as far
north as Morayshire, beyond which it does not appear to have
been met with; but, like both the other British members of the
genus, it is unknown in Ireland. In England it is generally
supposed to be a far less abundant species than the common
Field-Vole ; but among a large series of specimens of Voles
recently collected for Mr. Oldfield Thomas, by far the greater
majority proved to belong to the one under consideration. In
Northumberland it occurs, but apparently not commonly; in
Cumberland it has been recorded only from two localities ;
while in Durham it has not been noticed, although it must al-
most certainly occur. Mr. Montagu Browne also states that it
is unknown in Leicestershire ; while in Devonshire it is either
extremely rare or very local. These instances will suffice to
show that the distribution of the species over the country is
far from uniform. In a fossil state, the Bank-Vole occurs in
the “forest-bed” of Norfolk, as well as in several English caverns,
such as Kent’s Hole near Torquay, Wookey Hole in Glamor-
ganshire, Brixham Cave, and another cave near Bristol,
VOLES 275
Abroad, this species ranges across Europe from France to
China, while in North America its place is taken by a closely-
allied form known as MZ. gapperi. Recent investigations have,
however, rendered it probable that both the European and
American forms will eventually prove to be local southern
races of the Arctic Vole (AZ. rutilus), of the circum-polar
Regions, in which case the latter name will have to be em-
ployed for the species under consideration.
Habits—In habits the Bank-Vole, or Red Vole, as it is
frequently, and perhaps preferably, called, is generally very
similar to those of the preceding species ; but whereas the
latter is essentially an inhabitant of the open fields, the former
is more partial to sheltered situations, often frequenting gar-
dens, where it does much damage by devouring the bulbs of
crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans. Mr. Roper writes
that its favourite haunts “‘are old rough ivy-covered hedge-
banks, especially those from which the soil has been washed
away in places, leaving the roots bare, and thus forming
hollows behind them ; banks adjoining woods and plantations
seem particularly attractive to them. In spots like this, pleas-
ingly varied by a sprinkling of mossy old stubs, brambles, and
bushes, with the roots of overhanging trees backed by deep
cavernous recesses, the Bank-Vole makes its burrow, and forms
runs in all directions, partly above and partly below the surface ;
probably also making use of those of the Mole. Ihave caught
them, too, among artificial rock-work, and in a plantation in
which are banks thickly covered with the lesser periwinkle,
among the roots and stems of which they had formed numer-
ous runs.”
Bell states that the Bank-Vole is more omnivorous in its
habits than the common Field-Vole, and that it is less addicted
to burrowing; while it is even more frequently seen abroad dur-
ing the daytime. Its food comprises almost all kinds of vege-
216 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
table substances ; and it is probable that insects are also occa-
sionally eaten. In addition to the harm inflicted on roots and
bulbs, the Bank-Vole often does much damage to the bark of
fruit- and other trees, more especially in the spring and winter.
In parts of Scotland these animals have seriously damaged
young larch-plantations by their ravages on the bark and buds.
In Switzerland the charge has been brought against this Rodent
of robbing the nests of such small birds as build upon the
ground ; but further evidence on this point is desirable. The
breeding-habits appear to be identical with those of the pre-
ceding species, from four to eight young being produced ina
litter.
In ridding gardens of Voles, the writer has found a common
4-trap made out of three pieces of Jath and a couple of roofing-
tiles the most effective ; either a split bean or a piece of cheese
being used as a bait.
Ill, THE WATER-VOLE. MICROTUS AMPHIBIUS.
Mus amphibius, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 82 (1766).
Microtus amphibius, Schrank, Fauna Boica, vol. i. p. 72
(1798) ; Lataste, Act. Soc. Linn. Bordeaux, vol. xxxviii.
p. 36 (1884).
Arvicola amphibius, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 280 (1820);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 316 (1874).
Arvicola aquatica, Fleming, British Animals, p. 23 (1828).
Arvicola ater, Macgillivray, Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. vi. p.
424 (1832).
Arvicola amphibia, Jenyns, British Vert. Anim. P. 33 (1835);
Flower, Cat. Osteol. Mus Roy. Coll. Surgeons, pt. ii. p.
610 (1884).
(Plate XX VI.)
Characters.—Size large ; tail about half the length of head and
body ; hind-feet long, with five naked pads on the soles; fur
PLATE XXVI.
WATER -VOLE.
VOLES. 217
long and thick, usually of a uniform greyish-brown, with a
more or less distinct reddish tinge, but not unfrequently wholly
black. First upper molar tooth with five, and the second and
third with four, prismatic spaces; in the lower jaw, the first
molar has seven such spaces (of which the first three are
generally imperfectly separated), the second five, and the third
three. Length of head and body about 8% inches; of tail 434
inches,
The Water-Vole, or, as it is generally incorrectly termed, the
Water-Rat, is a member of the sub-genus Pa/zdico/a (as defined
by the number of prisms in the molar teeth), and may be
compared to the Brown Rat in point of size. As in the case of
the so-called Irish Rat, the black, or melanistic variety, which is
as common in many parts of Scotland as it is in the Cambridge-
shire fens and in Norfolk, was at first regarded as a distinct
species, under the name of Arvicola ater.
The Water-Vole has the body full; the neck very short ;
the head short, broad, rounded, and convex above ; the limbs
small; and the tail rather long and slender. The short and
rounded ears are entirely concealed among the thick fur, and
are naked internally, and thinly covered with soft hairs exter-
nally ; the aperture of the internal ear being capable of being
closed by an operculum. On the fore-feet the claws are
greatly compressed, but in the hind-limbs are longer ; while in
neither are the toes webbed. The tail is cylindrical and
slightly tapering, somewhat compressed towards the tip, and
covered with short closely-adherent hairs. The fur is composed
of two kinds of hairs, some being longer and a little thicker
than the others. At the base all the hairs are bluish-black on
the upper-parts, and bluish-grey below. The incisor teeth are
brownish-yellow, the eyes black, the nose dusky, the soles of
the feet pale flesh-colour, and the claws, according to Mr, de
Winton, are “purple, as if dyed with black-currant juice.”
218 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Distribution —The geographical range of this species is very
extensive, including nearly the whole of Europe and a large
portion of Asia north of the Himalaya, but it does not appear to
be known further east than China. Unknown in Ireland, it is
so universally distributed in England and Scotland that no special
notice is necessary on this point, except that, while found in
Sutherland and Caithness, it is unknown in Argyllshire and
the Isles. Although locally abundant in some districts, the
black variety appears much more common in Scotland than in
England.
Not improbably occurring in the forest-bed of the Norfolk
coast, in a fossil state, the Water-Vole is met with in the
Pleistocene brick-earths of the Thames Valley, and likewise in
a number of English caverns, ;
Habits —Of the mode of life of the Water-Vole, Macgillivray,
in the original edition of the “ Naturalist’s Library,” writes that
“ its residence is in the banks of rivers, brooks, canals, mill-dams,
and ponds, in which it forms long and tortuous burrows. It
frequently betakes itself to the water, swims and dives with
ease ; and generally has an entrance to its retreat beneath the
surface, so that in cases of danger it may effect its escape
without appearing on land. In fine weather, especially in the
morning and evening, it may often be seen sitting at the mouth
of its hole, nibbling the grass or roots there ; but inthe middle
of the day it usually remains underground. It feeds entirely
on vegetable substances, chiefly roots, and has been known to
deposit a store even of potatoes for winter use ; for it does not
appear to become torpid in the cold season, although in time
of snow it does not come abroad. Five or six young are
produced early in summer, and deposited in a nest composed
of dry grass and other vegetable matter.”
Although generally found close to water, this Rodent occa-
sionally wanders some distance away, and may make its burrow
HARES AND RABBITS. 219
in a ploughed field ; an instance of this habit being recorded
by Gilbert White. In the Lake district, according to the Rev.
H. A. Macpherson, these animals have taken to burrowing in
the sandhills of Ravenglass. In summer the soft succulent
inner portions of the stems of flags and horse-tails, form their
favourite food ; but when hard pressed in winter they will make
raids on the farmer’s store of root-crops, and will attack the
bark of willows and osiers. The sins of the Brown Rat are
often unjustly laid to the charge of the Water-Vole, in conse-
quence of which it is often said to be carnivorous; but there
is little doubt, as stated above, that it is a purely vegetable
feeder. The only offences of which it can be justly convicted
are of tapping the banks of mill-dams, rivers, and canals by
means of its burrows, of damaging osier-plantations, and the
aforesaid raids on root-crops.
When threatened with danger, the female Water-Vole has
been observed to convey her young to a place of safety by
taking them up in her mouth and carrying them, as a Cat does
her kittens. One of the great enemies of this creature is the
Weasel, which is able to enter its burrow and then attack it.
In feeding, the Vole may often be observed sitting upon its
haunches on the river-bank, and holding its food up to its
mouth with its fore-paws after the manner of a Squirrel.
Mr. Trevor-Battye writes to me :—“ It is worth noticing that
when the Water-Vole is not hurried it will make use of its
hind-legs alone in swimming, carrying its fore-paws at its
sides, as the Seals do their flippers. I mentioned this fact in
my book ‘ Pictures in Prose’; elsewhere I have not seen it
referred to; yet it is one which anyone, given clear water, can
attest for himself.”
THE HARES AND RABBITS. FAMILY LEPORID.
The Hares and Rabbits, together with the Picas or Tailless
Hares (Zagomys), of which there are no existing British repre-
220 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
sentatives, form a group distinguished from all other Rodents
by the presence of a second small pair of upper incisors placed
immediately behind the large front pair. They are likewise
peculiar in that the enamel on the large upper incisors, in place
of being confined to their front surfaces, extends round to the
back, although it is still thicker in front than elsewhere.
From the presence of the additional pair of upper incisors
this group is spoken of as the Duplicidentata, whereas all the
other members of the Order are collectively classed as Simpli-
cidentata. In the young of the present group there are three
pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, but the hindmost of
these are soon lost.
As a family, the Hares and Rabbits are distinguished from
the Picas (Lagomyide) by the collar-bones, or clavicles, being
imperfect, by the length of the hind-limbs being much in
excess of that of the front pair, by the presence of a short,
upwardly-curved tail, and the long ears. There are three
pairs of upper, and two of lower, pre-molar teeth; and the
whole of the cheek-teeth are devoid of roots, and are divided
into parallel plates by transverse infoldings of the enamel.
The Family, which includes but a single genus, has, with the
exception of Australasia (where Rabbits have been introduced
with most disastrous results), a cosmopolitan distribution.
GENUS LEPUS.
Lepus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 77 (1766).
Since this is the only genus of the Family, it will suffice to
add to the above-mentioned characters that the fore-feet are
furnished with five, and the hind with four toes, and that the
soles of the feet are furred like the legs, while the inner sur-
face of the cheeks are likewise covered with hair. With the
exception of the Hispid Hare (Z. Aispzdus), all the species are.
very similar to one another in external appearance, and all are
HavH NOWWOO
TAXX wWLWwid
HARES AND RABBITS, 221
terrestrial. Whereas, however, the majority are inhabitants of
open fields, and produce furred and active young, the Rabbit
and the Hispid Hare are peculiar in dwelling in burrows and
giving birth to naked and helpless offspring. By far the great
majority of the species are confined to the temperate regions
of the Northern Hemisphere.
I. THE COMMON HARE, LEPUS EUROPEUS,
Lepus europeus, Pallas, Nov. Spec. Glirium, p. 30 (1778).
Lepus timidus (nec Linn.), Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p.
331 (1874).
(Plate XX VIL.)
Characters—Size large ; hind-limbs and ears very long, the
latter exceeding the head in length; tail nearly as long as the
head ; general colour of the upper-parts tawny-grey, more or
less tinged with rufous; under-parts white; ears tipped with
black ; tail black above and white beneath. Length of head
and body about 21% inches; of tail, 324 inches; of ear,
3% inches.
Although the fur of the English Hare is usually of the
colour mentioned above, there is considerable variation in this
respect, depending upon the age of the animal, the season of
the year, and locality, while there are also individual differences.
As a rule, in Britain, the Hare becomes of a more pure grey in
winter, while in more northern regions it tends to white at the
same season. Leverets are more rufous than adult individuals;
and in the south of Europe the prevailing colour tends to
yellowish-red. Individuals occasionally assume a paler tint
than usual, and sometimes resemble a Rabbit in colour; while
very rarely black Hares have been met with.
As regards the general external form of the Hare, it may be
added that the body is large, compressed, and deep ; the neck
very short; the head of moderate size, convex above, and
222 LLOYD § NATURAL HISTORY.
broad and obtuse at the muzzle, with a depressed nose, and
the upper lip tumid and divided by a vertical median cleft.
The laterally-placed eyes are large and remarkably prominent ;
and the long ears are narrow, deeply concave, and rounded at
the tips. The somewhat long claws are slightly curved, com-
pressed, and rather sharp; although on the hind-feet they
become blunted in old animals. The fur, as in the other
members of the genus, consists of two kinds of hairs, of which
the one is long and coarse, and the other short, fine, and
somewhat woolly. Jn addition to the usual “ whiskers,” a few
long bristly hairs are situated over each eye. A Hare generally
weighs from seven to eight pounds when fully grown; but
much heavier specimens occur, Bell recording one of eleven
pounds, while in another just over thirteen pounds “was
scaled,
Distribution—Before discussing the distribution of this spe-
cies, it should be mentioned that by all the older writers on
British Mammals, the Common Hare is alluded to under the
name of Lepus timidus. Since, however, this species does not
occur in Scandinavia, there can be little doubt but that the
latter name was applied by Linnzus to the Mountain-Hare of
that region, to which species the name in question must con-
sequently be transferred.
With the exception of the Scandinavian peninsula, Northern
Russia, and Ireland, the Common Hare ranges over the whole
of Europe. That it extends to the Caucasus, and that it is
unknown in Siberia, are ascertained facts, but we are not aware
that the actual easterly limits of its range have been defined.
Distributed over the whole of England and the Lowlands of
Scotland, the Hare is less abundant in many of the northern
districts of the latter country, on the higher tracts of which its
place is taken by the next species. It occurs, however,
commonly in Caithness, and is also found in the east of
HARES AND RABBITS. 223
Sutherland. In Argyllshire it is rare, and may have been
introduced, as it has certainly been in Mull and some of the
other islands.
Habits.—The following account of the habits of the Common
Hare is taken from Macgillivray, who writes that, like the
other species of the genus, it feeds entirely on vegetable
substances, such as grass, clover, corn, turnips, and the bark
of young trees, sometimes inflicting great injury on the latter,
especially in winter. Towards evening it comes abroad in
quest of food, and continues to search for it during the night,
in conformity with which habits the pupil of its eye is large
and of an oblong form. It advances by leaps, and as its hind-
legs are much longer than the front ones, it runs with more
ease up hill than down, especially on steep declivities.
During the day it reposes in a crouching or half-sitting posture
in its “form,” which is a selected spot to which it usually
resorts, among grass, ferns, or bushes. Its senses of hearing
and seeing are extremely acute ; its eyes, being placed directly
on the sides of the head, take in a wide range, while its long
ears can be readily turned in any direction, forwards, outwards,
or backwards, so as to catch the smallest sounds indicative of
hostility. Being in a manner defenceless, and having no
burrow or fastness to which it may retreat, the Hare trusts to
vigilance and extraordinary speed to enable it to elude its
numerous enemies. s
It is chiefly to the lower and more cultivated districts that
the Common Hare resorts, but it is also found in the upland
valleys, and on the slopes of hills of considerable height.
Timid and gentle as it is, yet it is by no means innocuous,
for the injury it occasions to the young corn is often consider-
able. In the winter it finds an abundant supply of food in the
turnip-fields, and it sometimes visits gardens at night, more
especiaily when pinched by hunger during continued frost. It
224 LLoyb’s NATURAL HISTORY.
has been observed to cross rivers by swimming, and even to
enter the sea for the purpose of gaining an island or point of
land, on which food was more abundant. We may add, that,
as a rule, Hares do not take to water except when compelled
to do so to escape from pursuit.
Mr. Trevor-Battye states, however, that as he was once wait-
ing at evening for ducks by the side of the River Eden, in
Kent, a Hare came quietly down the opposite bank through a
copse, crossed about three feet of ice that fringed the stream,
swam the open water, scrambled on to the ice on his side, and
emerged close to him, shook itself, and, catching sight of him,
ran off. This seemed quite a spontaneous act, as it was not
being hunted.
The female goes with young thirty days, and more than once
in the season produces from three to five young ones, which
are born covered with hair, having their eyes open, and capable
of running. The young squat in the fields, remaining motion-
less, like those of many birds, and are with difficulty perceived.
Even the old Hares are not readily driven from their form, in
which they will sometimes remain until a person is quite close
to them, when they at length start off, exhibiting in their motions
the haste and perturbation of extreme fear. The timidity of
the Hare is, indeed, proverbial, as is its propensity to return
when wounded, or even when hunted, to its usual place of
repose.
In the foregoing account Hares are stated to skulk and lie
close only when in their forms, but they will frequently do so
—more especially in the early spring—on open fallows, or even
on grass-land. From the similarity of their coloration to the
surrounding clods of earth, they are then extremely difficult to
detect, unless by a practised eye. When running away from a
pursuer, the white under surface of the up-turned tail renders
them, however, conspicuous in the extreme. The object of
aquvH- NIVINOQOW
NWARES AND RAULBITS, 225
this white on the tail is supposed to be (as in the case of the
Rabbit) to aid the young in following their dam to a place of
safety ; but it is clearly a disadvantage to the animal when
hunted by greyhounds, which follow only by sight, and in this
have a conspicuous object to attract their eyes towards their
quarry. The Hare, as Mr. Trevor-Battye has pointed out,
does not, however, invariably carry its tail up, as the Rabbit
does; and when cantering generally carries it down. When
coursed, the Hare, as is well known, seeks to elude her
pursuers by frequent doublings, being able to turn in a much
smaller space than the dogs; and it is mainly for this reason
that two greyhounds are invariably employed, as a single dog
would have but a very poor chance.
Hare-skins are largely used in the manufacture of felt, the
fur, before removal from the skin, being treated with acid,
when it assumes a reddish colour, and felts more readily ; this
process being technically known as “ carroting.”
Il. THE MOUNTAIN-HARE. LEPUS TIMIDUS.
Lepus timidus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 77 (1766);
Sclater, Cat. Mamm. Indian Mus. pt. ii. p. 118 (1891).
epus variabilis, Pallas, Nov. Spec. Glir. p. 1 (1778); Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 338 (1874).
Lepus arcticus, et L. glacialis, Leach in Ross’ Voyage, pp. 151,
170 (1819).
Lepus albus, Jenyns, British Vert. Animals, p. 35 (1835).
Lepus hibernicus, Yarrell, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 38; Bell,
British Quadrupeds, p. 341 (1837).
Lepus borealis, et L. canescens, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, pp.
19, 22 (1847).
(Plate XXVIII.)
Characters.—Size smaller than in the last; the head relatively
smaller and more rounded; and the ears, hind-limbs, and tail
5 Q
226 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
shorter. General colour fulvous grey, with black tips to the
ears, changing during the winter in the colder regions of the
animal’s habitat to white, with the exception of the tips of
the ears, which are black at all times. Length of head and
body about 21 inches ; of tail, 234 inches; of ear, 314 inches.
The reasons for applying the name of Lepus timidus to this
form, instead of to the Common Hare, have been already
given under the heading of the latter.
Distribution.—The geographical distribution of the Mountain,
Alpine, Blue, Irish, or Polar, Hare, as the animal is variously
called, is very extensive, embracing the circum-polar regions of
both Hemispheres, and including a considerable portion of
Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya. This is the only Hare
found in Iceland and Scandinavia, and it ranges over Northern
Europe generally, while it extends eastwards as far as Japan,
and in Southern and Eastern Europe it is found in mountain-
ranges, like the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus, which
have a climate and temperature suitable to its existence. Al-
though unknown in England, the Mountain-Hare is spread over
the whole of Ireland and the greater part of Scotland. In the
latter country its range has of late years been steadily increas-
ing, partly owing to artificial introduction, and partly to a west-
ward immigration; it is, however, now unknown in the Orkneys,
where it is stated to have formerly existed. According to Bell,
it was introduced into Peebleshire, Lanarkshire, and Ayrshire;
but in Argyllshire its increase of area is stated to be natural.
Thus it appears that, while it was unknown in Inverary about
1839, forty years later it was common there; and much the same
is reported of the Loch Lomond district. In Mull it has
been introduced. In Sutherland, from incessant shooting, the
number of these Hares has been greatly reduced ; but of late
years they are once more increasing in numbers.
In Ireland, doubtless owing to the mild climate, the Moun-
HARES AND RABBITS. 227
tain-Hare does not turn -white in winter; and it is said that
among those introduced into Ayrshire and the neighbouring
counties, the change is much less complete and regular than in
the north. Moreover, of those introduced into Mull, some be-
come white in winter, while others do not; and it is, therefore,
not improbable that those in which the change does not take
place, were imported from Ireland. Elsewhere in Scotland the
assumption of the white winter-dress is regular and complete.
Regarding this change, Macgillivray writes that “in Septem-
ber the colours begin to assume a paler tint, many of the dusky
hairs having disappeared. In October the change is further
advanced, and towards the end of the month, the muzzle, hind-
neck, and feet are white, of which colour there are spots and
patches dispersed here and there. In December the fur seems to
be entirely white, but has an intermixture of.long blackish hairs
on the back ; the anterior external part of the ear is brownish,
and its tip black. The under-fur is light bluish-grey at the base,
pale yellowish, or cream-colour towards the end. . . . .
From the examination of individuals at different periods of the
year, T have inferred that in this species the hair is almost
always changing ; that in April and May there is a general but
gradual shedding, after which the summer-colours are seen in
perfection; that towards the middle of autumn many new
white hairs have been substituted for coloured ones, and that
by degrees all the hair and under-fur are shed and renewed
before the end of December, when the fur is in the perfection
of its winter condition, being closer, fuller, and longer than in
summer.” Bell, on the other hand, believed that the change
was due to an alteration in the colour of the hairs themselves;
but we have every reason for regarding the former as the true
explanation.
Habits—In its general habits this species resembles the
Common Hare, producing active, furred young, and not burrow-
Q2
228 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
ing. Instead, however, of making a regular “form,” it skulks
among stones, or in the clefts of rocks, or hides among heather or
fern. In summer keeping to the mountain-sides, although not
frequenting the summits, it descends in winter to the bottom
of the valleys, although even then generally avoiding the culti-
vated or low flats. In Northern Europe it not unfrequently
resorts to woods. When hard pressed by hunger in winter, it
will not disdain to eat lichens, and even the seeds of pines,
In point of speed, the Mountain-Hare cannot compare with the
English species. Only two litters appear to be produced by
the female ina season. The flesh is whiter and leaner, and
therefore, of inferior quality to that of the Common Hare.
Mr. Trevor-Battye writes :—‘‘ This animal has a habit that I
have never seen explained. When running, it goes crookedly
at more or less frequent intervals, twisting its hinder extremity
in a curious way. I used to think it was only changing its legs,
but the action is too marked for this.”
In addition to an enormous number of carcases, with the
skins on, of the Mountain-Hare sent to this country for food,
from two to five million skins are annually collected, a large
proportion of which come from Siberia. According to Mr.
Poland, “a large quantity of these skins are used for fur-pur-
poses, both natural white, in imitation of White Fox, and dyed
Lynx-colour, brown, dark brown, black, and ‘snow-flake.’ The
peculiar dye called ‘snow-flake’ is effected by passing a solu-
tion of wax over the points of fur, and then dying the under-
fur a beautiful brown. The tips of the hairs thus retain their
natural white colour; the wax covering is removed, the skins
are cleaned, and the fur has then a beautiful appearance, some-
what like that of the Silver Fox.”
It is noteworthy that fossil remains of this species have been
obtained from a cavern in the Mendip Hills, as well as from
two Irish caves.
HARES AND RABBITS. 229
Ill, THE RABBIT. LEPUS CUNICULUS.
Lepus cuniculus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 77 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 343 (1874).
Characters.—Size small ; ears and hind-limbs relatively shorter
than in the two preceding species, and the former with a very
small or no black terminal patch. General colour brownish-grey
mingled with tawny, the under-parts white, and the tail blackish
above and white beneath. Length of head and body about
16% inches ; of tail, 324 inches ; of ear, 3% inches.
In form of body, the Rabbit is rounder and plumper than
the Hare, and the flanks are less contracted, while the pro-
portionately shorter ears and limbs give ita much more ordinary
appearance. In this country pied, black, and fawn-coloured
pure-bred wild Rabbits are not uncommon; and a wild albino
specimen has been recently recorded from France. In weight,
a wild Rabbit usually varies from between two-and-a-half and
three pounds, but specimens which have turned the scale at
five pounds are on record.
Distribution.—Originally, so far as can be determined, a
native of the countries around the western portion of the
Mediterranean, the Rabbit appears to have gradually spread
thence, partly by human agency, and partly by migration,
to the more northern countries of Europe ; while the dis-
astrous results of its introduction into Australia and New Zea-
land are only too well known. The date of its introduction
into Britain does not appear to be ascertained, even approxi-
mately ; but it was probably first imported into England,
whence it was carried to Ireland, while its extension into
Scotland was a gradual process, which is even now going
on, this Rodent being now abundant in many districts where
it was formerly unknown. As in the case of the northern
isles, this widening of its distributional area in Scotland is
230 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
largely due to human agency, although aided by the natural
spread of the animal.
Habits.—Similar as is the Rabbit in appearance and structure
to the Hare, it presents one remarkable difference, namely, that
its young are born blind, naked, and helpless; while to protect
them the creature lives in burrows excavated by itself in the
earth. Moreover, in place of being solitary animals, or consort-
ing in pairs, Rabbits are social creatures, forming their burrows
in continuity and connection with one another, and inhabiting
such warrens in larger or smaller colonies. So far as we are
aware, the only other member of the genus which resembles
the Rabbit in producing naked and helpless young and in
dwelling in burrows, is the Asiatic Hispid Hare.
“The places most favourable to the Rabbit,” observes Mac-
gillivray, “are sandy heather or downs, overgrown with coarse
grass and furze; the latter plant not only affording shelter,
but also food. There it congregates in vast numbers, digging
burrows in the soil, in which it reposes, and to which it re-
treats from danger. Although, on account of the compara-
tive shortness of its legs, it is much inferior to the Hare in
speed, it yet runs with great celerity; and a number of Rab-
bits scattered over a field afford a very pleasant sight, some
scudding along in trepidation, others bounding over the shrubs
or herbage, one disappearing here, another stopping a moment
to look around before it plunges into its retreat, and perhaps
a third peeping from the aperture. Early in the morning,
when old and young are abroad, they may be seen gambolling
in fancied security. If there are fields and pastures in the
neighbourhood, they make excursions among the corn and grass,
committing serious devastations when their numbers are great,
so that the vicinity of a warren is a great nuisance to the farmer.
Foxes, Polecats, Stoats, Weasels, and various Birds of Prey,
destroy considerable numbers ; but as their fecundity is great,
HARES AND RABBITS. 231
they rapidly increase in spite of natural enemies.” The passing
of the Ground-Game Act has, of course, permitted the tenant-
farmer to reduce the number of Rabbits on his land to such
limits as he may think fit; and, in spite of their rapidity of
increase, we are never likely in this country to have swarms of
Rabbits like those which have devastated some portions of
Australia.
Favourable seasons have something to do with abnormal
increase, and Mr. Trevor-Battye observes :—“ Last season
(1893), owing to the extraordinary weather, was remaikable as
a Rabbit-year. These animals almost amounted toa ‘ plague’ in
some parts of England. Never can I remember in the palmiest
days, before the Ground-Game Act, more Rabbits in districts
with which I am familiar.”
The remarkable paralysis, and loss of all kind of bodily and
mental power, which seizes a Rabbit or Hare when hunted by
a Stoat or Weasel, has been already alluded to when treating of
those Carnivores, and is one of the most curious physiological
peculiarities of the members of the group under consideration.
Although, when suddenly frightened, a Rabbit will plunge with-
out hesitation into any water which may happen to be near, in
which it will swim strongly and boldly, it appears that these
animals take naturally to the water even less readily than the
Hare.
At the age of about six or eight months the doe Rabbit com-
mences to breed; and as it produces several litters in a year, each
of which comprises from five to eight young ones, the rate of its
increase is very rapid. Although living in large colonies,
Rabbits are not polygamous animals, but associate in pairs, and
apparently remain thus attached for life. Before giving birth
to her offspring, the female forms a separate burrow for their
reception, at the termination of which is a soft nest lined with
fur plucked from her own body. Blind and naked as they are
234 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
sometimes the only ones remaining) are iarger than the second
and fifth, and are symmetrical to a vertical line drawn between
them, thus forming the so-called “‘cloven hoof.” Consequently
the forms included in this group are spoken of as the Even-
toed, or Artiodactyle, Ungulates. The more specialised repre-
sentatives of this section are very generally characterised by
the presence of a pair of transversely placed bony appendages
on the skull of the male sex at least, which may take the form
of horns, properly so called, or of antlers.
THE OXEN, GOATS, ANTELOPES, &c.
FAMILY BOVID.
The members of this Family may be briefly characterised as
being even-toed ruminating Ungulates, without incisor or canine
teeth in the upper jaw, in which the appendages of the head,
when present, take the form of a pair of hollow horny sheaths
investing conical bony projections from the skull, such sheaths
being never shed.
The function of rumination, which forms such an important
portion of the foregoing definition, and is popularly termed
*cud-chewing,” is too well known to need much more than pass-
ing reference, It may be mentioned, however, that it consists
of a regurgitation from the stomach of the hastily-swallowed
grass or other vegetable food into the mouth, where it is sub-
jected to a complete process of remastication, after which it
is transferred into the true digestive portion of the stomach, it
having been at first temporarily deposited in the paunch, or
anterior chamber of the stomach. It will hence be evident
that rumination is correlated with a complex form of stomach ;
while it may be added that it is likewise always associated with
cheek-teeth of which the crowns have the complicated crescent-
like pattern already alluded to. Moreover, there is always a
long toothless gap between the cheek-teeth of the lower jaw
OXEN, 235
and those in the front of the latter ; the lower canine tooth
being placed alongside the three incisors, which it closely
resembles in the broad, spatulate form of its crown. In the
present family there is no canine tooth in the upper jaw of the
adult.
Although the Bovide form a very extensive family, and one on
which man chiefly depends for his food-supply, there is but a
single representative entitled to be mentioned in the present
work.
THE OXEN, GENUS BOS.
Bos, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 98 (1766).
Large, heavily-built “bovine” Ruminants, with horns gene-
rally present in both sexes; broad naked muzzles ; long and
cylindrical tails, usually terminating in a tuft ; tall-crowned and
complex cheek-teeth ; and the males usually furnished with a
large dewlap. The large horns are placed far apart from one
another on or near the summit of the skull, and, although either
rounded or angulated, are more or less smooth, and diverge toa
” greater or less extent outwards, with an upward curve at the tips.
Although the Bison and Buffaloes were separated as distinct
genera, the whole of the Oxen are now included in the present
genus.
PARK-CATTLE, OR AUROCHS. BOS TAURUS.
Bos taurus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i, p. 98 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 368 (1874).
Urus scoticus, H. Smith, in Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. iv.
p. 411 (1827).
Bos primigenius, Bojanus, Nova Acta Ac. Ces. Leop.-Car.
vol. xiii. p. 422 (1827).
Bos scoticus, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Quadrupeds, p. 285 (1835).
Bos longifrons, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 508 (1846).
(Plate XXIX.)
236 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Characters.— Horns cylindrical and placed at the very apex of
the skull ; no hump on the withers ; tail long and descending
below the hocks; colour frequently white, with black or red-
dish ears and muzzle.
History—The numerous remains of gigantic Oxen specifi-
cally identical with the common domesticated Ox of Europe,
found in the brick-earths of the Thames Valley, the fens of
Cambridgeshire, and the peat of many parts of Scotland, prove
incontestably that such animals were abundant in Britain
during the pre-historic and Pleistocene periods. Although the
written evidence as to the existence of such absolutely wild
cattle in our islands during the historic period, is far from being
so conclusive as we might wish, yet it appears to leave little
doubt that such creatures were inhabitants of Britain. Thus
as we learn from Mr. Harting’s researches, FitzStephen,
writing about the year 1174, of the country round and about
London, states that ‘close at hand lies an immense forest,
woody ranges, hiding-places of wild beasts, of Stags, of Fallow
Deer, of Boars, and of Forest Bulls.” There are somewhat
similar records for other parts of the country ; and since it is
quite evident (from the circumstance of their skulls having
been transfixed by stone axes) that the absolutely wild cattle
of the Cambridgeshire fens were in existence during the
human period, it seems quite probable that these “ Forest
Bulls,” their undoubted descendants, may have been equally
wild. On the Continent there is decisive evidence that wild
cattle existed in Czesar’s time in the Black Forest, and also, at
a much later date, both there and in Switzerland ; such cattle
being known to the Romans by the name of Urus, and to the
Germans as the Aurochs (the latter name being frequently
incorrectly applied to the Bison).
Having said thus much in regard to the dearth of historical
evidence relating to the existence of absolutely wild cattle in
‘STILLVO WVHONITIIHO
or
SS
=
XIXX FLV Td
OXEN, 237
Britain, we proceed to mention that from time immemorial
there have existed in certain British parks peculiar races of
half-wild cattle, which were long regarded as being directly
descended from the original pre-historic Aurochs, without ever
having undergone domestication. Although certain of these
Park-Cattle (as they may be called), and more especially those of
Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, are, in spite of their
small size, evidently very nearly related to the gigantic wild
Aurochs, there is now good reason for believing that they
cannot trace back their ancestry directly to the latter without
the intervention of a period of domestication. Hence they
may probably be regarded as derived from a very ancient race
nearly related to the wild Aurochs, which had undergone some
degree of domestication.
Chillingham Cattle—Although half-wild cattle were formerly
kept in a considerable number of British parks, they remain
now only in Cadzow Park, Lanarkshire, Chartley Park, Staf-
fordshire, Chillingham Park, Northumberland, and Lyme
Park, Cheshire. Since the wildest of these, and at the same
time those which approach nearest to the wild Aurochs, are the
Chillingham herd, our few remarks will be confined to these.
These handsome animals have brown muzzles, and the insides
and tips of the ears red, but are elsewhere milk-white; there
is, however, evidence that originally the ears were, in most
cases, black. Many of the cows are hornless. Writing many
years ago, Mr. J. Hindmarsh observed that the Chillingham
cattle “have pre-eminently all the characters of wild animals,
with some peculiarities which are sometimes very curious and
amusing. They hide their young, feed in the night, basking
or sleeping during the day; they are fierce when pressed, but
generally speaking very timorous, moving off on the appear-
ance of anyone, even at a great distance.” During the breed-
ing season, the bulls are, however, very pugnacious, and it is
eer.
2338 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
then dangerous to approach the herd. To the effect of con-
stant interbreeding may be attributed the small size of these
cattle, and their slow rate of increase ; and on more than one
occasion, when attacked by murrain, they have been in danger
of extermination.
THE DEER. FAMILY CERVIDA,
The Deer tribe may be defined as Ruminants differing from
the Bovide in that the appendages of the head (which are al-
most invariably restricted to the males), when present, take the
form of antlers, which are usually more or less branched, and
are invariably shed every year; while, at least when such
appendages are wanting, there are well-developed canine teeth,
in the upper jaw. The cheek-teeth may have either tall or
short crowns. Like the Bovida, the originally separate meta-
carpal and metatarsal bones forming the lower part of the legs,
and supporting the two middle toes, are each fused into a
single cannon-bone; while the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones supporting the small lateral toes are always incomplete;
that is to say, they are represented only by their upper and
lower extremities. This feature at once serves to distinguish
the Deer from the Chevrotains, or so-called Mouse-Deer, in
which the bones in question are always complete. In all Deer
there is a large lachrymal gland, or “ larmier,” on the face ;
and the tail is generally short.
Although a few species, like the Asiatic Musk-Deer, are
devoid of these appendages, the great peculiarity of the Deer is
the annual reproduction of the antlers of the males. In spite
of familiarity having produced the proverbial contempt, this
process is really one of the most wonderful physiological
effects to be met with in nature; and if it had been described
as occurring in some previously unknown fossil animal, it
oe
DFER, 239
would have required all the talent of a palzontologist to have
rendered it credible. Not only is this enormous mass of bone
annually shed and renewed, but immediately after its com-
pletion it becomes an absolutely dead structure, having no
connection with the vascular system of its owner. Soon after
the annual shedding of the antlers, there appear on the skull
of a Stag a pair of velvety knobs, with a large number of blood-
vessels traversing their tender and sensitive skin. These bony
knobs grow very rapidly, and soon begin to branch into a
larger or smaller number of tines according to the age and
species of the Deer to which they belong. When the new
antlers are fully formed, they develop at the base a rough ring
of bone termed the “burr,” which constricts and finally stops the
supply of blood, thus causing the skin, or “ velvet,” covering
the antler to dry up; this dead velvet subsequently either
peeling off by itself or being rubbed off by the animal against
the stems or branches of trees. In young Stags the antlers are
very simple, and in those species in which they are much
branched in the adult, they gradually increase in complexity
with advancing age, although this annual increasing com-
plexity is not so regular as is often stated to be the case.
The Family is divided into a large number of genera, two of
which are still represented in the British Isles, where there is
evidence that a third also existed within the historic period.
Although distributed over the greater part of the world, with
the exception of Australasia, Deer are quite unknown in Africa
south of the Sahara Desert.
THE TYPICAL DEER. GENUS CERVUS.
Cervus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. g2 (1766).
Antlers rising at an acute angle from the middle line of the
forehead, large, and either rounded or flattened ; skull without
prominent longitudinal ridges on the forehead, and with the
240 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
canine teeth relatively small ; lateral metacarpal and metatarsal
bones of the feet represented by their upper extremities only,
Muzzle narrow and naked; and tail of medium shortness,
In most cases the young are spotted.
This large and widely-spread genus may be divided into a
number of groups, mainly distinguished by the characters of
the antlers of the males ; such groups being regarded by some
naturalists as entitled to rank as distinct genera.
I. THE RED DEER. CERVUS ELAPHUS,
Cervus elaphus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 93 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 348 (1874).
Cervus barbarus, Bennett, List An. Gard. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 31.
Strongyloceros speleus, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 469
(1846).
(Plate XXX.).
Characters,—Antlers rounded, and generally with a brow-, bez-,
and trez-tine, above which are the cup-shaped sur-royals ; tail
short; general colour dark reddish-brown in summer, and
greyish-brown in winter, with a large whitish patch on the
rump including the tail. Height of adult male 48 inches, or
more, at the withers.
As regards general form, the body is moderately full and
rounded, the neck of moderate length, and the graceful head
tapering to the obtuse muzzle ; the liquid eyes are large and
full; the ears rather long and pointed ; and the limbs slender ;
while the tail does not exceed half the length of the ear. The
fur comprises both bristly and woolly hairs; the former, which
are much the more numerous, being moderately long and close,
while the latter are short and fine. The fur is thinnest on the
under-parts, longest on the rump and back, and more especially
on the fore-part of the neck, while on the feet and face it is
very short. The young are prettily spotted with white; and
“XXX 4LWId
242 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Northern Africa. So closely, indeed, are these Deer allied to
one another, that it is frequently difficult to say which should
be regarded as species, and which as varieties ; and we ought,
perhaps, to regard the whole number as local varieties or races
‘of one widely-spread species. To point out how these various
Deer differ from one another, would considerably exceed the
limits of our space ; and we must, therefore, in the main,
confine ourselves to the distribution of the species under
consideration, although even this is a matter shrouded in some
degree of uncertainty.
Originally distributed over the greater part of Europe, the
Red Deer extends some distance into Western Asia, being
found in many parts of Asia Minor, as well as in Trans-Caucasia,
although it, at most, only just impinges on the confines of
Persia. From the Caucasus, Deer of the present type extend
eastwards right away through Northern and Central Asia to
Amurland and the North of China. How far the typical Red
Deer extends in this direction, or where it is replaced by the
so-called C. xanthopygus, and also whether the latter is any-
thing more than a variety, are matters on which our judgment
must be suspended. Southwards the Red Deer extends into
Algeria and other parts of Northern Africa, the African race
being distinguished by the absence of the “bez”-tine of the
antlers. Of the allied species, we may mention by name the
North American Wapiti (C. canadensis), the nearly similar
Thian Shan Stag (C. eustephanus), the Kashmir Stag (C. cash-
mirianus), represented: by a variety in Yarkand, the Persian
Maral (C. mara), the Shou (C. affinis) of the inner eastern
Himalaya, and the Lhasa Stag (C. choroldi) of the Tibetan
plateau ; the last-named species agreeing with the North
African variety of the Red Deer in the absence of the “ bez”-
tine.
As regards their distribution in the British Isles, Red Deer
DEER, 243
are still to be found in the wild state in three districts of
England, but are elsewhere confined to the Scottish Highlands
and some of the wilder parts of Ireland. In the west of
England there are a considerable number in Devonshire and
Somersetshire, the herd being estimated at about two hundred
and fifty head in 1871. Martindale Fell, in Westmoreland, is
likewise one of the last strongholds of the species, although the
number of head now remaining is comparatively small ; and as
these Deer are fed in winter they can hardly be considered as
absolutely wild. According to the Hon. G. Lascelles, some
fifteen or twenty head still remain in the New Forest. About
a century ago there were wild Red Deer in Cornwall; and all
readers of Gilbert White must be familiar with his description
of the Deer in Wolmer Forest, in Hampshire, which, in the
time of Queen Anne, numbered about five hundred head.
Tame Red Deer are now kept in eighty-six English parks,
out of which Batminton has the largest herd. In most of these“
parks Fallow Deer are also kept, but in Blenheim (Oxfordshire),
Bolton Abbey (Yorkshire), Barmingham (Yorkshire), and Calcot
(Berkshire), Red Deer alone are kept. Ina few English parks,
namely, Alnwick, Ashridge, Langley, Welbeck, Windsor, and
Woburn, there is a white or cream-coloured variety of the Red
Deer, in which the nose is flesh-coloured, while the eyes are
either pale blue or straw-coloured. The origin of this breed
is quite unknown. It may be remarked here that formerly
there was a prejudice against keeping Red and Fallow Deer in
the same park, as it was thought they would disagree; but
this is now ascertained to be a mistaken idea.
It will be unnecessary to refer to the distribution of the
Red Deer in the Scottish Highlands, but it may be mentioned
that even in comparatively recent times the range of the species
extended to the south-west of Scotland. Deer are indigenous
to the island of Mull, though there have been several impor-
R2
244 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
tations of fresh blood in order to counteract the ill-effects of
in-and-in breeding ; and they likewise inhabit all the Hebrides,
but are now unknown in Shetland and Orkney, although there
is evidence of their former existence in the latter. Once
abundant over the whole of Ireland, the Red Deer, even in
Thompson’s time, was confined to the wilder parts of Con-
naught, as Erris and Connemara, and to a few localities in
the south, more especially the neighbourhood of the Lakes of
Killarney.
Habits.—Essentially gregarious in their habits, Red Deer,
in common with most of their kind, divide themselves accord-
ing to sexes for the greater portion of the year, the old Stags
only consorting with the herds of does and young males
during the breeding-season. During the summer the old |
Stags, while apart from the hinds, are in the habit of feeding
singly or in small herds on the higher parts of the hills, while
the hinds and young, unless much disturbed, prefer the
valleys and lower ground. In September the Stags commence
their rambles in search of the hinds, the breeding-season
lasting for about three weeks from the latter part of that month
or the beginning of the next. During this season of excite-
ment they make the mountains ring with their loud bellowings,
which are uttered at night and early morning ; and should two
rival “monarchs of the glen” chance to meet, a deadly conflict at
once ensues. During such conflict, the hinds, as so admirably
depicted in some of Landseer’s pictures, remain as silent
spectators, awaiting the issue, and then betake themselves to
the triumphant victor. After the excitement of this season,
the old Stags become very poor, and seem dejected; their
mutual hostility ceases, and they set to work to recruit their
energies before the severity of winter. The fawns are born in
May or June, aftera gestation of eight months and a few days ;
the hind retiring to some sequestered situation, where she
DEER. 245
S
attends her offspring with the greatest care and solicitude. In
the winter the hinds and fawns once more congregate in
herds. It is but very seldom that more than a single fawn is
dropped at a birth, and there are never triplets.
A certain amount of variation occurs in the time of shedding
the antlers, according to the age of the animals and the nature
of the season. In unusually mild seasons they may be
dropped in the latter part of February or early in March, but
April is a more usual time, while if the spring be very late they
may be retained till May. An instance is recorded by Mr. J.
Hargreaves where a ‘Royal Hart” shed his antlers in December;
but this seems to be quite unique. The rarity with which shed
antlers of Deer are met with has often been noticed ; and it is
now well ascertained that this is due to their being eaten by
the Deer themselves ; although it is a little difficult to under-
stand how an animal devoid of upper front teeth can manage
to gnaw so hard a substance. It should be added that young
Stags retain their antlers longer than the old ones, and a two-
year-old animal may frequently be seen with them in May or
June. When in the velvet, the Stags keep to themselves in
the most sequestered situations they can find.
Like other members of the Family, and, indeed, like Rumi-
nants in general, Red Deer are very fond of salt, and will travel
long distances in search of “licks.” Their feeding-time is
chiefly the morning and evening, the middle of the day being
spent in repose and cud-chewing among the heather. Their
food consists chiefly of grass, leaves, young shoots, beech-nuts,
and acorns ; and it is stated that they will also eat various fungi.
Both in sight and hearing, the Red Deer is one of the most
acute of animals; nevertheless, Macgillivray states that he has
succeeded in crawling within ten paces of one. ‘When you have
fired from your concealment,” he adds, “the herd immediately
starts off, gathering into a close body as they proceed, and at
246 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
the distance of from two to four hundred paces, invariably turn
and stand for a few seconds, to discover whence the noise has
come.” In thus giving a chance for a second shot before
their final stampede, Red Deer resemble nearly all other
Ruminants. That they swim well, and may be seen crossing
from island to island in the larger lakes, is a well-known fact.
As regards its flesh, the Red Deer is less highly esteemed
than the Fallow Deer.
Il. THE FALLOW DEER. CERVUS DAMA,
Cervus dama, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 93 (1766);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 358 (1874).
Dama vulgaris, Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mus. p. 181 (1843).
(Plate XXX.)
Characters.—Belonging to a totally different group of the
genus to that containing the Red Deer, the present species
is readily distinguished from the latter by the form of the
antlers, and may be characterised as follows. Antlers rounded
at the base and flattened or palmated in the region of the sur-
royals, with a “ brow ”- and “trez”-tine in front, and a third tine
behind, above which the posterior margin carries a number
of small points; no upper canine teeth (which are present
in the adult Red Deer) ; tail rather long, exceeding the ear in
length. General colour yellowish-brown, with rows of white
spots on the body, but sometimes uniform dark brown, and
in other cases milk-white. Height of adult buck at the withers,
about 35 or 36 inches.
Distribution.—As being apparently an introduced species, the
Fallow Deer, strictly speaking, has no right to be included
in the British Fauna, and on this account it is omitted
by Macgillivray. If, however, this rule be enforced, the two
species of Rats, as well as the Rabbit, would have to disappear
from our lists. When or whence this pretty Deer was in-
‘Eagd MOTIVA
XXX FiviId
DEER. 247
troduced.into Britain is not definitely known, although it is
commonly reputed to have been brought by the Romans from
the Mediterranean countries. The dark variety was long
considered to have been imported from Norway by James the
First, but Mr. Harting has shown that it existed here long before
his time ; while equally erroneous is the theory that the ordinary
spotted form (which used to be known by the name of AZeni?)
was imported from Manilla. Kept in a more or less com-
pletely domesticated state in large numbers of British parks,
Fallow Deer are found in an almost wild condition in the
-New Forest and Epping Forest; those in the latter being
aracterised by the narrow palmation of their antlers. There
Iso a small remnant of a nearly wild herd in Rockingham
orest. Of the New Forest Fallow Deer, the Hon. G.
“Lascelles, in a letter to Mr. J. Whitaker, quoted in the work of
the latter on English Deer-parks, observes that, at the date of
writing (January, 1892), there may be from two to three
hundred head. ‘“ They are all precisely alike in colour, viz.,
very dark brown, with dun legs and bellies in winter, and in
summer all ‘fallow,’ ze. light red, with whitish spots on the
sides. The brightness of the spots varies, but the colour
never. They all change their coats simultaneously in May
and October, just like Wild Roe, and in this respect of varying
in colour are unlike any Park-Deer that I know.
“These Deer are the pure Old English (or Roman) stock.
They have always run perfectly wild in the forest and adjoining
woods, and the stock has never been quite extinct.”
In a wild state Fallow Deer are met with in South-eastern
Europe, while in Mesopotamian Persia the species is replaced
by the closely-allied Mesopotamian Fallow Deer (C. mesopo-
tamicus). It is noteworthy that fossilised remains of Fallow
Deer very nearly related to the common species are met with
in the “forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast.
248 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
Habits.—The general habits of nearly all Deer are so similar
that it will be unnecessary to refer to those of the present
species in any great detail. The period of changing the coat
varies in most parks according to the nature of the season, and
it is somewhat remarkable that while the brown variety is
darker in summer than in winter, the reverse is the case with
the paler spotted race; some of these showing scarcely any
trace in winter of the numerous spots with which they are
adorned in the summer-dress, The antlers of the old bucks
are shed in May, and the new ones begin to sprout in about
ten days afterwards. The fawns are born early in June, and
although occasionally there may be twins, Mr. Whitaker refus_s
to accept the alleged occurrences of triplets. Asa mre ev
a fawn may be dropped in autumn, As regards food, it\is
only necessary to mention that Fallow Deer show a special)
partiality for chestnuts.
Writing of the habits of Deer in parks, the author last men-
tioned observes that these vary according to the season. “ From
May till October they rest from about 9.30 a.m. until 2 p.m. ;
sometimes in the shade, sometimes on the top of a hill, where
they catch what little breeze there may be. During the period
of rest they get up occasionally to stretch themselves, and after
standing up, or scratching their sides and necks with hoof and
horn, they lie down again, but always on the other side. They
pass their time in chewing the cud and sleeping, and if the day
be hot and sunny, will lie with all four legs stretched out, ex-
posing as much of their bodies to the sun as they can. About
2 p.m. they feed, and wander about till 4, when they again lie
down for about two hours, starting again about 6 p.m., and
continuing until 9 p.m., when they rest until 5 the next morn-
ing, feeding from that hour until 9 or 9.30 a.m. In the winter
they feed most of the short days, but when well supplied with
corn and hay, they rest during the middle of the day.
‘aaad fou
ROE-DEER, 249
_ “In parks which are heavily stocked, Deer have to work
harder for their food, and rest for shorter periods. When
rising from the ground, Deer get on their knees first, then
raise their hind-quarters before getting on their fore-feet. In
fact they get up as a Cow does, just reversing the actions of a
Horse.”
THE ROE-DEER. GENUS CAPREOLUS.
Capreolus, H. Smith, in Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. v.
Pp. 313 (1827).
Antlers small, simple, and rounded, less than twice the
length of the head, usually with only three tines each, of which
the front one springs from the anterior surface of the upper
half of the antler, and has an upward direction ; tail very
short ; no upper canine teeth ; lateral metacarpal and meta-
tarsal bones of the feet indicated only by their lower ex-
tremities.
Roe-Deer are comparatively small animals, represented by
two or three closely-allied species ; the range of the genus being
confined to Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, one species
extending as far eastwards as Mantchuria.
THE COMMON ROE-DEER. CAPREOLUS CAPREA,
Cervus capreolus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 94
(1766).
Capreolus caprea, Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mus. p. 176
(1843).
Capreolus caprea, Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 363
(1874).
(Plate XXXL.)
Characters.—Size small; ears moderately hairy; general colour
reddish-brown in summer and yellowish-grey in winter, with a
relatively large white disc on the rump. Height of maleat the
250 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
withers about 25 inches. Fawn yellowish-red in autumn, with
several longitudinal rows of whitish spots.
In form the Roe has a moderately full body, long and slender
limbs, the neck of moderate length and considetable thickness,
the head tapering, with a rather narrow muzzle, the eyes large
and full, thé ears long and pointed, and the rudimentary tail
concealed among the fur. The hair is close, stiff, of moderate
length, and structurally very similar to that of the Red Deer ;
there being a slight intermixture of woolly under-fur. For the
greater part of their length the hairs are purplish-grey, then
dusky, with the tips reddish-brown or yellowish-grey, according
to the season. In addition to her considerably inferior stature,
the doe is lighter coloured than the buck.
Although the antlers, as already said, normally have onlye
three tines, they are very liable to “sport,” and some remark-
able specimens are contained in the collection of Viscount
Powerscourt, at Powerscourt in Ireland, in which the antlers
consist of a bushy mass of points.
Distribution.—The Common Roe is widely distributed in
Europe and Western Asia; but is replaced in Turkestan and
the mountains between Russia and China by the Tartarian Roe
(C. pygargus), distinguished by its larger size, more hairy ears,
and the smaller size of the white disc on the rump.
That the Roe, although totally unknown in Ireland, was
formerly distributed over the remainder of the British Islands,
is attested by the occurrence of its remains in the Norfolk
forest-bed, the brick-earths of the Thames Valley, the fens of
Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, and also in a number of
English caverns. Although at the present day mainly re-
stricted to Scotland, Wild Roe are still found sparingly in North-
umberland, Cumberland, and Durham, while at the com-
mencement of the present century they were reintroduced
ROE-DEER 251
sto Dorsetshire, where they are now fairly common in the
woods on the south side of the Blackmoor Vale. A few like-
wise exist in the woods about Virginia Water, as also in Pet-
worth Park, Sussex, while in 1884 a number were turned down
in Epping Forest, where the species had long ceased to exist.
Regarding the Roes of Naworth, near Brampton, in Cumber-
land, the Rev. H. A. Macpherson writes that only a few now
remain, “‘and a few.more wander through the plantations of
the Netherby property. On some rare occasions these animals
have been known to cross the Eden, and even to wander up
the valley of that river into the neighbourhood of Penrith.”
In Wales the Roe is stated to have lingered as late as the
reign of Queen Elizabeth.
Although in Scotland the Roe is less widely distributed than
it was in former times, the increase of plantations in the south
has led to its re-occupying districts where it was once exter-
minated; and this steady enlargement of its distributional
area is still going on. Into Mull it was introduced in the year
1865. In Argyllshire, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley state
that these Deer are much more abundant in the recently-
planted pine- and larch-woods than they are in the native
copses of oak, hazel, or birch; a birch-clad glen of three or
more miles in length seldom containing more than from two to
four Roe at a time.
Habits.—Essentially a forest-loving species, the Roe is a non-
gregarious Deer, usually consorting in parties of from two to
four head, and the two sexes remaining together throughout
the year. “Its agility,” remarks Macgillivray, “is astonishing,
for it will bound over a space of eight or ten yards with ease,
and leap a wall five or six feet high with scarcely an appearance
of effort. Its ordinary pace when not pursued is an easy
canter, but when alarmed it bounds along with great spirit and
grace. It feeds chiefly in the morning and evening, often also
252 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
at night, when it sometimes commits depredations on the corn
fields in the neighbourhood of its haunts, and reposes by day
among the heath or fern, often, when not liable to be much
disturbed, selecting a spot to which it resorts in continuance.”
The Roe displays great curiosity in its disposition, and has been
known to walk up within a short distance of a party of gentle-
men seated on the grass, remain there walking inquisitively
round in half-circles for more than a quarter-of-an-hour, and
not taking its departure till it got wind of them, when it wheeled
round and rushed off with a snort.
Mr. Trevor-Battye writes:—‘ On two successive evenings
when I was sitting sketching in a Perthshire glen, in September,
1891, a fine Roebuck came up and stood within twenty yards
and challenged me, snorting and stamping like a Sheep, and some-
times beating the ground with both fore-feet at the same instant.”
The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the Roe,
relates to its breeding. The pairing-season is in July and
August, and the young are born in the following May or June.
The interval is, however, not entirely the true period of
gestation, since the germ remains dormant till December,
when it suddenly begins to develop, and passes through the
usual stages. The doe usually produces two fawns at a birth,
and in one case at least three have been observed. The fawns
remain with their parent till the winter, and are most zealously
protected by her from danger. The first antlers of the bucks
are in the form of simple spikes, those of the second winter are
forked ; while in the third season the three tines of the adult
are developed. The flesh of the Roe is very dark coloured, and
somewhat dry.
THE REINDEER. GENUS RANGIFER.
Rangifer, H. Smith, in Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. v. p
304 (1827).
REINDEER. 253
Distinguished from all the other members of the Family by
the normal presence of antlers in both sexes. The antlers
are very large, and have a rounded beam, with both “brow”- and
‘bez ”-tines, both of which are either branched or palmated,
while frequently one of the former is rudimentary, and the
other greatly developed. At about the middle of its length the
beam is suddenly bent forwards at an angle, a larger or
smaller back-tine being frequently given off at this point, the
main branch terminating in several snags. The main hoofs of
each foot are very widely separated, to afford support by their
divergence in walking on deep snow; and for the same object
the lateral hoofs are likewise large..
THE REINDEER. RANGIFER TARANDUS.
Cervus tarandus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 93
(1766).
Rangifer tarandus, H. Smith, in Griffith’s Animal Kingdom,
vol. v. p. 304 (1827).
The claim of the Reindeer to be enrolled in the British
Fauna being the same as that of the Wolf and Brown Bear, we
shall not describe the animal, nor enter into a description of
its habits and geographical distribution, merely mentioning
that at the present day it has a circum-polar range, and in the
Eastern Hemisphere extends about as far south as latitude 52°.
That the Reindeer was an inhabitant of the British Islands
during the Pleistocene and Prehistoric periods, is abundantly
testified by the occurrence of its fossilised remains in the
brick-earths, fens, turbaries, peat-bogs, and caverns of England,
Scotland, and Ireland ; some of the antlers bearing distinct
marks of stone or other implements. The evidence of their
occurrence within our limits during the historical period is,
however, much less satisfactory, and rests solely upona passage
in Torfzeus’s “ History of Orkney,” written at the close of the
254 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
twelfth century. As commonly translated, this passage states
that “the jarls of Orkney were in the habit of crossing over to
Caithness almost every summer, and there hunting in the
wilds the Red Deer and Reindeer.” If we could depend on
this translation of the passage, which refers to the middle of the
twelfth century, there would be little doubt that Reindeer did
exist in Caithness. Unfortunately, however, the experts who
have examined the original are by no means agreed whether
Reindeer are really the animals intended; and under these
circumstances it must remain a matter of doubt whether the
Reindeer was ever an inhabitant of Britain during the period
taken into consideration in the present volume.
THE PIGS. FAMILY SUID.
From the two preceding Families and their allies, collectively
constituting the true Ruminants, the Pigs are at once distin-
guished by the presence of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, by
the lower canine teeth being unlike the incisors and in the
form of tusks, by the simpler structure of the molar teeth,
which have comparatively short crowns surmounted by blunt
tubercles, and by the simple character of the stomach and the
want of the power of chewing the cud. To these character-
istics it may be added that the third and fourth metacarpal
bones of the fore-feet and the corresponding metatarsals of
the hind ones are separate, and do not unite to form cannon-
bones; while the metacarpals and metatarsals of the lateral toes
are complete. Since we have but a single species to deal with
which does not exist at the present time ina wild state in
Britain, we shall not give the characteristics or distribution of
either the genus or species, but merely consider the claims of
the latter to a place in the Fauna of the historical period of
Britain.
PIGS 255
THE TRUE PIGS. GENUS SUS.
Sus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 102 (1766),
THE WILD BOAR. SUS SCROFA.
Sus scrofa, Linn., loc. cit. ; Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 426
(1846).
Sus scrofa ferus, Ball, Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. ser. 2, vol. iti.
P- 339 (1889).
Distributed at the present day over the greater part of
Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, but replaced in
India by the closely allied Sus cristatus, the Wild Boar has
long ceased to be a member of the British Fauna. The
earliest formation in which its remains have hitherto been
detected is the Norfolk forest-bed, belonging, as we have
already had occasion to mention, either to the latter part of
the Pliocene, or the early part of the Pleistocene period. Simi-
lar remains are likewise of common occurrence in the brick-
earths of the Thames Valley and the contemporary formations of
other parts of England; while they also occur in the fens and
many English caves. They’ have likewise been obtained from
peat-bogs, as well as from caves, in Ireland.
Of its existence in our islands to a comparatively late date
of the historical period, we have abundant testimony, which,
as in the case of the other Mammals exterminated during
that epoch, has been.carefully collected and arranged by Mr. J.
E. Harting, in his work on “Extinct British Animals.” , We
there learn that a painting in a manuscript of the ninth century
represents a Saxon chief, attended by his huntsman and a
couple of hounds, pursuing Wild Boars through a wood.
Further, it is enacted in the Welsh laws of Howel Dha, promul-
gated towards the close of the tenth century, that the season
for Wild Boar hunting should last from the ninth of November
till the first of December; but it appears that later on, in
256 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
the reign of Edward II., the season was fixed to embrace
the period between Christmas Day and Candlemas Day. We
learn, moreover, from the testimony of William of Malmesbury,
that in the time of Edward the Confessor the forest of Bern-
wood, in Buckinghamshire, was infested by a notable Wild
Boar, which was eventually killed by the King’s huntsman, and
its head presented to His Majesty. So delighted was the
Sovereign with this exploit, that he presented a tract of land
to his faithful henchman, who built upon it a mansion which
he appropriately christened Bore-Stall.
At the Conquest, Inglewood Forest, in the Border Country,
was stated to contain Red and Fallow Deer, Wild Boars, and
other beasts; and the Rev. H. A. Macpherson quotes a passage
from the pipe-rolls of Henry II., which seems to indicate that
Wild Swine existed there as late ashis reign. Again, the forest-
laws of William the Conqueror refer to the Wild Boar as being
as well known as the Red Deer and the Roe; and it isstated that
Henry I. was especially fond of Boar-hunting, while Edward I.
made several grants of land held by the serjeanty of providing
Boar-hounds. Between the years 1153 and 1165 we find Robert
de Avenel, when granting to the monks of Melrose Abbey the
right of pasturage over the lands of Eskdale, especially reserving
to himself the right of hunting Wild Boar and Deer; and there
is actual evidence of a Boar-hunt taking place at this very time
in the same district.
Among the animals inhabiting the great forest around London
mentioned by FitzStephen in 1174, we find the Wild Boar occupy-
ing a prominent place; and from the fact that certain land in
Oxfordshire was held on condition of furnishing the King with
Boar-spears on the occasions of his visits, it may be inferred that
Edward III. was in the habit of pursuing the Wild Boar in that
county ; this would be about the year 1340. Certain other docu-
ments refer to Wild Boars in the year 1573,and twenty years later
CETACEANS. 257
Erdeswick, in his description of Chartley Park, Staffordshire,
speaks of the number of these animals contained therein. Again,
Leland tells us that at Blakeley, in Lancashire, “wild bores, bulls,
and falcons bredde in times paste,” and that near by is a place
called Boar’s Green.
In Scotland Boethius speaks of a huge Wild Boar killed on
land belonging to the See of St. Andrews; while at an earlier
date a Latin MS., giving the history of the Gordon family,
dated 1545, relates that in 1057 a Wild Boar had been slaugh-
tered by a member of that family in Huntly Forest. In the
Highlands there are many traditions referring to Wild Boars,
whose former abundance is likewise attested by the names of
many places; and much the same may be stated in regard to
Treland.
THE CETACEANS. ORDER CETACEA.
The Whales, Dolphins, and their allies, collectively desig-
nated Cetaceans, are distinguished from all other Mammals by
their assumption of a remarkable fish-like form, the only other
members of the order approaching them in this respect being
the Sirenians, of which there are no British representatives,
and which present marked structural peculiarities of their
own.
Fish-like in external appearance, with a spindle-shaped body,
into which the head passes without any indication of a neck,
Cetaceans have the front-limbs modified into simple ovoid
paddles, devoid of any trace of division into segments or toes,
while externally hind-limbs are completely wanting. Towards
the hinder extremity, the body gradually tapers, until it becomes
of very small diameter at the tail, which terminates in a hori-
zontally-placed, fibrous, fin-like expansion, termed the “flukes”;
this is deeply notched in the middle of its hinder border,
and has sharp lateral angles. Relatively large in size, the head
5 s
258 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
has the nostrils, which may be either single or double, placed
near the top of the crown, and thus far removed from the
muzzle ; this feature at once serving to distinguish Cetaceans
from Sirenians. Both the eye and ear are small; the latter
merely forming a minute aperture in the skin, placed some
distance behind the former, and showing no trace of a conch.
The majority of Cetaceans have a vertical fin in the middle of
the back, very similar in appearance to the fin of some fishes,
although lacking the bony internal skeleton found in the latter.
With the exception of a few fine bristles in the neighbourhood of
the mouth, which are frequently lost in the adult, the skin is
entirely naked, and smooth and glistening in appearance;
while beneath it lies a thick layer of oily fat—the blubber
—to protect the body from the chilling effects of submersion
in the water. In all existing members of the Order in which
they are present, the teeth are of an exceedingly simple
structure.
The foregoing characters being sufficient to distinguish the
Cetaceans from all other Mammalian Orders, are all that need
be mentioned here.
As regards their mode of life, it is almost superfluous to
observe that all Cetaceans are purely aquatic Mammals, pass-
ing the whole of their time in the water, and becoming im
mediately utterly helpless when once stranded on the shore.
Whereas the majority are denizens of the ocean—some keep-
ing exclusively to the open sea, while others more generally
frequent the vicinity of the coast—a few are inhabitants of
certain large rivers of the warmer regions of the globe, many
of them, which are normally marine, occasionally ascending
tidal rivers. Carnivorous in their diet, Cetaceans vary greatly
in the nature of their food, some of the largest species feeding
on organisms of the most minute size. While many of the
smnaller kinds live on fish, the ferocious ‘‘Killer” Whale alone
WHALE-BONE WHALES, 259
consumes other Mammals, such as Seals and its own kindred.
Hunting their prey either near the surface of the water, o1 at a
greater or lesser depth below, Whales are obliged to come up
at stated intervals to breathe, when they renovate the air in
their lungs by the well-known action of “spouting.”
Roaming at will through the trackless ocean, most Ceta-
ceans apparently conform but little to laws of geographical dis-
tribution ; a large number of species being more or less cosmo-
politan in their distribution. Certain species, such as the
Greenland Whale, the White Whale, and the Narwhal, are how-
ever, more or less, exclusively confined to the Arctic and Sub-
Arctic Seas; while others, like the Pigmy Whale (Veobalena),
are equally characteristic of the Southern Seas. In conse-
quence of these widely roaming habits of so many members of
the Order, it is somewhat difficult to say how many species
have a right to be included in the British Fauna. We must,
however, regard all such as habitually frequent our coasts as
entitled to a place in our Fauna; while in the case of those
occurring only now and again, we must rather look upon them
as accidental visitors. Still, however, no “hard-and-fast line” can
be drawn in this respect.
THE WHALE-BONE WHALES.
FAMILY BALANIDA.
This Family, which includes the whole of the larger Whales,
with the exception of the Sperm-Whale, is at once distinguished
from all the others by the total absence of teeth, and the
presence of that peculiar substance in the palate known as
whale-bone or baleen. The nostrils open by two slit-like
apertures,
Since the structure, arrangement, and mode of action of
whale-bone-has been described in so many works, it will be
“quite unnecessary that this should be recapitulated here; and
$2
260 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
we accordingly at once pass on to the consideration of such
members of the Family as habitually, or from time to time, visit
the neighbourhood of the British Islands.
THE RIGHT WHALES. GENUS BALAINA.
Balena, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 105 (1766).
Whale-bone Whales of large size, in which the skin of the
throat is smooth, the back-fin absent, the flippers broad and
short, the head of enormous size, the whale-bone very long,
narrow, highly elastic, and black in colour, and all the verte-
bree of the neck immovably welded together. So far as
can be ascertained, the genus includes only two well-defined
species.
THE SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALE. BAL/NA AUSTRALIS. if
Balena australis, Desmoulins, Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat. vol. ii.
p. 161 (1822).
Balena biscayensis, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 200; Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 387 (1874); Southwell,
British Seals and Whales, p. 62 (1881).
Macleayius brittanicus, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. vi. p.
198 (1870).
Characters.— Distinguished from the Greenland Right Whale
(B. mystacetus) by its relatively smaller head, shorter whale-
bone, the different contour of the margin of the lower lip, and
the greater number of ribs (15 instead of 12). The size is
also stated to be somewhat less; and there is a marked
difference in the form of the tympanic bone of the internal
ear. In colour, this Whale appears to be wholly black, instead
of having white on the lower lip, and at the roots of the flippers
and flukes.
Distribution.—Although they have received distinct specific
RIGHT WHALES. 261
names, it appears that the Right Whales of the North Atlantic
the North Pacific, the South Atlantic, and the South Pacific,
cannot be satisfactorily distinguished from one another, and they
are accordingly included provisionally under one name. Such
specimens as have been observed in the British seas belong to
the North Atlantic variety, B. déscayensis. Formerly common in
the North Atlantic, this Whale has long since been practically
exterminated in these seas, such stragglers as have reached the
European coasts during thé last century or so having probably
travelled from the opposite side of the Atlantic.
Such few examples of Right Whales as are stated to have
visited our coasts in the older works on British Mammals were
believed to belong to the Greenland Whale; but it is now
pretty certainly ascertained that that species never by any
chance wanders so far south, and they must accordingly be
referred, in all probability, to the Southern Right Whale.
The earliest record we have of the reported occurrence of
Right Wales in British waters is one given by Sibbald, who
states that in the year 1682 one visited Peterhead ; and there
is some evidence that a young specimen was stranded at
Yarmouth, in the summer of 1846. At an earlier date than
the latter, namely in the year 1806, afemale Right Whale with
her calf, was seen off the coast of Peterhead; the young one
being killed by fishermen who started in pursuit. The only
other instance is given on the evidence of Captain Gray, an
experienced whaler, who, while walking at Peterhead in the
autumn of 1872, saw what he believed to be a Right Whale
within halfa mile of the shore. It may be added that the
united cervical vertebrae of a Right Whale dredged off Lyme
Regis not later than the year 1853, belong to the present
species.
Since this Whale has so little claim to be regarded as
British, it will be unnecessary to say anything concerning its
262 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
habits, except that it is reported to be a swifter and more
active animal than the Greenland Right Whale, being much
more violent in its movements when harpooned, and con-
sequently much more difficult and dangerous to capture. It is
also characterised by being infested by a species of barnacle,
more especially in the region of the blow-hole, or nostrils.
THE HUMP-BACKED WHALES. GENUS MEGAPTERA.
Megaptera, Gray, Zool. Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p. 16 (1846).
Skin of the throat thrown into longitudinal grooves, or
puckers; a low back-fin; flippers very long and narrow, and
their skeleton with only four digits (in place of the five in
Balena); head of moderate size; whale-bone plates short,
broad, and black ; vertebre of the neck free.
In conformity with the shorter and broader baleen, the
upper jaw is much less arched and much broader than in the.
Right Whales ; while the lower lip is not elevated into the
curious arched form so characterisic of the latter. There is like-
wise a marked difference in the form of the tympanic bone of
the internal ear, which is more rounded and shell-like. So far
as can be determined, there appears to be but a single existing
representative of the genus.
THE HUMP-BACKED WHALE. MEGAPTERA BOOPS.
?Balena boops, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 106 (1766).
Balena boops, Fabricius, Fauna Groenlandica, p. 36 (1780).
Balena longimana, Rudolphi, Mem. Ac. Berlin, 1829, p. 133.
Megaptera longimana, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p.
17 (1846); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 392
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 69
(1881).
AMeguptera boops, Van Beneden and Gervais, Ostéographie des
Cétacés, p. 120 (1869-1880) ; Flower, List Cetacea Brit.
Mus. p. 4 (1885).
HUMP-BACKED WHALES, 263
Characters—Body deep and somewhat humped near the
middle ; the long flippers scalloped along their margins; in
colour, nearly the whole of the head and body black, and the
flippers, except near the root, white. Total length of adult
from 45 to so feet; of flippers from 10 to 14 feet. Females
exceeding the males in size.
Distribution.—If zoologists are right in regarding all Hump-
backs as referable to a single species, this Whale is found in
nearly all the large oceans, specimens having been obtained as
far north as Greenland and as far south as New Zealand.
Although frequent in the higher latitudes of the North
Atlantic, the Hump-back is but a rare visitor to most of the
coasts of the British Islands. Of the recorded specimens, one
was washed ashore in 1839; while a young one, of which the
skeleton is now in the museum at Liverpool, was captured in
the estuary of the Dee in 1863; a third was picked up
dead at sea by a Banff boat in April, 1871, and was towed into
Wick harbour ; and a fourth full-grown individual entered the
estuary of the Tay in the winter of 1883-4, where it was
captured. According to verbal information communicated by
Captain Gray to Mr. Southwell, it appears that in summer these
Whales are by no means uncommon off the east coast of
Scotland, and that several have been captured off Peterhead,
no less than three having, it is stated, been killed ina single
year.
Habits.—In place of feeding, like the Right Whales, on minute
pelagic animals, the Hump-back subsists mainly on various
molluscs, crustaceans, and fish. In disposition it is neither
very timorous nor very fierce, and it is consequently easy to
capture. Its yield of blubber is, however, small, and its whale-
bone of poor quality ; and in times, when the Greenland Right
Whale was less scarce than at present, this species, like the
264 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
Rorquals, was but seldom molested; although now, in common
with the latter, it is frequently hunted, At times these Whales
are met with in enormous “ schools,” so numerous, indeed, that
ships have to be careful to avoid collisions. At other times,
however, they may be seen singly or in pairs. During calm
weather, Lilljeborg states that Hump-backs may often be seen
resting quietly on the surface of the water, sometimes turning
on one side and beating themselves with their long flippers, as
if trying to rub off something that annoyed them. At times
they will come and swim fearlessly round any boats that may be
in their vicinity.
THE RORQUALS, OR FINNERS. GENUS BALA NOPTERA.
Balenoptera, Lacépéde, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, Table des
Ordres, p. xxxvi. (1804). .
Distinguished from Megaptera by the long and slender form
of the body, the relatively small, flat, and pointed head, and
the short, narrow, and pointed flippers, as well as by the more
numerous and more closely approximated groovings in the skin
of the throat.
Rorquals include the largest of all Whales, and are repre-
sented by four well-defined species, which appear to have an
almost world-wide distribution, although not ranging into the
polar oceans. All are characterised by their great speed, and
as they are of much less commercial value than the Right
Whales, they were but little hunted, until the increasing
scarcity of the latter, coupled with the introduction of steam-
vessels and firearms into the whaling trade, rendered their
pursuit a profitable business.
I, SIBBALD’S RORQUAL. BALANOPTERA SIBBALDI.
Physalus (Rorqualus) sibbaldit, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847,
p. 92.
RORQUALS, OR FINNERS. 265
Physalus lativostris, Flower, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 28.
Cuvierius latirostris, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus.
p. 165 (1866).
Cuvierius sibbaldi, Gray, op. cit., p. 380.
Balenoptera_sibbaldii, Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p.
402 (1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 75
(1881); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 6 (1885);
Flower and Lydekker, Study of Mammals, Pp. 243
(1891).
Characters.—Size very large; flippers relatively long, measuring
one-seventh of the total length ; back-fin small, and placed far
back; general colour dark bluish-grey, with a number of small
whitish spots on the breast ; whale-bone black. Total length
of adult from 80 to 85 feet.
Distribution.—Sibbald’s Rorqual, which is the largest of all
Whales, has a very wide distribution, although it does not range
so far south as some species. It has been split up into several
nominal species, such as the “ Sulphur-Bottom” of the
American whalers.
Although uncommon, several examples of this magnificent
Cetacean have been taken in British waters; the first specimen
on record being probably one stranded near Abercorn in the
year 1692, and described by Sibbald himself, although the speci-
fic determination is not absolutely free from doubt. A Whale
found floating dead in the North’Sea, in 1827, which was towed
into Ostend, is likewise referred by Sir William Turner to the
present species ; and another example, of which the skeleton
is preserved in the Museum at Edinburgh, was found dead
near North Berwick in the autumn of 1831. More important
than all is a young specimen taken in the River Humber in the
year 1847, the skeleton of which is preserved in the Museum
of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Hull, since it was
266 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
on the evidence of this specimen that Gray gave the name by
which the present species is known. Hence the type-specimen
of the largest of all living animals is of British origin. Another
large Rorqual belonging to this species was stranded in the
autumn of 1869 on the shore of the Firth of Forth; while
about the same date a female and calf were washed ashore in
Shetland. A Whale, doubtless belonging to this species,
and said to measure go feet in length, was found dead off
the north shore of Coll, in the Hebrides, in June, 1887.
Habits—Since this Rorqual so seldom visits the British
Seas, it will be unnecessary to say much about its habits.
It appears that during the winter months it frequents the
open northern seas between the North Cape and Spits-
bergen, and that it is not till the latter part of April or
beginning of May that it approaches the coasts of more
southern districts, when it enters the Norwegian fjords to
feed upon certain crustaceans which swarm in them at this
season. An onshore wind, or stormy weather is, however,
sufficient to induce the Whales, like prudent mariners, to at
once turn their heads seawards. In spite of its enormous
dimensions, it appears that this Whale feeds almost or quite
entirely on crustaceans, and mainly on one particular species
belonging to the genus Zhvysanopoda. These little crustaceans
are generally found in shoals, and when in pursuit of them, the
Rorqual passes backwards and forwards over the spots where
they are most numerous, closing, at intervals, its enormous
mouth upon those which have been captured in its passage.
The young are born in the autumn, and are occasionally two
in number. In size, the female of Sibbald’s Rorqual generally
somewhat exceeds that of her partner.
Il. THE COMMON RORQUAL. BALHNOPTERA MUSCULUS.
Balena physalus, et B. musculus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol,
i p. 106 (1766).
RORQUALS, OR FINNERS. 267
Balena physalus, Fabricius Fauna Grcenlandica, p. 35
(1780).
Balanopiera rorqual, Lacépede, Cétacés, p. 126 (1804).
Balena antiquorum, Fischer, Synops. Mamm. p. 525 (18209).
Balenoptera musculus, Companyo, Mém. de la Baleine
échouée prés de St. Cyprien, p. 20 (1830); Bell, British
Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 397 (1874); Southwell, British
Seals and Whales, p. 70 (1881); Flower, List Cetacea
Brit. Mus. p. 5 (1885).
Balenoptera physalus, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p.
18 (1846).
Physalus antiguorum, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1847, p. go.
Characters.—Size smaller than in the preceding species, and
the flippers relatively shorter ; general colour slaty-grey above,
and white beneath; whale-bone slate-colour, with yellow or
brown markings. Length of adult from 65 to 70 feet.
Distribution.—Occurring in both the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, this species has a more southerly range than the pre-
ceding, and is commonly found in the Mediterranean, where the
former species is rare. Specimens are stranded on the British
coasts, more especially those of the southern parts of England,
almost every year, generally after stormy weather, and very fre-
quently during the winter. It will accordingly be quite unneces-
sary to quote the instances of its occurrence on our coasts, and
we may therefore content ourselves with mentioning a few
specimens that have been recorded of late years. About the
end of October, 1885, two dead Rorquals of this species were
found floating in the Channel, and were towed into Plymouth,
where they were exhibited. Another example was stranded at
Skegness, in 1887 ; and it is probable that a Whale captured
at Sea View, in the Isle of Wight, on the 21st of September,
in the following year, likewise pertained to this species. Ano.
ther specimen, which has been described by Mr. W. Crouch,
268 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
was stranded in the River Crouch, Essex, on February 12th,
1891.
Habits.—There is nothing specially noteworthy in the habits
of this species, except that it feeds largely on fish, herrings
being an especially favourite food.
III. RUDOLPHI’S RORQUAL. BALENOPTERA BOREALIS.
Balenoptera borealis, Lesson, Hist. Nat. Cétacés, p. 342 (1828);
Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 6 (1885).
Balenoptera laticeps, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 20
(1846) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 407 (1874);
Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 77 (1881).
Characters.—Size medium; flippers very short, measuring
only one-eleventh of the total length of the head and body;
general colour of the upper-parts bluish-black, with oblong
light-coloured spots; under-parts more or less white ; tail,
flippers, and whale-bone black, but the curling bristly ex-
tremities of the latter white. Total length about 50 feet, or
rather less.
Distribution.—In the Atlantic, Rudolphi’s Rorqual is a more
northern species than either of the preceding, being very
abundant in summer in the neighbourhood of the North Cape,
where at that season it is a regular visitant, and apparently not
kaown to range further south than the coast of Biarritz.
It will be found stated in the second edition of Bell’s
“British Quadrupeds” that a Whale stranded at Charmouth,
Dorsetshire, in February 1840, not improbably pertained to
this species ; but Sir William Turner (“ Journ. Anatomy and
Physiology,” 1892, p. 473) is of opinion that it was more pro-
bably an example of the Common Rorqual. A Rorqual
stranded in the Isle of Islay in 1866, the skull and some other
RORQUALS, OR FINNERS. 269
bones of which are perserved in the Zoological Museum at
Cambridge, is likewise mentioned by Bell under the head of
the present species ; but, as noticed by Sir W. Turner on the
page cited, this specimen really belongs to the Lesser Rorqual.
The first authenticated British example of this Rorqual is,
therefore, one described by Sir W. Turner, which was stranded
in the autumn of 1872, near Bo’ness, on the Firth of Forth.
This specimen measured about 38 ft. in length, and its skeleton
is preserved in the museum of the University of Edinburgh.
Another example was found by some fishermen struggling in
shallow water near the mouth of the River Crouch, in Essex, on
the morning of Nov. 1, 1883. This specimen, which was a
male, was about 29 ft. in length, and is described by Sir Wm.
Flower in the ‘‘Proceedings” of the Zoological Society for
1883, p. 513. When caught, the colour of the back was a rich
glossy black, shading to a brilliant white below, the flippers
being entirely black. In September of the following year
(1884) a female specimen of this species was stranded in the
Humber, the skeleton of which is now preserved in the
British Museum. The entire length of this specimen was
about 34 ft., and a brief reference to it will be found in the
under-mentioned paper by Mr. Crouch. The fourth example
was a-male, captured in the Thames at Tilbury on Oct. 19,
1887. A brief notice of this Whale was given by Sir Wm.
Flower in the “ Proceedings” of the Zoological Society for
1887, p. 567, anda fuller account by Mr. W. Crouch in the
“Essex Naturalist,” for 1887, p. 41. The length of this specimen
was 35 ft. 4 in. It was described bya correspondent ina local
paper as “‘measuring 35 ft. 4 in. in length, its mouth 6 ft. wide,
and 18 ft. 6 in. round the shoulders; while its tail (flukes) is 8 ft.
across, and its weight 6 tons 5 cwt. This surprising visitor
was found soon after daylight, lying with its snout nearly level
with the top of the river wall, so that it must have come up the
270 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
river at high water. The dock was observed to be filled with
ashoal of sprats, while the shrimps and eels were congregated
in large numbers; and no doubt while in pursuit of these it
ventured too far up the river.” Mr. Crouch adds that “ it was
subsequently towed off by a tug, and, with the aid of the Dock
Company’s derrick, was placed upon three trucks and taken
to the engineer’s yard, where it was exhibited for a few days,
and whilst there was photographed (with its mouth open,
showing the baleen or whale-bone) by Mr. Robert Hider of
Gravesend.” Finally, a sixth specimen of Rudolphi’s Rorqual
was captured in the Medway on Aug. 30, 1888, of which an
account is given by Mr. Crouch on page 361 of the
“Rochester Naturalist” for that year. Mr. Crouch states
that this Whale, which was a female, was first seen swimming
quietly along ; soon, however, it got aground, but “managed
to plunge into deeper water. Meanwhile Thomas Jewess of
Gillingham, who was fishing, approached as near as he dared
to try and cut off the retreat, and the animal, approaching too
near the shore, was driven into shallow water, and as the tide
ebbed, was left floundering on the mud. He then procured
assistance, and several shots were fired into the blowholes and
head, but the wounded creature only lashed up the mud more
vigorously with his tail, and, according to the statement of one
of the men, uttered sounds like the crying of a child. It was
at last killed by Mr. Thomas Cuckow with a large butcher’s
knife. A rope was then inserted in the lower jaw, and as the
tide rose in the afternoon it was towed to a small landing stage
at the back of the White Horse Inn, where it was exhibited for
several days, and attracted hundreds of visitors, such a catch
having never before been recorded in the Medway.” This
specimen was 32 ft. 2 in. in length.
Habits—The diet of this species is very different from
that of the last, since, according to observations made by Dn
RORQUALS, OR FINNERS, 271
Collett in the Norwegian seas, it feeds almost exclusively on
small crustaceans, and never touches fish.
IV. THE LESSER RORQUAL. BALNOPTERA ROSTRATA.
Balena vostrata, Fabricius, Fauna Groenlandica, p. 40
(1780).
Rorgualus minor, Knox, in Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library, vol.
xxvi. p. 142 (1844).
Balenoptera rostrata, Gray, Zool. Voy. of Erebus and Terror, p.
50 (1846); Bell, British Quadrupeds, znd ed. p. 411
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 78
(1881); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 7 (1885).
Characters.—Size small; back-fin (as in the last species)
relatively tall, and placed far forwards ; colour of upper-parts
greyish-black, with the exception of a broad white band across
the flippers; under-parts, with the exception of the lower
surface of the flukes, which is coloured like the back, but
including the inferior aspect of the flippers, white ; whale-bone
yellowish-white, Total length of adult about 30 feet, or
less.
Distribution.—Typically, the Lesser Rorqual, or, as it is often
called, the Pike-Whale, is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic,
ranging as far north as Davis’ Straits, and often found on the
Scandinavian coasts, but seldom entering the Mediterranean.
Like the other species, it is represented by a closely-allied
form in the Pacific, which in our own opinion is probably
specifically the same.
To the British coasts this Rorqual is a comparatively
common visitor, and there are several examples in our
Museums which have been taken in our own seas. It will be
unnecessary to allude to all the examples recorded from Eng-
land; but we may mention that one was takenin Cornwall in
272 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
April, 1880, while another was caught off the Scilly Islands in
May, 1887. The latter specimen was a young female measr-
ing 12% feet in length; and it will be found described by
Mr. Balkwill in the “ Report” of the Plymouth Institute for
1888,
As regards Scotland, Sir William Turner has published in
the “ Proceedings” of the Royal Society of Edinburgh a com-
plete list of all recorded instances of this species ; from which it
appears that between the years 1808 and 1888 a total of
eighteen specimens visited the Scottish coasts. Of these, one
was taken in Orkney in November 1808; a second in the
Firth of Forth in May, 1832, and a third in February, 1834. In
September, 1857, a small male was captured off the Bell Rock ;
another specimen was taken in 1858 in the Firth of Forth, and
the sixth in 1869 on the coast of Islay. July, 1869, saw the
capture of a small example at Arbroath; while in 1870 one
was taken at Aberdeen, another at Hilswick, in Shetland, and
a third in the Firth of Forth. Dunbar was the scene of cap-
ture of a full-grown specimen in 1871 ; while in the following
year examples were secured at Anstruther and Stornaway. No
other specimen was observed till 1877, when a half-grown
female was caught at Bervie. Two examples were taken in
1879, namely, one in the Firth of Forth during July, anda
second four months later in Stromness, Orkney. The year
1888 was likewise one in which two of these Whales were
taken, both in the Firth of Forth ; and one of which formed
the subject of a memoir by the celebrated anatomist whose
name is mentioned above.
Habits—The Lesser Rorqual is a species generally found
solitary, more than two or three being seldom seen in com-
pany. A large number of females, which seek the neighbour-
hood of the coasts for the purpose of bringing forth their
SPERM-WHALE. 273
young, are annually captured by the Norwegian fishermen, who
drive them into narrow fjords, the entrances of which they
subsequently bar, ard there spear them to death.
THE TOOTHED WHALES. FAMILY PHYSETERID.
The members of this and the remaining Families of the Order
are distinguished from the Baldenide by having no whale-bone
in the upper, and bythe presence of teeth in the lowerjaw at least,
although in some cases these may be reduced to a single pair.
In consequence of this and other important structural differ-
ences, the Balenide are regarded as constituting one sub-
order—the A¢ystacoce¢ti—by themselves, while the whole of the
other existing Cetaceans collectively form a second sub-ordinal
group, termed the Odontocetz. In all the members of the latter
group, the upper surface of the skull is more or less a-sym-
metrical ; the nasal bones are in the form of mere nodules, and
never roof over the hinder portion of the nasal cavity in the
manner characterising the Whale-bone Whales; while the
aperture of the nostrils is a single, more or less, crescent-like
slit.
The members of the present Family are sufficiently chaiacter-
ised by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw ; and
by the hinder region of the skull being elevated in the form
of a high crest or ridge behind the aperture of the nostrils.
THE SPERM-WHALES. GENUS PHYSETER.
Physeter, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 107 (1766).
Head enormously large, and truncated in front, with the
upper surface of the skull forming a hollow pit, surrounded on
the sides and behind by a tall semi-circular wall of bone;
lower jaw long and narrow, with its two branches united in
front for more than half their total length; from twenty to
5 T
274 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
twenty-five pairs of stout, conical, recurved, and pointed lower
teeth, which are of large size and have no enamel. Back-fin
rudimentary.
The genus is represented only by the under-mentioned
species, which has been greatly reduced in number owing
to incessant pursuit on account of the spermaceti yielded by
the cavity in the skull, and the high value of the oil obtained
from the blubber.
THE SPERM-WHALE. PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS,
Physeter macrocephalus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p.
107 (1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 415
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 85
(1881) ; Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 8 (1885).
Catodon macrocephalus, Lacépede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés,
Tabl. des Ordres, p. x (1804); Gray, Cat. Seals and
Whales Brit. Mus. p. 202 (1866).
Characters.—Size very large (far exceeding that of any other
member of the sub-order); general colour black above, and
grey on the under-parts, without any clear line of demarcation
between the two. Total length of adult male from 55 to 60
feet. The female very much smaller.
Distribution. Formerly abundant in almost all the warmer
seas of the globe, and associating in large “schools,” the Sperm-
Whale, or Cachalot, is but an accidental visitor to our shores,
such specimens as have been recorded from the British seas
being either stragglers, or those which have died in the southern
oceans and been carried northwards and eastwards by the
Gulf-Stream. None have been recorded of late years, doubt-
less owing to the comparative rarity of the species at the
present day.
Of the specimens-recorded from the English coasts, we may
notice the following. So far back as the year 1626, a Sperm
SPERM-WHALE, 275
Whale was cast on the shore near Hunstanton, in Norfolk ;
while in 1646 a “school” comprising some eight or nine indi-
viduals appears to have entered the Wash, one of them coming
ashore near Wells, and a second, towards the close of the
same year, at Holme. Another individual was stranded near
Yarmouth, Norfolk, during or previous to 1652; and an
ancient seat, made out of a Sperm-Whale’s skull, now preserved
in the church of St. Nicholas in that town, which is known to
have been in existence in 1606, indicates that another example
was stranded in the same neighbourhood at a still earlier date.
In the year 1788, upwards cf nine dead Sperm-Whales were
washed ashore after a strong gale, while a living one, which
was, doubtless, a member of the same “school,” entered the
Thames. Better-known is the large male stranded at Holder-
ness, in Yorkshire, in 1825, of which the skeleton is preserved
at Burton-Constable ; while, four years later, another male was
washed ashore on the Kentish coast. According to the Rev.
H. A. Macpherson, a large Sperm-Whale, measuring 58 feet in
length, came ashore at Flimby, in Cumberland.
Turning to Scotland, we find from Alston’s “‘ History” of the
Mammals of that country that from eight to ten specimens
have been recorded, of which the earliest was in 1689, and the
latest in 1871. Among these, one ran ashore in the Firth of
Forth in 1769; and in May, 1829, another was stranded at
Oban ; while a third, of which the skeleton now ornaments the
Central Hall in the British Museum (Nat. Hist. Branch), was
washed on shore near Thurso, in Caithness, in July, 1863,-
being then in a much decomposed condition. The last
Scottish specimen on record was one stranded in the Isle of
Skye, during the summer of 1871, a description of which has
been given by Sir William Turner in the “Proceedings” of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
In Thompson’s ‘Natural History of Ireland” we find the
T 2
276 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
following record of Sperm-Whales observed on the coasts of
that island. The first record relates to three examples taken
during 1691 and the five preceding years on the western coast ;
while some years before 1750 another was washed ashore near
Castlehaven. A later writer, Young, states that about 1776,
examples of these Whales were not unfrequently seen in the
bays of the coast of Donegal; while a large specimen was
stranded near Dublin in 1766, from which a quantity of sper-
maceti was obtained. Somewhere about 1773, ancther Sperm-
Whale appears to have been taken or stranded at Youghal ;
and yet another about 1822 in Connemara.
In the case of such a casual visitor to our shores it will be
unnecessary to say anything about habits.
*
THE BOTTLE-NOSED WHALES. GENUS HYPEROODON.
HHyperidon, Lacépede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, Tabl. des
Ordres, p. xliv (1804).
Teeth reduced to a sing'e pair in the front of the lower jaw,
which are concealed by the gum during life; skull with a tall
curved crest, highest in the middle, overhanging the nasal
aperture, and with elevated longitudinal crests in the front of the
latter, which in old males are greatly developed, having flat-
tened front surfaces, rising nearly at right angles to the beak,
and almost meeting in the middle line ; beak short and rather
broad ; a falcate back-fin, placed rather far back ; aperture of
the nostrils (as in all the remaining members of the Order) in
the form of a distinct transverse crescent.
THE COMMON BOTTLE-NOSE. HYPEROODON ROSTRATUS.
Balena rostrata, Miller, Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 7 (1776).
Delphinus bidentatus, et D. butskopf, Bonnaterre, Cétologie, p.
25 (1789).
BOTTLE-NOSED WHALE. 277
Delphinus diodon, Lacépede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p. 309
(1804).
Hyperoodon butzkopf, Lacépede, of. cit., p. 349; Bell, British
Quadrupeds, p. 492 (1837); Gray, Cat. Seals and
Whales Brit. Mus. p. 330 (1866).
“Ivteroodon latifrons, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror,
p. 27 (1846); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 425
(1874).
Hy peroodon rostratum, Gray, Cat. Cetac. Brit. Mus. p. 64
(1850).
Lyperoodon rostratus, Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p.
421 (1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales p.
tor (1881); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 9
(1885).
Characters—In this, the only well-defined, species, the
general colour of the upper-parts is nearly black, while the
under surface is greyish-black. Length of adult males 30 feet,
of females 24 feet, or less.
Great variation obtains in the form of the head and skull
according to age and sex; old males having the crests on the
upper jaws greatly developed, and rising high above the beak ;
while in the young of the same sex, as in females at all ages,
they are much smaller. It was on the evidence of one of
these aged males that the so called A atifrons was named.
Distribution.—The Bottle-nosed Whale (which must not be
confounded with the Bottle-nosed Dolphin) is a common
species in the North Atlantic, ranging in summer as far north
as Spitsbergen, while during the winter it seeks warmer
quarters in more southern seas. In Britain this species is of
very common occurrence, especially in the spring and autumn,
being met with off the Shetlands in considerable numbers at
the former season while on its northward migration. Being
278 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
thus common on our coasts, where specimens are captured
almost annually, and at times entering our larger rivers, it would
be impossible, even if it were desirable, to give a list of its
occurrences ; but we may mention a few instances of speci-
mens which have been observed during the last few years.
In 1886, Sir W. Turner, in the “‘Proceedings ” of the Physical
Society of Edinburgh (vol. ix., p. 25), notices specimens cap-
tured on the coasts of Scotland. In 1888, Mr. Baily, in the
Naturalist, p. 114, mentions one captured on March 13 of
that year at Flamborough. On Aug. 28, in the same year,
several Whales were stranded near Hunstanton, in Norfolk,
two of which were recognised by Mr. Southwell (Zoologist,
1888, p. 387) as an old and a young female of this species.
Sir W. Turner, in vol. x. of the serial in which his earlier
notice appeared (p. 19), records one captured in 1889 in the
Shetland Islands. During September, 1871, a “school” of
these Whales were observed in the Channel, some of which
visited the coast of Normandy, while a pair entered the
Thames, where they were killed, and their bodies were
examined by Dr. Murie. In the summer of the following
year the present writer had the good fortune to see a dead
Bottle-nose, which was carried by the tide into Weymouth
Bay.
Habits.—In addition to their migrating habits, these Whales
are characterised by going in “schools,” comprising from four
to ten individuals in each, several of such ‘‘schools” frequently
swimming within a short distance of one another. They feed
almost exclusively on Cuttle-fish, which they procure at great
depths. A specimen, of which the skeleton is now preserved
in the British Museum, is said, when killed, to have had more
than half a bushel of the indigestible heavy beaks of those
molluscs in its stomach. Since the skull of the male Bottle-
nose contains spermaceti, while the blubber yields a consider
BEAKED WHALE, 279
,
able amount of o'], these Whales are now hunted to a large
extent. Although their ordinary colour is, as stated above,
blackish, in very old males it frequently fades to a yellowish
hue; those of intermediate age b-ing light brown. Frequently
the adult males separate themselves from the rest of the
* school,” to lead a more or less solitary existence.
THE BEAKED WHALES. GENUS MESOPLODON.
Mesoplodon, Gervais, Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3, vol. xiv. p. 16
(1850).
The Beaked Whales of this genus present the following
characteristics. Head produced into a long beak, supported
in the upper jaw by an el-ngated solid mass of ivory-like
bone ; a single pointed and compressed tooth at each side of
the lower jaw, generally situated at some distance behind the
anterior extremity, and in one species attaining such an extra-
ordinary development as to prevent the two jaws being opened
to their full extent.
The genus is represented by a considerable number of
species, which are mainly characteristic of the warmer, and
especially the southern, seas, only one of them occasionally
visiting our shores.
SOWERBY’S WHALE. MESOPLODON BIDENS.
Physeter bidens, Sywerdy, Brit. Miscell. p. 1 (1804).
Delphinus (Heterodon) sowerbiensis, Biainville, Nouv. Dict.
@ Hist. Nat. vol. ix. p. 177 (1817).
Delphinus sowerbyt, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 521 (1822).
Fleterodon sowerbyi, Lesson, Man. Mamm. p. 419 (1827).
Diodon sowerbi, Hamilton, in Jardine’s Naturalist’s Library
Mamm. vol. viii. p. 192 (1839).
Diodon sowerba, Bell, British Quadrupeds, p. 497 (1837).
280 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Mesoplodon sowerbiensis, Gervais, Zool. et Pal. Frang. p. 291
(1849); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 431 (1874);
“Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 105 (1881).
Ziphius sowerbiensis, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864, p. 241; id.
Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 350 (1866).
Mesoploden bidens, Flower, Cat Osteol. Mus. Roy. Coll. Sur-
geons, pt. ii, p. 559 (1884), and List Cetacea Brit. Mus.
p. 11 (1885),
Characters.—-Teeth relatively short, wide, and pointed, placed
nearly in the middle of the lower jaw; general colour white
above, and black beneath, with vermicular white streaks on the
flanks. Length of adult from 15 to 18 feet.
Distribution —Originally described from a specimen stranded in
1800 on the shores of Elginshire, this species, which enjoys
such a multiplicity of names (by no means the whole of which
are quoted above), probably has a wide distribution, although,
until the distinctive characters of the other members of the
genus are more accurately defined than is at present the case,
the exact limits of its range cannot be indicated. This Whale
is not only one of the rarest of British Cetaceans, but is likewise
equally scarce on the coasts of other countries, only seventeen
specimens, according to Sir William Turner, being known up
to the year 1888, since which date another British example has
been recorded, while a second, captured at Cape Breton, in
August, 1838, brings up the total number to nineteen.
Of the British examples the first is the above-mentioned
specimen stranded in 1800 at Brodie, Elginshire, the skeleton
of which is now in the Museum at Oxford. The second was a
male, taken in Brandon Bay, Ireland, in 1864, the bones of
which are now in Dublin; while the fourth, which was likewise
a male, was captured at the same place in 1870, and is also
preserved in Dublin. In 1872 a female, of which the remains
BEAKED WHALE. 281
are in the Museum at Edinburgh, was taken on some part of
the coast of Scotland; and in April, 1881, an adult example,
measuring 14 feet in length, was cast ashore near Burrafirth
Voe, on the west coast of the main island of the Shetland
group, this specimen being described by Sir W. Turner in the
“Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,” vol. xvi., p. 4583
while a second male was obtained from Shetland in May,
1885. In September of the latter year another example was
stranded in shallow water just inside the Spurn Head, at the
mouth of the Humber, but subsequently managed to get away.
This spec’men, which measured 15 feet 9 inches in length, is
the first which has ever been seen on the English coasts; it is
noticed by Messrs. T. Southwell and Eagle Clarke in the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History (series 5, vol. xvii.,
p. 53). Yet another specimen visited the Firth of Forth in
1888, of which mention is made by Sir W. Turner in the ‘‘Pro-
ceedings” of the Physical Society of Edinburgh (vol. x., p. 5);
while in the fie/d for the second half of 1892 (p. 1003), Mr.
Tegetmeier records the stranding of a fine specimen of this
Whale on the coast of Norfulk in December of that year. The
latter specimen, we believe, his been secured for Mr. Roths-
child’s Museum at Tring Park.
Habits— Unfortunately, scarcely anything is known of the
mode of life of the Beaked Whales of this and the allied genera,
all of which are mainly or entirely known only from stranded
specimens. From this rarity it may, however, be inferred that
these animals are essentially inhabitants of the open sea,
and probably only visit the coasts when driven thither by
bad weather. That they were formerly abundant in the seas
surroundinz our islands, is attested by the frequency with
which their fossilised beaks occur in the so-called crag deposits
of the east coast, which belong to the Pliocene period.
282 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
GENUS ZIPHIUS.
Ziphius, Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, 2nd ed. vol. v. p. 352
(1823).
This genus of Beaked Whales, apparently represented only
by a single species, may be distinguished from AZesoplodon by
the characters of the skull, and the circumstance that the
single pair of lower teeth, which are directed upwards and for-
wards, are placed at the anterior extremity of the jaw.
CUVIER’S WHALE. ZIPHIUS CAVIROSTRIS.
Ziphius cavirostris, Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, 2nd ed. vol. v.
Pp. 352 (1823); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 428
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Wales, p. 102
(1881) ; Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 10 (1885).
This exceedingly rare Cetacean is so little known” that
neither its characters nor distribution can be given with any
approach to exactness. From the circumstance that it has been
met with in regions so remote from one another as the Shetland
Islands and New Zealand, it is probable that it has a nearly
cosmopolitan distribution, although not ranging into the Polar
seas.
The single British example of Cuvier’s Whale hitherto
recorded was taken off Hanno Voe, to the north-west of the
mainland of Shetland, and has been described by Sir William
Turner in the “ Proceedings” of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh for 1872.
THE DOLPHINS AND PORPOISES.
FAMILY DELPHINIDA.
The wh»le of the remaining British representatives of the
Cetacean Order are included in the Family De/phinida, most
of the members of which are distinguished from the
Physeteride by the presence of numerous teeth in both jaws,
NARWHAL. 283
although in two instances the teeth are greatly reduced in
number, The skull lacks the elevated crests behind the nasal
aperture which forms such a characteristic feature in the
Family last named; while there are also differences in the
arrangement of certain of the cranial bones, as there are in the
conformation of the bones of the internal ear. In all cases
the aperture of the nostrils assumes a perfectly crescentic form.
with the horns of the crescent directed towards the muzzle.
THE NARWHALS. GENUS MONODON.
Monodon, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 105 (1766).
Head rounded, without a distinct beak; functional dentition
usually reduced to a single, spirally-twisted tusk of enormous
length in the left side of the upper jaw of the male, the
corresponding right tooth usually remaining undeveloped in
its socket, while, in the female, both such teeth are rudimental.
No back-fin; and all the vertebree of the neck either completely
or partially separate from one another.
The genus is represented solely by the under-mentioned
species.
THE NARWHAL. MONODON MONOCEROS.
Monodon monoceros, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 105
(1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 435
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 106
(1881) ; Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 14 (1885).
Narwhalus vulgaris, Lacépede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p. 142
(1804).
Characters.—Upper-parts dark grey, and under-parts white,
both mottled with various shades of grey and greyish-black.
Length of adult, exclusive of the tusk, from 14 to 15 feet ; of
the tusk 7 feet, or more.
Distribution.—Essentially a denizen of the icy Arctic seas, the
Narwhal has but little claim to notice here; the only instances
284 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
of its occurrence on our shores being three in number. The
first of these stragglers entered the Firth of Forth so long
ago as the year 1648 ; the second was taken near Boston, in
Lincolnshire, during 1800; while the third was found eight
years later among the rocks in the Sound of Deesdale, in
Shetland.
THE WHITE WHALES. GENUS DELPHINAPTERUS.
Delphinapterus, Lacépéede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p. xli.
(1804).
General characters as in the preceding genus, but no long
tusk, and from eight to ten pairs of rather small teeth in each
jaw; these teeth being conical and pointed when un-worn, but
usually becoming obliquely truncated by use.
Like the last, this genus is represented by a single species.
THE WHITE WHALE, OR BELUGA. DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS.
Delphinus leucas, Pallas, Reise, Russ. Reichs. vol. iii. p. 85
(1776).
Balena albicans, Miller, Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 7 (1776).
Delphinapterus beluga, Lacépede, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p.
243 (1804).
Delphinapterus leucas, Bell, British Quadrupeds, znd ed., p. 440
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 108 (1881);
Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 14 (1885).
Beluga leucas, Gray, Spicil. Zool. vol. i. p. 2 (1828); Bell,
British Quadrupeds, p. 488 (1837).
Beluga catodon, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p.29 (1846);
id. Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 307 (1866).
Characters—Adult of a pure glistening white colour; the
young bluish-grey. Length of adult from 10 to 12 feet.
Distribation.—As Arctic an animal as the Narwhal, although
ranging somewhat further south than the latter on the eastern
coast of America, the White Whale has equally slight claims
PORPOISES. 285
to a place in the British Fauna, although a few individuals have
been stranded on the Scottish coasts, and there is some
evidence of one having been seen off Devonshire. The first
record relates to two young specimens stated to have been
washed ashore in the Pentland Firth in the summer of 1793.
A second example was killed in the Firth of Forth, where it
had been seen for three months, in June, 1815 ; and the third
was found off dead on the Island of Auskerry, in the Orkneys,
in the autumn of 1845. In June, 1878, a large white Cetacean,
which could scarcely have been anything else than an example
of this species, was seen in Loch Etive ; while a year later a
fine example was found caught by the flukes between two posts
to which a stake-net was attached, about three miles to the
westward of Dunrobin, in Sutherlandshire, a description of
which is given by Sir W. H. Flower in the “ Proceedings ” of the
Zoological Society for 1879. According to Messrs. Harvie-
Brown and Buckley, a White Whale was repeatedly seen in
the Kyle of Tongue in August, 1880; and another was taken
alive in the salmon-nets off Dunbeath in April, 1884, its skeleton
being now preserved in the museum of Aberdeen University.
The only record of the occurrence of this species on the
English coasts is on the authority of Gosse, who, when off
Berry Head in the summer of 1832, reports having seen a
White Cetacean which he regarded as a Beluga.
THE PORPOISES. GENUS PHOCANA,
Phocena, Cuvier, Régne Animal, vol. i. p. 279 (1817).
Skull with the beak rather short, broad at the base and taper-
‘ing towards the muzzle; teeth small, with spade-like crowns
marked off from the roots by a constriction, their number
varying from sixteen to twenty-six pairs in each jaw, of which
they occupy nearly the whole length ; neck short, and (as in
286 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
all the following genera) at least some of its vertebra united
together ; back-fin absent or present.
THE COMMON PORPOISE. PHOCHNA COMMUNIS.
Delphinus phocena, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 108
(1766).
Phocena communis, Lesson, Man. Mamm. p. 413 (1827);
Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 458 (1874); South-
well, British Seals and Whales, p. 120 (1881); Flower,
List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p.15 (1885).
Characters.—Back-fin triangular, situated nearly in the middle
of the back, its height less than its basal length, and with a
row of small tubercles on its front edge ; colour of back nearly
black, the flanks lighter, and the under-parts nearly white.
Length of adult from 4 to 5 feet. :
Distribution.—The range of the Common Porpoise includes
the greater part of the North Atlantic, extending northwards to
Baffin Bay and westwards to America ; southwards, the Por-
poise is found rarely in the Mediterranean. In the British
seas the Porpoise is the commonest of all Cetaceans, and is
found there at all seasons; while not unfrequently it ascends
our larger rivers for some distance.
Habits—The Porpoise is a grevarious Cetacean, associating
in large “schools,” which seldom wander far from shore, and
whose sportive gambols as they roll along near the surface of
the water, showing first the head, next the back, and finally the
flukes, must be familiar to all. Exclusively or mainly a fish-
eater, the Porpoise consumes vast numbers of pelagic fish, such
as Herrings, Pilchards, and Mackerel, in its headlong pursuit
of which it often becomes entangled in fishing-nets, where,
from its size and power, it does much damage. It is likewise
partial to Salmon, and it is probable that it is often when in
pursuit of that fish that it enters some of our rivers. The
KILLER. 287
female produces a single young one at a birth. Formerly the
flesh of thé Porpoise was eaten by Roman Catholics as a
Lenten dish ; but at the present day it is only valued for the
oil yielded by its blubber.
THE KILLERS. GENUS ORCA.
Orca, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 33 (1846).
Beak of skull about equal in length to the remainder of the
same, broad and flattened above, and rounded in front; about
twelve pairs of large, stout, recurved, conical teeth in each
jaw; flippers large, ovate, and nearly as broad as long ; back-
fin very tall, sharply pointed, and situated nearly in the middle
of the back ; whole conformation of body very stout, and the
front of the head much depressed and flattened.
THE COMMON KILLER, OR GRAMPUS. ORCA GLADIATOR,
Delphinus orca, Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 108 (1766).
Delphinus orca, et D. gladiator, Bonnaterre, Cétologie, pp. 22
and 23 (1789).
Phocena orca, F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p. 177 (1836);
Bel', British Quadrupeds, p. 477 (1837).
Orca gladiator, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 33
(1846); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 445 (1874) ;
Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 113 (1881);
Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 18 (1885).
Orca stenorhyncha, et O. latirostris, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870,
Pp. 71, 76.
Characters.x—Black above and white beneath, with a white
spot above each eye. Length of adult 20 feet, or more.
Distribution.—Owing to the uncertainty as to whether there is
more than one existing species, the distribution cf the Common
Killer cannot be accurately defined, but it is not improbable
288 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
that it may prove to be almost world-wide. To the British
coasts, and more especially to the northern parts of our
islands, the Killer is by no means an unfrequent visitor, and
at times ascends our larger rivers. For instance, in March,
1864, no less than ten of these Cetaceans entered the River
Parret, in Somersetshire, all of which were captured within a
few miles of Bridgewater. More recently, three Killers swam up
the Thames in the spring of 1890. They must have passed
through the Pool during the night, since in the morning they
were observed swimming rapidly up the open reach between
Chelsea and Battersea bridges, where their movem:nts were
watched by a number of spectators. After remaining there
for several hours, apparently in a state of indecision, they were
at length observed to continue their course down the river;
and, since there is no record of their capture, they probably
succeeded in making their way to the sea.
Habits—Easily recognised when swimming near the surface
by its tall back-fin, the Killer may be regarded as the Tiger of
the Cetacean order, in which it is the sole member that sub-
sists on warm-blooded animals, killing and devouring not only
Seals, but likewise such Porpoises and Dolphins as it can cap-
ture. The Killer is, however, by no means content with such
comparatively small game, three or four of these animals com-
bining together to harass and attack the larger Whales, from
which they tear huge masses of blubber and flesh, till the un-
fortunate Whales eventually succumb from loss of blood.
Such an attack by a party of Killers the present writer had
recently the opportunity of witnessing in the South Atlantic.
Killers will, however, also catch various kinds of fish. The
amount of food that a Killer will consume is perfectly
appalling; a specimen having been killed with remains cf
more than a couple of dozen of Seals and Po: poises in its
stomach.
BLACK FISH. 289
THE BLACK-FISH. GENUS GLOBICEPIIALUS,
Globicephala, Lesson, N. Tabl. Régne Animal Mamm. p. 200
(1840).
General form of skull somewhat as in Orca, but the fore part
of the head high and rounded, owing to the pre ence of a mass
of blubber; teeth, small, conical, curved, and sharp, forming
from eight to twelve pairs, which are confined to the anterior
half of the jaws, in old age blunt, and sometimes wanting ;
flippers very long and narrow ; back-fin short and triangular
the height being much less than the basal length.
As in the case of Orca, it is very doubtful whether there is
more than a single ex'sting representative of this genus.
THE PILOT-WHALE, OR BLACK-FISH. GLOBICEPHALUS
MELAS.
Delphinus melas, Traill, Nicholson’s Journal, vol. xxii. p. 81
(1809).
Delphinus globiceps, Cuvier, Ann. Mus. vol. xix. p. 14
(1812).
Phocena melas, Bell, British Quadrupeds, p. 483 (1837).
Globicephala melas, Lesson, N. Tabl. Régne Animal Mamm.
Pp. 200 (1840).
Globiocephalus swineval, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror,
p- 32 (1846); Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Mus. p.
_ 314 (1866).
Globicephalus melas, Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 453
(1874); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 118
(1881); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 19 (1885).
Characters——General colour black, with a whitish stripe along
the middle of the under-parts, expanding on the throat into a
heart-shaped patch. Length of adult from 16 to 20 feet.
Distribution. Typically occurring in the North Atlantic, it is
probable that the Pilot-Whale has a nearly world-wide dis-
5 U
290 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
tribution, specimens from Australia presenting no points of
difference from British examples. To the Fareoe Islands, as
well as to Orkney, and, more rarely, to the Hebrides, the Pilot-
Whale is a frequent, although irregular, visitor during its
seasonal migrations from the Arctic to the Atlantic Ocean.
In the southern parts of our coasts it is, however, of rare
occurrence, although it has been recorded as far south as the
Channel and Cornwall.
Habits.—The essential feature of the Pilot-Whale, Ca’ing
(that is, Driving) Whale, or Black-Fish, as it is vicariously called,
is the large “schools” in which it associates, these frequently in-
cluding hundreds of individuals. It is likewise remarkable for
the persistence with which the other members of the school
will follow the direction taken by their leader, even when this
leads directly into dinger. Advantage of this habit is taken by
the hardy fishermen of the Faeroe Islands, who, immediately
a school is sighted, take to their boats and endeavour to get to
seaward of the animals. Should they successfully accomplish
this, it is generally an easy matter to drive the school into shal-
low water, where its members can be slaughtered at leisure. If,
however, the leading Whale manages to make his way to sea,
all the labour is in vain, as the other Whaies will be almost
sure to make their way after him, despite the utmost efforts on
the part of the boatmen. Some fifty years ago the numbers of
these Whales taken during two seasons in the Faeroes a-d
Shetlands were to be reckoned by hundreds, if not by thousands,
although it is to be wished that the statements as to the exact
numbers were somewhat better authenticated than they appear
to be.
TIF GRAMPUSES. GENUS GRAMPUS.
Grampus, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 30 (1846).
Distinguished from all the other genera of the Family by the
RISSO’S GRAMPUS. 291
total absence of teeth in the upper jaw, the dentition of the
lower jaw being reduced to from three to seven pairs of teeth
which are confined to its anterior extremity. In general con-
formation of the head and body the single well-defined repre-
sentative of the genus comes very close to the Pilot-Whale,
although the fore part of the head is less rounded, and the
flippers are shorter.
RISSO’S GRAMPUS. GRAMPUS GRISEUS.
Delphinus griseus, Cuvier, Ann. Mus. vol. xix. p. 14
(1812).
Delphinus rissoanus, Desmarest, Mammalogie, p. 15 (1822).
Grampus griseus, Gray, Spicil. Zool. p. 2 (1828); Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 450 (1874); Southwell,
British Seals and Whales, p. 115 (1881); Flower, List
Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 21 (1885).
Grampus cuvieri, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 85
(1846) ; id. Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Mus. p. 295
(1866).
Grampus rissoanus, Gray Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p.
31 (1846); id. Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Mus. p. 298
(1866).
Characters.—Colour very variable, from black above and
white beneath, to a pale grey, passing into black towards the
tail, everywhere marked with light spots and irregular streaks
and stripes. Length of adult about 13 feet.
Distribution.—Although rare in collections, Risso’s Grampus
appears to be a widely distributed species, since it has been
taken not only in the British seas and the Mediterranean,
but likewise in the Azores, the Cape of Good Hope, Japan,
the North American coasts, and New Zealand (the specimen
from the last-named country having been described as &,
richardsoni).
292 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
To our own coasts, this Cetacean is a very rare visitor, as
is indicated by the following list of recorded examples. The
first known sp2cimen was taken in the spring of 1843 at Puck-
aster, in the Isle of Wight, its skeleton being now in the
British Museum. In February, 1870, a female was caught ina
mackerel-net near the Eddystone Lighthouse; its skeleton
is likewis2 in the National Collection. A third example,
also a female, was exposed for sale in Billingsgate Market in
March of the latter year, having probably been taken in the
Channel ; both its skin and skeleton have found a home along-
side of the two preceding specimens. In July, 1875, a young
male, which was kept alive for some hours in the Brighton
Aquarium, was captured at Sidlesham, and in February,
1886, a female was caught in a mackerel-net about twenty
miles south of the Eddystone Lighthouse, and was exhibited
at Plymouth, in the Museum of which town its skeleton is
preserved. The last recorded English example was captured
in the Solway, on September 30th, 1892, as mentioned in
Land and Water for that year (vol. liv., p. 405). Lastly, six
specimens were caught in Hillswick, in Shetland, in September,
1889, one of which has been carefully described by Sir
William Turner in the “ Proceedings ” of the Physical Society
of Edinburgh, vol. xi., p. 1.
THE SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHINS. GENUS
LAGENORHYNCHUS.
Lagenorhynchus, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 35
(1846).
Head with a short but not very distinct beak, or beakless ;
the beak scarcely exceeding the remainder of the skull in length,
depressed, and gradually tapering from the broad base to the
extremity ; teeth very small, and forming from 23 to 33 pairs
in each jaw ; from 80 to go vertebrae in the hack-bone. This
SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHIN. 293
genus forms a kind of connecting-link between the preceding
and following genera.
I. THE WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN. LAGENORHYNCHUS
ALBIROSTRIS.
Delphinus albirostris, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p.
84 (1846); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 472
(1874).
Lagenorhynchus albirostris, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Ter-
ror, p. 35 (1846) ; Southwell, British Seals and Whales,
p. 125 (1881); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 22
(1885).
Characters.—Colour of upper-parts deep purplish-black, cf the
beak, lips, and under-parts pure creamy white; the two colours
being sharply defined. Length of adult from 7 to 9 feet.
Distribution.—This Dolphin is a rare species inhabiting the
North Atlantic, and was first recorded as British in 1846 by
Brightwell, who wrongly identified a specimen captured in that
year off Yarmouth, in Norfolk, with TZursiops tursio. It
appears, however, that a Dolphin killed at Hartlepool in 1834,
of which the skull is in the Zoological Museum at Cambridge,
likewise belongs to the present species. The next recorded
occurrence is in 1866, in which year a specimen was shot near
Cromer ; while a fourth was taken at the mouth of the River
Dee in December, 1852; and a fifth on the south coast in
1871. A young female was captured off Grimsby in Sep-
tember, 1875; a male in March of the following year off
Lowestoft ; while both in 1879 and 1880 a young female was
captured at Yarmouth. In the Zoologist for 1881, p. 41,
Mr. J. M. Campbell records a young male caught by a fisher-
man on September 11, 1880, near the Bell Rock, on the west
coast of Scotland. This specimen, which measured 5 ft. 8 in,
in length, is the first recorded example from the Scottish
294 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
coasts. On September 10, 1881, a very young example was
Janded alive by some fishermen at Yarmouth, but soon died ;
an account of it is given by Mr. Southwell in the Zoo/ogist
for the same year, p. 420. In 1887 Mr. R. L. Patterson, in the
“Report” of the Belfast Natural History Club for that year (p.
114), mentions a specimen captured on the Irish coast, this
being apparently the first record of the occurrence of the
species in Ireland. The next example is one observed in the
Colne in 1889, of which an account is given by Mr. H.
Laver in the “Essex Naturalist ” for that year (p. 169). Sir
W. Turner, in the “ Proccedings” of the Physical Society of
Edinburgh, vol. x., p. 14, gives a notice of other Scotch speci-
mens, namely, one caught off Berwick in July, 1881, a female
captured at the same place in August, 1883, another, female
taken. at Sutherland in 1882, and an adult female and young
male taken together off Stonehaven, Kincardineshire, in July,
1888. Of the habits of both this and the following species, as
also of Risso’s Dolphin, nothing definite is known.
Il. THE WHITE-SIDED DOLPHIN. LAGENORHYNCHUS ACUTUS.
Delphinus acutus, Gray, Spicil. Zool. vol. i. p. 2 (1828); Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 470 (1874).
Delphinus eschrichttt, Schlegel, Abhandl. Geb. Zool. p. 23
(1841).
Delphinus leucopleurus, Rasch, Nova Spec. Descript. (1843).
Lagenorhynchus acutus, Gray, Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror,
p. 35 (1846); Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 125
(1881) ; Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 23 (1885).
Characters.—Colour of upper-parts black, and of under-parts
white, with a white stripe on the flanks continued anteriorly
and posteriorly as a yellow or brownish band. Length of
adult from 6 to 8 feet.
Distribution.—This is a rare North Atlantic Dolphin, originally
TYPICAL DOLPHINS. 295
described from an Orkney skull, and does not appear to have
been recorded from the English seas, although stated to be not
uncommon in the Orkneys. In addition to the typical skull,
an adult female was captured in Orkney in 1835; while in
1858 a school of some twenty head were secured in Scalpa Bay,
near Kirkwall. In their work on the “Fauna of Argyll and the
Hebrides,” Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley state that a
Dolphin captured at Ardiishaig has been identified as of the
present species.
THE TYPICAL DOLPIIINS. GENUS DELPHINUS,
Delphinus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, p. 108 (1766)
In common with the members of the next genus, the Typical
Dolphins differ from all the foregoing representatives of the
Family in having a distinct and more or less elongated beak to
the head, generally separat.d from the fatty mass in front of
the blow-hole by a V-shaped groove. In the skull the length
of the beak exceeds that of the hinder portion ; while in the
skeleton of the neck only the two first vertebree are welded
together. All of them have a well-developed’ back-fin, and
numerous teeth, and they prey chiefly or entirely on fish.
From their allies the Typical Dolphins are distinguishe 1 by
the long beak of the skull being generally about twice the
length of the hinder portion of the same, and carrying from
40 to 60 pairs of teeth in each jaw; these teeth being of
small size, conical, pointed, placed close to one another, and
occupying almost the whole length of the beak. The narrow
and pointed flippers are of moderate length, and tend to
assume a hook-like form; while the number of vertebrz in
the back-bone varies from 73 to 75. The genus is represented
by several closely-allied species.
296 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
THE COMMON DOLPHIN. DELPHINUS DELPHIS.
Delphinus delphis, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 4703
1766; Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 462 (1874);
Southwell, British Seals and Whales, p. 121 (1881),
Characters—Coloration somewhat variable, but the upper-
parts black and the under surface pure white, with the flanks
shaded, mottled, and streaked with various tints of yellow and
grey; the markings on the two sides of the body frequently
displaying perfect symmetry. Length of adult from 5 to 8
feet.
Distribution. Frequent in the Mediterranean, and likewise
occurring in the Atlantic, the Common Dolphin is represented
by a closely-allied form in the North Pacific, and by a third in
the South Seas. Although not uncommonly visiting our
southern shores, it appears very rarely to range as far north as
Scotland, but Sir William Turner, in the ‘ Proceedings ” of the
Physical Society of Edinburgh for 1887 (p. 364), has re-
corded the capture in that year of a specimen in the Firth of
Forth.
Habits.—Like its allies, the Common Dolphin is essentially
gregarious, and all who have made a voyage in the Mediterra-
nean must be familiar with the sportive gambols of these beau-
tiful Cetaceans as they frolic round a ship in large schools,
which sometimes include hundreds of individuals. Their
favourite prey seems to be Pilchards and Herrings, and they
are consequently frequently taken in the nets of the Cornish
fishermen. A single young one is produced at a birth, and
is tended with marked solicitude by its female parent. Like
that of the Porpoise, the flesh of the Dolphin formerly formed
an article of diet.
BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHINS. GENUS TURSIOPS,
Tursiops, Gervais, Hist. Nat. Mamm. vol. ii. p. 323 (1855).
BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN. 297
Distinguished from the preceding genus by the beak of the
skull tapering moderately from the base to the extremity, the
shorter bony union of the two branches of the lower jaw in
front, the stouter teeth, of which there are from 21 to 25 pairs
in each jaw, and by the total number of vertebre being only
64.
THE BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN. TURSIOPS TURSIO.
? Delphinus tursio, Fabricius, Fauna Groenlandica, p. 49 (1780).
Delphinus tursio, Bonnaterre, Cétologie, p. 21 (1789); Bell,
British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 467 (1874); Southwell,
British Seals and Whales, p. 124 (1881).
Delphinus truncatus, Montagu, Mem. Wern. Soc. vol. iii. p. 75
(1821).
Tursiops tursio, Gervais, Hist. Nat. Mamm. vol. ii. p. 323
(1855); Flower, List Cetacea Brit. Mus. p. 26 (1885).
Tursio truncatus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales, Brit. Mus.
p. 258 (1866).
Characters—General colour of upper-parts black, gradually
shading into white beneath. Length of adult from 8 to 10
feet.
Distribution.—So far as can be determined from our present
imperfect knowledge of the distribution of Dolphins in general,
it would appear that the present one is a comparatively scarce
species, ranging at least from the Mediterranean to the North
Sea. To the British coasts it is but a rare visitor, although
several instances of its occurrence are recorded in the second
edition of Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” from England, Scotland,
and Ireland, the latest of these being a school which visited
Holyhead Harbour in the autumn of 1868. Since that date,
in the Zoologist for 1888, p. 346, Mr. W. Jeffery mentions
that a specimen was stranded that year on the coast of Kirk-
298 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
cudbrightshire; while Mr. J, Cordeaux, in the Waturalist for
1889 (p. 6), records that two individuals had be2n seen to enter
the Humber,
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN.*
JI. THE CAVERN AND Brick-EARTH PERIOD.
Owing to various circumstances, among which denudation
not improbably occupies a place, the geological record in
Britain during the Tertiary Period is far more imperfect than
usual, owing to the total absence in our islands of all traces
of strata corresponding to the typical Miocene deposits of
the Continent. Nevertheless, in spite of this imperfection,
and the consequent absence of the remains of the species
which lived during the missing epoch, Britain is remarkably
rich in fossil Mammals, our caves, brick-earths, and _river-
gravels having preserved the bones and teeth of the later
in almost endless profusion; while tke so-called “ forest-
bed” and crags of the eastern coast are rich in those of a
somewhat earlier epoch ; and the deposits of the Hampshire
and London basins have yielded evidence of the Mammalian
life of the lower portions of the Tertiary Period. In some
respects it is, indeed, fortunate that we have not the hosts
of Tertiary Mammals known from the Continent, as, if so, it
would be absolutely impossible to give any adequate account
of them within the limits at our disposal; but as things are,
the list of species is of manageable proportions.
In giving a brief sketch of the ancient British Mammals, we
shall practically omit mention. of those found in the most
superficial deposits, such as the fens and turbaries, since the
majority of these belong to species which are cither still living
* This section of the work originally appeared in Avowledce, and has
been reproduced by the kind permission of the Editor of that journal.
ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 09
in the country, or are existing in other parts of Europe. Our
regular survey will, therefore, commence with the Mammals
found in the caverns and the various more or less nearly
contemporary brick-earths and gravels, which generally form
high-level plateaux in our river valleys, and are for the most
part of more recent date than the epoch of maximum ex-
tension of the ice of the Glacial Period. The whole of these
deposits belong to the Pleistocene, or latest Geological Period ;
and the next in point of age are the formations exposed on the
east coast of England; in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk,
and Essex. The highest of those deposits to which we shall
specially refer is the series usually denominated the “forest-
bed,” so called on account of the relics of an ancient forest
which it contains zz siz, Although clearly antedating the
Glacial Epoch, there is some doubt as to the precise geo-
logical age of this deposit, some authorities referring it to
the top of the Pliocene Period, while others consider that
it forms the base of the Pleistocene. As the majority of
the Mammalian remains yielded by this bed belong to exist-
ing species, the latter view is the one which we feel inclined
to adopt. Below the forest-bed come the crags, of which
the Norwich crag belongs to the upper portion of the Pliocene
Period, while the Red and Coralline crags may be assigned
to the lower division of the same. The Tertiaries of the
Hampshire’and London basins belong solely to the Oligocene
and Eocene Epschs; and t!1e mention of the ages of these
different horizons may accordingly be reserved till we come
to the consideration of their fauna.
With regard to the epoch of our caverhs and brick-earths,
it may be observed, in the first place, that by far the great
majority of the species whose remains are entombed in the
various deposits, are still existing, although most of the larger
ones have disappeared from Britain, having been either
300 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
destroyed by human agency, or because the climate became
unsuitable to them. Of such existing species we shall only
make mention when there is something of special interest
connected with them, and the reader will therefore under-
stand that we have no intention of attempting anything like a
complete list of the Mammalian fauna of thisepoch. The most
remarkable feature connected with this fauna is the apparently
contradictory evidence which it affords as to the nature of the
climate then prevalent. The Glutton, Reindeer, Arctic Fox,
and Musk-Ox are strongly indicative of a more or less Arctic
climate ; many of the Voles (Microtus), Picas (Zagomys), and
Susliks (Spermophilus), together with the Saiga Antelope,
app-ar to point equally strongly to the prevalence of a steppe-
like condition; while the Hippopotamus and Spotted Hyzena
seem as much in favour of a sub-tropical state of things.
Many attempts have been made to reconcile these apparently
contradictory circumstances; one of the older views being
that while the tropical types of animals lived during a warm
interlude, they migrated southwards with the incoming of
colder conditions to the Arctic type of Fauna. Since, however,
it has now been ascertained that the remains of both Tropical
and Arctic forms have been found lying side-by-side in the
same bed, it is perfectly certain that such an explanation will
not meet the exigencies of the case. We have, however, yet
much to learn about the effects of climate on animals—our
experience being, unfortunately, confined to a single epoch ;
and the fauna of the highlands of Tibet shows that many types
of animals formerly regarded as more or less essentially tropical
can withstand a winter climate of extreme severity.
Among the forms that at first sight seem to indicate that
Britain enjoyed a mild climate during the deposition of the
brick-earths of the Thames Valley is a Monkey, more or less
closely allied to the existing Macaques (Jacacus), but, unfor-
ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. gor
tunately, only known to us by a small fragment of the upper
jaw containing a single tooth, which was obtained many years
ago from the brick-earth of Grays, in Essex. Although the
majority of the Macaques, together with their allies the Langurs,
are now inhabitants of warm regions, it must not be forgotten
.hat a representative of each is found in Tibet, where the
winter cold is intense. This species is the only evidence yet
xmown of the occurrence of Monkeys in Britain.
Passing by the Bats and Insectivores, as pertaining exclu-
sively to existing species, we proceed to the Carnivores. Among
these, the rarest is a species of Sabre-toothed Tiger (M/acher-
odus latidens), of which specimens of the enormous serrated
upper tusks have been obtained from Kent’s Hole, near Tor-
quay. These Sabre-tooths were widely distributed during the
Pleistocene and Pliocene Epochs, having been discovered in
Europe, Persia, India, and North and South America ; but
they seem to have been a type less adapted for persistence
than the ordinary and less specialised Cats. Side-by-side with
this extinct species lived the Lion, whose remains have been
found, not only in most of the English caves, but likewise in
many of the brick-earths and river-gravels. Although we are
accustomed to regard the Lion as essentially an inhabitant of
the hot districts of India and Africa, it must be remembered
that even in the historic period it was common in South-eastern
Europe, while its near ally, the Tiger, ranges northwards into
Siberia, where an unusually long and thick coat protects it
from the winter-cold. The Lynx (7é/s /ynx) and the Leopard
(Z. pardus) were likewise British animals during the Cavern
Period ; the former being to a great extent an inhabitant of
northern regions. Although the great Cave-Hyzena was for-
merly regarded as an extinct species only, it is now considered
to be merely a large race of the Spotted African species (Hyena
crocuta), differing from the Striped Hyzna, not only in its
302 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
superior size and coloration, but likewise in the structure of its
teeth, the hindmost of which approximate to those of the Cats.
Although the present habitat of the Striped Hyzena is tropical
or sub-tropical, there does not appear any valid reason why the
creature should not have been able to withstand a compara-
tively cold climate. The Dog tribe, as we. might expect, is well
represented during the Pleistocene, remains of both the Fox
and the Wolf being common in all caverns; the latter species
having, indeed, been exterminated only at a comparatively re-
cent date in our islands. More remarkable is the occurrence
of the Arctic Fox (Canis /agopus), the remains of which have
been recently identified from a fissure near Ightham, in Kent.
The nearest country to Britain where this species now lives is
Iceland, and it is certainly very curious to find in the same de-
posits remains of animals so widely s2parated at the present
day as are the Spotted Hyzena and the Arctic Fox. Another
compatriot of the former species is the Cape Hunting-Dog
(Zycaon pictus), distinguished from the Wolves by the cha-
racters of the teeth and the smaller number of toes on the
fore feet; and it is certainly remarkable to find this genus
represented by an extinct species from the Glamorganshire
caverns. Passing on to the Bears, we naturally expect to
find the common Brown Bear, which was only exterminated
at a late epoch of the Historic Period, common in the Pleisto-
cene ; and in this we are not disappointed, its remains occur-
ring not uncommonly in the English caverns as well as in those
of Ireland. A large proportion of the ursine-remains found in
the brick-earths of the Thames Valley have, however, been
assigned to the Grizzly Bear ( Ursus horribilis) of North America;
but as this form is distinguished from its European ally merely
by slight differences in the form of the skull and teeth, we are
by no means assured that this reference is well founded. Mark-
edly distinct, however, is the gigantic Cave-Bear (U. Sspeleus),
ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 303
‘he skull of which may always be recognised by the sudden
rise of the forehead above the eyes, while the crowns of the
molar teeth display a more finely puckered structure than is to
be seen in those of the existing species. This gigantic Bear
was one of the inhabitants of the celebrated_Kirkdale Cave in
Yorkshire, of which Spotted Hyzenas were, however, by far the
most numerous carnivorous denizens. Much rarer than those
of either Bears and Hyzenas, are the remains of the Glutton
(Gulo luscus), which have been obtained only among the de-
posits now under consideration, from the caves of Banwell,
Bleadon, Cresswell Crags, the Vale of Clwyd, and Yealm
Bridge. The Glutton is now unknown further south than
Scandinavia, and in drawing any conclusions as to climate
from its occurrence in Britain, we must always bear in mind
the comparative scarcity of the remains both of this species,
the Arctic Fox, and the Musk-Ox. It is true that the rarity of
these forms is discounted by the abundance of the remains of
the Reindeer ; but the latter are somewhat local in their dis-
tribution, being unknown to the east of London, and if the
assertion that this animal still lingered in Caithness till a few
centuries ago be true, no great change of climate would be
necessary in order to admit of its existence in England. The
other Carnivores of the Cavern Period are not of much import-
ance, including species like the Pine-Marten, Stoat, Weasel,
Polecat, and Otter, which still exist among us; although it has
been thought that some bones from the Ightham fissure indi-
cate an extinct type intermediate between the Polecat and the
Marten.
Turning to the Hoofed Order, we find remains of the Horse
common in all the Pleistocene deposits pertaining to the Cavern
Epoch, and from the rude yet characteristic portraits of the
animal engraved by our pre-historic ancestors it would appear
that the Horse of this period was very similar to the Wild or
304 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
feral Tarpan of the Russian steppes. Since the latter race,
together with all the Horses that have reverted to a wild con-
dition, are inhabitants of open plains, it may be reasonably in-
ferred that similar tracts of country formed a prominent feature
in Pleistocene Britain. Although Tapirs were wanting, Rhino-
ceroses were abundant during the period in question, no less
than three species having left their remains in the caverns and
l rick earths, all of which resembled the existing African repre-
sentatives of the genus in having two horns and no front teeth.
By far the best known of these is the Woolly Rhinoceros (/:-
noceros antiguitatis), which, while closely allied to the living
Burchell’s Rhinoceros of Africa, differed in having its body
protected from the cold by a thick coat of wool and hair.
Ranging to the cold “tundras” of Siberia, where its frozen
carcases are met with, imbedded in the icy soil like those of
the Mammoth, there can be no doubt that this species was
capable of withstanding a considerable degree of cold, although
we may perhaps admit that the climate of Siberia during
the time that these animals flourished there may have been
somewhat less rigorous than at the present day. As to the
difficult question of how the carcases of these Rhinoceroses
and Mammoths became preserved in their frozen sepulchres,
we prefer to leave this to those fonder of argument than our-
selves. If we admit that the Woolly Rhinoceros could with-
stand a cold climate, there is no difficulty with regard to the
other contemporary species, at least one of which has been
met with in Siberia, although it does not appear that either was
furnished with a woolly coat. Both the Leptorhine (2. depto-
rhinus) and Megarhine (R. megarhinus) Rhinoceroses, as these
species are termed, differ essentially from the woolly kind by
the simpler structure of their molar teeth, which are more
like those of the prehensile-lipped, or so-called Black Rhino-
ceros of Africa ; and the skulls and teeth of the two are so much
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 305
alike that it requires an expert to distinguish between them.
Teeth of both species are found in the brick-earths of the
Thames Valley, but while those of the former are common in
most of the English caves, those of the latter appear to be only
known as cavern-fossils from Gower, in Glamorganshire, and
from a rock-fissure near Plymouth.
One of the finest of the Pleistocene Mammals was the great
Aurochs or Wild Ox (Bos faurus), the ancestor of our domestic
breeds of cattle, which was living in the Black Forest in
the time of Cesar. Even then it was described as but little
inferior in bulk to an Elephant, and those who have seen the
gigantic skulls from the Ilford brick-earths, preserved in the
British Museum, and have compared them with ordinary
Oxen, will have some idea of the magnificent proportions
of the Aurochs. Side-by-side with the latter lived Bison
(Bos bison) of equally gigantic size as compared with their
living Lithuanian and Caucasian representatives (to whom the
name of Aurochs is persistently misapplied). Although the
Bison was very abundant in Britain during the Cavern Period,
it disappeared at an carlier date than its cousin the Aurochs,
its remains being unknown from the fens and turbaries, where
those of the latter are so abundant. If we except certain
remains assigned to Sheep and Goats, the only other Hollow-
horned Ruminants that occur in the deposits under consider-
ation are the Musk-Ox (Ovibos moschatus), and the Saiga Ante-
lope (Saiga tartarica), both of which are of extreme importance
as pointing out the nature of the climate then prevailing. Re-
mains of both these animals have hitherto been obtained only
from the south-east of England, those of the former occurring as
far east as Maidenhead, as well as in the brick-earths of several
places in Kent, and on the Dogger Bank, while those of the
latter are known only from Twickenham. It is thus very re-
markable that these species occur exactly where the Reindeer
5 x
306 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
is unknown, and the suggestion naturally arises that conditions
suitable for their existence may have occurred there and been
wanting elsewhere. The Musk-Ox, which is now restricted to
Arctic America, is such an essentially Arctic animal that it is
hard to believe that it could have inhabited a country with
a temperature suitable to the existence of the Hippopotamus ;
while the Saiga is equally characteristic of the open steppes of
Russia.
Equally marked as the superiority of the fossil Bison over its
living representative, was the excess in size of the Pleistocene
Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) over its existing Scottish descend-
ants, some of the antlers from the caverns and brick-earths
being of enormous length and girth, and likewise notable for
the number of points they carry. The Fallow Deer was
certainly unknown from both the deposits last. mentioned,
although it has been said to occur in a bed on the Norfolk
coast ; but the superficial deposits of the same coast yield
remains of the closely-allied Brown’s Fallow Deer (C. drownt?).
In cavern-deposits the place of the Fallow Deer was more than
filled by the splendid Irish Deer (C. giganteus), generally
known by the incorrect name of the Irish “Elk,” and the splen-
did antlers of which are larger and more massive than those of
any other member of the Family. Although deriving its name
from the abundance in which it occurs in Ireland, remains of this
Deer is met with in most of the cavern-deposits, brick-earths, and
river-gravels of England ; and it should be mentioned that al-
though in Ireland its remains are commonly stated to come from
the peat-bogs, they really occur in the shell-marl underlying the
peat. In the outward direction of its widely palmated antlers,
the Irish Deer differs considerably from the Fallow Deer, but
an extinct species recently described from the superficial
deposits of Germany, under the name of Ruff’s Deer, so
closely connects the two as to show that they constitute but
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 307
a single group. The Roe Deer (Cafgreolus caprea), which is
more a southern than a northern form, is found in many of the
caverns, but is rare in the brick-earths; while the Reindeer
(Rangifer tarandus), although common in the caverns and
superficial deposits both of England and Scotland, is, as
already mentioned, quite unknown to the east of London.
The Wild Boar, which is one of the most recently exterminated
British Mammals, requires a mere mention; but the Hippo-
potamus of the British Pleistocene deposits, which is speci-
fically inseparable from the common African species, is one of
the most important of the whole Fauna, so far as climatic
conditions are concerned. Occurring commonly in the river-
gravels and brick-earths of the south and midland districts of
England, its remains are less frequent in caverns, although
found as far north as Yorkshire. In our opinion, more import-
ance is attached to the occurrence of the remains of this animal
in a deposit than those of any other Mammal, since we cannot
conceive it possible that the creature could have existed except
where the rivers were more or less open throughout the year.
Elephants were represented by the Mammoth (Zéephas
primigenius), which may be considered merely as a northern
hairy representative of the existing Indian species, and the
so-called Straight-tusked Elephant (2. antiguus), which
approximated in the structure of its teeth more or less
markedly to the African Elephant. Bounded to the south-
west by the Pyrenees, and found but sparingly to the south
of the Alps, the Mammoth ranged northwards to Siberia,
where, as already said, its frozen carcases are from time to
time discovered, and where it must have existed in vast herds.
It has recently been attempted to show that the Mammoth
lived and died before the Glacial Epoch; but although its
remains undoubtedly occur on the old land-surfaces upon
which the post-glacial deposits were laid down, the opinion of
xX 2
308 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
many geologists is hostile to the new view, and it is probable
that the Mammoth saw both the incoming and the waning of |
glacial conditions.
The Rodents, or Gnawing animals, need not detain us long,
more especially since the burrowing habits of some of them
render the occurrence of their remains by no means trust-
worthy evidence that they are contemporaneous with the other
contents of the deposits where they are found. The Beaver,
although very rare in caves, occurs in the brick-earths of the
Thames Valley; while the Siberian and South Russian Picas
(Zagomys pusillus) have been found in three caves and the
Ightham fissure. The northern Vole (Aficrotus ratticeps), and
the Siberian Vole (JZ gregaiis), both of which have been
identified from the last-named deposit, are animals essentially
characteristic of desert or steppe regions ; and much the same
is true of the Susliks (Spermophilus), several species of which
inhabited England during the Cavern Period.
It will thus be seen that the problems presented by the later
Pleistocene Mammalian Fauna of Britain are so complex, and
apparently so contradictory, that at present it is quite hopeless
to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion. That so far as the
larger Mammals are concerned, we live in an impoverished age,
is perfectly true ; but whether, as Mr. Wallace supposes, this is
due to the effects of the Glacial Period seems more than doubt-
ful, if geologists are right (and we believe they are) in assigning
a Post-Glacial date to our brick-earths, river-gravels, and cavern-
deposits.
II. Tue Forest-BED AND CraG PeEriops.
The fresh-water deposit on the eastern coast of England
known as the Forest-bed, of which the age is Pre-Glacial, occupies
a somewhat intermediate position in regard to its Mammalian
Fauna between the Cavern and Crag Periods; some of the
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 309
species characterising the former epoch extending downwards
to the Forest-bed, while others are replaced by those of the
Crag. Stiil, however, the percentage of existing species is high,
and as but few of the genera appear to be extinct, we prefer to
assign the formation in question to the Pleistocene rather than
to the Pliocene Epoch.
Commencing with the Carnivores, we have evidence that the
Forest-bed possesses a Sabre-toothed Tiger apparently specifi-
cally distinct from the Cavern species, and not improbably
identical with one (Afacherodus cultridens) from the upper
Pliocene beds of the Val d’Arno in Tuscany ; while the Hyzena
is identical with the Cavern form, that is to say, the existing
South African species.” The Wolf, and probably the Fox, as
well as the Marten and the Glutton, are likewise existing species
ranging as far down as the Forest-bed ; and the occurrence of
the last-named is somewhat notable, as showing that even at
this early epoch, northern types were capable of existing in
England before we have any evidence of the incoming of
strongly-marked Glacial conditions. The other land Carnivores
of the Forest-bed are Otter and the Cave-Bear ; while the teeth
of a smaller Bear have been tentatively assigned to the Ameri-
can Grizzly, although we should think it more probable that
they pertained to the Brown species. Of marine forms, a
Walrus which has been regarded as specifically distinct from
the living representative of the genus, and the Bearded Seal
(Phoca barbata), now inhabiting the North Atlantic, have been
recorded from the formation under consideration.
In the Hoofed Order we find the Bison and the Musk-Ox, as
wellas a large Sheep (Ovzs savini) apparently allied to the
Himalayan Argali, inhabiting East Anglia during the deposition
of the Forest-bed ; while the Roe Deer, an extinct kind of Elk
(Alces latifrons), and the Red Deer likewise lived at the same
time. There appear also to have been several species of ex-
310 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
tinct Deer, among which Savin’s Deer (Cervus savint) is re-
markable for the flattened form of the “brow”-tine, while in the
magnificent species (C. sedgwicki) named after the well-known
Professor of Geology at Cambridge the spreading antlers
attained a complexity of structure unknown in any other
member of the genus. Of other Ungulates, the Hippopotamus,
the Wild Boar, and the Horse, date from the Forest-bed ; and
the occurrence in this formation of the former species in
association with the Musk-Ox, Glutton, and Walrus, presents
us with another of the puzzles which almost break the heart of
the palzontologist. In addition to the Common Horse, there’
was an extinct species known as Steno’s Horse (Zguus stenonis),
and distinguished by the small size of the so-called front inner
pillar of the upper molar teeth, or the portion occupying the
*
Fig. 1. Right upper molar tooth of Steno’s Horse, ~
middle of the lower border of the annexed figure. In this
respect the species in question was less specialised than the
modern Horse, and makes a step in the direction of the under-
mentioned Hipparion. On the Continent Steno’s Horse occurs
in beds of upper Pliocene age, where it was accompanied by
the Etruscan Rhinoceros (RAcnoceros etuscus), as was also
the case in the Forest-bed. This Etruscan -Rhinoceros
differs from the Leptorhine and Megarhine Cavern species
in the much lower crowns of its molar teeth, and is like-
wise, therefore, a more generalised type. So far as can be
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. gir
determined, the Mammoth does not appear to have come
into existence at the period of the Forest-bed; but the so-
called Straight-tusked Elephant (Zvephas antiguis) was abun-
dant, as well as a third species (2. meridionalis), unknown
in the higher deposits. This southern Elephant, which takes
its name from its occurrence in the upper Pliocene strata of
the Val d’Arno, attained enormous dimensions, and is charac-
terised by the smallness of the height of the crowns of the
molar teeth in comparison with their width, as well as by the
large size and lozenge-like form of the discs of ivory enclosed
by the enamel-plates on their grinding surface, and the width
of the intervening spaces of cement. The enamel-plates them-
selves are very thick and smooth, being almost completely
devoid of the puckerings characterising those of the Mammoth.
Although anyone can see the difference between a typical
molar of the southern Elephant and one of the Mammoth,
some teeth of the former are very like certain of those of the
Straight-toothed Elephant, while some of the latter come very
close to those of the Mammoth. It is, therefore, advisable in
determining the teeth of fossil Elephants to seek the aid of a
specialist. It may be added that remains of the southern
Elephant have been met with in a remarkable deposit at Dew-
lish, in Dorsetshire, which must consequently be correlated
either with the Forest-bed or the upper Crags.
Among the smaller Mammals we find the Rodents well re-
presented in the Forest-bed, some of the species still existing in
Britain, while others are now confined to the Continent, and a
few are extinct. In the former class we have the Squirrel, the
Wood-Mouse (Mus sy/vaticus), and the Bank-Vole (A@icrotus
glareolus) ; and in the second the Beaver, the continental Field-
Vole (Af. arvalis), and the Siberian Vole (AZ. gregalis) ; while
of the extinct forms the Giant Beaver (Zvogontherium cuvieri)
indicates a genus characteristic of this formation and the upper
312 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
Pliocene, and a Vole (AZ. intermedius) intermediate in size
between the Water-Vole and Field-Vole differs from both in
having distinct roots to the molar teeth. In the Insectivorous
Order we have the Mole, and the Common and Pigmy Shrews,
as representatives of the existing British Fauna; while the
Russian Desman (Myogale moschata) is now found only in
the districts between the rivers Don and Volga, where it leads
an aquatic life, not unlike that of our Water-Vole, save that
its habits are insectivorous instead of herbivorous.
The few Cetacean remains from the Forest-bed appear all
referable to existing forms, and indicate the same mixture of
southern and northern forms as characterises the land Fauna.
Among these are the southern Right Whale (Ba/ena australis),
a large Fin-Whale (Balenoptera), the Sperm-Whale—which
still occasionally straggles as far north as Britain—the Killer,
or Grampus (Orca gladiator), the False Killer (Pseudorca cras-
sidens)—originally described from a skull from the fens near
Stamford, but subsequently found living in the North Sea,—
the Arctic Narwhal (Afonodon monoceros), and White Whale
(Delphinaplerus leucas), the Common Dolphin, the Bottle-
nosed Dolphin, and the Porpoise.
We now come to the shelly deposits of the east coast, locally
known by the term of “ Crags,” a name which has been adopted
into geological nomenclature. These beds admit of a three-
fold division, namely, the Norwich, Fluvio-Marine, or Mam-
maliferous Crag, the Red Crag, and the Coralline, or White
Crag. The former, which is partly of fresh-water and partly of
marine origin, shows a Molluscan Fauna of a decidedly northern
type, and has at its base a bone-bed in which Mammalian re-
mains occur in considerable quantities. The Red Crag takes
its name from the colour of its sandy beds, and likewise con-
tains a bone-bed in which the fossils are mainly converted into
phosphate of lime, and are thus valuable as a source of atti-
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 313
ficial manure. Although its Molluscs are generally of a northern
type, this feature is less marked than in the Norwich Crag.
The lowest, or Coralline Crag, which is generally of a light
colour, takes its name from the number of species of Polyzoa
found in these beds ; its Molluscan Fauna indicating warmer
conditions than those prevailing during the deposition of the
upper members of the series.
One of the features of the Mammalian Fauna of the crags
is the occurrence of remains of Mastodons, which are quite
unknown in the higher beds, and the comparative rarity of true
Elephants ; while still more noticeable is the abundance of the
remains of Cetaceans, referable to many species and genera.
Although some of the Crag Mammals belong to existing
species, the great majority are extinct, and a small propor-
tion belong to genera no longer existing. It is probable that
the greater number of the Mammals found in these beds belong
to species which were living during the time of their deposition,
although a few may have been derived from antecedent Miocene
beds. Certain specimens are, however, met with which have
clearly been washed out from the London clay cr other older
Tertiary formations ; and these, which may generally be recog-
nised by their water-worn condition, will be omitted from our
survey. Although the Mammals obtained from the different
crags are by no means always the same, it will be convenient
to treat of the whole series collectively.
Among the most difficult fossils to determine specifically are
detached teeth of the Cats, and certain such specimens from
the Red Crag, which have been regarded as indicating an extinct
species, are so like the corresponding teeth of the Leopard that
it would be hazardous to say they do not belong to that animal,
although, on the other hand, it would be equally rash to say
positively that such was the case. Whether a Sabre-tooth occurs
in these deposits is uncertain ; but there is no doubt as to the
314 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
existence in that epoch of the Striped Hyzna (Ayexa striata),
of Northern Africa and India, as several well-preserved teeth
have been obtained from the Red Crag. The occurrence of this
species in the Crag, and its replacement in the Forest-bed and
Cavern Period by the Spotted Hyzena, is one of those remark-
able facts in distribution which we have at present no means
of explaining. Both the Wolf and the Fox appear to date
from the period of the Red Crag, while the Polecat apparently
occurs in the still earlier Coralline Crag. The Common Otter
seems, however, to be of more modern origin, since a member
of the same genus from the Norwich Crag, and a second from
the Red Crag seem to be both extinct. By far the most remark-
able of the Red Crag Carnivores is the Giant Panda (4/urus
anglicus), at present known only by an upper molar and a frag-
ment of the lower jaw with the last tooth, since the genus to
which it belongs is represented elsewhere solely by the Panda
or Cat-Bear (22. fulgens) of the South-eastern Himalaya, The
existing Panda, which is an animal about the size of a Fox,
with a bright red coat and long bushy tail, is of especial interest
as being the sole Old World representative of the Racccons,
and is characterised by the peculiarly complex structure of the
upper molar teeth and the remarkably curved form of the lower
jaw. Since the Crag fossils present precisely the same charac-
ter, there can be no doubt of their having belonged to an ani-
mal of the same genus, which was, however, double the size of
its existing representative. That a creature so isolated and
peculiar as the Himalayan Panda should be represented by a
closely-allied but gigantic species which lived in Britain in
company with the Wolf and the Fox, is one of the most un
expected facts revealed by palzeontological investigation.
So far as can be determined, there is no evidence of the
existence of true Bears in the Crag, and it is probable that both
the Cave-Bear and the Brown Bear do not antedate the Forest
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 315
bed, although an extinct species occurs in the Upper Pliocene
of the Continent. In the Red Crag the place of these animals
is taken by a huge Carnivore known as the Hjenarctus, which
was in many respects intermediate between Bears and Dogs,
the upper molar teeth, as shown in the accompanying cut,
being shorter and squarer than those of the former, while the
catnassial or flesh-teeth were of a cutting type more like those
of the latter. Species of the same genus occur in the Pliocene
and Miocene formations of the Continent, as well as in the
Indian Pliocene. A Walrus (Zvrichechus huxley?), apparently
identical with the Forest-bed form, as well as two species of
Seals, one of which is assigned to an extinct genus (Phocanella),
AS
Fig. 2. Last upper molar tooth of the Hyenarctus.
complete the list of the Carnivores of the Red Ciag ; and it may
be added that the occurrence of the former is not out of har-
mony with the climatic condition indicated by the Molluscs.
Neither Oxen, Musk-Ox, Sheep, or Goats are known from
the Crag; but a Gazelle, apparently extinct, from the Norwich
Crag is of considerable interest as indicating the probable
existence in England at that period of open, more or less
desert plains like those frequented by the majority of the exist-
ing members of that group. In contrast to this paucity of
Hollow-horned Ruminants is the abundance of Stags, which are
especially common in the Norwich Crag, and for the most part
belong to types unlike any now existing, although Falconer’s
Deer (C. falconeri) was near akin to the Fallow Deer. Among
316 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY,
the most peculiar is a species named C. verticornis, character-
ised by its short and thick antlers, in which the cylindrical
“brow ”-tine curves downwards over the forehead, while above
it are two oval tines, and superiorly the beam becomes flattened
and expanded into a crown of two points. The Pigs were
represented by two extinct species, one of which was nearly
allied to, if not identical with, the gigantic Sus exymanthius
from the Pliocene deposits of Attica; while the smaller one
has been identified with another continental species known as
S, paleocherus.
Among the Odd-toed Ungulates, true Horses seem very
rare, although Steno’s Horse, alluded to above as char-
acteristic of the Forest-bed, has been recorded from the
Norwich Crag. Three-toed Horses of the genus Hipparion
were, however, common in the Red Crag; their upper
molar teeth, as shown in the accompanying figure, being
Fig. 3. Left upper molar tooth of Three-toed Horse (Azpparion),
always distinguishable at a glance by the isolation of the
antero-internal from the enamel-folds of the centre of the
crown. The Red Crag Rhinoceroses are quite distinct from
those of the overlying beds, one being identical with the Horn-
less Rhinoceros incisivus of the continental Pliocene, while it is
possible that a second may be the same as a Two-horned form
(R. schleiermacheri), which is apparently nearly allied to the
living Sumatran species, having, like the Hornless forms, large
tusks in the lower jaw. The occurrence of a Tapir in the Red
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 317
Crag assists in explaining the present anomalous distribution of
these animals ; one species of which is Malayan, while all the
rest are South American. Although the Straight-tusked Ele-
phant occurs in the Norwich Crag, while the southern Elephant
dates from the subjacent Red Crag, the commonest Probosci-
deans of the period under consideration were Mastodons,
which, it is scarcely necessary to mention, differ from Ele-
phants in the much lower crowns of their molar teeth, which
are surmounted by low tubercles, frequently arranged in a
small number of transverse ridges, separated from one another
by more or less completely open valleys, this type of tooth
being much more generalised than that of the Elephants. In
one of the Crag Mastodons (JZ. arvernensis) the tubercles of
the molars were arranged alternately, and the lower jaw was
short and devoid of tusks; in a second (AZ longirostris) the
same tubercles were arranged in transverse ridges, with their
worn summits showing a trefoil pattern like those of the Hip-
popotamus, the lower jaw being at the same time greatly pro-
duced and armed with a large pair of tusks; while in the
third (AZ. dorsont) the ridges in most of the teeth were three,
instead of four, 1n number, and retained much less distinct
evidence of their constituent tubercles.
The Rodents need not detain us long, but the Giant Beaver
of the Forest-bed was sparingly represented in the Norwich
Crag, while a smaller member of the same genus (Zvogontherium
minus) is found in the subjacent beds ; the only other named
Rodent being the extinct Vole referred to above, which ranges
downwards from the Forest-bed to the Norwich Crag.
The Whales and Dolphins of the Crag are so interesting that
they would afford ample material for an article by themselves,
and can, therefore, receive but scant notice in the limits of
space available. Among the Whale-bone group there appear to
have been no less than four species of Right Whales, one of
318 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
which (Balena affinis) resembled the Greenland Whale, while a
second (B. primigenia) was more nearly allied to the southern
Right Whale, and a third (B, da/exopsis) was ch wacterised by
its small dimensions. Hump-backs (Aegapzera) were likewise
well represented, as were also the Finners (Bakexoptera) ; while
an extinct genus (Cetotherium) allied to the last, contains
several species from the Crag. It may be mentioned here that
all these Whales are represented by the shell-like tympanic
bones of the inner ear, which differ remarkably in form in the
various genera, and thus prove unerring guides both for generic
and specific determination. Another type of these bones, re-
markable for its egg-like form, serves to differentiate yet
another extinct genus (Herpetocetus) of Whale-bone Whales.
Turning to the Toothed Whales, a remarkable feature in the
Red Crag is the number of teeth indicating the occurrence of
large forms more or less closely allied to the Sperm-Whale,
but mostly distinguished by the presence of small caps of
enamel. There were likewise smaller forms, one of which has
long been known under the name of Piysodon, although it was
only recently that the writer was able to determine from the
evidence of a Patagonian specimen that it differed from the
Sperm-Whale in having teeth in the upper as well as in the
lower jaw, and thus indicates a distinct and more primitive
Family connecting the Sperm-Whale with the Dolphins. That
a Bottle-nosed Whale nearly allied to the existing Myperoodon
vostratus inhabited British water during the Red Crag Period, is
proved by an ear-bone in the Ipswich Museum ; and the num-
ber of Beaked Whales living at the same time must have been
extraordinarily great, from the profusion in which their dense
bony beaks occur in these deposits. Most of them belong to
the same genus (Afesop/odon) as that rare visitor to the English
shores, Sowerby’s Whale; although a few pertain to an extinct
genus (Choneziphius) characterised by the presence of an un-
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 319
ossified tubular perforation running through the centre of
the beak. A species of the extinct Shark-toothed Dolphins
(Sgualodon), together with a Killer (Orca), Black-Fish (Globiceph-
alus), Dolphin (De/phinus), and Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Zur-
stops), completes the list of Crag Cetaceans. It may be added
that the Sirenians, that is to say the Order to which belong the
living Manati and Dugong, are represented by a skull of the
extinct genus Aalitherium from the Red Crag, but it is quite
possible that this specimen may have been washed out of the
Miocene beds.
Although the Fauna of the Crag would have appeared strange
and foreign even to an inhabitant of Britain during the early
historic period, when the Wolf, Bear, Aurochs, and Beaver
still lingered in our islands, could a cave-man have seen
Britain as it existed during the period of the Crags, he would
not have found the Fauna very different to the one with which
he was acquainted, Mastodons taking the place of Elephants,
and the Hornless Rhinoceros representing the Two-horned
Woolly species, which he had probably been accustomed to
hunt.
III. Tue Lower Tertiary Periop.
Between the Coralline Crag and the Hempsted beds of the
Isle of Wight, which belong to the middle portion of the
Oligocene Period, and are the next Testiary deposits met with
in Britain, is a long gap, owing to the complete absence of all
representatives of the Miocene and Upper Oligocene strata of
the Continent. In consequence of this imperfection of the
record, instead of finding a gradual transition from the
Mammals of the Crag Period as we pass downwards through
the Miocene bed till we reach the Oligocene, we notice that
the Mammalian Fauna of the lower Tertiaries of Britain is
utterly unlike that of the upper beds, and shows not the
320 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
faintest trace of a connection therewith. In place of Deer,
Rhinoceroses, Horses, and Pigs, we have, even in the highest
beds of the lower Tertiaries, Ungulate Mammals of strange and
unknown types, all of which belong to genera long since
extinct, and differ widely in the structure of their low-crowned
cheek-teeth from all modern Mammals, although some appear
to have approximated in external form to the Tapirs and others
to the Pigs. Elephants and Mastodons were entirely unknown,
and the place of Monkeys was filled by primitive Lemur-like
creatures. All the indications afforded by the Flora and the
Molluscan Flora of the Oligocene and Eocene beds point to
the conclusion that during those epochs Britain enjoyed a
tropical or sub-tropical climate; and, in some respects, its
Fauna may be compared to that of Madagascar at the present
day, although, of course, the genera of the Mammals, and in
many cases even the families, were different. Indeed, of the
land Mammals inhabiting Oligocene and Eocene England,
only two groups can be referred to genera that still exist, one
of these being now relegated to the New World.
Lest the reader should begin to think that the whole of the
strata whose Fauna we have to consider in this part of our
subject belong to nearly the same geological period, we hasten
to point out the various groups into which they are divided,
preparatory to the consideration of their Fauna. The highest
of the Oligocene beds in Britain are those forming the steep
clay cliffs on the western side of the Isle of Wight, in the
neighbourhood of Yarmouth, and termed the Hempsted beds,
from a village of that name which is situated upon them.
These belong to the middle portion of the Oligocene period,
and have a Fauna similar to that of certain beds at Ronzon,
near Puy-en-Velay, in the Haute Loire. Next in descending
order are the Bembridge beds of the Hampshire basin, whose
Fauna corresponds with that of the gypsum beds on which
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 321
Paris stands, and which are consequently assigned to the
lower part of the Oligocene; the beds of Hordwell, in Hamp-
shire, and Headon, in the Isle of Wight, likewise belonging to
the same great division. The clays of Barton, in Hampshire,
which, like those next mentioned, unfortunately yield scarcely
any Mammalian remains, bring us to the upper portion of the
Eocene Period; while the older clays of Bracklesham, in
Sussex, are assigned to the middle division of the same epoch.
Better known than these is the London clay, forming the
upper portion of the Lower Eocene, and yielding several types
of Mammals ; beneath which are the unfossiliferous Woolwich
and Reading beds, resting on thé chalk. Before proceeding
to the consideration of the Fauna of these various beds, it may
be observed that Mammalian remains are for the most part
rare and fragmentary, and that for a full knowledge of the
extent of the Fauna of the period, and the structure of its com-
ponent items, we have to depend largely upon the discoveries
made on the Continent or in the United States, both of which
are more favoured than Britain in regard to the preservation
of early Tertiary Mammals. In our survey of the Fauna of all
these beds, it will be more convenient to treat of the animals
according to their zoological position, indicating the different
horizons in which they severally occur.
At the present day Lemurs are chiefly characteristic of
Madagascar, although likewise occurring in Africa, and also
represented in south-eastern Asia, but in the Oligocene Period
they were abundant in Europe. One of these early Lemurs
was described from the Hordwell beds as fdr back as the year
1844 under the name of Jficrocherus, but it is only recently
that its true affinities have been recognised. Not much larger
than a Squirrel, this creature approximated in the structure of
its skull to the African Lemurs known as Galagos, but differed
from all the existing members of the group in that the lower
5 Y
322 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY.
tusk was formed by the canine tooth and not by the first tooth
of the premolar series. Still more different from any living
Lemur was the Oligocene Adafis, first described from France,
and regarded as an Ungulate, but subsequently recognised
from the Hordwell beds. It differs from all modern Lemurs
in the presence of four pairs of pre-molar teeth in each jaw,
and one of the species attained a comparatively large size, its
skull measuring upwards of 4 inches in length.
In Madagascar, Lemurs are now accompanied by many
kinds of Insectivores, and it is, therefore, not surprising to find
a member of that order in the Hordwell beds. This animal
(Wecrogymnura), instead of being allied to the Malagasy Insec-
tivores, appears, however, to have been related to the Gymnura
of Borneo, which may be described as a long-tailed Hedge-
hog without spines, and therefore somewhat Rat-like in general
appearance. Civets likewise form an important element in the
modern Malagasy Fauna, and the Hordwell Lemurs were ac-
companied by a member of that group assigned to the existing
African and Oriental genus Viverra, which includes the true
Civets. With the exception of the Opossums, this Civet is
the only terrestrial Mammal from the earlier British Tertiaries
which can be referred to a still living genus. The other early
British Carnivores belong to an extinct group known as the
Creodonts, which disappeared with the close of the Oligocene
Period. They differ from modern Carnivores in that all their
molar teeth were furnished with sharp cutting blades, instead
of a single pair of check-teeth in each jaw being specially
modified for cutting with a scissor-like action. In their denti-
tion these primitive Carnivores approximate, indeed, both to
the Insectivores and the Marsupials, and they are undoubtedly
far more generalised types than the existing members of the
order to which they belong. While some were not larger than
a Fox, others fully equalled the dimensions of the largest
Bears. In Britain they are represented by one genus (Hyeno-
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 323
don) from the Hordwell beds, by a second (Pterodon) from the
Bembridge limestone, and a third (Avgi/lotherium) from the
London clay. The last is, however, only known by an imper-
fect skull without the teeth, and may prove to be identical with
one of the foreign genera.
Passing on to the Hoofed Order, one of the most interesting
of the Even-toed section is the Dichodon of the Hordwell and
Headon beds, as being the only early British Ungulate having
the upper molar teeth with the four crescentic columns char-
acterising the true Ruminants, to the ancestors of which group
it was probably more or less closely allied. Connecting these
early Ruminant-like forms with the ancestors of the Pigs is the
«Zyopotamus of the Hempsted beds, in which the upper molars
were of the same general type as those of the Anoplothere
(represented in Fig. A of our illustration, p. 324), although the
whole form of the creature was more Pig-like, the skull being
long and narrow, with large tusks, separated by an interval both
from the incisor teeth in front and the pre-molars behind. The
HHyopotamus was doubtless a four-toed animal like the Hippo-
potamus, but an apparently allied form from the Headon beds
takes its name of Dip/opus from the reduction of the toes to
two in each limb. In the allied Anthracotherium, of both the
Hempsted and Headon beds, the molars lose toa great extent
the crescentic structure of those of the Hyopotamus ; and in the
gigantic Z/otherium from Hempsted, and the smaller Chero-
potamus of the Bembridge series, we come to Ungulates, having
tubercular molars of the same general type as those of the
Pigs, although in the upper jaw they retain the five-columned
arrangement characterising the Hyopotamus, and have much
squarer crowns than those of the Pigs. There can, however,
be little doubt that in this group we are very close to the an-
cestral stock from which the modern Pigs and Ruminants have
alike originated.
On the other hand, the Anoplotheres (Anoplotherium), which
Y2
324 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY.
occur in the Lower Oligocene of the Isle of Wight, and the
upper molars of which are shown in figure A of the accom-
panying illustration, belong to what is called an inadaptive
type—that is, one which has died out without leaving descen-
dants. These long-tailed animals, some of which reached the
dimensions of an average-sized Mule, were remarkable for the
Upper cheek-teeth of (4) Anoplothere, (4) Paleothere. and (C) Cory-
phodon. A is from the right, while & and C are from the left side.
circumstance that the teeth formed a continuous series round..
the jaws, without any interruption by large tusks; and they’:
were further peculiar among the group to which they belong in
tnat in some cases there were three toes to each foot, althcugh
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. . 325
in others they conformed to the more normal type in having
but two. In these animals the pre-molar teeth (two of which
are shown on the right side of the figure) were only slightly
compressed, but the nearly allied small and delicately-built
Xiphodons take their name from the extreme compression and
secant form of the teeth in question, in which respect they
recall the modern Chevrotains, or Mouse-Deer. Whether the
Xiphodons are really British it is not clear, although a skull
from the Red Crag, evidently derived from an older structure,
has been assigned to them. The large size of the “ tear-pit,”
or lachrymal fossa in front of the eye, has suggested for another
member of this group, having teeth of the Anoplothere type,
the name of Dacrytherium, the English representative of the
genus having been originally described from the Hordwell and
Headon beds under the name of Dichobune.
This completes our list of the Even-toed Ungulates, and we
proceed to notice the few early Tertiary British representatives
of the Odd-toed group, or those in which the toe corresponding
.to the human middle finger is symmetrical in itself and larger
than either of the others. To this group belong the well-known
Palaotheres (Paleotherium), so abundant in the gypsum of the
Paris basin, and more sparingly represented in the Headon and
Bembridge beds of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The
structure of the cheek-teeth of a medium-sized representative
of this genus is exhibited in figure B of the illustration; and
in general form these animals somewhat resembled Tapirs, al-
though the neck was relatively longer, and there were but three
toes to each foot. It was long considered that the Paleotheres
were on the ancestral line of the Horse, but this view is now
discarded, and they are considered, like the Anoplotheres, to
represent an inadaptive type. A much smaller animal, de-
scribed as Anchilophus, of which teeth have been found in the
Bembridge limestone, is, however, either very close to, or ac-
326 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY.
tually on the ancestral line in question. Its upper molar teeth
are not very unlike those of the Palzotheres, but have the
oblique cross-crests narrower, less inclined, and separated by a
more open valley. Although very common in the Middle and
Lower Eocene beds of the Continent, the large genus of Odd-
toed Ungulates known as Zofhiodvn are represented in Britain
only by a single species from the Bracklesham beds. While
their teeth are of the same general type as those of the Palz-
otheres and Azchilophus, the upper molars differ in having the
outer wall formed by sub-conical columns instead of flattened
lobes, thereby resembling the corresponding teeth of the modern
Tapirs. Although most, if not all of these Lophiodons died out
without giving origin to any posterity, the case is very different
with the nearly allied little Ayracotherium, originally described
upon the evidence of an imperfect skull from the London clay
at Herne Bay, since this genus is one of the earliest to which
the ancestry of the Horse can be traced. Thanks to the per-
fect preservation of specimens discovered in the United States,
where they were long known under a totally different name, we
now know that the Hyracothere was a small four-toed animal,
intimately connected with a still earlier five-toed type, while
superiorly it leads on to the Anchilophus and certain allied
Miocene continental forms, and thus to the modern Horse.
The Hyracothere received its name from an idea that it was re-
lated to the existing Hyrax; and it isa curious comment on the
early history of palzontology to notice that the lower teeth of
a second species obtained from the Lower Eocene sand of
Kyson, in Suffolk, were at first supposed to pertain to a
Monkey.
If the paleontological riches of the United States have
helped in the elucidation of the true affinities of the Hyraco-
there, still more markedly is this the case with regard to the
much larger Ungulate originally described on the evidence of
THE ANCIENT MAMMALS OF BRITAIN. 327
detached teeth from the London clay under the name of Cory-
phodon, in allusion to the strongly marked oblique crest sur-
mounting their crowns. From nearly complete skeletons dis-
covered in America, we know that the Coryphodons, which
were animals with somewhat the proportions of a Bear, although
furnished with a well-developed tail, differed from both the Odd-
toed and Even-toed Ungulates in having five toes to each of the
very short and wide feet, and likewise in the structure of the
feet themselves. The molar teeth, too, as shown in figure C of the
illustration (p. 324), are likewise quite different from those of any
living member of the Order, and are remarkable for the extreme
shortness of their crowns. The nearest allies of these animals
were the Uintatheres of North America, distinguished by the
presence of a large pair of tusks in the upper jaw, and the
two groups collectively constitute the order of Short-footed
Ungulates.
One remarkable palate of a skull from the London clay
of Herne Bay, preserved in the museum at York, and described
under the name of Platycherops, has given rise to some amount
of discussion as to its serial position. It has been suggested,
however, that it belongs to a peculiar group of Mammals from
the North American Eocene, which combine many of the
characteristics of the Ungulates, Carnivores, and Rodents. Of
the latter order there are but small traces in the lower British
Tertiaries; but some lower jaws from the Hordwell and Headon
beds have been referred to the genus Zervidomy's, which is of
common occurrence in the corresponding continental strata,
and indicates an extinct Family of the Order Whales are like-
wise rare, but from the Barton beds there has been obtained a
skull belonging to the peculiar group of Zeuglodonts, which are
not improbably the ancestral types whence the modern toothed
Whales have been evolved. Unlike all existing members of
the Order, these extinct Cetaceans had double-fanged molar
328 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY,
teeth, whose compressed crowns had the edges surmounted by
well-marked serrations; and, what is more remarkable, their
bodies appear to have been invested with a bony armour com-
parable to that of Crocodiles.
The last of the Tertiary Mammals that we have to notice are
Opossums (Didelphys), remains of which have been detected
both in the Hordwell beds and in the Lower Eocene sand of
Kyson. It is almost superfluous to add that Opossums, which
in Oligocene and Eocene times were widely spread over
Europe, are now confined to America, where they attain their
greatest development in that half of the continent lying to the
south of the isthmus of Darien. The relegation of the origin-
ally European genus to the New World is somewhat analagous
to the banishment of the nearest living allies of the British
Jurassic Mammals to Australia, and is a weil-marked instance
of that gradual disappearance of the lower types of Mammalian
life from the western regions of the Old World, with the
development of higher forms, which seems to have been such a
characteristic feature in the evolution of the present Faunas
of the globe.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
abietum, Martes. 106.
acutus, Delphinus. 294.
Lagenorhynchus. 294
Adapis. 322.
fElurus anglicus, 314.
fulgens. 314.
affinis, Balzeena, 318.
Cervus. 242.
africanus, Vespertilio. 49.
agrestis, Arvicola, 202.
Microtus, 5, 202,
Mus. 202,
albicans, Balena. 284.
albirostris, Lagenorhynchus. 293.
albus, Lepus. 225,
Alces latifrons. 309.
machlis. 3.
alexandrinus, Mus. 191, 192.
alopex, Canis. 98.
Vulpes, 99.
altivolans, Vespertilio, 31,
amphibia, Arvicola. 216.
amphibius, Arvicola. 216,
Microtus. 5, 216.
Mus. 216,
Amphisorex linneanus. 81.
pennanti, 81.
Anchilophus. 325, 326.
andamanensis, Mus. 192.
anglicus, AZlurus. 314.
amnullata, Phoca, 154.
Anoplothere. 324.
Anoplotherium. 323.
Antelope, Saiga. 300, 305.
antiquitatis, Rhinoceros. 304.
antiquorum, Balena. 267.
Balenoptera. 267.
-Physalus. 267.
antiquus, Elephas. 307.
aquatica, Arvicola, 216,
araneus, Sorex. 75, 76.
Arctic Fox. 300, 302.
Arctic Narwhal. 312.
arcticus, Lepus, 225.
arcticus, Rosmarus, 161,
arctos, Ursus. I4I.
arctus, Ursus. 5, 141.
Argillotherium. 323.
arvalis, Microtus. 3, 203, 311.
Arvicola, 202.
agrestis. 202,
amphik.a, 216,
amphibius, 216.
aquatica, 216.
ater. 216,
glareolus, 213.
pratensis. 213.
riparia. 213.
ater, Arvicola, 216.
auritus, Plecotus. 4, 22.
Vespertilio, 22.
Aurochs, 235, 305.
australis, Balaena. 260, 312.
avellanarius, Mus. 176.
Muscardinus, 5, 176.
Myoxus. 176.
Badger. 5, 125.
Common. 126.
Balena. 260.
albicans, 284.
affinis, 318.
antiquorum. 267.
australis. 260, 312.
balznopsis. 318.
biscayensis. 260.
330 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Balena albicans. 284.
longimana. 262,
musculus. 266.
physalus. 266, 267.
primigenia, 318.
rostrata. 271, 276.
Balenide. 259.
baleenopsis, Balzena. 318.
Balsenoptera. 264, 312, 318.
borealis, 268.
laticeps. 268.
musculus. 266, 267,
physalus. 267.
rorqual. 267.
rostrata, 271.
sibbaldi. 264, 265.
Bank-Vole. 5, 213, 311.
barbarus, Cervus. 240.
Barbastelle Bat. 4, 26.
Barbastellus communis. 26.
daubentonii. 26.
barbastellus, Synotus. 4, 26.
Vespertilio. 26.
barbata, Phoca. 309.
Bat, Barbastelle. 4, 26.
Bechstein’s, 4, 48.
Common. 36.
Daubenton’s. 4, 43-
Great. 31.
Greater Horse-shoe, 4, 18.
Hairy-armed. 4, 35.
Lesser Horse-shoe. 4, 20,
Long-eared. 4, 22.
Mouse-coloured. 49,
Noctule. 4.
Particoloured. 30.
Pipistrelle. 4.
Reddish-grey. 4, 45-
Rough-legged. 42.
Serotine. 4.
Whiskered. 5, 51.
Bats, Leaf-nosed. 16.
Typical. 21.
Beaked Whales. 279.
Bear, Brown. 5, 141.
Cat. 314.
Cave. 302.
Grizzly. 302.
Bearded Seal. 309.
Bears, True. 141.
Beaver. 5, 311.
European. 172
Giant. 311.
Bechstein’s Bat. 4, 48.
bechsteini, Vespertilio. 4, 48.
Beluga catodon. 284.
leucas, 248.
bicolor, Sorex. 81.
bidens, Mesoplodon. 279, 280.
Physeter. 279.
bidentatus, Delphinus. 276.
biscayensis, Balzena. 260.
Bison. 305, 309.
Black Fish. 289.
Black Rat. 5, 191.
blythii, Vespertilio. 49.
Boar, Wild. 6, 255.
boops, Balena. 262.
Miegaptera. 262.
borealis, Balzenoptera. 268.
Cystophora. 159.
Lepus. 225.
Bos. 235.
bison. 305.
longifrons. 235.
primigenius. 235.
scoticus. 235.
taurus. 5, 235, 305.
Bottle-nose, Common. 276.
Bottle-nosed Dolphin. 296, 297,
©
312.
Whales. 276.
Bovide. 231.
brevimanus, Plecotus. 22.
Brick-Earth Period. 298.
britannicus, Macleayius. 260.
Brown Bear. 5, I4I.
Rat. 5, 195.
browni, Cervus. 306.
Brown’s Fallow Deer. 306.
butzkopf, Delphinus. 276.
Hypersdodon. 277.
caffra, Felis. 94.
Caffre Cat. :
Callocephalus discolor. 154.
groenlandicus. 156.
vitulinus. 148.
canadensis, Cervus. 242.
canescens, Lepus. 225.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 33!
Canide. 94.
Canis. 95.
alopex. 98.
lagopus. 302.
lupus. 5, 95.
vulpes. 5, 98.
Cape Hunting-dog. 302,
capriea, Capreolus. 249.
caprea, Capreolus. 6, 249, 307.
capreolus, Capreolus. v.
Capreolus. v.
capreea. 249.
caprea. 6, 249, 307.
capreolus. v.
Carnivora. 84.
Pinnipedia. 143.
cashmiriensis, Cervus. 242,
Castoride. 172.
Castor. 172,
europzus. 172.
canadensis. 173.
fiber. 5, 172.
fossilis. 172.
Cat, Caffre. 94.
Domestic, 94.
Egyptian. 94
True. 86, 87.
Wild. 5, 88.
Cat-Bear, 314.
catodon, Beluga. 284.
Catodon macrocephalus. 274,
Cattle, Park, 235.
Wild. 5.
catus, Felis. 5, 88.
Cave-Bear. 302.
Cave-Hyzena, 301.
Cavern Period, 298.
cavirostris, Ziphius. 282,
Cervidee. 238.
Cervus, 239.
affinis. 242,
barbarus, 240.
browni. 306. '
canadensis. 242.
cashmiriensis, 242,
dama. 5, 246.
elaphus. 5, 240, 306,
eustephanus, 242.
falconeri. 315.
giganteus. 306.
Cervus, maral. 242.
savini. 310.
sedgwicki. 310.
tarandus, 253.
thoroldi, 242.
verticornis.. 316.
xanthopygus, 242.-
Cetacea. 257.
Cetotherium. 318.
Chiroptera. 13.
Choneziphius. 318.
ciliatus, Sorex, 81.
Common Badger. 126.
Bat, 36.
Bottle-nose, 276.
Dolphin. 296, 312.
Dormouse, 176.
Field-Vole. 5, 202.
Hare. 5, 221.
Hedge-hog. 56.
Killer. 287.
Mole. 64.
Mouse. 5, 188.
Otter. 135.
Roe. 249.
Rorqual. 266.
Seal. 148.
Shrew. 5, 75.
Squirrel. 167.
communis, Barbastellus. 26.
Phoceena. 286.
Continental Field-Vole. 3, 311.
Coryphodon. 327.
Crag Mastodons. 317.
crassidens, Pseudorca, 312.
Cricetus. 202.
cristata, Cystophora. 159.
Phoca. 159.
cristatus, Stemmatopus. 159.
crocuta, Iyzena. 301.
Crossopus. 80.
fodiens. 5, 80, 81.
remifer. 81.
cultridens, Machserodus. 309.
cuniculus, Lepus. 5, 229.
Cuniculus torquatus. 3.
cuvieri, Grampus. 291.
Trogontherium. 311.
Cuvierius latirostris. 265.
Cuvierius sibbaldi. 265.
332 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Cuvier’s Whale. 282.
Cyncelurus. 87.
Cystophora borealis. 159.
cristata. 159.
Dacrytherium. 325.
dama, Cervus. 5, 246.
Dama vulgaris. 246.
darjilingensis, Synotus. 26.
dasycneme, Vespertilio, 6, 42.
daubentonii, Barbastellus. 26.
Sorex. 80.
daubentoni, Vespertilio. 4, 43.
Daubenton’s Bat. 4, 43.
decumanus, Mus. 5, 195.
Deer. 238, 239.
Falconer’s. 315.
Fallow. 5, 246, 306.
Trish. 306.
Red. 5, 240, 306.
Roe. 6, 249, 307.
Savin’s. 310.
Delphinapterus 284.
beluga. 284.
leucas. 284, 312.
Delphinus. 295, 319.
acutus. 294.
bidentatus. 276.
butzkopf. 276.
delphis. 296.
diodon. 277.
eschrichtii. 294.
gladiator. 287.
globiceps. 289.
griseus. 261.
leucas. 284.
leucopleurus. 294.
melas. 289.
orca. 287.
phocena. 286.
rissoanus. 291.
sowerbiensis. 279.
sowerbyi. 279.
truncatus. 297.
tursio. 297.
delphis, Delphinus. 296.
Desmans. 62.
Desman, Russian. 3, 312.
Dichobune. 325.
Didelphys. 328.
diodon, Delphinus, 277.
‘Diodon sowerbii. 279.
discolor, Callocephalus. 154.
Scotophilus. 30.
Vespertilio. 30.
Vesperugo. 6, 30.
Dogs. 94.
Dolphins. 282, 319.
Bottle-nosed. 296, 297, 312.
Common. 296, 312.
Shark-toothed. 319.
Short-beaked. 292.
Typical. 295.
White-beaked, 293.
White-sided. 294.
Domestic Cats. 94.
Dormouse, 5.
Common, 176.
Egyptian Cat. 94. *
elaphus, Cervus. 5, 240, 306.
Elephant, Straight-tusked. 307, 311
Elephas antiquus. 307,
meridionalis. 311.
primigenius, 307.
Elk. 309,
emarginatus, Vespertilio. 43, 44.
Equus stenonis, 319.
Erinaceide. 55, 62.
Erinaceus. 55.
europeus. 5, 56,
Ermine. 116,
erminea, Feetorius. 116.
Mustela. 5, 115.
ermineus, Putorius. 115.
erymanthius, Sus. 316
eschrichtii, Delphinus. 294.
etriscus, Rhinoceros. 310.
europea, Talpa. 5, 64.
European Beaver. 172.
europzeus, Castor. 172,
Erinaceus. 5, 56.
Lepus. 5, 221.
eustephanis, Cervus. 242.
Evotomys glareola, 213.
feelidus, Pagomys. 154.
falconeri, Cervus. 315.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Falconer’s Deer. 315.
Fallow Deer, Brown’s. 306.
Fallow Deer. 5, 246, 306.
False Killer. 312.
Felidz. 86.
Felis. 87.
Felis caffra. 94.
catus. 5, 88.
pardus. 301.
lynx, 301.
ferox, Sus. 255.
ferrum-equinum, Rhinolophus. 4,
18.
Vespertilio. 18.
fiber, Castor. 5, 172,
Field-Vole, Common.
Continental. 3, 311.
Finners. 264, 318.
Fin-Whale. 312.
flavescens, Vulpes. 99.
flavicollis, Mus. 5, 188.
fodiens, Crossopus. 5, 80, 81.
Sorex. 80.
foetida, Phoca. 154.
foetidus, Putorius. 111.
foina, Mustela. 106,
Feetorius erminea. 116,
putorius. 111.
vulgaris, 122.
fossilis, Castor. 172.
Foxes. 5, 94, 98.
Fox, Arctic. 300, 302.
fulgens, ASlurus. 314.
Giant Beaver. 311,
Panda. 314.
giganteus, Cervus. 306.
glacialis, Lepus. 225,
gladiator, Delphiaus.
Orca. 287, 312.
glareola, Arvicola. 213.
Evotomys. 213.
glareolus, Arvicola. 213.
Evotomys. 213.
Microtus, 52, 213, 311.
Mus, 213.
glis, Myoxus. 177.
Globicephala melas. 289,
Globicephalus. 289, 319.
5, 202,
287.
333
Globicephalus melas. 289.
swineval. 289.
globiceps, Delphinus. 289.
Glutton. 3, 300, 303.
Grampus. 287, 290, 312.
cuvieri, 291,
griseus. 291.
richardsoni. 291.
rissoanus. 291,
Risso’s. 291
Great Bat. 31.
Greater Horse-shoe Bat. 4, 18.
gregalis, Microtus, 308, 311.
gregarius, Mus, 202.
Grey Seal. 145.
griseus, Delphinus. 291.
Grampus. 291.
Halicherus, 145,
Grizzly Bear. 302.
groenlandica, Phoca. 156,
groenlandicus, Callocephalus. 156.
Pagophilus, 156. -
grypus, Halichzerus.
Phoca. 145.
Gulo luscus,
145, 148,
3» 303.
TMairy-armed Bat. 4, 35.
Halicherus. 144,
griseus. 145.
grypus. 145, 148.
Hare, Common, 5, 221.
Mountain, 5, 225,
Harp Seal. 156,
Harvest-Mouse.
Hedge-hogs, 55,
Common. 56.
Herpetocetus. 318.
Heterodon sowerbiensis.
sowerbyi. 279.
hibernicus, Lepus,
Mus. 195.
Hipparion, 316.
hipposiderus, Rhinolophus,
hispida, Phoca. 154.
Hooded Seal. 159.
Hoont. 74.
horribilis, Ursus. 142, 302.
Horse-shoe Bat, Greater. 4, 18.
Tlorse-shoe Bat, Lesser. 4, 20.
5, 182,
279.
225,
4; 20,
334 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Horse, Steno’s. 310.
Hump-backed Whale. 262.
Hump-backs. 318.
Hunting-dog, Cape. 302.
Hunting Leopard. 87.
huxleyi, Trichechus. 315.
Hyeena, Cave. 301.
Spotted. 302.
Striped. 301, 302, 314.
Hyzena crocuta. 301.
striata. 314.
Hysenarctus. 315.
Hyzenodon. 322.
Hyperéodon. 276.
butzkopf. 277.
latifrons. 277.
rostratum. 277.
rostratus. 276, 277, 318.
Hyracotherium. 326.
incisivus, Rhinoceros. 316.
indica, Lutra, 135.
Insectivora. 53.
Insectivores. 53.
Irish Deer. 306.
Killer. 312.
Common. 207.
False. 312.
Lagenorhynchus. 292.
acutus. 294.
albirostris. 293.
Lagomys. 300.
pusillus. 308.
lagopus, Canis. 302,
laticeps, Balznoptera. 268.
latidens, Machcerodus. 301.
latifrons, Alces, 309.
Hyperéodon. 277.
latirostris, Cuvierius. 265.
Physalus. 265.
Leaf-nosed Bats. 16,
leisleri, Scotophilus. 35.
leisleri, Vesperugo. 4, 35-
Lemming. 3.
Leopard, Hunting. 87.
Leporide. 219,
Leptorhine Rhinoceros, 304.
leptorhinus, Rhinoceros. 304.
Lepus. 220,
albus. 225.
arcticus, 225.
borealis, 225.
canescens, 225.
euniculus. 5, 229.
europeus. 5, 221.
glacialis, 225.
hibernicus. 225,
timidus, 5, 221, 225.
variabilis, 225.
Lesser Horse-shoe Bat. 4, 20.
Rorqual. 271.
Shrew. 5, 79.
leucas, Beluga. 284.
Delphinapterus. 284, 312.
Delphinus. 284,
leucopleurus, Delphinus. 294.
limnophilus, Vespertilio. 42.
linneanus, Amphisorex. 81.
Long-eared Bat. 4, 22.
longifrons, Bos, 235.
longimana, Balzna. 262,
Megaptera, 262,
Lophiodon. 326.
lupus, Canis. 5, 95.
luscus, Gulo. 3, 303.
Lutra. 134.
indica. 135.
lutra. v.
nair. 135.
vulgaris. 5, 135.
lutra, Lutra, v.
Mustela. 135.
Lycaon pictus. 302.
Lynx. 301.
lynx, Felis. 301.
Macheerodus cultridens. 309.
machlis, Alces, 3.
Macleayius britannicus, 260.
macrocephalus, Catodon. 274
Physeter, 274,
magnus, Vespertilio. 31,
Mammals, A~cient. 298.
Mammoth, 307.
maral, Cervus. 242,
Marten. 104, 105.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Marten, Pine. 5, 106.
Martes abietum. 106.
sylvatica, 106.
martes, Mustela. 5, 106,
Mastodons, Crag. 317.
Megaptera. 262.
boops. 262.
longimana. 262.
Megarhine Rhinoceros. 304.
megarhinus, Rhinoceros. 304.
meias, Delphinus. 289.
Globicephala. 289.
Globicephalus. 259.
Phoceena. 289.
Meles. 125.
meles. v.
taxus. 5, 126.
vulgaris. 126.
meles, Meles. v.
Ursus. 126.
meridionalis, Elephas. 311.
Mesoplodon. 279, 318.
bidens. 279, 280.
sowerbiensis. 280.
messorius, Mus. 182,
Microcherus. 321.
Microtus. 201, 300.
agrestis. §, 202.
amphibius. 5, 216.
arvalis. 3, 302, 311.
glareolus. 5, 213, 311.
gregalis.. 308, 311.
ratticeps, 308.
minor, Rorqualus. 271.
minutus, Mus, 5, 182.
Sorex. 79.
minus, Trogontherium. 317.
Mole, 5, 66.
Common, 64.
monoceros, Monodon. 283, 312.
Monodon. 283.
monoceros. 283, 312.
montanus, Vulpes. 98.
moschata, Myogale. 3, 312.
moschatus, Ovibos. 3, 305.
Mouldiwarp. 74.
Mountain Hare. 5, 225.
Mouse, Common, 188.
Harvest. 5, 182.
Mouse, Wood. 5, 49, 184, 311.
Yellow-necked., 5, 188.
Muride. 180.
murinus, Vespertilio. 6, 38, 48, 49.
Mus. 181.
agrestis, 202.
alexandrinus. I91, 192.
amphibius. 216.
andamanensis. 192,
avellanarius. 176.
decumanus. §, 195.
flavicollis. 5, 188.
glareolus. 213.
gregarius. 202.
hibernicus. 195.
messorius. 182.
minutus. 5, 182.
musculus. 5, 188.
nilidus, 191, 192.
rattus. 5, 191.
rufescens. IQI, 192.
sylvaticus. 5, 184, 311.
Muscardinus. 176.
avellanarius. 176.
muscardinus, Myoxus. 176,
musculus, Balzna. 266.
Balenoptera. 267.
Mus. 5, 188.
Musk-Ox. 3, 300, 305, 309.
Mustela, 105, 106.
erminea. 5, 116.
foina. 106,
lutra. 135.
martes, 5, 106.
putorius. 5, 111.
vulgaris, 5, 122.
zibellina, 107.
Mustelidee. 86, 104, 105, 135,
140.
Myogale moschata. 3, 312.
myotis, Vespertilio. 49.
Myoxide. 175.
Myoxus avellanarius. 176.
glis. 177.
muscardinus. 176.
mystacinus, Vespertilio, 5, 51.
nair, Lutra. 135.
Narwhal, 283.
335
336 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Narwhal, Arctic, 312.
Narwhalus vulgaris, 283.
nattereri, Vespertilio. 4, 45.
Necrogymnura, 322.
nitidens, Mus, 191, 192.
noctula, Scotophilus, 31.
Vespertilio. 31.
Vesperugo. 4, 31, 35.
Noctule. 31.
Bat. 4,
Northern Vole, 308.
Nycteridz, 21.
cedilis, Vespertilio. 43.
Odobzenus rosmarus. 161.
Opossums, 328,
Orca. 287, 289.
gladiator. 287, 312.
latirostris, 287.
orca, v.
stenorhyncha, 287.
orca, Orca. v.
Phocena. 287.
Otter, 5, 104, 134.
Common. 135
Ovibos moschatus. 3, 305.
Ovis savini. 309.
Ox, Musk. 3, 300, 305, 309.
Oxen. 235.
Pagomys foetidus, 154.
Pagophilus greenlandicus, 156,
Paleothere. 324.
palceocheerus, Sus, 316.
Panda, Giant. 314.
pardus, Felis. 301.
Park Cattle. 235.
Particoloured Bat. 30.
pennanti, Amphisorex. 81,
Phoca. 148.
annulata. 154.
barbata, 309.
foetida. 154.
greenlandica. 156,
gtypus. 145.
hispida. 154.
variegata. 148.
vitulina. 148.
Phoceena. 285.
communis. 286.
Phoccena melas. 289,
orca. 287.
phocena. v.
phoczena, Phoczena. v.
Phocide. 142, 144,
Physalus antiquorum. 267.
physalus, Baleena. 266, 267.
Balenoptera, 267.
Physalus latirostris, 265.
sibbaldi. 264.
Physeter. 273.
bidens, 279.
macrocephalus, 274,
Physeteridze. 273.
Picas. 300.
Siberian. 308.
South Russian. 308.
pictus, Lycaon. 302.
Pilot-Whale. 289, 290, 291.
Pine-Marten. 5, 106.
Pinnipedia, Carnivora, 143.
Pipistrelle. 36.
Bat. 4.
pipistrellus, Scotophilus. 37.
Vesperugo, 4, 36.
Platychzerops. 327.
Plecotus, 22, 26.
auritys. 4, 22,
brevimanus. 22.
Polecat. 5, 105, 106, III, 175.
Porpoise. 282, 285.
Common. 286.
pratensis, Arvicola, 213.
primigenia, Balena. 318,
primigenius, Bos. 235.
Elephas. 307.
Pseudorca crassidens. 312.
Pterodon. 323.
pusillus, Lagomys, 308.
Putorius ermineus. 116.
foetidus. 111.
putorius, Foetorius. 111.
Mustela. 5, III.
vulgaris. 111, 122,
pygmzeus, Sorex. 5, 79.
Vespertilio. 37.
Rabbit. 5, 229.
Rangifer. 252, 253,
tarandus. 31, 253, 307.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 3
Rat, Black. 5, 191.
Brown. 5, 195.
ratticeps, Microtus. 308.
rattus, Mus. 5, 191.
Red Deer. 5, 240, 306.
Reddish-grey Bat. 4, 45.
Reindeer. 3, 252, 253, 300, 307.
remifer, Crossopus. 81.
Sorex. 80.
Rhinoceros antiquitatis, 304.
etruscus. 310.
incisivus. 316.
leptorhinus. 304.
megarhinus- 304.
_ schleiermacheri. 316,
Rhinoceros, Etruscan. 319.
Woolly. 304.
Rhinolophidz. 16, 21.
Rhinolophus. 17.
ferrum-equinum. 4, 18,
hipposiderus. 4, 20.
richardsoni, Grampus.
Right Whales. 260, 313.
Ringed Seal. 154.
riparia, Arvicola, 213.
rissoanus, Delphinus.
Grampus. 291.
Risso’s Grampus.
Rodentia. 164.
Roe-Deer. 6, 249, 307.
Rorquals. 264.
rorqual, Balznoptera. 267.
Rorqual, Common. 266.
Lesser. 271.
Rudolphi’s. 268.
Sibbald’s. 284.
Rorqualus minor.
sibbaldi. 264.
Rosmarus arcticus.
rosmarus, Odobsenus,
Trichechus. 161.
rostrata, Balena. 271, 276.
Balenoptera. 271.
rostratum, Hyperdodon.
ers Hyperdodon.
291.
291,
2Q1.-
271,
161.
161.
277.
276, 277,
Route legged Bat. 42.
Rudolphi’s Rorqual. 268.
rufescens, Mus. 191, 192.
Russian Desman. 3, 312.
5
rusticus, Sorex. 79.
Sabre-toothed Tiger. 309.
Saiga Antelope. 300, 305.
Saiga tartarica, 305.
savini, Cervus, 310.
Ovis. 309.
Savin’s Deer. 310.
schleiermacheri, Rhinoceros. 3
Sciuride. 166,
Sciurus vulgaris, 5, 167.
scoticus, Bos, 235.
Urus. 235.
Scotophilus discolor,
leisleri, 35,
noctula. 31,
pipistrellus. 37.
serotinus. 28.
scrofa, Sus. 6, 255.
Seal, Bearded. 309,
Common. 148.
Grey. 145.
Harp. 156.
Hooded. 159.
Ringed, 154.
Seals, True. 142.
sedgwicki, Cervus,
Serotine. 28,
Bat. 4.
serotinus, Scotophilus.
Vespertilio. 28.
Vesperugo. 4, 28.
Shark-toothed Dolphins.
Sheep. 309.
Short-beaked Dolphins.
Shrew. 74
Common. 5, 75.
Lesser.
30.
310.
28.
319.
292.
sibbaldi, Balenoptera.
Cuvierius, 265.
Physeter. 264.
Rorqualus. 264.
Sibbald’s Rorqual. 264.
Siberian Picas, 308.
Siberian Vole. 308, 311.
siligorensis, Vespertilio. 51.
Sorex. 75.
araneus, 75, 70.
37
264, 265.
338 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
Sorex bicolor. 81.
ciliatus. 81,
daubentonii. 80,
fodiens. 8».
minutus. 79.
pygmaeus. 5, 79.
remifer. 80,
rusticus. 79.
telragonurus. 75.
vulgaris. 5, 75.
Soricide. 74.
Southern Right Whale. 260,
South Russian Picas, 308.
scwerbre, Diodon. 279.
sowerbi, Diodon. 279.
sowerbiensis, Delphinus. 279.
Heterodon. 279.
Mesoplodon. 280,
Ziphius. 280
sowerbyi, Delphinus, 279.
Heterodon, 279.
Sowerby’s Whale. 279,
spelzeus, Strongyloceros, 240.
Ursus, 302,
Spermophilus. 300, 308.
Sperm-Whales, 273, 274, 312.
Spotted Hyena. 302.
Squirrel. 5, 311.
Common. 167.
Stemmatopus cristatus. 159.
stenonis, Equus. 310.
Steno’s Ilorse. 310.
Stoat. 5, 106, 116.
Straight-tusked Elephant. 307, 311.
striata, Hycena. 312.
Striped Hyena. 301, 302, 312.
Strongyloceros spelzeus. 240.
Suid, 254.
Sus, 258.
erymanthius, 316.
ferox. 255.
paleocherus. 316.
scrofa. 6, 255.
Suslik. 3, 300, 308.
swineval, Globicephalus. 289.
sylvatica, Martes. 106.
sylvaticus, Mus. 5, 184, 311.
Synotus. 25.
barbastellus. 4, 26.
Synotus darjilingensis. 26.
Talpa. 63.
europzea. 5, 64.
vulgaris, 64.
Talpide. 62.
tarandus, Cervus. 253.
Rangifer. 3, 254, 307.
tartarica, Saiga. 305.
taurus, Bos. 5, 235, 305.
taxus, Meles. 5, 126,
tetragonurus, Sorex. 75.
Theridomys. 327.
Tiger, Sabre-toothed. 309.
timidus, Lepus. 5, 221, 225.
Toothed Whales, 273.
torquatus, Cuniculus. 3.
Trichechide. 160.
Trichechus. 161.
huxleyi, 315.
rosmarus. I6I%. P
Trogontherium cuvieri. 311.
minus, 317.
True Bears. 141.
Cats. 87.
Moles. 63.
Seals. 142,
Shrews, 75.
truncatus, Delphinus. 297.
Tursio. 297.
Tursio truncatus. 297.
tursio, Delphinus. 297.
Tursiops. 297.
Tursiops. 296, 319.
tursio. 297.
Typical Bats. 21.
Dolphins. 295.
Ungulata. 233.
Ursidxe. 140.
Ursus. 141.
arctos. I4I.
arctus. 5, I4I.
horribilis. 142, 302.
meles. 126.
spelzeus. 302,
Urus scoticus. 235.
variabilis, Lepus. 225.
variegata, Phoca, 148.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 339
verticornis, Cervus, 316.
Vespertilio, 41.
africanus, 49.
altivolans. 31.
auritus. 22.
barbastellus. 26.
bechsteini. 4, 48.
blythii. 49.
dasycneme.
daubentoni.
discolor, 30.
emarginatus, 43, 44.
ferrum-equinum. 138.
leisleri. 35.
limnophilus. 42.
magnus, 31.
murinus. 6, 38, 48, 49.
myotis, 49.
mystacinus, 5, 51.
4) 45.
6, 42.
4, 43-
nattereri.
noctula. 31,
cedilis. 43.
pygmeus. 37.
serotinus. 28. .
siligorensis. 51,
Vespertilionide, 16, 21.
Vesperugo. 27, 41.
discolor. 6, 30.
leisleri. 4, 35.
noctula. 4, 31, 35-
pipistrellus. 4, 36.
serotinus. 4, 28.
vitulina, Phoca. 148.
vitulinus, Callocephalus,
Voles. 201, 300.
Bank. 5, 213, 311.
Common Field. 202.
Northern. 308.
Siberian. 308, 311.
Water. 5.
vulgaris, Dama. 246.
Foetorius, 122.
Lutra. 5, 135.
Meles. 126.
Mustela. 5, 122.
Narwhalus. 283.
Putorius, 111, 122.
Sciurus. 5, 167.
Sorex. 5, 75.
148,
vulgaris, Talpa. 64.
Vulpes. 99.
Vulpes alopex. 99.
flavescens. 99.
montanus. 98
vulgaris. 99.
vulpes, Canis. 5, 98,
Walrus. 161, 315.
Wand. 74.
Want. 74.
Water-Shrew. 5, 80.
Water-Vole. 5, 216.
Weasels. 5, 104, 105, 122.
Whale-bone Whales. 259.
Whale, Beaked. 279.
Bottle-nosed. 276.
Cuvier’s. 282.
Fin. 312.
Hump-backed. 262.
Pilot. 289, 290, 291.
Right. 260, 312.
Sperm. 273, 274, 332.
Southern Right. 260.
Toothed. 273.
Whale-bone. 259.
White. 284, 312.
Whiskered Bat. 5, 51.
White-Beaked Dolphin. 293
White-Sided Dolphin. 294.
White Whale. 284, 312.
Wild Boar. 6, 255.
Cat. 5, 88.
Cattle. 5.
Ox. 305.
Wolf. 5, 95.
Wolves. 94.
Wood-Mouse. 5, 184, 311.
Woolly Rhinoceros. 304.
Woont. 74.
xanthopygus, Cervus. 242.
Yellow-necked Mouse. 5, 183
zibellina, Mustela. 107.
Ziphius. 282.
cavirostris, 282.
sowerbiensis. 280.
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