Wvt Cornell University
WB Ubrary
The original of tliis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924075428817
CORNELL UNIVEHSITV LIBRARY
3 1924 075 428 817
CEYLON
IN THE
JUBILEE YEAR
WITH AN ACCOU>JT OF THE PROGRESS MADE SINCE 1803,
AND OF THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ITS
AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES;
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR WILLIAM H. GREGORY,
K.C.M.G., GOVERNOR (.)F CEYLON:
ERECTED BY THE INHABITANTS OF THE ISLAND IN C0MME3I0EATI0N OF
THE MANY BEiJEFITS ' CONFERRED BY HIM UPON THE COLONY
DCRING HIS ADMINISTRATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
FROM 1872 TO 1877.
(See page 406).
CEYLON
IN THE
JUBILEE YEAR
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESS MADE SINCE 1803,
AND OF THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ITS
AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES;
JOHN FERGUSON
THIRD EDITION
ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
NEW DELHI • MADRAS • 1994
ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
*31, HAUZ KHAS VILLAGE, NEW DLEHI-110016.
CABLE: ASIA BOOKS, PH. : 660187, 668594, FAX: 011-6852805
*5 SRIPURAM FIRST STREET, MADRAS-600014
ASlAr
vs
^n
F35
ld%i^^
f
1,
Price :Rs. 295
First Published: London, 1887
AES Reprint: New Delhi, 1994
ISBN: 8 1-206-0963-8
Published by J. Jetley
for ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
C-2/ 1 5, SDA New Delhi- 1 1 1 6
Processed by Gaurav Jetley
for APEX PUBLICATION SERVICES
New Delhi-1 10016
Printed at Gayatri Offset Press
Noida, Distt. Ghaziabad (U.P.)
ii
CEYLON
IN THE
JUBILEE YEAR."
fFITM ANACCOVNT OF THE PROGRESS MADE SINCE 1803,
AND OF THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ITS AGHI-
GTJLTURAL AND COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISES ;
THE EESOUECES AWAITING DEVELOPMENT
BY CAPITALISTS;
AND THE UNEQUALLED AnRACTIONS OFFERED TO VISITORS.
WITH MUCH USEFUL STATISTICAL INPOEMATION, SPECIALLY
PEEPAEED MAPS, AND SUMEEOUS ILLUSTEATIONS.
JOHN FEEGUSON,
Co-Editor of" Ceylon Obaerver,^' " Tropical Agricvltuiist," " Ceylon Hajidboolc,'' d'c.
Life Member of tlii Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ;
Honorary Corresponding Secretary of the Royal Colonial InstitiUe.
" Embassies from regions far remote :
* * ♦ *
From India and the Golden Chersonese,
And utmost Indian Isle Tapbobane." — Milton.
THIRD EDITION ; REVISED, ENLARGED, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO DATE.
Satibcn :
JOHN HADDON AND CO., 3, Bouveeie Steeet.
A. M. & J. FEEGUSON.
1887.
\All rights reserved.]
THE EIGHT HONOUBABLE
SIR WILLIAM H. GEEGOEY, K.C.M.G.,
WHO WAS QOVERNOB OP THE ISLAND OF CEYLON AND THE
DEPENDENCIES THEREOF FROM 1872 TO 1877 ;
THIS LITTLE VOLUME IS EESPECTFDLLY
IN THIS HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY'S
JUBILEE TEAE;
AS A SLIGHT TESTIMONY TO THE BENEFICENCE
OF HIS ADMINISTRATION IN CONDUCING TO THE
ADVANCEMENT OF CEYLON AND
THE WELL-BEING OF THE COMMUNITY, AND MORE ESPECIALLY IN
PEOMOIIKO GOOD FEELING AND MUTUAL RESPECT
AMONG THE
DIFFERENT CLASSES AND RACES
REPRESENTED IN ITS VAEIED POPULATION ;
BY HIS OBEDIENT AND HUMBLE SERVANT,
THE AUTHOE.
PKEFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
It is necessary to explain that the basis of the
following Volume was an account of Ceylon (with
accompanying Map) prepared in April, 1883, as a
Paper to be read before the members of the Eoyal
Colonial Institute. It was, however, received too
late for the day fixed, and accordingly was pub-
lished in book form, under the title of " Ceylon in
1883," by Messrs. Sampson Low, Marston, Searle,
and Eivington. A second edition, under the auspices
of the same firm, was issued withili a few months
of the first, entitled, " Ceylon in 1884."
This latter work has now been out of print for
some time, and the author has been frequently urged
to arrange for a third issue.
It is appropriate that this revised and considerably
enlarged edition should appear in the year of the
" Queen's Jubilee," as giving some account of what
is the most important, whether in population or
wealth, of Her Majesty's Crown Colonies, and bring-
ing the information, so far as it goes, down to the
present date. Besides large additions to nearly all
the chapters — more especially to those on Social
and Legislative Progress, on Agricultural and Plant-
ing Industries, and on the future Government of
Ceylon — a new chapter has been introduced dealing
with the Life, Customs, Caste, and Occupations of
the natives. Additions have also been made to the
Appendix, more especially in reference to Missions,
Caste, the Tea Industry, Statistical Information,
vi Preface to the Third Edition.
and the re-publication of recent letters of Mr. A. M.
Ferguson, describing the Pearl Fisheries and ancient
Kuins of Ceylon. This edition also includes a second
Map, prepared to show the Eailway system of the
Island, and it contains over a score of additional
Illustrations.
Apart from this being a Jubilee volume, it affords
gratification to the author that he is enabled to
dedicate the present edition to one whom he con-
siders to have been in many respects a model
administrator for a Crown Colony — a gentleman
who, as Her Majesty's representative, did more to
smooth away the angularities peculiar to colonial
life in the tropics, and to promote good under-
standing between the governing and the various
ranks, classes, and castes of the governed, than any
other living Governor of Ceylon. The author refers
to the Eight Honourable Sir William H. Gregory,
K.C.M.G., who, when he . left its shores, did not,
like nearly all previous Governors, remove his in-
terests and practically forget the existence of Ceylon,
but who, as a private individual, has since devoted
capital and time to the development of its resources,
while he still retains the deepest personal interest
in all that concerns the welfare of the Island and
its people.
A full index, which will be found sufficient for
ready reference, has been added to the present
edition.
In conclusion, the author bespeaks the forbearance
of Ceylon readers, considering that he has had no
opportunity of seeing the main portion of the proof-
sheets in the short time available for the printing
and publication of the book many thousands of miles
away from his adopted home.
Colombo, Ceylon.
June 17, 1887.
COEKIGENDA.
[The fact that the author was unahle to see the greater portion of
the pages when passiug through the press will account for the
number of corrections noted here.]
Page 2, last line bitt one, for " C.E.I," after Mr. Burrows' name,
substitute " CCS." (Ceylon Civil Service).
Page 3, sixth line from hottom, for " all was " at end of line, substitute
" everything was."
Page 4, at end of second paragraph, after " Tyre," read " of Eastern
and Southern Asia."
Page 5, fourth line from top, for " Kopok " read " Knpok."
Page 10, in table, opposite " Military -Imperial Share," substitute
"£160,000" for "£80,000." The word "nil" should appear
under " 1796-1815," opposite " Post Office Savings Banks,"
"Exchange and Deposit Bank Of&ces," " Volume of business,"
" Government note issue," " No. of newspapers despatched."
Page 12, wider engraving, foj " MahavelUgange, at Gangaru)ta," read
" Mahavelligangn, at Gfingarujca."
Page 24, under engraving, for " Topaui " read " Topari."
Page 34, seventh line from top, for " Stuart " read " Stewart "
Mackenzie.
Page 45, last line after " 60,000 Sinhalese " add " and Tamils."
Page 46, eleventh line from top, for " 2odi-ella " read '• Fodi-eUa."
Page 49, sixteenth line from top, for " villages " substitute "district!."
Page 51, the paper, referred to in the first note to this page, on the
" coconut " has not yet been read before the Asiatic Society.
Page 54, Jiftlt line from top, for " umbracolifera " read " umbracu-
lifera."
Page 55, first line, for " papuaa " read " papaws."
Page 59, second paragraph. It has been shown by Dr. Trimeu, of the
Koyal Botanic Garden, since this was written, that there is no
rehable evidence of the Arabs having introduced eoflee into India
and Ceylon, and it is more probable that the seed was first
brought to the island by the Dutch towards the end of the
seventeenth century.
Page 68, in sui-heading, read "cacao" for "cocoa,"
Page 72, ninth line, for "directed " read " diverted."
Page 82, fourth line, for " no attentive aid," read " no attention."
Page 94, nineteenth line, for " forming," read " and have formed."
Page 121, last line, for " Trimer" read " Trimen,"
Page 123, first line, delete comma after " Cyoas " ; delete "a" in
" cocoanut " in seventh, ninth, and eleventh lines.
Page 129, note, see Mr. A. M, Ferguson's "Letters from Anurddha-
puia " in appendix.
Page 130, second note, see Letters by A. M. Ferguson from "Pearl
Fishery of 1887 " in appendix.
Page 132, eleventh line from bottom, for " Carropus " read " Canopus."
Page 169, last line, for Appendix " VII," read " VIII,"
Page 257, Add to the List of Benefactors — T. E. B. Skinner, Ceylon
Civil Service, for his work in improving the Postal and 'Tele-
graphic Service of the Colony,
CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE I.
PAST HISTORY.
PAGE
The Ophir and Tarsliish of Solomon — Northern and
Southern Indian dynasties — Chinese invasion and
connection with the island in ancient and modern
times — Portnguese and Dutch rule — British annex-
ation 1
CHAPTEE II.
THE ISLAND IN 1796-1815, AND SEVENTY YEARS LATER.
Extent and topograxihioal features — Condition of the island
previous to and after ninety years of British rule con-
trasted . 8
CHAPTER III.
SOCIAL PROGRESS IN NINETY YEARS.
Population — Buildings — Postal and Telegraphic services —
Savings-bank — Banking and Currency — Police— Mili-
tary defence — Medical and Educational achievements
— Laws and Crime . . ...
viii Contents.
CHAPTEB IV.
PAGE
LEGISLATIVE AND GENERAL IMPROVEMENT UNDER THE RTFLE
OF SUCCESSIVE BRITISH GOVERNORS — THE NEED OF PRO-
MOTING CO-OPERATION AND GOOD FEELING BETWEEN
THE DIFFERENT CLASSES AND RACES . . . .33
CHAPTER V.
NATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND MANUFACTURING INTERESTS.
Paddy (rice) cultivation — Cinnamon — Coconut, Palmyra,
Kitul, Arecanut, and other Palms — Essential oils —
Tobacco — Cotton — Sugar-cane — Other Fruit-trees and
Vegetables — Natural Pasture — Local Manufactures 42
CHAPTER VI.
THE ORIGIN AND RISE OF THE PLANTING INDUSTRY.
Coffee introduced by Arabs — First systematically cultivated
by the Dutch in 1740 — Extensive development in 1837
— Highest level of prosperity reached in 1868-70 —
Appearance of Leaf Disease in 1869 — Its disastrous
eii'ects .......... SjD
CHAPTER VII.
NEW PRODUCTS.
Tea — Cinchona^ — Cacao (or Cocoa) — Cardamoms — India-
rubber — Liberian Coffee, &c. ..... 69
CHAPTER VIII.
PRESENT POSITION OF AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISE, LOC^L
INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN TRADE.
Exports of last decade — The Plumbago trade — Gold and
Iron — Native industries generally flourishing — Tea
especially and Cinchona will make up for the deficiency
in Coffee 85
Contents. ix
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE
■WHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOE THE MOTHER-
COUNTRY.
Eecent years of depression considered — Planting profits
absorbed in the past by Home capitalists — Absence of
reserves of local wealth — The accumulated profits of
past years estimated . ..... 90
CHAPTER X.
WHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOB CEYLON.
Population nearly doubled — Revenue quadrupled — Trade
expanded sixteen to twenty fold — Employment afforded
to natives — An El Dorado for the Indian immigrant —
Coffee in the past, as Tea in the future, the-mainstay
of the island — Material progress in the-. Planting
districts 96
CHAPTER XI.
PRESENT PROSPECTS FOR CAPITALISTS IN CEYLON.
Ceylon still a good field for investment — Its freedom from
atmospheric disturbances — Shipping conveniences at
the new harbour of Colombo — Low freights — Cheap
and imrivalled means of transport — Large tracts
available for tea and other tropical culture — Openings
for young men with capital — High position taken by
the Ceylon Planter — Facilities for personal inspection
of investments 105
CHAPTER XII.
ATTRACTIONS FOR THE TRAVELLER AND VISITOR.
The voyage a pleasure trip — Historical monuments, Vege-
tatiuii, t'tc. — Variety of climate — Colombo, the capital —
K;imly, the Highland capital — Kuwara Eliya, the
S.iii;itariuui — The Horton Plains — Adam's Peak — Uva
;'!iil it.-i li>ii;,'-delaj'ed rail way — Ancient cities of Anurad-
■ ;ijiuva and Polonnaruwa — Occasional Pearl fisheries —
i'iubablu expense of a visit to Ceylon — The alleged
inconveniences of tropical life ... . llo
X Contents.
CHAPTEB XIII.
FAOG
THE REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CEYLON.
Chief sources of Revenue : Grain and Customs dues, sales
of Crown Land, and Railway profits . . / . 133
CHAPTER XIV.
WHAT ITS GOVERNMENT BAN DO FOR CEYLON.
Aetivft and independent Administrators required — The
obstruction to progress offered in Downing Street —
Railway extsnsion and Graving Dock at Colombo
urgently called for — Law reform needed — Technical,
industrial, and agricultural education needs encou-
raging — ^The/Buddhist Temporalities question^Fiscal
Reform : Roa,d tax, Excise laws, Salt monopoly. Food
taxes. Customs djities — The Duke of Buckingham's
Ceylon and Southern India railway project— Ceylon
and India — Waste Crown Lands ..... 137
CHAPTER XV.
SOCI.U, LIFE AND CUSTOMS.
Social Life and Customs of the natives of Ceylon — How
little colonists may know of vUiage life — Domestic
servants — Caste restrictions — Curious occupations
among the people — Sinhalese Philanthropists, Messrs.
De Soysa and Rajapakse ". . . . . . 152
CHAPTER XVI.
CONCLUSION.
Relation and importance of Ceylon to India — Progress of
Christianity and education — ttatistics of Population —
Need of Reform in the Legislative Council, and sketch
of a scheme for the election of unof&cial members —
Loyalty of People to British Rule, as evinced during
Royal visits — The Celebration of the Jubilee of
Her Majesty th:; Queen-Empress .... 106
Contents. xi
APPENDICES.
PAGE
I. — Shooting Trips in Ceylon and a description of tlie
1 -nliaEt Kraal held at Labugama for the entertain-
the Princes Albert Victor and George of
«e2 179
II. — Extracts from Major Forbes's " Eleven Years in
Ceylon " : (1) The ancient capital, Anuradhapura ;
(2) A \dsit to Kandy — The moral laws of Gautama
JBuddha ; (3) Kandyan festivals 203
III. — Progress of Christianity and Illustrations of the
Progress of Mission-work in Ceylon : (1) American
Mission ; (2) Church Mission ; (3) Baptist Mission ;
(4) Wesleyan Mission ; (5) A Sketch of Missionary
Work 23G
IV. — Caste in Ceylon . . 251
V. — Lists of the British Governors of Ceylon, Chief
Justices, Commanders of Troops, Executive Council-
lors, and prominent non-oificial Public Benefactors . 252
VI. — The principal statistical results of the last Census of
Ceylon, taken in February, 1881 262
VII. — Table of the staple Imports of Ceylon from 1837 to
188G 269
VIII. — Summary of Information regarding Ceylon . . 270
IX. — Ceylon and its Planting Industries . . . . 318
X. — The Prospects of England's chief Tropical Colony . 328
XI. — Adam's Peak and its Shadow . . . . 337
XII.— Tea in Ceylon — Planters' Association Pamphlet . 3i4
XIII. — Works of Public Interest executed by the De Soysa
family . . . . . . .' • . .350
XIV.— Benefactions of S. D. A. Pi,ajapakse, Esq., Mudaliyar
of the Governor's Gate, and J.P. for the Island . . 352
XV. — Two Genealogical Tables, showing the Descent of
S. D. A. Eajapakse, Esq., Mudaliyar of His Excel-
lency's Gale, and J.P. for the Island, through his father
and his mother 354
XVI. — Colombo and the Buddhist Temple at Kelaniya, as
described by " Vagabond " in the Melbourne Argua . 357
xii Contents.
XVII. — Statistics of Ceylon Railways. (See-the Map at end
of Volume) 366
XVIII.— Caste in Ceylon 367
XIX.— The Ceylon Pearl Fisheries in 1887 . • .381
XX. — Anuradhapura, the Ancient Capital of Ceylon, and
adjacent Euins and Tanks, in 1887 , . 389
XXI. — Reference to Frontispiece . ... 407
XXII.— Reference to Map of Ceylon 415
For General Index See Page 417.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
STATUE OF- SIE WILLIAM GREGORY IN FRONT OP- THE
COLOMBO MUSEUM FroTiHspiece
PAGE
VIGNETTES OP GOVERNORS OP CEYLON . . To face 1
THE NEW HARBOUR OF CEYLON .... „ 8
VIEW ON THE M^HAVELLIGANGA, HEAR KANDY ... 12
BRIDGE OF BOATS, COLOMBO .... . . 14
SCENE AMONG THE RUINS OP POLONARUWA . . 24
TRINOOMALEE HARBOUR . . . . 37
A COCONUT PLANTATION .... . . 43
A COCONUT CLIMBER . . . . . 52
TALIPOT PALM IN FLOWER .... . . 54
VIEW OF A YOUNG TEA, COPPEE, AND CINCHONA PLANTATION
(abbotsfobd) CO
LIBERIAN COFFEE ; . 62
ASSAM-CHINA HYBRID TEA PLANT 70
CINCHONA succiRUBRA {Genuine Bed Barlt) ... 71
THE ARABIAN COFFEE TREE ....... 73
THE ASSAM TEA TREE . . .... 75
PODS OF THE CACAO (cHOCOLATe) TREE . . . 70
THE CACAO (chocolate) TREE . . . . 81
THE CEARA RUBBER TREE ... ... 83
THE BANYAN TREE {FicUS Indico.) 89
COFFEE, ARABIAN AND LIBERIAN 104
LOW-COUNTRY SINHALESE MAN AND WOMAN . . . 112
XIV
List of Illustrations.
FAOB
120
KANDY LAKE
GEOUP OF PALMS, &C., KOYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, PBEADENIYA 122
NUWAKA ELIYA, THE MOUNTAIN SANATAEIUM . . . 124
THE FALLS OF RAMBODA 125
DAGOBA 29
NAULA FALLS, EASTEBN HAPUTALE 131
KANDYAN HIGHLAND SUBORDINATE CHIEFTAIN . . . 134
MOORMAN "TAMBY" (pBDLAe) 154
THE DHOBY 157
DEVIL DANCER, WITH ATTENDANT TOM-TOM BEATER . . IGO
C. H. DE SOYSA, ESQ., J.P. . . ... 1C3
SAMPSON DE RAJAPAKSE, ESQ., J.P 164
KANDY TEMPLE 167
■WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE ELEPHANT KEAAL .... 178
ELEPHANT CHARGE IN THE JUNGLE 186
SCENE AMONG THE RUINS OF POLANNARUA .... 204
DIAGRAM OF THE T0P06EAPHY OF ADAm's PEAK . . 339
DIAGRAM OF RAINBOW ROUND THE SHADOW OF ADAm's PEAK . 340
COOLIE GIEL PICKING TEA-LEAVES 345
WEIGHING-IN GREEN TEA-LEAF ON A TEA ESTATE . . 347
NOTE,
Most of the Ceylon photographs from which the engravings were
made for this volume were taken by Messrs. W. L. H. Skeen and Co.,
Colombo ; but those of the Ceara rubber-tree (page 83) and of the
Liberian coffee (page 104) were by Mr. C. T. Scowen, photographer,
Kandy and Colombo, Ceylon. For the engraving of Cinchona on
page 71 the author is indebted to Messrs. Howabd and Sons. A few of
the engravings added in this edition are from the " Souvenirs of
Ceylon," by A. M. Ferguson, 1870. Acknowledgment is made on
page 62 to the Eev. S. Langdon and his publisher for the use of four
engravings. And we have further to express our obligation to Messrs.
Tatloh and Francis for the loan of the engravings illustrative of thf
Paper on the Shadow of Adam's Peak, page 315.
Sir Arthur ]I d inlon
Ut. Hon. bir W. ]I. Gregory. S r J R Longden
BOME OF THE BRITISH G0VERlH9Ba OF CEILON.
(For eomjilele list see Appendtx r.,page 252.)
€t^lan m % JiiMIeie ^mx.
CHAPTEE I.
PAPT HISTOET.
The Ophir and Tarshish of Solomon — Northern and Sonthem ludiair
dyi^iasties — Chinese inyaBion and coqnection with the Island in
ancient.and modern times — Portuguese and Dutch mlia — British
annexation.
1 TAKE it for grainted that the readers of this work
\rill have some general acquaintance with the position,
history, and condition of Oeylon. It is the largest,
most populous, and most important of her Britannic
Majesty's Crown Colonies, which are so called because
the administration of their affairs is under the direct
control of the Colonial Office.
Ceylon has long been
Confesi'd the best aQd brightest gem
In Sntain's cHient diadem.''
There can be no danger no w-a-days of a member
-of Parliament getting up in his place to protest
against British troops being stationed in Ceylon on
account of the deadly climate cf " this part of West
Africa," the "utmost Indian isle" being ;then con-
{otmded with Sierra Leone
2
2 Ceywn m tne Juouee xear.
Knowti to ancient voyagers as far back as the time
qf King Solomon (of whose Ophir and Tarshish many-
believe Ceylon to have, formed a part)^ the story of its
b«auty, its jewels, and its spices was familiar to the
Greeks and Eomans, who called it Taprobane, and to
the Arab traders who first introduced the coffee plant
into this island, and who placed in Serendib the scene
of many of Sindbad's adventures. It was also known
to the Mohammedan world at large, who to this day
regard the island as the elysium provided for Adam
and Eve to, console them for the loss of Paradise, a
tradition used as a solatium by Arabi and his co-
Egyptian exiles a few years ago, when deported from
their native land. To the people of India, to the
Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, Lank4, "the re-
splendent," was equally an object of interest and
admiration, so that it has been well said that no
island in the world, Great Britain itself not excepted,
has attracted the attention of authors in so many
different countries as has Ceylon.
There is no land, either,, which can tell so much of
its past history, not merely. in songs and legends, but
in records which have been verified by monuments,
inscriptions, and coins ; some of the structures in and
around the ancient capitals of the Sinhalese are
more than 2,000 yeats old, and only second to those
of Egypt jn vastness of extent and architectural
interest.* Between 543 B.C., when Wijaya, a prince
from Northern India, is said to have invaded Ceylon,
conquered its native rulers, and made himself king,
and the end of the year 1815, when the last king
of Kandy, a cruel monster, was deposed and banished
* See "Buried Cities of Ceylon," by S. M. Burrows, C.E.I., pub-
lished by A. M. and J. Ferguson.
by the British, the Sinhalese chronicles present us
with a list of well-nigh 170 kings and queens, the
history of whose administrations is of the most varied
and interesting character, indicating the attainment
of a degree of civilization and material progress very
unusual in the East at that remote age. Long,
peaceful, and prosperous reigns were interspersed
with others chiefly distinguished by civil dissensions
and foreign invasions. The kings of Ceylon, how-
ever, had given sufficient provocation to foreign
iTilers when in the zenith of their power. In the
twelfth century the celebrated king Prakrama Bahii
not only defeated the rulers of Southern Indian
states, but sent an army against the king of Cam-
bodia, which, proving victorious, made that distant
land tributary to Ceylon.* On the other hand, in
retaliation for the plundering of a Chinese vessel in a
Sinhalese port, a Chinese army, early in the fifteenth
century, penetrated to the heart of the hill-country,
-• The king of Cambodia (Siam) iu these days is a tribute-offerer
to Lank&, as the following paragraph from a Sinhalese paper last
year will show : —
"Presents pbom the King of Cambodia to the Buddhist
CoLLEOE, Maligakanda, COLOMBO, — Several gold images, an excellent
umbrella, ornamented with preoions stones, and a brush made of the
king's hair, to be kept for uSe (sweeping) in the place where Buddha's
image is placed, have been sent by the king of Cambodia to the
high priest in charge of the college. Two or three^ priests have also
come dovmto receive instruction in Pali, &c., &c. — Kirana, April 19."
During a visit to China in 1884 nothing struck the author more
than the exact resemblance between a Buddhist temple in Canton
and one in Ceylon; the appearance ol -the priests, their worship and
ceremonies, all were aUke. Outside, in that Motigolian world, all was
so different ; the country, the towns, the customs, and the people
with their pigtails, their oval eyes, and dress, all were strange and
novel; but inside this Canton temple, before the shaven, yellow-
robed monks, one felt for a moment carried back to " Lankd," and
its numerous Buddhist temples.
4 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
and, defeating the Sinhalese forces at the then royal
capital, Gampola, captured the king, and took him
away to China ; and the island had for some time to
pay an annual tribute to that country. At that time
the Chinese exported from Ceylon a large quantity of
the kaolin for pottery, which still abounds in the
island. The close connection in early times between
the island and the great Eastern Empire constitutes
a very interesting episode. Fa-hien, the Chinese
monk-traveller, visited Ceylon in search of Buddhist
books about 400 i.n., and abode two years in the island.
Ceylon was, however, exposed chiefly to incursions
of Malabar princes and adventurers with their fol-
lowers from Southern India, who waged a constant
and generally successful contest with the Sinhalese.
The northern and eastern portions of the island at
length became permanently occupied • by the Tamils,
who placed a prince of their own on the Kandyan
throne, and so far had the ancient power of the king-
dom declined, that when the Portuguese first appeared
in Ceylon, in 1505, the island was divided under no
less than seven separate rulers. Ceylon, in the
Middle Ages, was " the Tyre of Asia."
For 150 years the Portuguese occupied and con-
trolled the maritime districts of Ceylon, but it was
more of a military occupation than a regular govern-
ment, and martial law chiefly prevailed. The army
of Eoman Catholic ecclesiastics introduced under
Portuguese auspices alone made any permanent im-
pression on a people who were only too ready to
embrace a religion which gave them high-sounding
honorific baptismal names, and interfered seldom, if
at all, with their continued observance of Buddhistic
feasts and ceremonies. The Portuguese established
Past Histoi-y. 5
royal monopolies in cinnamon, pepper, and musk;
exporting besides cardamoms, sapan-wood, areca nuts,
ebony, elephants, ivory, gems, pearls, and small
quantities of tobacco, silk, and tree cotton (" kopok "
of modem times).
The Dutch, who by 1656 had finally expelled the
Portuguese rulers from the island, which the Lisbon
authorities had said "they had rather lose all India
than imperii," pursued a far more progressive ad-
ministrative policy ; though, as regards commerce, it
was selfish and oppressive. Still confined to the low
country (the king of Kandy defying the new as he
had done the previous European invaders), the Dutch
did much to develop cultivation and to improve the
means of communication — more especially by canals
in their own maritime territory — while establishing a
lucrative trade with the interior. The education of
the people occupied a good deal of official attention,
as also their Christianization through a staff of Dutch
chaplains ; but the system of requiring a profession
of the Protestant religion before giving employment
to any natives speedily confirmed the native love of
dissimulation, and created a nation of hypocrites, so
that the term '' Government Christian," or " Buddhist
Christian," is common in some districts of Ceylon to
this aay.
The first care of the Dutch, however, was to estab-
lish a lucrative commerce with Holland, and their
vessels were sent not only to Europe, but also to
Persia, India, and the Far East ports. Cinnamon
was the great staple of export,* next came pearls (in
* The peeling oi cinnamon, the selling or exporting of a single
stick, save by the appointed ofBcers, or even the wilful injury of a
cinnamon plant, were made crimes punishable by death by the
Dutch.
6 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the years which gave successfal pearl-oyster fisheries
in the Gulf of Mannar) ; then . followed elephants,
pepper, areca or hetel nuts, jaggery-sugar, sapan-
wood and timber generally, arrack spirit, choya-roots
(a substitute for madder), cardamoms, cinnamon oil,
<fec. The cultivation of coffee, indigo, and even some
tea was begun, but not carried on to such an extent
as to benefit the exports.
Agriculture was promoted by the Dutch for an
essentially selfish purpose, but nevertheless good re-
sulted to the people from the system of forced labour,
as in the case of the planting of coco-nut palms along
the western coast, from Colombo southwards, which,
so late as 1740, was described by Governor Van
Imhoff as waste-land to be surveyed and divided
among the people, who were bound to plant it up.
At the end of last century, when the British super-
seded the Dutch in the possession of the maritime
provinces of Ceylon, the whole of the south-western
shore, for nearly 100 miles, presented the unbroken
grove of palms which is seen to this day.
From 1797 to 1802 Ceylon was placed under the
East India Company, who administered it from Fort
St. George, Madras ; but in the latter year it was
made a Crown colony, and it soon became evident
there could be no settled peace until the tyrant king
on the Kandyan throne — hated by his own chiefs and
people — was deposed, and the whole island brought
into subjection to the British Crown. This was
accomplished in 1815, when, at the instigation of the
Kandyan chiefs and people themselves, Wikkrama
Sinha, the last king, was captured, deposed, and exiled
by the British to Southern India.
So great was the value attached to Ceylon as the
Past History. 7
" key of India," as well as on account of the supposed
fabulous -wealth, in precious stones and valuable
produce, available in the interior, that, at the general
peace, Britain chose to give up Java to the Dutch,
and retain this'little island, so i,nferior in area, popu-
lation, and natural resources.
CHAPTEE II.
THE ISLAND IN 1796, 1815, AND SEVENTY YEARS LATER.
Extent and topographical features — Condition of the island, previous
to, and after seventy years of British rule, contrasted.
Having now arrived at the British period, it may be
well to give some idea of the condition of Ceylon and
its people in the early part of this century, and to
compare the same with what is realized after British
government has been estabiished for seventy -two
years throughout the whole island.
The position of Ceylon as a " pearl-drop on the
brow of India," with which continent it is almost
connected by the island of Eamisseram and the coral
reef called Adam's Bridge, is familiar to all who have
ever glanced at a map of Asia. To that great
continent it may be said to be related as Great Britain
is to Europe, or Madagascar to Africa. In extent it
comprises nearly sixteen million acres, or 24,702
square miles, apart from certain dependent islands,
such as the Maldives. The total area is about five-
sixths of that of Ireland, but is equal to nearly
thirty- seven times the superficial extent of the island
of Mauritius, which sornetimes contests with Ceylon
the title of the "Gem of , the Indian Ocean." One-
sixth of this area, or about 4,000 square miles, is
comprised in the hilly and mountainous zone which is
The Island in 1796, 1815, and Seventy Years later. 9
situated about the centre of the south of the island,
while the maritime districts are generally level, and
the northern end of the island is broken up into a
flat, narrow peninsula and small islets. Within the
central zone there are 150 mountains or ranges
between 3,000 and 7,000 feet in altitude, with ten
peaks rising over the latter limit. The highest
mountain is Pidurutalagala, 8,296 feet, or nearly
1,000 feet higher than Adam's Peak (7,353 feet), which
was long considered the highest, because to voyagers
approaching the coast it was always the most con-
spicuous, mountain of Ceylon.
The longest river, the Mahaveliganga (the Ganges
of Ptolemy's maps), has a course of nearly 150 miles,
draining about one-sixth of the area of the island
before it reaches the sea at Trincomalee on the east
coast. There are five" other large rivers running to
the west and south, besides numerous tributaries and
smaller streams. The rivers are not favourable for
navigation, save near the sea, where they expand into
backwaters, which were taken advantage of by the
Dutch for the construction of their system of canals
all round the western and southern coasts.
There are no natural inland lakes, s tve what
remain of magnificent artificial tanks in the north
and east of the island, and the backwaters referred
to on the coast. The lakes which add to the beauty
of Colombo, Kandy, and the Sanatarium, Nuwara
Eliya, are artificial or partly so.
Most of the above description was true of Ceylon
at the beginning of the century even as it is now ; but
in other respects how altered ! It is impossible
to get full and exact information as to the condition
in which the British found the island and its people
10
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
in the early years, and up to the subjugation of the
Kandyan division in 1815. But from the best author-
ities at our command we have compiled the follovdng
tabular statement to show at a glance a few of the
salient points in which the change is most' striking,
by far the greater part of the change having taken
place within the reign of Queen Victoria : —
CETtON.
In 1796— 1815.
In 1887.
Population . .~
From 1 to 1 mil-
lion
2,950,000
No. of houses . . .
.20,000 (tiled)
500,000
Population of the capi-
tal, Colombo
28,000
120,000
Military force . . .
6,000
1,150
Cost of ditto .
£160,000
£100,000
Imperial Share
£80,000
£40,000
Volunteer Corps
nil
680 efficients
Cost . . .
£4,000
Police ....
nU
1,650
Cost . . .
—
£60,000
Eevenue . . .
£226,000
£1,300.000
£1,280)000
Expenditure . .
• ■
-£320,000
Trade :—
Imports — valuB .
£266,790
£4,700,000
Exports ,,
£206,583
-
£3,700,000
(local Customs' valne,
really worth much
more)
Boads ...
Sand and gravel
MetaUed, 1,350 miles
tracks
1 Gravelled, 900 miles
Natural, 700 miles
Bridges . .
none
Too numerous to men-
tion
Railways . . .
none
181 miles
Canals . . ....
120 miles
170 miles
Tonnage of shipping
entered iB,nd cleared .
75,000 tons
4,000,000 tons
Government Sayings
Bank :—
Deposits ....
nil
£210,000
No. of Depositors
nil
11,000
Post Office Savings
Banks
73
—
Depositors 5087
The Island in 1796, 1815, and Seventy Years later. 11
Iii 1796-1815.
In 1887.
Exchange and Deposit
Bank Offices . . .
12
Annual volume o£ busi-
ness in Colombo
Banks' Clearing-
house .....
—
about E60,000,000
Government note issue
—
R4750,000
Educational expendi-
£3,000
£70,000
ture
(for schools, and
clergy)
170
No. of schools
2,200
No. of scholars .
2,000
120,000
The Press ....
Govt. Gazette
35 newspapers and
only
periodicals
Medical expenditure .
£1,000
£60,000
No. of civil hospitals
and dispensaries
nU
120
1 (Civil servants:
1^
Bevenue officers
6
48
judges, magis-
1
trates, (fee. . .
6
40
Charitable allowances
£3,000
£8,000
Irom general re-
venue .
No Poor Law
Friend in Need Society
for Voluntary Be-
lief, £2,000
No Poor Law
Post offices ....
4
130.
Total No. of letters .
15,000,000
Money order offices
—
115
Telegraph wires . . .
nU
1,200 miles
No. of newspapers des-
patched ....
70,000
Area cultivated (ex-
clusive of natural
pasture)
400,000 acres
3,100,000 acres
Live stock : —
Horses," cattle,
sheep, goats,
swine, <fcc.
250,000
1,500,000
Cai
'ts and carriage^ j
50
20,000
[For a fuller statistical statement, see the " Summary of Infor-
mation respecting Ceylon," published, as Appendix ; and for more
detailed information still, seethe latest edition of Ferguson's " Ceylon
Handbook and Directory. "]
* Of 13,000 horses imported between 1862 and 1887, the greater
portion have been bought by native gentlemen, traders, coach-
owners, &c.
12
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
There is of course an immense amount of improve-
ment which cannot be tabulated, even if we extended
our comparison in this form to much greater length.
•'^M-
The greatest material change from the Ceylon of pre-
British days to the Ceylon of the present time is most
certainly in respect of means of internal communi-
The Island in 1T96, 1815, and Seventy Years later. 13
•cation. If, according to Sir Arthur Gordon (as quoted
by Charles Kirlgpley in " At Last "), the first and
most potent means of extending civilization is found
in roads — the necond in roads — the third again in
roads, Sir Edward Barnes, when Governor of Ceylon
{1824 to 1831), was a ruler who well understood his
duty to the pelbplej and he was followed at intervals
by worthy successors.
When the English landed in Ceylon in 1796, there
was not in the whole island a single practicable road,
and troops in> their toilsome marches between the
fortresses on the coast dragged their cannon through
deep sand along the shore. Before Sir Edward
Barnes resigned his government in 1831, every town
of importance was approached by a carriage-road.
He had carried a first-class macadaniized road from
Colombo to Kandy, throwing a " bridge of boats,"
which exists to this day, over the Kelani river near
Colombo, erecting other bridges and culverts too
numerous to mention en route, and constructing,
through the genius of General Eraser, a beautiful
satin-wood bridge of a single span across the l^Laba-
veliganga (the largest river in, Ceylon) at Peradeniya,
near Kandy. On this road (72 miles in length) on
the 1st of February, 1832, the Colombo and Kandy
mail-coach — the first mail-coach in Asia— was started;
and it continued to run successfully till the road was
superseded by the railway in 1867.
There can be no doubt that the permanent conquest
of the Kandyan country and people, which had baffled
the Portugese and Dutch for 300 years, was effected
■through Sir Edward Barnes's militalry roads. A
Kandyan tradition, that their conquerors were to be
a people who should make a road through a rocky
14
Ceylon in the Jubilee Y^ar.
hiU, was shrewdly turned to account, and tunnels
formed features on two of the cart.routes into the
previously; almost impenetrable hiU-country. The
BRIDOE OP BOATS, COLOMBO.
spurit of the Highland chiefs of Ceylon, as of Scotland
seventy years earlier, was effectually broken by means
of military roads into their districts ; and although
iiie isiana m i/ao, ±oiu, a/ta oen-«i,^ Yekrs later. 15
the military garrison of Ceylon has gone down from
about 6,000 troops to 1,000, and, indeed, although
for months together the island has been left with not
more than a couple of hundred of artillerymen, no
serious trouble has been given for nearly seventy
years by the previously warlike Kandyans or the
Ceylonese generally.
So much for the value of opening up the country
from a military point of view. Governor Barnes,
however, left an immense deal to do in bridging the
rivers in the interior, and in extending district roads^
of which not much wa^ attempted until the arrival of
his worthiest successor. Sir Henry Ward. This
governor, with but limited means, did a great deal to
open up remote districts, and to bridge the Maha-
veliganga at Gampola and Katugastotte, as well as
many other rivers which in the wet season were weU-
nigh impassable. He thus gave an immense impetus
to the planting ente'rprize, which may be said practi-
cally to have taken its rise from the year of the
Queen's accession, 1837. For the restoration and
construction of irrigation works to benefit the rice
cultivation of the Sinhalese and Tamils, Sir Henry
Ward did more than any of his predecessors. He
also began the railway to Kandy, which was success-
fully completed in the time of his successors. Sir
Charles MacCarthy and Sir Hercules Eobinson. In
the latter, Ceylon was fortunate enough to secure one
of the most active and energetic governors that ever
ruled a Crown. colony.
Sir Hercules Eobinson left his mark in every
province and nearly every district of the country, in
new roads, bridges, public buildings, and especially
in the repair of irrigation tanks and channels, and
16 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
"the prOvisioB of sluices. He extended the railway
•some seventeen miles, and he laid the foundation of
the scheme through which, under his successor, Sir
"William Gregory, the Colombo Breakwater was
begun ; and through the engineering skill of Sir Johji
■Coode, and his local representative, Mr. John Kyle,
this latter work has ensured for the capital of Ceylon
■one of the safest, most convenient, and commodious
artificial harbours in the world.
To Sir William Gregory belongs the distinction of
having spent more revenue on reproductive public
works than any other governor of Ceylon. The roads
in the north and east of the island, which were chiefly
gravel and sand tracks, were completed in a per-
manent form, and nearly every river was brid^^d
The North-Central Province, a purely Sinhalese noe
growing division of the country, was called into ex-
istence, and large amounts were invested in tanks
and roads ; planting roads were exteadcd ; about fifty
miles added to the railway system, and preliminary
arrangements made for a further extension of some
sixty-seven miles, forty-two of which have since been
undertaken and completed. When Governor Gregory
left in 1877, there were few rivers of any imj)ortance
left unbridged, a large extent of previously unoccupied
country had been opened up for cultivation, and an im-
petus given to both natives and the European colonists
in the extension of cultivation, especially of new pro-
ducts, which alone has saved the island from a serious
collapse in the years of commercial depression and
bhght on coffee which have followed. Since 1877
not many miles of new road have been added,
although Governor Gordon has improved existing
loads, and constructed some important bridges,
The Island in 1796, 1815, and Seventy Years later. 17
especially in the new and rising Kelani Valley tea
district ; but it is something to say that, whereas
the Eev. James Cordiner, chaplain to the Governor
of Ceylon in 1807, could write, " Strictly speaking
there are no roads in Ceylon," now, after about
ninety years of British rule, some 1,300 ipiles of first-
class metalled roads, equal to any in the world, have
been constructed, besides about 900 miles of gravelled
roads for light traffic, supplemented by 600 miles of
natural tracks available in dry weather to traverse
districts where as yet there is little or no traffic. The
main roads are those from Colombo to Batticoloa via
Ratnapura, Haputale, and Badulla, right across the
island ; from Colombo to Trincomalee via Kandy, and
another branch via Kurunegala, also right across the
breadth of the island, but north instead of south of
the Central Province ; from Jaffna southwards through
the centre of the island to Kandy, and thence to
Nuwara Eliya and Badulla, and by a less frequented
route to Hambantota on the south coast ; from Kandy
to Mannar on the north-west coast — the great immi-
gration route ; and the main . roads on the coast,
Colombo to Galle and Hambantota, and north to
Mannar and almost to Jaffna. Subsidiary first-class
roads, especially in the Central Province, are too
numerous to mention.
The benefit which this network of roads has con-
ferred on the people, it is impossible to over-estimate.
Secluded districts have been opened up, and markets
afforded for produce which previously was too often
left to waste ; settlements, villages, and even large
towns, have sprung up within the last fifty years
(during our good Queen's reign) alongside roads where,
previously, all was jungle and desolation, and means
3
18 Ceylon in the Jubilee xewr.
of employment have been afforded td a people who
had scarcely ever Been a coin.
As in India, so on a smaller scale in Ceylon, it is a
recognized fact that there is no more effectual pre-
ventive of famine than internal means of commimi-
cation, whether by road, rail, canal, or navigable
river. There has probably never been a year in
which India, within its widely-extended borders, did
not produce enough food to supply all its population ;
but tmfortunately there has been no means of getting
the superabundance of one district transferred to the
famine area in another part of the continent. So in
Ceylon, in years gone by, there has been great scarcity
and mortality in remote districts without the central
Government at'Oalombo being made properly aware
of the fact, or being able \,6 supply prompt relief.
The mortality from fever and food scarcity in some
parts of the country must thus have been very great
before British times.
Roads, again, are great educators, but in this they
are surpassed by railways in an Oriental land. The
railways in India and" Ceylon are doing more in these
modern days to level caste and destroy superstition
than all the force of missionaries and schoolmasters,
much as these latter aid in this good work.
The railway between Colombo and Kandy, projected
originally about fojfty years ago, was not seriously
taken in hand till the time of Sir Henry Ward.
After many mistakes and alterations of plans, it was
successfully completed under the skilful engineering
guidance of Mr. G. L. Molesworth, CLE. (now con-
sulting engineer to the Government of India), Mr.
W. F. Faviell being the successful contractor. The
total length is' 74^ mit^s, and, including a good deal
The Island in 1796,' 1815, and Seventy Years later. 19
of money unavoidably wasted in dissolving and pay-
ing off a company, it cost the colony, from first to
last, as much as, £1,738, 413; but the line (on the
broad Indian gauge of 5 ft. 6 in.) is most substantially
constructed, including iron-girder bridges, viaducts,
a series of tunnels, and an incline rising 1 in 45
for 12 miles into the mountain zone, which gives
this railway a prominent place among the remarkable
lines of the world.
Since 1867 the railway has been extended by Sir
Hercules Eobinson', on the same gauge, for 17 miles
from Peradeniya to Gampola and Nawalapitiya, rising
iowns in the Central Province j and by Sir William
<3-regory, for 172- miles from Kandy to Matale, a town
on the borders of the Central Province : while in the
low country the same governor constructed a seaside
line from Colombo, through a very populous district,
to Kalutara, 27^ miles, and also some 3J miles of
Wharf and Breakwater branches.
To Governor Gregory's time also belongs the in-
ception and practical commencement of the extension
from Nawalapitiya to the' principality of Uva, 67
miles, of which 41J were commenced in 1880, and
finished in 1885. This line includes two long inclines,
with gradients of'l in 44, a tunnel 614 yards long,
and the present terminus at Nanu-oya is 5,600 feet
above sea-level, within four miles of the sanat9.rium
and town of Nuwara Eliya (6,200 feet above sea-
level), and on the borders of Uva, which rich country,
however, cannot properly be served until a further
extension of 255- miles to Haputale is carried out, as
it is earnestly hoped that it may be very shortly.
Governor Gordon, after some doubt and delay at first,
has been thoroughly convinced of the importance of
this work.
20 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
In all there are 184 miles of railway open in
Ceylon, but only 91 may be said to have been work-
ing long enough to afford a fair test of the traffic and
the benefit to colonists, natives, and the country gene-
rally. The seaside line, however, has a wonderfully
large passenger traffic, and if only extended to Ben-
tota, and still more to Galle, would also secure profit-
able freight. With the revival of planting prosperity
through tea, the Nanu-oya and Matale lines are also
certain to be fully employed, although the first-named
must be extended into Uva before a full return can be
got for the outlay.
The main line to Kandy has more than repaid its
cost in direct profit, apart from the immense benefits
it has conferred. It is sometimes said that this rail-
way and other lines in Ceylon, constructed as they
were mainly for the planting enterprise and with the
planters' money, confer far more benefit on the Euro-
peans than on the native population. An answer to
this statement, and an evidence of the immense
educating power of our railways, is found in the fact
that during the past twenty years well nigh twenty-
six milUons of passengers have been carried over the
lines, of whom all but an infinitesimal proportion
were natives (Sinhalese and Tamils chiefly). On the
Kandy line alone it would have taken the old coach,
travelling both ways twice daily, and filled each time,
several hundred years to carry the passengers who
have passed between the ancient capitals and pro-
vinces in the past twenty years. There was scarcely
a Kandyan chief or priest who had ever seen, or, at
any rate, stood by the sea until the railway into the
hill country was "opened in 1867, whereas, for some
time after the opening, the interesting sight was often.
The Island in 1796, 1815, and Seventy Years later. 21
presented to Colombo residents of groups of Kandy-
ans standing by the sea-shore in silent awe and
admiration of the vast ocean stretched out before
them, and the wonderful vessels of all descriptions in
Colombo harbour.
In pointing out that the Dutch (equally with the
Portuguese) constructed no roads, we must not forget
that the former, true to their home experience, con-
structed and utilized a system of canals through
the maritime provinces along the western and south-
western coast. In this they were greatly aided by
the back-waters, or lagoons, which are a feature
on the Ceylon coast, formed through the mouths of
the rivers becoming blocked up, and the waters find-
ing an outlet to the sea at different points, often miles
away from the line of the main stream. The canals
handed oyer by the Dutch at first fell into comparative
disuse, but within the last thirty years they have
been fully repaired and utilized, and there are now
about 170 miles of canal in the island.
With the construction of roads wheeled traffic
became possible, and a large number of the Sinhalese
speedily found very profitable employment, in con-
nection with the planting industry mainly, as owners
and drivers of bullock carts, of which there must be
from 15,000 to 20,000 in the island, besides single
bullock-hackeries for passenger trafSic. In nothing is
the increase of wealth among the natives more seen,
in the Western, Central, and Southern Provinces,
than in the number of horses and carriages now
owned by them. Thirty or forty years ago, to see a
Ceylonese with a horse and conveyance of his own
was rare indeed ; now the number of Burghers,
Sinhalese, and Tamils driving their own carriages, in
22 Ceylon in the Jvhilee Year.
the towns especially, is very remarkable. The
greater number of the horses imported during the
past twenty-five years — the imports during that time
numbering 13,000 — have certainly pasised to the
people of the country.
CHAPTER III.
SOCIAL PKOGEESS IN NINETY YEARS.
Population — ^Buildings — Postal and Telegraphic services — Savings-
banks — Banking and Currency — Police and Military defence
— Medical and Educational achievements — ^Laws and Grime.
Having thus described more particularly the vast
change effected in British times by the construction
of communications all oyer the island, we must touch
briefly on the evidences of social progress given in
our table (pages 10, 11).
The increase in population speaks for itself. It is
very difficult, however, to arrive at a correct estimate
of what the population was at the beginning of the
century, as the Dutch could have no complete returns,
not having any control over the Kandyan provinces.
The first attempt, at accurate numbering was in 1824,
by Governor Barnes, atnd the result was a total of
851,440, or, making allowance for omissions due to
the hiding of people through fear of taxation, &c.,
say about a million of both sexes and all ages. As
regards the large estimate of the ancient population
of Ceylon located in the northern, north-central, and
eastern districts, now almost eutirely deserted, we are
by no means inclined, with the recollection of the
24
Ceylon in the Juhilee Year.
Social Progress in Ninety Years. 25
famous essay on the " Populousness of Ancient
Nations oefore us, to accept the estimates published
lay Sir Emerson Tennent and other enthusiastic
writers. There can be no doubt, however, that a
■very consideraWe population found means of existence
in and around the ancient capitals of Ceylon, and the
great Tank region of the north and east, a region
which affords scope for a great, though gradual, ex-
tension in the settlement of both Sinhalese and
Tamils in the future. At present it must be remem-
bered that fully two-thirds of the population are found
in the Westem, Southern, and Central Provinces,
occupying a good deal less than half the area of the
island, and that there are large districts, once the
best-cultivated with rice, with now perhaps only half
a dozen souls to the square mile.
As regards the number of inhabited houses, in 1824
there were not more than 20,000 with tiled roofs in
the island ; that number has multiplied manifold, but
the half-million now given refer to all descriptions of
inhabited houses, most of these being huts roofed
with coconut leaves. The improvement in the resf-
dences of a large proportion of the people is, however,
very marked : among one class the contrast between
the old and modern homes has been well described as
being as gi-eat as that between a begrimed native
■chatty (clay vessel) and a bright English tea-kettle.
In the town of Kandy, which has now about 4,000
dwelling-houses — the large majority substantially
built, many of two stories — eighty years ago no one
but the tyrant-king was allowed to have a tiled roof,
or any residence better than a hut. In all the towns,
and many of the villages of the island, substantial
public buildings have been erected : revenue offices,
26 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
court-houses, hospitals and dispensaricB, prisons,
schools, and post and telegraph offices. A great
change for the better in respect of these institutions-
was effected by Governors Bobinson and Gregory.
Further evidences of the good d(^e through a
liberal and enlightened administration we find in an
admirable internal postal service, made possible by
the roads through which every town and village of
any consequence is served, the total number of post-
offices being 111, supplemented by 16 telegraph sta-
tions, there being 1,100 miles of telegraph wire in
the island ; while, in addition, the Postal-Teleigraph
Department has opened Postal savings-banks in all
the towns and important villages. This is apart
from a Ibng-existing Government savings-bank, with,
about 10,000 depositors, owning' deposits to the
amount of perhaps two million rupees.
With the rise of local trade and foreign commerce,
chiefly through the export of planting products, came
the need of banking and exchange facilities, and the
call for these led to the establishment of a local Bank.
over forty years ago. This was superseded, however,
soon after by the Orientiil Bank Corporation, which
graduaiUy controlled by far the larger share of loca,!
business, so that the Ceylon branches became among
the most important and profitable of this well-known
Eastern bank. This gradually tempted its managers
to depart from legitimate business by -lending its-
capital too freely on planting, produce, and estates,
and when this bank closed its doors in March, 1880, no-
where was the shock felt more widely or acutely than
throughout Ceylon. The effect an4 distrust among;
the natives would have been greatly aggravated were
it not for the bold sfep tanen by Sir Arthur Gordon.
Social Progress in Ninety Years. 27
in extending an official guarantee to the bank's note
issue, -which eventuated in a Government note issue
soon after, much to the advantage of the people and
the exchequer, as will yet be seen. So far, the circu-
lation of Government notes is rapidly approximating
to five millions of rupees. Nor is any loss likely to
be sustained from taking up the notes of the Oriental
Bank, which, in fact, ought never to have closed its
doors. The New Oriental Bank Corporation founded
upon it, is already prospering, and the plantations
have been mainly taken over by a Limited Company,
and are likely to be worked at a good profit. Ceylon
has' suffered a good deal at times from plantation
companies, chiefly through the " Ceylon Company,
Limited," which, though so named, was really
founded to take up bad business in Mauritius, where
its heaviest losses were sustained. Other banks
and agencies prospering in Ceylon are those of the
Chartered Mercantile Bank of London, India, and
China, the Bank of Madras, and the National Bank
of India, besides mercantile agencies of other
Eastern banks. -It may be mentioned that Sir
Hercules Eobinson gave Ceylon the benefit of a
decimal currency in rupees and cents of a rupee, thus
placing it in advance of India, where the cumbrous
subdivisions of the rupee into annas, pice, and pies
still prevail ; in this respect Ceylon is indeed in
advance of the mother-country.
We need scarcely say that, at the beginning of
British rule, there was no post-o£&ce, and for many
years after, the service was of the most primitive,
although expensive, kind ; nor were there police or
volunteer corps in those days ; but there was an army
corps (infantry, artillery, and even cavalry, altogether
^8 Ceylon iri the Jubilee Year.
5,000 to 6,000 men) kept up for many years, out of all
proportion to the necessities of the case. The Home
Government had the idea seventy years ago that the
hidden wealth of Ceylon would enable a handsome
annual subsidy to be paid to the treasury of the
mother-country after all local expenses of government
were defrayed. In place of that, so long as the govern-
ment remained a mere military dependency, it was
a dead loss to, and drain on, the imperial treasury.
By degrees, however, it was seen that four British
and as many native (Malay, Tamil, and Kaffir) regi-
ments were not required, and, the force being cut
down, it was decided by a commission appointed by
the Secretary of State in 1865, that Ceylon should
bear all the military expenditure within its bounds,
the local force being fixed at one regiment of British
infantry, one of native (the Ceylon Eifles), and one
brigade of artillery, with a major-general and staff.
The Ceylon Eifles again were disbanded a few years
later, in 1873.
The island, therefore, has cost the Home Government
n'othing for the last twenty years : on the other hand,
the force in Ceylon has been utilized very frequently
for imperial and inter-colonial purposes. This will be
alluded to later on, but we may mention here that
Governor Gordon was instrumental, in view of the
recent depression of the revenue, in getting the
military contribution reduced to 600,000 rupees in
place of about a milHon. The former amount is now
counted as a naval, as well as military, contribu-
tion, and is a very fair appraisement of the responsi-
bility of Ceylon, considering that no internal trouble
beyond the capacity of police and volunteers can be
feared.
Social Progress in Ninety Years. 2^
In no direction has more satisfactory work been
done in Ceylon by the British Government than
through its Medical and Educational Departments.
Here are branches which give the natives a vivid idea
of the superiority of English over Portugueq,e or
Dutch rule, and, to judge by the way in which hos-
pitals, dispensaries, and schools are made use of, it
is evident that the Sinhalese and Tamils value their
privileges.
Of civil, lying-in, contagious diseases, and other hos-
pitals, with lunatic and leper asylums, and out-door
dispensaries, there are now 120 in the island, in or at
which some 175,000 persons are treated annually,,
more than two-thirds being, of course, for trifling ail-
ments at the dispensaries.
In this connection, the Ceylon Medical College,,
founded by Sir Hercules Eobinson in 1870, most
heartily supported by his successor. Governor Gregory,,
and liberally endowed and extended by two wealthy
Sinhalese gentlem«n, Messrs.'De Soyza and Eajepakse^
is worthy of mention. Out of some 240 Ceylonese
students entered, about' sixty have qualified and ob-
tained licences to practise medicine and surgery;
about as many more are hospital assistants and dis-
pensers ; some have taken service under the Straits'
Government ', while others have gone home to qualify
for degrees at British Universities. The college has
a principal and seven lecturers ; and the Ceylonese
have already shown a peculiar aptitude for the pro-
fession, surgeons of special, even of European emi-
nence, having come from their ranks.. We should
mention here the good work done by Dr. Green, M.D.,
of the American Mission, in his medical classes for
native students long before the Government College
80 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year,
■was founded. <See Appendix for reference to medical
benefactors.)
In education, generally, althougk there is stUl an
immense deal to do, Ceyloii is far in advance as com-
pared witb India. This has been chiefly through the
agency of the several Christian Missions at work in
the island, which have done a noble work, more
especially in female education ; but Sir Hercules
Bobiason gave an immense impetus to education by
the establishment of an admirable grant-in-aid system,
while Sir W. Gregory extended the work, multiplying
especially Government vernacular schools. Latterly,
special attention has been given to practical, and even
technical, education : an Agricultural Training School
has been started^ and in connection with Experimen-
tal Gardens (under the auspices of the separate
Botanic Gardens' Departments) in different parts of
the country; much good is likely to be effected.
Industrial schools for other branches are also encour-
aged. The great improvements in the educational, as
well as in some other special, departments of recent
years, is yery^mtich owing to the employment, as their
heads, of public seryants with local experience, in place
of importing "fresh blood," a penchant which cost
tihe colony a great deal previously. Under that system
a half -pay naval officer was sent out as Director of
Prisons, and an impracticable theorist as Director of
Public Instruction, while other departments have simi- .
larly suffered. At present the proportion' in Ceylon
is one pupil to every twenty-eight of population ; in
India it is about one to every 150, while in Great
Britain it is, we suppose,, one to every six or seven.
In other words, while practically all children of school-
agoing age are being, served educationally in Great
Social Progress in Ninety Years. 31
Britain, only 10 per cent, of those in Ceylon go to
school, while not much more than 1 per cent, in
India are being instructed.
Visitors always remark on the large number of the
people in Ceylon, the domestic servants especially,
who understand and speak English, as compared with
servants in India. In ancient times each Buddhist
temple had its pansala or school ; but although such
pansalas are still kept up in some low-country dis-
tricts, in the Kandyan country for many years the
priests have neglected their duty in teaching and
other respects, being entirely independent of the
people through the endowments in land left them by
the Kandyan kings, which have in this case proved a
curse instead of a blessing to the priests themselves, as
well as to the people. These " Buddhist Temporali-
ties," now being worse than wasted, will, it is hoped,
eve long be utilized by express ordinance for the
benefit of the mass of the people in promoting ver-
nacular and perhaps technical education. In the
low-country there are no endowments.
Educated Ceylonese are now, in many cases, finding
it difficult to secure openings in life suited to their
taste : the legal profession has hitherto been the most
popular, it being occupied almost entirely by them
as notaries, attorneys or solicitors, advocates, barris-
ters, and even judges. In this way Sir Eichard
Morgan, born and educated in Ceylon, rose to be
attorney-general, chief justice, and knight. At this
moment a Sinhalese gentleman is judge of the
Supreme Court ; and other Ceylonese fill the impor-
tant offices of attorney-general, and solicitor-general,
while others are county judges, leading barristers, and
solicitors.
32 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
The Sinhalese fondness for litigation is proverbial ;
their cases in court abound, even to disputing about
the fractional part of a coconut-tree. Crime gene-
rally is represented by a daily average of about 2,000
convicted prisoners in the gaols of the island, a large
number being for petty thefts and assaults. The
cost of the administration of justice for the criminal
class — police, courts, gaols, &c. — cannot be less than
E1,000,000, or about £80,000, per annum. A penal
code after the fashion of that of India was arranged
for by Sir Bruce Burnside, the present Chief Justice
of the island, and successfully introduced in 1885 ;
and codification of the civil laws — an urgent want —
is expected shortly to be brought forward by Govern-
ment.
CHAPTEE IV.
LEGISLATIVE AND GENEKAL IMPEOVEMENTS UNDER THE
RULE OF SUCCESSIVE BRITISH GOVERNORS,* THE
NEED OP PROMOTING CO-OPERATION AND GOOD
FEELING BETWEEN DIVERSE CLASSES AND RACES.
Ajiong the political and social reforms introduced into
Ceylon by the British during the present century
may be mentioned the abolition by the first governor,
the Hon. F. North, of torture and other barbarous
punishments abhorrent to English feeling, and the
relaxation during the time of his successor of the
severe laws against Komanists, twenty years before
Catholic emancipation was granted in England. Trial
by jury was first introduced by a new charter of jus-
tice in 1811 ; but it was not till 1844 that all caste
and clan distinctions in the jury-box and all slavery
were finally abolished.
A new and much improved charter of justice, the
establishment of a Legislative Council with unofficial
members, an order in Council abolishing compulsory
• Lists o£ the British governors of the island, chief justices, com-
manders of the troops, and executive councillors, together with the
names of other official and non-official residents, who deserve to be
specially mentioned as public benefactors, arc given in Appendix IV.
4
34 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
labour, the establishment of a free press, the relin-
quishment of the cinnamon monopoly, the institution
of a Government savings-bank and the Colombo
Academy, all served to mark the years between 1830
and 1840, when such enlightened governors as Sir
Eobert Wilmot-Horton, and the Eight Hon. J. H.
Stuart- Madkenzie, administered Ceylon affairs.
During the next decade a tax on fishermen of one-
tithe of all the fish taken was abolished ; the bonds of
slavery were finally removed ; great efforts were made
to extend education and medical relief to the masses,
and the important planting industry took its first
start ; a wise and most useful law for the improve-
ment of roads, exacting six days' labour per annum,
or it's value, from all able-bodied males between
eighteen and fifty-five years of age, was passed ; the
last national disturbance of the Xandyans was quickly
suppressed without the loss of a single life ; the
colony passed through a commercial and financial
crisis, and on the ruins of the Bank of Ceylon the
Oriental Bank Corporation arose.
In 1860 there was commenced in Ceylon the most
successful service with carrier-pigeons ever known in
connection with the press. The Ceylon Ohset-ver
carrier-pigeons travelled regularly between Galle (the
mail port) and Colombo with budgets of news, includ-
ing Crimean and Indian Mutiny war news, for over
seven years, till 1857,' when they were superseded by
the telegraph. All official connection between the
British Government and Buddhism was closed in
1855, the year in which Sir Henry Ward commenced
to rule, and a new impetus was given to Native and
European industry by useful legislation. The resto-
ration of irrigation works, the construction of roads^
Legislative and General Improvement. 35
the commencement of a railway, the reorganization
of the public service, the introduction of penny
postage (with a halfpenny rate for newspapers), the
establishment of steam navigation round the island
and of telegraph communication between the principal
towns, the reform of the Kandyaii marriage laws, and
the abolition of polyandry, also marked this period.
The following decade, 1860-1870, is chiefly dis-
tinguished for Governor Sir Hercules Eobinson's
energetic and most useful administration, with
measures for the civil registration of marriages,
births, and deaths, and of titles to land ; the opening
of the sailway to Kandy; the publication by the
people of Sinhalese and Tamil newspapers ; the for-
mation of the towns of Colombo, Kandy, and Qalle
into municipalities, with Boards composed of elected
and official members ; the revival of gansabhawa, or
village councils ; the adoption of a grant-in-aid
scheme for promoting the education of the people ;
the abolition of export duties ; the founding of the
Ceylon Medical School ; and the visit in 1870 of
H.E.H. the Duke of Edinburgh.
The next decade in the history of Ceylon has its
interest in the very prosperous, busy, and successful
government of Sir William Gregory. The first
systematic census of the population was taken in
1871. Measures vrere adopted for the conservation
of forests and for preventing the extinction of elk,
deer, elephants, &c. ; the registration of titles was
provided for ; Colombo, Kandy, and Galle were much
improved, arrangements for a good water-supply to
each town being made ; while for the sanatarium
(Nuwara Eliya) and seven other minor, towns a bill
was passed establishing Local Boards on the elective
86 Ceylon in the Jubilee itear.
principle ; the gansabhawa, or village councils, were
improved and encouraged; an immense impetus 'was
given to rice cultivation, 100 village tanks being
repaired every year, besides larger works ; the North-
Central Province, in purely native interests, was
formed, and the great lines of cominunication between
the north and east were permanently opened; Anurad-
hapura, the ancient capital, was cleared of jungle,
and rendered a healthy revenue station; gaols,
hospitals, and schools were greatly improved, gaol
discipline being put on a new footing ; pilgrimages on
a large scale injuriously affecting public health were
discouraged and practically stopped ; scientific educa-
tion was provided for ; temperance was promoted by
the reduction of the number of licences granted to
grog-shops; gas lighting was introduced into Colombo;
the stoppage of all payments from the revenue in aid
of religion ("Disestablishment") was arranged for;
the industry in the growth of new products — tea,
cinchona, and cacao — took its first systematic start ;
an enactment dealing with service tenures in con-
nection with temples was passed ; road and railway
extension were actively taken in hand; a public
museum was erected and well filled at Colombo ; and
in 1875 H.E.H. the. Prince of Wales visited the
island, and laid the first stone of the Colombo Break-
water, designed and constructed by Sir John Coode,
and since successfully completed (in 1886) by the
resident engineer, Mr. Kyle. A Northern Arm and
Graving-dock for the Imperial Navy (in supersession
partly of Trincomalee), as well as for commercial
purposes, though fully supported by the Admiralty,
has yet (1887) to be commenced.
Since 1880 the colony has suffered from financial
Legislative and General Improvement.
Hi li
37
38 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
depression, due chiefly to the falling off in the coffee
crops. A volunteer corps was established under
Governor Longden's patronage ; but almost the only
work of importance during his rule of six years was
an extensive lunatic asylum, costing B600,000 (to
finish) which is deemed much beyond the wants of
the colony, being built on a scale likely rather to
astonish than benefit poor rural Sinhalese lunatics,
taken from jungle huts to be lodged in brick and
mortar palaces. An increase to the fixed expenditure
of the Colony made in 1878 in Governor Longden's
time, including an addition of 1110,000 to his own
salary,* was to say the least injudicious, although
sanctioned by the Legislature, and this was shown by
the revenue depression which set in from the follow-
ing year onwards.
Sir Arthur Gordon assumed the Government of
Ceylon at the end of 1883, and a period of renewed
activity in useful legislation and material improve-
ment was eagerly anticipated ; but the result up to
date has not quite answered expectations. The im-
portant laws dealing with " Buddhist Temporalities,"
a Civil Code, Excise and General Eevenue Eeform,
have yet to appear. The railway extension, opened
as far as Nanu-oya in 1885, has not yet been sanctioned
into the important divisioh of Uva (Uva was created a
new province in February, 1886), notwithstanding the
Governor's urgent and repeated requests, backed by
his Executive Council and by reliable public opinion.
A step in revision of taxation undertaken in 1885 has
* Making the salary of the Governor of Ceylon BSO.OOO per annum.
Rather a contrast to that of the Dctch Governors, which was £30 per
month (besides rations and allowanceB), but then they were expected
to make a fortune in other and secret ways.
Legislative and General Improvement. 39
not been well received or proved successful ; but a
redaction in the military contribution, the, issue of
Government Currency Notes after the Governor's bold
guarantee of the Oriental Bank Notes, and a measure
of municipal reform, have naturally found acceptance".
The great failure of Sir Arthur Gordon has been in
not promoting and cementing that good feeling
between the governing and governed classes, and
especially between the different races and ranks, em-
braced in the very varied community of Ceylon,
which Sir William Gregory, above all his predecessors,
was successful in fostering. In the time Of the latter
Governor, Europeans, Burghers (European descend-
ants), and natives; co-operated more cordially, and
supported the Government more trustfully, than at
any period before or since. His successor, (Sir James
Longden) was too antiquated and sleepy in his ideas
to promote this desirable state of feeling, or any
other movement beyond the bounds of red-tape official
routine ; while Governor Gordon, by arbitrary, in-
quisitorial proceedings early in his term of govern-
ment, by his favour of ceremonial supported by high-
caste natives, and by ill-judged special patronage of
Buddhist priests at his levees, &c., has created distrust,
and we fear has undone much of the good effected
during 1872-1877. A frank, genial, straightforward
administrator, free of all official prejudice or pre-
dilection for outward (" caste ") show, recognizing
merit wherever it is to be found, and good work for
the benefit of the body-politic, no matter by whom
promoted, has nowhere a more encouraging or fruitful
iield to work in than Ceylon, and this is why, as has
often been said, a governor, .straight from "the free
air of the British House of Commons," has often
40 Cesltm in t^ Julnlee Yeat.
firo^ecl « B^&t 8004^688 in thia first- ami most im-
portant 'of GmwOk ColoiiieB; It' may not be known to
people in England interested in our tropical depen-
denciesy how.tuaeh evil^ cliqnes — official and otherwise
— ^promoted to some extent by "club" life, are
working, and are likely still farther to work, in India
and Ceylon. The Englishman carries his " club "
with him— it has been saidr-wherever he. goes, and
has the undoubted right to do so ; but it is a question
whether in Grown Dependencies "public servants,"
not excluding the Queen's Sepreseiitative, drawing
their sfdanea and pensions from taxes paid by the
peopk at large, have the right to patronize clubs
which practically, exclude all Her Majesty's native-
born subjects, without exception, no matter what
their merit or degree ; and still more whether occult
influences should dictate (through aide-de-camps and
private secretaries), who are to be honoured, if not
received, at "Queen's House." It was to the credit
of Sir William Gregory that he never allowed himself
to be restricted by the sneers of would-be colonial
"soci^y" dictators, but sought Out and marked
by his attentions merit Jind good work, wherever he
found them. In this way Sinhalese, Tamils, and
Bnxgkers (and' not merely a few "high caste"
families favoured by narrow-minded officials), found
their industry and integrity noticed by the Governor,
who again had at his table, as honoured guests, the
hea% »nd fOiief workers in the various Missions .and
princ^al ^Educational Institutions, wh^&er Christian
or secular, Hindu or Buddhist, showing his personal
interest in every thing or person calculated to
advance the colony and people committed to his osjpe
by Her Most^jracioua Majesty the ^een.
Legislative and General Improvement. 41
Jn a short time after these pages appear, a new
Governor for Ceylon will have to be selected, and it is
to be hoped he may be one of the high-minded, liberal,
progressive type, we have attempted to indicate.
CHAPTEE V.
NATIVE AGBICULTURAL AND MANUFACTURING INTERESTS.
Paddy (rioe) cnltivation — Cinnamon — Coconut, Palmyra, Eitnl,
^Arecannt, and other Palms — ^Essential oils — Tobacco — Cotton —
Sugar-cane — Other Fruit-trees and Vegetables — Natural pasture
— Local Manufactures.
Whether or not Ceylon was in ancient times the
granary of South-Eastern Asia, certain it is that long
before the Portuguese or Dutch, not to speak of the
British, era, that condition had lapsed, and so far
from the island having a surplus of food products, the
British, like their European predecessors, had to
import a certain quantity of rice from Southern India
to feed their troops and the population of the capital
and other chief towns.* There can be no doubt as to
the large quantity of rice which could be grown around
the network of tanks, in the north and east, which
have been lying for centuries broken and unused in
the midst of unoccupied territory.
Driven from the northern plains by the conquering
Tamils, the Sinhalese, taking refuge in the mountain
zone more to the south and west, found a country in
many respects less suited for rice than fof fruit and
root culture ; but yet, under British, as under native,
* Old Sinhalese records show that rice was imported into Ceylon
irom the Coromandel Coast in the second century before Christ.
BBiSSIiiki4iMli
Mwinmm.
'^"iii'^-g^f x^^fjmftfi^^m'i^'ffN^r^si^^^^ vy,.^
'|fe:.i^^^».
-"^^^S^^SfiBSSltnS
J!^ t=«
SlllPtlJiSllwiB
44 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
rule, rice or paddy-growing continues to be the one
most general and favourite occupation of the Sin-
halese people, as indeed it is of the Ceylon Tamils in
the north and east of the island. Agriculture, in
their .opinion, is the most honourable of callings, and
although in many districts fruit and root — that is,
gajrden — culture would prove more profitable, yet the
paddy field is more generally popular.
Nowhere in Ceylon are there tracts of alluvial lands
so extensive as those which mark the banks and
deltas of rivers in India, and the average return of
rice per acre in Ceylon, under the most favourable
circumstances, is considerably below the Indian
average. It was the opinion of one of the most ex-
perienced of Ceylon civil servants — Sir Charles P.
Layard, who served in the island from 1829 to 1879 —
that the " cultivation of paddy is now the least profit-
able pursuit to which a native can apply himself; it
is persevered in from habit, and because the value of
time and labour never enters into his calculations."
This view has been contested more recently (in 1885)
by an experienced revenue officer, Mr.-E. Elliott, who*
shows that rice cultivation is fairly profitable; but
his calculations refer chiefly to select districts, rather
than to the .island generally. On the principle of
buying in the cheapest and selling in the dearest
market, it would certainly appear that the people of
Ceylon (with but few exceptions in the Matara,
Batticaloa, and Jaffna districts) could more profitably
torn their attention to plantation and garden products,
such as coconuts, areca or betel nuts, pepper, cinna-
mon, nutmeg, cacao, tea, cardamoms, and fruits of all
tropical kinds (even putting tea on one side for the pre-
sent) ; then selling the produce to advantage, they
Native Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests. 45
could buy rice from southern and northern India and
Burmah more cheaply than they can produce it. But
it is impossible, even if it were politic — which we doubt
— to revolutionize the habits of a very conservative
people in this w£ly ; and therefore, so soon as the sale
of forest land to planters, and the introduction of
capital for the planting enterprise, put the Govern-
ment in possession of surplus revenue. Sir Henry
Ward acted wisely in turning his attention to the
restoration and repair of such irrigation works in the
neighbourhood of population, as he felt would at once
be utilized for the increased production of grain. In
this way he changed a large exteiit of waste land into
an expanse of perennial rice culture, for the benefit of
the industrious Mohammedans and Hindus of the
Batticaloa district in the Eastern Province. Simi-
larly, he spent large sums for the benefit of the Sin-
halese rice cultivators in the southern districts.
Sir Hercules Kobinson conceived a statesmanlike
law by which expenditure on irrigation works, chiefly
village tanks, on terms far more liberal to the people
than any offered in India, formed a part of the annual
budget. Most cordially was this policy supported by
his successor. Sir William Gregory, who, moreover,
entered on an undertaking of greater magnitude than
any previously recorded in British times: namely,
the formation of a new province around the ancient
capital of Ceylon, and the restoration of tanks and
completion of roads and bridges within its bounds,
sufficient to give the sparse Sinhalese population
every advantage in making a start in the race of
prosperity. At a considerable expenditure, spread
over four or five years, this was accomplished, and a
population of some 60,000 Sinhalese were thereby more
46 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
directly benefitd4 than they had been by any of their
rnlers, native or European, for several centuries back.
Curiously enough not the Sinhalese but the Tamils —
who have been called ',' the Scotchmen of the East,"
from their enterprise in migrating and colonising —
are likely to take chief advantage of the expenditure
in this north-central region — an expenditure con-
tinued by Governor Longden, and to a still more
marked degree by Governor Gordon, who has entered
on large and important works in restoring theKalawewa
and Zodi-ella Irrigation tanks and channels. The
formation of a permanent Irrigation Board for the
colony, with a settled income in a proportion of the
land revenue, is another step of the present governor
in the interests of' rice culture, more commendable
for its motive, perhaps, than for the soundness of the
political economy by which the arrangement can be
defended. Special encouragement to other branches
of agriculture in certain districts would do much
good ; but as yet Government and its revenue officers
have not even established district AgriculturaLShows
for products and stock with suitable prizes.
Governor Gregory also introduced a measure for
substituting compulsory commutation for the rent-
ing of the grain-tithes on a scale so liberal as to
amount to a condderable lessening of taxation on
locally-grown grain, which may be said now to be
" protected " when compared with the tax on the
imported article. The effect of the liberal policy to
the local farmer, above described, on the part of
successive governors, from Sir Henry Ward's time on
to that of Sir Arthur Gordon, has undoubtedly been to
bring a far larger area under grain cultivation now
than was the case at the beginning of the century ;
Native Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests. 47
but it is impossible, in the absence of a cadastral
survey, to give the exact extent.
The accepted estimate is that there are now
660,000 acres under rice or paddy, and about 150,000
under dry grain, Indian corn, and other cereals.
And the striking fact is that, so far from the import
of grain decreasing as the local production has ex-
tended, the reverse has been the case. In this, how-
ever, is seen the influence of the expanding planting
enterprise : fifty years ago, when coffee-planting was
just beginning in Ceylon, the total quantity of grain
required from India was an import of 6-50,000
bushels ; now, it is as high as five and six million
bushels. The import in 1877, the year of the
Madras famine, when Ceylon planters had to provide
for 170,000 fugitives from Southern India, besides
their usual coolie labour force, amounted to no less
than 6,800,000 bushels.
The disposal of the increasing local production
simultaneously with these imports is explained by
the rapidly increasing population in the rural dis-
tricts, and the much larger quantity of food con-
sumed in a time of prosperity. In the early part of
the century the average Sinhalese countryman con-
sumed, probably, only half the quantity of rice
(supplemented by fruit and vegetables) which he is
now able to afford. Our calculation is that more
than three-fifths of the grain consumed is locally
produced against less than two-fifths imported.*
Turning from the main staple of native agriculture
♦ For further information see paper on " Food Supply of Ceylon,"
by the author, in " Ferguson's Ceyion Handbook and Directory," and
also papers on " Grain Taxation in Ceylon," quoted by Sir William
Gregory in despatches to Karl Carnarvon.
48 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year^
to garden produce, we have to note that, while the
Dutch monopolies in cinnamon, pepper, &c., were
probably worked at a lods to the Government, even
with forced labour at their command, the export of
the cinnamon spice was insignificant as compared with
what it has become under the free British system.
There can be no doubt that Ceylon cinnavion is
the finest in the world, celebrated from the middle of
the fourteenth century according to authentic re-
cords, and one of the few products of importance in-
digenous to the island. It was known through Arab
caravans to the Eomans, who paid in Eome the equiv-
alent of £8 sterling per pound for the fragrant spice.
Ceylon (called byDeBarras the "mother of cinnampn")
has, therefore, well earned the name " Cinnamon Isle,"
whatever maybe said of its "spicy breezes," a term
originally applied by Bishop Heber, in his well-known
hymn, to Java rather than to Ceylon. The maxi-
mimi export attained by the Dutch was in 1738,
when 600,000 lb., valued at from 8s. 4d. to 17s. 8d.
per lb., was sent to India, Persia, and Europe, from
Ceylon. In the commercial season, 1881-82, Ceylon
sent into the markets of the world, almost entirely
through London, as much as 1,600,000 lb. of cinna-
mon quill bark, and nearly 400,000 lb. of chips, the
finest bark being purchasable at the London sales for
from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per lb. ; while in season 1885-86
the export was 1,630,000 quill and 550,000 lb. of
chips, and the price has fallen almost 50 per cent,
in six years. The above quantity is yielded by
an area of about 35,000 acres, cultivated entirely,
and almost entirely owned, by the people of Ceylon.
Ot-iar greater importance now to the people, as
well as to the export trade of the island, is its Palm
Native Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests, id
cultivation, which has enormously extended since
the time of the Dutch, especially in the maritime
districts. European capital has done much in
tm-ning waste land into coconut plantations ; but
there is, also, no more favourite mode of invest-
ment for the native mercantile, trading, and indus-
trial classes of the people (Sinhalese and Tamils),
who have greatly increased in wealth during the past
fifty years, than in gardens and estates of coconuts,
arecas, palmyras, and other palms and fruit trees.
Within the Dutch and British periods a great portion
of the coast-line of Ceylon (on the west, south, and
east), for a breadth varying from a quarter of a
mile to several miles, and extbnding to a length of
150 miles, has been planted with coconut palms.
More recently, inland villages, such as the delta of the
Maha-oya (river), have been planted with coconuts
as far as thu-ty miles from the coast. In the .Jaftha
peninsula, again, the natives have chiefly planted
the equally useful palmyra. The palms, together
with a little rice and a piece of cotton cloth, are
capable of supplying most of the wants of the
people.
It has been commonly remarked that the uses of
the coconut palm * are as numerous as the days of
the year. Percival, early in this century, relates that
a small ship from the Maklive islands arrived at
Galle which was entirely built, rigged, provisioned,
and laden with the produce of the coco-palm, t Food,
* See "All about the CocoBut Palm," published by A. M. and J.
Ferguson, Colombo.
t The food value of the coconut is not generally understood ; a
short time ago the crew of a wrecked vessel cast away on a South Sea
island subsisted for several months on no other food than coconuts
and broiled fish, and added to their weight in that time. ■
5
50 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
drink, domestic utensils, materials for building and
thatching, wine, sugar, and pil are amongst the many
gifts to man of these munificent trees. Unlike the
other trade staples, tea, coffee, cinchona bark, and
cinnamon, by far the largest proportion of the pro-
ducts of the coconut palm — nuts, oil, arrack (intoxi-
cating spirit), leaves for thatch, fences, mats and
baskets, timber, &c., are locally utilized.
Arrack (in varying quantities, according to the
demand in the Madras Presidency) is exported, but
the export is not to be compared with the large local
consumption, which unfortunately increases with the
increasing wealth of the people. The British are
blamed for regulating and protecting the arrack and
liquor traffic, but the consumption was pretty general
before the British came to Ceylon. It may be a
question whether taverns have not been too widely
multiplied, and whether we should not take a leaf out
of the Dutch, policy in Java, where the consumption
of intoxicating liquors among natives is very rigidly
restricted. Our calculation is that seven millions of
rupees are spent by the people of Ceylon on intoxi-
cants, against not much more than a tenth of this
amount devoted to education by the people, missions,
and the government.
A good many millions of coconuts are annually
exported, but the chief trade is in coir fibre from the
husk, and still more in the oil expressed from the
kernel of the nut, used in Europe as a lubricator, for
soap-making, and dressing cloths, and (partially) for
candle-making and lighting purposes ; African palm
oil and petroleum are its great rivals. The average
value, of the products of the coconut-palm exported
may be taken at about the following figures : oil.
Native Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests. 51
£400,000; coil-, £60,000; arrack, £20,000 ; "koppara"
(the di-ied kernel sent to India for native food, and
latterly to France to be expressed), £100,000; "punac"
(the refuse of the oil, or oil-cake, used for cattle food),
£10,000; nuts, £10,000; miscellaneous products,
£5,000; making a total of over £600,000; while the
value of the produce locally consumed must be nearly
one and a half million sterling per annum, and the
market value of the area covered with coconuts rather
over than under twelve millions sterling. The local use
of coconuts is sure to increase with railway extension
and the development of the interior of the island.
There are perhaps thirty millions of coconut palms
cultivated in Ceylon, covering aboul 500,000 acres,
all but about 30,000 acres being o\^ned by natives
themselves. The annual yield of nuts cannot be
much under 100 mUJions. There ar^ nearly 2,000
native oil-crushers driven by bullocks, apart from
steam establishments in Colombo, Negombo, &c.,
owned by natives as well as Europeans, while the
preparation of the fibre affords occupation to a large
number of the people.*
After the coconut tree, the palmyra has been
regarded as the richest plant in the East. Both
require from eight to twelve years to come into
bearing, but they are supposed to live from 150 to
300 years.t By many the palmyra is thought a
richer tree than the coconut, and it is especially
adapted to the drier regions of the north and east of
* For an acconnt of the introduction and sijread of coconut oiilti-
vation in Ceylon, from the earliest period to the present day, see a
Paper read before the Eoyal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch, in l.ssij.
by the author, John Ferguson.
f See William Ferguson's Monograph on " The Palmyra Palm."
52
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the island; It is estimated there are eight millions
of palmyras owned by the people in the Jaf&ia penin-
sula, the edible products of which supply one-fourth
of the food of 280,000 inhabitants. The Tamil poets
describe 800 different purposes to which the palmyra
can be applied, and their proverb says " it lives for a
lac of years after planting, and lasts for a lac of years
when felled." The timber
is prized for house-build-
ing purposes, especially
for rafters, being hard
and durable. Besides
there being a large local
consumption, as much as
£10,000 worth is still
annually exported from
Ceylou, while of jaggery
sugar about 20,000 cwt.
are made from this palm,
the cultivation of which
covers 40,000 acres, yield-
ing perhaps seventy mil-
lions of nuts annually;
this nut is much smaller
than the coconut.
The kitul or jaggery palm (Caryota urens), known
also as the bastard sago, is another very valuable
tree common in Ceylon. Jaggery sugar and toddy
wine are prepared from the sap, the best trees yield-
ing 100 pints of sap in twenty-four hours. Sago is
manufactured from the pith, and fibre from the leaves
for fishing-lines and bowstrings, the fibre from the leaf-
stalks being made into rope for tying wild elephants.
Of the fibre, from £3,000 to £7,000 value is exported
A COCONUT 0LI3IEEE.
Native Agi-icultunil and Manufacturing Interests. 53
annually; of the jaggery sugar, £2,000 worth. The
quantity used in the country is very great. This
palm is found round every Kandyan's hut ; indeed it
has been said by Emerson Tennent that a single tree
in Ambegamua district afforded the support of a
Kandyan, his wife, and children. The area covered
is, perhaps, equal to 30,000 acres. The trunk timber
is used for rafters, being hard and durable.
The cultivation of the Areca catechu (which is com-
pared to " an arrow shot from heaven " by the Hindu
poets) was always one of thet^chief sources of the
Ceylon trade in ante-British times.^. In the Portuguese
era great quantities of the nuts were exported, and
these formed the chief medium of exchange for the
proportion of grain which the natives of Ceylon have,
for centuries drawn from Southern. India. The Dutch
esteemed the areca-nut as a very great source of
revenue, and they made an exclusive trade of it.
They exported yearly about 35,000 cwt. About the
same quantity was annually shipped between lB06
and 1813. Of recent years as many as 160,000 cwt.
of nuts have been shipped in one year. The export
is almost entirely to Southern India. An areca-nut
tree requires five years to come into bearing. It
grows all over the low country and in the hills up to
an elevation above sea-level of between 2,000 and
3,000 feet. Some coffee estate proprietors around
Kandy in the early days planted areca-nuts along
their boundaries, thereby forming a capital division
line, and the cultivation has anew attracted the
attention of colonists in recent years, especially in the
Matale and Udagama districts. The chief areca gar-
dens owned by natives are, however, to be found in
the Kegala district. The home consumption is very
64
Ceylon in the Jvhilee Year.
large, and the area covered by the palm must be
equal to 50,000 acres. The annual value of the ex-
ports of areca-nut produce is from iE60,000 to £100,000.
There are numerous other palms, more especially
the magnificent talipot {Corypha umhracolifera), which
flowers once (a grand crown of cream-coloured blossom
twenty feet high) after sixty or eighty years, and then
TALIPOT PALM IN FLOWER.
dies, and which is freely used for native huts, um-
brellas, books, &c. ; the heart also being, like that of
the sago palm, good for human food.
The bread-fruit tree, the jak, orange, and mango,
a.s well as gardens of plantains and pine-apples.
Native Agricidtural and Manufacturing Interests. 55
melons, guavas, papuas, &c., might be mentioned
among products cultivated and of great use to the
people of 'Ceylon ; in fact, there is scarcely a native
land-owner or cultivator in the country who does not
possess a garden of palms or other fruit trees, besides
paddy fields. The total area cultivated with palms
and fruit trees cannot be less than from 700,000 to
750,000 acres (ir addition to 100,000 acres under
garden vegetables, yams, sweet and ordinary potatoes,
roots, cassava, &c.) ; and although by far the major
portion, perhaps four-fifths, of the produce is con-
sumed by the people, yet the annual value of the
•export trade in its various forms, from this source,
approximates to three quarters of a million sterling,
against less than £90,000 at the beginning of the
century. Among food products recently added to the
list of easily grown fruits and vegetables (by Mr.
Nock of the Hakgalla Gardens) are the tree-tomato,
chocho, a parsnip, and a small yam, all introduced
from the West Indies, and already very popular with
the Sinhalese, especially of the Uva province.
Besides coconut oil, there is an export of essential
oils expressed from citronella and lemon-grass, from
cinnamon and cinnamon leaf, which, valued at
a£25,000 to £30,000, is of some importance to a
section of the community.
Of more importance to the people is their tobacco,
of which about 25,000 acres are cultivated, the
greater part of the crop being consumed locally,
though as much as 48,000 cwt. of unmanufactured
leaf, valued at £100,000, are exported to India.
The natives have always grown a little cotton in
certain districts, and at one time a good deal of cotton
cloth was manufactured at Batticaloa, but the in-
56 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
dustry has almost entirely ceased, being driven out
by the cheapness of Manchester goods. An industry
which hasjsprung up of recent years, however, is the col-
lection of the short-stapled cotton from the pods of the
silk-cotton tree {Bomhax Malabaricum) , exported under
the name of "Kapok" (a Malay term) to Australia
and Europe, to stuff chairs, mattresses, &c. A small
quantity of this tree cotton was annually exported
from Cej'lon so far back as the time of the Portuguese.
Sugar-cane is largely grown in native gardens for
use as a vegetable, the cane being sold in the bazaars,
and the pith eaten as the stalk of a cabbage would
be. At one time the eastern and southern districts
of the island were thought to be admirably adapted
for systematic^sugar cultivation, but after plantations
on an extensive scale had been opened by experienced
colonists, and a large amount of capital sunk, it was
found that, while the cane grew luxuriantly, the moist
climate and soil did not permit of the sap crystallizing
or yielding a sufficiency of crystallizable material.-
There is, however, still one plantation and manu-
factory of sugar and molasses in European hands,
near Galle.
Before leaving the branches of agriculture more
particularly in native hands, we may refer to the
large expanse of patana grass and natural pasturage,
especially in the Uva and eastern districts, which is
utilized by the Sinhalese for their cattle, a certain
number of which supply the meat consumed in the
Central Province. By far the greater portion, how-
ever, of the beef and mutton required in the large
towns of the island is (like rice, flour, potatoes, and
other food^requisites) imported in the shape of cattle
and sheep, to the value of £80,000, from India. In
Native Aijricultiii-al and Manufacturing Interests. 57
some years the return has been over £120,000, but
that was chiefly through the demand for Indian
bullocks for draught purposes. There is no doubt
much scope for the people of Ceylon to do more to
meet the local demand for such food supplies,
although the natural pasturage is, as a rule, rather
poor. In Guinea and Mauritius grass (as also, for
the high elevations, in the " prah-ie grass " of Aus-
tralia), which grow freely with a little attention, some
of the best fodder grasses in the world are easily
cultivated in Ceylon.
Native Manufactures.
Of Manufacturing Industries Ceylon has a very poor
show. The Sinhalese are good carpenters, and supply
furniture and carved work in abundance ; both they
and the Tamils make good artizans ; witness the roll of
workmen in the Government factory, Colombo, and
the Colombo Ironworks, where ocean-going steamers
are repaired, as well as a great variety of machinery
is turned out, such as steam-engines, water-motors, and
coffee, tea, and oil-preparing machines. The Sinha-
lese were distinguished as ironworkers in very ancient
days; they knew nothing about firearms until the
Portuguese era, and j-et they soon excelled European
gunmakers in the beautifully-worked muskets they
turned out for then.- king. They were early workers
in brass and glass, as their ancient ruins show, and
they must have known a little about electricity, for it
is related in the Mahatcansa that King Sanghatissa,
A.D. 234, placed a glass pinnacle on the Euanwelli
Dagoba, to serve as a protection against lightning.
In these days the natives have watched with interest
58 Ceylon in the Jviilee Year.
the introduction of the electric telegraph, telephone,
and light, and when a suitable electric motor is made
available, the numerous and splendid streams and
waterfalls of the hill-country ought to afford ready
force for utilization. Native cotton spinners and
weavers were at one time common, but the industry
is dying out; very little tobacco is manufactured;
the making of mats, baskets, and coir-rope gives some
employment. The masons of the country are now
chiefly Moormen ; t!ipngh the Sinhalese must have
done much in the building of tanks and other huge
erections in ancient times. Pishing and mining plum-
bago and search for precious gems, as well as hunting,
afford a good deal of employment. Workers in ebony,
tortoise-shell, and porcupine quills, and in primitive
pottery, are also numerous among the Sinhalese.
CHAPTER VI.
THE ORIGIN ASB CISE OF THE PLANTING INDUSTRY.
CoSee introduced by Arabs — First systematically cultiyated by the
Dutch in 1740 — Extensive development in 1837 — Highest level
of prosperity reached in lP(JS-70 — Appearance of Leaf Disease
in 1869 —Its disastrous effects.
We now turn to the great planting industry in coffee,
and the later additions in tea (now the rising and
most important staple), cacao, the chocolate or cocoa
plant, not to be confounded with the coconut palm :
cinchona, rubber trees, cardamoms, &c. ; to these the
past rapid development and prosperity of the island
are mainly due, and on them its future position as a
leading colony must still chiefly depend.
The Arabs first introduced coflee into India and
Ceylon, and the shrub was grown here before the
arrival of the Portuguese or Dutch ; but the prepar-
ation of a beverage from its berries was totally
unknown to the Sinhalese, who only used the young
coffee leaves for their curries, and the delicate
jasmine-like coffee flowers for ornamenting their
shrines of Buddha.
The first attempt at systematic cultivation was
made bv the Dutcli in 1740, but, being confined to
60
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the low country, it did not succeed, and they seem
never to have expoited moie than 1,000 cwt m a
^Hj
liMBiln^BlO^''^ ^fflfiiUffl^ffilslSBl
^HH
11
i
1' liwf SwliSHlKHl^l»?
^n
f WfnnBS
sSI^^Ib^k^HIm!
1
^^9^^^ffl|
1 1
^^^9
11 1 ''
^^mB
'i 1 ii iiiittHiHi^i^'
||^^^^|ra|
i\ li^mWlmaKR
^^^^^^^S^sBuM
1 1 |l1li#^VHH^:
nim^HHn^^
1 <ll>i liiHISral
MJMII^^BB^^^BBWiii
' ' 'm$> ' ffiSH^
KMH^^^^HMRnPRRBH
11 nlfeVM^l
M^^^^^^MfflBa.
hwlkW^
^^^Bk^SI
1 '" iB^pn|^^
Pm^^^^m^Pi^^
BIB
a S
O rf
§■3 9
a •" 3
n -■' o
2 ! i
H .So
< I 6
O c. '^
o ■
i ° I
§■89
■ ^ -*
§^-|
S g S
a o _g
> |c,
J S «
3 ■" e
■c
E
p
year. The Moormen (Arab) traders and Sinhalese,
having once diECOvered the use of coffee, kept up the
The Origin and Bise of the Planting Industry. 61
cultivation and trade, but when the British took
Ceylon and up to 1812, the annual export had never
exceeded 3,000 cwt. So it continued until the master-
mind of Sir Edward Barnes opened road communi-
cation between the hill country and the coast, and
began to consider how the planting industry could be
extended, and the revenues of the country developed.
The Governor himself led the way, in opening a
coffee plantation near Kandy, in 1825, just one year
after the first systematic coffee estate was formed by
Mr. George Bird, near Gampola. These examples
were speedilj' followed, but still the progress was
slow, for in 1837, twelve years after, the total export
of coffee did not exceed 30,000 cwt.
It is usual to date the rise of the coffee planting
enterprise from this year, which witnessed a great
rush of investments, and the introduction of the West
India system of cultivation by Eobert Boyd Tytler,
usually regarded as the "father " of Ceylon planters.
An immense extension of cultivation took place up
to 1845, by which time the trade had developed to an
export of close on 200,000 cwt. Then came a financial
explosion in Great Britain, which speedily extended
its destructive influence to Ceylon, and led to a stop-
page of the supplies required to plant and cultivate
j-oung plantations. Much land opened was aban-
doned, and for three years the enterprise was
paralyzed ; but nevertheless the export continued to
increase, and by the time Governor Sir Henry Ward
appeared, in 1855, confidence had been restored, and
all was ready for the great impetus his energetic ad-
ministration gave to an enterprise which, in twenty
years, had come to be regarded as the backbone of
the af^ricultural industry of the island, and the main-
62
Cfiylon in the Jubilee Year.
stay of the revenue. The Sinhalese soon followed
the example set them by the European planters, and
so lyidely and rapidly developed their coffee gardens
throughout the hill-country, that between 1849 and
1^69, from one-half to one-fourth of the total q^antity
of coffee shipped year by year was " native coffee."
LIBEBIAN COFFEE.*
The highest level of prosperity was reached in
1868, 1869, and 1870, in each of which years the
* For the use of this illnstration, as also for the plates of the
" Coconut Climber," the " Talipot Palm," and the " Coffee Tree," we
are indebted to the Bev. S. Langdon, the author of a charming
account of the missionary's home and its rich surroundings of animal
and vegetable hie in a tropical land. This volume, " My Missioa
The Origin and Rise of the Planting Industry. 6S
exports slightly exceeded a million cwt.i of a value in
European markets of not less than four millions
sterling, against 34,000 cwt., valued at £120,000, ex-
ported in 1837 : a marvellous development in thirty
years of a tropical industry !
In 1869 the total extent cultivated on plantations
(apart from native gardens) was 176,000 acifes, and
the return from the land in full bearing averaged
over 5 cwt. an acre, a return which should, under
favourable circumstances, give a pro^t of from £7 to
£10 an acre, or from twenty to twenty-five per cent, on
the capital invested. Nothing could be brighter than
the prospects of the colony and its main enterprise in
1869 : Sir Hercules Eobinson's administration, then
in mid-course, was most beneficial ; the railway
between Colombo and Kandy, two years open, was a
grand success ; and, with an unfailing supply of
cheap free labour from Southern India, remarkable
facilities for transport, and a splendid climate, the
stability of the great coffee enterprise seemed to be
assured.
Its importance was fully realized through the
statistics of the actual extent cultivated which were
for the first time compiled, in full detail (by the
author), and although it began to be felt that the
good land at the most si»itable altitude had all been
taken up, and most of it brought under cultivation,
yet no one doubted the comparative permanency of
such plantations under a liberal, scientific system of
Garden," and another by the same author, " Punchi Nona, a story of
Feiuale Education and Village Life in Ceylon," both give vivid, enter-
taining, and truthful pictures of Ceylon life and mission work, and
tlii.y show what good is being done to thte people of the country by
putiLiit teaching. Published by T. Woohner, 2, Castle Street, City
Ru;-. !. K.C. ; and at (iij. I'atenioster PiOW, E.C.
64 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
cultivation. But in this same year there first -ap-
peared an enemy, most insignificant in appearance,
■which in less than a dozen years was fated to bring
down the export of the great staple to one-fifth of its
then dimensions, and that notwithstanding a wide
extension of new cultivation. This enemy was a
minute fungus on the leaf, new to -science, and named
Ijy the greatest fungoid authorities Hemileia vastatnz,
from its destructive powers, now popularly known as
" coffee-leaf disease."
First appearing in one of the youngest districts, at
a remote comer, it rapidly spread all over the coffee
zone, being easily distinguished by the appearance of
bright orange spots on the leaves, which subsequently
wither and drop off. At first it was treated as a
matter of little moment by . all but the late Dr.
Thwaites, P.E.S., the Director of the Ceylon Botanic
Gardens, and for several years it apparently did
little harm, craps being only slightly affected, and
any decrease being attributed to seasonal influences
rather. than to a minute pest, which, it was supposed,
only served to remind the planter of the necessity of
more liberal cultivation. Another cause, moreover,
served most effectually to blind the eyes of all con-
cerned to the insidious progress of the pest, and the
gradual but sure falling-off of crops, namely, a
sudden and unprecedented rise in the value of coffee
in Europe and America — a rise equivalent, in a few
years, to more than fifty per cent. This great access
of value to his returns more than sufficed to com-
pensate the Ceylon planter for any diminution of crop.
It did more : it stimulated a vast extension of culti-
vation into the largest remaining reserve, known as
the "Wilderness of the Peak, extending from Nuwara
The Origin and Rise of the Planting Industry. 65
Eliya through a succession of upland valleys in
Dimbula, Dikoya, and Maskeliya, to the Adam's Peak
range, an area of forest covering some 400 square
miles, having the most delightful climate in the
•world, but until this time (1868-69) regarded as too
high and wet for coffee. This region had been pre-
viously utilized as a hunting-ground by an occasional
party of Europeans or Kandyans, the pilgrims' paths
to Adam's Peak, winding their way through the
dense jungle, and intercepted by a succession of large
unbridged rivers, being the only lines of communica-
tion. The rush into this El Dorado had beguh in the
time of Sir Hercules Eobinson, who energetically
aided the development by extending roads and bridg-
ing rivers, thus utilizing some of the large surpluses
which the sale of the lands and the increased customs
and railway revenues afforded him.
A cycle of favourable — that is, comparatively dry —
seasons still further contributed to the succesp of the
young high districts, so that coffee (which had pre-
viously been supposed to find its suitable limit at
4,000 or 4,500 feet) was planted and cultivated
profitably up to 5,000 and even 5,500 feet. All
through Governor Gregory's administration the high
price of coffee and the active extension of the culti-
vated area continued, the competition becoming so
keen that forest-land, which ten or twenty years
before would not fetch as much as £2 an acre, was
sold as high as £15, £20, and even £28 an acre.
Even at this price planters calculated on profitable
results ; but there can be no doubt that speculation,
rather than the teachings of experience, guided their
calculations.
Between 1869 and 1879 over 400,000 acres of
€6 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Crown land were sold by the Ceylon Government,
bringing in more than a million sterling to the
revenue, and of this 100,000 acres were brought into
cultivation with coffee, at an outlay of not less than
from two to two and a-half millions sterling, almost
entirely in the upland districts referred to.
Meantime the insidious leaf-fungus pest had been
working deadly mischief. High cultivation, with
manure of various descriptions, failing to arrest its
progress, the aid of science was called in, special in-
vestigations took place, its life-history was written ;
but the practical result was no more satisfactory to
the coffee planter than have similar investigations
proved to the potato cultivator, the wheat farmer
fighting with rust, or the vine-grower who is baffled
by the fatal phylloxera. Less deadly than the
phylloxera, the leaf-fungus had nevertheless so affected
the Ceylon coffee enterprise that in the ten years
during which cultivation had extended more than
fifty per cent., the annual export had fallen to three-
fourths of the million cwt. The same fungus had
extended to the coffee districts of India and Java, with
similar results in devastated crops, but in the greatest
coffee country of all — Brazil — the impetus to an ex-
tension of cultivation which the high prices from
1873 onwards had given, was not checked by the
presence of this fungoid, or other coffee diseases, and
from thence soon began to pour into the markets of
the world such crops as speedily brought prices to
their old level, reacting disastrously on tlie Ceylon
enterprise, which had at the same time to encounter
the monetary depression caused by the collapse of the
City of Glasgow Bank and other financial failures in
Britain. Misfortunes never come singly, and accord-
The Origin and Rise of the Planting Industry. 67
ingly a series of wet seasons crowned the evils
befalling the planters in the young high districts,
while the older coffee lower down began to be
neglected, so enfeebled had it become in many places
under the repeated visits of the fungus. This so dis-
heartened the coffee planter that he turned his
attention to new products, more especially cinchona,
and, later, tea, planted among and in supercession of
the coffee, as well as in new land. Tea especially
succeeded so well, as will be fully related further on,
that coffee over a large area has been entirely taken
out, and the area cultivated has been reduced from
the maximum of 275,000 acres in 1878 to not much
more than 100,000 acres in 1887. The result is that
in the present season (1886-7) in place of the million
cwt. exported sixteen years ago, the total shipments
of coffee from Ceylon will not exceed one-fifth of that
quantity, and although with a more favourable blos-
soming time this year it may be increased in the
succeeding season, yet there is no escape from the
drawbacks which still beset the coffee planter in Ceylon.
The leaf-fungus still hovers about, though in a much
milder, and, as some think, a diseased form ; but
another enemy has appeared in the shape oi a coccus
(called " green bug "), which has done much harm.
Nevertheless, in certain favoured coffee districts, such
as the Uva divisions, Bopatalava, Maturatta, Agras
division of Dimbula, and Middle and Upper Dikoya,
coffee still looks vigorous, and may continue to repay
careful cultivation, more especially as prices have
again improved, and a scarcity of the product is
anticipated. The mitigations of the disaster — the
silver lining to the dark cloud which came over the
prosi^ects of the majority of C^eylon coffee planters —
will be alluded to later on.
68 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
At an early stage in the history of coffee leaf disease
in Ceylon one cause, and that perhaps the chief, of
the visitation had become apparent in the limitation
of cultivation to one plant, and one only, over hun-
dreds of square miles of bountry which had previously
been.covered with the most varied vegetation. Nature
had revenged herself, just as she had done on Ireland
when potatoes threatened to become the universal
crop, as well as on extensive wheat fields elsewhere,
and on the French vinej'ards. The hemileia vastatrix
was described by Dr. Thwaites as peculiar to a jungle
plant, and finding coffee leaves a suitable food in
1869 it multiplied and spread indefinitely. It could
not be said that the fungus thus burst out in Ceylon
because of coffee being worn out or badly cultivated,
for it first appeared in a young district upon vigorous
coffee, and it afterwards attacked old and young,
vigorous and weak trees, with absolute impartiality.
The true remedy, then, for the loss occasioned by
this pest — apart from the wisdom of the old adage
not to have all one's eggs in one basket — lay in the
introduction of New Products,
CHAPTEE VII.
NEW PRODUCTS.
Tea — Cinchona — Cocoa — ^India-rabber — Cardamoms — Liberian
Cofiee, &e.
Tea cultivation was tried in Ceylon in the time of the
Dutch, but was not persevered with ; and although
there is a wild plant (cassia ariculata), called the
Matara tea plant, from which the Sinhalese in the
south of the island are accustomed to make an
infusion, yet nothing was done with the true tea
plant till long after coffee was established. Forty-
five years ago the Messrs. Worms (cousins of the
Eothschilds, who did an immense deal in developing
Ceylon) introduced the China plant, and, planting up
a field on the Eambode Pass, proved that tea would
grow well in the island. Mr. Llewellyn about the
same time introduced the Assam plant into Dolos-
bagie district, but no commercial result oame from
these ventures. Attention was, however, frequently
called to this product, and in 1867 a Ceylon planter
was commissioned to report on the tea-planting
industry in India. In that same year the attention
of planters was also fii'st turned to the cinchona
70 Ceylon iw the Jubilee Year.
plant, which had been introduced six years earlier to
India and Ceylon by Mr. Clements Markham. The
Director of the Botanic Garden, Dr. Thwaites, how-
ever, found great difficulty in getting any planter to
care about cultivating a " medicine plant," and when
the great rise in prices for coffee came, all thought of
tea and cinchona was cast to the winds, and the one
old profitable product, which everybody — planters and
coolies alike — understood, was alone planted.
Very eai-ly ,in his administration Sir William
THE TEA PLANT.
Gregory, to his special credit be it said, saw the
necessity for new products, and he used all his
personal and official influence to secure their develop-
ment, introducing a new feature into the Governor's
annual speech to the Legislative Council in special
notices of the progress of tea, cinchona, cacao, Libe-
rian coffee, and rubber cultivation. The influence of
the principal journal in the colony (the Ceylon
Observer) was cast into the same scale, and practical
New Products.
71
information to aid the planter of new products was
collected for it from all quarters, more especially
from the tropical belt of the earth's surface.*
When Governor Gregory arrived in 1872 only 500
acres of cinchona had been planted, but before he*
left in 1877 not only had these increased to 6,000
acres, but the planters had begun thoroughly to
appreciate the value of the new product, its suitable-
ciNCHoNA sncciBurRAf (Genuine Bell Bark],
ness for the hill-country and climate of Ceylon, and
the profits to be made from judicious cultivation.
The great rush, however, took place on the failure of
* In June, 1881, the monthly periodical, The Tropical Agricul-
turist, was started by the author from the Observer press for the
special purpose of meeting the requirements of planters. It circulates
all round the tropical world, and has received high encomiums in
Britain, United States, and Australia.
■| The original drawing of this illustration has been kiudly supplied
liv MesBrs. Howards and .Sons, of Stratford, E.
72 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
coffee in 1879 and the next three' years, so that by
1883 the area covered by this plant could not be lesa
than 60,000 acres. The enormous bark exports which
followed from Ceylon so lowered the price (involving
the great blessing of cheap quinine) that it became
no longer profitable to cut bark in the native South
American cinchona groves, or to plant further in
Ceylon, India, or Java. Attention has, therefore,
since 1884 been directed from cinchona ; neverthe-
less the exports from the existing area continue
high, and the area still under cinchona, making
Allowance for what is j)lanted throughout the tea and
coffee plantations, cannot be less than 30,000 acres,
with several (perhaps forty) million trees above two
or three years, of all descriptions of cinchona growing
thereon. The export of bark^ which was 11,547 lb.
in 1872, rose to nearly 14,000,000 lb. the last season
(1885-6), and it will not be less during 1886-7, while,
with a fair price, it could be maintained at from eight
\o ten million pounds per anpum. Very great mis-
takes were made at first in cinchona-planting in the
use of immature seed and by the choice of unsuitable
species and unsuitable soil, but the Ceylon planters
rapidly qualified themselves to be successful cinchona
growers, and many still find how much may be done
to supplement their staples (tea and coffee) through
this product.
It has long been the conviction of many who have
studied the climate and the character of Ceylon soils
that the country is far more fitted to become a great
tea producer than ever it was to grow coffee. It is
now realized, too, that a large proportion of the area
opened with tbe latter product — apart from the
appearance of leaf-fungus altogether — ^would have
Neiv Products.
73
done much, better under tea. Unlike India, there is
never in the low country, western and south-western,
or in the central (the hilly) portions of Ceylon, a
month of the year without rain, the annual fall in
74 Ceylon in the Jubilee Yea?:
this region ranging from 80 to 200 inches, while the
alternate tropical sunshine and moisture form the
perfection of climate for the leaf-yielding tea-shrub.~^
Untimely downpours, which so often wrecked the
blossoms and the hopes of the coffee-planter, do no
harm to the le^f crop of the tea-planter. Not only
so, but the harvesting of tea-leaf is spread over six,
or even nine, months of the year. If a fresh flush of
young leaf fails from any cause this month, the
planter has generally only a few weeks to wait for
another chance, and, save for the " pruning " and the
very wet season in Ceylon, the tea-planter can look
for some returns nearly all the year round. Very
different was the case with coffee, the crop of which
for a whole year was often dependent on the weather
during a single month ; or even a week's (or a day's)
untimely rain or drought might destroy the chance of
a return for a whole year's labour. Even in the
favoured Uva districts there were only two periods of
harvesting coffee in the year. Again, while the zone
suitable for the growth of coffee ranged from 1,500 or
2,000 to 4,500 or 5,500 feet above sea-level, tea seems
to flourish equally well (the Assam indigenous kind, or
good hybrid) at sea-level, and (a hardy hybrid or
China kind) at 6,000 and even to close on 7,000 feet
above sea-level. The tea shrub is found to be altogether
hardier and generally far more suitable to the com-
paratively poor soil of Ceylon than ever coffee was.
Nevertheless it took many years to convince Ceylon
planters of the wisdom of looking to tea ; and for
some years even after it was gone into in earnest,
much less progress was made than in the case of cin-
chona. There were good reasons for this in the
greater cost of tea seed, and the much greater-
New Products.
75
ASSAM TEA TREE.
76 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
■trouble entailed in the preparation of the produce for
the market. Beginning from 1873 with an extent
planted of 250 acres, in ten years this area increased
to about 35,000 acres, while in the succeeding year,
1884, this was doubled, as much being also added in
1885, and a large extent in 1886, so that before the
Jubilee Year of Queen Victoria's reign is closed, there
will not be less than 150,000 acres covered with the
tea plant in Ceylon. Tea seed is now cheap enough,
and the manufacture of the leaf, is no longer a mys-
tery, and Ceylon is on the highway to become a rival
to- the most important of the Indian districts in the
production of tea. The tea export from Ceylon of
23 lb. in 1876 has risen to 7,849,886 lb. in 1886, and
it is expected to go on for some time almost at a
geometrical rate of progression, so that, when the
150,000 acres are in bearing, the total export will not
be less than forty million lb., say in 1890-91. There
are large reserves of Crown land suitable for tea, for,
as already said, it is found to produce profitable crops
on land a few hundred feet above sea-level, as well as
at all altitudes up to the neighbourhood of Nuwara
Eliya, approximating to 7,000 feet.
The rapid development of the tea-planting industry
in Ceylon during the past four or five years consti-
tutes the most interesting and important fact in the
recent history of the island. The future of the
colony depends upon this staple now far more than
on any other branch of agriculture, and so far the
promise is that the industry will be a comparatively
permanent and steadily profitable one. On favoured
plantations, , with comparatively flat land and good
soil (tea lov€S a flat as coffee did a sloping hill-side),
tea crops have already been gathered in Ceylon for
Neiv Products. 77
some years in succession in excess almost of anything
known in India. With unequalled means of com-
munication hy railway and first-class roads — Uva
districts still want their railway — with well-trained^
easily-managed, and fairly intelligent labourers in
the Tamil coolie, with a suitable climate and soil,
and, above all, with a planting community of ex-
ceptional intelligence and energy in pushing a product
that is once shown to be profitable for cultivation, the
rapid development of our tea enterprise from the
infant of 1876-80 to the giant of 1883-7 may be
more easily understood. Ceylon teas have been
received with exceptional favour in the London
market, and the demand already exceeds the supply.
The teas are of a high character and fine flavour,,
perfectly pure, which is more than can be said of a
large proportion of China and Japan teas. It is
therefore expected by competent authorities that as
the taste for the good teas of Ceylon and India spreads
— one never enjoys a common adulterated tea after
getting accustomed to one of good flavour — the China
teas, to a great extent, may fall out of use. Whether
this be the case or not, there is no doubt that the
Ceylon tea-planter can hold his own. The consump-
tion of his staple is spreading every year, and if the
English-speaking people of the United States only
did equal justice to the tea with their brethren, else-
where, the demand would there also exceed the supply.
Moreover, tea can be delivered more cheaply from
Ceylon, allowing for quality, than from either India
or China. As was the case with coffee, the prepara-
tion of the new staple in Ceylon is in a fair way to
be brought to perfection. Improved machinery has
already been invented by local planters and others to
78 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
eave labour, counteract the effect of unsuitable
weather (for withering the leaf, &c.), or to turn
out teas with better flavour ; and yet the industry
■cannot be said properly to be seven years old in the
island ! Already its beneficial influence on local
business, export trade, and revenue is widely felt.
The Sinhalese, in many districts, are volunteering to
work for the tea-planters, and native^ tea-gardens are
also being planted up on many low-country road-sides.
This process is bound to go on until there is a wide
area covered with tea under native auspices. The
cultivators will probably, as a rule, sell their leaf to
central factories owned by colonists ; but there is
no. reason why, as time runs on, they should not
manufacture for themselves. The atmosphere of
planting, business, and even official circles in Ceylon
just now is highly charged with "tea," and the number
of Tea Patents (for preparing machines), of Tea pub-
lications,* Tea Brokers, Tea selling and Tea planting
companies would greatly astonish a Ceylon coffee
planter of the "fifties," "sixties," or even "seventies,"
if he "revisited the. glimpses of the moon" in the
Central or Western province of the island. Tea
deserves a special chapter in this " Jubilee " book on
Ceylon, and we could Hot say less about it. We call
attention to our several engravings of the tea tree,
and more especially to the pictures at the end, of our
volume (with letterpress), supplied by the Planters'
Association of Ceylon in connection with the " Colonial
and Indian Exhibition of 1886 " (Appendix XI.).
A minor product as compared with tea, but stillavery
* See the " Ceylon Tea Planters' Manual." " Tea and other New
Products," " Planters' Note Book," " Tea Tables," and " Tropical
-Agiicnlturist," published by A. M. and J. Ferguson, Colombo
New Products.
79
promising one in its own place, is Theobroma Cacao
(" food for gods ") of Linnseus, producing the " cocoa"
PODS OF THE CACAO TKEE,
Each containing twenty-fuur seeds in pulp, which, wlien prepared, give the chocolate
of conunerce.
and chocolate of commerce. This plant can neVer
80 Ceylon "in the Jubilee Year.
be cultivated in Ceylon to the same extent as coffee,
tea, or cinchona, for it requires a considerable depth
of good soil, in a favourable situation, at a medium
elevation, with complete shelter from wind, and these
requisites are only to be found in very limited areas
in this island. Nevertheless, where these conditions
exist, cacao promises to be a most lasting and profit-
able cultivation. To the late E. B. Tytler belongs
the credit of introducing this cultivation in the
Dumbara valley, alid in his^ hands Ceylon cocoa
speedily realized the highest price in the London
market, experienced brokers remarking that there
must be something in the soil and climate of the
districts where it is cultivated in Ceylon peculiarly
sitited to caqao. The Matal^. Kurunugala, and Uva
districts also show fine cacao " walks," aiid the export
of " cacao " has jrisen from 10 cwt. in 1878 to 13,056
cwt. in 1886. There are several thousand (14,000)
acres now planted, which ought to give an export of
50,000 cwt. (or 5,600,000 lb., as counted in the West
Indies) a few years hence. From experience in the
West Indies, as well as Ceylon, it is found that up to
ten years of age cacao is an ni^certain, even delicate,
plant, but after that it is credited in British Guiana
with goin^ on for 100 years yielding fairly remune-
rative crops without, much trouble. Ceylon cacao
planters have already improved on~ the means of
preparing the. bean for the Loiidon market, and
. further improvements are under consideration. It is
possible that ultimately an area exceeding 80,000
acres under this {ilant will enable Ceylon to send
120,000 to 15i),000 cwt. of its prodijct into European
markets.*
* See pamphlets o^ 'i Gaoaio jOtilti7ation^" pn]i)I^hed by A. M. and
J.FerguBoii,, Colombo.,:,
New Products.
81
Cardamoms spice (called " grains of paradise ") is
another minor product, the cultivation of which has
, l..-^^^ '^^
^^M
WLMt^^ •'' ' '^^^
/' i^^^
^STwJ^^^
JyJwB,-
IfeiTS^ MBai^JMi^t
j^uS^St
rlaMHSi^TMH -'^^
lift rilMliiiMffunr ii
fw^^S^iSm ^^£L
'S^^^^^VmA
i^SE^iii^&SIHBl
^^kBTx^^^ /^ai
s^^^^^^Xkan^^^Kfm
^^S^S^r''^^M&uA
W^WWmmMBBZI^msy^
''tt dlKV^JB'^lljEk/iX''VVlK!SS' '
^^^mV^yiA g^^^R^^^Bpj^^BK
rl^ypSP^'WW^ t«S^^^
Sj^^^v'-'ii^My ^.A j^KPI^B * ' '
im^p
H^^^pMVSBkPz '
^£^IbBK^sP^w^b^^u^
^^y^^MpliHllj
l^i^nB^^^^HiS^
^^^8w6^^
^BBwSwM^^
J^-y^atf^ylh^^M
n^^K^p^n^l^inp
l;^fcW^PS^^J»lro
^ISF^^i^^ffiitfl^^^
^HsHm ■P^hIhN^BS
■H^3ISGw||i^R^^^J^S^- Ic^
^'wr*j. illP/rWi
I^^HB^flH^^^Wr^^^^ m^ii^S^ '^^^xtv
SjSrfe-^'^!''^^^
^^B^^^S^Bhji^^^^
■V'9flKVi^2^VC'*'!9t^^'^^^ \j^^''
fl^^^^^^^.^r^iS^^PSpPQ[ '^/^^^uiB'^^al
HI^^^^P^L''«#
uf'^'Mn^llm^^3/m
l^^aP^^^^^^ky^ -
)M / -^ . ^^^^SJHwlgjMi
l^jg^l^^W- ^^'^ ^^^K^^
1 V|^^M^ 1 jJla-^^^^^^^ftsS
^^X?,^^ <^ r'l'' >rl^^lB^I
I^H^^HMi^M(i'>lO^S^^BI^BB
B^''*'^''i'?&>' ' "a*!^E
^!-. C'^t^'*-^ ;■
gs, * -'Ww
^^Sk <%^'' >& '^'t''^ ^I^H
? ■ ■ ■■^- -"-^f^
■'v " *■ , . -
. i>&%(le»:„ ..^BH
H^^
"•"^^^i^^
^^^^^B^K
Ik ' stifi
.^g^^^idS^
^'^^^^i^f?^' ',
_r:^
THE CACAO IKEE.
benefited a good many Ceylon planters, the export
rising from 14,0001b. in 1878 to 239,0001b. in 1886 ;
7
82 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the latter a quantity sufficient to seriously affect the
price in the I'onclon market. It is, indeed, a sig-
nificant fact that in respect of two products, prac-
tically receiving no attentive aid from our planters
ten, or, at any rate, fifteen years ago, Ceylon now
rules the markets of the world. We refer to cinchona
bark and cardapaOms, for the supply of which, as of
cinnamon, coconut oil, and plumbago, this colony is
pre-eminent.*
The Caoutchouc, or India-rubber trees of commerce,
from South America and Eastern Africa, are of recent
introduction, but their cultivation and growth in the
planting districts of Ceylon have so far not given very
satisfactory results. The growth of the trees has
been generally satisfactory, indeed wonderful, equal-
ling in some cases forty-eight feet in height, and
forty-five- inches in circumference in five years, and
when more is known about the mode of harvesting,
the rubber the industry may prove very profitable.!
Among minor new products Liberian coffee was
introduced from the West African Republic of that
name (in 1875-79 chiefly), in the hope that its large
size and strong habit would enable it at the low
elevation in which it grows to resist the leaf-fungus ;
but this hope has not been realized, and although the
acreage planted is giving fair crops, there is no
attempt to extend this area for the present.!
Pepper, African palm-oil nut, nutmegs, croton oil
seeds, and annotto dye plant are among the other
* Pamphlet on " Cardamoms Cultivation, <feo.," has been published
by A. M. and J. Ferguson, Colombo.
\ Sec " All about Rubber," second edition, published by A. M. and
J. Ferguson, Colombo.
I Sue " Liberian Coffee," illustrated, published by A. JI. and J.
Ferguson, Colombo.
^\eiv jtrtuLiucLa. 83
products to which, by reason of the reverse in coffee,
planters in the hill and low country of Ceylon have
been turning their attention in isolated cases, ■^ith
results more or less satisfactory. In the variety of
all the industries detailed in the forepoing pages it is
THE CKAIU. BUBBKR TEEE.
A speameD of rapid growth in Ceylon (Sembawattie Estate) ; 17 ft. liigh, 10 in. in
circmnlerence, and only nine months old.
felt there is sufficient guarantee to warrant the belief
that the coffee leaf fungus wiU prove eventually, if it
has not already proved, a blessing in disguise to the
island, its colonists, and native people. The latter
84 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
suffered with their European brethren, not only-
through the disease affecting their coffee gardens, but
much more through the absence of employment in so
many branches which the prosperous coffee enterprise
opened out to them. Tea plantations are now rapidly
filling up the blank left by coffee, while many of the
natives, led by their chiefs and intelligent headmen
and villagers, are themselves planting new products
— tea, cinchona, and cacao — and so following the
example of the European planters. In this way the
Planting enterprise in all its ramifications in Ceylon
is fraught with the promise of a greater and more
reliable prosperity than ever appertained to coffee
alone in its palmiest daj-s.
CHAPTEK YIII.
PRESENT POSITION OF AGRICULTrpAL ENTERPRISE, LOCAL
INDUSTRIES, AND FOREIGN TRADE.
Exports of last decade — The plumbago trade — Gold and Irou — Native
industries generally flourishing — Tea especially and Cinchona
■will make up for the deficiency/ in Coffee.
To sum up and show at a glance the present position
of the trade arising from our agricultural enterprise
and local industry, we here insert a statement of the
staple exports for the past fourteen commercial sea-
sons. [See Table on next page.j
These figures differ slightly from those already
quoted for the calendar years ; the commercial season
closes on 30th September, having been fixed by the
Colombo merchants many years ago, so as to separate
as fairly as possible each coffee crop.
There are a few headings in this table that we
have not touched on yet, and the principal one of
these is plumhago, or graphite. This is the only
mineral of commercial importance exported from
Ceylon. The mining industry is entirely in the
hands of the Sinhalese ; mires of from 100 to 200
and even 300 ft. depth are worked in a primitive
fashion, and the finest plumbago in the world for
sr.
Ceylon in tite Jubilee Year.
00
00
tH
I
CO
c-
00
C -1 ^
iJ I to
g
S53
z
1 . ?; 3 £ ¥? 3 c
2 s 3 s .^i 5 g ij s- 5 s z ?: ;:
-- 1 I
— ' r; 1- -f Ti CI
1=
^§ii5 5igS.
i-.r- ^ l-H
=
X 71 Q C- t-
|o
= H?:5?Si=-^
r^
-r
T
X
Y
"-"
u.
-"-
'■■-
—
''^
-'
X 71 71 r-. £- -^ — X — C^ =
. u-5 = r: -^ fc ^ in 71 7T ;=: ~
1-7 :z C- C~ C- O
^ --:; r: 71 . 7 1.7 X
^:^ — X = — X^.
c- x: « X X Ci 71
: — O ;^ X i-H t~71
> 77 t-x^oo -r w
gs -^t cs oi 171 c -
1 X 57 X c; C^ 7
. m_«iO_X 71 1.7 X
J cTo cf7l'^*t^?
•— C- SS -.C 71 71 t- -
i-H L~ 71.l7_:2 71 r-
. ^ '-" Er ~J S? tr "^
— T- — r:7ic-^dnc— t-coo
^- —. — 71 L- 77 1-7 ^ r-. — =:i = 1.7 L~ 77 I
- Tl ^ ^ i t-l 77 — 71 71 5i ^' J^ 5i ^ I
1^
CO
Ti o -t o z: — o
1
II
1^
. C-. r: c: U-: a t- L- .-- - L-:_ x l-^
-s.ss^.s.sf^ss'---"
J
a
i
cwt.
223,093
814,811
823,941
•200,0.58
4C8,7.5S
069,014
824,,509
0'20,'292
948,047
720,427
908,094
617,842
995,198
cwt.
8,117
20,305
11,483
14,422
41,897
38 ,.302
47,808
57,210
69,210
91,810
98,791
118,1138
96.1 19
1,'!8,918
1
215,576
294,506
312,458
'245,031
522,949
415,466
632,306
767,293
661,046
851,201
620,6.36
855,661
621,193
801,. 175
O"
5C»r3-rr;7lT-IQ03Xt-^
O O -f 73
C-C-L— t-
XX X X
01
,£j 6 600606 66 o 6 d Q
as
a
S^CQg^QOS(Dt-g»0'*03iN
aJaOaoSooaoaocoxcox^xx
."S ■ . . .
00000000000000
s -\^'
'.---.'^J'rr^V -
a ?
^' i^" 71 71 71 71 71 Pi "^ r-l A^ ■" 1^
8S5St55£SS£E£S
■Positio7i of Agnculture and Trade. 87
crucible purposes is obtained. The industry has
taken a great start of recent years, the average export
increasing about 50 per cent, within the decade ; the
value of the trade averages about £350,000 per an-
num, and this mining industry has sprimg up entirely
within the last forty years. *'
Of other minerals mention may be made of the
precious stones found and exported in certain quanti-
ties, the chief being rubies and ■ sapphires and cat's
eyes. " Pearh " are included in the Customs returns
with " precious stones," and the total value of all
recorded in any one year for exports has never
exceeded £9,000; but the large proportion of both
pearls and precious stones taken out of the island on
the persons of natives or others leaving would not be
entered at all in the Customs returns.
Gold is freely distributed in the primary rocks of
Ceylon, but it has not been found in paying quantities.
Eich iron ore is very abundant, but there is no coal.
Of other minor exports affording some trade to
native huntsmen are deer -horns, the trade in which
indicates a considerable destruction of deer, so that a
law has been passed to protect them as well as other
game and elephants. The export of "lides and
skins " is considerable, and might be more important
were it not for the Sinhalese habits of cutting and
marking the hides of their cattle. The local industry
in tanning is very limited, though the materials are
at hand to extend it considerably. There is also
much scope for the export of dyeing (as well as
tanning) substances. The export trade in timber —
apart from ebonj- — is considerable, such as satin-
* See^Ionograph on " Plumbago," by A. M. Ferguson, contributed
to the Eoyal Asiatic Society's Journal (Ceylon), in 1S85.
88 Cuijhii in the Jubilee Year.
■wood, palmj'ra, tamarind, &c., to a total average
value of ,£20,000 per annum.
It will be observed that the branches of trade more
particularly in the hands of the natives — coconut
oil, cinnamon, and minor exports — are in a sound,
flourishing, and progressive condition. The case is
very different with coffee, and the significance of the
figures in our table will be understood when it is
remembered that between 1865 and 1878 the average
export of coffee shipped was equal in value to more
than double of all the other exports put together.
But instead of four or five millions of pounds' worth
of coffee, we are now reduced to a value of from one
to one and a quarter million sterling. Now, however,
come in the new headings in our export table of tea,
cinchona, and cacao, the latter two of which hence-
forth divide attention with coffee, while to tea will
belong the honour of representing our planting en-
terprise 2}nr excellence.
As to the future of coffee, we think that an average
export of a million pounds' sterling worth (200,000 to
250,000 cwt.) may still be counted on ; and to make
up the deficiency of three millions we may look to a
steady export of cinchona bark, worth from three to five
hundred thousand pounds per annum ; while cacao,
cardamoms, &c., should make a further considerable
addition. But the main dependence must be on tea ;
and, considering the rapid way in which this has been
planted, we see no reason to doubt that the area culti-
vated will suffice a few years hence to produce a quan-
tity, of say thirty to forty million ]iounds' weight, worth
a sum approximating to two million pounds sterling.
Some authorities indeed calculate that there is no
reason why Ceylon, with 200,000 acrus planted with
Position of Aririculture and Trade. 89
tea, should not by and by supply between sixty and
seventy million pounds of tea of the best qualities
for the markets of the world.
CHAPTEK IX.
WHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOB THE
MOTHER-COUNTRY.
Keoent yeais of depression considered — Planting profits absorbed is
THE PAST by Home capitalists — Absence of reserves of local
wealth — Xlie accumulated profits of past years estimated.
The recent financial depression and scarcity of
capital in Ceylon can readily be understood when
a succession of bad coffee seasons, involving a
deficiency iu the planters' harvests of that product
equal to many millions of pounds sterling, is taken
into consideration. There have been periods of de-
pression before in the history of the Ceylon planting
enterprise, and these, curiously enough, have been
noted to come round in cycles of eleven years. Thus,
in 1845, wild speculation in opening plantations,
followed by a great fall in the price of coffee and a
collapse of credit, arrested progress for a time; in
1856-7, a sharp financial shock affected the course of
prosperity which had set in ; and again, in 1866-7,
the fortunes of coffee fell to so low an ebb that a
London capitalist, who visited the island, said the
most striking picture of woe-begone misery he saw
was the typical " man who owned a coffee estate."
Tlte Benefit to the Mother -Counti-y. 91
Yet this was followed by good seasons and bounteous
coffee harvests.
The depression which set in during 1879, was,
however, the most prolonged and trying. True,
agriculture nearly all over the world has been suffer-
ing from a succession of bad harvests, more particu-
larly in the mother-country; but there are certain
grave distinctions between the conditions of a tropical
colony and lands in a temperate zotie. In Ceylon a
generation among European colonists has usually
been considered not to exceed ten years — not at all
on account of mortalityj for the hills of Ceylon have
the perfection of a healthy climate, but from the
constant changes in the elements of the Em'opean
community — the coming and going which in the past
made such a distinct change in the broad elements of
society every ten or certainly every fifteen years.
Those colonists who made fortunes in coffee in the
island — only 10 per cent, of the whole body of planters,
however — did not think of making it their permanent,
home. The capitalist who sent out his money for
investment got it back as soon as possible. The
"accumulated profits" made durmg the time of
prosperity, which at home form a reserve fund of
local wealth to enable the sufferer from present
adversity to benefit by past earnings, were utterly
wanting in Ceylon. We had no reserve fund of past
profits to fall back upon, no class of wealthy Euro-
peans enriched by former times of }3rosperity living
amongst us and circulating the lic^uidated products
of former industry, when the period of adversity and
depression arrived.
Ceylon, in fact, in the best coffee days, used to be
a sort of "incubator " to which capitalists sent then*
92 Ceijlon in the Jubilee Year.
eggs to be hatched, and whence they received from
time to time an abundant brood, leaving sometimes
but the shells for our local portion. Money was sent
out to Ceylon to fell its forests and plant them with
•coffee, and it was returned in the shai^e of copious
harvests to the home capitalist, leaving in some cases
the bare hill-sides from whence these rich harvests
were drawn. Had the profits from the abundant
coffee crops in those past days been located here and
invested in the country and its soil, a fund of local
wealth might have existed when the lean years came,
manufactures might now have been flourishing, a
■number of wealthy citizens of European origin might
have been living in affluence, and we should have
possessed resources to helj) us over the time of
adversity and depression !
The total amount of coffee raised on the planta-
tions of Ceylon since 1849 is about 19,000,000 cwt.,
and there were produced previously (esclndiug native
coffee in both cases) about 1,000,000 cwt. at the least,
making a grand total of coffee of 20,000,000 cwt. as
the produce of imported capital. Including interest
and all items of local cost, we may safely say that
this coffee has been produced for £2 2s. per cwt., and
has realized at the least .=£3 net on an average ; it
has therefore earned a net profit of £18,000,000.
The coffee so produced has been yielded by planta-
tions of not more than 320,000 acres in the aggre-
gate, after including a due allowance for lands
abandoned ; and the average cost of the estates,
including the purchase of the land, has certainly not
exceeded £25 per acre, involving a total capital of
£8,000,000. There should therefore have been a
sum of £10,000,000 of liquidated profit returned to
llie Benefit to the Mother-Country. 93-
the capitalist, besides the refund of his principal,
and there would still remain the existing plant of say
200,000 acres of land under cultivation by means of
the said capital, worth at least £10 per acre, or
altogether £2,000,000— thus showing a total profit, of
£12,000,000. Looking at some tracts of land which
have been relegated to weeds and waste — ^tracts
which for long years poured forth rich harvests for
their owners — the question will force itself upon us ::
What would now have been the -condition of these
lands if their owners had been settled on thfem, and
their families, homesteads, and accumulated profits-
had remained to enrich the island ?
Possibly the lands now waste would have been
flourishing farms, whose natural fertility would have-
been maintained, or probably increased, by fostering
care and scientific treatment, and they might long,
ago have been covered with other tropical products
wherever the old "King Coffee " had been dethroned;
by age or sickness.
Where, so far as the planters are concerned, is
now the fruit of these wasted lands ? Is it not, we-
may ask, absorbed in the wealth of the mother-
country, swelling its plethora of resources and luxury?'
Hence comes it that, though Ceylon can show many
outward and -visible signs of material wealth since the*
establishment of the planting enterprise, in a greatly-
increased revenue, great -public works, railways, roads,-
harbour works, tanks, irrigation cfl,nals, and public
buildings, and in a native population greatly raised
in the scale of civilization and in personal and home-
comforts, yet there is scarcely a wealthy European in
the island. Eiches have been heaped up elserwhere^
— that is, in the mother-country— out of Ceylon ;i
94 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year
while there are no large local incomes (save among a
limited number of natives) to meet the era of short
crops and financial disasters which began in 1879.
Of course, we are now looking at the Ceylon plant-
ing enterprise from the colonial point of view. "When
a financial crisis comes, and home capitalists find
they cannot realize and sell their property through
the absence of local purchasers, they are apt to speak
disparagingly of the colony which has done so much
for their brethren, if not for themselves, in years gone
by, and which will yet give a good return on capital
invested in the future.
Fortunately, within the past generation, a consider-
able change has taken place in the conditions of
planting in Ceylon, An unusually large number of
younger sons, and others with a certain amount of
capital of their own, have settled in the higher and
healthier districts — possessing in fact one of the finest
climates in the world — forming comparatively per-
manent homes, in the midst of their tea as well as
coffee and cinchona fields. The number of resident
proprietary and of married planters has largely in-
creased within the past twenty years, notwithstanding
depression and difficulty, and with the return of pros-
perity, further settlement in this way may be antici-
pated.
As regards the native cultivation of exportable
articles, the profits from sis or seven million cwt. of
native-grown coffee shipped, and from cinnamon, coir,
coconut oil, plumbago, &c., have of course come back
and enriched the people in a way which is visible on
all sides, and is more j)articularly striking to old
colonists. There is a very large number of wealthy
native gentlemen enriched by trade and agriculture
The Benefit to the Mother- O'ountrij. 95
-within British times, and nearly all the property in
ihe large towns, as well as extensive planted areas,
belong to them ; -while, as regards the labouring
■classes, the artizans and carters, the benefit conferred
by planting expenditure will be more particularly
referred to in our next chapter.
CHAPTEE J.
\VHAT THE PLANTING INDUSTRY HAS DONE FOE CEYLON.
Popalation nearly doubled — Eevenue quadrupled — Trade expanded
sixteen to twenty fold — ^Employment afforded to natives — An EI
■ Dorado for the Indiim immigrant — Coffee in the past, as tea in the
future, the mainstay of the island — The material progress in the
;^lanting districts.
What British capital and the planting enterprise have
done for Ceylon ■would require an essay in itself to
describe adequately. In 1837, when the pioneer
coffee planters begfth work, Ceylon was a mere military
dependency, with a Revenue amounting to £372,000,.
or less than the expenditure, costing the mother-
country a good round sum every year, the total
population not exceeding one' and a half million, but
requiring well-nigh 6,000 British and native troops to-
keep the peace.
Now we have the population increased to very nearly
the three millions, with only about 1,000 troops,
largely paid for out of a revenue averaging £1,500,000^
and a people far better housed, cloii^d, and fed,-
better educated and cared for in every way. The
total import and export trade since planting began
has expanded from half a miUion sterling in value tO'
The Planting Iniustry and Ceylon. 97
from eight to ten millio0g sterling, according to the
harvests. During the for'.y.five years referred to some
thirty to forty millions stcirfing have heen paid away
in wages earned in coniiection with plantations to
Kandyan axemen, Tamil coolies, Sinhalese carpenters,
domestic servants, and ca-ters. A great proportion
of this has gone to benefit Southern India, the home
of the Tamil coolies, of wh.im .close on 200,000 over
and above the usual labour supply were saved from
starvation in Ceylon during lihe Madras famine of
1877-8. In fact, Ceylon at that time, mainly through
its planters, contributed nearly as much aid to her
big neighbour as the total of the " Mansion House
Fund " subscribed in the Unite(4 Kingdom.
According to official papers tb ere are sixteen millions
of people in Southern India whose annual earnings,
taking grain, &c., at its full value, do not average per
family of five more than ^3 12s., or Is. 6d. per month
— equal to ^d. per head per day. iDcredible as this
may appear, it is true, although with better times
now perhaps Id. would be a safe rate per ciaput. No
wonder that to such a people the planting cotmtry of
Ceylon, when, all was prosperous, was an El Dorado,
for each family could there earn from 9s. to 12s. per
week, and save from half to three-quarters the amount.
The immigrant coolie labourers have suffered of late
years from the short crops and depression Uke their
masters, but now, with the revival of profitable
industry through tea, with medical care provided,
cheap food, comfortable huts, and vegetable gardens,
few labouring classes in the world are better off. Nor
ought we to forget the Tamil Coolie Mission which is
doing a good work in educating and Christianizing
many amongst the Tamil coolies, mainly supported as
it is by the planters.
8
98 Ceylon in the /ubilee Year.
Our calculation is that frpm each acre of coffee or
tea land kept in full cultivation in Ceylon five natives
(men, women, and childri^n) directly or indirectly
derive their means of sub'^istence. It is no wonder
then that, with a populatic^i increased in the planting
«ra by seventy to eighty per cent., four to five times
the quantity of cotton cloth is consumed, and ten
times the quantity of i'ood-stuffs imported. As a
contrast must be mentioned a calculation made re-
specting the British pifjneers of planting — the men who
worked say from 1837 «o 1870 — which showed that only
one-tenth of these ber^efited themselves materially by
coming to Ceylon. Niuety per cent, lost their money,
health, or even life itself. Latterly the experience is
not so sad, especially an respect of health.
The British governors of Ceylon have repeatedly
acknowledged that tP^ planting enterprise is the
mainstay of the isl^'sid. None have more forcibly
shown this than Go'TCrnor Sir ^William Gregory, who,
in answui: lo ti-o i-emark that the general revenue of
the coloif'y was being burdened with charges for
railway extension and harbour works, benefiting chiefly
the planting industry, said: "What, I would ask, is
the basis of the whole prosperity of Ceylon but the
planting enterprise ? What gave me the surplus
revenues, by which 1 was able to make roads and
bridges all over the island, causeways at Mannar and
Jaffna, to make grants for education and to take
measures to educate the masses — in short, to promote
the general industry and enterprise of the island
from Jaffna to Galle — but the results of the capital
and energy engaged in the cultivation of coffee ? It
follows, therefore, that, in encouraging the great
planting enterprise, I shall be furthering the genera^
The Planting Industry and Ceylon. 99
interests of the colony." Sir William Gregory was
able to create a new province in Ceylon, entirely
occupied by the poorest and previously most neglected
class of natives — namely, the North-Central Province
— with roads, bridges, buildings, forest clearings, and
irrigation works, solely by the surplus revenues
obtained from the planting enterprise.
The pioneer planter introduces into regions all but
nnknown to man a host of contractors, who in their
turn bring in a. train of pedlars, tavern-keepers, and
others, eager to profit by the expenditure about to
take place. To the contractors succeed the Malabar
coolies, the working bees of the colony, who plant
and cultivate the coffee, and at a subsequent period
reap the crop. Each of these coolies consumes
monthly a bushel uf rice, a quantity of salt and other
condiments, and occasionally cloth, arrack, &c., the
import, transport, and purchase of which find em-
ployment for the merchant, the retail dealer, the
carrier, and their servants ; and, again, the wants of
these functionaries raise around them a race of shop-
keepers, domestics, and others, who, but for the
success of coffee planting, would have been unable to
find equally profitable employment.
Nor are the results bounded by the limits of the
colony. The import of articles consumed gives em-
ployment to hundreds of seamen and to thousands of
tons of shipping that, but for this increased trade,
would never have been built. The larger demand for
rice stimulates and cheers the toil of the Indian ryot ;
the extended use of clothing stimulates the Manchester
spinners and weavers and all dependent on them ;
and the increased demand for the implements of
labour tells on Birmingham and Sheffield, which also
100 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
benefit, as regards the tea industry, by the demand
for varied machinery, for sheet lead, hoop iron, and a
host of other requisites. Who shall say where the
links of the chain termiiiate, affecting as they do in-
directly all the great branches of the human family ?
Then again, when the estate becomes productive,
how many of the foregoing agencies are again called
into operation. On arrival in Colombo the parchment
coffee is usually peeled, winnowed, and sized by
powerful steam machinery ; cinchona bark is packed
by hydraulic machines, while it is often re-bulked and
re-fired, agencies which provide employment for
engineers, smiths, stokers, wood-cutters, &c.
Colombo "stores " in their best days (mainly through
the drying, picking, and sorting of coffee) gave occu-
pation to thousands 6i the industrious poor natives,
and enabled them to support an expenditure for food,
clothing, and other necessaries, the supply of which
further furnished profitable employment to the shop-
keeper, merchant, seaman, &c. This is of course
still true to a large extent, lie fact, it is impossible .
to pursue in all their ramifications the benefits
derived from the cultivation of the fragrant berry
which has become the staple product of Ceylon.
Other results, too, there are — moral ones — such as
must sooner or later arise from the infusion of Anglo-
Saxon energy and spirit into' an Eastern people,
from the spread of the English language, and, what is
of more importance still, the extension of civilization
and Christianity.
The material change in the planting districts and
the Central Province of Ceylon within the last fifty
years has been marvellous. Villages and towns have
appeared where all was barren waste or thick jungle ;
/
The PlanUng Ind/uttry and Ceylon. 101
roads have been cut in all directions ; and prosperous
'villages have sprung up like magic in " The Wilderness
of the Peak." Gampola, Badnlla, and M^tale^ which
each consisted of a rest-house and a few huts, and
Nawalapitiya, which had no existence at all in
1837, are now populous towns ; while Panwila, Tel-
deniya, Madnlkelle, Deltota, Haldummulla, Lunu-
guUa, Passera, Welliniadde, Balangoda, Eatotte,
Eakwana, Yatiantotte, &c., are more than villages.
Some of the planting grant-in-aid 'roads, carried
through what was dense forest or waste land, are
lined for miles with native houses and boutiques, as
also with native cultivation in gardens or fields. The
change cannot be better described than in the words
of the Eev. Spence Hardy, of the Wesleyan Mission,
who, after spending twenty-two years in Cieylon,
between 1825 and 1847, returned to England, and re-
visited the island in 1862. Mr. Hardy was accustomed
to travel through nearly all the Sinhalese districts.
Writing in 1864, he says :— " Were some Sinhalese
appuhami to arise, 'who had gpne down to the grave
fifty years ago, and from that time remained uncon-
scious, he would not know his own land or people ;
and when told where, he was he would scarcely believe
his eyes, and would have some difficulty with his ears;
for though there would be the old language, even- that
-would be mixed with many words that to him would
be utterly unintelligible. Looking at his own country-
men, he would say that in his time both the head and
the feet were uncovered, but that now they cover
both'; or perhaps he would think that the youths
whom he saw with stockings and shoes and caps were
of some other nation. He would be shocked at the
heedlessness with which appus and nai4as and every-
102 Ceylon in the Jvibilee Year.
body else roll along in their bullock-bandies ; passing
even the carriage of the-white man whenever they are
able by dint_of tail-pulling or hard blows ; and when
he saw the horsekeepers riding by the side of their
masters and sitting on the same seat, there would be
some expression of strong indignation. He would
listen in vain for the ho-he-voh of the palanquin-
bearers and their loud shouts, and would look in vain
for the torn Johns and doolies, and for the old lascoreens
with their talipots and formal dress. He would be
surprised at seeing so many women walking in the
road and laughing and talking together like men, but
with no burdens dn their heads and nothing in their
hands, and their clothes not clean enough for them to
be going to the temple. He would perhaps complain
of the hard road, as we have heard a native gentle-
man from Kalpitiya do, and say that soft sand was
much better. He would wonder where all the tiles,
come from for so many houses, and would think that
the high-caste families must have multiplied amaz-
ingly for them to require so many stately mansions ;
and the porticoes, and the round white pillars, and
the trees growing in the compound, bearing nothing
but long thin thorns, or with pale yellow lieavea
^instead of green ones, would be objects of great
attraction. He would fancy that the Moormen must
have increased at a great rate, as he would take the
tall chimneys of the coffee stores to be the minareta
of mosques, until he saw the smoke proceeding from
them, and then he would be puzzled to know what
they could be. In the bazaar he would stare at the
policemen and the potatoes and the loaves of bread,
and a hundred other things that no bazaar ever saw
in his day. And the talk about planters and bar-
The Planting Indmstry and Ceylon. 103
bacues, coolie iminigratioii, and the overland and
penny postage, and bishops and agents of Govern-
ment, and the legislative council and banks, news-
papers and mail-coaches, wonld confuse him by the
strangeness of the terms. He would listen incredu-
lously when told that there is no rajakariya, or forced
labour, and no fish tax ; and that there are no slaves,
and that you can cut down a ciimamon tree in your
own garden without having to pay a heavy fine.
Bemembering that when Governor North made the
tour of the island, he was accompanied by 160
palanquin-bearers, 400 coolies, 2 elephants, and 50
lascoreens, and that when the adigar ^haelapola
visited Colombo he had with him a retinue of a
thousand retainers, and several elephants, he would
think it impossible that the governor could go on a
tour of inspection, or a judge on circuit, without
white olas lining the roadside, and triumphal arches,
and javelin n^en, and tomtoms, and a vast array
of attendants. He would ask, perhaps, what king
now reigns in Eandy, and whether he had mutilated
any more of the subjects of Britain. From these
supposed surprises, we may learn something of the
changes that have taken place in the island, but we
cannot teE a tithe of the whole."
If this was true when the veteran missionary wrote
in 1862, the picture migat well be heightened and
intensified by the experiences of 1887, for the progress
in- the second half of our good Queen's reign among
the people of Ceylon is not less remarkable than it
was between 1837 and 1862.
As to the comparative freedom from poverty and
suffering which distinguishes the lower classes, the
vast masses of the natives of Ceylon, it must be
104
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
remembered that they live as a nde in the most
genial of climates, where saffering from cold is im-
possible, and the' pangs of hunger are abnost unknown,
little more than a few plantain^ a day being'snffieient
to support life in idleness, if so chosen. Sir Eiiward
COFFJEE. V
A. The AsABiAN, or East African ; B. Xfae Libeitian, or West Afiiean; %ith Coolie
attendant employed to shoot squirrels, rats, or hues <m pbu^^tiOD. '
Creasy, in his "History df England," sayd : "I have
seen more human misery in a Sing^ winter's day in
London than I have seen during my nind years* stay
in Ceylon."
CHAPTEE XI.
PRESENT PEOSPECTS FOE CAPITAIilSTfe IN CEYLON.
Ceylon still a good field for investment — Its freedom from atmos-
pheric disturbances — Shipping conveniences at the new harbour
of Colombo — Low freights — Cheap and unrivalled means of
transport — ^Large tracts available for Tea and other tropical
culture — Openings for young men with capital — High position
taken by the Ceylon planter — ^Facilities for personal inspection
of investments.
What we have said in the previous chapter will show
-the value of the planting enterprise to the settled
inhabitants and to the government of Ceylon. We
have also pointed out the immense advantages gained
in commerce and profits by the mother-country. Let
us endeavour to show, the British Capita' ist, who,
during the period of deficient coffee crops, grievously
lost confidence in Ceylon, how many reasons there
are for him to forbear condemnation, and to look
still on this colony as one of the best of British
dependencies for the judicious investment of capital.
It may be unnecessary pow, in 1887, to do so, because
"tea has already begun to receive a liberal measure of
support ; but still in many home cu-cles Ceylon is
•decried.
The situation of Ceylon in the Eastern World is
106 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
peculiarly favoured in certain respects. TKe atmos-
pheric disturbances which periodically agitate the
Bay of Bengal, and carry, in hurricanes and cyclones,
destruction to the shipping in the exposed Madras
roadstead and the devoted Hooghly, seldom or never
approach the north-eastern shores of this island. If
Java and the rest of the Eastern Archipelago boast
of a far richer soil than is to be found in Ceylon, it is
owing to the volcanic agency which makes itself known
at frequent intervals by eruptions and earthquakes,
the utmost verge of whose waves just touches the
eastern coast of the island at Batticaloa and Trin-
comalee in scarcely perceptible undulations. On the
west, again, Ceylon is equally beyond the region of the
hurricanes which, extending from the Mozambique
Channel, visit so often and so disastrously the coasts
of Madagascar, Mauritius, and Zanzibar. The wind
and rain-storms which usher in periodically the
south-west and north-eist monsoons, sometimes in-
flict slight damage on the coffee and rice crops, but
there is no comparison between the risks attaching
to cultivation in Ceylon and those experienced by
planters in Java and Mauritius.
The same absence of risk, holds good with reference
to the formerly open roadstead of Colombo, and the
island shipping trade, which has for years, been nearly
all centred there.
Except for an odcasional gale from the south-west,
there was no special danger to be guarded aga^inst,
and the risks to vessels lying at Colombo were much
less than to those at Calcutta, Madras> or Bombay.
But the delay in the transaction of shipping business,
owing to the prevalence of a heavy surf and a stiff
breeze during monsoon months, was more than suffi-
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon. 107
cien*, to justify the very substantial breakwater and
allied harbour works which, under the direction of Sir
John Coode and his representative, Mr. Kyle, have
just been successfully completed at Colombo. The
capital of Ceylon is now the great central mail and
commercial steamer port of the East. All the large
steamers of the P. and 0. Company, the British
India, Star, Ducal, and most of the Messageries,
Nord-Deutscher Lloyds, Austro-Hungarian Lloyds,
Eubattino, the Clan, Glen, City, Ocean, Anchor,
Holts, and other lines for Europe.-India, China, the
Straits, and Australia, call at Colombo regularly.
One consequence of this^ valuable to the merchant
and planter, is the regular and cheap freight offered
to the world's markets. Freights now do not average
one-half of the rates prevalent some years ago.
There is no trojHcal land — indeed there are few
countries anywhere— so thoroughly served by rail-
ways and roads, canals and navigable streams, as are
the principal districts of Ceylon at the present day.
The means of cheap transport b,etween the interior
and the coast (a few remote districts only excepted)
are unequalled in the tropics. Indian tea-planters
confess that their Ceylon brethren have a great
advantage over them in this respect, and still more
so in the abundant supply of good, steady, cheap
labour, trained by long experience to plantation work.
A morte forcing climate, too, than that of Ceylon does
not exist under the sun ; while now that the country
is fully opened, the risks to health are infinitesimal
compared with those of pioneers in new coimtries or
of the tea-planters in the Terai of India. Whatever
may be said of the inimical effects of bad seasons on
coffee — too much rain at blossoming time — there can
108 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
be no doubt of the advantage of abundance of mois!iure
and heat for tea, and it is in respect of the fitness
'of large tracts of undeveloped country for tea pro-
duction that we would especially ask for the attention
of British capitalists.
Indian tea-planters, who have come to see how tea
is growing in Ceylon, confess that we are bound to
beat Northern India. Tea, of as good quality as that
from Assam, can be placed on board ship at Colombo
for a good deal less per pound than Indian tea on
board ship at Calcutta. This has been proved,
although Ceylon planters have not long begun the
systematic cultivation and preparation of tea. But
tea (although the principal) is only one among a list
of valuable tropical products which Ceylon is well
fitted to grow.
As a body, Ceylon planters are among the most in-
telligent, gentlemanly, and hospitable of any colonists
in British dependencies. The rough work of pioneer-
ing in the early days before there were district roads,
villages, supplies, doctors, or other comforts of civili-
zation, was chiefly done by hard-headed Scots : men
bivouacked in the trackless jungle .with the scantiest
accommodation under tropical rains lasting for weeks
together, with rivers swollen to flood-level and im-
passable, while food supplies often rah short, as none
could be got aciross the wide torrents. All these and
many other similar experiences are of the past in the
settled planting districts of Ceylon, although there
are outlying parts where pioneers can still rough it to
their hearts' contentl In the hill-country the pioneers
about twenty years ago began to be succeeded by
quite a different class of men. Younger sons vnth
a capital, present or prospective, of a few thousand
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon. 109
pounds, educated at public schools, and many of them
University men, found an opening in life on Ceylon
plantations far more congenial than that of the
Australian bush or the backwoods of Canada, Of
course some of these did not succeed as planters, as
they probably would not succeed at anything in the
colonies ; but for well-inclined young men of the right
stamp, not afraid of hard work, Ceylon still presents
an opening as planters of tea, cinchona, cacao, &c.,
provided the indispensable capital is available.
[The usual mode, and the safe one, is to send the
young man fresh from home, through the intro-
duction of some London or Colombo firm, to study
his business as a planter, and to learn the colloquial
Tamil spoken by the coolies, under an experienced
planter for two or three years. In prosperous times
such young assistants were taught and boarded free
in return for their help, and began to earn a salary
after a year or so. Now, a fee for board and teaching
(£50, or at most £100 for a year) may be needful.
Nowhere in the whole wide world can young men
learn so thoroughly the mysteries of coffee, tea,
cinchona planting, &c., or be so well equipped as
tropical agriculturists as in Ceylon. Ceylon planters
and machinists have taught the rest of, the tropics
how to grow and prepare coffee properly; more is
known in it about the mysteries of cinchona bark
culture than anywhere else ; the Ceylon tea-planter is
likely, ere long, to beat both India and China in the
race for fine teas. Ceylon cacao beans have already
sold highest in the London market, just as she sends
thither the finest cinnamon, coconut-oil, <Joir, Sic.
It may truly be said that the Press of Ceylon has
greatly aided the planters in acquiring this pre-
110 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
eminence. The Geylari Observer has sent special
correspondents to report, on the tea regions of Assam
and. Darjeeling, on the cinchona gardens of the Nil-
.geries, and of Java; taWest Africa to learn all about
Liberian coffee, and to South and Central America to
ascertain the progress; of coffee ; while its manuals on
coffee, tea, cinchona, "cacao, india-rubber, coconut and
areca palms, cardamoms and cinnamon planting, on
^old and .gems^ are known throughout the tropics.
Of late years, since 1881, a monthly periodical. The
Tropical Agriculttmst, published at the same office,
has befen effectually bringing together all the in-
formation; and experience available . in reference to
everything that concerns agriculture in tropical and
sub-tropical regions. This is merely mentioned, en
jpassani, in part explanation of the high position
taken by the Ceyl9n-trained planter, wherever he
goes. •
After the depression of 1879 many Ceylon planta-
tion managers and assistant superintendents had to
seek their fortunes elsewhere ; and, indeed, the
planting districts of Southern India may be said
to be offshoot settlements from Ceylon, while in Fiji,
Northern Australia, the Straits Settlements, Burmah,
and North Borneo, there are Ceylon planters now
pioneering and building up'a planting enterprise.
But with the success of tea, many of our wandering
colonists have been returning, and there is still ample
scope for the capitahst and for the young man who
can, after he has learned planting, command capital
in Ceylon. There is a wide extent of forest land
Well suited for tea, and, when sold by Government, it
may be had for i;2 or £3, sometimes for £,1 an acre,
crown title freehold. Owing to the depression, pro-
Present Prospects for Capitalists in Ceylon. Ill
perty in plantations already formed fell greatly in
value, and, even' now, old coffee estates may be bought
cheaply, very suitable for tea ; but discrimination
should certainly be exercised. One beneficial result
of the scarcity of capital has been to secure the
utmost economy in doing work, and land is now
opened and cultivated for far less than was the case
some years ago.
The convenience afforded by quick passages in large
steamers via the Suez Canal, and by railways and
roads in Ceylon, is such that capitalists can now
inspect their property in Ceylon with as much ease
and pleasure as they would have in a two months'
trip to the Highlands of Scotland or to the South of
Europe ; and it is becoming quite a common thing
for the retired proprietor or business man to run out
to Ceylon for the winter months. How different
the case was twenty years ago I We remember a
Glasgow capitalist, owning a property worth £100,000
in Ceylon, coming out to see it, and after getting
to Nuwara Eliya, within forty miles of the property,
refusing to go further, so bad were the roads ; and
he, a man of sixty-eight or seventy, returned home
without ever having seen the plantation, and ulti-
mately sold his interests to a Limited Company at
a considerable profit !
The carriage of produce from the estates to Colombo,
from 100 to 200 mUes, used often to take as much time
and cost as much as the freight 15,000 miles round
the Cape. Prom the Uva districts to Colombo car-
riage still costs in time and money more than freight
to London vicZ the Canal ; but, as a whole, Ceylon is
magnificently roaded, with an ample supply of cheap
labour, and a particularly favourable climate.
112
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year,
Finally, let the capitalist know that obnoxiotts lawg
connected with the Boman-Butch system are to be
LOW-CODNTEY SMHALESE MAN AND WOMAN.
reformed. Codes are being framed, and antiquated,
laws have either been, or are likely soon to be, super-
seded.
CHAPTEE XII.
ATTEACTIONS FOR THE TRAVELLER AND VISITOR.
The voyage a 'pleasure trip — Historical monuuents, vegetation, &o. —
Variety of climate — Colombo, the capital — Eandy, the Highland
capital — ^Nuwara Eliya, the sanitarinm — The Horton Flaina —
Adam.'s Peak — TJva and its long-delayed railway-^Anoient cities
of Anoradhapnra and Folonnarawa— Occasional Pearl fisheries —
Probable expense of a visit to Ceylon — The alleged fhconvenienoeB
of tropical Ufe.
To the traveller and visitor Ceylon offers'mcre attrac-
tions even than to the capitalist ai^d would-be pI{^lter.
It is a joke with disappointed men that the stranger
can see on the hills of Ceiylon the graves of more
British sovereigns than of Kandyan king^ ! ^nt the
latter are not wanting, apd no dependency of Britain
— India not excepted— -presents more attractions than
Ceylon to the intelligent tra^e^er, to the botanist, the
antiquarian or the man of science, the orientalist, or
even to the politician and the sociologist. Visitors
from America-and North India/have said ttat Ceylon,
for natural beauty, historical *nd social interest, is
the "show-place of the universe," and that, as such,
it might well, in these days of travelling sight-seers, be
leased by either a Bamum or Cook ! The voyage of
twenty-four to twenty-eight days from London to
Colombo (of eighteen to twenty-one from Brindisi or
9
114 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Marseilles) on a first-class steamer of any of half a
dozen lines competing ftt from £40 to £65 for the
single, or less than double for the return passage, is,
at the proper season of the year — September to March
or April — a pleasure trip of the most enjoyable and
instructive kind. The calhng by some steamers at
Gibraltar, Malta, Port Said, Suez, and Aden affords
instruction and pleasure of a high order ; , while the
beauty of Ceylon vegetation and scenery, the interest
attaching to her people, towns, and ancient cities and
monuments, amply reward even the worst sea-
traveller for the unpleasantness of a voyage. Tennent
well says that Ceylon, from whatever direction it may
be approached, unfolds, a scene of loveliness and
grandeur unsurpassed, if it be rivalled, by any land
in the universe. Its names — " Lanka, the resplend-
ent," of the Brahmiiis; the "pearl-drop on the brow
of Ind," of the Buddhists ; "the island of jewels " of
the Chinese ; " the land of the hyacinth and ruby " of
the Greeks ; and " the home of Adam and Eve after
losing Paradise," according to the Mohammedans —
as Arabi and his fellow exiles said soon after their
arrival — will show the high esteem in which it has
been held both in the East and the West.
As for its history, as already mentioned, no region
between Chaldea and China can tell so much of its
past deeds as Ceylon, while the ruins of its ancient
capitals in palaces, temples, dagobas, and tanks are
only second to those of Egypt. These ruins are all
now rendered accessible in a few days' trip by railway
and carriage from Colombo, without risk or incon-
venience, and at very little expense to the traveller.*
* See Burrows' " Guide to the Buried Cities of Ceylon," published
by A. II. and J. Ferguson.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 115
As to vegetation and natural history generally,
Ceylon is one huge tropical garden, i^resenting objects
of intense interest to the botanist and zoologist, from
■the coral reef and pearl oyster banks around its
coasts, and the palms and creepers bending down to
meet " the leaguelong rollers thundering on its
shores," to the grassy pathways running up to hills
clothed to their summit with the most varied forest
trees, or to the plateaux of Nuwara Eliya and the
surrounding plains — "the Elysium of Ceylon" —
where, at an elevation of over 6,000 feet, in grass,
and flowers, and trees, a bit of
" Europe amicl Asia smiles."
There, in snug cottages, wood fires and blankets are
often required to keep away the cold. In one day the
visitor can pass from Colombo with its average tem-
perature of 81° to the sanatarium, with its wintry
comforts, and temperature falling to freezing-point
occasipnally, but averaging 57°. During March,
April, and May — " the season " at the sanatarium —
the weather is very equable, comparatively dry, and
delightful. September and part of August and
October, are very pleasant, and often January and
February, as well as December sometimes, though
thin ice on the water, and hoar frost on the herbage,
are then not uncommon. The very wet months are
June, July, and December. Sir Samuel Baker lived
eight years continuously at Nuwara Eliya, and speaks
very highly of its healthfulness.* Indian civilians
and other residents declare that Nuwara Eliya is
* See Sir Samuel Baker's " Eight Years " and "Rifle and Houud
in Ceylon."
116 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
more pleasantly accessible to them than most of their
own sanitaria, the short sea-voyage from Calcutta or
Bombay being an additional benefit to many who
come from the hot dry plains of Central India. For
invalids, the marine boarding-house at Mount
Lavinia, as well as the Colombo marine hotels, are
very safe and suitable places of resort.
The perfection of climate, in an average of 65° all
the year round, is found at 5,000 feet, among tiie
bimgalows of Dimbula, Dikoya, Maskeliya, or of
Uva, with its dryer and at times more pleasant
climate. It is no wonder then that parents and
others, with their sons, daughters, or other relatives
settled in Ceylon, should have begun to visit it in
order to escape the trying winter and spring months .
in England. Not a few who used to winter in Egypt
find it nearly as convenient and more interesting to
come on to Cej'lon. , The late Mr. C. A. Cameron and
his wife, Mrs. Julia Cameron (the well-known artist
and friend of Tennyson), even when in advanced
years (approaching to or over fourscore), made the
voyage across several times to visit and stay for con-
siderable periods witE^theix- sons settled in the island.
Of late years winter visitors from» Europe and hot-
weather refugees from India have been numerous,
apart from " globe-trotters " calling in.
Colombo, the capital, a city of close on 120,000
inhabitants, with its fine artificial harbour (projected
by Sir Hercules Eobinsbn), has much to interest the
visitor in \its beautiful drives over the smoothest of
roads througii the " Cinnamon Gardens ; " its lake,
and the Kelani river, with Sir Edward Barnes's
bridge of boats ; its public museuih, erected by Sir
William Gregory, and containing objects of interest
Attractions for tM Traveller and Visitor, 117
from all parts of the island ; the old Dutch church,
containing the tombs and monuments of Dutch
governors ; the bungalows and gardens of the Euro-
peans ; still more unique are the crowded native parts
■of the town, teeming with every variety of oriental race
and costume — the efifeminatei light brown Sinhalese,
the men as well as women wearing their hair tied
behind in knots (the former patronizing combs, the
latter elaborate hairpins), the darker and more manly
Tamils, Hindus of every caste and dress, Moormen
or Arab descendants, Afghan traders, Malay police-
men, a few Parsees and Chinese, Kaf&r descendants,*
besides the Eurasians of Dutch, . or Portuguese, or
English and native descent. •
Colombo has two first-class, besides minor hotels,
and the stranger is soon surrounded by native pedlars,
especially jewellers with their supply of gems, from
rare cat's-eyes, rubies, sapphires, and pearls, to first-
class Birmingham imitations.
The scene to the new-comer is bewilderingly inte-
resting, visions of the " Arabian Nights " are conjured
up, for, as Miss Jewsbury sang after her visit some
forty years ago : —
" Ceylon ! Ceylon 1 'tis nought to me
How thou wert known or named of old,
As Ophir, or TaprobanS,
By Hebrew king, or Grecian bold : —
To me thy spicy -wooded vales,
Thy dusky sous, and jewels bHght,
But image forth the far-famed tales —
But seem a new Arabian night.
* Kaffirs first arrived in Ceylon as a company of soldiers sent from
<joa to help the Portuguese against the Sinhalese in 1636-40.
118 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
And when engirdled figures crave
Heed to thy bosom's glittering store—
I see Aladdin in his cave ;
I follow Sinbad on the shore."
Although the mean temperature of Colombo is
nearly as high as that of any station in the world as
yet recorded, yet the climate is one of the healthiest
and safest for Europeans, because of the slight range
between night and day, and between the so-called
" seasons," of which, howeYer, nothing is known
there, it being one perpetual summer varied only by
the heavy rains of the monsoon months. May, June,
October, and November. But in the wettest months
it rarely happens that it rains continuously even for
two whole days and nights ; as a rule, it clears up for
some houi's each day."
Waterworks have been constructed, at a heavy cost,
to convey water from mountain streams, distant
thirty miles, to serve Colombo, some parts of which
are badly off for a good supply. When the works
and distribution over the city are completed — the city
reservoir, costing B600,000, has been & fiasco, cracking
again and again in 1886-7, through a bad founda-
tion — and when the drainage/ is thus improved,
Colombo will more than ever be entitled to its repu-
tation of being one of the healthiest (as well as most
beautiful) cities in the tropics, or indeed in the world.
A convenient system of tramways is also being pro-
jected, while at present, besides the railway through
one side of the town, there are numerous conveyances
of different descriptions for hire, and many "jini-
rickshaws " (man-power carriages), peculiar to Japan
and the Far East.*
* " Jinirickshawt," which have become very popular in Ceylon
towns, in Colombo, Kandy, and Kuwara Eliya especially, were first
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 119
There are several places of interest in the neigh-
bourhood of Colombo that are well worth a visit.
A seaside railway line runs for twenty-seven miles
as far as Kalutara (the Eichmond of Ceylon), the
border inland being one continuous avenue of coconut
trees. The enjoyment of the scene to. a lover of
natural beauty is indescribable : the cool shade of the
palm groves, the fresh verdure of the grass, the
bright tints of the flowering trees, with occasional
glimpses through openings in the dense wood of the
mountains of the interior, the purple zone of hills
above which the sacred mountain of Adam's Peak is
sometimes seen, all combine to form a landscape
which in novelty and beauty is tmsurpassed :
" So fair a scene, so green a sod,
Our English fairies never trod."
As Miss Martineau wrote, fifty years ago, in her
political romance, " Cinnamon and Pearls " — " The
Blue Lake of Colombo, whether gleaming in the sun-
rise or darkening in the storms of the monsoon, never
loses its charm. The mountain range in the distance
is an object for the eye to rest lovingly upon, whether
clearly outlined against the glowing sky, or dressed
in soft clouds, from which Adam's Peak p_ior e stands
aloft, like a dark island in the waters above the
firmament."
The mildness of the climate of Colooibo, the
murmur of cricket and insect life at night, and the bril-
liancy of the moonlight, strike the stranger, although
the closeness of the atmosphere then is sometimes
introduced in 1884, on the suggestion of the author, after a visit to
Chins and Japan, where he thought the " rickshaws " peculiarly
fitted for Colombo roads.
120
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
felt to be oppressive, and the attention of mogqnitoes
at certain seasons is far from pleasant. But the low
country can easily be exchanged for the hills. In
four hours one passes from Colombo by a splendid
■'''Willi"
V:!l;rs,!;il|lii!lfifr(ii
railway running through interesting country, sur-
mounting an incline which is one of the gi'eatest rail-
way 'ascents in the (at least, tropical) world, 1,600
feet above sea-level, to the last capital of the native
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 121
Mngs of the island — Kandy — a town of 22,000 people.
Kandy is uniquely beautiful : the most charming
little town in the world, travellers usually describe it.
It is situated in a valley surrounded by hills, and
boasts an artificial lake, Buddhist and Hindu temples,
including the MaUgawa, the most sacred Buddhist
temple in the world ; this contains the so-called relic of
Buddha's tooth, to which the kings and priests of Bur-
mah, Siam, and Cambodia send occasional offerings,
and which is had in reverence in portions of India,
Thibet, and even China and Japan. " The Pavilion,"
one of the three official residences of the governor in
the island, with its gardens and grounds, surmounted
by the public " Lady Horton's Walk " on a hill-range
overlooking the Dumbara valley, will attract atten-
tion. The view of the town from any of the hill-
sides surrounding it is surpassingly interesting.*
The Botanical gardens at Peradeniya, three miles
from Kandy, "beautiful for situation exceedingly,"
as well as full of interest in the vegetation, are well
worth a visit, t
The gi-oup of palms at the entrance haS always
been an object of admiration to strangers', and it
shows how well adapted Ceylon is to be the home
of this family. We reprint an engraving of this
group, and append here the —
NAMES OF PALMS, &c., IN GEOUP.
{See Engraving, page 122.)
1. Corypha mnbiaculifeia (Talipot) — highest plant, in the centre.
2. Phytelephas macrocarpa (Ivoiy-nnt Palm) — in front of foregoing,
and behind native servant.
* See Burrows' " Guide to Kandy, ifec," published by A. H. and
J. Ferguson.
t An interesting little guide-book and list of plants, &e.,have been
prepared by the director, Dr. Trimer, and are available.
1'2'2 Ceylon in the JuUlee Year.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 12S
3. Cycas, circinalis (called erroneously " Sago Palm ") — immediately
to the left of preceding, in front.
4. Areoa Catechu— directly behind the Cyoas, and with its head of
leaves amongst those of the Talipot.
5. Yucca gloriosa— a cluster of shoots of this in front ; to the left of
the Cyoas.
6. Cocos nucifera (Cocoa-nut) — immediately behind the Yucca.
7. Oncosperma fasciculata (" Kattoo Kittool") — behind, between the
Talipot and Cocoa-nut.
8. Aorooomia scleroearpa — behind the Yucca, and with its trunk a
little to the left of that of the Cocoa-nut.
9. Livistona sp. — at the extreme left of the group.
10. Livistona Chinensis (" Mauritius Palm ") — behind and directly to
the right of the Talipot.
11. Livistona sp.— immediately to the right of the coolie, in front.
12. Oreodosa regia (Cabbage Palm) — directly behind No. 11 ; trunk
large, smooth, bulged above the middle.
13. Sabal Palmetto ("Palmetto" of the Southern States of America)
— to the right of the group, in front.
14. Eloesis G-uineensis (" Palm Oil Palm " of Africa) — with numerous
long spreading leaves ; behind and overtopping No. 13, and to
the extreme right of the group.
Between Colombo and Kandy extensive paddy or
rice cultivation can be seen in the low country j while
higher up the Kandyans' terraced rice-fields and
fields of tea, with some Liberian coffee and chocplate
trees, may be noted.
From Kandy a visit to the Dumbara valley, five or
six miles by road, or to Matale, twenty miles by rail-
way, will show some of ' the finest cacao (chocolate)
plantations ; while southward, the railway jom-ney to
Gampola and Nawalapitiya, for seventeen miles, and
then on for forty-two miles, rising by successive
inclines nearly 4,000 feet, to Nanu-oya, near Nuwara
Eliya, will carry the visitor through long stretches of
tea and cinchona, with some coffee, plantations,
amidst enchanting mountain scenery, with rivers,
forests, waterfalls, and gorges that nothing can
124
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Attractions far the Traveller and Visitor. 125
surpass. Altogether, the railway ride from Colombo
to Nanu-oya for 130 miles, rising from sea-level to
5,300 feet (over one mile up in the air), is one of the
most varied and interesting in the world.* The
FALLS OF BAMBODA.
journey is made by a first-class broad-gauge railway,
» Sec " Guide to Ceylon Railways and Eailway Extensions, -with
Notice of the Sanitarium,' compiled and published by A. M. and J.
Ferguson.
1.26. Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
-mih a refreshment car attached, for two-thirds of the
way, in seven to eight hours, without any change of
^;rain or carriage.
Nanu-oya is only about four miles from Nuwara
lEliya, the sanatarium, by a fine road, on which
coaches or other conveyances run for the convenience
of railway travellers. There is good hotel and board-
ing-house accommodation ; the " Gregory Lake," due
io Sir William Gregory, is a fine feature ; plantations
of tea and cinchona, and the finely situated and ad-
mirably kept Hakgalla experimental gardens, are in
iihe neighbourhood. The summit of the highest
mountain in Ceylon, Pidurutalagala, 8,296 feet, or
2,000 feet above the Plains, can be easily attained in
a walk before breakfast ; while a trip to the top of
the far more interesting Adam's Peak (sacred alike to
Buddhists, Hindus, Mohammedans, and even Boman
Catholics) can be readily arranged, the railway and a
good road running for forty miles to a point on the
mountain breast about 3,000 feet from the summit,
which is 7,353 feet high. The climb up Adam's Peak
is a stiff one, particularly the last portion, where
steps are cut out, and even chains fixed in the rock,
to prevent the climber from slipping or being blown
down the side of the precipice in stormy seasons. The
view from the top in clear weather is ample reward
for all trouble, and the projection of the shadow
across the low country to the sea as the sun rises is
a sight, once seen, never to be forgotten.*
From' Nuwara Eliya a day's ride suffices to reach
the Horton Plains, 1,000 feet higher ; and there, as
well as between these two points, is a large extent of
* See Appendix X. for paper on ' ' The Shadow of the Peak," by
Hon. Balph Abercromby.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 127
Oplaiia in a delightful climate, well sriited for compara-
tive settlement by Europeans. At any rate their chili'
dren could be kept here in rude health until iwelve tb
fourteen, years of age; and the soU is well fitted for
small farms and vegetable gardens, as well as for
growing cinchona and the finer qualities of tea. As
a sanatarium for British troops, this site is unequalled,
both for climate and accessibility.
Already the surrounding districts, served by road
and railway, and having villages, stores, churches,
clergymen, and doctors, are beginning to be regarded
as the comparatively permanent homes of many of
the planters. Nuwara Eliya and the Horton Plains
border on the XJva Principality, with its comparatively
dry upland climate, where so deliciously pleasant and
iealth-giving is the air that to breathe it has been
compared to a draught of the pure juice of the grape.
A waterfall in Eastern Haputale, one of the divisions
of Uva, is the highest in Ceylon (page 131), while the
Ella Pass and the view of the low country and sea coast
from the hill range is very striking.* As we write, the
* Perhaps there is not a scene in the World which combines
snblimity and beauty in a more extraordinary degree than .that which
is presented at the Pass of EQa, where, through an opening in the
-chain of monntains, the road from Badulla descends rapidly to the
lowlands, over which it is carried for upwards of seventy luiles, to
Hambantotte, octhe- south coast of the island. The ride to Ella
passes for ten or twelve miles along the base of hills thickly wooded,
except in tliose spots where the forest has been cleared ,for planting
coffee. The view is therefore obstructed, and at one point appears to
terminate lu an impassable glen ; but on reaching this the traveller is
startled on discovering a ravine through which a torrent has forced its
way, disclosing a passage to the plains below, over which, for more
than sixty miles, the prospect extends, unbroken by a single eminence,
till, far in the distance, the eye discerns a line of light, which marks
where the sunbeams are flashing on the waters of the Indian Ocean.
— Emerson Tennent.
128 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
whole colony is eagerly awaiting the sanction of the
Secretary of State to another section of Eailway
extension from N'anu-oya for 25J miles to Haputale.
This line will rise to nearly 6,300 feet, summit level,
and then descend to 4,400 feet near the Haputale Pass.
The journey over the dividing range and the burst into
the grand Uva amphitheatre of mountain range, em-
bracing rolling pastures (grassy plains), rich, cultivated
valleys with sparkling streams and glistening irriga-
tion channels, will be full of an interest of its own to
travellers. The Uva province too, perhaps more than
any other in Ceylon, will offer attractions and oppor-
tunities to the planting settler and capitalist for
investment, its soil and climate being generally con-
sidered the best in the island for the staple products
of the colonist as well as for the fruits and vegetables
cultivated by the natives. In the Park country
division of the province, there is also rich pasturage
for feeding cattle, while opportunities for sport, from
snipe to elephants, are presented onfall sides. As
already stated, civil and military officers, merchants
and others, from India, are now beginning to regard
Ceylon, with its seaside boarding-establishments, and
its comfortable accomm6dation at Nuwara Eliya,
sanatarium, as more desirable than Indian hillf
stations during the hot season.
From Kandy the trip to the ancient capitals of
Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, from ninety to sixty
miles to the north and east, can easily be arranged
for the visitor ; and from amid the ruins of Anuradha-
pura (2,000 years old) one can despatch a telegram to
friends at home in England, or post a budget of news.*
* With the permission of Mr. Eichard Bentley, the publisher, extracts
from Major Forbes's "Eleven Years in Ceylon" (published in 1840),
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 129
For sportsmen there is elephant shooting in the far
outh in the Hambantota district, elk hunting round
Nuwara Eliya, or wild buffalo, bear, boar, or wild
bearing on the ruins of Anuradhapura and the Buddhist religion, are
given as Appendix II., but for the beet modern description we refer to
" The Buried Cities of Ceylon," by Mr. Burrows, C.C.S., published by
A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo.
10
130 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
hog, and cheetah hunting in the forests of the north
and east.*
In 1888-9, and probably in further successive years,
the opportunity may be afforded of being present at a
pearl-oyster fishery off the north-west coast, for which
Ceylon has been famous from time immemorial.
The primitive tliode of diving for and gathering the
oysters by a particular caste of native divers, their
sale by Government auction, and the business in
pearls with thousands' of dealers and their followers,
who collect from all parts of India in the hope of a
good fishery taking place, — all this is full of novelty.
The cost of living in Ceylon at hotels ranges from
10s. per day upwards, board and comfortable accom-
modation by the month being available at from £7 to
sglO per month for each adult. A lady and gentleman
leaving England on the 15th of November, and re-
turning by the 15th of May,' spending four clear months
in a comfortably-furnished bungalow in the hill-coun-
try of Ceylon, could do so for a total cost of from
£250 to iJ300, including cost of trips to the points of
interest in the island; the greater portion of this
amount being for passage-money to and fro, which
now ranges from £70 to £100 for return tickets.
With further competition there can be no doubt, as
the steamer's margin of profit allows of a considerable
* Elephant kraals — a system of capturing elephants peculiar to
Ceylon — are now o£ rare occurrence, being organized only on
special occasions. A description by the author of the kraal arranged
for the entertainment of the Princes Albert Victor and George of
Wales on their visit to the colony, which, though not very successful
in its primary object, was characterized by some stirring incidents,
will be found in- Appendix I. Herds of as many as 200 elephants and
100 wild hogs have been seen at one time in Ceyloil.
+ For particulars of the "Pearl Fisheries " seeFerguSon'^"" Ceylon
Handbook and Directory," for siiccessiye years.
Attractions for the Traveller and Visitor. 131
reduction, that the clay is not far distant when £35
should secure a first-class passage between Ceylon and
FATiLS OS THE DIYALUMAOYA, NEAR NACLA, KASIEEN HArDIALE, 535
FEET HIGH.
From a Photograph by the late E. F. GrUjion.
England, and £50 a return ticket extending over six
months. Before the Suez Canal oiaened £100 was the
single rate for the overland route.
132 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
It may be averred that little has been said about the
draiL-hacks to life in, or even to a visit to, Ceylon. The
tropical heat in the low country must be endured ; but,
if found trying, a single day's journey will carry the
visitor to a cool region. As to the detestable leeches
described by Tennent as infesting every country path-
way, and the poisonous snakes, the visitor may be
months, or even years, in Ceylon without ever seeing
the one or the other, being no more troubled by them
than by the enormous crocodiles in the river or the
voracious sharks round the coast. Eepulsive insects,
such as centipedes, scorpions, and large spiders, are
also most rare in any well-ordered bungalow ; while
mosquitoes are only occasionally troublesome, and that
chiefly in the low country. The brilliancy of the light,
under a full moon, in the tropics is generally a great
treat to strangers ; so also are the stars and constella-
tions of the Southern Hemisphere, including the bright
fixed star Carropus and the interesting as well as
brilliant constellation of the Southern Cross. The
hum of insert life, as soon as day closes, in the moist,
warm, low country at once arrests the ears of new
comers, though local residents become so accustomed
to it as not to hear it until their attention is speciallj'
directed. The monotony of perpetual summer, and
of days and nights of about the same length all the
year round, aft'ords one point of strong contrast to
England, but is pleasing, rather than otherwise, to the
visitor.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE RETEXUE AND EXPENDITURE OF OEVLON.
Chief sources of Beveune : — (iiain and Customs iliies. snlos of Crown
Land, and IJailwny prolits.
Until 1S28 there was au aiinual excess ui expenditure
over revenue in Ceylon ; but between IS'iD and 18i)(i
the balance was on the right siile, owing chiefly to a
series of successful pearl fisheries. From 1837 to
1842, and again from 184G to 1849, expenditure once
more exceeded revenue ; but from that time there was
a surplus, and the amount of revenue quadrupled
within twenty-five years, owing to the rapid develop-
ment of the planting enterprise — the sale of Crown
forest lands largely contributing — until in 1877 it
attained a maximum of ^61,702, 619. Since then,
owing to the falling oflf of the crops, the revenue has
gone down, until }t now may be said to stand about
£1,300,000.
The main sources of this revenue are found in im-
port duties on the rice imported from India for feeding
the coolies and others directly or indirectly connected
with the great planting enterprise of Ceylon, includ-
ing a large proportion of the urban population. The
Sinhalese and Tamil rice cultivators barely grow
enough grain to support thernselves and their depen-
134
Ckijlon in the Jubilee lear.
dents ; on- locally-grown grain there is also a Govern-
ment levy, th.e remains of the old tithe or rent paid
to the native kings, but this has been greatly reduced
of late years by the application of commutation, so
iHMy\AV iih(;hi.\n'i.i ~i\;";;iiix.\Ti; (nrrtTAix.
that the import duty on grain is now decidedly protec-
tive of local industry.* The other most productive
import duties are those on wines, spirits, hardware,
* For a full table of imports, dnriug the last fiftr years, of rice,
cotton goods, fish, cattle, &c., see Apjiendix VI.
The Revenue and Kxpenditure of Ceylon. 135
and cotton goods. Altogether the customs bring iu
between a quarter a,nd a fifth of the e^ire revenue.
The annual income from the railways all held by the
Government (and 122 out of 185 miles the free pro-
perty of the colony) makes up nearly as much of the
general revenue as the Customs duties. Sales of Crown
lands chiefly to planters have in some years also been
as productive as the customs, but latterly the extent
of land offered for sale, and the consequent revenue
have greatly fallen off. Among the rules guiding the
Forest Department formed of recent years is one prohi-
biting the sale of Crown forest above 5000 feet or on the
ridges of mountains or banks of rivers below that height .
It is felt now that a great mistake was made fifty
years ago in not keeping the proceeds of land sales in a
separate fund as capital to be expended in reproductive
public works, apart from the general revenue. The
same may be said of the large railway receipts, in some
years equal to a fifth of the revenue. Had this been
done, the expenditure on fixed establishments would
not have been allowed to increase year by year as if
the general revenue from land sales and railway profits
were a permanent source of income. The railway
profits were for many years almost entirely due to the
carriage of coffee from the interior to Colombo, and of
rice, general goods, and manure for the plantations.
Now tea(and tea requisites), with cinchona bark, cocoa,
and other new products, take the place of coffee, to a
great extent. Apart from the customs, the grain tax,
land sales, and railway profits, the excise on the sale
of spirits, stamp duties, and the monopoly or tax on
salt, are the main sources of revenue, with an occa-
sional contribution of from £10,000 to £50,000 from a
pearl fishery. The latter is one of the most acceptable,
but one of the most uncertain, source? of Ceylon wealth.
136
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
^ Ml
P3 a
m *^
gj
w
O}
^■1
O
«
g
to
?!
m
O
Ei
a
tfi
o
b
•a
Pa
o
i|
W p.
^^
O g)
H
S "3
P5 -o
P a>
f^ 2
Q 9
iz; K
^ !;4
SI
S '3
§^
« O
SrH ooooooooo ooooooo oooooooo
S W >2 Q J. (B
55 ooooo ooo o o oo o
fOQOOoogooooo
OQOQOOOOOOOO
Ca k^o'wTo c^O O O CD la O cTo
'^ usoQOi-Hu'Sio-^oasnsiOioso
ooo oo o o
too o oo o
O Q O « O O
^^o oiooo
o"?©© OCOOO
-i< W5 1— ( 5D i-< O
lO . C<l r-l O^
a 5
g o
2 a so2f^ -
ji m '^ p a a
a s o c3 ts u
03
a
o
• . o -^
— .2"
s °
§ S ^-S s
.S-S 3 o.S
c =
O] CO
3;2
• •&= •
>> .3
• S"3~ •
Sa.SS|
c a m o'O
S OaOH
-», g 01 fl
3 =>■§ ^5
» Q § a a>
3 -3 'S ° '^
5 OOPS
01
« I
to CO g
ch 22 CO
"^ a o
■So s-a
3;gS
■S 3^
* S'3
O Pf CD
P4KP4
I
o
S
I
CHAPTER XIV.
WHAT ITS GOVERNMENT CAN DO FOB CEYLON.
Active and independent Administrators required — The obstruction to
progress offered in Downing Street — Railway extension, and
Graving Dock at Colombo, urgently called for — Law reform
needed — Technical, industrial, and agricultural education needs
encouraging — The Buddhist Temporalities question^Fiscal re-
tormof Road, Excise laws, Salt monopoly, Food taxes and Customs
duties — The Duke of Buckingham's Ceylon and Southern India
railway project — Ceylon and India — Waste Crown lands.
As regards the wants of Ceylon, its government is a
paternal despotism ; and the Governor and Secretary
of State (with his Colonial Office advisers) being
to a great extent irresponsible rulers, much depends
on their treatment of the island. There can be no
doubt that in the past, progress has been made in
spite of, rather than with, the prompt, zealous co-
operation of Downing Street. In support of this view
we would quote from a review in the London Spectator
(January 1, 1887) of Mr. Salmon's " Crown Colonies
of Great Britain " : —
" The system of Crown Colonies is supposed to be
that of a benevolent despotism, a paternal autocracy.
It is in many cases that of a narrow and selfish olig-
archy. It is supposed that the Colonial Office eser-
138 Ceylon in the Juhil^e Year.
cises a beneficial supervision, and is everywhere the
guardian angel of the bulk of the population in all
the British Colonies. The supposition that a few
Civil Servants, most of whom have never lived out of
England, or engaged in any trade or business but that
jof clerks in the Colonial Office, could really exercise
any such power, is extravagant on the face of it.
There, are more than thirty Crown Colonies, as various
and widely scattered as Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus,
Malta, Heligoland, Jamaica, Honduras, Ceylon, and
Sierra Leone. How could any body of officials in
London, however large; highly educated, and capable,
adequately exercise any form of real control or intelli-
gent supervision over such a mixed lot of disjecta
membra'? As for the Secretary of State, who is
changed, on the average, once a year, it is impossible
that he can be more than a figure-head, or have any
real vo^ce in the determination of anything except
large questions of policy when there is Colonial trouble.
Parliament is, however, supposed to exercise a control."
But this control is limited, as Mr. Salmon points out,
to questions put from time to time in the House of
Commons, the answers to which are supplied in the
first instance by the same Colonial Office clerks, and
in the last resort by the people who are to be con-
trolled, the actual administrators of the various
Colonies.
We do not approve, of much • in Mr. Salmon's
volume, especially in reference to Ceylon, which he
has never visited, we believe, and of the circumstances
of which he is necessarily to a great extent, ignorant.
But we have had sad experience in Ceylon of the
terrible loss of time^ money and patience (equivalent
to loyalty), increased through the obstructions offered
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 13&
to ■well-considered local schemes of progress, by the per-
manent officials of the Colonial Office speaking through
the nominal and temporary Secretary of State.
An active, energetic, independent Governor, how-
ever, exercises an immense influence, especially if he
is at the same time frank, free from any weakness for
inquisitorial, underhand proceedings, and ia-inflexibly
just. Every department of the public service, indeed
almost everj- individual officer, feels the effect of such
a ruler's presence, just as the -svhole administrative
machinery goes to rest and rust in this tropical isle
■when the fountain-head of authority and honour is
found to be somnolent and indifferent himself.
Statesmen bred in the free air of the House of
Commons, as a rule, make the best governors of
Crown Colonies ; at least three or four in the Ceylon
list — GoYernors Wilmot Horton, Stewart Mackenzie,
Sir Henry Ward, and Sir William Gregory — had such
a training, and stand out pre-eminently as among her
best administrators, although equally able and useful
■were two others — Governors Sir Edward Barnes and
Sir Hercules Eobinson — who had not home parlia-
mentary experience.
Ceylon wants a governor like Sir Henry Ward or
Sir William Gregory, who has his ■whole heart in his
■work, is ready to sympathize ■with all classes and races,
to see provinces, districts, and public works for him-
self — by journeys on horseback wher^ necessary —
open to receive counsel as to proposed legislation
from the most diverse quarters, Avhile deciding for
himself after giving it due consideration ; a Governor,
moreover, not easily led awaj' in his councils or
provinces by officers, it may be of long experience but
with special " hobbies," nor bj' oriental gossip and
140 Ceylon ' in ihe J^c^Uef. Tear,
^mpii^tait which if ^te Ssfoidd to leads^into oa$
qttftgmire aiter ano&^r. & ^Botdd lilsd. apply as faj:
as pbiBibfothe cpxaiaereaii* Jrindiple " Will it pay f "
io ftU proposed expenditure of any considerable
aMOTUit. Ti^ether ^ roads, irrigation works, or rail-
ways. Such an adimnistrator ^11 always be the best
gifCthat j^ritain can offer to the natives and colonists
■^ Geylon, provided that his. hands are not tied by the
<Odonial Office in Downing Street.
The only large public works at present under con-r
etrhction in Ceylon may be said to be the restoration
-of the Kalewewa Irrigation tank and channels in the
North-Centra^ province, the Colombo Waterworks
■being completed all but an abortive Service Eeservoir,
the bursting of which reflects little credit on the
engineers concerned. But the Extension of the
]?imbula-Uva railway for twenty-five miles to Hapu-
tale, to serve the populous and rich Uva principality,
with ita numerous native gardens and European
pli^ta^ioBS, urgently calls for construction ; for,
without this Extension, the forty- two mUes constructed
to Nanu-oya cannot soon be profitable, the additional
new traffic of Uva being required to make it so.
This is a case in which the Colonial Office has baffied
the wishes of the local public for so many years that
at last divisions among the natives and colonists
themselves arose on the subject, although no im>^
partial, intelligent person can doubt that mi|ch loss
to both the districts concerned and the public tetenoe
has resulted from the delay. An ordinance to providid'
for this Extension passed by the Legislative Coun^ M
January^ 1886, has not yet been Sanctioned by' ttiS
Secretary of State, and a variety of excuses'-^cMt^Ay
the state of the revenue — being offered fbr-the dBlAjfi'^,
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 141
though a sure way to depress the revenue is to deny and
delay this all-profitable section of Eailway Extension.
Sir Arthur Gordon has, as some people think, written
almost too strongly on the subject ; but as yet without
avail. Such is government from Downing Street.
Another very profitable and equally delayed Eailway
Extension is that from Kalutara to Galle or even
Motara ; and very promising proposals include a
branch line from Veyangode towards Euwanwela; a line
from Heneratgoda to Negombo and thence to Chilau,
and Extension from Polgahawela to Kurunegala and
on via Anuradhapura to Ja£fua. A more immediately
urgent public work is the construction of a Graving
Dock for Colombo Harbour, which has the express
favour of the Lords of the Admiralty and of the
Colombo Chamber of Commerce, and would be certain
to prove a most useful and remunerative work. Nearly
all these proposals in fact come under the head of
reproductive undertakings. A public loan for the
the more pressing of these works — ^the Uva and Galle
Eailway Extensions and the Graving Dock — may well
be voted urgent, and we trust to see all these undei*-
takings under construction very shortly.
Eemembering that the colony within twenty-five
years has paid, almost entirely through its planting
enterprise, the whole cost of the grand Colombo and
Kandy railway, with the seaside and Nawalapitiya
branches — in aU 120 miles, amounting to two and a
half millions sterling, now the free property of the
Ceylon Government; also that the harbour and
waterworks (costing over a million sterling) are likely
to pay their own way ; that the splendid network of
roads and series of restored irrigation tanks and public
buildings (costing six ^million pounds sterling) have
142 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
all been paid for from general revenue, there should
be little hesitation in adding another three-quarters
of, or a million pounds sterling to the debt of Ceylon
— the whole debt even then not l?eing much more
than two years' revenue — in order to enable the above
undertakings to be carried out.
We niay here call 'attention to the railway map of
the island, illustrating the system existing and pro-
jected, with needful statistics.* It ^hows at a glance
the Ceylon Government EaUways completed; the
Extensions surveyed, estimated, and, we may add,
officially proinised; other /Extensions projected but
not finally surveyed ; also possible lines which may
be made eventually ; together with lines projected but
abandoned. Among the lines projected, next to the
Haputale and BaduUa Extension in importance are
the Extension of the seaside line from Kalutara to
Bentotta, nine miles ready for construction, and
thence a distance of about thirty-four miles to Galle
on almost a dead level, for which there can be little
doub^ of the existence of a profitable passenger and
goods traffic ; secondly, the construction of a light line
from a point at or near Veyangode towards Euwan-
w^la to serve the new and rapidly developing tea
districts in thati neighbourhood — and a branch
which would prove a useful feeder to the main line,
while it relieved one of the most expensively kept up
roads in the country — namely, that via Hanwela and
Avisawela, of a good deal of heavy traffic ; thirdly, a
branch from Heneratgoda, to Negombo, and possibly
on to Chilau for the ^alt traffic ; fourthly, a branch
from Polagahawela to JKurunegala, the capital of the
North- Western province,. which was proposed so far
*- iSe« Appendix XVI.
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 143
back as the time-of Sir Hercules Eobinson, and for
which we believe there would also be a remunerative
traffic ; to be extended eventually via Dambula and
Anuradhapura to Jaffna, Manaar, and perhapfe by and
by to Trincomalee.
We would fui-ther call attention to the table of
railway statistics given with the map, showing that
notwithstanding last year being a time of a specially
short coffee crop and depression, the total profit from
all the Government lines, including that to Matale,was
no less than El, 139,621 (after covering the year's
working expenses and certain permanent improve-
ments to the lines, or the equivalent of nearly 4 per
cent, on the capital cost of the 181 miles of railway
open ; and this, be it remembered, although the full
return on the large cost of the Nanu oya railway can
never be obtained until the new Uva traffic is brought
into it by the extension to Haputale.
We would merely add that all but. the Matale and
Nanu-oya branches, or 121 J miles, are the free property
of the colony ; and the fact that the cost of this length
has; mainly been defrayed through the planting enter-
prise is another and forcible argument for urging the
extension of relief to one of the most important
provinces of the island and by far the richest of the
planting districts. Indeed a progressive policy in
Eailway Extension generally is urgently called for.
In legislative and social improvements there is
much to do : law reform in improved Mortgage,
Bankruptcy, and other measures-^in fact, the codifi-
cation of pur Civil Laws:— is urgently wanted; while.
education, especially in, the .Yernacftlar, has to be
pr(jn^ot^4'
Still piere needful is a system, of technical, in.-..
144 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
dustrial, and agricultural education. Something has
been done towards a beginning in agricultural teach-
ing by the present Director of Public Instruction with
the limited means at his disposal ; but we can only
speak ot this as "a beginning." It is felt by many
that Ceylon junior civil servants, like those of Java,
should pass at an agricultural college and spend one
or two years on arrival in the island at Government
experimental' gardens or plantations. The influence
of the personal example and precept of the revenue
o&cers of Government over the head men and people
in getting them to try new products or extend culti-
vation is immense; experimental gardens to supply
the natives with plants and seeds and to show them
how to cultivate the same, ought to be multiplied and
bonuses offered for the growth of certain qualities of
new products in different districts. Another beneficial
reform would be the establishment of an agri-horti-
cultural exhibition, with holidays and sports for the
people, in connexion with each Kachcheri (district
station) in. the island.
The people of Ceylon are perhaps the least warlike
of any nation under British rule : not a sol(tier has
sustained a scratch here since 1817, when the
Eandyan kingdom was finally subdued. Street riots
in Colombo through religious lends or deamess of
rice, at rare intervals, only require the sight of a
red-coat to subside; a few artillerymen (a picked
company of the local volunteers would do) with a
light field-gun would be sufficient to cope with the
most formidable gathering that could possibly take
place as a breach of the peace.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that for
imperial purposes Ceylon is a most central and useful
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 145
station for even more than one regiment of infantry
with a good stafif. This will be' readily seen from
what has happened during the past twenty-five years.
Sir Henry Ward sent the 87th Begiment at a day's
notice to Calcutta in 18S7 to the aid of, Lord Canning
against the mutineers, those troops being the first to
arrive; in 1863 the troopship Himalaya took the SQth
Eegiment from Ceylon to New Zealand to aid in
suppressing the Maoris ; later on, part of the Ceylon
garrison did good service in China, the Straits, and
Labuan ; in 1879 the 57th Eegiment was despatched
at short notice to Natal ; and, with equal expedition,
the 102nd was sent thither in 1881, when tbe colony
was practically denuded of infantry without the
slightest inconvenience.
Ceylon is by far the most central British military
garrison in the East; its first-class port, Colombo, is
distant 900 miles from Bombay, 600 from Madras,
1,400 from Calcutta, 1,200 from Eangoon (Burmah),
1,600 from Singapore, 2,500 from Mauritius, a little
more from Madagascar, about 4,000 from Natal, 3,000
from Hong-Kong, 3,000 from Freemantle or Western
Australia, and about 2,500 from Aden. , Its value,
therefore, as a station from whence troops can, at the
shortest notice, be transferred to any one of these
points, should mike it the Malta of the Eastern Seas ;
indeed its hill station, served by railway, as already
mentioned, might be made the sanatarium for all the
troops in ^uthern India.
Ceylon tax-payers would also fain see the head-
quarters of the East India naval station removed
from Trincomalee to Colombo, for the good of the
port, now that first-class harbour works have been
constructed ; and this would probably be done if only
11
146 Ceylon in the. Jubilee Year.
the construction of a G^raving Dock were taken in
hand.
There are legislative reforms urgently needed in
connection with the wide area of valuable lands with
which the Kandyan Buddhist temples are endowed,
and the revenues of which are now utterly wasted
by priests and headmen without any benefit to the
people, the majority of whom would gladly vote for
their appropriation to the promotion of vernacular
and technical, especially agricultural, education in
each district. It is recorded that King Wijayo Bahu
III., who reigned in Ceylon in 12^0 a.d., established a
school in every village, and charged the priests who
superintended them, to take nothing from the pupils,
promising that he himself would reward them for
their trouble. This was probably done by temple
endowments now wasted. In the more distant future
the intelligent public of Ceylon hopefully look for-
ward to the time when a reconstruction if not miti-
gation of taxation may take plac;e, the road tax, some
stamp duties, and the salt monopoly being the first to be
modified or abolisTied. The small annual levy under
the Eoads or Thoroughfares Ordinance on every able-
bodied man between eighteen and fifty-five in the
island (the Governor, Buddhist priests, and a few
more, alone excepted) has been productive of much
good — in providing a network of district roads —
since it was drafted by the late Sir Philip Wode-
house over forty years ago. But in some districts,
the tax, small as it is, leads to a good deal of
trouble and expense through defaulters ; and its col-
lection is everywhere, event in the towns, attended
with an immense amount of corruption and oppres-
sion. This is the case with all direct taxes in an
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 147
Oriental land, and therefore an indirect levy in any
form would undoubtedly be an unmitigated blessing
to the people. Certain Stamp Duties were raised by
Sir Arthur Gordon in 1885, and experience has shown
that mischief rather than good has resulted. A
liberal revision and reform of local Postal and Tele-
graphic rates and rules is much required, and a
modification, if not abolition, of the Salt tax would
be a great boon. This tax, though scarcely felt by
the mass, debars agricultural improvement in certai^
directions, and occasionally affects the health of the
people in the remoter districts.
In the estimation of the reformers of the Cobden
Club, as put forth in Mr. Salmon's book already
referred to, there is a financial reform of greater im-
portance than any of these, namely, the abolition of
the "Food-taxes of Ceylon," or the levy made on
locally-grown grain crops, and the Customs duty
imposed on imported rice. But while the internal
tax has been inherited from the Sinhalese rulers as a
rent, the only substitute possible for both this and
the Customs duty is a general land-tax, and against
this the whole body of the natives would cry out.
One of the most intelligent Sinhalese, the late Hon.
James Alwis, M.L.C., opposing this proposal, said, "it
would be equivalent to taxing the curry, as well as
the rice of the people." The lands held by colonists
could, of course, be taxed, though, having bought
their properties in freehold, their position is rather
different from that of planters in India. But the natives
would resist any change in every way they possibly
could, and even the Dutch, as well as the English,
were baffled in trying to make a small levy on the
coconut gardens of the SiohalesQ, and had to abandon
148 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
it.* Of late years, the rent or tax on rice lands has
been greatly lowered, and opportonities for oppres-
sion by headmen removed, by Sir Wm. Gregory's,
system of commntation ; and Sir Arthur Gordon has
gone to the verge of imprudence by legislating for a,
certain portion oJf this rent being annually appro-
priated by an Irrigation Board foi the special benefit of
the grain-growers. The section of the community
paying the imj)ort duty, as indeed all consumers of
taxed grain, may fairly complain and ask that some-
thing should be done for them from the import levy^
which, as it now stands, is really protective of the.
local farmers. In principle, the rice taxes are fair —
Stuart Mm being witness — and the heaviest por-
tion of the tax is borne by the planters and their
coolie labourers, who depend almost entirely on im-
ported rice, while untaxed fruits, vegetables, and
roots, enter largely into the food of the Sinhalese and
Ceylon Tamils.
Fiscal reformers for Ceylon would do well to study
the history of the fish-tax established by the Portuguese,
continued by the Dutch, superseded by the British
by a license for boats, which nearly stopped fishing
altogether. The old form had to be resumed, but the
tax was reduced again and again, without in the least
benefiting the industry, for the fishermen simply
caught less, having no longer duty to pay, and when
the tax was finally abolished by Government, the
Boman Catholic priests stepped in,, and continued it.
* "Tliemost preeioas inheritance of a Sinhalese is his ancestral
garden of coconuts ; the attempt to impose a tax on them in 1797,
lOUsed the populace to lebellion, and it is curiously illustrative of
that minute subdivision of property, that a case decided in the
District Court of GaUe, referred ;to the 2,520th' part of 10 coco%utr
trees. " — Emerson Tennent.
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 149
^thout demur from the fishermen, who are nlostly of
that Church. In the same way, grain cultivators who
have had their tax or rent remitted, have been known
to allow a portion of their fields to go out of cultiva-
tion in view of no rent to pay — so much less work
to do was their idea of the benefit of remission of
taxation.
Of course the removal of aU Customs' duties and
the inauguration of Colombo arf a free port.would add
immensely to the importance, of Colombo and the
colony. But the time for that is still afar off, even ij
it were desirable in the interests of the native popu-
lation. On the contrary, if all the revenues raised in
such dependencies as India and Ceylon could he
levied through the customs, the railway, or even
stamps — by indirect means — the blessing to the ma^s
of the people for some generations yet, would be one
of the greatest that could be bestowed. When the
grand scheme which the Duke of Buckingham, as
Governor of Madras, propounded to Sir William
Gregory, of coimecting the railway systems of Ceylon
and Southern India, is carried out, in order to serve
the very large passenger traffic in coolies and traders,
as well as to carry the produce of Southern India
to the safe and commodious Colombo harbour — ^the
Madras harbour works being, at all events for the
present, a great failure; — ^then may we look for a
closer approximation between the fiscal systems oif
the two countries. At present, India has no inlport
tax on cotton goods — a very dubious reform in the
interest of her people — but an export tax is levied on
the rice shipped from Calcutta and Madras to Ceylon.,
One great difference between the two countries
is the much larger Covenanted Civil Service, and
150 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
number of European officials generally, in Ceylon, in
proportion to population and area, than in India.*
Of course the individual salaries are much lower here^
but it is a question whether the island has not too
many public servants of the higher ranks, and
whether there is not room for reform in the system
of administration such as was referred to by Sir
Emerpon Tennent in his Financial Eeports over forty
years ago. The peniion list of Ceylon is becoming
a serious burden to the colony, and some steps
are urgently called for to prevent a continuance of
growth such as has been experienced of recent years.
On the other hand the cry is getting up here, as in
India, on behalf of the educated Ceylonese (natives
and Burghers), that room should be found for a
greater number of them in the public service.
Schemes for a subordinate uncovenanted service have
been propounded, both in their interest and in that
of economy,' as saving the need for many principal
appointments, and some step in this direction may
be necessary before long. At the same time, in a
country situated like Ceylon, agriculture in one of its
* . Ceylon for its three millions of people'and 24,000 square mjle»'
has more than half as many Civil Servants as the Presidency of
Madras -with six times its area and ten times its population,. The
foDoiring may be of general interest : —
No. of Cove:.
Area : Sq.
Popula-
nanted Civil
miles.
tion.
Servants.
Bengal ai^d Assam
.. ,202,905 ..
72,000,000.
.. 266
it.-W. Province
. . . 106,111 . .
44,107,000
••I 348
Ponjaub
. . 106,632 . .
18,850,000
, Bombay
.. 124,122 ..
•16,500,000
.. 162
Madras...
. . 139,900 . .
31,000,000
.. 157
Bnrmah (Upper
and
Lower)
.. 278,000 ..
e,7S6,6oo
—
Cetlon
.. 25,000 ..
2,900,000
.. 81
What its Government can do for Ceylon. 161
many forms ought to be kept steadily before educated
Burghers and natives alike, as the one sure means of
affording a livelihood. Tea planting, we are glad to
think, is likely to do much for young men of these
classes: in the tea factories there should be room
for a large number of intelligent young men of
the country, as tea makers, clerks, &c., and very
many of the natives ought to cultivate tea-gardens
of their own, besides trying other new and profitable
products.
A reform tending to extend local industry would
be the throwing open, for a merely nominal price,
of Crown waste lands, at present unsaleable (at the
upset price of E^IO per acre), to cultivators who
would spend money and labour on them. This ap-
plies to both low and high lands. A " stock farm "
is a great want in Ceylon, yet an offer made by a
responsible colonist to lease waste Crown lands near
Nawara Eliya, and introduce good stock in cattle and
horses from Australia, was rejected some years ago,
because the fiat of the Secretary of State had decided
that nothing should be done with Crown lands over
5,000 feet altitude.
CHAPTEE XV.
SOCIAL LIFE AND CUSTOMS.
Social life apd customs of the natives of Ceylon — How little colonists
may know of village life — Domestie servants — Caste restrictions —
Curious occupations among the people — Sinhalese philanthropists,
Messrs. De Soyza and Bajapakse.
The variety of race, colour, physiognomy, and costume
among the peopli in the busy streets of Colombo —
especially the Pettah, or native market-place — at once
ariftsts the attention of the stranger. But, save what
he sees in the public highways, and may learn from
his servants, the ordinary colonist may live many
years in the island without learning much of the every-
day life and habits of th^ people of the land, whether
Sinhalese or Tamils, in their own villages and homes.
There is a beaten track now for the European to
follow, be , he merchant or planter, and there is so
much of western civilization and education on the
surface that the new comer is apt to forget very soon
that he is in the midst of a people with an ancient
civilization and authentic history of their own, extend-
ing far beyond that of the majority of European
nations ; and with social customs and modes of life,
when separate from foreign influences, entirely distinct
from anything to which he has been accustomed. The
Social Life and Customs. 153
foreigners yrho see somewhat of this inner life of the
people, especially in the rural distriets, are the civil
servants and other public officers of Government,
and the missionaries. Now; as regards the work of
the latter, the average European planter or merchant
returning home after six, tenj aye, or even twenty years
in Ceylon, too often declares that the missionaries are
making no way in Ceylon, that they live comfortably in
the towns, and content themselves with ordinary pas-
toral duties in their immediate neighbourhood, and in
fact, that they (the colonists), never saw any evidence
of mission work or progress among the natives, unless
it were through the catechists and other ageiits of the
Tamil Coolie Mission visiting the plantations. Now,
the way to meet such a negative statement would be
hy an inquiry as to whether the colonist had ever
interviewed a missionary to the Tamils or Sinhalese,
whether in Colombo, Eandy, or Galle, to go no further,
and had asked to accompany him to his stations.
Had he done so, he could have been taken to village
after village, with its little church and good, if not
full, attendance of members, presided over in many
cases by pastors of their own people, and in some
instances supported by themselves. He would have
seen schools of all grades-emission boarding-schools
for native girls and lads, and training institutions for
the ministry. Now, just as this branch of work in
the rural districts of Ceylon is unknown to many
scores, if ndt hundreds, of European colonists who
never trouble their heads about anything beyond their
own round of immediate duties or pleasures ; so it is,
for an even wider circle, in reference to the social life
and customs of the natives.
Education has made such strides that in the towns,
154
Ceylon in tike Jubilee Year.
English is rapidly becoming the predominant language
among all classes. In India all foreigners learn a
native language, and domestic servants never thinkjof
speaking English, even if some few of them under-
^ y:
^^
UOOBM*:< "tAMBY" (PEDItUl).
stand it. H ere, in Ceylon, English is almost univer-
sally in domestic use, and there is scarcely a roadside
village in Ceylon now where the traveller could not
find some persons to speak English, or intex-pret for
Social Life and Customs. 165
him. The coolies on the plantations are different ;
with few exceptions they only know Tamil, and the
planters have to learn that language colloquially.
Civil servants pass examinations in the languages.
Very amusing are some of the servants, occasionally,
who are only beginning to acquire English, or who try
to show a command beyond their depth; like the
Sinhalese appoo (butler) who, one day, on being
remonstrated with by his Christian mistress for
attending some tomfooleries of ceremonies at a temple,
replied, Yes, he knew better, but he only did it " to
please the womens " (his wife and daughters !), the
hold of superstition and heathenism in Ceylon, as
elsewhere, being strongest on the female portion of
the household. On another occasion a horsekeeper
(Tamil groom), coming to report t(|) his master that his
horse had gone lame, expressed hijnself thus, holding
up his fingers in illustration, " Sar, three legs very
good ; one leg very bad ! " Some of the letters and peti-
tions in English of budding clerks, or .warehousemen,
or other applicants for situations, are often comical in
the extreme. Both Sinhalese and Tamils make the
most docile and industrious of domestic servants. Of
course there are exceptions, but ladies who have been
for some years in Ceylon, after visiting " home " again,
or especially after going to Australasia or America, are
usually glad to get back to their native servants.
Caste in Ceylon has not one tithe the hold on the
people that it has in India, and in respect of domestic
service, only one-half to one-third the number of men-
servants is requii'ed here, in consequence of one man
making no objection to different kinds of work. Sin-
halese " appoos " and " boys," with their often smooth
cheeks, and hair done up in a knot, surmounted by a
156 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
<5omb, and with white jackets and long " comboys" (long
petticoats), are frequently taken for female servants,
the latter having no comb, but a silver or other pin in
their hair, and only taking service as ayah (nurse), or
lady's attendant. In the hotels passengers frequently
make the mistake of supposing they are attended by
maid, instead of men, servants. The Sinhalese have,
indeed, been called the women otthe human race, and
the story is that in trying to make soldiers of them,
the British instructors in the early days never could
get them not to fire awtty their ramrods !
Of course thereare some bad native servants, but
they are the exceptions ; at any rate a good master
and mistress generally get good eei-vice. But some-
times robberies do occur in households, and usually
then some one or other of the servants has been con-
spiring with outside thieves. A few colonists prefer
Malay servants.
The demand for holidays is often a nuisance, and
the saying is that native servants must have half a
dozen grandfathers each from the number of funerals
of grandfathers they have to attend. The fact is that
the western habit of constant work does not suit the
Oriental taste at all, the proverbial saying of the
Buddhist Sinhalese being, *' Better to walk than to run,
to sit down than walk, and best oi all to go to sleep."
We have said that caste has not a great hold in
Oeylon; but in one point of social life, it is still
almost universally observed, there can be no marriage
between persons of different castes. Tour servant
may be a man of higher caste than your wealthy native
neighbour driving his cai^iage, and yet the appoo
would probably never consent to allow his daughter
to marry the son of the rich but lower caste man.
Social Life and Customs. 15T
Christianity is working against caste, and among
native Christians there are many cases of ca.ste being
disregarded ; but, on the other hand, when the Duke
of Edinburgh, was entertained by a Sinhalese gentle-
man of medium caste, it was stated that Sinhalese
THE DHOBY.
officials (including a Christian chaplain) of the Vel-
lale (agricultural) caste absented themselves from the
entertainment where all were expected to be, because
they could not enter the grounds or house of a man
of the Fisher caste. The most striking case in recent
158 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
times in Ceylon was that of a young girl of good
family in a Kandyan village, who fell in love with the
son of a trader in the same village, of greaiter wealth
but lower caste than her father, who was a decayed
Chief. The lad and. girl had seen each other in
SQhool days, and accLuaintance had ripened into more
than friendship, and they were bent on defying caste,
family opposition, and any other obstacle to their
marriage. But a young brother of the girl haughtily
forbade the courtship, threatening his sister if ever
he saw her with the young trader. The lovers
planned a clandestine match, so far that (being both
Buddhists) they should get married by civil registra-
tion before the magistrate. They stole away one
morning and were mixing in the crowd usually await-
ing the opening of the magistrate's court in county
towns, when the young chief, finding out what had
happened, rushed up and peremptorily ordered his
sister home. She refused and clung to her lover,
when the brother suddenly drew a knife from his
girdle and stabbed her to the heart. She fell dead on
the spot; the murderer holding the knife aloft and
shouting, in Sinhalese, " Thus I defend the honour of
my family," and going to the scaffold a few weeks
after, exulting in his deed. Education and the rail-
way are, however, aiding Christianity to, weaken the
hold of caste, and the people of Ceylon will, before
many generations go by, learn that —
" Honour and shame from no condition rise,
Act well your part, there all the honour lies " ;
And that —
" From yon blue heavens above us bent,
The grand old gardener and his wife,
Smile at the claims of long (or caste) descent."
Social Life and Customs. 159
It is a striking evidence of the slight influence of
Baddhism that here, in its sacred or holy land, where
it has prevailed for over two thousand years, caste,
which is utterly condemned by its founder and its
tenets, still exercises a baneful influence over the
Sinhalese people. All castes, however low, were de-
clared to be eligible to Buddha's priesthood ; but in
Ceylon ordination gradually became the privilege of
the Vellale caste alone, until a Sinhalese of a lower
caste went to Burmah and got ordained, so making
two castes of priests in the island. In other Buddhist
countries, Burmah, Siam, and Thibet, caste does not
«xist in any similar form. A stanza from a Ceylon
Buddhist work runs as follows —
" A man does'not become low caste by birth,
Nor by birth does one become high caste ;
, High caste is the result of high actions —
And by actions does a man degrade himself to a caste that is low." *
Native weddings, with the peculiarities of each
lace — Sinhalese, TamU, or Moormen (Mahomedan)^—
are sometimes very curious, and, as the parties are
generally rather proud than otherwise of Europeans
being present, there is no difficulty, about getting an
invitation. The youthfulness of the bride — ^perhaps
thirteen to fifteen years — and the quantity of jewellery,
literally weighing her down (collected and borrowed
from all the family circle of relatives for the occasion),
are two peculiarities. There are scarcely any un-
married native women, and, as is always the case in
a naturally ordered community, the males exce,ed the
females in number. The Sinhalese have no army or
navy or flow of emigration to supply, and no artificial
customs to interfere with or delay the marriage of
* See Appendix with extracts on " Caste. '?
160
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
their daughters. Of the influence of the Buddhist and
Hindu religions upon the people, enough is said else-
where, but we majy just refer here to the fact that a
people bred under the iafluence of tenets (Buddhist), for-
DEVIL DAUCEK, WITH ATTENDANT lOlI-TCli; biiATJill.
bidding the taking of life, have developed some of the
most cruel and exquisite forms of torture known to his-
tory in reference to the lower animals. A law had to be
Social Life and Customs. 161
passed forbidding the roasting of tortoises alive, in
order to get the tortoise-shell of a finer lustre than if
taken from the dead animal ; and only the other day
a military officer discovered in Colombo that native
cooks were in the habit of ciltting out the tongues of
the living turkeys, in order that the flesh, when
cooked, might be the more tender. But a long list of
such instances might be given, as well as illustrsitions
of the hypocrisy which makes Buddhist fishermen
say : " We do not kill the fish, we take them out of
the water and they die of themselves!" Householdars
put out the old dog or cat on the highway for the
wheel of a passing vehicle to go over and kill, so that
they may have no sin ; or shut up the deadly snake
in wicker-work on the river to be carried to the sea:
while early in the present century it was the custppi
to expose old and helpless human beings in the jungk,
each wi'th a bowl of rice and chatty of water, to die with-
out troubling their relatives, or to be devoured, as was
often the case, by beasts of prey. Arid all this in one
of the most bigoted of Buddhist districts — Matara — ^in
the south of the island. It was in the same district
a veteran missionary demonstrated the hypocrisy of
a catechist, of whom he had authentic accounts
that, while professing to be doing certain work as a
■Christian teacher for the sake of a salary, he was in
heart a Buddhist, attending aU the temple ceremonies.
In a remote village there was no check, and on being
questioned by the missionary, while sittiug in a, room
together, he utterly denied that he had any belief in
Buddhism. Taking a small brass image of Buddha
from his pocket, the missionary placed it on the table,
when immediately (as all Buddhists should do) the
^ould-be catechist sprang to his feet, placed his hands
12
162 Ceylon in the Jtibilee Year.
before his forehead with a low obeisance to\irards the
image, and then slunk from the room discomfited !
Among the more cnrious occupations of the people,
as related in the census, are such novelties as 1,532
devil-dancers (see page 160), 36 jugglers and monkey-
dancers, 121 snake charmers, 240 astrologers and
fortune-tellers, 32 actors and puppet-showmen, 640
tom-tom beaters, 160 comedians and nautch dancers,
16,357 dhobies or washermen (see page 157), nearly
2,000 barbers,^ 50 elephant-keepers and huntsmen^
about 5,000 fakirs and devotee-beggars, 1,500 grave-
diggers, 200 lapidaries, 400 workers in ivory and
tortoise-shell, and 3,000 in jewellery, &c.*
European civilization and Christianity are both
taking a firm hold of the people. Education is
desired by the natives, perhaps not yet for its own
sake, but as a means of advancement, as very few
good posts are to be obtained in which English is not
heeded.
Once in our mission schools (and education, espe-
cially in the villages, is mainly in the hands of the
missionaries) children acquire new habits of industry
and perseverance, and in time come to regard truth-
fulness as desirable, and care for others, whether of
their own bjood or not, as a duty. Though Buddha
led a most self-denying life, and taught others to do
the same, yet his example had made small impression
on his followers, and philanthropy was not regarded
as a duty by the Sinhalese or their priests. Now it
is different. Each of our missions can quote many
instances of noble generosity and hearty zeal for the
welfare of the people.
* The main results of the census will be found tabulated in
Appendix VI.
Social Life and Customs.
163
The de Soysa family, especially C. H. de Soysa,
Esq., J.P., Mudliyar of the Governor's Gate — whose
engraving we give, awd Who is expected by the people
of Ceylon to be. knighted' by Her Most Gracious
Majesty in this Jubilee year — are well known as the
C., H. DE SOYSA, EB(t., JiP.
leading "native philaiithropists in Ceylon. That the
present representative of the family has made a good.
use of his wealth may be seen from the by no means
complete list of his benefactions which will be found
in Appendix XU.
164
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
No less worthy of record are the benefactions and
good works of Sampson de Eajapakse, Esq., J.P.,
Mudliyar of the Governor's Gate, of an ancient and
honourable family. We give his portrait in full
SAMPSON DE EAJAPAKSE, ESQ., J.P.
official dress as Mudliyar, and also his genealogical
tree as a curiosity {see Appendix XIII.).
Pour encourager les autres. If the notice of two of
our philanthropists and the publication of their bene-
factions should prove an incentive to other wealthy
Oriental British subjects to follow the example of
Social Life and Customs. 165
Messrs. de Soysa and Eajapakse, there will be perhaps
sufficient excuse for this memorial of their liberalitv.
to the Ceylon community.
We have merely touched the skirts of topics
in this chapter, which might well require for their
treatment a volume in themselves. Those interested
in the subject may be referred to good old Eobert
Knox's veracious account of his sojourn, as a prisoner,
among the Kandyan pedple for twenty years-T-1659
to 1680 — or to more modern books, in Cordiner's,
Percival's,. Davy's, Forbes's, Pridham's, or Emersoil
Tennent's histories, with Spence Hardy's "Eastern
Monachism," "Jubilee. Memorials," and "Legends
of the Buddhists."
CHAPTEE XVI.
CONCLUSIOlf.
Eelalion and importance of Ceylon to India — Progress of Christianity
and Education-^Statistics of Population — Need of Eeform in the
Legislative Council, and sketch of a scheme for the Election of
Unofficial, Members — Loyalty of People to British Kule, as
evinced during Eoyal visits, and in connection with the Jubilee
of Her Majesty the Queen-Empress — Jubilee Celebration.
Ceylon, in a social and political way, bears the same
relation to India and the Far East that England has
done to the European continent. Mr. Laing, when
Finance Minister for India, confessed it was most
valuable to law- makers and administrators in the
Indian Presidencies, to have Ceylon under a separate
form of government, and to have experiments in
administrative and legislative reforms tried here,
which served as an example or a warning to the big
neighbouring continent, the peoples being allied in so
many respects. There is, for instance, no distinction
made between native and European judges and magis-
trates in Ceylon ; and the acting Chief Justice, lately,
was a Eurasian, while at present a Sinhalese barrister
is Judge of the Supreme Court ; and other Ceylonese
fill the responsible offices of Attorney-General and
Local Religions.
167
Solicitor-Creneral of the Colony. Again, in Ceylon,
we have a. decimal system of currency, a great step- in
advance of the cambfons Indian system, and we have
entire freedom of all religions (including Christianity)
Irom State patronage and control.
The progress of Christianity and education among
ihe people is greater than in any other Eastern State,
«,nd should Buddhism, the religion of one and three-
KANDY MALIOAWA, OB TEMPLE OP THE lOOTH,
•quarters (if a million of Sinhalese, fall here, it would
iave a great effect on the millions of Burmah, Siam,
and even China, who look to Ceylon as the sacred
home of Buddhism. The kings of Burmah and Siam
especiallyi continue to take an interest in, and make
offerings to, the Buddhist "temple of the tooth" at
Eandy. Eoman Catholicism has been propagated
since the arrival of the Portuguese in the sixteenth
168 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
century ; while English Protestant > missions have
worked in Ceylon since 1811.* The Eoman Catholics
number about 220,000, the Protestants 60,000, against
1,700,000 Buddhists and demon worshippers, 600,000
Hindus, and nearly 200,000 Mohammedans. The
population at the census of 1881 included 6,300 Budd-
hist. 1,250 Hindu, and 574 Mohammedan priests,
465 Christian ministers and missionaries, 2,210
schoolmasters, 759 lawyers and notaries public, and
3,321 physicians and medical practitioners of all
grades.
Some allusion should be made to more than one
local movement in Ceylon for a reform in the
system of government, and more especially in the
liberalizing of the Legislative Council. Sir Hercules
Eobinson, while opposing this claim, originated
raunicipal institutions in the three principal towns,
as a means of training the people in the art of
self-government. The working of these has, how-
ever, unfortunately, not been so successful as was
hoped, and one reason is a curiously oriental one,
namely, that respectable Ceylonese consider it
derogatory to go and ask the people below them —
often ignorant and poor franchise-holders^or "the
honour of their votes." "Honour comes from above,
• not from below," they say; and so the better classes
of natives abstained from the Municipal Boards, and
left many disreputable men to get in. A reformed
and restrictive municipal constitution law just passed,
may work better. But as regards the Legislature,
the occupation of one of three seats allotted to the
Ceylonese by nomination of the Governor has always
* For illustrations of the progress of modem PFotestant Chnstdan
Missions, xet: Appendix III.
Legislative Reform. IGQ-
been greatly coveted, arid an object of ambition to
every rising man in the country.* A reform in the
present practice of according what are practically life
seats, would be to change the unofficial members
every three years, so educating and testing an increas-
ing number of Ceylonese for public life. There is na
reason, however, why a few more unofficial seats should
not be added to the Legislative Board. Indeed, the
elective principle might, under due safeguards, be
applied in the eight provinces of the island, — under
a severely restricted franchise to begin with, — so giving
eight elected unofficial members, to whom might be
added two to four nominees of the Governor, from
among the merchants or other classes not adequately
served by the elections. Elections and nominations
could take place every six years, or on the advent of
each new Governor, and a few more privileges might
be accorded to the members, such as the right of initia-
ting proposals, even where such involved the expendi-
ture of public money up to a certain moderate limit.
The Governor, for the time being, could always com-
mand a majority against any unwise scheme, and his
own veto, as well as that of the Secretary of State,
would continue operative. Some such im rovement
of the Legislative Council — which has continued with-
out change for over fifty years, or since the days of
Governor Sir Eobert Wilmot Horton in 1833 — cannot
long be delayed, and if asked for on broad grounds by
a united community, it might well be granted in honour
of the Queen's Jubilee year.
Another practical reform of importance would be
the ensuring that four out of the six members of the
* For further information about the government, see' Summary of"
Information concerning Ceylon (Appendix VIII.).
170 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Executive Council — that is, the Colonial Secretary,
Attorney-General, Auditor-General, and Treasurer —
should always be trained public servants of the
colony, with local experience. The farce has been
seen even in recent years of a Governor and his
five Executive advisers in Ceylon, not counting half a
dozen years of local experience between them.
Ceylon was honoured with a visit from H.E.H. the
Duke of Edinburgh in 1870, from H.E.H. the Prince
of Wales in 1875, and from the young Princes Albert
and George of Wales in 1881. On each occasion the
loyalty and devotion of the people to the British
Crown, and their warm personal interest in the happi-
ness and welfare of their sovereign, were very con-
spicuous. This has been still more shown dm-ing the
present year, in connection with the Jubilee of Her
Most Gracious Majesty the Queen-Empress Victoria,
when all classes and races have vied with each other
in the endeavour to do honour to the occasion.
Liberal support has been given to the Imperial Insti-
tute, dear to the Queen ; as a local memento of the
occasion, a Home for Incurables is to be erected in
Colombo, and loyal addresses, as well as a Women's
Offering, have been sent to Windsor.
The Jubilee was celebrated throughout Ceylon with
^reat enthusiasm. In Colombo was the chief demon-
stration, that being the head-quarters of the represen-
tative of the Queen ; but the whole of the island towns
may be said to have been decorated and en fete. The
Military Eeview on Galle Face Esplanade at 7 a.m.,
was the event of the morning of the twenty-eighth, in
the capital, and the Volunteers shared with the regulars
ihe duties of the occasion. The feu dejoie and three
ringing cheers were the soldiers' expression of loyalty
Jubilee Celebration. 171
at its close. This was followed at 10.30 by services
in all the places of worship. In the Mission Churches
the interesting feature was the union of English, Sin-
halese, Tamils, and even Portuguese descendants, at
the same service, addresses being given in all fom
languages in succession. The Queen's letter, request-
ing that prayer and thanksgiving be offered up, had
been sent from Queen'sHouse tp the different pastors,
and was duly read at the services, while at the close
a collection was made in many churches for the
*' Ceylon Victoria Home for Incurables."
Then came the feeding of large numbers of the
poor in all the towns and chief villages, each applicant
getting either a measure of rice and five cents (one
penny), or a piece of calico.
A good dinner was given by the citizens of Colombo
(led by Mr. J. J. Grinlinton) to the soldiers in garrison
and their wives and children, numbering 951 persons.
In the afternoon came the great celebration, on Galle
Pace Esplanade, Colombo, where from fifteen to twenty
graceful pandals had been erected for the accommoda-
tion of the many who could not stand exposure to a
tropical sun. Nothing can exceed the graceful beauty
of such erections, when the Sinhalese and Tamils set
themselves to do their best ; loops of plaintain and
young coco-Dut leaf, green moss, and fern, and yellow
olas, and clusters of coco-nuts, oranges, or other fruits,
offer the best possible material for covering the bamboo
framework that may be put together in a night.
It is computed that about 25,000 human beings of
aU classes and races, the vast majority clad in bright
garments, varying from white to the richest and most
briUiant hues, were assembled round the centre where
the Governor read the Eecord of the Chief Events of
172 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the Fifty Years, received the Address from the in-
habitants of Ceylon to their Gracious and Beloved
Monarch, and made proclamation of the Queen's
desire (in conjunction with her God-fearing subjects
everywhere) to return thanks to Almighty God for the
blessings of the fifty years ; to see the Eoyal Standard
hoisted and to hear the salute of fifty guns fired in
honour of the Eoyal Lady who had reigned so long
and so well. High festival as it was, the quiet and
orderly conduct of the crowd was the subject of
emphatic and approving remark. Amongst the most
interesting incidents of the day was the singing of
the Eoyal Anthem by the Sunday-school children, and
the procession of these and other young people,
scholars in the various schools and colleges to the
number of about 2,000. There were numerous pro-
cessions of various races and religionists, including
some seventy-seven Buddhist priests in bright yellow
robes, men who must be better than their creed, if
they sincerely joined in the thanksgiving to Almighty
God. Salutes consisting of the cracking of long
Kandyan whips were sources of curiosity to new-
comers, while the chanting of both Malay and Sin-
halese processions to well-known popular tunes
produced much amusement. One of the most striking
incidents of the day was the appearance of Arabi and
three of his fellow-exiles — Mahmood Samy, Toulba,
and Abdulal, at the head of the Muhammadan pro-
cession. Their appearance imparted an element of
romance to the proceedings, reminding one of those
" Arabian Nights Tales," in which the isle of Serendib
figures so prominently. The most fertile of imagina-
tions could not, some years ago, have anticipated that
a contingent of Egyptian officers, exiled to Ceylon for
Jubilee Celebration. 178
Tebellion a,gainst their own sovereign, should take a
Toluntary part in celebrating the- Jubilee of a Queen
■whose army had defeated the forces which they /had
led in insurrection, and so rendered abortive thffl*
ambitious (or patriotic?) designs.
The other three Egyptian exiles, Ally Fehmy;
Mahamood Fehmy, and Ya;ciGob Saniy. preferfed
presenting an address at Queen's House, which the
Governor received and- promised to forward to Her
Majesty. The following is a liteJral translation of
their address written in Arabic :^
" May it please youe Excellency,--— With heart-
felt loyalty, we the undersigned Egyptian exiles ixi^
this country, though few our number, have' reason to
approach your Excellency on this auspicious day set
apart by your Excellency for the celebration, by the
general public of this island, of the Jubil-ee of Her
Oracious Majesty Victoria, Queen of England, and
Empress of India, whom your Excellency as Ruler of
this country represents, and we beg to address the;
following : —
" No one would deny that for the period of fifty
years during which Her Majesty has uninterruptedly
occupied the throne, Her Majesty has been just and
merciful, and the brightness of her reign, has reflected
all over the world, and been a source of gratitude
which we always fedl in pur hearts, and of which we
are full.
"We pray for all those gracious and, liberal gifts
to us that Almighty God may bless Her Majesty and
give her grace, prolong her glorious and beneficent
reign, and give her health, happiness, and honour.
" We must confess that, in our position which is
174 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
known 'to all, the pain in the centre of our hearts, as
strangers from our country, felt, has been removed
since our stay in this country, by the prompt extension
to us of relief and justice, by the many acts of kind-
ness, humanity, aiid generosity done to us. All these
acted as a remedy which cured the pain which we felt
in our hearts, making room for our peace and comfort.
" We have indeed, therefore, special reason to be
most sincerely loyal and faithful, and to humbly yield
to the feelings and inclinations of our hearts. We
beg, therefore, to lay at the foot of Her Majesty's
throne our unbounded heartfelt thanks, and to offer
the same to your Excellency, as Her Majesty's great
Eepresentative in this country, in which we enjoy
favours, and overflowing justice.
" We feel infinite happiness and pleasure that we
are accorded the privilege of taking a part ourselves
in the enjoyments of this joyful, happy, and auspicious
day, set apart for the honour and praise of Her
Majesty the Queen."
Other addresses were presented to the Governor for
transmission to Her Majesty by the people of Ceylon,
the Legislative Council, the Planters' Association,
which represents the backbone of th^ prosperity of
the island, and the small Malay community; From
the latter we quote a part : —
"We desire to offer your Excellency, as the repre-
sentative of her Majesty Queen Victoria, our sincerest
and dutiful thanks for the manifold advantages we
have received during the beneficent reign of Her
Majesty, through her many noble representatives who
ruled this island. It is with the proudest satisfaction
Jubilee Celebration. 175
we say, and irji saying it we are but expressing the-
feeling of the entire Malay community, that no com-
munity has proved more loyal 'and faithful ; aiid its
loyalty and fidelity have stood the very best tests.
Fifty years ago, when Her Majesty ascended the
throne, the Malays constituted a Military Corps, they
rendered valuable service abroad and in this island,
which, although it has been only the land of their
adoption, has, in consequence of the disbandment of
the corps in 1873, become their home. A mere
military corps has during fh%last fifty years made
rapid strides towards materi&,l advancement, and
what had been a mere corps of a few hundred fighting
men has developed into a large, free, and independent
community. This happy realization is due to the
beneficent rule of Her Majesty Queen Victoria. It
nevertheless still retains its martial spirit, and we
may assure your Excellency, should there ever be
occasion for it, the Malays to a maji would joyfully •
rally round the British Standard and fi^fht -to the
death like good soldiers."'
The different colleges of Colombo each had their
own pandal, and a visitor would be vei'y much in-
terested in the Ceylonese lads trained in the Eoyai; St.
Thomas's and Wesley Colleges, in the Medical College ;
and also in the pandal headed, " Widyodaya College,"
inside of which were ranged in rows, some seventy-five
Buddhist students, ekd in.tneir yellow robes, these
being with a few exceptions made of silk ; while in front,,
in a s«netwmaU by himself, sat Sumangala, the high
priest of Adam's Peak^ and president of the College.
These' youqg celibates, though they had their fans in
their hands> did not make much use of them, but stared
176 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
about and enjoyed the fun as much as any one else.
What would the Buddha have said if he had seen
them thus gathered to do honour to a woman (accord-
ing to his dictum woman is — not sinful — but sin
itself!).; and to hear later on, when the school
■children were singing "God save the Queen," a young
monk chant a number of Pali stanzas, composed by
the learned Sumangala himself, in honour of this same
woman. In these pandals the official record was read
in English, Sinhalese, or Tamil,. by the leaders of the
classes represented, ^ir Arthur Gordon also read the
Eecord through, and then proclaimed in Her Majesty's
name that the lands sold for default of payment of
•commutation rates, since the introduction of the
Grain Commutation Ordinance into any province,
which ghall remain in the hands of the Crown, should
be restored to their former possessors. He also an-
nounced that the following classes of prisoners — 173
in number — had been released on that day as an
example of Her Majesty's mercy and clemency : —
(1st) all prisoners in prison"for debt due to the Crown ;
(2nd) all women not undergoing imprisonment for
very serious offences; (3rd) all prisoners whose sen-
tences of imprisonment were shortly to expire.
From the official record of British progress in^ fifty
years, prepared by the Governor, we quote the few
items referring to Ceylon : —
In 1838 the Legislative Council of the Colony, created but not com-
pleted in 1833, received its full complement of .memhers.
In 1844 the last remains of Slavery were whoUy abolished.
In 1848 a slight insurrectionary movement took place in a part of the
Kandyan districts, which is Only worthy of mention in order to contrast
it with the loyalty of all classes ten years later, on which the Governor
of Ceylon was able safely to rely, when in 1857 he sent all the available
troops in this Island to assist in the suppression of the Indian MuSLny.
In I806 Sir Henry "Ward commenced the restoration of the long-
neglected Irrigation System of the Island; and in 1857 the ancient
Village Councils were revived, chiefly with a view to the prpmotion and
enforcement of Irrigation' Works.
Jubilee Celebration. 177
In the same year the firat sod was cut of the first Railway in Ceylon.
In 1858 Ceylon was united with India by the Electric Telegraph.
In 1865 the Municipalities of Colomho and Kandy were established.
In 1868 the general scheme of Publio Education now in force was ,
adopted by the Legislature.
In 1870 legislative measures enabling the tenants of Temple Lands to
commute their services were adopted, and in the same year the Ceylon
Medical S6hool -rt-as established.
In 1871 the powers of Village Councils were largely extended, pad
Tillage Tribunals instituted.
In 1875 the firat stone of the Colombo Breakwater was laid by His
Boyal Highness the Prince of Wales.
In 1881 in Ordinance, which however did not come fully into effect
until 1886, was passed, withdrawing pecuniary aid, saving in the case of
vested life-interests, from all Ecclesiastical Bodies.
In 1883 a Code of Criminal Law and Procedure was passed, which
came into operation at the beginning of 1885.
In 1885 Currency Notes were first issued by the Government.
In 1886 the Colombo Breakwater was coiiq>leted.
The Population of Ceylon, which in 1837 was estimated at 1,243,066,
and on the first census taken in 1871 was found to be 2,405,287, now
amounts to about 3,000,000.
The Revenue, which in 1837 was £371,993, amounted in 1867 to
£969,936, and in 1886 to E12,682,549.
The number of miles of Main Roads open in 1837 was about 450 ; in
1887 it was 3,343.
The number of Estates in the hands of European Settlers in 1837
probably did not exceed 50 ; in 1887 it was over 1,500. The development
of Agricultural Industry which these figures denote is, in itself, the most
remarkable feature in the History of Ceylon during Her Majesty's reign.
It is a development which has changed the physical appearance of th&
country, and profoundly modified its social condition, and which is due
to the energy and perseverance of men who have shown that they can
bear adversity with fortitude as they sustained prosperity with credit.-
The Eoyal Standard was then hoisted, and a royal
salute of fifty guns was fired. Next the Volunteer
Band, led by Mr. Liischwitz, played "The National
Anthem," while the children, led by the Eev. S. Coles,.
C.M.S., sang the same.
Processions closed the afternoon's proceedings, and
effective displays of fireworks, with less effective illu-
minations, entertained a large concourse till midnight.
The chief permanent Memorial of the Jubilee is to-
be the Ceylon " Victoria Home for Incurables."
Nowhere in the British Empire are there more loyal
or contented subjects of her Most Gracious Majesty
than in "Lanka," "the pearl-drop on the brow of
India."
13
178
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX I.
SHOOTING TEIPS IN CEYLON.*
GOOD CENTBES rOB SPOBT, AND. HOW TO EBACH IHJEM PKOM COLOMBO.
No. 1. — The Fabe CoxmiBY and Batticaloa Tanks : —
Game : elephants, deer, cheetahs, bears, pigs, teal, snipe,
peafowl, &c„ &e. To Nanuoya by rail; to Badillla, hired
carriage, 40 miles ; to Bibile, hired' carriage, 37 miles ; to
NUgala, good bridle road, 15 miles. This is a good, centre
for the Park country. To Ambari Tank, 81 miles.
[Excellent country for all the above game, Erikamam,
Devilane, and other large tanks in the vicinity.]
No. 2. — Thb ' HoETON Pladis : — Qame : elk, deer, ele-
phants, spur fowl, &c., &c. To Nanuoya by rail;^io tiie
Horton Plains, turning off at Blackpool 2 mUes from the
Nanuoya station on the road to Nuwara Eliya, 18 miles.
No. • 3. — Tedicomaleb Disibici : — Oame : elephants,
bears, cheetahs, deer, t^al, snipe, &c., &c. To Trincoma-
lee, by steamer, or by road through Eandy and Matale,
rail to Matale, thence by road to Trincomalee, 97 miles.
Trincomalee to Kottiar fay boat, Kottiar to Toppur (Allai-
Tank), 7 miles. Good ^sentre for sport of aU sorts. Kan-
thalai Tank, 24 miles from Trincomalee on Kandy road,
good centre for sport.
No. 4.— PuTTAiAM DisTBicT : — Game : elephants, bears,
cheetahs, deeir, partridge, &c., &c. To Puttalam by canal
or road, 84 miles. Puttalam to Pomparipo by lake or
* The best available book on Sport is still Sir Samuel Baker's
" Bifle and Hound in Ceylon,." though published nearly thirty years
ago : a new edition was published a few years ago.
180 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
road, 25 miles. Good centre for sport. Pompariiso to
Marichikaddi, 18 miles bridle road. Excellent country
for game of all sorts.
No. 5. — Hambantota District: — To Ealutara by rail;
coach to Galls and Mataxa ; thence a hired trap to Ham-
bantota. By steamer to Galle and Hambantota and cart
to Yale.
No. 6. — MiNEEY AND PoLONAEUWA : — To Matalc by rail.
Matale to Habaranne by road, 44 miles, good carriage road.
Habaranne to Minnery, bridle road, 15 miles: Miunery
to Topari (Polonnaruwa) 12 miles.
THE ELEPHANT KEAAL OF 1882.
A DESCEIPTION OF THE ELEPHANT KE.iAL HELD AT LABCGAMA (cEYLON)
FOR THE EKTEKTAIKMEKT OF THE PBINCES ALEEET VICIOE AXD GEOEGE
OP WALES IN 1882.
(From an account by Mr. J. Ferguson in the Ceylon Observer).
AT THE KRAAL.
Keaaltown, Monday Evening, January 30, 1882.
AKRIVAL OP THE PRINCES.
The Princes arrived at the kraal at 5 p.m. Prince
George was mounted on a spirited steed and cleared the
stream which runs between the o£Gcial and unof&cial
portions of Kraaltown in magnificent style, showing that
he knows how to ride. Large crowds of planters and
others cheered him vociferously. Prince Albert Victor
arrived on foot, walking with his Excellency the Governor
alongside of Lady Longden, who was carried in a chair.
There are two herds of elephants within a mile of the
kraal, seven in one herd and fifteen in the other. A
successful drive is expected early tp-morrow morning.
Tuesday Forenoon, January 31, 1882,
THE ELEPHANTS INDISPOSED TO CARRY OUT THE OFFICIAL
PROGRAMME.
The little programme sketched out by the Government
Agent, and which the energetic Dawson hoped to put into
execution, ran somewhat ass^follows: — The driving from
An Elephant Kfaal. 181
the outer into the inner beat to commence last night, to
he followed this morning by the drive into the kraal,
which, it was hoped, would be effected before noon ; the
noosing and tying-up to be at once begun and continued
on Wednesday. This would have enabled the princes to
see all the operations connected with a kraal and to start
back so as to reach Colombo in good time on Wednesday.
But, so far, we have only an illustration of the weU-
worn aphorism that —
" The best-laid plans ol mice and men
Gang aft agley ; "
and we all know how often,' especially in the case of
elephants, are the plans of fnen at fault. An old chief
last evening gave me the opinion, based on his experience
of a good many kraals, that while a herd of elephants
were difficult to compass and drive from their native
jungle in the first instance, once start thena and get the
beat fairly established, and by the time they come within
driving distance of the kraal they are all fairly cowed
and very easy of management. No doubt comparatively
this is the case ; but in the history of kraals we have too
many instances of successful charges and escapes to feel
lihat the final drive is such an easy matter as the old chief
would have us believe. Last night's experieiice is no
•exception. The herd that it was proposed first to capture,
after being driven into the inner beat, broke through into
■the wider range, and the evening's labour went for nothing.
-No doubt the wet evening — rain extinguishing fire and
^torches — had a good deal to do with the breach effected.
Of nothing is the elephant so much afraid as of fire, and
with nothing will a Kandyan approach a wild elephant so
readily. You will remember Major Skinner's experience
on the Anuradhapura road as an iUusti^ation. How he
found the road to his camp wilfully, if not deliberately
{and of mahce aforethought), blocked up one evening by
a herd of elephants which had been prowling in the neigh-
bourhood ; how all the efforts of himself and his men to
■clear the road of the intruders proved unavailing — the
leader, an old tusker, charging furiously when any attempt
was made at dislodgment; and how this went on for some
hours until finally a Kandyan arrived with a huge torch,
with which he marched right up to the tusker, who stood
182 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
his groTiud until the fire almost touched his trunk, and
then turned tail and fled with all his belongings. In the
hands of a man of Mr. Satmders's nerve, no doubt an
umbrella alternately opened and shut would prove as
effectual as a torch, and very probably the Government
Agent found occasion to use it last night, for he and Mr.
Dawsop are reported to have spent most of the night with
the beaters.
Very early astir this morning, probably the first from
the official encampment, was Captain Foot (of H.M.S.
Biiby), and a 4ong walk round the kraal and on along the
line of beaters failed to afford a sight of waving forest
tree- tops, or the sound of crashing through "batali " (small
bambu), much less the sight of an elephant. The hope
now is that one herd may be driven in this afternoon, but
there arb doubts about it, and the headmen are more than
usually susceptible to the presence of strangers, insisting
that their beaters should not be visited, and that no bugle
should be sounded for the benefit of " Eraaltown " until
the barrier-gate shall be "closed and the herd secured.
There is, as usual, too, some little jealousy among the
chiefs, the one insisting on his herd being first disposed,
of and by no means mingled with the others.
Meantime the princes are enjoying themselves under
" the merrie greenwood." Their quarters have been most.
deUghtfuUy chosen — for situation beautiful exceedingly —
ahd muc& care and taste have been displayed in fitting
them up. A " crow's-nest " for four has been established
at a good point for a sight of the drive-in, while the prin-
cipal grand stand is, as usual, erected partly inside the
kraal to secure a good sight of the final and reall^^
interesting operations.
Tuesday Evening.
the elephants still obstinate — a visit to the beateks
lines — a false alarm the chief eeneligoda.
This has been a day of disappointment for all concerned.
The drive-in, which was expected to take place last night
was considered certain for this morning, and in hurrying
up from a distance of ten miles (where I had taken up my
quarters last night) I feared the risk of missing an exciting
portion of the proceedings, but was consoled to find
everybody still waiting for the elephants. The afternoon
An Elephant Kraal. 183
■was now considered certain for the drive, and in prepara-
tion thousands of natives wended their way kraalwards,
from which, however, they were kept off at respectable
distance.
I started off to find the outer line of heaters, and at
about two miles from Kraaltown I came upon their small
jungle huts, or rather nests and camp-fires. Very pic-
turesque was the scene and wonderful the interest of the
people in their work, from the old grey-headed Kandyan
sire with his flowing white beard, who had probia/bly
passed through more kraals than "he could recall, to the
young stripling by bis side who was on the " corral" beat
for the first time. From the far-distant jufigle came the
signal of their chief, Ekneligoda, or his henchman, and
immediately the cry was taken up,
" Hari — hari — hari — iari,
Hari — hari — ho-bo 1 "
winding uj) with a prolonged cheer. Passing from the
bridle-road, the outer cordon line led through the email
bambu jungle up hill and down dale ; camp-fires, huts, and
beaters with their long forks were passed, or here and
there an old musket, and again at regular intervals a
crow's-nest with an agile, keen-eyed watchman swung up
in a tree. Suddenly a wild "halloo!" is raised by .the
Sinhalese on the river bank ; there is crashing of jungle,
firing of guns, and flinging of stones; two or three
indefatigable appuhamis literally throw themselves into
the stream across which the cordon line now runs, to pick
up rocks and fling them into the jungle. The elephants
are surely coming, and right down upon us in t^io river, is
the first thought. Three beaters at our side lo jk out for
trees, and the thought of shelter becomes a leading con-
sideration. Suddenly the assistant agent, Mr. Dawson,
accompanied by the indefatigable Captain Foot and a few
other officers, break from the cordon line into, the river-
bed. Their presence has a wonderful effect ; the beaters
redouble their furious attack on the' supposed advancing
" aliyas," shouts and yells, shots and shells in the form of
pieces , of rock, v crashing and trampling, form a proper
accompaniment, and it seems more than ever needful to
look out for danger. As a Colombo wallah I could, not
help thinking discretion the better part of valour, and my
friends looked, if they did not speak it —
184 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
" He who ascends into a tree
May next day climb again with me ;
But he by elephant that's gored
May see at once that he is floor'd."
But, before we moved a step, the clamour and sliindy
subsided as suddenly as it was commenced, and it did not
require the " knowing" look of a friend up to "the ways
that are dark " of the beater folk to see that all was got
up as a "plant" (excuse slang) in honour of the visitors,
to afford them a little sensation for their jungle trip.
""The elephants are upon you," they said, in fact, in order
to see how we should stand the test or show a clean pair
of heels. But fortunately we stood it all, while we followed
on in search of the elephants.
I was anxious to see the old chief, Ekneligoda, who at
the head of 500 men directed this drive of fifteen ele-
phants — his people having been out for nearly a month,
while he has been half that period living and lodging as
best he can in the jungle. " Here he comes," cries my
companion, who knows the old man well : a little, dark,
skinny old man, bearded like the wandura, with an
ordinary comboy which he is holding up as he walks bare-
foot through jungle and water — the inevitable dilapidated
billy-cock hat setting off a figure which a stranger would
at once say belonged to a poor old Kandyan of no conse-
quence. But a glance at his face revealed power and
authority, set off by a keen eye and aquiline nose — a man
of few words, yet his English is good. We met him
later on coming back from one of his beats, when he
frankly assured us he did not think we could see the ele-
phants, penetrate and push on as we might. He com-
plained, not loudly, but expressively, of the difficult task
set to him: more troublesome elephants had probably
never come under his care.
Wednesday Evening, Feb. 1st, 1882.
PARTIAL success : SEVEN ELEPHANTS DRIVEN IN, BUT THE
ATTEMPT TO NOOSE THEM UNSUCCESSFUL-^ONB SHOT, AND
THE TAIL PRESENTED TO PRINCE ALBERT VICTOR A
BEATER KILLED AND OTHERS WOUNDED DEPARTURE OF
THE GOVERNOR AND THE PRINCES.
EkneHgoda has his headquarters on the north side of
the Peak in the Yatiyantota district, as his relative and
An Elephant Kraal. 185
superior, Iddamalgoda, holds sway over the richer and
more popular ^south. He is a man of few words, but
wheii I met him the second time in the bed of the expan-
sive rocky ela, which feeds the, Maha-oya, the chief, who
looked disconcerted after his interview with his civilian
superior, threw out his hands in the expressive oriental
fashion and deprecated this English plan of fighting
against time and nature, hurrying up the elephants, jiolens
volens, whether inclined to go on or not. " Now," said
the chief, "the Sinhalese way is to wait on the elephants ;
don't allow them to go back ; wait until they go, or only
at proper times help them to go forward." In the light
■of last night's and to-day's experieiices, there is much
wisdom in the old chiefs remark.
Tuesday passed, and no elephants 'approached, but the
'beaters had begun to work in earnest, the position of the
herd had been noted by the waving of the jungle, and the
chief was very sanguine of passing into the kraal valley
and probably driving his herd in during the night.
With this anticipation the princely and viceregal party,
as weU as Kraaltown, had to be content for Tuesday
evening.
The princes were for part of this day entertained with
the performances of the tame elephants, and thej had
several walks to the " croVs-nest " in front of the kraal.
Wednesday's Experiences.
Day broke, and in the grey morning mist, from 5 to 7
a.m. (and a few hours afterwards), the denizens of Kraal-
town might be seen cUmbing the hiUside, and passing on
iio the kraal entrance in the hope of all being ready for
"business at last, but "No elephants ; not likely to be any
kraal," was all that one could learn. Later on, however,
came better news, and we awaited patiently for tours the
approach of elephants which, judging by the nearness
and loudness of the cries of the beaters, might be ex-
pected at any moment, from 9 a.m. onwards, to burst
from their final fastness along the drive into the kraal.
Wednesday Night.
CAPTUBE OF IDDAMAI-GODA's HEED OP ELEPHANTS.
About breakfast-time came the news that the two herds
of from seventeen to twenty elephants were to be kraaled
186
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
simultaneously. This was received as a welcome relief
by the weary bystanders. Very patiently, though with
eager expectation, did we all wait for the sudden rustling,
of the jungle and the burst inwards, which would afford
ocular demonstration of a herd being kraaled. But hour
after hour sped away, and, though numerous were the
alarms, no approach to the entrance followed. It was a,
case of
" How often we Prince Rupert kill'd,
And bravely won the day, —
The wicked CaVEliers do read
The clean contrary way. '
ELEPHAXI CHAlltiE : THE FIKAIj SHUT.
At one time the tame elephants were ordered down into
the jungle, to charge the wild herd upwards if possible,
but the attempt failed : the work was one in which the
tame ones had no practice, and the "cow" in the herd,,
already nearly driven desperate about her calf, threatened
to undo all the labour of many weeks, if any weak point
were left exposed. Fiercely, and again and again, did this
gallant brute and faithful mother charge the beaters ; she
refused to be driven back, and after injuring, directly or
indirectly, several of the beaters, she at last killed her
man, and it was resolved she must perish. Mr. James
Munro was requested to punish the offender, not by
An Elephant Kraal. 18T
killing but by wounding her, which he did at forty paces^
by a shot in the forehead. This laid the cow prostrate
for from five to ten minutes, during which blood poured
out of the wound in a torrent, forming quite a pool; b^it
after this interval the animal rose, much to the deUght of
its distracted calf, and trotted after the herd, thoroughly
cured of further designs on the beaters, and in a few
minutes more — unfortunately in the absence of the crow's-
nest party at luncheon — ^the whole herd, four large and
three small, dashed along the entrance drive into the
kraal, trampling down the bambu jungle and passing at
lightning speed and with the soimd of rumbling thunder
into the kraal.
" Caught at last ! " was the cry, and the grand stand
was speedily occupied, while the order went forth to old
Iddamalgoda, who now appeared on the scene, that an
attempt should at once be made to move and tie up one
of the herd.
But, alas, the princes were timed to leave at 1.30 ; they
lingered on till about 3 p.m., and so secured a passiug
sight of the herd in the kraal and were presented with
the tail of the elephant shot. Then Prince Albert Victor,
His Excellency the Governor, Lady Longden, Sir Edwin
Johnson, Lieut. Adair, and Captain Hayne, A,D.C. ;
started for Colombo ; while Prince George,' with- his ttitdr,
the Eev. J. Dalton, Captains Lord Charles Scott, Durrant,
and Foot — as well as Admiral Gore-Jones — remained
some hours longer in the hope of witnessing, a noosing
and tying up. Beaters were already hard at work vrith
catties, and very soon two or three of the tame elephants
lent their effective aid, butting down gently but effectually
trees of no mean magnitude : everything in the shape of
light jungle speedily disappeared from around the royal
stand. The enormous government " tusker," fully roped
and equipped for the noosing and tying business, now
moved down in stately measure among the spectators to
the eastern side of the kraal, where, at the word of
command, he lightly and readily shpped aside the top
beam and dropped the one end from his trunk to the
ground. He crossed the lower beam, still over four feet
high, without difficulty, and proceeded into the jungle.
I passed on to the remoter end of the kraal, where a
continuous trumpeting, varied by stentorian but painful
188 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
«ries of the bereaved baby-elephant, indicated the pre-
sence ol the herd hidden in the dense bambu jungle.
Nothing could be seen of them here, however — only the
occasional waving of the bambus. Turning back, I found
that the government tusker had got rid of his keeper
inside the kraal for some reason, and was vainly trying by
himself to slip back the upper beam again in order to get
out of the kraal ! Fortunately for the thousands of
natives and some Europeans too (who could not well
stampede through the close jungle) the beam had been
firmly secured, and very soon the keeper once more
resumed his work and authority, and the tusker went to
work, although, apparently, he was not to be depended on
so much as the remaining tuskers' trio. After a good
Tiew of this end of the kraal from Mr. Charles de Soysa's
, stand, I went on to the grand stand, inside the kraal,
where Prince George and party were waiting for the
■exhibition which never came off. Although two or three
encounters took place, and although a band of volunteer
European parties undertook to drive from the lower end
of the kraal, no favourable opportunity for noosing could
be obtained, and the prince had to be contented with the
several ineffectual attepipts made.
The fact is that the attempt to noose on the same evening
as the capture^ is unprecedented, and the civil officers
scarcely expected success. The usual and proper course
is to allow a night to intervene, during which the captives
trample down all the "batali " and other jungle stuff, ex-
haust themselves in examining their prison, and finally lie
■down in whatever puddle may remain in the hollows.
Noosing and tying can then proceed in a business-like way.
dearly, neither chief nor retainers could feel much enthu-
eiaSm in the after-proceedings of this afternoon. That the
tame elephants and keepers did their duty well is vouched
for by the experience of a planting friend who, occupying
a prominent position in a high tree inside the western side
of the kraal, witnessed a charge of three tame elephants
on to the quartette of big ones in the herd, which fairly
astonished him. The trio were arranged in Une, facing
the position in the bambu, where the herd gave evidence
of their presence, and all at once in regular and most
rapid motion, at the word of command, they charged,
butting the herd fairly over or on before them. So rapid
An Elephant Kraal. 189'
and regular was the tun, that the three seemed as one, and
to run like a racehorse.
As a finish to my day's work, I paid a visit to the dead
elephant, which lay in the bambu jungle not far from the-
western entrance. The fatal shots on the forehead were
examined, as well as one in the ear ; the ears and feet as
trophies or talismans hp,d already been either out off or
hacked about. "We were a party of twenty or thirty, in-
cluding natives, around the prostrate animal, when sud-
denly a crash through the jungle near at hand was foUowei
by the cry of " Here comes the herd ! " and, sure enougl^,
the wild elephants, closely followed by two of the tame
ones, appeared to be making directly for us. There was-
screaming and shouting enough in good earnest, and
although the only risk lay in a hurried stampede in one
direction, the pursuers being behind, clearly discretion was.
the better part of valour, and a rush was made for the-
barrier.
Thursday Evening, February 2nd, 1882.
A HABD day's WOEK, RESULTING FTNALLY, IN THE CAPTU,Kfc OP
TWELVE ELEPHANTS, INCLUDING A SPLilNDID TUSKEK.
We were met at an early hour by an official intimation
— probably written the night before — to the effect that the
public were requested not to approach the stockade and
kraal, as Ekneligoda's herd was within easy distance, and
the attempt was to be made to open the barrier gate, drive-
them in and kraal all together. This was a disappoint-
ment, because it added to the risk of there being no noos-
ing at all this day ; but before we had fully realized the
new " situation " created by the official " proclamation,""
came the authentic news^ meeting us on the road up to the
kraal, that the whole of the six elephants kraaled the
night before had escaped duping the night, and that the
kraal was vacant !
This proved to be the fact, and the explanations rendered
were most varied. One statement was that part of Ekne-
ligoda's herd had broken in during the night, and the-
palisade being knocked down, all escaped scot-free again ;,
another account made it appear that the gate must have
been opened preparatory to the further kraaUng, and so in
being too greedy, crying " more, more," those already held.
Il90 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Tfere lost.' The ofScial report is that a " tusker " from
Ekneligoda's hejd — and it is supposed to be the same
•" tusker " as visited the kraal the night before — broke in
again so effectually as to release his sisters and brethren,
old and young, in distress. But where were the watchmen
planted all roimd the kraal the night before with wands
and spears immediately alongside the barricade ? Well,
■there can be no doubt they were grievously to blame, and
as evidence that they have not escaped punishment I may
mention that the Government Agent visited them at an
early hour this morning to give them " a bit of his mind,"
winding up, I beheve, with a smash of " crockery " (!) in-
including chatties — a great deprivation for Sinhalese
' ' jungle- wallahs."
But, in defence of these poor fellows, let me say that
their story has it that they were beset by wild elephants
prowling round the kraal from the outside, and so, between
two fires, they could not give their attention to their
charge as they would have liked. There are further ex-
planations however, namely, that their chief Iddamalgoda
had to listen to some sharp words the night before on
account of the slowness of his people to effect a noosing,
the threat finally being that the Government would not
allow them to have a single elephant from the herd, since
they allowed Prince George to leave without tying up one.
The old chief said nothing, merely shrugging his shoulders ;
but it is quite conceivable that his people cared little about
keeping' strict watch and ward over the herd that was to
be taken from them. Another reason for discouragement
was the shooting of the big " cow " elephant : the beaters
did not like it a bit : — " Here we have been driving in the
jungle for weeks, and after we have brought this ele'hant
eighty miles or so to within as many feet of the gate of the
kraal, you go and shoot it ! " This is certainly not the native
plan, and it is all attributable to the terrible haste made in
the present proceedings in order " to catch the princes."
Another six hours must undoubtedly have brought in the
mother as well as calf in safety.
From an early hour Mr. Templer (^ho had so steadily
accompanied Iddamalgoda's herd to the .kraal) was out
with Ekneligoda and the larger herd, now coming rapidly
forward. Whether this chiefs circle of beaters had inter-
■cepted and added to their herd the six escaped elephants
An Elephant Kraal.
191
is a matter of doubt ; but they certainly brought on a^
many a^ twelve elephants of their own, and beating up
-from early morning, the most perfect stillness, being main-
iained in and around the stockade — due very much to the
great number of departures — shortly after noon the, herd
was reported well on in the kraal drive,* and at one o'clock
Mr. Saunders's report was : "Drive-in probable in a quarter
of an hour." From that time on to five o'clock, most try-
ing, vexatious, disappointing, and yet most exciting was
the experience. I question if ever before in the history
of kraals there has been so strange and mixed an experi-
ence.
The following sketch will give an accurate idea of the
"•'.
fTOeHAM
- n
way in which Ekneligoda's herd had to approach the
kraal There is a ridge and valley behind the kraal
valley.
The herd, after coming down the drive, had rounded the
hill and faced the kraal about 1 p.m., as I have said.
The cries of the beaters came steadily onwards so far, and
• The drive for a couple of miles round the range, down the gorge
and on towards the kraal till the stockade was reached, was most
finely carried on: the cries of the beaters ever came nearer and nearer;
but when the elephants sighted and scented the stockade they stopped
short at once..
192 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
progress, though a good deal slower, was made for an hour
more. Most exciting was the scene then ; the proximity
of the elephants was evident, the tree-tops waved, the
bambus cracked, and every now and then uplifted trunks
rose over the bambus, and a rumbling of trumpeting — the
simmering of baffled rage— swelled the excitement of the
few hidden and silent onlookers, as well as that of the
beaters. Between 2 and 3 p.m. the drive-in became so
certain and imminent that Eknehgoda and his immediate
bodyguard or attendants (five stalwart swarthy fellows)
left "the beat " to see if all was right at the Government
Agent's corner, whence the entrance could be commanded.
This was below the princes' "crow's nest," to-day, alas!
deserted. [I wish I had time to give you a proper idea of
Ekneligodfi, as he came up the path of watchers outside
the drive, biUycock hat and common cloth as usual, closely
followed, however, by his umbrella-bearer iu gorgeous cos-
tume of flowered comboy, big comb, &c. Evidently the
Sinhalese chieftain when on the "corral "path likes to
look like his work and to leave all outward show to his
servants.] Sm-e enough, Ekneligoda had not been long at
our end, when the elephants rushed as if for the entrance ;
but they stopped short, irresolute ; then, getting into the
open, some of them made a dash at the palisades of the
drive facing us, and imniediately we all — a dozen Euro-
peans, backing the watchers led by Ekneligoda — shouted
and screamed and struck trees and- fences to our hearts'
content. This drove them in a mob on the other side,
where, at the palisade as well as far up the hillside were a
number of planters, besides the usual stockade guard.
They soon made it plain toi the herd they could not break
through there ; and then was witnessed a sight probably
never before paralleled — seven or eight goodly-sized
elephants standing in ' a semicircle together, heads to the
centre, immediately in front of the entrance to the kraal,
and yet not making the slightest attempt to enter ! The
rest of the herd farther up the drive kept the beaters back
by charging now and then ; * but evidently there was now
* About 1.30 the tnsker made' a full charge; there were some
visitors at the time with the beaters ; later on, when a great many
European volunteers had joined, a regular charge of the herd took
place, and three elephants escaped up a ridge along the centre of
the drive, being seen from the stockade to pass through the beaters.
Altogether four charges were made on the volunteers.
An Elephant Kraal. 193
an obstacle in the way, or such demoralization as made it
most uncertain what to expect of the elephants. The most
likely explanation became evident with the recollection of
the " dead elephant," shot the night before inside the en-
trance, and the track of blood which no doubt ran along
from the barrier. On smell elephants chiefly depend to warn
them of danger. The scent of dangei: ahead was only too
apparent. " Better perish where we are " seemed the
thought of the seven Companions in danger, as they stood
rubbing each other sympathetically, than pass that truly
bloody gateway and be shot behind it.
Baf&ed again and again, and worn out by their exer-
tions, it became clear that Ekneligoda's men wanted help.
This had been suggested to the chief already once or twice,
and Mr. 0. S. Agar, who had been summoned at an early
hour by Mr. Dawson to aid with his^ trusty rifle, had been
eager for some time to join the drive, and. by discharging
blank shot to inspire the, beaters to urge the drive oh.*
Mr. W. S. Murray at last conveyed the pressing request
to Ekneligoda (who had again rejoined his people) for
Mr. Agar and twenty or thirty European volunteers to
join the ring, and, after an interval, it was granted on
condition that no shot should on any account be fired at
the elephants.
Mr. Agar, rifle iu hand, quickly followed Mr. Murray to
the beat in the valley, and, Mr. Saunders sending the call
round, I speedily saw pass on from our side Messrs.
Thring, Talbot, and C. E. White, the admiral's flag-
lieutenant (the admiral had all day attended closely on
the proceedings with imperturbable good humour and
encouragement), and three or four more whom, in their
hasty descent through the scrub, I did not recognize. A
Btill larger body, chiefly planters, passed into the drive
round the opposite side of the kraal. Most unfortunately,
the volunteers had barely reached the circle of advance
when the rain, which had been threatening for some time,
began to descend in' torrents : black and hopeless rolled
the clouds over the devoted valley and the apparently ill-
fated drive ; the thunder boomed and the rain poured, and
* Mr. A. J. Campbell had previously pressed to be allowed to lead
twenty-five Europeans and fifty native beaters, guaranteeing success
with the drive, but, Ekneligoda then protesting, this was considered
unadvifiable.
14
194 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
it seemed as if " hari-hari-hqpi-ooi " was at an end. The
cry was raised again and agafn, but was positively drowned
in the greater noise of the eleineiits. From many points
of view this ill-timed rain seeined^to docm the whole
enterprise. It gave the Ihirsty elephants refreshment,
a breathing space, and fresh courage ; njght was coming
on ; the drivers could not stand their ground so close
up to the herd all night ; their camp-fires must prove a
failure ; — and hope had sunk to zero ! The dead elephant
had, apparently, saved a score of living companions ficm
being kraaled.
I had taken refuge from the rain in a watcher's hut ;
but about 4.30, finding t^e rain soaking through, and no
appearance of a clearing up, hopeless of a kraal, and
anxious to get on ten miles homewards after my boxes,
which had, alas, gone on before me, I determined to stait
off. I made for Kraaltown in a woeful condition ; the
pathways were being swept by torrents, the road down
the hill at some corners was a Jierfect rapid, and at its foot
the " ela " in front of Kraaltown, which had hitherto been
crossed at a low ebb, was becoming an impassable river.
I arrived early enough, however, to be carried over with
the help of two coolies and a Sinhalese servant, wh6
rushed to our assistance when in a hole near the other
side. I found- Kraaltown pretty well deserted ; and, with
boxes gone, no " change " was available, though I was
drenched to the skin. Eventually, however, ' I secured
sufficient for a change by borrowing in four different
quarters ! I merely give these trivial personal details to
show what kind of an evening had come on, and what the
experience of many others was ; and still more what was
the state of the men at the post of honour and of danger
in the jungle drive.
About six o'clock grand tidings came down with men
who, drenched to the skin already, thought little of wading
or^wimming the river. Gathering up the reports of half
a dozen of the eye-witnesses or partakers in the final
charges and drives, I jvill endeavour hastily to present a
consecutive trustworthy account. Por the elephants now,
it was clearly a case of
OfScers to the right of tbem,
Planters on left of theip,
Beaters behind them,
Vi'\n]e all the herd -wondered, —
An Elephant Kraal. 195
or rather felt a much less pleasant sensatioii. Messrs.
Agar, Thring, Talbot, and their party lost little time, rain
or no rain, in beating to quarters : they urged the drive in
again and again ; shot succeeded shot ; " hari-hari " be-
came the rule ; and the drive was one scene of excitement.
Several minor charges to the line took place ; but the
rain and the advent of the Europeans sent the beaters to
huddle under trees and clear out. It became evident that
the Europeans could not work without a base line being
cut out of the jungle, and the natives were brought back
to cut down a semicircular path behind the elephants.
Torches were also prepared, weapons improvised, and aU
made ready to force the herd on.
Mr. Saunders now appears to have, as a last effort,
descended into the beat, and, while his volunteers were
using every exertion to drive in, he climbed up a tfee to
catch the exact situation. I am guessing at this intention
from what followed. On the stockade near the drive, at
the angle joining the kraal, sat four planters watching the
struggle, who had not yet joined in it. Mr. Saunders
called on them to lepd a hand, and they immediately
passed in, led by Mr. Sandison. Arrived at the beat, and
immediately behind the herd, Mr. Sandison, who carried
a short spear, looking ro\md for a torch, the most trust-
worthy of all weapons of defence in dealing with wild
elephants, spied Mr. Unwin alongside with one, and
arranged in a word that they should go on, shoulder to
shoulder, together. But Mr. Sandison's former com-
panions, not understanding the arrangement, pressed on
between. Several others from the beating line followed.
Sandison advanced right up to the elephant, and with
a prod sent it — a huge mother with a httle calf — ^right on
the herd with a rush ! Some of the main body of elephants
thus charged sprang over the ravine towards the entrance,
pressed on by Messrs. Wighton, Thring, Talbot, and others.
Not so the wild mother and her calf, the tusker, and two
or three more : they only rushed forward to wheel round
and charge fairly back into the centre of the Europeans,
who, much in advance of the natives, were left without
any support. The rank broke, and the volunteers tried,
but only tried, to get out of the way in all directions ; for
there was no room, and a bambu " batali " jungle is not
the place to escape through. Down went the men as if
196 Ceylon 'in the Jubilee Year.
shot ; about twenty were in the scrimmage, and more or
less " down " — very " down in their luck," it must be
confessed, did a good many consider themselves to be.
The " Laird of Logie," who 'had done yeoman service all
along, went down as if felled, and this was by far the
narrowest escape, I learn from the others, for the calf fairly
vaulted over his prostrate form !
Intercepted by the native beaters farther out, it is said
that the infuriated female and her calf once again returned
in a rush through the adjoining ravine up to the entrance;
but it is very doubtful if she went in.
A few minutes before the gate was closed — on, certainly,
a dozen elephants — a part of the barrier near the princes'
crow's-nest was the object of a fierce charge by a huge
brute — perhaps the " tusker " which Mr. R. H. Morgan,
from one of the stands, rightly declared he saw inside.
For a hundred yards the barrier shook as if it were going
to fall, and the charger got his forefeet through ; but two
or three Europeans, led by Mr. H. "Whitham, rushed to the
spot and drove him back.
Fbiday Morning, February 3rd, 1882.
COMPENSATION FOK ALL THE DELAY EXCITING DAY IN THE
KRAAL NOOSING AND TYING SIX OUT OF TWELVE
ELEPHANTS NOOSED GEEAT SPORT.
Yesterday morning, while waiting for the early drive we
then expected, we spent some time with the four tame
elephants belonging to Mr. Charles de Soysa, and by him,
with commendable public spirit, ordered to the kraal in
case their services should be required. One huge tusker,
" Siriwala," is supposed tp be over eighty years of age,
and therefore too old to be \f much service in " noosing "
and " tying up " wild elephants. Bat he will be useful in
beating up and blocking the way of retreat, since his stately
presence is of itself suificient to inspire a wholesomjLierzor
in the^TEiiirds of^his'comparalively puny compeers, and as
elephants have been described as "half-reasoning animals,"
they will no doubt keep at a safe distance from Siriwala's
tusks. Much less attractive, though far more useful to
his owner, is the small and tuskless " Rajah," for which
Mr. de Soysa paid double the price of old Siriwala.
Eajah cost £100. He goes through a number of per-
An Elephant Kraal. 197
formances to perfection. tThe 'cuteness with which te
looks after the equivalent of " threepenny bits " in the
mnd — blowing away the latter, and at last, when baffled
in his attempt to pick np the tiny coin by the edge with
his sensitive trunk, drawing it in by suction, was very
striking. Once caught, he held it safely until, with up-
turned trunk, he delivered it to the keeper on his back.
Mr. de Soysa turns his elephants to account in cartiug,
ploughing, road-making, and felling jungle in his Eatna-
pura and other extensive properties ; and surely this last-
mentioned is an occupation for which they are specially
well adapted in the low-country, considering the way in
which they knock down with their heads trees which
would take some time for a Kandyan to cut through.
Why should not a " felling " ekphant, more especially for
low-country planters, be hired out like a portable steam
threshing-mill at home ?
Many people, in speaking of last night's work, condemn
the native beaters because they refused to do what the
Europeans effected; but this is a very inaccurate and
foohsh mode of criticism. The natives knew the actual
danger of the situation from long experience — the Euro-
peans did not. The beaters, knowing that a charge or
succession of charges would be the result so soon as the
" durais," or " mahatmayas,"* went in with fire and spear,
cleared out of the way as fast as possible : the more men
in the way in such a case, the more havoc. Finally, we
would ask how many of the volunteer beaters and of " the
forlorn hope " would repeat their work under the same
circumstances were the opportunity offered to them ? We
think the men who came out saying they had been taught
a lesson which would last a lifetime, were those who took
the right view, and instead of depreciating the work of the
beaters, who had been driving for weeks together when
the elephants were fresh — ^ilot half-starved and worn-out —
the opinion of the volunteers respecting their endurance
and pluck ought to be sustained. + No wonder that Mr.
Dawson should say that he wished the visitors who
ridiculed the slow work made on Tuesday and Wednesday
* Durai Tamil, Mahatmayd'Bisiix., for master or gentleman.
f There can be little doubt that, if the natives had been left to their
own time and ways, the whole twenty-three elephants of the two herdt
would have been laaaled.
li)8 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
had come down to see the character of the jungle through
which the work had to be done, or that the princes had
been allowed to inspect it. The small cane-like bambu
grows so closely together as to be impenetrable ; the only
paths are those made by the elephants, or which are cut
out by the beaters. The bambu, when levelled by the
elephants, is as slippery as ice, and the rain had rendered
it, if possible, more so.
Let me now describe the spot. The last part of "the
drive " between the stockades is about 150 yards across ;
it was covered with the densest bambu jungle ; it consisted
of two hollows or ravines with a ridge between, and all
inclming towards the entrance to the kraal. From the
entrance to where the European volunteers took up their
position could not be more than 250 yards, the elephants
being between. It will be readily seen, therefore, that the
ground was as difficult a place to work in as ever an old
campaigner or sportsman encountered.
Returning to the grand stand, now well filled, it was
evident that the four safe, working, tame elephants, and
the two or three of the reserve force, had commenced
active operations. They were mounted by from two to
three noosers each, while several assistants with siJears
and ropes followed behind at the sides of the elephants,
under which they 0(3casionally ran when there appeared
to be any danger of a charge. The wild elephants were
in a state of great perturbation, rushing from one side of
the kraal to the other, occasionally resting under the few
patches of jungle that still remained, going down into the
hollows to throw water and mud over their backs — spurt-
ing each other with water seemed to be a favourite
occupation. It was a most amusing as weU as touching
sight to see the little calves do this to the tame elephants
when near them once or twice, as if to appease them and
make friends. Clear views of all the herds were now had,
and the elephants could be counted. The " tusker " is a
huge fellow in bulk more than in height: -he has-l©st-half
his tail, as if it had been shot off, and his tusks are most
unusually far apart in the way they stick out, and they
also seem to have had the points broken off. He never
seems to lead the herd, but rather to follow after. Never-
theless, Mr. Unwin is sure it is the same animal that
came to the kraal at midnight, and was shut in and
An Elephant Kraal. 199
afterwards let loose. This was in a rflanner proved by
the frequency with which he inide for the western gate
to-day in his wanderings, in the hope, no doubt, of getting
out once more. Once only did he try to charge the
palisade, but, before he could get as far, the pointed sticks
and spears of the watchers and the shouts of thousands
of spectators drove him back. After the "tusker" came
one large " cow " and five more medium-sized elephants ;
then three wall-grown calves and two puny, diminutive little
things whose dusty, tired appearance excited much pity,
more especially from the ladies and a few children
present.
The tame elephants and noosers were now at work,
trying to break the herd into detachments, to segregate
on 3 or more, so as to get a chance of surrounding and
noosing. Very troublesome and difficult is this operation :
033isionally it is done by' good luck in the minimum of
tine, while again hours may be spent over it. As it was,
after what seemed a long time to the onlookers (relieved,
however, by some exciting and still more amusing
passages), two, or indeed three, got noosed almost instan-
taneously. Save with the little ones, there was no at-
teaipt by the herd at fraternizing with, or even recognizing
the tame ones. The sight of men on their backs seemed
to put an end to all thought of such a thing, and they
steadily avoided a mseting as long as they could, dodging;
up^gjid down, in and out and round about, until, once too
ofien, they came across through a hollow, and the PhiUs-
tiaes — in the shape of Banhimi and Ellawala's man of
" the breeches "^— were among them. A slight attempt at
a charge or fight was quickly repressed with a few blows
from the spears, and a thump with the head of the tame
elephant ; the " tusker" sheering off, showing no inclina-
tion to interfere. But not so with the little calf, who,
when two of the larger elephants were jammed up, and a
noosed rope, cleverly placed on a leg of each, was tied
about them, cried out, and would not be comforted or
induced to leave. " Breeches " and Eanh^mi were now
in for serious work ; their prizes struggled with elephan-
tine strength; one especialiy — ^the mother of a calf —
could not be mpved from the spot, and in rage and
despair at last fell prostrate, never to rise again ! The
struggle was a short but severe one, and the natives at
200 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
once recognized it as a case of "broken heart." The
poor brute lay panting for an hour or so afterwards, then
heaved a deep sigh, and at last all was still, save that the
little calf would not leave her side for a long time, and
that once or twice the rest of the herd in passing the
spot, attempted to heave up their companion. Par more
touching, however, was the sight witnessed the night,
before by Mr. D. Mackay, when two elephants made a
persistent endeavour to raise their fallen companion, the
dead cow, while its little calf tried onc^ more to obtain
sustenance from its parent.*
. To return, however, to the second large elephant
noosed : he was a plump, vigorous, medium-sized fellow,
and resisted most determinedly the moving, pushing,
and dragging of him halfway across the kraal, and the
final tying to the tree. This, in fact, was only accom-
plished wben Eanhdmi and " Breeches " jammed him
between their elephants, who, evidently fully under-
standing what was wanted, pressed so hard and so
gtiarded the ways of exit with their trunks, that their
captive had perforce to remain perfectly still. All this
was a most interesting, instructive sight, and then, when
the tying was done — the hind legs only bwng securely
clasped in several folds of strong rope, which again were
drawn several times round a tree immediately alongside
the grand stand — how the poor prisoner writhed and
twisted, using all his prodigions strength to break away
the rope, or pull the tree down'^ running round and round
in despair of an outlet, pawing the earth, stretching him-
self with eel-like contortions, and then, in hopelessness of
any release, and under the agony of his disgrace, like a
true oriental, throwing up clouds of dust over his head
and back with his trunk ! Very soon, another of similar
size and appearance was noosed and dragged np a l^ng
way to a tree facing Byrde's stand, and one of the active
bull-calves being simultaneously caught; very quickly the
fun became "fast and furious." This little calf gave
more trouble than the two big ones ; the noosers left him.
as soon as one leg was confined to a tree, and to less ex-
perienced bands was left the task of tying a rope round
his neck and shoulders so as to keep him quiet and secure.
• Messrs. W. L. H. Skeen and Co. 'a photograph of one of these,
pathetic incidents is reprodnced in the illostiation facing page 179.
An Elephant Kraal. 201
But how the fellow resisted, struggled, twisted, and threw"
the rope off ! The ncose had to he passed over his head
as well as trnnk, hut the latter was sent out at all impos-
sible angles, so that no rope could be placed round it. At
last, Messrs. C. Agar and Mtinro descended to the rescue,
but they were baffled again and again; as soon as the
rope was round it slipped off ; they were charged and had
to fly hack ; the little fellow bellowed like a bull ; he
blew at them, he would not be tied, and not until seme
one seized the trunk and held it, was the rope got
round and a secure shoulder-knot made. This done, the
calf set up a regular series of bellowings, making more ado
than all the others put together. Great was the amuse-
ment afforded by this capture, and again and again was
the wish expressed throughout the stand that the princes
had stayed for this day's experiences, which well repaid
p11 the trouble an^ delay.
But still greater fun was to follow ; another calf, plump
and strong, had been noosed, as well as a third big ele-
phant, and as these were being pulled towards two suitable
trees one of the noosers, getting an ugly shove from the
calf, received a wound on his forehead which drew blood.
Almost simultaneously Mr. Saunders sent orders to release
these two captives at once, and noose the " tusker," as
many had to leave and the day was now wearing on. No
sooner was the calf released than he charged right and
left, with trunk uplifted, bellowing as he went, and
carrying all before him among rows of native beaters and
a number of planters and others who had now descended
into the kraal near the stands. The scene was comical in
the extreme ; there was just the least spice of danger to
add zest to it, but the little fellow turned at the show of
a pointed stick. It seemed as if he said, "You have
given me a great fright ; now I'll do my best to give you.
a taste of the same." "White clothes especially seemed
to provoke his anger ; one or two gentlemen in white
coats were followed again and again ; one of them, Mr. E.
Smyth, between laughing and dodging and keeping off
his mad but 'cute little antagonist, had quite enough to
do, and the spectators roared at the fun. Tired out at
last, the little fellow with a loud grunt made for the tame
elephants, and ranged himself alongside, as if with his
friends. He did not seem to care about the -w-ild herd
202 Ceylon in tlie Jubilee Year.
now ; he was a civilized elephant, and followed the tamers
wherever they went. At last he found out Soysa's
" tasker " standing on one side, and charging under him
created a tremendous uproar, for the tusker didn't like it a
bit,,aad trumpeted out what seemed to be: "You miad
your own business, you young rascal, or I'll settle you."
Nothing, however, could quiet this " irrepressible " alto-
gether ; at odd moments he would make a charge on his
own account right- across the kraal, and there can be no
doubt that he greatly disturbed the rest of the noosing, so
that it was a pity he was let loose, save for the amuse-
ment he gave to the company. The wild " tusker "
would not be caught ; he showed no fight, would shirk a
broadside, slunk aside and dodged ; and yet it became
evident the tame elephants and the noosers did not care
to get too near him. The fact is he is too old to be
trained, and is of no service at all, save for his ivories,
which can be' got by shooting. [" Cared of sores " is the
expression used to indicate a tamed elephant.] Enough
had, however, been seen to warrant all who waited over
Thursday, in pronouncing the kraal a success in showing
the various operations connected with one ; a notable
success in affording a more than usual amount of sport
and comical fun, as also in raising, at moments, feelings
of sympathy and pity; an extraordinary success in the
unprecedented work done by European volunteers — " the
forlorn hope," the sudden charge, the marvellous escape,
and the crowning victory in the forcing in of a dozen
elephants into the kraal on Wednesday night.
How many more of the six or seven wild elephants I
left running about the kraal were noosed to-day (Satur-
day), and whether the " tusker " waa tied, I have yet to
learn ; but my part as narrator is over, and I can only
say I am not likely ever to forget
The Labugamkanda Keaal in Honour of Princbs
Albert Victor and George in 1882.
APPENDIX n.
The following interesting extracts from the first volume
of Major Forbes's " Eleven Years in Ceylon " * ar€i given
with the permission of the publisher. The orthography
of native names found in the original has been retained.
[Nc. 1.— CHAPTEE X]
THE ANCIENT CAPITAL, ANUEADHAPOOEA.
" Remnants of things that have pass'd away,
Fragments of stone rear'd by creatures of clay," — ^Btbon,
In ages of impenetrable antiquity, the plain on which
Anuradhapoora was afterwards built had acquired a sacred
character ; for it is recorded that when the first Buddha
of the present era visited this place he found it already
hallowed as a scene of the ancient rehgious rites of pre-
ceding generations, and consecrated by Buddhas of a
former era. The position of Anuradhapoora has nothing
to recommend it for the capital of Ceylon ; and the site,
if not chosen from caprice, was probably dictated by
superstition. It would not, therefore, be difficult to
account for its final desertion, consequent decay, and
present desolation, even if history had not preserved a
record of the feuds, famines, wars, and pestilence which
at various t^mes ' oppressed the country, and reduced the
number of inhabitants, so as to render the remainder
* "Eleven Tears in Ceylon; comprising Sketches of the Field
Sports and Natural History of that Colony, and an Account of its
History and Antiquities." By Major Forbes, 78th Highlanders.
2 vols. London : Eichard Bentley.
t For the latest account of Anuradhapoora ai^d the ancient ruins,
Bee " The Buried Cities of Ceylon," by S. M. Burrows, C.C.S.,
published by A. M. and J. Ferguson.
204 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 205
incapable of maintaining the great embankments of their
artificial lakes. These having burst, their waters spread
over the country as their channels were neglected, and
this made its unhealthuieBS permanent by f oroning noxious
swamps and nourishing unwholesome forests. The warm
and damp nature of the Ceylon climate excites an* activity
of vegetation, which the indolence and apathy of the
native character are not calculated to struggle against;
and the present population is inadequate either iii number
or energy to do more than resist the incessant effort of
the vegetable kingdom, stimulated by an' eternal spring,
to extend its beautiful but baneful luxuriance over that
portion of the surrounding districts which man still re-
tains in precarious subjectioli.* Anuiadhapoora is first
mentioned by that name about 500 years before Christ ;
it was then a village, and the residence of a prince who
took the name of Aiiuradha on his settling at this pl^ce,
which the King Pdnduwdsa had assigned to him when
he came to visit his sister the Queen Bhadda-kachdma..
They were grandchildren of Amitodama, the paternal
uncle of Gautama Buddha. It was chosen for the capital
by the King Pddukdbhya, b.c. 437 ; and in the reign of
Dewenipiatissa, which commenced ac. 307, it received the
<5ollar-bone of Gautama Buddha, his begging-dish fiUed
with relics, and a branch of the bo-tree under which he
had reclined. Anurddhapoora had been sanctified by the
presence of former Buddhas, and these memorials of
Oautama increased its sacred character ; additional reUcs
were subsequently brought, for which temples were reared
by successive sovereigns ; and Wahapp, who commenced
hitf reign a.d. 62, finished the walls of the city, which
were sixty-four miles in «xtent, each side being Bixteen
miles, and thus enclosed a space of 256 square .miles.
Anurddhapoora is mentioned, or rather is laid dbwa in
* Six years after the time of which I am now writing, Govenunent-
lormed a road to Aripo, and established a European officer at-
Annr&dhapoora as revenue and judicial agent for the district, in
order, if possible, to hasten the development of its resources, ^^^n
I left the island it was considered an unhealthy station, but', by
perseverance, there is little doubt that it will improve. Had this
district been formerly unhealthy, Anur&dhupoora would not bo long
have remained the capital of the island. [Anurddhapoora district and ■
town have, we need scarcely say,- been greatly imprpved of leceAf'
years. — J. F.]
206 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the map of Ptolemy in its proper position, and by the
name of Anurogrammum.*
For upwards of 1200 years Amirddhapoora remained as
the capital of the island, with the exception of one reign,
■when a parricide and usurper transferred the insignia of
royalty to the impregnable rock-fort of Sigiri. In the
eighth century Polannarua was chosen as the capital in
preference to Anuradhapoora ; at which place the fame of
wealth had survived its possession, and too often attracted
the spoiler. The religious edifices were occasionally
repaired by pious sovereigns until the time of Mdgha, a
successful invader, who held sway in Ceylon from a.d.
1219 until 12,40, during which time he completed the
destruction of many temples, and endeavoured to destroy
the Cingalese records.
"Knox, speaking of Anurddhapoora, wliich he passed in
making his escape from captivity in a.d. 1G79, says, " It
is become a place of solemn worship, in consequence of
the bo-tree under which Buddha sat." He adds, " They
report ninety kings + have reigned there successively,
where, by the ruins that stiU remain, it appears they
spared not for pains and labour to build temples and high
monuments to the honour of this god, as if they had been
born only to hew rocks and great stones, and lay them up
in heaps : these kings are now happy spirits, having
merited it by these their labours." In making his escape
along the bed of the Malwatte-oya, | Knox passed another
part of the ruins, but does not seem to have been aware
that they were part of Anuradhapoora. He says, " Here
and there, by the side of this river, is a world of hewn
stone pillars and other heaps of hewn stones, which I
suppose formerly were buildings ; and in three or foui'
places axe the ruins of bridges built of stone, some
remains of them yet standing upon stone pillars."
The above extracts are taken from "An Historical
Eelation of the Island of Ceylon in the East Indies, by
Robert Knox, a captive there for nearly twenty years."
* Gr4ma, or Gramya, is used for a town ; so also is Poora, but the
latter generally means city.
t It is the general belief of uneducated natives that the name of
the city is derived from Anu-Bajah (ninety kings) ; but it was from
the name of the constellation Anurddha, under which it was founded.
} Malwatte-oya, flower-garden river.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 207
This is a -work of great interest^ and was originally pub-
lished in London in 1681. Nothing can be more admir-
able than the extent of memory, acute observation, and
inflexible veracity exhibited in his account of the country
and people; nor can anything be more interesting than
the simple narrative of his own Bufferings. His persever-
ance, fortitude, and firm rehgious belief enabled him to
overcome misfortunes, to rescue himself from a tedious
captivity, and finally to regain his station as commander
of a ship under the East India Company.
The father of Eobert Knox was also named Eobert :. he
commanded the Ann frigate in the service of the East
India Company, and saUed on the 2l6t of January, 1657,
from the Downs ; the vessel was dismasted in a storm on
the Coromandel coast on the 19th of November, 1659,
and proceeded to the bay of Cotiar (opposite to Trinko-
malee) to refit, and with permission to trade there. For
about twenty days the crew of the ship were allowed to
land and return without any interruption ; but after that,
a native chief, by order of the Kandian king, contrived
by falsehood and treachery to seize the captain and seven
of his men ; then, by the same devices, he got hold of
another boat and her crew of eleven men. He next
attempted to gain possession of the ship, by inducing the
captain to send an order to the officer on board, directing
him to bring the vessel up the river ; the captain sent his
own son, but.it was to warn the officer, and direct him to
proceed without loss of time to Porto Novo. Young
Knox, however, returned to share hig father's captivity ;
and the whole of those taken prisoners were removed into
the interior of the country. The captain and his son
(Eobert) were sent to the village of Bandar Koswatte,
and there were soon attacked by severe fever and ague,
which carried off the father, February the 9th, 1661.
Young Knox was then very ill, and it was not without
mu'ch difficulty that he managed to get his father's body
buried ; and for many months he suffered severely from
the effects of the same disease. It was not long after the
loss of his father that he accidentally had an opportunity
of purchasing an English Bible at a price sufficiently
moderate for his means. Never for a moment laying
aside his design of escape, yet behaving with such dis-
cretion as never to incur suspicion from the jealous tyrant
208 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
■who then ruled in Kandy, Knox acquired a character for
prudence, industry, and honesty, which is even yet pre-
served by tradition in the neighbourhood of the place
where he resided, and where a spot is still known as the
-white man's garden.* After a captivity of nearly twenty
years' vduration he contrived to accomplish his escape, not
without great danger from the numerous wild animals
and crocodiles that are to be found near the course of the
Malwatte-oya, which flows through a dense forest and a
country void of population. Knox reached the Dutch
fort of Aripo on the 18th of October, 1679 ; afterwards,
having been sent to Batavia, he from thence returned to
England in September, 1680, and was soon after made
captain of the Tarquin in the East India Company's
service.
All the ruins at Anuradhapoora, even the lofty monu-
ments which contain the relics of the Buddha, are either
entirely covered wi,th jungle, or partly obscured by forests ;t
these the imagination of natives has peopled with unholy
phantoms, spirits of the unrighteous, doomed to wander
near the mouldering walls which were witnesses of their
guilt, and are partakers of their desolation.
Although simplicity is the most distinguishing cha-
racteristic of the ancient architectural remains of the
■Cingalese, yet some of the carving in granite might com-
pete with the best modern workmanship of Europe (in
the sam^^material) both as to depth and sharpness of
•cu'tting ; and the sculptures at Anuradhapoora, and places
built in remote ages, are distinguished from any attempts
of modern natives, not less by the more animated action
of the figures than by greater correctness of proportion.
The only place clear of jungle was in front of the
Maha-wihare (great temple), where a shady tree occupied
the centre of a square, and a stone pillar, fourteen feet
high, stood beside the figure of a bull cut in granite, and
revolving on a pivot. In the entrance from this square
into the Maha-wihare are a few steps admirably carved
with laborious devices, and still in perfect preservation.
Ascending these, and passing through a mean building of
modern construction, you enter an enclosure 345 feet in
length by 216 in breadth, which surrounds the court of
frhe Bo-tree, designated by Baddbists as Jaya-Sri-maha-
' Between Kandy and Gampola.
t Great clearings have taken place of late years. — J. F.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 209
Bodinwahawai (the great, famous, and triumphant fig-
tree).* Within the walls are perceived the remains of
several small temples ; and the centre is occupied by the
sacred tree, and the building in which it is contained or
■supported. This tree is the principal object of veneration
to the numerous pilgrims who annually visit Anuradha-
poora : they believe what their teachers assert, and their
histories record, that it is a branch of the tree under
which Gautama sat the day he became a Buddha, and
that it was sent from Patalipoora by the King Dhar-
masoka, who gave it in charge to his daughter Sangha-
mitta ; this priestess had been preceded by her brother,
Mihindoo, who, b.c. 307, was successful in re-establishing
in Ceylon the purity of the Buddhist religion.
No one of the several stems or branches of the tree is
more than two feet in diameter ; and several of the largest
project through the sides of the terraced building in which
it is growing. This structure consists of four platforms,
decreasing in size as you ascend, and giving room for a
broad walk round each of them.t From the self- reno-
vating properties of the bo-tree, it is not at all impossible
that this one might possess the great antiquity claimed
for it by the sacred guardians :| if so, the forbearance of
Malabar conquerors must be accounted for by their con-
sidering this tree sacred to other gods; the profits derived
from pilgrims may also have induced them to give full
weight to the alleged partiality of Brahma for this beau-
tiful tree.
One side of the square in front of the Maha-wihare is
* Ficus religiosa, generally called by natives Bo-gaha, bo-tree, the
name generally used by Europeans.
f The spot on which the tree stands is believed to have at former
periods been the position where the emblematic trees of former
Buddhas grew, viz. Kakusanda Buddha's, the mahari tree ; Kona-
gamma Buddha's, the atika tree (fious glomerata) ; and Kaseyapa's,
the nigrodi (baniayan).
J Buddhists assert that the sacred tree at Buddha Gya in Bahar
"was planted by Dugdha-Kamini, King of Singhal-Dwipa, 414
years before the birth of our Saviour. "^^amiZton's E.I. Gazetteer.
Dootoogaimoonoo, King of Ceylon, and a most zealous Buddhist,
reigned from B.C. 164 until b.c. 140 ; and if the tree at Gya was
planted by him, as above mentioned, not only the original one there,
but also one planted by Dharmasoka, King of India, in the fourth
century before Christ, at the samr city, must have been destroyed
by the Votaries of an adverse faith.
15
210 Ceylon in the Juhilee Year.
occupied by the ruins of the Lowa-Maha-Paya, called also
(from the materials with which it was covered) the Brazen
Palace. The remains of this building consist of 1600
stone pillars placed in forty parallel lines, forty pillars in
each, and occupying a square space, each side of which is
234 feet in length. The pillars in the middle of this
ruin are still eleven and a half feet above the ground, and
measure two feet in breadth by one foot and a half in
thictness ; the middle pillars are slightly ornamented, but
those in the outer Uiies are plain, and only half their
thickness, having been split by means of wedges, the
marks of which operation they still retain. The Lowa-
Maha-Paya was erected by the King Dootoogaimoonoo
B.C. 142 : its height was 270 feet ;. it contained 1000
apartments for priests, and was covered with one sheet of
metal. This edifice seems soon to havel fallen into decay ;
and was rebuilt by DootoogaimoonoO'S successor, who
reduced its height, making it seven instead of nine storeys,
which it was at its original formation. It underwent
many repairs, and was varied in height by several different
kings, until a.d. 286, at which time it was thrown down
by Mahasen during the period of his temporary apostacy :
so completely did this monarch execute his work of
destruction on this and several other religious buildings,
that their sites were ploughed up and sown with grain.
Having returned to his former faith, Mahasen commenced
rebuilding the Maha-Paya, but died before it was finished;
and it was completed by his son and successor, Kitsiri
Maiwan, soon after his accession in a.d. 302. It was
then that the original pillars were split to supply the
places of those which had been broken. Amongst the
sacred occupants of this building, the jiriests most
eminent for their piety were exalted to the uppermost
storey, whilst those who had fewest claims to sanctity^'ere
lodged nearest to the earth. As native stau's only differ
in name from ladders, the ascent of nine stories must
have been a severe trial to the bodily infirmities of the
elder priests-; but one of the strongest prejudices of the
natives, and about which they continue to be exceedingly
jealous, was not allowing an equal or inferior to sit on any
seat or remain in any place more elevated than them-
selves. Fiom adherence to punctilio on this subject, there
was a ludicrous scene at Colombo in 1802, when the
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 211
Kandian ambassadors remonstrated against entering the
carriage sent to convey them to an audience with
Governor North, because the coachman was placed on a
more elevated seat than the one which they were to
occupy. This weighty matter was happily adjusted to
their satisfaction, and they entered the carriage; but
positively refused to allow the doors to be shut, fearing
they should appear as prisoners.
On the left of the road leading from the Maha-wihare
towards the dagoba of EuwanweUi, and in thick jungle,
six carved stones define the limits of a small mound.
This is the spot^where a grateful people and a zealous
priesthood performed the last duties to the remains of
Dootoogaimoonoo ; a king whose valour and piety had
restored the supremacy of the Cingalese race and Buddhist
rehgion, and who had not only repaired the injuries
which the capital had sustained from foreign invaders of
an adverse faith, but had ornamented it with many of
these buildings which even now attract attention and
excite wonder after having endured for 2000 years.
The quantity of game in the immediate neighbourhood
of the ruins was astonishing, and in no part of the island
are elephants more numerous ; for within the precincts
of this hallowed city, at the time I speak of, 1828, no
native would have ventured to transgress the first com-
mandment of the Buddha, viz., " From the meanest insect
up to man, thou shalt not kill." As if aware of their
right of sanctuary, whole herds of spotted deer and flocks
of pea-fowl allowed us to approach very near to them ;
and while employed in examining the ruins, in the pre-
sence and with the assistance of the priests, I deemed it
advisable to commij; no murder on the denizens of the
forest ; . but on the last day of our stay we left the gen-
tlemen of the long yellow robe behind, and proceeded to
hunt deer with Mr. C 's dogs in a plain about three
miles from the place of our temporary residence.
When not employed in speaking, our followers seemed
to be eternally occupied in chewing betel, a custom almost
universal at this time with all ranks of natives ; and
although the name of the leaf of a creeping-plaut re-
sembling pepper is used as a general term, three com-
ponent parts are necessary for this masticatory; viz.
areka-nut, which is used in very thin slices; fine pow-
212 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
dered lime, made into a paste; and a small portion of
these two being rolled np in a betel-leaf, the whole is put
in the mouth. This preparation tinges the saliva, the
Ups, and even the teeth of a dark-red colour: but I
believe it to be perfectly wholesome, and to have some
useful properties, such as soothing nervous excitement,
and acting as a stimulant, without any of the evil effects
produced by the use of spirits, which nevertheless is, I
am afraid, too often superseding the use of betel. Those
who could afford it mixed up cardamom-seeds and the
leaves of various aromatic plants with the areka-nat, and
the value of the instruments for preparing the betel gave
one a pretty good idea of the wealth and rank of the
possessor : a pair of nippers for slicing the areka-nut, a
small box for holding the Ume, and a straw case to
contain betel-leaves, might, I beheve, have been found
tucked in the waist-cloth of every one of the several
hundred natives who accompanied us. Night and day
■they were chewing betel, and when they were awake they
seemed to talk of nothing else ; exchanging leaves and
the contents of their lime boxes seemed like the old
Scotch custom of exchanging snuff-mulls.
Amongst the ruins of this city, the diigobas,* or monu-
mental tombs of the relies of Buddha, the mode in which
they are constructed, the object for which they are in-
tended — above all, then* magnitude — demand particular
notice. The characteristic form of aU mbnumental Bud-
dhistical buildings is that of a bell-shaped tomb sur-
mounted by a spire, and is the same in all countries which
have had Buddha for then- prophet, lawgiver, or god.
Whether in the outline of the cumbrous mount, or in
miniature within the laboured excavation, this peculiar
shape (although variously modified) is general, and
enables us to recognize the neglected and unhonoured
shrines of Buddha in countries where his religion no
longer exists, and his very name is unknown. The gaudy
.'jhoemadoo of Pegu, the elegant Toopharama of Anuriid-
hapoora, the more modem masonry of Boro Budor in
Java, are but varieties of the same general form ; and in
the desolate caves of Carli, as in the gaudy excavations
and busy scenes of Dambool, there is still extant the sign
* DM^oba, from Dliatu-garbe (womb, or receptacle of a relic) : sec
engraving on page 129.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 213
of Buddha — the tomb of his relics. Ddgobas may be
referred to the first stage of architectural adventure,
although I cannot agree with those writers who assert
that the character and form of Buddhist buildings betray
evident marks of having been borrowed from the figure
of a tent; for in my opinion their progress may clearly
be traced , from the humble heap of earth which covers
the ashes or urn of the dead up to the stupendous mount
of masonry which we see pUed above some shrunken
atom of mortality. These monuments in Ceylon are
built around a small cell, or hollow stone, containing the
relic ; along with which a few ornaments and emblems' of
Buddhist worship were usually deposited, such as pearls,
precious stones, and figures of Buddha : the number and
value of these depended on the importance attached to
the relic, or the wealth of the person who reared the
monument.
The description given in Cingalese -histories of the rich
offerings and rare gems deposited with some of the relics
is very splendid, but the existence of wealth and wonders
which cannot be reached may well be doubted; the
accounts of the external decorations and ornaments of
these dagobas are also magnificent, and probably more
correct. In a sohona, or Cingalese cemetery, may be
perceived a variety of miniature dagobas : if the little
earthen mound raised over the ashes of the dead be
encircled with a row of stones, we see the origin of the
projecting basement ; if the tomb be that of a headman
or high priest, we may find it cased with stone, and per-
haps surrounded with a row of pillars : on all these we
find an aewaria branch planted ; which, after taking root.
and shooting out its cluster of leaves, gives the semblance
of the spire and its spreading termination.* In short,
the monumental tombs of Buddha's rehcs only differ in
size, and in the durability of their materials, from the
humble heap which covers the ashes of an obscure priest
or village chief. The tomb of Alyattes, as described by
Herodotus, and which he informs us as a monument of
art was only second to the remains in Egypt and Babylon,
appears to have been of the same form as the sepulchral
mounds of the Buddhists. In material and construci^ion
* Called Kot by the Cingalese, and Tee by the Siamese.
214 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
the dagobas of Anuradliapoora far exceed the tomb of
Alyattes, and fully equal it m size. All the dagobas at
Anuradhapoora were built of brick, and incrusted with a
preparation of lime, coco-nut water, and the glutinous
juice of a fruit which grows on a tree called by the
natives Paragaha. This preparation is of a pure white ;
it receives a polish nearly equal to marble, and is ex-
tremely durable. The EuwanwelH-saye, one of these
monuments of peculiar sanctity, was built by the King
Dootoogaimoonoo ; but the spire being unfinished at the
time of his death, b.c. 140, it was completed by his
brother and successor, Saidatissa. It stands in the centre
of an elevated square platform, which is paved with large
stones of dressed granite, each side being about 500 feet
in length, and surrounded by a fosse seventy feet in
breadth ; the scarp, or sides of the platform, is sculptured
to represent the fore-parts and heads of elephants, pro-
jecting and appearing to support the massive super-'
structure to which they form so appropriate an ornament.
In the embanliment surrounding the fosse, a pillar, deep
sunk in the earth, still projects sixteen feet above the
surface, and is four feet in diameter ; this stone is believed
to have been removed from the spot where the dngoba
now stands, and that it once bore an inscription and
prophecy, which in a superstitious age no doubt caused
its own fulfilment. The prediction ran, that at the place
where this stone stood, a superb dagoba of 120 cubits*
in height would be reared by a fortunate and pious
monarch.
Dootoogaimoonoo, during his last illness, caused him-
self to be conveyed near to this monument of his piety ;
and when all hopes of completing the spire during his
lifetime were at an end, his brother had the model of it
made of light timber : this placed on the dome, and
covered with cloth, satisfied the anxious wish of the
expiring king. The jilace to which Dootoogaimoonoo
was conveyed is a large granite slab surrounded with
piUars ; near this a stone, hollowed out in the shape of a
man's body, is shown as the bath which he used when
suffering from the bite of a venomous snake.
On the stone pavement which surrounds the Ruwan-
* Carpenter's ciabit, t^vo feet three inches.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 215
-welli-saye lie? the broken statue of the King Bdtiyatissa,
who reigned from b.o. 19 until a.d. 9, and appears to
have been one of those persevering zealots who " hope to
merit heaven by making earth a heU : " the marks of his
Jmees worn in the granite pavement are pointed out as
memorials of superior piety, and certainly, if j,uthentic,
bear lasting testimony to the importunity of his prayers
or the sincerity of his devotions. It is recorded of this
king that by supplication he obtained pivine assistance
to enable him to open the underground entrance into the
interior cell of this temple; and that he succeeded in
entering and worshipping the many relics of Buddha
which it contained. In the thirteenth century, M^ga, a
ioreign invader, instead of faith, employed force : he
'broke into the sanctum, plundered its treasures, pulled
down the temples around RuwanweUi, and ruined its
dAgoba, which was originally 270 feet in height, but is
now a conical mass of bricks overgrown with brushwood,
and 189 feet high. Sanghatissa placed a pinnacle of
glass on the spire of EuwanweUi, as the author of the
Mahawanso says, " to serve as a protection against light-
ning." Sanghatissa reigned four years, and was poisoned
in A.D. 246. The Mahawanso was written between
A.D. 459 and 477, and shows .that the non-conducting
property of glass with regard to the electric fluid had
jbeen remarked previous to that period.
At a considerable distance, from the outer enclosure of
the dagoba the priest pointed out to me a stone slab
twelve and a half feet long by nine and a half feet broad,
which is supposed to cover the secret entrance by which
the pious king, as well as the ruthless . invader, gained
-admittance to the interior of the Ruwanwelli-saye. A
SevT weeks previously to our visit, the late high-priest, an
albino, had died at a very advanced age : he had been
long known by the appellation of the White Priest of
Anurd,dhapoora; and his senior pupil, who accompanied
me in exploring the ruins, aspifed to succeed his master.
I was then along with the agent of the district, through
whose recommendation he expected to be appointed;
therefore no spot was so sacred, and no secret so precious,
but that it might be commimicated to me. The aspirant
■became high-priest, and ever after denied to European
-visitors aU knowledge of the secret entrance to--this menu-
216 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
ment, as well as several other places of peculiar sanctity ;.
neither could it be brought to his unwilling remembrance
that he had ever known them himself, or pointed them
out to any one. The history of this building, its tradi-
tions, the list of offerings made to the relics enshrined
within it, and the splendour of its external appearance,
are recorded at length ; but its chronicle contains so-
much exaggeration in regard to the number of the offer-
ings, and so little variety of events, that the specimen
already given may perhaps be considered more than
sufficient, and will be my excuse for not dilating on the
history of other buildings, of which only similar facts are
written, and similar dull details have been preserved.
Toophdramaya, although inferior to many in size, yet
far exceeds any dagoba in Ceylon, both in elegance and
unity of design, and in the beauty of the minute sculp-
tures on its tall, slender, and graceful columns; this
ddgoba is low, broad at the top, and surrounded by four
lines of pillars, twenty-seven in each line, fixed in the
elevated granite platform so as to form radii of a circle of
which the monument is the centre. These pillars are
twenty-four feet in height, with square bases, octagonal-
shafts, and circular capitals ; the base and shafts, fourteen
inches in thickness, and twenty-two feet in length, are
each of one stone ; the capitals are much broader than
the base, and are highly ornamented. Toophiiramaya was
built over the collar-bone of Gautama, when it was
brought from Maghada in the reign of Dewenepeatissa,
B.c; 307 ; and the ruins of a building which adjoins it
received the Dalada relic when it arrived in Ceylon,.
A.i>. 309.
Lankardmaya was erected in the reign of Mahasen,
between a.d. 276 and a.d. 302 ; it is in better preserva-
tion, but much inferior in effect to the Toophdrdmaya,
from which the design of the building is copied.
The Abhayagiri ddgoba, built by the King Walagam
Bahoo, between the period of his restoration to the throne-
B.c. 88, and his death b.c, 76, was the largest ever erected
in Ceylon : it was 405 feet* in height ; and the platform-
on which it stands, as weU as the fosse and surrounding
wall, are proportionately extensive. The height of thie-
* 180 Cingalese carpenter's cubits.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 217
min is now 230 feet, and the length of the outer wall
one nule arid three quarters; the whole of the building,
except a few patches near the summit, is covered with
thick jungle and high trees, even where the interstices
of the pavement, composed of large granite slabs, were
all that yielded nourishment to the trees or secured their
roots.
The Jaitawanard,maya was commenced by the King
Mahasen, and completed by his successor, Kitsiri Maiwan,
A.D. 310 : its height was originally 315 feet,* and its
ruins are stiU 269 feet above the surrounding plain. A
gentleman, who visited Anuradhapoora ia 1832, calcu-
lated the cubic contents of this temple at 456,071 cubia
yards; and remarked that a brick wall, twelve feet in
height, two feet in breadth, and upwards pf ninety-seven
miles in length, might be constructed with the still re-
maining materials. Even to the highest pinnacle the
Jaitawanaramaya is encompassed and overspread by trees
and brushwood ; these are the most active agents of ruin
to the ancient buildings of Ceylon, as their increasing
roots and towering stems, shaken by the wind., overturn
and displace what has' long resisted, and would have
slowly yielded before time and the elements.
Dtiring our stay at Anurddhapoora, a Kandian lady
presented a petition to the agent of Government, request-
ing his interference on behalf of her son, who was detained
as a State prisoner for having been implicated in the re-
bellion of 1817-18. She stated that he was her only son,
and that the large family estates were now ravaged and
laid waste by wild animals'; that in this remote district^
for want of his superintendence, the tanks for irrigation
were neglected, and cultivation was rapidly decreasing ;
moreover, that he was the hereditary guardian of the
sacred edifices of this ancient capital, and that in his ab-
sence the buildings and temples were neither protected nor
repaired, the revenues being either misappUed by the
priests, or appropriated to their own use. The old lady
also alluded to the antiquity of their family, whose ances-
tor, she said, had accompanied the branch of the sacred
tree from Patalipoora,! b.c. 307. On inquiring, I found
that the very remote antiquity of this family was acknow-
» 140 carpenter's cuMts. t The modem Patna.
218 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
ledged by the jealous chiefs of the mountain districts; and
I conld not help feeling an interest in the last scion of a
race whose admitted ancestry reached far beyond the line-
age of Courtenay, or the descent of Howard.
This chief soon afterwards obtained permission to visit
his estates ; and at a subsequent period, having assisted in
securing the pretender to the Kandian throne (who had
been secreted since 1818 in this part of the country), he
was not only permitted to return to his estate, but was
reinstated in office as chief of the district. Although not
a clever man, his appearance and manners were diguified
and gentlemanlike : he died in 1837, leaving a family to
continue the race, and bear the dignified appellation of
Surya Kumara Singha (descended from a prince of the
solar and the lion race).
The system of adoption in the Kandiau law, renders the
continuation of a particular family much more probable
than in any country where such a proceeding is unknown,
or unsanctioned by fixed institutions or all-powerful cus-
tom. In Kandian law, a child adopted in infancy (and
born to parents of equal rank with the person who adopted
the infant) has the same right of inheritance both to titles
and estates as if the actual child of the person who had
become its guardian, and who, after a public adoption, was
called and considered the father. In general, the children
adopted were selected from the nearest relations of the
person, who determined through this means to prevent all
risk of being without children to watch his declining years,
and inherit his family estates. Several of the highest rank
of Kandian chiefs pretend to trace the descent of their
families from those natives of Maghada who accompanied
Mihindoo and the relics of Buddha from the continent in
the fourth century before Christ. Two families claim
descent from Upatissa, a minister of state, an interim
king for one year, b.o. 505 ; and one of these, who main-
tained his right by inheritance to the name which he bore
(Upatissa), produced to me a bos containing a quantity of
dust, and some minute frail shreds of tissue, which, he
said, were the remams of a dress worn by his royal and
somewhat remote ancestor. I have only seen a few written
genealogies of Cingalese chiefs, and, in following them,
found wider and more startling gaps than anj' I had been
accustomed to leap over in a backward trace to the pro-
The Ancient Capital, Anuraclliapoora. 219
genitor of some individuals who figure in the modern
British peerage.
Amidsj; the ruins of the palace stand six square pillars
supporting some remains of a cornice ; feach of these pillars
is formed of a single stone, eighteen feet in length and
three in breadth. There also is the stone canoe made by
order of King Dootoogaimoonoo in the second century before
Christ, to hold the liquid prepared for the refection of the
priests ; it measures sixty-three feet in length, three and a
half feet in breadth, and two feet ten inches in depth. "With-
in the precincts of the royal buildings, projecting from the
mould, and half-covered by the roots of a tree, a stone
trough, from which the State elephants .drank, recalled to
mind the history of King Elloona, and the busy, turbulent
scenes enacted in bygone ages within those walls, where
now the growl of the elephant, the startling rush of wild
hog and deer, the harsh screams of peacock and toucan,
increase the solemn but cheerless feelings inspired by a
gloomy forest waving o'er a buried city.
Elloona having murdered his cousin, the Queen Singha
Wallee, became King of Ceylon, a.d. 88, and was soon after
imprisoned by* his rebellious subjects: the queen, in des:
pair, caused her. infant son to be dreSsed in his most costly
robes, and ordered the nurse to place him at the feet of
the State elephant, tiiat the child might be killed, and
escape the indignities inflicted on the monarch. Tlje
nurse did as she was commanded; but the elephant (with-
out hurting the young prince) broke his chain, rushed
through the guards, threw down the gates, and forced his
way to the royal captive, who got on his back, and, rushing
through the streets of the capital, escaped in safety to the
sea-coast. From thence he embarked for the Malaya
country: having raised an army there, he returned to
Ceylon, and regained his kingdom after ?in absence of three
years. Elloona recognized with affectionate joy the animal
that had been the means of saving his hfe : and several
villages were appointed to furnish food and attendants to
the royal elephant during the remainder of his life.
The Isuramuni Wihare (a temple partly cut in the rock),
the Saila Chytia (a small' monument built on a spot where
Buddha had tested himself), and the tomb of Elala, are
amongst the ruins visited by the pious pilgrims. Elala
was a successful invader who conquered Ceylon, b.c. 204,
220 Ceylon in the Jxibilee Year.
by means of an army which he led from Sellee (Tanjore)..
The Cingalese princes who possessed the southern and
mountainous parts of the island as tributaries becoming
powerful, Elala built thirty-two forts to protect the level
country on the south against then* incursions ; these forts-
were taken in succession by the Prince Dootoogaimoonoo,
who finally encountered his rival in single combat, and
slew him with a javelin. They were each mounted on an.
elephant, and as the battle was preceded by a challenge,
both the leaders fought under the insignia of royalty : on
the spot where Elala fell, Dootoogaimoonoo erected a
monument and pillar, on which there was inscribed a,
prohibition against any one passing this tomb in any con-
veyance, or with beating of drums. Elala is described,
even by the Buddhist historians, as being a good ruler and
valiant warrior ; he must have been an old man when he
encountered Dootoogaimoonoo, having reigned for forty-
four years after completing the conquest of Ceylon : his
death occurred b.c. 161. Time has hallowed the monu-
ment which it has failed to obscure, and the ruined tomb
of an infidel is now looked upon by many Buddhist pil-
grims as the remnant of a sacred edifice : although twenty
centuries have elapsed since the death of Elala, I do not
believe that the injunction of his conqueror has ever been
disregarded by a native. In 1818, Pilame Talawe, the
head of the oldest Kandian family, when attempting to
escape after the suppression of the rebellion in which he
had been engaged, alighted from his litter, although weary
and almost incapable of exertion ; and not knowing the
precise spot, walked on until assured that he had passed
far beyond this ancient memorial.
Pilame Talawe was apprehended in this district, and
transported to the Isle of France ; from whence he was
allowed to return in 1830, and soon after died from the
effects of intemperance. He had narrowly escaped death
in 1812 for treason to the King of Kandy, as sentence had
been passed, and his father and cousin had already suffered,,
before he was brought prisoner to the city. The commence-
ment of a religious festival was the reason assigned at that
time for sparing his life ; although his slender abilities and
slothful habits are supposed to have been more powerful
arguments in favour of the king's granting mercy than the
supphcation of friends, or the intercession of the priests,.
The Ancient Capital, Anurddhapoora. 221
io whom it was apparently conceded. Pilame Talawe was
the last of the direct branch of that family which exercised
the privilege of girding on the royal sword at the inaugura-
tion of the Kandian monarchs.
Besides eight large tanks at Anurddhapoora, there are
several of a smaller size built round with hewn stooe ; and
in the side of one of these a priest pointed out apartments,
cells which, he said, had been occupied by priests as places
for contemplation when religion flourished and the tanks
were full : one of these cells, which we examined, proved
to be formed of five slabs, and its dimensions were twelve
feet in length, eight feet in breadth, and five feet in height;
the lowest stone, or floor of the cell, must have been nearly
on a level with the water in the tank. We also saw many
wells built round with stone ; one very large one near the
Euwanwelli-saye is circular, and the size diminishes with
each course of masonry, so as to form steps for descending
to the bottom in any direction.
Near the footpath leading to the Jaitawanardmaya lies
a vessel ornamented with pilasters cut in rehevo; it is
formed out of a single granite stone, and is ten feet long,
six feet wide, and two feet deep. It was used to contain
food for the priests.
The following is translated from an ancient native
account of Anuradhapoora : —
" The magnificent city of Amirddhapoora is refulgent
from the numerous temples and palaces whose golden
pinnacles glitter in the sky. The sides of its streets are
strewed with black sand, and the middle is sprinkled with
white sand ; they are spanned by arches * bearing flags of
gold and silver ; on either side are vessels of the same
precious metals, containing flowers ; and in niches are
statues holding lamps of great value. In the streets are
mtiltitudes of people armed with bows and arrows ; also
men powerful as gods, -who with their huge swords could
cut in sunder a tusk elephant at one blow. Elephants,
horses, carts, and myriads of people are constantly passing
and repassing : there are jugglers, dancers, and musicians
of various nations, whose chanque- shells and other musical
* Arches formed of areka-trees split and bent, or of some other
pliable wood, were always used in decorating entrances and public
buildings on days of ceremony or rejoicing ; but I haVe never seen an
arch of masonry in any Cingalese building of great antiquity.
222 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
instruments are ornamented with gold. The distance from
the principal gate to the south gate is four gaws (sixteen
miles) ; and from the north gate to the south gate four
gaws : the principal streets are Chandrawakka-widiya, *
Eajamaha-widiya, f Hinguruwak-widiya, and Mahawelli-
widiya. J In Chandrawakka-widiya are 11,000 houses,
many of them being two storeys in height ; the smaller
streets are innumerable. The palacie has immense ranges
of building, some of two, others of three storeys in height;
and its subterranean apartments are of great extent."
With the exception of the four principal streets, the
others were built of perishable materials, and were named
fr'om the separate classes which inhabited them. The
Chandalas (scavengers and corpse-bearers) resided beyond
the limits of the city ; yet it was a girl of this caste that
Prince Sali, only son of Dootoogaimoonoo, married, and
chose rather to resign all chance of succession to the throne
than to part from his beauteous bride. The detailed
account of Prince Siili's romantic attachment to Asoka
MaUa is probably less correct than a tradition preserved in
Kotmalia, viz., that Soli's mother was not of the royal
race, but a woman of the Goyawanza (cultivator class),
with whom Dootoogaimoonoo formed a connection at the
time he was a fugitive in the mountainous district of Kot-
malia, to which place he had fled to avoid the effects of his
father's anger, and by which act he acquired the epithet of
Dootoo, or the Disobedient, prefixed to his own name of
Gaimoonoo. Dootoogaimoonoo forgave his son, and ad-
mired the bride ; but appointed his brother, Saida-tissa,
as successor to the throne, that the Mahawanzae (great
solar dynasty) might be preserved in all its purity.
The great extent of Anurd,dhapoora, covering within its
walls a space of 256 square miles, will not give any just
grounds on which to estimate the extent of its population;
as tanks, fields, and even forests are mentioned as being
within its limits. The number and magnitude of the tanks
and temples constructed by the Kings Dootoogaimoonoo,
who reigned from b.c. 164 to b.c. 140, Walagam-bahoo,
who reigned from b.c. 89 to b.c. 77, and Mahasen, who
reigned from a.d. 275 to a.d. 802, are the best vouchers
for the numerous popiilation whicli at these periods existed
■ ilooD Street. f Great King Street.
*^ GrL^t Sandy Street, or from tlie lUver JIabawclli-gauga.
The Ancient Capital, Amirddliapoorar 223^
in Ccylou ; j'et, as the tanks at least were formed by forced
labour, we cannot rate the wealtli of the nation by the
extent of its monuments. The public works of Prakrama-
balioo the First, who reigned from a.d. 1153 to 1186, prove
that even then Ceylon had a much more numerous popula-
tion than it now possesses ; and Cingalese accounts of
that period state the number of males, exclusive of chil-
di-en, as amounting to 3,420,000. This number may be,
and probably is, overrated ; but let those who doubt that
an immense population formerly existed in Ceylon com-
pare the prodigious bulk of the ancient monuments of
Auur;!dliapoora, Miigam, and Polannarrua, with those
erected by later kings of the island ; then let them com-
pare singly the remains of the Kalaa tank," the Kaudela
tank, ! or manj' others, with any or all the public works
accomplished in Ceylon for the last 500 years. In con-
structiu.u' the immense embankments of these artificial
lakes, labour has been profusely, often, from want of
science, uselessly expended ; as I believe many of these
great tanks, which are now in ruins, would, if repaired,
be found inapplicable to the purposes of irrigation for
which they were designed : that is, the extent of plain
which could be cultivated by means of these reservoirs
would be of less value than the sums ^vhich it would be
requisite to expend in repairing ;i 1 maintaining the
embankments.
In Anuriidhapoora, the only sacred buildings of modern
date are a few small temples erected on the foundations
and from the materials of former structures ; they are
supported by wooden pillars, which, even in the same
building, present a great variety of capitals, and perfect
defiance of proportion. These mean temples, with their
walls of clay and paltry supports, form a striking contrast
to the granite columns, massive foundations, and stone
rillars which still stand, or lie scattered in endless pro-
in.sion amidst the ruined heaps and proud remains oi
lormer ages. They serve to prove that Luddhisni only
'■lings with loosening grasp where it once held bOvercigL
av over mind and matter.
In September, 1832, 1 again proceeded to Aum-idji" .oora.
The Kalaa t .nil v>-as completed befoie \.i'. 177.
' The Kaiilela tank is now an extensive plain 1/ttweeu ytr
i ndsly.
^24 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
"through Dambool, Manawewa, Kagamma, near which
are tibe rains of the Nakha (finger-nail) ddgoba, and
Tirapan. In several places, when we approached within
twenty miles of the city, we perceived great heaps of
stones on the road-side: they were intended to com-
memorate events which are long since forgotten ; but,
nevertheless, every pilgrim adds a stone to these nameless
<jaims. About ten miles from Anuradhapoora, I sat down
on the rocky bank of a very small pond in the Colon-oya
forest : soon after, a native trader came up, and pointed to
a spot near me, from whence, he said, his companion, only
-a few days before, had been dragged by a crocodile ; the
unfortunate man, while resting here during the heat of
the day, had fallen asleep close to the water, and in this
state was seized by the reptile. My informant, having
procured assistaiice from a village some miles off, had
attempted to recover the body of his cpmpanion ; but was
unsuccessful, as it was founql that the pond communicated
with an underground cavern. I emerged from this forest
xipon the plains around the Nuwarawewa (city lake),
which at this time cpntalned but a little water in detached
pools; these- were surrounded, almost covered, by a won-
drous assemblage of creatures, from the elephant and
buffalo, pelican, flamingo, and peacock, crocodile, and
cobragoya, down through innumerable varieties of the
animated creation : in the background, the crumbling
spires of Anurddhapoora appeared over the wooded em-
bankment of this artificial lake. I had supplied myself
and my followers with abundance of pea-fowl, which
were to be met with in numbers at every open space
where watei; was to be found ; and, on first entering one
of these glades, I have seen twenty of them within a
space of 100 yards in diameter. Pea-fowl are naturally
wary ; and if it is a place where they have been occai-
sionally [disturbed, it requires great caution to ensure
getting near enough to shoot them. The morning is the
best time for pea-fowl shooting, as in the evening they
keep near the edge of the jungle, and in the forenoon
they retire to some thick dark copse, generally over-
hanging water, and there rest during the heat of the day ;
it is at this time that the natives, who never throw away
a shot, usually kill them at roost.
Since my former visit in 1828, all the dagobas had
Visit to Kandy. 225
suffered some diminution, in consequence of the heavy
rains which had fallen in January, 1829 ; and the whole
of the Abhayagiri had been cleared from jungle by a
priest, whose zeal in the difficult and dangerous task had
been nearly recompensed with martyrdom, a fragment of
the spire having fallen on and severely injured this pious
desecrater of the picturesque. The season had been pai*-
ticularly dry, and the foliage of- those trees which grew
on rocky ground presented all the variety of an Enghsh
autumn; however, the change of the monsoon was ap-
proaching, and heavy rain fell during the night of my
arrival. At daybreak next morning I ascended on the
ruins of Mirisiwettiya, and found the forest-plains of this
district shrouded by mist and rising clouds ; but, —
" Thougn the loitering vapour braved
The gentle hreeze, yet oft it waved
Its mantle's dewy fold,"
and magnified forms of mount -like sepulchres were
shadowed on the drear expanse. As the sun arose behind
the rock of Mehintalai, the " silver-mist " was dissipated
in small clouds, or fell in glittering drops : all was damji
vast, and silent, as if the waves of oblivion had only u6»
rolled back from the tombs of antediluvian giants; and
the half-formed rainbow, which glanced amid these moflid
meuts, was the first which had brightened the earth, ofe
gladdened the remnants of a perished race.
[Xo. II.— CHAPTEE XIII.]
VISIT TO KANDY.*— MORAL LAWS OF
GAUTAMA BUDDHA.
The rifled urn, the violated mound. — BiT.OK.
.\.bitain from all sin, aciuiro all virtue, repress thine own heart ;
this is IJudJha's injunction.
Tenets of Buddhism, by Kitulgamma Unnaxse.
In- the mouth of May, 1828, I proceeded to Kandy, and
witnessed that brilliant Buddhibt festival, the exhibition
*I"or thi; laie-t account of Kandy sc: Dunows' "Guide," pub-
ii'-)iud by A. M. Ol J. I'eryu-ion.
IG
226 Ceylon in .the Jubilee Year.
of the Dalada (tooth of Buddha) ; an expiring blaze of
the ancient worship of Ceylon, whose beams even then
gleamed flickering and unstable, and will suddenly sink
in darkness, or surely and gradually fade before a brighter
light. From one district, at least, I - know the. numbers
who attended at this Dalada Puja were procured by com-
pulsion more than attracted by devotion ; and that it was
the dread of present punishment, not the hope of spiritual
benefit, by which they were collected. I anticipate that
Buddhism, shorn of its splendour, unaided by authority,
and torn by internal dissension, will not long have power
to retain even its present slight control over the actions
of its votaries by the mere excellence of its moral laws,
and that it will fall into disuse before Christianity is
prepared to step into its place, which for a time will be
occupied by those vile superstitions and demon-worship
to which the Cingalese are so prone.
Fifty-three years had elapsed since the King Kirti Sri
had openly displayed the reho ; and from the revolutions
which had since taken place in the country, but few
people remembered the ceremony, and still fewer had
seen the Dalada, which they believed to be the most
^acred thing on earth, and that only to see it proved their
"omjer merits by their present good fortune.
On the 29th of May, ] 828, the three larger oases having
•eviously been removed, the relic contained in the three
aer caskets was^ placed on the back of an elephant
richly caparisoned : over it was the Bansiwige, a small
octagonal cupola, the top of which was composed of
alternate plain and gilt silver plates, supported by silver
pillars. When the elephant appeared coming out of the
temple-gate, two lines of magnificent elephants, forming
a double line in front of the eiitrance, knelt down and
thus remained; while the multitude of people, joining
the points, of their fingers, raised their arms above their
heads, and then bent forward, at the same time uttering
in full, deep tones the shout of " Sadhu : " this, joined and
increased by those at a distance, swelled into a grand and
solemn sound of. adoration. The elephant bearing the
relic, followed by the establishments of the temples with
their elephants, also those of the chiefs; after proceeding
through the principal streets of the town, returned to the
great bungaloe : here the first Adikar removed the "telic
Vinit to Kandy. 227
from the back of the elephant, and conveyed it to the
temporary altar on which it was to be exhibited. The
rich hangings were now closed around the altar, and the
three 'inner cases opened in presence of Sir Edward
Barnes, the Governor. The drapery being again thrown
open, disclosed the tooth placed on a gold lotns-flower,
which stood on a silver table : this was covered with
the different cases of the relic, variona gold articles and
antique jewellery, the offerings of former devotees.
Whether prompted by their own feelings, or impelled
by more weighty reasons to attend at this exhibition, still
the relic was evidently an object of intense veneration to
all the assembled Buddhists, and by those of the Kandian
provinces it is considered the palladium of their country ;
they also believe the sovereign power of £he island is
attached to its possessors. It is a piece of discoloured
ivory, slightly curved, nearly two inches in length, and
one inch in diameter at the base ; from thence to the
other extremity, which is rounded and blunt, it consider-
ably decreases in size. The Dalada, as we find in very
ancient details of its adventures, was discoloured, when it
arrived in Ceylon : that a relic of Gautama should i?**s
or decay was at the time urged as an argument agf >nsr
its authenticity; but a miracle settled the dispute, •
silenced sceptics.
The sanctuary of this relic is a small chamber in ti;
temple attached to the palace of the Eandian kings ; and
there the six cases in which it is enshrined are placed on
a silver table hung round with rich brocades. The largest
or outside cover of these carandus (caskets) is five feet in
height, formed of silver gilt, and shaped in the form of a
dagoba : ''' the same form is preserved in the five inner
cases, which are of gold ; two of them, moreover, being
inlaid with rubies and other precious stones. The outer
case is decorated with many gold ornaments and jewels,
which have been offered to the relic, and serve to em-
bellish its shrine. In front of the silver altar on which
the tooth was exposed a plain table was placed ; to this
the people approached one at a time, and having seen the
Dalada and deposited their gifts, they prostrated them-
selves, then passed on and made room for others. The
* The bell-shaped buildings raised over the relies of Buddha.
228 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
offerings consisted of tilings the most heterogeneous:
gold chains and gold ornaments : gold, silver, and copper
coins of all denominations; cloths, priest's vestments,
flowers, sugar, areka-nuts, betel-leaves. The Dalada was
exhibited and the offerings continued for three duccessive
days. On the second day some >retched spiscimens of
the science of defence were exhibited before the Governor,
both with fists and aldo with wooden swords and targets :
on the fourth night there was a display of native fire-
works, weU-made and skilfully managed. T^^ight and day,
without intermission, during the continuance of this
festival, there was kept up a continual din of tom-toms,
and sounding of Kandian pipes and chanque-shells. The
Eandian pipe is a musical instrument in poorer and
melody neatly resembling a penny whistle: but the
chanque is a shell with a mouth-piece attached, and,
under the influebce of powerful lungs, is a most efBcient
instrument for producing a noise which was called music ;
its tones varying between the bellowings of a chained
bull and the howling of a forsaken dog. *I presume the
natives ponsider these sounds peculiarly adapted for their
sacred music, as such instruments are to be found in all
Iiftnples, and may be heard at all hours, to the dire annoy-
^hce of any European who attempts to sleep in their
eighbourhood.
The principal temporary building was 250 feet in length,
i proportionate breadth, and supported by six lines of
pillars. It was under this that the tooth was exhibited ;
and the whole was ornamented with palm-branches,
plantain-trees, fruit, and flowers : so gracefully were these
disposed, that the columns in the variety of their decora-
tions, and some even in unity of effect, presented combi-
nations which, if transferred to stone, would rival any
specimen of elaborate Corinthian architecture. In the
brilhant pageantry of this festival, the rich altar and
resplendent ornaments of the relic, the great ' size and
elegant decorations of the temporary buildings, the pecu-
liar and picturesque dresses of the chiefs, the majestic
elephants, and dense mass of people, threw an air of
imposing grandeur over the spectacle, to which the old
temples, sacred trees, and the wild and* beautiful scenery
around the Kandian capital formed an appropriate land-
scape. These combinations were rendered still more
Visit to Kandy. 229
impressive by the disturbed state of the elements ; for an
extraordinary gloom and tempestuous weather continued
during the whole time of the exhibition, and the torrents of
rain which fell at that time caused the loss of many Uves,
and destroyed much property, in various parts of the
island.
A * * * * - *
The town of Eandy is judiciously planned, and the
present regular arrangement of the streets was marked
out by the Adikars under the direction of the king ; the
streets all run in straight lines, but do not cross at right
angles. It is situated on an angular piece of ground,
with the base resting on two lakes which were formed by
the late king. The buildings remaining from the time of
the native dynasty are several temples of Buddha and
two colleges, at one of which every Kandian priest ought
to be ordained : there are also temples to the gods N4ta,
Vishnu, Katragamma, and the goddess Fatine ; bat there
is nothing worthy of remark either in their architecture or
decorations.
In the audience-hall, now used as a court-house, are
some well-carved pillars of halmila wood : the trees f^^
which they were formed were cut and squared ne
Nalande ; from thence they were dragged over a hill
country, and up a steep laduntain, the whole distant^
being upwards of thirty miles. The other' remains o.
the palace and buildings inhabited by the royal establish
ment were, without exception, mean, and equally destitute
of internal comfort and external beauty ; the most striking
object is a low octagonal tower with a peaked roof, from
a balcony in which the king exhibited himself on occa-
sions of public festivity.
Wikrama Baboo the Third, who reigned from a.d. 1371
to A. D. 1378, was the first monarch who settled himself even
temporarily at Kandy, then called, from a large rock
which projects from the hill above the old palace, Sen-
gadda-gaUa-nuvara ; but it did not become the permanent
capital of the interior until the reign of Wimala Dharma,
which commenced a.d. 1592, and it continued the chief
city until the native Government fell before the British
power in 1815.
The bariiil-ground of the Kandian kings cannot be
viewed without exciting reflections on the revolutions
230 Ceylon in the JvbiUe Year.
which alike oGcnr to "man's estate and the most ancient
monarchies^ Ere the last of one of the longest lines of
kings which authentic history records had so far expiated
his crimes, and received his measure of earthly retribation
for the cruelties he had inflicted, by suffering a long im-
prisonment and an exile's death, the solid tombs of his
predecessors were ransacked by the hands of avarice, or
riven in sunder and ruined by liie swelling roots of saqped
trees. This hallowed spot, where the funeral piles were
raised, the last grand solemn rites performed, and the last
of earthly pomp and splendour was shown to the remains
" of the race of the sun " and the rulers of the land, is
now a wilderness, where discay revels and rushes rapidly
on beneath . dank vegetation and a' gloomy shade. The
tomb of Baja Singha, the tyrant who reigned during
Knox's captivity in the seventeenth century, was nearly
perfect, and preserved its shape in May, 1828; that of
Eirti Sri was then entire. In 1837 the former was a
heap of rubbish, from which the stones hald been removed ;
and the beautiful proportions, even the general form of
the latter, could no longer be traced. Hopes of plunder
cr .unmeaning iwantonness, at the time when Eandy was
'tfered by Uie British, precipitated the fate of these
•numents : neglected as they now are, there is nothing
atard it ; and a few years will show, mingled in one
<mon ciionld, the crumbling wreck of the tombs and
^ust of their royal tenants.
During the continuance, of the Dalada festival, the
priests of Buddha, in different communities, headed by
the seniors of their establishments, seemed to thiak it
incumbent upon them to perambulate the town with their
begging dishes, and to go through the ceremony of re-
ceiving alms. These parties moved on slowly with their
fans before their faces, occasionally halting to receive
whatever food was offered to them, but not asking for it.
It appeared to me that this was evidently more of a tem-
porary penance than a regular practice, although to live
by alms is enjoined by the rules of their order. Their
sleek faces and sly looks alsoj^oke of better fare procured
elsewhere with less trouble and more certainty than wan-
dering in heavy rain through Eandy, and waiting for '
supplies from the more de^put portion of those professing
the Buddhist religion.
Kandian Featicals. 231
[No. in.— CHAPTEB XI*^.]
KANDIAN FESTIVALS.
Besides the Dalada Pnja, which, as I have already stated,
was a raf e occnrrence, five annual festivals were celebrated
by the king and chiefe in Eandy, with all the pomp and
splendour that their circomstances could afford, or custom
allow l^em to extort from thbse nnder their control.
Although ordained for religion, and in honour of the gods,
the festdvals were also, a ^ource of profit to the native
kings, and a cherished rule of their policy. As the chiefs
were obUgei* to Mtend, their periodical visits enabled the
king to le;^ exactioAo on the estate, or to secure the
person of any influential or turbulent headman, who in
his own district might have braved the power of the king
and defied arrest These five festivals are still kept up ;
and although they are now only tolerated, not encouraged,
and without the show of regal state or compulsory attend-
ance, still the Peraherra is an imposing spectacle.
The festival of the New Year is in April, and at that
time the Cingalese indulge in the few amusements which
they enjoy, and in such luxuries as they can afQp^J
Before New Year's Day every individual procures ^
an astrologer a writing, fixing the fortunate hours of
approaching year on which to commence duties or eg
monies ; and to the most minute points of these insta»
tions he religiously adheres, believing that even an iif>
voluntary omission of any prescribed act at the appointed
moment would render hun liable to misfortunes. The
following is an abridgment, omitting the astrological lore,
of one of the aainual documents, prepared for my benefit
by the astrologer of Mdtale, who also took care to inform
me of all eclipses, and to give me special instructions-
in writing how to avoid those misfortunes which they
might occasion. " The emblem of the approaching year
will be a red lion seated erection a horse, and proceeding
from tm aperture resembling the mouth of a horse ; this
will be &t the commencement of the year, nine hours and
fifty-four minutes after sunset : at this fortunate moment
milk should be boiled at each of the four sides of the
house." Next day I was directed to look to the north
while dimbulJeaves were suspended over my head, and
23^ Ceylon in the Jubilee Yeat.
with kolon-leaves placed under my feet; then, ha^g
anointed myself with different juices and aromatic drags,
I was to dress myself in perfumed clothes of red, white,
and blue colours ; then to look to the south, and cause fire
to be lighted and cooking to begin. On the second day,
at two hours and a half 4fter sunrise, I was to commence
eating victuals prepared with pounded salt and curdled
milk. At twenty-seven hours,=''= while looking to the e^st,
I was recommended to begin business by paying or receiving
money. The whole concluded with a prediction, ;that,
from the situation of the planets and other cogent reasons,
I might expect both good and evil to happen during the
year which' was about to commence.
The second festival was held in the month of May, and
was principally remarkable as being more essentially
Buddhist' than any of the others^ During this festival
such Samanairia priests as passed their examinations re-
ceiVed.upasampada (ordination).
The thii-d festival, called by pre-<eminence Peraherra
(the procession), commenced with the new. moon, and
continued until the fall moon in July; sometimes longer,
if the procession was interrupted by meeting with a dead
ddy of any animal, or any object considered unclean,
tie procession regularly increased ia, splendour every
Vht until the last; at which time itwSs very imposing,
^ the multitude of people, rich dresses, brilliant lights,
large elephants. The arms and other relics of th^
gods were carried, either, on elephants or in palaiiqnius;
and, on the last night, ^e casket contamg the. Dalada,
borne by an' elephant, accompanied the' procession to the
limits of the town, and rested at the QedigiS wihare, near
the tombs of the kings, whilst the remamder of the pro-
cession passed on to the Mahawelli-ganga at Ganorooa,
three miles from Eandy. There the four" Eapuralls of
the temples of Vishnu, Nata, Xatragamma, and £atine
embarked on' the river in ornamented canoes, and awaited
the first dawn of day ; then, drawing a circle in, the water
with their golden swords, they filled pitchers of holy
water from within the magic ring, and the procession re-
turned to the city. The different chiefs, of districts. Taisd
temples, with theii! elephants «nd folloit&iiS, were then
. t The Cingalese divide tl^e^ day intosi^ ho(iib'''ef';'Bixt; inlimtes
each.
Kandian Festivals. 233
permitted to return to their provinces : and there, at some
particular temples, the same procession on a limited scale
took place.
The fourth festival, called the Festival of Lamps, was
celebrated on the day before full moon in November : the
whole town was illuminated on this occasion; and the
immense number of niches alongside of the canal in front
of the palace, as well as in th^ side of the lake, being filled
with lamps, had a brilliant effect from the reflections in
the water.
The fifth festival was called the Festival of New Eice. '
It was held in January, and appears to have been intended
as a propitiatory ofl'eting at the commencement of the
maha (great) harvest; for the Cingalese, judging from
their own feelings, consider that an offering at the com-
mencement is more likely to secure favour than an ex-
pected thanksgiving at the end of an undertaking^
The gods to whom these processions are principally
dedicated are, Saman (Vishnu), Nata, Katragamma, and
the goddess Patine. Wibhisani, who is retained as a
god at KeUania and in the vicinity of Colombo, is never
heard of in Eandy. Vishnu is worshipped in his form
of Bamachandra, and his statues are painted blue. Of
Nata's history I could learn nothing with certainty ; his
statues are painted white. Katragamma is the same as
Kartickya (Mars), and has received the name by which
he is now worshipped in Ceylon from the place where his
principal temple is situated, which is at the village of
Katragamma, at the south-east of the island. He is more
feared than the other gods ; and'many of his votaries lose
their health, and even their lives, in a pilgrimage through
the unhealthy country which surrounds his malignant
shrine. His priests are Brahmins ; and in the rebellion
of 1818 they were the zealous assistants of the pretender
who called himself king, and was the puppet of. the rebel
chief Kaepitapola.
The goddess Patine is, I believe, the same as Durga,
and is invoked to protect her votaries firom small-pox.
Wibhigana was the brother of Eawana; and having
assisted Bama in his invasion of the island, was, on the
defeat/and death of Bawana, placed on the throne of
Ceylon, and reigned at Kellania.
To the list of gods the name of Mahasen (commonly
234 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
called Minneria-deyo) may be added, who, in the vicinity
of Minneria, and in several parts of Matale, where tem-
ples have been reared to him, maintains his reputation as
well as Vishnu or any of the more ancient and generally
acknowledged deities. As Mahasen is a name of Katra-
gamma as well as of the great Gingalese King, it is diffi-
cult to say whether these temples were originally dedicated
to him ; but I presume they were, and that King Mahasen
has no legitimate claim to deification. However, in the
temples of Mahasen the same warlike furniture may be
found as in those of other gods ; and the gigantic tanks
and bridges formed under his superintendence give him a
better claim to immortal gratitude than those who are
only known by name as kings, heroes and gods, although
they may have conferred similar benefits on earlier ages.
When Gautama Buddha visited Ceylon, Saman (Vishnu)
appears to have been particularly worshipped, also Eiswara
and Wibhisana ; and offerings were made to planets, an-
cestors, and demons.
The powers and attributes of the gods and demons of
the Cingalese are not well defined; there are vices and
crimes charged in the history of the gods, while the devils
seem to respect the virtues which they do not practise,
and their forbearance must be purchased by offerings and
propitiatory ceremonies. The wild and wooded nature of
the island, and the now thinly- scattered population, natu-
rally tend to superstition ; and it may be perceived by the
native histories, that when the country was most pros-
perous and populous, the Buddhist religion was maintained
in the greatest parity.
In the temples of the gods there is always some relic,
generally connected with arms, such as bows, spears, or
arrows ; and if any person wished to erect a temple, he,
by pretended inspiration, astrology, or other deception,
proceeded to discover, with much ceremony and mystery,
an arrow of the god, or some such rehc, which had been
hid in the spot selected for the building. The will of, the
god having been thus miraculously ascertained, the work
wap commenced; and, by permission of the king, land
might be dedicated to the establishment, and have the
same privileges as a Buddhist temple. The Eaporalls, or
priests of a god's temple, require no other qualification
than having sufficient cunning to dupe the superstitious)
Kandian Festivals. 235
and bodily strength enongh to enable them to go through
the violent exertions and vile contortions which they
exhibit, and denominate dancing and inspiration. The
performance of all these ceremonies is accompanied by
tom-toms, pipes, chanque-shells, halamba (hollow metal
rings), and other noises, which they denominate musical.
Over the principal temples are placed laymen of rank,
who have charge of the revenues and are guardians of the
relics ; these chiefs do not take any part in the laborious
exertions and insane excitement which, in this superstition,
are supposed to propitiate the spirit that is invoked.
I discovered a temple in M&tale to the Abudha Deiyo
(unknown god), + and found he was patron of secret villainy
(Mercury).
The images of the gods are only formed of plasty and
brick, neither is their workmanship or design worthy of
better materials ; and if this worship and its idols were to
disappear, the arts would have no cause to mourn, and
morality might rejoice at the extinction of an impure
superstition, which has much to debase and nothing to
elevate its votaries.
t Acts zvii. 23.
APPENDIX m.
CHRISTIANITY IN CEYLON.
Tennent say? in his " History of Ceylon " that " the
fanatical propagandism of the -Portuguese reared for
itself a monnment in the abiding and expanding influence
of the Eoman Catholic faith. This flourished in every
province and hamlet where it ' was implanted by the
Franciscans, whilst the doctrines of the Beformed Church
of Holland, never preached beyond the walls of the
fortresses, are now extinct throughout the island, with the
exception of ah expiring community at Colombo." This
latter Bta,tement is exaggerated; the Wolfendahl Dutch
Reformed Church in Colombo is a flourishing community,
albeit its services are in EngUsh, and its chaplain is
Irish Presbyterian. The same may be said of the Galle
Church, miljistered to by a parson of the Church of
Scotland, and there are also small bodies of adherents in
Jaffna and Matara. What made the Franciscans so suc-
cessful was their easy adaptation of the Roman Catholic
faith as a companion to, instead of opponent of. Buddhism,
and their giving long honorific Portuguese names to the
natives in baptism, which the latter gladly added to
their Sinhalese naines, retaining them for three centuries
to this day, though many of them now make no profession'
of any form of Christianity. When the Dutch seized the
maritime provinces,' many of the Portuguese with their
Roman Catholic priests settled in villages within the
territory of the Eandian king. Seven hundred of them in
this way at Ruanwela. No doubt much mixture of races
took place ; for even Dutch soldiers were permitted to
marry Sinhalese Tomen, provided the latter professed
Christianity in Ceylon. 237
Christianity. Money was readily paid by the Sinhalese
to both the Portuguese and Dutch for the privilege of
prefixing Don to their names.
The Roman Catholic Missions have prospered under the
tolerant British rale inCeylon, and they number by far the
largest body of Christians, the old Portuguese Mission
being lately transferred from the care of the Archbishop of
Goa to that of the newly- appointed Archbishop of Ceylon,
who has three, bishops under him at Colombo, Kandy, and
Jaffna. There is a large number of priests and teachers ;
and educational establishments (notably St. Benedict's)
are maintained at Colombo, as well as at Kandy and
Jaffna.
The Anglican Church has had a bishop of Colombo
since 1845, who has the oversight of the chaplains and
clergymen settled over regular English congregations as
well as of the agents of the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel, and in a less degree of the agents of the
Church Missionary Society. The latter have a Conference
of their own to settle the affairs and arrangements of
their Mission. But all branches of the Anglican Church
in the island have united through representatives to
support a Synod necessitated by the disendowment and
disestabUshment of both the Episcopal and Presbyterian
chaplains in Ceylon which was consummated between 1881
and 1886, the life claims of all incumbents in office before
the earlier year being reserved. ■ St. Thomas's College,
Colombo, is a very notable and useful educational insti-
tution in connection with the Anglican Church.
Our estimate of the number of Christians in Ceylon is
from 9 to 10 per cent of the total population, as follows :
Total population, viz., 2,900,000.
Total of Christians, about 290,000, distributed as follows :
The Bomanists with 220,000.
The Episcopalians with 25,000
The FreEbyteriana and Congregationalists with 14,000
The Wesleyans with . . . . . . . . 23,000
The Baptists with ■ '. 8,000
The whole Protestant commanity with ... 70,000
We are, however, most interested in the history and
238 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
operations of Evangelical Missions at work in Ceylon.
The Baptist Mission agents came first, arriving iii 1812;
the Wesleyans in 1814 ; the agents of the American
Home and Foreign Mission in 1816 ; and the Ghufch
Mission in 1818 ; while a number, of agents of General
Booth's Salvation Army under " Major" Tucker (formerly
Commissioner in the Indian Civil Service) arrived in
1885-6.
PRGGBESS OF MISSION WORK IN CEYLON.
I.— ^The work of the American Mission has been confined
to. stations in the densely-populated Jafha Peninsula,
where, a succession of godly, devoted men and women have
done an immense amount of good ; more of the agents of
this 8ocrety,.perhapB, than of any English Society have lived
and died among the Tamil people whom they had come,
from the tax West to instruct and evangelize. The work
done in female education has been especially valuable ;
while Dr. Green's Medical Class of native students, and
his compilations and translations of medical works into
TamU have been productive of great benefit to the whole
island. A Christian College, and Industrial Technical
Schools for the Jaffnese, are among the fruits of the
Mission. Among the honoured names of the agents are
Father and Mrs. Spaulding, Dr. Poor, Miss Agnew,
Messrs. and Mesdam^s Saunders, Smith, Howlands,
Hastings, &e. An interesting feature of this Mission is
the succession of father and son in carrying on the work.
IL — The history of The Ghukch Mission in Ceylon up to
1868 ia recorded in a little Jubilee Memorial volume by
BevI vT. I. Jones. The principal work of the Society has
been in the vicinity of Colombo and Cotta, in Sandy, in
the southern province at Baddegama, in Enranegala,
and itinerary work throughout the Central and parts of
the North- Western, North-Central, and Western provinces.
This refers to the Sinhalese Mission. The Tamil Mission
Las an agency in the Jaffna Peninsula. Churches and
cictngtegations with native pastors, boarding schools for
girls as well as boys, vernacular and EngUsh sehools, a
Progress of Mission Work in Ceylon. 239
Ckristian college, and theological and normal classes, all
form features of the Sinhalese and Tamil Missions as seen
in the present day ; and a large number of staunch Chris-
tian families at each station testify to the good work done
throngh the Church Missionary Society. All the native
pastors have their salaries provided through native Church
Councils, which receive a grant-in-aid from the Home
Committee of an annually diminishing amount, the
saving being given to evangehstie work. The Rev.
William Oakley, of this Mission, Uved and worked in
the island, without ever returning to England, for fifty-
two years, until his death as a retired missionary in
Nuwera Eliya in 1886. Much good literary and educa-
tional as well as evangelistic work has been done by Church
missionaries, especially in connection with the language ;
the names of Lambrick, Ward, Selkirk, Trimnell, Marsh,
Fenn, Jones, and Coles being famiUar in this connec-
tion. An interesting branch is the Tamil Coolie Mis-
sion, which is under the ministerial charge of Church
missionaries, with catechists and schoolmasteES, assisted
by a lay and undenominational committee from among the
planters and merchants, who are responsible for the funds,
all save the salaries of the missionaries, which are pro-
vided by the home committee. The cooUes on the estates
scattered aU over the hill country are the objects of the
Mission's teaching and care, and on many plantations
schools are opened for the instruction of the children.
Extracts from the Proceedings at ilie Annual Meetings, held
in 1881, of the Baptist and Wesley an Missionary Societies
in Ceylon.
ni — The Baptist MissioN.^The Chairman (Mr. J.
Ferguson) said they had now received the reports for the
three divisions of the Baptist Mission in Ceylon. They
were probably famihar with the districts to which those
reports referred. Mr. Waldock's district had its centre in
the neighbourhood of the Kelani river, while that of Mr.
Carter was situated on the largest river in the island, and
Mr. Pigott, apparently following up the inclination of the
Baptist Mission to work along great rivers, had gone up
to the headwaters of the Kelani and Kalu Gangas. The
Sabaragamu\ya district, as they knew, was part of the
240 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Mission Extension work that some years ago excited so
much interest. It. 'was very satisfactory to -feel now, that
the three Evangelistic missions (the Wesleyan, Church,
9Jid Baptist) cover the whole ground, at least in nominal
occupation, in South Ceylon, and supplement each other
in the , districts, they occupy. The Baptist Mission in
Sabaragamuwa and the Church Mission in Uva adjoin
each other, while the Wesleyan Mission, having gone
round the coast to Hambantota, has met with, the work of
its sister mission in Batticaloa, so that there is now no
large district without at least being visited by a Europea'n
missionary, and receiving attention from one -or other of
the three Evangelistic missions referred to.
In regard to the small accession of numbers reported, he
would call attention to one fact which should be remem-
bered, and which was stated on the authority of Sir
Emerson Tennent. who was a very close observer. Sir
Emerson, in giving evidence at home, stated that there
were no missionaries in Ceylon so rigid in making up their
returns of members as the Baptist missionaries. There-
fore, although the figures were small, they indicated a
much larger number of people under the influence of the
mission: He had occasion lately, in the course of his
daily work elsewhere, to look over some of the returns for
forty years back of that and other missions, and he found
tl^at in South Ceylon there were probably 11,000 people
under jbhe influence of the Church, Wesleyan, and Baptist
Missions about the year 1850. In 1860 that number had
increased to 14,000 ; and in 1870 to 18,000 ; while now
it could not be less than 25,000. About twenty years
ago in makmg up the returns, before the first^census was
taken, it was estimated that the total Protestant popula-
tion of Ceylon numbered 40,000. The census was taken
in 1871, and the calculations then made went on to show
that there were 54,000 Protestants, and there would be
much reason fbr disappointment if the census that is
shortly to be taken does not indicate that that number
had increased to 70,000.* No doubt 70,000 Protestant
Christians and 200,000 Boman Catholics would seem a
small number out of 2,750,000 — only ten j)er cent.,
• In the census of February, 1881, the Christian population is
given at 268,000 ; of whom 200,000 were probably Boman Catholics
and 68,000 Protestants.
Progress of Mission- Work in Ceylon. 241
biit if 'we compare this result with what has been done
in India — where the Christian population was not even
one per cent. — we ought, not only to feel satisfied,
but also most thankful for what has been accomplished.
The people of this island needed Christianity now as
much as in the time of Mr. Daniel, who said that the
more he saw of the Sinhalese idolaters, the more he
realized how correctly the 1st chapter of St. Paul's Epistle
to the Bomans described their condition. He was sure,
from the reports that had been read, that the work of the
Baptist Mission was one that would commend itself to the
sympathies and support of all present.
IV. — The Wesleyan Mission. — The Chairman (Mr. J.
Ferguson) said they had heard a clear and succinct
report. For nearly twenty-one years now, he had
watched the operations of the Wesleyan Mir<sion in South
Ceylon, and he had, during that time, been personally
acquainted with all the Society's local European agents,
and with a considerable number of the native agents,
including among the former the revered Messrs. Gogerly
and Spence Hardy. He had early formed a very high
opinion of the admirable system under which this Mission
in South Ceylon was organized and worked, and he hud
noted, year by year, the indefatigable labours of the mis-
sionaries for the good of the people and the furtherance of
a knowledge of the gospel.
He would point out that the Mission in South Ceylon is
singularly complete in embracing all classes of the popula-
tion and every department of labour. The European and
Eurasian adherents have the gospel preached to them in
English, and those who speak Portuguese are not
forgotten ; whUe the great work is of course that among
tlie Sinhalese and Tamils ; so that the South Ceylon
Wesleyan Mission was among the most extensive and
complete in the island, or, perhaps, in any country where
missions are found. The ' evangelistic labours of its
agents — preaching the gospel direct to the people — had
ever been one of the great objects of the Wesleyan Mis-
sionary Society, and he (the speaker) would never forget
what he heard the Eev. Spence Hardy say on one occasion
from that platform, that, in bis experience, the most
potent means, under God's guidance, of converting the
17
242 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Sinhalese Buddhists was for the European missionary,
possessed of a thorough command of the vernacular, to go
right into the villages and to preach the gospel direct to
the people. But the missionaries had not forgotten other
departments of great importance — that of training the
children, who would otherwise be left to grow up in
ignorance, and be unable to read the gospel in their own
language.
Then again, a distingixishing feature of the work of the
agents of the Society had been found in the literature
penned for the Sinh^ese, and about their country and
religions. He had 'Only to mention a few names that
would be familiar as the authors of most valuable and
learned works, in, Clough, Callaway, Gogerly, Spence
Hardy, David de Silva, not to mention any of the present
day. Hardy's "Jubilee Memorials" was one of the most
charming books ever published with the Story of Missions,
or, indeed,' in connection with Ceylon. . In that book Mr.
Hardy gives the statistics of the Mission for the year
1863, and they had seen the report for 1881 ; so that
there had elapsed an interval of eighteen years.
Very recently there appeared in the London Times a
letter filling three or four columns in large type, attacking
missions and missionaries. The writer made most sweep-
ing statements. He seemed to regard it as an admitted
fact that there were no conversions. Let us see- the
advance in eighteen years in South Ceylon in this Wes-
leyan Mission, .which was as follows : —
1863.
1881.
44
Native Ministers and Catechlsts . .
122
72
Churches and other places of worship
104
1,577
Communicants . . . . '
. 2,609
3,789
Adherents
. 6,061
2,141
Boys in Day Schools
. 4,643
1,037
Girls in Day Schools
. . 2,486
Sunday Scholars
. . 4,820
He would like the anti-mission correspondent to consider
what these figures for one limited section of the Eastern
mission-field meant : but there was another rough-and-,
ready test which men of the world and business men, who
believe in the practice of one —
Who very wisely would lay forth
No more upon it than 'twas worth, —
Progress of Misrion Work in Ceylon. 243
wonld recognize, namely, fhe eonkibntions gathered in
locally; and these, chiefly from natives, in 1863 were
given by Mr. Hardy at Bs.4,520 ; while the total of local
contributions in last year's report was Bs.39,325. The
Sinhalese and Tamils, any more than other people, do
not pay for what they do not value. Remembering that
we are not yet in |he seventieth year of the Mission, it
might fairly be anticipated that ere long the people will
be won to Christianity, not in an arithmetical, but in a
geometrical progression in Ceylon as well as India. A
very important step was taken some years ago in con-
nexion with the extension of the work of the Wesleyan,
the Church, and the Baptist Societies in South Ceylon,
in which he (the Chairman) took some part. Nominally,
the country was now covered by the three Evangelical
bodies, but large districts and numerous villages had yet to
have the gospel preached in them. Much remained to be
done, and now tiiat the schoolmaster was abroad in the
land, it especially devolved on aU Christians to follow up
secular by moral and religious teaching. The Buddhists
of China, Siam, and - Burmah looked to Ceylon as the
sacred home of their religion. The central position of
the island added to its importance as a mission field;
edncated Ceylonese young men were going forth as medical
assistants, surveyors, and in other capacities, to earn a
livelihood in other parts of the world ; while, again, the
masses were, about to follow, 500 Sinhalese now waiting
to be transferred to Queensland. It behoved them to do
all in their power to send forth good men and true, some,
if not all, of whom might become teachers of the gospel
in their turn. For this reason, among others, this Society
deserved the hearty support of all who had the highest
interests of the people at heart.
The following remarks ai^e taken from an address
by Mr. John Ferguson, at a Breakfast Meeting of the
Wesleyan Missionary Society at Exeter Hall, in May, 1884 :
"There are no more valuable Christian inissions in
the world than those which have settled in Ceylon.
Geographically, Ceylon is the centre of the Eastern world.
"With reference to Asia, it has become very much what
England has been so long in relation to Europe and the
Western world. Chi-istianity and education Lave made-
244 Ceyhm in the Jubilee Year.
great progress in Ceylon, and there can be no qaestion of
the important bearing which the advance of Christianity,
civilization, and education there will have upon the vast
continent of India, upon Burmah, Siam, and Cambodia,
and even upon China. In Ceylon ten per cent, of the
children of a school-going age are being educated ; in
India the proportion is less than one per cent.
From our island Sinhalese and Tamils are going out as
teachers, also as magistrates and lawyers, to Madras, and
some are even finding their way eastward to the Straits
and on towards China. Most of these young men have
been educated in mission-schools under the influence of
Christianity, and wherever they go they carry with them
and disseminate a civilizing and, I trust. Christian spirit ;
so that when you are working in Ceylon you are benefiting
not only the people there, but the inhabitants of Southern
India, and, directly or indirectly, the peoples of Indo-
China, who, as Buddhists chiefly, are in such close rela-
tions to Lanka (Ceylon), the sacred land of Buddhism.
While travelling in steaiAers and on railways, I have often
heard disparaging remarks about mission work in Asia.
Merchants and others who have been in the East often say
they have never seen much good result from the work of
missionaries. I asked them whether they had ever gone
into the jungle, the country districts and villages, or even
to the native churches in the bigger towns, and seen the
missionary at work there. 'No,' they reply, 'they had
never seen him at work in the jungle.' I have; I have
again and again gone with the missionaries to their
districts, and have seen for inyself the good they are
accomplishing. I have heard the testimony of the people
themselves to the power of Christianity. I have astonished
English and American friends by telling them of villages
and districts in Ceylon, where Tamils and Sinhalese are
as earnest and practical Christians as any in England or
in America. In these days of scepticism you might fairly
challenge men who deny the success of Cliistian missions
and the good they are doing to send out a commission to
Ceylon, to visit these Sinhalese and Tamil villages, where
the people have their own pastors of their own rac« and
locally supported, their Sunday-schools and day-schools,
and where you might imagine yourself to be in the centre
of England or in the most Christian part of America.
Progress of Mission Work in Ceylon. 245
The time is coming when you may fairly look for reaping
a great harvest in Ceylon, if you persevere with your
missionary work in that island. I beheve that the pro-
gress of Christianity and education there will be not only
in an arithmetical, but a geometrical progression ere long,
so that we may see Christianity permeate ,the whole
island. One word with regard to the influence oT laymen.
I have often felt not only that inadequate support is given
to mission work, but that missionaries themselves often
meet with opposition. from some of their countrymen, who
go out into those regions on a mission which (as I heard
described by Canon Westcott in Westminster Abbey on
Sunday last) is more in the nature of selfishness than of
self-sacrifice. I would impress upon the pastors assembled
here to-day the great importance of seeing that the j'oung
men of their Churches destined for a Colonial or Indian
life are true Christian laymen, because the influence of
such upon their servants and others who observe their
consistent life is immensely in favour of the spread of
Christianity. Wheu- the .natives observe that the civil
servant, the layman — say the British merchant with
whom they deal in business, is honest, truthful, and up-
right — they will say, ' He is a specimen of Christianity,
we can trust him, and there must be something in
his religion.' "
Wesley Christian College, Colombo, is the most notable
educational institution in connection with this Mission.
The South Ceylon Mission has now been divided into
three districts : Colombo and the Western province ; GaUe
• and the Southern province ; Kandy and the Negombo dis-
trict, as well as the Central and Uva provinces.
The work of the North Ceylon Wesleyan Mission, with
its important agencies, colleges and schools at Jaffna,
Point Pedro, Batticaloa, and Trincomalee, deserves special
mention.
V. — A Sketch of Missionaht Woek in Ceylon.
The following account is from the pen of the late Dr.
Mac vicar, of Moffat (who was for many years chaplain of
St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church, Colombo), and is given
as illustrative of mission work in Ceylon:^'
" About twelve milies from Colombo, the chief town of
246, Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
CeyloD, on the high road to Galle, which, is the second
tfown, there' is a belt or bar of land, lying between the
sea on the one side, aDd> an extensive lake, or rather
lagoon, on the other. . And as the sea in this quarter
%)x>i]nds in fish, and this lagoon has many arms leading
from its ample basin into canals stretching along the
coast, and into rivers, flowing from the mountains, so as
to form a great harbour, the surrounding country, which
is very fertile, has become very populous. On the bank of
land referred to, stands the thriving village of Morotto, re-
markable for its fishermen and itR carj)enters. And here
it was that the incident I am going to relate occurred.
" But, first, let me tell you of the peculiar beauty and
interest which the lake of Morotto possesses. It is itself
averyiBue sheet of water; but the objects that surround
it invent it with its peculiar beauty. Its bosom is every-
where fringed by various species of mangroves, their
every branch steadied by roots falling right down from
them, and dipping into th<« water, beneath which they fix
themselves in the soil. Immediately behind, there is a
belt of beautifully verdant copse or jungle, luxuriantly
entangled, or hanging in rich festoons around noble trees,
adorned now and then with magnificent blossoms. Then
come extensive topes of coco-palms everywhere that the
population extends ; while beyond them, towards the in-
terior, as far as the eye can reach, there is a forest — the
trees, in their general appearance, not unlike those in a -
jBuropean forest, but on a gi^nder scale. And all these^
vegetable riches, which adorn the spacious lake, Uke the
sleeping waters of the lake itself, are seen regosing in a
sunshine Which for more than half the year never knows
any shadows but those of the evening and morning, which
bring such ample . dews, along with them that there is a
perpetual verdure all the year. Add to this, that the
horizon-line on the inland side is bounded by a lofty
range of mountains, among which Adam's Peak rears its
majestic sununit, and it will be seen that the entire
scenery is of dream-like beauty. The delight, however,
with which the eye gazes is soon lost for feeliugsof quite
another kind, when, ceasing to commtuaTe with Nature, we
look to those monuments upon the banks of the lake,
which claim man for their author. These remind us that,
all-beautifnl though nature be in this region, when viewed
Progress of Mission Work in Ceylon. 247
in herself, yet, viewed in reference to nmn, these are bnt
dark places of tiie earth, full of the habitations of cruelty.
There is one feature in nature, indeed, which seems to
in^te to the shores of this lake of Morotto as a fit place
for the nurture of the darker Buperstitiona For irp its
waters, on some lonely and almost inaccessible islands,
covered with lofty and seemingly leafless trees, there are
seen hanging in the top branches, in ponderous masses,
certain large, motionless objects, which remain black and
without lustre in the brightest sunshine. They are many
hundreds in number. Point to th6m, and ask the boat-
men what they are, yon 1^1 soon hear on the lips of
every native in the boat the unearthly sound of ' woulM !
wouUd t ' But what are they ? Devote a long hour to the
oar, in order to get nearer, and say that you are beneath
them : they have left the trees, the air over your head is
black with them — black with vampires or flying foxes,
bats as large as eagles, iii many hundreds, flapping
their wings most sluggishly, and in most' fitful silence,
till one after another they have vanished from the air,
and are only seen in distant trees, hanging again by their
feet till nightfall Whether it was the contrast between
these, unearthly creatures and all nature,^around, I know
not ; but I have never seen anything so like what one
would fancy round the very mouth of hell, as these clouds
of woull^s.
" Let us turn our back upon, them, then, and look down
the beautiful sunny lake towards Morotto and the sea,
whose distant roar is quite refreshing after the solemn
silence of the forest, and the flights of the monster bats.
Th6 return to the place from which we set out will not be
less agreeable for this, that the delicious sea-breeze will
meet us in the face. But what is that dome, with its
gilded pinnacle glittering in the sunbeams, on the top of
the hill, surrounded by lofty bo-trees ? It is a Bucmhist
tem^, with its accompanying dagoba and pansala, where
learned priests are thronging, each ordained by a chapter
(HTgani^ed with profound policy, and venerating tegitimacy
of succeasion as much as any ecclesiastics in Borne —
priests^ bat with this reservation, that man is the only
god tihey acknowledge ; while for man, alas ! notwith-
stand^g his possible godhead, when this life is over, they
^oW BO heaven better than annihilation 1 The common
248 Ceylon in the Jvlilee Year.
people do perhaps worship Bnddha, as if he were a real
being, great and powerful, and consciously existing some-
where. £at the sacred books adore his memory only ; and
the priesthood proclaim no god to the people but them-
selves. This is bad enough. Yes; what can be worse
than atheism ? And yet, let us hear what the boatman
says of that headland on the other side of the lake, bo
remarkable for its hoary trees and dense impenetrable
jungle. There is a treasure hidden there, he says. Then
why not go and dig it up ? • Ah 1 it is guarded by a
demon,' he answers ; and reminds us of a custom practised
in Ceylon, I am told, at no very remote period, the very
thought of which makes the blood run cold. It was this :
The owner of a treasure, when he apprehended from any
cause that it was not safe at home, having selected some
lonely spot in the jungle, dug two holes there, close beside
each other ; the one large enough to hold his treasure, the
other much larger. He then returned to his home, and,
having taken a large -knife, and concealed it in his dress,
called a trusty servant, showed him the bag of money, and
required him to bear it along with him into the jungle.
The faithful servant obeys ; and when they have arrived
at the secret spot, the treasure is deposited in its hole, and
committed to the keeping of the servant, on which his
throat is cut, and the body buried ! And thereafter, he
who receives this reward for his fidelity is believed to be a
demon, and the treasure is safe in the keeping of the
yakka ! Such is a sample of those atrocities to which
demon-worship prompts. Barba.rities like these were
indeed practised only in other times ; but still, demon-
worship forms the only positive religion of the heathen in
Buddhistic countries. It prevails to a vast extent, not only
in Ceylon, but in all Southern India ; and this is truly
lamentable, both in- a religious point of view, and because
it is so gloomy, unsocial, and inhuman. It is to a priest
of this religion that the incident relates, to which we now
proceed.
" He was an old man, and the temple where he minis-
tei-ed was his own. It presented its dismal front in a
shady grove, almost fifty yards otf a much-frequented by-
road, which led from the highway to a populous village
on the banks of the lake. And there had the old demou-
priest remained for many a long year by his idols. And
Progress of Mission Work in Ceylon, 249
many orgies had he celebrated in every hamlet aronnd,
wherever there was any one sick who could afford to pay,
or anything secret which was wanted to be known, or,
haply, a new-married woman anions about her first child,
or a mother to whom child-birth was known to be a
dangerous moment. Nay, I have been credibly informed
of the daughters of Ghnstian parents, who have stolen
away to consult the kapur^la. Such is the hold which
demon-worship has upon the human mind. Is this much-
frequented road, then, in one of the loveHest bypaths of
the world, to be left with no retreat for the piously-
disposed, but a demon-temple with its priest ? No ; the
Wesleyan Missionary Society — ^that noble institution for
the evangelization of the heathen, which secures the very
best ministers of that communion for missionaries — has
long had a station in Morotto ; and it was resolved that a
mission chapel should be erected opposite the demon-
temple, on the other side of the road ; each erection, how-
ever, out of the sight of the other. The chapel was
accordingly built ; and at the time to which this narrative
refers, the missionary who ministered in it was a pure
Sinhalese, Peter de Zylva by name, a man of great kind-
ness of heart and energy of character. Mr. de Zylva's
domiciliary visits were reaching every house and hamlet
in Morotto, and his voice was ringing with the mysteries
of redemption, musically, yet powerfully, from the desk in
the Morotto chapel, Sabbath-day and week-day, while the
passengers were arrested more and more, until his little
flock became a large one, and the communicants numbered
nearly a hundred.
" But how was it going with the old priest in his old
demon-temple over the way ? Was he plotting mischief
and plying a bad tongue against the missionary who was
thus turning the people from his temple into another,
where his own religion was denounced as most sinful and
unholy, and the Cross of Christ proclaimed as the power of
God unto salvation xmto every one that believeth ? This
was nothing less than might have been expected from
human nature under the circumstances. But not so here.
WhUe the people who used to frequent his temple were
turning the opposite way, the old priest, sitting inside,
listened day after day to the hymns and the prayers and
the preaching of the Christian congregation and tlie Chiis-
250 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
tian minister. This, happily, he could do with good effect
in the silence /which reigned around him, so near were
both places of worship to each other ; and such is the
power of the Spirit of God, when an earnest Christian
minister is His instrument, that, despite the hebetude of
old age and the habits of a lifetime, despite the power of
an hereditary faith and every suggestion of egotism, the
old man felt that he could not help believing, and that he
must go and unfold his mind to Peter de Zylva. He did
so accordingly. And in answer to the always respectful
and friendly question of the missionary — what brought him
there ? — he told him what had befallen his heart through
listening to the preaching of the gospel ; that he had done
with bis idols, and locked up his temple. ' And here is
tlie key,' sa^d he, ' which you must take, for the temple
is my own ; and I can do with it as I please. For me,
henceforth, there remains nothing but to humble myself in
penitence, and to believe in Christ' ' A kapurala ! ' said
Peter de Zjlva, suspicious of his countryman ; ' what can
I do with yourself and your key ? Yon must not throw
yourself on us. We are poor people : we can do nothing
for you that way.' 'Do not think so unworthily of me,'
said the old man ; ' I shall need but little, and that little
not long.' ' And then as to this key,' rejoined Peter,
' suppose I take it, do you know what I shall do this very
day ? ' ' No,' said the old man, '. nor do I care, if but the
teinple pass from my hands into yours.' ' Very well,' said
the missionary, 'you see this stick of mine — (Peter usually
walks with a heavy staff) — I tell you, I wiU take and
smash every idol in your temple, this very day, and leave
you nothing before night but chips and rubbish on the
floor.' 'Do it,' said the old man: 'better you than I.'
And it was done. Before acknowledging him as a Chris-
tian brother, the earnest but cautious missionary tried
him on every point where a mistake or a cheat, on the
part of the old man, seemed possible. But there was no
mistake, no deceit. The conversion of the old demon-
priest was one of those soul-delighting demonstrations of
the power of the Spirit, where the best-defended strong-
holds of fallen nature are made to surrender uncondi-
tionally to the truth as it is in -Jesus."
APPENDIX IV.
CASTE IN CEYLON.
Caste, though disavowed by Buddhism, has still some
hold on the Sinhalese, and, as a matter of civil distinction,
intermarriages of persons of different castes are almost
unknown, except amongst the lowest of the population.
The Tamils have all the Hindu castes, as essentials of
their religion, from the Brahman downwards to the Koviya
and Pariah. There are no Brahmans amongst the Sinha-
lese, and the Chaliyas (cinnamon peelers) strongly dispute
the pre-eminence of the Yellalas pr husbandmen. The
fishermen are another great ca^te, and, curiously enough,
they are the best and most enterprizing carpenters ; then
follow numerous divisions on to the dhoby (washermen)
and jaggery castes, the members of which are employed to
collect the juice &om the flower sheaths of palms, to be
fermented into " toddy " and yeast, distilled into arrack, or
inspissated into coarse sugar called jaggery. Under the
Kandyan dynasty, caste was strictly enforced — the son of
a barber being inevitably and for Hfe a barber. There is
now no legal restriction, nor any social disability, save
what the natives voluntarily choose to retain or submit to,
and the anomaly of State-supported churches of Christians
in -Ceylon has also been removed, but officials, in some
cases, foolishly encourage caste pretensions. The worse
than waste of the temporahties (land, &c.) attached to
Buddhist temples has, however, yet to be dealt with by '
Government. [See in further illustration, the information
in a later appendix, received as the sheets were passing
through press.]
APPENDIX V.
1.— A LIST OP THE BRITISH GOVEEXORS OF
CEYLON.*
1. Hon. Fkederick North (subsequently Earl of Guil-
, ford), 12th October, 1798.
2. Lieut. -General the Right Hon. Sir Thomas Maitland,
G.C.B., 19th July, 1805.
Major-General John Wilson, Lieut. -Governor,
19th March, 1811.
3. General Sir Robebt Brownkigq, Bart., G.C.B., lltli
March, 1812.
Major-General Sir Edward Barnes, K.C.B.,
Lieut. -Governor, 1st February, 1820.
4. Lieut. -General the Hon. Sir Edward Paget, K.C.B.,
2nd February, 1822.
Major-General Sir James Campbell, K.C.B.,
Lieut. -Governor, 6th November, 1822.
5. Lieut. -General Sir Edward Barnes, K.C.B. , 18th
January, 1824.
Major-General Sir John Wilson, K.C.B., Lieut-
Go vernor, 13th October, 1831.
G. The Right Hon. Sir Robert Wilmot Horton, Bart.,
G.C.B., 23rd October, 1831.
7. Tho Eight Hon. James Alexander Stewart Mackenzie,
7th November, 1837.
8. Lieut. -General Sir Colin Campbell, K.C.B., 5th April,
1841.
Sir James Emerson Texnent, K.C.S., Lieut.-
Governor, 19th April, 1847.
• From IGth Febrnary, 179G, to 12th October, 1798, the colony
was attached to the JIaJras PresiJency.
Bntish Governors of Ceylon. 255)
9. The Right Hon. the Viscount Torrinoton, 29th May,
1847.
The Hon. Charles Justin MacCarthy, Lieot-
Governor, 18th October, 1850.
10. Sir George William Anderson, K.C.B., 27th Novem-
ber, 1850.
The Hon. Cbarles Justin MacCarthy, Lieut.-
Governor, tSlili January^l855.
11. Sir Henry George Ward, G.C.'M.G., 11th May, 1855.
Major-Geueral Henry Frederick Lockyer, C.B.,
K.H., Lieut.-Governor, 30th June, 1860.
Colonel Charles Edmund Wilkinson, E.E.,
Lieut.-Governor, 80th July, 1860.
12. Sir Charles Justin MacCarthy, Kt., 22ud October, 1860.
Miijor-General Terknce O'Bkien, Officer Ad-
ministering the Government, 1st December,
1803.
13. Sir Hkrcules George Eobert Robinson, Kt., Lieut.-
Governor, 81st March ; Governor, 16th May, 1865.
Lieut.-General Studholme John Hodgson, Officer
Administering the Government, 2nd July,
1808, to 12th June, 1869, during Sir H.
Robinson's leave of absence.
The Hon. Henry Turner Irving, Officer Ad-
ministering the Government, 4th January,
1872.
14. The Right Hon. Willi*.m Henry Gregory (Sir W. H.
Gregory, K.C.M.G., 1875), 4th March, 1872.
The Hon. Arthur Norki^ Birch (C.M.G., 1875),
Administrator of the Government, 17th April
to 14th August, 1874, and 20th December,
1875, to 29th January, 1876; Lieut.-Governor,
loth January to 10th April, 1877 (during Sir
W. H. Gregory's absences from the colony) ;
Lieut.-Governor, 9th May to 8rd September,
1877.
15. Sir James Robert Longden. KC.M.G. (G.C.M.G.,
1883), 4th September, 1877.
The Hon. John Douglas, C.M.G., Lieut.-Gover-
nor, 28th February to 16th September, 1881
(during Sir J. E. Longden's absence).
Sir John Douglas, K.C.M.G., Lieut.-Governor,
14th July, 1883.
2^54 Ceyloii in the Jubilee Year.
16. The Hon. Sir Arthur Gordon, G.C.M.G., gazetted ,
Governor, August, 1883 ; assumed the Admmistra-
( tion on December Srd of that year.
Major-General Sir John Chetham Mcleod, K.C.B.,
Administered the Government during Sir A.
Gordon's absence, June to November, 1885.
2.— CHIEF JUSTICES OF CEYLON.
Sir Edward Codrington Carrington, 1802.
The Hon. Alexander Johnston (provisioual), 1806.
Right Hon. E. C. Lushington (provisional), 1807.
W. Coke, Esq. (provisional), 1809.
Sir Alexander Johnston (Chief Justice and President of
the Council), 6th November, 1811.
Sir Hardinge Giffard. Kt., L|L.D., 1820.
Sir Richard Ottley, Kt., 1827.
Sir Charles Marshall, Et., 1883.
Sir William Norris, Kt., April. 1836.
Sergeant Sir W. Rough, Kt., April, 1837
Sh- Anthony Oliphant, Kt., 1838.
Sk William Ogle Carr, Kt., 1854.
Sir W. Carpenter Rowe, Kt., 1856.
The Hon. P. I. Sterling (acting), 1859.
Sir Edward Creasy, Kt., 1860.
Sir R. F. Morgan, Kt. (acting), 1875.
The Hon. C. H. Stewart (acting), 1875.
Sir George Anderson, Kt. (acting), 1876.
Sir WilUam Halckett, Kt., 1877.
Sir John Budd Phear, Kt., 1877.
Sir Richard Cayley, Kt., 1879.
Hon. L. B. Clarence (acting), 1882.
Hon. J. P. de Wet, Kt.,,and Sir George Anderson (acting),
1882-3.
The Hon. Sir Bruce Lockhart Barnside, 1883 (knighted
in 1884).
Hou-.-F. Fleming (actiiig\ 1885, during Sir Bruce Buin-
liiuc's, abbcuce.
British Major-GeneraU in Ceylon. 255
3.— BEITISH MAJOR-GENERALS COMMANDING
THE TROOPS IN CEYLON.
(PrevionsI; to 1819 the Odvemois were not only o£BciaUy but actiTely
comtnanders of the troops.)
Sir Edward Barnes, KC.B., 1819. — Afterwards .Ceylon's
great GoverBor,, a remarkable man. He became
Governor in 1824, and held the post until 1831. It
wad his mind that planned and executed the Eandy
Road, and other main lines throughout the island.
He likewise erected the Pavilion at Kandy ; Barnes
Hall, Nuwara EUiya; and Mount Lavinia House.
A bronze statue in honour of him as Governor stands
opposite the Queen's House, Colombo.
Sir James Campbell, K.C.B., 1822.
Sir Hudson Lowe, 1826. — Previously (1815-1821)
Governor of St. Helena, and Custodian of Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Sir John Wilson, K.C.B., 1831.
Sir E. Arbuthnot, K.C.B., 1888.
Wilham Smelt, C.B., 1847.— The so-called Kandyan re-
bellion of 1848 occurred during Major-General Smelt's
command, and there was an angry correspondence
between Lord Torrington, Major-General Smelt, and
General F. Braybrooke, relative to the officers of
the Ceylon Rifle Regiment.
T.Eeed, C.B., 1852.
P. Bainbrigge, C.B., 1854.
Henry F. Lockyer, C.B., K.H., 1857. — Major-General
Lockyer, who had been Lieutenaiit-Governor after
Sir H. "Ward was transferred to Madras, left the
island in iU-health, and died on board the S.S. Ripon,
16th October, 1861.
Terence O'Biien, 1860. — In the time of Major-General
O'Brien, his son, Major O'Brien, was tried by court-
martial for a letter ' published in the MofussUite,
reflecting on the civil authorities in Ceylon. The
Major-General did not confirm the sentence, and the
Horse Guards removed the censure of the local
court.
Studholme John Hodgson,^ 1865. — It was during Major-
General Hodgson's time that a commission was ap-
256 Ceylon in the JuUlde Year.
pointed to inquire into the military expenditure of
Ce.ylon. There were food riots in Colombo, and the
military were asked to assist the civil authorities in
quelling th«m.
Henry Eenny, C.S.I., 1869.
John Alfred Street, C.B.. 1874.
William Wilby. C.B., 1879.
Sir John C. McLeod, K.C.B., 1882.
Sir Wilbraham Leuuox, V.C., R.E., K.C.B., 1887.
Some of the Governors, such as General Brownrigg
(1815) and Lientenant-General Sir Colin Campbell (1841),
held the two oflSces of Governor and Commander of the
Forces. Major-Generals Sir John Wilson, Lockyer,
O'Brien, Hodgson, and McLeod, acted respectively as
Lieutenant-Governor, &o., during the absence or other-
wise of the Governor from the island.
4. EXECUTIVE COUNCILLORS OF CEYLON.
Colonial Secretaries. — Hugh Cleghorn, 1799. R. Arbuthnot,
1803. Honourable J. Rodney, 1815. P. Anstruther
("the one-armed Rajah''), 1834. Sir J. Emerson
Tennent, K.C.S., 1846. Charles Justin McCarthy,
1850. W. Chas. Gibson, 1861. H. T. Irving, 1869.
Arthur N. Birch, C.M.G., 1873. John Douglas,
C.M.G., 1878. C. C. Smith, 1885. Col. Walker, 1887.
Qtieen's Advocates. — William Coke, 1809. H. Giffard,
LL.D., 1811. Henry Matthews, 1817. W. Norris,
1832. W. 0. Carr, 1834. James Stark, 1841.
Arthur Buller, 1842.. H. C. Selby, 1848. H. B.
Thomson, 1859. Sir E. F. Morgan, 1863. Richard
Cayley, 1876. B. L. Burnside, 1880. C. L. Ferdi-
nands (acting), 1882. Francis Fleming (Attorney-
General), 1883. Samuel Grenier, 1887.
Auditors-General. — A. Bertolacci, 1809. John D'Oyly,
1815. E. Tolfrey, 1816. J. W. Carrington, 1817.
H. A. Marshal, 1824. H, Wright, 1842. C. J.
MacCarthy, 1848. W. C. Gibson, 1850. R. T.
Pennefather, 1862. Robert John Callaijder, 1866.
John Douglas, 1870. W. C. Barclay, 1876. W. H.
Ravenscroft, 1877.
Treasure;*.— Robert Boyd, 1809. J. W. Carrington, 1812.
A Few PMic Benefactors in British Times. 257
Thomas Eden, 1816. John Drave, 1822. W. Gran-
ville, 1823. J. W. Carrington, 1824. F. J: Templer,
1843. J. Caulfeild, 1854. F. Saunders, 1861. G.
Vane, C.M.G., 1865. W. D. Wright, 1882. G. T.
M, O'Brien, 1886.
Solicitor-General (the first). — C. L. Ferdinands, Esq.
5.— A FEW PUBLIC (NON-OFFICIAL) BENEFAC-
TORS IN BRITISH TIMES.
Geo. Bird, the late, who opened the first regular coffee
plantation.
Robert Boyd Tytler, the late, who introduced the im-
proved West Indian system of coffee planting, and
also was the first to cultivate cocoa (cacao) in Ceylon.
David Wilson, the late, for his improvements in the pre-
paration of coco- nut oil and coir manufactures ; and
the Messrs. Leechman, who succeeded him in Hults-
dorf Mills.
Gabriel and Maurice Worms, the late, as pioneers who
vested a large amount of capital in coffee and tea
cultivation.
Christopher Elliott, M.D., the late, for his philanthropic
labours among Burghers and Natives, and his inde-
pendent attitude as a Journalist; also as the first
head of the Civil Medical Department of the colony,
and the projector of Hospitals, Colleges, &c.
A. M. Ferguson, C.M.G., M.R.A.S., for his labours in
urging cultivation of new products, especially cinchona
and tea ; also as Journalist {Ceylon Observer) and Pub-
lisher (in conjunction with J. Ferguson) of Tropical
A(/iicuUurist, Manuals for Tropical Planters, Ceylon
Handbooks and Directories, &c. Resident fifty years.
C. A. LoREisz, Barrister, the late, for disuiterested wofk
as Legislator and Publicist, more especially in aiding
the advance of his own people, the I3urghers.
John Capper, M.R.A.S. (Ceylon branch;. Merchant and
Journalist in Ceylon for over forty years. Author of
several works on, or on subjects connected with,
the colony.
The De Sovza Family (especially C. H. De Soyza, Esq.,
J.P.I and Mudaliyar Sampsox Eajapakse, for onter-
18
258 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
prise in developing planting industry, constructing
roads, endowing hospitals and schools, and nunierous
other public benefactions.
G. A. Cbuwell, the late, as a Pioneer Planter who visited
and reported, in Ceylon Observer, on Java, Southern
and Northern India, West Coast of Africa (Liberia),
BrazU, and Central America, for the benefit of his
fellow planters in Ceylon ; doing much to intrcf-
dnce the Liberian species of coffee and India-rubber
trees.
James Alwis, the late, as Legislator and Author, in
writing on the literature and history of his own
people, the Sinhalese.
Sir M. CoMABA SwAMT, Kt., the late, as Legislator and
Author on subjects connected with his own people,
the Tamils.
Hon. James Van Langenbkrg, M.L.C, Advocate, the late,
for valuable work as legislator and lawyer.
George Wall, Planter and Merchant, some time Member
of the Legislative Council, and Chairman of the
Chamber of Commerce, and at present Chairman of
the Planters' Association. Has, since his arrival in
1846, taken a leading part in discussing public affairs.
Founded a Ceylon League to secure a reform of the
Legislative CounciL
Eev. Levi Spaulding, D.D. (" Father Spanlding "), the late,
of the American Mission. He laboured uninterruptedly
for over fifty years in the north of the island among the
Tamils, educating and Christianizing a large number,
aided by earnest, disinterested brethren and sisters,
among whom Miss Agnew (who also never took
furlough) died on the Mission-field after well-nigh
fifty years' service.
Also Dr. Gkeen, Medical Missionary of the sam*e Mission,
who translated and compiled standard, medical works
for his Tamil students ; the same students proving
of the greatest value to the Government and the
people before a Colombo Medical College was estab-
lished by Government, and Ceylon students were
trained there.
The Eev. John Eilneb, of the Wesleyan Mission, de-
serves to be remembered among the Jaf&ia Tamils,
among whom he laboured.
A Few Public Benefactors in British Times. 259
Sir Samuel Bakek, for his experiments (agricultural, &c.)
at Nuwara Eliya, extending over seven years, and his
two booiis on the island : " Seven Years in Ceylon,"
and " The Eifle and the Hound in Ceylon."
Keginald John Corbet, the late, a leading Ceylon Planter
of many years' standing, a Pioneer in Cinchona cul-
tivation, ex-Member of the Legislative Council, and
Chairman of the Planters' Association.
John Nietnee, the late, Prussian-born, naturalized British
subject, for his contributions to Natural History, es-
pecially " Entomology," and his little work, " Enemies
of the Coffee-tree in Ceylon."
"W. W. Mitchell, Esq., H. Bois, Esq., and J. J. Gkinlin-
TON, Esq., C.E., P.E.G.S., for their active zeal in the
public interests in a variety of ways.
G. H. D. Elphinstone, Coffee Planter and Pioneer in the
Dimbula District from 1868 onward, as well as Pioneer
with Tea cultivation in several districts of the island;
a most industrious, persevering colonist, under many
difficulties ; now Sir Graeme H. D. Elphinstone,
Bart.
John Ferguson, M.E.A.S., Corresponding Secretary for
Ceylon of the Eoyal Colonial Institute, Journalist
and Author, for twenty-seven years a colonist ; ori-
ginated (in conjunction with the late E. V. Dunlop)
Mission Extension to the Sabaragamuwa,Hambantota,
and Uva districts,; started agitation for railway exten-
sion beyond Nawalapitya to Uva.
Among a large body of Christian missionaries, authors,
and true philanthropists, mention should be made
of Clough, Lambeick, Harvard, Daniel, Gogerly, Spence
Hardy, Oakley, Carter, Scott, Ireland Jones, and
Coles.
Among officiah whose names are not included in the
lists given above, but whose special services to Ceylon
deserve notice, are — ■
Anthony Beetolacci, who wrote a valuable work on the
trade and revenue in Ceylon early in the century.
Major FoEBES, late of 78tli Eegiment, for his interesting
work " Eleven Years in Ceylon."
J. W. Bennett, F.L.S., for his work " Ceylon and its Cnpa-
260 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
bilities," and his contributions to the study of the
Natural History of the Island.
Capt. James Stewart, Master Attendant of Colombo, for
his investigation of the pearl fishery, and useful notes
and papers on this and other practical subjects
connected with the revenue and progress of the
island.
Percpval Acland Dyke, for the long period of forty years
Government Agent of the Northern Province of
Ceylon, to the development of which, and the welfare
of the people, he gave the service of his life.
Sir Chas. Peteh Layard, K.C.M.G., for a nearly equal
period Government Agent of the Western Province,
where he was in useful " labours more abundant."
Major Skinner, C.M.G., the great roadmaker of Ceylon,
who began his work under Sir Edward Barnes, and
closed his most useful career forty years later, under
Sir Hercules Eobinson.
Sir E. F. Morgan, Kt., included among the Chief Justices,
did notable service to the Colony as its lawmaker for
many years.
Guilford Lindsay Molesworth, C.I.E., as the successful
Engineer of the Colombo and Kandy Kailway, the
discoverer of a route which had been overlooked by
several predecessors.
Sir Ch.u'.i.es Hutton Gregory, K.C.M.G., as Consulting
Engineer for many years in connection with the
devcli ipment of its system of railways.
Sir John Coode, K.G., as Consulting Engineer, and Mr.
John I- .le as Resident Engineer, for the Colombo
Breakwater and Harbour Works, which have proved
so successful.
G. H. K. Thv'aites, F.E.S., Ph.D., for many years Direc-
tor of the Eoyal Botanic Garden, and the compiler of
the "Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylanise."
W. Ferguson, F.L.S., author of a " Monograph on the
Palmyra Palm," pamphlets on " Ceylon Timber
Trees," " Ferns," " Snakes," &c., and for his contri-
butions to the Natural History of the island.
TTrN'i'.y Trimen, M.B., F.L.S., the gifted successor to Dr.
Tliwaitcs, who, as botanist and practical observer,
liJis !ih-eiifly laid the Colony under special obligations.
ilou. Glokge Turnour, loj- his translation of the " Maha-
A Few Public Benefactors in British Times. 261
wanso " and other invalaable work connected with the
ancient history of Ceylon.
Loms ZoTZA, Mudliyar, Chief Translator to Government,
for his nsefol work as an Orientalist.
SuiON Casi Chitty, Mudliyar, for his " Ceylon Ga2etteer,"
and nnmerous other writings.
Dr. Barcboft Boake, Principal of the Eoyal College,
Colombo, and for many years Hon. Secretary Friend-
in-Need Society, and for his literary and Natural
History writings.
Hon. P. D. Anthonisz, M.D.,M.L.C.,as a Ceyloneee surgeon
who has risen to the highest eminence in his profes-
sion, and in the esteem of his countrymen- by his good
works, " The Anthonisz Memorial " (Hospital Wards),
and his nomination to the Legislative Council afford-
ing evidence.
C. L. FEBDixASDs.Esq., Solicitor-General, as the imofficial
leader of the Burghers after Mr. Lorenz's death, and
in ofGce as Legislator and Criminal Prosecutor, re-
spected for his conscientious, honourable, zealous
pursuit of duty. Mr. Ferdinands incurred the dis-
pleasure of Governor Gordon for no fault of his own,
and was passed over in 1886 for the Attorney-General-
ship in favour of his friend Mr. Grenier, much to the
regret of those who kn«w best his long and useful
labours, and his high sense of duty.
The name of Sir J. Emebson Tbnnent finds a place in the
list of Lieut.-Govemors and Colonial Secretaries, but
it deserves special mention as that of the author of
the most valuable and complete work published on
Ceylon up to his day, 1857-61.
APPENDIX VI.
PEINCIPAL EESULTS OF THE CENSUS
TAKEN ON 17th FEBRUAIL7, 1881.*
iCompUedfrom the SegUtrar-Oenerars (Jtfr.' L. F, Lee'9) S^ort and Statements.'}
AEEA— POPULATION.
GENERAL STATEMENT 0;F THE AREA AND POPULATION
(Exclnsive of the Militar; and the Shipping).
CEYLON
Western Province
North-Western Province.
Central Province
North-Central Province .
Northern Province
Eastern Province
Southern Province
Western Province.
Colombo, Municipality of
Colombo District (exclusive of thi
Municipality)
Negombo District
Kegalla District
Ratnapurft District
Kalutara District ,
North-Western Province.
Eurunegala Dwitrict
Puttalam District
Central Province.
Kandy District ,
Matale District .-. .
Badnlla District
Nuwara Eliya District
North-Central Province.
Nuwarakalawiya District (including
Tamftnitaduwa)
Northern Province.
.Taffna District . ,
Maimar District
Mullaittivu District
Vavuniyaii-Vilantulam District . .
Eastern Provincr,
Batticaloa District
Trincomalee District
Southern Province.
Galle District
Matara District
Hambantota District
Area in
square
3,456
. 3,024
6,029
4,047
8,171
3,657
i,yso
532
248
651
1,434
581
1,840
1,184
004
982
3,790
353
4,047
875
432
927
937
2,595
1,062
637
548
895
2,759,738
897,329
293,327
639,361
66,146
302.500
127,555
433,520
110,502
279,286
116,691
119,955
105,874
165,021
215,173
78,154
Males.
66,146
265,583
21,348
7,638
7,931
106,358
22,197
Females.
No. of
persous
per square
uiiie.
1,469,553-
475,397
158,026
361,523
35,580
151,565
66,577 I
220,885
62,225
143,775
61,360
64,698
59,380
83,969
114,989
43,037
162,277
86,655 48,470
165,692 92,627
98,682 58,149
35,580
131,483
11,320
4,213
4,549
54,598
11,979
209,680 105,808
151,923 77,516
71,917 37,561
1,^0,185
421,932
135,301
277,838
30,566
150,935
60,978
212,635
48,277
135,511
55,3al
55,257
46,494
81,062
100,184
35,117
126,055
38,185
73,005
40,533
30,566
134,100
10,028
3,425
3,382
50,760
10,218
103,872
74,407
34,356
109
260
97
106
16
95
35
219
11,693
525
471
184
74
284
117
66
319
88
44
279
16
304
49
8
8
41
21
890
277
80
* 6ni pfet cint. per annum can be added to the resnlts to bring the figures up to date -
Author. t Exclusive of the area of the Colombo L.ake.
NATIONALITIES.
268
^8B|1IIII9^
*ti0[VK
*sizoei8j
§
n
o
■<
P
O
Pi
O
»H
P
n
*89[Vai9J
■Bspimaj
s
EH
/snosiaj
■-<Q0rHt:>S,Oai-4
CO lo « ■* 1"! 00 la
^W ACp) OPQ o
C?> 03 A Q^'^ V t>
O t- ob MS i-( -^ ^
OS m'o'od « t- ■
00 fe: eO i-H t- ^ jH
CJ ■* Q rH -tH t- 0»
_eo to eo to o»
iO r4"
CO CD u>u
O (71 - rHr
S A OQ i-l 10-9
50 00»0">i<eD
osi-icet-t-
1=1
^>f^ © fl*^ a
r4" ■©)
SCOiHi-ICO
„?2 CD
acoi-iua
t- CD -* .H t- 0>fi3
Qwoaeo»oc
CO-* lO C
t-t*-cot-(Ma
DcOCMi-l OOSC
E-Hsassjsss
•| SI'S lis
« s a s K 2 e
264
RELIGIONS— OCCUPATIONS.
j
"SSI . ja
i
g
' •
!■
g
:
H
1
1
«sgs- .|S
i
o
■1 ^^
s
1
£
I
s
'^"'SSSS s
§
S
S
1
g-^" "cT
S
?5
p;
^
o
n
tj
* * a ' *
^*
O ri
^
£
i
li
1!
1
t^
a "3
1
Em
sgi .-is
■ r ■
00
i
2^
ft ■"
o ?
'H
^
«
■1
* OS3D
S
t
^ £
o £
ii
S
OQ
3
1
s"
tn
jl
Q
u
>
glll^s-^l
i
H
a
oooggj
s
H
O
5
te
o
U
n
H
C
1
3
1
u
I
d
II
»
=
2
?
1
hlillii
KSj:=M3rt;^c
■S9[iiaiaj
r* I r4 eO QD -^l fH to CD
I t-toO'HCDffiaD
to j iH rH
icoq
'sapaozdj i oi
•saiBjc »
'Sdivma^
c- oo cj la t- lo C4
as^c-- CD 1-1 so ■* o
■^ iCDXQoasSnua
'
Ico ' naocoooae^si
f-a ■ ooot-i.-i'fl'o
•ssinnr "2. 1 't.<=l=l'l =!'=.»
^\°K ^T ' o o r» VTo Gs ao
t- laC-ODt-teOrH —
1*0 1 ^ ^
g
*sai«uia^ '
f-l .-i Q ■«« 3C O 33
! -sapsora J !
o
CO -«• XM^O&C
c- cs »-< f ft c- a
eo SI O oc S ■*.'■
C- i-l rH C- 00 a
^■3
ei -^r i-t « ■* OS »
'B8[Vai9J ^ t- « « ►■
•S3l«W
'B9pniI9^
0)00 00 U3 OlO"
-- jaSSi-
g?^o Sag
' . H t; s f
265
ESTATE POPULATION; CHIEFLY TAMIL COOLIE
IMMIGRANTS.
STATEMENT SHOWING THE DISTBIBTTTION OF THE ESTATE POPULA-
TION, WJXH THE NUMBEB , OP ESTATES IN BACH KKVENCE
DISTRICT.
Cetlon
Wkstebn Pbotincb.
Colombo District
Negombo District
Eegalla District
Batnapura District
Ealatara District
Nobth-Westebn Pbovince,
Karanegala District
Fattalam District
Centbal Fbotince.
Eandy District
Matale District
Badalla District
Nawara Eliya District . . . .
NOBTHEBN PbOTINCE.
Jaffna District
Eastebn Pbovince.
Batticaloa District
Trincomalee District
SoDiHEBN Pbovince.
Galle District
Matara District
No. of
EsUtea.
1,758
25
52
44
102
15
27
17
671
141
271
325
32
17
11
Population.
PetBona.
206,495
1,074
1,886
3,268
6,925
1,002
2,539
796
75,229
18,182
37,242
66,225
528
78
277
595
649
Males. Females.
124,692
695
1,372
2,051
4,248
655
1,527
531
44;951
10,9^5
22,3 lO
33,954
332
62
208
4U
397
81,803
379
514
1,217
2,67r
347
1,012
265
30,278
7,197
14,932
2a,271
196
16
69
181
252
266
OCCUPATIONS.
STATEMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS OF THE POPULATION
OF CEYLON.
PaiNCIFAI. OCCUJ'ATIONS.
Population of Ceylon according to Nationality
I. — Propessionaij Class.
In employ of (Jeneral or Local Government
Missionary, Clergyman, Minister
Church, Chax)6l — Service
Buddhist Prleat
Vlhara Service '
Hindu Prie'^t ^
Temple Service '. .
Mohammedan Priest
Mosque Service
Barrister, Advocate, Proctor
Law Student
Petition, Pleading — Drawer
Notary Fablio
Physician, Surgeon, Medical Practitioner
Medical Student
Midwife
Chemist, Druggist
Music Teacher, Musician
Drummer
Tom-tom Beater
Actor, Comedian, Dancer, Nautch Girl '..
Snake Charmer
Devil Dancer .-. .'
Inspector of ^ehools. Schoolmaster, Teacher,
SchoohnistresB \...
Astrologer
n.— Domestic Class.
Hotel — Manager, Keeper; Boarding-bouse, Rest-
ho'ise, Eating-house Keeper
Domestic Servant (General)
Groom {Horsekecper)
Wash-house Service ,
Barber
m.— Commercial Class.
Merchant '
Commission Agent, Broker
Accountant, Book-keeper ^.
Clerk (so returned)
Shopkeeper (branch undefined)
Boutique-keeper
All Races.
12,948
422
110
6,279
1,193
1.44
521
95
280
76
120
411
8,349
60
260
107
168
181
1,203
197
121
1,532
2,720
aoi
712
42,175
2,' 57
87
1,898
255
249
908
2,498
582
15,573
Males.
Females.
1,469,553
1,290,185
12,536
412
409
13
108
2
6,279
64
4
1,193
111
23
521
95
, .
280
76
120
411
8,321
28
60
260
104
8
164
4
181
1,203
116
si
80
41
1,528
4
2,185
686
201
477
2S5
24,265
17,920
2,667
62
25
1,861
47
254
244
1 6
908
..
2,498
581
18,101
2,472
267
Principal OoouPATiosa.
All Baces.
PeraonB.
Femalef).
III.— CoMMEBoiAL CLASS [continotd).
General Trader
Petty Trader
Basket Woman 1
ToU Renter, Toll Collector
Carter ;
Tavalan Man
' Pingo Bearer
Boatman
Seaman (ashore)
Storekeeper
Messenger, Porter, Errand Boy
IV. — Aqeiodltohal Class.
Land Proprietor
Planter
Coffee Planter
Coco-nut Planter
Tobacco Gardener
Estate Superintendent
Estate Conductor
CultiTator
Garden Cultivator ,
Coffee Gnrden Cultivator
Agricultural Labourer ,
Climber
Cowherd, Shepherd
Laud Surveyor
Grass— Cutter, Seller
Hunter
Farrier, Veterinary Surgeon
Horse, Cattle— Trader
Fisherman
V. — ^INDDSTBIAI. Class.
Bookbinder ; . ;
Printer, Compositor
Watch Bepairer
Fitter ; ; ■...
Saddle, Harness, Whip — Maker
Carpenter '.
Mason
Painter, Plumber ;
Dyer ;
Dye-root — Digger, Seller ...:
Cotton Spinner, Thread Manufacturer . . . .
Cloth Weaver
Lace — Manufacturer, Seller
Weaver (not otherwise described)
Draper, Cloth Dealer
Tailor, Milliner, Seamstress
Shoe, Sandal— Maker
Dhoby
Mat, Basket — Maker, Seller
Hemp Manufacturer
Coir-^Mauofacturer, Dealer
Milk, Butter— Seller
Butcher, Meat Salesman
19,770
6,642
2,&l!i
203
9,081
927
286
2,214
719
271
799
1,977
1,966
174
101
476
171
742
460,lti9
9,197
755
166,421
6,872
2,687
118
779
310
199
942
20,020
108
861
76
14,477
6,012
861
804
4^4
1,688
1,616
668
91
3,042
5,300
644
17,297
14,671
940
15,672
859
667
16,676
4,984
'205
9,031
926
28i
2,214
719
271
792
452
1,966
475
171
742
430,189
9,197
766
103,674
6,872
2,469-
ll8
427
3111
199
941
19,980
103
861
75
202
88
14,475
5,012
861
266
17S,
.22
1,471
' 4
■15
8,036
1,405
644
10,622
44-2
15
1,168
255
665
3,094
658.
2,512
62,747
852
I
90
86
289
1,666
146
669
76
7
8,896
6,676
14,229
925
14,504
104
2
268
Phincipai. Occopations.
All Races.
Persons.
Males.
Females.
v.— iNDDSTKliL ClASS (continued).
Ponltry, Egg — Seller
216
3,680
4,712
234
4,566
202
1,035
1,150
99
139
862
3,280
416
590
2,719
8,6.10
2,810
214
1.S57
sm
2,805
801
2,197
828
561
468
165
168
153
90
1,419
102
1,034
481
944
4,136
6,769
5,887
419
147
6,278
1,185
199
176
745
4,302
60
94
85,188
1,526
665
272
21S
1,958
2,028
10
1,091
142
587
845
98
T39
854
8,280
288
648
5
3,359
1,530
214
1,777
.S81
1,706
301
2,197
828
561
175
157
29
149
90
1,323
81
909
477
677
2,886
■4,599
3,693
366
132
6,262
1,185
199
176
745
4,802
CO
94
64,985
715
665
272
4
1,722
2,689
224
3,476
60
448
SOS
1
'8
..
183
42
2,714
271
1,280
80
2
699
288
8
189
4
96
21
126
4
267
1,260
2,170
2,294
84
16
21
20,158
811
1
Fishmonger
Bice, Paddy, Grain— Seller ,
Baker, Bread Seller, Rice-cake Seller, Coffee-
boutique Keeper
Confectioner
Vegetable Dealer
Coco-nut, Koppora— Seller
Arrack Distiller
Liquor— Shopkeeper, Sriler
Arrack Renter, Tavern Keeper, Arrack Sellir . .
Toddy Drawer
Jaggery — Manufacturer, Seller
CoSee Seller
Coffee Picker
Tobacco Seller; Cigar, Snuff— Manufacturer,
Dealer
Betel, Areca-nut— Seller
Tortoise-Bhell — Worker, Dealer
OU— Miller, Monger
Timber Dealer
Cooper
Timber Feller ;
Firewood— Cutter, Seller
Cadjan— Maker, Seller
Plumbago Dealer ". .'.
Stone — Cutter, Breaker, Seller
Brick, Tile— Maker, Seller
Lime — Burner, Seller . . .
Rood Labourer
Railway Labourer
Potter, Earthenware Dealer
Salt Dealer
Goldsmith, Silversmith, Jeweller
Gem Digger
Lapidary
Tinker
Blacksmith
Chanks— Fisher, Dealer
VI.— Indefinite and kos-Pboddctive
Artizan (branch undefined)
Renter do.
APPENDIX VII.
STAPLE IMPOETS OF CEYLON FROM 1837 TO 1886.
Cotton Manafacturex ; Bice ; Fish (dried and salted) ; Cattle.
Cotton
Goods.
Bice.
Fish.
Cattle.
Year.
Value.
Qoantitj.
Value.
Quantity.
Value.
No.
Declared
Value.
£
Bnshels.
£
Cwts.
Pieces.
£
£
1887
220,873
660,042
149,503
6,980
29,528
6,719
1,801
1838
187,931
860,012
168,972
9.527
227,542
7,301
Dewribed
820
1839
128,607
884,628
182,300
8,581
lOT
5,674
as Live
Stock,
qiiaatity
1,166
18M
156,326
1,043,064
202,388
6,949
72,000
8,946
1,270
1841
184,691
1,106,152
183,488
9,996
4,709
not spe-
cified in
1,727
1842
178,888
1,102,192
191,968
9,050
..
6,913
6,181
184S
160,865
1,594,114
279,123
7,981
6,179
CuBtoms
7,696
1844
192,986
1,700,186
296,948
16,950
,,
14,670
Returns.
22,885
1845
238,554
2,167,384
879,835
23,028
16,297
26,657
1846
185,590
2,162,206
372,940
84,033
..
17,479
47,237
23,745
1847
178,064
2,121,0^2
372,109
29,852
16,480
61,594.
28,914
1848
182,767
1,910,685
329,420
86,291
36,343
47,265
26,425
1849
190,911
1,985,762
347,502
24,457
24,457
8,895
17,884
18S0
187.567
2,355,768
412,261
35,706
85,705
8,507
17,120
1851
216,274
2,221,466
888,777
29,026
29,026
8,994
17,688
1852
189,078
2,331,796
408,065
80,670
30,670
7,951
16,363
1853
228,226
2,574,580
462,870
81,000
..
31,000
9,295
18,886
1854
262,082
2,161,706
379,994
42,118
42,118
12,524
25,268
1855
286.621
2,852,178
499,187
34,788
84,788
16,534
83.280
1856
814.596
8,157.385
552,548
56,800
66,800
11,817
28,515
1857
355,429
3,254,623
650,924
63,296
..
63,396
10,675
21,685
1858
466,962
2,856,124
671,224
48,984
68!2re
11,228
25,119
1859
i<80,936
8,511,768
702,354
58,275
10,776
26,608
186U
640,284
3,182,204
636,428
55,989
56,989
10,514
24,471
18«1
567,464
4,181,096
886,219
61,382
61,362
9,758
28,780
1862
505,844
4,218,601
1,265,581
61,042
61,042
4,490
12,095
1868
790,408
4,415,821
1,824,745
60,906
60,905
14,085
46,883
1864
997,272
3.943,896
1,183,019
75,248
..
75,248
7,607
23,509
1865
545,044
4,851,414
1,455,424
66,970
66,970
8,326
22,785
1866
860,310
3,777,820
1,138,196
70,190
70.190
9,059
43,079
1867
891,776
4,543,327
1.362,998
71,709
71,709
8,912
50,190
1868
642,802
4,455,315
1,386,594
73,294
73,294
7,892
39,469
1869
734,921
4,406,216
1,824,418
75,189
75,189
6,799
40,388
1870
976,987
4,735,832
1.539,145
76,968
76,968
7,605
53,018
1871
840,917
4,278,708
1,390,580
78,575
78,575
10,058
64,897
1872
883,400
5,367,302
1,744,378
88,96%
88,962
14,198
84,696
187B
865,060
5,708,142
1,855,146
108,169
108,169
14,749
82,560
1874
889,!)51
5,717,775
1,858,277
98,648
98,648
12,541
70,148
1875
780,903
5,527,620
1,714,762
86,999
£6,999
15,892
84,628
1876
952,510
5,855,645
1,908,084
87,598
87,598
17,881
91,661
1877
718,239
6,938,160
2,254,902
98,250
93,250
28,958
102,522
1878
494,210
6,668,969
2,167,414
84,429
84,429
17,492
55,929
1879
561,552
5,954,934
1,935,854
74,822
74,322
27,483
108,796
1880
704,889
6,094,999
1,980,875
90,896
90,896
4'f^
73,943
1881
512,878
6,030,820
1,960,017
91,426
91,426
8,688
38,776
1882
462,112
6,757,025
1,871,033
92,841
92,841
9,587
86,100
1883
491,799
5,746,184
1,867,510
120,378
,.
120,878
4-^??
60,698
1884
657,882
5,490,768
1,784,500
101,619
101,619.
13,461
68,517
1885
847,212
5,784,129
1,863,592
127,184
127,134
10,081
50,283
1886
457,292
5,567,100
1,809,807
113,050
113,050
47,108
87,796
Cotton Goods.— KM from England ; up to the last four years, Colombo had a large trade
in aapplying Southern liidia with cotton goods, but railway extension from Madras, and,
above all, the abolition of customs duties on cotton in India, have taken away all this trade.
Bice. — ^\\ from India (mainly to feed immigrant population from India, and popula-
tions of large towns).
Fish. — All from India, for curries of same population.
Cattle — ^All from Indiu, for transpun pur^^cs and food for Europeans and Burghers.
APPENDIX VIII.
CEYLON: "THE- EDEN OF THE EASTEEN
WAVE."
The Land of Cinnamon, Palms, Tea, Coffee, CincJwna, the
Chocolate Plant ; Pearls, Rubies, and Sapphires ; of
ancient ruins second only to those of EgyjJt ; of Tropical
Scenery the finest in the world.
[Statistics Arranged and Compile^ by J. Ferguson, of Ceylon Observer
and Tropical Agriculturist, at the request of Sir A. N. Birch,
K.C.M.G., Commissioner for Ceylon to the Indian and Colonial
Exhibition of 1886 ; for exhibition in the Ceylon Court.] «
Area in square miles ... 25,000
Population in 1887 ... 2,900,000
Divided into 8 provinces, administered by Governor and
about 80 covenated Civil Servants.
J^aces .-—Sinhalese, 1,930,000; Tamils, 725,000; Moormen
(Arab descendants), 200,000 ; Eurasians, 19,000 ;
Malays, 9,000 ; Europeans, 5,500 ; Veddahs, 2,500 ;
others, 8,000.
Eeliginns: — Buddhists, 1,760,000;, Sivaites (Hindus),
600,000 ; Mohammedans, 200,000 ; Roman Catholics,
210,000; Protestants, 65,000; others, 65,000.
Longest Eiver : — Mahaweliganga — 150 niiles (Ganges of
Ptolemy).
Highest Mountains : — Pidurutalagala, 8,296 feet ; Adam's
Peak, 7,358 ; 150 mountain peaks from 3,000 to
7,000 feet.
* A few later results have been embodied in this page. — J. F.
Ceylon : Summary of Information.
271
Towns : — Capital, Colombo, 120,000 people, with splendid
Breakwater, great steamer coaling and calling port of
the East ; Kandy (ano.ient capital), 24,000 ; Point-de-
GaUe, 35,000; Trincomalee (with grand harbour),
11,000.
Wild Animals: — Elephants, Cheetah, Black Bear, Buffaloe,
Boar, Elk and Small Deer ; Eagle ; Crocodile ; Shark.
Eevmue ^1,300,000
:/Vade .-—Total Annual Trade iES.OOOjOOO
Total Imports from United Kingdom Jgl, 250,000
Total Exports to do. ... f 2,250,000
Total of Shipj)ing entered and cleared annually, about
4,000,000 tons.
Roads: — 2,500 miles, inetalled and gravelled, among the
best in the world.
Railways : — 185 miles — first class Eailway — 5\ feet gauge.
Canals :- — 170 jniles.
Education : — Total of Scholars, 120',000, or about 25 per
cent, of children of school-going age ; 1,200 miles of
Telegraph wire ; 135 Post Offices.
Acres.
Area Cultivated : — ... ...
3,130,000
Probable Extension of Cultivation within
10 years to
4,600,000
Details of Cultivation : —
Under Palm trees (Coco, Palmyra, Areka
1
Kitul, &c.) ■ .-. .
650,000
Do.
Other Fruit-trees (Orange, Mango
>
Bread and Jak Fruit, &c.)
50,000
Do.
Rice ".
660,000
Do.
Other Grain
150,000
Do.
Garden vegetables, (Cassaya
>
Yams, &o. ...
100,000
Do.
Coffee, Arabian and Liberian
130,000
Do.
Tea
150,000
(to rise shortly to
200,000)
Do.
Cinnamon-, Cardamom, and other
Spices
60,000
Do.
Chocolate plants (Cacao)
15,000
Do.
Cinchona Bark (Quinine) trees ...
40,000
Do.
Tobacco
25,000
Do.
Eubber, and Gum trees
5,000
Do.
Fibre-yielding plants
10,000
Do.
Essential oil-grass (Citrpnella) ...
20,000
272 Ceylon in tJip. Jubilee Yeajr.
ExporU of Tea have risen from 25,0001b. in 1878 to
4,373,0001b. in 1885, and to. 7,850,0001b. in
1886; expected to reach 24,000,0001b. in 1888; and
40,000,0001b. in 1890.
Do. of Cinchona Bark have risen from 200,0001b. in
1878 to 14,700,0001b. in 1886.
Do. of Cocoa (from Cacao plant) from 10 cwt. in 1878
to 13,056 cwt. in 1886.
Do. of Cardamoms (Spice) from 14,0001b. in 1878 to
239,0001b. in 1886.
Do. of Cinnamon from 650,0001b. in 1850 to 2^ mil-
lion lb. of late years.
Do. of Coconut Oil has risen to 400,000 cwt. from
85,000 cwt. in 1850.
Total crop of Coconuts in one year is equal to 700,000,000
nuts.
200,000 Tamil Coolies find work on plantations; likely to
require 300,000 ere long with tea.
SUMMAEY OF INFOEMATION EEGAEDING
CEYLON.
Its Natural Features, Climate, Progress, Agriculture,
Commerce, Industries, Public Works, Eehgions,
Sights, &c.
[Compiled and corrected up to March, 1887, by A. M. & 3. Ferguson.]
CEYLON [part, as many believe, of the region known
to the Hebrews as Ophir and Tarshish] : — Taprobane of
the Greeks and Eomans (from Tamraparni, Sanslctit, and
Tambapani, Pali) ; Sercndib of the Arab voyagers ; Lankd
of the Continental Hindus and the Sinhalese ; Ilangei of
the Tamils ; Lankapura of the Malays ; Tewalankd of the
Siamese ; Seho or Teho of the Burmese ; Ceilao of the
Portuguese, &o. Pearliform Island ("pearl-drop on the
brow of Ind"), bounded by the Indian Ocean, Bay of Ben-
gal, and Gulf of Mannar ; greatest length and breadth
267 by 140 miles ; circumference, 760 miles. Lat. 5° 53^ to
9° 61" N. ; Long. 79° 41^ 4" to 81° 54^ 50" E. Sun rises
5i hours before he shines on Britain. Light from 6 to 6
Ceylon : nummary of Information. 273
nearly all tbe year round ; but the , sun sets about 42
minutes later in July than in November, indeed twilight in
June occasionally exists till after 7 p.m.
ABEA.
About 24,702 square miles; or 15,809,280 acres, of
which about one-sixth comprises hilly and mountainous
zones, lying in the centre of the southern half of the
island. Maritime districts generally level, and northern
end of island broken up into flat narrow peninsula and
small islets.
DISTANCES
(approximate) : from nearest point of Southern India, via
" Adam's Bridge " and Bamisseram to Tallaimanaar, 60
miles ; from Madras to Point Pedro, 250 ; to Galle, 545. —
To Colombo : from Tuticorin, 450 ; Madras, 615 ; Cal-
cutta, 1,385; Bombay, 900; Aden, 2,400; Suez, 3,800;
Port Said, 8,950 ; Malta, 4,550 ; Gibraltar, 1,950 ; Brin-
disi, 4,500 ; Marseilles, 5,750 ; Cape, 5,000 ; England by
Cape, 15,000 ; by Suez CanaL to Southampton, 6,500 ;
from Mauritius via Aden, 4,500 ; direct, about 2,600 ;
Singapore, 1,600 ; Hong Kong, 3,000 ; Yokohama, Japan,
4,700; Freemantle, Western Australia, 3,000; King
George's Sound or Albany, 3,400 ; Adelaide, 4,400 ; Mel-
bourne,' 4,900 ; Sydney, 5,450 {via Torres Straits, 6,500);
Brisbane, via Torres Straits,' 5,900; New Zealand (Auck-
land) 7,000 miles. The distances generally are counted
from Colombo.
HiaHEST MOUNTAINS.
Pidnrutalagala (rising over the Sanatarium of Ceylon,
Nuwara Eliya) 8,296 feet, or nearly 1,000 feet higher than
Adam's Pet^ (7,353), usually described as the highest, be-
cause it is to voyagers the most conspicuous moimtain in
Ceylon. This latter is really the fifth in altitude, being
inferior to Kirigalpotta (7,832), Totapola (7,746), and
Kuduhngala (7,607), as well as to Pidnrutalagala. Fully
150 mountains, ranging from 3,000 to 7,000 feet. (245
recorded trigonometrical altitudes over 1,000 feet, 145 over
3,000 feet, 118 over 4,000 feet, 63 ovpr 5,000 feet, 28 over
6,000 feet, and 10 over 7,000 feet.) Most of the mountain
ranges on which tea and cinchona or coffee is cultivated
19
274 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year,
are wooded to their summits ; but vast prairie tracts of
hill region, chiefly on the eastern side, bear little beyond
coarse lemon-grass. Mountain scenery generally rich and
grand.
GEEATEST KIVERS AND WATERFALLS.
The Mahaweliganga (Ganges of Ptolemy), nearly 150
miles from its source, in its longest feeder the Agra-oya
under Kirigalpotta (the " milk-stone-book " mountain)
close to Horton's Plains, to its double debouchure near the
great harbour of Triucomalee on the east coast. This
river drains nearly one-sizth of the area of the island.
Eivers not naturally favourable for navigation, except near
the sea, where they expand into backwaters. Steam
navigation -by means of small vessels introduced on
Colombo lake, between Colombo and Negombo on canal,
and shortly expected on Kaluganga, and on Kelani river
to Awisawella. The Kelani entering sea near Colombo ;
Kaluganga at Kalutara ; Mahaoya, near Negombo ; the
Ginganga, near Galle; Walawe-oya near Matara, are some
of the other numerous rivers. Eivers in mountain regions
frequently fall over precipices, forming beautiful waterfalls.
One in Dimbula and another in lower Maskeliya, both
between 200 and 300 feet high ; in Eastern Haputale one
said to be 535 feet ; and the foot of Eamboda Pass, cele-
brated for a series of beautiful falls. No proper surveys
available ; but a series of cascade-falls on Kurunduoya in
Maturata measured from top to bottom, when nearly full
of water, about 920 feet. In the arid regions of the north
of the island some of the river beds which run fuU of
water in the rainy months of the north-east monsoon
(middle of October to middle of January) show only ex-
panses of sand with a few pools in the, dry or south-west
monsoon season, during which the north-east of the island
is almost rainless, while torrents are" deluging the south-
west coast.
LAKES.
None inland, but ruins of magnificent tanks ■ (Sea of
Prakkrama, Minneriya, Kanthalai, Giant's Tank, &c.) in
north and east of island ; and fine, extensive backwaters
on the sea-coast, such as the Negombo Lake, the Lakes of
Bolgoda, MuUaittivu, Batticaloa, &c. The freshwater
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 275'
lakes, which add so mnch to the beaaty of Colomho,
Ean^y, and NnwaTa Eliya are artificial or partly so. The
Labngama Beservoir for the Colombo Water Supply,
covering 176 acres, among hills, 30 miles from Colombo,
forms a beautiful lake.
TIDES.
Generally almost imperceptible (at Colombo the rise and
fall never exceed 3 feet, more generally 2 feet to 2 feet
6 inches on the springs, and 6 to 9 inches on the neaps),
but in the debouchures of some backwaters and rivers the
tide is more noticeable : at Fanadiire the tidal current
runs in at the rate of 4 miles an hour. Powerful currents
also sweep round the coasts, some of them owing their
origin to the Indian Ocean.
GEOLOaY AND MINKBAI.0OY.
The geological formations met with in Ceylon are of the
Palaeozoic, Mezozoic and recent age. The greatest portion
of the island consists of ancient sedimentary beds, doubt-
ful whether deposited sea or lake, as metamorphoses have
obliterated all traces of .fossil remains. Mountain ranges
formed of primary and metamorphic rock. Principal rock :
gneiss, with beds of laterite (locally named " cabook "}
and dolomite, according to some authorities — described by
others as crystalline marble or primary limestone. Plenty
of iron, bat no trace of coal. Manganese, gold and
platinum, but in such small quantities not apparently
worth gathering. Molybdenum, cobalt, nickel, tin, copper,
and arsenic also occur. Plumbago the only mineral of
commercial importance. Cretaceous beds of Ja&a of
Mezozoic age. Nitre in caves. Salt forms naturally, and
is also mannfectured in sufficient quantity at Puttalam,
Jafba, and Hambantota, to supply the consumption of
the island. Calcareous tufa met with at Bintenna de-<
posited from warm springs. Hot springs at Trincomalee
and other places, but no direct evidence of present volcanic
action (unless in Kelebokka valley), and earthquakes seldom
perceptible, save as the outer verge of disturbances in Java
and Eastern Archipelago. Greenstone, however, underlies
gneiss at Kadugannawa, and with Vitrefactions ia observed
in fissures of rocks at Trincomalee. Springs of sulphuretted
276 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
hydrogen similax to Harrogate "water occur in Fnttalam
district. Large tracts of alluvinm occnr in the Kawara
Eliya and other districts. Process of slow upheaval be-
lieved to be in operation on western coast, with compen-
sating disintegration of mountain ranges. Recent forma-
tion : a breccia formed of particles of disintegrated roclt
held together by calcareous and ferruginous matter near
Negombo and along coast. Gems abundant, especially about
Ratnapura (" city of gems "), but, with exception of blue
sapphire and red ruby, of slignt value. A flawlesssapphire
is rare, and good rubies are excessively scarce. Zircon or
" Matara Diamond," and amethyst, common. Chrysoberyl
for " cat's-eye") not uncommon, curious, and of late years
prized in Britain. Moonstones (very beautiful form of
"adularia") and "cinnamon stones" (brown garnets)
common. Spinel and tourmaline very aljundant. Many
rocks and river beds sparkle with red garnets, beautiful but
intrinsically valueless. Ceylon celebrated for fine pearls,
chiefly from oyster or mussel banks of north-west coast.
Gemming license in Ceylon is RlO per annum, subject to
certain published rules.
CUMATE.
Varies in different parts, from hot and arid plains of
north and east, to warm and humid south-west coast, and
cool and wet mountain regions ; but, for the tropics,
generally healthy. Fever zone » extends below middle
altitudes of mountain ■ ranges, and banks of rivers fre-
quently unhealthy. Fever seldom or never occurs above
3,000 feet altitude, and is rare within the influence of the
sea breezes. The hot months at Colombo are February,
March and April, and sometimes (when the monsoon is
delayed) May; when all, who can, escape to the hill regions,
Nuwara EUya especially. The heat in Ceylon, however,
seldom reaches 90° in the shade : 95J° in AprU being the
maximum in Colombo — 95-8° on 22nd February, 1885,
actual highest — where the mean of the year nearly touches
81°, sea-breezes tempering the heat for a large portion of
the year. At Trincomalee the maximum was 101"7° on
10th May, 1886. The rate of mortality in Ceylon towns
ranges from 1-65 per cent, for Jaffna (Colombo 1-76) to
406 for Kurunegala. The military death-rate i^n Ceylon
Ceylon : Nummary of lnfi»rmdtion. 277
is down to 25 in 1,000 ; and this xatd ia aapiable of still
farther redaction by sanitary mdadares. Tfa£ opening of
the Suez Canal and the facUities offered hy steatn com-
munication have led to abandonment of Nawara Eliya as
a military sanatarium, invalid soldiers being sent ''home"
instead. The perfection of climate in Ceylon is supposed to
be found at and around Bandarawela (distant 118 miles
from Colombo), on the plateaa of the Uva principality, at
8,900 feet elevation, the average temperature being 68°,
with an average annual rainfall of 78 ino^es falling on
126 days ; but the climate of Lindula, Bogawantalawa,
Udapussellawa and Nilwara £liya is also very good.
HETEOKOLOaT.
Exposed to both monsOons ( S. W. from April to Septem-
ber, N.E. from November to February), but storms seldom
violent. Ceylon is most fortunate in being, outside the
region of the cyclones peculiar at certain seasons to the
Bay of Bengal ; also the hurricanes of the M^inritius Beas,
and the volcanic disturbances of Java and the Eastern
Archipelago. Bainfall : 85 at Hambantota ; 88 inches at
Mannar; 48 inches at JaSna ; 53 at Anuradhapura ; 62|
at Batticaloa ; 61^ at Trincomalee ; 76^ at Bandarawella
in Uva ; 81^ at Eandy ; 85^ at Matale ; 87^ at' Colombo ;
98^ at Kurunegala ; 100 inches Nuwara. EUya; 106| at
Ei^atara ; 127 Bamboda'; andf from 117 to 150 on the
ipimbola, Dikoya.andMaskeliya rangesr outside the table-
lands of Nuwara Eliya at 6,000 feet, and Horton Plains
7,000 feet altitude ; 150^ at Batnapiira ; IS^i at Nawala-
pitiya; 159 at AwisaweUa; and 200 at Templestowe,
Ambagamuwa; «nd the mnximum 228 at Padapol% north-
east of Adam's Peak. In parts of Yakdessa the annual
rainfall is often over 200 inches, as much, as 50 inohes of
which hav« been known to fall in one month, and. a dozen
inches in as many\ hours. Temperature varies from a
mean of 68° F. at the mountain sanatarium of Nuwara
Eliya ; 65 to 66 at Langdale, Dimbula. and. at Bogawanta-
lawa, Dikoya ; a mean of 72 at BadnUa, 75^ Eandy, and
81 at Colombo, 80 Galle, Batnapura, Puttal^, Hamban-
tota, and Anuradhapura ; about 82 at Batticaloa, Jaifna,
Mannar, and a fraction higher at Trincomalee. The ex-
tremes in the shade range from below freezing point at
278 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Nuwara Eliya to 95-8 at Colombo and 101-7 at Trinco-
malee. Except in the north and east, climate moist as
well as hot. Fertility due more to this circumstance than
to richness of soil generally. Fruits of temperate re-
gions fail from continuous warm moisture, but long-con-
tinued and extreme heat, acting as a wintering (the roots
being laid bare), favours grape cultivation at Jaffna : suc-
cessful growth also in Dumbera valley and near Nuwara
Eliya. Snow is unknown. Hail not unfrequent in hill dis-
tricts in very hot weather. Ice forms occasionally at Nuwara
Eliya under clear radiating sky during the rainless months,
December to February. Electrical phenomena — thunder,
lightning, waterspouts, &c. — frequent and sometimes grand,
and hghtning occasionally destructive to life, especially to
natives who climb trees or take refuge from rain under
them. Coconut palms, papaya, plantain, and other pithy
or sappy trees and shrubs are peculiarly fitted as lightning
conductors. Lightning so frequently seen without thunder
being heard, that Arabs compare a, liar to Ceylon lightning.
Optical phenomena, such as rainbows, Buddha rays, an-
thelia, mirage, occasionally very striking. Sunsets fre-
quently beautiful, and zodiacal light sometimes seen.
Moonlight and .starry, nights often splendid, and, when
perfectly cloudless, peculiarly cool.
Ceylon, while presenting most points of resemblance in
its fauna and flora to the neighbouring continent of India,
differs in some respects, and assimilaltes to the Malayan
Archipelago. There can be little or no doubt that cinna-
mon, for which Ceylon has always been famous, is really
indigenous to this island. So doubtless, with rice. On
the other hand, its best-known productions, coffee and
coconuts, are introductions (the first certainly, the second
also in the judgment of botanists), also tea, cacao, and
cinchona. Most South American plants readily adapt
themselves to the island, as is proved by the recent success
of the cinchonas, cacao, and rubber trees. Tea is also
growing luxuriantly in a climate peculiarly favourable to
leafage. Ceylon is peculiarly noted for ferns and balsams;
while orchids abound. Ebony, satin wood, and other fine
cabinet woods, with serviceable timber, are plentiful in the
Ceylm; Sianjnary of information. S7fl
fbrests. Galamander, &e most beautiful of the cabinet
^oods, is becoming very scarce, only a few trees being
TAportedasleft. In the higher mountain regions, familiar
Ekiropean forms mingle with tbd. richest tro^cal vegetation'.
Palms and baml^>os are specially beautiful and luxuriant :
few objects in nature being more magnificent than a talipot
palm in flower, and few more elegant than the slender
areka palm, or the tall bending green bamboo of the moun-
tain forests below Nuwara Eliya. The coconut palm
luxuriates along the western and south-western coasts,
and mdeed fe^r inland, up the river valleys, jiist as the
palm3nra, with its 600 different uses to the natives, abounds
in the Jaffna peninsula. Many of the forest trees, such as
the lagerstroemia regina, red rhododendron, and searlet-
blbssomed cotton tree, bear beautiful flowers ; whilq the
vari-ooloured foliage of the jungle cinnamon, ironwood, &e.,
relieve the deep green of the forest, looking at a distance
like rich floral masses. There are few parts of the world
so rich in fungi as Ceylon, and one, new to science, h^^
within the past generation, almost annihilated the great
coffee enterprise of the island. Backwaters are rich in
mangroves. Some of the seaweeds are also very beautiful.
The indigenous species of plants enumerated by "Dr. Tri-
men, of the Boyal Botanic Gardens, Feradehiya, include ;
— Dicotyledons, 2,019 ; Monocotyledons, 710 ; Filices,
LycopodiacesB, and Marsileace8e,'260^total 2,989 : double
the flora of Britain, and about one-thirtieth of all species
ia the world yet deseribed.
M(mkeys "are numerous, five species of wanderoo
(iangura), of which ilo; less than four are recognized as
peculiar to the island/ The capped-mopkey (macacos)
famous for its grimaees, aiid capacity for learning tricks;
the foris, a queisr orefttprfl, the eyes much valued as
medicine by. tiie natives I Bats are very numerous in
genera and species, flying foxes (pteropus) vampires, leaf-
nosed, horse-shoe, and the beautiful painted bat, and
o()hers ; musk and other shrews plentifnU a hiE species
peculiar to the island;; the sloth-bear common in the low
country ; jackals everywhere ;, otters common in suitable
places,- from th6 shores to the highest hiljs ; no tigers or
280 Ceylon irt the Jubilee Year..
lions (though tue native name of the people signifies ibe
"lion descended"); the panther or leopard ■,(erronep»sly
called cheetah locally) is the largest feline, and is common
in most places ; the tiger and red-spotted cats generally
distributed; lesser civet numerous, its presence being often
betrayed by its powerful scent; a paradoxurns, peculiar to
the island, and palm cat common ; mongooses numerous
of five species, a very distinct one (onychogale Maccarihia
of Gray) peculiar to the island; squirrels abound, two
species of the remarkable flying squirrel, several small
and pretty ground squirrels (equally at home on trees^^s
well) can be seen and heard on all sides, and are amu^g
to watch ; rats and mice only too numerous, the jeeboa or
jumping rats, bandicoot ffnd bash or coffee rat may be
mentioned, a rat and a mouse also peculiar to the island ;
the' porcupine generally found -through hill and lowlands,
as is also the blaek-neoked hare; that strange mail-
covered but toothless creature, the pangolin', is found up to
a considerable elevation, as well as in the low country.
Elephants, the lords of the forest, specially famous, ai-e
found from the sea-coast to the highest points of the
island, are said to be decreasing in some districts, but
still numerous in others. [Large numbers formerly killed
by sportsmen; 1,600 (captured by being snared, or enclosed
in kraals) exported to India from ^Northern Province in
five years ended 1862. A license now required to shoot
elephants, and the number killed or captured has much
decreased : only 1,685 exported in eighteen years, from
1862 to 1880, valued at E452,000, a royalty of E200 for
every elephant exported having no doubt checked the
trade. Eoyalty reduced to ElOO in 1882 ; exports in six
years, 1880 to 1885, equalled 182 elephants, E96,88d.]
The wild boar common everywhere ; buffaloes common iu
the wilder parts still, but their Qumbers much reduced,
daring the last decade or two from disease and the rifle.
Of deer, the fine sambur (locally elk), the spotted, the
paddy-field, the red (rumtjae) and little mouse-deer
(miminna) still common, and afford good sport to the
hunter. Whales, dugongs, porpoises, and dolphins repre-
sent the marine carnivore which sport around the coast,
where also the screaming cries of sea-eagles and the
osprey may be heard, which find their " echo " in the
distant hills from the large beautiful crested eagle peculiar
Ceylon : Svlmmary of Infotmation. 281
to Ceylon, and others of the family; peregrine falcons have
their stations here and there; kestrels, harriers,. and many
species of Lawks numerous ; owls of many species; from
the fine forest-eagle owl to the little scops, not forgetting
the renowned devil-hird, all fairly numerous; the sports-
man is attracted hy the nupierous pea-fowls, jungle, and
spur-fowl (these two peculiar to Ceylon), and quails, which
are common in many places. The frog-tnputh and several
goatsuckers, swifts, including the species remarkable for
making edible nests, swallows common, rollers, king-
fishers, bee-eaters, the scarlet-breasted trogan, several,
species of sun bird (called humming birds locally), repre-
sent the feathered beauties of the Island; tailor and weaver
birds, the wonderful nest builders, wagtails, and warblers
in tyinter only (so they sing not here), but remind
Europeans of sweet home; many varieties of thrushes,
bablers, orioles, bnlbuls, flycatchers, chiats, and drongos
everywhere ; the splendid ' mountain jay and its sobej-
coloured friend the grey starling are peculiar to the
island ; grakles, munias (locally ortolans), liirks, and
pipits niimerous; parakeets, hbmbills, barbets, and gaudy
woodpeckers, each having repi'esentatives peculiar tO' the
island, and many other Species so common as to be a
marked feature in woodland retreats of hill and dale ; a
beautiful woodpigeon, paraquets, peculiar to Ceylon, the
rock-pigeon, many species of firuit pigeons and doves, a
titmouse, a lovely nuthatch, crows and shrikes, the
ubiquitous magpie • robin, the long-tailed jungle robin,
and blackbird are fine songsters, the jungle robin inferior
only to the nightingale itself; many others have songs,
like Annie Laurie's, low and sweet, so are not noticed by
casual observers. Not less interesting and extensive is
the list of marsh and sea birds; the famous Marabou 'and
other storks, the gigantic and other herons, beautiful
egrets and bitterns of several species, the painted and
other snipes, sandpipers, plover, dotterel, the cock of the
ireeds, the, purple and other gallimules, and rails numer-
ous in suitable places. ' The'siugular jacanus or water-
pheasant, the scarlet flamingo, ducks of many kinds, the
dab-chick, gulls, terns, snake-birds (darter), cormorants,
and pelicans common found the coast and tanks ; frigate-
birds and petrels occasionally, altogether making up a
wonderfully diversified list of fur and feathers for so small
282 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
an area, -over 860 species of birds having been recognized
to date, of which no less than 45 are believed to be pecnliar
to the island.
The following reptiles are found in Ceylon : — Land
tortoise, one ; fresh water, one ; fresh water turtle, one ;
marine tnrtles, four ; crocodiles, two ; • water lizards, two ;
skinks, five; acontiads, four; geckos, sixteen; agames (or
bloodsuckers), fifteen ; chameleon, one ; snakes of fifteen
different groups, about sixty, eight of which are venemous
and three deadly, whilst about twenty-three sea snakes are
found on the coast, all said to be deadly. Of ground and
tree frogs, forty ; and one burrowing batrachian.
Eiver fish, chiefly 'carp, are few in number and of
inferi6r quality. Better kinds might be introduced:
perches introduced NuweraEliya lake, and experiment with
trout about to be made. There are from 500 to 700
different kinds of sea fish, mainly species of mackerel, to
which the salmon-like seer-fish belongs, with sharks and
rays. No cod, but 'sword and saw fish, mullet, perches,
lobsters, crabs, prawns, " beche de mer," chanks, edible
and ^earl oysters. Sea and land shells numerous and
beautiful. The floor of the sea in certain parts is studded
with richly-coloured corallines and the softer zoophytes,
while the waters swarm with star and jeUy fish and
infusoria, so that frequently the waves, in breaking, dis-
play a line of phosphorescence, chiefly caused by the
nocfciluca miliaris.
Perhaps there is no sea-coast in the world richer in
fishes and shells, and some of the fishes described have a
right to the title " odd." Mr. Edgar Layard has described
perches which " walk, across country " (allied to those
which Dr. John, of Tranquebar, found climbing palmyra
trees) ; and the late Bev. B. Boake made acquaintance
with air-breathing species 'Which flourish in mud, but
drown in pure water, and others which, disdaining the
marsupial pouch possessed by th.e " sea-horses," carry
their young in their mouths. Fishes actually live in the
hot weUs near Trincomalee in a temperature of 115°.
The natives of Ceylon are great consumers of fish, the
Buddhists salving their consciences by the subterfuge that
they do not kill the fish, they only take them out of the
water.
Myriads of insects, including butterflies, beetles, bees.
Ceylon : Summary of Information, 288
wasps, mosquitoes ; white, black and red ants ; ticks,
scorpions, centipedes, tarantulas, multitudes of curious
spiders, &c., are found in Ceylon, and the periodical
swarms of butterflies, which proceed in the teeth of the
prevailing winds, are peculiarly interesting. Many of the
butterflies, moths (including atlas moth, cinnamon moth,
and the variety which yields the tusse7' silk), beetles, and
dragon-flies, are exceedingly beautiful. Efforts to domes-
ticate bees have not been very successful hitherto : two or
three wild varieties. Leaf-insects and " praying mantis "
curious, and whole regions resound to the incessant noise
of the cicada or "knife-grinder." Coconut beetles, cock-
chafers and their grubs, and coccus, known as coffee bug,
very injurious. Grasshoppers and locusts occasionally
destructive over limited areas. A species, of wasp builds
pendant nests (chiefly on coconut trees) six feet long.
Spiders' webs sometimes so numerous, large and strong as
almost to check the progress of travellers through forests.
Land leeches excessively troublesome in the damp forests
of the lower hills ; Indian medicinal leech common.
HISTOKICAIi NOTES.
From conquest by Wijaya, Prince from Northern India,
about B.C. 543, to deposition of Sri Wikrama Eaja Sinha,
last King of Kandy, in 1815, Sinhalese annals record one
hundred and sixty sovereigns. Portuguese first visited
Ceylon 1505, erected fort at Colombo 1518. Dutch first
visited Ceylon 1602, landed forces in 1640, and ousted the
Portuguese in 1658, so that Portuguese occupation lasted
140 years. Dating from their landing in 1640 to the
capitulaiSon of Colombo in 1796, the Dutch occupation
lasted 156 years ; or 138, if the 18 years of warfare with the
Portuguese are excluded. Acquired by England : Mari-
time Provinces, 1796 (separated from Madras Presidency
and maae Crown Colony 1798) ; Kandyan Kingdom, 1815.
Torture, compulsory labour, and slavery, successively
abolished 1803, 1882, aild 1844. Trial by jury introduced
1811. Kandyan polyandry and polygamy (prematurely)
prohibited 1856 ; law relaxed 1869. There was a formid-
able rebellion in 1817-18 in the Kandyan Provinces, and
again a feeble rising, also of Kandyans, in 1848. The
Kandyans, equally with the rest of the population of
284 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Ceylon, are now loyal, contented, and pacific, so that the
small military force (about 1,000 infantry and artillery)
which the colony supports is scarcely required, since about
760 volunteers (Ceylon Light Infantry) and a strong body
(1,500) of pplice are more than sufficient for the repressio'n
of any possible internal disturbance (religious or rice riots
the onlypublic form experienced), and it is believed for
repelling (with the artillery), what we may deem impossible,
sudden piratical attack. Ceylon, out of her small force,
yielded valuable aid to India in repressing the mutiny of
1857, and Colombo has been found a convenient depot
for the dispatch of troops with reference to wars in China,
New Zealand, Egypt, and South Africa, for which parts
regiments hav^ beep taken from Ceylon.
ANTIQUITIES.
Besides tanks, important and ancient Hindu and Budd-
hist temples and other ruins at Dondra, Anuradhapura,
Folonnaruwa, Mihintalle, Segiri, &e., the Jetawanarama
Dagoba at Anuradhapura, originally 316, is still 269 feet
high, or more than half the altitude of the great Egyptian
Pyramid, diameter at base 396 feet; side of square 779
feet. The sacred bo-tree (Jicus religiosa) at this place is
believed to be one "of the oldest historical trees in the
world, perhaps over 2,100 years. The Maligawa at Kandy
is famous as containing the so-called tooth of Buddha —
a piece of discoloured ivory. At DambuUa is a vast rock
temple; while the small Aluwihara, near Matale, is
interesting as the place where the Buddhist doctrines are
said to have been reduced to writing about a century b.c.
[See Burrow's "Buried Cities of Ceylon."]
POPULATION.
{Remits of Census of 1881 : 1 per cent, can be added for
each year since.)
2,759,738' (over 2,900,000 probably in 1887) ; 112 to
square mile,, ranging. from 16 in North-Central Province
to 216 in Western. Kaces (estimated) : Sinhalese (Kandyan
and maritime), 1,846,000; Tamils, 687,240; Moormen,
184,600,- Malays, 18,895; Javanese, Kafirs or Negroes,
Afghans, Arabs, Persians, Parsees, &c., 7,849 ; Yeddahs,
2,228; European descendants, 17,886; Europeans, 4,836.
Ceylon : Summary of Informaliott. 285
[About 200,000 of the Tamils are immigranfs, balance of
nearly 3 millions who came from Southern India (chiefly
to labour temporarily on coffee estates) in 45 years ending
1885, and who have settled down here ; besides which
there is a floatmg Tamil population of nearly 200,000
more. Nearly one-fourth of the Europeans are military
and families. Effective militarij number, about 1,000.
Ncuive soldiei-y (since the disbandment of the Ceylon
Rifle Eegiment) consist of 88 Hindu gun Iftscafs. Total
Militant (volunteers : European and native), with women
and children, say 1,800. Constituents of European popula-
tion, wives and families included: Military, 1,250; planters,
4,000 ; colonial service (civil servants proper number only
75, with 15 writers) 900; merchanits and their emplo>es,
clergymen, physicians, storekeepers, railway, employes,
&c., 1,200. There are of all classes about 8.400 lawyers,
advocates, and proctors in Ceylon, with 600 notaries ;
300 clergymen and missionaries (450 in census) ; 155^
physicians and surgeons (besides 3,000 native vederales) ;
200 justices of the peace and unofficial tnagisttates.]'
POLITICAt DIVISIONS.
[The latest regular Census was that of 1881.]
Eight provinces, viz. : Western, 3;456 miles; 897,829
population ; 260 to square mile. North-Western, 8,024
miles; 293,327 population; 97 to square mile. Southern,
1,980 miles; 483,520 population; 219 to square mile.
Eastern, 367 miles ; 127,555 population ; 35 to square
mile. Northern, 3,171 miles ; 302,5'00 population.; 95 to
square mile. Central (as reduced), 2,003 miles ; 310,000
population. North- Central, 4,067 miles; 66,146 popula-
tion-; 16 to square mile. At the beginning of 1886, the
Uva Principality was separated ifrbm the Central Province
and made an eighth province, of 165,672 population and
4,026 square miles in area. Provinces sub-divided into
korales or counties, and minor divisions, such as pattus,
&o. [Besides municipalities and local boards in the chief
towns, and " gansabawas " or rural village councils, there
are also judicial divisions and circuits, liable to change,
the enumeration of which would convey little definite
information.]
286 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
CHIEF TOWNS.
Colombo, according to census of 1881, with military
and shipping added, 111,942 in area of 9^ square miles ;
Galle, 33,000; Kandy, 22,000; Jaffna, 40,000; Batticaloa,
6,700; Eurunegala, 4,222; Anuradhapura, 1,300; Badulla,
4,746. [The above are. the " capitals of the provinces.
Negombo, Ratnapura, Kalutara, Panadure, and Moratuwa
in the Western Province; Gampola, Matale, Nawalapitiya,
Nuwara Eliya, and Hatton in the Central; Kalpitiya,
Chilaw, and Puttalam in the North- Western ; Point Pedro
in the Northern; Matarii, AmbalangOda and Baddegama
in the Southern Province ; Haldumijdla and Lunugalla in
the Uva Province are, some of them, of more importance
as regards population than the provincial capitals, while
Trincomalee (population 10,180), though no longer the
chief seat of civil government jn the Eastern Province,
continues to be of importance as the naval .head-quarters
of the East Indian fleet, although now that Colombo, with
cojivenient harbour works, has been made the mail-steamer
port, it is expected the naval station will ere long be trans-
ferred to itj especially if a graving dock is constructed.]
BEUGIONS.
Estimated : Romanists, about 218,000. Protestants :
Episcopalians, 22,000; Wesleyans, 20„000; Scotch and
Dutch Presbyterians, and Congregationalists (latter con-
verts of American mission), 13,000; Baptists, 5,000. Total
Protestants, 60,000. Total Christians, 278,000. Buddhists
and demon-worshippers, 1,700,000 ; Gentoos (worshippers
of Siva, Vishnu, PuUeiyar, and other gods of the Hindu
pantheon), 595,000; Muhammadans, 198,000. So that
we get 278,000 Christians against 198,000 Muhammadens,
and no less than 2,300,000 idolaters and demon-worship-
pers. [We rank as Christians 170,000 Sinhalese, 85,000
Tamils, 17,800 European descendants, 4,800 Europeans,
and a few Kafirs, Veddas, and Rodiyas.] The proportion
of Christians to whole population (nearly 10 per cent.) is
far higher in Ceylon than in India, where those professing
Christianity do not much exceed half-a-million out of the
whole 250 millions or more, Ceylon is the classic land
of Buddhism, and its fall here would influence a vast pro-
portion of the human race (in Burmah, Siam, and China).
Ceylon ; Summary of Information. 287
!Fhe' Eiiig of Siam frequently sends offerings to the
♦' Temple of the Sacred Tooth," in Kandy ; • also the Kings
of BariDah, up till Thebaw's dethronement, and so
interested in Ceylon was a late King of Burmah, that he
had copies of the Observer newspaper translated for his
benefit into Burmese. There were 6,800 Buddhist, 1,200
Hindu, and 521 Muhammedan priests returned in last
census; besides 300 of temple servants, 140 topi-tom
beaters, 1,532 devil dancers, 200 astrologers, 200 actors
and nautch dancers, 120 snake charmers, 168 musicians.
The total for church -and chapel "service" was 110,
besides ^22 missionaries, clergymen, and ministers, in-
cluding natives.
LANGUAGES AND LITEBATUEE,
Sinlialese, founded on the Sanskrit, with a considerable
infusion of Pali," and therefore belonging to the Indo-
European family; but peculiar, except in its Sanskrit
roots, to Ceylon. A Dravidian origin has been claimed
for the language, but, as Spence Hardy shrewdly pointed
out, all the names of places, mountaine, and rivers are
Sanskrit. Tamil, the leading branch of the Dravidian
family, common to about 16 millions of people in Southern
India and Ceylon. Spoken by the Moormen as well as the
Tamils proper. A Portuguese patois still retains its hold
amongst the European descendants, but Dutch has gone
entirely out. Knowledge of English rapidly advancing
in towns and villages. Historical and Buddhistical litera-
ture generally in PahjWita Sinhalese translations, conimen-
taries, and glosses. Translation of Mahdvansa by Tumour
(now being continued by Mndaliyar Wijesirighe) throws a
flood of light on the history oi Ceylon and India, while
researches of Gogerly and writings of Spence Hardy and
others have done equal service in revealing the true nature
of the atheistical system of philosophy called Buddhism.
Goldschmidt and Miiller have more recently,^ by examining
and interpreting rock inscriptions, illustt;ated the history
of the Sinhalese language, though not much new matter
has been added by their researches to the history of
the country and people. Works on medicine and science,
generally in Sanskrit; and almost wholly derived from
India. Three daily English newspapers [the daily and
weekly (foreign and local) Observer having by iax the
238 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
largest circulation], with weekly editions, published, in
Colombo, meet with fair, and increasing support; also a
bi-weekly English journal in Colombo, and the weekly
Government Gazette; a Jaffiia we,ekly paper; and several
periodicals in Bnghsh, organs of churches, missions, &e. ;
and a native press, Sinhalese and Tamil, with a few repre-
sentatives in newspapers and periodicals. Among English
periodicals the Tropical Agriculturist (monthly), begun in
June', 1881, has an extending circulation throughout the
tropics, and is regarded even among London publishers as
a credit to Ceylon ; a weekly Ceylon Literary Register was
begun as supplement to Obserrer in August, 1886. An
interesting collection of palm-leaf MSS. exists in the
librai-y of the Colombo museum.
EDUCATION.
Through the agency of a Government Department of
Public Instruction and a grant-in-aid system, chiefly availed
of by the various missionary societies, about 120,000
chQdren, or 1 in 24 of the population, are receiving in-
struction in English and the vernaculars. Private schools
not connected with missionaries or religious bodies, are
few and ill- supported. A knowledge of vernacular reading
and writing, generally very imperfect, is communicated in
some of the Buddhist temple "pansalas" and private
native schools. A large proportion of the population can
sign their names'who can do little more. Education in
missionary schools is, of course, strictly Christian. In
Government schools the custom is, where no objection is
offered, to read the Bible during the first hour; Attend-
ance during that hour not compulsory, but pupils seldom
or never absent themselves. Cost of Government Edu-
cational Department (educating some 28,000 pupils),
E300,000 per annum (besides grants-in-aid, which amount
to R200,000 for 60,000 pupils), of which R28,000 is returned
in the shape of fees, sales of books, &c. T'otal outlay on
education, public and private, is about R700,000 (£70,000),
against R7,000,000 (£700,000) supposed to be spent by the
population on intoxicating drinks. Science is now prac-
tically taught in the principal educational establishments
in the chief towns, and technical training in> agriculture
and useful trades is gradually being added. Government
grants, aggregating E3,000 per annum, are distributed
Ceylon : Summary of Information, 289
among eighteen public libraries. The census gives about
8,000 teachers, &c., male and female, in Ceylon.
OCCUPATIONS.
Vast majority of inhabitants engaged in agriculture :
650,000 in census. Settled inhabitants (Sinhalese and
Tamil) cultivate chiefly rice and other grain, with coconuts,
palmyras, arecas, other palms, fruit trees and vegetables ;
while 250,000 Tamil coolies (native bom and immigrants),
superintended by Europeans, grow on plantations, chiefly
tea, with the old staple coffee, to which have, of late
years, been added cinchona, Liberian coffee, cacao, rubber,
cardamoms, croton-oil seeds, pepper, and other new pro-
ducts. Eice too, and tea, bark, and coffee from plantations,
are conveyed mainly by Sinhalese " bullock bandy men "
or carters, where railway communication does not serve.
[There are about 14,000 libensed carts, mainly employed
in plantation traffic, against half that number in 1850 ;
this is exclusive of unlicensed carts employed not only by
natives but by estate owners now in very, considerable
numbers. Bullocks in size aud strength, and carts in
capacity, greatly improved.] Fisheries (12,000 boats and
canoes) and smaU class of shipping (vessels belonging to
Ceylon, number 600; tonnage 25,000) employ a good
many; 25,000 fishermen and boatmen in census — below
the mark. The timber trade gives employment in
felling, sawing, rafting, or carting, to very many. Local
manufacturing industry, advancing : carpentry, weaving,
coir- matting, oU-making, &a There were 40,000 boiitique-
keepers and traders returned in census ; 14,000 carpenters ;
5,000 masons; 18,000 dhobies; 16,000 coir-workers;
15,000 mat and basket makers ; 6,000 tailors and seam-
stresses ; 3,500 cotton and cloth spinners and weavers ;
600 lace makers; 500 printers and bookbinders; 5,000
bakers ; 3,300 toddy drawers ; • 2,200 sawyers ; 1,500
plumbago diggers; 6,500 jewellers; 1,200 gem diggers;
4,500 blacksmiths; 2,000 barbers ; 3,000 horsekeepers ;
43,000 domestic servants. [There are about 1,000 small
looms, and 2,000 wooden or stone oil presses, or
" ohekkus," scattered over Ceylon ; while steam and other
machinery is extensively in use for preparing tea, coffee,
and coir, expressing oil, sawing timber, &c. ; with perhaps
20
290 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
200 engines, aggregating fully 3,000 h. p,, and 25,000 em-
ployes. About 100,000 coffee, oil, and plumbago casks,
and now many thousands of tea boxes made, besides
those imported and exported each year; and many
thousands of women and children, chiefly Sinhalese, find
remunerative employment in "coffee picking," and pre-
paring cinnamon and cinchona bark, coir, and coconut
oil, and plumbago, and to some extent bulking and packing
tea, at Colombo stores.] The planting enterprize gives
employment to large numbers of mechanics, native car-
penters, and masons, who also find occupation on roads
and bridges, water, harbour, irrigation, and railway exten-
sion works. Very serviceable bricks and tiles made in the
island ; and 5,000 Moormen (Arab descendants off North-
west coast) have special sptitude as masons. Potteries
for common earthenware utensils, common. Numerous
distilleries, with simple apparatus for manufacture of
arrack, and a few to obtain essential oils of cinnamon,
citronella, and lemon-grass. Plumbago mining is in-
creasing, giving employment in digging, carting, prepara-
tion and shipment to several thousands; and gem- searching
(250 gem and 25 iron mines) employs a number (1,200) of
not over-peaceable persons. Pearl fisheries uncertain —
foreign divers (from coast off India) chiefly employed :
good fisheries expected off North-west coast next few
years. Chan!k fishery steady, but not very profitable.
CULTIVATION.
Grain :—'Riee, 660,000 acres. Kurakkan, varieties of
millet (known locally as "dry grain"), Indian corn, &c.,
with koUu and other legumes, 150,000. Total Grain
810,000. PaZms:— Coconuts : native "topes," 450,000;
European plantations, 50,000;= 500 ,000 total coconuts.
Palmyras, arecanuts, kitul, &c., 150,000. Total Palms,
650,000. Cofee, Tea, Cinchona, Cocoa (properly Cacao) : —
European plantations (2,000 properties with 1,500 separate
estates cultivated, or over 1,600, if divisions of large
estates counted, cleared and in all stages of cultivation,
excluding abandoned fields and making allowance for area
covered by new products), coffee, 120,000 acres ; native
holdings, 10,000. Total cofee, 130,000. Cinchona, 35,000
acres ; cocoa or cacao, 12,500 acres ; tea, 175,000 acres ;
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 291
Liberian coffee (European or native), 2,000 acres ; carda-
moms (European and native), 7,000 acres ; African palm
nuts, rubber, &c., 500; grand total of plantation culture,
tea, coffee, and new products, 860,000 acres. Tea is
cultivated from nearly sea-level to over 6,000 feet. [Coffee
(Aribica) was cultivated from elevation of 1,500 to 5,000
feet : medium, best. Beserve of forest and chena in con-
nection with plantations, 300,000 ; Government hill forest,
suitable for coffee, tea, cinchona, &c.,^ perhaps ^quarter of a
million acres, and at least four times that extent of low
lands suited for tea and cacao, and for coconut, grain,
and garden cultivation.] Tobacco, 25,000 acres ; cottrai,
400 acres ; sugar, aromatic grasses, aloes, &c., 5,500 ;
garden vegetables : onions, chillies, brinjals, potatoes, and
yams, cabbages, greens, pineapples, pumpins, cucumbers,
&c., 100,000 acres. Plantain, jak, mango, breadfruit,
orange, lime, guava, 'cadju, lovi-lovi, goraka, bilimbi, and
other orchard cultivation, 120,000. Cinnamon, 30,000.
Other spices — nutmeg, pepper, &ci, 10,000 acres. Culti-
vated grass land, 15,000. Introduced timber trees, 500.
Total cultivation, about 1,900,000 acres; or at most 2
millions — or about l-6th of area. Sugar cultivation a
failure, probably from excessive moisture of cHmate, in
western, southern, and central provinces ; . a little still
grown and manufactured at BadUegama, near Galle. Plan-
tam (or banana) cultivation for fibre tried unsuccessfully
near Matara. Natural pastpbage — including patanas —
1,000,000 in and around mountain zone ; in island
generally, 2 or 3 million acres probably; that on hills
coarse and indifferent, and (up to 4,000 feet) infested by
land leeches ; in low country better, but great proportion
in unhealthy parts.
[Note. — ^Arabian coffee used to grow around native huts,
and bore scattered berries at the sea-level ; and there were
two or three plantations so low down as only 600 feet
above the level of the sea, with a good many at an eleva-
tion of 1,000. There are also plantations at an altitude
of 5,000 feet and higher. These, if situated on detached
hills', on' sunny slopes, or on ranges, such as -the Uva,
facing a hot, low country, do well. But the coffee leaf fungus
has put a stop to all interest in coffee extension, or even in
its cultivation, save in such favouritie districts as those of
Uva, parts of Dikoya and Dimbula, and detached planta-
292 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
tions in other districts. The coconut flourishes chiefly at
the sea-level and on the coast ; also up river valleys with
a few gardens in central province. Rice runs up to where
Arabian cbfi^ee used to begin, at 2,000 feet altitude. We
have now tea cultivation from sea-level to over 6,000 feet,
80 covering all elevations, with cinchonas flourishing from
1,700 to over 7,000 feet elevation, and cacao or chocolate
plant in sheltered rich valleys and districts up to about
2,000 feet]
VALUE OF PLANTATION PBOPERTIT, AND EFFECTS OP EUROPEAN
CAPITAL AND ENTERPRIZE.
The value of cultivated cofi^ee (£2,000,000), tea
(£4,250,000), cinchona (£1,400,000), cacao (£300,000),
cardamoms, other products (£600,00Q), &c., grass land ou
plantations all round, may be taken at about 10 ^Iillions
sterling. Add £500,000 for 100,000 acres reserve forest
at £5 an acre, and 200,000 acres more of reserve belong-
ing to plantations in private hands, in grass (natural),
chena, or abandoned land, paru of which may be utihzed
for liew products by degrees, worth £1 per acre ; and we
get about 11 millions for old and new products plantation-
land, chiefly in the hands of Europeans. Including build-
ings, machinery, carts, cattle, &c., the value is certainly
not under the 12 millions. The value of coconut palm
cultivation in the island we put at about the same sum, or
12^ millions sterling. Of other palms and fruit trees, at
nearly 6 millions. Of cinnamon, £760,000. Other spices,
£500,000. Cotton, tobacco, vegetables, and other garden
produce, at li million. Of rice and other grain nearly 6
millions. Making a total value of ctiltivated land of About
85 million pounds sterling.
The value of forest- land, chena, ana pasturage, in the
hands of low-country natives, will make a considerable
addition. The amount of British capital diffused by the
planting enterprize since 1837 has been enormous, and the
Sinhalese carpenters and other artizans, cart contractors,
and cattle owners, with the Tamil rice dealers and coolie
labourers, have profited largely by it — a profit in which
the European capitalists and planters have only in a
scanty measure participated. It is calculated that, reckon-
ing the pioneers, not more than 10 per cent, of the Euro-
Ceylon : Summary of Informiition. 29$
pean planters dtiring the fifty years can. ue said to Itave
bettered themselves in Ceylon. 48,000 deeds weria regis-
tered and 27 million rupees seonred on mortgages iii
1878, at the height of coffee planting prosperity. Bplerf*
did roads have heen op«ned and fine bridges erected over
impassable rivers, and popiflons and thriving toWnsatid
villages have sprang np in the planting districts, vrhete 40
to 50 years ago all was interminable jangle. 7he pati!^
in the towns are rapidly adopting European habttd^ aixa
many send their children to England for education or to
take rank as barristers, physicians, and clergymen. I^
improvement has spread to the urban masses too : witness
the declaration of the Bev. B. S: Hardy, a missionary of
40 years' experience: — ^" The contrast between one of
their homes now and' in the times I ckn remember is
nearly as great as between a grimed native chatty (earthern
pot) and a bright English tea kettle." Crime has, how
ever,- kept pace with the spread of health, and what; is
usually termed "civilization." Although the Sinhalese,
on the authority of one of their own number (the late Mt.
James Al wis), possess "not even a tincture of soldiership,"
they are prone to crimes of revenge and violence. In this
respect the "low country Sinhalese," although most of them
profess a religion which absolutely forbids the taking of life,
hold a " bad pre-eminence ; " the Tamils ranking second,
and the Eandyan Sizihalese third.
BBTOHNS or OBOF,
from lice and grain lands, generally range from 6 to 30
bushels per acre, the average for rice being, about 20
bushels in the husks, or 10 bushels clean. [The Govern-
ment returns give averages of und^r 10 bu^els for rice,
and a fraction over 7 bushels for " dry grain ;"'ja both
cases unhusked grain. But these low averages arise from
the defective mode ill which the accounts are made up.
An acre is about " 2J bushels sowing extent" — ^the average
return 20 bushels ; in favourable positions twice that
quantity.] Coconuts, 1,500 to 3,200 nuts per acre, per
annum, at 80 trees to acre. Tea in Ceylon has yielded on
Mariawatte and one or two other favoured plantations
over 1,0001b. made tea per ^re for several years; oi^.
some more favoured plots over BOOib ; the average so fat
294 Ceylon in the JuiUee Year.
^s ftboat 40dlb. ; on old poor land not more than SQOlb.
can be expected, pinohona trees have given as much as
121b. marketable bfurk at six years old in Ceylon, an acre
of red bark trees (1:578) gave 12,0601b. after five years.
Coffee on plantations, ranges from 1 cwt. to 8 cwt. ; the
average (previous to the appearance of a coffee leaf
fangus, MemUeia va»tatrix, in 1869) a little over 6 cwt. ;
for native gardeiis, 5 : in both cases' clean coffee. Of
recent years, the average has been reduced to less than 2
or 3 cwt. Cinnamon gives on an average about 801b. per
acre. Lands fully planted and cultivated yield up to 125
and ISplb.; neglected and swampy lands not more than 40.
A good deai of " jungle spice," cut from the forests, enters
into the exports. Coffee {eoffea aribica) until the last few
years was regarded as almost the only really paying culti-
vation in which Europeans could engage, but the persistent
attacks of leaf fungus forced attention to other articles,
and the prospects of " new products," chiefly of tea (now
regarded AEI ihe planter's staple), cinchona, and cacao now
seem good. Ther6 are a feW remunerative coconut estates
belonging to Europeans, bat Europeans cannot success-
fully compete, with natives in this pursuit. The tree is
said to love the sound of the human voice, the obvious
meaning of which is that it flourishes best where beet
supplied with fertilizing matter and otherwise tended ;
this cultivation has vastly extended through the wealth
acquired by natives from introduced European capital
during the last twenty to thirty years. The once famous
cinnamon of Ceylon, though still the finest grown, seldom
yields more than a minimum of profit to the cultivator.
Grain cultivation cannot, even at the occasional high
prices which prevail, offer any inducement to European
enterprize, and the natives persevere in the pursuit mainly
for the reasons thus stated by>the experienced and intelli-
gent servant of Grovemment who so long administered
the Western. Province, Sir C. P. Layard: — "You are
right in your conclusion that the cultivation of paddy
is the least profitable pursuit to which a native can apply
himself. It is persevered in from habit, and because the
value of time and labour never enters into his calculation.
Besides this, agriculture is, in the opinion of a Sinhalese,
the' most honourable of callings. I do not think that the
average yield of our fields is as low as 6^ bushels to the
Ceylon : Summary bf InformMtion. 295
acre — twenty js nearer the mark ; but all arable lands are
not cultivated at once, or evep in the same year, and the
estimates of a season's sowing often include crops aban-
doned immediately after the seed has been sown, either on
account of drought or flood,, The uncertain climate of
the maritime districts and a poor soil are both causes of
the comparative smallness of our returns. In India, i.e.,
both in Bengal and the grain-producing districts of the
Madras Presidency, they have extensive tracts of alluvial
lauds on the banks of their rivers, the like of which, even
on a small scale, cannot be found her&'-' This has lately
been disputed by Mr. Elliot, CCS., but he has only
proved that rice growingislargelyprofitable ia such favoured
districts as Matara, Batticaloa, and some parts of the
other provinces with good soil and special irrigational
advantages ; there are large areas where fruit, leaf, 'and
bark-growing is and will be much more profitable than
rice to the natives. Of course all the grain grown in the
island is consumed within its limits, besides very large
imports for the urban and coolie population. Of the pro-
duce of the coconut tree, by far the larger proportion is
also consumed ia the island. Taking the annual value of
the oil, nuts, arrack, toddy, coir, &c., at 2^ millions
sterling, nearly one-third is exported/ the people con-
suming the remaining two-thirds, chiefly in the shape of
nuts for food, with a good deal of arrack, toddy, oil, coir,
&c. Of the produce of other palms the exports amount
to about JE120,000. Practically, the whole of the cinna-
mon grown is exported. Of the tea and coffee produced,
the local consumption may be taken at 2^ per cent., or
about 300,0001b. and 5,000 cwt., representing a value
of about half a nullion of rupees against 20 to 30 millions
of rupees' worth exported. Of the produce of the areca
and palmyra palms (arecanuts, used for the almost uni-
versal Indian and Ceylon masticatory, with palmyi-a
timber and coarse sugaj), while much is consumed in the
island, a good proportion is exported. But for the one
important mineral plumbago (of which 212,000 cwt: were
sent away in 1884, valued at over a million of rupees) the
whole export trade of Ceylon might still be described as
the produce mainly of the tea and coffee and cinchona
shrubs, with the products of thnee pabns, and in a sub-
sidiary degree of the cinnamon, and now of cacao and a
296 Ceylon in the Jubilee Yeflr,
little Liberian coffee. The statement that. Oeylpa-.at gm
time gr^w grain enongh to feed a popolatidn pf & (much
more 12) millions is very donbtfdl. Some of the great tank?
appear neyer to have been completed* having been com-
menced by particular monarchs' chiefly for .their own
glorification. Much more is to be hoped for from ^9
irrigation works recently, constructed or restored by. the ,
Ceylon Government. At present Ceylon grows tka an4
COCONUTS mainly (with coffee, cinchonas, cacao, cardamoms,
and other secondary products, besides its. grain and Jriut
culture), and gets much grain, cattle, cloth, specie, a^i.
nearly all she wants in ezchangew.
CBOWN lUAMD OBANTED AND S0U>,
since 1833, about 1,300,000 acres, yielding a revenue of
about £2,100,000. Average price, 1833 to 1844, 10s. 8d ;
1844 to 1883, 37s. dd.. Upset price, now £1; highest
price realized nearly 250 rupees (£25) for hill forest land, —
generally ranges ,£t to £5'for Jorest land, and £400 per
a6re occasionally for building lots near Colombo. Half of
lands sold, hill forest suited for coffee, cinchona, tea, (&c. ;
half for grain, coconuts, Liberian coffee, cacao, tea, plan-
tains, &c. Full title — no land-tax (only 5 per cent, on
lands and houses within liinitg of toums for pohce purposes ;
in Colombo 3 per cent, for lighting and 2 per cent-, just
being levied for water) ; tithes (rent), levied on grain only,
10 per cent, of produce (a few cases of 20 to 25) against
50 per cent. tax. often in India. There are insuperable
objections^ on the part of thoi natives inainly, to a l^d-
tax, which would f^Jl on coconut, fruit, and root culture,
now free, but a liberal commntaiion system is, being applied
to the grain tithes, which were exacted by the n»tr?e rulers
in addition to ojiher taxes, all of whiich, except the rice-'
tax, the British Government ^bai^doned. T)iose vrbP ^^
oat against food and salt taxes in oriental oounti^eB imay
as well be remindied that, except through, jiraia, salty and
cotton cloth, the vast majority of the natives of QeyloQ
would almost entirely escape contributing .iiO>the expendir
ture. necessary for the, support of civil goy«Qimei)t,
military and policy proteetion, ^nd meaiiif!.,of ciaiippunip^
tion.
^TOPK.
Betums very defeetive. .Pei:bap9, , tibtere; aase 6,0uQ
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 297
horses, 1,100,000 cattle (including buffaloes), 70,000 sheep,
100,000 goats, and 50,000 swine in Ceylon, with 1,000
asses and 200 mules. Ceylon imports (chiefly from India,
with some from Australia) nearly all its horses, most of
its draught cattle, and much cattle, sheep, goats, and
poultry for food, to a total value of over a million rupees
per annum. Two-fifths of the grain consumed (about 13
millions of bushels in all) is also imported. Prices, always
high in Ceylon, have risen steadily, and the tendency is
upwards, though a little checked by the planting depres-
sion in 1880-6. So ■with the wages of servants and
labourers. Butcher-meat, especially up country, is likely
to become scarcer and dearer in consequence of cattle
establishments having been abolished on a large propor-
tion of estates as not profitable. Artificial manures are
found to cost less, generally, than the dung of cattle fed
on cultivated grasses and expensive grain and oil-cakes.
COMMERCE.
Imports, 50 millions of rupees. Exports, 40 millions :
total value of commerce, 90 millions, nominally 9 million
pounds sterling ; or, excluding specie, 80 millions. [The
coasting trade is also considerable.] Staple imports : —
Eice, &c., 5-J million bushels, 1 J million sterhng ; cotton
goods, about £600,000; live stock, ^6100,000; salt fish,
100,000 ; other food requisites, £200,000 ; wearing ap-
pairel, &c., £110,000; machinery, £80.000; liquorn,
£120,000 ; manures, £50,000 ; coal, 200,000 tons. Staple
exports: — Coffee, 200,000 to 250,000 cwt. ; 1 to 1^
million sterling ; tea, 10 million lb., £600,000 (likely to
rise rapidly) ; cacao, 20,000 cwt., £80,000 ; cardamoms,
250,000 lb., £30,000; coconut oil, 4^ million gallons,
£450,000; cinnamon, 2^ million lb., £120,000; coir,
100,000 cwts., £60,000; plumbago, 250,000 cwt., £200,000;
ebony, 10,000 cwt, £7,000; other kinds of timber, £20,000;
cinchona bark, 15. million lb., £500,000. Totnl exports
from tea, coffee, cintliona, and cacao plantations, £:!,(X10, 000;
from coconut palm, £800,000 ; other palms, £l()0,t!00 ;
cinnamon and all spices, £200,000 ; tobacco, £100,000 ;
timber, £25,000; plumbago, £100,000. lu 1887 Ceylwi
exported only 84,000 cwt. of coffee, valued at t'10(i,(K>0 :
total value of trade, including the then valuable arti^-lri n<'
298 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.'
cinnfunoo, only £900,000 against 9 millions now. In
1838 the valu^' of Ceylon export^ was only £130,000 ;
imports, £320,000 ; total £450,000. So that the increase
of trade in little more than fifty years has been nearly 20-
fold. Tonnage outwards and inwards nearly 4 millions
now, against less than 100,000 tons in 1825.
BE VENUE.
Average, R13.000,000 per annum (R8,000,000 from
taxes and R5,000,000 land" sales, railway, and other
receipts). This includes Bl. 000,000 direct taxation on
all males (save Governor, military, and Buddhist priest)
between 18 and 55, for thoroughfares ; persons paying
direct taxes number 615^000. ' Add El,500,000 raised by
road committees, municipalities, local boards, and village
councils, and B100,000 under coolie medical ordinance
from planters, making the total of about B15,000,000.
Customs and railways yield nearly one-half of the regular
revenue ; excise on tbddy (fermented juice of coconut
tree) and arrack (spirit distilled from it) one-eighth.
Gr^n tithes, land sales, salt monopoly^ tolls, and stamps
are the other great' sources of revenue. Pearl fishery
occasionally productive, but very uncertain ; yielded alto-
gether over 1 million sterling to British ; greatest amount,
£140,000 in 1798. Taxation not heavy— less than R8
(6s.) per head; but mass of ^people poor, and, undeif
ancient village regulations, bestow labour on upkeep of
irrigation tanks and channels. The revenue has doubled
in 25 years, trebled in 80 years, and nearly quadrupled, in
40 years, although cinnamon monopoly, fish- tax, &c.,
abandoned, and customs duties equalized and moderated.
The maximum of revenue owing to heavy land sales and
planting prosperity was attained in 1^77, at £1,700,000 ;
it fell in 1882 with planting depression to £1,206,000 ; but
has since risen steadily, and is expected ere, long to
average £1,400,000.
'EXPBNDITUBE.
Civil, judicial, public instruction, medical, police, prisons
establishments, and services, B6,600,000 ; pensions,
B650,000; military, contribution, B600,000; roads and
buildingB, B2,000,'d0(). Bailway services, w'th interest on
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 299
loans (against large income), E2,100,000. Interest on
breakwater and waterworks loans, E600,000. Irrigation
works, E400,000, besides special advances. Minor items,
such as conveyance of mails, immigration, &c. What
the colony mainly requires is a liberal and judicious
expenditure on
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
A line of railway 74^ miles long between Colombo
(chief shipping port) and Kandy (capital of the central or
planting province) was opened in August, 1867 ; an exten-
sion to Nawalapitiya from Peradeniya, 17 miles, in
December, 1874 : an extension from Kandy to Matale, 17^
miles, opened on 4th October, 1880. Besides the above,
a seaside line has been constructed from Colombo to
Kalutara, 27J miles, opened in September, 1879 ; and a
few miles of line to serve .the breakwater. And on 3rd
August, 1880, the first sod was turned of an extension
from Nawalapitiya for 41^ miles to Nanuoya, within 4
miles of the Sanatarium, Nuwara Eliya, and opened on
20th May, 1885. [From Nanuoya the line is intended to
be carried 25^ miles farther to Haputale, and thence to
BaduUa.] Altogether, about 183 miles of railway, all on
the 5^ feet gauge, have now been opened. The railway at
Kadugannawa reaches 1,700 feet sea-level; at Kandy,
j.,600 feet; Peradeniya, 1,512; Matale, 1,200 feet;
Nawalapitiya, 1,913; Hatton, 4,168; Nanuoya, 5,292
feet ; the Moragalla tunnel at Kadugannawa is 365 yards
long ; the Poolbank tunnel, 614 yards ; Talawakelle tunnel
is 265 yards ; sharpest curve 5 chains ; ruling gradient,
Kadugannawa incline, 1 to 45 (12 miles long), on Nanuoya
extension, heaviest gradient 1 to 44. Other lines are
contemplated to connect the main line with Kurunegala
and Negombo and even Chilaw, and to extend from
Kalutara to Galle; from Kalutara to Eakawana; and
from Kurunegala or Matale with Jaffna ; from Colombo to
Kotte ; and a city line in Colombo for the northern suburb of
Mattakuliya, unless city tramways are adopted. A line
taking in Kotte and other suburbs of Colombo would, it
is believed, pay well. At present, two coaches run daily
from Kalutara to Galle, and vice versa, ; a coach runs tri-
weekly (shortly to become daily) between Colombo and
300 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Batnapura, also from Colombo to Yatiyantota, and from
Batnapara to I^elmadnUa; and mail-carts or coaches
exist between Colombo and Negombo ; 'Galle and Matarbi ;'.
also a coach or mail-cart from Nannoya to Nuwara Eliya ;
from Mat.aie to Dambnla, and thence a bullock coach to
Jaffiia. In three days, a visitor to Colombo might easily
ran np via Eandy to Nuwara EUya, passing through the
finest of mountain scenery, and return; two days would
suffice to pay a .visit' from Colombo to Nuwara Eliya and
the middle planting region ; while a run to Kandy and
back, with a sight of the beautiful and grand scenery in
view on and 'from the railway incline, can be accomplished
in one day. Boads: — Metalled, 1,850 miles; gravelled,
7.90; nngravelled, 740= total miles of road, 2,900, or one.
mile of ro&d for every nine square miles of extent in the
island; ipkeep of., roads, canals, public buildings, and
irrigation works, total expenditure of Public Works De-
partment, £200,000; road pioneer corps number 500, with
several trained working elephants. Canals navigable for
boats, 1^ miles, besides portions of rivers and back-
waters. [In addition to expenditure from general revenue,
roads and canals are made and kept up by thoroughfares'
tax, equivalent of six days' labour per annum from each
adult male. Groups of estates not intersected by thorough-
fares can get cart-roads on paying half the cost. Govern-
ment giving other moiety. In 1807 there were no carriage
roads beyond, the limits of the principal town in the
maritime provinces; and none in the Kandyan country
until 1820, the era in which Sir Edward Barnes' great
road-making operations commenced, opening up the paci-
fied Kandyan countty to enterprise, and so gendering
railways necessary and possible.] Besides the P. & 0.
Company's and Messageries steamers connecting Colombo,
the mail-port, with India, China, Australia, &c., there are
the Austro-Hungarian Lloyds and the Norddeutscher
Lloyds steamers ; also the British India Steam Navigation
Company maintain a regular communication (weekly) be-
tween Colombo, Bombay, Calcutta, ' and intermediate
ports. This company has also a fortnightly line between
London, Colombo, Ma'dras, and Calcutta, via the Suez
Canal ; and other similar lines, via the Suez Canal, ' are
worked by the Star, the Clan, Holt's, the Glen,, Anchor,
the Ducal, the City, Bird, and other steam companies.
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 301
PUBLIC DEBT OF CEYLON.
The cost of the Colombo and Kandy Kailway (jE1,740,000)
was provided for by a special tax on coffee, and partly out
of general revenue, and afterwards out of the receipts and
profits of the line, amounting to from 8 to 10 per cent, on
capital. The Kandy, Nawalapitiya and Seaside railways
are now the free property of the colony. It may be said
that, besides the network of splendid roads, " coffee" has
given the colony 118 miles of first-class railway, worth 2-|-
millions sterling, and yielding about £120,000 per annum
clear income. For the Matale railway a debt of £275,000
has been increased, and another of one million sterling in
debentures for the first 41-|- miles of the Dimbula-TJva rail-
way extension, and another half million will b*. required
to complete to Haputale. For the Colombo Harbour
Works about £600,000 in all have bpen expended, of which
£226,000 are to be given by the Public Loan Commis-
sioners at 8^ per cent, for 85 years, and the balance,
£860,000, at 4 or 5 per cent, for interest and sinking fund.
£850,000 is also now estimated for the Colombo Water-
works. So that, when the works in hand are complete,
the debt of the colony for general and municipal purposes
will be about 2 J million pounds sterling, with an annual
charge for interest and sinking fund of about £135,000.
The annual railway, harbour, and water supply receipts
will then, however, not be less than £860,000 per annum,
and, deducting working expenses, should yield sufficient
profit to cover more than the annual claims, only the
Dimbula Kailway extensions will not pay properly until
the new Uva traffic is brought on the existing lines.
FOEM OF ADinNISTRATION : CENTRAL AND MUNICIPAL.
(iovernor, aided oy Executive and Legislative Councils ;
the power of making laws being vested in the latter con-
currently (as is the case with Crown Colonies generally)
with the legislative power of the Crown, which exercises
that power by Orders in Council. Executive Council con-
sists of five of the principal officers:; of Government, pre-
sided over by the Governor, who being personally respon-
sible to the Home Government, can consult, but is not
bound to follow the advice of, the Executive Councillors.
All appointments to, or promotions iii, the Civil Service
302 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
with salaries over B9,000 per annum, vest-in the Secretary
.of State,' bdt practically all appointments, except to. the
higher offices, are left to the Governor. For writerships
in the^GivU Service fonr gentlemen are named for each
vacancy by the Secretary of State or the Governor, and
the candidate who receives the greatest number of marks
is appointed. With salaries much more daoderate in
Ceylon than in India, we have a covenanted Civil Service
nnmbering about 80 members for about three millions of
inhabitants, instead of less than a dozen civilians with
native assistants for a similar population in India. The
Legislative Council is composed of the members of the
£jtecutive, fonr other principal officers of the Government,
and six unofficial members selected ~^by the Governor with
reference to as fair a representation as possible of the
various. classes, and interests — (at present representatives
include Sinhalese, Tamil, and Burgher members ; one
-European for planters, one for merchants, and one for
general European interests) — sixteen in all, six, however,
forming a quorum : and, an Order of the Queen in Council
declared the proceedings of the Legislature valid, though
all unofficial seats be vacant The Governor can com-
mand tSie votes of all official members except on points
where religious principles are affected. Governor presides,
with casting vote and ultimate power of veto. AU ordi-
nances ore sent for the final approval of her Majesty, but
only in rare cases is the operation of a law suspended
pending that approval. Unofficial members can, after
permission obtained, introduce drafts of ordinances where
votes of moijey ai^e not concerned." Eight Provinces, ad-
ministered by Government Agents and their Assistants
(with native revenue and police headmen, such as Bate-
mahatmayas, Mudaliyars, Muhandirams, Eoralas.Yidaoas,
&c*), all under strict supervision of ,Gpvemment ; central-
ization being the ruling principle, perhaps to an injurious
extent. By means of Native Village Councils, Munici-
palities in the three chief towns (Colombo, Gtdle, and
Kaiidy), and Local Boards in nine towns of secondary im-
portance (ranging from 1,800 to 10,000 in population),
the principles of self-government are being of recent years
to a considerable extent diffused, As yet, however, the
bulk of the natives appreci^ite the incidence of municipal
taxation more than the benefits confeited. by sanitary and
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 303
other improvements. The Colombo Municipality has
introduced gas, and (by order of Government) are spend-
ing over E3, 500,000 on a water supply, the works for
which are almost completed ; Kandy and Galle have
already made provision for water supply.'
LAWS.
The Eoman-Dutoh law is the common law of the land,
and applicable in all cases not otherwise specially provided
for by local enactments.* It obtains in cases of marriage,
inheritance, succession, or contracts. The law as to
matrimonial rights has been modified by Ordinance 15 of
1876, by abolishing community of goods as a consequence
of marriage, and by prescribing the order of succession in
cases of intestacy. The law of England, however, is of
force (by virtue of the Ordinance No. 5 of 1852) in all
maritime matters, and in respect of bills of exchange,
promissory notes, and cheques. The law of England was
further introduced by Ordinance 22 of 1866, in respect of
Partnerships, Joint Stock Companies, Corporations, Banks
and Banking, Principals and Agents, Carriers by Land,
and Life and Fire Insurances. Eoman-Dutch law, how-
ever, absurdly enough, prevails as to Contracts and'Torts
(damages). Property can be willed away, but intestate
estates are divided according to the principles of Eoman-
Dutch law, controlled by Ordinance 15 of 1876. Local
ordinances are subject to approval of sovereign, but may
be brought into force at once. .They cease to be operative,
however, if not confirmed within three years. The
Kandyans are subject to their own laws, and when these
are silent the Eoman-Dutch law governs them. In 1859
their marriage laws were greatly altered, and polyandry
and polygamy, formerly sanctioned, were then expressly
prohibited ; but this salutary prohibition had afterwards
to be in some degree relaxed, the legislation being in ad-
vance of the intelligence and condition of the people.
Europeans and European descendants are now exempted
from the operation of the Kandyan law as respects inheri-
tance, and made subject to the Eoman-Dutch law, by
which a widow gets a just moiety of her husband's estate
(excepting when a diflFerent provision is made by ante-
• A CIyU Code is in course of preparation.
8U4 Gei/lon in the Jubilee Year.
nnptial Contract or by joint 'Vill, and the children the
other moiety in equal shares. The Muhammadans have
a code of their own in matters of marriage and inheri-
tance. The Tamils of the north and east have their code
also — the Tesavallami. The criminal law of the island,
known as the Eoman-Dutch law, was repealed by a Penal
Code, which came into operation on let January, 1885,
whereby the punitive jurisdiction of District Courts as
regards imprisonment was raised to two years, and of
Police Courts to six months. This has relieved the
Supreme Court of a number of ,cases that used to be, sent
there for trial.. The number of jurymen has been reduced
to nine, and is to be further reduced to seven. The pro*
cedure in the courts is regulated by the Criminal Procedure
Code, whiph cam& into operation at the same time as the
Penal Code. These codes are largely transcripts and
.adaptations of the Indian Penal and Procedure Coded.
The English law of evidence prevails i;n all the courts ;
and a special ordinance provides that substantial juisticd
shall not fail through want of adherence to legal techni-
calities. Further codification of laws, so as to secure
settlement of principles and avoidance of con^ct- and
occasional uncertainty, desiderate'd (and is likely ere long
to be carried), as well as a law of libel, which would
recognize the functions and privileges of a ~ free press
better than do the antiquated provisions of Boman-Dutch
IawB« It is now proposed to substitute the English law of
contracts and torts, and a civil code is ip course of pre-
paration, a criminal code having already been introduced.
ADMINISTBA.TION OF JUSTICE : CSDlE.
The ordinary courts arie Supreme Court (Chief Judtioe'
and two Puisne Judges), District Courts, -Coatts of
Bequests, and Police Courts. The last have jurisdiotioa
in all minor cases not punishable with more than £6 fine,
six montits' imprisonment, and twenty lashes. Courts pf
Bequeists ht/n jurisdiction in all eixil soita irhere th«
matter in dispujte — ^landor money — dbeq sot exoeed £10
in value. District Courts iiave.unliotited ev^ jorisdio-
tion in civil, matrimonial, te3tamenta^.^-«nd insolvent
cases (aboat 10,000 suits decided annuaUyV and ttnminal
jurisdiction in aU cases not punishaple' with more thau
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 305
£20 fine, two years' imprisonment, and twenty-five l&sbes.
The Supreme Court has only an appellate jurisdiction in
civil cases and over the criminal decisions of the District
and Police Courts, and an unlimited jurisdiction in
criminal cases. The latter is exercised by a judge and
nine jurymen, the verdict of the majority prevailing,
except in murder cases, when two-thirds are necessary.
The appointment, temporarily, of a Commissioner of
Assize, to assist the Supreme Court judges in criminal
sessions work, has been sanctioned. The Supreme Court
and the District Courts of Colombo and Kandy are gene-
rally filled by professional men. Occasionally these and
all the other judicial offices are open to members of the
civil service, or others appointed by the Governor or
Secretary of State. There is no grand jury, its powers
being exercised by the Attorney-General — assisted by the
Solicitor-General (both being the recognized law officers of
the Crown — who has a seat in the Executive Council, and
is a member of the Government. All local ordinances
are prepared by him — he advises the Government in all
legal matters, and has the charge of Crown suits through-
out the island, being assisted in his work by the Solicitor-
General and local deputies ("Crown Counsel") for each
circuit. An appeal lies of right to the Privy Council
from all decisions, of the Supreme Court in cases above
£500 : it may be allowed by grace in other cases. There
are only two classes of lawyers in Ceylon — advocates and
proctors admitted on examination. English and Irish
barristers and Scotch advocates are entitled to plead as
advocates. Notaries, who draw deeds but do not practise
in the courts, are numerous (about 600), being appointed
by the Governor with reference to the wants of districts.
Many proctors hold warrants and act as notaries. The
proportion of lawyers (about 340 advocates and proctors)
to population is high, the people of Ceylon being exces-
sively litigious, fi:actions of fruit-trees being sometimes the
subjects of action. In crime, about 60,000 offences re-
ported, and 90,000 persons apprehended annually; two-
thirds usually acquitted : great proportion false cases.
Summary convictions, 13,000 ; committals to gaol about
20,000, but one-third tax defaulters. About 2,500 con-
victs. About 100 murders and manslaughters reported
annually. Total cost of crime to colony estimated at
21
306 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
B806,000 per annum. A Penal Code was (1883) passed
embodying all the criminal law.
POLICE.
Whether regularly organized and paid, as in towns, or
rural system of unpaid headman called Yidanas, Iby no
means perfect, the material to work on being far from
good. Eeforms in the regular police have, however, been
carried out, the total number under an Inspector-Greneral,
with five Provincial Superiptendents, being now over
1,600, costing B600,000 per annum for the- department
altogether. Some fifty of the constables are Europeans,
besides all the superintending officers. The regular
police is taught rifle drill, and in furnishing guards for
prisons, escorts for treasure, &c., largely performs duties
\rhich previously fbll to the military, mainly to the late
Ceylon Eifles Corps.
CURBENCT AND FINANCE.
Eupees and cents of a rupee; the copper or bronze
subsidiary coinage, including a five cent piece, cents, half
cents, and quarter cents. The latter have now superseded
the old Dutch coins — fanams, pice, chaUies, &c. — as well
as English pence and their parts. The silver half rupee
is taken at 60 cents, the quarter at' 26 cents, and the
eighth (two anna piece of India) at 12-1 cents. The rupee
for sometime has, averaged Is. 6d. sterling in value ; but
during 1886 fell temporarily to Is. 4d. Gold coins are
sold by the banks at about current rates of exchange.
The note issue in Ceylon is now, since Ist January, 1886,
a Government issue, and paper mon'ey to an average value
of 4^ milUons of rupees is in circ^ation. There are in
the island agencies of the New Oriental Bank Corporation;
Chartered Mercantile Bank of India, London, and China ;
the Bank of Madras; of the Chartered Bank of India,
Australia, and Chuja ; of the National Bank of India ; of
the Comptoir d'Escompte de Paris, and through mercantile
houses of others. The clearing-house return's for Colombo
show about E65,000,000 of cheques per annum. Besides
these private bauking institutions, and some agencies of
loan companies, therje are the Government Savings Bank
(with deposits equal to about El,760,000, lodged by over
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 307
18,000 depoaitoTs) and the Loan Board, each of which
lends money on good house security at comparatively
moderate interest.
WEIGHTS AND ME&SUKES.
British standard, to which local candies, leaguers, &c.,
are reduced. Coffee, our old staple produce, is usually
sold locally by the bushel, from 4J to 5 bushels " parch-
ment " going to 1 cwt. clean coffee. Tea and bark by lb. ;
coconut oil by gallon or cwt., 12^ gallons going to cwt.
For freight purposes, 10 chests tea usual size make-50
cubic feet, which go to ton ; 16 cwt. coffee in casks.TslS
bags, go to a ton ; 17 cwt. coconut oil, 12 cwt. coit and
cardamoms, 14 cwt. hides, 16 cwt. horns and pepper, 17
poonac or oil cakes, 800 lbs. cinnamon or cinchona.;
measurement goods, 50 cubic feet to the ton. A maundrof
tea seed or leaf about 84 lbs. ; bushel of rice, 63 lbs; i
candy of copperah, 5001b.
CUSTOMS DUTIES,
port dues, pilotage, &c., are moderate, the leading prin-
ciple in the customs tariff being 5 to 6^ per cent, on the
value of imports, and the only export duties being ElOO
for every elephant, and E5 per ton on plumbago in heu of
Government royalty ; with moderate charges on tonnage,
which now has the benefit of safe and commodious harbour
accommodation at Colombo, by means of the fine break-
water. Export levies of a fractional amount are also
imposed on certain plantation products, for coolie medical
aid purposes, 10 cents per cwt. on tea, coffee, and cocoa ;
20 cents on cinchona bark ; with 6 cents per chest of tea
for harbour dues.
COLOMBO HAEBOTJE WORKS.
Begun in 1875 ; foundation laid by H.R.H. the Prince
of Wales, 8th Dec. ; Sir John Coode, Kt., Consulting
Engineer ; John Kyle, M.LC.E., Eesident Executive Engi-
neer: over £700,000 expended in all, and 4,211 feet of
breakwater arm completed from starting point at shore
end to pier-head with Ughthouse, besides extensive recla-
mation work, forming safe, commodious harbour (with
jetties), covering 250 acres, with from 26 to 40 feet of
308 Ceylon in the Jubilee, Year.
water. An expenditure of £400,000 more would provide
a northern arm, jetties, and harbour reclamation, at Mutwal.
The harbour revenue sJready exceeds B450,000 per annum,
and it could be made B600,000 for the complete works.
A graving dock for imperial-naval as wdl as commercial
purposes is the first great necessity
TRAMWAYS IN COLOMBO
are an anticipated city improvement, several lines bein^
projected and tendered for to the municipality by a respon-
sible agency,
COLOMBO WATEBWORKS
were commenced in 1881-2, to supply the city (covering
9-} square mUes) with two million gallons of water daily,
from a reservoir in the Labugama hiUs, thirty miles away.
The contract for the hill and city (Maligahakanda) reser-
voirs, and- for laying pipes, was given in from 1882 for
Bl, 416, 500), the work to be done in three years by Messrs.
Mitchell and Izard ; the consulting engineer being Mr.
Bateman, of Westminster ; Mr. A. W. Burnett being chief
resident engineer. The Iiabugama reservoir (of 176
acres, 69 feet maximum depth of water, to contain
1,873,000,000 gallons, 360 feet top water above sea level),
and pipes thence, have been laid ; also about 144,000
yards of pipes in the city ; but the Muligahakanda reser-
voir (to h6ld 9 million gallons) 100 feet top water above
sea, proved a failure at its first and second trials. [Third
and, doubtless, final trial.] The water supply is, however,
being utilized independently from Labugama.
POSTAGE.
Ceylon enjoys rather better than tbe boon of .a " penny
postage" for letters, the rate being 5 cents of a rupee,
equal, at present, to about -|d., on each half ounce ; two
cents postage for newspapers, besides post-cards ; but a
fairly moderate rate for book, commercial packets, and
parcel postage is a desideratum. External postage to
many parts of the world moderate, although unifonnity is
much required, the letter rate being SO cents to the
Australian colonies, and 28 cents to the United Kingdom,
while only 25 cents to the Continent of Europe. To India
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 309
by Dak or B.I. steamers same as local rates. 123 post
oifices in Ceylon. Total of letters through Ceylon post
offices, over 15 millions per annum, or between five and
six per head. Postal revenue, R265,000 ; Telegraph,
E65,000 ; total, E330,000. Total expenditure, E445,000, for
which the large coiTespondence, including heavy parcels,
of the Government Departments is carried, and official
telegrams delivered free. If all officials paid postage and
telegrams, the Postal- Telegraph Department would shov
a clear profit.
TELEGEAPH KATES.
The telegraph stations now open in Ceylon (24 in all)
are : — Anuradhapura, 3rd class ; Badulla, 3rd ; Batticaloa,
3rd; Colombo, 1st; Dikoya, 3rd; Galle, 2nd; Gampola,
3rd ; Hatton, 3rd ; JafEna, 2nd ; Kalutara, 3rd ; Kandy,
2nd ; Kurunegala, 3rd ; Lunugala, 3rd ; Mannar, 3rd ;
Matale, 3rd ; Nawalapitiya, 3rd ; Nuwara Eliya, 2nd
(during season, January to June) and Brd ; Polgahawela,
3rd ; Triiicomalee, 3rd ; Talawakele, 3rd ; Mount Lavinia,
3rd; Moratuwa, 3rd; Nanuoya, 3rd.
On and from the Ist February, 1887, the following new
scale of charges was levied on inland telegrams : —
1. — There are three classes of telegrams — Urgent, Ordi-
nary, and Deferred, and the following are the rates of
charge for State and private telegrams between any two
offices in Ceylon : —
First eight words Each additional
Class. or groups of three word or group
figures. of three figures.
B. Cts. E. Cts.
Deferred 40 5
Ordinary 80 10
Urgent 1 60 20
EVERY-DAY T.\BLK OF TELEGRAPH RATES FOPv OKDINARY
FOREIGN MESSAGES.
From any Ceylon Statiun.
To all countries in Europe, including Great Britain, r.c.
except tli(^-e named below, via : uez 2-94
,, ,, „ ,, leheran 2-94
„ Turkey 2-69
810 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
B.O.
To Bassia, via Snez ^ 294
„ „ Teheran 269
„ „ „ Turkey and Odessa 269
„ Turkey „ Suez 2-91
„ ,f „ Turkey or Fao 212^
„ „ „ Tefaeran-Batoum 2-94
„ Aden and Ferim, via Bombay 2-06
„ Zanzibar, via Bombay-Aden'^ 4'87i
„ Durban (Natal), via Bombay-Aden ., 6-66
,r G. Colony, all places, via Bombay-Aden 5*69
„ Suez, via Suez 2"66
„ Hohgkong, via Madras 400
„ Japan, via Madras t ; 6*76
„ Amoy, Saddle Island, Shanghai, and Foochow,
via Madras v 6-12^
„ Penang, via Madras 2*00
„ Malacca „ 2-44
„ Singapore „ 2'66
,, Java „ 2-874
„ Port Darvin, S. andW. Australia, and Victoria,
via Madras 544
„ New South Wales, via Madras 5*60
„ Queensland „ 5-94
„ New Zealand „ 6-26
,, Tasmuiia „ 6-81
„ New York, via Suez 8-60
„ Canada „ 8-50
,, Cuba (Gienferegos apd Havana) via Suez 6-81
„ Jamaica, via Suez , 7-66
„ Bio de Janeiro, via Suez-Lisbon 8-I24
Code words of more than ten letters are absolutely in-
admissible in private foreign messages. A foreign message
may consist of only two chargeable words, viz., office of
destination and addressee's name.
Ceylon Post Office Tkleobaphs — consist of 677 miles
of line and 1,178 miles of wire. Manasr Gulf Cable SO
miles. Telephone lines, for departmental use only, 7*46
miles. Total number of messages despatched in 1886 —
66,227, and total receipts for messages for the same
period was B221,822.
• In the case of State messages the charge is BS-SOper word,, via
Bombay,
t Speoial rate to Tsnihima, via Madras, B7-87i per word.
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 314
DISEASES.
The most formidable diseases of Ceylon are malarious
fevers, malignant dysentery, and wasting diarrhoea, with
" sore mouth." These are va,ried forms of " fevek " which
occupies here the place of lung disease in England. Ele-
phantiasis ol: " Cochin leg " is fever caused by inflamma-
tion of the absorbent vessels and glands ; the remote cause
of the inflammation is supposed to be a blood worm in the
circulation. " Parangi," a loathsome congenital disease,
aggravated by scarcity of nutritious food, prevails in some
of the more remote portions of the island. It is said to
resemble the " yaws " of the West Indies. Ceylon boils,
signs (generally) of debility, are sometimes very trying,
but rapidly disappear on a " change" to the cool mountain
regions, or vice versa to seaside. liiver disease is often
troublesome, but is far less prevalent than on the continent
of India, and sunstroke exceedingly rare. Cholera and
smallpox become occasionally epidemic, but Europeans
very seldom fall victims to either. With facilities for
occasional change, and the exercise of care and temperance,
the chances for European life here are scarcely, if at all,
inferior to what they are in England. The large majority
of the planters enjoy robust health. Surveyors, road
officers, and railway engineers, when compelled to traverse
feverish regions and endure exposure to sun and ram,
inctir much greater risk, as also planting pioneers in new
districts. With all its moisture, the climate is favourable
to the extension of consumptive lives. Here, as elsewhere
in the tropics, life is practically passed in the open air, so
that vitiated air in dwellings is seldom a source of disease.
Children of European parents can generally remain in
Ceylon till eight or nine years, and in the hill-country
even longer, especially at Nuwera Eliya, with its average
temperature of 58 degrees. Colombo is a specially healthy
town, and its sanitation will be still more improved when
the hill Water Supply is fully provided. Government
Civil Medical Department and Hospitals cost over
E700,000 per annum : about 200,000 cases treated in
hospitals and dispensaries annually ; in hospitals alone,
24,000 cases with 3,000 deaths, rest cured or relieved ;
there are 350 lunatics and 200 lepers in asylums. About
2,000 paupers noted by Government ; no Poov Laws ;
812 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
relief expended in town by Friend-in-need Societies
voluntarily managed and supported; •with some aid from
General Eevenne
OBJECTS OF SPECIAL INTEEEST TO
STEANGEES IN CEYLON.
Colombo and Western Pkovince. — The Fort, Govern-
ment ofBces, Sir Edward Barnes's statue, Tlie Grand
Oriental Hotel. The Military Buildings, Galle Face
Esplanade and drive. The Lake; the Law Courts at
Hulftsdorp, with busts of the late C. A. Lorenz and Sir
E. F. Morgan, Kt., (by a Ceylonese, E. G. Andriesz).
Town Hall, with pictures of H.E.H. the Duke of Edin-
burgh, Sir Hercules Eobinson, Sir William Gregory, the
late C. A. Lorenz, m.l.c, and Sir C. P. Layard, k.c.m.g.
Cinnamon Gardens ; Circular Walk Gardens, near which
is situated the Colombo Mussum, with statue of Sir
William Gregory, k.c.m.q. Hulftsdorp Mills, and other
estabhshments for preparing coffee, cinchona bark, coconut
oil, and coir. Cinnamon culture, peeling and baling at
Maradana, or at Ekela and Eadirana, near Negombo.
Plumbago stores in Brownrigg street. Cinnamon Gardens.
WeUkada Jail, Lunatic and Leper Asylums. Koch
Memorial Tower, Government CivU Hospital. Banyan
tree, Hunupitiya. Eailway and Breakwater Works. Gov-
ernment Factory and Elephant Shed. Colombo Ironworks.
Gasworks. Malikaganda Waterworks Eeservoir. Alfred
Model Farm towards Kotte. General Cemetery and Galle
Face Cemetery, for memorial stones. Wolvendal Dutch
Church, with memorials of Dutch Governors on walls and
floors. St. Peter's Episcopal Church, with some interesting
monuments on the walls. Eoman Catholic Cathedral at
Eotaheaa. Colombo Eoyal College. St. Thomas' and
Wesley College and other schools. Moor (Muhammadan)
boys' school ; Mission Schools, Borella and KoUupitiya.
Ancient tortoise^t Tanque Salgado, and large kumbuk tree
near mouth of river, at Mutwal Crow Island ip mouth of
river. . Quasi peat and breccia formations north side of
mouth of river and canals. Bridge of Boats and Eailway
Bridge across Kelani river. View'"of Adam's Peak from
Colombo in early morning during N.E. monsoon. Boat
trip on river to Kelani Buddhist Temple. Buddhist
Ceylon: Summai-y of Information. 313
Temples at Kelani and Kotte. Eich palm, bambu and
general vegetation on banks of river. Mission station
and schools at Kotte, Gonawala, or Moratuwa. Tea,
Liberian coffee, and cacao cultivation, at Kalutara, Han-
wella or Polgahawela. Henaratgoda Government Ex-
perimental Gardens. Trip to Ratnapura and scenes of
Gem digging via side of Kelani river.
Galle and Colombo Eoad. — Groves of coconut palms,
■with jak, breadfruit, and other trees along the whole
route. Bentota resthouse with river and oyster fishing
and sea-bathing. View of interior with mountain range
from the road at Bernwala near the 82nd milestone.
Kalutara river (Kaluganga or black river), bridge, and
town. Eailway along seashore from Kalutara to Colombo.
Panadnre outlet for extensive backwaters. Moratuwa, a
prosperous village of carpenters. Mount Lavinia Board-
ing House.
Galle and Southebn Province. — All Saints' Church,
Galle. Native bazaars and shops of jewellers and dealers
in tortoisesheU and carved work ; Wakwella and Cinnamon
Gardens near GaUe ; drives and view alongside Ginganga
of the Haycock and Adam's Peak mountains ; Baddegama
Mission Station ; Eichmond Hill Mission Station, and
view. Cultivation of sugar and lemon grass, by Messrs.
Winter & Sons, and others. View from Buona Vista, near
Galle, and Mission Station. Tanks in Matara district.
Temple ruins and salt formations, Hambantota. Temple
ruins at Dewundara (" Dondra Head ") near Matara.
Weligama Bay. Urubokka dam, Weligama, and rock
figure of Kusta Eaja or the leper king. View of the Fort
and Harbour of Galle from the site of the Eoman Catholic
Chapel at Kaluwella.
Colombo TO Kandt, Gampola, Nawalapitiya, Hatton, and
Nanuoya ; ALSO to Matale. — Eicefields at Mahara and
along line. Mahaoya (river) and vegetation. Kadugan-
nawa pass, Dekanda valley, Allagala mountain and
railway incline with Miyangala gallery, " Sensation Eock "
and tunnels. View of Dekanda valley from Incline.
View looking back from Sensation Eock. Dawson's
Monument at Kadugannawa. Peradeniva satinwood
bridge, and railway hon lattice bridge. View from rail-
way of the Mahaweliganga and of Pussellawa mountains,
beyond Gampola. View of Mahaweliganga and Kotmale
314 Ceylon in tlie Jubilee Year.
on railway and at Pasbage, and of Adam's Peak, Dolos-
bage, and Ambagamawa onwards to Nawalapitiya. View
towards sea over Yakdesse and low country from Ambaga-
muwa ; waterfalls and rocky glen before Hogs' back
tunnels; the Wattawella valley; Dikoya valley and
Adam's Peak ; Great Western mountain from Eottagalla
valley ; view over Passellawa and distant mountains from
St. Andrews ; St. Clair falls ; Devon falls ; the coup d'odl
of upland and mountain forest and river scfinery fijom
side of Great Western and Nanuoya. The Matale railway
bridge over the Mahaweliganga, view of Hunasgirikanda
and Etapola, views of the Matale valley, Aluwihara, Bala-
kadnwa pass. Tea on Mariawatte ; coffee' in Dikoya or
A^rapatana : -cinchona ia Dimbula ; caeao cultivation on
Palakele and Wariyapola.
KiNDY, Central Pbovincb. Uva. &c. — Sir Henry Ward's
statue in Kandy. Dalada temple at Kandy. Audience
Hall and Octagon. Prince of Wales' Fountain. New
Jail Police Station and Kachcheri. Messrs. Walker &
Co.'s factory for coffee and tea-preparing machinery, &c.
Matale railway. Hantane Peak or Matana Patana for
view, . Gregory road, and Lady Horton's Walk. The
Pavilion. Peradeniya Botanic Gardens, Gampola Bridge.
Uva, Dimbula and Matale. for coffee, tea, cacao and
cinchona cultivation. Bamboda falls and pass. Eadi-
yanlenA, Kotmale ; and Devon and St.' Clair falls,
Dimbula. Huluganga falls in the Knuekles. View of
Adam's Peak from. Ambagamawa road. Waterfalls in the
Horseshoe Valley, Maskeliya, and at the Balangoda end.
Adain's Peak, the olimb;np and view from. Trip to
Anuradhapura, via Matale and Dumbulla (where rock
temple) ; ruins at Polonnaruwa ; the great tank region,
&c. Elk hunting, elephant shooting, gemming,. &c. The
trip to Badulla and Haputale. Ella pass and the highest
waterfall in Ceylon. Badulla- temple and fort, and hot
springs.
NuwARA Ei-rrA.-^The drive, from the Nanuoya station
upwards ; the Blackpool and variegated forest tints. The
" Longden Bead " along the side of tlA Nanuoya ; the
drive round the Lake and Moon Plains; on the new
Udapussellawa road, with beautiful JEilternation of forest
and grass land ("patanas"), magnificent gorges, fern-
covered gullies and waterfalls, ; the waterfall and " grotto "
Ceylon : Summm-y of Information. 315
on Portswood estate ; the view of the lake, bund and river
from Lady Horton's Walk above the bund ; ♦' The Lady's
Waterfall" below the patanas leading from the bund
(Elliewatte Gorge), and Lady Horton's Walk ; the view of
Adam's Peak, Dimbula, &c., from One Tree Hill ; also of
the whole circle of mountains, Adam's Teak, Kirigalpotta,
Kuduhugala, Totapola, Hakgala, Haputale, Namunakn-
lakanda, Udapussellawa, Lover's Leap, Pidurutalagala,
Kikhmana, and of the town, plains and lakes, from Naseby
Hill, 6,400 feet ; of Uva from Hakgala Gardens, with tlie
gardens themselves, fernery, &o., and, the delightful drive
down. The climb to Pidurutalagala summit. The old
graveyard.
Jaffna. — Tlie Fort and Batteries, the Dutch Church,
the Batticotta Seminary, " the bottomless well," the F. N.
Society's Hospital, this market, salt lewayas, and pearl
banks off Arippu. Tobacco cultivation and the coral wells
at Jaffna, &c. Giant's Tank ruins in Mannar district.
Batticaloa. — Port and Batteries, beautiful Bay of
Vendeloos. Extensive rice and coconut cultivation.
Tbincoualke. — One of the finest harbours in the world.
Fort Ostenburg, Fort Frederick. NillaveUi salt pans.
Hot springs at Kanniya.
Dambdlla, Anurabhapuba; Pollonaruwa, &c.-^See for
full particulars of sights and way to make journey ; —
" Buried Cities of Ceylon."
Shooting Trips. — For snipe, hares, and small deer in
Western, Southern, and other provinces. For Elephant,
to Hambantota and Bintenne. For elk, cheetah, ^c, in
higher hill regions. For crocodiles, bears, &c., in Northern
Tank regions. '
WEITEES ON CEYLON. AND AUTHORITIES TO
BE CONSULTED FOR MORE DETAILED
INFORMATION.
De Barros;^ De Couto, Ribeiro (Lee's translation, with
valuable appendices), Valentyn, BaldsBus, Knox (edited by
Philalethes), Percival, Cordiner, Lord Valentia, Bertolacci,
Marshall, Davy, Forbes, Bennett, Knighton, Pridham,
Emerson Tennent ; Fergusons. Casie Chitty's Gazetteer;
Parliamentary papers ; Ceylon Blue Books ; Governors'
Speeches ; Sir H. Ward's collected Minutes and Speeches ;
316 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Oejlon Almanacks, Civil Lists, Manuals, Directories, &c.
For Natural History : — Moon, Gardner, Thwaites, Kelaart,
Hooker and Thomson, Templeton, Nietner, E. A. Layard,
W. Ferguson, Boake, Steuart, Tennent (monograph on
Elephant and on Pearl Oysters, Natural History of Ceylon),
Legge, Moore, &c. On Oriental and Buddhistical Literature :
— Turnour, Casie Chitty, Gogerly, Hardy, James Alwis,
Fox, Callaway, Tolfrey, Upham, Childers, Rhys Davids ;
with transactiona of Asiatic Societies of Britain, Bengal,
Bomhay, Ceylon, and Paris, American and German
Oriental Societies, " Indian Antiquary," " Orientalist,"
" Literary Eegister," &c. On Antiquities, — besides above.
Burrows' " Buried Cities of Ceylon." On Elephant and
Elk Shooting :' — Baker. For Laws and Principles of Justice,
see " Thomson's Institutes," collecte'd volumes of procla-
mations, ordinances, &c., with index, a;nd reports^ of cases
by Marshall, Murray, Morgan, Lorenz, Beling and Van-
derstraaten, Beven and Mills, &o., and Supreme Court
Circular volumes. On Kandyan Law : — Sawers, Armour,
&c. Tamil and Muhammadan Law : — Muttukistna. On
Coffee Planting : — Sabonadiere's Coffee Planter of Ceylon ;
A. Brown's Manual; R. E. Lewis, Aliquis (description of
coffee planting in rhyme, by the late Captain Jolly),
pamphlets by Dr. Elliott, George Wall, P. Moir, Ballardie,
Cross, Owen, &o. New Products : — On Tea, Liberian
Coffee, Cinchona, Cacao, Cardamoms, Coconut and Cinna-
mon planting, see Manuals published at Ceylon Observer
Ofl&ce. Poetry : — Captain Anderson's " Ceylon " and other
poems. On Missionai-y Operations : — Harvard, Selkirk,
Emerson's Tennent's " Christianity in Ceylon," Life of the
"Apostolic" Daniel, Hardy's Jubilee Memorials of
Wesleyan Mission, Jones's Jubilee Memorials of Church
Mission, Memoir of Mrs. Winslow and other American
works, with reports of Baptist, Amerjcan, Wesleyan,
Church, and Romish Missions. On Sinhalese Language : —
Clough, Lambrick, Chater, Carter, James Alwis, Jones,
Nicholson, C. Alwis, &c. On Tarp.il Language ■.^■'WinBlovr,
Percival, Rev. W. Clark, A. Joseph, A. M. Ferguson, jun.,
&c. For the most complete repertory of General, and
Statistical Information affecting the Colony, more especiaUy
of its Planting Enterprise, see successive editions of the
" Ceylon Directory and Handbook of Information," by A.
M. & J. Ferguson. For local Guides : — See Ferguson's
Ceylon : Summary of Information. 317
" Ceylon Eailway and Sanitarium " ; Burrows' " Kandy
and Central Province"; Skeen's "Colombo and Environs";
Maitland's " Colombo and tbe Railway Service." For in-
formation bearing on every branch of Tropical Agriculture,
see the Tropical AgiicuUwist published monthly at the
Ceylon Observer OlEce.
APPENDIX IX.
CEYLON AND ITS PLANTINQ INDUSTEIES.
{From the London "> Times,", August 24, 1884.)
TO THE EDITOR OF " THE TIMES."
BOTAL COLONIAI. INSTITUTE, 16, StRAND,
August 23, 1884.
SiK, — Ceylon and its planters have been several times
referred to in the discussion in The Times on the prospects-
of. sugar cultivation in the West Indies, and perhaps a
brief resume of the experience gained in the Eastern colony
during a series of trying yekra may be of some interest
and of service to planters elsewhere.
It is pretty well known how in the course of forty years,
from 1887 onwards, Ceylon rose' from being a mere mili-
tary dependency (involving a consider&ble annual burden
to the mother country) to the position of the first and
wealthiest of British Crown Colonies. During that period
its population, revenue, and trade so steadily advanced
that they, well-nigh excelled those of aU the West Ihdiail
colonies put together. The change was due almost en-
tirely to the development of coffee-planting, which sent in
the heyday of prosperity in Ceylon as much in one year as
£5,000,000 sterling worth of the fragrant bean into the
markets of the world, chiefly through London. Other
branches of agriculture prospered and advanced during
those forty years, such as palm tree, cinnamon, and rice
Ceylon and its Planting Industries. 319
caltivation in the low covintry — coffee being grown on the
hills — in the hands of the Sinhalese and Tamils. But it
was through the capital introduced and the revenue
created by coffee that the natives were enabled to extend
their groves of coconut and palmyra palms, and that the
Government could devote large sums to the restoration
and construction of irrigation works, more particularly in
supplying village sluices and tanks where the people were
ready to make use of them.
So far as European colonists were concerned, coffee-
planting almost exclusively claimed their attention, and
many of the Sinhalese also embarked in this enterprize.
'While coffee continued profitable, the counsels of those
who advocated the cultivation of other products was
treated as so much idle breath. Theoretically it was
shown many years ago that the climate and much of the
soil of Ceylon were better suited for tea than coffee ; but
still the felling and clearing of the most beautiful and
varied tropical forests in the world went on, until from 40i)
to 500 square miles of country were covered with the one
shrub, Cofea Arahica, carefully planted, and scientifically
pruned — topped at the height of an average gooseberry
bush. Nature was, however, preparing the punishment
of a gross violation of her laws — a violation paralleled by
the would-be dependence of the Irish forty years ago on
potatoes, or by the cultivation in other countries of too
wide and unbroken an area of wheat. Or of the vine. The
penalty in Ceylon was first manifested in 1869, through a
minute fungus on the leaf, very similar to the ciidiuin in
the vine, rust in wheat, and the potato disease. For some
seven or eight years not much was thought of it, save as
an inducement to more liberal, careful cultivation; but
the scientists caUed in to investigate, showed that little or
no practical check could be offered, and within fifteen
years, — to make a long story short — the minute, despised
fungus had swept 100,000 acres of coffee cultivation out
of existence — the poorly cultivated native gardens and
neglected plantations being naturally the first to be aban-
doned. At the same time the export of the coffee bean
fell last year to one-fourth the maximum of 1,000,000 cwt.
Here was certainly a grave misfortune overtaking a
body of industrious men who had been the mainstay of a
country's prosperity, and, moreover, their difficulties were
320 Ceylon in the Jvhilee Year.
aggravated by an extraordinary development of coffee-
production in Brazil. This was due to the interior of
that South American Empire being rapidly opened up by
railways made out of borrowed money ; the labour, at the
same time, used in cultivating fresh coffee plantations
being slave. Such competition might be deemed unfair —
more particularly as it has taken ten years' agitation in
Ceylon to secure an extension of less than 70 miles of
railway from the Colonial Office ; but, in place of looking
to the Government for factitious aid, the Ceylon planters
ten years ago turned their attention to new products with
all the energy and intelligence for which they are famous
beyond any other tropical cultivators
In many cases, of course, the new products, such as
cinchona, tea, cacao (chocolate), and rubber, were experi-
mented with as supplementary t6 the 175,000 acres of
select coffee still maintained in cultivation ; and. let it be
noted that in interspersing his coffee fields with cinchona
and rubber trees, in planting belts or boundaries of such
or areas of reserve in tea, the Ceylon planter was using
one of the best means of checking the free dissemination
of the fungus {hemileia vastatrix). As a consequence,
possibly, or perhaps because the virulence of this pest is
abating, duritig the current season Ceylon is giving an
improved crop of coffee, and the export will be in excess
of last year's.'
At the same time, the plantings oi tea and cinchona
bafk have become established and important industries.
The export of the latter this year wiU probably be equal
to 10,000,000 lb.* against a beginning in 1869 with only
28 oz. Nor is it expected that South America can ever
again compete with the East — Ceylon, India, and Java — in
the production of the invaluable febrifuge.
Again, it is acknowledged on all hands now that Ceylon
is better adapted to become a great tea-producing coun^
try than ever it was to lead with coffee. Situated in the
pathway of the two monsoons, with an ample and well-
distributed rainfall, in a most forcing climate, Ceylon is a
perfect paradise for leaf crops. Fruit is more uncertain,
and even in the be^t days of coffee great uncertainty often
prevailed during the six weeks or two months of blossom-
• It -was 324,000 cwt. against 260,000 owt. the pievions year,
t It was 11,492,000 lb. ■•
Ceylon and its Planting Industries. 321
ing season, when too much or too little rain often
destroyed the chance of a due return for a whole year's
labour. Coffee, too, could only be cultivated within a
certain limited belt, from 2,500 up to 5,000 feet above sea
level, whereas tea flourishes almost from sea-level to
6,000 feet and over. The tea shrub, in fact, is one
of the hardiest of plants, growing in the open-air at
Washington, United States, in New Zealand, &c. But
the great advantage possessed by Ceylon and India for
tea planting, is in cheap, suitable labour for the work of
cultivation, leaf plucking, and preparing. The little
island of Ceylon, as now opened up by railways and
splendid roads, offers great advantages over most Indian
districts for tea production. From both countries the
tea supplied is of a pure, high quality. China teas
have, in many cases, deteriorated of recent years, while
the Japanese " greens," chiefly sent to America, are
nearly all adulterated. I may, in passing, say that should
the war now begun between France and China interrupt
the tea trade or production in the Far East, there is no
place whence a return can be so expeditiously got for the
investment of capital in tea as from Ceylon. There is a
wide extent of land available for tea, at an upset price of
10 rupees (16s.) per acre freehold, and a good crop of leaf
can be had within three years of the jilanting. Assam
planters who visit Ceylon are loud in their praise of what
they see in the growth of our tea, our fine climate,
unequalled roads, good supply of labour, &c. The pro-
gress already made in the tea industry may be seen from
the figures appended.
The cacao, or chocolate-yielding fruit tree, is another
new article of cultivation which has been successfully
established in several districts in the island ; the Ceylon
product from this plant being pronounced in Mincing-lane
to be equal to the very finest received from Trinidad or
South America.
Indiarubber-yielding trees of various descriptions have,
during the past few years, been extensively planted in
Ceylon ; but the industry is still purely (experimental
although good samples have been seen in tlie Londcii
market.
In fibres there "Uglit, by and by, to be a great rlevelop
ment of industjy and trade in Ceylon, and, indeed,
2'2
322 Ceylon in the Jvbilee Year.
" capital " is the only element wanted to secnra rapid
progress in all the branches referred to. The fall of
the Oriental Bank has reacted disastronsly, rendering
money very scarce for the poor but indastrious planter,
\r^ile, again, the credit of the colony has been damaged
in many places through the non-success for many years
and the final collapse of the Ceylon (but more properly
Mauritius) Company, Limited. It is at this time, and in-
view of the absolute scarcity of capital and depression
of credit, that many planters in Ceylon think their
industries in " new products" should receive some official
support ; but they have no idea of interfering with the
great principles, of free trade or of making a grievance
out of the advantage possessed by the slave-owning
planters of Brazil.
It is a matter for congratulation that from the vejry
beginning, the Ceylon planting enterprize has been based
on a system of free labour, and that its products are
so universally appreciated and beneficial as coffee, tea,
quinine, chocolate, cinnamon, palm oils, &c. There is
every reason to feel assured of a profitable return for
money judiciously invested in these " new products " in
Ceylon, and the much-tried sugar-planters of the West
Indies cannot do better than make, experiments in the
same direction, although I am free to admit that the
comparative scarcity and dearness of their labour places
them at a heaVy disadvantage.
J. FERGUSON,
Of the Ceylon- Observer and Tropical Agriculturist.
The following are Statistics of some of the Planting
Industries in Ceylon : — ;
Coffee, — 1837 : — 2,500 acres cultivated ;. exported about
10,000 ewt. 1847: — 45;000 acr6s cultivated; exported
about 200,000 cwt. 1857 : — 85,000 acres cultivated ; ex-
ported about 450,000 cwt. 1867 :— 168,000 acres culti-
vated: exported about 868,000 cwt. 1877 :— 272,000
acres cultivated ; exported about 976,000 cwt. 1883 : —
174,000 acres cultivated; exported about 265,000 cwt.,
while 1884 is expected to show an export of over S£iO,000
cwt. of cofifee — a welcome revival*
• The actual export of co£Fee foi season 1883-4 was 324,000. ewt.
Ceylon and its Planting Industries. 823
Tea. — The export began with 482 lb. in season 1875-6 :
the export rose to 81,595 lb. in season 1878-9; and the
export rose to 1,522,882 lb. in season 1882-3. The cur-
rent season will probably show an export in excess of
two million pounds,* and when the 35,000 acres of tea
planted are in full bearing, in 1887-8, the season's ship-
ments ought to be equal to 10 million pounds. Eventually
it is estimated Ceylon should have 200,000 acres under
tea, and an annual export of 60 million pounds and
upwards. It depends on home capitalists very much how
soon this result may be realized.
Cacao. — The export of cacao (or cocoa, as it is called in
the market) began with 10 cwt. in 1878, and last year it
was 4,000 cwt., while for the current year it is likely
to reach 10,000 cwt.+
CincJwiia bark began with an export of 28 ounces in
1869 ; rose to 507,000 lb. in 1879 ; and was last season
equal to seven million pounds ; while for 1883-4 the
return will exceed 10 millions. f
Palm Trees and Cinnamon. — -Of the products of palm
trees and cinnamon bushes, cultivated chiefly by native
owners, Ceylon now sends an annual value of from
iE800,000 to a million sterling into the markets of the
world, against less than one-fifth of this value thirty years
ago.
[For later statistics of exports see table on page 272.]
CEYLON AND ITS PLANTING INDUSTKIES.
The Editor of The Economist.
Colombo, October 26, 1886.
Sir, — The Ceylon commercial season closes on the
30th September each year, and the Colombo Cbamber of
Commerce Tables are made up as soon after as possible.
The actual results arrived at for our staple export trade
cannot fail to be of much interest to those who have
watched the gradual development of other planting
* The actual export of tea for season 1883-4 was 2,263,000 lbs-
f The actual export of cocoa was 9,863 cwt.
J The export of bark equalled llj million lb.
824
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
industries since the appearance of the leaf fungus which
so woefully affected our coflfee. Having drawn the
attention of West Indian planters through the columns
of the London press in August, 1884, to the way in which
Ceylon planters had developed " new products " to make
up for the failure in coffee, I would again put forward a
few figures in support and illustration of the position I
then took up.
Tea is rapidly becoming the- main staple of the planters
of Ceylon, and everything points to our export of this
important new product rivalling that of India in about
ten years' time. So far, it is comparatively the day of
small things, but the following figiures show the beginning
of an important enterprise. It will be observed that the
export progresses more nearly in. a geometrical than
an arithmetical ratio. The Ceylon exports of Tea have
developed as follows : —
Tea.
lb.
Total Expprts from 1st Oct. 1885 to SOth
Sept.
1888
7,170,839
Db.
do.
1884
do.
1885
8,796,684
Do.
do.
1888
do.
1884
3,963,539
Do.
do.
1882
do.
1883
1,522,882
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1882
623,292
Do.
do.
1880
do.
1881
277,690
Do.
do.
1879
do.
1880
108,624
Do.
do.
1878
do.
1879
81,695
Do.
do.
1877
do.
1878
8.616
Do.
do.
1876
do.
1877
1,776
Cinchona Babk shows the next chief development
among new products, as the foUdwing figures will show : —
CnioHoiiA.
Branch ft
Tmnk.
lb.
Total Ezpnts from lirt Oct. 1886 to
SOth
Sept.
1880
16,864,813
■Do.
do.
1884
dn.
1886
11,678,860
Do.
do.
18SS
do.
1884
11,492,947
Do.
do.
1882
do.
188S
6,926,696
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1883
8,099,896
Do.
do.
1880
do.
1881
1,207,720
Do.
do.
1879
*•
■-«./.
1,206,618
Do.
do.
1878
878,611
Do.
do.
-<->,
-id
178,497
Do.
do.
-•
1877
66,689
Ceylon and its Planting Industries.
325
For a medicinal bark, and the preparations therefrom,
there is no such scope for demand and consumption as in
the case of tea. Biit to a fairly remunerative market, it
is heb'eved that Ceylon can supply 7 to 10 million lb. of
cinchona bark annually without any difficulty ; while if
there were only the market, the export of the past season
could probably be maintained for some years to come.
Cacao, or the cocoa or chocolate yielding plant, has not
succeeded quite so widely as was expected in Ceylon, but
there are certain districts in which the cultivation has
now proved very successful. Some mistakes were made
at first in the mode of planting, but these are now gene-
rally rectified, and there is the fair promise of increasing
returns. This is especially the case during the present
year, the weather having been very favourable to cacao.
The annual exports have been as follows : —
Cocoa.
cwt.
Total
Exports
from
Ist
Oct.
1885
to
30th
Sept.
18-6
13,317
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1885
6,758
Do.
do.
188S
do.
1884
9,863
Do.
do.
1882
do.
1883
3,.588
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1882
1,018
Do.
do.
1880
do.
1881
479
Do.
do.
1879
do.
1880
122
Cabdamoms have been, for many years, quite a minor
article among our products, but since the European
planter has given his attention to this spice, the colony
has taken the foremost rank for its exports, Ceylon, in
fact, now ruling the European market for cardamoms as
well as for cinchona bark. The exports of this spice have
risen as follows : —
Car-
damoms.
lb.
Total
Exports
from
1st
Oct.
1885
to
SOth
Sept.
1886
236,056
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1885
152.405
Do.
do.
1883
do.
1884
66,319
Do.
do.
1883
c-o.
1883
21,655
Da
do.
1881
do.
1882
23,127
Do.
do.
1880
do.
1881
16,069
In contrast with these instances of steady, continuous
progress with what may be called " new products," I have
to place the return for our staple coffee, showing an
equally steady decline, consequent on the weakening
826
Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
e£fects of the fatal leaf fungus. The export figures are as
follows : —
Coffee, cwt.
Plant-
ation.
Native.
TotaL
Total Eiporte fcom Ist Oot
1885
toSOth
Sept. 1886
216,576
8,117
228,698
Do.
do.
1884
4d.
1885
294,606
20,805
814,811
Do.
do.
1888
do.
1884
812,458
11,488
828.941
Do.
do.
188-3
do.
1883
245,631
14,422
260,053
Do.
do.
1881
do.
1882
622,949
41,897
664,846
Do.
do.
1880
do.
1881
415^56
88,802
463,758
Do.
do.
1879
do.
1880
622,306
47,808
669,614
Do.
do.
1878
do.
1879
767,298
67,216
824,609
Do.
do.
1877
do.
1878
661,046
69,246
620,292
Do.
do.
1876
do.
1877
851,201
91,846
943,047
It is satisfactory to know that Tea is so fully taking the
place of coffee, oVer 180,000 * acres being now planted with
this product, which grows well, not only within the limits
of climate suited to coffee — namely, from 1,600 to 5,000
feet above sea-levelWbut from a few score of feet above,
or almost sea-level, , to neatly 7,000 feet altitude. The
tea-plant is, in fact, one of the hardiest on the long list of
the tropical planter, and nowhere has it found a more
congenial home than in moist, hot Ceylon. The cry of over-
production has, indeed, of late, been raised in reference
to tea; but'if English-speaking folks in America take to
drinking tea in place of their favourite coffee, now
likely, year by year, to decrease in supply, thpre will be
a wide demand' added to the present one. Moreover, so
far as peylon is concerned, it has been shown that, through
the gi:eat advailtages possessed by the colony, that of a
superior quality can be produced more cheaply here than
in its great rival India, so that the remoter districts of the
latter country must first suffer. The exports in which
the Ceylonese people are chiefly interested, i.e., cinnamon,
plumbago (out only commercial mineral), essential gress
oils, and the products of the coconut palm, i.e., oil,
copra, and coir fibres, keep well up, although the crop of
coconuts is liable to alternate, according to the season.
In a favourable season, the number of nuts gathered in
• Over 150,000 acres now; in 1887.
Ceylon and its Planting Industries.
327
Ceylon is now estimated at a thousand millions — the
greater portion, however, being utilized locally for the
food of the people.
Briefly, this total value of our staple exports for the past
season may be put at £2,400,000 sterling ; while for the
current commercial year, October, 1886, to September,
1887, the foUowiiag estimates prepared for the Ceylon
Ubseruer from district returns, indicate a very considera-
ble advance : —
Season 1886-7.— Probable Shipment o/Stnple Expo
■ti.
Quantity.
Value.
Coffee
185,000 cwt. at 75/
£693,750
Tea
.. 14,000,000 lb. at 1/li
787,500
Cinchona bark
.. 12,000,000 lb. at 8d.
400,000
Cocoa'
22,000 cwt. at 80/
88,000
Cardamoms
300,000 lb. at 2/
30,000
Coconut oil
280,000 cwt. at 27/6
385,000
Copra
150,000 cwt. at 14/0
105,000
Coconut Poonac
50,000 cwt. at 7/
17,500
Cinnamon
.. 1,500,000 lb. at 1/3
93,750
Do. chips
500,000 lb. at 5d.
10,416
Plumbago
200,000 cwt. at 8/
80,000
Coir of all kinds
110,000 cwt. at 15/0
84,000
Ebony
7,500 tons at 100/
37,500
Deer Horns
2,000 cwt. at 50/
5,000
Sapan Wood
2,500 cwt. at 40/
5,000
Kitul Fibre
1,800 cwt. at 50/
4,500
Essential Oils
.. 6,500,0p0 oz. at Id
Total...
27,000
£2,853,010
J. FERGUSON,
Of the Ceylon Observer and Tru^jical Ayr'uulUuist.
APPENDIX X.
THE PKOSPECTS OP ENGLAJTD'S CHIEP
TEOPICAL COLONY.
AN INTERVIEW WITH A CEYLON JOUBNAUST (mB. JOHN
febguson).
{From " The Pall Mail Gazette," August 29«A ; and " Budget,"
Sept. 5, 1884.)
" We have not now • all our eggs in one basket.' At
present the city will not look at Ceylon as a field for
investment. Money is scarce owing to the fall of the
Oriental Bank, and our credit has been greatly damaged
by the collapse of the Ceylon /more properly the Mauri-
tius) Company. It shoqld be known, however, that in
onr climate, roads, railways, cheap free laboar, we have
every encouragement for tropical agriculture iii Ceylon.
Our natives are being so rapidly educated that by 1900
A.D. English will . practically be the language of tlie
majority of thd people. Colombo' is the shipping centre
of the Eastern world, thaAks to Sir John Coode's new
harbour ; and capital ' judiciously invested in tea and
cacao culture especially, is as likely to bring a good returh
as any agricultural enterprize I know of anywhere."
Such is Mr. Ferguson's summing-up of England's prin-
cipal tropical colony. He is inclined, it will be seen, to
take an optimistic view of Ceylon and its future, but he
speaks with -the accumulated experiences of twenty-three
years' residence in the colony. Then he has the numerous
correspondents of his papers, the Ceylon Observer and the
Tropical Agriculturist, scattered all ovlr the tropical world
' where English planters are at work ; some reporting on'
England's Chief Tropical Colony. 329
tea in Assam; on planting prospects in Java and Fiji;
on the Liberian coffee in West Africa ; and on planting
in Brazil ; while he himself has just been making the all-
round-the-world trip, visiting California and Florida en
route. " Nowhere is tropical agriculture so thoroughly
studied and experimented on as in Ceylon."
Young Men Wanted. — " We now ask for young fellows
of the right sort — even public schoolmen, university men
— any one witli pluck and energy who comes determined
to fight his way against all odds. Do not mistake me.
We do not want to be flooded out by thriftless never-do-
weels, who have failed at everything they have turned
their hands to, but resolute chaps with a little capital to
invest, though they must first serve an arduous apprentice-
ship, for there is no royal road to tea-planting. No young
fellow should come out without some money and letters of
introduction to iDlanters or merchants. A tropical country
is very different in its conditions from Australia and New
Zealand, where a man can turn to at once. Let us sup-
pose our model young man landed at Colombo and dis-
patched to a station to serve his novitiate. In some cases
he might have to pay from £50 to £100 a year for his
board and training, but if he shows any aptitude for his
work and is a willing horse, he would well repay his cost
for food and shelter."
The Fungus Scourge. — " The story of the coffee blight
is soon told. A few years ago, coffee alone was seen over
hundreds of square miles of hillside and valley, eastward,
south, and north of Adam's Peak. Then in 1869 the fun-
gus appeared, and year after year it did its deadly work,
and half ruined us. Here are some figures wliich put the
matter in a nutshell. Take the cofl'ee production from
1847 to 1883 now. You have in 1847 an acreage of 45,000,
with an export of 200,000 hundredweight ; in 1857—85,000
acres, and 450,000 hundredweight ; in 1867—168,000 acres
and 868,000 hundredweight ; in 1877—272,000 acres, and
926,000 hundredweight ; in 1883—174,000 acres, and
265,000 hundredweight ; whilst 1884 is expected to give
from 300,000 to 850,000 hundredweight. I think we may
fairly say that the point of depression has been turned, if
the estimate proves anything like correct."
Tea well Save us. — " What happened after the coffee
bhght became serious ? " " Why, naturally enough, many
330 Ceylon in the Jvb'dee Year.
of the plantations iwere deserted, the capitalists took fright,
saperintendents were thrown out of employment, and set
off to other countries. There was a regular migration to
Northern AustraUa, Fiji, Borneo, the Btraits, California,
Florida, Burmah, and elsewhere. I should say that out of
our 1,700 planters we lost at least 400 in this way. In
Northern Australia, at Fort Darwin, three or four of our
Ceylon planters have planted coffee and cinchona ; in
California some are busy with vines and oranges. Some
have gone to Florida among the orange groves ; but a
Florida orange grove requires twenty years to come to fall
maturity, thbagh the trees begin to bear long before that,
%ay in six years. There is a.ready market in America for
the fruit, but a man requires to work hard there and to
know his business before his speculation is likely to prove
remnnerativa But in Ceylon our indomitable planters,
who stuck to their, posts, began to turn their attention to
other products — tea, cinchona, rubber, caciao ; some 175,000
acres of coffee being still under cultivation. Many of the
coffee planters ran belts of rubber trees and cinchona
between his coffee bushes, thus helping to check the spread
of the dread coffee fungus. I think the statistics show
that the scourge' is abating; but whatever comes of coffee,
Ceylon will become a great tea-growing eounti;y within the
next few years. When the 35,000 acres of larra. now under
tea come into full bearing, in three or four years we expect
to export ten millitoi pounds. Some day Ceylon will have
150,000 acres under tea, and an aUnual export of sixty
million pounds and upwards. Home capitalists have only
to say the word. From 482 pounds of tea exported in
1875-6, the amount in 1882-8 reached a million and a half
pounds. The yield of cacao for this year is likely to reach
10,000 owt. Last season we exported 7.000,000 pounds of
cinchona bark, this year it will be 11,000,000; while of
cinnamon and palm tree products (grown chiefly by
natives) we ship nearly a million, sterling's worth. The
Sinhalese and Tamils are quite ready to follow the Euro-
pean planters in- reference to the new pjroducts of late years
being introduced into Ceylon. They have planted the
cinchona, cacao,> and rubber trees ; .but specially are the
Sinhalese likely to become extensive growers of the tea
plant."
The Land and the Climate. — " Now is the time to buy
England's Chief Tropical Colony. 331
land, for we are on the turn after years of depression, and
such land as you can now buy for 16b. an acre, may in a
year or two be doubled or trebled in price. Just as was
the case in the years between 1868 and 1875, when every
one was ' going into coffee,' and forest land sold for £20
an acre in some districts. Since 1883 some 1,800,000
acres of Crown lands have been sold (to Europeans and
natives), at an averapre price from 1833 to 1844 of 10s.
8d. ; from 1844 to 1883 the average has been 85s. ; and the
upset price now is 16s. There is no land tax, except
within the areas of the towns." " And what about the
climate ?" " Delightful — for the tropics most healthy, p,nd
not much hotter than it has been iu London during the
past few weeks, even at our hottest on the hills. Most of
the planters and their assistants enjoy the best of health,
though of course pioneers and those who have to work
through new forest and in the low country, often suffer
from malarious fevers. But then have you not the cool
mountain station to fly to as a restorer ? There is Nuwara
Eliya and Bandarawela, on the plateau of Uva Principality,
where you get coolness, with health-laden breezes — and I
have even broken the ice in my water jug, in a Nuwara
Eliya cottage. Given a change now and then, good food,
care, and temperance — a European is as well off as regards
climate (some might say better) than at home here."
Free Labour. — " One of our greatest advantages is
' Free labour.' Close at our shores are the twelve million
coolies of Southern India, whose average earnings are be-
tween £3 and f 4 a year each. Yes, and he is able to live,
on it, too, and to support a wife and family. From this
vast source we draw our supply of labourers, and fine well-
trained, diligent fellows they become. They come over
with perhaps a wife and three or four children ; they are
engaged for a period, a mouth's notice sufScing to terminate
the contract on either side. There is a hut ready for them,
with a bit of ground for a garden, in which they grow
vegetables and so on ; the planter gives them a blanket
and food until they are able to repay him out of their earn-
ings. Their wages average from ninepence to a shilling a
day for a man ; a woman can jnake about 7d., and a
child 5d., so they are well off; they save money, and when
they go back to their own village in a year or two's time,
they have probably some five or six pounds in their pouch.
332 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
This the careful coolie invests in a piece of land, which,
on his return to the Ceylon plantations, he leaves in charge
of a relative or a friend until he goes home agsdn. Our
Kandyans, or highlanders, are splendid axemen, and it is
they who do the felling of our forests and the clearing of
tlie land ready for planting. Then the South Indian
coolies do the Egging and planting. The land, by the way,
lies generally on timbered slopes. Th« axemen begin at
the bottom, cut each tree half through, and work up to
the top. The highest fringe is cut clean through, and
with its weight brings down the rest of the slope in the fall.
The Sinhalese themselves refuse to do any agricultural
work for Europeans. It is beneath them. They are our
carters, employed in taking the tea and coffee, and so on,
from the stations to the coast. If I remember rightly
there were some 13,000 licensed carts a year oi: two ago.
The Sinhalese are also our boatmen and artisans and
domestic servants. Now many of our Sinhalese and Tamils
are wealthy. One, indeed, is the richest man on the island,
with an income of some £20,000 a year or more. Some
of the coolies, I raust confess, are sad thieves. You may
of a Sunday meet a man and his wife on the road, one of
them carrying a cock, the other a hen. The birds are
all their portable property, which they are compelled to
take with them while visiting some friends, lest they should
be stolen."
Ceylon Railways. — " The cost of the Colombo and
Kandy Pailway, of 74 miles, was £1,740,000. Then an
extension to Nawalapitiya from Peradeniya, 17 miles, was
opened in 1874 ; and an extension from Kandy to Matale,
17^^ mites, in 1880. ■ Besides these, a seaside line has been
constructed from Colombo to Kalutara, 27^- miles. In
August,- 1880, the, first sod was turned of an extension
from Nawalapitiya for 42 miles to Upper Dimbula, whence
it was intended to be carried 25 miles farther to Haputale.
Altogether about 180 miles of railway, all on the 5 J ft.
gauge, have been opened, or are under, construction. But
there is one grievance which I should like to point out
concerning these railways. The length of f6rty-two miles
from Nawalapitiya to Upper Dimbula will probably be
opened in May, having cost £900,000 of money. But then
they are going to stop short instead of pushing on as was
proposed to Haputale, the real terminus, with new traflSc,
England's Chief Tropical Colony. 333
which is only 24 miles farther, and would cost £400,000,
and open up a vast a,mount of splendid country, which at
present is compelled to send its prodtioe round by road, a
distance of 200 miles^-a roa,d which is subjected to floods,
too, to say nothing of the .delay and cost."
The Tea Planter at Woek. — " Let us suppose that a
young man has learned his business, and has a thousand
or two of capital He buys 200 acres at 163. an acre. He
would begin by opening up, say, twenty-five acres his
first year, clearing, draining, and planting. Then, in
,his second year, he would prepare another twenty-five
acres. Up to and including the third year his outlay
would be about £20 to £25 an acre. In his third year
there would be a crop of tea-leaf — a small one. In the
fourth and fifth year he might expiect, supposing that he is
lucky, to have a crop of tea of 400 lb., to the acre, which
he would lay down in England at 9d. a pound., which
would produce in the market firom Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. a lb.,
thus leaving a margin of 6d. profit. Then he would ad-
vance, not laying out too much capital to start with, but
gradually feeling his way. All the year roimd tea requires
one man per acre, in crop time a fuller force. It is hard
physical work, though there may be no absolute manual
labour. At five in the morning the bugle sounds for all
hands, the planter comes down to the muster, the coolies
go off to their work, the master has his coffee and follows
them, going on foot of course, from point to point, super-
vising and directing, and at 11 a.m. he returns to his
breakfast. Until 3 p.m. he remains indoors, attending to
business matters, then going out again for another spell of
work and inspection. And so the days pass." "Snakes?"
" Boots and clothing are a great protection against snakes,
and during the last sixty years I don't think there has
been one case of death among the whites. The natives, of
course, have no protection from clothing, and are more
careless. In Ceylon our coffee machinery for pulping, for
skinning, for drying, has been brought to a state of per-
fection, and tlie machines manufactured at Colombo are
known throughout the tropics. It is this attention to im-
provements that has helped us so materially. Our planters
are men with ideas, which they are quick to put into force.
So it is with the new industries — tea, cinchona, cacao —
the machinery for their preparation is being improved every
SM Ctyhn in the Jubilee Year.
titty.. Yon sed Ceylon is a comparatively small country,
ivA the planters are abl« to compare notes. A hedrs hov
B fa. doing this, he tells it to G, they have a talk abont it,
land 30 the matter gfows. Each district has its little
«Bntre (not to mention the health reports on the hills),
^heve there is a olnb and other facilities for the intercom-
ihQnication of ideas."
iThbt Ways of ithk Seathen Chinee. — " On my way
from Singapore' to China I fell in with a Sumatran to-
Itacco planter whb had imported Chinese coolies at a cost
ot,£7 to £10. a h6ad, on an engagement of a number of
fears.. Smallpox broke out among them. Now a China-
Bran-prefers-desth to disfigmrement ; .he has no notion of
Kffolving through endless cycles with a pitted face, so they
took to suicide, and every morning the overseer came in
with his, report :— r-' Anotheir ten to thirty pounds gone, sir.
One io three inore of em found hanging to a tree just now.'
This was a serious difficulty. So at last the planter issued
» prolclama.tion'to the, effect that the body of the next hung
Oldnaman, instead of being carefully coffined, would be
cut; into |)ieces. This device stopped suicide. Another
oarious fact respecting the peculiarities of the Chinese is
worth mentioniiu;. When. a Chinaman signs articles on
board ship one of them is that if he dies on the passage his
body-shall be embalmed and sent back to China. In the
steaimer between Yokohama and San Francisco, one of our
stokers met witti an accident. The doctor said the only
Qkunce for him was to cut off his leg. ' No, no,' said the
stoker, and '^No^^ jad,' chorused his comrades. But in a
day or two moi^ifii^tion flet in, and the leg was sacrificed.
The man died,. and his friends Were horribly savage at the
desecration wrought by the doctor's knife and saw. But
they made the be^t 6f it. and embalmed the mortified leg
with the dead body of poor John. The Chinese in the
Straits ,earn, if they are good workmen, about 4s. a day.
Perhaps, we have three Chinamen all told in Ceylon, but
it is curious to notice that after four days' steaming -from
Colombo to Singapore you are virtually in China, for the
China.men are;, gradually filling the Straits up. Of course
there is much to be said on both sides — but the Califomians,
so far as I saw, miss their Chinese servants sadly — in fact,
a Chinaman is at a premium. In my opinion the time had
not come in Western America to stop Chinese immigra-
England's Chief Tropical Colony. 335
tion. At present only traders are allowed to enter the
country, though for every Chinese coolie who dies one is
allowed to take his place. A big business is done in cer-
tificates from all I can hear. Why, I heard that one of
the most violent of the anti-Chinese agitators still kept to
his Chinese servants. He is not a true patriot, like the
Englishman who refused to eat slave-grown sugar. Some
two or three years ago a Queensland planter engaged 500 of
our Sinhalese to go to his sugar plantations. They went,
much to our surprise, for such a thing as Sinhalese emigra-
tion was unknown. They proved a bad bargain, for they
were nearly all selected from gaol-birds of the worst type.
Few of them ever found their way to the plantations, many
were absorbed in the towns, whilst a few found their way
back home."
An Opening fob English Girls. — " There is just one
word of advice I should like to give to fathers and brotiiers.
To the latter, if you go to Ceylon or India — or to any other,
colony, for the matter of that — arrange after you have a
house of your own to get your sister out with you.
England is overstocked with women, who are glamouring
for work and votes and husbands, too. Now England is
sending out some of her best blood to its distant posses-
sions. Why should the young men go and not the young
women ? I am convinced that the presence of his .sister
would have saved many a young fellow, in the pioneering
days in the tropics, from' driuk and miin, if she had been
there to look after his bungalow and minister to his wants.
Fellows used to come in from a hard day's work on the
mountain slopes, fagged and weary.i to their bungalow.
There was food for them prepared by native servants, but
it was often not fit to eat. So some went to the beer or
brandy for consolation. Things are better now, and ladies
more numerous ; but still, in colonizing, whether to
tropical or temperate climes, sister and brother may well
go out together. But there is no need for me to expatiate
on the advantages of my proposal."
"What do you think of the prospects of the North
Borneo Company ? " I asked Mr. Ferguson, as he rose to
go. " I cannot say from actual experience, but we have
one or two correspondents there from whom we hear now
and then. It took Ceylon seventeen hard years of pioneer-
ing before we began to think that success would be perma-
336 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
nent, and North Borneo is yet a very young country. There
are at present a few plantations of tea, coffee, and cinchona
scattered along the coast, whUe collectors are at work in
the interior gathering ivory and minerals. It is like other
new colonies — it needs capital and men."
KbW Gardens. — " I cannot, by the way, over-estimate
the value of the work which Sir Joseph Hooker and Kew
Gardens do for us, not only for Ceylon, but for all the
tropical countries wherein fresh products are being tried.
The Kew authorities have correspondents and collectors in
all parts, and if any one wishes to try experiments he has
only to write to Kew for advice and specimens, which are
forwarded to him from the gardens. You might think that
it would be easier for us to send to the country where the
plant or fruit was indigenous rather than to England, but
the difficulties would often prove too great. Kew is of
vast service to the planters in many respects." " The
military force," said Mr. Ferguson, in conclusion, " situated
in Ceylon, costs us f 120,000 a year, or 10 per cent, of our
revenue.* Now why should we be compelled to expend
this sum on British troopis we don't want. It is a serious
grievance. You us6 Ceylon as a convenient centre, &om
which you may draw in case of any. little war in India, in
China, in New Zealand, in South Africa, or Egypt . I do
not think it fair to impose this burden upon us."
* This burden has since been greatly reduced, very much through
the influence of Governor Sir Arthur Gordon. In some other parts of
The Pall Mall report of this interview I have made corrections where
my remarks were slightly misunderstood. — J.F.
APPENDIX X.
" THE SHADOW OF THE PEAK."
(Inserted by permission from " The Philosophical Magazine "
for January, 1887).
THE PECULIAR SUNKISE-SHADOWS OF ADAm's PEAK IN CEYLON.
BY THE HON. RALPH ABEKCROMBY, F.R. MET. SOC*
There are certain peculiarities about the shadows of
Adam's Peak which have long attracted the attention of
travellers ; a good deal has been written about them, and
several theories have been proposed to explain the observed
phenomena. In the course of a meteorological tour round
the world the author stopped in Ceylon for the express
purpose of visiting the Peak, and was fortunate enough to
see the shadow under circumstances which could leave no
doubt as to the true explanation, and which also entirely
disproved certain theories which have been propounded on
the subject.
The following account is taken from a paper by the
Eev. E. Abbay, many years resident in the island, entitled,
" Kemarkable Atmospheric Phenomena in Ceylon," which
was read before the Physical Society of London, May 27th,
1876, and published in TJie Philosophical Magazine for
July, 1876. Writing from descriptions, for he himself
had never witnessed the appearance, Mr. Abbay says : —
" At sunrise apparently an enormous elongated shadow of
the mountain is projected to the westward, not only over
the land but over the sea, to a distance of seventy or eighty
miles. As the sun rises higher, the shadow rapidly ap-
* Bead before the Physical Society on November 13th, 18S6.
23
338 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
proaches the mountain, and appears at the same time to
rise before the spectator in the form of a gigantic pyramid.
Distant objects — a hill or a river (or even Colombo itself,
at a distance of forty-five miles) — may be distinctly seen
through it ; so that the shadow is not really a shadow on
the land, but a veil of darkness suspended between the
observer and the low country. All this time it is rapidly
rising and approaching, and each instant becoming more
distinct, until suddenly it seems to fall back on the spec-
tator, like a ladder that has been reared beyond the
vertical ; and the next instant the appearance is gone.
For this the following explanation is proposed : — The
average temperature at night in the low country during
the dry season is between 70° and 80° F., whilst that on
the summit of the Peak is from 30° to 40°. Consequently
the lower strata of air are much less dense than the
upper ; and an almost horizontal ray of light passing over
the summit must of necessity be refracted upwards and
luffer total internal reflection as in the case of an ordinary
nirage."
'It will be remarked that Mr. Abbay does not allow for
the difierence of elevation, and the sequel will show that
this theory cannot be maintained.
Adam's Peak is a mountain that rises in an abrupt cone,
more than 1,000 feet above the irregular chain to which
it belongs ; the summit reaches to 7,852 feet above the
sea. Dn the south side the mountain falls suddenly down
to Eatnapura, very little above the sea-level ; while on the
north it slopes irregularly to the high valley of the Maske-
liya district. The peak also lies near an elbow in the
main chain of mountains, as shown in the diagram of the
topography of the Peak (fig. 1), whije a gorge runs up
from the north-east just to the, west of the mountain.
When, then, the north-east monsoon blows morning mist
up the valley, light wreaths of condensed vapour will pass
to the west of the Peak and catch the shadow at sunrise
only, if other things are suitable. The importance of this
will appear !^ater on.
The only difiSculty in getting to Adam's Peak is the
want of a rest-house within reasonable distance of the
summit. Fortunately the kindness and hospitality of T.
N. Christie, Esq., of St. Andrew's plantation, MaskeUya,
enabled the author, in company with Mr. G. Christie and
" The Shadow of the Peak."
339
Professor Bower, of the University of Glasgow, to makt
the ascent with great ' comfort and with a few necessary
instruments. Our party reached the summit on the night
of the 21st February, 1886, amid rain, mist, and wind.
Towards morning the latter subsided, but at 5 '30 a.m. the
sky was covered with a confused mass of nearly every
variety of cloud. Below and around us cumulus and
mist ; at a higher level, pure stratus ; above that, wild
cirro-stratus and fleecy cirro-cumulus.
Soon the foreglow began to brighten the under surface
of the stratus-cloud with orange ; lightning flickered to
the right of the
rising sun over a
dense mass of
cloud ; opposite, a
light pink-purple
illumined an ir-
regular layer of
condensed vapour; -
whileabove,apale Adam's Peak>
moon, with aiarge
ill-defined corona
round her, strug-
gled to break
through a softish
mass of fleecy
cloud. Below lay
the island of Cey-
lon, the hills and
valleys presenting
the appearance of
a raised r«lief-map ; patches of white mist fill the hollows ;
true cloud drove at intervals across the country, and some-
times masses of mist coming up from the valley enveloped
us with condensed vapour.
At 6 a.m. the thermometer marked 52° F. ; we had been
told that the phenomenon of the shadow depended on the
temperature at the summit falling to 30° or 40° F. ; and
when, shortly after, the sun rose behind a cloud, we had
almost lost all hope of seeing anything ; but suddenly at
6.30 a.m. the sun peepe^ through a chink in the clouds,
and we saw the pointed shadow of the peak lying on the
misty land. Driving condensed vapour was floating about,
HO. L-
-DliGBAM or THE TOPOQKAI'HY
ADAM'S PEAK.
840
Ceylon ire the Jubilee Year.
and a fragment of rainbow-tinted mist appeared near the
top of the shadow. Soon this fragment grew into a com-
plete prismatic circle of about 8° diameter by estimation,
with the red outside formed round the summit of the Peak
as a centre. The author instantly saw that with this bow
there ought to be spectral figures, so he waved his arms
about and immediately found shadowy arms moving in
the centre of the rainbow. Two dark rays shot upwards
and outwards on either side of the centre, as shown in the
Diagram, fig. 2, and appeared to be nearly in a prolongation
of the lines of the slope of
the Peak below. The centre
of the bow appeared to be
just below the point of the
shadow, not on it ; because
'^^ we were standing on a plat-
form below a pointed shrine,
and the subjective bow
centred firom our own eyes.
If we did not stand fairly out
in the sun, only a portion of
the bow could be seen.
Three times, within a quar-
ter of an hour, this appear-
ance was repeated as mist
drove up in proper quantities,
and fitful glimpses of the
sun gave a sufficient light
to throw a shadow and form
a bow. In every case the
shadow and bow were seen
in front of land and never
against the sky. The last
time, when the suii was pretty high, we saw the charac-
teristic peculiarity of the shadow. As a thin[ wreath of
condensed vapour came np from the valley at a proper
height a bow formed round the shadow, while both
seemed to stand up in front of us, and then the shadow
fell down oh to the land, and the bow vanished as the
mist passed on.
Here, then, was an unequivocal explanation of the whole
phenomenon. The apparent upstanding of the shadow
was simply the effect of passing mist which caught the
FIG. 2. — DUORAM OF BAINBOW
KonND THE SHADOW.
" The Shadow of the Peak." 341
darkness of the Peak at a higher level than the earth, for
when the condensed vapour moved on the characteristic
bow disappeared, and the shadow fell to its natural plane
on the ground. When the mist was low, as on the two
.first occasions, the shadow fell on the top as it were, and
there was no appearance of lifting, only the formation of a
bow.
The well-known tlieory of the bow is that light diffracted
in its passage between small water-globules forms a series
of bows according to the size of the globules, their close-
ness, and the intensity of the illumination. Had the mist
been so fine and thin as merely to catch and raise the
shadow, but not to form a bow, there might have been
some doubt as to the origin of the appearance. Our for-
tune was in the unsettled weather which made the mist
so coarse and close that the unequivocal bow left no doubt
as to the true nature of the cause.
About an hour later the sun again shone out, but much
higher and stronger than before, and then we saw a
brighter and sharper shadow of the Peak, this time en-
circled by a double bow. Our own spectral arms were
again visible, but the shadow was now so much nearer
the base of the Peak, and we had to look so much down
on it that there was no illusion of standing up, and there
were no dark diverging rays. The inner bow was the one
we had seen before ; the outer and fainter one was due to
stronger light.
The bows were all so feeble and the time so short that
the author did not succeed in obtaining any sextant
measurements , of the diameters of the bows ; but his
thermometric observations conclusively disprove any idea
of mirage. At 6 a.m. the thermometer on the Peak
marked 52° F., while at Colombo the temperature stood
at 74°-85. The difference of 22°-85 is just about the
normal difference in temperature due to a height of 7,352
feet.
The Colombo figures were procured through the courtesy
of the Surveyor-General for Ceylon. They are got as
follows : — Colombo observations only give the minimum
that morning as 73°-6 F. and the 7 a.m. reading as 75°-5.
The mean curve of diurnal temperature for the month of
February, as determined by the Office, gives a difference
of 0°"65 between the 6 a.m. and 7 a.m. observations; and^*
342 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
by subtracting that correction from 75°'5 we get 74°"85 as
the 6 a.m. reading.
The questions have been frequently asked — Why this
lifted shadow should be peculiar to Adam's Peak ? why a
similar appearance is not observed from any other moun-
tain top ? and why the shadow is rarely seen at sunset ?
There are not many mountains which are habitually
visited that are either over 7,000 feet, or that rise in an
isolated, well-defined pyramid. Still fewer can there be
where a' steady wind, for\months together, blows up a
valley so as to project the rising morning mist at a suit-
able height and distance on the western side to catch the
shadow of the peak at sunrise. The shadow is not seen
during the south-west monsoon, for then the mountain is
covered with cloud and deserted. Nowhere either do we
find' at sunset those light mists lying near the ground
which are so characteristic of sunrise, and whose presence
is necessary to lift the shadow.
The combination of a high isolated pyramid, a prevailing
wind, and a valley to direct suitable mist at a proper
height on the western side of the mountain, is probably
only rarely inet with ; and at, present nothing yet has been
described that exactly resembles this Sunrise shadow of
Adam's Peak im the green island of Ceylon.
But there is another totally different shadow which is
sometimes seen from Adam's Peak, just before and at the
moment of sunrise, that has been mixed' up in some
accounts with the shadow we have just described. The
shadow of the ' base of the Peak stretches along the land
to the horizon, and then the shadow of the summit appears
to rise tip and stand against the distant sky. The first
part seems to be the natuiral shadow lying on the ground ;
and the sky part to be simply the ordinary earth shadow
of t'frilight projected so clearly against the sky as to show
mountainous irregularities of the earth's surface. , As the
sun rises the shadow of the summit against the sky gradu-
ally sinks to the horizon, arid 'then the ordinary shadow
grows steadily shorter as the sun gets higher in the usual
manner. This can only be seen at sunrise from Adam's
Peak, because the ground to the east is too high and
mountainous to allow the shadow of the summit to fall on
the sky before the sun is too far down.
The author found a similar effect, only at sunset, on
" The Shadow of the Peak." 343
Pike's Peak, Colorado, 14,147 feet above the eea, and
nearly double the height of Adam's Peak. There, towards
sunset, the shadow of the mountain creeps along the level
prairie to the horizon, and there begins to rise up in the
sky till the sun has just gone down, and the anticrepus-
cular shadow rises too high to catch the outline of the
Peak. The author only witnessed a portion of this
sequence, for just about the time that the shadow
stretched to the horizon clouds obscured the sun, and the
rise of the shadow could not be observed ; but from all the
descriptions he heard there can be no doubt that the
character of the shadow is identical with that of Adam's
Peak, only that, as the order of sequence is reversed, it is
more easy to follow the origin of the shadows.
Since the above was written the author's attention has
been called to the sketch of the shadow exhibited by the
well-known traveller. Miss C. F. Gordon Gumming, in the
Colonial Exhibition. This picture represents the shadow
lying down, but not raised, on an irregular surface of
white mist and mountain tops. The most interesting
thing is a prismatic fringe of colour along the straight
outside edges of the shadow ; but there is no trace of a
bow round its point.
When we consider how much the appearance of the
shadow depends on the height, size, and aggregation of
the mist we need not be surprised at the numerous phases
of reflection and refraction that have been described by
travellers ; but the general principles which have been
laid down in this paper appear to govern all.
[Since the above was written, the Eev. E. Abbay has
co.ne forward to dispute some of the conclusions arrived
at by Mr. Abercrombv, and, indeed, to controvert his
main contention. — J. F.]
APPENDIX XII.
TEA IN CEYLON.
The follomng useful information was prepared by The
Planters' Association of Ceylon, and circulated at
the late Indian and Colonial Exhibition at South Ken-
sington in 1886.
In the minds of the British public the name of Ceylon
has been chiefly associated with the production of coffee^
and spices : the latter in poetry, but in poetry only, im-
parting their fragrance to the very air^:
WliUe Ceylon cofifee and Ceylon spices are of superior
quality and remain most important articles of trade, it is
Ceylon tea that is rapidly becoming the staple product,
and the one for which the island will soon be most cele-
brated.
Seldom or never has an industry made such progress, or
a new article of consumption overcome by its intrinsic
merit the opposition of vested trade interests as has
Ceylon tea.
in 1873 the exports of tea from Ceylon were 231bs. ; in
1885, they have been 4^ million lbs. ; in 1886 they will
be about 10 mUhon lbs.; and in the near future 40 miUion
lbs. will be exported.
The area under tea in the island is rapidly extending,
and already about 120,000 acres have been planted. Over
700 European planters and 150,000 Indian and Sinhalese
labourers are engaged in the cultivation. Some of the
plantations are but little above sea level, while others run
up to an elevation of 6,000 feet. Th6 average altitude
of the larger districts is about 4,000 feet above sea level,
Tea in Ceylon.
345
an elevation at which the chmate is pleasant and most
healthy. A railway runs up into the hills and a good
system of cart roads exists, so that most of the estates are
already within a day's journey from Colombo — the capital
and shipping port.
At a time when dietetics has almost become a science,
when purity and cleanliness in food and beverages are so
COOLIE GIBL PICKING TEA-LEATES.
strongly insisted on, it is strange that greater attention
has not been called to the more than doubtful nature
of much of that which is consumed as tea.
It has been said that, if to be an Englishman is to eat
beef, to be an Englishwoman is to drink tea. True it is
that the article which in the sixteenth century was a
luxury, costing ten guineas a pound and consumed by
346 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
a hundred people, has in ihe nineteenth century become a
necessity, costing two shillings a pound and consumed by
millions.
Did "the people of Britain thoroughly understand the
difference between British-grown tea — such as Ceylon's — ^
and that of China or Japan, it is certain that those who
could get the pure, clean, machine-prepared leaf which is
turned out from the planter's factory, would never touch
the far from pure article prepared by the hands and feet
of the unwashed Mongolian.
In China and Japan tea is mostly cultivated in small
patches by the peasantry, who gather the leaves and pre-
pare the tea in their huts in a very unfastidiouS manner.
The tea, either in a half-mannfactnred or finished state, is
sold to petty dealers, who in turn sell to larger dealers.
The large dealer mixes and manipulates teas, packs and
sells them to the European merchants for shipment to
England, Australia, or America. The manipulation of tea
is an art in which the Chinaman excels, and in many of the
inferior kinds the quaJity is infinitely deteriorated — thus,
" the dust of the leaf is mixed with clay and manipulated
into the form of the ordinary leaf " — ^this is with appro-
priate philological coincidence termed " lie " tea. " Tea
leaves which have been already used are again manipulated
and rolled into shape and sold as genuine tea."
The teas of Japan, which are almost entirely consumed
by our American cousins, are firequently and admittedly
" faced " with a mixture of Prussian blue and soapstone.
The Ceylon estate cultivation and manufacture is very
different, and it may not be uninteresting to give a brief
account of how pure tea is made. Visitors to the Ceylon
Court in the Coloniarand Indian Exhibition will find an
interesting series of photographs from Ufe, attached to the
exhibits, of tea, illustrating the various operations.
The tea bushes are planted in lines at regular distances
over hundreds of acres of carefully roaded and drained
land, which is regularly weeded every month. Once a year
the bushes are pruned down to a height of about two feet ;
and eight weeks after the pruning the first "flush" of
young shoots is ready to be plucked, and during the height
of the season the flushes re-occur every ten days. Coolies,
having a small basket attached to their girdle, then go
round and pluck the bud and a couple of the tender half-
Tea in Ceylon. 347
developed leaves. At mid-day, and again in the evening,
the leaf is weighed and taken into the factory. The leaf
348 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
is at once spread very thinly on trays or shelves to wither.
The time which the leaf takes to wither — to become soft
and pliable without drying np — varies with the weather,
but as a rule the leaf gathered one day will be sufficiently
withered the following day.
The withered leaf is then placed in the rolling-machine,
an ingenious and effective machine which is driven by
water or steam power. The rolling lasts for nearly half-
an-hour, at the end of that time the leaf has become a
moist mass of twisted and bruised leaves, out of which
the expressed juice freely comes, technically called " the
roll." The roll is then placed in trays to ferment or
oxidise ; during this process it changes from a green to
a copper colour. The subsequent strength and flavour of
the tea depend, to a great extent, upon the fermentation —
a chemical process, the success of which is not entirely
within the control of the planter, but depends greatly
on the weather, and takes a time varying from two to six
hours.
The next process is that of firing. The roll is thinly
spread on trays, and placed either over charcoal stoves or
in large iron drying-machines, and at the end of half-an-
hour it is thoroughly crisp and dried, and has become tea.
The tea is then sorted or sized, by being passed through
sieves of different meshes (see working model of a tea-sifter
in the Ceylon Court) giving the varieties of broken-pekoe,
pekoe, souchong, congou; and dust. The broken-pekoe,
which consists chiefly of the opening bud of the leaf, gives
the strongest tea, perhaps too strong a tea to be infused
by itself ; and a mixture of pekoe and souchong makes the
most pleasant drinking tea.
The final process is that of weighing and packing.
When a sufiicient quantity has been manfactured the
tea is again slightly fired, to drive off any suspicion of
moisture, and packed while warm in lead-lined boxes
carefully soldered down to exclude air.
Such is the mode of careful, cleanly preparation in the
specially erected factory of the Ceylon planter ; and every
drinker of genuine Ceylon tea may be certain that it is
absolKtelij jiiive-
Ceylon tea stands unrivalled for its combination of
strength and flavour ; and the pure tea gives a beverage
pleasant and beneficial to those who drink it. One
Tea in Ceylon. 349
cannot doubt that, were the well-meaning evangelists in
the cause of temperance to realize the diflereuce between
pleasantly-strong well-flavoured stimulating tea and the
" wishy - washy " decoction infused fi-om the cheaper
China teas, their efforts to substitute " the cup which
does not inebriate " for that which does might be made
much more successful.
In addition to the other good qualities, Ceylon tea
possesses that of being economical ; for it is generally
admitted that two pounds of Ceylon will go as far as three
pounds of China.
The tea you drink should be —
1.— Pure.
2. — Wholesome.
3. — Pleasant.
4 . — E conomical .
And Ceylon tea justly claims pre-eminence on these
grounds.
Would-be purchasers of Ceylon tea must be warned
that there is danger (just as there is with everything
which has earned a good name and become popular) of a
spurious or admixed article being sold instead of what is
genuine.
APPENDIX XIII.
W0EK3 OF PUBLIC' INTEREST EXECUTED, AND
ENDOWMENTS MADE, BY THE DE SOYS A
FAMILY, AND CHIEFLY BY C. H. DE SOYSA,
Esq.
Roads.' — Cart road from Haragama to Len Oya. Good
cart road at a point near eleventh mile post, on Galle road.
Good cart road farther north on same road. Good cart
road tenth mile post at vUlage Angulana. Several roads
in the Chilaw district. Good cart road in populous villages
terminating at Mampe. Excellent cart road from Polgas
Owitte in Salpity Korale crossing village Mattegodde,
terminating at Delgaha Manatte. The widening and re-
pairing 01 many roads in and about Morattiwa.
Fields and Tanks. — The building of the !Malluwawawe
at' Gonagama. Irrigating a large field at Kandevalle, with
a view to giving employment to the neighbouring destitute
villagers.
Ambalams, &c. — A comfortable rest-house for the use of
the foot passengers at Haragama. An extensive and well-
kept cemetery at Moratuwa for both strangers and members
of the congregation. Rest-house at iloratuwa with sepa-
rate compartments for both sexes.
Churches. — The church at Hanguranketta. A fine
church at Maravilla. St. John's, Pauadura. Holy
Emmanuel's, Moratuwa. Contributions towards building
the churches at Negombo and Kurunegala. The Pana-
dura burial ground, which was liable to inundations, was
raised at a large cost.
Hospitals. — Building of the Hospital at Maravilla.
Works of Public Interest Executed. 351
The De Soysa Museum and the Lying-in Home at Colombo.
Panadura Hospital.
Schools. — Schools at Koralawelle ; Prince and Princess
of Wales' Colleges, costing Es. 150,000. Donation,
Es.30,000 to St. Thomas' College ; donation to the Jaffna
College.
Public Eeceptions. — Eeception to the Duke of Edin-
burgh, costing £10,000. Establishment of " Alfred Model
Farm," £10,000.
Societies. — The establishment of the Moratuwa Co-
operative Society for the improvement of people. Estab-
lishment by Jeronis De Soysa, Mudaliyar, of the Society
called Satarana Sarana Samagama — the Gansabawa being
the outcome.
Impbovements to Town. — By building Fort Offices,
Cottages, Slave Island Buildings.
Eeliep Funds. — Subscription to Belief Funds.
Tkanslation of Books. — Undertook cost of translating
Hithopadesa into Sinhalese.
Houses. — Building two cottages at Mount Lavinia, the
income of which goes towards the expenses of Emmanoiel
Church.
LiBRABiEs. — Establishment of Library at Moratuwa.
Besides various other acts' in Ceylon, too numerous to
mention.
Add to these the £1,000 which Mr. de Soysa handed to
Sir Arthur Birch, Commissioner for Ceylon at the Indian
and Colonial Exhibition in September, 1886, for the pur-
chase of the fittings of the Ceylon Court as a contribution
to the Imperial Institute, and £500 in cash for these Insti-
tutions; and £1,000 given to the London Hospitals as a
memento of his first visit to England, in November, 1886.
APPENDIX XIV.
BENEFACTIONS BY S. D, A. EAJEPAKSE, Esq.
Enteetainment.^To the sailors of the men-of-war which
brought His ^oyal Highness the Prince of Wales to Ceylon :
E3,000.
CoNTKiBunoN TO THE Cqloubo " Friend-in-Need'Society."
— In commemoiration of the visit to Ceylon of their Eoyal
Highnesses, Albert Victor and George, the sons of the
Prince of Wales : El.OOO.
CONTEIBUTION TO THE CoiMUBO " FbIEND-IN-NeED SoCIETY."
— To help the Society when it was in want of funds:
El, 000.
' Eajefaese Pbize. — Annual yalae, ElOO. Iga connection
with the Eoyal College, Colombo.
Eajepaksk Pbize. — For midwifery, in connection with
the Medical College, Colombo. Annual value, ElOO.
Weeresinghe Peize. — To perpetuate the memory of A.
W. M. Weeresinghe, in connection with St. Thomas's
College, Colombo. Annual value, ElOO.
Endowed " Duke of Edinburgh's Scholarship. — IiI
commemoration of the visits of His Eoyal Highness the
Duke of Edinburgh to Ceylon ; Principal E8,000 ; in con-
nection with St. Thomas's College, Colombo.
Endowed "Gregoe* Schol/^rship." — In commemoration
of the eminent services of Sir W. H. Gregory, K.C.M.G.,
as Governor o'f Ceylon ; Principal, E8,000 ; in connection
with St. Thomas's College, Colombo.
Endowed " Prince op Wales' Exhibitions." — In com-
memoration of the visit of His Eoyal Highness the Prince
of Wales ; Principal, E10,000 ; in connection with St.
Thomas's College, Colombo.
Benefactions hy S. D. A. Rajepakse, Esq. 353
CoNTRIBtJTION TO THE " GrEGOKY StATUE." lu COm-
memoration of the administration of the Government in
Ceylon by Sir W. H. Gregory, K.C.M.G. : E5,000.
CoNTMBUTiON TO THE " Galle Clock Tower." — Erectecl
in commemoration of the eminent services of P. D.
Anthonisz, Esq., M.D. : R3,600.
Contribution. — To the relief of the villagers distressed
by the flood of 1872 : R2,000.
APPENDIX XV,
[As a curiosity and of special interest to English readers,
•wc give the following " Genealogical Tree " of one 6f Cey-
lon's worthiest sons and most generous philanthropists.]
GENEALOGICAL TABLE,
- SHOWING THE DESCENT OP S. D. A. EAJEPAKSE, MUDALIYAB OF
HIS excellency's gate, and j.p. fob the island.
B. J). A. Eajepakse,:
Mudaliyar of the
Grand Konda.
A. D. A. Kajepalfse,:
MahaVidane, Mu-
daliy ar of Welitara
District.
:Danghter of Lewis Mendis
Wickremanaike, Atta-
patoo Mudaliyar of Maha
Badda.
A. D. A. Eajepakse, Mndliyar+Caroline de Soyza Wijey-
of Mulwal and Welisara sirriwardena.
Districts
B. D, A. Eajepakse,
Mudaliyar of His Excellency's Gate, and J.P.
for the Island.
FUKTHEB PAETICTJLAKS.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's
Carlo de Miranda, First Inter- ) tit * i n j li. •
4. J n^ ■ t\/r j r t\ Maternal Grandmother s
preter and Chief Mudaliyar of V Grandfathpr
the Maha Badda. . j ^a^dlather.
Solomon de Miranda! First In-
terpreter and Chief Mudaliyar
of the Maha Badda.
B, de Zoysa Eajepakse, Maha ) ^^ i. i n x i
Vidane Mudaliyar of Maha I Maternal Great-grand-
Bartda. 1 ^^^^^^-
S. de Zoysa Eajepakse, Cappina ) ht ■ ■ , ,, •,, .,
Mudaliyar, and MudaHyar of (Maternal Grandfather.
Calna Modera District. j
Maternal Grandmother's
Father.
Genealogical Table. 355
GENEALOGICAL TABLE,
TBACING THE DESCENT OF S. D. A. KAJEPAKSE (THROUGH HIS
mother) to OABIiO DB MIRANDA, FIRST INTERPBETEK AND
CHIEF MUDALITAR OF THE MAHA BADDA.
Carlo de Miranda, First Interpreter q::
and Chief Mudaliyar of the Maha
Badda.
Solomon de Miranda — ^First Interpreter andqr
Chief Mudaliyar of the Maha Badda. j
Susana de Miranda :f Solomon de Sosa Eajepakse,
^1 Kappina Mudaliyar.
Caroiine:f A. T>. A. Eajepakse, Mudaliyar of
I Mutwal and Welisara Districts.
S. D. A. Eajepakse, Mudaliyar of His Excellency's
Gate, and J. P. for the Island.
FURTHER PARTICULARS.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's (Mudaliyar) Mother's Father. — S.
de Zoysa Eajepakse, Kappina Mudaliyar. and Mudaliyar
of Eakia Modera District.
S. D. A. Eajapakse's Mother's Grandfather (father's
father). — ^E. de Zoysa Eajepakse, Maha Vidane Mudaliyar
of Maha Badda.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's Father. — A. D. A. Eajepakse,
Mudaliyar of Mutwal and Welisara Districts.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's Grandfather. — A. D. A.. Eajepakse, .
Maha Vidane Mudaliyar of Welitara District.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's Great-grandfather. — B. D. A. Eaje-
pakse. Mudaliyar of Grand Eonda.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's Paternal Grandmother. — The
daughter of Lewis Mendis Wickremauaike, Attapatoo
Mudaliyar of Maha Badda.
5. D. A. Eajepakse's Maternal Great-grandfather. — ■
E. de Zoysa Eajepakse, Maha Vidane Mudaliyar of Maha
Badda.
S." D. A. Eajepakse's Maternal Grandfather. — S. de
Zoysa Eajepakse, Cappiua Mudaliyar, and Mudaliyar of
Calna Modera Districts.
6. D. A. Eajepakse's Maternal Grandmother's Father. —
856 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Solomon de Miranda, First Interpreter and Chief Muda-
liyer of the Maha Badda.
S. D. A. Eajepakse's Maternal Grandmother's Grand-
father. — Carlo de Miranda, JFirst Interpreter and Chief
Madaliyar of the Maha Badda.
APPENDIX XVI.
COLOMBO AND THE BUDDHIST TEMPLE AT
KELANIYA.
The following lively description by Julian Thomas (" The
Vagabond" of the 2Ielboi(rne Ai-giis), of his two days' visit
to Colombo, will be read with interest :—
" The eleventh morning out from Albany, at daylight,
Point de Galle or Matara is visible. Low shores, then
rolling foothills, tlien a high mountain chain towering
into the clouds ; over all, the peculiar soft olive-blue haze
which denotes the presence of dense tropical vegetation.
White mist lies in the valleys, giving the appearance of
lakes overshadowed by the mountains. I am reminded of
the Gulf of Darien as I first saw it twenty years ago at
early morn. Tennent well says that this island, from
whatever direction it may be approached, ' unfolds a
scene of loveliness and grandeur unsurpassed, if it be
rivalled, by any land in the universe.'
"From the sea, Ceylon appears like the mountain region
of Otago, New Zealand, planted in the midst of a tropical
garden. Verily 'every prospect pleases ' here. Now and
then in the dense coconut grove one sees glimpses of
colour in a red-tiled roof or brown thatch. There is a
heavy population — nearly three millions — in a country
one-sixth less than the area of Ireland, and a large portion
of which is covered by mountain ranges. A large number
live, if not entirely on the water, at least by the products
of the sea. Pishing catamarans are sailing up and down
the coast, and we pass many of them lying-to and drawing
in their nets. The style of boat is known to every school-
boy. It is nearly the same as the ivoja canoe of the South
358 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Seas. The sixty miles coasting voyage between Galle and
Colombo is altogether one of the most beautiful in the
world. We see Kalutara at the mouth of a large river.
A charming settlement this, twenty-seven miles south of
Colombo, with which it is connected by railway, being
known as the Eichmond of Ceylon. Twenty miles farther
on is Mount Lavinia, another popular seaside resort, where
a monster hotel bids for custom. And now the shore
becomes dotted with bungalows, there is a break in the
palm grove, and Colombo is ahead. A city of high
buildings, towers, cupolas, red-tiled roofs, open spaces,
flowering trees, green lawns — a magnificent capital of
120,000 inhabitants, a mixture of Shanghai and Old
Panama and Honolulu. Verdure everywhere, colour
everywhere, Ufe everywhere. We round Sir John Coode's
Breakwater, and in the harbour are ships of many nations
— British, French, Italian, and German steamers, an
English gunboat, and native sailing craft of an infinite
variety. A brigantine well-sailed passes us. She is of
English build, but is manned entirely by blacks, Bound
this to the Eastern Maldives or the coast of India. But
it is strange to see the children of Ham ' running ' a vessel
of their own. The Australian is here brought face to face "
with the fact that there is a civilization other and older
than his own. Catamarans of all sorts and sizes crowd
around the vessel. Every variety of Oriental race and
costume is represented. The light-brovm native Sinhalese,
with their long black hair secured by huge tortoisesheU
combs, have an effeminate appearance which makes new
chums mistake all the males for women. The conquering
Tamils, from Southern India, are darker and more manly.
There are Hindus of every cast and style of undress —
'Moormen,' tambies, tall muscular Afghans, Parsees and
Chinese, swarthy Malays, and Eurasians (fat and oily) of
Dutch and Portuguese descent. All from the magnifi-
cently attired dealer in the precious stones of Birmingham
to the scantily-clad boatmen, appear to have been waiting
from their creation for the arrival of the Rome to screech
at us in a babel of tongues ; to rush up the gangway and
storm us with applications to buy ; to be filled with an
overpowering desire to take away our washing, or to carry
us oflf to the Grand Oriental Hotel or the Galle Face Hotel.
And as they fight and yell on one side of the ship, there
Colombo and the Buddhist Temple at Kelaniya. 359
comes a choras from the other, ' Habbadibe! Habbadibe!'
which, bemg interpreted, means, ' Have a dive,' signifying
that the hundreds of httle rascals, nearly naked, who are
floating about on pieces of wood, or paddling frog-like in
the water, are willing to dive for our amusement and their
own profit after any silver coins we may throw overboard.
' Good-day, Sahib ; Habbadibe ! Habbadibe ! ' they shout,
keeping a sing-song time. A sixpence or a shilling
dropped into the water sends fifty pairs of legs into the
air ; for a second the white soles of their feet are seen,
another second, and arms and heads flash up again, and
one of the lads shows the coin before pouching it like a
monkey. Sometimes a fight takes place, but it is of a
bloodless character.
" Colour is the prevailing feature ; a red waist cloth or a
rag hound round the head, contrasting with the dusky
skins, has an effect which, en masse, pleases the eye.
Nothing can make our Australian larrikins beautiful, but
the meanest Oriental here is picturesque. To our colonial-
born youth these natives suggest so much. Visions of
the Arabian Niglits are conjured up. Those of us who
have read the Thousand and One Tales, think of Aladdin
and Sinbad, of the' Old Man of the Sea, and the Hunch
back of Bagdad, as celebrated in literature as he of Notre
Dame. Many of us make up our minds to do the Haroun
al Easchid's trick here, and see what adventure may
happen to the adventurous. But first to get ashore. I
let a Moorman, ' Abdallah ' by name, a runner for the
Grand Oriental Hotel, take possession of me, and form
one of a party in a steam launch which for sixpence a head
lands us on the quay. Two minutes' walk to t^ie hotel.
I engage a room, and then a carriage, and with ^ibdallah,
who professes he knows all the city, I drive around
Colombo. I have first three well-known men to see and
interview — Arabi Pasha, Mr. John Ferguson, and Colonel
Olcott. Ahmad Arabi, Egyptian exile, lives at Elizabeth
House, Mackenzie Place, in the Cinnamon Gardens. The
residence is an ordinary bungalow, with no particular
style about it. The Malay policeman who receives my
card expresses his doubts as to whether the ' Badger,' as
he pronounces ' Pasha,' will see me. But Arabi and
myself have mutual friends, and I soon have the pleasure
of shaking hands with him and Yacoob Samy, another
360 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
exile. We have cigarettes and coffee, and Arabi, who
now speaks English fairly well, expresses his pleasure at
hearing that Colonel J. M. Morgan is United States
Consul at Melbourne. We do not talk politics, and in
truth our conversation is limited. It is very strange to
think that this quiet-looking gentleman in the fez was five
years ago master of Egypt. A son of the soil, a fellah,
whose kindred are bare-footed tillers of earth, Ahmad
Arabi is the most remarkable man in his country since the
days of Mahomet Ali. ' The Wallace of Egypt,' I once
styled him to an enthusiastic Scotchman in the 'Ear
North ' of South Australia.
" I do not think there is a city in the world so beautiful
in the luxuriant verdure which clothes it as this. As one
di-ives about Colombo the botanist has great pleasure in
noting the trees, the flowers, and the shrubs. One ad-
mires the graceful waving coconut palms {cocas nucifera),
tlie plumes of the betel palm (areca catechu), of which Dr.
Hooker wrote — ' The cultivated areca raises its graceful
head and. feathery crown like an arrow shot from heaven
in luxuriance and beauty above the verdant slopes ; ' and
the fan beauty of the Travellers' tree {reevenela Madagas-
carensis). You pass along avenues where Suriya trees
[ihespesia populnea) cast their shade, with their poplar-
like foliage and large yellow flowers ; you notice the heart-
shaped leaves and yellow-pink flowers of the tulip tree,
often used to line a garden wall or rail. Great specimens
of the pterocarpus mdictfs' spread their shady boughs over-
head. Now you see your familiar friend, the silky oak
iGrevillea robusta) lining the roadway with yellow flower-
heads hiding among the fringe-like leaves. Beside the
bungalows are Australian she-oaks [casuarina equisilifulia),
their height and vigour of growth here being remarkable.
Banyans with hanging aerial roots stand beside that
beautiful sight, the Elamboyante, or flame tree (poinciava
regia), with its large feathery, twice-pinnate leaves and
bunches of scarlet flowers. There, too, is the sacred Bo
tree (Jicus religiosa) of the Buddhists, whose aspen leaves
have the midribs.prolonged into a tail-hke extremity. As
you listen to the rattling, rustling noise of the leaves
shaken by the wind, you think of the superstition of the
Hindus that connects this with the spirits of their departed
Brahmins. The green foliage is exquisite, and the shade
Colovibo and the Buddhist Temple at Kelaniya. 361
most inviting. Here is the coral tree (erythrina indica),
bearing triangular leaves and curled combs of scarlet
flowers on the topmost boughs. You notice the palmate
foliage and warty bark of the eriodendron anfructuosum.
The bauhinia purpurea and vai-iegata add their share of
shade and colour. Among the leaves, shaped into two
rounded halves, long pods hang at this season. There is
an airiness and lightness about the great tamarinds
{tamarindus indicus) ; from the at present bare boughs of
the silk cotton tree {bojnhax malabaricum) hang round
pointed pods just bursting to shower flakes of wliite down
over their neighbours. This cotton is used for stuffing
pillows and mattresses here. A grand tree is the Ceylon
oak (scherchera trijnga), so hke in general appearance to
the British oak. Beside it grows the large-leaved carrega
arhorea, and overspreading the roadway is the rain tree or
inga saman (calliandra fuaman), havings foliage somewhat
like the false acacia, and crown-shaped flower heads of
pink colour. .The air is perfumed with the fragrance
emitted from the white flowers of the frangipanni, that
with long leaves "cluster at the end of the thick naked
shoots.
" Besides all these, cultivated for their beauty and their
shade, one sees great groves of fruit trees, the jak trees
{artocarpus integrifolia), so much grown by the natives,
whose huge fruit, hanging from the boughs and trunk,
varies in weight when ripe between 301b and 501b. The
pulp containing -the albuminous seeds tastes very 'ike a
banana. Bread-fruit trees (artocarpus incisa), closely allied
to the above, you notice in the groves, also the plan-
tain and bananas raise their broad light-green leaves
among them with clusters of fruit. Many are the mango
trees (manganifera indica) planted about. A noble tree is
the vrild bread-fruit [artocarpus nobilis), its large vein-fur-
rowed leaves casting a delightful shade. Most beautiful
are the gardens — a wealth of colouring, a luxuriance of
vegetation. ' There axe hedges of aclypha tricolor, whose
leaves are variegated, yellow, red and brown ; and also
of aclypha bicolor, tinted green and yellow, with the pea-
cock flower {poinciava pulchen-itna), and borderings to the
pathways Of feathery aralia Guilfoylii, called after our
own botanist. In the shade of the great trees and palms
around the bungalows grow innumerable species of crotons.
862 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
mingling their many-tinted leaves, showing all shades
between brown, purple, yellow, red and green. There, too,
flourishes the hibiscus, whose bright, scarlet flowers catch
your eye. One variety is called the " shoe-flower,"
because you can blacken and polish your boots with its
crushed petals. You see these plants in the hedge-rows
mingling with an arborescent sunflower [stifflia crysaniha).
Here, again, are the pninsettia pulcherrima, with its bright
scarlet, calycine leaf-like bracts, and the ever-flowering
oleander (nerium oleandtr). A curious specimen is the
potatoe tree {solarium ma4yraniha), resembling a great over-
grown potatoe plant. The £xquisite purple of the bougain-
villea ipictabilis overspreads ver.andah8 and arbours, and
alamandas add their yellow blossoms. Now and then
you see a spathodea — large-leaved, and bearing great red
flowers. Often you notice the orange vermilion blossoms
of the West IndiaQ coast bramble (lantava mixta), intro-
duced by Lady Ward from Australia, and now fast over-
spreading th3 waste land of the island. . At intervals,
great clumps' of bamboo add their feathery beauty, and
you even see the castor oil. tree {ricinu9 communis) grown
in gardens, with occasionally the nutmeg (myristica
officirifLlis). Add to these the cinnamon, and there is such a
wealth of botany and floral beauty in Colombo as you will
find nowhere else in the world ; and the most extraordi-
nary thing is, that all this beautiful and useful vegetation
has been imported, none of the trees and plants I have
mentioned being indigenous to Ceylon. But Ceylon is still
essentially a Buddhist country, the nominal followers of
this form of faith forming nearly 62 per cent, of the popu-
lation. The Buddhists are divided into two sections, the
Siamese and Burmese, and I believe they quarrel as much
as the High and Low Ckorch factions in England. It is
the former who have possession of Vidyalankara College
and Temple at PeUyagoda, near Eelani, whither I am
driving to-day.. There are two very eminent Buddhist
priests here, a printing press is in operation, and an
Oriental library is being built. But it is to see the people
at their festival that I drive out to Kelani. Certainly I
am satisfied, for I never expect again to witness such a
picturesque throng. All Ceylon and Colombo seem to be
en route to Grand Pass, three miles from the city, where
Governor Sir Edward Barnes, in 1825, built a bridge of
Colombo and the Buddhist Temple at Kelaniya. 363
boats across the Kelani river. Young and old, male and
female, singly or in families, on foot or in bollock
' hackeries,' the natives — Sinhalese and Tamils — are
trooping into the country, all clad in new and striking
coloured garments, all bearing flowers, all picturesque,
making up en masse a picture of laughing life seldom to be
met ■with. Men and women wear two garments, the skirt,
sulu or kilt, and the upper j acket or scarf. The brighest hues
of Manchester are displayed in the prints. The men sport
great tortoise-shell combs in the hair, whilst the women
adorn theirs with pins. Sometimes the hair hangs straight
and sleek down the back. All have umbrellas to protect
themselves from the sun, and all are alike in the outward
resemblance of the sexes. The dress and combs and
hair confuse a stranger, and he knows not E ve from Adam.
"A bullock 'hackery' is a' vehicle only known in the
East. Small, humped cattle, the size of Shetland ponies,
are harnessed roughly to carts without springs, which,
covered with thatch, often contain two floors, on which the
passengers, however, have to lie down. Sometimes one
comes across a bullock drawing a light buggy, and
trotting along briskly. By Brahmin and Buddhist alike
the cow is held to be a sacred animal. They must not
eat its flesh. But they ill-treat these poor httle buUocks
in a manner which arouses my indignation. The patient
beasts are especially suffering on this day when the faith-
ful are hurrying to the shrine of him, who, of all men,
most enjoined humanity to the brute creation. Two little
animals are drawing, perhaps, a family of a dozen. Blows
and oaths are showered on them without ceasing, and my
soul is wroth within me ; otherwise this is a perfect after-
noon. After crossing the bridge of boats at Grand Pass
you drive along a narrow road bordered by coco-palms
and bananas and tamarinds. But there is never any
distance without habitations. Some of mud, red tiled, are
permanent abodes ; others of thatch, seem erected by the
roadside just for these days of festival. Food and flowers
are for sale everywhere. Never save in the city of Mexico
have I seen so many flowers as here. The whole country
seems full of them. There is an overpowering fecundity
of nature in Ceylon — all around, in still life, in the animals,
in the human race, you see it — everything is increased and
multiplied abnormally. This might well be the birthplace
364 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
of our race ; a man need not be a patriaroh here to be
BuiTounded by troops of grandchildren. And so laughingly
exchanging greetings with the pilgrims, whom my Muham-
madan driver, I daresay, curses a good deal, the time
passes till, two miles from Kelani railway station, we
enter Petiyagoda. The throng by this time is immense.
There have been special trains from Colombo in the after-
noon, and thousands are trudging along the road, on
foot or riding in hackeries. Unhappily for them the rain
has commenced to fall heavily.
" There is a regular bazaar around the entrance to the
temple. Everything, it seems, can be bought here. This
is the great harvest of the stall-holders. On this, their
New Year's Day, the Sinhalese ' indulge in the few amuse-
ments they enjoy, and in such ° luxuries as they can
afford.' One of these luxuries consists in having their
fortunes told by astrologers, who predict the propitious
hours in the approaching year on which to commence
duties, pleasures or journeys. I wonder if the astrologers
foresaw or fortold the abominable weather on this fete day.
However, I am here, and must see it through. At the
bottom of the steps I am' taken possession of by an
emasculate-looking individual, who informs me that he is
the temple giiide. He is a full-blooded Sinhalese and
acknowledges to the name of Perera. This, with Fernando
and De Silva, is as common in Ceylon as Smith, Jones and
Brown are in England. There are no end of 'Des'and
' Dons,' too, in the Directory. This is the remnant of
the Portuguese occupation. Many of these high-sounding
names belong to full-blooded ' niggers,' whose ancestors
were baptized by the Eoman Catholic missionaries, but
who relapsed into Buddhism on the first chance. I tell
Perera I shall call him ' Peter,' to which he cheerfully
assents. And I inform Peter that I am a Buddhist,
' higher up ' than his priests, as he can plainly see. He
treats me with an accession of respect, whether real or
fictitious I know not, and we walk off to see the relics.
There are a number of curious, silver statuettes, which
may be idols dug up on this spot where, before the advent
of Buddhism, Vishnu and other male and female deities
were worshipped. One god, Wibhisana, is still held in
repute here, having a local reputation among the ignorant,
although the educated Buddhist despises such supersti-
Colombo and the Buddhist Temple at Kelaniya. 365
tions. Then I am taken to the great show. In a paviUon
there is a placard in Enghsh. ' The bones of Buddha
may now be seen.' ' The bones of Buddha ' at this
temple on a silver dish under a glass case are not much of
'a show. They appear like a very decayed tooth smashed
up, and do not impress me, although, naturally, I give my
contribution towards building the library for which the
plate is held out here. My rupee inspires more respect
and faith in my Buddhism.
" Architecturally, all Buddhist temples are alike. The
Dagoba is the principal feature in all. Derived from
dhatu-garba, the matrix or receptacle of a relic, a dagoba is
a mere bell-shaped tomb of brick or stone, covered often
with a preparation of lime, forming a sort of chunani, which
receives a high polish. The Dagoba is surmounted by a
spire and enclosed by a row of pillars. The Dagoba — the
imitation of the tomb of Buddha — is a useless piece of
work, as for that matter church spires are, unless when
used as landmarks. The shrines around, where the
praying takes place, are ordinary buildings. Peter leads me
through the crowd to the sacred altar, behind which is a
gigantic painted wooden figure of Buddha, and of several
gods or saints. Peter is anxious to explain to me that
the Great God Almighty is not here, but that He will
come some day, incarnated in a new Buddha. I marvel
that all over the world there should be the same belief in
an earth god — that we should ever make Him in our own
image. Buddha's injunction was, ' Abstain from all sin,
acquire all virtue, repress thine own heart.' "
APPENDIX XVII.
STATISTICS OF CEYLON EAILWAYS.
(PREPAKED BY J. FEBO0SON.)
See The Eailuay Map inserted at end of the Volume.
Qange, 5 feet 6 inches, same as Indian Lines.
Lines.
Miles.
Total Cost.
Bs.
„ ,,., Speed Traffic
Per Mile. ^U^H^ipt^i^
"'• Perhr, 1885. Es.
27i
21
17,384,830*
2,674,627
2,192,214
220,790
288,358» 25
1,648,940
249,869
248,673
19,867
Peradeniya and NawalapUiya . .
Colombo and Kalntara
Branch line Mahara . Junction
and Mahara Quarry
Free property of the Colony . .
Eandy and Matale (irith debt of
£275,000
Nawalapitiya and Nannoya (with
debt ol £900,000)
Railways complete and working
Dimbula-TTva (Hapntale Section)
Kalutara and Bentota Section
157,331
84,823
88,336
20
25
15
i2ii
174
41i
181
22,472,461
8,391,952
10,778,000
184,000
(Average)
193,966
256,600
22
(Av.)
20
12
2,167,349
73,044
366,927
36,687,418
202,417 ! 18
(Average) ' (At.)
2,607,320
Already Surveyed and Estimated.
.\^
. 6,600,000+
650,000
254,902
61,000
12
25
Total Miles 216).
Traffic Receipts in 1885 as above Es. 2,607,320
Working Expenses and Improvements to Lines . < . . . . 1,467,699
Profit Es. 1,139,621
Or nearly four per cent, on total capital cost, although the full benefit
of the expenditure on Nanuoya Line can only be realized when the ex-
tension reaches Hapntale, where the new Uva traffic is tapped.
* This includes large amount wasted by Limited Company, afterwards
paid off.
t This is the Consulting Engineer's estimate, but with the experience
of rock and earth work gaiiied on the Nanuoya Section, it is believed
that Es. 5,000,000 or Es. 200,000 per mile will suffice for the Hapntale
Section if constructed by the P. "W . Department.
APPENDIX XVIII.
CASTE IN CEYLON.
In illustration of the remarks on pages 39-40, and 251,
■we may refer here to evidences of a very unfortunato
revival of caste feeling in the ntral districts of Ceylon.
This is attributable, in the opinion of many observers —
among the natives more particularly — to an influence
emanating from the present Governor, Sir Arthur Gordon,
who has, most unfortunately, in public utterances, official
documents, and ceremonies, made much of " natives of
birth," and led the agents of Government and native
headmen, and through them, minor officials, to believe
that caste distinctions may well be revived. As a conse-
quence, there have been many quarrels, assaults, and even
minor riots in native villages owing to caste animosities
and jealousies which were supposed so have died out.
The people who consider themselves of the higher castes
are now on the qui vive in many places to resent those of
alleged lower castes dressing themselves above the waist,
or on more than one shoulder, using jackets or combs for
their hair, which, under the benign and civilizing influence
of past Governments, had become an almost universal
practice among the people. Governor Sir William
Gregory in his tours through the island, especially the
remoter parts where caste distinctions lingered longest,
specially discouraged any caste or dress distinctions, and
even censured Government officers for allowing people of
so-called " lower castes " to appear with their bodies
(women as well as men) not properly covered from the
waist'' upwards. This did much to encourage dressing,
self-respect, and even a mild ambition among the Indus-
S68 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
trious classes, and provoked no jealousy, because even a
Governor's word, or even nod, is law to the Sinhalese of
all ranks. About 1880, however, in a translation of
Kandyan laws made in manual form, partly under official
auspices, entitled " Niti-Niganduwa," an attempt was
made to classify different castes, and within the past -three
years, it is said, rightly or wrongly, this classification —
(effected so as to exalt one caste) — has been as good as
recognized at all Government oflSces. This has provoked
much angry feeling, and amidst a great deal of discassion
in the native press and much pamphleteering, two pro-
ductions especially have come under our notice. The
writer of these in a private note thus expresses himself in
answer to our inquiries as to the reasons which led him to
publish : —
"June 9, 1887.
" Sib, — Though I oannot say that I wrote the review of ' Niti-Nigan-
duwa ' with an unruffled mind, yet I can assure you that I wrote
the ' Chaturvarnaya ' with the best of feelings. I have been a con-
stant reader of the Observer for the last thirty or forty years, and I
have the happiness of being personally known to you, therefore I say
it with all sincerity that it is neither from the Government nor from
our countrymen that we can expect to get some relief from the griev-
ances under which we now labour, but from you.
Ten or twelve years ago there was a Muhandirain of the tom-tom
beater caste. He was not only using his crooked comb and the high
comb, but on State occasions he was using bis sword and belt, and
nobody ever thought of molesting him ; but now there is a feeling abroad
that Government now recognizes caste — hence the late tragedy at
Attidiya. A registrar of marriages in the Southern Proviiice lately
objected to a marriage party coming to his premises in carriages, and
did not give a chair even for the bride or bridegroom, though they
were a respecta.ble class of people. — Yours obediently, ."
From the pamphlets themselves we quote as follows : —
From "A Review of Niti-Niganduwa and the Caste-System in
Ceylon.'' By W. W, Colombo, 1885. — " While wealth, science, and
general knowledge have been advancing with astonishing rapidity,
bigotry, pride, and- prejudice in a section of our community have
made still more gigantic strides, and threaten, to outrun all the efforts
hitherto made to arrest their progress. Without in the least degree
trying to help thfeir countrymen in their onward cotiree, they are
always trying to aggrandize themselves and to secure a monopoly of
Government high posts and ranks showing that they are entitled to
them by birth. ...
" It might, perhaps, be asked, was not the late Louis De Zoysa
Maha-Mudaliyar, that well-known oriental scholar, a. man of the
Salagama caste, and yet was he not promoted to the highest rank
Caste in Ceylon. 369
which a native can'aspiie to ? Yes : every man is in some degree the
mirror of his age. . . ,
" Mr. De Zoysa's age was an age attempting, with a strong, unre-
laxed, endeavour to be earnest, persevering, and ambitious. Com-
pulsory labour having been aboUshed, and amalgamation of classes
having taken place, the peasant had been shown how he might rise to
be noble ; the homy-handed craftsman how he could tread the
paths which lead to the highest places of national distinction ; and
the humble scholar how he could advance into the saloons of great-
ness. . . .
" Mr. De Zoysa was allowed to climb up to the summit of the hill
of ofiScial promotion ; but his followers, like the Jews of old, are
obliged to wander about in the wilderness. The Government since
then, forsaking the liberal and enlightened policy of the former
Governors, and instead of making an outward progress in the right
direction, is now pursuing a downward course. ...
" A paragraph in the issue of the Ceylon Observer ot the 27th July,
1885,* having given us occasion for alarm we traced out its origin to
the existence of a book printed at the Government Press so far back
as the year 1880 ; since then it has been in circulation through the
hands of Government officials. That work, though entitled ' Niti-
Niganduwa, or the Vocabulary of Law,' has in it, headed ' Historical,'
a chapter .embodying a distinctive classification of castes with the
assertion that the ' Gowiya is considered the chief caste in this king-
dom.' What induced the compiler in getting up a, Vocabulary' of
Law to insert therein a classification of castes, and to state the
superiority of the caste to which he belongs, is a problem which has
to be solved. A man of ordinary intellect and common sense will
easily divine the mystery and the object of the compiler to be to
secure for himself as an author a prominent post under Government,
whilst his showing will induce the Government to hold such others of
his community in such estimation as to obtain for them a monopoly
of the most honourable and lucrative offices to which natives are
eligible. That book, though printed in the year 1880, it is strange
" * The paragraph referred to is as follows : — ' Casie Re-established
IN Ceylon. — This may be news to some readers of the Observer.
Others have already known and felt this. The Portuguese and Dutch
with all their old-world ideas and crude notion of things never stooped
to the meanness of upholding the senseless, absurd system of caste.
But it has been left to the British Government and to enlightened
statesmen of the Liberal school to re-establish caste in Ceylon. It is
said that a brochure on caste, as it existed amongst the Sinhalese, was
got up under weU-known local auspices, printed in England, and dis-
tributed amongst influential members of the Civil Service. But the
absurd part of the story is that Sir Arthur Gordon regards it in the
light of the Englishman's Bible, an authority beyond question like
DoJ or Debrett. According to this authority appointments, as well as
prcformonts to honorary rank and title, are to be confined to a few
families ; the rest arc to be discarded. The Clerical Examination
Scheme is to be done away with. Go on, brave Sir Arthur ! Go on
in the same style, and we shall have cause to thank you as one of
Ceylon's benefactors ! — Com.'
25
370 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
to observe, made its way through Government Departments in such a
manner that either none (excepting those of the community who ex-
pected to be benefited) or very few of the other classes were aware of
its existence and the havoc it was playing, till the appearance of the
paragraph referred to. . . .
" The reason why most of the Gowiyas have succeeded so far in
securing to themselves lucrative and responsible ofSces under the
Government is attributable to the fact (which is now evinced) that it
lias been for a series of years past their objfeot, if not the motto, to im-
press uppn new officials and heads of Departments, as far as possible,
that they are the leading members of the native community and that
-to them exclusively belonged posts of responsibility and honour under
the Government. , . .
"But justice compels us to say that caste has no claim on any
right-thinking mind ; for, as a system, ' it is founded on a lie,' ' it
puffs up certain classes with pride,' ' it keeps many of our people in
social d^radation,' 'it divides man from man,' it concentrates all
religion in outward ceremony,' and 'it is a great obstacle to pro-
gress.' . . .
"What is the object of introducing a list of castes into the Niti-
Nigandnwa ? Are we to understand from it that caste is to be An-
glicized, and receive the sanction of the Legislature, that different
occupations, professions, and trades may be made hereditary and
preserved in an unbroken line ? If Tikiri Appu, the son of an ordinary
peasant whose father, grandfather, or great-grandfather had never
held any ofSce under the late Kandyan Government or under the
present British rule, has pushed his way into a prominent situation,
and into power and influence, we ask, .what evil has he done ? Whom
has he injured ? Has Tikiri Appu by his success robbed another of
industry, talent, application, or energy? Does not Tikiri Appu
deserve the signal honour and emolument won by hard study and
patient perseverance ? Has Loku Appuhami, the grandson of TJnam-
buwe Dissawa, a reckless young maij who has squandered away his
patrimonial estate in profligacy, a just ground of complaint against
the success of Tikiri Appu ? Are we to understand that every native
is to toddle, in unbroken generations, in the foot-prints of his father
and grandfather ? Why ? that would hurt the feelings of most of the
up-country Eatemahatmeyas and low-country MndaUyars and reduce
them from their hard-won eminence into the degradation of sluggish
cultivators and drowsy cow-herds. If such be the views of Messrs. Pana-
bokke and Co., ene thing is pretty certain, viz : — others will not gratify
-them by thinking as they think. ' No, no,' says honest, true humanity,
' Let those who have won a position by fair means enjoy it.' ' Yes,'
murmur the objectors, ' let the past be past, but keep down others.'
Why ? Where is the reason of this, or the justice ? If some might
struggle honourably for eminence, why not others also ? If some
have attained eminence, and hold it as legitimate standing ground,
why wonder at, much less complain of, aspirants for like success by
sinular means? . . .
" The great difficulty of arriving at a fair and reasonable conclusion
as to the number and order of castes in Ceylon, arises from the sup-
pression of truth, suggestion of falsehood, and the alteration of his-
torical records. So that no two natives will give the same order and
classification to all the castes. Such being the case, all the prominent
Caste, in Ceylon. 371
classes of natives have a hobby of their own. The Gowiya caste
assert now for the first time, as we learn from Niti-Niganduwa, that
they are a mixed race of Kshestriyas, Brahmins, and Vaisyas ; the
people called Karawe, that they are of a Kshestriya descent ; and the
people called Salagama, that they are Brahmins. I shall not enter
into a disquisition of that subject now. There are no Kshestriyas,
Brahmins, or Vaisyas, properly so called, amongst ns, at present ; for
aU the Sinhalese people are now either Buddhists or Christians. And
no sooner had we forsaken the Vedas and the Shastras, than, according
to the law of "caste, we had become Chandalas or out-oastes. Chris-
tianity asserts that dod made all mankind of one blood, which is. a
physical fact as easy of demonstration as any truth in natural science;
whilst Buddhism repudiates caste, Buddha declares that ' a man be-
comes a Brahmin by what he does, and a Wasalaya (an outcast) by
what he does.' . . .
"It is very . much to be regretted that the Government now
a.ppear3 to be under the delusion that the aristocratic class among
the Sinhalese is the higher grade of the Gowiya caste, which is indeed
a very great mistake ; for there is no aristocratic class among the
Sinhalese.; whilst descendents of high Government officials and
others to whom various accidents have coiitributed to give an
importance among all castes, consider themselves as entitled to
lead in their respective spheres. Nor does the Government seem
to know that landed proprietors and professional gentry are to be
•found among all the prominent castes as well as among the Gowiya
caste. There is, therefore, a wide-spread effort among some of the
most bigoted of the Gowiya caste, to make the most of the present
opportunity ; and hence the work in question is a genuine production
of by-gone days, though it existed only in the imagination of those
who desired it, realizing the words of Sir Walter Scott : —
" 'Oh what a tangled web we weave
"When first we practise to deceive 1 '
" True it is that the claims of caste are ignored in the administration
of the law; but yet in certain departments they are now guarded
with some anxiety, which seems both inconsistent and unnecessary,
as it is sometimes construed by the caste men as an authoritative
recognition of caste. There is no necessity at all to interfere -with
any lawful usage. The Government need not insist on a renunciation
of caste as the condition of pubUc employ ; nor should the feelings
of any pubUc servants be wounded by an unnecessary intrusion on
their prejudices. The question is one of private opinion and feeling,
on which every man may be left to his own judgment, provided that
Government extend ne advantage to one which is unfair to another.
Natives can observe what rules they choose among themselves ; but
the public service ought to be ordered exclusively on public considera-
tions. I know a Mudaliyar of a certain Eachcheri, an illegitimate
son of a very low grade of Gowiya, who puts the question, ' What is
your caste ? ' to every native candidate for any post in that Kaohcheri ;
and if the man is not one of the Gowiya caste, throws every obstacle
in his way, as if being born in that caste were a sure passport for
public service in Ceylon. In the public service, it requires clerks.
372 Ceylon in the Jtihilee Year.
aoconntants, interpreters, and Mndaliyars of Korales ; and not
Kshestriyas, Brahmins, Vaisyas, and Gowiyas who are the servants
of the above three castes. Candidates, therefore, have a right to
encouragement according to official qualifications alone, without
inquiries made regarding their parentage or connections. All castes
should be equally and impartially admitted, and "the most qualified
will always receive the preference. What is needed, therefore, is to
place the test of superiority in the better discharge of duties, and not
in the curiosities of a pedigree. Then no distinction shall be known
among individuals but those which arise from talent, ability, and
integrity of conduct.
" A community can make progress only when every member of it has
the reward of merit laid open to him ; and capacity and talent for the
discharge of duties required in the social state are diffused pretty
equally among the different orders of the community. It is, therefore,
a very bad policy, if the of&cials of a country, instead of encouraging
mutual good will and reciprocal kind attentions, say to the great bulk
of the people : ' Neither talents nor exertions shall avail you : you are
bom in a degraded caste : you cannot therefore be eligible for Govern-
ment posts ! ' A large part of this evil is to be laid to the account
of somf of the high officials, who, though not openly, yet tacitly,
encourage caste distinctions in the distribution of prizes left at their
disposal, according to their own whims and caprices, irrespectively of
claims and qualifications. It is, therefore, the duty of a paternal
Government to arrest this evil alone by disowning all respect for a
folly which is so detrimental to the well-being of a large community
such as the Sinhalese, as those in authority in former days did, who
arc stiU remembered with the deepest gratitude, as the greatest bene-
factors of our country. . . .
" According to the present state of our country the union of aE
classes in one corporate body is what is most desirable. But can we
realize such a consummation so long as there is no peace among all
classes ? There is in our community a section ihat has always some
complaint, some -cause to grumble, something to be dissatisfied with.
They complain that in public schools their children are obliged to sit
on the same form with the children of other castes. They grumble
that in the railway carriages they have to sit side by side with other
castes of people enjoying the comforts and conveniences of the
new mode of travelling, like themselves. They are dissatisfied that
the Christian women of Talanpitiya, a village of the Paduwas, who,
having acquired habits of decency, had left off their old fashion of
going half-naked, as if the privilege of covering the bosom were their
own peculiar prerogative. . . .
" The Oriental mind regards the State as pre-eminently the fountain
of honour; and its service is the most coveted, as well as the most
profitable profession. The ambition to enter it has, therefore, in this
country, always outweighed every objection of caste, rank, and
religion itself. . . .
" The Portuguese Government freely employed all castes of men in
their service, so that one Don Cosmo, a man of the Salagama caste,
became a general. And the Dutch Government never refused the
services of men of any caste for posts of honour. Under the PHtish
Government also the same indiscriminate admission to offices, u.. of
old, has been tolerated. . . .
Caste in Ceylon. 373
' ' A great ntuubei of men are now employed in the pablio service.
The introduction of railways and the electric telegraph has provided
places for many more. But though the passion for public employ
continues unabated and VQsatiable, yet is there a single man of the
so-called higher order of the Gowiya caste men in the Bailway, Postal,
or Telegraph Department ? . . .'
" We bdieve it, therefore, to be the paramount duty of a parental
Government towards those whom it has -taken under its care and
control, not to be predisposed towards one class to the disadvantage
of another.
" Since of late natives have been admitted to. high offices of trust
"with greatly augmented salaries in the Bevenue Department. But
was ther^ a single Burgher or a nativejof another caste chosen for any
of those places other than the GoWiyas, although there are natives of
other castes, as well educated, if not better, who possess so mnch
influence in their respective communities, as those that have been
already selected possess in their own community.
" We trust therefore, that the present Government will continue to
bear in mind that Magna Charta of the great body of the Sinhalese
declaring that it be 'fully undprstood that it is the principle of this
Government to recognize no distinction of caste or colour, the only
ground of promotion being talents and qualifications ' penned on the
3rd April, 1841, by no less a personage than the Eight Honourable
J. A. Stewart-Mackenzie, one of the most distinguished aild en-
lightened British rulers that ever administered the affairs of this
island.
"After all this controversy, one thing remains now indisputably-
clear — that there are in the world only.two castes — the ' good ' and
the 'bad.'"
"A Pew Thoughts on Ghaturvamaya, or the $'our-fold Social
System of Castes." By W. W. Colombo, 1886.—" We sincerely
hoped that under the pressure of steam, electricity, European influence,
diffusion of knowledge and extension of Christianity, the pernicious
caste system in Ceylon would have been, before long, entirely done
away with. But we were sadly disappointed in our hopes ; for, whilst
these powerful influences are in full operation, a reaction in favour of
caste has taken place of late ; and those vrho are benefited thereby
have taken advantage of this reaction. . . .
" The compilers of ' Niti-Niganduwa' endeavour to show that there
are four pringipal and eighteen inferior castes, whereas there are only
iour great castes, some mixed castes and out-castes. . , .
" According to the strict rules of the caste system no sooner a man
has -forsaken Brahminism, than he is an out-caste ;^and loss of caste
is equivalent to civil death. The out-caste is denied admission to his
father's house ; the nearest relations refuse to eat with him or speak
with him. He is excluded from religious ceremonies and social meet-
ings. His wife is released ' from the conjugal rights ; his children
belong to him no longer ; his property is forfeited. Therefore, as we
are no longer Brahmins in religion, we are no longer Brahmins,
Kshestriyas, Vaisyas or Sudras. Christianity declares that God has
made all men of one blood ; and that God has no respect of persons.
Buddhism repudiates caste. Buddha is represented by European writers
374 Ceylon in the Jvhilee Year.
as a philosophical opponent of popnlai superstition and BraJiniinical
caste. This sage haying enmneiated the qualities he would require
in the woman who aspired to be his wife, Qxe king Suddhodana, his
father, directed his minister to go into the great city, Kapilawastu,
and to enquire there in every house after a girl possessed of these good
qualities, showing at the same time the prince's enumeration, and utter-
ing two stanzas of the following meaning. ' Bring hither that maiden
who has the required qualities, whether she be of the royal tribe or
of the Brahmin caste ; of the gentry or of the plebeian class ;. my son
regardeth not tribe or family extraction ; hisMelight is in good quali-
ties, truth, and virtue alone.' In Nepanl, where Buddhism is professed,
the original inhabitants were all of one caste, or had no caste : but
their descendants, in the com^e of time, became divided into many
castes according to'the trades or professions which they followed ;
though even now we are told that in Nepaul caste is merely a popular
usage, without the sanption of religion, and altogether a very Afferent
thing from caste properly so called. In Tibet and Burma, both
Buddhistical countries, caste is unknown. In China there are clans,
resembling those of the Scotch Highlanders, but this institution
differs from caste, and is pecnliar to this singular country. Bat in
Ceylon there appears to have been a greater leaning toward caste than
among any other Buddhistical people, which had arisen from their
connection with the Tamils.
" Some writers assert that the people of this country are of Aryan
descent. Yes; so they are to some extent. As Wijaya and his
followers came from Wango (Bengal) they may be called Indo-Aryans.
But as we learn from ' Malia Wanso ' that he sent for wives for him-
self and his associates from amongst the Tamils of Southern India
(Madura) in the Pandian kingdom, and that they were accompanied
here by eighteen officers of state, together with seventy-five menial
servants, we see that at the very outset of the Wijayan dynasty
in Ceylon,, there was a commingling of Aryan and Dravidian races.
"From that time Tamils bam Southern India coming over to
Ceylon, and joining themselves \rith those who arrived at first, a
hybrid race called Goviyas arose, half Aryans and half Dravidians ;
whilst some of the aboriginal tribes kept themselves aloof from these
adventurers. However, in course of time, all were incorporated in
one common name, the Sinhalese ; although some of the aboriginal
races are no more Sinhalese because they had adopted the Sinhalese
language, than the Cornish people are English because they speak the
English language. . . .
" The Tamil word VeUala also, which the Goviyas have adopted by
way of distinction as their caste name, as the word Goviya, means a
cultivator.
" Mr. Faiiabokke being folly conscious, with these strong and
incfEcrovertible evidence before us to the contrary, that he could not
maintain the theory of some of his low-country brethren that the
Goviyas are Vaisyas — that is, of the Welanda caste — started a new
theory, by which as if trying to avoid Scylla, he strack on Charybdis,
and made the Goviyas si^ still deeper in the mire, in reducing them to
a lower position instead of raising them to a higher one, and in making
them a mixed caste. We see, therefore, that the pride of caste is a
mere bosh. It is indeed a pity that as a Buddhist he did not take
heed of Buddha's words : —
Caste in Ceylon. 375
'■ ■ A man does not become low-oaste by birth.
Nor by birth does one become high-caste,
Eigh-oaj9te is the result of high actions,
And by actions does a man degrade himself to caste that is low.'
" ' Is there no caste feeling amongst the English ? ' is a question
very often put to us by some of our conntiymen ; and our answer had
been always ' certainly not.' On the contrary their religion teaches
them the ' Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of Man,' that
caste and class feelings ought to be lud aside, and that there is no
respect of person with Ood.' The social institutions of England
neither prevent social onion and interchange of ideas between the
various classes of society, as those of Ceylon, nor operate to set class
against class, to bar the lower rising to the upper, and to make the
national union impossible. On the oontnoy, in England all ranks
and orders so run into each other and blend -imperceptibly together,
that it becomes impossible to separate them into sharply defined
strata, or to say where the upper end and thJB middle or the lower
begin.
"My dear countrymen, we are ^ther. Buddhists or Christians.
Therefore, those who now attempt to majTitiMTi unh&Uowed distinctions
must be told that all such distinctions have been lost vrith the Yedas
and the sacrifices.
Caste, in fact, originated like slavery, in a wsxxA races, and breathes
still the true spirit of slavery. It is tme that during centuries of
this slavery, the iron has entered the sool, that the hereditary bonds-
man'now hugs his fetters. Popular prejudices will no doubt long
resist the light of truth on this as on other snbjects of education.
The attempt to point out to the sticklers of caste that the distinctions'
which they consider inviolable have no sanction in their religious
books, may be as useless as'to aigne with the devil-dancers that their
ceremonies are unauthorized in the Bana-books. But what was the
cause of the decline and fall of the Kandian kingdom ? It is this
pernicious system of castes. It had become one of the greatest clogs
on the advancement of our people, thoroughly preventing improve-
ment in our social and political status beyond a certain point. Snch
a system, elevating one class and depriving another, kept the ideas of
the latter for ever subdued, and entirely snipped from them the
aspiration after superiority and influence, which form the greatest
incentive to active exertion. ...
"Is caste, on the whole, advancing or retrograding in Ceylon ? is a
question which cannot but be highly interesting to every lover of his
country and every admirer of the present Government. It must,
however, be confessed that, considering bll in all, it seems to be now
putting on new life and vigour. Therefore, its votaries are now show-
ing themselves more openly ; its claims are now more broadly pro-
claimed ; and every eDgine,.likely and unlikely, is now being brought
to action to maintain its sinking credit. But we sincerely hope that
like the giant struggling to retain the breath which is fast leaving his
body, its downfall would be equally rapid. For the precedent laid
down by the Bight Honourable J. A. Stewart Mackenzie, one of the
ablest of our Governors by his Minute of April 3rd, 1841, the Magna
Charta of the Sinhalese, declaring that it be 'fully understood that
it is the principle of this Government to recognize no distinction of
376 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
caste or colour, the only ground of promotion being talents and qualifi-
cations' should not be set at nought by his successors.
" To those who are at all acquainted with the natural workings of
the human mind in general, and the tendency oJ the caste-system in
particular, it can occasion no surprise that caste and irreUgiousness
should co-exist to a great extent in the same state of society. This
is the case in Ceylon at this moment.
" It is a melancholy consideration that of these two mighty delu-
sions, a certain portion of our countrymen are the willing subjects who
profess to be Christians for public show, but from whose back doors
would be &een men of yellow robes wend their way to their houses
on poya and other Buddhistical days ; and that to their influence a
great part of the miseries of our country is owing.
" And it is a fact too palpable to escape observation, and too certain
to admit of denial, that those who have no fixed religious principles
amongst the better educated classes of our people are the greatest
sticklers Of caste.
" The purest portion of all moral theories and the highest ideas of
all patriots have been gathered from, or will be found concentrated
within, the Christian system. Its universal and living acceptance
implies the prevalence in every mind of peace, and goodwill, and
generosity. If the most accomplished ' thinker ' in society set him-
self to frame rules for its reconstruction and transformation into a
state of happiness, he would find all his labours concentrated within
the short sentence, ' Whatever ye would that others do to you, do ye
also to them.' If the most benevolent theorist commenced to form
rules for the advancement of individual comfort, and of the comfort
of all individuals, he would find his labour useless, because it would
issue in the commandttient given with greater power and in more
solemnity than when the rocks were shaken, that 'ye love one
another.' There "are no more powerful injunctions of universal
justice and goodness than these two gentle conamandments ; and if
all who profess to obey them even understood what they profess, we
should have no more grievances to make, while by-and-by caste with
■all its concomitant evils would be things unknown. They would
destroy themselves by transmutation. . . .
" One of the greatest dangers to which Missionary schools in
this country is now liable, is that of being secularized through
Government influence, whereby the whole tenor of some schools,
■their masters, and their pupils, are brought' down to the level of non-
Ohristian schools. Is it then surprising that education given in such
schools is more secular than reUgious ?. How can it be otherwibe
when the whole object of the masters and mistresses of such schools
is to reaUze as large a grant as possible from Govemment ? What
plan can be more directly calculated to arouse religious hatred, and to
give a sectarian direction to education, than to announce to religious
bodies that the public purse is open to as many of them as choose to
embark in the cause of public instruction, and that the graats to each
will be'proportioned to the amount of secular instruction they impart ?
By this scheme the Govemment literally rfuounces the idea that
education is a matter of common and civil concern, resigns the func-
tions of the state into the hands of the people, and gives full rein to
the development of religious rivalries. The result is exactly what
might be expected. A nondescript sort of education is imparted in
Caste in Ceylon. 377
such schools — ^neither a sound religious education, nor a substantial
secular education. .
" Christianity is the basis of all modern civilization. It is from it
that we take our respect for morality, for chastity, for the ties of
family ; it is from it that we learn not to covet that which is not our
own, and to respect the rights of others ; from it we learn to love even
our enemies. Christianity, setting aside its Divine origin, is the
foundation-stone of all that is great, alid good, and sublime in human
society ; all evils in civilization are departures from the noble tenets
of this pure faith ; every form of tyranny and oppression is anti-
Christian, and hateful to God. Therefore, Christianity, education,
and civilization should go hand in hand.
" Christianity, education; and civilization have within the last fifty
years made a rapid progress in this country. Still they have much
jet to do. They must penetrate not only into our institutions and
theories, but they must become the guide and lamp of our actions.
" It is, therefore, a sound religious education that would enable our
countrymen to strangle the Hydra with its four heads,* which ooUs
around theirneoEs. . . .
" On a calm and comprehensive review of the state of pur country
from the commencement of the British rule here, it is impossible to
resist the conviction that, in spite of the best intentions and efforts of
Government, in spite of railways and electric telegraphs, and in spite
too of. growing trade,and extending commerce, caste feeling amongst
the different sections of the community still threatens to be one of the
most prolific sources of evils in our country, preventing as it does all
mutual good understanding between each other, and making national
union impossible. But so long as Government seems to permit one
section of the community to say to the other, with respect to political
privileges, ' Hitherto shalt thou come, and no further,' this evil shall
not cease. Therefore, whether it will increase or diminish wiU entirely
depend upon the action of Government, which alone can with a firm
hand, as in the renowned days of Governor Sir Colin Campbell, make
«ach other shake hands and confess
" 'I have sinn'd ; oh, grievously and often ;
Exaggerated ill, and good denied.'
And advise each —
'"Be wiser, kindlier, better than thou art.' . . .
" Progress, we are told, characterizes the age. Progress has charac-
terized every age. With us, however, progress downward is going on
step by step with time. Progress upwards of which the age makes its
boast, lags lazily. A large body of men are allowed to grow, up jvith-
out any kind of intercourse with those who are placed above them in
point of wealth, perhaps intellect, and probably in worth. There
are few ties binding together the various sections of the community.
■The circles of this great trunk scarcely touch. A hard rind of pride
^vides them. All are men with many common sorrows and many
" * Called Kshestriya, Brahmana, Vaisya, and Sudra ; or. Raja,
Bamuna, Welanda, Govi.
378 Ceylon in the Juhilee Year.
common objects, but they help not each other. What has been done
to their less fortunate oouDtrymen by those who are placed aboTe them
in point of wealth, intellect, and worth ? How many of them have
gone down amongst them with kindness in their manner and in their
hearts, to help them onwards and upwards 7
" It is, however, an encouraging feature of the times that notwith-
standing all these discouragements there are such men amongst us
as Messrs. Eajapakse and Soysa who do so much for the advance-
ment of their countrymen. And if there are some more men like
them, then can certainly progress tsharacterize the age. . . .
" We know that within the last fifty years, Ceylon, from being an
obscure country, has risen to the importance of a rising British Colony,
and one of the greatest emporiums in the East, whose exports and
imports are not- much less in amount than in any other country in
Asia. This is, therefore, no time to clog its advancement by caste
and class agitations, legislative enactments, or internal commotions.
We know also that the so-called Sinhalese aristocracy is not an
aristocracy of birth. . Under the Portuguese and the Dutch Govern-
ments, all public functions, civil and miUtary, among the Sinhalese,
were hereditary, and gave nobility to the second generation. Hence
the son of a Mudaliyar or Munhandiram was called an Appuhami,
and the son of an Aratchy or Kankany, an Appu. They were exempt
from direct taxation and compulsory labour. And there were Appu-
hamies and Appus amongst all the prominent castes of the Sinhalese.
Therefore, we see that there is no aristocracy among the Sinhalese
resembling the English aristocracy. In England the aristocracy con-
sists of men of birth, wealth, and distinction, who have attained to
eminence in honourable professions ; but in Ceylon there were Gatteru,
Sattambiyo, and Bateberawayo, as Bat^mahatmay&s and E6r^as ;
and men of questionable origin, as Mudaliyars and Muhandirams
whose descendants now make the greatest noise about birth more
than education. In making these remarks our object is to point out
the danger into which our country is exposed by these designing men.
Its peril does not arise from foreign enemies, but from a dozen
crotchety men amongst us, who, adroitly seizing the present favourable
opportunity, raise a ' hue and cry,' regarding ' birth and independent
means,' as if they were the only men entitled to offices of trust and
emoluments among the Sinhalese.
"His Excellency the Governor, in his opening address to the Legis-
lative Council, was pleased to remark that ' the time has arrived when
greater facilities for the attainment of responsible posts in the Govern-
ment service should be afforded to natives of birth and education.'
We hail the introduction of such a scheme as a great boon to our
country ; but the term ' natives of birth,' is a vague and indefinite
term * capable of different constructions. Therefore, nothing is more
likely to frustrate the good intentions of Government than the be-
stowal of such preferments to a single section of the native community,
as there are, according to the general acceptation of the phrase, men
of ' birth and education ' among all the prominent castes of people
in Ceylon. However,
* It is a very wrong term, for which " worth " should be sub-
stituted. — J. F.
Caste in Ceylon. 379
" ' If past experience may attain
To something like prophetic strain,'
we are afraid that an attempt would be made by a certain section of
our commnnity to make this a prerogative of theirs, and to give no
small irritation and alarm to others. In that case it would only be
a means of creating strife and contention among the natives. We
hope, therefore, that the scheme in contemplation would be a compre-
hensive and liberal one suited to the present advanced state of our
country.
" A community can make progress only when every member of it
has the rewards of merit laid open to him, and when capacity and
talents for the discharge of the duties required by the State are pretty
equally diffased among the different classes of the community. Be-
sides it would be a most ungenerous principle of legislation if the
Government of a country, instead of encouraging mutual good-will
and reciprocal kind attentions, should create dissensions and commo-
tions in a community, in bestowing preferments on one section of it,
which are denied to another section of the same community who have
equal claims for such preferments. Such a course wojjld, moreover,
not only wage war against every principle of our nature, but paralyze
all social, moral, and intellectual improvement in that community.
That Budi was the actual state of Ceylon when the English first
landed in this country is well known to all who possess any informa-
tion on the subject. All the good which the English Government has
been hitherto endeavouring to do to the Sinhalese community, there-
fore, cannot be folly realized untU the principles of eternal justice
(the first principles of all riile and legislation) be applied to remove
such unnatural distinctions among our people.
" The British Government has given the people of Ceylon a degree
and kind of liberty which most of our countrymen had never enjoyed
either under the despotic heathen Eandyan kings, or under the benign
Christian Government of the Portuguese and the Dutdi. We, there-
fore, only seek for the continuance of that liberty and the enjoyment
of the essential rights of human nature ; aqd it is in this that the
glory and prosperity of a nation properly consist. This we can secure
only by the union in all the parts of the State, harmony in them all,
and authority over them all,
"But these are matters which some of the members of our Legislative
Council think beneath their notice. It is enough for them if they can
annoy or embarrass the Government, and obtain the reputation among
the unreflecting of being active patriots. We have little taste for such
patriotism, and little respect for those who profess it. We desire to
see in Council men whose minds are large enough to comprehend all
the interests of the country, and who will not sufier themselves to be
turned aside by petty motives from doing justice to all classes aUke.
"Ceylon has never before enjoyed such liberty as she does since the
past few years. All classes have fiberty to act and speak in accordance
with their convictions. No man is, by reason of his wealth or of his
rank, so high as to be above the reach of the law, and none, on the
other hand, so poor and insignificant as to be beyond its protection.
There is no longer any power in the State, under the influence of a
gust of passion, to order a man to be trampled to death by elephants.
" Therefore, as the British- Government has so well earned the
380 Ceylon in the Juhilee Year.
gratitude and good wishes of all classes of our countrymen, by the
unselfish and sincere desire which animates it to promote the welfare
of the people committed to its charge, by the soUcitude which it mani-
fests to study the feelings and sentiments of the people in all impor-
tant matters, and by the spirit of beneTolence which underlies its
actions, it is with great pain and remorse we say with respect to the
present reaction in favour of caste, which some of its' officials seem
to foster, that they
" ' See the right, approve it, too ;
Condemn the wrong, and yet the wrong pursue.'
" British equity has clearly seen that no ideas of religion or honour
can be permitted to violate the rights of life, freedom, or property.
It remains to give the fuU and legitimate effect to this principle, by
protecting human nature at large against the injurious and irrational
distinctions of caste. Public schools are not afraid of contradicting
the native sciences of astronomy, astrology, geography and medicine,
without hurting the feelings of the people. Why should caste be then
entitled to greater tenderness, when it is attended by so much injury
to the moral and social improvement of the country ? On this account,
caste is considered by missionaries a deadlier foe to the moral and
religious progress of this country than idolatry itself. Besting as it
does wholly upon opinion, repudiation of caste would be welcomed
by thousands who have not the courage to effect such an emancipa-
tion. . . .
" If the strongest argument against slavery be, not the cruelties
that are its common adjunct, but its essential injustice, its absolute
infraction of a Divine ordinance, its contrariety to the whole provi-
dential economy ; then are we led to conclude that there is needed
only a candid examination of this kindred evil by the Christian
public, and the abolition of caste will be decreed by a power which
has already worked marvels that will excite the attention and admira-
tion and gratitude of all future generations ; for, wherever the love
of Christ is felt in its power and purity, there will be an effort to
raise every individual within the sphere of its influence to the highest
pinnacle of moral and social dignity he can possibly attain."
APPENDIX XIX.
THE CEYLON PEARL FISHEEIES IN 1887.
{From Letters to the "Ceylon Observer," by A. M. Ferguson,
C.M.G.)
Mannae, ith ApHl, 1887.
The change of scene yesterday on the Pearl banks was
from almost dead silence and solitude before dawn to
the existence of active operations. Two thousand five
hundred persons were on the shore, or in boats and trading
vessels. Last evening this number was quadrupled. It is
likely to be largely increased, as but short notice could be
given of the fishery.
The sight of boats starting shorewards at one o'clock
yesterday would have delighted an artist's eye. The com-
parison suggested was that of doves flocking to "their
windows. Eeaching the shore about four o'clock, the
oysters had to be carried to the Government enclosures,
counted, apportioned, and a third, belonging to the boat-
men and divers, sold. The retail trade is going on down
to single oysters.
Officers of the Highlanders seem determined to add
pearl mussels to the enemies whose defences they have
successfully carried — for their representative here was
determined not to return empty-handed ; but all were
surpassedj however, by a great Madras native merchant,
who last evening, at an auction held in the lamp-light in
the timber and palm-leaf shed, purchased half a million
oysters from the eight hundred and forty-two thousand of
Government share. His first bid was E35 for a. quarter
of a million, but prices went ultimately down to R15.
Several chetties complained of a breach of understanding
that oi^y B9 be bid. The auction scene was most amns-
382 Ceylon in the Juhilee Year.
ing, the purchasers showing much human nature. Mr.
Twynam showed admirable patience and tact.
We fimed the so-called Arab diver, and got eighty-three
seconds, or one over Sir Henry Ward's maximum ; but Mr.
Twynam once got ninety-three, or over one and a half
minute. Mr. Twynam has seen two men perish from
staying under too long. They gasped before reaching the
surface, then sunk like lead. Death was caused by
asphyxia, or paralysis of the nerves. The lives of the
divers are generally good : the vast majority are meat-
eating MuhammadanSj closely related to the people of this
place, who are really South India settlers^ The heat,
scenery and race are all Indian. Whether the Sinhalese,
pure Aryan, ■ or mixed, no trace of them at Silavaturai
pearl fishery or port. The general portly, weU-fed appear-
ance of the Ceylon Indian Tamils is striking.
Masses of extraneous matter are taken up with the
shells, but thrown away, which would be prized as precious
by European naturalists. Pine corals, brilliant scarlet-
striped star fishes, pearl shells, and covered growths,
generally red coloured.
Concrete kottos, or auction booths, are abandoned for
mats on ground, the allotted land being defined by
coir strings. After the fisheries, the floor was sold and
resold at good prices. Purchasers now take oysters to
private kottos allotted them at safe distance from inhabited
portion. This and other strict sanitary measures, and
digging of wells for good water near the beach, make
a vast improvement, and cholera has been practically
banished. Much credit is due to Mr. Twynam, who is
only happy when at work. He seems impervious to sun
heat, which is awful. This, with the stench of the putrify-
ing, is the reason why Europeans cannot flock to this
wonderful romantic sight as to elephant kraals ; it was
perfectly sufficient to have one whiff last evening from the
kotto where samples were washed. '
Shells are rapidly opening to skates and old womanfish,
but more destructive are small whelks, which, if they once
effect an entrance, rapidly destroy. Over one hundred
boats went off at ten last night. People sleep at the
bank, and work from dawn to one o'clock.
The pearl fishery divers find it to be so cold at six to
eight fathoms (thirty-six to forty-eight feet)— the depth at
The Ceylon Pearl Fisheries in 1887. 383
which the oysters are generally found to exist in greatest
abundance and healthiness — that they (the divers) are
glad to warm themselves in the sun for a while after
coming up from the performance of their task. In my
telegrams I have mentioned the cases of two divers whom
Mr. Twynam saw die from remaining too long under
water, and I have suggested as the cause the non-aeration
of the blood, or what has lately been noticed as a cause
of drowning, the sudden collapse or -paralysis of certain
muscles and nerves. The so-called " Arab diver " who
was timed by us to eighty-three seconds, differed from
others in putting a compressor on. his nose, and he was
noticed to open his mouth widely and inhale air in large
volume before going down with his stone and basket.
He brought up — or rather, he collected in the rimmed net
bag which he had round his neck untU he filled it, and
wluch, like the stone, was hauled up separately — forty-two
oysters, which was considered a very good haul. All the
divers when they come up seem glad to inhale a good gulp
of air, but they do not, or only very rarely and temporarily,
show signs of distress. Of the two fatal cases noticed by
Mr. Twynam, one was a novice who^ no doubt, miscalcu-
lated what he could bear, from want of experience. The
other was a practised diver, but he may have had organic
disease. Captain Donnan states that he has never known
the divers take anything to help them except snuff! Mr.
Twynam once induced a diver to go to the bottom in fifteen
fathoms (twice the average depth on the pearl banks), but
he was so alarmed at the prolonged period from the man's
diving to his reappearance, that he has not and never will
repeat the experiment. The great difficulty in artificially
propagating the pearl-bearing mussels, and the reason why
all experiments here and in Southern India have failed,
is the depth, six to eight fathoms, at which alone this
species of shell-fish flourish.
There are two divers to each stone, who are alternately
up and down. We saw on board the guardship (one of the
immigration vessels, a fine two hundred and fifty ton ship
with three tall masts) a stone made of our common gneiss
rock, and a specimen of some substitutes made of concrete
at the breakwater. The weight seemed to be from thirty
to forty pounds. The weight of the stone helps to carry
the diver rapidly down, and as I have said, he has the net
384 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
bag. for the shells slung round his neck. On touching
ground the diver detaches himself from the stone, which
the force of hauling coolies on each fishing boat proceed
at once to pull up. Others haul up the basket when the
diver casts it off and gives the signal of a jerk to the rope.
The diver himself has only to give play to his buoyancy
to rise, but he is careful to avoid contact with the boat,
and will often dash off horizontally outwards in coming to
the surface, which he does almost simultaneously with the
bag of oysters he has gathered. While he holds on by
the side of the boat, the contents of his net bag are
emptied into large ola baskets, foreign substances being
thrown back into the sea, the net being soon again ready
for use. In each boat we found a belted native "counter,"
who responded to the question " etena chippee?" but I
noticed that Mr. Twynam always added a percentage to
the number given. It seems as if the exact truth could
not be stated : indeed, I fancy that a good deal of fairly
correct estimation goes for counting in the division of the
spoil finally. The people, however, divide the oysters into
fairly equal heaps, because they know not which heap
may be allotted as the boat's share. The boat now gets a
third instead of the ancient fourth, which latterly was
found ndt to be a sufficient inducement, and Mr. Twynam's
calculation is that each man of some 2,300 employed in
the boats yesterday made about E3 wages.
The boatmen and divers' share of oysters can at once,
on division, be sold, so that the people employed have
whatever advantage may accrue from being first in the
market. At the Government auction last evening it was
amusing to hear one man allege that he did not purchase,
as Saturday was an vinlucky day ! Another said people
would blame him if he bid ; a man in the background
said he did not want people to know what he was bidding;
while a bidder up to E25 said emphatically, " I'll not bid
higher." Some were at work all night carrying away
their lots of oysters, but a walk I took early this morning
oveir shells and fragments of shells everywhere, showed
that the* work of washing, except in the case of a few
smaU retail purchasers, had not yet commenced. The
demand here for ola mats and baskets and for cadjans
and palmyra leaves, is very large, hundreds of temporary
abodes going up in all directions.
• The Ceylon Pearl Fisheries in 1887. 385
Climate and soil are against vegetation here ; but the
bay, bounded on one side by Kudramalle (well known to
the Greek- and Koman voyagers as Hippouros), is very
spacious and pretty. But there are a good many rooks
scattered about. The fleet of graceful-sailed boats sweep-
ing along the horizon and making for the banks reminded
me somewhat of the sardine fishing vessels I saw in the
Mediterranean.
As to attaining anything like certainty or steadiness, or
being able artificially to propagate the oysters, we seem
as much in the dark as ever. On board the guard ship
yesterday (whence I saw another exciting scene of 114
boats crowding round the ship to announce their loads
and to skim shorewards, the noise and confusion being
wonderful) I had the advantage of going over the charts
of the pearl banks with Mr. Twynam and Capt. Donnan,
who readily answered all my questions. The general
results were that an extensive area of baiik, with from six
to eight fathoms of water on it, extends from near Mannar
to Chilaw. The apparent conditions of bottom coral
existing nearly everywhere seems to be generally very
similar : spat and young oysters appear periodically on
all. £ut it is only on the linoited spaces called the
Modaragam and Cheval-pars that really good fisheries are
ever reahzed ; and even in regard to them, too often when
all is most promising, millions and millions of oysters
will suddenly disappear. If it can be any comfort to us
our Indian neighbom's have been much more unfortunate,
a minute parasitic shell killing off holocausts of the
oysters. And this reminds me of the theory which Capt.
Phipps originated, which Mr. Thomas of the Madras Civil
Service (the great fisherman) took up, - and which the
naturalists of the British Museum supported, that what
had hitherto from all time been known as the spat of the
pearl oyster, is the spat of quite a different shell ! AH
that Mr. Twynam, Capt. Donnan, and other experienced
persons, natives as well as European, can say is, " Then
we should like to see the real spat of the pearl oyster.
Destructive criticism is ingenious, but where is the sub-
stitute ? " The disputed spat has always preceded oysters
on the banks. Messrs. Twynam and Donnan have seen
the spat changing into oysters on long tall sea-weeds, and
as those long weeds have died down, the spat has gone
26
386 Ceylon in *he Jubilee Year.
down, adhered to the coral, and become growing oysters.
If experience is to be set aside, a more than Darwinian
evolution must be substituted, and at present the opinion in
Ceylon is that all the old authorities were right, and that
Capt. Phipps, Mr. Thomas, and even a British Museum
naturalist, are mistaken. Shellfish which grow in millions
of millions must have spat in proportion, and in that
case it must be apparent. But where is it apart from the
old spat ?
I must acknowledge a most interesting communication
which has reached me from Capt. Donnan. It is to the
following effect, the date being the 13th April : —
" "We are now working on the Cheval, having left the
Matarakam on Saturday last, and if the weather keeps
fine, of which there is every appearance at present, we
shall do much better in the way of revenue than I ex-
pected when I recommended the fishery. I have been
ashore only once since you left. You will remember that
' Arab ' diver with the nose nipper. Well, I had him
alongside this morning, and told him to let me see. how
long he could remain under water, and I carefully timed
him, one minute and forty-nine seconds, which is the
longest dive on record on these banks or beds. The other
' Arab,' with air-pump and dress, only worked one day
with it, when he only sent up 1,500 oysters, and now,
without the dress, he is sending up from 2,500 to 3,000
oysters per day ; so that the helmet, dress, and air-pump
are not calculated to succeed at pearl-diving. I found
also in 1884, off Chilaw, with four of Mr. Kyle's divers,
that the natives sent up more oysters per day, man for
man, than they did; a result which very much surprised
me at the time, and now it has been confirmed again."
It will be observed that the so-called "Arab" diver,
really a Hindu, from the Bombay Presidency, remained
under water for a period extending to 109 seconds. I
suspect that if sceptical criticism were brought to bear on
the stories which allege subaqueous existence by divers
for periods up to six minutes, this latest feat would be
found to take rank amongst the most remarkable in the
annals of diving where the diver has not been artificially
supplied with air. No doubt the organs of the human
The Ceylon Pearl Fisheries in 1887 387
body are capable of being educated by continued practice
to endurance of abnormal conditions and of adaptation to
such conditions : to those of extreme heat for instance, if
gradually applied. I could, therefore, understand a man
who commenced a diver's life, " sound in wind and limb,"
obtaining gradually the power of remaining under water
and repressing inspiration and respiration for two minutes,
or at the very utmost two and a half. But those who know
that the blo6d is the life, and that it must, as it circulates,
be aerated, or lungs and heart will cease to act, will be
slow to believe in a staying power under water of three
minutes, far less of six. The other " Arab " alluded to
by Capt. Donnan had an imperfect diving dress which, it
will be observed, was rather an encumbrance than a help
to him as a regular diver, in which capacity he was only
thoroughly successful when he abandoned the adventitious
aid. Much service to the pearl fisheries of Ceylon was
naturally expected from the class of European divers who,
by means of external air supplied to them, can remain
not minutes but hours under water. But the hopes
entertained have not been realized. For the ordinary
operations of rapidly collecting and bringing shells to the
surface, a regular diving dress is as much of an impedi-
ment as was Saul's armour to the shepherd lad who slew
the giant with the simple weapons of a pebble from the
brook projected by a sling. For exploring the banks and
reporting on their condition, more might have reasonably
been expected. But a thickly mailed and heavy-booted
European diver, with seven to nine fathoms of water
pressing on him, is no light entity to walk over and
inevitably crush the colonies of molluscs.
The stay under water in the case recorded by Capt.
Donnan was twenty-seven seconds in advance of Sir
Henry Ward's timing, twenty-six beyond our own, and
sixteen in excess of the longest dive ever observed by Mr.
Twynam. I have Captain Donnan's authority for saying
that the period under water now observed by him is the
longest on record in the annals of the Ceylon Pearl Fishery.
Captain James Steuart, so long the Inspector of the Pearl
Banks, and who collected so much information regarding
them, never knew a diver to remain at the bottom longer
than eighty-seven seconds, or to attain a greater depth than
thirteen fathoms. Six minutes is the period mentioned
388 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
in the "Encyclopedia Britannica," latest edition, but as
no authority is given I must remain sceptical. In the
same article it is stated that, as the result of their trying
vocation, the divers are short-lived. Here, also, I prefer
the testimony of such largely- experienced and careful
observers as Mr. Twynam and Capt. Donnan. The men,
generally, make good earnings, live well, being nearly all
meat-eaters, look well and have as good chances of pro-
longed life as those who follow less hazardous occupations.
One reason, no doubt, is that instead of any attempt to
remain under water for prolonged periods, their average
stay below is somewhat under rather than over one
minute. With prolonged intervals to recover breath, to
rest and tD sun themselves by the sides of the boats,
(working as they do by relays) their labour hours, as far
as diving is concerned, extend only to the seven or six
and a half hours from daylight to one p.m.
APPENDIX XX.
ANUEADHAPUEA, THE ANCIENT CAPITAL OP
CEYLON, AND -ADJACENT BUINS AND TANKS,
IN 1887.
(From Letters to the " Ceylon Observer," by A. M. Ferguson,
a.M.G.)
Anuradhapttea, April 11th, 1887.
Hebe I am at length, in the greatest and most ancient of
" the buried cities of Ceylon," which and the surrounding
countries, away to the mountains. of Matale and "the
Knuckles," I have looked over from the summit of the
Miriswatte Dagoba ; the streets of which, . including the
" via sacra," I have traversed, and the temples, palaces
and baths of which I have examined, with intense interest,
feeling as I looked on
" Those temples, moiiuments, and piles stnpendous,
Of which the very mins are tremendons,"
that the half had not been told me. Yesterday I stood on
the mound which tradition indicates as the site where one
of the "decisive battles of the world" was fought;
where the Tamil invader, Elala, fell to the sword of the
Sinhalese monarch, Dutugemunu, and the tide of Damilo
progress southwards was arrested — at least temporarily.
For what power short cf the ruin of European enterprise
in Ceylon, can arrest the southward flow, peaceful, but
detei mined and constant, of the successors of the old South
of India invaders ? The present Government of Ceylon,
instead of resisting, has done and is doing all it can to
welcome and encourage the influx of the Tamils, who come
390 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
to exchange their labour for silver coin. "Who can calcu-
late the final results of this ebb and flow, but more flow
than ebb ? Even now the strength of the Tamil element
in Ceylon, including, as essentially Tamils, the industrious
and enterprising Moormen, is exceedingly strong, and it is
daily growing.
I have been six miles away to Mihintale, a dagoba-
crowned rock, which we ascended by about two thousand
steps, most of them separate blocks of stone, some cut in
the rock. The ruins here are most interesting, and the
views from the summit were beautiful. This was the
favourite residence of Mahindo, who, about three centuries
before Christ, introduced Buddhism to Ceylon. I lay on
the stone bed on which he was wont to meditate and so
secured great merit ! Over Mahindo's pokuna or bath
there is sculptured a very curious five-headed cobra. But
see Burrow's book.*
Kalawewa, April 15th.
This wonderful tank will be completed in October,
and then send irrigation water down to Anuradhapura,
fifty-four miles by the Yodiela (the giant's canal), and into
the Kuranegala district. Mr. Wrightson walked with me
this morning to see the enormous statue of Buddha, cut
out of the solid rock, one of the largest things of its kind
in the world. There is quite a town here, the people
employed on the restoration being about six hundred,
families and bazaars making up fully one thousand.
The tank will be seven miles square, with twenty feet of
water.
Entering Anuradhapura on a dark night, after rain, all
I was able to notice was the rush of the classical Malwatte,
with myriads of bright-glancing fireflies oh the forest trees.
Next morning, when I looked out as daylight brightened
the scene, I had for the chief object in my view the grand
mass of the Jetawanarama dagoba. In the foreground,
close to a raised bund, was a strip of water. This was all
the Basawakulam (curious interjection of a Tamil termi-
nation into a city so essentially Sinhalese) had to show
as a tank, and most of it was the result of the exception-
ally heavy showers which had fallen in the first week of
* " The Buried Cities of Ceylon," by S. M. , Burrows, CCS. Pub-
lished by A. M. & J. Ferguson, Colombo, 1886.
Anuradhaptira in 1887. 391
April. When the waters of the Yodiela reach Anurad-
hapura, as they will do within the nexffew days, I pre-
sume Basawakulam will receive the benefit of the supply,
to the increased beauty and salubrity of the city, I should
think. It is no use suggesting that the Tamil termination
" kulam " should be changed to the Sinhalese equivalent
, " wewa," for, however much it may be regretted, the
ancient capital of the Sinhalese monarchy in Ceylon is
likely as development goes on io become more Tamil than
Sinhalese. '
When Kalawewa is completed and a lake of seven square
miles stands above the forests and fields which stretch
away to Anuradhapura, some readers may be surprised to
learn that it will not only be the largest restored tank in
Ceylon, but that it will rank with the largest in the world.
Mr. Henry Parker in his • elaborate Report on the Giant's
Tank, written so far back as November, 1881, instituted a
comparison which is now unjust to Kalawewa, inasmuch
as its probable area was then. taken at only 2,300 acres, or
little more than Half the real area of the tank as restored,
which is 4,425 acres. Mr. Parker then under-estimated
also the area of Padawiya, the largest tank in Ceylon,
larger even than the Giant's Tank. If his revised esti-
mate, after examination of the locality, could be accepted,
this Padawiya tank with 20,000 acres area would closely
approach in extent the greatMadras tank of Viranam, with
its 22,000 acres extent. But, taking Mr. Parker's more
moderate estimate of 10,000 acres for. Padawiya, thei;
Kalawewa in October next will rival this, and, perhaps,
equal it, if the spill is ultimately raised five fett. Mean-
time, the corrected comparison of areas alone (capacity in
millions of cubic feet being in a good many cases dovibtful
or unascertainable), is as foUovrs : —
Area in
CbiraiBT. Eeseetoik.. Acres. Remaees.
Madras...... Viranam 22,000 Ancient.
Ceylon Padawiya 10,000 Estimated.
Do Giant's Tank 6,380 As proposed.
Madras Semprampakam 6,000 Estimated.
Cieylon Kalawewa 4,425 Ascertained.
Do. ...... Kanthalar 3,584 As restored.
Do AUai 3,000 do.
Do Eugam . .- 3,000 Original tank.
Bombay Sholapur,. 3,000 As enlarged.
Madras. Bed HiU 1,600 do.
Bombay Vehar 1.394 As constructed.
392 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
Of the above tanks, Vehar, in the Bombay Presidency,
and the Eed Hill reservoir above Madras (the bursting of
which latter some years ago produced so much alarm,
some loss of life, and great inconvenience), are intended
solely for the supply of water to the Presidency towns ;
Madras 400,000 population and Bombay twice that num-
ber. The reservoir at Labugama, a sub-range of the
Adam's Peak system, whence our chief city, with its
120,000 inhabitants, is now supplied with water, covers
176 acres.
It is very curious to see how, in the course of ages, the
south-west monsoon winds and rains have worn away the
ends of the pinnacle platforms of the great Anuradhapura
dagobas on which they have impinged, so that in some
cases there is scarcely any projection on the western sides
of the dagobas, the pinnacle appearing to rise from the
western edge of a platform. The intention of Government
at first, 1 believe, was merely to strengthen the top plat-
form of the Abhayagiria dagoba so as to render it secure,
but finally reconstruction, which is now considerably
advanced, was resolved on, and but for the objection of the
appearance of pandering- to Buddhism, and the other that
Ceylon has no money at present to spare on merely archso-
logical purposes, no doubt the resolution would be com-
mendable. For by means of a winding stone staircase
which runs up through the interior of the platform, the
summit can be attained, commanding a grand and varied
view of the ruins of the ancient city, its tanks, its rice-
fields, its forest surroundings, with many mountain ranges
as backgrounds to the scenery. It was up this winding
path, through the monkey-haunted jungle which now
covers the ancient structure, that the prisoners employed
had originally to carry the stone, lime, sand, and broken
brick : all the materials and tools used in the restoration.
It must have been hard work with a vengeance, as we can
testify from merely walking up the steep path when the
sun was shining hotly.
The extensiveness of the road system and its ramifica-
tions through the tank regions, involves a limit to the
extent to which water can now be impounded and its level
raised in such great tanks for instance as Kalawewa. An
average of ten feet of water does not seem in proportion
to a bund of sixty feet in height. But even so, an area of
Anuradhapura in 1887. 393
seven square miles will be permanently covered, and if the
spills were raised much beyond the five feet additional for
which provision has been made, the damage of submerging
many miles of useful road would be real and great. Such
considerations did not trouble Maha Sen, Waligambahu,
Dhatu Sena, Prakramabahu and other great tank-builders,
far less did they think of providing for the possibility of a
railway line to connect the shipping port on the west of
the island with the tank region of the north, its capital
city. With reference to contingencies in the distant future
our Govemi^ient ought to get Mr. Wrightson to place on
record his scheme of a railway, line which would not be a
continuation of the line that has already reached Matale
in its northern course ; but which, springing from Veyan-
goda or Polgahawella, would reach Anuradhapura by a ia,r
easier and less costly course. A railway terminus in the
shadow of our Ceylon pyratnids, and in close contiguity to
Elala's tomb and the thousand pillars of "Brazen Palaces,"
"Halls of Audience," "Baths" and "Pavilions," may
seem wildly visionary ; but so at one time did the idea of
a railway from the sea into the centre of the mountain
region of Ceylon. So also was the restoration of Kalawewa
once regarded; but that is now, practically, an accom-
plished fact, and thus the visionary "castles in the air"
of one generation become the substantial realities of suc-
ceeding periods. For the present, Jiowever, what Anurad-
hapura and the region around 'it want are irrigation water
to facilitate— (to render possible, indeed) — the cultivation
of rice, and good roads for the tiransport of surplus crops
and the conamodities received in exchange.
Of the thousands of buildings which once existed, at
Anuradhapura, at least^ nearly all are prone with the
earth, or hopelessly ruined, except the grand dagobas and
the splendid baths, to which latter is unhappily attached
the very uneuphonions name of pokuna. Next to the
pyramid-dagobas in interest, and far more perfect in
structure (except in the case, of the repaired, we may say
reconstructed, Thuparama), are the numerous and really
beautiful baths, of Anuradhapura, one of which, or rather
two-in-one, a twin-bath or pokuna, is certainly amongst
the most striking sights, and makes one of thg finest pic-
tures, in the ancient capital. It is exceedingly picturesque
in its semi-ruinous condition, the steps being displaced aS
394 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year. .
by an earthquake shake, and lying in admired confusion,
though none are broken, and few even chipped. This
beautiful work could at slight expense be restored, and by
means of Yodiela water from Tissawewa, be converted into
what Ave suspect the Buddhist priest-worshipping kings
never could or would have contemplated, a public swim-
ming bath, to which others than members of the royal
family and of the priesthood would be admitted. In the
prominence of its baths, ancient Anuradhapura reminded
me of ancient Eome, where the finest maidenhair ferns
flourish in the Baths of Nero and Caracalla. But there is
onfi great difference, and it scores in favour of the Budd-
hist "kings. The insane and wicked ambition of the
Cfesars was for each to use the bath or palace of his
predecessor merely as the foundation on which to erect a
structure after his own fancy and in honour of himself.
In the Italian city, therefore, we have the superimposed
remains of baths, doubly ruined; by the instincts of insen-
sate ambition, originally, and then by the hands of time
and vandaUsm. But no similar idea seems ever to have
crossed the mind of Sinhalese monarchs. There was
plenty of space, and each king in choosing a new site and
constructing a new ablution-tank (we hoj)e the word
pokuna will be outlawed and driven to take refuge in the
rock fastnesses of Sigiri), merely strove to excel in elegance
of structure and capacity the bath of his predecessor. He
who constructed the twin-bath ought to have his name, if
it could be ascertained, associated with one of the finest
remains in the ancient capital of Ceylon, and one of the
most beautiful things of its kind in the world. Photo-
graphs give a fair idea of the twin-tanks of stone, their
exquisitely-carved balustrades and their flights of steps,
but it is worth taking a journey to Anuradhapura to sec
and stand in admiration beside the " Kuttam pokuna," the
largest division of which is 132 feet long by 50 feet wide,
the descent being, we should say, at least 30 feet. It is a
truly noble and elegant structure, every stone c^f which is
almost as perfect as the day it was hewn. The quahfying
question arises, for whose use was this magnificent bath
provided ? It lies in suspicious proximity to the Jetawa-
narama dagoba, which is said to have been built by Maha
Sen, about the close of the third century of our era, to
commemorate his reconversion to orthodox Buddhism
Anuradhapura in 1887. 395
(whatever that was) from the Wytuliam heresy (whatever
that may have been). Having built a shrine so enormous,
it was only befitting that the repentant monarch should
provide for the hordes of priests attached to it baths of pro-
portionate size. We could scarcely restrain our burning
indignation as we found that object after object of archseo-
logical interest resolved itself, on inquiry, into something
for the honour, convenience, and pampering of one of the
most utterly useless systems of priestcraft that ever cursed
humanity. Amongst the wonders of Anuradhapura are
some large stone canoes, and it is believed that even these
were constructed to hold food for the priests. Similar care
was taken to provide monolithic vessels for the dyeing of
the priestly robes, and to quote Burrows : — " Wide dis-
tricts, fertilized, perhaps, by the interception of a river and
the formation of suitable canals, were appropriated to the'
use of the local priesthood ; a tank, with the thousands of
acres it watered, was sometimes assigned for the perpetual
repairs of a dagoba." The depth of subserviency was
reached when a monarch devoted himself and his family
as slaves to the priesthood ; but this was too much even
for Sinhalese public opinion, Buddhists as the people
were. To look for remains of residences of the common
people amidst the ruins of Anuradhapura seems hopeless :
they built with mud, and roofed with leaves. But surely
the monarchs and nobles had their palaces and their
baths ? We certainly do hear of " the queen's palace,"
and "the king's palace," and of 'pavilions," but even
regarding these, the qualifying remark has to be made that
the buildings were probably " shrines ; " and what is cer-
tain is that nine-tenths at least of the existing ruins of
Anuradhapura, once a great city covering an area of 256
square miles (Colombo is spread over only 11), are identi-
fied as the remains of buildings devoted to the custody of
doubtful relics of an arch-atheist and pessimist, and to the
delectation of holy beggars who taught that there is no
God, no soul, no immortality ; only extinction of sentient
existence by the practice of unnatural and impossible
austerities, and by honouring a non-existent being called
Buddha, and bestowing bounty on his very exigent " fiien-
dicant " priests.
The calculation which lennent makes regarding the
mass of materials in the Jetawanarama dagoba shows
396 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
■what might have been done for the people, or what the
people might have been led to do for themselves, had fair
play been extended to them by the kings and nobles and
priests who lived only or mainly for their own aggrandize-
ment. The Jetawanarama dagoba, built by Maha Sen
about 275 a.d., was originally 316, and is still 249, feet
high, so that the summit is nearly 600 feet above sea-level.
Neither the priests nor the Government entertain any de-
sign of "restoring " this vast mass, but no doubt an easy
path to the top will be added to the many fine drives and
walks for which Anuradhapura is now distinguished, and
which renders it so different a place to that into which
Skinner and MacCaskill cut their way through dense
jungle somewhat more than half a century ago. The
diameter of the great Jetawanarama dagoba is 360 feet,
and Tennent estimated the contents of the whole at 20
millions of cubic feet. He added : " Even with the facili-
ties which modern invention supplies for economizing
labour, the building of such a mass would at present
occupy 500 bricklayers from 6 to 7 years, and would in-
volve an expenditure of at least a million sterling. The
materials are sufficient to raise 8,000 houses, each with 20
feet frontage, and these would form thirty' streets half a
mile in length. They would construct a town the size of
Ipswich or Coventry ; they would line an ordinary railway
tunnel 20 miles long, or form a wall 1 foot thick and 10
feet high reaching from London to Edinburgh." When it
is remembered that, apart from purely stone ruins, some
five times the mass of materials (chiefly fine large flat
bricks, tens of thousands of which have resisted outrage
and time), when it is considered that materials multiplied
at least by five times enter into similar structures at
Anuradhapura, Eome idea can be formed of the fearful
misapplication of materials and labour which took placu
in honour of a false faith and a parasite priesthood at the
ancient city. As in the case of the Medici and St. Peter's
at Rome (a grand building, but more a shrine of idolatry
than Christianity), love of art, devotedness to resthetic
beauty, will be pleaded, and no doubt the ancient monarchs
of Anuradhapura were some of them men of as good taste
as Sir William Gregory described the last bloody and
murderous tyrant of Kandy to be. He compelled Ehela-
pola's wife to pound the head of her own child in a mortar,
Anuradhapura in 1887. 397
but, as a set-off, he formed the beautifal Kandy lake and
built its fine bund-walL If the dates usually given can be
accepted, it is curious that Thuparama dagoba (moderate
in size when compared with the pyramids of Jetawana-
rama, Euanwelli, Abhayagiria, and Mirisiawatte) is not
only one of the most ancient buildings in India, but one
of the most elegant in design. Euskin may rant and rave
against stucco and whitewash, but there can be no ques-
tion that the restored Thuparama, with its snow-white,
bell-shaped, pointed form, contrasted with the ancient
monoliths and ruins, and the umbrageous trees and green-
sward amidst which it rises, is " a thing of beauty." In
shape it is now a perfect contrast to the top-heavy mass
shown in the works of Forbes and Fergusson ; and the
appearance of Thuparama as merely- whitewashed, helps
to a vivid realization of how beautiful the great pyramid
dagobas must have looked when, covered with fine poUshed
chunam, their vast masses gleamed white against the sky.
But the glories and the gems of Thuparama and of Anurad-
hapura (although we do not forget our admiration of the
baths) are the monolithic, capital-crowned piUars which
stand upright or at various angles of inclination around.
The Thuparama dagoba, built originally, so the Maha-
wanso asserts, in 307 b.o. (and if so, it is certainly the
oldest building in aU India), was damaged by the Mala-
bars, and has been several times repaired, and lately
restored. But the exquisitely proportioned monoliths are
here intact, and if they were hewn and the capitals sculp-
tured, as seems certain, nearly twenty-two centuries ago,
then certainly the ancient founders of Anuradhapura had
the principles of true art and the sense of true beauty
developed in a remarkable degree. Nothing strikes a
visitor tp the quadrangle in which stands the sacred bo
tree more than the complete but most pleasing contrast
between the umbrageous expanses of the Indian figs and
the tall, rounded, perfectly straight, cylindrical stems of
the palmyra palms, each crowned with its capital of clus-
tered leaves. As I looked on these classically beautiful
trees I could not help the reflection that here were the
natural models on which the Idng slender pillars around
Thuparama were formed. The palm, so prevalent now,
must have existed in those early ages ; and even if artists
from India formed the transcendently elegant pillars, we
398 Ceylon. in the Jubilee Year.
must remember that over large portions of India tlie pal-
myra palm {borassus flaheUiformis) is a familiar object.
The beauty and utility of the palmyra palm is scarcely
appreciated as it ought to be. Those who have seen only
dense groves of stiff-looking trees in the peninsula of Jaffna
can scarcely imagine the tall growth and noble proportions
of, the single specimens in the rich soil of the bo tree
quadrangle at Ajiuradhapura. As a timber tree for roof-
ing purposes the palmyra is well known and valued for its
extreme lasting powers. For cabinet-making purposes it
is not much used, because, probably, of the diflSculty of
working it. But old wood rightly treated is scarcely, if at
aU, inferior to ebony. Mr. Alexander, the forester of the
North Central Province, took a polished stem to the Edin-
burgh Forestry Exhibition, which was universally admired
as " black marble." The pillars at Thuparama, as well as
the thousands of others scattered, erect or prone, around
the many and in some cases vast dagobas of Anuradhapura
had for object the defining of processional circuits, round
and round which hundreds of thousands of successive
bands of pilgrims paced, all down the centuries, in order
to obtain " merit," and of this surely the poor simple
people, with their devout instincts, ought to have obtained
a large store, seeing that Thuparama enclosed the veritable
collarbone of Buddha, while close by, in another shrine,
was the still more sacred canine tooth of the Bhodisat, the
sage, in GaeUc Bodach, an old man, as Caielanh CTamil,
Kalevi) means an old woman.
From the calculation that ancient Anuradhapura, with
its area of 256 square miles (including gardens, tanks, and
cultivated fields), had a population of a quarter of a million,
the descent is extreme to Fergusson's statement, in the 1876
edition of his work, that the site of the city was then
entirely deserted and its vicinity closed in with almost
impenetrable jungle. Even when that sentence was
written, the clearing, road-formation, tank and canal re-
storation, and general revival, which have now made such
extensive progress, had been commenced, and were well
forward. We have noticed that Anuradhapura is a perfect
centre of highways, radiating away to the Northern,
Eastern, North-Western, and Central Provinces, and so
to the west and south of the island, while there are few
out-station towns in Ceylon better supplied with local
Anuradhapura in 1887. 399
driving roads and pa,t]is. This advantage is, of course,
largely due to the desire of the authorities to render access
to the antiquities of the place facile to travellers and
visitors. We believe vye mentioned in a previous letter
that, besides the Government principal and ininor roads,
a large mileage of what are called " green roads " has
been cleared by the natives. These roads have to wait for
bridges, culverts, and gravelling, but meantime they are
traversable by carriages and carts in the dry season (seven
or eight months out of the twelve), and by foot-passengers
all the year round.
From houses in the town we heard as we entered after
dark and on subsequent days, the notes of music and the
sounds of song and hymn, such as are common to the
civilization of a century later by 2,000 years than that in
which the town named after the constellation Anuradha
was founded, while rays of light from lamps filled with
kerosene, imported from a westerfi world then undreamt
of, vied in brightness with the phosphorescence of myriads
of fireflies hovering over the vegetation which clothes the
sides of the Malwatte oya. The present population of
revived Anuradhapura, including, it must be admitted,
large proportions of active Tamils and enterprising Moor-
men, must be fully 2,000, the : promising nucleus of an
aggregation of humanity which in the ages to come may
equal, and even surpass, the hundreds of thousands who
lived and loved and fought the battle of life and died on
its fields in the ages that have gone into the eternity of
the past. If after October next, when the scheme of tanks,
canals, sluices, and spills between the grand tank of Kala-
wewa and the town reservoirs of Tissa, Abhaya, and the
supply channels which lead from them to houses and
fields, are all complete and fully at work, then if the
population of what is now Anuradhapura, and of the area
over which it once extended, does not increase in almost
geometrical ratio, all ordinary human calculations must
be deemed valueless.
There is, I believe, some evidence amongst the ruins of
Anuradhapura of colours having been used in designs and
ornamentation, and it seems quite probable that the fine
white lime stucco which at one time covered not only the
brickwork of the dagobas, but rough stone-work, such as
the pillars of the Brazen Temple, may have been elabo-
400 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
rately frescoed. In such freseoea, had any survived the
ravages of time and of ruthless human destructiveness,
the author of tree and serpent worship niight have hoped
to find the tree which, in support of Ms jiEeory, ought to
have accompanied the serpents on the sculptures. Or he
probably thought the nagas and trees, in due, proximity,
were painted on the " curtains,!' which he conjectures
were hung between' the processional , pillars, successive
circles of which surrounded . Thuparama and the other
dagobas. But^ if that was the case, it is surely curious
that the conjunction was. not perpetuated in the Bock
Temple and ordinary wihara frescoes. As far as my
observation has gone,' representations of trees are not
common on the walla of Ceylon wiharas, and I can
recollect no case of tree and serpent, together or separ-
ately, represented as objects of .worship. Amidst the
elaborate frescoes of the rook cave temple of Dambulla
I do not remember any picture of a tree, although the
artist, in reproducing the marine landscape connected
with a ship conveying the branch of the sacred bo to
Ceylon, shows his" sense of proportion by. representing
the fishes in the sea as considerably excelling in size the
ships I Bat I must leave this question of the presence or
absence of evidence in Ceylon of the former prevalence of
tree and serpent worship to professed oriental scholars
who have made the subject a special study. I am merely
an outsider, scarcely entitled to " benefit of clergy," re-
lating the impressions made on my mind by what I have
seen and read. According to Fergusson, the beautifully
sculptured moonstones, the design of which — elephant,
lion, horse, bull, hanza, lotus, and frieze — remained un-
changed for fifteen centuries, are peculiar to Ceylon !
This certainly looks like indigenous art. What are called
," pavilions " at Anuradhapura, a name given, I believe,
by Mr. Dickson, Fergusson supposes were "preaching
haUs " connected with dagobas ; so that the more we
investigate, the more it becomes evident that all or nearly
all the grand lithio remains of buildings at the ancient
city, as well as the mainly brick pagodas, were devoted to
the glorification of Buddhism and the convenience of its
so-called " priests," who were bound by the laws of their
order to spend their lives in ineditation and self-denial.
But we know how mediaeval Christian monks interpreted
Anuradhaviira in 1887. 401
their " vows of poverty." The Buddhist mendicants of
our day who hold and misuse such large " temporalities "
have certainly the merit of heing true to the traditions of
twenty centuries. The dagobas contained " bushels " of
relics, but it is singular that the only relic ever publicly
exhibited in the past or now is the so-called tooth. The
saintly Tissa (" a sair saint to the croon ") is said to have
been privileged above all laymen by being admitted to see the
relics contained in the inner sanctum of the holiest of the
great dagobas, and he was doubtless correspondingly edified.
We do not read that he worshipped the relics, however ;
for Buddhist idolatry was evidently long posterior to the
early age in which he flourished. It was, however, in
full force when the second ancient capital of Ceylon
was founded. Fergusson, indeed, regards Polonaruwa as
specially interesting from this fact, that it is full of the
idolatry of Buddhism, having been founded after Buddhism
had become extinct in India. Interest of another kind
attadies to this city of Prakrama (which I was very sorry
not to be able to visit), from the fact that the Sat Mahal
Prasada, so conspicuous amongst its wonderfully perfect
buildings, is the lineal descendant of Birs Nimroud of
Assyria. There is indeed nothing more curious and in-
teresting in the great work on Indian Architecture than
the mode in which the influence, first of Babylonia and
Nineveh, and then of Greece and Rome, is traced by the
erudite author in much of the architecture of India and
Ceylon ; while at the same time there is a great deal that
is quite original and indigenous. To Fergusson we are
also indebted for the calculation that the Brazen Palace
at Anuradhapura, when complete (according to the plan
of gradually diminishing stories, which alone he believed
to be possible), vied with the simple but majestic Anurad-
hapura dagobas in height, and was equal to the most
elevated of the great English cathedrals. In noticing the
surpassingly elegant pillars of Thuparama I ought to have
mentioned their resemblance to the "lats" of India, on
which the edict of Asoka and other monarchs are inscribed,
and which again seem to have influenced the form of the
minarets in Saracenic architecture. But I must no longer
linger amidst the ruins of Anuradhapura further than to
express my agreement with the conviction that the choice
of the place as the capital of the Wijayan conquerors was
27
402 Ceijlan in the Jubilee Year.
largely influenced by the fact that Mihintale, with its
rook caves and boulder plateaux, was already a scene of
reUgious worship before the immigrants from northern
India conquered the indigenous Yakho race, and before
the apostles of the new philosophy of negation bound con-
querors and conquered in the chains of their godless and
cheerless, if plausible, creed. The same fact, probably, of
the rock caves being sacred to demon or naga worship
influenced Mahindo, son of the great Asoka, in choosing
Mihintale as his residence when he came to introduce
Buddhism in the second century b.c, his sister soon fol-
lowing with the branch of the sacred Bo.
I now proceed to notice some other rock temples beyond
the precincts of Anuradhapura. Within those precincts
are a good many curious examples, the most striking being
that close to Tissawewa, Isurumaniya, to wit, which, ex-
isting as a shrine from 300 b.c., if we can accept the native
dates, presents now a most incongruous combination of
natural magnitude of rock, ancient sculpture, and exqui-
site stone carving, and the most tawdry modem ornamen-
tation of glaring paint and toy-like shrines and begging
boxes. As a whole, Isurumaniya, with its combination of
Buddhism, Hinduism, and (there can be little doubt, of a
cult which preceded both) demon-worship with the physi-
cal symbol of the serpent, presents one of the most curious
problems of the mysterious ancient city of the " dead
past."
From Kalawewa I was able to visit a rock temple, the
Aukuna wihara, which, though not very ancient when
compared with some of the monuments of Anuradhapura,
is certainly very interesting. The sight of the solemn,
colossal figure of Buddha carved from fee solid rock, one
of a series of huge vertical strata, was well worth the
journey. Although the protecting porch which once
covered the figure no longer exists, every well-executed
detail is in as perfect preservation as when the statue was
sculptured by order of Parakrama Bahu nearly 700 years
ago. Purposely, no doubt, the figure — which is in good
proportion and good taste, 40 feet high, with feet 72
inches in length — faces the great tank. Without a par-
ticle of sympathy with Buddhist idolatry, we can distin-
guish between that foul sin and the true art thrown into
the pose and repose of this grand figure. When I said.
Anuradhapura in 1887. 403
that every detail was complete, I ought to have added that
the flame ornament (answering to the nimbus of Christian
art*) which ought to be on the head 6f the figure, lies
beside it. There is also^ the inevitable cobra carved on a
slab, but no representation of a tree or any approach to it.
It ^ was the solitary priest of the wihara connected with the-
rock statue who insisted that the English engineer engaged
in the restoration of Kalawewa was an incarnation of one-
of the ancient tank-building giants. Mr. Wrightson adds
to his other accomphshments that of photographer, and
amongst his collection was the likeness of another similar
colossal rock statue of Buddha, but, he believes, of more
ancient date. It stands 41 feet high, at Seperawa. Fer-
gusson, however, in noticing photographs taken by Captain
Hogg, E.E., remarks that these statues are extremely
similar to one another, and, except in dimensions, to that
at the Gal wihara in Polonaruwa. The few figures of
Buddha unearthed at Anuradhapura looked poor and
dilapidated when compared with the fresh-looking "ruins"
of stone monuments, older than the statues by many cen-
turies. The statues of monarcha there, at the Dambulla
Eock Temple, and elsewhere, are, I suppose, as authentic
likenesses as are the pictures at Holyrood of the long line
of mythical or doubtful Scottish kings, from " Fergus the
First" onwards.
On my way back from Kalawewa to the central road,
Mr. Wrightson's kindness enabled me to visit the specially
interesting ruins of Vigittapura, a city said to have been
founded at an earlier date even than Anuradhapura by
one of the six brothers of Wijayo's Indian Queen. There
is the inevitable dagoba, which we ascended, admiring, as
a bright contrast to the surrounding ruins of long past
ages, the pretty wild flowers which brightened its sides.
From the top we had a good view of the ruins of wiharas
and fortress defences,, which we could not, for want of time,
examine- in detail. It was certainly interesting to look on
pillars and slabs hewn probably over twenty-three centuries
ai^o ; for the Mahawanso, quoted by Burrows, states that
the settlement of Prince Vigitta was a city and fortress
* So close is the analogy between the architecture, image', and
ritual of BucWhism with those of the Eomish Church, that the Abbe
Hue expressed the conviction that the devil had v-yd Buddhism to
cast discredit on " the Church."
404 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
" surrounded by a triple battlement and entered by a gate
of iron 1 " when Anuradhapura was but a village. There
are inscriptions here in the Nagara character, and besides
the remains in the cleared space, the jungle around
(specially pestiferous) is said to be " strewn with ruins."
Somewhere near one of the four " altars " of the dagoba
on which we stood and looked over the site of one of
earth's most ancient cities and fortresses, Buddha's jaw-
bone is said to be hidden. In hearing of such " bushels
of relics " one is inclined to be irreverent enough to ask
how many jawbones the &age ascetic was possessed of.
Vigittapura is famous for the incidents of its siege more
than 2,000 years ago. The city, founded by Gautama
Buddha's cousin, b.c. 600, had, in b.g. 163, fallen into the
possession of Mysorean invaders, and was held by a captain
.of Elala, the Damilo monarch or usurper.
Dhutugamunu conquered this fortress with others before
his final and decisively successful battle and single combat
with Ellala at Anuradhapura. Forbes, quoting from the.
Mahawanso, gives the following animated account of the
siege :
"The assault having bee:. ^«i*^-rmined on, Kadol, the
famed war elephant of the Singalese prince, was directed
against the eastern gate, up to which he rushed through a
shower of weapons and weighty stones that were hurled at
him on his near approach to the walls. On reaching the
entrance, a party of the besieged who were stationed over
the gate commenced pouring down molten lead, which,
falling on the elephant, he became ungovernable, and fled
to shelter himself in a small tank near the walls. Kadol's
wounds having been dressed, and his body fortified against
similar attacks by cloths thickly folded and shielded over
with plates of copper, he was again brought to the assault,
and succeeded in forcing the gate, at the same time that
others of the assailants entered by a breach in the walls
of the fortress."
On the morning after I had visited the romantic ruins
of Vigittapura, apparently the most ancient in Ceylon,
apart from the rock caves, I stood on the great gneiss
rock of Dambulla, and enjoyed the extensive and varied
view of .successive mountain and vast forested plains,
Anurcidhapura in 1887. 405
brightened- bj glimpses oT streama and tanks and rice
fields.
I do not -wonder that Mr^ Campbell, pf Islay, was
slmck with the appearance of the gneiss of which the
great rock of DambaUa is formed; for the crystallized
strata, worn away and polished on the ronnded sides of
the rock, look as if Nature had tried her artist band in
adorning the mass with engraved serpentine designs and
qtriations, beantifol in themselves and bearing the most
cnrious resemblance to hieroglyphic, inscriptions. Wonld
that this natural alphabet conld tell us somewhat of the
date, or rather successive dates, of the metamorphic rock,
and the^ode of formation of its vast caverns. But while,
with the utter .absence of m'arine remains, we have in exis-
tence, potent as ever, agencies which sufficiently account
for the production of the phenomena we- are examining, 1
see no reason to suppose that these are ocean-caves formed
by the beating of billows against the sides of the rock koSl
eroding its softer portions away through countless geolo-
gical ages. All through those ages, doubtless, existed and
operated the same air-ocean of moisture waves driven by
wind currents, which exists and operates in our day.
Apart from any tilting and dividing processes to which
the strata may have been subjected, and which may have
separated them widely, the effects of millions of monsoon
storms on decomposing rock, aided finally by the agency
of man ~with his spUtting wedges and hewing hammers
and chisels, sufficiently account for the series of yawning
caves which have rendered the rock of DambuUa famous.
The stratified and contorted character of the rock ac-
counts for the water which percolates doyn from the
summit into one of the caves, to which, as of mysterious
origin, the priests draw the attention of visitors, and which
is treasured and considered as sacred as Ganges water is in
India. I did not taste the heaven-born fluid, any more
than I did the contents of a lakelet in a depression of the
vast rock, a rock stated by Tennent to. be 600 feet in
height and about 2,000 feet in length.
As was natural to an accompUshed enthusiast like Islay
Campbell, it was not for his geological theories alone he
sought support amidst the cave recesses in the great gneiss
rock of Sambnlla. In the elaborate and richly-coloured
frescoes by which the stone roofs of the caves are covered
406 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
and adorned lie sought evidences of identity with the
northern folklore which he had studied so deeply and
illustrated so happily. He had heard of the giants as
well as the demons of Sinhalese folklore, and, considering
how many theories have been founded on the supposed
identity in Indian literature of the Yavans with the
lonians, we cannot wonder that the accomplished savant
of Islay saw more than a verbal similarity between the
Yodi of the Sinhalise and the Odin of the Scandinavian
pantheon of deified heroes.
APPENDIX XXI.
KEFERENCE TO FJRONTISPIECE.
The inscription on the statue to Governor Sir William
Gregory telte its own story to some extent, but it may be
added that a sum of About E25,000 was subscribed by all
classes — chiefly by Ceylonese, and especially the Sinhalese
section — foir the erection of the statue. It was executed
by F. Boehm, A.B.A. It is erected in the Cinnamon
Gardens, in, front T)f ihe Colombo Museum — the most
interesting and most generally useful, as well as hand-
somest, public building erected in Ceylon during British
times. The conception, arrangments, and carrying out of
this museum were entirely due to Governor Gregory.
, He had for his architect Mri J. G Smither, F.B.I.B.A.
The structure, laying out of grounds, and surrounding
wall, cost about £12,000.; The museum is occupied
entirely with Ceylon exhibits, and presents a very adequate
display in all departments, and especially interesting
aJchseological exhibits refering to the early days of the
Eaxidyan Kingdom '■ An oriental library occupies one
part of the bnildmg, and the Ceylon branch of the Boyal
Asiatic Society holds its meetings in ah adjoining room,
^he natives of all classes and races visit the museum in
great numbers, ^d it is a centre of attraction td visitors
— ^passengers- lan^g ]|ct Ooloinbo— &om all quarters.
BjE COLOtoO MUSEUM.
i^y a Cef Urn writer in 1882.),
I^It want of interest in local exhibitions was itoi so epmmocly
observable amongst the resdents of almost all ' tibte^rios^wl towns
408 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
and cities of the oivilized wotld, it might, perhaps, be consideied
remarkable that so few of theEoiopean residents of Colombo take any'
interest in the bean tifnl mnseom which standseo prominently amongst
the bnildings in the Cmnamon Gardens. It is merely another phase
of the principle involved in the assertion that a prophet is not without
honour, save in his own country and his own father's hooae. Onr
mnseum is by far the most b^ntifal bnUding in Colombo: it is
pleasantly situated, and surronnded by prettily cultivated grounds ;
it is, moreovec, replete with objects of local interest, and entrance is
free to all. And yet, with all these attractions, there is scarcely one
in a hundred of us who has done himself the pleasure of paying a
visit to the building, or, if he has, it was, in all probability, several
years ego, or when the collection of specimenswas of such a meagre
and rudimentary nature as to scarcely merit the name of collection
at all. In those days, possibly, visitors may have been justified in
making use of such expressions' as 'really, there is notiiing worth
seeing or worth the trouble of a visit ' ; but at the present day the
visitor would indeed be hard to please who could not find many objects
in which he takes an interest, or which are calculated to attract his
attention. In spite of many difficulties, the lukewannness of the
authorities, the inefficiency, if not worse, of the assistants, the
active opposition of the few, and the discouraging callousness of the
many,. and in spite of the disappointment which must necessarily
arise from want of intelligent interest in tbo work by the greater
number of the European commnnity, the curator, with the aid of
great industry and an affectionate int^iest in his work, has succeeded
in getting together a very goodly show wherewith to minister to the
amusement and instruction of those who make the museum a pleasur-
able resort.
"ThecoUection — entirely of an insularcharacter — alreadycomprises
such a number of interesting specimens, that the scanty half-hour
of an afternoon, which is generally all that most residents can aSord
for the purpose before the doors are clo^ at six p.m., is all too
short for even a casual glance at one-half of than, mnch less a care-
ful examination ; and we would advise any one who really wishes to
see the museum thoroughly, and acquire a kiiowledge of what it con-
tains, to take it in instalments at their leisure, as opportunity offers.
Inspection of the contents of the lower room might well occup/ the
whole of the first visit, whilst ther« need be no waste of time if the
gallery is to be got through in an hour and a half. In wri^ng this
we must not be understood to be addressing the passengers from the
steamers in the harbour who want to see all Colombo in tiie after-
noon, travel to Eandy during the night, drive round the town before
the seven o'clock train leaves, and be on board ship again by noon,
having learnt all about Ceylon, and a great deal more besides, in less
than twenty-four hours ; and yet we ore assured that out of the
9,062 Europeans who duringthe past year have visited the museum, the
greater number are visitors from the shipping. There can be but
little doubt that the exhibition has been subjected to one very serious
drawback during past years, and that is the constant state of change
in detail and arrangement which have occupied the officials so
incessantly.
" Complaints were rife of empty cases, and lack of specimens, and
the justness of such complaints could not well be gainsaid ; but it
Reference to Frontispiece. 409
was an imfortnnate state of affairs which has absolutely necessitated,
as experience proved, the utility ot change of position, or as the
growth of the collection called for more accommodation. The extra-
ordinary dilatorinesB of the Public Works Department has, without
doubt, done much to injure the good fame of the museum, and even
now there are a very great number of specimens which are lying idle
in the store-rooms for want of cases in which they could be exhibited ;
and with the trtmsport vote cut down as it is to half the usual
amount, and altogether inadequate to the necessities of the case,
there seems to be little hope of progress in the immediate future.
This transport vote, we may explain, provides for all the cost of
collection by the curator and his assistants, taxidermists and peons,
cart and coolie hire, tolls and canoes, and travelling expenses, pur-
chase of specimens, &o., &e., and, when it is reduced as it has been
to such an insignificant amount, the resources of the collector's
establishment are entirely crippled, and progress most effectually
stayed. There have been many critics from time to time who have
not been backward in attributing blame to the curator, when, had
they only been aware of the true state of the case, they would, without
doubt, have been astonished that so much has been done with so little
in the way of support. Lately, however, very considerable changes
have taken place in the arrangement of the collection, many of
themmost advantageous, whilst some, we think, will have again to be
altered. The entrance hall, once crowded with gigantic fishes,
requires something to do away with the idea of emptiness which
cannot fail to strike a visitor, whilst the two bare benches. which are
placed in it are by no means sesthetic in appearance. The west room
on the ground floor, known as'the Ceylon Products' room, has much
that is new, and more is promised. ZooIop" has been relegated
entirely to the upper story, save the new fish room, to which we shall
farther allude presently, and the minerals have been brought down-
stairs. These have been very cleverly placed in cases against the
wall, and make a very interesting show, though necessarily there
must in time be many more specimens collected, until eventually
they will require a room entirely devoted to mineralogy. "Perhaps
the most interesting exhibit in this section is the se ies of fossil
deposits showing the formation of the west coast of the island, frorr
Dondra-Head on the south, to Karativo on the' north-west coast
There are also many specimens of sea shells taken from the foresf
of the Northern Province, arid a piece of fossil coral (if we may be
allowed to make use of such an expression) from the summit of
Tangala Hill, say, 150 feet above the sea level. This room, hiving
now b-jen rendered secure with iron bars, the gold Buddhas and
jewellery, wl -oh had been placed in safety after the disappearance of
a portion of them, as well as the collection of coins, are now ex-
hibited again in central cases. The new arrangment of the coins is
eap'Joially hajipy, and this part of the collection looks peculiarly neat
«-vd apprjpri-.te. The exhibition of Ceylon products is at present in-
D7rific8'-.t •,.•1 altogether unworthy of the institution, but this want
w:;' happily be very shortly amended on the arrival of the two hundred
samples which are to come from the Indian and Colonial Exhibition
in London. These will all be shown in goblet-shaped bottles, and
will, without doubt, look very well. They will be supplemented, it is
faopjd, by contributions supplied by the principal producers in the
410 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year.
island. Perhaps the most interesting specimen at pre-ent on view
is a sample of clean coffee, exhibited by the Messrs. G. <fe M, Worms
at the London Exhibition of 1851. This miy be regarded as a curious
relic rather than an object of any special value. The Exhibition
itself is seldom alluded to in the present day, except as the father of
all the exhibitions which have been so numerous in all parts of the
world of late years, and the memory of the Messrs. Worms is fast
fading away, except in the recollections of a few of our older
colonists.
" We must not omit to make mention of another innovation in the
conduct of the museum, which has its first results in the Ceylon
Products' Boom. This is the admission of loan collections, which it
lias at length been decided to accept for exhibition when opportunity
offers. The first to avail himself of the permission has been Mr. D.
W. DeAbrew Bajapakse, who has sent a tortoise-shell box and
Sinhalese gentleman's comb, several ancient native swords, and two
Mudaliyar"s caps of the Dutch period, say, about 1790. It is to be
hoped that other disinterested individaals will follow suit, and let the
public of Ceylon have a sight of the treasures of many kinds which
are at present hidden away in ancient almirahs in the recesses of the
native walawas. Before we pay a visit to the galleries, we must not
forget to mention the newly-fitted room at the back of the museum,
which has been opened to the public as a fish room, in which are
shown nearly all the great stuffed fishes which at one time or other
have been seen in the hall or the gallery. In fact, they are all here
except the gigantic shark, which still remains in the east gaUery, and of
which we shall have more to say by and by. The fish room is the
first practical illustration of the necessity which is beginning to be
felt for more accommodation, and it will not be very long before an
additional building on a considerable scale will be urgently called for.
In the meantime, visitors wishing to see the fish room, should ask
one of the attendants to show them the way, and they cannot fail to
gain some knowledge of the monsters which people the Eastern
waters. The smaller fishes and the crustaceans and other marine
wonders will be met with upstairs."-^CommDnicated to Ceylon Times.
THE COLOMBO MUSEUM.
(From the " Ceylon Directory and Hand-Book " for 1876-78.)
This institution was founded by the late Governor, the Bight Hon'ble
Sir William H. Gregory, k.c.m.o., and the building has been erected
at a cost of B120,500, from the designs of the Government Architect,
Mr. James G. Smither, f.b.i.b.a.
The Museum grounds, which are abont seven acres in extent, are
bounded on the south and east by the public road, and on the
remaining sides by cinnamon plantations. . An ornamental balustrade
runs along the roadside, and two pairs of iron gates, with massive
piers surmounted by handsome gas lampg, give access to the carriage
ilrives by which the building is approached.
The Museum occupies a central position on the ground at a distance
of 70 yards from the high road, the principal front facing the south.
The building is designed in the Italian style of architectnre, and is
Reference to Frontispiece. 411
two storeys in height, with a frontage of 171i feet, and a total depth,
including the offices and ontbuildihgs in the rear, of 232J feet. The
principal fa9ade consists of a wide central projection and side wings
connected by arcades, behind which broad verandas form external
means of communication between the several galleries, at the same
time affording shade from the sun and shelter from the rain, as well
as additional floor space for exhibitive purposes. The arches of the? o
arcades (which are continued along the sides of the wings), are
supported on square piers on the ground floor, and spring from
light coupled columns with foliated capitals on the upper storey, the
intervals between the piers and columns being filled in with open
balustrades.
In the middle of the principal front is a commodious Carriage
Portico, from which seven stone steps ascend to the ground floor
level. At the head of the steps is a Loggia which is separated from
the portico by three femicircular arches springing from coupled
columns with polished shafts and enriched capitals, thus dividing-the
steps into three distinct flights. At either end of the Loggia is an
open archway communicating with the arcades, and facing the. steps
are three large entrance doorways which give access to the interior of
the building.
The Central Hall, which is first entered, is 29 J feet by 24i feet, and
19 feet high, the latter being the height of the lower storey throughout.
Beyond the hall, and opposite the principal entrance, is the Grand
Staircase, which is separated from the hall by a transverse open
corridor communicating with the arcades on either side. The corridor,
is formed by a set of three semicircular arches, upon panelled square
piers next the hall, and a parallel set of arches towards the staircase
springing from round columns, the piers and columns being highly
polished and embellished with ornamental capitals. The enclosure
containing the staircase is carried up to the fall height of both storeys.
and is lighted by three large windows in the north wall. ' The Staircase
is constructed of polished teak, with ornamental balustrades of metal,
and rises, first in a single flight 9 feet broad up to a wide intermediate
landing, and continues in two return flights, each 8 feet broad, to the
level of the upper floor. At the head of the staircase is a wide open
corridor similar to that below, communicating with the upper arcades
right and left, and composed of semicircular arches in two rows
springing from polished columns enriched with ornamental capitals.
Eetuming to the ground floor : to the right of the Central Hall is
the Library (29J feet by 24| feet), which is lighted by six wide and
lofty doorways opening into the arcades in front and rear. This
room is fitted up with handsome bbokcases of polished teak placed
against the end walls, and projecting from the spaces between the
doorways on the buttress plan ; and in the middle of the rooni is a
large table press, including a desk for the Librarian. Beyond the
Library is the Eeading and Lecture Eoom (49 feet by 24| feet), to
which light is admitted by a recessed window at either end, and five
doorways opening into the east veranda. Against the west side are
placed two ornamental cases for ancient MSS., and the remaining wall
spaces are hung with framed portraits of literary and scientific
celebrities. The room is comfortably furnished and fitted up' with
seven starlight gas chandeliers. The front verandas, portico and
hall are also lighted with gas.
412 Ceylon in the Jubilee i\ai:
To. the left of the Central Hall is a gallery, the same size as the
Library, and lighted in a similar manner by large doorways opening
into the arcades. This room is intended for the exhibition of Ceylon
products, and is fitted up with polished teak wall and buttress cases
glazed with plate glass. Beyond the " Ceylon products " room is a
large gallery for Antiquities, which corresponds in size with the
reading room, smd is Hghted in the same manner with a window at
either end, and large doorways opening into the west veranda. Ad-
joining the " Antiquities Gallery " is the Director's office, with private
entrance, strong-room, and other accommodation, including the
Director's private staircase of communication with the upper galleries.
The whole of the rooms on the ground floor conununicate with one
another by means of large and lofty central doorways. The floors
throughout arQ laid with Portland cement, and the ceilings are of
teak.
In the rear of the Grand Staircase the necessary accommodation is
provided for the public, and an open arched corridor leads to the
Taxidermist's and " setting up " rooms, an extensive unpacking and
store room, stabling, &c.
The upper storey of the building is occupied entirely by the
" Natural History " Galleries, which consist of three large rooms 20
fjet high, lighted as below with wide and lofty doorways in the side
walls, opening into broad open verandas, and with recessed windows,
in addition, in the end galleries. The Central Gallery runs east and
west, and is 93 feet in length by 23^ feet in breadth, with an extra
space or alcove on the south side opposite the Grand Staircase, 30 feet
by lOJ feet. The end galleries, which are placed north and south, are
each 49 feet long by 25J feet wide, and are connected at either end
with the Central Gallery by an open screen extending completely
across the room, and consisting of three semicircular arches springing
from single columns, with highly polished shafts imd ornamental
capitals. A similar triple arrangement of polished columns and arches
connects the side walls of the Central Gallery across the opening
leading to the Grand Staircase, and this is again repeated across the
opposite,alcove, the arrangement producing altogether an exceedingly
light and elegant effect. The alcove is lighted by three large door-
ways, which also give access to the flat over the carriage portico. The
internal walls on this, as well as the ground floor, are architecturally
plastered, and embellished with ornanlental strings, cornices, &e. The
plain surfaces of the walls are painted the very palest green, all
mouldings and ornaments being finished deadwhite or polished. The
doors and windows throughout the building are of polished teak, with
semicircular arched heads flUed in. with .scrolls, of wrought iron on
the lower floor, and of wood above. The floors of the upper galleries
are laid with polished teak, and the ceilings are of the same material.
The latter are flat, and are divided into panels which are diagonally
boarded and ornamentally moulded.
The Central Gallery is entirely fitted up with handsome Spanish
mahogany wall and table specimen cases glazed with plate glass and
French polished. These cases are all dust-proof, and were manu-
factured in England especially for the Museum. The wall cases
occupy the spaces between the doorways, and project into the room on
the buttress system, ^hich has been found to answer perfectly, all the
specimens being lighted in the most satisfactory manner. The table
Beference to Frontispiece. 413
cases are placed opposite the interyals between the above, and n a
line down the middle of the gallery. All have plate glass sloping
tops, and are suecessfnlly lighted from the doorways on either b? ie,
ample space being left between the cases for an inspection of t ^eir
contents. Two of them have super-cases (in addition to the slopes)
entirely of plate glass, and are fitted up below with drawers enclosed
within plat« glass doors. The other cases are open beneath, and are
each furnished with a shelf at top on brass supports for specimens in
bottles. In the alcove are two wall oases with plate glass fronts.
The East and West Galleries are fitted up with wall cases at either
end, and iu the East Gallery is a middle row of table cases in addition.
The latter are open below and fitted with top shelves corresponding
with those in the Central Gallery. The fittings in the two end
galleries are all of polished teak glazed with plate glass.
Descending the Grand Staircase, a slab of white polished marble
wiU be observed, inserted in the wall facing the principal entrance,
beaming the following inscription in gold letters : —
" This Museum, completed a.d. 1876, was opened to the public,
January 1, 1877. H.E. the Eight Hon'ble Sir WOham H. Gregory,
K.c.M.a., Governor; A. Haly, Esq., Director; J. G. Smither, Esq.
r.B.i.B.A., Architect ; F. Vine, Esq., M.s.i;., Superintendent cf Works;
A. M. W. Marikar and S. Perera, Contractors."
A fine life-size portrait bust of H.E.H. the Prince of WaleS adol-ns
the Grand Staircase. This is the work of the eminent sculptor, Mr.
Marshall Wood, who has presented the bust to the Museum.
Considering that the Museum has been open but a short time, a very
satisfactory collection of objects has been brought together. The
book shelves in the Library are filling rapidly ; and the two cases in
the Beading Boom contain a most valuable collection of Buddhist
manuscripts, many of them presented to the Ceylon Government by,
the King of Burma. A descriptive catalogue of these, prepared by
Mr. L. de Zoyza, the learned Sinhalese Translator to Government,
shows that the collection of MSS. consists of 188 volumes, in 209
distinct works, and are classified as follows : A. — Consists of texts of the
Canonical Scriptures of Buddhism. Of these there are twenty-seven
volumes in Burmese characters, presented by the King of Burmj, ;
and fourteen in Sinhalese characters, copied at the expense of Govern-
ment, or presented by private individuals. B. — Consists of miscel-
laneous religious works. Of these there are seventy-one volumes. C. —
Consists of historical works, legendary tales, cfec, and contains twenty-
five volumes. D. — Philological works. Under this head there are
twenty-nine voltmies. E. — Poetry, &c., sixteen volumes. F. — Miscel-
laneous works, scientific, medical, &c. Of these there are six volumes.
The Library proper contains about 450 volumes, comprising : Works
relating to Ceyl">n, pubUoation of learned societies, natural history,
languages. Orients! literature, periodical publications, arohseology,
history, dironolog; ind ethnology, astronomy, geography and mis-
cellaneous. In the •" Ceylon products " room there is a fine collection
of modem pottery, also a selection of the curious masks used in plays
and devil dances. The collection of raw materials is as yet far from
complete, and at present some of the cases contain fragments of
statuary from Polonnaruwa, portions of bronze lamps from Kurune-
gala, and a iew other antiquities ; but this is a temporary arrange-
ment. In the North Veranda are some fine specimens of bamboo.
414 Ceylon in the Jubilee Yecir.
rattan, and Ebetu creeper. In the " Antiquities " room the most
striking object is the great stone lion from Polonnamwa, and facing
it is the perforated stone Trindow from the Palace at Tapahu. Boand
the room are sculptures from Annradhapnra, Tissamaharama and
elsewhere, and in the vest veranda are several inscribed monoliths
from various parts of the Island : the oldest of these records the
construction of Wiharas b; King Gajabahu, a.d. 125-131, and is in
a remarkably perfect state of preservation.
APPENDIX XXII.
EEFEEENCE TO MAP OF CEYLOIN.
{In pocket of Cover.)
While this Map affords a fairly approximate idea of the
location of the chief agricultural industries of the island,
and of the land suitable for extension, it must not be sup-
posed that the areas are accurately laid down. Cacao, for
instance, although confined to a few limited localities at
present, will very likely be found to succeed in several
additional districts. It is hard to say again where tea
wUl not grow in Ceylon, at any rate in the moist zone — so
that 250,000 acres may be a moderate estimate of the area
when cultivation is fully extended. Where coffee is super-
seded in the central province, tea may be counted to take
its place along with cinchona in nearly every district. So
with palms ; it is weU-nigh impossible to show the precise
areas covered with palm cultivation — especially with the
areca and kitul, which extend far into the interior — while
even coco-nut palms, mainly confined though they are to
the sea-coast, form flourishing plantations up the banks of
the Mahaoya, some forty miles inland, while at Matale
1,400 feet above the sea level, there are two or three
considerable areas of very fine coco-palms. But the chief
purpose of the map is to give a popular idea of the
different planting industries of the island, and we feel sure
it will be found to answer this end.
Corrections of the Map to September, 1887.
Total population of the island ... 2,900,000 inhabitants.
Length of railways . . . . . . 181 miles.
Length of roads . . 2,500 „
Total area cultivated 3,130,000 acres.
Land of all kinds in private hands, about 4,000,000 „
416 Ceylon in the Jubilee Year,
The present cultivated area compriEes :
Cardamoms, about 15,000, with a probable extension to 30,000, acres.
Jak and other fruits, abput 150,000 acres.
Coffee, from 130,000 to 150,000 acres.
Tea, from 160,000, with a posgible'extension to 250,000, acres.
Cacao, 16,000 acres.
Cinchona, from 40,000 to 60,000 acres,
Bhea, &c., 5,000 acres.
Bobber trees, aloes, gums, &o., from 5,000, with a possible extension
to 50,000, acres.
In the Map the figures fcjr population should be altered
as foUows : —
Northern province to
302,500 inhabitants.
North-Central province
fo 66,146
l»
Eastern ,,
„ 127,555
11
North-Western „
„ 293,827
11
Central „
„ 310,000
11
Uva
„ 165,672
»»
Western ,,
„ 897,329
Southern ,,
„ 433,520
1?
GENERAL INDEX.
AsBOTBFOBD, Tea and Cinchona
Plantation, 60
Abhiiyagiri digoba, 216, 225
Acreage under coffee, 60-7
„ ,, cinchona, 71, 72
„ tea, 72-6, 88
,, „ new products, 69-74
Adam's Bridge, 8
„ Peak, 9, 119, 126
„ shadow of, 337-43
Administration of Ceylon, 137-51,
301
Administration of Justice, cost of,
32,304
Adoption among Kandians, 218
Adulteration of Tea, 346
African palm-oil nats, 82
Agricultural and manufacturing
interests. Native, 42-58,84-9,150
Agricultural College, 144
„ Education, 30, 144
Agriculture under the Dutch, 6,
44, 147
Agriculture, manuals on tropical,
110
Agriculturist, Tropical, 71
Altitudes of mountains, 9, 273, 338
,, suited to coffee and tea,
65, 74-6, 326, 344
American Mission in Ceylon, 238
Ancient capitals described, 203-25,
389-406
Ancient Sinhalese family, 217
Animals, wild, 129, 179, 211, 219,
224, 217, 279
28
Annotto dye plant, 82
AnurSdhapura, 36, 128, 203-25,
389-406
Antiquities, 203-25, 284, 389-106
Apprentices to tea-planters, 109
Arabi and the Egyptian exiles, 2,
173
Arabs, coffee introduced by, 59,
corrigenda.
Arabs, cinnamon known to, 48
Architecture, Buddhist, 203-25,
389-^06
Area of Ceylon, 8, 262, 273
Areas of irrigation tanks, 391
Areca palm, 53, 211
Army. See Militakt.
Arrack, 50
Assam tea-tree {Illustration), 75
Astrology, native, 231, 364
Asylums in Ceylon, 29, 38, 170
Atmospheric disturbances, 106
Australia to Ceylon, 145, 357
Backwaters, 9, 21
Baker, Sir Samuel, 115
Bank notes, 11, 27, 39
„ Oriental Corporation, 26
Banks in Ceylon, 11, 27, 306
„ Savings, 10, 26, 34
Banyan tree {Illustration), 89
Baptist Mission in Ceylon, 239
Bark, cinnamon, 48
,, cinchona. See Cinchona.
Barnes, Governor Sir Edward,
13-15, 23, 61
418
General Index,
Baths, ancient, in Ceylon, 393
Batticaloa, 44, 45, 55, 315
Beef, supply of, in Ceylon, 56, 128
Benefactors of Ceylon (non-official)
257
Benefactions by S. D. A. Baje-
pakse, Esq., 352
Benefactions by C. H. de Soysa,
Esq., 350
Benefits from roads, 18
, , planting enterprise, 96-104
Betel chewing, 211
Birds in Ceylon, 281
Boats, Bridge of, 13, 14
Bo-tree, sacred, 209, 284, 360
Books on Ceylon, 165, 242, 315
Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya,
121, 314
Botanical Gardens, experimental,
144
Botanical Gardens, Hakgalla, 55,
126, 315
Botanical Gardens, Eew, 336
Botany of Ceylon, 121, 278, 360
Brazen Palace, 210, 401
Brazil, Cofiee prodnction in, 320
Breakwater, Colombo, 16, 36, 107,
307
Breakwater railway, 19
Bread-frait tree, 54, 361
Brides, native, 159
Bridges and Bridge of Boats, 13, 14,
15, 362
British Governors of Ceylon 252
„ „ „ (Illus-
tration), xvi
British rule in Ceylon, 8-20
„ benefits to natives, 10-22,
36, 94-104
Bnddha, moral laws of Gautama,
225-80
Buddhism, 146, 159, 167, 247, 286
„ in Cambodiaand China,
3, 167
Buddhism in Bormah and Siam, 167
Buddhism and caste, 159, 251,
367-80
Buddhism and its' tenets, 160,211
Buddhist festivals and worship,
225-35, 364
Buddhist temporalities, 31, 38,
146, 401
Buddhist motto, 156
„ ruins, 2l, 203-25, 389-406
Buddhist schools, 31, 146
Bullocks imported,^?
Bullock carts, 22
Burial-grounds, 229
Burghers, status of, 39, 40, 263
Barnside, Sir Bruce, Chief Justice,
32
Cacao cultivation, 78-81, 321
„ exports, 80, 86, 323, 325
„ prices, 109
„ tree and pods {Illmtration),
79,81
Cambodia, presents from king of, 3
Canals made by Dutch, 5, 9, 21
„ mileage of, 10
Caoutchouc. See India-bubbeb.
Capital and returns, 91-4, 292
,, ancient, 203-25
Capitalists, prospects for, 105-12,
328-36
Cardamoms, 81-2, 212, 389
„ exports, 86, 325
Carriage of produce. 111
Carrier-pigeons, 34
Carts and carriages, 11, 22, 332, 363
Cart-roads, 10
Carpenters, Sinhalese, 57'
Caste, 19, 83, 40,155-9, 251, 367-80
Cattle, number of in Ceylon, 11,
269, 297
Cattle, rearing and marking, 56,
87, 128
Ceara rubber-tree {Illustration), 83
Census of Ceylon, 23, 35, 262
Central Province, 314
Ceylon and its planting industries,
318-27
„ antiquities, 114, 208-25, 389
„ ancient history and names,
2, 114, 272
„ attractionafor the traveller,
113-32, 312
,, books on, 315
„ Chinese invasion of,.3
„ letter to London Times on,
318-27
Medical College, 29
„ natural features of, 8, 106,
114-32, 272-9
„ Observer, 70, 110, 287
„ Pall Mall Gazette's inter-
viewer, 828
„ progress in, 10, 96-104, 242
General Index.
419
Ceylon revenue and expenditure,
133-6
„ Eifles, 28
„ summary of information,
272-317
„ value of trade, 96, 297
Charitable allowances, 11
Changes in European element, 91
Chief Justices of Ceylon, 253
„ towns, 286
China, Buddhism in, 3, 286
„ tea, 69, 74, 77
Chinese iu Ceylon, 3, 4, 334
Christianity and Education, 288
in Ceylon, 236-50
Church Mission in Ceylon, 238
Cinchona, area planted, 69-72
„ branch {Illustration), 71
export, 86, 88, 320-4
Cinnamon export, 5, 48, 86
„ monopoly, 5, 34
„ production of, 44, 48,
69
Citronella oil, 55, 86
CivU Service, Ceylon and India,
149-50, 302
Civilization in Ceylon, 3
„ and roads, 18
Clubs, 40
Climate of Ceylon, 104, 106, 107,
115-20, 127, 205, 276, 331
Clothing of natives, 101, 117, 363
Coaches and Ceylon, 299
Coal, imports into Ceylon, 87
Coast, belt of palms, 49
Cocoa. See Cacao'.
Coconut cultivation, 6, 44, 48-55,
293
Coconut cUmber, 52
„ exports, 86, 272, 327
„ fibre. See Coir.
„ oil, 327
„ products of the, 49-51
,, plantation (Illustration),
43, 122
„ plantation, tax on, 147
Code, Penal and Civil, 32, 112,
143, 804
Coffee, altitude suitable, 65, 74
,, bush {Illustration), 62, 73
,, capital and profits, 92-4
„ crops, total, 92
„ cultivation, 6, 60-8, 318-27
„ disease, 64-8, 294, 319, 329
Coffee exports, 60-7, 86, 88, 322, 326
future of, 88
Gardens, Sinhalese, 62
introduced, 59, corrigenda.
Liberian {Illustration), 104
native, 94
plantation {Illustration), 60
„ profits from, 63,
91-3, 97-101
„ prices, 90
Coir export, 86
„ fibre, 50
College, Ceylon Medical, 29, 35
„ Agricultural, 144
Colleges, 175, 237
Colombo Breakwater, 16, 36, 107,
301
Colombo described, 116, 312
I, „ by "Vagabond,"
357-65
Colombo Graving-dock, 36, 141, 146
,, Harbour, 307
„ Museum, 361, 407-1*4
„ population, 10, 116
,, railway route described,
813
,, shipping advantages, 107,
111, 145
,, waterworks, 35, 118, 140,
808
,, versus Trincomalee, 36,
145
Colonial Office, 137, 140
Commerce of Ceylon, 5, 297
Communication, means of, 5, 13-22,
36, 107, 299
Commutation, rice, 134, 148, 176
Compulsory labour, 33
Company, Ceylon, Limited, 27
Companies, Steamer, 107
Conditions of Ceylon under British
rule, 9-13
Configuration of Ceylon, 8
Conservation of forests, 35
Contribution, Military, 28
Coode, Sir John, and Colombo
Harbour WorkSj 16
Coolies, Tamil, 265
„ {Illustrations), 345, 347
„ their language, 155
Copra, 86
Coral reefs, 115
Cordiner, Bev. James, 17
Cost of Administration of Justice, 32 '
420
General Index.
Cost oi living in Cejlon, 130
Cotton rultivation, 5, 55
,, opinners, 58
„ imports, tax on, 149
Council reform, 33, 168
Courts of Law, 304
Crime in Ceylon, 32, 304
Crises, Financial, 61, 90-4
Crocodiles, 132
Croton-oil seeds, 82
Crown Colonies, 1, 137
„ land sold, 65, 135, 296
Crucibles, plumbago for, 86
Cruelty to animals, 160
Cultivated areas, 11, 42-58, 290
Cultivation of new products, 36,
69-84
Currency, Decimal, 27, 306
„ notes, 11, 27, 39
Customs, 135, 307
Cycles of depression, 90
DSgobas in Ceylon, 129, 212-25,
390-406
Dalada Festival, 225-30
DambuUa, 404
Debt of Ceylon, 142, 301
Decimal currency, 27, 167
Deer-horns exported, 86, 87
Defences. See Military.
Deities honoured, 233
Demon- or devil-worship, 234, 248,
406
Demon-priest of Morotto, 248.
Depression, Financial, 61, 90, 110,
319, 329
Descent of Kandyan Chiefs, 218
De Soyza, Mr. C. H., 29, 162, 257,
350
Devil-dancer {Illvstration), 160
De Zylwa, Eev. Peter, of Moratuwa,
235, 249
Dhoby washerman (Illustration),
157
Dikoya, climate, etc., 65, 116
Dimbula plantation [Illustration),
60
Dimbula, climate, etc., 65, 116
Diseases in Ceylon, 311
Disease, cofiee, 47, 64-8, 294, 319,
329
Disestablishment in Ceylon, 36,
167
Divers for pearl oysters, 883
Dock, Graving, 36, 141, 146
Dolosbage, Tea in, 69
Domestic servants in Ceylon, 154-5,
266
Dress of natives, 101, 117, 363
Dumbara valley, cacao plantatioup,
123
Dutch rule in Ceylon, 5
Duties and taxes, 146-50, 307
Dyeing substances, 82, 87
Earthquakes, 106
Ebony, 86, 87
Edinburgh, The Duke of, 35, 170
Education, 11, 18, 30, 143, 140,
153, 162, 167, 288, 351-2
Education and missions, 236-50
Egyptian exiles, 173
Ekneligoda, Kandian chief, 184
Electricity, 57, 215
Elephant kraal or hunting, 130.
180-202
Elephants, wild (Illustration), 178,
186
Elephants, preservation of, 87, 280,
404
Elevation suited for planting, 65, 74
" Eleven Years in Ceylon," ly
Forbes; 203-35
Elk hunting, 129
Ella Pass, 127
Elliott, Mr. E., on rice culture, 44
Endowments, Buddhist, 81, 38,
146
English language spoken, 31, 154
Essential oils, 55
Estate population, 265
„ property, value of, 63-7,
292
Executive Councillors, list of, 255
Europeans shifting, and number
in Ceylon, 91, 263-4
Executive Council, 169, 301
Expenditure of Ceylon, 10, 133-6,
298
Export of coffee, 60-7, 88, 826
„ ,, cinnamon, 48
,, „ coconut, 50
,, duties, 35
„ table (1873-86), 86, 327
„ of tea, 324
Exports under the Dutch, 6, 60
Extension of Eailway, 16, 20, 38,
128, 140, 142
General Index,
421
Facilities for travel, 111
Factory, Government, 57
Fa-hien, Chinese traveller, in Cey-
lou, 4
Famine and roads, 18
Farm, Stock, 151
Favieli, Mr. W. F., first railway
contractor in Ceylon, 18
Female education, 30, (53
Festivals, Kandian, 225-35
Fibre, Coir, etc., 50, 52, 86, 321
.„ Eitul, 86
Financial depression, 61, 90, 319,
329
Fishery, Pearl-oyster, 130, 135, 381
Fish tax, 34, 103, 148
,, imports, 269
Flying-foxes, 247
Fodder-grass, 57
Food consumption, 47, 99
„ supplies, 42, 47, 49, 56
„ taxes, 147, 296
Forbes, Major, extracts from his
book, 203-35
Forced labour in Ceylon, 6, 33, 48
Foreign invasions of Ceylon, 3
Forest conservation, 35, 135
„ laud, price of, 65, 291
Freights in Ceylon, 107, 111
Friend-in-Need Societies in Ceylon,
11
Fruit-trees, etc., 55, 278, 291, 361
Fungus, Coffee-leaf. See Disease.
Galle,- 141, 142, 313
Game in Ceylon, 35, 179, 211, 224
Gampola, 4, 123
Gangaruwa, yiew of, 12
Gansabawa (Village Council) 35-6
Gaols in Ceylon, 32, 36
Garden cultivation, 44, 47, 62
Gas in Colombo, 36
Gems, 87, 117, 276
Genealogies, 218, 354
Geography of Ceylon, 9, 272-86
Geology of Ceylon, 275, 405, 409
Gneiss rocks, 405
Gods honoured by .Sinhalese, 233
Gold, 87
Government can do for Ceylon,
what its, 137-51
Government note issue, 11, 27, 306
,, reforms in the, 168
Governor, an ideal, 39, 139
Governor's salary, 38
Governors, British, in Ceylon,
Frontispiece.
Governors, a list of, 252
Grain. See Rice.
Grant-in-aid System of Edijcation,
3d, 35
Grass, 57
Gravelled roads, 17
Graving-dock, 36, 141, 146
Gregory, Sir William, 16, 35, 40,
70, 98, 126, 139 .
Green, Dr., American Missionary,
29
Green bug, 47
Gunmakers, Sinhalese, 57
Guests at the Governor's, 40
Hakgalla Botanic'Gardens, 55, 126,
315
Hambantota, 180
HaputalS extension, 20, 128, 140-3
waterfaUs, 127, 131
Harbour, Colombo, 16, 107, 141,
145, 301
,, ,, {Illustration), 8
Hardy on Ceylon, Spence, 101, 242
Harvesting tea and coffee, 74, 346
Headmen in Ceylon, 144-8
Health in Ceylon; 98, 3ll,- 331
Healthiness of Colombo, 118
of Uva, 127
Heber's hymn, 48
Heights of riiountains", 9, 273, 338
HemileiaVastatrix, 64-8, 294, 319,
329
Hides and skins, export of,' 87
HiU Station. See Nuwaea Eliva.
Historical monuments in Ceylon,
See Monuments.
Historical notes, 283
Holidays and natives, 156
Horse,s, number of, in Ceylon, 11,
22
Horton Plains, 126, 127, 179
Hospitals in Ceylon, 11, 29, 311,
350
Hotels in Colombo, 116, 117, 130
„ ,, NuwaraEliya, 120, 130
Houses, inhabited, in Ceylon, 10,
2.3, 222
Hurricanes in Ceylon, lOG
Iddamalgoda, Kandian Chief, 185
422
General Index.
Images and image-worship in Cey-
lon, 235
Immigration route, 17
Import duties; 134, 147-9
Imports of Ceylon, staple,- for 45'
years, 269, 297
Imports, -value of, 10
,, of grain. See 'Rice,
Improvements, legislative and
social, 33-41
Improvements in Ceylon, 98-108
Income from railways, 20, 135, 366
India and Ceylon tea compared, 77,
107
India-rubber, 82, 321
„ {Illustration), 83
Indirect taxes, 147, 149
Industries. See Natives.
Insects, 132, 282
Inspection of investments. 111
Interview with Ceylon journaUst,
328-36
Intoxicants, 50
luvaKds visiting Ceylon, 116
Invasions of Ceylon, 3, 283
Investment, good field for, 105-8
Irrigation Board, 46, 148
-,, works. See Tanks.
Ironwor]£s,"Colombo, 57
Jaffna, 44, 49, 315
Jaggery pahn, 52
Jails in Ceylon, 32, 86
Jak-tree, 54, 361
Java and liquor, 50
,, and Ceylon compared, 106
Jiniriokshas in Ceylon, 118
Jubilee Celebration, 170-7
Juries and caste in Ceylon, 33
Justice, administration of, 32, 304
,, charter of, 38
Kalawewa tank, 140, 390
Kalutara, the " Eichmond of Cey-
lon," 119
Kalutara, railway to, 19-20
Kandy, 21, 25, 121, 225-35, 314
„ Lake {Illustration), 120
,, railway hne, 19-21
„ temple {Illustration), 167
Kandyan chiefs, descent of, 218
,, chieftain {Illustration) ^
134
,, festivals,. 231-5
Eandyan law, 218, 303-6
,, mythology, 233
Kanthalai tank, 179
Kaolin for pottery, 4
Kelani Eiver bridged, 13
,, Temple, etc., described, 857-
65
Kew Gardens, 836
Kings oi Ceylon, ancient, 8, 146,
206, 229, 283
Kitul or Jaggery palm, 52
„ fibre, 86
Knox, Robert, in Ceylon, 165, 206
Kraal, Elephant, 130, 180-202
Kurunegala, Cacao in, 80
Kyle, Mr. John, and Colombo Har-
bour Works, 16
Labour, compulsory, abolished, 6,
83, 48
Labour on roads, 34
,, supply (Tamil Coolies), 63,
331
Labour, Chinese, 334
Labugama Kraal, 180-202
,, Reservoir, 892
Lakes and lagoons in Ceylon, 9, 21,
246, 274
Lamps, festival of the, 283
Land sales and price of, 65, 110,
135, 296, 821, 331
Land Laws, 112
„ Tax, 134, 147, 296
Langdon, Rev. S., and Mission
work, 62
Languages spoken in Ceylon, 31,
154, 287
Law, Kandyan and Rjman-Dutch,
218, 303-6
Law Reform, 112, 143, 146-50
Layard, Sir Charles P., on rice
cultivation, 44
Leaf Disease, Cofiee, 64-8, 294-
319,329
Leeches in Ceylon, 132
Legislation, Ceylon and India, 166
Legislative Council, 83, 168
„ improvements, 83-41,
112, 143, 146-50, 168
Lemon-grass oil, 55
Liberian coffee. See Coftee.
,, ,, {Illustration), 62
Licenses, Liquor,. 36, 50
Lightning-conducWrs, 57, 278
.General Index.
423
Liquor trafSo, 36, 50
Literature, Ceylon, 242, 287-315
Litigation, {oodnesB for, 31
Loc^ Boards,, 35
Longden, Giovemor Sir James, 38,
39
Lunatic Asylum in Ceylon, 38
MaoVioar'a Mission work Dr.,
sketch of, 245
MacCarthy, Governor Sir Chas., 16
Mahawamso Ancient History of
Ceylon, 215 '
Mahaveliganga river, 9, 12, 13,
274
Major- Generals in Ceylon, 254
Malays, 28, 156, 175, 219, 263, 264
Maldive Islands, 49
Manchester goods, 56
Manuals on planting, etc., 110
Manufacture of tea, 347
Manufactures, native, 57
Map showing products of Ceylon,
415, and in pocket.
Map of Ceylon, BaUway, etc., 142,
313, 366, 415
Marble, imitation of, 214
Markham, Mr. Clements, 70
Marriage and Caste, 156-9
Marriage Laws, 35, 304
Masons in Ceylon, 58, 267, 290
MaskeUja planting district, 65, 116
Matale, 19, 80, 123, 143
Matara, 44, 161
Mauritius and Ceylon, 8, 106
Measures, Weights and, 307
Medical College and Schools, 29, 35
Medical exp^diture and hospitals,
11,29
Meteorology, 277
Military roads, 15
„ contribution, 11, 28, 39
,, Ceylon a central station,
145
force, 10, 28, 96, 336
Mineralogy of Ceylon, 275
Mines, Plumbago, 85
Missions In Ceylon, 62, 97, 153,
168, 236-50
Molesworth, Mr. G. L., and the
Ceylon railway, 19
Monoliths, 397
Monopoly, cinnamon, and others,
'5, 34, 48, 146
Monsoons, 106, 115, 118
Monuments, Historical, 36, 128,
203
Moorman " Tamby " llllustration),
154
Monuments, Number of, 263,
264
Moonstones in Ceylon, 400
Moratuwa and Mission work, 246
Morgan, Sir Richard, 31
Mountains reached by train, 120
of Ceylon', 8, 273
Municipalities in Ceylon, 35, 168-
302
Museum, Colombo, 36, 407-14
Mythology, Kandyan, 233
Nanu-oya, 19, 123-6, 143
NationaUties in Ceylon, 263, 284
Native agricultural interest, 42-58
„ character and dress, 117,
144, 156, 162-4, 243, 363
„ food, 42-56, 99
„ industries, 42-58
,, judges, 166
„ manufactuires, 57
,, occupations, 57, 78, 84, 88,
99,144,150,162,223-232,
264
,, owners of plumbago mines,
85
,, trade and profits, 88, 94
,, weddings, 159
Natives benefited by our rule, 10-
22, 36, 96-104, 292, 293
,, benefited by new province,
45,99
„ employment for, 36, 99,
162, 289
,, and Government employ,
150, 242
„ and caste, 19, 33, 40, 155-
9, 251, 367-80
,, as lawyers, 31
„ and taxation, 147
„ and tea, 78, 84, 150
„ treatment of, 39-40
,, and wages, 96, 331
,, social life and customs,
152-65, 363
Naula FaUs (Illustration), 131
Naval station at Trincomalee, 145
Nawalapitya railway to Uva, 19,
123
424
General Index.
New products cultivated, 36, 69-84,
99, 320
New vegetables introduced, 55
„ Tear festival, 231, 364
Newspapers, Native, 35, 288
North Central Province, 16, 45, 99,
140
North, Hon. F., 33, 103
Northern Arm to Breakwater, 36
Note issue. Government, 11, 27,
306
Notes, Oriental Bank, 27
Nutmegs, 82
Nuwara EUya, 19, 20, 24, 76, 111,
115, 123, 311, 314
Nuwara Eliya {Illustration), 124
Observer, Ceylon. See Ceylon Oe-
SEEVEK.
• Occupation of natives, 264-8, 289,
See Natives.
Oils, essential, 55
Oil-cake or poonac, 51, 86
Oil, coconut, 50, 86
Oil-crushing mills, 51
Openings for men with capital, 108,
321
Opening for English girls, 335
Ophir of Solomon, 2, 272
Orchella weed, 86
Oriental Bank Corporation, 26, 39,
322
0;. sters. Pearl, 'S84-8
Paddy. See Kice.
Pall Hall Gazette on Ceylon, 328-
36
Palm oil, 50, 123
Palm, palmyra, 49, 51, 88, 123,
279, 398
Palms, coconut, eW*l3S, 49-55, 323
,, group of (Illustration), 122
,, planted by forced labour, 6
,, talipot (Illustration), 54
Paiisalas or Buddhist schools, 31
Papaws, 55
Passage, cost of, 130
Pasturage, 56, 128, 291
Patana grass land, 56
Pearls, export of, 5, 87, 130, 133
Pearl fisheries, 115, 135, 381-8
Penal Code, 32
Peradeniya Botanic Gardens, 121
Peradeniya group of palms {Illiis-
tration), 122
Perahera Festival, Kandy, 232
Pidurutalagala, highest mountain,
9, 126, 273
Pigeon Service, Carrier-, 34
Pilgrimages in Ceylon, 36
Pine-apples in Ceylon, 54
Plantation, Coconut, 43, 49-55
,, Companies, 27
Planters of Ceylon, 93^, 108, 110,
330
Planters' Association report on tea,
with Illustration^, 344-9
Planting districts, material progress
in the, 59-84
Planting statistics, 322
Planting industry, 318 ; origin and
rise of, 59-84
Planting industry, Tea-, 76
,, ,, what it has done
for Ceylon, 96-104
Planting profits, 90-4, 292
Plumbago, 85, 86, 290
Police in Ceylon, 10, 306
Polonaruwa,128, 180
,, ruins (Illustration),
24, 204
Polyandry in Ceylon, 35
Poonac, 86
Population, 10, 23, 96, 168, 223,
237, 2C2, 284
Population in tank region, 25,
223, 398
Portuguese Eule in Ceylon, 4
Postal Savings Banks, 10
„ Service, 11, 26, 35, 308
Pottery, kaolin for, 4
Poverty in Ceylon, 103
Precious Stones, 87, 117
.Press, the, in Ceylon, 11, 34, 109
Price of land, 65, 110, 321, 331
„ coffee, 64, 67, 70
Priests and education, 146, 247
Products of Ceylon, 6, 42-57
„ map illustrating, 411, and
in pocket.
Products, new, 69-84, 99, 320
Profits of railway, 20, 135, 143
,, from planting tea, 88, 293
,, ,, ,, coiiee, 91-o,
97-101
Progress of Ceylon in ninety years,
8-32
General Index.
425
Progress of Ceylon in fifty years, 177
Property of natives, 22, 94
value of cofiee, 63-7, 292
Prospects for capitalists, 105-12,
328-33
Prosperity of Ceylon, 62, 97-104
Province, North Central, 16, 45
Provinces of Ceylon, 262, 285, 302,
312
Public Debt of Ceylon, 301
Pattalam, 179
Queen's Advocates, 255
Queen's Jubilee, celebration of tbe,
170-7
Quinine. See Cinchona.
Eacesin Ceylon, variety of , 117, 152
Eailway between Ceylon and India,
149
Kailway branch Hnes needed, 142
„ Colombo and Kalidy, 18,
20, 141
,, extension to Haputaile, 19,
88, 125, 128
,, extension to Ahuradha-
pura, 393
,, income from the, 20, 135,
148
,, map and description, 142,
313-66, 415
seaside, 19, 20, 119, 141-2
„ statistics, 143, 332, 366
Eain in Ceylon, 73, 277
Eajapakse, Mr. Sampson, 29, 164,
352, 355
Eamboda Falls (IllustratioTi), 125
Eamisseram Island, 8
Eeform of laws and taxes, 112, 146
Eeforms, political and social, 33-41,
168
Eegiments in Ceylon, 28, 145
Eegistration of marriages and titles,
etc., 35
Eeptiles in Ceylon, 282
Eelics in Ceylon, 205, 213, 225-35,
401, 404
Eeligion and State aid, 34, 36, 167
,, „ employment, 5
Eeligions and population, 168, 264,
286
Eents or laind tax, 134, 147-8
Eeservoirs or tanks, 391
Eesidenoe in Ceylon of Europeans,
91^
Eestoration of tanks. See Tanks.
Eeturns. See Profits.
Revenue of Ceylon, 10, 96, 98, 298
„ and expenditure, 10, 133-6
Eice cultivation, 36, 42-7, 133,
290-294
Eice country, 16, 42, 123
„ duty on, 133, 148
„ Festival of the New, 233
„ imports, 42-7, 133, 269
Eifles, the Ceylon, 28
Else of the planting industry, 59-84
Elvers in Ceylon, 9, 274
,, scenery, view of (Illustra-
tion), 12
„ and lagoons, 21
Eoads, 10, 13-19, 98, 101, 111, 300
,, and famine, 18
„ tax, 34, 146
Eobinson, Governor Sir Hercules,
16, 35, 68, 65
Eoman Catholics, 4, 33, 168
,, ,, and fishermen, 148
Eomaus and cinnamon, 48
Eoyal visits to Ceylon, 170
Eubber cultivation, 82, 83
,, variety of, in Ceylon, 117
Eubies, 87
Euius, 203-225
Eupee currency, 27
Euwanwela, 142, 211, 214
Euwanweliseya digoba, 57
Sago, 52, 54
Salmon on Crown Colonies, 137-9
Salt monopoly and duties, 135,146-7
Sauatarium. See Ncwaka Eliya.
Sapan-wood, 86
Sapphires, 87
Satinwood, 87
Savings Banks, 10, 26, 84, 306
Scenery of Ceylon, 113-32
Schools in Ceylon. See Education.
,, mission, 153, 242
Scotch , the pioneers of planting, 108
Seaside line. See Eailway.
Seasons, dry and wet, 65
Secretai-y of State, 138, 140
Self-government, 168
Serendib, term for Ceylon, 2
Serpent-worship, 400
Servants, domestic, 154, 266
426
General Index.
Service tenures, and temples, 36
Shadow of the Peak, 337-43
Sharks, 132
Sheep imported, 56
Shipping conveniences, 107, 111
,, entered and cleared, 10
Shooting in Ceylon, 128, 179
Sindbad's adventures, 2, 118
Sinhalese and caste, 19, 40, 155-9,
251, 367
Sinhalese, number of, 203
,, improvements among,
101-3
,, man and'woman {llliis-
tratian), 112
,, occupations of, 57, 99-
103, 144, 332
„ servants, 155
,, plumbago miners, 85
,, . as tea-planters, etc., 78,
330, 335
Skinner, Major, 181
Skins, export of, 87
Slavery, abolition of, 33
Snakes, 132, 333, 403
Snipe, 128
Social life and custom, 33, 39, 40,
152-65
Soils, 72, 106, 128
Southern India, exports to, 48, 60,
51, 53, 55
,, ,, imports from, 42,
45, 56, 149
,, ,, labour from, 03,97
,, ,, railway from Cey-
lon to, 149
Soyza, C. H. de, 29, 163, 257,
350
Speculation in Coffee, 90
Spence Hardy on Ceylon, 101, 242
Sport in Ceylon, 128, 179-202, 211,
224, 280
Sports for the people, 144
Stamp duties, 147
Statistics of Ceylon, 10, 133-6, 270,
272, 317, 329
Statistics of Railways, 366
Steamers calling at Colombo, 107,
300
Steamer rates, 130
Stock, 151, 209, 296
Storms. See MoxscoN.
Sugar-cane, 56, 291
Sugar, jaggery, 52
Summary of information on Cey-
lon, 272, 317
Superstition, 208, 231, 248
Table showing progress in Ceylon,
10
„ of exports, 1883-86, 86
Tabrobane of Greeks andEomans, 2
Talipot-palm (Illustration), 54
Tamarind-wood, 88
Tamby, Moorman (Illustration) , 154
Tamils in Ceylon, 4, 46, 263, 389
Tamil Coolies, 77, 97, 265, 331, 345
„ Coolie Mission, 97, 153, 239
Tank region, populousness of, 25,
223, 398
Tanks in Ceylon, 9, 15, 16, 34, 36,
42, 45, 141, 179, 221-3, 389, 406
Tanks in Ceylon (Illustration), 24,
204
Taxation in Ceylon, food, fish, salt,
etc., 34, 38, 103, 146-50, 298
Tea acreage, 72, 76, 88
„ adulteration, 321, 346
„ altitudes, suitable, 74, 76, 321,
326, 344
„ Assam, 74
,, ,, (Illustration), 75
,, bush (Ilhtstration), 345
,, China and Hybrid, 74
„ cultivation, 36, 69-78, 107,
■ 293, 320-6
,, estimated production, 88, 323
„ exports, 76, 86, 88, 323-4, 344
„ grown by natives, 84, 150
„ harvesting, 74, 150, 345
(Illus.), 345, 347
,, in India and Ceylon compared,
77, 107
,, Ceylon Planters' Association
Eeport, 344-9
,, in London market, 77
,, introduced, 69
„ labour for, 77-8, 150
., manufacture, 346
,, machinery, 77-8
„ plant (Illustration), 70, 75, 345
,, planting taught, 109
,, planter at work, 333
Technical education, 30
Telegraphic service, 11, 26, 309
Temperance in Ceylon, 36, 50
Temperature (mean) of Colombo
.etc., 115, 118, 277
General Index.
427
Temple endowments, 31, 38, 146,
401
Temple, BuddhiBt, 208-25, 364,
389-406
Temporalities, Buddhist, 31, 38,
146, 401
Theobroma Cacao (Illustration),
71,81
Thwaites, G. H. K., F.E.S., 64, 70
Tides ia Ceylon, 275
Timber, 49, 52, 87, 289
Tobacco in Ceylon, 55
Tombs and d&gobas, 212-2S, 230,
389-40a
Tom-tom beater {TUtutration), 160
Tonnage of shipping entered, ete. ,
10
Topari tank {Illustration), 24, 180
Topographical features, 8, 272-5
Tortoises in Ceylon, 161
Torture, abolition of, 33
Towns in Ceylon, 101; 286
Trade and Population, statietios,
264-8
Trade benefited by planting enter-
prise, 99
Trade of Ceylon, value of, 10, 96
„ with Holland, 5
Traffic, wheeled, 21
Tramways, 308
Transport facilities, 107, 111
Travellers, attractions for. 111, 113,
132, 312
Travellers, routes for, 179
Tree, sacred, 209, 284, 360
„ tomato introduced, 65
Trees, fruit, etc., 55, 278, 291, 361,
Trincomalee, 36, 179, 315
„ Harbour (Illustra-
tion), 37
Trips in Ceylon, shooting, 179
„ to Ceylon, 111, 113-32
„ from Colombo, 119
Troops, number of, 96
Tropical AgricuUwrist, 71, 110,
288
Tunnels, 299
Tytler, Mr. Eobert Boyd, 61, 80
Uva, 38, 111, 116, 127-8, 140,
148, 314
Uva, caeao in, 80
„ coffee in, 74
Value of Coffee Property, 62-7, 292
„ „ „ exported, 88
,, ,, tea and cinchona, 88
,, ,, Ceylon trade, 96
Vampires, 247
Van Imhoff, Dutch Governor, 6
Veddahs, 263, 264
Vegetables introduced, 55
Vegetation in Ceylon, 113-16, 121,
. 278, 360
Vernacular schools, 30, 146
Veyangode, railway from, 141, 142
Views to be noticed by visitors,
312
Village Connoils, 35, 36, 302
„ Tanks, 36, 46
Vishnu, 233
Visitors, routes for, 179, 313
Visitor, attractions for the, 113-32
Volunteers in Ceylon, 10, 38
Wages of Natives, 97, 331, 334
Ward, Governor Sir Henry^ 19,
61, 139
Washermaa or Dhoby (Illuttra-
tion), 157
Waste-land used by Dutch, 6
Water Supply of Colombo, 35, 118,
140, 3C8
Waterfalls (Illustration), 125, 131,
274
Wealth of Ce^on, 5, 7, 28, 93
„ natives, 22, 49, 96-104,
332
Weddings, native, 159
Weights and Measures, 307
Wesleyaa Mission in Ceylon, 241
Wilderness of the Peak cultivated,
64, 101
Works on Ceylon, 165, 242, 287, 315
Worms, Messrs., of Bothschild, 69
Worship, Buddhist, and festivals,
225-35
Writersjjn Cjylonj^list of, 315
Yantiantota, 184
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11