Full text of "Historic styles in furniture"

See other formats

11 iiJiliiPli

iSli 11

CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

FINE ARTS LIBRARY

3 1924 063 909 075

1^2

Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924063909075

Historic Styles

Furniture

COLONIAL FURNITURE
THE WEST PARLOR— MOUNT VERNON

HISTORIC STYLES

FURNITURE

VIRGINIA ROBIE

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

Cfte JRilierjJitie ptE?j CamStibge

1916

PUBLISHERS' NOTE

This account of "Historic Styles in Furniture" was
originally issued ten years ago by the publishers of The
House Beautiful magazine, mainly for special sale in con-
nection with their publication. It received Uttle exploi-
tation in the general market, and its merits did not,
therefore, become widely known. The present publishers
have believed that there is a distinct place for this vol-
ume, containing, as it does, a bird's-eye view of the
development of styles in furniture through ten centu-
ries, and giving the backgrounds and settings an equal
importance with the furniture itself.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I Furniture of the Middle Ages j

II Furniture of the Fourteenth Century 15

III Furniture of the Fifteenth Century 25

IV Furniture of the Italian Renaissance 35

V Furniture of the French Renaissance 55

VI Furniture Making in Germany and The Low Countries 71

• VII Furniture of the Spanish Renaissance 81

■"VIII English Furniture of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 85

IX Louis XIV Furniture 99

X Louis XV Furniture in

XI Louis XVI Furniture 123

• XII English Furniture of the Eighteenth Century 133

XIII Furniture of the French Empire 157

.XIV Colonial Furniture 161;

ILLUSTEATIONS

PAGE

An Early Example of Gothic Furniture , 5

Folding Chair, Late Middle Ages 7

St. Peter's Chair 9

English Coronation Chair 11

Bedchamber, Castle Meran 17

French Chest, Late Fourteenth Century 18

German Chest, Late Fourteenth Century 19

Tyrolean Table, Late Fourteenth Century 20

Tyrolean Cupboard, Late Fourteenth Century 21

Monastery Chair 26

Hall, Late Middle Ages 27

French Gothic Panel 28

Flemish Cupboard 29

Anteroom, Castle Meran 31

Sixteenth-century Chest of Drawers, Lucca 36

Sixteenth-century Cabinet, Lucca 37

Anteroom Chair of Walnut 38

Gothic Chair, with Renaissance Details 39

Bedchamber in the Vincigliata, Fiesole 40

State Dining-room in the Vincigliata, Fiesole 41

Renaissance Beamed Ceiling, Residence of Frederic C. Bartlett, Chicago 43

Renaissance Coffered Ceiling, Residence of the late William C. Whitney, New York City 45

Renaissance Carving 46

Door of the Vatican, Designed by Raphael 46

Carved Chairs, Lucca Museum 47

Desk and Chair Used by Savonarola, Florence 49

Screen of Intarsia 50

Florentine Marriage Coffer 51

A Fine Example of Renaissance Carving 51

State Chair, Late Renaissance, Baroque Treatment 52

Louis XII Fireplace, Chateau of Blois 56

Renaissance Chair, Chateau of Blois 57

Fireplace Built for Claude, Wife of Francois I., Chateau of Blois 59

Fireplace, Gallery of Henri II, Fontainebleau 6r

Bedstead Belonging to Anne of Austria, Fontainebleau 62

Renaissance Paneling, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 63

Louis XIII Room, Fontainebleau 65

Cabinet, Late Renaissance 67

Cabinet of Dutch Marquetry -; 72

Flemish Cupboard 73

Hall in the Gruuhuse, Sixteenth Century 75

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

PAGE

Room in an Old Dutch Home, Edam 76

German Press, Typical Example of Renaissance Carving 77

Spanish Chair, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 82

Linen-fold Cupboard, Sixteenth Century 87

Presence Chamber, Hardwick Hall, Elizabethan Period ,• • • • 89

Dining-room, Jacobean Period 91

Seventeenth-century Cupboard 92

Chest of Drawers, Memorial Hall, Deerfield, Mass 93

Tapestry Woven by Mary Queen of Scots 94

Chair in Versailles, Regency of Anne of Austria 100

Louis XIV Clock loi

BouUe Console, Early Louis XIV 102

Bureau, Late Louis XIV 103

Example of Simple Louis XIV Furniture 105

Headboard, Louis XIV Bedstead 107

Gobelin Tapestry, Designed by Boucher and Tessier 112

Louis XV Sofa Petit Trianon 113

Louis XV Chair, Garde-Meuble 115

Louis XV Arm-chair, Garde-Meuble 117

Ix)uis XV Clock • 118

Louis XVI Bedstead, Fontainebleau 125

Louis XVI Cabinet, Fontainebleau 126

Louis XVI Clock 127

Writing-desk and Bureau-Toilette 128

Louis XVI Chair, Petit Trianon 129

Louis XVI Chair, Petit Trianon 130

Chippendale Mirror 134

Chippendale's Dutch Type, I 13S

Chippendale Chair. II 13S

Chippendale Arm-chair, III 136

Ladder-back Chair, IV I37

Chippendale Roundabout, V 138

Chippendale Chair, French Manner, VII 139

Shield-shaped Chair, Hepplewhite 140

Hepplewhite Table 141

Dining-room, Residence of Frederic C. Bartlett, Chicago 142

Hepplewhite Sideboard 143

Prince of Wales Chair, Hepplewhite .' 144

Hepplewhite Table 14S

Adam Commode, Painted by Pergolesi 146

Bracket and Vase for Candles, Adam Style 147

Lock for a Cabinet Door 148

Adam Mantelpiece, Decorated by Angelica Kauflman 149

Sheraton Chairs 15°

A Fine Example of Sheraton's Work 151

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Sheraton Drop-leaf Table 152

Sheraton Chest of Drawers 152

Sheraton Sideboard and Chippendale Minor IS3

Roman Ceremonial Chair 158

Bedroom of Napoleon I, Fontainebleau 159

Empire Chairs and Divan, Compifegne 160

Old Cradle, Brought over in the Mayflower 166

Early New England Interior, Showing Pine Settle 167

Seventeenth-century Chairs 168

Wainscot Chair with Rush Seat 169

Furniture of the Early Eighteenth Century 170

Brass Clock, Seventeenth Century 171

Flemish Chair, Salem, Mass 172

Queen Anne Chair, Early Eighteenth Century 173

Mahogany Low-Boy with Cabriole Leg and Club Foot 174

Mahogany High-Boy with Scroll Top 175

Comer Cupboard with Scroll Top 176

Kitchen of the Whipple House, Ipswich, Mass 177

Chippendale Roundabout Chair 178

Washington's Bedchamber, Mount Vernon 179

Rare Chippendale Chair 180

Bedchamber, containing Four-poster and Wing Chair 181

Four-poster, Late Eighteenth Century 182

American Empire Table 183

American Empire Sofa 184

American Empire Sewing-Table 185

Colonial Parlor 187

Colonial Dining-room 189

CHAPTEE I

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

THE HISTORY OP FURNITURE IS SO THOROUGHLY A PART OF THE
HISTORY OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF DIFFERENT PEOPLES
THAT ONE CAN UNDERSTAND AND APPRECIATE THE SEVERAL
CHANGES IN STYLE, SOMETIMES GRADUAL AND SOMETIMES RAPID,
ONLY BY REFERENCE TO CERTAIN HISTORICAL EVENTS AND
INFLUENCES BY WHICH SUCH CHANGES WERE EFFECTED. —
FREDERICK LITCHFIELD.

CHAPTER I

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

AS a record of manners and ciostoms the illxuninated missal is to the Middle
Ages what the sculptured frieze is to ancient Greece and Rome. It repre-
sents the earliest history of domestic life of mediaeval times. The Egyptians
constructed their household furniture in stone, the Greeks and Romans in marble
and bronze, and the people of the Middle Ages in wood. Setting aside coronation
chairs and choir stalls few pieces of mediffival handicraft are in existence. With-
out the aid of old manuscripts all domestic furniture made prior to the thirteenth
century would be a matter of conjecture. Thanks to these human documents a
faithful, if crude, picture is obtained of the life of the times. Furniture is merely a
detail in the old drawings ; simply an accessory used by the scribe to illustrate a
situation. If a royal banquet be the theme, a long, narrow table is suggested; if a
coronation ceremony form the subject of the story, a chair of state is rudely indi-
cated; if an interview between a knight and a lady be the main point in the tale,
a bench or settle fills the background. Picturesque sidelights on customs and cos-
tumes, as well as furniture, are revealed in the old illuminations.

Broadl}i speaking, the period termed the Middle Ages began with the fall of
Rome and ended with the capture of Constantinople, but it was the great interme-
diate stage, roughly spanned by the sixth and tenth centuries, which constituted
the dark age of history and art.

The British Museum contains illuminated manuscripts dating back to the ninth
century. From these priceless records and from wills of the period the home of
the Anglo-Saxon thane has been deciphered. " Fragments from many sources have
been fitted together and a fairly clear picture has resulted.

The ham, or home, contained one large apartment called the heal which served
as a dining, living, and sleeping room. Adjoining it was the bower, or chamber,
reserved for the ladies of the household. The hall was sparsely furnished. A
board laid upon a trestle formed the dining-table. Benches and stools were the
common seats and were used by all members of the family, except the lord and his
lady who occupied two rudely constructed chairs. The walls were hung with walh-
rifts, or wall cloths, which served as a protection from wind and rain. The rafters
were covered with a ceil cloth, from which our word "ceiling" is derived. In the
center of the floor was the hearth, the smoke of the fire escaping through a louvre,
or opening in the roof. Illumination was provided by torches and by a primitive

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

lamp of horn, termed a cresset. The cresset lamp was a feature in English houses
for many centuries and may still be found in rural districts.

The bower contained a straw bed and a cyst, or chest. A curtain protected the
bed and served to conceal the chest which was the most important article in the
house. The chest, or coffer, was a characteristic piece of mediseval handicraft,
and the first piece of furniture to express the skill of the wood-carver and the metal-
worker. The development of the chest, in- its various guises of coffer, hutch, and
bahut, forms an interesting phase of furniture-making. The cupboard, the dresser,
the credence, the cabinet, and the bureau were all evolved from this primitive
article. In early Anglo-Saxon times it was a strong box placed near the bed and
large enough to hold the family valuables. In an age when one baron waged war-
fare upon another it was important to have a receptacle always at hand where
valuables coiild be stored, and, if necessary, easily transported.

The homes of the common people of this period lacked the barest comforts. A
bench and a chest and a few skins of wild beasts were the household effects of the
masses. The bench was crudely constructed and without a back. The chest
was of more careful workmanship and served many purposes. It was sometimes
used as a seat, sometimes as a table, sometimes as a bed. It was the poor man's
chief article of furniture and as such it remained imtil after the Norman Conquest.

The conditions of Europe were not such as to foster the gentle side of living.
Two figures were pre-eminent: the monk and the soldier. One kept art alive;
the other nearly exterminated it. Italy, France, and Germany were torn with
wars, civil and ecclesiastical, and England, while more remote from the cause of
conflict, was also more remote from the centers of civilization. Southern countries
stUl preserved a few classic traditions. In the north they were long since extinct.
As England was' last to respond to the Renaissance so she was last to develop a
mediiEval art. At best it was a rude age even in the countries that came in touch
with Greek and oriental influences.

With the Norman Conquest came England's awakening to continental methods.
With the invasion came French ideas in dress and manners. A more refined mode
of living followed. Houses were fitted with the rude comforts which had been known
on the continent for nearly a century. Walls received their first decorations. The
skins of wild beasts, hung against the rafters to keep out the cold, gave place to
pieces of rude tapestry. Fireplaces were fitted with Norman fire-dogs, and the
blazing torches were superseded by branches of iron holding tallow candles. In the
homes of the feudal lords dishes of metal increased the limited table service of wood
and horn.

In Ivanhoe a vivid picture is given of Cedric's castle, where French innovations
foimd little favor:

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

"In a hall, the height of which was greatly disproportioned to its extreme length
and width, stood a long oaken table, formed of planks rough hewn from the forest,
and which had scarcely received any polish. On the sides of the apartment hung
implements of war and of the chase, and there were at each corner doors which gave
access to other parts of the extensive building. The other appointments of the
mansion partook of the rude simplicity of the Saxon period, which Cedric piqued
himself upon maintaining. The floor was composed of earth mixed with lime and
trodden into a hard substance. For about one quarter of the length of the apart-
ment the floor was raised by a step, and this space, which was called the dais, was
occupied only- by the principal members of the family and visitors of distinction.

AN EARLY EXAMPLE OP GOTHIC FURNITURE AS DE-
PICTED IN AN OLD ILLUMINATION

"For this purpose a table, richly covered with a scarlet cloth, was placed trans-
versely across the platform, from the middle of which ran the longer and lower board
where the domestics and inferior persons sat. Massive chairs were placed upon the
dais, and over these seats and the elevated table was fastened a canopy of cloth
which served in some degree to protect the dignitaries who occupied that distin-
guished station, from the weather, and especially from the rain, which in some
places found its way through the ill-constructed roof. The walls of this upper end
of the hall, as far as the dais extended, were covered with hangings or curtains with
some attempts at tapestry or embroidery. In the center of the dais were placed
two chairs more elevated than the rest, for the master and mistress of the family.
To each of these was added a footstool, curiously carved and inlaid with ivory,
which mark of distinction was peculiar to them."

The construction of houses changed little in the century following the Conquest.
Norman names were given to various portions of the dwelling, but the general char-

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

acter remained the same. The heal became the salla and the ham the manoir. The
greatest innovation was the substitution of a built-in fireplace for the center hearth.
In many homes the fire continued to be built in the old way, but where the thick-
ness of the wall permitted the newer method was preferred. The bower, which
was formerly built on the ground floor, was elevated to the second story and termed
a soler, a term supposed to have been derived from the word sol. A new room
called a parloir, or talking-room, was the most important addition to the house.

The arrangement of the bedroom changed little, except that a wooden bed with
curtains replaced the bed of straw. Hungerford Pollen in the hand-book of the
furniture of South Kensington refers to the bedchambers of this period: "Bed-
rooms were furnished with ornamental bed-testers and benches at the bed foot.
Beds were made with quilts and pillows, and with spotted or striped Hnen sheets;
over all was laid a covering of green sag, badgers' furs, the skins of beavers, or
martens. A perch for tame falcons was fixed to the wall. A chair and a pro-
jecting pole, on which clothes could be hung, completed the Anglo-Norman bed-
room."

The bench was a convenience in receiving visitors. The soler was used by the
lady of the manor as a sitting-room until the parloir became a common feature of
house-building. Furniture was more varied after the Conquest and included
settles, arm-chairs, and folding seats. Thomas Wright, in treating of this period,
states that our word "chair" is Anglo-Norman, and that the Anglo-Saxon term was
sell or stol, the latter being retained in our modern word "stool." Fadestol was one
name for a chair of state, a word which has been translated in modern French to
fauteuil, and in' English to arm-chair. The Norman table, as depicted in the Bayeux
tapestry, is similar to the Saxon trestle design. It was placed in the hall and taken
apart after the meal was finished. "Laying the board" was a matter of ceremony.
Lines were sharply drawn in regard to the seating of the household. The lord and
his lady occupied chairs, the retainers sat upon benches, and those lower in rank
remained standing. The placing of the salt was a matter of consideration. "Above
salt" or "below salt" indicated the social status of the guests.

Furniture of this age, with the exception of the table, was slightly carved.
Chests were the first pieces to receive decorative treatment and chairs came second.
In the oldest manuscripts there is a suggestion of ornament in most of the furniture.
Much of the decoration is impossible to classify, for it is too archaic to be defined,
but a small portion may be assigned to one of the three great styles of the
Middle Ages.

Applied ornament during this period may be divided into three classes, Byzan-
tine, Saracenic, and Gothic. The first two had little bearing on furniture-making
of the north; the third had a close connection with all handicraft of the times.

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDUE AGES

FOLDING CHAIR, LATE MIDDLE AGES

Byzantine ornament was based upon geometrical patt^BS combined with animal
and floral forms. Animals were used in a , conventionalized manner and were
of religious significance. The fish, the serpent, the bird, occur frequently, combined
with the circle, the trefoil, and the quatrefoil. The circle was emblematic of Omnip-
otence, the trefoil of the Trinity, and the quatrefoil of the four evangelists. Byzan-
tine art originated in the fourth century when the Emperor Constantine removed
the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium. "The traditional Greek and
Roman arts," says Richard Glazier, "were now assimilated with the arts of Persia
and Syria, but molded and influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal •
vitality, deep symbolism, which was so remarkable throughout the Byzantine
period." Byzantium was changed to Constantinople, but the ancient name was
perpetuated in the art of the period. Saracenic ornament was of oriental origin,
and its influence was largely confined to countries that came in touch with eastern
influence. Unlike Byzantine ornament, animal forms were excluded. Intricate
interlaced lines and conventionalized leaves formed the basis of Saracenic decora-
tion. Contemporary with the Saracenic movement were two schemes of ornament,
having much in common with the oriental style. These were the Celtic and Scandi-

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

navian. The beautiful patterns of the Celts, based on circles, triangles, and endless
chains, and the bolder interlaced work of the Scandinavians, form two unique
phases of mediaeval designing. The Celts used the serpent as a dominant molif
while the Scandinavians gave special prominence to the dragon.

These early schools of ornament had little bearing on the furniture-making of the
period, but their influence on future wood-carving was so important that later
results cannot be understood without a brief reference to them. Byzantine
decoration was little fitted for domestic furniture and its use was largely confined
to religious pieces. The famous chair of St. Peter at Rome, said to be the oldest
piece of wooden furniture in existence, is an example of Byzantine work. It is
inlaid in gold and ivory, in an intricate and beautiful manner, the details of which
are lost in the illustration. The importance of Byzantine ornament from the view-
point of furniture-making lies in the fact that the trefoil and the quatrefoil were
continued in Gothic ornament, and in the newer guise became a part of furniture
decoration for three centuries.

In order to understand the significance of Gothic art and its bearing upon all
handicraft of the period it will be necessary to consider the conditions that gave
birth to this last and greatest of mediaeval styles.

"In the latter part of the twelfth century church architecture was revolutionized
by the Gothic school which originated in the north of France. The Romanesque
type of building had long been the accepted form; the time was at hand for
a change. As in all great innovations the new movement swung far from the
old. The pointed, or Gothic, arch solved a problem of construction which
the round or Romanesque arch failed to do, and finally, the enthusiasm of the
people, inspired by the crusades, and the attempt to win the Holy Sepulchre,
sought to express itself in new forms."

It is not possible to affix a date to the first Gothic dwelling. Although to France
belongs the honor of originating the school, Germany and Spain followed closely in
her lead. In Germany, Romanesque architecture had reached a greater degree
of excellence than, in any other country of the north, save France, and it was
more than a century before the Germans equaled the French in the purity of their
Gothic buildings. But the Germans held to the type longer and the exaggerated
or "flamboyant Gothic" of the fifteenth century, which marked the decline of the
art in France, was little known in the provinces beyond the Rhine. In Spain the
pointed arch was combined with Moorish cupolas and Spanish minarets. It was
not until the reign of Ferdinand III, the contemporary of Louis IX of France and
Henry III of England, that Spain produced buildings that compared favorably
with those of Burgundy and Normandy. Ferdinand defeated the Moors at Cor-
dova and Seville, united the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, and restored the church

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

ST. Pi:TER'S CHAIR

to Christianity. Under his patronage the
fine arts flourished. The magnificent
cathedral at Toledo, modeled on Notre
Dame, and the smaller one at Burgos
were erected during his reign.

Italy, the stronghold of Romanesque
and Byzantine traditions, was little influ-
enced by the Gothic wave diu-ing this cen-
tury. England, now closely in touch with
France, early felt the impulse and having
few classic prejudices to overcome, was
ripe for a rapid architectural development.
The cathedrals of .Durham, Peterborough,
Norwich, and Canterbury show the beauty
of the early northern school. Although
Gothic construction was confined for
nearly fifty years to church edifices
it was not destined to remain sim-
ply religious in character. Gradually

royal dwellings were altered to admit of traceried windows, arched doors, and
foliated carvings, and by the latter part of the thirteenth century the homes of the
common people were built on similar principles. Furniture of all historic epochs
is more or less a reflection of the prevailing architecture, and this was never more
clearly demonstrated than during the Gothic period. Chairs and tables, benches
and chests, all followed in design or decoration the lines of the pointed arch.

Great changes had taken place in the furnishings of houses. The crusades
had opened an intercourse with the orient, and the seaports of France, Italy, and
Spain were engaged in active commerce with the east. Sovereigns of this centiu'y,
with a few exceptions, married foreign queens, and thus the manners of one country
were introduced into another. In England three of the Plantagenet kings had
wedded French princesses and as each in tiu-n inaugurated French customs there
was little of Saxon simplicity at the English court. The barons and retainers,
eager for royal approval, patterned their homes as closely as possible on Norman
standards.

It remained for Eleanor, of Provence, queen of Henry III, whose wardrobe and
furniture filled three ships, to exert an influence which was felt in the homes of the
people. During her reign the use of tapestries, hitherto confined to the palace and
to the halls of the barons, became general, and added greatly to the comfort and
beauty of interiors. Tapestries, or dorsals, as they were sometimes called from their

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

ecclesiastical origin, were both woven and embroidered. The former were usually
of small and intricate patterns, Byzantine and Gothic in character, and were imported
from the tapestry-weaving districts of the Loire. The latter, while crude in work-
manship, were more original in treatment. Thirteenth-century ladies in England
and France spent many hours over the tambour frame depicting hunting and battle
scenes, "jousts," and tournaments. These unique specimens of handiwork were
modeled on the famous Bayeux tapestry, woven by Queen Matilda and her ladies in
waiting.

During Eleanor's reign wood paneling was introduced into Windsor Castle, and
the halls of the manor houses were further enriched with Gothic carvings and mural
decorations. Furniture in England had already responded to Gothic tendencies,
and the massive chairs reserved for state occasions, and the simpler settles for daily
use, were ornamented in the style that had found favor on the continent. I No
furniture of Henry's time has been preserved, but a celebrated piece of Gothic
carving of the following reign is now in existence. The coronation chair in West-
minster, made famous by a long line of monarchs, was first used when Edward
Plantagenet ascended the throne.

Prince Edward was on the continent fighting the French when he received the
tidings of his father's death. He remained to vanquish his foes, returning the fol-
lowing year, in the summer of 1274, to take possession of the English throne.

With the exception of Mary Tudor and WiUiam III, every English sovereign
from Edward I to Edward VII has been crowned in this historic rehc. William
III and his queen were crowned together in a chair made expressly for them, and
Queen Mary received a chair from the pope especially blessed for her accession.

Made of oak and covered with heavy gilding "Edward's chair" was the work
of a Florentine artist, employed at Guildford Castle, who builded better than he
knew. Beneath the seat and supported by lions is a rough-hewn stone which has
the tradition of being the identical one which Jacob used as a pillow at Bethel. The
lions are modern and are inferior to the rest of the workmanship. Aside from this
venerated piece of furniture, so associated with English history, little remains of
early Gothic handicraft in England, except that which is ecclesiastical in character.

A few of the royal chests and coffers of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth
centuries are in existence, and are interesting specimens of wood-carving and metal
work. Hinges and locks are intricately chased with trefoils and quatrefoils, and
sometimes ornamented with heraldic devices. A chest executed during the reign
of King John is described as being "of oak, richly decorated with iron plates and
hinges"; another of similar date, "of oak, decorated with wrought-iron locks and
clamps and with basses of metal, on which are enameled escutcheons"; another "of
carved cypress, inlaid with ivory and mosaics, and having clasps of wrought silver."

FURNITURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The dower chests of Eleanor, of Pro-
vence, although recorded as bemg of un-
usual beauty, have not survived. A coffer
belonging to the queen of Edward I, who
was of Spanish birth, is now in the British
Museum. It is of dark wood, painted in
Moorish style, and the colors still retain
something of their early brilliancy. The
hinges are of iron, heavily ornamented,
and the locks display the arms of Castile.

With her chests the Spanish princess
brought Spanish ideas, and thus a third
element was added to the Norman-
Saxon court. Moorish carpets, decorated
leather from Aragon, brass hanging-lamps
and Sevillian pottery were among her
possessions. An inventory of the royal
household of this period contains "pitch-
ers of gold, plates and dishes of silver,
gold salts, alms bowls, silver hanapers or
baskets, a pair of knives with enameled ^S
silver sheaths, a fork of crystal and a
silver fork with handle of ebony, and a
looking-glass of silver." "Oizer mats"
are mentioned, and were used by King
Edward and his queen as cushions when
they sat at table. Furniture was more
varied during this reign and included linen-presses, armoires, and dressoirs

ENGLISH CORONATION CHAIR, SHOWING THE
ARCH AND THE QCATREFOIL

CHAPTEE II

FURNITURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE : THE POINTED ARCH, THE TREFOIL,
THE QUATREFOIL, AND SIMPLE TRACERY. FURNITURE WAS MASSIVE
AND GOTHIC TREATMENT WAS CONFINED TO DECORATION, CON-
STRUCTION BEING LITTLE AFFECTED BY IT DURING THIS CENTURY.

CHAPTER II

FURNITURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

GOTHIC furniture reached its highest development in the fourteenth century.
The exaggerations that characterized the work of the late Gothic school,
when grotesque heads and distorted animals were introduced into many
forms of carving, were unknown at this time. The furniture of this period held to
a few vital principles and these were embodied in the plainest as well as in the most
elaborate pieces. The trefoil and the quartrefoil used in connection with the pointed
arch, were the chief motifs in wood-carving. The tracery was simpler than in
the designs of the succeeding century when furniture-makers followed the lead of
the architects, and used ornament with a lavish hand.

Chests were still important items in household inventories, but their original
supremacy was over. In their wake followed a host of pieces, the very names of
which are now obsolete. Standards, bahuts, and hanapers were all a development
of the chest, but each had its special significance and each its particular place.
Standards held implements of the chase, bahuts belonged to the housewife and
contained stores of linen, and in hanapers were concealed the family valuables.

Cupboards, literally meaning "boards containing cups," came into use during
this period, and furniture was further supplemented by the credence which was of
church origin. Like the dressoir it served the purpose of a buffet or serving table.
Viollet-le-Duc illustrates a credence of the late Gothic period which contains four
shelves, arranged like steps, each one filled with gold and silver vessels. The
dressoir was of simpler form, and a less costly article. The dresser as a piece of
dining room furniture still retains its original significance. The use of the word
to designate a dressing-table or a bureau is modern and quite incorrect.

The distinction between a press and a cupboard was in the beginning clearly
defined. The cupboard was made without doors and was scarcely more than a shelf
on a trestle. In the fifteenth century the cupboard, the press, and the armoire
were more nearly alike. The significance of the word armoire is somewhat obscure,
and one upon which writers on furniture are not agreed. Frederick Roe, in his
book. Ancient Coffers and Cabinets, suggests that the original purpose of the
piece of furniture thus designated, was to hold armor.

During the fourteenth century the hall retained its feudal character. Life had
grown more luxurious, but the general plan of the house was unchanged. In the
manor house a "withdra wing-room" was added to the lower story, taking the

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

place of the Norman parloir. The modern drawing-room is an evolution of this
early apartment which was primarily for the use of the mistress of the house.

The bedroom was furnished with more comforts and showed a greater change
than any other portion of the home. The bed had become a bedstead in the usual
acceptance of the term. The original meaning of the word "bedstead" was "place
for a bed." During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, except among the opulent,
sleeping arrangements were very primitive. Testers were introduced at the time
of the Conquest, and "tester beds," or "tent beds," are mentioned by early histo-
rians. During the fourteenth century the bedstead assumed another character
and was often the most ornamental piece of furniture in the house. Some of the
Gothic beds suggest carved cages, others are fine examples of wood-carving, and
show a beauty of construction unknown in the canopy beds of a later date. A fine
example of a Gothic bed is seen in the bedchamber of the Castle Meran, located
in the German Tyrol. A large portion of this stronghold dates from the twelfth
century, but the room illustrated here is of a later« period. The doors and
windows show the pure Gothic arch and the furniture exhibits the simple tracery
which was such a beautiful feature of wood carving of this period.

A new article of furniture in the shape of an elevated chest, the cabinet of a
later day, came into vogue about the middle of the century and was of Italian
origin. Chairs, with the exception of folding-stools, were of huge proportions, and
were made more massive by the addition of wooden canopies. Tables, on the
other hand, were exceedingly simple, and formed a striking contrast to the rest
of household furniture. They were made solely for utility, and outside of Italy
were overlooked by the decorator. In design they were long and narrow, but the
trestle supports of the previous century had given place to more careful workman-
ship. One form of table was made with the "bolt and slot construction," a modern
term expressing mediaeval methods. This table is chiefly interesting inasmuch as
it shows how closely arts and crafts workers have copied early designs.

While all handicraft of this period was marked by beauty of design and honest
workmanship each country excelled in certain lines. The Italians led in the han-
dling of low relief and in the application of color to ornament. Their work, partic-
ularly that of the Florentines, was characterized by great delicacy of feeling. The
Germans were especially skilled in the execution of elaborate floral and heraldic
motifs. The locks, hinges, and keys of cupboards and presses received as much
attention as the carving of the wood, and often formed an important part of the
decoration. The French, from the first, were a nation of furniture-makers, and
although their handicraft lacked the exquisite finish of the Italians it fully equaled
the work of the south in beauty of design.

The Swiss were adepts in wood-carving and the Tyrolese, in this century, de-

I
O

HISTORIC STYLES IN FUENITURE

FRENCH CHEST, LATE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

veloped a unique school of ornament. Their furniture was partly French, partly-
German in character, and yet with certain qualities peculiar to itself. The Scan-
dinavians were masters of a rude style of carvings half religious, half mythological,
in subject. The work of the Danes was patterned after that of the Germans, as
was also that of the Austrians. The Russians, until the beginning of the Romanoff
dynasty, followed Byzantine canons, and the Poles and the Hungarians followed
the Russians. The Dutch and the Flemings lagged behind the other nations in
the art of furniture-making. It was not until the sixteenth century that they
equaled either the French or the Germans in this particular. But Flemish and
Dutch furniture remained beautiful and individual long after that of the French
had become exaggerated and absurd. The Spaniards never adopted the Gothic
style pure and simple in either their home architecture or their furniture. Spain,
at this time, was a power on the high seas, and Spanish woodwork combined the
designs of many countries. The Portuguese, when not at war with the Spaniards,
copied them slavishly. The English selected the best of all that Normandy and
Flanders sent to their shores and made it their own.

The fourteenth century inaugurated a new era in domestic architecture. The
religious enthusiasm of the people, inspired by the crusades, was over, and the zeal
which was previously lavished on churches was now expended on dwellings. The
origin of many famous castles in England and France may be traced to this activity.

FURNITURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

GERMAN CHEST, LATE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

The rapid progress of home architecture was not confined to the dwellings of the
nobility. The improvement in the houses of the middle classes was no less remark-
able. Hand in hand with the outward betterment went an inward transforma-
tion. The comforts which were known hitherto only in the homes of the opulent
were now to be found in humbler circles. Class distinctions were more sharply
drawn , but class privileges were extending. 80 prosperous did the trades-people
of Paris become that an edict was passed by Charles the Fair limiting the
household possessions of half the Parisians. No bourgeois could use wax candles
or sleep under a canopy of gold Genoa cloth. A similar law in England, framed
under Edward III, regulated the number of tapestries that a merchant might hang
in his house and the number of yards of Flanders embroidery his wife might wear
on her gown. In England the law was made in order to exclude French and Flemish
merchandise and to compel the people to patronize home industries. In France
it was passed to hold in check the growing ambitions of the trades-people and to
prevent their encroaching on the rights of their superiors.

The fourteenth century was an important one in England's history. The
cowardly Edward II was succeeded by the illustrious Edward III, and during
the latter's long reign events took place at home and abroad that exerted a powerful
influence on England's future. The victories of Crecy and Poitiers were not more
memorable than certain acts of Parliament; less so, perhaps, than that measm-e
passed in 1362, which established the English language as the speech of the nation.
The use of French was discontinued at court and Norman customs went out of fashion.

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

The long siege with France
had brought about a reaction
in favor of Enghsh prqdue--
tions. Edward's marriage to
PhiHppa of Hainault had
strengthened the tie between
England and Flanders, but
as the war across the channel
progressed, and the Flemings
were drawn into the conflict,
TYROLEAN TABLE this friendship cooled. Com-

merce ceased with Flanders
and the king framed laws to prevent the sale of Flemish articles. These royal edicts
fostered the home arts, and English houses were furnished with home-made articles.
Many of the finest baronial halls of England and Scotland were built in part
during the reign of Edward III. Savoy Castle on the Thames, erected by the earl
of Richmond in 1245, was remodeled a century later by the first duke of Lancaster
who spent a fortune on it. Here, after the battle of Poitiers, resided the captive
king, John of France, here came on many occasions that idol of the people, the
Black Prince, and here Chaucer lived for a year as the guest of John of Gaunt and
his wife, the young duchess of Lancaster. Chaucer composed many of his most
famous poems at Savoy, and met within its doors the fair Lady Philippa, whom he
afterward married. John of Gaunt maintained a style of living surpassed only
by that of the royal family. The tapestries, furniture, paintings, and plate of Savoy
were, according to an old writer, "as fine as anything in Christendom." Part of
the architecture of Haddon Hall is late fourteenth century. The great banquet-
room still retains its Gothic woodwork and its traceried windows, built by the
Vemons, who owned the estate at that time. Lynes in Cheshire, erected on ground
granted by the king to Sir Petryn Leigh, for valor displayed at Cr^cy, is a stately
pile, and has preserved something of its first semblance. Cotehile in Cornwall,
Glamis in Scotland, and Norworth Castle on the Border, the latter first occupied
by Percy Hotspur, the hero of Chevy Chase, all trace their grim walls and grim
histories to the time of the third Edward. Hardly less renowned is Sizergh Hall
in W^tmoreland, bearing on its crenelated tower a sculptured shield with the
quarterings of the d'Aincourts and the Stricklands. This bit of English heraldry
is unusual, as it is one of the earliest examples of the placing of the arms of the
wife before those of her husband — a custom unknown before the fourteenth century.
Sizergh Hall in Queen Elizabeth's reign was famous for its beautiful woodwork and
furniture. The paneling of one room in this old castle is now in the Kensington

FURNITURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Museum, and ranks as one of the finest examjjles
of its day.

In Penshurst, near Tunbridge Wells, the great
entrance hall has not been altered since it was
built by Sir John de Poultenej' who was four
times lord mayor of London, and who was noted
"for his public charities, magnificent housekeep-
ing, and splendid achievements." From Sir John
it passed to the duke of Bedford, then to the
duke of Gloucester, and later to Buckingham. In
1447 it became the property of the crown, was
bestowed upon Sir William Sydney by Edward VI.,
after the battle of Flodden Field, and descended
from him to Sir Philip Sydney, with whose name
the fame of Penshurst is chiefly associated. Many
descriptions of the ancient hall have been given.
"The pointed timbered roof is supported by a
series of grotesque corbels, each the size of life,"
says a writer of the early eighteenth century.
" The screen of the gallery is richly carved and
paneled. The minstrel's gallery fills the side op-
posite the dais. The Gothic windows are narrow
and lofty. Every object calls to mind a feudal
age. The oak tables on which retainers feasted
still occupy the hall."

In striking contrast to this English interior of
the fourteenth century is M. Sauval's description
of an apartment in the Hotel de BohSme, erected
by Charles V and occupied in 1388 by the duke
of Orleans. "I shall not attempt," he writes, "to
speak of the cellars and wine-cellars, the bake-
houses, the fruiteries, the salt-stores, the fur-rooms,
the porters' lodges, the guard-rooms, the wood-
yard, or the glass-stores; neither shall I describe the
tapestry-room, the linen-room, nor indeed any of the
various conveniences which were then to be found
in the yards of this place, as well as in the abodes
of other princes and nobles. I shall simply remark
that,, among the many suites of rooms which com-

TYROLEAN CUPBOARD, LATE FOUR-
TEENTH CENTURY

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

posed it, two occupied the first and second stories of the main building. The first
was raised some few feet above the ground floor of the court, and was occupied by-
Violet of Milan and her husband, Louis of Orleans. Each of these two suites of
rooms consisted of a great hall, a chamber of state, a large chamber, a wardrobe-
room, and a chapel. The state chambers were eight toises, that is, about fifty and
a half feet long. The duke's chambers were six toises and a half square, and lighted
by long and narrow windows of wire work, with Gothic trellis work of iron. The
wainscots and the ceilings were made of Irish wood, the same as in the Louvre.
Among the ornamental furniture were a large vase of silver for holding sweetmeats
and a fine wooden casket covered with vermilion cordovan, nailed and bordered
with a narrow gold band and shutting with a key."

The ancient chronicle of M. Sauval would be incomplete without a reference
to the gorgeous Spanish leathers in Boheme. "In this palace," he continues, "there
was a room used by the duke, hung with cloth of gold bordered with vermilion
velvet, embroidered with roses. The duchess had a room hung with vermilion
leather decorated with cross-bows, which were her coat of arms. That of the duke
of Burgundy was hung with cloth of gold, embroidered with windmills. There were,
besides, eight carpets of glossy texture, with gold flowers, one representing the
seven virtues and seven vices, another the history of Charlemagne, another that
of Saint Louis. There were also cushions of gold, twenty-four pieces of vermilion
leather of Aragon, and four carpets of Aragon leather."

Few descriptions of the homes of the people are on record. Litchfield,
in writing of a French house of this period, states that ehests, more or less
carved and ornamented with iron work, settles of oak and chestnut, stools or
benches with carved supports, a bedstead and a prie-dieu chair, and a table with a
plain slab, supported on standards, would nearly complete the furniture of the chief
room in the house of a well-to-do merchant.

CHAPTER III

FURNITURE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

CHARACTERISTICS OP THE STYLE: THE LATE GOTHIC ARCH, THE QUA-
TREPOIL, THE CINQUEFOIL, AND A MORE COMPLICATED SCHEME
OF CARVING. FURNITURE SHOWED GRACEFUL OUTLINES, BUT
TOWARD THE END OF THE CENTURY BECAME TOO HEAVILY
ORNAMENTED FOR BEAUTY. ANIMALS AND GROTESQUE HEADS
WERE COMBINED WITH GOTHIC DETAILS AND THE CHARM OF
THE EARLIER PIECES VANISHED.

CHAPTEE III

FURNITURE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

THE fifteenth century was a period of transition. It marked the end of the
Middle Ages and the beginning of modern history. The keep, the draw-
bridge, the embattled tower, had no part in the architectm-e of the day,
and with their , passing the mode of living was greatly altered. The hall
ceased to be the point about which the life of the house centered. It was no longer
the scene of activity. The dais, the minstrels' gallery, the long tables for the re-
tainers, lost their significance. Dining in public went out of fashion. The lord
of the manor added a room to the great hall and dined with his family in privacy,
liife was more luxurious, but less picturesque than in an earlier and ruder age.

The century that witnessed the waning of mediaevalism was one of great progress.
The invention of gunpowder revolutionized war, that of the compass increased
jiavigation, and that of printing ushered in the dawn of a new era. It was an epoch
of stirring events that included the wars of the Roses, the conquest of .Granada,
the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, the capture of Constantinople, and the
discovery of America.

Architecturally the fifteenth century had less to its credit than the fourteenth.
Houses embodied the characteristics of the late Gothic, and while there was a
greater variety of material used than at any previous time buildings showed
less constructive skill.

The chateau of Langeais, the Cluny, and the famous house of Jacques Cceur at
Bourges, are typical French dwellings of this period. Hurstmonceaux Hall, in
Sussex, erected by Sir Roger Fiennes, treasurer of the household under Henry VI,
and Tattershall Castle, in Lincolnshire, built by Ralph, Lord Cromwell, treasurer
of the exchequer under the same sovereign, are notable examples of English archi-
tecture of the day. Both are of Flemish brick, with stone trimmings and were the
first mansions built in England of this material. Houses of this age were not
distinctive types. They were links between the fortified buildings of feudal
times and the more comfortable homes of the Renaissance, and are chiefly inter-
esting from the historical point of view.

The furniture of the early fifteenth century did not differ materially from that
of the fourteenth. Designs remained strong and simple and ornament was a means,
not an end. But the day of Gothic simplicity was nearly over, and by the middle
of the century the fate that had overtaken the architects pursued the furniture-

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

makers. Ornament was piled upon ornament until the original beauty was entirely
effaced. Skill of hand remained; the brain back of the hand had deteriorated.

A waving form of ornament resembling a tongue of flame supplanted the geomet-
rical tracery, while cinquefoils took the place of the earlier trefoils and quatrefoils.
This flaming motive had dominated church architecture, to its great detriment,

for more than a hundred years and
had given rise to the terms. Flam-
boyant, in France, Flowing, in Eng-
land, and Fischblase, in Germany.
Wood-carvers sought to surpass each
other in the elaboration of this theme,
and in fantastic combinations of
foliage, grotesque animals, and figures.
Chairs more than any other pieces
of furniture suffered at the hands of
the artisan. Built on severe lines
they were little adapted for the over-
loaded system of decoration. Chests
and cupboards, while lacking the sim-
plicity which had hitherto been their
chief charm, were by tffeir construc-
tion less injured by complicated orna-
ment. Many of the finest specimens
of fifteenth-century woodwork were in
the form of presses and cupboards.
Bedsteads were too cumbersome in
, ™„,.,x,„.^ design, and, except in the homes of

ENGLISH MONASTERY CHAIR, FIFTEENTH CENTURY b ) ! I:-

the lower classes, too ornate to be
interesting. Tables had altered little in shape or purpose and were the sole articles
of furniture to conform to severe lines and to unadorned surfaces.

It was an age of exaggeration in furniture and scarcely less so in dress. The
pointed cap, so long a feature of mediaeval fashion, rose to enormous heights, and
shoes were so elongated that walking with ease became a fine art. At the French
court, ladies in formal attire could not pass through an ordinary doorway without
lowering their heads, and the followers of Charles VII were obliged to walk three
feet apart in order to have sufficient space for the long and tortuous points of their

shoes.

The resemblance between the architecture and the furniture of historic periods
is plainly discernible. The similarity that costumes bear to both might also be

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

cited. Many parallels could be drawn between Louis XIV furniture and the
gorgeous dress of that day, between the more ornate furniture of the reign of Louis
XV and the greater extravagance in fashions, between the simpler Louis XVI

furniture and the return of the French
court under Marie Antoinette to a more
refined mode of dress, between the
classical furniture of Napoleon's time
and the severe gowns of the empire,
and between the stately furnitxu-e of
the colonial period and the equally
stately costumes. So long as the
pointed arch remained a vital force in
architecture, furniture and dress re-
flected in a greater or less degree Gothic
principles. This period included three
centuries and might well be called the
Pointed Age.

No strikingly novel pieces of furni-
ture were evolved during the fifteenth
century. New methods entered into
construction and new effects were
gained by combining different woods.
English and German oak, French chest-
nut, Italian walnut, and Spanish cypress
had long been famous, but their use
was confined largely to the countries in
which they were produced. But now
woods were imported extensively, and
we find Spanish cabinet-makers experi-
menting in the walnut of Italy, Italian
artisans using the olive and cypress of
Spain, French furniture-makers turning
to Flanders and England for oak, and
to the southern coimtries for the
softer woods, and English workmen, while clinging mainly to oak, adding French
chestnut and Spanish olive and cypress.

Italian walnut was as hard as oak and almost as enduring. Many of the choicest
examples of the cabinet work of this period, found in museums and private collec-
tions, are in this beautiful dark wood. It was better adapted than oak for the

FRENCH GOTHIC PANEL

FLEMISH CUPBOARD

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

lighter pieces of furniture, and its exquisite grain yielded a more graceful form
of ornament. In the hands of the Italian and Spanish craftsmen it became an
ideal medium.

In Florence and Vargos were fashioned those chests and cupboards which placed
the work of the south so far above that of the north. The Florentines had long
demonstrated their ability, and in this century the people of Vargos nearly equaled
them. Vargueno furniture was as celebrated as Cordovan leather.

Flamboyant architecture had made little progress in Spain and Spanish furni-
ture was free from the absurdities found in the furniture of the north. Moorish
i traditions were deeply rooted and designs exhibited Saracenic rather than Gothic
I influence. Gothic motifs were not entirely absent, but they were largely over-
i shadowed by the richer ornament of the east. Spain was the only European
; country that did not yield to the spell of the pointed arch. This worked for good
'in the fifteenth century when all other nations except Italy were well-nigh
! engulfed in Gothic detail.

^ AYith the exception of the English monastery chair the pieces of furniture
illustrated in this chapter are early fifteenth century. The cupboard is of oak and
is a tj-pical example of Flemish handiwork. The carving shows the late Gothic,
arch, and the tracery is more compact than in earlier pieces of furniture. By the
treatment of the arch the date of an article may be determined. Furniture fol-
lowed closely on architectural lines, and it is interesting to note that when windows
and doors showed changes in construction, cabinets and chairs exhibited similar
tendencies. The difference set forth in the construction of a room may be seen
in the Tyrolean interiors. The doors and windows in the bedchamber of the
castle ;\Ieran, illustrated in the preceding chapter, are in the earlier style. The
anteroom reproduced in this chapter shows the later treatment in the construc-
tion of the small door.

The Tyrolese more than any other people of Europe have clung to the customs
of their ancestors. Prominent in the affairs of Italy and Switzerland during the
Middle Ages they have had in modern times little part in the political warfare of
their neighbors. Favored by an isolated situation they have been undisturbed
by the march of civilization. In manners, in dress, in their home life they have
retained the traditions of an earlier age.

During mediaeval times the Tyrol was alternately occupied by the French and
the Germans, and architecture and furniture combine both French and German
tendencies. This is well illustrated in the fine old castles that cling to the mountain
tops and make this country one of the most picturesque in Europe. These
feudal strongholds passed from one conquering baron to another. The schloss of
one decade became the ch&teau of the next.

ANTEROOM, CASTLE MERAN, GERMAN TYROL, SHOWING THE EARLY AND THE LATE

GOTHIC ARCH

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

Near the village of Meran stands the castle of that name, dating back to the
twelfth centiny. The exterior has undergone many changes, but the interior has
been httle altered. The paneling, the mural decorations, and the traceried windows
are early Gothic; the furniture and the tapestries belong to the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. The furniture is particularly fine and consists of chests
mounted with iron, presses and cabinets ornamented with hinges and locks of
copper, long tables without decoration, and many beautiful chairs. The latter
are similar to the old Roman curules, and unlike English chairs of this period,
■with their high backs and ponderous carving. A chair of this type is shown
in the anteroom of Meran illustrated on page 31. Thefurnitm-e of this old castle
represents the best of the late Gothic school.

Toward the end of the fifteenth century a great change took place in handi-
craft. A new force born in Italy gradually spread throughout Eiurope. Gothic
art was not uprooted in a day, and a period of confusion in design followed, in
which the old forms were combined with the new principles of the Renaissance.

CHAPTEE IV

FURNITURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OP THE STYLE. DURING THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD
CLASSIC DETAILS WERE COMBINED WITH GOTHIC CONSTRUCTION.
LATER THE PURE RENAISSANCE WAS ESTABLISHED. WOOD-CARVERS
ADAPTED THE PRINCIPAL MOTIFS OF THE DAY WHICH CONSISTED
OF FOLIAGE BANDED WITH RIBBON, SWAGS OF FRUIT AND FLOW-
ERS, THE ACANTHUS LEAF, AND THE ARABESQUE. FURNITURE
BECAME MORE VARIED IN DESIGN AND WAS AUGMENTED BY MANY
PIECES UNKNOWN IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

CHAPTEE lY

FURNITURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

« 1" N the work of the Renaissance," writes John Addington Symonds, "all the
I great nations of Europe shared. But it must never be forgotten that the
-^ true Renaissance began in Italy. In art, in scholarship, in science, in the
mediation between antique culture and the modern intellect, the Italians took
the lead, handing to Germany and France and England the restored humani-
ties complete. /Spain and England have since done more for the exploration and
colonization of the world. Germany achieved the labor of the Reformation almost
single-handed. France has collected, centralized, and diffused intelligence with
irresistible energy. But if we return to the first origins of the Renaissance, we
find that, at a time when the rest of Europe was inert, Italy had already begun to
organize the various elements of the modern spirit, and to set the fashions whereby

the other great nations should live and learn

"We cannot refer the whole phenomena of the Renaissance to any one cause
or circumstance, or limit them within the field of any one department of human
knowledge. If we ask the students of art what they mean by the Renaissance,
they will reply that it was the revolution effected in architecture, painting, and
sculpture by the recovery of antique monuments. Students of literature, philos-
ophy, and theology see in the Renaissance that discovery of manuscripts, that
passion for antiquity, that progress in philology and criticism, which led to a correct
knowledge of the classics, to a fresh taste in poetry, to new systems of thought,
to more accurate analysis, and finally to the Lutheran schism and the emancipation
of the conscience. Men of science will discourse about the discovery of the solar
system by Copernicus and Galileo, the anatomy of Vesalius, and Harvey's theory
of the circulation of the blood. The political historian, again, has his own answer
to the question. The extinction of feudalism, the development of the great nation-
alities of Europe, the growth of monarchy, the limitation of the ecclesiastical
authority, and the erection of the papacy into an Italian kingdom, and, in the
last place, the gradual emergence of that sense of popular freedom which exploded
in the Revolution — these are the aspects of the movement which engross his atten-
tion. Jurists will describe the dissolution of legal frictions based upon the false
decretals, the acquisition of a true text of the Roman Code, and the attempt to
introduce a rational method into the theory of modern jurisprudence. Men whose
attention has been turned to the history of discoveries and inventions will relate

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

SIXTEENTH-CENTURY CHEST OF DRAWERS, LtTCCA

the exploration of America and
the East, or will point out the
benefits conferred upon the
world by the arts of printing
and engraving, by the compass
and the telescope, by paper
and by gunpowder. Yet neither
any one of these answers, taken
separately, nor indeed all taken
together, will offer a solution of
the problem.

"By the term Renaissance,
or new birth, is indicated a
natural movement, not to be
explained by this or that char-
acteristic, but to be accepted
as an effort of humanity for
which at length the time had come, and in the onward progress of which we still
participate. The history of the Renaissance is not the history of arts, or of
sciences, or of literature, or even of nations. It is no mere political mutation,
no new fashion of art, no restoration of classical standards of taste. The
arts and the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became
vital at the time of the Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the shores of the
Dead Sea of the Middle Ages. It was not their discovery which caused the Renais-
sance. It was the intellectual energy, the spontaneous outburst of intelligence,
which enabled mankind at tlTat moment to make use of them.''

Broadly speaking, the Renaissance had three distinct styles: The tre-cento,
quatro-cento, and cinque-cento. The first was developed between the years 1300
and 1400 and its influence was confined to architecture and sculpture. Giotto,
Arnolfo di Gambia, Andrea Taffi Orcagna, and Nicole Pisano were its chief ex-
ponents. The quatro-cento belonged to the fifteenth century and was a more
classic style than its predecessors. The work of Luca della Robbia, of Donatello
and Ghiberti, and of Filippo Brunelleschi are magnificent examples of the second
division. The cinque-cento was the culmination of the art of the Renaissance
and is associated with the mighty names of da Vinci, Raphael, and Michaelangelo.
The former styles were but preparation for the architecture, sculpture, painting,
and decorative arts of the sixteenth century. Under the patronage of the popes
and the powerful Medici family, pictures were painted, statues carved, tapestries
woven, metals wrought, in a manner that the world had never seen before.

FURNITURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

" During that period," to quote from Symonds again, "the entire nation seemed
to be endowed with an instinct for the beautiful and with the capacity for pro-
ducing it in every form."

No article was too commonplace to receive the attention of great artists. The
same care that was expended on the facade of a cathedral or the interior of a palace
was bestowed on the simplest piece of woodwork. The carved chairs, the painted
chests, and the inlaid cabinets all show that perfection of detail which characterized
the boldest undertakings. It was this wonderful ensemble, this linking of the fine
and decorative arts, that made the Renaissance the golden age of achievement.

It was not until the cinque-cento period that furniture showed traces of the
_,^^lassic revival. Wood-workers

clung to Gothic designs long vSTiMl'
after stone-cutters had dis-
carded them. Thus some of
the tre-cento and quatro-cento
motifs are exhibited in the furni-
ture of the sixteenth century.
It is well in studying the wood-
work of this epoch to keep in
mind the leading features of the
threg.£tyles. The tre-cento con-
sisted of interlacing lines com-
■ bined with simple tracery and
' conventionalized foliage. The
tracery was Saracenic rather
than Gothic, and entirely free
from symbolism. The quatro-
cento blended the festoon, the
garland, the band, and the car-
touche with naturalistic fruit
and flowers. The cinque-cento
was a restoration of classic de-
tails and included the fret, the
arabesque, the anthemion, the
scroll, and the acanthus. The
arabesque or grotesque, as it
was termed from its discovery
in a Roman grotto, was com-
posed of vases, shields, masks.

blXTEKXTl-i-CENTrUT CABINET, LUCCA

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

animal forms, arjd floral emblems. SymV
metry, balance, and perfect propor-
tions, united with faultless execution,
saved the arabesque from becoming a
grotesque in both senses of the word.
In the hands of Raphael, Giulio Ro-
mano, Sansovino, and the Lombard!,
this type of ornament reached a high
degree of beauty. Raphael's work in
the loggia of the Vatican is a splendid
example of the arabesque.

Woodworkers adapted these three
styles to the furniture of the day, and
it is to their credit that they produced
harmony, and not confusion. The
backs of chairs did not resemble palace
doors, nor did the columns of cabinets
suggest Greek colonnades. There was a
fine sense of fitness between the object
and its ornament. Herein was a vast
difference between the handiwork of
the Renaissance and that of the Gothic
period. Gothic furniture as a whole
was oppressively architectural. The
lids of chests and the doors of cup-
boards were often church facades in
miniature; and the finials of chairs and
settles diminutive church spires. Gothic
art was ecclesiastical rather than secu-
lar, and Gothic furniture, with few
exceptions, was fitted for monasteries
rather than homes.

The Renaissance raised furniture-
making to an art. Pupils were appren-
ticed to a master and studied with him
until they had perfected their craft,
when they opened workshops of their
The pieces produced in these

own.

ANTEROOM CHAIR OP WALNUT

great studio-shops united beauty with

FURNITURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

utility. For the first time designs were
made with reference to their setting.
The furniture of the private dwelling
Tvas suggestive of neither cathedrals
nor abbeys. It was made with a care-
ful regard for the needs of the owner,
his station and manner of living. Thus
Iiouses possessed a harmony which had
hitherto been absent.

The arrangement of furniture was
greatly altered. Chairs and chests were
no longer placed stiffly against the
walls. According to one old writer
the sixteenth century loosened the furni-
ture from, the side of the room, and
•distributed it "here and there in the
manner agreeable to modern taste."
With its changed position came a
■change in the construction and charac-
ter of each article. The cabinet became
£L cabinet in the modern meaning of the
"word. It was no longer a press or a
cupboard. The table lost its severe
lines and plain surfaces, and developed
into an ornamental piece of furniture.
Wood-carvers, as if to atone for past
neglect, lavished their highest skill upon
it. The chair was complete!)' trans-
formed. It refused to be classified
under one or two heads. There was
the chair for the hall, the dining-room,
.and the bedchamber. It was impos-
ing, simple, massive, or graceful, as the
occasion demanded. The upholstered
seat was introduced during this period.
Hitherto chair cushions were movable;
they were now a part of the frame. This
"was a radical change and gave rise to
3, new class of workmen — upholsterers.

GOTHIC CHAIR WITH RENAISSANCE DETAILS,
PARMA MUSEUM, TRANSITIONAL PERIOD

BEDCHAMBER IN THE VINCIGLIATA, FIESOLE

Among the sixteenth-century pieces of furniture which were unknown at an
earlier date was the sideboard. The credence and the dresser have been
mentioned. The sideboard was longer and lower than these mediaeval pieces and
without shelves. One of the earliest references to the sideboard is in the journal
of Benvenuto Cellini. To this prince of silversmiths we are indebted for many-
picturesque glimpses. Sometimes it is an interview with Michaelangelo, some-
times a visit to the pope, sometimes a line about a piece of furniture. "Meanwhile
I contrived, by means of a pupil of Raflaello da Urbino, to get an order for one of
those great water-vessels called acquereccia, which are used for ornaments to place
on a sideboard. He wanted a pair made of equal size. One of them he intrusted
to Lucagnolo and the other to me."

Another writer of the same period says in a letter: "When I entered the house
of Maestro Giovanni, of whom I may have spoken, I was given bread and wine
from the sideboard and pressed to lodge for the night." In this letter is a second
reference of interest. "On my way out of the city, I fell in with three youths
whom I thought to be students. Two were weavers from Palermo, and the third a

STATE DINING-ROOM IN THE VINCIGLIATA, PIESOLE

wood-carver on his way to the palace to receive orders for a inarriage-coffer. I
hoped to learn more of his errand, but he talked little, and refused to tarry for wine."
Unfortunately the letter gives no clue to the palace nor to the noble lady for
whom the coffer was intended.

In the list of new furniture was the chest™0f_ drawers. This was placed in the
bedchamber and was the forerunner of the bureau. JQuring the sixteenth century
the bed took on a new form. The massive Gothic(bed was no longer tolerated.
A lighter, more movable structure superseded it. Slender columns upheld a canopy
of brocade or tapestry, and curtains of similar material inclosed the sides. The
Renaissance bed was not a four-poster in the colonial acceptance of the word, for
the back was completely encased in wood. This headboard, if such it may be
called, was richly carved, and occasionally displayed the arms and insignia of the
family. The bed in the chamber of the VincigUata, here illustrated, has exquis-
itely carved figures, in place of lower columns.

Bedrooms of this period were more comfortable than they had been at any
previous time. Panes of glass were no longer a luxury. With larger windows came

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

more light and better ventilation. A brighter, happier atmosphere was the result.
This changed condition was not confined, to the upper story. The lower part of
the house was equally transformed. The shadowy comers, the dimly lighted stair-
cases, and the dark passageways were of the past. The perpetual twilight of the
mediaeval dwelling gave place to the sunshine of the Renaissance.

Among the host of articles which added to the comfort and convenience of the
Italian house were clocks, mirrors, and screens. Clocks were not the invention of
this century, but they were little used until this period. They were of sma ll dun en-
sions, elaborated, incased in metal, and sometimes ornamented with pietra-dura —
an inlay of ivory, horn, mother-of-pearl, and lapis lazuli. Screens were of stamped
and painted leather, and were usually imported from Spain. Mirrors were of two
varieties. The common ones were of polished steel; the more costly ones were of
glass. The frames in both instances were of metal and highly decorated. It was
in the small furnishings that the art of the house was at fault. Mirror frames,
clock cases, and candlesticks passed the border-line of good taste.

Chests gained rather than diminished in importance during this period.
They were no longer used as seats, for chairs were abvmdant. They were no longer
needed as receptacles for armor and implements of the chase, for hunting had fallen
into disuse, and the sixteenth century was one of peace. The housekeeper did not
require them for her household stores, for more convenient pieces of furniture were
designed especially for her needs. The family plate was no longer concealed in
them, for the silver was displayed on the sideboard by day and hidden in a safe
at night.

As flower or ma.rria.g p ^ffffp^, t>ip chests, or cassoni, of the Renaissance developed
into works of art. Many artists made their reputations in this field alone. The
finest gesso work, the purest gilding, the most intricate intarsia, and the best type
of carving entered Into the construction of these coffers. The cartouche or
pierced shield was often a feature of the carved chest. Acanthus leaves and
delicately modeled arabesques were also favorite designs. One Andrea di Cosimo
was noted for his skill in adapting the cartouche, ^'asari saj's of him: "It would
not be possible to describe the vast number of decorations in coffers and other works
of similar kind executed by Andrea di Cosimo, seeing that the whole city is full of
them. I must, therefore, decline the enumeration of them, but I cannot omit to
mention the circular escutcheons which were prepared by this artist, and to such
an extent that there could hardly be a wedding solemnized but that Andrea must
have his shops filled with such works, either for one or another of the citizens."

Many coffers were decorated with gesso, a composition of paint and gold-leaf.
But the most beautiful ones were of intarsia. In the fifteenth century intarsia, or
the inlaying of colored woods etched by hot irons, was little known outside of the

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

Carthusian monasteries. In the sixteenth century its fame reached the courts of
Francois I and Henry VIII. The inlay was composed of natural and dyed woods
scorched with hot sand or iron and polished with penetrating oils. Geometrical '
patterns, copied from mosaics, cinque-cento ornament, landscapes, and figures were
executed in this medium. Each artist had his own methods of preparing the colors,
and these secrets were carefully guarded. Among the famous workers in intarsia,
the intarsia-ton, as they were called, were Fra Raffaello, Fra Damiano, and Fra
Bartolommeo. These men were monks of the Carthusian and Dominican orders
but they made marriage-coffers as well as choir stalls and sacristy presses. A
notable piece of this sixteenth-century inlay is the screen in the Charter House at
Pa via, decorated by Fra Bartolommeo. Another celebrated, example is the chasse
containing the relics of St. Dominic in the church of Bergamo. This work was
executed by Fra Damiano, but it is called "Charles V's intarsia." When Charles
of Spain visited Bergamo he refused to believe that the chasse was made of
inlaid wood, declaring it was the work of the brush. Nor was he convinced until a
piece of the wood was removed. In memory of this occasion, and the tribute paid
to the monk's skill, the wood was never replaced. Jlany museums and private
collections contain beautiful specimens of this Renaissance inlay, notable specimens
being in the Vincigliata.

Situated on high land, overlooking Florence and Fiesole, is the Castello di Mn-
cigliata, rich in sixteenth-century treasures. The present owner is an American,
Mr. John Temple Leader, who has spent a fortune in restoring it. Although the
castle is no longer used as a dwelling there is no suggestion of a museiun in the
arrangement of ilr. Leader's collection which includes furniture of unusual beaut}%
rare pieces of silver and bronze, and exquisite enamels, faience, and glass. Part
of the building antedates the Renaissance, and the rooms in this section have been
sympathetically treated. The ceilings are particularly fine and range from late
mediaeval types to those of the sixteenth century.

C eilin gs and side walls during the Renaissance were treated in a masterly man-
ner. Architects adapted the vaulted ceiling to new conditions and transformed
the flat Gothic type into a thing of beauty. One treatment of the flat ceiling
consisted of horizontal beams, another of cross-beaming. The sunken panels
formed by the latter scheme were ornamented by carved rosettes in high relief.
This treatment was a revival of the coffered ceiling of the Romans and became one
of the most characteristic features of the Renaissance house. When left in the
natural colors of the wood it was very harmonious. In the typical dwelling of the
sixteenth century it was seldom painted. In the palace the rosettes were usually
of gold set in a colored background.

Usually, when one wishes concrete examples of Renaissance decoration, he must

m
z

<
K
O

g
K

i-I

m
o

Q
H

o
o

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

turn to the homes of princes. In the palaces of Rome,
Florence, Naples, and Venice every fifteenth and sixteenth-
century tjqje of ceiling is represented. Some are very fine,
others are too ornate to be beautiful. Florentine palaces
are simpler in architecture and furnishings than those of any
other Italian city, and consequently Florentine ceiUngs are
more worthy of study. In the Riccardi Palace built by
Michelozzi, for Ckjsimo de' Medici the Elder, and famous as
being the birthplace of Lorenzo the Magnificent, are ceilings
of great merit, and notable ones are in the Strozzi and
Gondi palaces.

A beautiful example of horizontal beaming is shown in
the music-room of Dorfred House, the residence of Frederic
C. Bartlett, Esq., Chicago. In the WilUam C. Whitney
house. New York city, are several ceilings of the coffered
class. This American mansion is truer to the Renaissance
than many Italian palaces. The latter have suffered from
vandalism, and scarcely less

REX.VISSANCE CARVING

from unfortunate restora-
tion. The Whitney interiors
are ver\' consistent.

Celebrated ceilings are
in the ducal palaces of ilantua, Genoa and Venice,
but, as a whole, they are verj- elaborate. "S'enetian
decorators treated the ceiling as an independent
thing, giving it a prominence which was fatal to the
proportions of the room. They painted pictures in
all the available spaces which detracted from the
importance of the side walls and spoiled the har-
mony of floor, walls, and ceiling, which was one~bf
the great principles of Renaissance decoration.

Paneling formed a part of the woodwork of the
sixteenth-centiuy Italian house, but it did not
cover the wall so completely as in many English
houses. It had the character of a high wainscatiag
divided into long, plain panels, headed with smaller
ones, carved in low relief. Above the woodwork
tapestry extended to the cornice. During this period
tapestry becomes a part of the wall. Hitherto it had

DOOR OF THE VATICAN
Designed by Raphael

'S^^i

CARVED CHAIRS IX THE LCCCA MUSEUM, EARLY SEVENTEEXTH CEXTURT

been simply a hanging, fastened at the top and moving with even- wind that
passed through the room. "Look for hidden foes behind the arras," was an old
proverb which now lost its significance.

Tapestries were woven in great quantities in Genoa, Venice, and Palermo.
The Gobelin weaves were comparatively new, as the industrj-. founded by Jean
Gobelin was in its infancy, but Lille and Arras had been pouring the products of their
looms into Italy for generations. Arras had given to the Italian language a new
word, arrazzi and this term, in a general way, was applied to all textile hangings.
Brocades, velvets, and decorated leathers were sometimes used in palaces, and
again, the space above the panels was filled ^\"ith mural paintings. But the every-
day room — the room in the citizen's house — depended on the soft-toned tapestry
of Palermo and Genoa for a backgroimd, and as no pictures were placed against
it, the result was very satisfactory.

Pictures were the luxury^of the rich. The citizen's house, therefore, possessed
a harmony which the home of the patrician lacked. Tapestry was little fitted to
display paintings. The richly framed pictures, when brought into contact with
the richly figured walls, produced an effect of over-decoration which was ruinous

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

to the unity of the room. The walls were sufficiently pictorial in themselves, and
escaped being too decorative by the subdued color schemes of the weavers.
v/ Mediaeval colors were glaring; those of the Renaissance were rich and somber.
Venetian red, Gobelin blue, the golden browns and deep yellows of Palermo, and
the silvery greens of Genoa were among the colors chosen by the tapestry-makers.
It remained for a later and French taste to introduce the pale, cold colors, and the
glittering gold which annihilated harmony and spoiled the relation of walls and
furniture.

Against the low-toned tapestry, wainscoted in Italian walnut, the furniture of
the day had its true setting. Brought in juxtaposition with the garish colors of the
baroque period it lost its real character, and became too heavily carved for beauty.
Perhaps no other style of furniture loses so much in being separate from its legiti-
mate surroundings as that of the Italian Renaissance. For this reason museum
pieces and isolated cabinets and chairs in a modern house give little hint of their
one-time dignity. In the Renaissance house the furniture was merely a detail in
' the general scheme of furnishing, and as such it was nearly perfect.

Designs of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries maintained the
high standard set by the early Renaissance furniture-makers. Carving wasjntricate
but was executed in low relief, and the various quatro-cento and cinque-cento
motifs were kept carefully apart. The chairs of the early seventeenth century,
illustrated on page 47, show that at that late day the simple tre-cento orna-
ment was skilfully handled, and there are many other pieces of similar date which
show the same restrained treatment. One type of furniture had disappeared.
The transition pieces combining Gothic and Renaissance principles were extinct.
No two styles were less fitted to go together, and no . furniture was so painfully
ugly as that which united Renaissance ornament and. Gothic., construction. Be it
said in favor of the Italians, that this combination was never common except in
monasteries where Gothic tradition was almost a religion. The chair on page 39
is a good example of the grafting of Renaissance details on Gothic framework,
using good in the sense of typical.

Upholstered chairs in the seventeenth century formed a distinct class. In the
early sixteenth century the cushioned seat was set in a frame of wood to which was
added later a cushioned back. Gradually the frame of the chair was hidden by the
upholstery of brocade, tapestry, or leather until the arms and supports alone were
visible. This type was well illustrated at the Exposition of Arts and Industries
held in Lucca a few years ago when, in addition to many beautiful modern
articles, was exhibited a rare collection of Renaissance furniture. Many pieces
were contributedby old Italian families, and were shown to the public for the
first time. The exhibition was especially rich in carved and upholstered chairs.

DESK AND CHAIR USED BY SAVONAROLA, MUSEUM OF ST. MARK, PLOKENCB

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

SCREEN OF IXTARSIA, PAVIA
Work of Fra Bartolommeo

The carved chair of Italian walnut reproduced on
page 38 was loaned from the collection of the
Mansi palace of Lucca, as were also the chest
of drawers and the fine sixteenth-century cabi-
net with its priceless old porcelains shown on
pages 36 and 37. This cabinet originally had a
plain door of wood. The Renaissance furniture-
maker was an artist and he realized that a piece
so heavily carv^ed should have a solid door, con-
cealing and not displaying the treasures within.
It was a nineteenth-century cabinet-maker who
added the glass front.

The ilansi chair is worthy of study, as it rep-
resents a t3^e which has grown to be accepted as
characteristic of the Renaissance. Modern furni-
ture-makers have copied its narrow back and
high seat, and have made it a medium for jig-saw
carving and glued ornament. It was merely an
anteroom chair in the sixteenth century, and was
not tolerated long by the Italians, although it was
in high favor in England as evidenced by the many examples in English museums.
A strange fatality has given prominence to this least desirable of Renaissance designs,
and emphasizes the fact that in furniture the survival is not always of the fittest. The
dignified a rm-c liairs and the fine, simple, straight^back chairs, illustrated on page 47,
have been overlooked by modem wood-workers. The Renaissance table has never
had justice done to its beautiful lines and restrained ornament, although the baroque
table of the late seventeenth century has been made the theme of countless
reproductions. When furniture-makers discarded the solid side supports of the
Renaissance table they sought to hide defective construction with meaningless
carving. The table with four separate legs was yet to come. The old forms
with hea\'y standards and long foot-boards were passing away. The transitional
table was not beautiful, although the result achieved in another century was well
worth the struggle.

The baroque period was the waning Renaissance and corresponded with the rococo
period in France. The final illustration in this chapter is a typical Italian example.
Two pieces of furniture which assumed an important place in the late seventeenth
century were unknown in the early Renaissance house, and these were the bookcase
and the ^Titing-desk. Bookcases, in the earlier period, were made exclusively for
the great libraries of Italy, and writing-desks were the property of monks and

FURNITURE OF THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

FLORENTINE MARRIAGE COFFER

scribes. In the Miiseum of St. Mark in Florence is exhibited the desk used by
Savonarola. It has iiot a line of decoration, a scrap of carving. The monks orna-
mented their chairs and benches, but their desks were as severe as their lives.
Savonarola's desk is beautiful in its straight lines and plain surfaces, and aside
from its connection with the great Dominican, has value as a piece of Renaissance
"woodwork. The curule shown with the desk is interesting. It is sold in replica
all over Florence as "Savonarola's chair," the Roman origin being overshadowed
by its association with the great Florentine.

The couch as distinguished from the bed was a product of the Renaissance.

A FINE EXAMPLE OF RENAISSANCE CARVING
51

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

It was placed in the bedroom and,
like many of the coifers, was orna-
mented with intarsia and gesso.
Vasari, in writing of gesso decora-
tion, says: "And this custom pre-
vailed to such an extent for many
years that the most distinguished
masters employed themselves in
painting and gilding. Nor were they
ashamed of this occupation. The
truth of what is here said may be
seen at this day in the chambers of
the magnificent Lorenzo, on which
were depicted, not by men of the
common race of painters, all the
jousts given by the duke."

Furniture-making owed not a
little of its prestige to the patronage
of the Medici family, and scarcely
less to the powerful Sforza family
of Milan, the Gonzaga of Mantua,
the Farnese of Rome, and the Doria
and Spinola houses of Genoa. The
cities of Italy were governed by men
who vied with each other in fostering
the arts. They were not- all of noble
birth, but they wielded a power
equaled by few princes of the blood.
A family numbering in its ranks such
figures as Cosimo the Elder, Lorenzo
the Magnificent, Clement VII, and
Leo X had little to fear from royalty.
When the glory of this family declined
the artsof Florence declined also. And what was true of Florence was true of Genoa,of
Milan, and of Rome. The late seventeenth century sounded the death-knell of the Re-
naissance. Fine art was dead, for the last of the masters had passed away. Liberal
art, more dependent on its patrons than fine art, deteriorated with the waning influence
of those great families who had created standards of taste. The work of the stone-cul^
ter,the silversmith, and the furniture-maker became aweak imitation of former beauty.

--TATE r-HAIR, LATE REXAIS^AXCE,

I; \H()<ji;e tiieatmen'T

CHAPTER V

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: A TRANSITIONAL PERIOD SIMILAR
TO THAT OF ITALY BUT OP LONGER DURATION, GOTHIC ART BEING
MORE FIRMLY ROOTED IN FRANCE THAN IN THE SOUTH. THE
ORNAMENT OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE WAS IN A LIGHTER VEIN
AND LESS DEPENDENT ON ANTIQUE MODELS. DELICATE ARA-
BESQUES AND PIERCED SHIELDS WERE USED BY FURNITURE-MAKERS
AND DECORATORS. LATER IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY WOOD-
CARVERS COMBINED AN INTERLACED RIBBON ORNAMENT WITH THE
LOZENGE AND THE CARTOUCHE, WHICH WAS FOLLOWED BY THE
INTRODUCTION OF THE SHELL AND THE ORNATE SCROLL. FROM
THAT DATE FURNITURE-MAKING DECLINED IN SIMPLICITY.

CHAPTEK Y

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE

IT was during the reign of Charles M^II that the influence of the Italian Renais-
sance extended to France. With the accession of this monarch began the long
wars with Naples and ilUan which ended with the extinction of the house of
Valois. Charles's campaign in Italj- gained neither lands nor glory for France, but
it laid the foundation of the French Renaissance.

"The new birth" in France may be di^'ided into the following epochs: First,
Transition, 1453-1515, including the reigns of Charles YIIl and Louis XII;
second, Frangois I, 1515-1547; third, Henri II and Henri IV, 1547-1610; fourth,
Louis XIII, 1610-1643.

The first epoch was Renaissance in detaU onh-; the construction was purely
Gothic. The fourth was the waning Renaissance when a threadbare tradition
remained. The strongest period was the century 1515-1610, covered by the reigns
of five sovereigns, three of whom left an indelible impress on the arts of the day.
Francois I, Henri II, and Henri IV created epochs; Francois II, Charles IX, and
Henri III did little for the honor of France and less for art. The forty-two years
encompassed by the reigns of these three monarchs, last of the house of "N'alois,
were among the blackest in history. Little that was notable was produced in
France between the death of Henri II and the accession of Henri of Navarre.

During the thirty odd years that Francois I occupied the throne, more was done
for the artistic development of France than had been accomplished in the combined
reigns of Charles YLl, Louis XI, Charles M^II, and Louis XII, who had ruled for
nearly a century.

Francois came to his inheritance when the nation was ripe for a great art
revival, and he had the wit to seize the opportunity, and the brains and wealth to
make the most of it. His ambition was to raise France to an equality with Italy
and to this end he invited great architects and painters to his court.

Italy was divided into countless kingdoms and dukedoms, but France was
practically a united country. Italy had her Florentine school, her Venetian school,
her schools of Siena, Milan, and Naples. The art of France was centralized in Paris.
Francois called to his aid the greatest lights of Italy and Flanders, and began the
series of magnificent chateaux which to-day bear witness to his munificence. Hun-
dreds of native designers were employed in building Chambord, Chenonceau, and
Fontainebleau, who worked under the guidance of such men as Serlio and Vignola,

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

Primaticcio, Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, and Benvenuto Cellini. Among
the illustrious Frenchmen who joined forces with the Italian architects and deco-
rators, and later formed the national school, were Bullant, Lescot, and Delorme.
Besides building royal residences Francois remodeled the Louvre and added

several rooms to the chateau

of Blois which had been par-
tially restored by Louis XII.
In Chambord the architecture
of a feudal stronghold was
blended with Renaissance de-
tails. In Fontainebleau a more
consistent plan was followed.
The interior of Chambord was
demolished during the French
Revolution, but Fontainebleau,
in spite of its checkered history,
remains to-day the truest ex-
ample of the French Renais-
sance. Many stirring events
have had this historic palace
for a background. In one of
the rooms the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes was signed;
in another ilonaldeschi was
murdered; and in the great
gallery of Diana occurred the
death of Cond6 in 1686. Here
years later the sentence of
divorce was passed on Joseph-
ine; and here in the court of
Henri IV, Napoleon parted
with his Old Guard. Fontaine-
bleau was alternately a royal
dwelling, a military school, and
a papal residence. Henri II and Henri IV did much to beautify it; Louis XIII was
bom within its walls but seldom lived there; Louis XIV cared little for it; and Louis
XV shunned it altogether. Napoleon revived its splendor for a brief period and
Louis Philippe spent a royal fortune in restoring it. Thanks to Louis Philippe the
Fontainebleau of to-day is a faithful representation of the Fontainebleau of the

LOUIS XII riKEPLACE, CHATEAU OF BLOIS

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE

sixteenth century. Much of the woodwork is the same and many of the frescoes
have been merely retouched. The fireplaces and mantels have been restored from
sketches and plans which had been carefully preserved.

The woodwork of the French Renaissance differed materially from Itahan wood-
work of the same period. The ornament was in a lighter vein, the carving more
open, and less dependent on antique
models. Even when the work was
executed by Italian designers it was
imbued with the French spirit. This
is especially noticeable in the treatment
of doors and chimney-pieces.

The fireplaces in Blois and Fon-
tainebleau show with what a masterly
hand the workmen of the early Renais-
sance wielded wood and stone. A
Louis XII fireplace of stone is repro-
duced herewith. On a field of fleur-de-
lis is a shield ornamented by a crown
and surrounded by schallop shells. lu
another portion of the stonework is the
pierced porcupine, Louis XII's emblem,
combined with the ermine of Anne of
Brittany. The uniting of royal emblems
is seen in many of the rooms of this
chateau. The salamander of Francois
I and the monogram of Claude, his
wife, daughter of Louis XII, occur
over and over. The swan pierced with
the dagger, Claude's insignia is also a
frequent motif.

The chimney-piece of the room in
Blois, illustrated on page 59, shows the

charm and delicacy of the "FranQois Premier" style. This salon was decorated for
Queen Claude and the initials C and F interlaced with crowns are conspicuous in the
carving. The intricate low relief is characteristic of the early Renaissance. The
fireplace in the gallery of Henri II, reproduced on page 61, is one of the most famous
in France. The royal arms, more elaborately executed than in the Louis XII
mantel, occupy the center of the chimney-breast. The frescoes were originally
painted by Primaticcio and his pupil Abbate and later restored by Jean Alaux.

RENAISSANCE CHAIR, CHATEAU OF BLOIi

HISTORIC STYLES IX FURXITURE

Henri's initial inclosed in a crescent, the emblem of Diane de Poitiers, is a favorite
mot^ in the decoration. Four crescents encircling fleur-de-lis adorn the fireplace
and are repeated over the doors. The ornamentation above the mantel contains a
hint of the interlaced lines and bands which were destined to become a marked feature
of the Henri II style in both woodwork and furniture. The development of "strap-
work" is an interesting phase of Renaissance ornament. It originated in Italy,
but was less favored by the Italians than by the the French and English. In England
dxu-ing the reign of EUzabeth this form of carv'ing was iised so extensively that it
is to-day largely associated with the name of that sovereign. "Elizabethan strap-
work" is the name given to the pierced and scrolled woodwork of this period.

Less remarkable in an architectural wa}' than the Frantjois I period the Henri
II surpassed it in the industrial arts. Furniture, textiles, porcelains, and book-
bindings were triiunphs of artistic achievement. Jean Grolier, in his exquisite
bindings, carried the intersecting ribbon ornamentation to a high degree of
beauty, suggesting the interlaced work of old Celtic and Saracenic patterns. The
exquisite Oiron faience, better known as "Henri Deux ware," was decorated with
this scheme of ornament. In the intricate strap-and-band decoration fiuniture-
makers found an extensive field for ingenuity. The pierced shield, the lozenge, the
flat cartouche, were combined with interlaced lines in countless wa^-s. Grotesque
heads in low relief were also used in comiection with stra{)-work, particularly in
cabinets, presses, and armoires. In the Cluny iluseum is a mourning cabinet
belonging to Diane de Poitiers, ornamented vdth bands of interlacing ribbons
painted in dull colors. Another cabinet with similar decorations came from Clair-
vaux .A.bbey. A chest ■with Heiu-i's monogram has narrow lines of marquetry in
a pattern that might have been a direct copy of a book-cover. There are three
coffers in the Lou^-re, and two in Fontainebleau, which display this handling.

In the cabinet fiuniture-makers found the finest medium for their talents. So
long as ornament was controlled and made subordinate to the design, every piece of
carv-ing from the hand of the French designer was a thing of beauty. DeUcate
arabesques and the more severe strap-work appeared to great advantage in the
cabinets The construction of this article gave scope for a treatment which was
imf»ossible in the bed, the chair, or the table. What the chest was in the hands of
the mediaeval craftsman, the cabinet became in the hands of the furniture-maker
of the French Renaissance ; it was the highest exponent of the craftsman's skill.
Fontainebleau, Blois, the Louvre, and the Cluny contain many beautiful specimens
of this period, roughly spanned by the years 1550 and 1600.

In this coimtry there are fine specimens in museiuns and private collections,
but they lose much in being separated from their original setting — a remark that
may be made in reference to all Renaissance furnitxire. In the Lawrence room in

FIREPLACE BUILT FOR CLAUDE, WIFE OP FRAN9OIS I, CHATEAU OF BLOIS

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, an admirable effect is gained by the use of Renais-
sance panels which line the walls. Against this background the carved cabinets,
the chairs, and the pieces of fine armor have a consistent setting. Much of
Benvenuto Cellini's work is here in replica. The shield and helmet made for
Francois I and the suit of armor belonging to Henri II, designed by Cellini and
executed by his pupil Pilon, are both exhibited. Pilon equaled Cellini in strength,
and Cousin and Jean Goujon surpassed him in delicacy. In the andirons of the many
fireplaces of Fontainebleau and Blois may be seen the skill and ingenuity of
French metal-workers.

When Henri IV came to the throne the sixteenth century was nearing its close.
Under Henri III the arts had declined. Henri of Navarre revived the glories of
Fontainebleau and gave a renewed impetus to the industries of France. But times
had changed and the creative force of the Renaissance was gone. Henri's queen,
Marie de' Medici, cared little for French taste and sought to introduce Italian work-
men at court. Furniture of her reign was either imported from Italy or patterned
closely on Italian models. Venetian brocades and Genoese velvets replaced French
and Flemish tapestries. Architecture, so far as the queen had a voice in the matter,
was decidedly Italian. After Henri's death Marie conomissioned Jacques Debrosse
to build the Luxembourg. The exterior was planned after the Pitti palace, the
queen's early home, and remains an interesting architectural monument to this
remarkable woman.

In the ch§,teau of Blois is a chamber where Marie de' Medici passed the bitter
hours of her captivity. It has been described by Richard Sudbury in his delightful
book, Two Gentlemen in Touraine:

"We turned with some reluctance from the scene without and the thoughts
which it had inspired, to enter the apartments of Henri III. These occupy the
whole of the upper floor; and if they are barren of their former furniture, they may
at least boast a wealth of old and historical associations connected with the times
of Catherine and her cousin Marie de' Medici. The whole suite, consisting of halls,
of private rooms and galleries, overlooking the town, is in a perfect state of
restoration. The French government has devoted much time and money to the
preservation of old designs and styles of decoration. Everywhere the blue and
yellow polished tiles, representing the or and azure of heraldry, are noticeable in
their ever-changing designs upon the floor. The thick beams of the ceihng,
decorated in the manner peculiar to the Renaissance, blend with that of the walls,
and make us believe that it is yesterday in which we are living rather than to-day.
A beautiful little chamber leads out to the private chapel of the king. It is
lined with tiny wooden panels, two hundred and forty in number, which are of
different design and highly ornamented in gold and brown. The ceiling is so similar

F:REPLACE in the gallery of HENRI II, FONTAINEBLEAU

HISTORIC STYLES IN S^URNITURE

to the walls that it gives to the whole the appearance of a little jewel-box built
to inclose some royal gem. And indeed it did once long ago, for hard by is a
window where Marie de' Medici, escaped after twenty years of captivity in
this chamber."

Women wielded a powerful influence on the arts of France during the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. Pious Anne of Brittany, renowned for her Book of

Hours, cannot be
reckoned as an im-
portant figure of her
day so far as the arts
are concerned, but a
queen of the follow-
ing reign, the second
wife of FranQois I,
cannot be thus dis-
missed. Eleanor of
Portugal, sister of
Charles V, most fam-
ous monarch of his
time after Francois
himself, was notable
ina centuryof notable
women. Her interest
in the development
of French architec-
ture and decorative
art was very keen.
Catherine de'Medici's
talents were largely
expended on court
intrigues, but Diane
de Poitiers was an
important factor in
molding taste in the
reign of Henri II. In
the waning days of the
Renaissance Anne
of Austria was a great

BEDSTEAD BELONGING TO ANNE OF AUSTRIA, PONTAINEBLEAU patrOU Of the artS.

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE

Anne's bedchamber is one of the most sumptuous of the apartments in Fon-
tainebleau. The room is himg with Gobelin tapestries and is magnificently
furnished. The chairs are upholstered in Beauvais. The tables and cabinets are
inlaid in elaborate patterns and ornamented with delicate carvings. Rare vases
and urns are scattered through
the apartment. The effect is
bewildering. Everything is
figured, everything is fuU of
motion and color. The tapes-
tries and paintings depict the
most stirring events. There is
nothing restful about the room,
except the bed which against
a quieter backgrotmd would
arouse enthusiasm. It is a
particularly fine specimen. The
columns are well proportioned
and treated architecturally with
bases and capitals. There is
no foot-board and the head-
board is lower than in the bed
of the previous century. The
wooden canopy is part of the
design and is richly carved.
The hangings are of a unique
pattern, woven especially for
Queen Anne. Many royal
heads have rested beneath the
carved canopy and one papal
one. Between the years 1812
and 1814 Pius VII was impris-
oned in Fontainebleau. Many
objects of interest belonging to
him are exhibited in another
room, the most interesting be-
ing a bronze reliquary, a gold
and ivory crucifix, and a small
clock studded with cameos renaissance paneling, replica of armor belonging

-. , ' to HENRI II, EXECUTED BY PILON. DUTCH CHAIR.

given by the pope to Napoleon. museum of pine arts, boston

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

The chandelier in Anne's bedcJiamber. belongs to .the late Louis XIII period
and is oppressively gorgeous. Beneath each candle-holder is a huge pendant of
crystal which glitters like a mammoth diamond. A comparison of the French
chandelier with the Italian one of the day shows how superior the latter is in design
and workmanship.

Louis XIV carried the golden glitter of the chandelier a point further than did
Louis XIII, and Louis XV made it an excuse for every fantastic bit of ornament.
Louis XVI restored it to an earlier simplicity, and Napoleon gave to it a Spartan
severity. These various styles may be studied in Fontainebleau. From Francois
I to Louis Philippe the palace is an epitome of the history of interior decoration.
Seven historic periods, covering four centuries, are represented within its walls.

During the Henri IV period the shell, as a motif in wood-carving, came into
prominence. At first its use was confined to finials of chairs and cabinets where
it was extremely effective. During Ijouis XIII's reign the shell passed into
another stage of its existence. It formed a part of nearly every piece of furniture,
and was repeated in the decoration of doors and mantels. With the abuse of the
shell began the long reign of rococo ornament — literally rock and shell — rocaiUe
et coquille — which was one of the most remarkable in the history of decoration.

Simon Vouet, who bore somewhat the same relation to Ijouis XIII that his pupil,
Lebrun, did to Louis XIV, was largely responsible for the florid ornamentation of
the late Renaissance in France. He used the heavily scrolled cartouche, the fancy
pilaster, the ponderous garland of fruits and flowers, the round cherub face and the
fantastic shell. Doors and mantels were oppressively ornate and furniture, in
order to conform to the same architectural scheme, was equally florid.

The best furniture of this period — the middle of the seventeenth century — ^was
of Flemish design. Furniture-makers were divided into two groups; those who
followed the lead of Simon Vouet whose inspiration was of Italian origin, and
those who clung to the simpler sturdy designs popular in the Low Countries.
Thus the furniture of the Louis XIII epoch represents two types. The first
was undoubtedly more in tune with the ornate decorative schemes of the day; the
second was unquestionably the more beautiful, though always a little incongruous
with gilded walls. The direct Flemish influence of the late French Renaissance has
been attributed to Rubens who visited Paris at the request of Marie de' Medici in
the early part of the seventeenth century. This influence strengthened in the
succeeding reign and did not end until the Louis XIV style was well established.

The furniture of Louis XIII's time was much more varied than that of the
preceding reign. There were sets of chairs; six or twelve single chairs, four arm-
chairs, and two sofas — all constructed on the same lines and upholstered in the same
manner. Designs in stuffs had changed. Bouquets, knots of ribbon, and garlands

fa
n

f
z
o

g"
o
o
«

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

of flowers replaced the small and more classic patterns. Life was growing more
luxurious and it was transforming furniture. It was not only transforming, it was
creating. The divan with high curved back, padded with velvet or brocade, was
the product of Loviis XIII's reign; so also was the console.

Prints and iUimiinations of the time of Louis XIII show a variety of chairs —
chairs for the master of the house, the mistress, the children, and special shapes
for the servants. Litchfield says that the word "chaLse," as a diminutive for
"chaire," found its wa\' into the French vocabulary at this period.

With the inauguration of the scroll and shell a different form of arm-chair came
into existence. The seat was lower, the arms more curving, the upholsterj' more
comfortable. Se\-erity of line was lost and with it the beauty of line also. To
balance the broader and deejjer seat, larger supports were necessary, and these
gave to the chair a hea\'iness which the light and delicate ornament accentuated.

This description appUes to the French chair of Italian origin. The Flemish
chair had a high seat, a comparatively low back, and turned legs connected by
strong, rectangular braces. The French chair was supported by an X-brace, ter-
minating in the center with a scroll. The chair designated as the "Regency of
Anne of Austria." illustrated in Chapter IX, is a refined type of this style. The
chair on page 57 combines the best characteristics of early seventeenth-century
Flemish and French designing. Here is admirable construction luiited with
admirable ornamentation. The outlines are Flemish but not extreme Flemish.
The seat is lower and the back is higher than ia many Flemish chairs of the
period. The carNong is French but is applied after the manner of the Flemish
craftsmen. The turned legs and caned brace are Flemish, too, but treated mth
French delicacy. The presence of the cane back is worthy of note, for it is
seldom found in French chairs of this period. The cane back was a characteristic
featm-e of the Flemish chair of the late seventeenth century and in various
guises was known in England, Italy, and Spain. The chair in Blois is a particu-
larly attractive example, and illustrates the fact that in an age of excessive
decoration there was an occasional designer who could follow the dictates of
fashion and yet keep his work free from extravagance. In the Salon Louis XIII
are chairs which illustrate the point in hand. They are built on prescribed
lines but are severely plain. The circular X-brace is without carving and the
arms are straighter than in many chairs of the day. There is no hint of the shell
or the acanthus leaf in any part of the construction.

This lofty apartment was decorated and furnished for Henri IV whose initials,
combined with those of Marie de' Medici, are still visible in the painted cornice.
The walls are di-vided into small panels painted with flowers and landscapes, and
separated by caned borders. The large pictures form a permanent part of the

FURXITUHE OF THE FRENCH REXAISSAXCE

decoration, and are the work of Ambroise Du Boi&. These huge canvases were
painted for Henri IV and represent scenes from the story of Theagenes and Char-
icles. Between the pictures are car\'ed arabesques of fruit and flowers picked out
in gold. The room does not equal the gallery of Henri 11 in Fontainebleau, nor
can it approach in simple
grandeiir the large apartment
built bj' Franjois I in the
chateau of Blois.

The tables in this salon are
noteworthy, for thej- exhibit a
deUcacy unknown in the Italian
table of the day. The detached
legs are held in place with a
slight connecting base. The
ornament is extremely refined.
As the trestle table gave place
to the bolt-and-slot table, and
that to the table of the Renais-
sance, and that Ln tiun to the
hideous baroque table, so the
French table of the early seven-
teenth century, fault}' as it was
in design, was slowlj- approach-
ing the beautiful table of the
eighteenth centiuy, when, free
from base-boards and connect-
ing rods, it stood on four inde-
pendent supports. The result
was an English production of
the eighteenth century, but
the French had a part in its
evolution.

Before Louis XIII's long reign was over the Renaissance had run ite course.
The history of ornament is the history of fumitiu-e and both repeat themselves.
From a debased type slowly arose a vital one which, after shaking off the chrysalis
stage, remained consistent for a brief period, then declined, and was finaUv
superseded by a new force which in turn shared the fate of its predecessor. This
waxing and waning continued imtil the early part of the nineteenth centyiy
when historic fimiitm-e, in the strict sense of the term, ceased to exist.

CABIXET, LATE RENAISSANCE

CHAPTER VI

FURNITURE-MAKING IN GERMANY AND THE LOW
COUNTRIES

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE : IN FLANDERS AND HOLLAND AFTER
A BRIEF PERIOD OF ASSIMILATION THE RENAISSANCE DEVELOPED
ON ORIGINAL LINES. WOOD CARVERS ADAPTED THE ARABESQUE
AND THE CARTOUCHE TO A SIMPLER, STURDIER FORM OP ORNA-
MENT THAN WAS KNOWN IN FRANCE AND ITALY. HEADS AND
GROTESQUE MASKS WERE INTRODUCED INTO CABINET WORK,
BUT ALWAYS WITH MARKED EFFECT. THE DUTCH EXCELLED
IN MARQUETRY, AND THE FLEMINGS IN THE USE OF CANE, BOTH
PHASES OF WORK EXERTING A POAVERFUL INFLUENCE ON THE
FURNITURE-MAKING OF OTHER COUNTRIES. DURING THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH CENTURY THE GERMANS COMBINED RENAISSANCE
DETAILS WITH GOTHIC CONSTRUCTION. LATER A MORE CON-
SISTENT TYPE WAS ESTABLISHED IN WHICH FINE METAL WORK
WAS CONSPICUOUS.

CHAPTEE Yl

FURNITURE-MAKING IN GERMANY AND THE LOW COUNTRIES

THE alose connection politically between Flanders, Spain, and Germany
brought about a curious affinity between the various phases of the Renais-
sance known as Flemish, Spanish, and German. Charles, king of Spain was
emperor of Germany, and also count of Flanders and duke of Burgundy.
The intercourse between Spain and the Low Countries had for several centuries
been very intimate. When Marie of Burgundy married Archduke Jlaximilian,
Austria became a part of the royal circle which now included Spain, Germany,
Holland, and Flanders. By this marriage the Low Countries were annexed to the
Austrian crown, a rich possession at this period of the world's history.

The development of the Renaissance in Holland and Flanders, with its subse-
quent influence on the handicraft of other nations, is one of the most interesting
chapters in the history of industrial art. Holland and Flanders accepted the move-
ment tardily and never succumbed to it as did the French and the Italians. Just
as Gothic ornament remained beautiful in the I^ow Countries long after it had
become extravagant in France, so the ornament of the Renaissance remained cohe-
rent long after it had become grotesque in France and England.

Holland and Flanders reversed the usual order of Renaissance development.
The early and middle periods were less creditable than the later phases. The
Italians and the French achieved their triumphs before the advent of the seventeenth
century, but the Dutch and the Flemings brought their work to perfection after
the year 1600. If the English were the great furniture-makers of the eigh-
teenth century, the inhabitants of the Low Countries were the great furniture-
makers of the seventeenth. The part that Holland and Flanders played in Eng-
land's triumphs cannot be overestimated. The late Jacobean and the Queen Anne
styles, both of which were a preparation for the great eighteenth-century styles,
were of Dutch origin.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Flemish and Dutch work
was so closely allied that the two adjectives are often used interchangeably.
Previous to this date there was a greater difference in the arts of the two
countries. Flanders was more closely in touch with France, and Holland with
Germany, The hall of the Gruuthuuse, shown on page 75, is a typical Flemish
interior of a semi-public nature. The mantel is of stone and brick, with a simple
hood, ornamented in low relief. The severity of this room is in startling contrast

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

to the French apart-
ments of the period.
•The chairs are of the
tA-pe described in the
previous chapter, hav-
ing high scats, compara-
tivelj- low backs, and
strong turned legs and
braces. Of like con-
struction is the Dutch
chair in the Musemii of
Fine Ails, Boston, illus-
trated on page 63. The
table is similar to the
English Type of the late
sixteenth centur\-, but
of a liigher order of
workmansliip. Contem-
porary with the table is
the beautiful oak cup-
board.reproduced on the
following page. It is
i n t e r e s t i n g to com-
pare this sixteenth-
century specimen with
the fine fifteenth-cen-
turycupboard illustrated
in Chapter III. Both are
Flemish and both show
a striking similarity of
construction. The divi-
sions of the doors, pan-
els, and drawere are
identical. The locks are
placed in the same rela-
tive position; the han-
dles of the drawers are
of the same variety; the hinges are of the same dimensions. The Renaissance
cupboard has brackets and the Gothic cupboard has a heavier molding, but barring

C.KBiylET OF DUTCH MARQUETRY

FLEMISH CCPBOAKD, SIXTEENTH CENTURY

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

these details the constructive qualities are one and the same. When it comes
to ornament there is a hundred years' difference in time, and a world of difference
in the treatment. Each is typical of its kind and each is a beautiful specimen of
wood-carving.

Flemish cabinet-making had a wide influence on the furniture-makers of other
countries, but Flemish chair-making exerted a greater one. The chair with turned
legs and braces traveled from one country to another, but no design equaled in
traveling capacity the cane chair of Flanders. It found its way to France, Spain,
England, and later to America, each country adding a few characteristics. In
England it took root so firmly that for years it was classed as Jacobean, and still
masquerades as such in many old catalogues and inventories. The attributes of
the pure Flemish design were a back and seat of finely woven cane, feet termi-
nating in an outward scroll, three turned stretchers, and a carved under brace
following in general lines the carving of the back. The beautiful chair in Blois,
described in the preceding chapter, is a French adaptation of the style.

Holland's chief contribution to furniture-making of the seventeenth century
was her exquisite marquetry. Holland's commercial intercourse with the orient
gave her a knowledge of rare tropical woods, and it is not surprising that she was
one of the first nations to use veneering as a form of decoration. In tarsia had
been carried to a high degree of perfection in Italy. France later in the century
gave to the world Andr6 Charles- Boulle whose marvelous work in brass and
shell stands unrivaled. Spain led in the intricate inlaying of ivory and silver —
a legacy from the Moors. But to Holland belongs the honor of bringing to per-
fection the veneer of colored woods known as "marquetry."

Hamilton Jackson in his book, Intarsia and Marquetry, says "The word 'in-
tarsia' is derived from the Latin 'interserere,' to insert, according to the best ItaUan
authorities, though Scherer says there was a similar word, 'tausia,' which was applied
to the inlaying of gold and silver in some other metal, an art practiced in Damascios,
and there called damascening; and that at first the two words meant the same
thing, but after a time one was applied to work in wood and the other to metal-
work. The word 'tausia' is said to be of Arabic origin, and there is no doubt that
the art is oriental. It perhaps reached Europe either by way of Sicily or through
the Spanish Moors. "Marquetry," on the other hand, is a word of much later origin,
and comes from the French "marqueter," to spot, to mark. It seems, therefore,
accurate to apply the former term to those inlays of wood in which a space is first
sunk in the solid."

After the accession of William of Orange Dutch marquetry was imported in
great quantities in England, many pieces of which exist to-day in museums and
private collections. The wealthy Dutch colonists in America possessed beau-

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

tiful specimens of this work in the form of cupboards and kasses. These are
stiU preserved by the descendants of the original owners and form, in their entirety,
an ahnost complete history of the art as applied to the decoration of fmmture
from the middle of the seventeenth centur},' until late in the eighteenth centiuy.

In Germany there was a long transitional period during which the lingering
traditions of Gothic art died slowly. The earlj- phases of the Renaissance show
the grafting of the new upon the old. This mixture of Gothic and Renaissance
was less successful in that countr}- than in France where a happier union prevailed.

The best examples of German wood-caning of the early sixteenth centtuy were
of ecclesiastical origin. Choir stalls and altar-pieces were richly decorated in the
manner of the day. In domestic architecture the combination of Gothic con-
struction and Renaissance ornament was less successful. A certain quaintness,
however, marked all German handicraft of this period and early Renaissance
specimens are eagerlj- sought to-day. Following the transitional period came the
Flemish-German period in which a marked similarity existed between the work

BOOM IN -VX OLD DUTCH HOME, ED.tM. HOLLAND, FUHNITUKE OF THE SEVENTEEXTH AXD

EIGHTEENTH CENTCRIES

GERMAX PRESS, TTPICAL EXAMPLE OP BEXAISSAXCE CAETDTG

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

of Flanders and Germany. Spanish influence was fleeting and was mainly confined
to a curious ornamentation of silver and ivory based on Saracenic patterns.

Toward the middle of the sixteenth century German handicraft became more
individual and the late Renaissance development was a distinct phase. Not
until the late seventeenth century, when German designers became engulfed in the
extreme rococo, did the work of this nation lose its beauty and vitality. Augs-
huig, Dresden, Munich, Cologne, and Nurembiu-g contain many sixteenth-century
specimens. Chairs, cupboards, and presses of this period are beautiful specimens
of wood-carving. The great presses of this century are the most characteristic
pieces of furniture. Made of oak and walnut with carved panels and heavy
doors they are as substantial to-day as when they came from the hands of their
maker. The press, iUustrated on the preceding page, is made of walnut with an
imusuaUy fine scheme of decoration. The plain surfaces are weU distributed
and the ornament, although elaborate, is neither heavy nor fantastic. The lock is
concealed in the carving, while the key repeats the lines of the ornament. The
ball-feet are worthy of note as they indicate a new feature of furniture-making.

CHAPTER VII

FURNITURE OF THE SPANISH RENAISSANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: A BLENDING OF RENAISSANCE
AND MOORISH ORNAMENT LARGELY TINCTURED WITH FLEMISH
INFLUENCE. FURNITURE-MAKERS COMBINED RARE WOODS WITH
SILVER AND IVORY, DEPENDING UPON INLAY INSTEAD OF CARV-
ING FOR DECORATIVE EFFECT.

CHAPTEE VII

FURNITURE OF THE SPANISH RENAISSANCE

AS Gothic ornament was largely dominated by Saracenic influence, so it was
with the ornament of the Renaissance. Through all the work of Spanish
craftsmen runs a vein of Moorish feeling. It is shown in all the arts, espe-
cially in that of the wood-carver. Many pieces of furniture of this period are
distinctly Moorish; others combine a strong Italian or Flemish influence.

Furniture was imported in quantities and the fact that an old piece is found
in Spain does not always indicate that it is of Spanish origin. Charles V, anxious
to equal his royal brother-in-law in the splendor of his court, invited workmen
from the important cities of Europe to establish their crafts in Seville, Toledo,
Valladolid, and Vargua. Among the foreign workmen who took up their residence
on Spanish soil were wood-carvers, tapestry-weavers, marqueters, inlayers, and
goldsmiths. Moorish inlaying was alreadj' a perfected craft and visiting artisans
in this branch learned more than they gave. The metal-work of the peninsula
had been for centuries of a high order, especially in the way of damascening and
niello work.

Rare and beautiful woods entered into the composition of Spanish furniture
during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. From her possessions in the
east Spain imported ebony and ivor}'^ which were utilized in the making of
coffers and cabinets. Many of the latter were plain on the exterior, except for
beautifully wrought locks and hinges. The ornament was confined to the interior
arid was of exquisite" workhiahsliip. The connection between the chest and the
cabinet seems to have been a close one in Spain. The massive cupboards and
presses of the north found little favor among native designers. The typical
Spanish cabinet was an elevated chest supported by carved or turned colunms.
Instead of doors there was a drop lid which could be lowered by a turn of a key.
Inside were many drawers and compartments ornamented in gold and vermilion,
or showing the characteristic combination of ivory and silver. Miniature arches,
colonnades, and doors were revealed by the turning key. "All somewhat bizarre,"
says an English critic, "and altogether rather barbarous, but a rich and effective
treatment." Silver was used to such an extent in the making of furniture that it
was forbidden by a royal edict in the latter part of the sixteenth century. "No
cabinets, desks, coffers, braziers, tables, or other articles decorated with stamped,
raised, carved, or plain silver should be manufactured."

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

The influence of the Flemish cane chair on
furniture-making of other nations has been men-
tioned. The leather chair of Spain almost
equaled it in importance. The Spanish design
consisted of a sturdy frame of oak or chestnut,
a back completely incased in leather, turned
stretchers, a carved under-brace, and feet which
have been termed "hoof" by collectors. The
leather was of decorated Cordovan held in place
by large nails. An interesting fate piu-sued this
chair, together with the celebrated Flemish
model. English furniture-makers combined the
back of one with the feet of the other, some-
times using cane, sometimes leather. The com-
posite chair which reached America late in the
seventeenth century, usually had Spanish feet
grafted upon a Flemish framework. The inter-
mingling of the two designs worked for good in
_ many cases, for in the hands of skilful craftsmen

ft ■■' ^"^^^1/ ,-4' the best points of the two were retained. The

/" j S'','"^ Spanish foot was undoubtedly more graceful than

' the Flemish, while the general outline of the

Flemish chair was better than the Spanish. The
Italians combined the various characteristics with
marked success. The English were less success-
ful in their treatment.
In the ;\Iuseum of Fine Arts, Boston is a beautiful high-backed leather chair.
It has the scrolled under-brace, the fine hoof feet, and other distinctive marks of
the pure Spanish type. It is one of the best examples of its kind in America.

A characteristic Spanish -Flemish design may be found in the chapter entitled Colo-
nial Furniture, page 172. This chair shows the mingling of the two styles, and is of
English origin.

SPANISH CHAIR, MUSEUM OF FINE
ART3, BOSTON

CHAPTER YIII

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE SIXTEENTH AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: FIRST THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
OR TUDOR WHICH WAS A MINGLING OF FLEMISH AND ITALIAN
GRAFTED UPON GOTHIC. SECOND, LATE TUDOR OR ELIZABETHAN,
SHOWING GREATER UNITY; STRAP-WORK AND PANELING WERE
FEATURES OF THIS PERIOD. THIRD, JACOBEAN COVERING NEARLY
A CENTURY, AND INCLUDING MANY TYPES. FURNITURE WAS
PANELED AND CARVED UNTIL WALNUT WAS INTRODUCED WHEN
VENEER AND MARQUETRY BECAME POPULAR. AMONG JACOBEAN
CHARACTERISTICS WERE THE SPIRAL LEG, THE RISING PANEL,
"dog tooth" and SCROLL BORDERS, AND SPINDLE ORNAMENTS.
WITH THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE, IN 1688, DUTCH
INFLUENCE BECAME PARAMOUNT, AND ENGLISH FURNITURE
WAS SLOWLY REVOLUTIONIZED — THE PERFECTED STYLE BEING
KNOWN AS QUEEN ANNE.

CHAPTER VIII

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH

CENTURIES

WHEN Henry VIII returned from his meeting with Franjois I and Charles
V on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, he sought to introduce into England
some of the magnificence that characterized the French court. Impor-
tant changes in Windsor and Hampton date from this event. The great tide
of the Renaissance, however, had reached England before this momentous gather-
ing of sovereigns.

Torrigiano, a contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci, was commissioned to erect
the tomb of Henry VII. His treatment was naturally in the style of the Renais-
sance which was approaching its first flower in Italy. Holbein's sojourn in England
was an important link in the chain which was strengthened by distinguished visi-
tors from France, Italy, and Flanders.

The sixteenth century was a period of great architectural activity in England.
Hardwick Hall and Longleat are splendid specimens of the early Renaissancet
The castle of None Such erected by Henry VIII, were it now in existence, would
form a valuable addition to Renaissance architecture, for it embodied the work
of many celebrities. John of Padua was court architect and to him was intrusted
the larger share of the work. It was the king's wish to have the palace equal Fon-
tainebleau, and he spared no expense in carrying out this desire.

The style known as "English Renaissance" or "Tudor" was a mingling of Italian,
French, and Flemish, the latter largely predominating. It was not until the
accession of Elizabeth that the style became distinctive. During her long reign
greater encouragement was given to native workmen, and the style known as
"Elizabethan" was much more English than that of the early Tudors.

Two marked phases in interior work existed under the Tudor sovereigns. The
first was developed in Henry VIII's time; the second reached its culmination
under Elizabeth. The first was the "linen-fold" motive in wood paneling and
furniture; the second was "strap-work," mentioned in connection with the Henri
II period which was contemporaneous with the Elizabethan. From France via
Flanders the linen pattern is supposed to have emanated, although its origin is
somewhat obscure. It was introduced into England during the reign of Henry
VII and appears to have won instant approval. Like strap-work it appealed
strongly to English taste. The treatment of the pattern suggested folds of linen
arranged in long, perpendicular lines.

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

A room in Hampton Court is paneled in this manner and dates from the reign
of Henry VIII. Haddon Hall, Parkham, and Oxbridge Castle contain rooms with
similar woodwork. This scheme of decoration, which lasted for nearly a century
in England, had no connection with the Renaissance. It has been called the latest
survival of the Gothic and the last of medisBval ornament. It was known in the
monasteries of France long before it reached England, and it is possible that it
may have been in use as early as 1450 in Flanders and Germany. In England its
development was wholly secular and, with few exceptions, was confined to wall
treatment. The folds were executed in low relief and, during the best period,
were without ' ornament. A beautiful cupboard, carved in this manner, owned by
Guy F. Laking, Esq., is shown in this chapter. . This specimen belongs, to the early
sixteenth century and is of French origin.

When Elizabeth came to the throne the linen pattern had lost its simplicity.
It gradually declined in favor and another style took its place. The beauty of
Elizabethan strap-Work has been mentioned. The development of this scheme of
decoration, like its predecessor, was of slow growth, and was not perfected until
late in Elizabeth's reign. It survived this sovereign many years, finding favor
under the Stuarts. Haddon and Hardwick Halls contain many examples of strap-
work. Over the- fireplace in the Presence chamber of Hardwick is a simple inter-
pretation of the motif, combined with the round and oval lozenge. In the state
dining-room is a stone chimney-piece with a more elaborate treatment. A plain
entablature, with an 'inscription, is surrounded by intricate strap-work in which
figures are introduced. The date of the completion of the hall, 1597, is cut
in the stone. Hardwick as a whole is a magnificent example of Elizabethan
decoration.

The -great Presence chamber shows another scheme of wall treatment which was
in high favor towards the close' of the sixteenth century. This was the plastered
frieze used in connection with wood paneling or tapestry. The great tapestry-
weaving districts of Flanders and the Loire were sending forth their beautiful
productions to enrich the manor houses across the channel. The finest Flemish
tapestries are of this century, and Hardwick has many beautiful specimens, the
most elaborate hanging in the Audience or Presence room, which is illustrated in
this chapter. Here the queen was received when she honored Bess of Hardwick,
the Countess of Shrewsbury, with her visits. As a picturesque figure of her day
Bess of Hardwick almost rivals Queen Bess. Her wit, her beauty, her money, and
her many marriages have been the theme of numerous stories. As a romantic
heroine for an historical novel the Countess of Shrewsbury leaves little to be
desired, and no background could be more kaleidoscopic than beautiful old Hard-
wick. The Presence chamber, where so many important events have been en-

LINEN-FOLD CUPBOARD, SIXTEENTH CENTURY

HISTORIC STYLES IX FITIXITI RE

acted, is in a beautiful state of preservation. AboA-e the tapestr\- k the quainf
frieie. once highly ccdored, but now faded to dim blues, greens, and yeUow^ Diana
ar.c! her nymphs s,re represented in the plaster, together with straagp birds and
animals. The background is fiUed with stiti treos and the whole effect is quainth*
decoratiTe.

The furniture of the room, \x-ith the exception of the stch^Is with cur\-ed legs.
belongs to the late sixteenth centtuy. The table is the tj-jx^ that foUowied tlie
boam-:-.:id-rn?stle. The strvtohei?. or "struts." ss they were then called inEi^and.
are a few inches from the grotmd. This long and narrow style remained the
accepted form until late in the Stviart period. The Tv<und table with many
turned supports, known iu America as the 'nhousand-iespxi table." and in Eiic'and
as the "gtsteJeg table." was the success^^r of the hea\y Elizabethan pattern. In
the early Jacobean period from the accession of J;i-.'.'.es 1 until the Wirif.rir.i: of the
Commonwealth) i:iany variaiic-.-s of the long tab'.o were in use. T-'.o legs were
often skflfuUy turned, showing balk and retnaiiglos. the struts were grvx>A-ed. and
car\-ed with the "dog-tovith" pattern; occasioiuiUy brackets were placevi beneath
the Top. ornamented in similar manner.

Chairs, as the seventeenth century- prv^givssed. became more A-aried and were
constructed with a grv-ater rvgard for comfort. Durir.g the Tudor period there were
few chairs in sx'neral use. Benches aiiJ: stix^ls were the common soats of the day.
The Flemish chair, with high seat and low back, was jdaced in halls ;iv.d audience
rooms. It was seldom seen in the homes. The tiuned chair, with crude supwns
and heavy spiuiiles. was a more common style and is interesting to Americans,
inasmuch as it was the eariiest t>-pe impone^i in the tvlonies. Go\-emor Oar\-er
and Elder Brevreter brv^ught tumeil chairs witlt them in the Maj-flower which are
now exhibited in Pilgrim Hall. Ph-mouth.

The most important chair of Elizabeths day and of the succeeding reign was
the wainscot chair which, as its name indicates. w:is of oak. This wtis a mas-
sive piece of workmanship, far abo\-e the tiir-aevl chair in pomt of execution, and
often car\"ed with strap-v«-ork. serv^Ils and bits of Renaissance ornament. A plain
example of the wainscot chair is seen in Liberty Hall. Philadelphia, and a mor^
elaborate specimen in the Essex Institute. Salem. The latter is a fine piece
of EUaabethan furniture and woidd be rated as such in England.

The wainscot table was a Uttle later in date than the wainscot chair. It was
a combination chair and table, the back of the seat fonui-.ig the top of the table.
It did not supersede the long table previously mentioned, but was used in comtec-
tion with it until the more com-enient " gate-1^ table " became the accepted pat-
tern. Esther Singleton, in writing of oak furniture of the sixteenth and se\-en-
teenth centuries, sii>"s of the word wainscot: "The name, according to Skeat..

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

being derived from the low Danish "wagenschot", the best kind of oak wood, well

grained and without knots That wainscot was applied to the wood

rather than the paneling we learn from Harrison's Historical Description of the
Land of Britaine (1587), where he says, 'that the oak grown in Bardfield Park,
Essex; is the finest for joiner's craft, for ofttimes have I scene of their works made
of that oak so fine and fair as most of the wainscot that is brought hither out of
Danske.' "

The word "joined" is a frequent one in old annals. In 1574 an inventory of
the furniture in Thomas Cumberworth's house included: "A presse of waynscott
wt diverse shelffes, 3 thrown cheyers, 3 joyned forms, 2 joyned tables, 1 pair of
bedstocks, 1 grete waynscott cheyer, 1 waynscott bed, 1 court-cupboarde, 6
joyned stools." Joined furniture' was made without nails, being fastened with
mortise and tenon, a method almost as old as furniture-making itself. Presses and
cupboards continued to be of colossal dimensions, and by their construction offered
scope for intricate strap-work, paneling and figure work. "Court" and "livery"
cupboards are frequently mentioned in sixteenth century inventories. Many are
the interpretations by modern writers of the words "court" and "livery." The
former is sometimes translated "short," the latter "service." Whatever their
original meaning may have been it is certain that during the late seventeenth
century, both in England and America, the words "court" and "livery" were used
interchangeably, and always in connection with a high cupboard inclosed with
doors. Many early allusions to this piece of furniture include silverware. In
Romeo and Juliet, a servant in Capulet's house says: "Away with joint stools,
remove the court cupboard, look to the plate." In Chapman's May Day, pub-
lished in 1611, occur the lines, "And so for the feast, you have your court cupboards^
planted with flagons, cups, beakers, bowls, goblets, basins, and ewers"; and again:
"Here shall stand my court cupboard, with its furniture of plate." Another refer-
ence reads, "With a lean visage like a carved face on a court cupboard."

The piece of furniture thus designated in Thomas Cumberworth's inventory was
doubtless unlike the press, and from the fact that the word "wainscot" is not
used, was probably not of oak. The "thrown" chairs mentioned were of the turned
variety. This inventory is interesting as it shows the furniture in a home of
an Englishman of the middle class. "Bedstocks" were built into the wall and were
the common beds of the period, setting aside the pallets of straw which were still
used by the lower classes. The "great bed" mentioned was probably of carved
oak and the most important piece of furniture in the house. The bedsteads of
Elizabeth's day were huge affairs, many of them of great value. Some of the finer
ones are preserved in the old manor houses and show a strange mingling of Renais-
sance and Gothic. In the homes of the nobility there was always a state bed,

->!
H

n
o

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

kept in readiness for a possible
visit from the sovereign. The beds
slept in by Elizabeth are past
counting, and Scottish beds asso-
ciated with Mary Stuart are almost
as numerous.

The Stuart period, begin-
ning, with James I and ending
with the reign of Queen Anne,
covered more than a century. The
early Jacobean style was an out-
growth of the Elizabethan. Dur-
ing the reign of James I there
was little change in furniture
making. With the accession of
Charles I the Jacobean style be-
came more firmly established.
Homes were more comfortably
furnished than at any previous
time and the mode of living was
more refined. Queen Henriette
Marie was partly responsible for
the greater refinement of the court.
England was far behind France
in the small comforts of life and
the Queen's influence in this direc-
tion was beneficial; so also was
that of Van Dyek. The great
Flemish painter came to England
at this period in order to paint the royal family. Those matchless portraits of the
Stuart children did not comprise all of Van Dyck's work on English soil. His
visit was scarcely less momentous than that of Holbein a century before.

Inigo Jones, sometimes called "The English Palladio," was at the height of his
fame when Charles came to the throne. Christopher "Wren was born seven years
later, his long life spanning nearly a century, 1632-1723. The influence of these
two men was very great, not only upon the architecture of the day, but upon the
decorative arts, and especially upon furniture-making. The work of Jones was
more closely identified with the early Stuarts and that of Wren with the later
Jacobean period.

SEVENTEENTH CBNTUHY CUPBOARD

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

One of the distinctive features of Jacobean furniture was the spiral leg which
is seen in chairs, cupboards, and chests of drawers. The finest type of spiral was
not of the turned variety, but carved by hand. The most interesting pieces of
this period wei-e elevated cupboards standing on high spiral supports.

During^ the Commonwealth progress was retarded. The conditions of the country
were not such as to foster the work of the decorator and furniture-maker. With
the Restoration came prosperity and a renewed interest in the arts of peace.
Charles II had spent a large part of his life in France and was thoroughly imbued
with luxurious ideas which he had profitably studied at the court of Louis XIV.
Furniture of this reign is somewhat grotesque, combining a medley of designs.

TAPESTRY WOVEN BY MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS

French, English, and Flemish. One marked change for good was the tendency
toward lighter, more graceful forms. The introduction of walnut made a startling
difference in furniture-designing. The wood did not lend itself to carving and
new effects were obtained by veneer and inlay. Cupboards and chests of the late
seventeenth century show a variety of decoration. One imique scheme of orna-
ment had a great vogue in England and was widely copied in this country. A
plain surface was ornamented with turned pieces of a different wood, cut in the
shape of ovals, drops, spindles, and nail heads. Sometimes the pieces were painted,
in order to give variety to the scheme. According to Dr. Irving W. Lyon, the
pioneer writer on colonial furniture in America, drop ornaments were first used by
Peter Koek, a Fleming, who decorated his furniture with carrot-shaped pieces of
painted wood. "Nail heads" the same writer traces to a Norman origin, stating
that the true nail head was diamond-shaped. Some of this applied-ornament is
highly decorative, and marks a distinct epoch in furniture-making. Paneling
during the Stuart period remained in favor and was diversified by diamond-

FURNITURE OF SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES

shaped moldings. The "rising" panel belongs to this period and the depressed or
sunken panel to Elizabeth's reign.

A characteristic example of applied-ornament is shown in the chest of draw-
ers in Memorial Hall, Deerfield, Massachusetts. According to tradition this piece
of furniture was brought from Scotland in the late seventeenth century.

The adjective "Jacobean" has been variously interpreted by furniture writers; some
limiting the word to the reigns of James I and James II, others using it in a broader
sense and including the furniture of the entire Stuart line. The term is used in the
wider meaning in this chapter

The accession of William of Orange, in 1688, was a turning-point, in English
furniture-making. The best that Holland possessed passed into England, and
from that date a beautiful simplicity was manifest in English handicraft. The
Flemish chair of cane had already influenced chair-making, and was a distinctive
feature of the late Jacobean period. Prominent among Dutch innovations was
the cabriole leg, a furniture accessory which was destined to revolutionize the chair,
the table, and the chest of drawers. Marquetry was freely used over large plain
surfaces, and with its popularity paneling declined in favor.

Changes in furniture-making are gradual. It was not until the reign of Queen
Anne that the Dutch and English designs were assimilated. The perfected style
is known by the name of this sovereign and belongs to the early part of the
eighteenth century.

CHAPTER IX

LOUIS XIV FURNITURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: A FORMAL ROCOCO IN WHICH PRO-
PORTION AND BALANCE WERE SALIENT FEATURES. IMPORTANT
DETAILS WERE THE SHELL, THE CLASSIC ACANTHUS, THE RAM'S
HEAD, THE MASK, AND THE SATYR. IX THE EARLY PERIOD FUR-
NITURE WAS MASSIVE AND THE DESIGNS OF THE LOUIS XIII STYLE
WERE PERPETUATED. CAR\-ING WAS LARGELY SUPERSEDED BY
MARQUETRY AND BY CHISELED MOUNTS OF ORMOLU AND BRONZE.

CHAPTER IX

LOUIS XIV FURNITURE

THE three styles known respectively as Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis
XVI, form an important chapter in the history of furniture-making. The
Louis XIV was characterized by bold effects, lavish, but not excessive,
decoration, and faultless execution. Dignity and a certain massive grandeur
marked the work of the best "Quatorze" furniture. The Louis XV was the cul-
mination of the rococo school when balance and proportion were considered less
important than beauty of detail. The Louis XVI was a return to simpler designs
and a more restrained type of ornament. This reaction was partly due to the
influence of Marie Antoinette, partly to the newly awakened interest in classic
forms, prompted by the discoveries at Pompeii, and partly to the inevitable swing-
ing of the pendulum — from an extreme taste to a simpler one.

Louis XIV reigned seventy-two years, and during that time fashions in cos-
tumes and in furniture changed rapidly. There wore, however, certain qualities that
stamped the handicraft of the period and whi(th rendered it distinctive. Under
Louis XIV all the industries of France prospered. This was in a great measure
the result of Colbert's able administration. It was Colbert who suggested to the
king the wisdom of purchasing the Gobelin manufactory and of placing I^ebrun
at the head of it as art director; Colbert who organized the lace industries in the
provinces, thus turning into French coffers the vast sums that had been previously
expended on Italian and Flemish laces; Colbert who founded the Academy of
Painters and Sculptors — an association which numbered in its ranks masters of
all arts. Thus painters, sculptors, architects, designers, decorators, engravers,
and wood-carvers were banded together, working under a common impulse. The
academy first occupied an apartment in the Louvre, but later centralized its efforts
at the Gobelin factory where, under the direction of Lebrun, royal orders were
executed. Here the Louis XIV style was perfected. Previous to this date, 1667,
the standards of the preceding reign had influenced design.

Louis was five years of age when his father, Louis XIII, died. • During his
minority the queen regent and Cardinal Mazarin practically ruled. Anne was a
woman of luxurious tastes, and did much to foster the increasing desire at court
for costly surroundings. In this she was ably assisted by Mazarin whose love
for richly decorated rooms and sumptuous furniture drew heavily on the national
exchequer. The regency was brief, for Louis, according to the laws of France,

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

reached his majority at the age of thirteen, but during that period he had learned

a lesson in extravagance that was destined to bear fruit at Versailles

It was not until the death of Mazarin that the young king displayed the qualities-

of leadership which made him
the central figure in Europe.
No previous monarch of France-
had so dominated other nations.
His marriage with Marie The-
resa, daughter of Philip IV,
gave him a hold on Spain
and Austria; his invasion of
Franche-Comt6, a footing in
Flanders; his conquest of sev-
eral Dutch provinces, a grasp
on Holland; his purchase of
DunJkirk from Charles II, a.
loophole in England. All these
interests had an influence on
the arts of the day. Spanish,
Dutch, Italian, and Scotch
craftsmen were invited to
compete with French artisans.
It was the desire of Colbert to
limit foreign importations, and
to this end he established many
native industries. Under his.
administration visiting design-
ers were encouraged to stay
until the secrets of their work
had been acquired. They were
then politely dispatched to their
own country laden with hon-
ors, and sometimes pensioned.

When the palace of Versailles was decorated and furnished, few foreigners had a.

part in the work. It was a trimnph of French taste and skill, and as such it

remains to-day.

Louis XIII had erected a hunting-lodge at Versailles and later remodeled it

into a chateau. On this site, and keeping intact the older building, the present

palace was built. The architect was Jules Hardouin Mansart and the landscape-

100 ^€,^^5^

CHAIK IN VERSAILLES, REGENCY OF ANNE OF AUSTRIA

LOUIS XIV FURNITURE

gardener Andre Le Notre. The greatest artists of the day were employed in dec-
orating the interior and the greatest designers in planning the furnishings. The
finest products of the silk and tapestry looms of France were utilized for the hang-
ings. The rarest woods of the world were selected for the furniture. Craftsmen
of the kingdom vied with each other in perfecting their art so that the palace of
Le Grand Monarque should stand unrivaled.

Madame de Sevign^ who penned so
many graphic pictures of court life,
wrote, in 1676, to her daughter: "Let
me inform you, my child, of a change
of scene which will appear to you as
agreeable as it does to every one. I
went to Versailles on Saturday. This
is how things are disposed. You are
acquainted with the toilette of the
queen, the mass, the dinner; but it is
no longer necessary to be bored while
their majesties are at table, for at three
o'clock, the king, the queen, all the
princes and the princesses there are,
Madame de Montespan and all her
suite, all the courtiers, all the ladies', in
a word, what is called the court of
France, find themselves in that fine
apartment of the king that you know.
All is furnished divinely; all is magnifi-
cent."

* We may regret that Madame's
daughter was familiar with the "apart-
ment of the king," for otherwise a

spirited description would have followed. The writer describes the music and
games with which the court is entertained:

"That agreeable confusion without confusion of all that is most select lasts
from three to six. At that hour their majesties enter their carriages. Some go
in gondolas on the canal, where there is music. At ten o'clock all return, when
a comedy is performed; midnight strikes and then all is over."

The apartment to which Madame de S6vigne referred was tmdoubtedly the
Salon de la Guerre, mentioned by Mrs. Kingsley in her fine description of the palace.

"Nowhere," she says, "has interior decoration been carried to a further point

101

LOUIS XIV CLOCK

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

of perfection than in Versailles where we are offered the most splendid examples
possible of the Louis XIV > style. 'It may be all wrong in the eyes of architectural
purists, but for sheer magnificence of effect, for actual richness of detail in marble
and painting, in gilded stucco, carved wood, superb gilt-bronze, it cannot be- sur-
passed. Take, for example, the
Salon de Mars. The modillions
of the grand golden cornice are
empty casques. And in the
covings of the ceiling are golden
trophies and cupids in gilt
stucco riding eagles and taming
wolves. Golden wreaths frame
the paintings of the ceiling by
Audran, depicting Mars in his
chariot. Or, again, the Salon
d'Apollon, with its ceiling
by Lafosse and its winged
muses of extreme beauty, on
which the great sculptor Coy-
sevox did not refuse to work.
But all this glory of decorative
art culminates in the Grand
Galerie and the Salon de la
Guerre. Here decoration with
one object ever in view, the
glorification of the king, can
scarcely be carried further. The
coved roof represents in thirty
subjects the history of the
Grand Monarque, painted un-
der the direction of Lebrun,
from his most carefully prepared designs. Boileau and Racine composed the
inscriptions for each of these subjects, which are set in carved and gilded
sculpture of indescribable richness and variety. The great trophies of gilt-bronze
upon magnificent colored marbles and the twenty-four groups in gilded stucco are
due to Coysevox. The capitals of the pilasters, the frames of the Venetian mir-
rors, all the details of ornament, are by the first artists of the day. In the Salon
de la Guerre, in Coysevox's immortal bas-relief, the king, young, radiant, trium-
phant, tramples nations in chains under his horse's feet. When we add to the

102

BOULLE CONSOLE, EARLY LOUIS XIV

BUREAU, LATE LOUIS XIV

decorations that have survived war and revolution all that have been lost, the
statues, carved cabinets above all, the famous silver mobilier- m.a,de at the Gobe-
lin's to adorn the gallery, we get an idea of splendoralmost unequaled. Most of
the treasures are dispersed or destroyed. The silver furniture was sent to the
mint in 1690 to defray the expenses of the war against the League of Augsburg."

In contrast with these regal apartments which show the grandiose side of the
Louis XIV style is the room decorated and furnished for Madame de Maintenon, in
Fontainebleau. Here the simple phase is illustrated. Barring certain details in
the decorations, such as the "L" and the crown, this room is doubtless a
prototype of the salon in many private houses. The plain panels, the simple
mantel, and the substantial chairs are far more valuable from the decorative
standpoint than the gilded grandeur of the Salon de la Guerre.

In France the distinction between the salon de compagnie and the salon de
famille has always been emphasized. It is unfortunate that modern decorators in

103

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

treating a room in Louis XIV or Louis XV style neglect the simple aspect of the
style, which, with the exception of state apartments and ball-rooms, is the only
side suitable for reproduction in an American home. The gorgeous rooms in Ver-
sailles are chosen as models, rather than the plainer apartments in Fontainebleau
or the Trianons.

Many pieces of furniture belonging to palace and to private house were
destroyed at the time of the Revolution, but enough remain to show the
trend of the Louis XIV period. The Renaissance raised furiiiture-making to the
dignity of an art, but it was not until the reign of Louis XIV that furniture-
makers individually ranked as artists. Some of the cabinet-makers of that day
were as renowned as the painters, and one at least made a name for himself that
has outlived the fame of many of his brothers of the brush. This man was Andre
Charles BouUe. In 1672 he became Sbiniste to the king and was granted quarters
in the Louvre. The royal patent conferred upon him the title of "Engraver in
Ordinary of the Royal Seals," and also designated him as "architect, painter,
carver in mosaic, artist in cabinet-work, chaser, inlayer, and designer."

Boulle was a man of many talents, but his fame rests chiefly on a unique
marquetry of tortoise shell and brass with which he ornamented his furniture.
He was not the inventor of the process, but he carried it to such a point of excel-
lence that the name of the originator has been overlooked. Doubtless some chest
or casket of oriental workmanship suggested to French cabinet-makers this form
of decoration. Royal inventories of the late fourteenth century mention Damascus
caskets of shell overlaid with silver. Joan, first wife of Louis XII, numbered
among her dower chests one of ivory and horn inlaid with copper. Boulle's handi-
work was quite unlike oriental marquetry in point of execution, but it bore a slight
resemblance to it in general effect. His method was to cover the piece of furni-
ture to be decorated with a veneer of shell, over which brass cuttings were fas-
tened. Small brass nails secured the metal to the shell background and these were
deftly engraved to form part of the design. Shells, scrolls, acanthus foliage, and
other characteristic bits of ornament were represented in the brass. Metal mounts
and moldings were a, feature of the work. Masks, satyrs, and cupids were some of
the designs used as garnitures. The ram's head was a favorite with Boulle, and
may be found on many of his pieces. These mounts were usually of ormolu, a
composition of gold, mercury and copper which was applied to the brass to give
it the appearance of gold. Sometimes the process of veneer was reversed and
upon a brass foundation shell was appliqued. When the shell was overlaid with
brass, it was called "first part," or "boulle," and when the brass formed the back-
ground, with shell ornamentation, it was termed "second part" or "counter."
When both were combined in the same piece of furniture it was "boulle and

104

la
o

->!

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

counter." Other terms were "new bouUe" and "old bouUe:" The former referred
to the practice of placing color beneath the shell. Brilliant effects were obtained
by lining the shell with scarlet or gold-leaf. This combination was the work of
Andre's imitators, and found little favor with the master himself. Boulle's own
handicraft was marked by a refinement which his followers were unable to copy.
Many of Boulle's designs were furnished bj' Lebrun and executed under his super-
vision.

The console in the Ij0u\Te, illustrated on page 102, is an example of his early
work. It combines "boulle" and "counter," and is a representative piece. It also
shows the massive tj-pe of furniture in vogue during the early Louis XIV period.
The console depends entirely on the marquetry and metal mounts for interest; the
outline is heavy to the verge of cumbersome. The supports are of the pedestal
order and are a survival of the preceding reign. The pedestal support is important
as indicating the date of the piece.

Later fiu-niture shows a curving leg, still massive, but more graceful. The
supports of the early eighteenth century are more slender, and approximate the
Louis X^' style. The two extremes may be studied in the console mentioned
and in the bureau on page 103.

The chair reproduced belongs to the early Louis XI^' period. It was made
during the regency of Anne of Austria, and has the heavy supports of the Louis
XIII period. The acanthus leaf is the chief motive in the decoration, as it is in
most of the chairs of that daj'. The leaf is well modeled and is in low reUef, a
marked contrast to its later development when endless foliations replaced the
severer handling. Beauvais tapestry forms the upholstery and fringe in corre-
sponding colors adds a finish to the seat and back.

Later chairs show a bolder treatment of the acanthus and a more ornate
frame. The pedestal supports are still in evidence, but the lines have changed
somewhat. The arms have a deeper curve and have lost something in beauty. It
is a point worthy of notice that the arms of the Renaissance chairs were quite
straight, and that the curve was of gradual growth. Chair legs in France re-
mained straight xmtil late in the seventeenth century when the general tendency
towards flowing lines altered the supports of chairs, tables, and cabinets. During
the last fifteen years of Louis XI\''s reign (1700-1715) every article of furniture,
except the bed, conformed to rococo outUnes. Rococo ornament had long held
sway, but shapes as a whole had been severe.

The bed had undergone several changes. The lower posts were discarded and
the canopy was suspended from the cornice. The bed in the king's chamber at
Versailles shows to what an extent the decoration of this article of ftirniture could
be carried. The headboard of this royal structure is carved in the best manner

106

HEADBOARD, LOtJIS XIV BEDSTEAD, VERSAILLES

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

of the period. The mask with radiations, surrounded by the laurel wreath, the
acanthus scrolls, and the shell are all characteristic. The mask represented the
sun and the radiations the beams. This was a compliment to his majesty whose
power was without limit. The hangings of the bed are of Gobelin tapestry and
Lyons velvet.

Ebony, o'ak, walnut, and chestnut were the woods most in favor with furniture-
makers. Rare woods, like sandal and tulip, were used as panels to give color and
variety. When to this combination on3'^x, porphyry, and lapis lazuli were added,
the whole ornamented with ormolu frames and mounts, only a prophet in furni-
ture could have predicted that a succeeding style would carry decoration a point
further.

The Louis XIV style was suited to the monarch who delighted in being called
le grand and who desired to be painted in the character of Jove hurling thunder-
bolts at trembling Europe. It was fitted for palaces but, save in its plainest
aspect, was little suited for the homes of those born outside the purple.

That elaborate furniture was not confined to the court may be gathered from
letters and inventories of the celebrated cabinet-makers of the day. Boulle made
many pieces for the wealthy citizens of Paris, particularly in the later years of
his life when the king's fancy had turned to the work of younger men. Boulle
lived to be ninety years of age, surviving his royal patron more than a decade.
The list of cabinets, consoles and armoires designed by him is a long one. Much
■of his work, like that of his contemporaries, was destroyed at the time of the
Revolution.

108

CHAPTEE X

LOUIS XV FURNITURE

CHAEACTEEISTICS OF THE STYLE: THE EXTREME ROCOCO IN WHICH
THE PRINCIPAL DETAILS WERE THE BROKEN SHELL, THE CURLED
ENDIVE, AND THE SPIRAL SCROLL. BALANCE AND SYMMETRY
WERE LESS IMPORTANT IN THE EYES OF FURNITURE-MAKERS
THAN RICHNESS OF ORNAMENT AND FAULTLESS EXECUTION.
ANGLES GAVE PLACE TO CURVES, AND THE TALENTS OF THE
GOLDSMITH AND THE PAINTER WERE UTILIZED IN DESIGNING
FURNITURE WHICH, IN POINT OF WORKMANSHIP, HAS NEVER
BEEN SURPASSED.

CHAPTER X

LOUIS XV FURNITURE

^"^HERE were no clearly defined lines between the Louis XIV and the Louis
XV styles of furniture. The sweeping curves and ornate decorations which
characterized the designs of the early "Quinze" period were the natural out-
growth of the late "Quatorze" epoch. From the time that Pierre Mignard
succeeded Lebrun,' as art director, a gradual change had taken place in all handi-
craft. Instead of one controlling force there were a dozen influences. Designers,
free from the restraint of obeying one master mind, worked on independent lines.
In rare cases this was productive of good. The arts as a whole suffered seriously.
With the death of the Grand Monarque the last of the seventeenth-centiu-y tradi-
tions passed away.

Louis XV, like his great predecessor, was only five years of age when he was
proclaimed king. During his minority the office of regent devolved upon the duke
of Orleans. This term of eight years, 1715-1723, was an important period in the
history of decorative art. The old court with its stately ceremonies, its pomp
and magnificence was gone, and in its place was a new court bent on the lightest
and gayest amusements. The formal arrangement of rooms, the classic treat-
■ ment of walls and furniture, found little favor with the regent and his followers.
To conform to the tastes of the day decorators introduced the extreme rococo.
The broken shell, the twisted acanthus, the curled endive, and the flowing scroll
formed a part of interior woodwork. The cornice, the wainscot, the mantel,
the moldings of windows and doors, the frames of panels and pictures, em-
bodied one and the same idea. To harmonize with this setting furniture was,
of necessity, constructed on similar lines. Plain surfaces were abhorred. Every-
thing glittered with elaborate mounts of bronze and ormolu; everything was orna-
mented to such a degree that its real purpose became a secondary consideration.
Several pieces of furniture were sometimes combined in one in order to give wood
and metal-workers greater scope for ingenuity. Some of the regency designs are
strange combinations of writing-desks, bureaus, and timepieces. The workman-
ship of this fantastic furniture is of a high order; the greatest artists of the day
bestowed their skill upon it. While it does not surpass in beauty of execution
the work of the masterly band who designed furniture for Louis XIV, it equals
it in many ways. A few of the great cabinet-makers, who were associated with
Lebrun, lived to execute orders for the regent, and also for Louis XV.

Ill

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

Charles Cressent, -a pupil of Boulle, and one of his most noted followers was
closely identified with the style of the regency. Dubois and the elder CafSeri were
among the number who adapted their methods to the tastes of the time. Boulle

was less flexible. With the
spirit of the day he was
never in touch. His work
belongs so entirely to the
"Quatorze" period, it is such
a complete expression of the
formalism of the seventeenth
century, that it is impossible
to associate iiim with the
succeeding epoch. He pro-
duced much that was fine
in the latter years of his life,
but it bears little resem-
blance to the handicraft of
his contemporaries.

Among the painters of
the regency who lent their
talents to the embellishing
of walls and furniture were
Lancret and Watteau.
Among the hosts of interior
decorators who designed fiu"-
niture were Meissonier, de
Cotte, Boffrand, Oppenord,
and Pineau. Meissonier was
the real leader of the rococo
school. To him is credited
the introduction of the
broken shell, and the count-
less twists and twirls which
were such a feature of French
decoration during the eighteenth century. His defiance of the rules of balance
and proportion delighted the duke of Orleans, who gave him many commissions.
• Meissonier disregarded all principles of symmetry and sought to obtain novel
. effects by introducing startling contrasts. One side of a cabinet or console would
often be treated in a manner quite different from the other. He was consistent

112

GOBELIN TAPESTRY DESIGNED BY BOUCHER AND TESSIER,
1757. EXECUTED BY NEILSON

LOUIS XV .SOFA, PETIT TRIANON

only in that he carried his scheme of contrasts to a very fine point. In
furnishing a room every detail conformed to this erratic treatment. Meissonier.
achieved considerable fame and lived to see his work extolled and condemned.
That he had a powerful influence on the arts of the day his many enemies
could not deny. Flemish, German, and English cabinet-makers borrowed
extensively from him. Chippendale, in his early days, patterned many of his
designs after Meissonier. His book of drawings for furniture, The Gentle-
man and Cabinet-maker' s Director, bears more than a chance resemblance to
the work of the Frenchman. Some of the designs for state beds, bureaus, and
commodes surpass the most extravagant conceptions of Meissonier, and emphasize
the fact that rococo ornament in the hands of the English passed even beyond the
limit placed upon it by the French.

The work of the great furniture-makers of the regency and of the Louis XV
period had certain qualities of elegance and grace, which foreign wood-workers were
unable to imitate. This is especially noticeable in the German and Italian handi-
craft of the day. The German rococo and the Italian baroque combine all the
faults of the style rocaille without any of its redeeming features. There was no
suggestion of heaviness in the most ornate piece of French furniture. Fantastic
as the design often was there was no hint of absurdity in its construction or decora-
tion. Possessing a discrimination which the German and the Italian did not share,
the Frenchman was able to preserve the narrow line that separated the extrava-

113

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

gant from the grotesque. Symmetry, which was such an important factor in the
eyes of the furniture-makers of the Louis XIV period, was lacking in the work of
many of the later craftsmen.

Louis XIV carried his love of balance to such a point that Madame de Main-
tenon once wrote, "The king will have us all buried in symmetry." Such fine
distinctions did not trouble Louis XV, nor the men and women of his court,
whose favor or disapproval made or marred the success of an artist.

The group of men — decorators, designers, fiu-niture-makers, workers in metal
and marquetry — who spent their lives in the endeavor to please a capricious com-t
formed a large and notable body. Within the compass of a single chapter it is
not possible to give more than a brief mention of the great artist^artisans of this
period. Many volumes wovdd be needed to treat in an adequate way French handi-
craft of the eighteenth century. The subject of furniture alone, if presented in
all its phases, would demand a chapter on the great tapestry industries of France^
another on Sevres porcelain, a third on metals, and a fourth on lacquer. Wood
alone formed but an insignificant part in the making of a large portion of the Louis
XV furniture. Marquetry had its place, but the pieces in which marquetry alone
is used for ornamentation are very rare. The talents of the tapestry-weaver, of the
potter, and of the goldsmith, were utilized to produce those marvelous cabinets
and commodes which to-day, when offered for sale, bring prices which can scarcely
be expressed in less than four fig\u-es.

Among the men who made this sumptuous furniture may be mentioned Rie-
sener, Cressent, Leleu, Oeben, Rontgen, Duplessis, Pasquier, Carlin, Hervieu,
Gouthi6re, and the Caffieri. Jacques and Philippe Caffieri belonged to a famous
family of metal-workers. Jacques was a son of Filippo Caffieri, who came to France
from Italy about the middle of the seventeenth centm-y. He had served Pope
Alexander VII with distinction but, tempted by the reports of the generosity of
Louis XrV, joined the band of workers at the Gobelins. For more than a century
the name of Caffieri was closely associated with French furniture. The metal
moimts and moldings which came from the workshop of Jacques and his son
Philippe were not surpassed by those of any other designer. The exquisite finish of
their metal-work was notable in an age when beauty of execution was the rule
rather than the exception. The commode with bombe or curving front was the usual
medium chosen by them to display their intricate garnitures of bronze and ormolu.

Pierre Gouthifere followed the methods of the Caffieri. He and Riesener were
younger men and were identified with both the Louis XV and the Louis XVT
styles. Gouthi6re executed many beautiful pieces of furniture for the duchess
du Barry. At the time of her execution she owed seven hundred and fifty-six
thousand livres for furniture designed and ornamented by him. The government

114

LOUIS XV FURNITURE

refused to pay this sum, and after end-
less lawsuits the ill-fated GouthiSre died
in poverty. His work lacked the
strength of that of Philippe Caffieri and
Charles Cressent, but it was marked by
elegance and great delicacy. A dull
gold finish, which he is said to have
invented, makes it possible to distin-
guish his unsigned work. In 1858 the
marquis of Hertford desired to have a
replica of one of Gouthigre's most fa-
mous pieces, the "Cabinet d'Artois," at
Windsor. To produce this copy, years
were given to the task, and the cost,
including the delicately chased mounts,
was three thousand pounds.

Jean Riesener was born in Glaud-
beck, near Cologne and bore somewhat
the same relation to Louis XV that
Boulle did to Louis XIV and Vouet to
Louis XIII. Among the cabinet-makers

who served the capricious king, no ^""'® ^^ chair, garde-meuble

one pleased his fancy more than this transplanted German. He was a pupil
of Jean Fran9ois Oeben, and after the death of his master, succeeded to
the title of ebeniste du Roi. Less is known of Oeben than of many
others who filled positions of minor importance.

The celebrated bureau du Roi was begun by Oeben and finished by Riesener.
Few pieces of furniture have been the theme of so many discussions. Signed
"Riesener 1769 a I'Ars^nal de Paris" it is only in late years that Oeben has been
given a share in its glory. No article of handicraft belonging to the "Quinze" period
has 'been the cause of so much conjecture. Column after column has been printed
to prove this theory and that. Sometimes all the honors are given to Riesener;
again he is stripped of his laurels and they are handed to Oeben; again they are
divided among Riesener, Duplessis, and Hervieu. It is now believed that the
conception of the design was due to Oeben, that Reisener completed the task, that
Duplessis modeled the mounts, and that the casting was done by Hervieu.

The "bureau" is in reality a secretary of unusual pattern. Viewed as an object
of art it is a marvelous piece of work. The mounts are of bronze of a most elab-
orate character. Reclining figures of great beauty, medallions, vases, wreaths, and

115

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

garlands are the metal ornaments of this remarkable piece of furniture. Lavish
as the description soiuids there is a suggestion in the treatment of the whole design
of the simphcity of the Louis XVI period. Could the vases and the figures be
removed the bureau would show little trace of the style rocaille. Had the date
been 1750 instead of 1769 it would doubtless have been treated in the true rococo
spirit. The bureau du Roi is typical of the work of the time in the skill shown in
the decoration of the back.

No hidden corners were shirked by French craftsmen. The care bestowed
upon the framework of furniture may be noted in the illustrations of the chairs
from the Garde-Meuble. They have lost something in beauty by being robbed
of their upholstery. As furniture studies they have gained in value. They show
just what French furniture-rhakers borrowed from the Flemish and what they in
turn gave to the English. They have the curving legs which superseded the ped-
estal support' of the Louis XIV period, and the rococo carving which supplanted
the classic acanthus leaf. It is a mild rococo, however, and in the case of the
straight-back' chair, worthy of -faithful reproduction. Similar in treatment is the
sofa from the Petit' Trianon which was designed for du Barry. It is of French
walnut and the upholstery is deep old rose. These pieces represent the simple
side of the style.

"Rococo" is an elastic term and one 'that has been applied to every stage of
rock and shell decoration from the time of Louis XIII to the declining days of
Louis XV. With many people the word is wholly associated with modern con-
ceptions. The Louis XV furniture of the shops is fearful to contemplate, and
when brought into juxtaposition with the furnishings of the usual house, becomes
what Marjorie Fleming termed the multiplication table, "Something that human
nature cannot endure." Even genuine pieces of old French furniture cannot be
placed with impunity side by side with the household gods of to-day.

Styles of decoration and furniture are the outgrowth of conditions. The Louis
XV style of furnitiu-e was the direct result of definite causes. When studied
against the background of the eighteenth century it becomes one of the most fasci-
nating in history. It may not appeal to one in the same way that the styles of
the early Renaissance and Georgian periods do; it may not fit into every-day life
as does the colonial; it will not bear reproducing except under the most exacting
conditions; but that it has a distinct charm of its own cannot be gainsaid. It
must be studied with the life and art of the period constantly in mind — the pleasure-
loving Louis spending a fortune on the whims of de Pompadour and her extrava-
gant successor, du Barry; the great artists of the day, like Lancret and Boucher,
turning from vast canvases to decorate a fan or a snuff-box; the great metal-
workers, Caffieri and Gouthifere, bestowing the same care upon a sconce or candlestick

146

LOUIS XV FURNITURE

LOUIS XV ARM-CHAIR, GAHDE-MEUBLE

that they gave to some momentous
commission; the foremost tapestry-
weavers devoting months to the up-
holstery of a footstool. Trifles were
matters of such consequence that they
assumed the importance of serious
undertakings.

That furniture should receive the
careful attention of great painters like
Watteau, Lancret, and Boucher was the
natural result of an age that placed so
high a value on the perfection of detail.
If the walls of a room were worthy of
their regard the furnishings were no less
so. Many of the most treasured pieces
of the regency and of the Louis XV pe-
riod bear decorations by Watteau and
Boucher. Screens and cabinets were
painted in the manner which they had
made famous. Boucher's cupids and
Watteau's shepherdesses have more

than a passing interest. They seem the very essence of the art of the day. Wat-
teau's untimely death occurred early in the reign of Louis XV, but a host of pu-
pils perpetuated his methods.

Painted furniture formed a distinct class. Equally unique were the pieces which
were enriched with plaques and panels of porcelain. Madame de Pompadour
was largely responsible for the introduction of this fragile furniture. She was at
the height of her power wheri the beautiful soft paste porcelain of the Sevres manu-
factory was perfected. In Striving for novel decorations in the furnishing of her
apartment her fancy turned to rare china. Jlarquetry, foreign lacquers, carvings,
and paintings were for the moment discarded. SSvres porcelain was chosen to
form the embellishment of cabinets, writing-desks, and the many other articles
which found place in the elegant boudoir of the king's favorite.

One class of furniture not yet mentioned was designated as Vernis-Martin.
For more than a century cabinet-makers had sought to obtain a lustre which would
give to their work the appearance of Chinese lacquer. During the reign of Franjois
I a few pieces of Chinese furniture were imported from Portugal. In the seven-
teenth century, as trade between Holland and China increased, many articles of
Chinese origin found their way to France where they were highly prized. So

117

HISTORIC STYUES IN FURNITURE

great was the demand for oriental lac that panels of Chinese woodwork were in-
serted in French furniture. This was a combination, however, that could not
long be tolerated. A Dutch cabinet-maker named Huygens is credited with being
the first to discover a preparation which had the qualities of lacquer. The Martin
family of Paris, after years of experimenting, perfected a composition which was
called Yemis-Martin, or Martin's varnish. This invention placed them in an inde-
pendent position. They were carriage-painters but with the success of their lacquer

the}- became cabinet-makers. In the painting of car-
iages they had a field for considerable skill, for vehicles
' )f aU kinds were elaborately ornamented in the time
of Louis XV. Coaches and sedan chairs received as
'jareful a scheme of decoration sls the interior of houses.
Frequently the scheme was the same. The craze for
repeating the ine^dtable scrolls and shells extended to
even,- possible object, without reference to its size,
jurpose, or construction. This was where the rococo
ichool differed from all others under the sun. When
my lady sat in her boudoir she was surrounded with
dancing cupids and rose garlands, with gilded wreaths
and painted scrolls. When she was carried through the
streets of Paris in her sedan chair she was stUl be-
wreathed and be-scrolled. Cupids danced, and pastoral
maids simpered, and if the}- were not the cupids and
pastoral maids of Boucher and Watteau they were such
a clever copy that the effect was precisely the same.

In the decorating of such sumptuous vehicles the
Martins had ser\-ed a long apprenticeship. It is not to
be wondered at that, in later years, they achieved
renown not only for the beauty and durabUit}- of their lacquer, but for the skiU
with which they painted figures and landscapes. They were followed by many
imitators, and ■ Vemis-Martin'* pieces, so called, became very common, but like all
imitations they lacked the spirit of the originals.

The small articles of furniture of Louis XV's time — the clocks, chandeliers,
candelabra, sconces, and mirrors — were as skilfully constructed as the large pieces.
The workmanship of these bronze and gUt objects was carried to a high state of
perfection. In some of them there was beauty of line as well as matchless execution.
It is interesting to compare a clock of this period, here illustrated, with the Louis
Xr\^ timepiece in the preceding chapter. The difference between '"Quatorze"
and "Quinze", as exemplified in small things, is clearly set forth.

118

LOnS XV CLOCK

LOUIS XV FURNITURE

Both clocks belong to the bracket class; both are of the same size and mechanical
•construction; both are ornamented with marquetry and metal mounts. The
Louis X^" has more sweeping curves; the mounts, instead of closely outlining the
woodwork^ form an independent featiu-e of the decoration; the acanthus leaf, as a
, motif, is abandoned and the curled endive takes its place. These articles are
typical of the two styles. They are chosen from the middle periods. Late
Louis XrV^ furniture resembled earh' Louis X^', and late Louis XV approached
the Louis X\T!. The rococo school, by its ven,- extravagance, brought about a
jeaction that was destined to transform fumiture-making.

119

CHAPTEE XI

LOUIS XVI FURNITURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE! SIMPLICITY OF CONSTRUCTION
AND SEVERITY OF ORNAMENT. ROCOCO DETAILS DISAPPEARED
AND CLASSIC EMBLEMS REPLACED THEM. IMPORTANT FEATURES
WERE THE FLUTED COLUMN, THE BAY LEAF, THE OAK AND ACORN,
THE BELL FLOWER OR "CORN HUSK," THE GREEK BAND, AND THE
PLAIN ACANTHUS. STRAIGHT LINES SUPERSEDED CURVES AND
ORNAMENT WAS A MEANS NOT AN END.

CHAPTER XI

LOUIS XVI FURNITURE

TO Marie Antoinette has long been accorded the honor of the pseudo-classic
revival in France. Recent writers on French handicraft of the eighteenth
century doubt the young queen's part in the matter, and point out the fact
that the return to simpler forms took place several years before the Austrian
princess married the dauphin.

The Louis XVI style of decoration was of gradual growth. It is not possible
to mark the date when the old standards gave place to the new. It is an extremely
interesting development, for in its perfected form it differed as widely from the
Louis XV style as did the early Renaissance from the Gothic. Whether the style
owed its existence to the influence of Marie Antoinette, or to the discoveries of
antique ornament at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or to the natural reaction from an
extreme taste to a simpler one, are questions which are not of vital importance to-day.
Doubtless many causes were instrumental in giving birth to the Louis XVI school.
As the limit of extravagance had been reached any change was necessarily towards
plainer models. A return to simplicity in decorative art meant a return to the
antique.

In the eighteenth-century Renaissance, Greece, not Rome was the inspiration.
Straight lines replaced the flowing scrolls which had so long dominated interior deco-
ration. Horizontal bands superseded the broken and tortured moldings. Irregular
panels, painted with cupids and rose garlands, gave way to rectangular spaces orna-
mented with classic emblems. Furniture-makers discarded curves and adopted
severe outlines. The endive and the twisted acanthus disappeared; the laurel and
the oak leaf replaced them. To the Greek band was given the prominence pre-
viously allotted to the shell. The fluted column was made a constructive part of
nearly every piece of furniture. In the chair and the table the supports were
fluted, tapering slightly at the base. In the cabinet the column had the character of
a pilaster, sometimes tapering, sometimes resting on claw-feet. The oak leaf was
seldom used in the decoration of the chair, but in the cabinet, armoire, console, and
bureau, it was made a very ornamental feature. The laurel or the bay leaf was
also effectively used and on rare occasions the acanthus, in a severe form, was
revived. But to the oak leaf was given chief preference and it is interesting to
study its development in small as well as large pieces of furniture. In the decoration
of clocks, mirrors, and sconces it was an important and beautiful accessoiy.

123

HISTORIC STYLES IX FURNITURE

The cabinet from Fontainebleau i? an excellent example of the Louis XAT style.
The fluted columns ha^•e no ornamentation except crossed bands of ribbon. The
oak leaf appears in both a natural and conventionaUzed manner. The metal work
is simple and exceedingly good. The gold is of two shades, red-gold in the mold-
ings and green-gold in the mounts. The claw-feet which are in the shape of eagle's
talons are \-er\- spirited. .\n imusual effect is g:iiued by the insertion of dark
panels which add greatly to the beauty of the design. (See page 126.)

The Louis XV fumiture^maker would not ha\-e been content to leave the broad
center panel mideoorated. ilarquetri- and elaborate momits would haA-e been
necessary adjuncts in his eyes. The charm of flat "onadomed spaces was unknown
to him. Fontainebleau contains many pieces of furniture designed expressly for
Marie Antoinette, and this cabinet is of the number.

Pierre Rousseau planned the apartments of the queen at Fontainebleau and
designed the decorations. The boudoir is particularly fine and has been little
altered since it was first executed. Ever\-thing pertaining to Marie -\ntoinette is of
interest. From the liistorical point of view there are no apartments in Fontaine-
bleau, Compiegne. Versailles, or the Petit Trianon so worthy of study as those occu-
pied by the iU-fated queen. From the standpoint of interior decoration all the
rooms furnished in the Louis XAT style have \-alue. Of the three schools named in
honor of the so\ ereigns Louis XIV. Louis XV. and Louis X\T^, none is so worthy of
reproduction as the style 'T/juis Si-ize". It combines grace with simplicity, and . when
correctly interpreted, is as suitable in an .\merican home of the twentieth eentiuy
as it was in a French palace of the eighteenth centur>-.

In the case of the tliree great French styles the [talatial pieces form an important
contribution to furniture lore, for with the exception of greater richness of material
and more elaborate detail, the furniture of the court ck^ely resembled that of the
citizen's house. Thus the collections of VersaiUes, Fontauiebleau. and the Garde-
Meuble have more than a royal significance. The Louis XIV style suggests gran-
deur, the Louis XV elegance, and the Lotiis X^T grace. Comfort is not lacking in
many of the Louis XIV designs but comfort is not their most prominent feature.
In the Loius X^" pieces there is more luxurj* and le:s magnificence. The Louis X\T
designs are constructed on severe lines but are perfectly proportioned, and combine
both beauty and comfort. The fmmiture of this period seems made for use, not
merely a medium for the display of intricate marquetrv- and elaborate metal work.
Ornament for ornament's sake is absent although perfection of detail is ne\'eT
lacking.

Many of the men who achieved fame under Louis X^' rendered Louis X\'I
distinguished ser\ice. Riesener, Carlin. Duplessis, Leleu, Gouthiere left an im-
press on both periods. Rousseau, Guibert, Saunier, Rontgen, Benemann, Thomire,

124

LOUIS XVI BEDSTEAD, FONTAINEBLEAU

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

and Oeben, the younger,were more closely identified with the Louis XVI style. Much

of Riesener's later work was executed for Marie Antoinette and is marked by the

same exquisite finish that made his furniture famous during the reign of Louis XV.

In the catalogue of the Hamilton collection which was sold at auction in 1882,

are listed many of these royal designs.
"No. SOL Upright Secretaire, signed
'Riesener 1790.' Branded with the cipher
of Marie Antoinette on the back, £4,620.
No. 302. A commode en suite signed
'Riesener 1790,' £4,305. No. 303. An
oblong writing-table, stamped 'J. Riesen-
er,' and branded underneath with the
cipher of Marie Antoinette."

In a footnote in the catalogue it is
stated that "the commode and the secre-
taire were among the last works of Rie-
sener and that they were executed for
the palace of St. Cloud, where the queen
resided during the summer of 1790."

David Rontgen, usually called "Da-
vid" in French furniture annals, was a
remarkable designer. He was a member
of the Paris guild of cabinet-makers, but
executed most of his furniture in his
studio at Neuwied. Rontgen owed his
reputation not only to the excellence of
his work, but to his unique methods of
conducting his sales. From his head-
quarters in Neuwied he made journeys
to the various courts of Europe. Among
his royal patrons were Marie Antoinette,
Frederick of Prussia, and Catherine of
Russia.
Combined with beauty of execution were many contrivances which rendered his
work remarkable. Secret drawers and hidden locks were made a feature of his
desks and cabinets, and earned for him the title of ebeniste mecanicien. His mechan-
ical ingenuity was often turned to account when important sales were pending.

Lady Dilke describes one of his transactions with Catherine of Russia. Rontgen
had arrived in St. Petersburg with a notable collection of furniture :"The empress

126

LOUI.5 XVI CABINET, FONTAINEBLEAU

LOUIS XVI FURNITURE

was ready to admire and wonder, but could not be persuaded to buy, her funds just
then being exhausted by the war with the Turks. In the night preceding the visit
which she had promised to pay to Rontgen's exhibition, arrived the news of a naval
victory won by the Russians at Tchesme, and when she was received on the follow-
ing day at the place appointed, matters
were so arranged that her eyes should fall
at once on an imposing secretaire, which
was surmounted by a clock bearing a
Genius, whose graver indicated the date
of the successful naval engagement, which
Rontgen had contrived to add that
morning. Catherine could do no less in
acknowledgment of the courtly compli-
ment than buy the whole collection."

To such a point did Rontgen carry his
mechanical skill and so closely associated
with his name were all kinds of mechan-
ical devices, that for years every writing-
desk with a secret drawer, every cabinet
with a hidden spring, has been attributed
to him. Lady Dilke, who has made a
careful study of the eighteenth-century
furniture-makers, cites several pieces in
the Kensington Museum which have
been incorrectly credited to Rontgen.
In speaking of a "bureau-toilette" in the
Jones collection at Kensington, she says :
"A curious feature of this bureau marks
the treatment of the cover, which falls
and presents to the hand a myriad little
receptacles for paint and powder and
other 'make-up' requisites. This inge-
nious contrivance and the light color of

the inlay have been responsible for the legend which declares it to have been
ordered of David Rontgen by his patroness. Queen Marie Antoinette, a story that
has not the slightest foundation. At one time the name of David seems to have
been applied indiscriminately to all work inlaid with light woods, when the interior
contrivances presented more or less ingenious character. This is the only expla-
nation of the attribution of Rontgen, not only of the 'bureau-toilette,' but of the

127

LOtriS XVI CLOCK

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

noble cabinet at Hertford
House, both undoubtedly by
Saunier."

The "bureau-toilette" is
illustrated here. It is in the
late Louis XV style and is of
tulipwood inlaid with flowers
and trophies. The mounts
are of ormolu, exquisitely
chiseled. Within are numer-
ous pigeon-holes for letters
and many little receptacles
for paint and powder, show-
ing that her majesty prac-
ticed the delicate art of
make-up in common with
the women of her day.

Claude-Charles Saunier,
Martin Carlin, Jean Pafrat,
Jean Franfois Leleu, are
represented in many of the
large English collections.
From various catalogues the following items are gleaned:

Hertford House — "Mahogany cabinet with Sevres panels, designed by Carlin,
mounts by Thomire. Table of amboyna wood, fluted columns, designed by Leleu,
moimts attributed to Gouthiere. Table of wood and gilt metal porphyry slab,
mounts by Gouthiere. Corner cupboard of mahogany, marquetry by Riesener,
moimts by Thomire. Cabinet of amboyna wood and ormolu, by Riesener, mounts
by Thomire. Chairs of carved and gilt wood, coverings of Beauvais tapestry.
Comer cupboard, designed by Saunier."

South Kensington Museum — "Work-table, tulipwood and ormolu, by Carlin
and Pafrat. Comer cupboard, marquetry, by Oeben. Commode, marquetry, by
Riesener."

Windsor Castle — "Sideboard in mahogany and ormolu, with Sevres panels, by
Martin Carlin. Mahogany cabinet with bronze mounts, bearing the arms of France
and Savoy. Secretaire of tulipwood with bronze mounts, by Rontgen."

These items, brief as they are, indicate the trend of the Louis XVI style, so far
as the choice of woods and metals are concerned. They also show the importance
given to the maker's name. French designers of the eighteenth century signed their

128

WHITING-DESK AND BUHEAU-TOILETTE BELONGING TO
MARIE ANTOINETTE, LATE XV STYLE

LOUIS XVI FURNITURE

work precisely as the painters signed their canvases, and who shall say that they
were lesser artists?

Mahogany had been growing in popularity since the middle of the century, and
walnut which had so long been the chief medium of French furniture-makers, had
gradually lost favor. Walnut was not discarded, but it was more often gilded and
enameled than used in its natural state. For chairs and couches, and for all pieces
where upholstery was utilized, walnut was the usual foundation. The enameling
to which the wood was treated was in soft colors and exceedingly durable. Many
of the Louis XVI chairs, sofas, and bedsteads show this delicate finish which to-
day exhibits little trace of wear. The gilded furniture belongs to another class,
although the designs are often similar. Many of the glided chairs are combined with
cane. Sometimes the natural cane is set in a gilded frame, and again the cane is
gilded and the wood enameled. Another style combines cane with natural walnut
which is most attractive of all. Modern furniture-makers have lately revived this
fashion. With a consistent setting these cane pieces are exceedingly effective.

Marie Antoinette, in furnishing the Petit Trianon made a most effective use of
cane. It suited the simplicity which she delighted to affect when she retired to the
Trianon. The queen, brought up in the Austrian court which was less formal than
that of France, spent her happiest hours in the picturesque building which Louis XV
erected for the duchess du Barry. Here

she could escape the etiquette of the
court and live as independently as she
pleased, even playing dairy-maid when
the whim seized her. The English gar-
den, the poultry-house, the mill, the
grotto, and the dairy are still in exist-
ence, and are scarcely less interesting
than the Little Trianon itself.

Gabriel, the royal architect, built the
main edifice which bears somewhat the
same relation architecturally to the
Orand Trianon that the Grand Trianon
does to Versailles. "The Petit Trianon
is rather a handsome country house than
a palace," says a writer of the period.
Its walls are ornamented with sculptural
festoons of oak leaves, and the balustrade
is of gilt bronze in designs of lyres and
quivers, horns of plenty and the inter-

LOUIS XVI CHAIR, PETIT TRIANON

129

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

laced letters il. A. The antechamber has a Greek portal, and within is paneled
in a severe but elegant style wdth a cornice of palmettes and painted rectangular
panels over the doors. The dining-room opens immediately from it. The orna-
ments on the panels, trophies of quivers and crowns, were placed there by the order
of the queen. The main salon is furnished in crinason and gold. The boudoir is
charming, with its simple but beautifully wrought moldings, its panels relieved by
delicately modeled arabesques, and its simple mantel garniture of two Sevres
vases and branches for candles in gilt bronze."

The rooms described may be taken as t>-pical of the Louis XM! period. They
did not surpass the fvu-nishings of many private houses. Paneled woodwork orna-
mented with arabesques and trophies formed the iisual decoration of side walls.
The furniture of the main salon consisted of six straight-back chairs, two arm-
chairs, a bergere. or chair with upholstered sides, two sofas, and several tables.

In studying Louis X^^ chairs two general iypes are observed: one is composed
entirely of angles; the other makes a partial use of the oval. The arm-chair on
page 129 is a fine illustration of the first class. The chair reproduced on this page
belongs to the second. The fluted support is shown in both t\-pes and this feature,
it may be added, is the most marked characteristic of Louis XVI fm-niture.

LOnS X^-I CH.MK, PETIT TIU.\NON.

130

CHAPTER XII

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: FIRST, QUEEN ANNE WHICH WAS
A DEVELOPMENT OF THE DUTCH TTPES OF THE LATE SEVEN-
TEENTH CENTURY. SECOND, CHIPPENDALE THE LEADING FEA-
TURES BEING THE BALL-AND-CLA.W FOOT, THE PIERCED SPLAT,
AND THE CABRIOLE LEG. THIRD, ADAM, INAUGURATING A RE-
VIVAL OF CLASSIC ORNAMENT. FOURTH, HEPPLEWHITE, IMPOR-
TANT DETAILS OF WHICH WERE THE STRAIGHT TAPERING LEG, THE
SHIELD-SHAPED CHAIR BACK, AND THE SPADE-FOOT. FIFTH,
SHERATON, SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS BEING THE FLUTED LEG,
THE RECTANGULAR CHAIR BACK, AND CLASSIC CARVING AND
INLAY.

CHAPTER XII

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

THE WORK OF THOMAS CHIPPENDALE

AMONG English furniture-makers the name of Thomas Chippendale stands
first. Other designers have surpassed him in certain lines, but to none has
the same amount of fame been accorded. Chippendale was the first Eng-
lishman to give title to a style. Celebrated designers had preceded him, but
their identity is submerged in that of their sovereign. We hear little of a George
I, a George II, or a George III period. Queen Anne's name is associated with the
furniture types of the early eighteenth century. Victorian is the term given to
the furniture development of the first half of the nineteenth century. Between
these two reigns styles in furniture are known by the names of the men who
created them.

Chippendale was more a translator than a creator. He adapted Dutch,
French, and Chinese designs infusing his own personality into everything he
touched. His early work was largely tinctured by that of Grinling Gibbons, a
contemporary and co-worker of Sir Christopher Wren. Gibbons's influence on
interior work was almost as potent as was that of Wren on the architecture of the
day. Chippendale owed much to this man whose fame has been overshadowed
by some of his followers.

All furniture-makers of the first half of the eighteenth century were indebted to
the Dutch. Chippendale used the cabriole or bandy-leg freely, also the ball-and-
claw foot, and the fiddle-back. Other designers did the same, but Chippendale
combined them with greater success. It is hardly to be wondered at that these
characteristics are termed "Chippendale," for it was he who gave them lasting fame.
How the world would rate Chippendale and his contemporaries if oak and walnut
had been their only medium is impossible to say. What English furniture of the
eighteenth century would have been if mahogany had been unknown is difficult to
conjecture. The firmness of the wood, coupled with the fine quality of the grain,
enabled furniture-makers to secure results which were unattainable in oak. It is
not too much to say that the great English cabinet-makers of the eighteenth century
could not have achieved their triumphs without the aid of this beautiful medium.
By its use designers obtained both strength and delicacy, characteristics which
were united for the first time. The introduction of this wood has long been credited
to one Dr. Gibbon, an English physician and the date is placed at 1724. The

133

tradition is that tlic ddctor re-
ceivod from his In'otluT, a sea-
cajitain in the West Indies, a few
pieces of mahogan}', and Ijeiiig
pleased witli tlie color, ordered a
cabinet-maker to utilize the bits
in constructing a candle-box for
Mrs. Clibbon. Delighted with the
result he sent instructions to the
sea-captain to shi]i liim enough
mahogany to make a bureau. B}'
chance the duchess of Buckingham
saw till' bureau and was imine-
diatel}' charmeil with it. Her
ap])roval bl'ought tlie wood int(.)
general notice, and mahogany
furniture soon liecaine the fashion.
.Mahogany was known in
France and Sjiain at an earlier
date than this, and it. is (piite
])n)bable that English cabinet-
makers were familiar «'itli it

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

CHIPPENDALE S DUTCH TYPE, I

A Collection of Most Elegant and
Useful Designs of Household Fur-
niture. Calculated to Improve and
Refine the Present Taste, and
Suited to Persons in All Degrees
of Life. Many of the designs in
the book were extremely rococo
and showed how close a student
the author was of the Louis XV
school; some were executed in
"the Gothic manner," others in
the " Chinese taste." A list of the
"Most Elegant and Useful Designs
of Household Furniture, in the
Most Fashionable Taste," included :

before Dr. Gibbon and his candle-box
became famous.

Chippendale worked in many veins,
adapting his craft to the taste and purse
of his patrons. His book. The Gentle-
man and Cabinet-Maker's Director, shows
a variety of designs executed in the French^
Chinese , and Gothic styles. The third
edition appeared in 1762, and by that
time Chippendale's fame was firmly estab-
lished. The sub-title stated that it was

CHIPPENDALE CHAIR, II

135

HISTORIC STYLES IX FURXITl'RE

Chairs, sofas, beds, and couches; china-tables, dressing-tables, shaving-tables, bason-stands,
and teakettle-stands; frames for marble-slabs, bureau-dressing-tables, and commodes; WTiting-
tables, and library-tables; Ubrary bookcases, organ-eases for private rooms, or churches, desks
and book-eases ; dressing and writing-tables with book-cases, cabinets, and cloaths-presses;
china-cases, china-shelves, and book-shelves; candle-stands, terras for busts, stands for china
jais and pedestals ; cisterns for water, lanthonis. and cli.'mdeliers ; fire-screens, brackets, and
clock cases; pier-glasses and table-frames; girandoles, chimney-pieces, and picture-frames;
stove-grates, boarders, frets, Chinese-railing, and brass-work, for furniture,
from which it may be seen that the designer of St. ilartin's Lane could desiga
stove-grates and lanterns as well as organ-cases.

Sideboards are not mentioned in the Director and it is doubtful if Chippen-
dale made these pieces. Many articles long attributed to Chippendale are now

credited to Hepplewhite and

I I Shearer. It is conceded by

students of furniture that
Chippendale did not inlay any
of his handiwork. The many
beautiful cabinets and side-
1 boards, standing on straight,
; tapering legs, and having for
I their sole decoration narrow
I lines of inlay which have long
! been called "Cliippendale,"
are. in reality, after the man-
'< ner of Hepplewliite. The ser-
pentine sideboards are be-
lieved to have been designed
I by Thomas Shearer who was
associated with Hepplewhite.
Carving was Chippendale's
mode of decoration and in his
beautiful chaire it found its
best expression. Five distinct
t3-pes are illustrated here and
show the versatility of this
renowned chair-maker. The
fii-st is the sturdy Dutch tv-pe
to which Cliippendale gave
-1 such vitality. The cabriole
leg. the club foot, the hea^y

CHIPPEXD.^LE ARM-CH.\IR,11I

1,36

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

underbracing, are of Dutch origin. The
pierced splat is Chippendale translation
of the fiddle-back. In the second illus-
tration the braces have been altered,
and the curved Dutch leg gives place
to the square, straight leg. The arm-
chair is its companion and shows the
designer at high-water mark. Here is
grace coupled with comfort, and a
restraint which is often lacking in his
later chairs. That Chippendale himself
thought lightly of this design and pre-
ferred his French, Chinese, and Gothic
chairs, is well known. Of his fantastic
"ribbon-backs," he once said, "If I
may speak without vanity, they are
the best that I have seen, and perhaps
the best that have been made." And
again, "There may be better chairs,
but I doubt it."

In America these elaborate pieces
are seldom seen, and perhaps it is for
this reason that "Chippendale" to us
always stands for the beautiful. Many
of the rococo designs were made for
wealthy patrons and were never du^
plicated. Others were made for roy-
alty and the drawings immediately
destroyed. The best work of the man was imdoubtedly done when there was a restric-
tion in regard to the cost. Then, as now, too much money was a detriment. When
a fabulous sum was asked for a single piece of furniture the money had to show
somewhere, and that was on the siuface. If Thomas Chippendale could have fore-
seen that these designs would one day be held up to ridicule, while on the other
hand some of his simple patterns would sell for fabulous sums, he would have
doubted the sanity of posterity.

Among his " simple " pieces may be reckoned the ladder-back chair which is repro-
duced in the fourth illustration. This embodies the fine proportions which have justly
given him the title of prince of chair-makers. The " roimdabout" illustrates another
phase of his work, while his French manner is depicted in illustration VI.

137

LADDER-BACK CHAIK, IV

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

CHIPPENDALE ROUNDABOUT, V

Card-tables, sofas, settees, desks,
bureaus, and bookcases came from
Chippendale'^ shop in quantities. His
sofas and settees follow the same lines
as his chairs; his card-tables usualh'
have the ball-and-claw foot, with
intricate car%'ing; the bureaus and
commodes are less typical and com-
bine features which partake of many
styles. In the English definition of
the word "bureau," a chest of drawers
was not implied. The term was used
1 to describe secretaries and commodes.
Few of Chippendale's "bureaus" are
found in America. In the Warner
House ui Portsmouth is a beautiful
bookcase which is attributed to Chip-
pendale, and a comparison ^\dth au-
thenticated pieces in England lends
probability to the theory. The case
fills one side of the room and contains
a drop lid which may be used for writing purposes.

While to Chippendale belongs the glory of raising his work above his contem-
poraries of the middle portion of the century, the work of other men must not be
forgotten. Grinling Gibbons has been mentioned; James Gibbs, Isaac Ware, and
William Kent followed him. Coming a little later were Abraham Swin, Batty
and Thomas Langley, Edwards and Darley, Thomas Johnson, Ince, and Robert
Manwaring. These men were notable in special lines. Batty and Thomas Langley
were famous for their pier- tables and consoles; Edwards and Darley were expo-
nents of the Chinese taste; Thomas Johnson was the high priest of the extreme
rococo; ^lanwarihg and Richardson were contemporaneous with the Adam broth-
ers, and were identified with the work of their day.

One name should be given special prominence and that is Richard Gillow whose
work was of unusual merit, and to whom may possibly belong the honor of origi-
nating the shield-shape chair. Richard Gillow was son of Robert Gillow who
achieved fame earlier in the century. If Gillow had written a book he might have
been a rival of both Chippendale and Hepplewhite. His work on paper was con-
fined to his working drawings which show ability of a high order. Many of his
finest pieces were executed for the Adam brothers whose commissions were greatly

138

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

CHIPPENDALE S
FRENCH MANNER, VI

prized by cabinet-makers. The work of this de-
signer was signed, a custom which, we regret, was
not universal among English cabinet-makers.

The shield or heart-shaped chair is associated
with Hepplewhite, yet Chippendale, Gillow, Shearer,
Sheraton, all used it. It was Hepplewhite who gave
it special prominence and it is Hepplewhite's name
which is now associated with it. Doubtless these
designers borrowed largely from each other, adapting
various characteristics to suit the commission in hand.

The fame of these great furniture-makers rests on
their representative work, not on their creations en
masse. Nor is it so much a question of the invention
of a style, as whose individuality was strong enough
to perpetuate it. On this score we ascribe to
Chippendale the pierced back and the ball-and-claw
foot; to Hepplewhite the shield-back and the
straight, tapering foot; and to Sheraton the rectan-
gular back and the fluted leg. That these men could be "myriad minded" in their
designing we know from their books, but we jtidge them by their typical furniture
and rate them accordingh'.

THE WORK OF GEORGE HEPPLEWHITE

Less is known of Hepplewhite than of either of his great contemporaries. His
death occurred in 1786; the date of his birth is a matter of conjecture. For many
years a mystery has surrounded the names "G. Hepplewhite" and "A. Hepple-
white" which has of late been solved. Research has revealed the fact that the
business of George Hepplewhite, after his death, passed into the hands of his widow
Alice, who continued the work of the firm over the signature of "A. Hepplewhite
and Company." Thus the long controversy as to the relationship of the two is
satisfactorily settled. The theory that "G." and " A. " Hepplewhite were brothers
is set at rest.

That this designer personally made, or even supervised, half of the furniture
bearing his name, is out of the question. Craftsmen trained in his methods per-
petuated the work. Hepplewhite's book. The Cabinet-maker and Upholster' s Guide,
appeared the year following his demise and was completed by other hands. It is
believed that Thomas Shearer, who was associated with him, made many of the draw-
ings contained in the work. Shearer's identity seems to have been lost in that of
Hepplewhite. An English critic, in writing of him, says: "Whether Shearer in-

139

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

fluenced Hepplewhite or Hepplewhite Shearer is a question to which we are not
likely to find a definite answer; yet as a considerable portion of Sheraton's style
was founded on Shearer's lines, the presumption is that if a man of such very
decided personalit.v was affected, Hepplewhite was no less indebted to this great but
practically forgotten designer." And again:

"In bookcases Shearer is very strong. His eye for proportion is indisputable,
and it is only his occasionally uncertain use of inlay and ornament which would
prevent us placing him first in this particular department. Even as these stand
they are better than Hepple white's, and there can be little doubt of their influence
on Sheraton."

Shearer is believed to have originated the serpentine sideboard and Hepplewhite

to have brought it to perfection. A
^ -^^^^^ fine specimen illustrated on page 143

has all the characteristics of this
designer. The serpentine curve, the
straight, tapering legs, the spade-feet,
and the peculiar inlay, all show this
master hand. Hepplewhite used
inlay most effectively. The legs of
his tables and sideboards are some-
times ornamented with delicate ver-
tical patterns in sycamore and tulip-
wood. The meander pattern was a
favorite with him and so was the
Greek fret. In this work the influ-
ence of the Adam brothers is
plainly discernible. The urn-shaped
finials used by Shearer and Sheraton,
and in a slighter degree by Hepple-
white, are in the "Adam style."
Knife-boxes in this form were made
by all three of the designers, and
are among the most attractive of
small pieces of furniture. Dressing-
tables with heart-shaped mirrors,
cabinets with long, tapering legs, and
tables of many forms, are among
Hepplewhite's designs. His shield-
smELD-sHAjED CHAIR, HEPPLEWHITE shapcd chairs have doubtless brought

140

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

HEPPLEWHITB TABLE

him greatest renown. An imusually
fine example of this style is repro-
duced here. It is more elaborate
than much of his work, yet full of re-
finement and dignity. Robert Adam
never handled the urn with greater
skill. The details are remarkably
fine, and place Hepplewhite above
the reproach that his chairs were
usually faulty in construction.

A rare design is the oval-back
chair containing the Prince of Wales
plumes, shown on page 144. The
spade-foot, which is one of the dis-
tinctive features of this designer's
work, is illustrated in both chairs.
Pieces of furniture in the Hepple-
Tvhite style are nmnerous in this
country, and are among the most
interesting of colonial possessions.
H. S. Clouston, writing of English cabinet-makers, says:

"Personally, I am unable to rank Hepplewhite with Chippendale on the one side
•or Sheraton on the other, either in construction or design, yet there is an undefinable
charm about his work, even when faulty by rule, which, like some old song, touches
.a higher and more human note than can be attained by mere correctness."

THE WORK OF JAMES AND ROBEKT ADAM

To many people the name Adam is vaguely associated with a severe type of
interior woodwork, variously called colonial, Georgian, and Louis XVI. To others
the term signifies a few ornamental details found in old furniture, such as the fluted
■column, the festoon, the garland, and the band of ribbon. The real work of Robert
Adam and that of his brother James is seldom considered. To them was largely
■due the reaction that took place in English handicraft about the middle of the
•eighteenth century. The Adams were architects but their influence did not end
with the architecture of the period. It extended over all the a,rts and found an
■echo in this country. The real worth of these gifted men cannot be measured
by the buildings they erected, although these have stood the test of time, nor can
it be reckoned by the interiors they designed, successful as their work in this field
will always be considered. It must be estimated by the impetus they gave the arts
as a whole — an impetus towards simplicity.

141

DINING-ROOM, EESIDENCE OF rBEDBEIC C. BABTLBTT, CHICAGO, HEPPLEWHITE FURNITUKE

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The brothers did not create the style which bears their name. They adapted to
English conditions a style old as ornament itself, and which in France had already
gained a footing, later to blossom as the Louis XVI school. Robert Adam, on
his return from Italy, whither he had gone with the French architect Clerisseau,
found England ripe for a second reformation. The work of the great French design-
ers of Louis XV's reign was being copied in England, but without the delicacy of

HEPPLEWHITB SIDEBOARD

touch which made the eccentricities of such men as Meissonier almost excusable.
One glance at the early drawings of Chippendale, Johnson, and Ince show with
what a heavy hand the English designer wielded rococo ornament. When Sir Wil-
liam Chambers introduced the Chinese style of decoration, and a few so-called
"oriental" details were grafted upon the rococo hodgepodge, the time was at hand
for an artistic upheaval. At this point Robert Adam, fresh from the study of
antique ornament in Italy and Spalatio, arrived in England. The year was 1754 — a
memorable one in English annals. From this moment the reformation began,
insignificant at first, but gathering force as its influence widened.

In 1764 Adam published a folio of drawings, engraved by Bartolozzi, showing the
ruins of the Emperor Diocletian's palace at Spalatio. In an introduction to the

143

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

work he stated that his "object in selecting this ruin for special examination was its
residential character, as the knowledge of classical architecture in England is con-
fined to public buildings." In 1778 the brothers, James and Robert, began the
publication of their Works in Architecture, a series of folios containing their most
important designs. These books were of great value and were used by architects
and decorators on both sides of the Atlantic.

Few of the interiors designed by the brothers are now in existence. Number 25
Portland Square, the house built by Robert for himself, has been little altered, and
one or two other dwellings have shared a like kindly fate. But the beautiful rooms
of Sion House, of Kenwood, and of the Earl of Derby's mansion in Grosvenor Square,
exist only in the fine old engravings which are a lasting legacy of the Adam brothers.

The drawings of the library in Sion
House, the seat of the earl of North-
umberland, of the "great room" at
Kenwood, the residence of Lord Mans-
field, and of the "withdrawing-rooms"
in the earl of Derby's house, show what
masters of detail these princely de-
signers were.

The characteristics of the Adam
style were, to quote from an old
writer, "simpUcity, elegant slender-
ness, and low relief." " In their fine
sense of proportion," says another
critic, "in their chaste taste in the
selection and disposition of niches,
lunettes, festoons, and other classical
ornament, the brothers Adam have
never been excelled."

They made use of the urn, the
laurel leaf, the arabesque, the oval
paterae, the acanthus, the ribbon
band, and the garland. Many of these
details appear in the Louis XVI
decorations. The difference between
the Louis XVI style and the Adam
style lies in the application of the
ornament rather than in the ornament

PEINCE OF WALES CHAIR, HEPPLEWHITE

itself.

144

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The brothers carried their
classic tastes to a very fine
point, bestowing on the furni-
ture and metal appointments
of the rooms they designed as
much thought as they gave
to the ceilings, doors, and
mantels. Some of their most
charming work is seen in their
locks and escutcheons for fur-
niture, vases for candles,
stands and brackets for lamps,
and frames for mirrors. In-
teresting examples of their
designing in this line may be
noted in the illustrations of
the vase and bracket for can-
dles made for the countess of
Derby, and in the lock for a iiepple^miite table

cabinet door made for the duke of Northumberland.

The Adams regarded the Grosvenor Square house as their masterpiece, and one
of their folios is largely devoted to the rooms and furniture of this mansion. The
great drawing-room, where the countess of Derby entertained so lavishly, was pro-
nounced by Robert to be one of the "most elegant in Europe." The chimney-piece
of this apartment shows what delicacy and force these artists could impart to large
surfaces. All the decorations and appointments of the smaller rooms were planned
with the same regard for detail. The private suite of the countess was conceded to
be the finest of its kind in London. The furniture was designed by James and
executed under his direction.

The influence of the Adam brothers on the furniture-makers of their time was
very marked. The later work of Hepplewhite, and more especially that of Sheraton,
was largely shaped by them. The latter acknowledged his indebtedness in a
graceful tribute dedicated to Robert. Sheraton did not imitate — he was too
great for that-^but he embodied in his furnitm-e a feeling for simplicity which
he himself was generous enough to attribute to the brothers. In this country
the Adam type of furniture is best known by the work of Sheraton. The fine
sideboards with urn-shaped knife-boxes made by him are splendid examples of the
Adam style.

When Robert Adam returned from Italy, Pergolesi and Bartolozzi accompanied

145

him. Pergolesi executed many of the decorations designed by the brothers, and in
this worlc he was assisted by Cipriani, another ItaUan, and by that gifted woman,
Angelica Kauffman. Fm-niture was designed in harmony with the walls and painted
in gold and enamels.

Strong as the influence of the Adam brothers was in England it was scarcely less
in this country. America owes these men an everlasting debt of gratitude, for to
them is largely due our finest architecture. Many of the houses erected in New
England and the South from 1780 to 1810 were built on lines laid down by Robert
and James Adam. The beautiful rooms of these old mansions are as trulj- Adam
as the interiors of Kenwood, Sion House, and Portland Place. To the American
mind the colonial woodwork is the finer, being simpler, and marked by greater
restraint.

Robert Adam shared honors with James and to-day their names are seldom
separated. Robert was undoubtedly the master of the two, possessing the creative
faculty to a rare degree. Aside from his work the story of his life reads briefly.
In The Gentleman' s Magazine for March, 1792, is a short but significant biography.

England lost two of her greatest men within one month, and both are honored
in this quaint pamphlet. Under the heading, "Obituary of Considerable Persons,"

146

ENGLISH ■ FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

the death of Rob
Joshua Reynolds is
notes are rather
these brief articles
is interesting. With
many capitals and
sketch is faithfully

"At his house in
Robert Adam, Esq.,
the Royal Antiqua^
don and Edinburgh,
buildings, public
in various parts of
Adam will remain
of his taste and
natural suavity of
to the excellence of
have endeared him
will long lament his
Kirkaldy, in the count}
to Dr. Adam Smith, ai
was the second' son of
an architect of
his education at the
burgh. The friend-
were with men who
nently distinguished
them being Mr. Davii
Adam Fergusson, an
of life he had the gooi
of Archibald, duke of AfuaIc, tlie
earl of Mansfield, and .s('\-cral
of the age.

"Mr. Adam, after his return
tect to his Majesty .in the j-ear

UACKET AND '\ASE FOR CANDLES
DESIGXED FOR THE COUNTESS
OF DERBY

ert Adam and Sir

recorded. Obituary

solemn reading, but

contain much that

the exception of the

the long s, the first

reproduced.

Albermarle Street,

architect. Fellow of

rian Society of Lon-

The many elegant

and private, erected

the kingdom by Mr.

lasting monuments

genius. And the

his manners joined

his moral character

s circle of friends, who

n was born in 1728, at

: I )lace that gave birth

Ith of Nations. He

IJsq., of Marybury,

merit. He received

University of Edin-

ships he formed

have since emi-

by tlicir literary products, among

Roberts! Ill, Dr. Adam Smith, Dr.

Hoi lie. At a more advanced time

the friendship and society

late .Mr. Charles Townsend, the

others of the most illustrious men

from Ital)', was appointed archi-
1762, ^\iiicli office, being incom-

patible with a seat in Parliament, he resigned in 1768, on his being elected to
represent the county of Kinross. It is somewhat remarkable that the arts should
be deprived at the same time of two of their greatest ornaments. Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds and Mr. Adam, and it is difficult to say which of them excelled more in his

147

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

LOCK FOE A TABIXET DOOR

DE.-IGXED FOR THE DIKE OF
NORTH FMBERL-iXD

particular profession. Sir Joshua "W^I^^S^^ introdur-ed a nev.- and supenor
style of portrait-pairitiiig. It is ^H^H^^ equally true that Mr. Adam pro-
duced a total change in the archi- ▼^Z*^ tecfjjre of thii country-, and his
fertile genius in elegant ornament was not confined to the decoration of bvuldings, but
has been diffused into almost even' branch of manufacture. His talents extended be-
yond the line of his profession. The loss of Mr. Adam at this time must be peculiarly
felt, as the new University of Edinburgh and other great public works, both in that city
and in Glasgow, were erecting from his designs and under his direction. To the last
period of his life ilr. Adam displayed an tmusual vigor of genius and refinement of
taste ; for in the space of one year preceding his death he designed eight great pubUc
works and twenty-five private buildings, so various in their style and so beautiful in
their composition that they have been allowed by the best judges sufficient of them-
selves to establish his fame tmiivaled as an artLst."

It is impossible to show the charm of the Adam style with a few illustrations.
No adequate conception of the talents of the brothers can be gained from isolated
examples of their work. The mantels and doors designed by them lose half their
beauty when removed from the original setting. Thus the reproduction of the door
to the Etruscan room in the Grosvenor Square house, and that of the chimney-piece
in the same mansion, give little hint of the Adam genitis. Viewed with their sur-
roundings they become successfvd details of a ver\' harmonious whole. The Adam
decorations, more than that of any other style, with the possible exception of the
Louis XV, lose by being .separated from the construction. The watchword of the
brothers was "harmony," and this quality in their work can be appreciated only
when a room or series of rooms is studied. There are reprints of the interiors of

14&

ENGLISH FURXITUTtE OF THE EIGHTEEXTH CEXTLTIY

Sion House. Kenwood, Queen's House, and the mansions in Portland Place and
Grosvenor Square, and these are as useful from the student's standpoint as the now
priceless first editions. These books are worth volumes of descriptions.

Many learned writers have discoursed extensively on the work of James and
Robert Adam, but few have so intelligently expressed the point of the matter as
did Robert himself in the preface of his first book:

"If we have any claim to approbation we found it on this alone: that we have
been able to seize, with some degree of success, the beautiful spirit of antiquity, and
to transfuse it with novelty and variety through all our numerous works."

THE WORK OF THOilAS SHEKATOX.

' Thomas Sheraton, last of the great English fumiture-makers, was bom in 1751,
three years before Thomas Chippendale published The Gentleman and Cabinet-Ma-
ker's Director. "Last and least" cannot be said of Sheraton. '"Last and
greatest" expresses the opinion of many latter-day critics. A recent writer on the
inexhaustible subject of eighteenth-eenturj- furniture, says of him: '"Much as one
may appreciate the workmanship of Chipj)endale and Hepplewhite, in the presence
of a true piece of Sheraton's work one cannot help feeling that their productions are
coarse, almost blatant — ^that they were workmen, while Sheraton was a poet, and a
poet blessed with color." This is strong praise, but it comes from the pen of an
Englishman who has studied his subject deeply. No American could truthfully caU
Chippendale '"blatant," unless he used the word in turning over the pages of the
Director. Chippendale's fame rests on his furniture, not his drawings, and so it

is with Sheraton. The great cabi- ,

net-makers who wrote Directors,

Guides, and Drawing-Books, put
their extravagant ideas on paper
and their simple ones into furniture.
With their elaborate sketches thej-
hoped to catch the fancy of royal tj-;
with their actual pieces of furniture
they looked for ever\--day patronage.
And so it is that the shelves of ref-
erence libraries are full of "measure-
ments" and "scales'' and lengthy
" instructions " which grow gray with
dust, while the supply of the real
furniture is far too little to supply
one half the demand. To decide which

ADAM HASTELPrECE DECORATED BY AXGEUCA
KAimLVN

149

HISTORIC STYLES IN FU^INITURE

is the greatest, Chippendale, Hepplewhite, or Sheraton, is an impossibility. There
is one glory of the sun, and another of the moon, and another of the stars.

Chippendale was the most versatile of the three. He coiild be French,
Chinese, or Gothic, as the occasion demanded. His imagination, as he himself
admitted, was "without an equal." It was this imaginative quality that some-
times led the St. Martin's Lane furniture-maker into the realms of the fantastic —
and consequently away from the paths of simplicity. Sheraton's creations have
this beautiful quality combined with perfect proportion' and rare restraint. Whether
it be chair, table, or sideboard, there is a completeness about the design that leaves
little to be desired. Ornament for ornament's sake was never countenanced by
Sheraton. Like the Adam brothers, he decorated construction; he did not con-

SHERATON CHAIRS

150

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

FINE EXAMPLE OF SHERATON'S WORK

struct decora-
tion.

Coming af-
ter Chippen-
dale and Hep-
plewhite, this
designer learn-
■e d much
from their
methods. Dis-
carding the
plain, taper-
ing support,
he selected the
fluted form of

the Louis XVI style which the Adams had introduced into England. He made
use of the fluted column in his sideboards, tables, and desks, treating it with rare
restraint. In his chairs he used the square support, believing that a rectangular
"back demanded a rectangular base. On the same theory his use of the round and
fluted leg is equally consistent, for it is always combined with a curve. The table,
«ofa, and chest of drawers reproduced in this chapter show the combination of the
fluted support and the curved siuface. The table is an extremely graceful design
a,nd makes an interesting comparison with the Hepplewhite table illustrated on
page 141. These designs are of the "drop leaf" type, the leaf of the table fol-
lowing the outlines of the supports. The square, tapering leg of the Hepple-
white table is in perfect harmony with the top, which, though curved, is completed
by square corners. Sheraton's design meets the same test, the rounded corners
■outlining the curved supports.

The chest of drawers, or bureau in our modern acceptance of the word, is an
-excellent example of Sheraton's principle of construction. Here again we see the
curved front in conjunction with the rounded support. The fluted column begins
.at the top of the second drawer and ends at the base of the lower drawer. Above
the fluting is the "corn and husk" motif executed in a conventionalized manner;
below is a turned leg of admirable proportions. The drawers have narrow moldings
And brass handles of a simple pattern. Narrow beading outlines each plate which
is fm^ther decorated by a small rosette.

The sofa is a typical example of Sheraton's work, having the fluted support and
delicate carvings in low relief. The back of the sofa shows the festoon pattern used
^o freely by the Adam brothers in their interiors.

151

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

Sheraton's chairs are easily distin-
guished from those pf Chippendale
and Hepplewhite. He seldom used
the shield-back of the latter and
never the pierced splat of the former.
His treatment of the shield or heart-
shaped back was unlike that of Hep-
plewhite. The top of the shield was
straighter and the carving much more
severe. In America this type of chair
is seldom seen. Sheraton's fame as a
chair-maker on this side of the water
rests almost entirely on the rectangu-
lar back, an excellent example of
which is illustrated on page 150.

Sheraton furniture may be divided
into three classes — carved, inlaid, and
painted. To the first division belong
the pieces illustrated here, together
with the beautiful sideboards, which
are perhaps most characteristic of all
Sheraton's designs. His desks, bookcases, and writing-tables belong also to this class,
but are less familiar in America than in England. In the second list may be grouped
the graceful drop-leaf tables, orna-
mented with narrow lines of inlay,
the pretty tea-trays, knife-cases, and
writing-boxes, the latter often show-
ing an insert of sycamore and tulip-
wood. The third division includes
the furniture designed by Sheraton
and decorated by Angelica Kauff-
man, Pergolesi, and Cipriani. Many
of these pieces were executed for the
Adam brothers and were of exquis-
ite workmanship. Satinwood form-
ed the basis of the larger portion of
this work, and when decorated sug-
gested ItaUan "gesso." The Ken-
sington Museum contains splendid

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

specimens of this fur-
niture, and occasional
pieces are found in pri-
vate collections.

Like Hepplewhite and
Chippendale, Sheraton
worked largely in ma-
hogany, but he did not
confine himself to this
wood. Sycamore, hare-
wood, tulipwood, and
kingwood he used liber-
ally in his smaller piec-
es of furniture. He
wielded the highly color-
ed woods as a painter
does his pigments, and
it is on this score that
he is justly called a "col-
or-poet." Harewood,
which was sycamore
dyed a pale shade of
brown, whitewood, stain-
ed apple-green, satin-
wood in its lovely nat-
ural tone, and kingwood,
of deeper coloring, were used by this man with marvelous skill. Other cabinet-
makers combined these woods but, never on English soil, with such consummate
art.

Sheraton was a many-sided genius and met the fate of the man who does many
things well. He lived and died poor. Adam Black to whom the world is indebted
for most of its knowledge of Sheraton's private life has written graphically of the
cabinet-maker in his "Memoirs." Black was born in 1783 and died in 1872. At
one time he was Lord Provost of Edinburg. In his early career he was employed
by Sheraton, at a time when the great furniture-maker was devoting himself to
many pursuits. Black wTites: "He lived in a poor street in London, his house
half shop, half dwelling, and looked himself like a Methodist preacher. He had
been a cabinel^maker, and was now author, publisher, and teacher of drawing, and,
I believe, occasionally, preacher." Again, he says: "This many-sided individual

153

SHERATON SIDE-BOABJB AND CHIPPENDALE MIKKOB

ENGLISH FURNITURE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

is an interesting character. He is a man of talent. He is a scholar, writes well,
and, in my opinion, draws masterly. We may be ready to ask how comes it to pass
that a man with such abilities and resources is in such a state? I believe his abilities
and resources are his ruin in this respect, for by attempting to do everything he does
nothing."

"Would that most people's 'nothing' might prove to be as much," says B.
Wyllie, Esq., the Englishman already quoted. "I find myself wondering," he adds,
"if his paintings and his writings would have given as much pleasure to the world
as his furniture has undoubtedly given, supposing he had been able to devote him-
self to those arts."

154

CHAPTER XIII

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: THE TORCH, THE WREATH, THE
SPHINX, THE ATHENIAN BEES, AND THE GREEK HONEYSaCKLE.
CARVING AND MARQUETRY WERE DISCARDED AND PLAIN SURFACES
WERE COVERED WITH CHISELED MOUNTS OF BRASS AND ORMOLU.
SIMPLE EMPIRE TYPES WERE PULL OP BEAUTY BUT THE FINAL DE-
VELOPMENT WAS CLUMSY AND GROTESQUE.

CHAPTER XIII

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE

THE Empire style marked the last of the great historic epochs in furniture
and decoration. It was cold and formal, reflecting the personality of the
men so closely identified with its development. The Revolution brought
chaos to the industries of France which had so floiu-ished under the old
regime. Furniture-makers and metal-workers were thrown out of employment.
Many siiffered imprisonment or death by the guillotine. With few exceptions the
artist-artisans of the Louis XVI period had little part in the handicraft of the
Empire. Riesener, escaping the fate of Gouthifere and other famous furnitm-e-
makers, designed many pieces in the new style, but his name lives in his earlier
work. The Directory and the Consulate were periods of construction. In the arts
the process of rebuilding is slow. David's name is associated with this transition
from old forms to the new, and with him must be mentioned Charles Percier and
Pierre Fontaine. Percier was architect to Napoleon during the Consulate and
ranks with Fontaine as a celebrated craftsman of the period. Napoleon was not a
patron of the arts, yet no monarch of the old regime had so dominated a style. The
letter " ly is stamped over the entire decorative scheme of the Empire. Conquest
and victory are spelled in every line.

Designers of Louis XVI's day lauded the classics, but seldom to the extent of
the Empire artists and never to the glory of one man. The laurel leaves of the
preceding style were rearranged and twisted into a victor's wreath. The fluted
column upheld a torch. Roman and Grecian emblems were used lavishly. "Paris
was to become a new Athens, Napoleon a Caesar, and France a second Roman Em-
pire." The craze for the antique transformed the dress of the day. Statesmen wore
togas and court ladies donned the gowns of Grecian goddesses.

Architects, decorators, and furniture-makers were imbued with the spirit of the
hour. The classic lived again and, if somewhat inconsistent, the enthusiasm of the
day overlooked all shortcomings.

The chief characteristics of the Empire style were the wreath and torch, the
Roman eagle, the Athenian bees, the Greek fret, and the honeysuckle. After the
campaign in' Egypt the sphinx was added to the medley and became a conspic-
uous feature in both furniture and decoration. Distinctive qualities of the furniture
of the period are few and easily mastered. Constructively the plain column and the
claw-foot are the most salient features ; decoratively the wreath and torch are most

157

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

prominent. Marquetry was discarded and plain surfaces were covered with orna-
mental mounts of chiseled brass and ormolu. Chairs showed a square frame with
a plain round leg, ornamented with mounts of characteristic patterns. The chairs in
Compifegne, illustrated here, are typical of the style. Although imperial pieces
they do not differ from the chairs of a private house. They are enameled white
and ornamented with the Greek honeysuckle. The divan on page i6o has the an-
tique outlines so affected by furniture-makers. David painted Madame R6camier
on such a couch, the "Grecian attitude" being carefully preserved.

The carving of the Compi^gne couch is in the "running laurel pattern." It was
hard for craftsmen to get away from the bay leaf. When the surface to be treated
was too small for a wreath, the laurel was introduced in the manner shown.

Tables may be divided into two general classes — those with a center column,
terminating in a broad base with claw feet, and those of a heavier build, sup-
ported by sphinxes. The first type is well known in this country through covintless
"colonial" adaptations.

Beds during the period of the Empire were stately couches and form striking
contrast to the luxurious beds of the French kings. Napoleon's bedchamber in

Fontainebleau shows the ever-present

^emblems of conquest which, even in a

sleeping apartment, were never absent.

"^ The torch, the eagle, and the wreath

are all represented.

The work of Percier was marked by
"^ great delicacy, but a large portion of
"■^the later work of the Empire was clumsy
and absurd. Commodes and cabinets
lost their real significance and became
mere vehicles for the display of gran-
diose metal- work.

Unlike the Louis XV artisans the
v! Empire furniture-makers lost sight of
fitness. " They were too much in earnest
to be content, as were the artists of the
old regime, with borrowing the antique
lines only to playfully transpose them
by their own genius with a French
grace and elegance, and to thus amal-
gamate them with the national style.
The designers of the Empire were any-

158

ROMAN CEKEMONIAL CHAIR

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE

BEDROOM OF NAPOLEON I; TONTAINEBLBAU

thing but playM in spirit. Their antiquity was to be actual antiquity, drawn purely
from the fountain-head and admitting of no admixtiu:e. As the pieces of furniture
necessary to modern comfort had greatly increased since the days of the ancients, the
designers, fearful of the risk of departing from precedents, found themselves in a quan-
\(dary. Not daring to create they concealed the new constructive lines by an overlay of
incongruous accessories. The arm-chair was made to resemble the ancient curule seat

159

FURNITURE OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE

as far as possible, but when arms were to be added, the best that they could do with
\them was to turn them into swans' necks, and support them by cupids. The legs
of the most harmless tables became bristling griffins. Flaming torches bore the
cradle of the sleeping babe, a chair rested upon horns of plenty, the bed became a
barge, its peaceful curtains upheld by sheaves of lances. In a word the designers
were embarrassed by the self-imposed necessity for torturing the most obvious and
simplest forms into symbolic paraphernalia of antiquity. Take the clock for an
example. The dial, ordinarily its most salient and characteristic feature, became a
mere accessory. It was blushed for as a modern thing and hidden with great
ingenuity. It started out of the wheel of an antique chariot in which a warrior
rode. It was set into the rock upon which Telemachus reclined. It became the
globe which Aspasia carried on her knee."

In its plainer form the Empire style was full of dignity. If it lacked the charm of
the graceful Louis XVI style it had, on the other hand, qualities of repose and
stability which placed it far above some of its predecessors. One of the most inter-
esting phases was the strong influence which it exerted upon American furniture-

making of the early nineteenth century.

161

CHAPTEE XIV

COLONIAL FURNITURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STYLE: AFTER PIONEER DAYS THE COLO-
NISTS MODELED THEIR HOMES ON THOSE OF THEIR NATIVE LAND.
EARLY FURNITURE WAS THE HEAVY OAK OF THE OLD COUNTRY OR
PINE AND DEAL PIECES MADE IN THE COLONIES. TOWARD THE
END OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY THE TRANSITION FROM
MASSIVE TO MORE GRACEFUL FORMS TOOK PLACE. THE INTRODUC-
TION OF MAHOGANY IN ENGLAND SOON INFLUENCED FURNITURE-
MAKING ON THIS SIDE OP THE WATER, AND. FOR FIFTY YEARS
CHIPPENDALE, HEPPLEWHITE, AND SHERATON WERE THE GUIDING
STARS OF AMERICAN DESIGNERS. EARLY IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY ENGLISH PATTERNS DECLINED IN FAVOR AND FRENCH
INFLUENCE BECAME PARAMOUNT. THE EMPIRE STYLE MARKED
THE END OF COLONIAL FURNITURE-MAKING.

CHAPTEK XIY

COLONIAL FURNITURE.

THE term " colonial furniture," used in its literal sense, includes the household
effects of the colonists from the time of the settlement at Jamestown until
the war of the Revolution. This restricted definition excludes the work of
the great English cabinet-makers of the late eighteenth century, and all pieces
which owe their origin to the style known as the Empire. Thus the furniture
of Sheraton and Hepplewhite, and the later designs of Chippendale, are debarred
from the category, together with all those massive mahogany shapes having carved
colimins and claw-feet which have long been the stronghold of colonial collections.
Correctly speaking, these pieces should be classed as late Georgian and American
Empire. To limit the adjective "colonial" to the furniture imported or made by
the colonists prior to 1776 would disqualify more than half of the old mahogany in
this coimtry. The word has been used so long in a wider sense and has been applied
so continually to everything in furniture, from the earliest possessions of the Pil-
grims to the designs in vogue as late as 1820, that it is doubtful if the literal meaning
is ever accepted. From one point of view the broader use of the term is the right
one. It was not until 1830 that American furniture-makers ceased to be governed
by the standards of the Old World. English taste in house-furnishing prevailed
long after English supremacy was at an end. The colonial period in furniture out-
lived the colonial period in history fifty years. When black walnut replaced
mahogany and styles became "indigenous," the last vestige of outside influence
was over. Then came the decline.

In the accepted definition two centuries of furniture-making are covered,
1620-1820. The first hundred years may be called the age of oak, and the second
the age of mahogany. During the earlier period the history of all handicraft
in this cotmtry was closely allied to that of England and Holland. In the later
epoch Dutch influence lessened, and England shared with France the honor of
molding taste in America.

The early seventeenth century in England .was a time of transition. The Tudor
adaptation of the Renaissance was slowly giving way to the Jacobean. Furniture
was heavy in every sense of the word and exhibited a combination of styles which
bordered on the grotesque. A little leaven of simplicity was sadly needed and
this, later in the century, was provided by the Dutch. When William of
Orange became king of England, in 1688, the triumph of Dutch designs was com-

165

1! TV THK MAYFLOWER,
., n.VMOl TH, MASS.

plete. Holland occupied a unique position commercially. She was in touch with
the great nations of the world, and wielded a power second only to that of Italy.
Her ports were open to Spain, Portugal, China, and Japan. Ma Flanders came
French and Italian merchandise. With the accession of William the best that
Holland possessed passed into England. Furniture-making was permanently bene-
fited by the introduction of Dutch, Flemish, and Spanish models. In an Anglicized
form many of these types reached the colonies. In New England styles in furniture
were of tardy growth. In the south, where a closer touch was kept with England,
fashions in costumes and in house furnishings changed more rapidly.

Colonial furniture, from the first, showed a variety of types, for the early settlers
reproduced as nearly as was possible, in a strange country, the homes of their native

166

COLONIAL FURNITURE

land. The furnitiu-e of the Pilgrims was unlike that of the English colonists in the
south, and each differed from that of the Dutch settlers. Equally distinct were the
household belongings of the Huguenots in Canada, and they in turn were unlike
those of the French explorers in Louisiana. The Quaker and Swedish settlers in
Pennsylvania added still another element. "VVTiile the English of the south were
fairly representative of one class, and lived after the manner of their kind in the old

EARLY NEW ENGLAND INTEBIOR, SHOWING PINE SETTLE

country, there were slight differences between the colonial homes of Virginia and
those of Georgia and Carolina. After the roughness of pioneer life passed away the
dividing Unes between the English and the Dutch, and between the north and the
south, became more marked, and remained so until the beginning of the eighteenth
century. At that time Manhattan had been for some years under English rule,
and the Massachusetts settlers, with increasing prosperity, were enabled to main-
tain a more comfortable style of living.

The early homes of the Pilgrims and the Puritans were sparsely furnished. The
struggle for existence in those first bleak winters made everything but the bare

167

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

SEVEXTEEXTH-CENTCRY CHAIKS

necessities impossible. Long settles,
built with high backs to shut out the
wind, turned chairs of local workman-
ship, a few chests, plain deal tables, and
an occasional arm-chair comprised the
furnishings of the main apartment in
the usual New England house. The
original llaj'flower furniture was of
the simplest description and extremely
meager. Inasmuch as the Mayflower
made several voyages between old Ply-
mouth and new Plymouth, and each
time returned to America laden with
household belongings, it is quite true
that a good deal of furniture "'came
over in the ilaj'flower," but it did not
come on the first passage. In Pilgrim
HaU are several pieces which may be considered the genuine Mayflower articles. Pere-
grine White's rude cradle, Miles Standish's ship chest, and the chairs used by Gov-
ernor Carver and Elder Brewster are among the relics of that memorable first
voyage. The chairs are noteworthy as thej' represent the earliest tj-pe known in
Xew England. They have turned posts and spindles, and are sturdily buUt. Little
used by the" Dutch and lightly regarded by the southern planters, this severe t^-pe
was the common one in the homes of the Plymouth and Bay colonists. Many of the
turned chairs were imported, but judging from old inventories, quantities were made
in this coimtrj-.

<" Among the first trades mentioned in Xew England records were those of the
housewright, the joiner, the can-er. and the turner. The list of men who earned
their li^•ing by fiuniture-making was a long one. In the Bay colony were John Dix,
joiner; WUliam Pettigrew, turner; Increase Allen, can-er; Thomas Tarbox, clock-
maker; .■^olomon Andrews, tvu^ner; Ebenezer Holworthy, vamisher; Martin Rogers,
upholsterer. In 1642 there were twenty joiners in Boston and over thirty turners.
In the Pl\Tnouth colony Kenelm WvTislow was a prominent fumitiu-e-maker and
was a registered craftsman in 1634.

Si.x years after the landing of the PDgrims a law was passed in which it was
declared that "no handicrafts men soever as taylors, shoemakers, carpenters, joiners,
smitLs, sa\syers, or whatsoever, which doe or may reside or belong to the plantation
Plimoth, shall xise their science or trades at home, or abroad, for any strangers or
foreigners, till such time as the colony be served."

168

COLOXL\L FIRXITURE

The boundless forests of Xew England supplied workmen ^-ith oak, walnut, ash,
hickorj^ cedar, maple, deal, birch, cherry, and pine. Imported fiuniture was usuaUj-
of oak, but native pieces were often of the softer wood?. Painted furniture formed
a large part of the turner's stock in trade. To the hea-\y coats of paint is due the
preservation of many an old-time chest and settle which would otherwise have long
since been destroyed.

Contemporarj' with the tmned chair in England was the wainscot chair made
of oak, and heavily carved. This chair was too cmnbersome for easy transpor-
tation, and is not emunerated in the earliest inventories. In Salem, 16-3S, "2 wains-
coate chairs" were among the household effects of Giles Perkins, magistrate; in
Bcston, 1640, William Pettigrew, turner, advertised "3 wainscoate chairs, with
cushions'"; and in 1643, Deliverance ilayhew, of . PljTnouth, bequeathed to her
daughter Patience " 1 wainscoate chair, 6 turned chairs, and 2 joj-ned stools."

Less massive than the wainscot chair was the "leather chair" which was of
Italian origin. It was introduced into England bj- the Dutch who obtained it from
the Flemings. The Italian model had the spiral supports of the late Renaissance
period. The colonial tj-pe was substantially buUt, with turned legs and hea\')- under-
braces. Following closely upon the leather chair came the "turkey chair" — so
called from the oriental
fabric with which it was
upholstered. This was of
lighter construction and
was designed with a greater
regard for comfort. These
four styles — tmiied, wain-
scot, leather, and turkey —
are mentioned over and over
in wills and other docu-
ments. A Boston inventory
of 1668 includes "2 joyned
stools, 1 turned chair, 4
turkey- work chairs, 2 deal
chests, plain, 1 oaken chest,
carved, 3 leather chairs, 1
chest of drawers, cedar, 1
great wainscoate table.''

The wainscot table was
a combination table and

chair. Economy- of space, as wainscot ch.\ir with eush seat

169

FURNITURE OF THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTUKV

well as that of money, was an important factor in early colonial house-furnishing.
Similar to the wainscot table was the settle-table, a piece of furniture which served
many purposes. When drawn close to the fireside it made a comfortable seat for
several people. When the back was lowered and adjusted by means of a wooden
bolt it formed a dining-table large enough to accommodate an entire family.
Beneath the lid was a convenient storing-place for household linen and for treas-
ured pieces of pewter, too valuable for cupboard or shelf. An additional device
provided the settle with candle-holders, which, with the aid of the fire, enabled the
sitter to peruse his Bible or almanac. The settle was the most characteristic article
of early Xew England furniture. Local workmen evolved a type which English
designers did not surpass. Severe in Une and devoid of ornament it was far more
beautiful than the imported model. Built of finest oak and carved with rare skill,
the old English settle wins our admiration, but does not hold the eye and kindle the
imagination as does the simple one of New England pine. What fireside tales the
latter suggests! The long winter evening when howling winds accentuated the
warmth and cheer within; when blazing logs lighted up dim corners, making gold
the ears of yellow corn hanging from the rafters, and transforming the pewter
dishes on the dresser into brightest silver! What dreary theological discussions,
what long political arguments, what Puritan romances are conjured up by the old
pine settle!

170

COLONIAL FURNITURE

For more than a century this primitive piece of
fm-niture held its own against more modern innovations.
In reality the colonial settle was simply a long chest
with a back to which side pieces were added. The
chest in New England passed through many stages of
development, some of them quite independent of
English influence. A modification of the chest resulted
in a low set of drawers. At first one drawer was
placed beneath the chest, the whole being elevated on
four straight feet. Then a second drawer was added.
This piece of furniture was the chest with drawers.
The next stage was the chest of drawers which came
into existence about the year 1690. In many eases the
straight supports were replaced by heavy ball-feet —
the latter having become popular in England. This
solid ball foot must not be confounded with the claw-
and-ball which was a later design. One evolution of
the chest of drawers was the bureau, another was the
high-boy, a third the low-boy, and a fourth the beau-
tiful desk of the eighteenth century.

The desks of pioneer colonial days were in reality
boxes, known under the various names of "writing-
boxes," "desk-boxes," and "paper-boxes." They were
almost exclusively the property of clergymen and town
clerks. Letter-writing had little part in the busy lives
of the New Englanders.

From the many references in early inventories and
wills to the furniture of the day, a vivid pictvire of the
living-rooms of the first settlers is presented. The
sleeping-rooms of the period are less clearly defined.
IJttle mention is made of the bedstead, although allu-
sions to "feather," "straw," and "flock" beds are
numerous. From the massive designs in vogue in
England and Holland the colonial bed of the seven-
teenth century may be conjectured. Few of these
heavy structures were imported until after 1650. A
plainer piece of furniture, following in general lines the
English model, was made in the Plymouth and Bay
colonies at an early date.

171

SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY CLOCK

HISTORIC STYLES "IN FURNITURE

FLEMISH CHAIR, SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS, LATE SEV-
ENTEENTH CENTURY

172

Toward the close of the seven-
teenth century the bed increased in
importance. A list of the household
furnishings of a Salem merchant, in
1690, included " 1 great oaken bedd,
1 truckle bedd of maple, 1 large sack
bottom bedd, 6 Camblett bedd cur-
tains, 2 calicoe bedd curtains, 8
blankett sheets, 1 paire silk bedd
curtains." The settee, which was a
link between the settle and the sofa,
was sometimes used as a bed. This
piece of furniture was both of im-
ported and domestic make. The
back and seat were usually incased
in turkey-work. With the exception
of the • arms and braces the entire
frame was concealed. The construc-
tion of the colonial settee was identi-
cal with one type of the Renaissance
seat. From Italy it passed into
France, and from France to England.
Holland had no part in its develop-
ment. From thfe Italian palace of
the sixteenth century to the New
England home of the seventeenth
was a far-away cry and yet, barring
crude workmanship, the colonial
bench was a faithful copy of the
Renaissance design. The Dutch set-
tlers were unfamiliar with this settee,
as they also were with the New Eng-
land settle. Aside from a few pieces
which were typical of the homes of
the Pilgrims and Puritans, the Dutch
colonists possessed a far greater va-
riety of furniture.

Life in New Netherlands differed
essentially from life in New England.

COLONIAL FURNITURE

The winters of Manhattan
were milder and the Indians
less menacing; but the chief
difference between the Eng-
lish colonists of the North
and the Dutch settlers lay
in their motives for seeking
America. The Dutch came
to colonize; the English for
religious freedom; the Dutch
to found a trading-post in
the interest of the West
India Company ; the English,
that their children might
escape the divine right of
kings. The Dutch were a
nation of organizers and the
Manhattan settlers were
equipped with all the neces-
sities of pioneer life. From
the first the privations en-
dured by the New Engend-
ers were unknown to them.
Their genius for commerce,
coupled with their knowledge
of seamanship, robbed the
long voyage across the Atlantic of half its terrors. Therefore, a close touch was kept
with the mother country. Returning vessels brought back Holland bricks and tiles
and in a few years New Amsterdam was old Amsterdam in miniature. While Dutch
sovereignty extended over a period of less than sixty years, Dutch manners and cus-
toms left an impress that a century of English rule could not remove. When New
Amsterdam became New York, and Rensselaerswyck became Albany, it was a change
of letter, and little else. The English crown was added to the arms of the colony, but
the Dutch beaver was not displaced, and the loyal Hollanders still sang Boven Orange.
Madam Knight, a Massachusetts traveler visiting Manhattan in 1704, writes in
her journal: "The Buildings, Brick generally, are very stately, and high, though not
altogether like ours in Boston. The Bricks in some of the Houses are of divers
coullers, and laid in checkers, being glazed, and very agreeable. The inside of them
is neat to admiration. The fireplaces have no Jambs, as ours have. But the backs

173

QUEEN ANNE CHAIR, EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTUKV

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

MAHOGANY LOW-BOY WITH CABRIOLE LEG AND CLTJB FOOT

run flush with the walls, and the Hearth is of tyles and is as farr out into the Room
at the ends as before the fire, which is generally Five foot in the Low'r rooms ; and
the piece over where the mantel should be is made as ours with joyner's work, and,
I suppose fastened to iron redds inside. The hearths are laid with tyles in divers
forms and coullers."

The big fore-room of the Dutch dwelling was a pleasant place with its great
hearth, its "plastered walls, made bright by racks of Delft, and its^ comfortable,
substantial furniture. Chairs there were in several patterns, tables of various
designs, long built-in settles, painted and carved chests, and a great assortment of
cupboards. Most of these pieces were imported. The trade of the turner and
joiner did not flourish in Manhattan as it did in Massachusetts. The close touch
kept with Holland made domestic furniture unnecessary. Many of the chests and
cupboards were richly carved, some were painted in the bright colors which the
Dutch loved so well, others were ornamented with marquetry. The various cup-

174

COLONIAL FURNITURE

boards chronicled in New Amsterdam inventories are bewildering. There were

cupboards for linen, for silver, for Delft dishes; cupboards for hats, for cloaks, and

for shoes. An important piece of furniture was the kos, or kas, upon which the

finest marquetry and carving were lavished. The kas was a huge cupboard, or

press, and was the most characteristic article of Dutch handicraft. Ornamented to

a high degree, it was often the most sumptuous piece of furniture in the house.

When inlaid with tropical woods it presented a brilliant appearance and rivaled a

Dutch tulip garden in wealth of color.

The kas was handed down from one

generation to another, and was carefully

recorded in the wills of the period. The

widow of Governor Stuyvesant made

mention of hers in the following manner:

"To my son, Nicoleas, I leave my great

kas, or cubbard, standing at the house of

Mr. Johnannes Van Brugh, together with

all the China earthen ware lock'd up in

said cubbard."

This same Johannes Van Brugh pre-
sented his daughter Katherine, at the
time of her marriage to Philip Livings-
ton, with a superb kas. It has been
described by Mrs. John King Van Rens-
selaer, into whose family it passed by
inheritance. "The kas is of oak, and
handsomely carved on the outside, and
is filled with curiously contrived small
drawers and receptacles, and had ample
room for the linen and silver of the house-
hold of its mistress. The keyhole is con-
cealed under a swing-cover of wood,
which, when in place, looks like part of
the ornamental carving; and the great
iron key, with its crooked wards, seems
more fitted to unlock a fortress than a
marriage-chest." Katherine Van Brugh
Livingston owned the finest dinner-set
of Delft in New Amsterdam, numbering '
more than a hundred peices and doubt-

175

MAHOGANY HIGH-BOY WITH SCROLL TOP

HISTORIC STYLES IX FURNITURE

CORNER CUPBOARD WITH SCROLL TOP

less some of the treasured dishes were
stored in this great kas.

> Typically Dutch was the slaap-bauck,
or built-in bedstead, one of the few pieces
of fumitine which was not sent over from
Holland. This was usually ln•o^■ided by
the biulder of the house. When Oloff Van
Cortlandt erected a home in the Bowerie
for his bride. Annekje Lockermans, it was
stipulatetl in the contract that special
care should be taken in making the slaap-
bauck. In the Cortlandt house, which was
one of the most pretentiotis in town, the
slaap-bauck was placed m the sitting-
room, and was arranged solely for guests
who might arrive imexpectedly. It was
bvult behind a shding door, which concealed
it by day, and which could be lowered
at night to form a shelf for the mattress.
In many houses this simple contrivance
was the only provision made for sleeping.
The old Dutch slaap-bauck was the ances-
tor of the modern folding-bed.

In the small articles of fimiitm-e the
homes of Manhattan were particularly rich.
Mirrors, clocks, pictures, china ornaments,

from Amsterdam. The hanging clocks of
The dials were decorated

and candlesticks were ordered directly
brass were among the most beautiful of the importation
with heraldic devices in color, surmounted by picturesque figtires in hammered metal.
Holland's extensive foreign trade was shown in the bric-a-brac. The china ornaments,
variously referred to as mantel and chimney images, were of East India origin. Inter-
esting bits were lacquers from Japan and ivoiy carvings from China. These quaint
souvenirs of long sea voyages gave color to the Dutch interiors, and emphasized the
difference between the homes of Xew Netherlands and the somber ones of New England.
Pewter plaj-ed a prominent part in the interiors of Manhattan. Cupboards and
racks were filled wiih bowls and porringers, the latter hanging by their beat«n
handles in precise rows. Proud was the Vrouw of her pewter; prouder of her silver.
This was not exposed to the ^iew of any chance A-isitor. Hidden away in heavy
oak chests were the precious pieces — treasured heirlooms handed down from one

176

1=
o

m
a
h
».

X
B

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

generation to another. The
collection slowly increased, for
members of the family were
encom-aged to put their earn-
ings into silver. The money
thus saved was called "silver
money," and was sent to Hol-
land when a favorable occasion
prraented itself. Into the hands
of some trustworthy sea-capn
tain it was given, and after
many months the Uttle heap of
coins retiuned in the guise of
a beeker, a sugar-box, or — ^per-
haps a coffee-um. Then it was
carefully wrapped and put
awaj- in the chest, entered in
an inventory, and mentioned
later in a wiU, but not brought
forth, except to grace a chris-
tening or a wedding.

With the coming of the Eng-
lish settlers to Virginia a much
more luxurious phase of colonial life came into existence. Under the royal charter land
grants were extensive and the estates of the Virginia plantation included miles of terri-
tory. Toward the middle of the seventeenth centurj- the home of the southern colonist
was one of ease and was closely modeled on that of the English land-owner. Fa-
vored by climate, and served by faithful slaves, the problems that confronted the
northern colonist were unknown to the A'Lrginia gentleman. Blessed by wealth and
education, he had the leisure to cultivate the gentle arts of U\Tng.

Land passed from father to son, each in turn adding to the beauty of the estate.
.American architecture of the seventeenth century reached its height in the mansions
of Virginia and her sister colony, Marj-land. Old letters and inventories show that
these houses were richly fiunished. Mention is made of Westover, the home of
William Byrd, Esq., with its paneled hall and carved staircase, its dining-room,
fimiished in oak, and its "faire south parlom-," hung in silken ciulains of Italian
weave. William BjTd possessed a fine library. His book-plate, executed in the
Jacobean style, is still preserved.

Robert Carter, of Carotoman, left a host of memoranda concerning his mode of

178

CHIPPEXDAIX ROUJTD.tBOTTT CHAIB

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

living. The upholstery of his sedan chair,
the pattern of his furnitiare, the designs of
his silver, were duly recorded. Thanks to
these items a vivid picture is retained of the
southern mansion of the seventeenth century.
Detailed orders were sent to London mer-
chants, and the newest styles in furniture
and table-ware soon found their way across
the water.

The carved oak which has been handed
do\\-n in many \'irginia families is of vmusual
beauty, and of a character unknown in New
England. Upholstery was used to a much
greater extent in the south than in the north.
"Spanish leather, gold "\'enetian cloth, red
Lyons velvet, and green turkey- work" are
mentioned in a letter bearing the date 1640.
Fiuniture showed a great variety of designs.
Seven kinds of cupboards were listed in the
inventory of the Fitz-Hugh house. The court
and livery cupboards mentioned so often in colonial dociunents of the south, and
occasionally in those of New England, were carved and paneled in the Jacobean
style. The prices for some of these pieces were relatively very high. In 1640 the
values were: "One livery cubbard and shelf, £25; A great cupbart, £38 3s."

Another piece of furniture which, in the Puritan house, was of rigid simplicity, was
the "thousand-legged table." or "gate table." This was a peculiarly constructed
article having many leaves, which. were supported by heavily braced legs. In the
south this table became quite an ornamental affair. Smaller tables were the
"folding," and "drawing" ones, which were similar in design, but less richly carved.
Toward the end of the seventeenth century in England the heavily carved and
paneled pieces were replaced by lighter designs. Chairs were built on more graceful
lines, tables became less cumbersome, cupboards lost their massive proportions.
Fm-niture was constructed with a greater regard for comfort and utility. The new
designs were easy of transportation, and soon influenced woodworkers on this side
of the water. The names of the colonial craftsmen had changed. The joiner and
the turner and the housewright had become the cabinet-maker, the chair-maker,
and the carpenter.

In 1690 the "Handcrafts Guild," of Boston, numbered more than sixty men

180

RARE CHIPPENDALE CHAIR

HISTORIC STYLES IN FLTINITURE

who made furniture, and
over forty who were en-
gaged in the trade of
upholstering. The execu-
tion of many of the colo-
nial pieces is of a high
order, and bears the test
of comparison with Eng-
lish work of the period.
American woods were un-
like those of England,
and this fact makes the
origin of most seventeenth
century furniture unmis-
takable. Two extremely
interesting pieces intro-
duced into New England
between 1680 and 1690
were the so-called Flemish
and vSpanish chairs. These
were seldom copied in this
country, and therefore
cannot be confvised with
colonial handiwork.

English furniture-mak-
ers obtained the designs
from Holland, where they
had long been held in
favor. The original Spanish chair was upholstered in leather; the legs terminated
in hoof-shaped feet, and the underbracing was carved. The Flemish chair
had scrolled feet, and the seat and back were of finely woven cane. In being
transplanted from one country to another these chairs lost many of their
distinctive features. Dutch designers robbed them of some of their grace and Eng-
lish woodworkers added several Jacobean touches. Few Spanish and Flemish chairs
of pure type reached America. In England the characteristics of both were blended,
and this composite chair was imported in great quantities by both the northern and
southern colonists. With Spanish feet, Dutch arms, English back, and Flemish
imderbracing, its nationality was somewhat puzzling. The Salem chair, illus-
trated on page 172, is an excellent example of the Flemish type as it is found in this

182

POUR POSTER, LATE EIGHTEENTH CEtfTCRY

COLONIAL FURNITURE

cotuitry. The frame of this old piece has the quahty of teak, age having toned the
wood to rich, deep brown. Originally the seat of this chair was cane also, the
upholstery being added at a later date.

With the discarding of the great cupboards, the elevated chest of drawers,
familiarly known as high-boys, came into use. The names "high-boy" and "low-
boy" are not found in old furniture annals and are of comparatively late date.
"High chests" and "low chests" are frequently mentioned, and it was by these
terms that they were known in colonial days. The first high-boys contained from

AMERICAN EMPIRE TABLE
183

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

AMERICAN EMPIRE SOFA

fovtr to six long drawers and four or more divided drawers, all of which opened with
brass drop handles. Six tiamed feet connected by a stretcher formed the supports.
The tops were straight, and were finished with a heavy molding. Oak and walnut
were the principal woods used in their construction. An idea of their value may be
gained from prices gathered from old advertisements. The highest figure is £15,
and the lowest £2 10s. There was little change in the construction of the high-boy
until about 1720, when the introduction of the cabriole, or bandy-leg, revolutionized
this piece of fimiitiu'e, as^it did the chair and the table. Instead of six turned
supiports, the high chest of drawers rested on fom- slender ones. The stretcher, in
a modified form, remained, but in another decade it was discarded, and the high-boy
of 1730 stood on independent feet. The high-boy, page 175, shows the type in use
at a slightly later date, when the scroU top was introduced. The drawers display the
fan carving destined to be a featm-e of so many colonial pieces.

Mr. Luke Vincent Lockwood has made a careful study of the high chest of
drawers, and in his book, Colonial Furniture in America presents a detailed his-
tory of its development, ilr. Lockwood has rendered a service to coUectors and
to all lovers of old furniture, by his scholarly analysis of colonial styles. In speak-
ing of the . high-boy, he says: "The chest of drawers proper has usually ioxrc
drawers, graduating in size from seven to iovn inches in width; the section above
the fourth drawer is divided commonly into five drawers; a deep one, ornamented
with the rising sun, with the space each side of this equally divided into small
drawers. The table part has a drawer running all the way across the top, and
under this three deep drawers, the center one also having the rising sim. The large
majority of low-boys offered for sale are the lower or table part of the high-boys,

184

COLONIAL FURNITURE

and can be distinguished from the table proper by their height and the more sub-
stantial make of the leg. The genuine low-boy seldom mentions measures over 34
inches in height; the high-boy tables average about 38 inches. The little low-boys,
to the trained eye, are easily distinguished from the pieces made by supplying a top
to the high-boy table. It may also be added, that when they are thus separated,
the chest of drawers is often finished with feet, and, offered for sale as a colonial
bureau." .

A variation of the usual high-boy of 1730 was the type with a blocked front.
This style is rarely found to-day, but the blocked . desks which are of later date,
convey an idea of the general arrangement of the drawers. With the appearance
of the scroll top, or broken cornice, the high-boy entered the third period of its
development. The scroll top was the dividing line between old and new forms. It
transformed the high-boy into a thing of beauty; it added hghtness and grace to
the cupboard, and it wrought a wonderful change in the desk. Contemporary with
the scroll top were the delicately carved finials and the finely executed brass handles.

The tall clock, no less than the high-boy, was improved by the scroll. When
cabinet-makers discarded the straight cornice, clock-makers followed in their fool^
steps. Clock-making in the colonies

forms a chapter by itself. The earliest
time-pieces were portable, and were of
English make. Hanging clocks, de-
scribed in old documents as "lantern"
and "chamber," were little known in
New England until the late seventeenth
century. When tall clocks replaced
them, the field for beautiful cabinets
work was a wide one. The craft of the
"clock man" in the colonies developed
slowly. People of means imported
their timekeepers; those in humble cir-
cumstances depended on the hoiu'-glass
and the sun-dial. The eighteenth cen-
tury was almost at an end before
American clock-making reached the
dignity of an art. The names of Seth
Thomas and Aaron WiUard came into
prominence about the year 1800. The
"banjo" clock was made by WiUard,
and was very popular in the early

americajX empire sewing-table

185

HISTORIC STYLES IX FURNITURE

nineteenth centiin'. Chauncey Jerome, at a later date, made the rectangular
shelf-clock, which is a faithful timekeep)er to-day iu many Connecticut houses.

The year 1720 which ended the first hundred years of furniture-making in the
colonies, was an important date in England. About that time mahogany came
into use in London. The introduction of this wood has long been credited to Dr.
Gibbon, an English physician, the story of which ha.s been related in Chapter XII.

That mahogany fvuniture was in limited use in the colonies before 1720 is now
placed beyond a doubt. In the will of John Jones of Philadelphia, 1708, a mahogany
screen is mentioned, and ia a New York advertisement, of similar date, a mahogany
chest of drawers is oflFered for sale. The truth of the Gibbon ston,- Ls open to ques-
tion, although it is probable that mahogany furniture was little known in England
before the second decade of the eighteenth centurj-. It was not imported to any
great extent in this coimtry imtil after the year 1740. Without mahogany the
cabriole-legged desks and secretaries, the carved four-post bedsteads, and the
graceful fiddle-back chairs would not have reached a high degree of beauty. Chair-
making, especially, was revolutionized by the introduction of this West India wood.

About the year 1730 '"'the fiddle-back chair," sometimes called "the Queen
Anne," sometimes "the Dutch," and again, "the bandy-legged," became popular
in the colonies. It formed an important link in the history- of chair-making and
marked the di^nding-line between the heaAaly braced tj'pes, so long ia vogue, and
the delicately constructed styles made famous bj- the late Georgian furniture-makers.
The first Queen Anne chairs imported into Xew England were made with slight
underbraces, but in the second style these were lacking. The distinctive charac-
teristics of the Queen .\nne patterns were the cabriole leg. terminating in the flat
or dub foot, the broad splat of the back, and the depressed seat. A fine specimen
of the second t}-pe is reproduced on page 173. This is pure "Fiddle-Back".

Contemporary with the Queen Anne chairs were the "slat-back" and 'banister-
back" chairs. These were made with seats of rush, and were very plentiful between
the yeare 1730 and 1750. In the kitchen of the Whipple house which is illustrated
on page 177, are two of the "slat-back" designs. Into this old kitchen have been
gathered many articles t>7)ical of colonial da\-3. The collection of flax-wheels,
chums, lanterns, candlesticks, and pewter dishes rivals that of many a Xew England
museum. A "thousand-legged table" is here, and in a shadowy comer may be
seen a "fan-back" Windsor chair. Quite apart from the other chairs of colonial
da)-s were the many styles of "Windsors." From 172.5 until early in the nineteenth
centm-%- they held their own with far more elegant desigas. Thej' were found in the
homes of rich and poor and were not confined to any one locality.

The original Windsors were of English make, but American fumiture-makers
perfected several styles, ilade of ash and hickory and heavily coated with paint,

186

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

AMERICAN EMPIRE SOFA

they have outiived many a
fine bit of can'ed mahogany.
The various American Wind-
sors -were known as "round-
backs," "fan-backs," and
"bow-backs," the latter fol-
lowing in a general way the
lines of an archer's bow.
There were " arm-chairs,"
"rocking-chairs," "writing-
chairs," and "side-chairs"
in the almost endless Wind-
sor category. One of the sturdy "arm-chairs" may be seen in Washington's
bedchamber, at Mt. Vernon, which is reproduced in this chapter.

The 3-ear 1760 marked another stage in the historj' of furniture-making in the
colonies. In England the great epoch of cabinet-making was at hand — ^that bril-
liant period, covering less than fifty years, with which the names of Chippendale,
Hepplewhite, and Sheraton are inseparabh' associated. Shearer, Ince, ilayhew,
Manwaring, and Richardson were worthy followers of the three masters, but their
influence was little felt in America. How many of the Chippendale, Hepplewhite,
and Sheraton pieces foimd in this country actually came from the hands of the
great designers? Their names have become generic terms, sometimes denoting a
stvle, sometimes a period. "After the manner of" Chippendale, or Hepplewhite,
or Sheraton would be a safer way to classify most of the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centurv- fumitm-e found in America. Doubtless a great deal of the work
in England which now bears the names of these men was designed by them and
executed by others. In this coimtrj- English models were so carefully copied that
it sometimes is difficult to locate the makers. Chippendale's influence was strongest
in America between the years 1760-1780. During the latter decade, Hepplewhite
was also a potent factor in determining styles in furniture. Sheraton's pubHca-
tion, The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book, appeared in 1793. From
that date until the designs of the Empire came into fashion, Sheraton was the
guiding-star of the fumitiu-e-makers in America.

Fortunately the popularity of Chippendale's Chinese and Gothic styles foimd
little echo on this side of the Atlantic. Most of the pieces bearing his name in
America are entirely free from these absurdities. His early fiuniture shows traces
of Dutch influence which lingered in England in spite of newer fashions. He made
use of the bandy-legged chair, imparting great delicacy to the construction. The

188

B s

HISTORIC STYLES IN FURNITURE

first Chippendale chairs which were known in America were made with the bandy-
leg and ball-and-claw foot. The backs were a variation of the Dutch splat, pierced
and slightly curving. The next type imported showed a more elaborate back, and
straight, tapering legs. About 1770 a slight departure from the regulation Chip-
pendale chair resulted in the "ladder-back" design. The supports of this chair
were straight, and the back was divided with horizontal bars. Mt. Vernon contains
several of these patterns. In the West Parlor, shown in the frontispiece, a lad-
der-back chair is placed on either side of the fine Louis XVI fauteuil.

Many of the "roundabout" chairs designed by Chippendale are admirably con-
structed. In his hands the heavy Dutch model, the original "roundabout," was
given a new beauty. The large upholstered chairs of the late colonial period, the
"wing" and "cozy" styles were not made b}' Chippendale. Ince and Manwaring
designed several patterns, which were more common in England than in this
country. An American type of wing chair is shown on page i8i.

Thomas Sheraton made many chairs and tables, but in this country his fame
rests chiefly on his sideboards. The urn-shaped knife-boxes which are a part of
many of these pieces, show how strongly he was guided by the standards of
the Adam brothers. Most of Sheraton's work in this country is of a high order.
To many minds the old furniture which bears his name is the finest of all colonial
styles.

Four famous colonial chairs are illustrated here. First, the Flemish type;
second, the pure fiddle-back; third, the Windsor; and fourth the chintz-covered
"wing." There were several modifications of these tj^pes, but they were merely
In detail.

After the War of 1812 English patterns declined in favor and furniture-makers
turned to France for inspiration. The American development of the Empire style
is a lasting credit to the designers of this country, and forms a fitting close to the
second centiuy of colonial furniture-making. The table and sofa, pages 183 and
184, are typical examples of the American Empire and show what spirit could be
impai-ted to massive designs.

While the Empire style in America followed in a general way the trend of the
movement in France, it was free from the incongruities which marred many of the
foreign pieces. Carved colimins, claw-feet, pine-apple finials, and ornamental
brasses were the hall-marks of the American Empire. Realistic heads of lions and
griffins, and the many Egyptian details to which French furniture-makers resorted,
were happily absent from the work of the day on this side of the water.

By 1830 the Empire style in this country had run its course. Designs lost their
vitality and became heavy and ponderous. When black walnut superseded
mahogany the characteristics which had made furniture-making an art for more

190

COLONIAL FURNITURE

than a hundred years ceased to exist. Varied as were colonial types there were
certain features common to all. Whatever extravagances marked English and
continental styles, designs in this country leaned toward simplicity. It is this
quality that renders colonial furniture as satisfactory to-day as when it came from
the hands of its maker.

191

INDEX

Acanthus, 33, 37, 42, 97, 194, 106, 111, 123,

144.
Adam, Brothers, 138, 140, 144, 150.
Adam, James, 141, 14.5, 146.
Adam Style, 131, 144, 148, 151.
Alaux, Jean, 57.
Anne of Austria, 62, 63, 99.
Anne, Queen, 83, 95, 61, 106.
Anthemion, 37.

Arabesques, 33, 37, 38, 42, 53, 144.
Armoire, 11, 15, 108, 123, 125.
Arras, 47-
Augsburg, 78, 103.

Bahut, 4, 15.
Ball-and-Claw, 133, 139.
BaU-Foot, 78.
Bandy-Leg, 133, 1S4.
Baroque, 48, 50.
Bartolozzi, 143.
Bartolommeo, Fra, 44, 50.
Beauvais, 63, 128.
Bedchamber, 4, 6, 16, 41, 63.
Bedrooms, 6, 16.
Beds —

Anglo-Norman, 6.

Anglo-Sa.xon, 4.

Empire, 158, 161.

Feather, 171.

Flock, 171.

Renaissance, 41.

Straw, 5, 90, 171.
Bedste.\ds —

Anne of Austria, 63.

Elizabethan, 90, 92.

Four-Post, 41, 181, 182, 186.

Gothic, 16, 41.

Louis XIV, 106.

Louis XVT, 125.

Renaissance, 41.

Bedstocks, 90.

BeU-riower, 121.

Bess of Hardwick, 86.

Blois, Chateau of, 56, 57, 60, 66.

Boheme, Hotel, 20, 21.

Bookcases, 50, 163, 138, 140.

Boulle Furniture, 104, 106, 108.

Bower, 4.

Bureau, 15, 111, 136, 138, 151

Bureau-Toilet. 127. 128.

C.VBIXBTS —

Dutch, 72.
French, 58, 63-
Italian, 39
Spanish, 181.
Cabinet JI i.KERS —
BouDe, 104, 106, 108.
Caffere, Jacques, 114.
Caffere, Philippe, 112, 114.
Carlin, 124, 128.
Chippendale, 136, 134, 13f , 136, 137, 138,

188.
Cressent, 112.
Edwards and Darley, 138.
Gillow, 138, 139.
Gouthieie, 144, 138.
Hepplewhite, 136, 139, l^, 15?, 188.
Ince, 138. 188. 190.
Johnson, 138.
Knek. 91

Langley, Batty, 138.
Langlev, Thofnas, 138.
Leleu, 124. 128.
Manwaring, 138. 188, 190.
Martin Family, 118.
Mayhew 138, 188.
Oeben, 115, 124, 128.
Richardson, 188.
Riesener, 114, 124, 126.

193

INDEX

Rontgen, 124, 126, 127.

Saunier, 124.

Shearer, 139, 140, 188.

Sheraton, 139, 140, 141, 145, 188, 190.

Thomire, 128, 133.
Cabriole-Leg, 95, 133, 184.
Cassoni, 42.

Catherine of Prussia, 128.
Cartouche, 33, 37, 42, 53, 58, 64.
Cedric's Castle, 5.
Ceil-Cloths, 3.
Cellini, Benvenuto, 40, 56.
Chairs —

Banister, 186.

Byzantine, 8, 9.

Cane, 66, 74, 82, 182.

Chippendale, 136, 137, 138, 190.

Coronation, 10, 11.

Curule, 31, 32, 51, 158, 159.

Dutch, 186.

Empire, 158, 160.

Fiddle-Back, 133, 137, 186.

Flemish, 66, 74, 95.

Foldmg, 16.

Gothic, 9, 10, 11, 16, 26, 30.

Hepplewhite, 140, 144.

Ladder, 137, 190.

Leather, 169.

Louis XIV, 106.

Louis XV, 116.

Louis XVI, 130.

Queen Anne, 186.

Renaissance, 39, 48, 50, 66, 106.

Roundabout, 137, 190.

Rush, 186.

Sheraton, 150, 152, 190.

Slat-Back, 186.

Spanish, 82, 182.

Turkey, 169.

Turned, 88, 168, 169.

Wainscot, 88, 90, 169.

Windsor, 186, 187.
Chair Cushions, 39.
Chambord, 55, 56.
Chandeliers, 64.
Charles I, 92.
Charles II, 94.

Charles V, 62, 71, 81, 85.
Chenonceau, 55.

Chests, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 42.
Chests of Drawers, 41, 169, 171.
Chinmey-Pieces, 57, 86, 136.
Chinese-Taste, 135, 138, 143.
Claude, Queen, 57.
Clocks —

Banjo, 185.

Bracket, 119.

Brass, 176.
* Empire, 161.

Lantern, 185.

Louis XIV, 118, 119.

Louis XV, 118, 119.

Louis XVI, 123, 127.

Regency, 111.

Renaissance, 42.

ScroU-Top, 185.

Shelf, 186.

Tall, 185.

WiUard, 185.
Coffered-CeUings, 44, 45, 46.
Coffers, 4, 10, 11, 47.
Commode, 114, 126, 128.
Cordovan, 30.
Corn-Husk, 121.
Cosimo, Andrea di, 42.
Couches, 51, 158.
Credence, 4, 15, 40.
Cresset-Lamp, 4.
Cupboards —

Comer, 128, 176, 185.

Court, 90, 180.

Dutch, 175.

Elizabethan, 90.

Flemish, 30, 72.

Gothic, 30, 72.

Jacobean, 94, 95, 180.

Livery, 90, 100.

Damiano Fra, 44.

David, 157.

Deerfield, Mass., 95.

Delia Robbia, 36.

Desks, 50, 171.

Dorfred House, Chicago, 45.

194

INDEX

Dresser, 4.

Dressing-Table, 136, 140.
Dressoir, 15.
Drop Ornaments, 94, 95.
Du Barry, 114, 116, 129.

Edward I, 10, 11.
Edward HI.
Eleanor, Queen, 10, 11.
Elizabeth, Queen, 85, 86, 88.
Elizabethan Period, 85, 86.
Elizabethan Style, 83, 84.
Empire American, 161, 190.
Empire Furniture, 157, 158, 159.
Empire Style, 155.
Endive, 109, 111.

Fadestol, 6.

Fanteuil, 6, 190.

Flanders, 18, 28, 71, 74, 86.

Fluted Column, 157.

Fluted Leg, 123, 128, 130, 151.

Fontainbleau, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 103, 104,

124.
Francois I, 55, 57, 58.

Gabriel, 129.

Garde Meuble, 116, 124.

Garland, 37, 123, 144.

George I, 133.

George II, 133.

George III, 133.

Gesso, 42, 52, 152.

Gibbon, Dr., 133, 134, 186.

Gibbons, Grinling, 133, 138.

Gothic Furniture, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 25, 28.

Grand Trianon, 129.

Greek Band, 123.

Greelv Fret, 37, 140, 157.

Gruuthuse, 71.

Haddon HaU, 20, 86.
Hardwiclv Hall, 85, 86, 87.
Hepplewhite, 136, 139, 145, 152, 188.
Henri II, 55, 58, 62.
Henri IV, 55, 56, 60, 64.
High-Boy, 183, 184.
Honeysuckle, 155, 158.

Ince, 138, 188, 190.
Inlay, 42, 81.
Intarsia, 42, 74.

Jacobean Furniture, 92, 180.

Jacobean Period, 92.

Jacobean Style, 83, 92.

James I, 92.

James II, 92, 95.

Joined Furniture, 90, 169.

Jones, Ingio, 92.

Kas, 175.

Kauffman, Angelica, 146, 152.

Knife-Boxes, 140.

Lacquer, 117, 176.

Laurel Leaf, 123, 157, 158.

Linen-Fold Pattern, 85, 86.

Longleat, 85.

Louis XIV Style, 97, 99, 108.

Louis XV Style, 109.

Louis XVI, Style 121, 124, 130.

Lozenge, 53, 86.

Mahogany, 128, 129, 133, 134, 152, 186.

Marie Antoinette, 99, 123.

Marquetry, 74, 95, 97, 104„117, 124, 174.

Martin Family, 118.

Masks, 97, 104.

Mazarin, Cardinal, 99, 100.

Medici, Catherine de, 60, 62.

Medici, Lorenzo de, 46, 52.

Medici, Marie de, 60, 62.

Memorial HaU, Deerfield, 95.

Meran, Castle, 16, 30, 32.

Messonier, 112.

MetalMounts,97, 106, 111,114, 124, 128, 1.55,

158.
Metal Work, 114, 115, 116, 124, 157, 158.
Michelozzo, 46.
Middle Ages, 3, 6, 25, 30.
Mirrors, 42, 176.
Moorish Ornament, 81.
Museum, British, 3, 11.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 60, 72.
Museum, Kensington, 20, 127.

195

INDEX

Napoleon, 157, 158.

New England, 168, 169, 171, 182, 186.

Oak, 10, 78, 82, 169.

Ormolu, 104, 108, 111, 128, 158.

Paneling, 85, 90, 95, 180.
Prince of Wales Plumes, 141.

Quatro-Cento, 37, 48.

Queen Anne Furniture, 71, 95, 186.

Queen Anne Style, 95.

Ram's Head, 97, 104.
Regency, 111, 113
Renaissance —

Dutch, 69, 71.

English, 83, 85.

Flemish, 69, 71.

French, 53, 57, 58, 64.

German, 69, 77, 78.

Italian, 33, 35, 36.

Spanish, 79, 81.
Rococo —

Furniture, 64, 106, 111, 114.

Ornament, 64, 102, 119.

Style, 64, 111,116.

Salem, 88, 172.

Saracenic, 6, 7, 8, 78, 81.

Secretaire, 128.

Shell Ornament, 64, 97, 109, 111, 112.

Sideboard, 40, 128, 136, 140, 145, 152.

Spade-Foot, 131, 140, 141.

Spanish-Foot, 82, 182.

St. Martins Lane, 136, 150.

Strap Work, 58, 85, 86.

Tables —

Baroque, 50, 67.
Bolt-and Slot, 16, 67.
Chippendale, 136.
Drop-Leaf, 151.
Elizabethan. 88.
Empire, 158.
Flemish, 72.
Folding, 180.
Gate Leg, 88, 180.

Hepplewhite, 140.

Jacobean, 88.

Renaissance, 39, 50.

Settle, 170.

Sheraton, 151.

Thousand-Legged, 88, 180.

Trestle, 88.

Wainsccrt, 88, 169.
Tapestry, 41, 47, 86.
Tre-cento, 37, 38.
Turkey-Work, 169.
Turned Furniture, 88, 168, 169.

VaUadoIid, 88.
Vatican, 38.
Vemis-Martin, 118
Versailles, 100, 101, 104, 106.
Vincigliata, 41, 43.
Vouet, Simon, 64.

Wainscot, 88, 169.
Westover, 178.
Whipple House, 186.
WUliam III, 10, 74, 93.
Woods —

Ambojma, 128.

Ash, 169.

Birch, 169.

Cedar, 169.

Chestnut, 22, 28.

Cypress, 28.

Deal, 169.

Ebony, 108.

Hardwood, 152,

Hickory, 169.

Kingwood, 152.

Mahogany, 128, 129, 133. 134, 152, 186.

Maple, 169.

Oak, 10, 78, 82, 169.

Pearwood, 152.

Pine, 169.

Satinwood, 152.

Sycamore, 152.

Tulipwood, 128, 152.

Walnut, 28, 78, 94, 129, 169.

Wren, Sir Christopher, 92, 133.

196

CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS
U . S . A

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Historic styles in furniture"

See other formats