Traces of the elder faiths of Ireland; a folklore sketch; a handbook of Irish pre-Christian traditions

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TRACES

ELDER FAITHS OF IRELAND

«Jf ang tbere be wbicb arc besfrous to be strangers In
tbeir owne soile, anb forralners in tbeir owne Citfe, tbeg
mag so continue, anb therein tlatter tbemselves. jfor
sucb like 5 bare not written tbesc lines nor taken tbese

palneS.' — Camden.

' TURPE EST IN PATRIA PEREGRINARI, ET IN EIS REBUS QVM AD PATF.IAM
PERTINENT HOSPITEM ESSE.'

' IN NOVA FliRT ANIMUS MUTATAS DICERE FOKMAS
CORPORA.'

'THOUGH KNEELING NATIONS WATCH AND YEARN,
DOliS THE PRIMORDIAL PURPOSE TURN?'

'ONE ETERNAL AND IMMUTABLE LAW EMBRACES ALL THINGS AND ALL
TIMES.'

^

Si

z 5

> 2
g 2

TRACES

OF THE

ELDER FAITHS OF IRELAND

A FOLKLORE SKETCH
® f&anti&ooft of Krisfj Pre^fjristtan ftra&tttons

BY

W. G. WOOD-MARTIN, M.R.I. A.

Author of

Pagan Ireland. The Lake Dwellings of Ireland

The Rude Stone Monuments 0/ Ireland (Co. Sligo and the Island of Achtll)

History of Sligo, County and Town {3 vols.)

Sligo and the Enniskilleners

£rc. t 6rc.

Miijjr 3jfanurxr«8 gllmtnxtiom

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II.

LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1902

h.z^^^~ c

Printed at the

By Ponsonby a Weldrick,

Eo tfje JSUmorg of
J»g Hotter

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

Fairy Lore, ....... .1

CHAPTEE II.
Marriage Lore, ... .... 26

CHAPTER III.
Well Worship and its Concomitants, .... 46

CHAPTER IV.
Animal Worship, Birds, and Augury, . . . .116

CHAPTER V.
Tree Worship — Herbs and Medicine, . . . 152

CHAPTER VI.
Stone Worship, ........ 206

x CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE VII.

PAGE

The Seasons— Certain Numbers, Days, Colours, and

Proverbs, ..... . 262

CHAPTER VIII.
Transitional Archeology and the Continuity of Religion, 288

Additional Notes, ... .... 325

Bibliography of Papers and Works on Irish Pre-Chris-
tian Archzbology and Folklore which came under

the Writer's Notice, ...... 329

Alphabetical List of Authors named in the Bibliography, 417

Index, .......... 423

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.

Figure Pace

"holed stone" at tobernavean, woodville, near sligo,

Frontispiece.

1 the bescue from the fairies, . 11

2 " the fairies are dancing by brake and by bower," . . 17

3 the fairy piper, .... ... 18

4 " they endeavour to entice them to visit their subter-

ranean abodes," . 18

6 fairy music, ... 20

6 the leprechaun, . . . . .23

7 will-o'-the-wisp, or the boo sprite, . 24

8 wedding dance mask, . . . 36

9 site 01' st. keyne's well, cornwall, . . .51

10 st. Bridget's stone, killinagh, near blacklion, . . 60

11 the little altar, with stones, island of inikhmurray, . 60

12 clocha-breacha altar, with cursing-stones, island of

inishmurray, ....... .61

13 eastern altar, with stones, island of inisiimuhuay, . 62
11 cursing-stones, &c, island of inishmurray, . . 63
15 altar stone from tllummery church, county antrim, . . 64

16,17 altar stones in the collection k.i. a.. . . .64

18 the healing stone of st. conall, ... 69

19 altar at toomour, with dumb-bell stone, and " dicket

STONE8," .70

20 ALTAR AT TOBERARAGHT, WITH OLOBI7LAR STONES, ... 70

21 FRONT AND BACK VIEW OF ST. DECLAn's BLACK RELIC, EMrLOYED

TO CURE SORE EYES, HEADACHES, &C, .... 71

22 EGO-SHArED STONE8, STRAINING STONE, AND STRAINING STRING,

KILLERY, CO. SLIGO, .71

xii LI SI OF ILLUSTRA1I0NS.

Figure Page

23 part op stone circle, near kenmare. on the top of the

largest boulder there is a small stone which has a

cord always rolled round it, . 73

24 the garnavilla amulet, . . 75

25 the imokilly amulet, . . 75

26 irish medical amulets, . . .77

27 rags tied on trees, &c, at tubbernalt,-near sligo, . . 83

28 rude idol of wood, from west africa, with offerings in

the shape of iron nails driven into it, . . 85

29 st, Bridget's well, county clare, . . 89

30 st. declan's well, ardmore, in the year 1830, 96

31 st. senan's well, county CLARE, . .97

32 GENERAL TIEW OF WELL AND ALTARS AT TUBBERNALT, NEAR SLIGO, 100

33 ALTAR AT TUBBERNALT, ... . 102

34 TOBERMONIA, NEAR LOUGH ARROW, . • . . . 103

35 ST. molaise's (molash's) well, island OF INISHMURRAY, . 104

36 WELL OF ASSISTANCE, ISLAND OF INISHMURRAY'. A WIND-WELL, 105

37 WELL OF ST. KEERAN, NEAR KELLS, CELEBRATED FOR ITS SACRED

TRQUT, . . 110

38 REPRESENTATION OF BOVINE HEAD IN BRONZE, IN THE COLLECTION

OF THE H.I.A., ... . . 130

~39, 40 REPRESENTATIONS OF BOARS IN BRONZE, IN THE COLLECTION OF

THE R.I.A., . 137

41 BRONZE INSTRUMENT, WITH BIRD ORNAMENTS, . . 143

42 PATTERN OF BRONZE WIRE RUNNING THROUGH CENTRE OF HOLLOW

IN FIG. 41, .... 143

43 "THE WREN BOYS," . . . 149

44 THE AIR SUNG BY "THE WREN BOYS," . . . . 149

45 SACRED TREE IN THE PARISH OF CLENOR, COUNTY CORK, . . 158

46. "BIG BELL TREE" AT BORRISOKANE, CO. TIPPERARY, AS IT

APPEARED IN THE YEAR 1833, 159

47- " SWEAT-HOUSE," ISLAND OF INISHMURRAY, . . . 162

48 " SWEAT-HOUSE," IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BLACKLION,

COUNTY CAVAN, . 163

LIST OF ILL USTRA TIONS. xui

Figure Page

49 sweat-house at abbaroe, ballyshannon, .... 164

50 sweat-house at kinlough, co. leitrim, .... 165

51 bronze caldron pound in the townland of raffery, parish

op killinchy, county down, 203

52 hows of pillar-stones at cak.nac in brittany, . . 208

63 "the butter rolls " (probably cursing-stones), north

side, pebnaoh old church, county kerry, . . 210

64 "the butter rolls " (probahly CURSING-STONES), SOUTH SIDE,

FERNAOH OLD CHURCH, COUNTY KEURY, . . .211

55 THE THIEF, THE HOY, AND THE COW, PARISH OF KILUOSS, COUNTY

SLIGO, ... 215

66 THE " EGLONE," NEAR THE VILLAGE OF HIGHWOOD, COUNTY

SLIGO— A GIANT METAMORPHOSED INTO STONE, . 220

57 " THE GATES OF GLORY." STANDING-STONES NEAR TJIF. ROAD

LEADING TO V ENTRY, ... . 223

68 " HOLED-STONE " NEAR KOLLEGOR, INDIA, . 227

59 " HOLED-STONE," CALLED CLOC'HUHHEAC, "THE SPECKLED STONE,"

AND CLOCIILIA, OR "THE GRAY STONE," AT TOIIERNAVEAN,
WOODVILLE, NEAR 8LIOO, . . ... 229

60 "HOLED-STONE." THE MAEN-AN-TOI.L, < OKNWAI.L, . 231

61 "HOLED-STONE" LUHISTAN, PERSIA, ON THE GRAVE OF A

VALIANT WARRIOR — THROUGH WHICH COWARDS ARE PASSED

TO CURE THEM OF COWARDICE, . . . 232

62 THE CLOCII-NAVE-DEOLANE, OR " ST. DECLAN's SACRED STONE,"

AT ARDMORE, UNDER WHICH PILGRIMS SQUEEZE THEMSELVES, 233

63 " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," NEAR TI1E VILLAGE OF DOAOH,

COUNTY ANTRIM, CONNECTED WITH APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, . 238

64 "SECONDARY HOLED-STONE " AT CAsTLEDERMOT, CALLED "THE

SWEARING-STONE," EVIDENTLY FORMERLY - CONNECTED WITH
APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, . . . 239

66 "SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," MAINISTER, ARAN ISLAND, CON-
NECTED WITH APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, . . . 240

66 " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE." WEATHER-WORN AND MUTILATED

CROSS, AT LAYDE, CO. ANTRIM, . 240

67 "SECONDARY HOLED-STOXE," AT GLENCOLC'MUKILL, CONNECTED

WITH APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, . . . . 241

xiv LIST OF ILL USTRA TIONS.

Figure Vage

68 " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," DEVENISH, LOUGH ERNE, CONNECTED

WITH APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, 242

69 "SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," AT "THE CHURCH OF THE MEN,"

ISLAND OF INISHMURRAY, CONNECTED WITH APHRODISIAC
CUSTOMS, . ...... . 243

70 "SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," NEAR " THE CHURCH OF THE

WOMEN," ISLAND OF INISHMURRAY, CONNECTED WITH APHRO-
DISIAC CUSTOMS, ..... . . 243

71 " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," FORMERLY AT STENNIS, NEAR KIRK-

WALL, ORKNEY, CONNECTED WITH APHRODISIAC CUSTOMS, . 244

72 " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," AT LOCHGILPHEAD, ARGYLLSHIRE, 244

73 CROSS, WITH BCLLAN ON EITHER SIDE, CONNECTED WITH APHRO-

DISIAC CUSTOMS, . . . . . 245

74 " THE WITCHES' STONE," A EULLAN NEAR ANTRIM ROUND TOWER, 246

75 "SECONDARY HOLED- STONES," CONNECTED WITH APHRODISIAC

CUSTOMS. EXTRAORDINARY STONE WEDDING RINGS, EM THE
CHURCHYARD OF KIRK ERADDAN, ISLE OF MAN, . . 248

76 A ROMAN " SECONDARY HOLED-STONE," WITH ARABIC INSCRIP-

TION, AT CHELA, NEAR RABAT. THE WOMAN IS INSERTING

HER HAND IN THE STONE TO GAIN FORGIVENESS OF HER SINS, 249

77 " HOLED DOLMEN," OR SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT, AT RUJUNKOL-

LOOR, IN THE DECCAN, . . ... 250

78 PLAN OF ALIGNMENTS OF STONES AND CARNS AT CAVANCAltRAGH, 251

79 CHAIH-LIKE BLOCK OF WHINSTONE, ON WHICH THE O'NEILLS OF

CASTLEREAGH, NEAR BELFAST, WERE, IT IS ALLEGED, IN-
AUGURATED, ..... . . 252

80 " THE HAG'S CHAIR," LOUGHCREW GROUP OF CARNS, . . 253

81 " ST. BRIGID'S CHAIR," ON THE SHORE OF LOUGH DERG, COUNTY

DONEGAL, . . ... 254

82 "brehon's chair," county dublin, . . . 254

83 " brehon's chair,'' county Dublin, . . 255

84 "druid's judgment seat," killiney, . . . 255

85 st. columbkille's flagstone, ... . 256

86 THE LIAFAIL, Oil " STONE OF DESTINY," PLACED UNDER THE CORO-

NATION CHAIR IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY, . . . 257

L 1ST OF ILL USLRA TIONS. xv

Figure Page

87 PILLAR-STONE AT TAKA, ALLEGED BY 80MB ANTIQUABIAN8 TO BE

THE THUE LIA FAIL, OB. " STONE OF DESTINY," . . 258

88 FORMEB POSITION OF THE "BLARNEY STONE." KISSING THE STONE, 258

89 110CKIN0-ST0NE AT CARRICKARD, COUNTY SLIOO, . . 259

90 BOOKING -STONE, HIGHWOOD, COUNTY 8LIGO, . . . 260

91 BOOKING-STONE, ISLAND MAGEE, • 260

92 CAUBICKNAUUGOADDA, OU " THE BOCKING-8TONE," NEAR WELL-

MOUNT LODGE, CLONACOOL, COUNTY 8LIGO, . 261

93 KOUL REJOINING THE DEAD BODY, . . 295

94 CBOMLEAC-LIKE GRAVE IN THE COUNTY LBTTBIM, 312

95 l'LAN OF A PAGAN CEMETERY AT KILNA8AGGABT, . 313

ERE AT A.

Page 26, line 2, for " Senanus" read " Senan"
27, „ 23, for "us" read "it"
90, ,, 31, for "Fachnan" read " Fachtnan "
„ 125, ,, 16, for "kittling" read "titling".
212, ,, 12, for " scaf olding " read "scaffolding"
225, ,, 18, for " Form " read " From -
,, 320, lines 4 and 13, for " Yates," read " Yeats "

Omission from Bibliography.

731a Borlaoe, "W. C. :

Dolmens of Ireland, with their Legends and Folklore.
London, 1897.

TRACES OF THE ELDER FAITHS
OF IRELAND.

CHAPTER I.

FAIRY LORE.

The Present the outcome of the Past — In the savage mind no distinction drawn
between Good and Bad Spirits — Great advance made when they heroine
divided into two classes — The Key to the Religion of Savages is Fear —
Fear of the Living preserves the social framework, Fear of the Unseen the
religious framework of society — The Fairies — The " Grogan " of Ulster —
Emigration of tho Fairies from Ireland — Fairies invisible in daylight —
Observant, nevertheless, of everything that takes place — Ill-omened to
speak of them — Partake of a mixed Human and Spirit Nature — Libations
and Sacrifices made to them — Fairy Cavalcades— Fairy Hunting Parties —
Fairy Malice — Fairy Visitors — Iron employed as a Charm against their
influeuco — Fairy Assaults — Fairies abduct young matrons, girls, and in-
fants — Fairy Changelings — Fairy Revels — Fairy Music — Fairy battles —
Fairy Mounds — Rewards offered for their capture — The Leprechaun, -or
Hermit Fairy — The Dullaghan, or Headless Spectre — Spirits cannot cross
a stream of running water — Animals announce the presence of Spirits by
showing signs of great terror — Will-o'-the-wisp and his pranks.

The interest of this branch of archaeological study arises from
recognition of the fact that the present is the outcome of the
past, and that an adequate apprehension of the past is necessary
to the understanding of human life under present conditions.
The main cause of the great interest of the past is owing to the
fact that it is easier to trace the actions of human principles and
instincts at a time when the conditions of life were less complex
than they now are. Having once obtained a knowledge of these
instances, in their simpler action, they form a valuable clue to
tbi; understanding of human actions, even in the complicated
circumstances of modern life. Although we speak of distinct
ages, there is in truth no real distinction, no line of fixed

VOL. II. B *

2 FAIRY LORE.

demarcation, for the older period glides into the next as imper-
ceptibly as an old year is followed by the new.

In the earlier stages of human civilization, no distinction is
made, in the savage mind, between supernatural beings, who
have never been " cabin'd, cribb'd, confin'd" within a mould of
clay, and the spirits of the dead. The line of demarcation which
now separates fairies, and similar emanations of the human
mind, from the souls of men, has been the gradual outcome of
Christian teaching, for the philosophy of savages mingles them
together ; indeed it seems entirely foreign to the mind of primi-
tive man to conceive the idea of a beneficent spirit. The
characters they ascribe to spirits are unconscious reflections of
their own natures ; the spirits of their creation use the same
artifices, and have to be overcome by the same means, as would
be employed in earthly contests.

The keystone of this description of religion is fear — fear of
the unknown. This feeling was probably the moving principle
underlying the worship of the ancient Irish. From his appear-
ance into this world until his exit from it, one of these old
heathens was probably as completely enslaved by his supersti-
tions as is, by his " medicine man," an American Indian, who
in sickness or in health, in peace or in war, looks for guidance
and counsel to an arrant impostor, who combines in himself the
functions of priest, prophet, and physician.

At this stage of superstitious bondage we cannot afford to
laugh, unless, indeed, we can afford to laugh at ourselves also;
for the frenzy of the medicine man, the ecstasy of the saint, and
the mad pranks of the revivalist have a common origin, either
in self-deception, an undisciplined imagination, or a combination
of both.

The only supernatural beings, or spirits, the primitive savage
believed in, or feared, were the dead who had belonged to his
own tribe. About these he had no definite belief, but only an
all-prevailing dread. The spirits of the dead of another tribe
would of course be considered inimical. So late as the sixteenth
century, the Buccaneers, when hiding their spoil, killed a slave
or a Spaniard — that is a stranger or an enemy — and buried the
corpse over the hidden booty, believing that the ghost of the
slain would haunt the spot and frighten away treasure-seekers.
They J

' • ■ • • ■ . kill some slave
Or prisoner on the treasure grave,
And bid his discontented ghost
Stalk nightly on his lonely post."

With the savage there was no great distinction between good
and bad spirits. These probably varied in proportion to the

GOOD AND BAD SflRllS. 3

characters borne by them when in the flesh. It is therefore a
great advance when spirits are divided into two classes, the good
and the malignant ; a still greater advance is made when they
further develop into beings of an altogether superhuman
character, who may be described as gods or demons. On the
other hand, in modern times, the alleged apparitions of ghosts
or spirits, may be generally resolved into two categories — those
produced by religious fraud, or gross imposture, and, those which
are the product of the imagination, and occasioned by anxiety of
mind, overwork of the brain, or a disordered stomach.

It has been remarked that fear of the living preserves the
social framework, fear of the unseen preserves the religious
framework of society. The fear betrayed by a child when alone
in the dark, and the fear with which an uneducated person
passes through a churchyard by night, demonstrate the still
continued sentiment which seems to have been the principal
element of most primitive religions. In the present day, many
who deny, with their tongue, the existence pf spirits, yet confess,
by their fears, their belief in their presence. The savage wor-
ships the being that, to his mind, conveys. an idea of fear or
dread ; but the custom of worshipping that which contributes
to hia wants and necessities, is also occasionally met . with
amongst uncivilized, as also amongst semi-civilized races. In
India, a woman adores the basket which carries necessaries, and
offers sacrifices to it, as well as to the rice mill and the other
implements which mitigate household labour ; a carpenter pays
homage to his tools, and offers sacrifice to them ; a. Brahmin
does the same to the style with which he is going to write ; a
soldier to the arms he is to use in the field ; a mason to his
trowel ; and a ploughman to his plough.

Professor O'Curry, in his Lectures on the Manuscript Materials
of Ancient Irish History, gravely divides fairies into two distinct
classes, i.e. the boiia fide fairies or demons and the magic race of
the Dedanann, who, after being conquered by the Milesians,
transformed themselves into fairies.

In the north of Ireland, fairies appear to have been of larger
stature and more uncouth than elsewhere ; there the fairy called
" Grogan " is low of stature, hairy, with broad shoulders, and
very strong: or, in popular parlance, "unco wee bodies," but
" terrible Strang." In Ulster, also, the peasantry, on a day of
mingled rain and sunshine, sometimes say, " The good people
are baking to-day " ; alluding to the unlimited supply of water
for the purpose of moistening the flour and of the sun-heat for
baking the fairy dough. The fairies are not as numerous as for-
merly. An Ulsterman asked why they were not seen now-a-
days, thought for a little while and then replied: — "There's

b2

4 FAIRY LORb.

them that Bays the wee folk's gone to Scotland, but they're
wrang. This country's full o' them only there's so much scrip-
ture spread abroad that they canna get making themselves
visible." On the night of the 5th January, the Feast of St. Ceara,
the fairies used to hold high revel throughout the length and
breadth of Erin. Their last great assembly was in the year
1839, when violent disputes arose among prominent fairy
leaders, and the night following a large portion of the fairy host
quitted the Green Isle, never to return. The hurricane they
raised in their flight was long referred to by the peasantry as
the " Night of the Big Wind." A correspondent living in the
north of Ireland states that he obtained various accounts of
appearances of the " wee people " from an old man who, in his
youth, had direct experience himself. He was loath to enlarge
on the subject to a person who would probably, he considered,
make light of it, but he nevertheless adhered to his assertions,
that when he was a lad, he and his companions who were play-
ing around a holy well one summer's evening, were greatly
terrified by the sudden appearance of a " company of wee people
in scarlet," and that he and his comrades ran away as fast as
they could.

It should be always borne in mind that, though the fairies
are generally invisible in daylight, they are observant of all that
takes place, especially of anything that seems to concern them-
selves. It is extremely inadvisable to mention them by name ;
for instance, Dame Glendinning, in Scott's novel of The Monas-
tery, when reciting the precautions she had taken against fairy
influence, concluded thus : — " And I wish to know of your
reverence if there be ony thing mair that a lone woman can do
in the matter of ghosts and fairies ? Be here ! that I should
have named their unlucky names twice ower I "

A similar desire to propitiate beings of malignant nature, or
a wish to avoid words of ill omen, characterises people of very
high civilization. The Mahommedan thinks that God's real
name is known only to his prophets, Allah being merely his
human title, just as the Jews held that Javah had an uncom-
munioable name, and old Jewish legends recount how Solomon,
commencing only to utter it, made heaven and earth tremble.
The Greeks denominated "the furies," " the benevolent " ; the
" Cape of Storms " has been metamorphosed, by the generally
reputed prosaio Saxon, into the "Cape of Good Hope." Sir
Walter Scott describes how the highlanders called the gallows,
on which so many of their friends and relations lost their lives,
the "kind" gallows, and addressed it with uncovered head, the
ceremony being evidently of a propitiatory character. The
antithesis of this is shown even now-a-days amongst sailors who

FAIRIES DESCRIBED. 5

are imbued with a superstitious feeling regarding the ill-luck
attendant on a ship which bears what is considered an auspicious
or lucky name. In many localities weasels, or more properly
stoats, are greatly dreaded by the peasantry. They are supposed
to steal milk from cows, to spit fire, and to be endowed with
power to injure both man and beast. Yet here again the idea
of propitiating malign influence is apparent, for on seeing a
stoat a countryman will raise his hat and address it in Irish as
" pretty lady " ; for what a man dreads, but feels he is powerless
to control, that he seeks to appease.

The fairies are thought to partake of a mixed human and
spirit-nature. These curious creations of the fancy have been
thus described : —

" That which is neither ill nor well ;
That which belongs not to Heaven or Hell,
A wreath of the mist, a bubble of the stream,
'Twixt a waking thought and a sleeping dream.

A form that men spy

With tho half shut eye,
In the beam of the setting sun am I."

The peasantry have apparently tried to reconcile heathen and
Christian imagination, and hold an ill-defined belief that fairies
are fallen spirits, driven from heaven, and condemned to dwell
on earth until the day of judgment. The legend runs that at
the time of Satan's rebellion some angels remained true to their
allegiance, others sided with Lucifer, whilst a third party re-
mained neutral. At the termination of the struggle those who
sided with the Almighty remained in heaven, those who fought
against Him were cast into the nether regions ; but thos.e who
remained neutral, unfitted for either heaven or hell, were com-
pelled to dwell in rocks and hills, lakes and seas, bushes and
forests, where they must remain until the day of judgment,
and it is a moot point amongst rural theologians as to whether,
even then, they have a remote chanceof salvation.

They themselves are said to entertain, like many mortals,
grave doubts regarding their future, although they have unde-
fined hopes of being restored to happiness ; hence their enmity
towards mankind, whom they acknowledge to be certain of living
eternally in a future state. Thus the actions of the fairies are
balanced by an intermixture of good and evil, and their passions
are often as vindictive as their inclinations are generous and
humane. Finvarra, a great fairy chief, once asked St. Columb-
kille if there were any hope that the fairies would gain heaven,
but the saint answered that hope there was none, their doom
was fixed, and at the great judgment day they would not merely

6 .: FAIRY LOSE.

die but Would suffer Annihilation. There is a great similarity in
the imagery concerning these imaginary beings -among nations
that, for a lengthened period, have had but little intercourse.
The following story occurs in Danish popular folklore : — A
priest, one night, happened to pass a hill in which music,
dancing, and other merry making were going on. Some fairies
issued suddenly from the hill, stopped the carriage, and asked
the priest whether he thought they would be saved in the last
day.' He replied that he did not know, but that he would give
them an answer that day twelvemonth. The priest kept his
pronlise and returned at the appointed time, when the fairies
repeated the question to which he answered, "No, you will all
be damned." Upon this the entire hill became suddenly
enveloped in bright flames.

On May eve the peasantry used to drive all their cattle into
old raths, or forts, thought to be much frequented by the fairies,
bleed them, taste the blood, and pour the remainder on the
earth. Men and women were also bled, and their blood
sprinkled on the ground ; but this practice has, it is believed,
now died out, though sacrifice through blood, or the taking away
of life, is still considered sacred and beneficial. When seeking
for buried treasure, it is well to immolate a black cock or a black
cat — a similar sacrifice is deemed necessary before the com-
mencement of any important operation — it is also certain to
remove ill-luck from a house.

A correspondent states that there is a tradition of long stand-
ing, that at the roots of a certain tree, on a farm, in the north
of Ireland, lay a pot of gold. Some labourers thought they would
dig for it, but as soon as they began work a " wee red man "
appeared and told them they need not proceed unless they first
sacrificed a life, but if they did so they would find the gold.
The fairy, however, did not say whether the life was to be that
of a human being, or that of one of the lower animals. The
labourers thereupon sent for permission to kill a dog belonging
to the gentleman owning the farm, but he refused and stopped
the exploration. This episode is supposed to have happened
about the year 1840, and is firmly believed to be true.

When a cow fell sick through fairy malice, it was formerly
by no means an uncommon practice, in the west of Ireland, to
devote the ailing animal to St. Martin. The ceremony was per-
formed by letting a few drops of blood from the cow in honour
of the saint. _ If it recovered, the animal was never either sold
or killed, as it would be dishonouring the saint to suffer it to die
any save a natural death.

A libation of some of the thick new milk given by a cow
after calving, if poured on the ground, more especially in the

FAIRY SUPERSTITIONS. 7

interior of a rath or fort, is supposed to appease the anger of the
offended fairies. Before drinking, a peasant will in many cases,
spill a small portion of the draught on the earth, as a compli-
mentary libation to the good people. In the present day, the
Italian peasant invariably throws the first drop or so of common
country wine from the big bottle covered with straw which he
uses, ejaculating "Per Bacco." This is a relic of a libation to
the rosy god, just as the Irish peasant, in purposely spilling
milk or other drink, quite unconsciously sacrifices to the ancient
gods of the land.

The same principle of a first oblation is carried out in a cure
for heartburn. The sufferer, on consulting an "herb-doctor," is
given an egg, with instructions to boil it. chip the shell and
throw the first spoonful on the ground, and eat the remainder.
This process must be gone through on three successive days,
when the charm is complete.

If a child accidentally spills her mug of milk on the ground,
the mother says, " That 's for the fairies : leave it to them and
welcome." The child should not be reproved, for that would
bring ill luck to the household.

In the Rev. George Turner's Nineteen Years in Polynesia, it
is stated that : — " As in ancient Greece so in Samoa, the first
cup waH in honour of the God. It was either poured out on the
ground or waved towards the heaven, reminding us again of the
Mosaic ceremonies. The chiefs all drank a portion of the same
cup, according to rank." Some of the North American Indians,
before commencing smoking, lift the mouthpiece of _ the pipe
heavenward to allow the Great Spirit the first whiff of the
fragrant weed.

One should never throw slops out of door or window with-
out calling out, "Take care of the water," for the fairies might
be passing, and would resent the drenching and soiling of their
gay caps and clothes. Lady Wilde recounts the following
anecdote on this subject: — "One dark winter's night a woman
suddenly threw out a pail of boiling water without thinking of
the warning words. Instantly a cry was heard as of a person
in pain, but no one was seen. However, the next night a black
lamb entered the house, having the back all fresh scalded, and
it lay down, moaning by the hearth and died. Then they all
knew this was the spirit that had been scalded by the woman.
And they carried the dead lamb out reverently and buried it
deep in the' earth. Yet every night at the same hour it walked
again into the house and lay down and moaned and died. And
after this had happened many times, the priest was sent for; and
finally, by the strength of his exorcism, the spirit of the dead
was laid to rest and the black lamb appeared no more."

8 FAIRY LORE.

Harvest-time is remarkable for affording frequent glimpses
of fairy cavalcades. On a stormy day, the eddies of dust raised
by the wind along the roads are regarded by the peasantry as
occasioned by a fairy cavalcade travelling from one rath to
another. The same marks of respect are observed towards the
invisible horsemen as if the dust had been raised by a company
of the most exalted persons ; and some will throw tufts of grass,
pieces of sticks, or even small pebbles into the centre of the dust-
eddy, not as an insult, but as an offering to appease the good
people. The same superstition prevails in the East.

The fairies often go out hunting. In the calm summer
evening the faint sound of tiny horns, the baying of hounds, the
galloping of horses, the cracking of whips, and the shouts of the
hunters may be distinctly heard, whilst their rapid motion
through the air occasions a noise resembling the loud humming
of bees when swarming from a hive.

Travelling through the air upon rushes, instead of upon
borrowed horses, is of common occurrence in fairy history, but
a blade of grass, a straw; a fern root, or a cabbage stalk are
equally adapted for serial steeds — these latter articles, i.e. fern
roots or cabbage stalks — must, however, be cut into a rude
similitude of a real horse. Persons afflicted with " falling sick-
ness " are supposed to be merely suffering from fatigue attendant
on the lengthened journeys which they are constrained to take,
night after night, with the fairies, and mounted on cabbage
stumps.

The fairies are objects of a strange, unreasoning, childlike
fear, and the amount of mischief ascribed to them, in the
imagination of the peasantry, is wonderful, considering the very
diminutive stature assigned to them. In the Dublin fragment
of " Tighernach's Annals," edited by Whitley Stokes, in vol. xviii.
of the Revue Celtique, the death of Cormac, grandson of Conn
the Hundred Fighter, is gravely alleged to have been occasioned
by the malice of the fairies. " Fairies killed him, after he was
betrayed by Maelcenn the Wizard, because Cormac had revolted
against the Wizard, and worshipped God in lieu of them."

Like Puck the fairies are said to

" Skim milk, sometimes labour in the quern,
And bootless make the brenthloss housewife churn."

This can be prevented, and the butter be made to rise, by
nailing a horse-shoe on the bottom of the churn — for an iron
horse-shoe, or indeed an iron article of any kind, is looked upon
as a potent charm to keep fairies away.

Another remedy is, directly after Sunset, to bar every door

FAIRY SUPERSTITIONS. 9

and window in the house, light a great fire of turf on the hearth,
and place nine irons in the fire, whilst the following charm i9
recited, in Irish,

" Come butter, come,
Come butter, come,
Peter stands at the gate,
Waiting for a buttered cake.
Come butter, come ! "

As the irons become heated a great noise will be heard without,
and a witch will try to force an entrance, beseeching the occu-
pants of the house to take the irons off the fire, as they are
burning her. Finding all attempts at entry useless, the witch,
shrieking with agony, will return to her house and bring back
all the butter. The irons may then be removed from the fire,
her torments will cease, and the farmer will enjoy, in un-
diminished quantity, the product of his cows. If a neighbour
or a stranger enter a cottage, whilst churning is going on, he
should put his hand to the dash, as otherwise the butter will not
come, or will be abstracted in some mysterious way, so no one,
gentle or simple, either from courtesy or in consideration of the
farmer's feelings, will omit to share, or appear to share, in the
necessary labour. From the Irish Hudibras we also learn that
fairies : —

" Drink dairies dry, and stroke the i attle ;

Steal sucklings, and through the key-holes sling,
Toping and dancing in a ring."

In any case a careful housewife should always, before retiring
to rest, leave a large vessel full of good drinking water in the
kitchen. One night a woman was awakened by a great noise,
and on entering her kitchen found the fairies in possession,
some of them cooking victuals before the fire, whilst others were
preparing the food. The good people cautioned her to go back,
so she wisely retired again to her bed. The next morning every-
thing in the kitchen appeared undisturbed, except the large
vessel used for holding drinking water, which was full of blood,
a hint to leave in future plenty of pure spring water for the self-
invited guests.

Many years ago, two industrious women, engaged one night
in spinning flax, in a cabin in a remote, wild, and mountainous
district, were suddenly disturbed by a loud knocking at the door.
The affrighted women made no reply, when a shrill voice out-
side inquired in Irish, " Are you within, Feet- water ? " "I am,"
came the reply from a pot in the corner of the kitchen in which

10 • FAIRY LORE.

the family had washed their feet before retiring to bed. A sound
oi splashing was heard in the water, and an eel-like form rose
from the pot, and stretching forward, unbarred the door.
Several women of small stature, of extraordinary appearance,
and strangely attired, entered, and began to use the spinning-
wheel. Under pretence of fetching turf for the fire, one of the
inmates walked out of the opened door, but immediately rushed
back, exclaiming, " The mountain is on fire."

The unwelcome intruders at once ran out of the house
shrieking and exclaiming, "My husband and my children are
burnt." On the success of the stratagem, the women of the
house lost not a moment in resorting to the usual precautions
against fairy influence. They made fast the door with the iron
tongs, laid the broom against the door, threw a glowing eniber
from the hearth into the " feet-water," plucked a quill from the
wing of a speckled hen (almost needless to explain that fowls
always roost in the cabins) , removed the band from the spinning-
wheel, placed the carded flax under a weight, and made up the
fire. They were scarcely in bed when the mysterious visitors
were heard outside calling in Irish as before, " Let me in, Feet-
water " ; but now the response from the pot was, " No, I cannot,
for there is a spark in me." The fairy women then addressed
their applications to all the other objects in turn — "Let me in,
tongs ; " " Let me in, broom " ; " Let me in, speckled hen" ;
"Let me in, wheel-band"; "Let me in carded flax." Each
object replied that it was powerless to obey, owing to the pre-
cautions which had been taken. The fairies thereupon raised a
yell of disappointed fury, and took their departure, with the
imprecation, " May your tutor meet her reward."

Here, again, in this story, iron is employed as a charm
against fairy-influence and fairy-assaults ; but the strange legend
also may be instanced as descriptive of the custom of throwing
a piece of burning peat into any vessel in which feet have been
washed ; and to this day the fizzing of an ember in a pot of
water is music in the ears of an old crone, from the assurance
that the house is thus impregnable to the assaults of the " good
people."

Mr. C. J. Hamilton, in The Spectator (9th April, 1897), recounts
a modified version of the same story as occurring in Connemara :
— " The mountain overlooking the beautiful Bay of Killary is
called Mweelrea (The Bald King) ; and it, too, is supposed to be
sacred to the fairies, and a fairy's spinning-wheel is somewhere
concealed there. One day a woman who lived near was spinning
m her cabin, when two old women carrying wheels came in.
They began to spin, and their hostess, thinking they would like
some refreshment, went out to get water for making tea. One

FA IK J ' SUPERSTITIONS.

11

of her neighbours saw her, and asked her what she was doing.
' Faith, 1 'm going to give two dacint little women a cup of tea.'
' Shure, they're fairies,' said the other. 'What will I do, at
all at all ?' ' Tell them Mweelrea is on fire.' So the owner of
the cabin went hack crying : ' Mweelrea is on fire.' And the
two women got up and ran out, leaving their wheels behind
them."

A horse-shoe is often to be seen nailed over the door of a
dwelling-house, dairy, or stable, or to the mast of a fishing
smack. In the first instance, it prevents the fairies from enter-
ing the house and doing mischief to the inmates; in the second,
it is a certain preventive against their milking the cows, taking
the horses out of the stable and riding them over bill and dale
the long night through, leaving them to be discovered in the
morning trembling in every limb, exhausted and bathed in
sweat; in the third instance it is a charm against fairies, who
are supposed to Ik; fond of lurking in fishing boats drawn up on
the seashore, and delight in hindering fishermen in their toil-
some avocation. A small piece of iron should be sewn into an
infant's clothes.

4 %£Mtm^.

i0 -

From Mrs. Hall's Irish Sketches.

The fairies are reputed to have been conquered by a race
using iron weapons, so they dread that metal, or steel. When
the friends of a person who has been carried nil' by the good
people venture into their underground retreat to bring back the
Captive to upper air, they arm themselves with a missal, or a

12 FAIRY LORE.

prayer-book, and an iron knife. This latter, laid on the thres-
hold of the entrance into the rath, prevents the fairies from
pursuing the rescue-party when they have found the prisoner,
and are in the act of carrying him off. Another practice adopted
by persons who wish to recover a spell-bound friend from a state
of durance, is to stand on All Hallows Eve at a cross-roads, or
at such spot as may be pointed out by a wise woman or a fairy
doctor. Having rubbed a special ointment on the eyelids, the
fairies will become visible as the fairy troop sweeps past the
spot, and the gazer be enabled to recognise the prisoner by a
peculiarity of dress, or by some token. A sudden gust of wind
indicates the near approach of the elves ; stooping, the watchers
gather up the dust from under their feet and throw it at the pro-
cession, or throw milk from a vessel they carry for the purpose.
The fairies are thereby compelled to surrender any human being
in their custody (fig. 1).

The following Irish ballad, with its English translation, by
George Eoberts, appears in Mangan's collection of Poets and
Poetry of Ireland. Of the author nothing further is known.
The poem is entitled, " The Dark Fairy Eath," and presents a
good specimen of the idea entertained by the peasantry regarding
the abduction by the fairies of young and good-looking country
lassies.

" Long, long have I wandered in search of my love,

O'er moorland and mountain, through greenwood and grove,
From the banks of the Maig unto FiDglas's flood
I have ne'er seen the peer of this Child of the Wood.

One bright Summer evening alone on my path,

My steps led me on to the Dark Fairy Eath ;

And, seated anear it, my Fair One I found,

With her long golden locks trailing down on the ground.

When I met her, though bashfulness held me in check,
I put my arm gently around her white neck ;
But she said, ' Touch me not, and approach me not near ;
I belong to this Eath, and the Fairy Host here.'

' Ah ! ' I spake, ' you are burdened with sorrow and care ;
But whence do you come ? From Clar Luire or elsewhere ?
Are you Blanaid the blooming, the queenly, yet coy,
Or the dame brought by Paris aforetime to Troy f '

' I 'm neither,' she said, ' but a meek Irish maid,
Who years ago dwelt in yon green-hillocked glade,
And shone all alone like u lamp in a dome.
Como ! take off your arms ! I '11 be late for my home.'

' pearl of my soul, I feel sad and forlorn
To see your bright cheeks fairy-stricken and worn.
From your kindred and friends far away were you borne
To the Hill of Cnoc-Greino, to languish and mourn.'

FAIRY CHANGELINGS. 13

A nd I said to myself, as 1 thought on her charms,
how fondly I'd lock this young lass in my arms.
How I'd love her deep eyes, full of radiance and mirth,
Like new-risen stars that shine down upon earth.

Then I twined round her waist my two arms as a zone,
And I fondly embraced her to make her my own ;
But when I glanced up, behold ! nought could I see.
She had fled from my sight as the bird from the tree ! "

Young mothers are supposed to be carried off to nurse fairy-
children. According to Shakspeare, the English fairies, at any
rate, are provided with a properly-qualified midwife of their own,
for in Romeo and Juliet the following description of the " Mistress
Fairy " occurs : —

" 0, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you.
She is the fairies' midwife."

Lady Wilde remarks that: — "Until a woman has gone
through the ceremony of churching, after the birth of her child,
she is the most dangerous being on earth. No one should eat
food from her hand, and myriads of demons are always around
her trying to do harm, until the priest comes and sprinkles holy
water over her. Even if she goes to the river to wash, the fish
will all go away from her in tremor and fear ; for fishes are a
very pious race, and cannot bear to be touched by unholy hands,
ever since the mark of Christ's fingers was on them. Indeed,
they were once, by accident, auditors of an argument against
transubstantiation held by a heretic, and were so shocked at his
language that they all left the river, and the disappointed angler
could not help regretting that the fish were so very particular as
to the tenets of Holy Church."

If a man leaves the house after his wife's confinement, some
of his clothes should be spread over the mother and infant, or
the fairies will carry them both off ; for the fairy queen desires,
above all things, a mortal woman as a nurse for her fairy
offspring. And if her own child happens to be an ugly little
sprite, she will gladly change it for the beautiful human babe,
who henceforth will live entirely in fairyland, and never more
see his kindred or home.

It is well known that the ministry of well-disposed fairies was
peculiarly conversant with the birth of children. The testimony
of Milton is express : —

" Good luck befriend thee, son, for at thy birth
The faery Indies dane'd upon the hearth ;
The drowsy nurse lias sworn she did them spie,
Como tripping to the room where thou didst lie,
And, sweetly singing round about thy bed,
Strow all their blessings on thy sleeping head."

1,4 FAIRY LORE.

For a girl to dream she sees a fairy is a sign that she will
soon be married. Under any circumstances it is a favourable
omen for women to dream of fairies, but it is an unfavourable
sign for men, and no man should- undertake any important
matter for several days after such a dream, or it will surely end
in disappointment.

In remote parts of the country it is still believed that the
fairies change children in the cradle ; therefore, as already
stated, a piece of iron should be sewn into the infant's clothes,
and kept there until it is baptized; another remedy ' is ia put
salt on; the cradle ,;j if an infant commences to pin© -or becomes
peevish, it is a sure sign that an exchange has been effected.
Detailed narratives of the removal or substitution of a fairy for
an earthly child are not uncommon. Spenser, in the Faerie
Queene, thus describes the incident : —

" . . . A fairy thee unweeting reft-,
There as thou slept in tender swaddling hand, V ['
And her base elfin brood there for thee left :
Such, men do changelings call, so changed by Fairies' theft." -

Therefore, babies should be carefully watched- until they are
christened, lest they be carried off or changed ; but "fairy
changelings are easily recognised by their tricky habits,' and
by constantly complaining and crying for food.

This idea of fairy possession is still quite common : — <• Some-
times a sickly invalid is entirely neglected by his or her friends,
and if remonstrance is made, the answer is, ' Shure it 's not him
(or her as the case may be) at all. It 's only an ould fairy.' Even
medicine ordered by the doctors has not been given, on the
ground that ' It 'ud be no good ; it 's not them is in it.' " A
plan, which at once demonstrates the nature of the child, is to
place it over the fire, on an iron shovel, when with wild shrieks
the fairy vanishes up the chimney, venting all sorts of anathemas
on the household that has so treated it ; but while waiting for
the solution of the enigma, the unfortunate child is often so
dreadfully burned that it dies in great agony, its cries being heard
with callous indifference by its parents, who imagine that it is
the fairy child, not their own offspring, that is tortured.

Crofton Croker quotes Robin Goodfellow's song, in which
the proceedings of a fairy troop are thus described : —

" When larks 'gin sing

Away wo fling
And babes new born steal as we go,

An elf in bed

AVe leave instead
And wend us laughing Ho ! Ho ! Ho ! "

FA IR Y CHA NGFLIiVGS. 1 5

The fairy changeling often produces a set of tiny bagpipes,
sits up in the cradle, and plays jigs, reels, and lively dance
music. The inmates of the cottage are forced, greatly against
their inclination, to commence dancing, and this enforced
amusement continues until they sink from exhaustion. When
the infant is thus known to be undoubtedly a changeling, it is
removed on an iron shovel from the cabin, and placed on the
centre of the dunghill, whilst rhymes are recited by the fairy
doctor directing the operation, together with some verses in
Irish, of which the following, according to the Eev. John
O'Hanlon, is a correct translation : —

" Fairy men and women all,
List ! it is your baby's call ;
For on the dunghill's top he lies
Beneath the wido inclement skies.
Then come with coach and sumptuous train,
And take him to your mote again ;
For if ye stay till cocks shall crow,
You '11 find him like a thing of snow ;
A pallid lump, a child of scorn,
A monstrous brut of fairies born.
But ere you bear the boy away,
Restore the child you took instead ;
When like a thief, the other day,
You robbed my infant's crtidlo bed.
Then give me back my only son,
And I '11 forgive the harm you 've done ;
And nightly for your sportive crew,
I Ml sweep the hearth and kitchen too ;
And leave you frco your tricks to play,
Whene'er you choose to pass this way.
Then like ' good people,' do incline
To take your child, and give back mine."

The ceremony completed, all retire into the cottage, the door
is carefully closed, whilst additional incantations are recited.
Any sound made by the wind, or the noise occasioned by a
passing vehicle, is regarded as heralding the arrival and
departure of a fairy host. The cabin door is then cautiously
opened, the assembled party walk to the manure heap, and the
poor emaciated baby is handed to the deluded parents by the
fairy doctor, who declares that the true child has been returned
by the "good people." Crofton Croker's legend of "The
Changeling " may be given as a typical example of this class of
stories : — A young married woman went with several companions
to bind up the wheat in harvest time, and left the infant she
was nursing in a sheltered corner of the field well wrapped up
in her cloak. " When her work was finished she returned to
where the child was, but in place of her own, she found a thing

16 FAIRY LORE.

in the cloak, that was not half the size, and that kept up such a
crying you might have heard a mile off. So Mary Scannell
guessed how the case stood, and, without stop or stay, away she
took it in her arms, pretending to be mighty fond of it all the
while, to a wise woman. The wise woman told her in a whisper
not to give it enough to eat, and to beat and pinch it without
mercy, which Mary Scannell did ; and just in one week after to
the day, when she awoke in the morning, she found her own
child lying by her side in the bed. The fairy that had been put
in its place did not like the usage it got from Mary Scannell,
who understood how to treat it, like a sensible woman as she
was, and away it went after a week's trial, and sent her own
child back to her."

If a child accidentally falls, it should at once be given three
small pinches of salt, for the fairies, in trying to carry it off,
caused it to tumble, and salt is a well-known antidote against
fairy influence ; for this reason, an infant after birth is frequently
given salt. Salt in itself is considered very lucky. Though it
be the last in the house, no person ever refuses it to a neighbour ;
for, although it is unlucky to give away the last of anything, it
would entail even worse luck to refuse the gift of salt.

If an infant is born with teeth, these must be at once drawn
by the nearest blacksmith — the representative of the ancient
caird. When an older child loses his first teeth, care is taken to
make him throw them into the fire, or else evil will befall hirn,
for nothing belonging to the body should be parted with, lest it
fall into the hands of the fairies or of ill-wishers.

The fairies are supposed to issue by moonlight from their
underground dwellings, and disport themselves on the green
sward of the raths (fig. 2).

" But woe betide the wand'ring wight
That treads its circle in the night."

These elfin sports continue during the summer and autumn
nights ; but the first crow of the cock, or the first glow of the
morning, is a signal for instant retreat to their underground
dwellings. They are so tiny and lightfooted, and touch the green
blades of grass so delicately, that they never shake off the dew-
drops, even during their wildest gyrations.

" Graciles tripudiamus,
Molle gramen nee curvamus ;
Fede festo quod calcatuni,
Choris noctu consecratuin,
Spicii vernat altiore ;
Lux cum redeat Aurorae."

18 FAIRY LORE

This may be thus rendered : —

" On tops of dewy grass,
So nimbly do we pass,
The young and tender stalk
Ne'er "bends when we do walk :
Yet in the morning may he seen,
"Where we the night before have be

They are generally clad in
green, or white silver-spangled
clothes, with high-peaked and
wide-brimmed scarlet caps. On
clear moonlight nights they are
often seen dancing on and around
the large umbrella-shaped mush-
rooms growing on old forts, to
the accompaniment of fairy bag-
pipes (fig. 3). If espied by earthly
beings, they endeavour to entice
them to visit their subterranean
abodes (fig. 4). Such visitors have need of the practice of the
greatest asceticism to extricate themselves from fairvdom.

—The Fairy Piper.

. Hall's Irish Sketches,

" The fairies are dancing by brake and by bow er,
For this in (heir land is the merriest hour.
Their steps are soi'l and their robes are light,
And the} tiip it at ease in the clear moonlight.

Their queen is in youth and beauty there,

And the daughters of earth are not half so fair.

She will take thee to ramble by grove and bj glen,

And tin- friends of ih\ youth shall not know' thee again.'

FAIRY MOUNDS. 19

Whether above or below ground one should never partake of
fairy fare. Mr. C. J. Hamilton states that on the road from
Clifden to Letterfrack " is a hill called Crukuaragh, where the
fairies are supposed to live. Some years ago two boys were
drowned near Crump Island, and shortly afterwards a man
was coming back from a fair, and as he passed Crukuaragh he
saw a house. He thought, ' I 've niver seen a house there afore
anyway. I '11 ask to sit down and git an air of the fire.' He
went in and he saw an old woman, and sitting by the fire were
the two boys that were drowned. The woman asked him to
have a cup of tea ; and, while she went out to fill the kettles, one
of the boys gave him a hint to be off. ' For,' says he, ' if you
ate or dhrink bit or sup in this house ye '11 niver get out ov it
agin.' So he went away, and the next time he passed that way
there was not a sign of a house there."

If you place your ear to the ground when the fairies with-
draw, you can hear them moving about in the subterranean
chambers ; you can also recognise the clink of money, and the
noise of the locking and unlocking of their great treasure chests.

In some raths the fairies are of extra jovial disposition; an
artificial mound in the county Sligo, frequented by these beings,
is styled in Irish, " the fairy mound of laughter," and there are
several places in the south of Ireland called by the pseudo-
scriptural name of "Mount Sion " ; but "Mount "is only a
translation of the Irish name for a hill, and " Sion" an
adaptation of sheeaun, the Irish for a fairy mount.

There was a strange notion held by the peasantry that two
straws put across the path used by the fairies caused them to
stumble : —

" Then raising their voices

Eeyond all believing,
They send forth three wild shrieks

Of uttermost grieving ;
For Hugh was their neighbour,

And he would not vex 'em.
By the crossing of straws,

Or such tricks to perplex 'em."

The picturesque and beautiful appearance of the " wee folk,"
their splendid halls and magnificent feasts, are, it is alleged,
mere illusions. If you procure a box of fairy ointment, and rub
it on the eyelids, you instantly see everything as it really is.
The finely-dressed little people are wizened and deformed imps,
the splendid halls are damp earth-floored caverns, the sumptuous
feasts are a meagre supply of squalid food, and their treasure
chests are filled, not with gold, but with mere heaps of withered
leaves and other rubbish.

c2

20

FAIRY LORE.

Well-known pipers or fiddlers are also transported to under-
ground dwellings, where, if they eat and drink of the good things
offered to them, they are never allowed to return to their earthly
homes.

The cheering (?) notes of the bagpipes, and the more melo-
dious sound of the fiddle, are often to be heard in the stillness of
night issuing from the innermost recesses of raths, the invisible
denizens of these retreats footing it in the dance to the cadence
of these lively and unearthly strains. A gentleman, on entering
a cabin in a remote district, observed a young girl crouched
before the fire, chanting a melancholy- sounding song. On inquiry,
he learned that the sufferer had overheard fairy music, that she
had lost her memory, took no interest in what was going on
around, and heard continually the soft and plaintive music of the
wee folk.

-ft

P^&

^E

*5

^=E

=ft

Da

Lu - an, DaMort; Da Lu an, DaMort; Da

^

=1=^

fe^E^Efe

Lu - an, Da Mort ; agus Da Cadine. Da Luan, Da Mort ; Da

m

=p=p

^S

r ^-M-ti ^

3F3=JF*^F^tt

Luan, Da Mort ; Da Luan, Da Mort ; agus Da Cadine.

It

*=

zfc

-»--

Fig. 5.
Fairy Music. From Croflon Croker's Fairy Tales.

The fairies often reward good earthly musicians in the manner
they think will be most acceptable. Croflon Croker recounts
how a poor little hunchback, sitting one night at the foot of a
rath, heard the sound of many voices singing within the fort.
The words of the song were— Pa Luan, Da Mort ; Da Luan,
Da Mort ; Da Luan, Da Mort ; then there was a pause, and
the melody went on again. The hunchback, tired of hearing the

FAIRY MUSIC. 21

same round sung over and over without change, watched his
opportunity, and after the pause, when Da Luan, Da Mort, had
been sung three times, he went on with the tune, adding the
words Agus Da Cadine, and then continued accompanying the
voices inside the moat, finishing the melody when the pause again
came with Agus Da Cadine (fig. 5). The fairies were so delighted
at this change that they conveyed the hunchback into their
underground hall, and, to reward him for his musical skill, re-
moved his hump, and he emerged from fairydom a well-shaped
dapper little fellow. Various raths in different parts of Ireland
are assigned as the scene of this story, and to render the reci-
tation of the tale more effective, the rude melody is usually sung
to the listeners by the story-teller.

The Breton legend is almost identical with the Irish, and
furnishes an exact parallel in nearly every detail ; it is also more
complete.

People who chance to be on a rath at night, and hear the music
of the fairies, are haunted by the melody, and long to return and
listen to it, and generally either become mad or commit suicide.
In the islands off the west coast the peasantry believe that the
witching power of the underground music is so strong that who-
ever hears it cannot choose but follow the sound. Young girls
are drawn away by the enchantment, and dance all night with
Finvarra the King, "though in the morning they are found fast
asleep in bed, yet with a memory of all they had heard and seen ;
and some say that, while with the fairies, the young women
learn strange secrets of love potions, by which they can work
spells and dangerous charms over those whose love they desire,
or upon any who has offended and spoken ill of them. It is a
beautiful idea that the Irish airs, so plaintive, mournful, and
tear-compelling, are but the remembered echoes of that spirit-
music which had power to draw souls away to the fairy mansions,
and hold them captive by the sweet magic of the melody."

The fairies, however, are not always given to amusement,
music, and gaiety. Very often the tiny inhabitants of two neigh-
bouring forts quarrel, and sanguinary conflicts ensue. These
encounters generally take place during the night-time, and poor
mortals, living in the vicinity, are terrified by shrill screams and
all the various noises which accompany a fiercely-contested battle ;
in the morning the scene of the struggle is covered with tiny
pools of blood, and other traces of the fight.

About the year 1800, a battle was fought in the county
Kilkenny between two fairy hosts. The opposing armies "lined
the ditches " on either side of the road, the public thoroughfare
being the debatable ground. The hawthorns on the fences were
broken, as if crushed beneath the feet of infantry and cavalry ;

22 FAIRY LORE.-.

and although the previous evening hedges and fields were un-
injured and blooming, yet in the morning the branches of trees,
bushes, and the green sward were dyed with blood. In the year
1797, a great number of fairies were observed at midday inarch-
ing: in: military array across a bog between Maryborough and
Stradbally. In 1836, another party was seen crossing the hills
at> Ballyfriar, in the same locality — in fact, from numerous
recorded instances of armed parties of the fairy host appearing
in this neighbourhood, the county Kilkenny must have been their
favourite exercising ground.

In a place called Cashel, about a mile from Ballyroar, there
stood a solitary hawthorn, supposed to be held sacred by the
" good people." On a fine summer's day a peasant, whose house
stood opposite this bush, saw soldiers, many hundred in number,
marching up this tree. Seized with sudden terror, he fled into
his cabin ; but, on emerging from his shelter some time after-
wards, he, to his great astonishment, beheld many hundreds of
little men creeping like bees along the boughs of the hawthorn,
each individual only the size of an ordinary mortal's little
finger.

" Sheeauns," or fairy mounds, are met with in great profu-
sion, particularly in the west of Ireland — in fact, their number
would lead one to believe that some parts of the country must
have been, at one time, more thickly peopled with fairies than
with human beings. Their numbers must have been diminished
by their internecine feuds. Quite recently a patriarchal peasant
informed a gentleman that he had seen a number of fairies around
him, and this was at once corroborated by his companions, who
stated that they had observed a field covered with them, whilst
others engaged in quarrying left off work, as the place was so full of
the " good people " as to be hot. Although the gentleman imme-
diately offered £100 if a fairy was shown to him, and £50 for a
photograph of one, he has not yet had the opportunity of paying
the reward. This appears strange ; for William Allingham, the
poet, describes the " good people " as being everywhere : —

" By the craggy hillside,

Through the mosses bare,
They have planted thorn trees

For pleasure, here and there.
Is any man so daring

As dig them up in spite,
He shall find their sharpest thorns

In his bed at night."

One rather rare kind of fairy also to be described — the Lepre-
chaun, or hermit-fairy, of peculiar habits, tastes, and powers

THE LEPRECHA UN.

23

- 1 h.

& .Mr

L. pre

. n.iir

lives a solitary life; for in Leprechaun history there is, at
present, no recorded instance of two of this class of " good
people " ever having been seen together.
The Leprechaun loves solitude and
retirement, frequenting undisturbed
nooks, where he can sit in perfect
quiet, without fear of interruption, in
the pursuit of his usual occupation,
that of a brogue- or shoe-maker (fig. 6).
Though carrying on this humble trade,
he is described as wearing the red
square-cut coat and long waistcoat
richly laced with gold, the knee-
breeches, shoes, and cocked hat,
characteristic of the beaux of the last
century. lie possesses the power of
bestowing unbounded wealth on what-
ever mortal can catch and keep him

under his eye, until, weary of human observation, ho gives the
ransom demanded for his liberty. Nearly always, by some device,
lie makes his captor avert his gaze, if only for a moment, when
he instantly vanishes.

There is another gruesome spirit of the hobgoblin species,
who is generally seen without his head— in fact, it is doubtful if
the Dullaghan has ever been observed with his cranium properly
placed on his body, as ho generally carries it under his arm, or
produces it from his capacious pockets. This, however, appears
to he a comparatively modern kind of spectre, ami headless
phantoms are not confined to Ireland. St. Augustine, whose
veracity, it is to ho supposed, no one will question, actually
preached to beings of whom it is said: " et vidimus ibi multos
homines ac mulieres capita non hahentes." Other legends of
saints demonstrate that man)- of them can dispense with a
cranium, as St. Denis, who walked from Paris to the place which
now hears his name, without his head. This remarkable per-
formance is quite eclipsed by that of the patron saint of a Spanish
church at Saragossa, who strolled along for three miles carrying
his head in his hands, and talking all the time.

Spirits (good, had, and indifferent) cannot cross a stream of
running water. The same idea prevails in Scotland. Burns, in
Tain ■■' Shanter, thus adjures the mare on which Tarn, pursued
by the witches, is riding: —

Now, <1<> thy s|i ly utmost, Meg,

Ami « in the kcy-stane of tho brig :
Then' at them thou ihv tail may loss,
A running stream they dare na < ross.'

24

FAIRY LORE*

A dog or a horse, especially a mare, often sees ghosts and
apparitions when they are invisible to the human ken. Animals
generally announce their presence by showing great terror, the
dog whimpers and trembles, the horse is almost paralysed with
fear. The idea that spirits cannot cross running water may
have originated in a curious phenomenon with regard to the
movements of " Will-o'-the-wisp," or the bog spirit, the phantom
of the moors, whose dancing light lures its followers into miry
places. When this light reaches the edge of a stream of running

Fio. 7.

Will-o'-the-wisp, or (he Bog Sprite.

water, it is driven backward by the currents of air accompanying
the How of the water, it then makes several essays, returning
again and again, before it finally glides along and down the
banks of the stream which, on account of the air-current, it can-
not cross. On the death of a man of the Khasi tribe away from
his native district, after the corpse is burnt, the calcined bones
arc carefully collected and carried back to his village. The
spirit follows the remains, but it cannot pass a river, so the

WILL- O' -THE- WISP. 25

people carrying the bones stretch a cord across the stream styled
the " string bridge," and the spirit of the deceased takes advan-
tage of it to glide over.

It is now known that marsh gas is due to the decomposition
of vegetable matter in bogs, swamps, and stagnant water. If a
pole is thrust into the mud at the bottom of a pond, or the mud
stirred up, in the summer season, this gas will rise in large
bubbles to the surface, and in the winter season, when the surface
of the water is frozen, large air bubbles are seen locked up here
and there in the heart of the ice. In either of the above
instances, if a light be applied to the gas as it escapes from its
imprisonment in the water or from the ice, it will take fire ; but
a difficult problem to solve is how the gas, which issues from
boggy ground and constitutes " will-o'-the-wisps " becomes
ignited. This is alleged, by some, to be due to the decomposition
of certain animal substances, the gases from which mingle with
and ignite those from the decaying vegetable remains in their
vicinity.

CHAPTEE II.

MARRIAGE LORE.

Women prohibited from setting foot on certain Holy Islands — St. Kevin, St.
Senanus, St. Columhkille, in particular, and Irish Saints in general, inex-
orably repelled the Fair Sex — Irish Saints of most exemplary character —
Exclusion of "Women from Sacred Localities, a practice far older than
Christianity— Saints' or Priests' " Beds " — Sure specific to remove Barren-
ness — As effective as the prolific Shadow of Rabelais' — Abbey Steeple —
Females prohibited from drawing water from certain Holy Wells, or from
washing in them — Separate Burial-places for Men and for Women —
Imagined Polution by Contact with Women — The subject of Ancient Mar-
riage Customs in Ireland has not been grappled with by Antiquarians —
Marriage Portions —Marriage by Capture — Pursuit and Capture of the Bride
— Bringing Home the Bride — Rape of the Sahines, a Mythical Tradition of
the ancient way of Procuring Wives by Physical Force — Rape of Wives by
the Picts from the Gaels — Ancient Irish Laws defining the penalties conse-
quent on the different recognized modes of Abduction — Irregular or Tem-
porary Marriages — Wedding Festivities — "The Straw Boys" — Traces of
the ancient custom of the Coticade, or "Hatching" — Women after
marriage retain their maiden names — Descent still traced in the Female
Line.

An old Icelandic author states that, into a certain island in one of
the Irish lakes, no female of any animal, including the human
species, was allowed to enter. This rule seems to have been
enforced, not only in Ireland, but in various parts of Europe.
Curson, in his Monasteries of the Levant, states that " no female
animal of any sort is admitted to any part of the peninsula of
Mount Athos ; and since the days of Constantino the soil of the
holy mountain has never been contaminated by the tread of a
woman's foot."

Moore has immortalised this idea in the legend of Glenda-
lough, where St. Kevin hurls Kathleen into the waters for daring
to intrude on his presence and on his mediations ; yet —

" Soon the saint, yet, ah ! too late,
Felt tier love, and mourned her fate."

WOMEN AND THE SAINTS. 27

It has been wittily remarked of this most strictly moral man —

" If hard lying could gain it, lie surely gained heaven ;
For on rock lay his limbs, and rock pillow'd his head,
Whenever this good holy saint kept his bed ;
And keep it he must, even to his last day,
For I 'm sure he could never have thrown it away."

St. Senan also inexorably hunted away the fair sex —

" But legends hint that had the maid
Till morning light delay'd,
And given the saint one rosy smile,
She ne'er had left his lonely isle."

St. Columbkille seems likewise to have been credited with a
horror of women. He detested even cows on their account, and
would not allow one to come within sight of the walls of his
monastery, because, as he explained : — " Where there is a cow
there must be a woman, and where there is a woman there must
be mischief."

Writers, almost without exception, depict the early Irish
saints as of most exemplary character. Whether the long past
ages in which they lived " lent enchantment to the view," and
hid from modern gaze little episodes in the lives of other saints
not quite as correct as the two foregoing examples, it is now im-
possible to say. Let us suffice that, in point of morality, they
contrast most favourably with the picture drawn of Scottish
monks by Sir Walter Scott : —

" The living dead, whose sober brow

Oft shrouds such thoughts as thou hast now,

Whoso hearts within are seldom cured

Of passions by their vows abjured;

When under sad and solemn show

Vain hopes are nursed, wild wishes glow."

The exclusion of women from sacred localities is a practice
far older than Christianity. They were prohibited by the Romans
from entering the temples of Hercules, the reason for which is
given by Plutarch and Macrobius.

Irish examples could be multiplied to any extent. The monks
of Iniscathy Abbey —from its foundation to its demolition — are
said never to have permitted a woman to enter the island. A
lady having requested speech with a monk, he replied — " What
have women to do with monks ? We will neither admit you or
any other woman into the island." The lady replied — " If you
believe Christ will receive my soul, why do you turn away my

28 MA RRIA GE L ORE.

body?" "That," he answered, " I verily believe, but we never
permit any woman to enter this place, so God preserve you.
Eeturn to the world lest you be a scandal to us, for however
chaste you may be you are a woman."

" CuiPraesul, Quid faeminis
Commune est cum monaehis ?
Nee te, nee ullam aliam -■

-Admittimns in insulam.

Tunc ilia ad Episcopum ;
Si meum credis spiritum
Posse Christum suscipere,
Quid me repellis eorpore ?

Credo inquit, hoc optime,
Sed nullae unquam faeminae
Hue ingressam concedimus ;
Esto : salvet te Dominus.

Eedi iterum ad saeeulum,
Ne sis nobis in scandalum :
Et si es casta pectore
Sexum habes in eorpore."

There are, however, some still surviving fragmentary relics of
ancient customs pointing to a state of things having formerly
existed in Ireland resembling those still prevalent in some parts
of the East, as well as in Africa. A night spent in one of the
old churches at Termonbary, near Lough Ree, or passed in a cleft
in the rock at the source of the river Lee, by a married woman
who had not been blessed with issue, proved as effective in re-
moving barrenness as did ever the prolific shadow of Rabelais'
Abbey Steeple ; and is it not strange that, although the early
Christian missionaries are reputed to have held women in holy
abhorrence, a visit to one of their " beds " was usually a favourite
religious exercise of devout women, who imagined that by lying
in it and turning thrice round, at the same time repeating certain
prayers, a favourable answer would be granted to their maternal
requests.

Amongst some African tribes a man is at liberty to return his
wife to her family and demand repayment of her purchase money
if she bear no children. However, before doing so, he must send
her to the " bed " of a fetichman ; but if, after that, she still re-
mains barren, the woman's family are bound to take her back
and repay her price to the disappointed Benedict.

Almost any number of Irish "Saints'" or "Priests' Beds"
might be enumerated ; a few shall suffice. A writer, describing
the Island of Devenish in the year 1815, says that " a few paces
to the north of St. Molaise's house is his ' bed,' which is a stone

SAINTS' OR PRIESTS' "BEDS." 29

trough (coffin) sunk level with the surface of the ground, six feet
in length and fifteen inches wide, in which people lie down and
repeat some prayers, in hope of relief from any pains with which
they may be affected. About 100 paces north of St. Mary's
Abbey is St. Nicholas's Well, to which many resort for relief, re-
peat some prayers, and leave a rag suspended on a bush near it."

In the parish of Killady, county Cork, is St. Ita's Well,
where "rounds " are still paid. An oblong hole in the ground
not far distant is called "St. Ita's Bed," where, " if child-bear-
ing women roll themselves, they will not suffer the pains of child-
birth. Needless to add, no decent woman would do this in public,
but I am told several come here privately on by-days for that
purpose, or take home a handful of the earth from the " Bed "
for the purpose of rubbing it around their bodies in the name of
the Holy Trinity."

About the year 1873 the Bev. James Page thus describes a
scene at the station called " St. Patrick's Bed," on Croagh
Patrick — " All the devotees do not go there — none but those that
are barren — and the abominable practices committed there ought
to make human nature, in its most degraded state, blush. This
station course is forty yards in circumference. Bound this they
go seven times, then enter the bed, turn round seven times,
take up some small pebbles, and bring them home, in order
to prevent barrenness, and to banish rats and mice. The
greater part of those who go through this station stop upon the
hill all night that they may sleep in the bed."

On Inishmore, now called Church Island, in Lough Gill,
county Sligo, are the ruins of a church founded by St. Loman
in the sixth century. In a rock, near the door of the church,
there used to be a depression or cavity in a slab of rock called
" Our Lady's Bed." This was a favourite resort of devout
women, who imagined that by lying in it, turning thrice round,
and at the same time repeating certain prayers, a favourable
answer would be granted to their maternal requests. This belief
has long ceased, the island is no longer used as a burial place,
and the "Bed" has disappeared, or cannot now be identified.

In one of the wild desolate islands off the Western coast there
is, according to Lady Wilde, a stone receptable called " The Bed
of the Holy Ghost." Many people go from the mainland for the
purpose of passing a night in this " bed," believing that " it
heals all diseases," and that " it brings good luck to all, and to
women the blessing of children."

The small stones on the top of the Ballymascanlan Cromleac,
near Dundalk, locally known as the " Pulleek Stone," are thrown
by the credulous, who believe that if one rests there the thrower
will be married before the expiration of the year. This is an

30 MA RRIA GE L ORE.

excellent example of a world-wide superstition, for J. F. Campbell
records having found in Japan small piles of stones at the foot of
every image and memorial stone, and on every altar by the way-
side. Another traveller, describing the ceremony which gives
birth to - these heaps of stones, states that women who desire
children make pilgrimages to a sacred stone on the holy hill of
Nikko and throw pebbles at it. If they succeed in hitting it
their wish is granted. He maliciously adds that they seem very
clever at the game. He also describes a seated statue of Buddha,
at Tokio, on whose knees women fling stones with the same
object, and further relates that the grotesque statues guarding
the entrance of another temple were covered with pellets of
chewed paper shot through the bars of the railing which sur-
rounded the idols. A successful shot implied the attainment of
the spitter's wish.

In Upper Brittany pins are thrown into the holy well of St.
Goustan by those who wish to be married within the year ; the
pins stick point downward into the bottom of the well if the
prayer is to be granted. Girls still resort to a little shrine on the
beach at Perros Guirec, in Lower Brittany. The postulant, her
prayer concluded, sticks a pin into the wooden statue of the
saint, which is riddled with pin-holes, and her wish for a husband
is infallibly granted within a year. Similar rites are observed in
Poitou and Alsace, and the like practices exist almost all over
France, or have died out, in many places, only recently.

In an island near Achill there is a holy well at which no
female is allowed to draw water. It must be handed to her by a
male, be he even an infant, whose hand she should place within
her own in laying hold of the vessel when drawing the water
which may be afterwards used for the ordinary purpose of every-
day life. Numerous anecdotes are recounted of the misfortunes
which have happened to women who persisted in drawing water
from this well. An old man who lived for many years on this
island solemnly declared that he had, on several occasions,
cleaned out the well after women had taken water from it, and
that on each occasion it was full of blood and corruption. From
the time he commenced to clean out the well until the task was
accomplished, no water flowed into it; but as soon as the
cleansing was finished, clear spring water immediately burst
forth.

According to an ancient legend, quoted by Professor O'Curry,
the Biver Shannon originated from the profanation of a sacred
pagan well by a woman.

Women were not permitted to wash their feet in holy wells,
though men were allowed to do so, for the Irish held a great many
superstitions relative to water in which feet had been dipped.

SEP A RA IE B URIA L -PL A CES. 31

In Nennius' Historia Britonum, the Mill of Kilkeary in Ossory
is described as the thirty-second wonder of Ireland. This ancient
mill would neither grind on the Sabbath, nor would it grind
stolen grain, and women dare not enter it. The site of this
semi-sacred edifice is now occupied by a modern building, and
for its present characteristics the miller can answer.

In many localities it was forbidden to bury men and women in
the same cemetery. The prohibition still occasionally survives as
at Inishmurray ; and it is an almost universal belief that if a
woman be buried in the men's ground, the corpse will be removed
during the night, by unseen hands, to the women's cemetery, and
vice versa. The custom of separate burial is derived from very
ancient times, for the old pagans had, in some instances,
separate burying places for the two sexes. A little to the
north of Buttevant, on a height overlooking the road, stands
an ancient conical sepulchral tumulus, styled in Irish " the
mound of the boys." A tumulus of corresponding dimensions,
called " the mound of the girls," is in the immediate vicinity.

This idea of supposed pollution by contact with women appears
to be much the same in all ages, and all the world over. In the
present day the movements of the fleet of trading canoes belong-
ing to some of the natives of New Guinea are governed by minute
and elaborate regulations on this subject. No woman is allowed
on board any canoe for two months previous to its sailing, and
during the entire period of absence the leading men in each canoe
must abstain from all intercourse with the fair sex.

So much similarity and so many correspondences exist in the
every-day routine prevailing among races generally considered
distinct, that the ethnological differences they exhibit are of little
weight when what they possess in common is taken into con-
sideration. To unravel the tangled skein of primitive life as it
formerly existed in Ireland, we must look to the tribes of Central
Africa, of America, the hillmen of India, and the Pacific Islanders.
With many of these we find marriage laws unknown, the family
system undeveloped, and the only acknowledged blood relationship
that through females. " These facts of to-day are, in a sense,
the most ancient history. In the science of law and society, 'old'
means not old in chronology, but in structure ; that is most
archaic which is nearest to the beginning of human progress con-
sidered as a development, and that is most ' modern ' which is
farthest removed from that beginning."

In the whole range of legal symbolism there is no trait more
remarkable than that of capture in marriage ceremonies, nor is
there any the meaning of which has been less studied.

The Rev. Edward Chichester, a.m., writing in 1815, on ancient
customs in the parish of Culdafi, county Donegal, says that there

32 MA RRIA GE L ORE.

were many which appeared extraordinary, though not confined to>
any one district of Ireland, the most singular he mentions being
elopement previous to matrimony, and that notwithstanding the
absence of all difficulties which might stand in the way of the
union of the lovers.

" The symbol of capture occurs whenever, after a contract of
marriage, it is necessary for the constitution of the relation of
husband and wife that the bridegroom or his friends should go
through the form of feigning to steal the bride, or carry her off'
from her friends by superior force. The marriage is agreed upon
by bargain, and the theft or abduction follows as a concerted
matter of form to make valid the marriage. The test then of
the presence of the symbol in any case is, that the capture is con-
certed, and preceded by a contract of marriage. If there is no
preceding contract, the case is one of actual abduction."

Those who approach the study of this interesting subject with
unbiassed minds will readily perceive that there must have existed
an early period of lawlessness, in which it was with women as
with other kinds of property, " that he should take who had the
power, and he should keep who can"; that wives were first
obtained by force, then by theft, and later by trade and bargain.

The question of ancient marriage customs in Ireland has not-
been grappled with by antiquaries, and it is probable that, when
the solution has been attained, it will exhibit matrimonial
alliance in the Emerald Isle iu a very different light from that in
which it has been hitherto depicted by an extravagantly eulo-
gistic school of writers.

Sir Henry Piers, in a Description of Westmeath written about
the year 1682, and published in Collec. de JRebus-Hib., vol. i.,
p. 122, says regarding Irish marriages, that " especially in those
counties where cattle abound, the parents and friends on each
side meet on the side of a hill, or, if the weather be cold, in some
place of shelter about midway between both dwellings. If agree-
ment ensue, they drink the ' agreement bottle,' as they call it,
which is a bottle of good usquebaugh (whiskey), and this goes
merrily round. For payment of the portion, which is generally
a determinate number of cows, little care is taken. The father
or next of kin to the bride sends to his neighbours and friends
sub mutuae vicissitudinis obtentit, and everyone gives his cow or
heifer, and thus the portion is quickly paid. Nevertheless, caution
is taken from the bridegroom on the day of delivery for restitution
of the cattle in case the bride dies childless within a certain day,
limited by agreement ; and in this case every man's own beast is
restored. Thus care is taken that no man shall grow rich by
frequent marriages." In the present day the routine is some-
what as follows : —

A NCIENT MA RRIA GE C US TOMS. 33

Some desirable partner for their son is discovered by his
parents — desirable either in respect of the amount of her fortune,
in cash or kind, or the land she possesses. The families are
generally strangers to each other ; so, to put the matter in train,
it becomes necessary to engage the services of an intermediary to
place the proposal before the young woman's parents. The pro-
fessional "match-maker " is usually elderly, shrewd, calculating,
and versed in all the arts of country diplomacy. The commission
given, he calls as if by accident, and without making any defi-
nite proposal, sketches an outline of the desired arrangement.
Negotiations and the all-important question of the fortune follow,
and here occurs the match-maker's opportunity, as his services
are usually rewarded in proportion to the terms he obtains, so
ample play is given to his powers of "blarney" and wealth of
argument. If the girl is possessed of a fortune, the novelty of
the transaction comes in, as the dowry passes, not into the estate
of the young couple, but into the pocket of the bridegroom's
parents, who, in consideration, agree to assign the farm to their
son, charged with certain payments.

A traveller in Ireland, about the year 1830, describes a rustic
marriage festival which he came on by chance one evening in the
wilds of Kerry. The account is thus summarised by Lady
Wilde: — "A large hawthorn tree that stood in the middle of a
field, near a stream, was hung all over with bits of coloured stuff,
while lighted rush candles were placed here and there amongst
the branches, to symbolise, no doubt, the new life of brightness
preparing for the bridal pair. Then came a procession of boys
marching slowly with flutes and pipes made of hollow reeds, and
one struck a tin can with a stick at intervals, with a strong
rhythmical cadence. This represented the plectrum. Others
rattled slates and bones between their fingers, and beat time,
after the manner of the Crotolistrai — a rude attempt at music,
which appears amongst all nations of the earth, even the most
savage. A boy followed, bearing a lighted torch of bog-wood.
Evidently he was Hymen, and the flame of love was his cog-
nisance. After him came the betrothed pair hand-in-hand, a
large square canopy of black stuff being held over their heads —
the emblem, of course, of the mystery of love, shrouded and
veiled from the prying light of day. Behind the pair followed two
attendants, bearing high over the heads of the young couple a
sieve filled with meal, a sign of the plenty that would be in their
house, and an omen of good luck and the blessing of children. A
wild chorus of dancers and singers closed the procession ; the
chorus of the epithalamium and grotesque figures, probably the tra-
ditional fauns and satyrs, nymphs and bacchanals, mingled together
with mad laughter and shouts and waving of green branches.

34 MA RRIA GE L ORE.

" The procession then moved on to a bonfire, evidently the
ancient altar, and having gone round it three times, the black
shroud was lifted from the bridal pair, and they kissed each other
before all the people, who shouted and waved their branches in
approval.

' ' Then the preparations for the marriage supper began ; on
which, however, the traveller left them, having laid some money
on the altar as an offering of good-will for the marriage future.
At the wedding supper there was always plenty of eating and
drinking and dancing, and the feast was prolonged till near
morning, when the wedding song was sung by the whole party of
friends standing, while the bride and bridegroom remained seated
at the head of the table. The chorus of one of these ancient
songs may be thus literally translated from the Irish : —

" ' It is not day, nor yet day,

It is not day, nor yet morning ;

It is not day, nor yet day,

For the moon is shining hrightly.'

' ' Another marriage song was sung in Irish frequently, each
verse ending with the lines : —

" ' There is sweet enchanting music, and the golden harps are ringing ;
And twelve comely maidens deck the bride-bed for the bride.'

" A beautiful new dress was presented to the bride by her
husband at the marriage feast, at which also the father paid down
her dowry before the assembled guests ; and all the place round
the house was lit by torches when night came on, and the song
and the dance continued till daylight, with much speech-makiug
and drinking of poteen. All fighting was steadily avoided at a
wedding, for a quarrel would be considered a most unlucky omen.
A wet clay was also held to be very unlucky, as the bride would
assuredly weep for sorrow throughout the year. But the
bright warm sunshine was hailed joyfully, according to the old
saying :—

" ' Happy is the the bride that the sun shines on ;
But blessed is the corpse that the rain rains on.' "

On the day of bringing home, the bridegroom and his
friends ride out and meet the bride and her friends at the place
of meeting. " Having come near to each other, the custom was of
old to cast short darts at the company that attended the bride,
but at such distance that seldom any hurt ensued ; yet it is not
out of the memory of man that the Lord of Howth, on such an
ocoasion, lost an eye."

THE • ' SIR A W BOYS." 35

Even at the commencement of this century, countrymen,
when going to a marriage, generally rode on horseback, each
having behind him a woman seated on a pillion ; the bride was
mounted behind the best man ; the bridegroom, however, rode
alone. That old world relic of barbarism, the pursuit and cap-
ture of the bride, then still existed. The latter pretended to run
away, pursued by the bridegroom ; and even yet the bridal party
usually set out for a long drive, the bride and bridegroom, brides-
maid and best man, being on the first car, the guests following in
an order which usually depends upon the respective merits and
speed of their horses. This drive was sometimes called " drag-
ging home the bride." Sometimes the term was applied to
the drive from the parent's house to that of her husband.

Weddings were made the occasion of great festivities, usually
followed by a dance kept up till the greater number of the guests
were stretched upon the floor through the combined effects of
fatigue and other causes.

In remote parts of the country, " straw boys " still appear at
the house disguised in tall conical-shaped straw masks (fig. 8), de-
corated with stripes of red and green cloth ; they also wear white
shirts and red petticoats set off with many coloured ribbons. The
leader dances with the bride, the next in rank with the brides-
maid, and the remainder of the band find partners as best they
can. They are usually well entertained and treated to drink.
They formerly demanded money, and indulged in boisterous play ;
but in most localities this is a thing of the past.

Lord Kames, in Sketches of the History of Man, states that
the following marriage ceremony was in his day (1807), or had
till shortly before, been customary among the Welsh : —

" On the morning of the wedding day, the bridegroom,
accompanied with his friends on horseback, demands the bride.
Her friends, who are likewise on horseback, give a positive refusal,
upon which a mock scuffle ensues. The bride, mounted behind
her nearest kinsman, is carried off, and is pursued by the bride-
groom and his friends with loud shouts. It is not uncommon,
on such an occasion, to see two or three hundred sturdy Cambro-
Britons riding at full speed, crossing and jostling, to the no small
amusement of the spectators. When they have fatigued them-
selves and their horses, the bridegroom is suffered to overtake his
bride. He leads her away in triumph, and the scene is concluded
with feasting and festivity."

In Roman history, the story of the rape of the Sabines should
be accepted as a mythical tradition of the ancient way of pro-
curing wives by force, and, as might naturally be expected, the
story, differing slightly in form, is to be found in the folk-lore of
many tribes and in many places. In the Irish Nennius there is a

L'V.. S.
Wedding Dance Mnsk. SHgutlj less ill m quarter real size. Welch's Irish Views.

WEDDING FESTIVITIES. 37

rape of wives by the Picts from the Gael, and the Irish are also
represented as giving three hundred women to the Picts, condi-
tional on the succession to the crown amongst the Picts being
through females only : —

" ' Tliore were oaths imposed on them,
liy the stars, hy the earth,
That from the nobility of the mother
Should always be the riyht of the soeereiynty. 1

" The story of the oaths is, no doubt, a fable to explain the
descensus ]}er umbilicuin of the Picts. But in ' Duan Gircanash,'
a poem on the origin of the Gaedhel, reciting the same event, the
Picts are represented as stealing the three hundred wives : —

" ' Cruithne, son of Cuig, took their women from them —
It is directly stated —
Except Ten, wife of Hermion,
Son of Miledh.'

And in consequence of the capture, the Gael, being left wifeless,
had to form alliances with the original tribes of Ireland : —

" ' There woro no charming nohlo wives
For their young men ;
Their women having boen stolen, they made alliance
With the TuathaDea.'"

Mr. C. Staniland Wake, in Marriage mul Kinship, remarks : —
" In the Book of Aicill, under the head of ' Abduction without
leave,' it is said that the child of a woman who had been abducted
without leave from her family, unless begotten more than a month
after the abduction, belonged not to the abductor, but the
mother's family. If the mother had been forcibly abducted it
belonged to them absolutely, and they might refuse to sell it to
the abductors ; but if the mother had consented to the abduc-
tion he could force her family to sell. Where there had been
an abduction without leave, the woman's family were allowed
a month to bring the man to terms about her, or to reclaim
her. If there was no contract, and the woman remained with
her abductor longer than that period, her family lost their
right to the offspring. Here we have different phases of
' marriage by capture ' — forcible abduction, abduction without
the consent of the woman herself, and abduction without leave of
her family, which, no doubt, was wanting also when the consent
of the woman had not been obtained. From the reference to the
consent which was necessary to take the children from the
woman's family and give them to their father it may be thought
that abduction with the leave first had of the woman's family

88 MA RRIA GE L ORE.

was recognised. The arrangement referred to was made, how-
ever, after the abduction, a month being fixed by custom as the
term within which it ought to be come to, or the woman brought
back by her family." In this case there does not appear to be
any such symbolical capture, or abduction by arrangement, as
Dr. MacLellan's theory requires. There was actual capture, which
was afterwards compounded for, but as the contract came after
the abduction, the facts do not come within the theory according
to which " the marriage is agreed upon by bargain, and the theft
or abduction follows as a concerted matter of form, to make valid
the marriage. It comes rather within the statement that ' if
there is no preceding contract, the case is one of actual abduc-
tion.'"

In the 21st chapter of Deuteronomy, verses 10-14, we have
the full description of marriage by capture as practised amongst
the Israelites. Every detail, even to the paring of the nails
of the captive before marriage, is identical with one of the Arab
methods of terminating the widow's period of seclusion and
allowing her to marry again.

The general conclusion which may be drawn from these and
other allied facts, taken as a whole, may be interpreted as evidence
of a gradual progress from a state of Totemism and female
kinship, always tending upwards from that condition, exhibit-
ing the development of human society as an evolution, moving,
at different epochs, with varying rapidity.

Mr. John F. MacLennan, m.a., in Primitive JIarriatfe, points
out that " as civilization advanced, the system of kinship through
females only, was succeeded by a system which acknowledged
kinship through males also, and which in most cases passed
into a system which acknowledged kinship through males only."

The Editors of the Senchus 3L>r appear to be of opinion that
Patria Potestas did not enter into old Irish law, for they say
(vol. ii., p. 4, preface) that " the provisions of the Irish family
law do not appear to have any connection with the ancient
Roman law. The Irish law demands for the mother a position
equal with the father, and there is no trace of the exercise of
that arbitrary power which was wielded by a Roman father over
the members of his family." In the laws of Ireland there was
thus, according to this evidence, no trace of Patria Potestas.

Many English writers allege that in former times the popula-
tion living in remote parts of Ireland paid very little attention to
the tie of matrimony— in fact, Keating admits the accusation,
for he remarks: "With regard to what is charged upon the
Irish by other writers, that they very religiously observe their
matrimonial contracts for the space of a year, and think they
may then lawfully dissolve them, it is sufficient to reply that this

ANCIENT MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 39

opinion prevailed only among the rude and unpolished part of
the people, who despised the discipline of the Church, and denied
the authority of their ecclesiastical superiors."

A " Teltown Marriage " is an expression often used in Meath
to describe an irregular marriage in the present day, and a some-
what similar custom to that now to be described existed in
Scotland, Wales, and part of England till very lately. If a
couple who had been married for a twelvemonth disagreed, they
returned to Teltown, to the centre of a fort styled Eathdoo,
placed themselves back to back, one facing the north, the other
the south, and walked out of the fort a divided couple free to
marry again. (What numbers would now take advantage of this
simple ceremony were it but legally efficacious !)

Another ancient idea was that people should not marry in
the autumn in "binding" time, for they were sure to be
unbound afterwards, and the bride and bridegroom should go out
of the church door together, as in many localities it is believed
that the first to go out will be the first to die.

There are also ill-disposed women, or witches, who by
weaving spells during the wedding service prevent any children
being born of the marriage. Their general manner of proceeding
is to tie a knot on a string for every word uttered during the
•ceremony. Other traces of Pagan wedding customs still linger.
" Giving away the bride " is a relic of the time when the bride
was really sold ; the promise of the bride in the marriage service
to obey her husband was, at one time, no mere form ; the bride's
veil is a reminder that in days of old she was really shrouded
from head to foot ; rice poured over the newly married couple is
doubtless a substitute for the staple food of the country, and a
token of a hope that they may always have a sufficiency ; old
shoes were thrown after brides long before the introduction of
Christianity, so that throughout the entire ritual of wedding
observances, there is probably nothing that has not been
hallowed by centuries of Paganism.

At the commencement of this century it was customary, in
the parish of Culdaff, county Donegal, for an infant at its birth
to be forced to swallow spirits, and it was immediately after-
wards suspended by the upper jaw upon the midwife's fore-finger.
This ceremony was performed for the purpose of preventing a
disease which the people styled " headfall."

Another custom, not merely local, but found in other parts of
the kingdom, was noticed by the Rev. Edward Cupples in the
county Antrim. When his parishioners brought children to be
baptized, a piece of bread and cheese was concealed in the
infant's clothes. If several children were brought to the font at
the same time, the males were first presented to the clergyman.

40 MARRIAGE LORE.

Strangest of all strange customs is that of the Couvade, the
custom which obliges the husband to take to his bed when a.
child is born, sets the doctor to dose him, the woman to nurse,
and his friends to visit him.

No certain information has as yet, it is believed, been
obtained relative to the present continuance of this custom in
Ireland, but the prominent position held by the mother in Irish
birth-rites is very remarkable.

Solinus recounts how, before the Christian era, the Irish
mother puts the " food on the sword of her husband, and lightly
introduces the first particle (auspicium) of nourishment into the
little child's mouth with the point of the sword, and with gentle
vows, expresses a wish that he may never meet death otherwise
than in wars and amid wars."

The Eev. F. A. Potter, in his description of the parish of
Kathconrath, in the county Westmeath, in the year 1819,
mentions the fact of all the married women calling themselves
by their maiden names, and this is still common in Ulster.
To the present day, in many places, women, although mar-
ried, retain their maiden names, and in times not very re-
mote often followed their mother's rather than their father's
kindred. The study of this habit may, in time to come, unravel
the tangled skein of this folk custom ; but apparently the
Couvade was prevalent in Ulster at a very remote period, for in
one of the early centuries of the Christian Era, when the
Northern Province was invaded by Maev, Queen of Connacht or
the Western Province, she found all the adults confined to bed,
so that no one, save the champion Cuchullin (Coolin) and his
father, were able to defend the country against the invaders.
This inactivity and inertia of the Northerns was interpreted by
the light of a custom which seemed to render it intelligible.
This singular inaction is accounted for in a tale entitled
Ceasnaidhean Uladh, or the " Childbirth debility of the Ulster-
men."

In the Book of Le faster it is recounted that Macha, wife of
Crunniuc, was compelled to run in a chariot race with the horses
of Conor, notwithstanding her earnest entreaty for a postpone-
ment of the contest on the plea that she was soon to become a
mother. Her prayers were unavailing. After she had passed
the goal she gave birth to twins, upon which she cursed the
Ulstermen, and inflicted them yearly, at a certain season, with
labour pains for five days and four nights (or four days and five
nights). This was styled the Xoinden Ulad. This incident is
recited to account for the debility of the Ulstermen, when the
Province was invaded by the celebrated Connacian Queen.

It may be well to explain that the term Couvade or " hatch-

THE ANCIEN1 CUSTOM OF " RAICHING." 41

ing" comes from Beam, where the custom is so named.
Even in the present day in Ireland, women before childbirth
often wear the coat of the father of the expected arrival, with
the idea that this will make the father share some of the pains of
labour, and thus mitigate those of the mother. Women also
often place the trousers of the father of the child round their
neck, the effect of which is also to lighten their pains. In the
same way, in India, amongst the Kukis, the doctor, not the
patient, swallows the medicine. The custom of the Couvade is
still practised in Southern India, in Yunnan, in China, in Borneo,
Kamschatka, Greenland, and by many tribes of North and South
America.

A traveller in Guiana in the year 1763 thus describes the
custom of the Couvade there prevailing : — " When the wife lies
in for the first time, the husband is obliged to keep his hammock,
which is drawn up to the ridge of the house, and he is suffered to
have no nourishment but a little cassava wheat and some water.
When they let him down, they cut him in several parts of his
body with some sharp instrument, made either of the fin of a fish
or the tooth of some animal. Sometimes also they give him a
sound whipping. Till this ceremony is performed upon the
birth of the first child, the husband is the slave of his father-in-
law, and as soon as it is over he is obliged to enter into the ser-
vice of some old Indian, and quit his wife for some months.
During this time he is not allowed to eat venison, pork, nor
game of any kind : neither is he allowed to cleave wood, under a
notion that it may hurt the infant. This servitude is terminated
by a great festival, at which the husband is again put into
possession of his liberty and his wife."

Descent can be easily proved from the mother, whilst it is, as
a general rule, impossible to know the paternity of an infant.
Whenever relationship is traced through females only, the custom
may be safely regarded as a remnant of savagery ; for it should
be borne in mind that in primitive times a child was considered
to belong to the tribe generally, afterwards it came to be looked
on as the property of the mother, then of the father, whilst it is
only in modern times that it is looked on as related to both.

When a state of society was reached in which the father took
the place previously held by the mother, the father instead of the
mother came to be regarded as the parent. In the altered state
of the case the father would, on the birth of the child, be bound
by this idea to be careful of what he did or what he ate, for fear
the child might be injured, and in this way the curious ceremony
of the Couvade may have originated.

In classical literature there are clear illustrations of it ;
so also among the Tibareni, a tribe on the south coast of the

42 MARRIAGE LORE.

Black Sea, among the Cantabri in the North of Spain and in
Corsica.

Mr. C. Staniland Wake, writing on the Couvade, directs atten-
tion to the fact that Dr. E. Tylor was of opinion that the cus-
tom ' ' implicitly denies that physical separation of ' individuals '
which a civilized man would probably set down as a first prin-
ciple common by nature to all mankind. ... It shows us a num-
ber of distinct and distant tribes deliberately holding the opinion
that the connection between father and child is not only, as we
think, a mere relation of parentage, affection, duty, but that
their very bodies are joined by a physical bond, so that what is
■done to the one acts directly upon the other." Professor Max
Muller offers the curious suggestion that the Couvade custom
arises from some " secret spring in human nature " which led the
husband at first to be " tyrannised over by his female relations,
and afterwards frightened into superstition. He then began to
make a martyr of himself till he made himself really ill, or took
to his bed in self-defence." Sir John Lubbock sees in that custom
a connection with the change which he supposes to have taken
place from female to male kinship. He says : — " As soon as the
change was made, the father would take the place held previously
by the mother, and he, instead of she, would be regarded as the
parent. Hence, on the birth of a child, the father would naturally
be very careful what he did, and what he ate, for fear the child be
injured." The suggestion made in this passage is carried further
by M. Giraud-Teulon, who regards the Couvade as an imitation
of nature, intended to give a colour to the fiction that the father
had brought forth the child, and was for it a second mother,
such a pretence being the only way in which a bond between the
father and his child could be established. The French writer
shows that " adoption by the imitation of nature " was practised
among the Eomans down to the first century of the empire. This
was with a people who recognised relationship through both
father and mother, and it was not a true instance of the Couvade.
" So far, moreover, from this custom having any relation to a
change from female to male kinship, it is most strongly pro-
nounced among peoples having preferably a system of kinship
through females. This is the case with the Arawaks and Caribs
of British Guiana, and probably with the Abipones of Paraguay.
M. Giraud-Teulon dwells on the domestic superiority of women
among the Basquees with whom a husband n'entre dans la
maison que pour reproduire et travailler pour la bien de sa
femme."

" This ' reproduction ' furnishes the explanation of the custom
in question. With some of the Brazilian tribes, when a man
becomes a father he goes to bed instead of his wife, and all the

THE PRACTICE OF 2 HE COUVADE. 43

women of the village come to console him for ' la peine et douleur
qu'il a eu de faire cet enfant.' This agrees with the idea enter-
tained by so many peoples that the child is derived from the
father only, the mother being merely its nourisher. When such
an idea is held, it is not surprising if, as among the Abipones, the
belief is formed that ' the father's carelessness influences the
new-born offspring, from a natural bond and sympathy of both,'
or if the father abstains, either before or after the child's birth,
from eating any food or performing any actions which are
thought capable of doing it harm. Still more so, if the child is
regarded, as is sometimes the case, as the reincarnation of the
father, a notion which is supported by the fact, pointed out by
Mr. Gerald Massey, that in the Couvade the parent identifies
himself with the infant child, into which he has been typically
transformed. The explanation given by Prof. Douglas of the
Couvade as practised by the aborigines in the Chinese province of
Kwei-chow agrees with that view. He states that the father
goes to bed with the infant for a month, ' the idea being that the
life of the father and child is one, and that any harm happening
to the father will affect injuriously the well-being of the infant'."

Thus we see that the Couvade was practised by tribes re-
presented then as backward in civilization, and in modern times
by savages in many widely separated countries. This curious
custom has been found at all times in many parts of the world,
and in countries so distant from one another as to preclude the
idea of imitation ; hence it seems that, however absurd the
custom may appear, yet there must be a sentiment in human
nature, at some stage of its development, of which it is the
outcome.

The daily life routine of a present day savage is regulated by
many strange customs, which, however foolish they may appear
to us, are regarded by the practiser as of vital importance to his
own welfare ; and these customs are in reality but the sterile or
growth-arrested germs which, under more favourable conditions,
have in civilized communities evolved into highly complicated
legal and religious codes.

Finally the practice of the Couvade may be accounted for,
partly on the idea of the child belonging exclusively to the
father, and partly on the want of distinction in the savage mind
between objective and subjective relations, whilst it has been
also suggested that the malignant demons plotting against
mother and child were considered to be tricked in this substi-
tution of the man for the woman ; but C. Tomlinson, F.E.S.,
suggests that such a practice " could not have originated in the
motives above referred to, but rather in the necessities of
humanity in the early history of the race, when the man shared

44 MARRIA GE L ORE.

■with the woman the exhausting function of suckling the child.
From long disuse, the lacteal organ has become rudimentary in
men generally, but occasionally exceptions are to be met with."
He then enumerates many instances, both with regard to tribes-
and to individuals, and states that on submitting to a physiolo-
gist the question whether at some remote period of the history
of the human race man did not share with woman the task of
suckling the infant, he was referred to Darwin's Descent of Man
(chap, vi., 2nd ed.), in which this subject is treated at length,
and to which the reader is also referred.

A most interesting Paper on "Lactation," by John Knott, m.d.,
m.e.c.p.i., &c, has lately appeared in the Medical Press, vol. cxix.,
pp. 578-580, 608-610.

Classic antiquity presents instances of nations tracing their
descent through the female line only. For examples, Herodotus
(Clio, clxxiii) states that the Lycians "have one distinction from
which they never deviate, which is peculiar to themselves ; they
take their names from their mothers, and not from their fathers.
If anyone is asked concerning his family, he proceeds imme-
diately to give an account of his descent, mentioning the female
branches only."

Over the different companies into which the Cretans were
divided, a woman presided who had the care and management of
the whole family : this female government arose from their pre-
tended descent from Thetis.

According to Plutarch, Bellerophon slew a wild boar which
had destroyed the cattle and crops of the Xanthians, but who
nevertheless gave him no reward for the exploit. He thereupon
prayed Neptune to blight their crops, which the god did, until
moved by the supplications of the female population, Bellero-
phon prayed a second time to Neptune to remove the curse. To
commemorate this a law was enacted amongst the Xanthians,
that they should take their names from their mothers and not
from their fathers. The story is, however, evidently invented to-
account for the peculiarity of having descent reckoned through
females only.

The old-world idea of pollution through contact with women
is neatly ridiculed in the reply of Theano, wife of Pythagoras, to
a person who inquired of her what time was required for a woman
to become pure : — " She is pure immediately if the man be her
husband ; but if he be not her husband, no time will make her
so."

A very common superstition is that a marriage lacks validity
unless solemnized with a gold ring. In a small country town, in
the south of Ireland, a local jeweller used to keep a few wedding
rings for hire, and when couples, who were too poor to purchase

1HE WEDDING RING. 45

one of the necessary precious metal, were about to be married,
they procured, for a small sum, the temporary loan of a ring, it
being returned to the jeweller immediately after completion of
the marriage ceremony. In very poor localities it is customary
for the same gold ring to do duty for many marriages, for which
purpose it is placed in the custody of some fairly comfortably
circumstanced individual.

It is regarded as most unlucky if the wedding ring slips off
the finger of the newly married wife either through accident or
carelessness ; another superstition is that when a wedding ring
has worn so thin as to break in two, the woman or the husband
will die, that the wedding ring and married life wear away pari
passu. " Perhaps, we have here an answer to the often-asked
question of modern days, ' Why do ladies encumber themselves
with such heavy wedding rings ? ' Another common notion is,
that if a wife should be unfortunate enough to break her wedding
ring, she will shortly lose her husband."

The wedding ring is, it is stated, worn on the fourth finger,
in accordance with a very ancient but erroneous belief that an
artery ran direct from this finger to the heart. " This," Wheatly
says, " is now contradicted by experience, but several eminent
authors, as well Gentiles as Christians, as well physicians as
divines, were formerly of this opinion, and therefore they thought
this finger the properest to bear the pledge of love, that, from
thence, it might be conveyed, as it were, to the heart."

According to the old proverb : —

" As your wedding-ring wears,
Your cares will wear awav."

CHAPTEE III.

WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

Holy "Wells divided into three classes — Are still very numerous — Illustrations
of the Process by which Christian Observances were, both in ancient and
modern times, accommodated to heathen superstitions — The Desiul, or Holy
Round — as practised in Ireland — in ancient and in modern times —
amongst the Greeks and Romans — in the Tyrol — in Portugal — by Irish
Bishops — The Tuap/ioll, Maledictive or Cursing Round — in Ireland — in
Scandinavia — Ceremonial employed in anathematizing enemies — The
Private Curse — The Public Curse — Enumeration of all known Cursing
Stones and Cursing Altars — How the Curse may be averted — Some Sacred
Stones still believed to contain the Spirits of Ancestors — They propagate
their Species — Were invoked for good as well as for evil purposes — Were
employed to cure Diseases — Straining Strings — Amulets and Charms —
Strings, shreds, rags, hair, &c, tied on Bushes, &c, around Holy Wells —
Their signification — Accounts of Wells in various parts of Ireland — Altars
and Wells decorated with Fruit and Flowers — Wind Wells — Sacred Fish
— Salmon — Trout — Eels — Well-worship and its concomitants, believed, by
some, to be of Eastern origin — Conclusions to be drawn.

Holy Wells in Ireland may be roughly divided into three
classes, namely, those which derive their reputed virtues from
pagan superstition, where even yet

" The nimble-footed fairies dance their rounds,
By the pale moonshine, dipping oftentimes
Their stolen children, so to make them free,
From dying flesh and dull mortality."

Secondly, springs that were transferred from pagan to so-called
Christian uses ; and thirdly, a few which may lay claim to a merely
Christian origin.

In the alleged ecclesiastical canons of Edgar it is ordered
" that every priest forbid well- worshippings, &c," and heathenism
is very properly denned as the worship of idols, the sun or moon,
fire, or rivers, water-wells, stones, and forest trees.

CHRISTIAN OBSER VANCES. 47

Although many holy wells have now, in a greater or less
degree, lost their sacred character, they are still numerous ; pro-
bably there are not less than three thousand throughout Ireland.
Holy wells are resorted to for purposes of prayer, or for the
performing of certain penances — either voluntary or imposed —
evidently a survival of the old heathen adoration of "water-wells."
In many Irish MS. there are allusions to this pre-Christian
worship ; for example, Tirehan relates that St. Patrick, in his
progress through Ireland, came to a fountain called Slaun, to
which the Druids offered sacrifices, and which they worshipped
as a God ; and in Adamnan's Life of St. Columkille it is recounted
that this saint, when in the country of the Picts, heard of a
notable fountain to which the pagans paid divine honour.

Illustrations of the process by which Christian observances
were, in ancient times, accommodated to heathen superstitions
and customs, are, in modern times, to be also found, nearly every-
where, smoothing the work of the missionary. In China and
Japan the paraphernalia of Buddhism have proved most con-
venient ; temples, shrines, altars, bells, holy-water vessels, cen-
sers, rosaries, vestments, are all ready at hand for transfer from
one set of priests, and from one religion to the other. Images of
Buddha, with a slight application of the chisel, are transformed
into images of Christ, and the roadside shrines of the goddess
of mercy are easily metamorphosed into shrines of the Blessed
Virgin Mary. In Ceylon, devil dancers, from the temples of
Siva, accompany the processions alike of heathen gods and of
those of Christ and of Christian saints. In the same chapel,
images of Buddha are placed opposite images of the Virgin, and
apparently receive equal adoration, whilst a mingled throng of
Hindoos, Buddhists, and Christians pay their vows together at
the shrines of St. Anna, by whom miracles are believed to have
been wrought. With the process here visible before us, we can
see how heathen customs and ideas, in both early and modern
times, would be planted and cultivated in popular Christian
usage. On this principle the pagan Pantheon, or " Temple of
all the Gods," at Eome, became the Christian " Church of all the
Saints," and, in Ireland, the first expounders of the New Faith
accommodated their teaching to pre-existing observances, tole-
rated, or even encouraged the continuance of long established
institutions, conciliated popular prejudice, converted pagan into
Christian festivals, and consecrated to the service of the new God,
localities, objects, and days which had been previously dedicated
to an older worship. This is no now thing, but the mere repeti-
tion of an old story. It is stated that in ancient Phoenicia there
are grottoes dedicated to the Virgin Mary, but which were evi-
dently, in ancient times, shrines of Astarte, for they still bear

48 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

the symbols of the ancient worship of Canaan. The order of the
Jewish local sanctuaries, and the religious feasts celebrated at
them had much in common with the idolatry of the land ; indeed
many of the "high places " were old Canaanite sanctuaries. The
Israelites, like many worshippers of the Christian God, fell into
a state of syncretism, and were unable to distinguish between
local worship and the worship of a One and universal God. The
service of many modern shrines is, to a non-theologically trained
mind, almost indistinguishable from polytheism, of which, some
writers allege that it is the historical continuation.

There is a very remarkable and apposite passage bearing
on this aspect of the introduction of Christianity into the British
Isles, in the instructions given to St. Augustine. He was coun-
selled not to destroy the temples of the Britons, but to consecrate
them to the service of Christianity ; not, in fact, to interfere in
any way with firmly established customs ; his course of action in
these matters was thus laid down : — " It is said to be the custom
of the men of this nation to sacrifice oxen. This custom must
be changed into a Christian solemnity, and on the days of the
dedication of their temples, turned into churches, as well as of
the feasts of the saints, whose relics shall be there deposited; they
shall be allowed, as formerly, to build their huts of boughs round
these same churches, to assemble there, and to bring their
animals, which shall be killed by them, no longer as offerings to
the devil, but as Christian banquets in the name, and to the
praise of God, to whom they shall render thanks when they have
satisfied their hunger. By reserving something for men's out-
ward joy, you will the more easily lead them to relish internal

An American reviewer while contesting facts and traversing
arguments similar to the foregoing, in reality gives away the
position, for he says that the writer " evidently understands
neither the Catholic missionary priest, nor the Catholic people
in his treatment of paganism becoming absorbed by Christianity.
Not in Ireland only, but in all lands, the early preachers were
willing to allow to the people whatever was harmless in their
pagan customs, or even to use these customs, the very religious
ones, too, by transformation into Christian rites. Borne wit-
nessed this in early Christian days, and America, wherever a
Jesuit, a Franciscan, or a Dominican, brought the Cross of Be-
demption." If we accept these premisses, it follows, as an
inevitable corollary, that modern Christianity is, in fact, the
reintegration of many old religious ideas, by the absorption on
the part of the Church, of numerous pagan usages. Like Pagan
Borne, Christian Borne adopted most of the gods that came in°its
way, and constituted them into a numerous array of saints, so

CHRISTIAN OBSERVANCES. 49

that every member of the Church is bound in principle to say
that he is

" intolerant to none,

Whatever shape the pious rite may bear,
E'en the poor pagan's homage to the sun

I would not harshly scorn, lest even there
I spurn'd some elements Of Christian prayer."

The holy spring, still supposed to effect the cure of disease,
is a material outcome of, as well as a connecting link in, the
chain of primitive customs and thoughts thereby engendered,
extending from pagan times. The past thus stands side by side
with the present. A railway in the South of Ireland runs
directly over a holy well. At the foot of the embankment is a
small and forbidding pool, fed by a never-failing spring ; here,
while trains thunder by overhead to catch the mail-boat for
England, country people drink of the sacred water, pray
for release from their afflictions, and hang their rags on the
tree beside the well. In early days enthusiastic missionaries
sought to wean the natives from paganism by admitting such
of their existing customs as, from the then Christian stand-
point, appeared harmless : just as the before-cited American
critic admits is the case in times comparatively modern. From
all this it follows that if we subtract what appears to be the
result of distinctly mediaeval Christianity from the ordinary
so-called superstitions of the peasantry, the residuum is pure
paganism.

To the Irish peasant wells were the haunts of spirits that
proved propitious if remembered, but vindictive if neglected ;
hence no devotee approached the sacred precincts empty-handed,
the principle being "no gift no cure" ; therefore the modern
devotee when tying up a fragment torn from the clothing, or
dropping a cake, a small coin, or a crooked phi into the well, is
unconsciously worshipping the old presiding pagan genii of the
place. It is still thought that if you dream of one of these holy
wells the spirit of the well is propitious, and it is a good omen ;
if the waters appear clear it is a favourable sign, but if muddy it
denotes accruing vexations and troubles.

The same transformation scene which we have described in
Ireland took place also in Britain. A money offering having
been left at the shrine erected for the purpose, the Cornish folk
might visit their springs and offer pins or pebbles to the imaginary
divinity, or draw what conclusions they pleased from the bubbles
which rose on the water as they stamped on the ground at the
side, but St. Hilda had no favour to bestow on anyone who stooped
at the brink of her fountain without a gift. The sick girl, or
youth, who had performed all due ablutions, and had gone through

VOL. II. e

50 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

all the necessary ceremonials, before drinking of the well of
St. Tegh, in Denbighshire, would never make the malady of which
they suffered, pass into the fowl, which they held under their
arms, unless the necessary fee had been previously deposited in
the shrine. St. Keyne would ignore either bride or bridegroom
who ran to win mastery at home by being the first to quaff at her
spring, unless their footing had been previously paid. On one occa-
sion, after a wedding in the parish church, situated not far from
the well (fig. 9), the bridegroom rushed out of the building, and
returned heated from exertion, but smiling, and was met by his
equally smiling bride. The result is thus narrated by the disap-
pointed husband to an inquiring stranger : —

" ' You drank of the well, I warrant, betimes ? '
He to the countryman said :
But the countryman smiled as the stranger spoke,
And sheepishly shook his head.

" ' I hasten'd as soon as the wedding was done,
And left my wife in the porch :
But, i' faith, she had been wiser than I ;
For she took a bottle to church.' "

When Seneca said, " where a spring rises, or a river flows,
there should we build altars and make sacrifices," he but expressed
a popular article of faith of the old but dying religion, which was
adopted by the then lately born and fiercely persecuted new
religion. Seneca, whom St. Jerome respected, thus unites the
sentiments of the two eras ; in fact, he was even claimed as a
Christian and was placed among the saints by the Fathers of the
early Christian Church, and the genuineness of a spurious corre-
spondence between him and the Apostle Paul has been gravely
maintained in our own times by some writers, though it is
obvious that the letters, as we possess them, are worthless
forgeries.

There is a distinct line of demarcation between the greater
divinities of the Irish pantheon, and the crowd of minor divinities
who never rose above being genii locorum, the spirits of particular
trees, rocks, lakes, rivers, and springs converted into holy wells
and adopted in the most wholesale manner into Christianity.
St. Columbkille alone is said to have " sained three hundred well-
springs that were swift." Well worship prevails, not in Ireland
alone, but, it may be almost said, in every county, or shire, in
the United Kingdom. It evidently did not originate in the
blessing of wells by early saints and thus spread downwards,
until it became almost, if not quite, universal ; on the contrary,
it began from the people, who were being christianized, and
thence permeated the entire system of Irish Christianity.

THE "DESIUL" OR HOLY ROUND.

51

A curious remnant of Paganism may be seen in the manner
in which a peasant always approaches these holy localities. This
must be from the north side, and lie must move from east to
west, in imitation of the diurnal motion of the sun. Similarly
a corpse should be carried to its last resting-place, a bride

approach her husband, . .

mi infant lie carried
to the baptismal fonl ,
and the glass be
circulated roun
the festive
hoard ii
same m:
ner ;

Fig, 'J.
Site of St. Keyne's Well, Cornwall. From the Royal Magazine.

hence the proverb: C'uir an i/luine thurt fa dheas, /...send round
the glass to the south, such being the right or lucky way, the
opposite being the wrong or unlucky way. It was also the
custom of the gods, for Homer describes Vulcan as filling a
bumper to his mother Juno : —

Avrap a re/s~ liWoiin OeoZs ivoeijiti ttujilv
OiVOYOet, y/Veyr Vt^Tap <<:n> KpT)TqpOS 0.<pVCT<Ti3iV,

The hands of clocks and watches turn from east to west like
the sun ; we deal round playing ends in the same fashion : thus
is ancient thought found crystallized in modern custom.

Mr. V. T. Elworthy recounts that, in Somerset, quite recently,
and within bis own knowledge, "a number of children were
brought to be baptized, :\\)A. of course, were ranged m a group
round the lout. The officiating minister, not being accustomed

•2 E

52 WELL WORSHLP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

to such a number, or not knowing the custom, began with the
child on his right hand, of course following on in order, and
going round to the child on his left. This action caused great
indignation : parents, who had never before seen the importance
of having their children baptized at all, were quite sure that
now they had not been done properly, and must be taken to
another church, ' to be done over again.' Thus it was held of
far greater moment that the parson should proceed from left to
right than it was that the children should be baptized or not."

To the south of the old church of Carran, county Clare, there
is a small earn, around which the corpse is carried before burial
in the churchyard ; and the writer has seen coffins, whilst on
the way to the cemetery, carried desiul-wise around the cross at
Monkstown, county Dublin.

Martin describes the custom as existing in the Hebrides, and
the following are his experiences in the matter of the desiul* or
sun-wise round : — " Some are very careful, when they set out to
sea, that the boat be first rowed about sunways ; and if this be
neglected they are afraid their voyage may prove unfortunate.
I had this ceremony paid me (when in the Island of Ilia) by a
poor woman after I had given her an alms. I desired her to
let alone that compliment, for I did not care for it ; but she
insisted to make these three ordinary turns, and prayed that God
and Mac Charmaig, the patron saint of that island, might bless
and prosper me in all my designs and affairs. I attempted twice
to go from Ilia to Colonsay, and at both times they rowed about
the boat sunways, though I forbid them to do it ; and by a
contrary wind the boat and those in it were forced back. I took
boat again a third time from Jura to Collonsay, and at the same
time forbid them to row about their boat, which they obeyed,
and then we landed safely at Collonsay without any ill adventure,
which some of the crew did not believe possible for want of the
round." Formerly when starting on fishing expeditions the
crews of Irish boats were very careful that their craft should
leave the shore in a direction sunways, and even yet this super-
stition directs the course of many a fishing boat, in Ireland, as
well as Scotland, when being put to sea.

In connection with events of moment, the necessity for turning
sunways was felt to be specially binding ; but even in matters of
no particular importance the rule was held to apply. In the

* In Moray, Scotland, tlio natives cut the finger- and toe-nails of the patient
suffering from consumptive diseases, wrap the parings in a rag torn from his
clothes, ' ' then wave their hand with the rag thrice round his head, crying :
Beas Soil (desiul) ; after which the rug is huried in some unknown place. This
is a practice similar to that recorded hy Pliny, as practised hy the magicians
and druids of his time."

THE "DESIUL," OR HOLY ROUND. 53

Vision of Mac C'onglinne, the hero when parting from his tutor
went right-hand wise round the cemetery, dollind desel relce. In
Cormac's Glossary the spirit of poetry is stated to have met
Senchan Torpeist, " and then he goes sunwise (desiul) round
Senchan and his people."

If the mumps were rife, afflicted children were led with a
halter hanging about their necks before sunrise to a south-running
(desiul) stream. Many pains and penalties are incurred, should
they break silence during the ceremony.

In Gerald Griffin's novel, The Colleen Bairn, the writer, who
describes his countrymen from real life, alludes to the ritual of
the desiul, or lucky round, then rife in many parts where it has
now died out, and recounts how a child, in compliance with
popular superstition, was christened "North East." Three
infants having died, the unlucky parents imagined that, if the
last arrival were baptized " North East," the curse would be
removed from their household.

In " Waverley" Sir Walter Scott describes how the old High-
lander, called in to attend the wounded Edward, walked round
the patient three times, from east to west, according to the course
of the sun ; and this ceremony was considered a matter of the
utmost importance towards effecting a cure.

From left to right has ever been the processional order ; to
go to the right is tantamount to a malediction, and is called in
English " withershins," or " widdershins," from the Saxon
u'idher, against. Implicit belief in the efficacy of the desiul was,
at one time, rife throughout Ireland. Allusion to this ceremony is
made by Dr. P. W. Joyce, who states that Tempo in Fermanagh,
" is called in Irish an t-hmipodhdeixiol (an timpo deshil), iompodh
meaning turning, and deisiol, dextrosum, from left to right. The
place received its name, no doubt, from the ancient custom of
turning sunways, i.e. from left to right, in worship."

At the battle of Cooldrumman, fought near Drumcliff, county
Sligo, in the year 5G1, St. Columbkille, in his prayer before the
contest, denounces his adversaries for employing pagan rites to
assure victory, and anathematizes : —

". . the host which has talten judgment from us,
A host that marches round a earn " —

i.e. performs the desiul. By the strange irony of fate the saint's
manuscript of portion of the Holy Scriptures— the origin of the
conflict, hence styled the Calhach, or " book of the battle" —
became the battle-standard of his tribe, the Cinel Conaill; and an
old Irish MS. recounts that before a fight " it was proper the
Cathirh should be carried round the army"; and, further, that

54 WELL WORSHLP AND LTS CONCOMLTANTS.

if " carried three times to the right around the army of the Cinel
Conaill at going to battle, it was certain they would return
victorious."

The desiul was an act of worship also among the Greeks
and Eomans ; classical and gentile antiquity abounding with
evidence of some kind of rotation forming, in them, part of the
ceremonial of religious worship.

Hyginus relates that Arge, a huntress, while pursuing a stag,
said : — " Although thou followest the course of the sun, yet will
I follow thee," at which the sun, being displeased, changed her
into a doe. Arge's offence appears to have been that she referred
in a profane manner to the desiul, or act of solar adoration.
Although the Latin proverb, adrersus solem ne loquitor (speak not
against the sun), is generally understood in the sense that one
should not argue against that which is as clear as the sun shining
at mid-day, it is nevertheless quite possible that the adage may
originally have had also reference to a caution against making
disparaging remarks against sun-worship, or the observance of
the desiul.

Plutarch remarks, that "the turning round in adoration is
said to represent the circular motion of the world." He also
relates that Marcellus, when leading the Eoman legions against
the Gauls, " his horse, terrified with the shouts of the Gauls,
turned short, and forcibly carried him back. Marcellus fearing
that this, interpreted by superstition, would cause some wonder
m his troops, quickly pulled the rein, and, turning his horse again
towards the enemy, paid his adorations to the sun, as if that
movement had been made, not by accident, but design ; for the
Eomans always turn round when they worship the gods."
Camden relates that, in his day, when an Irishman happened
to fall, he immediately, upon rising, turned three times to the
right, then, with his sword or knife, dug the soil, cutting a sod
from it ; this latter part of the ceremony seems to imply belief in
an earth spirit.

When it became customary to pay divine honours to the
Cresars, they were approached with veiled head, the suppliant
turning round, and then prostrating himself. The most apposite
quotation that can be advanced is one from Lucretius, which
may be thus translated : —

" Call il not Piety that oft you're found
Veiled, at tho standing-stone to make your round."

In a comedy by Plautns, one of his characters savs : — " Which
way to turn myself I know not"; the other jestingly replies,
"If you worship the gods, right-hand wise, I apprehend;"

THE " TUAPHOLL," OR UNHOLY ROUND. 55

whilst Valerius Flaccus, in describing a marriage ceremony,
relates that : —

" Pollux advanced the nuptial torches' ray,
And ritual water, while in holy round,
Eight-hand- ways they together tread the ground."

With the Romans, if a corpse had not obtained sepulchral
rites, the poor, shivering, homeless ghost, generally appalled some
near relative by its ghastly presence, entreating him, to collect, if
possible, its mortal remains (see vol. i., p. 242), burn them, then
move three times sunwise round the pyre, and pronounce the fare-
well prayer, or charm, which permitted the unhappy shade to cross
over in Charon's barge and enjoy the, very questionable, comforts
of Elysium.

The old heathen custom of the desiul survives in the most
unlooked-for places, and amongst the most unlikely people. In
1809, in the struggle entered upon by the Tyrolese for the inde-
pendence of their country, the patriot Hofer was foiled in two
attempts to capture Innsbruck, the capital of the Tyrol. At a
council of war even the patriot appeared irresolute, until a grey-
haired peasant stood up, and thus addressed him : — " Attack the
enemy once more ; but make a vow, that if the attack succeeds,
thou and thy people, and all the members of right-thinking
parishes (communes), will yearly, on this day, hold an office, and
walk round the churchyard three times, according to the peasant
custom. Then shall all go well." This was regarded as a pro-
phetic utterance ; the attack was delivered and was successful.

The old pagan custom of the desiul, universally practised in
Ireland around wells, churches, and rude stone monuments, is
found also in Portugal, where cattle, in order that they may
escape the murrain, are taken sun-wise round some favourite
shrine.

W. C. Borlace remarks that " Irish bishops, as they call
themselves, on their travels, were popularly supposed to be
infected with this demonstrative form of heresy," that is, per-
forming the desiul, or moving sunways, or right-hand ways,
round some venerated object. "Poor Saint Piudbert, although
of royal Frankish stock, mixed with the blood of Irish chieftains,
had to put up with derision from the vulgar crowd, who, not
content with laughing at his ignorance of their language, were
accustomed to look upon all Scotic pilgrims, as ' deceptores,
gyrovagi, et cursores,' " which may be paraphrased, " cheats,
dancing dervishes, and running lackeys."

If the Irish peasant wishes to curse his enemy, he proceeds,
tnapholl, i.e. " withershins," or " widdershins," i.e. in the
reverse order from desiul ; and the reversal of all ceremonies

56 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITAN1S.

at a military funeral may, possibly, be a remnant of this custom
of " withershins," or the unlucky way. The folio-wing lines from
an old Scottish ballad, as quoted by W. F. Wakeman, demon-
strate that the unholy turn, "withershins" or " widdershins,"
as it is here spelled, was considered as unfortunate on sea as it
was ashore —

" The stormy winds did loudly Haw,

The raging waves did flout,

An' my love, an' his bonnie ship

Turned widdershins about."

Widdershins or withershins, which may be paraphrased as
" contrariwise," perhaps points to a step in the struggle between
Christianity and Paganism, when, having obtained the upper
hand, the former seated herself in her adversary's place, and
appropriated the most paying tricks of her opponent. Then to
do anything opposed to the Church was to make oneself an enemy
of the Church ; to go the holy round against the Church-way (i.e.
the adopted pagan way) was to indulge in magic : in later times
the same train of reasoning originated the idea that the devil
appeared to anyone who recited the Paternoster backward.

Toland, in his History of the Druids, written in 1718, thus
describes the two ceremonial rounds : — " The vulgar . . . never
come to the ancient and fire-hallowing cams, but they walk
round them from east to west, according to the course of the
sun. This sanctified tour, or round by the south is called deiseal
(dextrorsum), as was the unhallowed contrary one by tuapholl
(sinistrorsum), i.e. left-hand-wise "; this latter was geis, i.e.
unorthodox, or, as O'Donovan defines the expression, a thing or
act forbidden, because of the ill-luck which would result from its
doing. Gcis also means a charm or spell. In the old written
legends it signifies an injunction, a prohibition, a "taboo";
people were often put under geis to observe, or refrain from,
certain things, acts, or lines of conduct, the obligation being
either taken voluntarily or imposed on them by others. Even
to look left-hand-ways was considered unlucky. In the Book of
Lecan there is a reference to the famous fair of Teltown in
Meath ; and it is stated that there were three prohibitions (geis)
laid on anyone visiting the locality : one being that the visitor
was not to look at it " over the left shoulder."

The Norsemen held the same idea as the Irish regarding the
tuapholl, or unholy ground. In Grettis Saga a witch is described
as having " walked backwards around the (tree") stump, in the
opposite direction of the sun's course, and pronounced many
powerful incantations thereover." In Hoensa Thoris Saga a
warrior, "pulled a rafter of birch-wood out of the (burning)

THE PRIVA TE CURSE. 57

house, and then rode against the sun (from west to east) round
the houses with the burning brand." In the Eyrbyggja an
apparition is described as moving "backward, through the room,
against the course of the sun."

Perhaps one of the oldest written Irish accounts of the
tuapholl occurs in the Book of Baltymote, where it is recorded
that a king of Leinster had a magical well in his garden, to
which no one, save the monarch and his three cup-bearers, could
approach without being instantly deprived of sight. The queen,
determined to test the mystical powers of its waters, not only
approached the well, but passed three times round it to the left,
or " withershins," as was customary in malific incantations.
Upon the completion of the third round the spring burst forth in
a raging torrent, and three enormous waves dashed over the
hapless queen, who was thus carried right out to the ocean.

The desiul and tuapholl rounds formed apparently portion of
the inauguration-ceremony of an Irish chief; for Spenser, in
his View of Ireland, after describing the ritual, states that, when
it was concluded, the newly-created chief descended from the
stone on which he had been inaugurated, and " turned himself
round thrice forward and thrice backward."

In ancient times, particularly in the East, imprecations were
supposed to possess extraordinary power. The curse of a father
was believed to be especially fatal, for it was thought that the
gods were always ready to execute the imprecations of parents
upon disobedient children.

There still exists a survival of a remarkable ceremonial
employed by the ancient Irish for anathematising their enemies,
which apparently may be sometimes employed unconnected with
holy wells or sacred localities, and which, for convenience, we may
designate "the private curse." The poet Spenser had intended to
treat "more at large" of the semi-pagan social customs of the
Irish, amongst others, that of their manner of cursing ; and it is
to be regretted that he never carried this idea into execution.
O'Donovan thus defines the effect of a well-delivered curse : —
" The belief among the ancient Irish was, and still is, that a
curse, once pronounced, must fall in some direction. If it has
been deserved by him on whom it is pronounced, it will fall upon
him, sooner or later, but, if it has not, then it will return upon
the person who pronounced it. They compare it to a wedge with
which a woodman cleaveth timber. If it has room to go, it will
go, and cleave the wood ; but if it has not, it will fly out and
strike the woodman himself, who is driving it, between the eyes."

The Irish peasants believe that a curse must fall on something;
if it does not descend on the person on whom it is evoked, it will

58 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

remain for seven years in the air, ready to alight on the head of
the individual who provoked the malediction. It hovers over
him like a hawk over its quarry, watching its opportunity, and
if his guardian spirit abandons him, but for an instant, it swoops
instantly on his head, showing itself immediately in the loss of
wealth, health, or of life. The peasantry, however, believe that
the blessing of one person may cancel, or at least mitigate, the
curse of another (see vol. i., p. 275), but this opinion does not
affect the theory of a " well-delivered anathema."

There is an ancient, homely proverb, that " curses, like
chickens, come home to roost" ; and the dread of retribution of
tins nature inspires such an amount of awe, as to prevent rash
anathemas. An Irish proverb, which conveys the idea that
curses are apt to fall on the person who has rashly tittered them,
is as follows : — Fa bhiin chrainn a cuiteas a duilleabhar, i. e. it is
at the foot of the tree the leaves fall. If we are to judge by
Proverbs xxvi. 2, the Jews seem to have been imbued with much
the same idea : — " As the bird by wandering, as the swallow by
flying, so the curse causeless shall not come."

A peculiar pagan manner of cursing, though now rapidly
dying out, prevailed at one time amongst the Irish-speaking
population. The primitive, simple, and original ceremony, styled
the "Fire of Stones," is of "the private curse" type. The
individual, desirous of cursing his enemy, collects as many
water- worn stones as will cover the hearth-stone of his cottage ;
these he piles up as he would arrange turf for making a fire.
Then dropping on his knees, he prays that, until the heap before
him burns, every description of misfortune may befall his
enemy, and his enemy's family to untold generations. The
stones are then carried out of the house, and scattered over the
face of the country, being cast into places from which it would
be difficult, or even impossible to recover them, such as bog-
holes, pools, streams, lakes and rivers, each stone being thrown
away with the imprecation that the curse may last until the
entire series thus scattered to the four winds are again gathered
together.

The rite of the " Fire of Stones " is grossly malevolent, but
a very similar proceeding for merciful and healing purposes is
as follows. A " herb-doctor," if called in to cure " the rose,"
as erysipelas is styled by the peasantry, will gather ten pebbles
from a well or brook ; one he at once throws back into the water,
the other nine are carried to the patient's bedside. Having
muttered spells over them, they are placed by the "doctor," one
by one in a certain position. The affected part is then rubbed

THE PUBLIC CURSE. 59

with each stone in succession. The ceremony completed, the
stones are carried to the stream or well, from which they had
been taken and thrown in again, with the wish that the patient
may never have " the rose " so long as the stones remain there
ungathered.

These ceremonies resemble the formula of old, used in
Orkney, to acquire the power of witchcraft. Provided with five
oval-shaped and two flat stones, the postulant went to the sea-
shore at midnight, turning on his way three times against the
course of the sun. On arrival he lay down on his back, with
arms and legs stretched out, his head to the south, and taking
care that the place was situated between high and low water
mark. He then placed one oval stone at either foot, a flat stone
on his chest, another over his heart, and grasped an oval stone
in either hand. Shutting his eyes he repeated a long incanta-
tion, devoting himself to the evil spirit of the locality, and
remained silent and motionless for a prescribed period. Then
opening his eyes he turned on his left side, rose and flung the
stones, one by one, into the sea with certain stereotyped forms
of maledictions and imprecations.

One example has been given of the " private curse." The
following are examples of what may, for convenience, be
designated the "public curse."

A number of oval or circular stones may be observed around
the margins of holy wells, together with numerous white pebbles
scattered over the bottom, whilst on some altars, overlooking the
well, are numerous globular, oval, and occasionally curiously
wrought stones. These possess maledictory properties ; they
were also used for swearing on, and are believed to be endowed
with miraculous powers of healing sickness. The late Sir
Samuel Ferguson thus alludes to what appears to be the primary
object to which these articles are applied : —

" They loosed their curse against tlic King,
Tiiey cursed him in his flesh and hones,
And ever in the mystic ring,

They turned the maledictive stones."

There are two stones in the Joyce Country, Connemara, which,
if anyone who is falsely maligned, turns, at the same time anathe-
matising his maligner, the curse will take effect, and evil befall the
false accuser. The turning of the " cursing stones " of Kilmoon,
county Clare, twisted the mouths of the victims awry. Here
there are a holy well, a sacred tree, and a pillar-stone, called
" the cross."

In the graveyard of Killeany, in the same county, there is a
remarkable altar, about ten feet square, on the top of which

GO

WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

are many rounded " cursing-stones." According to Mr. T. J.
Westropp, M.A., there are no very definite traditions of the prac-
tice of "cursing" at other sites, at Ross, Kinallin, or Killowe,
though in each case rounded stones lie upon the altars.

»%

Fig. 10.

St. Bridget's Stone, Killinagh, near Blacklion. Ki pr< d'jced frt m the Journal of the
present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,

In a field near the graveyard of Foyoges, county Sligo,
there is a "great long slate" which marks what is styled the
" Bishop's grave." Formerly a considerable number of round
stones were piled on the slab, and many still remain. Though

"~ r -'- -'"""" r --b-?^*^Ii

W^

Vu

The Little Alt,.

[slan.

int So

Antiqu

Reproduced from the Journal of
:s of Ireland,

they be taken away, thej are sure to be found the next morning
in their usual place. According to a correspondent, " some are
split by their having been employed in forming a fireplace.''
Can this have anything to say to " the fire of stones " ?

C UR SI A T G- S I 'ONES A A r D C UR SING- A LIARS.

61

Many years ago a young gentleman, who lived in the neigh-
bourhood, took two of tin; stones to a bridge close by, where he
hurled them on to the cocks in the bed of the stream beneath,
and broke them in pieces. Next morning, however, the fragments
were to be Been on the slab.

A young lady then determined to test the truth of the legend,
and, accordingly, abstracted one of the stones, which she con-
cealed in a box, despite which it reappeared three mornings in
succession, after three futile attempts, in its former place, ft is
almost needless to explain that a servant in the house replaced
it. The young lady, in after-life, had great bad luck, which, ;is
a matter of course, was attributed to this attempted larceny of
the sacred stones.

Near the shores of Lough Macnean, not far from the village
of Blacklion in Fermanagh, is St. Bridget's Stone." n globular-

l.Altar, with Ci

llg Stones, Iil.mil of Inishuiurray.

shaped boulder, and its table-like surface displays nine cavities.
Each of these depressions contains a stone, smooth and oval,
which nearly fills the depression. Ceremonies of some descrip-
tion were formerly carried on about it, when it was commonly
known as " the Cursing Stone" die. 10).

Upon the various altars (figs. 11-18) in the Island of Inish-
uiurray, oil' the coast <>l Sligo, may he noticed collections of these
globular stones, a few of them ornamented with what maj lie
styled Early Greek Crosses enclosed by a circle. The most ornate
«if these symbols (see No. 1 of fig. If) occurs on a stone, globular
in shape, measuring fifteen and a half inches in diameter. No. li,
,i stone on Clocha-hreacha, in the form of a globe, measures
eleven niches and a half in diameter. No. •">, on the same altar,
is e'jg-shapcd, its greatest diameter being ten and a ball inches.

62 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

No. 4, exhibits a plain Greek cross enclosed by a circle, the
diameter of which is five inches and a half, the design resembling
crosses engraved on Coptic and Syrian churches of about the
fifth century. No. 5, the smallest of the inscribed cursing
stones of Inishmurray, also bears a Greek cross. The diameter of
the circle by which the figure is encompassed is about five inches.
Nos. 8, 9, and 10 represent average examples of the ordinary
undecorated stones on the altars of Inishmurray, and also upon
similar structures distributed over several districts of Ireland,
principally in the west. They were, in all probability, rounded
and smoothed by the action of water, or by friction with the

F:

Eastern Altar, with Stones, Island of Inisbn

pre

L'tv Lit A ntiquaru

eproduced from the Journal of the
of Ireland.

sand or gravel of some sea. or lake shore. In size some are no
larger than a walnut, while others, in point of dimensions, might
be compared to tin ordinary beehive. Xo 8 is eight. No. six
inches in height. Xo. is a block of sandstone, the upper
portion shaped like a cube, while the lower presents the
appearance of a shaft intended for insertion in some socket.
The cube litis been hollowed to some extent, and was furnished
with a covering or stopper of stone, which completely fills the
depression. There is no tradition in connection with this relic,
but as its principal surfaces have been carved with a number of
very early crosses, it was probably intended to serve some
purposes in the ancient ritual of fit. Molaise's establishment.

C ' I 'A' SINGS 7 VNES.

63

The stone is about two feet in length. No 7, another hollowed
stone, furnished with a stopper, which also completely fills the

I

PlO. 11.
Cursing-Stones, &c, Island of Inishmurray.

depression, is a great puzzle to archaeologists, as is also its fellow.
Xo. 7 measures three feet ten inches in circumference. (For the

64 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

writer's theory on the subject of its original use, see p. 68.)
Although Nos. 6 and 7 were undoubtedly, at one time, used for
Christian rites, in their origin, they were most probably pre-
viously employed for pagan purposes.

The stones on the altar of Clocha-breacha are arranged in
such a manner as to render it difficult to reckon them ; indeed,
according to the statement of the natives, they can never be
correctly counted. These cursing stones are still in great repute.
In the year 1886, during the anti-Protestant riots in the town of
Sligo, an aged countrywoman was heard to threaten that she
would go to the Island and " turn the stones against the
Protestants." In another instance a countryman after the
recitation of a story, which his auditors did not appear to
implicitly believe, asseverated that it was true, and " that it
was so, to the stones be it said."

Fig. 17.

Fig. 15. — Altar Stone from Trummcry Church, County Antrim. From the
Catalogue of the Museum, R.l.A.

Fig. 16. — Altar Stone in the collection R.l.A. From the Catalogue of the
Museum, R.l.A.

Fig. 17.— Altar .Stone in the collection R.l.A. From the Catalogue of the
Museum, R.l.A.

Fig. 15, from Truminery Church, county Antrim, A\ inches
long, and about 2 inches thick, has on one side, four indenta-
tions somewhat resembling finger-marks, and upon the other a
cross. Fig. 16, 4 inches long, is peculiarly ornamented on one
side only. Fig. 17 is decorated with an irregular pattern. On
the obverse it bears the figure of a cross.

In the townland of Ballysuniniaghan, and in that of Barroe,
in the county Sligo, there were originally stones also used for
the purpose of cursing. The ceremony appears to have closely
resembled that observed on the Island of Inishinurray ; but, in
addition, the postulant was required to go through the ritual,
bare-footed and bare-headed. One mode of averting the curse
was lor the person against whom " the stones were turned " to
have a grave dug, to cause himself to be laid in it, and to have

HO W THE CURSE MAY BE A VERTED. 65

three shovelfuls of earth cast over him, the grave-diggers at the
same time reciting certain rhymes.

This custom of burying the patient was a rite commonly
employed in olden days as a cure for insanity or to ward off ill-
luck. Although it saved the person's life, he lost his reason,
either temporarily or permanently. The terrible ordeal consisted
in burying the unfortunate patient for three days and three
nights, only his head being left uncovered. During this entire
time he was allowed no food, no one was permitted to speak to
him — silence being strictly enforced during all heathen cere-
monies, otherwise the spells were of no avail. If the patient
survived this treatment he was disinterred, generally more mad
after than before his burial'. *

In the case of a child born at Whitsuntide — that most ill-
omened time for anyone to arrive in this world — a grave is dug,
the infant laid in it, but only for a short time, and the evil
hanging over the babe is thus averted.

The stones at Ballysummaghan, originally seven in number,
were styled " the Summaghan Stones." They are said to have
been cast into the neighbouring lake, yet were found next morn-
ing in their accustomed places. About two miles distant from
the foregoing site, in Barroe, near Bloomfield, there was a similar
set of stones. Under the shade of some ash-trees is the dried-up
site of a holy well ; for, owing to its profanation by unbelievers
in its sanctity, the waters left it, and broke out in another spot.
Both here and at Ballysummaghan the stones have now dis-
appeared. The two cursing sites seem to have been the special
heritage of the Summaghan family. It is recounted that the
last victims were members of the sept. The 0' Summaghan
missed a firkin of butter, and accused one of his neighbours of
the larceny, which was stoutly denied. O'Summaghan then
"performed stations" at Barroe and at Ballysummaghan, but
with an unexpected result. His wife and son both died, for it
was his wife who, being in debt, unknown to the husband, had,
with the aid of her son, abstracted the firkin of butter, conveyed
it into Sligo, and sold it to pay her bills.

Near Castle Kirk, not far from Lough Corrib, behind the rock
that shelters the church and glebe from the north, a spring pours
into a natural rock basin. Close by lay an oval-shaped flagstone,
called " St. Fechin's Stone," the "touchstone and terror " to all
evil-doers for miles around : for, whoever was accused or suspected
of a crime was " dared to the Leac-na-Fechin, or voluntarily
underwent the ordeal of turning the flag, with certain attendant

•For other examples of this grave-digging ceremony, Early Jtaces nf
Scotland and l'iteairn's Criminal Trials maj' be consulted.

66 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

rites and incantations." There was a guardian of the stone, who
instructed postulants in the mysteries of the procedure.

Dr. Maziere Brady, in his Records of Cork, Gloyne and Ross,
mentions a sacred stone to which great veneration was paid, and
on which the country folk took solemn oaths.

In the island of Iniskea, adjoining that of Achill, there used
to be, and probably there still is, a cursing stone at the mouth
of a holy well. Anybody who wanted the immediate gratification
of vengeance must go to the stone, " turn it round three times,
and pray that his enemies might not prosper or get length of
life ; and their means would melt away like snow before the sun ;
their days would be shortened till in the end they would get a
miserable death ; in fact it is a stone that would put an end to
bad people in a short time."

Close to the old castle of Einville, near Salrock Harbour, is a
holy well held in great veneration called Cobap na Seacc
n-lTtgecm, i.e. "the well of the seven daughters ", where the people
perform their devotions. Here they formerly had a stone called
leac na Secicc n-lngecm, i.e. " the flagstone of the seven
daughters," which was used as a cursing-stone. Unfortunately,
no legend throws light on the origin of these seven amiable
women.*

On the island of Iniskill, near Port Noo, in Donegal, remarks
W. C. Borlace,, " I saw a very similar stone (to that at Djidjeli,
in Algeria) placed with many others on the upper surface of a
large, square, natural block, much reverenced by the pilgrims
who periodically visit the place in the summer months. It was
a boulder, about 18 inches long, which had been rolled into its
present shape (that of a long egg, pointed at either end) by the
action of the sea ; the material being dark slate, traversed by
four bands of quartz. The pilgrims, lifting it off the rock, pass
it round their bodies, repeating prayers or curses, just such a
practice as Strabo mentions in the case of the stones at Cape
St. Vincent, the sacred Promontory of Portugal."

Cursing-stones are by no means confined to Ireland. There
is a cursing-well at St. Elian, about two miles from Colwyn Bay,
in Wales. By placing the initials of the names of the individual
to whom evil is desired upon a pebble, and then dropping it into
the water, some great calamity or sudden death is ensured to the
person thus pointed out to the spirit of the spring. Not long
ago vindictive people from all parts of the Principality went to
St. Elian's to put those they hated under the ban of the saint,

* A description of the cursing stone on Caher Island, and an account of the
ceremony of "turning the anvil" are given under the heading of "Wind
Wells." (See pp. 104-108.)

CURSING-STONES. 67

and the dread entertained of this proceeding was almost beyond
belief. There was a custodian of the spring, and it formed part
of his occupation to search for pebbles bearing the initials of any
one who wished to be relieved from the curse, or " taken out
of the well," as it was called. The custodian of the well also
advised the persons, so unfortunate as to be thus condemned, as
to the best means to take to evade the curse. Pennant, the
antiquary, relates that he was tbreatened by a man, whom he
had offended, " with the curse of St. Elian, and with an intima-
tion that he would journey to the well to put the curse into
effect."

In all these cases of the use of " cursing-stones," there is an
earnest appeal to supernatural powers, but it is not to the
Christian's God. Inquiries amongst the peasantry yield, in
general, little result ; suspicion is only aroused. Up to the
present, archaaological deductions are so tainted with religious
prejudice and partizanship, that but little reliance can be placed
upon them ; on the one hand, there may be exaggeration ; on the
other hand, there is, most certainly, careful concealment. The
real facts are well known to those who have studied the subject,
and to those who are, so to speak, behind the scenes ; but ordi-
nary archaeological students are only favoured with glimpses of
the truth through occasional side-lights.

Prof, Nelson says that even so late as the close of the eigh-
teenth century, in some mountainous districts in Norway, peasants
used to preserve and reverence certain stones of a round form.
Every Thursday evening they were washed, smeared before the
fire with butter or grease, then dried and laid in the seat of
honour ; at certain seasons they were steeped in ale. All this
was done with the idea that the stones, if so treated, would bring
luck to the house. A sacred stone on the Island of Inisgloria
used to be treated in a somewhat similar manner, and was, in
addition, regularly clothed.

A missionary who settled on the eastern side of the island of
Tanna, in the New Hebrides, was not allowed to build on the
site he had selected, as it was sacred ground, on which were
deposited stones in which the natives supposed the spirits of their
departed relatives resided. On Vati Island are still to be ob-
served a collection of stones and rudely-cut shells which, when
the missionaries first arrived, were the only form of gods the
natives possessed, and into which the spirits of their departed
friends or relatives were supposed to enter. Most of the stones
were ordinary smooth water-worn boulders, three to four inches
long, and from two to three inches in diameter. Similar stones
were reverenced by the Karens, the Boroditch Islanders, and the

f2

68 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

Fijians. Several tribes of the Pacific chip these stone to permit,
as they think, the spirits they contain to have free exit and
entrance, whilst others, in addition, smear them with oil. Many
Irish specimens have circular indentations sunk in them. _ May
not the same ceremonies that prevailed in the East, and still
prevail in the islands of the Pacific have obtained in Ireland ?
(See page 64.)

The following account, from Polynesian Researches (vol. 4,
pp. 213-214), of the manner in which the natives of Haiwaii
regarded certain stones, might, with but change in names, be ap-
plied to many remote parts of Ireland : — " We had not travelled
far," writes Ellis, " before we reached Ninole, a small village on
the sea-shore, celebrated on account of a short pebbly beach,
called Koroa, the stones of which were reported to possess very
singular properties, amongst others, that of propagating their
species. The natives told us it was a WaJd pana (place famous)
for supplying the stones employed in making small adzes and
hatchets before they were acquainted with the use of iron ; but
particularly for furnishing the stones of which their gods were
made, who presided over most of the games of Haiwaii. Some
powers of discrimination, they told us, were necessary to discover
the stones which would answer to be deified. When selected
they were taken to the Heiau, and there several ceremonies were
performed over them. Afterwards, when dressed and taken to
the place where the games were practised, if the parties to whom
they belonged were successful, their fame was established ; but,
if unsuccessful for several times together, they were either broken
to pieces or thrown contemptuously away. When any were re-
moved for the purpose of being transformed into gods, one of
each sex was generally selected ; these were always wrapped very
carefully together in a piece of native cloth. After a certain time
they said a small stone would be found with them, which, when
grown to the size of its parents, was taken to the Heiau, or
Temple, and afterwards made to preside at games. We were
really surprised at the tenacity with which this last opinion was
adhered to."

It was formerly a belief firmly held by the Irish peasantry
that some kind of stones, under certain circumstances, as they
expressed it, "grew."

When an Irish aborigine approached sacred stones at wells,
springs, and other _ places, he imagined he was approaching and
appealing to the spirits of his ancestors, promoted to be the pre-
siding spirits of the place ; hence he felt a wholesome fear which
was transmitted, along with the cult, to early Christian, and
thence on to recent times.

in ordinary dumb-bell. Thestone

WERE EMPLOYED TO CURE DISEASE. 69

These stones, turned from left to right when ho was pray-
ing,* but from right to left when cursing, were as we have seen
invoked tor evil purposes; it is now well to demonstrate that
they were also invoked for good purposes.

At a site called "TheEelig," nearBruekless, close to St. Conall's
V\ ell, on the northern side of J )onegal Bay, there is a most interest-
ing relic of paganism— a healing, medicinal, or magical stone of
St. Conall (fag. IS), dark brown in colour, about five inches long,
m shape and size somewhat like i
probably owes its peculiar form
to the action of water, to which
also may be attributed three
small hollows on the shaft (see
also fig, 15), When not in
use, it is kept in the hollow of
a broken cross on the Bummil
of the earn at " the Relig," and
is regarded with the greatest
reverence. The sick person
has the stone conveyed to his
house, where it is retained until
the cure is effected, when il

There is no custodian, but when borrowed, notice is given to the
people living near, and to return it to its original place is a
matter of duty. It has, for centuries, had the reputation of
curing diseases ; it is even alleged that the stone was once sent to
America,, to cure a native of this portion of Donegal who had
emigrated and desired to utilize its healing powers; possibly
the patient had no Eaith in the medical skill of the physicians
in the land of his adoption. The stone was honourably
returned.

On tin' altar at Toomour, in the county Sligo, is a natural
fragment of rod;, or fossil, also resembling a dumb-bell in shape,
and very like the healing-stone of St. Conall ; on the wall behind
the altar are seventeen globular stones designated " (Ticket

li. II, aling Stone of St. Conall
ii ed from tin- Journal of the
nt Society of Antiquaries of

Ireland.

vben il is returned to its resting place.

' Thia whs also customarj in the island of [ona: a rite either imported
thither l»v Irish missionaries or indigenous, as some writers state that the
ancient n; of the place was Inis-Druinench, i.e. the Island of the Druids.

In Toland's History of the Druids (edition 181 1, p. 356), it is stated that
before the Scottish Reformation there were in the island " three noble marble
globes, placed in three stone basins, which the inhabitants turned three times
round, according to the course of the sun. These were thrown into the sea at
the Reformation; bul Mr. Pennant, in 1772, found a wretched substitute for
the posed of the pedestal of a broken cross and the supporters of a grave-
stone. These stones were then turned round as formerly, and a tradition pre-
vailed that the daj of judgment would come when the pedestal upon which they
nin\ ed w as w orn out ."

70

WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

stones" by the peasantry (fig. 19). The well of Toberaraght —
reputed to cure many forms of disease — in the half-barony of
Coolavin, county Sligo, is surrounded by a low wall, on the top

Altar at Toon

Fig. 19.
, with Dumb-bell Stone, and " dicket stones

of which are placed thirteen round water- worn pebbles employed
in the usual manner by those seeking restoration of their health
(fig. 20). Stones occupy a prominent position in the empirical ab-
surdities of country charlatans. To cure a person who is delirious
from fever, a "fairy doctor" takes three oval stones, recites certain
charms over them, and casts them in different directions, savins

Fie,. 20.
Altar at Toberaraght, with Gloln

in Irish:— "The first 1 throw away lor (he bead; the second I

throw away lor the heart ; the third I throw awav for the back."

The Duibhin Deaglain, i.e. St. Declan's Black Belie, deserves

more notice than it has hitherto attracted. It is composed of

STRA INING STRINGS.

71

Fig. 21.

ronl and bai k vi. iv of St. Declan's Blacl: Relic,
employed to cure sore eyes, headaches, 8a . Half
real size. Rcprodm ed from the Journal ul the
present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

strim

black marble, and was brought, as already stated (vol.i , p. 217),
from Italy to Ireland, on the great rock in Ardmore Bay, which
acted as ship for its conveyance. It is here reproduced on
account of the curious crux ansatn which it bears. It was em-
ployed to cure sore eyes,
headache, and other ail-
ments (fig. 21).

Lying on the ground
in the graveyard of the
old church of Killery,
Co. Sligo, is a thin flag,
and at its south-eastern
corner there is a small
rectangular stone pro-
jecting about six inches
above the surface of the '
soil. At all times may
be seen around it a piece

of string called the "straining string," supposed to be an
infallible cure for strains, pains, and aches. The believer
repairs, either by self or deputy, to the flagstone, on which lie
seven egg-shaped stones, and removes from the " straining
stone" the old string, replacing it by anew one. He then takes
each stone in succession between the thumb and second finger
of the left hand, and repeats certain prayers whilst turning it
from left to right between his fingers flig. 22).

nit twelve miles
from the locality , met
with ii bad sprain.
I lei 1 old nurse, who
was devotedly at-
tached to her, sud-
denly disappeared,
and wis not seen
until the following
morning, when she
reappeared with a
•• straining string," ■
procured from Killery,

andStraining to which she had

walked during the
night, and the cord was immediately bound round the disabled
limb. Youth, a sound constitution, and the family doctor,

A few years ago a young lady, who lived al

Egg-shaped St,

Fig.

es, Str.i
Killer

■■'A very similar superstition exists in Scotland, for in some parts, when
.i person lias received a sprain, it is customary to consult "an individual

72 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

effected a speedy cure ; but nothing would persuade the old
nurse but that it was to the efficacy of the " straining string"
that her young charge owed her rapid recovery.

These straining strings or threads are sent for from far
distant America by those who have emigrated from the neighbour-
hood, and who place more reliance on the benefit to be derived
from them than on the skill of the New World physicians. This
ceremony at Killery may be regarded as one of the most perfect
representations of the survival of the semi-Christianization of a
Pagan custom.

Upwards of thirty instances of patients suffering from sprains
and wearing strings from this site, have been lately admitted,
and treated, in the County Sligo Infirmary.

A dispensary doctor narrates that a woman consulted him
" about a severe affection of the throat, and when examining her
he found that she had a scarlet worsted thread tied round the
throat and another round the wrists. Asking the meaning of
this, she said that the old wise woman of the place had given
them to her the night before as a certain cure. ' So as theydid
no harm,' added the doctor, ' I left them on, though meanwhile
I added what I considered best ; and under the usual medical
treatment she soon became quite well. But, all the same, she
believed in the scarlet thread, and secretly thought that by its
power she was cured of her ailment,' " for,

" Roan tree and red thread,
Put the witches to their speed."

According to Mr. E. Welch there is at the Killowen Croni-
leac, Kenmare, a ruined circle of stones. On the top of the
largest boulder there is placed a piece of limestone with a cord
rolled loosely round it. The man living in the nearest house to
this rude stone monument would not say what the small stone

practised in casting what is called the ' wrested thread.' This consists of a
thread spun from black wool, on which are cast nine knots, and is tied round
the sprained limb. During the time the operator is putting this on, he repeats,
in a muttering voice, inaudible even to the bystanders, the^e words: —

' The lord rade (rode),
And the foal slade (slipped).
He lighted,
And she righted.
Gone to bone,
And sinew to sinew,
Heal in the Holy Ghost's name ! ' "

This is, with a slight change of words, » mere adaptation of an old pagan
charm.

STRAINING STRINGS. 78

and cord rolled round it were for, though repeatedly asked, but
stated that they had been always there " in hia time" (fig. 23).

[ii the Western [sles a strand of black wool is wound round
and round the ankles, as a, charm to cure a sprain, while the
operator mutters some doggerel lines. The same has also been
observed in Sligo. A similar charm was used in Germany and
many other countries : in fact the custom is widespread.

Lady Wilde also recounts another cure for a sprain. A young
girl, who must be under fourteen years of age, spins a, thread dry,
" that is, without saliva ; then she ties it round the leg or the
arm afflicted, and when the cure is completed, the thread
miraculously disappears."

Part ni

(In [he top of (In- I.irBOSt lionlil.T ill. ic is

, rolled round ii. Photo, by J. St. J. Phillips

Amongst the means employed by the Babylonians for wan ling
<>i'f attacks of evil spirits during the hours of darkness were
magical threads, wound round the limbs, to which phylacteries
were attached, on which were written sentences from a holy
book.

Certain kinds nf strings appear to cure both man and beast,
bur instance, if a cow becomes restive, plunges about ami refuses

food, she is said by the country people tn have the pelst , Worm

or serpent. To cure this, a string is twisted into a knot

74 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

resembling a coiled worm. It seems so firmly knotted as to defy
untying, yet there is a knack of drawing out the two ends,
leaving the string quite free. This is repeated three times. For
a charm against the disease styled "blackleg" in calves, a hole is
made in the dewlap, through which a red string is passed, and
allowed to remain.

Mr. T. J. Westropp states that, at the parish Church of
Tomfinlough, county Clare, "the plague-stone, with raised
circles, one forming a Celtic cross, is built into the wall ; it is
said to have kept pestilence from the parish, even at the time
of the Great Cholera."

Cases occur in which the lithic object is found entirely
removed from its hallowing surroundings, though it possesses
certain definite powers, as for instance " doctor stones " still
used in many parts of Ireland. One very celebrated specimen
was located in the neighbourhood of Oughterard, Co. Galway.
It was in great request there, and also in the neighbouring portion
of the Co. Mayo. It was considered unlucky to keep it in a
house, and those who used it hid it until it was again required.
This custom is paralleled by the superstition which makes a
countryman avoid encountering a "wise woman " after she has
effected the cure of a patient, lest she should impart to him the
disease which she is believed to have more or less absorbed in
her own person. Another " doctor stone " belonged to a family
who resided in the Co. Wicklow ; the eldest male member of the
family was held to be able to effect cures by its means.

Of all materials appropriated to the uses of superstitious
medicament, crystal, and in later time, glass were pre-eminent.
Of the former material were the " adder stones " or serpent's
eggs of pseudo-archfeology. The material is styled " the splendid
product of the adder," and of its origin Pliny has left a marvellous
account ;' ;: indeed few objects have obtained a more remark-
able notoriety than wonder-working crystals. Their fortunate

»:- n Prteterea est ovorum genus, in magna Galliarum fama, omissum Greecis.
Angues innumcri restate convoluti, salivis lanciuni, eorporum que Spurnis artiiici
complexu glomerantiir, anguiiumi appellatur. Druidie sibilis id dicunt sub-
lime jactari, sagoque oportere interoipi ne tellurem attingat. Profugere
raptorem equo ; serpentes enim insequi, donee arceantur amnis alicujus inter-
ventu. Experimentum ejus esse, si contra aquas nuitet vel auro vinrtum.
Atque, ut est Magorum Solertia occultandis fraudibus sagax, certa Luna
capiendum eensent, tanquani congruere operationem earn serpentium kuniani
sit nrbitrii. Villi equidem id ovum inali orbieulati modici magnitudine, erusta
oartilaginis, vclut aeetabulis braeliiovum Polypi evebis, insigne Diuidis. Ad
victorias litiuiu, ae regum aditus, mire laudat'ur: tantre vanitatis, ut habentem
id in lite, in sinu Equitem lioinaninn e Vocontiis, a Divo Cluiidio Principe
iiiteromptum non ob aliud seiam." — Plin. X«/. Hht., lib. '29, chap. 3.

AMULETS AND CHARMS.

75

possessors were believed by their means to obtain superiority
over then- adversaries; and when placed under the pillow were
of benefit to women in childbirth.

The Garnavilla amulet isa crystal ball, set in a bronze frame,
with a loop for suspension. It was frequently borrowed by
the country people of
the neighbourhood as an
antidote to disease in
cattle. To effect a cure
it was tied round the
neck of the beast and
thus dropped into the
food as the animal
stooped to eal (fig. 24 \

The Ballyvournej
murrain stone is a
sphere of some bard fc'io. 24.

Ill-own BtOne, resembling [he Garnavilla Amulet. Front and side view; ball
basalt, and about five rr ''' 1 s '"' ^Produced from the Journal of the

-, , ,, . , present Society of Antiquaries ol Inland.

and a-hali inches in

diameter. Manj virtues are ascribed to it, and legends withoul
number are recounted of the cures which it effected when in the
possession of St. Gobnate.

The Emokilly amulet (fig. 25) is described by (1. M. Atkinson
as a sphere, almost two indies in diameter, weighing five ounces,
"a polished ball of tricciated or banded agate, dark grey in
colour, clouded. It is streaked with white lines fading away, and
the centre part is of a red colour, due to the presence of some
metallic oxide, probably iron. A hole is pierced through the

middle : possiblj it was
worn si line round tie
neck, and there is a
little roughness at the
bottom, leading to a
iuppi isition that a metal
band had been fastened
around ii formerly.
Hu - - J - There are several ap-

The Iraokilly Amulet. Half real size. Fi parent I ract u 1 e - lines

ci.luimd drawing by <■. M. Atkinson Kepro- l

duced from the Journal ol the present S ti thl'OUgll the I Hi 1 1 . ea used ,

°f Antiquaries oflreland. perhaps, by its belli-

heated and immediately immersed in cold water; but, I am
happy to say, it is still entire. There are two very slight marks
of circles on it (fig. 25). The curative virtues of tins stone
are still believed in b\ the country people. By Inane placed
in a vessel containing water, the water is supposed to set

76 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

impregnated with the healing powers, which, mixed with more
water, is administered to the suffering cattle, ... a certain cure
for ' murrain ' in cattle, and also for hydrophobia." It is interest-
ing to find Pliny's ideas about the virtues of the agate still
existing in Ireland.*

In the county Clare an amber bead was formerly used for the
cure of sore eyes, and for other purposes (see vol. i., p. 185).

A stone formed of crystal is described by Martin, in his account
of the Island of Arran, as about the size of a goose's egg. It was
thrown among the enemy in battle, and always gave victory to
its owners, the Mac Donalds of the Isles. In later times it
removed internal pains. If the stone failed to effect a cure, it, of
its own accord, left the sick man. In fig. 26, figs. 2 and 3
represent the front and back view of an Irish charm, the " Blood-
stone Amulet." Fig. 4 is " the Mac Carthy Amulet."

Water, consecrated by the immersion in it of these sacred
relics, retained its supposed efficacy in Christian quite as fully as
in Pagan times. Bede states that amongst his Saxon countrymen
a portion of King Oswald's Cross, immersed in water, and the
water then given to the stricken, restored ailing human beings,
or cattle to health. A similar property was supposed to reside in

* G. M. Atkinson, in his description of the " Imokilly Amulet," quotes
Pliny (Bostock and Riley's translation) on the properties of the agate, as
follows : — " Achates (a general name for agate, and possihly some other
stones not now included under the name) was a stone formerly in high esteem,
but now held in none, first found in Sicily near a river of that name. (After
enumerating the different descriptions, he mentions corallo achates.) Coral agate,
spotted all over like sapphires, with drops of gold, and commonly found in
Crete, where it is also known as sacred achates. This last, it is thought, is good
for wounds inflicted by spiders and scorpions, a property which I could really
believe to belong to the stones of Sicily, for the moment they breathe the air of
that province scorpions lose their venom. (St. Patrick must have transferred
this virtue to 'ould' Ireland.) These stones found in India are possessed of
similar properties, great and marvellous, and present remarkable appearances.
The very sight of them is beneficial for the eyes ; held in the mouth they allay
thirst. Those found in Phrygia have no green in them, and those of Thebes, in
Egypt, are destitute of red and white veins. These last are good as a counter-
poison to the venom of the scorpion, like the stones of Cyprus. The magicians
make other distinctions ; they tell us those which have spots upon them, like
the spots on the lion's skin, are efficacious as a protection against scorpions ; and
in Pei-sia they say, these stones are used by way of fumigation for arresting
tempests and hurricanes, and for stopping the course of rivers, etc., and turn
water cold if thrown into a boiling caldron. To be duly efficacious they must
bo attached to the body with hairs from a lion's mane. The hair, however, of
the hyayia is held in abomination for this purpose, as being a promotor of
discord in families. The stono that is of a uniform colour renders athletes
invincible, they say. The way of testing it is to throw it, along with colouring
matter, into a pot full of oil. After being kept for a couple of hours gently on
tho boil, if genuine, it will impart an uniform colour of vermilion to the
mixture." — Plin. Kn(. Hist., lib. 37, chap. 5-t.

Fig. 'JO.

Irish Medical Amulets.— Fig. i. Connoch, or Murrain Caterpillar Charm, found at rimo-
league Abbey, County Cork. Figs. -• & ;. Front and back vn w ol the Bloodstone
Amulet. Fig-. | Ihe MacCarthy Amulet. Fig. s is like fig. i, formed of silver, found
near Donerailo, County Cork, Slightly more than half-size. Reproduced from the
Journal oi the present Socict) of Antiquaries of Ireland.

78 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

parings from old Irish MSS., shreds of which, steeped in water,
and then given to the patient, were a certain antidote to many
poisons.

A case that created much amusement, and one listened to
with deep interest by a crowded court, came on for investigation
at Cork, in 1840, on a summons to show cause why an informa-
tion should not be taken against a man for unlawfully possessing
himself of, and detaining, a "murrain stone." The owner, an
old woman, who sought its recovery, described it as " a weeny
stone, which was kept in an ancient silver box so that the daylight
couldn't see it." To cure a beast it was only necessary to make
the sign of the cross by rubbing it to the back of the ailing animal
three times on three consecutive mornings. Its owner added, " a
friend of mine in de country had his cattle sick, and learning
through a gossip, dat I had de stone he came and borrowed it
of me, and I gave it to him ; of course I daren't refuse it when he
spake de word."

" Attorney. A charmed word I suppose ?

" Owner. You mustn't hear it. You havn't de faith (laughter).

"Attorney. Of course not. Well, did he rub it to the cattle ?

" Owner. To be sure he did.

" Attorney. And they are all well ?

" Owner. Of course.

" Attorney. What became of the stone ?

" Owner. When de miracle was worked he sent home de sthone,
but de garsoon (boy) mistook de house, and gave it to Con
Sheehan.

" Attorney. And Con refuses to return it ?

" Owner. He gives no sattysfaction at all, at all.

" Attorney. Have you anything more to say, ma'am ?

" Owner. I say dis, if he don't send it home to me he and all
belonging to him will taw like ice."

The attorney having thus closed his case the Bench declared
it had no jurisdiction.

An amulet of shining crystal, about the size of a large marble,
was many years ago in the possession of a Mrs. Philip Noonan,
of Liscarroll, who, once a year, used to dip the charm in water
in the presence of her neighbours, to whom she then distributed
the water. G. M. Atkinson believed that this amulet was the
subject of the foregoing lawsuit, and he adds, "its possessor at
present (1876) is Mrs. Gould, a daughter of the above-mentioned
Mrs. Noonan."

When the plague raged in Scotland, in the latter part of the
seventeenth century, the services of the famous " Lee Penny,"
wliich suggested to Sir Walter Scott the idea of his Eomance
entitled " The Talisman," were being constantly requisitioned as

AMULETS AND CHARMS. 79

a charm against the plague, and when it crossed the border into
England the "Lee Penny" was promptly borrowed by the
municipality of Newcastle, who deposited with its owners — the
Lockharts of Lee House, Lanarkshire — a large sum of money as
guarantee of its safe return ; a very necessary precaution, for so
convinced were the good people of Newcastle of its plague-curing
efficacy that they actually wanted to retain the charm and forfeit
the deposit. The " Lee Penny" is simply a small triangular
pebble, set in an old silver coin, obtained in Spain by Sir Simon
Lockhart, as part ransom of a Moorish chief, when that knight
accompanied Lord James Douglas in the abortive expedition to
bury the heart of Bruce in the Holy Land.

Mary Queen of Scots appears to have been a firm believer in
the efficacy of healing stones, for on the eve of her execution,
when writing to her brother-in-law, Henry III. of France, she
bequeaths to him " two rare stones, and valuable for the health,"
asking him to accept them " in token of true love towards him."

We see then that great veneration, subject to certain conditions
and ceremonials, appears to have been paid by the ancient, and
indeed by many of the modern Irish, to various inanimate
objects and materials ; in nothing is this so remarkable as in the
lithic objects which were used for purposes of prayer, for cursing
and for the cure of ailments. Truth is often stranger than fiction,
and this latter popular Irish charm, or cure, has been transplanted
from its native land, and has taken root and flourished on the
American continent. An Irish emigrant to Texas had a " Mad-
stone," reputed to be a perfect remedy for hydrophobia, which
effected several cures. It would be interesting to know how the
Madstones were employed in Ireland, and if any are now used.
A charm for farcy, which had been employed for generations by
a family in the county Limerick, is now used by a member of
that same family on his horses, in a great ranching country,
within the shadow of the Eocky Mountains, in the north-west
territory of Canada.

For cattle-murrain— a plague emanating from fairy malice —
the remedy, as we have seen (vol. i., pages 79-81), is simple.
The sick beast is given a drink from a vessel in which is
placed a stone axe, a flint arrow-head, or some such ancient lithic
implement. When, however, the disease is diagnosed by the
" fairy-doctor " as proceeding from the cunnoclt, a supposed
peculiarly poisonous caterpillar, swallowed by the animal and
believed to produce internal disorder, generally of a fatal charac-
ter, the remedy is more difficult of attainment, for it consists in
giving the afflicted beast to drink from a vessel, in the bottom of
which is placed a silver model of this murrain-caterpillar. Two
of these amulets, found in the county Cork, one in the old

80 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

burying place of Time-league Abbey, tbe other near Doneraile, are
formed of silver, in which is embedded a series of amber and
azure coloured crystals. Each charm is about three inches in
length. The figures of the two silver connochs (see fig. 26, figs. 1
and 5) represent, clearly enough, larvas of the larger sphinx-moth ;
one very like that of the elephant hawk-moth, common in Ireland ;
the other resembles that of the (in Ireland) comparatively rare
death's-head hawk-moth. The practice among the peasantry,
when they find one of these latter grubs, is to insert it in the
cleft of a young ash sapling, which soon puts an end to the
caterpillar, whatever effect it may have on the niurrain-epideniic.
Even to dream, you see this caterpillar betokens ill-luck and
misfortune.

"Why the form of the grub, which is supposed to have produced
the distemper, or the flint axe or arrow-head which produced
symptoms of disease, should be selected as the means of procur-
ing a recovery, it is difficult to tell, yet the idea has the sanction
of classical antiquity and of modern hornceopathy.

A country man had the misfortune to be badly wounded in
the chest, with a steel hay-fork, whilst working on a rick. His
wife kept the prongs of the implement bright and polished, until
the wound healed, as she said that otherwise, if the steel of the
fork became rusty, the wound would suppurate.

Horace alludes to the superstitious belief that only the same
weapon that inflicted the injury could heal it, as was the case with
the wounded Telephus. Shakspeare adverts to the same prin-
ciple when he says that the toad carried in its head an antidote
to its own poison.

The basis of homoeopathic treatment is siwilia similibus
curantur, like things are cured by like, and we are still
frequently recommended to "take a hair of the dog that bit
you." Homoeopathic adepts amongst the Irish Fairy Doctors
generally order medicine of a yellowish colour, for the jaundice,
such as saffron, turmeric, and sulphur. The Allopathic school,
on the contrary, employs other remedies, and pays no regard to
colour. Thus there are two schools of medicine even amongst
the Irish Fairy Doctors.

Throughout Ireland there are many traces of the former
custom of praying to, or asking certain gifts or favours from, a
lithic object or from a well. On the summit of one of the
pinnacles of Tormore, on Tory Island, a large stone is shown
by the natives who call it " the wishing stone." They allege
that whoever stands on this stone, and turns round three time's,
will obtain whatever he wishes for. " Wishing Wells " are to be
met with in most counties ; the wisher on bended knee, and with

OFFERINGS TIED ON BUSHES, ETC. 81

hands clasped behind his back, takes a draught, and then silently
wishes, but it is essential that the supplicant should not make
known his wishes till they are granted, and ill-natured people
allege that, for this reason, there are but few female votaries
amongst the successful postulants. These wells had a wonderful
reputation, and women would go, apparently half ashamed, to
whisper their wish and drink in good hope of a fortunate result.
Thus water- worship, recommended by Seneca and by the Church,
is a cult not yet extinct ; these wishing wells belong however to
a class from which the heathen ideas, that in days of yore clung
around them, have now vanished to a greater extent than from
those adopted into Christian usage.

Scenes of faith, of love, and piety are, happily, more frequent
among devotees at the holy wells than are the mutterings of male-
diction, for " At these sacred places may be seen the mother
praying for her child, the girl for her lover, the wife for her
husband, going the rounds on their bare knees, with the crucifix
in their clasped hands, their eyes raised to heaven in silent prayer,
with a divine faith that their prayer will be answered ; and who
can say but that the fervour of the supplication has often brought
down the blessing of healing for the sick, or comfort for the
sorrowing ? The picturesque grouping round the holy well, the
background of purple mountains, the antique stone cross at which
the pilgrims kneel, the costumes and often the beautiful faces of
the praying women, with their long dark hair and purple Irish
eyes, form a scene of wonderful poetic and dramatic interest."

A contributor to Notes and Queries, writing in 187G, says : —
" I remember, as a child, to have been surreptitiously taken, by
an Irish nurse, to St. John's Well, Aghada, county Cork, on the
vigil of the saint's day, to be cured of whooping cough, by drink-
ing three times of the water of the holy well. I shall never
forget the strange spectacle of men and women, creeping on their
knees, in voluntary devotion, or in obedience to enjoined penance,
so many times round the well, which was protected by a grey
stone hood, and had a few white thorn trees growing near it, on
the spines of which fluttered innumerable shreds of frieze and
varied coloured rags, the votive offerings of devotees and
patients."

Thus we see that whilst many superstitions may be considered
trifling and silly, others are really useful so far as they influence
those who thoroughly believe in them, to right courses.

The immediate surroundings of a celebrated and much
frequented holy well are, at all times, festooned with many-
coloured rags, red, blue, green, white, black — in fact, kaleidescopic
in character — tied up to denote, in a modern sense, a finale to the
" rounds " and prayers, but which, if the action of attaching them

82 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

to the trees or bushes be analysed, has a deeper and more mystic
meaning. If there are no trees or bushes, brambles will do as
well, and, failing these, an upright weed, or a strong stalk of
grass is deemed sufficient. The rags are to be met with every-
where in the vicinity of these springs, in the old churchyard,
beneath the shade of trees, on the open mountain slope, in the
secluded glen, or on the busy village green.

Fig. 27 is the reproduction of a photograph, taken in the
month of November, 1900, of some of the rags attached to trees,
bushes, and brambles around the Holy Well of Tubbernalt, near
the town of Sligo. This collection consists of four groups :
one to the left front of the boy seated on the ground ; the second
stretched between the two dark tree trunks to his left ; the third
row suspended to the left of the tree overhanging the rivulet ; the
fourth group tied on the brambles at the base of this tree.

This custom of tying rags to trees, bushes, and, where these
are not at hand, to briars or stalks of grass, has exercised students
of archaic practices ever since the customs of the peasantry have
been examined in a critical spirit. To this practice may be added
that of throwing pins into sacred wells. These practices seem
strange and meaningless until one has learned that almost all old
customs have a reason for then.' origin and existence. There are
many wells into which it was usual to drop pins, which were
generally bent. It has been suggested that the intention was to
exorcise the evil spirit afflicting the person who threw in the
pins. It is hardly necessary to add that in former times it was
believed that all human ailments were owing to the machination
of evil spirits. The ceremony for a cure for warts was to wash
the warts and prick them with a pin, which was then bent and
dropped into the water ; but all crooked pins lying in the bottom
of wells were not necessarily used as a charm for warts, as, for
some unknown reason, crooked pins are supposed to bring good
luck : if you wish a person good luck, stick a crooked pin in his
coat.

The rag, or ribbon, taken from the clothing, tied up to a tree,
and fluttering in the breeze, is viewed somewhat in the light of a
scapegoat, and is considered to be the depository of the spiritual
or bodily ailments of the suppliant. This is exemplified by an
anecdote related of a vindictive peasant who took the rags from
the bushes around a holy well and scattered them on the high-
way along which a neighbour, against whom he bore ill-will, was
in the habit of passing, in the hope that he might pick them up,
and thereby become possessed of all the maladies with which they
were stored. It is alleged that the inhabitants of the Orkneys,
for a similar purpose, wash a sick person, and then throw the
water on to the highway, in the belief that the sickness will be

84 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

transferred from the patient to the first person who, passes over
the spot. In some parts of Ireland and Scotland, parings from
the nails of the sick, or a small portion of their hair are placed
in a packet, and left on the road ; the passer by, who picks it
up, will forthwith have the malady transferred to himself.

The supposed transference of disease, from the sufferer to
some other subject, other than the rags, &c, is a more de-
veloped form of this superstition. For instance, keep your
eye fixed on the new moon ; stoop ; lift a portion of the
dust or clay under your right foot ; rub the warts with it ;
and as the moon wanes, the warts disappear. Go through the
same performance as a funeral passes ; cast the dust or clay
in front of the corpse ; and as the body decays in the grave the
warts diminish. Choose a large black snail ; rub it on the wart ;
then impale it on a thorn ; as the snail withers, so does the wart.
Steal a small piece of meat from a butcher's shop, bury it, and as
it decays, the wart disappears. In some districts this custom
seems to have changed into the larceny of a potato, and the
disease is supposed to be gradually transmitted from the human
being to the tuber. In similar manner a sheaf of oats or other
grain is sometimes buried in the ground, whilst certain forms are
gone through, and incantations are recited, in the belief that, as
the grain rots, so the person against whom the spell is directed
will, pari passu, fail and wither away. This principle was once
admitted into surgery, when, some three centuries ago, the
learned chirurgeon anointed and dressed the weapon, instead of
the wound which it had inflicted. Huggada, huggada, lekne, letoie,
" To you, to you, the lekne," is said by a woman three times at
the door of a pig-sty. She must, at the same time, hold in her
arms the child suffering from " lekne," or swelling in the glands
of the neck. The malady is by this means transferred from the
child to the unfortunate pig.

In all these instances there is a symbolic as well as supposed
actual transference of the malady from the sufferer to some other
object, animate or inanimate. A striking example of this is
afforded by the dread of the peasantry at the appearance of a " wise
woman," or witch, under whose treatment a patient has recently
recovered. They imagine that the first living thing her eyes
fall on, after the cure of her patient, is afflicted with the malady
of the sick person whom she has attended, and men and women
will carefully avoid meeting a witch for a considerable time after
she has effected a cure.

Thus it will be seen that rags tied around holy wells are not
merely offerings, or votive ; they are riddances. If you have a
headache, you take a shred from your clothing, and place it on
the tree, and with it you place, or hope to place, the headache

OFFERINGS TIED ON BUSHES, ETC.

85

there ; the putting up of these rags is a putting away of the evils
impending, or incurred by sin, the anger of the gods, of the
saints, or of " the others"— an act which should he accompanied
in modern times by the ritual words, flip impifce on Cigepna
mo 6uit> cmneap do pasaim ain an aic po, " By the inter-
cession of the Lord, I leave my portion of illness in this place."
A similar custom prevailed in Scotland. Travellers in the East
mention trees and hushes festooned with rags, fastened as offer-
ings to the branches. We read of a Hindoo rajah performing his
devotions on the occasion of a, pilgrimage to a celebrated temple,
which he enriched
with a variety of of-
ferings; and having
performed all the cere-
monies and rites at-
tendant thereto, he
ended his devotions
by attaching a. rag to
an adjacent tree.

The rude effigy
represented by figure
28, Erom W<>st Africa,

is nn more than a, hall

shaped upright figure,
without limbs or lea-
lures. The first im-
pression \\ lliell (Hie
might he iiinler, is
i liai ii musl ha\ e in-
curred unpopularityby
neglecting to answer
prayers, the indigna-
tion of ils worshippers
taking the form of Fio. 28.

ilmillg nails into ils Rude Idol of wood j rom West Africa, with offerings in the
sacred person. The shai firon nails driven into it. Photo, from Strand

na ils are, on the con-
trary, costly offerings, as the idol comes from a part where iron
is extremely scarce, so the devout negro, who was anxious to
propitiate this divinity, sacrificed one of his most valuable nails
lo it by the " simple and respectful process of hammering it
mio the hallowed stomach." This custom arises from reasoning,
similar to that which underlies the practices of witchcraft.

Many savages will not permit their likenesses to he taken, nor

will they tell their names to strangers, for that would put them
in iln> power of the person who possessed their likeness, or who

86 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

knew their names. Thus, if an article in the custody of a malevo-
lent power, causes its former owner to suffer, the same article in
the possession of a beneficent power, relieves pain, restores health,
or promotes prosperity. Clothing, or a shred torn from a garment
to represent it, if placed upon a sacred tree, or dropped into a
holy well, a pin that has pricked a wart and has been deposited
at a holy place, a stone taken up and cast into a hallowed spot,
an iron nail driven into an idol's " hallowed stomach " —
these are all in continual contact with the local powers, and the
effluence of the power overshadowing the representative object,
will, if properly manipulated, reach and overshadow the postulant.
There are instances where the real object of a rite having been
lost sight of, the practices have become deflected from their
earlier forms. For example, Athenian women, in the olden days,
who for the first time became pregnant, were in the habit of
hanging up their girdles in the temple of Artemis ; the meaning
underlying the act is clear, as is also the converse case, related
of the Ursuline Nuns of Quintin, who kept one of the largest
schools in Brittany. "When a girl who had been their pupil,
marries and enters the interesting situation of the Athenian
women just referred to, the pious nuns send her a white silken
ribbon, painted in blue — the Virgin's colour — with the words,
' Notre Dame de Deliverance protegez-vous.' Before sending it
off, they touch with it the reliquary of the parish church, which
contains a fragment of the Virgin Mary's zone. The recipient
hastens to put the ribbon round her waist, and does not cease
to wear it until the baby is born, for the ribbon, having been
in contact with divinity, though that contact has ceased to
outward appearance, is still in some subtle connection with the
goddess."

In Ireland the ceremony of leaving a piece of the clothing
on an adjacent tree, does not appear to be exclusively confined to
water worship ; for at a cromleac in Valentia Island, at certain
seasons, the peasantry circumambulate the monument and attach
their rags as at' holy wells. However, it may be pointed out
that some sepulchral tumuli are believed to have been erected
over wells. A rude stone monument, covering a well, is
mentioned in a Life of St. Patrick ; another is pointed out at
Ballycroum, in the county Clare, while, at a cromleac in Kerry,
a spring is said to have existed, and the rites customary at a
holy well were paid at it.

Dr. O'Connor, in his Cohimbanus ad Hibenios, written in 1810,
states that he pressed a very old peasant to state what possible
advantage he expected to derive from frequenting wells near
" old blasted oaks " or " upright, unhewn stones," and to explain

OFFERINGS TIED ON BUSHES, ETC. 87

the meaning of spitting on, and placing rags on the branches of
the surrounding trees. The old man and his companions could
only explain that both they and their ancestors were always
accustomed to do it, that they considered it a preservative against
" Geasa draoidecht, i. e. the sorceries of the Druids, that their cattle
were preserved by it from infectious disorders ; that the daoini-
maithe, i. e. the fairies, were kept in good humour by it ; and so
thoroughly persuaded were they of the sanctity of "these pagan
practices, that they would travel bare-headed and bare-footed from
10 to 20 miles, for the purpose of crawling on their knees around
these wells, and upright stones, and oak trees, westward as the
sun travels, some three times, some six, some nine, and so on, in
uneven numbers, until their voluntary penances were completely
fulfilled."

A few descriptions of wells, in different parts of the kingdom,
are given as examples of this wide-spread survival of pagan
observances. Many are more frequented by devotees than casual
observers imagine ; and numerous springs are still held in vene-
ration, although all, or almost all traces of worship, at some of
the ancient shrines, have apparently vanished. For example, at
a well not far from Bosses Point, county Sligo, it was stated, by
one who ought to be considered a good authority on the subject,
that the ancient cult was completely extinct in the surrounding
district. Surprise was strongly depicted on the faces of those to
whom were pointed out threads of cotton tied on the stalks of
grass around the well. This custom can be observed where least
expected. About a hundred yards from the little church of
Kilmacteigue, county Sligo, lies the insignificant looking well of
Tubberkeeran ; an ash overhanging the spring is covered with
many-coloured rags, mementoes left by pious pilgrims to the
place. The tiny well, now nearly filled by the gnarled roots of
the tree, is frequented by the country people for various purposes,
principally by those whose cows are sick, or not yielding as much
milk as their owners expected.

In the townland of Glenawoo, not far distant from the
foregoing well, lies that of Toberaraght, still visited for resto-
ration of health from diseases of peculiar character, such as
epilepsy. The valley was formerly the haunt of a monstrous eel,
plant, or serpent, that devoured every animal, or human being,
within reach — -hence the name of the glen — until St. Araght slew
it on the spot where the well sprang up. Around it, as also around
the stations at St. Barbara's Well, closely adjoining, trees and
bushes are covered with offerings in the form of rags. Tober-
roddy, in the immediate vicinity, is a disenchanted spring ; it
lost its efficacy in the year 1775, when a gentleman utilised a
stone which belonged to the sacred site, as building material for

88 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

his new residence. This was no sooner completed than it fell,
and the flag-stone was found back again in its original position ;
but from that date "the power" left the waters of the well, for
holy wells and even lakes, when insulted, either lose their efficacy,
dry up, or migrate to some other locality. Not far from Stuake,
county Cork, is the dried site of St. Lacteen's Well, surrounded
by thorn bushes. The peasantry attribute the disappearance of
the water to its desecration by a woman who washed her soiled
clothes in it. This legend resembles the story in Pausanias,
related of a magical well in the Peloponnesus, in which every
ship sailing in the Mediterranean was reflected, but a woman
having washed a soiled garment in the water, the spring there-
upon lost its miraculous properties.

The following were esteemed sacred springs in the parish of
Drumcliff, county Sligo : — Tobar-na-baclunlle, or the well of the
crozier ; Tobar-Muire, Mary's well. On Lady Day there are, it is
stated, stations still carried on there. The well was reputed to
have been the home of sacred trout, and to have possessed healing
virtues, particularly in cases of ophthalmia. There is St. Patrick's
well, where a legend recounts that the saint baptized converts.
There are also the wells of Tobar-na-bolr/oighe, Tobervogue, and
Tober Cohunbkill. In the footnote is a list of wells in the county
Sligo which were formerly held in estimation as " holy." *

The ceremonies at " St. Patrick's bed," near Croagh Patrick,
are described by an eye-witness who saw them in 1826. Two
old trees overshadowed "the bed " and the pilgrims presented a

* In the parish of Kilmacowen, Toberpatrick ; parish of Calry, Tober-
Connel; parish of Ballysadare, Tobereurrin, Tobertullaghan, and Tobercallen ;
parish of Iulloran, Tobergal ; parish of Achonry, Toberaribba, Tobercurrv,
Toberaraght, and Tobercnlly ; parish of Dromard, Toberpatrick ; parish of
Skreen, Toberpatrick, Toberawnaun, and Toberluran ; parish of Easky, St.
Adman's well, Toberavidden, and Toberalternan ; parish of Templehoy, Tober-
patrick, Tobernasool, and Tobereahillboght ; parish of Kilglass, St. 'Patrick's
well ; parish of Castleconor, Toberpatrick ; parish of Ballysadare, Toberloonagh ,
and Toberbride; parish of Ballynalrill, Lady's well, and Darby's well; the
latter was anciently styled Tob'erlastra or Toberiastrach ; parish of Kilniac-
tranny, Tobermurry — there was also anciently (according to the Ordnance
Survey notes) a well, styled Tobar-Ehilihh, or St. Elva's well ; parish of Kil-
macallan, Tobermoneen, and Tobernaglashy, so named from an enchanted cow
which used to regale herself at the spring ; parish of Aghanagh, Tobermonia,
loberbride, TobermuTray, Toberpatrick, and Tobermnhon : parish of Tawnagh,
Toberpatrick, Tohernalee, Kingsbrook, Toberstarling, and Tohernagalliagh ;
parish of Shancongh, St. James's well ; parish of Drumcolumb, St. Columb's
well; parish of Kilross. Toberdoney, beautifully situated, still used for cures,
and frequented on St. Peter and St. rani's day ; parish of Emlaghfad, Holy-
well ; parish of Toomour, Tobernacarta, Tobernamalla, Toberliubhan, Tobera-
col, Tobercloicharig, or King's well ; parish of Kilturra, St. Anight' s well, and
lobcrpatrick; parish of Drumrat, Toberbride, or Tobernanavin, and Tober-
barry; parish of Cloonaghill, Tobcrneerin ; parish of Kilfree, Tobernabraher,
and fobernaneagh ; parish of Killaraght, Toberpatrick.

OFFERINGS TIED ON BUSHES, ETC.

89

Singular appearance when the station was over, for the people "cut
off their hair, both men and women, and take horseshoes, and brogue-
nails, pins and needles, and fasten them to the trees; they also°cut
up their clothes, be they ever so new, and tie them to these trees."
At Loughadrine, in the county Cork, there is a lake formerly
held sacred. On its northern hank a celebrated station was held,
until, of late years, the clergy interfered and suppressed it;
offerings of rags were tied on all the bushes.

t-'iG. s!9.
St. Bridget's Well, County Clare. From n pencil-sketi h taken in the yrar 1821.

There is a, holy well, overshadowed by a thorn-hush covered
with votive offerings, near the farm of Montaggart, county Cork,
called "Hat's Well"' by an irreverent abbreviation of St. Bartho-
lomew's name. In the fcownland of Mount Bridget, about two
iinlcs from Buttevant, is Si. Bridget's Holy Well where "rounds"
arc slill paid. 'I'hr spring is shaded by an ancient ash, faceti-
ously styled "Biddy's tree"; its branches laden with many
coloured shreds of clothing. Fig. -'■> is a pencil-sketch, made

90 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

in the year 1824, of another spring, situated in the county Clare,
also dedicated to the same saint, and called St. Bridget's Well.

In a Paper on the " Churches of the County Clare " (vol. 6,
3rd ser., Proc. E. I. A., pp. 100-180), Mr. T. J. Westropp, M.A.,
records upwards of one hundred holy wells in this county. Special
attention is directed to Tobereevul, the well of Aoibhill, the great
banshee of the Dalcassians, on Craglea, above Killaloe ; to
Tobereendowney, at Kiltumper, on the borders of the county
Galway ; to Tobersheela and to Tobergrania, in Ballycroum,
a cromleac, or rude stone monument, used as a holy well. These
are all indubitably of pre-Christian origin. Clare and Sligo
appear to be the only counties in Ireland where even the mere
enumeration of the sites of holy wells has been attempted."

Barnaby Ryche, describing in 1624, Irish holy wells in general,
but those of the city of Dublin in particular, quaintly observed
(spelling modernized) " that if there were but one-half of the
virtue in them, that the Irish do believe, and will confidently
avow, we need no other physic nor surgery to heal all manner
of diseases. The blind might be restored to sight, the halt and
lame to their limbs ; there is no infirmity but it might be cured
at sundry sanctified and holy wells, whereof there are great plenty
in Ireland. The city of Dublin is quartered out with them. First,
on the east part, they have St. Patrick's Well, the water whereof,
although it be generally reputed to be very hot, yet the very prime
of the perfection is upon the 17th of March, which is St. Patrick's
Day, and upon this day the water is more holy than it is all the
year after, or else the inhabitants of Dublin are more foolish upon

* The well and holy tree of St. Mogua lie to the north-east of O'Davoren's
church, parish of Noughaval, county Clare. At Kinallia, in the parish of
Carran, is a large hullan, in the natural rock, and near it a well and altar.
The Well of St. Fachtnan is at St. Fachnan's Cathedral ; Well of St. Lonan at
Olooney parish church ; the AVell of St. Patrick in the parish of Ternple-
patrick; the Well of St. Tola, in Disert-Tola ; Well of St. Laughteen,
Kilnamona ; St. John's Well, convent of St. John ; Well of KilvnydaiC parish
"f Inchicronan ; Well of Toherineenhoy, parish of Doora ; Well of Tobernighnee,
at St. Finghin's church ; Well of St. John, parish of Killeely ; Well of St.
Mochulla, parish of Kilnoe; St. Mary's AVell, St. Mary's, In'iscaltra, Lough
Derg; St. Seily's Well, parish of Kilseily ; St. Cronan's Well, parish of
Killokennedy ; St. Lenan's AVell, parish of Clonics ; well at Kilcredann,
parish of O'Brien Bridge ; St. Mochulla's AVell, Kiliinanlea; Toherbreedia, in
Inismore, or Deer Island; Tober-righ-an-doinhnaigh, parish of Kilmihil;
St. Emeria's AA T ell, parish of Killimer; St. Carittm' s "Well, parish of Moyarta ;
Kilkee, barony of Imhiquin, a holy well ; islands, Kilfiddan ; Toberniddann :
Kilvelly, barony of Bunratty ; Toherbreedia; Kiltnnon, Toherbreedia; Cragg,
Tobermochulla ; Fortnnnc/TobermochuUa; Kilgorcv, Tohermochulla ; Kil-
inoro, Tobermore and Toburnmanrielta; all in the barony of Tullu; Kilbreedia,
barony of Ibrican, Toherbreedia ; Kiltrelly. barony of 'Moyarta, a holy well;
Kilcloghor, barony of Jloyarta, Tobersenan. The 'holy well of Toberuiacreagh

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND. 91

that day, than they be all the year after ; for, upon that day,
thither they will run, by heaps, men, women, and children, and
then, first performing certain superstitious ceremonies, they drink
of the water ; and, when they are returned to their own homes,
for nine days after, they will sit and tell what wonderful things
have been wrought by the operation of the water of St. Patrick's
Well.

" On the west part of Dublin they have St. James, his well,
and his feast is celebrated the 25th of July ; and upon that day
a great mart, or fair, is kept, fast by the well. The commodity
that is there to be vended is nothing else but ale, no other
merchandise, but only ale ; I think such another fact was never
heard of in any other place, where a man cannot buy so much as
a pennyworth of pins, but what money he hath to bestow he must
lay it out for ale. Yet it carries the name of ' St. James, his
fair.' The multitude of rascal people that useth to frequent this
fair are first accustomed to perform certain ceremonies at
St. James' Well, in casting the water, backward and forward,
on the right side and on the left, and over their heads, then,
drinking a draught of the water, they go into the fair, and then,
installing themselves in some brothel-booths, they sit and drink
drunk all the day after.

" On the south side of the town they have St. Sunday's Well.
I cannot tell what countryman St. Sunday was himself, but his
well is of precious estimation amongst the Irish that do flock
thither, so thick upon Sunday mornings in the summer season.

lies to the south of the old church of Carraii ; Rock hasin, called " a well," at
Fahy, in the parish of Feakle; AVcll of St. Colan, at Tomgraney.

Tobercruhnorindowan, in Killard, is dedicated to the Creator of the world.
Only one well. Toborisa, near Bunratty, is named after the Saviour. Three
■wells (Tobermurry) are dedicated to the Virgin, in Drimelihy AYestby, Kilmae-
duane, and Killadysert " St. Julin h;is wells at Killone and Tronira.
St. Patrick at Rossali;', Coneon, and Olooncy (Bunratty). St. Murtui is
patron of the wells at Moyaita, Ballynecally, and Lcmancagh. St. Mirhiitl at
Kilbrecan, Cappa (Bunratty). nndlhe Kilmihils. St. Aiijii.ituirid Garrynaghry
and Kilshanny. The Holy Cru*.i at. Gleninagh. An Aiigil at Kilcorney."

" The other wells we may group tinder their parishes: — K'tlftiiora, Tober-
dane; Clooucy (Conomroe), Tobenuooghna ; Kilkecdy, Tobereenatemple, near
Templenadeirka and Tohercollure : Itroiiiilijt', Tobcinalettan and Toberateaskan ;
Quin, Toherlannive, Tobernachtin, Tobercrinc, Toberaneeve, Toberkeeghaun,
and Toherandillure ; Jhwra, Toherdooran ; Trmpletimley, Tobernacoolia ;
t'lootiey (Bunratty), Tobernalaghan, Tohercreile, Toberavannan ; Bunratty,
Tobernamarkauv ; KUmurry-nc-gnll, Toberfailia; Filjinaghta, Tobernavogue ;
Tulla, Tobermac shane, in Fggoon, Toberhugvile, Toberknockall, and Tober-
slattery ; Moynov, Tobernagat : Ogoundloe, Tobersraheen ; O'JJiint's Bridge,
Tobemasool ; Kilfarboy, Tobermuirish ; Kilimirray lbrilcan, Tobernahallia
and Tobervan ; KillbaUyuu-ai, Toberooan ; A'ilnish, Toberaneddan ; Kilmiirry
mac Million, Toberyrow arta ; Kilfcnitujli, Tohermanorha ; Kiltudyurt, Tober-
namonastragh (Canon's Island)."

92 WELL WORSHLP AND IIS CONCOMITANTS.

" To the southwards from the City of Dublin, they have
St. Doblock's Well, another sanctified place, ceremoniously
frequented at certain seasons, foolish and ridiculous to
be spoken of. I might speak of divers other wells, but if
I should speak of the wonders and miracles which they say
are wrought there, it would make a more admirable history
than that of Sir John Mandeville. It would undo all the
physicians of England and Ireland. For at those holy wells,
and at many other of those sanctified places, the blind are made
to see, the lame are made to go, the cripple is restored to his
limbs, or what disease soever, never so strange, never so
inveterate, which is not there cured."

Well worship has died out in Dublin ; the old popular
religion connected with springs has ceased ; you may question
every man you meet in Nassau-street, and not one in a hundred
would be able to tell you where to find the waters of St.
Patrick's well which still flows on ; the well would be as hard
to discover as a spring in the desert.

In the townland of Ballymorereigh, parish of Dingle, county
Kerry, is the well of Tobar Monachan, down to a late period
much resorted to every Sunday in the year. "Fairy strokes"
(i.e. paralysis) are supposed to be cured by drinking the waters.
A local antiquary states, " there is not a better well in Munster
to give rounds at, sure there is a salmon and an eel in it, and
whoever has the luck to get a look at them, may be sure that
they have the benefit of their rounds."

About four miles east of Baltinglass is the church-yard of
Kilranelagh, the boundary wall of which is formed of loose
stones, the top being very narrow in comparison with the base.
Every man attending a funeral, brings a stone picked up on his
way, and throws it on the fence. Outside this boundary is a
well, with a recess in the wall just above it, furnished with
ledges plentifully provided with wooden cups, as everyone
interring in the graveyard the corpse of a child under five years
of^ age, provides one of these vessels. It is believed that " the
spirit of the latest interred, is obliged to supply every one of its
predecessors with a cup of water, and to keep watch and ward
over the sacred enclosure till the next funeral, and so when two
convoys are approaching at the same time, there sometimes
occurs unseemly races and struggles."

Dr. P. W. Joyce, in Irish Names of Places, remarks, that those
afflicted with jaundice may be restored to health and colour by
drinking water from the well of Toberboyoga, or the well of the
Jaundice, near Kells, in Meath. Many wells alleged to be
gifted with similar medicinal or healing properties, are called
Boyaghan, but the above writer continues, " I must observe

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND. 93

that some of them may have been so called from the yellow
colour of the clay or mud. Gortnasoolboy, in the parish of
Cam in Eoscommon, would seem to be connected in some way
with this disease, as its most expressive name appears to
indicate, the field of the yellow eyes."

The same writer remarks that " When children are wasting
away in decline, they are bathed in the little lake called
Loughaneeg, three miles south of Elphin, in Eoscommon— <<«;/,
• death,' applied here to a slow wasting disease ; Loughaneeg,
' the lake of the decline.' The general restorative qualities of
Toberanleise, near the river Barrow, in the townland of
Dunganstown, parish of Whitechurch, Wexford, is indicated by
its name — Tobar-an-leighis, ' the well of the cure ' (liagh, a
physician, leigheas, cure). The little lake of Loughanleagh, three
miles east of Bailieboro' in Cavan, has been celebrated from time
immemorial, for curing all kinds of cutaneous disease. Let the
eruption be ever so virulent, the patient, who was bathed in this
little pool, and afterwards treated with poultices of the mud, was
sure to show a clean skin in a very few days. A good many
years ago, unfortunately for the people of the neighbourhood, a
gentleman who had a pack of hounds swam them in the water,
which so offended the local guardian that the lake immediately
lost its virtue, and has never since regained it. But still the
name remains to tantalize the people with the memory of what
they have lost — Loch-an-liagha, ' physician lake.' There are
many small lakes called Loughanlea in various parts of the
country, but it is pretty certain that in these cases the name
means merely grey lake."

In some cases salt-water* appears to have been considered as
efficacious as fresh water, for the Eev. Edward Chichester, a.m.,
when describing, in 1815, the parish of Cloncha, county
Donegal, states that near Malin Head, there is a small hollow in
a rock filled with sea-water at every tide, and reputed to possess
a miraculous power of curing diseases, " consequently a serious
nuisance to the neighbourhood, for it invites strollers and
mendicants of the worst description from the three adjoining

* " An unusual kind of holy well, viz., one in which salt water takes the
place of fresh, is to he found in the case of the Chapel-Wells in Kirkniaiden
parish, Wigtownshire, half way between the bays of Poitankill and East
Turbet. About thirty yards to the north- west are tho ruins of St. Medan' s
Chapel, partly artificial and partly natural, a cave forming the inner portion.
In days gone by the spot was much frequented on the first Sunday of May
(O.S.), called Co' Sunday, after this cave or cove. Dr. Robert Trotter, who
examined the chapel and the wells iu 1870, gives the results of the observations
in the eighth volume of the Proceedings of the Society of Antiqua: ies of Scotland
(now series)." — Folklore of Scottish Lochs and Springs. James ~\l. MacKinlay,
M.A., pp. 92-3.

94 WELL WORSHIP AND IIS CONCOMITANTS.

counties, who infest the neighbourhood by their numbers, and
corrupt it by their example. The patron days of the place are
St. John's Eve and the Assumption of the Virgin, and they are
celebrated there by the most disgusting drunkenness and
debauchery."

The custom of holding "patterns" or "patrons," that is
assemblies of country people, gathered originally to pay homage
to the divinities of wells, or other local objects, afterwards for
prayers and adoration of Christian saints, became a baneful
source of vice. Those who came to pray, remained to drink and
fight. Booths and tents were erected for selling whiskey as at
fairs, pipers and fiddlers attended, and the evening and night
were spent in singing, dancing, and drinking to such excess,
"that it seems," remarks an eye-witness, "more like the
celebration of the orgies of Bacchus, than the memory of a pious
saint, from the drunken quarrels and obscenities practised on
these occasions. So little is there of devotion, or amendment of
life or manners, that these places are frequently chosen for the
scenes of pitched battles, fought with cudgels, by parties, not
only of parishes, but of counties, set in formal array against each
other, to revenge some real or supposed injury, and murders are
not an unusual result of these meetings."

Bishop Bownes mentions that in the year 1700, there existed
a tradition amongst the peasantry, that there had been formerly
in the church-yard of Kineigh in the county Cork, " a well that
had great medicinal virtues, and that the concourse of people
being very chargeable to the inhabitants, they stopped it up."

The well of Toberkeelagh, situated on the western shore of
Lough Mask, is overshadowed by a tall tree and bushes, on
which pieces of rags are suspended ; portions of hair are also
frequently left, and the silvered locks of age may often be seen
fluttering in the wind, with the fair tresses of some youthful
votary. When sickness afflicts any of the peasantry in the
neighbourhood of Toberkeelagh, or even any of their cattle, it is
usual to pray, or perform stations for their recovery at the holy
well. It is held in such respect by the people, that none of
them will pass by without " making some reverence."

The holy well near the Abbey of Mothel, county Waterford,
lies in a picturesque hollow. The loneliness of the spot, the
offerings of rags, nails, buttons, pins, and the venerable tree with
its branches hung with numerous locks of human hair, presented
a typical specimen of the Irish Holy Well to a visitor who saw
and. described it in the year 1851.

Tubberkileilhe, in the townland of Ballyvooney, county Water-
ford, is also situated in a bare and lonely glen, through which a
rivulet winds for about a quarter of a mile down to the sea-shore.

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND. 95

In a field, rising abruptly from the margin of the stream, the
well issues from the surface of the ground. It is not covered
by any building, neither is it shaded by the usual thorn or ash.
Here are no votive offerings or pilgrims' relics, no ruined church
or graveyard ; it is not dedicated to any saint ; no " patron " and
no rounds are held here, yet it is esteemed sacred among the
neighbouring peasantry. Afflicted persons come to wash their
diseased limbs in its waters, which are also regarded as a specific
for warts and tumours. The farmer on whose ground it is, had
the well filled in ; but the usual punishment befell him— he con-
tracted a running-sore, which was not cured until lie had the
well re-opened.

According to ancient tradition, a sacred well once existed on
the shore of Scattery Island possessed of miraculous curative
powers ; but, from some unexplained cause, knowledge of the site
was lost. One day a lame young lad, going along the shore,
suddenly sank in the sand. With much difficulty his comrades
managed to extricate him, when to their amazement, they found
that he walked' quite sound. They at once perceived that the
long-lost sacred well must have worked the cure, and cleared
away the sand, till they came on some steps, and down below lay
the clear, fresh water, uncontaminated by the salt of the sea. :|:
People from far and near rushed to the well, and wonderful cures
were effected ; but next day not a vestige of the well could be
found, as the waves had again covered it with sand, and it has
never again been seen.

Another sacred spring, that of Tober-Kilnagreina, in the
county Cork, was re-discovered about a hundred years ago. The
farmer, who owned the land, carried off a large stone, with a natural
hollow in the centre, which usually held water, to utilize as a
drinking trough for his cattle. Not long after, his stock began to
fail, and then all his children sickened. The farmer thought there
was ill-luck in meddling with the stone ; so he carried it back,
and his cattle and his family were at once restored to health. He
then had the place thoroughly examined, when he came upon an
ancient stone circle, and in the midst was a well of fresh water,
which, according to local tradition, had been cursed by St.
Patrick. The country-side flocked to the well, and a " pattern "
was organized. In course of time the revelry at the "pattern "
gave occasion for much scandal, and drinking, dancing, gambling,

* Lady Wilde states that "At Portrane, county Dublin, is a well called
' The Chink Well,' which, at high tide, is covered by the salt water, yet always
remains itself fresh and pure. Anyone seeking a cure should leave a piece of
bread on the brink of the well, and if this is carried away by the next tide, the
disease will depart also along with it."

00

WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

and lighting went on, until one day a man was killed in a faction
light.' The well lost its miraculous powers; the maimed, the
halt, and the blind prayed, went the rounds, and piled the stones
as usual, but no help was vouchsafed. Worst sign of all, a great
stone, on which a cross had been erected, fell down, of its own
accord, and shattered the emblem of salvation. Then the people
knew for certain that a curse was, indeed, again on the well,
and they deserted it. Even the Ban-Naomha, who used to
manifest herself to the regenerate under the form of a trout, dis-
appeared ; and, though she may still be seen at other sacred
wells, she was never again beheld by those who watched for her
re-appearance at this now unhallowed shrine.
" In the year 1855, a visitor to the well of St. Bartholomew, at
Pilstown, county Waterford. thus describes it : — " The venerable

Pig.

St. Declan's Well, Ardmore, in the juar 1830. From Mr. and Mrs. Hall's Ireland.

thorns which overshadow it bore a motley appearance, being-
covered with red, blue, and green ribbons, and rags, as if torn
from the dresses of pilgrims, and tied up as a finale to their
' rounds ' and prayers. An old crone engaged in going her
'rounds' said, 'they were tied up by each, to leave all the sickness
of the year behind them.' " Fig. 30 represents Nt. Declan's
"Well, Ardmore. as it appeared in the year 1830.

In a, Statistical Account of the parish of Dungiven, written in
1818, it is stated that at the will of Tubberpatrick, after perforra-

.^rpatuck, alter perform-
ing the usual rounds, devotees wash their bands and feet in the
water, and tear off a, small rag from their clothes, which they tie
on ,i, bush overhanging the well ; they then proceed to a large
stone in the river, immediately below the old church, and.

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND.

97

having performed an oblation, they walk round the stone, Viewing
to it, and repeating prayers as at the well. They then enter the
old church, within which a similar ceremony is performed, and
they finish the rite by a procession and prayers round an upright
stone, where the people show the print of footsteps which they
say are those of St. Patrick.

At St. Bridget's Well, near Dundalk, the trees are also deco-
rated with rags, and a stone in the stream bears the impression
of St. Bridget's knees. At Dunass, county Clare, is a well noted
for many healing virtues from having been blessed by St. Senan,
who also left the impress of bis knees on ;i flal rock near the

../'/^jij/-" 1 '

M: Kr-,

Fio. 31.

St. Senan's Well, County Clare. From a drawing by Dr Pi in, , n
Rej iuced from the Irish Penny Journal.

in the >uar iH^o.

brink. The country people kneel in these indentations as they
stoop to drink, and find relief as they touch the impression left
by the saint. The well presents nothing peculiar to distinguish it
from a thousand other springs of the same kind, save thecharac-
teristic votive offerings made at it. These chiefly consist of
wooden bowls, whole and fractured teacups, blacking-pots, and
similar singular thank- offerings to the Patron Saintof the parish
i lie,. :il).

Near the old ruined church of Killalta, where Jeremy Taylor
preached in the times of the Commonwealth, a station was held

98 WELL WORSHIP AND IIS CONCOMITANTS.

on the 14th August. Mass was annually said at a heap of stones
between the church and the lake, and the people afterwards went
round the earn on their knees. A hollow is shown in the stone
in the graveyard, said to be the impression of the saint's knees,
containing water all the year round, and possessing the power of
removing warts. Those who avail themselves of its curative
properties, throw pins into the bullans. Unbelievers affirm that
instead of removing warts the water multiplies those disagreeable
epidermal appendages ; but, on the other hand, it has been
explained, by a medical gentleman of great experience, that
water thus found, being " as a rule highly acidulated by the
decomposition of vegetable matter, when applied to eyes, or
rather eyelids, affected by certain forms of irritation, may, not
unfrequently, alleviate discomfort, and even effect a cure." The
same superstition prevails in connection with the water of many
holy-water fonts, and even of lakes. There is a natural boulder
close to the old church of Templenaffrin, or the church of the
mass, near Belcoo, county Fermanagh, on the top of which are
three well-defined bullans. The water almost invariably (as is
natural in a moist climate) to be found in the hollows of bullans
is very generally supposed by the peasantry to possess miraculous
curative powers, especially in diseases affecting the eyes, and it is
also regarded as an infallible remedy for the removal of warts.

On the north side of the picturesque ruins of a church on the
shores of Dublin Bay, there is a spring called St. Berach's Well,
the water of which — of an astringent nature — is reputed as cura-
tive for affections of the eyes.

On Church Island, in Lough Beg, near Toome Bridge, are
the ruins of a church, and near it a tree, with a number of rag9
tied to its branches. These are votive offerings of the faithful,
who come to pray round a curious stone with a hollow in its
surface, lying beneath the shade of the " Bag-tree."

W. H. Maxwell, in Wild Sports of the West of Ireland, de-
scribes an extraordinary being named Bobby, who lived at the foot
of Croagh Patrick, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, " ac-
counted the first ' performer ' (religious) of his day in Connaught.
He generally resided at the house of a neighbouring gentleman,
and when a pilgrim-visitor was discouraged by the acclivity of
the hill, or the quantity of prayers to be got over, Bobby, for a
consideration, undertook and executed the task. He was not
only a harmless, but as may be well imagined, a very useful
personage, and his death has left a blank which has never yet
been filled. The remains of poor Bobby, at his own request, were
transported to the summit of the mountain and deposited on the
apex of Croagh Patrick, where he had so often and so usefully
' performed.' "

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND. 99

The celebrated Struell wells, in the neighbourhood of Down-
patrick, are supplied by a considerable spring, which flows through
four small and very rudely constructed houses, at each of which
the water is supposed to possess different virtues. The waters
are most potent on the eve of mid-summer's day, when at mid-
night, crowds of mentally, as well as physically afflicted people,
used to struggle for a drink.

The tree over the well at Cranfield, on the north shore of
Lough Neagh, is decorated with rags, and at the well, near the
old church of Faughart, there was formerly a skull from which
visitors drank the waters of the spring.

Cambrensis — whom the romancer Keating describes as " an
inexhaustible fund of falsehood " — when writing, in his seventh
chapter, on the natural curiosities of Ireland, says, "there is a.
fountain in the province of Munster, which instantly makes the
hair of the head grey when it is dipped into it ; and that there is
another fountain in Ulster of a quite contrary quality, that, upon
wetting it, restores the hair to its genuine colour "; though, observes
Keating, " upon a survey there are now no footsteps, nor even in
the traditions of the people remaining of such wells, nor were
they in the days of Cambrensis, who imposes upon the world with
his fabulous rarities, and amuses his readers at the expense of his
own credit and veracity."

In Aran, the wide-spread custom of praying and making
offerings at the numerous holy wells on the Island, is still
very common. At one, prayers for the sick are efficacious ;
at another, the water will not boil ; at a third, dead fish put
into the spring come to life again. At St. Eaney's Well, women
pray to the saint for children, and men go through the same
performance at a well not far distant, in which may be seen
buttons, fish-hooks, bent pins, bits of crockery, nails, &c. and
around it innumerable rags flutter in the breeze.

St. Conall's Well, near Bruckless, in the county Donegal, is
situated, less than a mile from the sea, in a lonely part of the
glen through which the Corker river flows. The spring is copious,
and the overflow forms a small rill. No thorn overshadows the
little basin, but the brambles which grow around it are decorated
with rags and shreds of various colours.

Loughharrow is described — by a writer in the year 1836 — as
lying in the centre of a shaking bog, within six miles of Balla
in Mayo. " To this lake they (the country people) bring large
pieces of butter, and throw them therein to the saint of the lake,
praying him to save their cattle that year. Here they have
pipers, and fiddlers, and tents of every description in which
whiskey is sold, and they dance round the lake and drink
whiskey. Here parties, and families, and parishes, come to

h2

100 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

fight and quarrel; here all manner of debaucheries are committed,
and young people are corrupted. In the end they alibiing home
bottles of the lake water, and shake it among their cattle ; and
if any person become sick, some of it is spilled into his ears."

The waters of a small tarn, covering about ten acres, lying
in a moory hollow in the parish of Kilmiehael, county Cork,
are considered sacred. Devout people were in the habit of coming

General view of Well and Altars at Tubbernalt, near Sligo.

on Saturday nights to perforin rounds. The waters of the lake
were then applied to such portions of the body as were crippled
by rheumatism, for which complaint the water 'is a remedy.

The custom of carrying the water of celebrated holy wells to
distant parts of the country, and then selling it. was a' common
trade. A correspondent of the Gentleman's Magazine mentions
" that about the year 1750 this was done in connection with a

WELLS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF IRELAND. 101

miraculous spring near Sligo," most probably the well of Tubber-
nalt ; and that some years earlier the water of another sacred
spring " was sold in the district where he lived, at sixpence,
eightpence, and tenpence per quart, according to the different
success of sale the carriers had on the road."

At the proper season devotees can still be seen making their
tour round the Well of Tubbernalt, on the shores of Lough Gill,
not far from the town of Sligo. The spring is encircled by a
wall, access to it being given by a few uneven steps, and below
this spring there is another (fig. 32). Against the overhanging
Alt, or cliff, is built an altar, and on Garland Sunday, it is gaily
decorated with flowers (fig. 33).

Lammas Sunday,* in Irish TJmtmach Crom Dicbh, anglicised

* " Let us now look at one other leading nature-festival, viz., Lammas, on
the first day of August, to discover what light it throws on our subject. The
Church dedicated the opening day of August to St. Peter ad Vincula. A
curious medieval legend arose to connect this dedication with another name for
the festival, viz., the Gule of August. At the heait of this legend, was the
Latin word Gula, signifying the throat. The daughter of Quirinus, a Roman
tribune, had some disease of the throat, which was miraculously cured through
kissing St. Peter's chains, and so tho day of chains was designated the Gule of
August. As a matter of fact, the word is derived from the Cymric Gwyl, »
feast or holiday, and we havo confirmation of the etymology in the circumstance
that, in Celtic lands, the time was devoted to games, and other recreations. In
Ireland, a celebrated fair, called Lugnasadh, was held at Tailtin (now
Teltown), in Meath, for several days before and after the 1st of August ; and
there was another at Cruachan, now llath Croghan, in Roscommon. A third
was held at Carman, now Wexford. Its celebration was deemed so important,
that, as Professor Rhys tells us, in his Celtic Heathendom, ' Among the
blessings promised to tho men of Leinster from holding it, were plenty of corn,
fruit, and milk, abundanco of fish in their lakes and rivers, domestic prosperity,
and immunity from the yoko of any other province. On the other hand, tho
evils to follow from the neglect of this institution, were to bo failure and early
grcyni'ss on them and their kings.' In legendary accounts of Carman, thn
place has certain funoral associations. ' If we go into the story of the fair of
Carman,' Professor Rhys observes, ' wo are left in no doubt as to the
charactor of tho mythic beings, whoso power had been brought to an end at tho
timo dedicated to that fair. They may be said to have represented the
blighting chills and fogs that assert their baneful influence on the farmer's
crops. To overcome these and other hurtful forces of tho same kind, the
prolonged presence of tho sun-god was essential, in order to bring the corn to
maturity' (pp. 305-306). Professor Rhys bears further witness to the
connection of Lammas rites with our present subject when he says: — 'A
similar shifting from tho 1st of August to tho first Sunday in that month has,
I imagine, taken place in tho Isle of Man. For, though the solstice used to
be, in consequence, probably of Scandinavian influence, the day of institutional
significance in the Manx summer, inquiries I have made in different parts nf
tho island go to show that middle-aged people now living remember that, when
they wero children, their parents used to ascend the mountain very early on
the' 1st Sunday in August (O.S.), and that in some districts at least, they
woro wont to bring home bottles full of water from wells noted for their
healing virtues' " (pp. 308, 309) . — Folklore of Scottish Lochs mid Springs, by
James M. MacKinlay, m.a., f.s.a., Scot.

ALTAR AND WELL DECORATIONS.

103

Garland Sunday, was, in its origin, apparently a pagan festival,
in honour of the earth, now about to yield its offspring. The
fanner fed his family on first fruits : no potatoes were dug before
this time, and flowers and fruits were placed on the altars. In
the Book of Idsmore the word cpogatn is explained as Lughasa —
Anglicized Lammas, the designation of the first day of August.
Lammas Sunday was a great festival with the people from the
most ancient times, and according to Lady Wilde, was devoted
by the Irish to solemn rites in honour of their dead kindred.
" The garland, or hoop, was decorated the night before with
coloured ribbons, but
the flowers that en-
circled it, were not
plucked till the morn-
ing of the great day,
and only unmarried
girls were allowed to
gather the flowers and
wreathe the garland,
for the touch of a mar-
ried woman's hand in -S.
the decorations was
deemed unlucky. Then
all the company pro-
ceeded to the church-
yard, the finest young
man in the village
being chosen to carry
the garland. From the
topmost hoop sonic
apples were suspended
by their stalks, and it
one dropped off during
the procession, it was
considered a lucky

omen for the garland

bearer, a prophecy of long life and success in love ; but if an apple

fell alter the garland was set up in the graveyard, it was looked

on as a sign of ill luck and coming evil, especially to those who

were dancing at the time; for a dance- always closed the

Eestival."

On Garland Sunday, on either side of the altar at Tubbernalt,

may he seen two small framed and coloured glasses, t'an this
be a remnant of the pagan rite probably alluded to by the
A|iostle when he says "Now we see through a glass darkly."
Fragments of cakes, pin- and nails may be observed in the well

;. 34.

L'ar Lough Arrow.

104 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

at certain periods, and the locality is, at all times, festooned
with many coloured rags, red, blue, green, white, black, tied
up to denote a finale to the rounds and prayers. (See ante,

g " Fig." 34 is a sketch of Tobermonia, a holy well picturesquely
situated not far from Lough Arrow, in the county Sligo.

Fig. 35 is St. Molaise's Well,
outside the walls of the cashel on the ,--^<^
island of Inishmurray. i ^Sf

Fig. 35.

St. Molaise's (Molash's) Well, Island of Inishmurray. Reproduced from the Journal
of the present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

A rite, probably the most pagan in character still exer-
cised in connexion with a holy well, is that connected with
Tobernacoragh, or " 'The Well of Assistance " on Inish-
murray. ^ lien tempestuous weather prevails, communication
between the Island and the mainland is sometimes rendered
impracticable even tor weeks. On such occasions the waters
of the spring are drained into the ocean, upon which I the
charm rendered doubly certain by the repetition of certain

WIND I TELLS.

10;

prayers) a holy calm succeeds the strife of the elements

(fig. 36).

Beranger, in one of bis tours through Ireland, at the close of
the eighteenth century, refers to this " Well of Assistance," and
fun her states that the inhabitants of Inishmurray "seem very
innocent, good-natured, and devout, hut, at the same time, very
superstitious and credulous. They told us, as a most undoubted
fact, that during the most horrid tempest of winter, where a case
happens when a priest is required, such as to give the Extreme
Unction to a dying person, Ac, they go to the sea-side, launch
one of their little vessels, and as soon as it touches the water a.
perfect calm succeeds, which continues until they have brought
the priest to the island, that he bad performed the rites of the
Church, that they have carried him back, and that the boat is
returned to the island and hauled on shore, when the tempest will
again begin, and continue for weeks together. On asking them
how often this

miracle happen-
ed, and to which
of them the care
of tin' priest had
been committed,
they were vera-
cious enough to
confess it never
happened in their
days, though the
fact was true."

Wells Could

produce a favour-
able breeze as well as allay a storm,
wind-bound on tin
t

^^i.

Fio. 36.

Mand ol Ini limurr.

A.Wind-wetl.

When a strange boat was
Island (if Gigha, tin 1 master of the craft used
ivo money to one of the natives to procure a favourable
wind, and the practice, as here carried <m. closely resembles the
ceremony on the lshmd of Inishmurray. " A few feet above the
well was a, heap of stones, forming a cover to the spring. These
were carefully removed, and the well was cleared out with a
wooden dish, oi 1 a clam-shell. The water was then thrown
several times towards the point from which the needed wand
should blow. Certain words ol' incantation were used each time
the water was thrown. After the ceremony the stones were
replaced, as the district would otherwise have been swept by a
hurricane."

Philip Dixon Hardy, in fib/// Welh of Trelmul, recounts how,
amongst the multitudes which resorted to the holy well of Augha-
uale, near ( .'roau.h Patrick, in the beginning of the nineteenth

106 JVELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

century, a very similar custom prevailed, for if " there be any in
war with their neighbours, they take up a flag which is called
Columbkille's slate ; this they turn upside down in the name of that
saint, and then return home and fast fifteen days, taking nothing
but bread and water once in the twenty-four hours ; this they do
in honour of St. Columbkille and to induce him to put the person
or persons who have injured them to death. But if that does not
do, they return to the well again, and go round their station about
it backwards, and turn the flag upside down. If stormy weather'
happen, either in spring or harvest, the whole country will say
that it was because Columbkille's slate was turned, and they will
even watch in harvest to prevent the people from turning it."

O'Donovan describes a mysterious cursing-stone on Caher
Island, esteemed, next to Inisglora, the most holy island in
that part of Connaught, and wbich possesses a small church,
called Teamjmll na naomh by some, and Teampull Phadruig
by others. There are several penitential monuments around.
it, at which the pilgrims pray and go through their " eircum-
gyrating " round. To the east of the east gable of the church, there
is a stone, inscribed with a cross, called Leabaidh Phadruig,
which is prayed at during the station.

"Within the church, and laid on the altar, is afar-famed
stone called Leac na naomh, i.e. the flag of the saints. It is of a
roundish form, about two feet in diameter, and composed of
different kinds of stones, which appear as if they had been arti-
ficially cemented together ; but the compound is, however, the
work of nature. Whenever persons on the west shore, or on the
islands in the vicinity of Caher, find themselves aggrieved or
scandalized openly and wrongfully, they have always recourse to
the miraculous powers of this stone to elicit the truth. They first
fast and pray at home for a fixed time, imploring that God,
through the intercession of St. Patrick, and the other saints, who
blessed this flag, would show that they were wronged on such
occasions ; and, after the fasting and praying are over, they sail
over to the Caher and turn Leac na naomh. After the flag is
turned, the weather immediately becomes unfavourable, and
storms and hurricanes most frequently ensue, to the great
destruction of boats and curraghs, and some event is ere long
brought about which shows clearly to the eyes of all the neigh-
bours that the character of the person who turned the Leac had
been unjustly and wrongfully attempted to be blackened. This
may be shown in various ways, such as some great misfortune
happening to the scandalizer, or, in case of theft, the real thief
being discovered, &c."

On the island of Iniskea, off the west coast of Ireland, there
was formerly a small, flat stone, called the nceicoge, or little saint,

WIND WELLS. 107

treated with great reverence, which used to procure favourable
winds. It was usually kept enveloped in a cloth, yearly removed
and renewed. Public attention having been directed to the fetish,
the parish priest, it is stated, had it cast into the sea. The
islanders allege they never knew misfortune or hunger, until after
the disappearance of their neewoge.

The anvil of the blacksmith (the ancient caird) is still a most
potent spell-worker, and appears to have possessed many of the
properties of the cursing-stone. The ceremony of " turning the
anvil," like the ceremony of " turning the cursing-stones," is not
lightly to be attempted ; for the smith must rise before the sun,
go naked to his forge, turn the anvil nine times, striking it a
specified number of blows with his sledge each time he turns it.
This he must repeat for nine consecutive mornings, when the
desired result, generally violent rain-storms, or ill-luck to his
neighbour, is produced. Fortunately there is nothing which
makes the performance of this ceremony either easy or agreeable ;
and further, as the postulant must keep strict fast during the
nine days, the charm, like the use of the cursing-stones, is to
some extent safe-guarded from impetuous malevolence.

The name for God and that for wind are not unfrequently
identical. Where the Authorized Version reads, "The Wind
bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof,
but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth,"
the Vulgate reads, " The Spirit breathes where He will and
thou hearest His voice, but thou knowest not whence He
cometh and whither He goeth." In the Mosaic account of
Creation, the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the
waters ; which the Targum of Onkelos paraphrases, " And a
wind from before the Lord blew upon the face of the waters."
The Creek Indians call their chief deity the " Master of breath,"
or " wind" ; and an Aztec god with an unpronounceable name
meant " the wind of night." Odin, the Scandinavian god, signi-
fies, it is stated, "the raging gale."

The well-known habit amongst sailors, of whistling for a wind
—a soft whistle for a breeze, a loud one for a gale — is fast dying
out in these days of almost universal steam. Scratching the mast
on the side from which the breeze is wanted, or throwing a small
coin overboard in the same direction, are apparently pagan
survivals of the idea of propitiating the gods by a sacrifice, while
the presence of a black cat on the ship is a positive invitation
to the saints to send violent storms, shipwreck, and disaster.
According to Herodotus, Menelaus sacrificed two young children
to procure favourable winds.

Some of the natives of New Guinea have strange, but very
similar ideas, on this subject. Favourable winds are carried cm

108 IVELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

board their canoes in an earthenware pot, and while on a voyage,
if a banana be eaten, the skin must, on no account, be thrown
overboard for fear of offending the spirits of the deep, who would
also be aroused if cocoa-nut shells, after the milk had been drunk,
were tossed into the sea.

The ceremonies attached to Irish wind-wells are but the rem-
nant of druidical cult; the druids appear to have also claimed the
power to make or withhold rain, to dry up rivers, or to cause springs
to burst forth. There is a good example of this in a tale in the
Book of Leinster, of an expedition made by Cormac Mac Art against
the king of Munster. The scene is laid in the commencement of
the third century. The king of Ireland consulted his druids as
to the best and most expeditious means of bringing the men of
Munster to terms. The druids informed the monarch that the
surest mode of reducing his enemies was to deprive them and
their cattle of water, and forthwith, by their spells and incan-
tations, they dried up all the springs, rivers, and lakes of the
district. In this extremity the king of Munster called to his
assistance a yet more powerful druid than any in the service of
the Irish monarch. Upon receiving the promise of a large reward,
this arch-druid consented to go to the king of Munster's relief.
Upon his arrival the druid shot an arrow into the air, foretelling
that water, in abundance, would spring up wherever the missile
descended ; and a rushing torrent burst forth where the barbed
head entered the earth. If anyone doubt this story he has but to
visit the parish of Imleach Grianan, in the count}" of Limerick,
where the well designated the " the well of the great spring " still
remains.

The strange spectacle of rival druids striving with each other
to obtain a preponderating influence with the gods, finds repetition
in many biographies of early Irish saints, where we often notice
that rival saints had, although on opposite sides, a sort of influence
which could not be altogether ignored by the Almighty.

Wells often contained trout, salmon, and eels. Trout were
considered holy, and were not eaten ; but eels appear to have
been eaten ; and salmon, under certain circumstances, were
eagerly sought after. Holy trout, of peculiar form and colour,
were confined to holy wells ; the hazel-tree and the salmon seem
to have been indissolubly connected with certain larger springs ;
the salmon watched the nuts on the hazel, and when they dropped
into the water devoured them greedily. Their bellies became
spotted with a ruddy mark for every nut they had eaten ; on
this account the spotted salmon became an object of eager
acquisition, for whoever eat one became, immediately, without
the trouble of studying, a learned scholar, or an eloquent poet.

SA CUED FISH. 109

Dr. P. W. Joyce's account of the origin of "Finn's Tooth of
Knowledge," exemplifies this curious belief regarding the magic
properties possessed by some salmon.

" It had been prophesied, of old, that a man named Finn
would be the first to eat of the salmon of knowledge, which
swam in the pool of Linn-Fee, in the Boyne (near the present
village of Slane) ; and that he would thereby obtain the gifts of
knowledge and of divination. A certain old poet, named Finn,
knowing this, hoped that he might be the lucky man ; so he took
up his abode on the shore of Linn-Fee ; and he fished in the pool
every day from morn till night, in the hope of catching the salmon
of knowledge. At this time, Finn, the son of Cumal, was a boy,
fleeing, from place to place, from his hereditary enemies, the
Clann Morna, disguised, and bearing the name of Demna ; and,
happening to come to Linn-Fee, the old poet took him as his
servant.

"After long watching and waiting, Finn hooked the salmon,
at last, and gave it to Demna to broil, warning him very strictly
not to eat or even taste of it. Demna proceeded to broil the fish ;
and soon the heat of the fire raised a great blister from its side,
which the boy pressed with his thumb, to keep it down, thereby
scalding himself so severely that he, unthinkingly, thrust his
thumb into his mouth.

" When the salmon was cooked, the poet asked Demna had
he eaten of it : ' No,' replied the boy, ' but I scalded my thumb
on the fish, and put it into my mouth.' 'Thy name is not
Demna, but Finn,' exclaimed the poet : ' in thee has the
prophecy been fulfilled ; and thou art now a diviner and a man
of knowledge.' "

" In this manner Finn obtained the gift of divination, so that,
ever after, when he wished to look into futurity, he put his thumb
under his tooth of knowledge, as he did when cooking the salmon
of Linn-Fee, and the whole future was revealed to him. There
appears to have been some sort of ceremony used, however, and
it would seem that the process was attended with pain, so that it
was only in very solemn and trying occasions he put his thumb
under his tooth of knowledge."

Fig. 37 represents the famous well and station of St. Keeran,
situate about two miles from Kells, in the county Meath. The
little stream, shown in the illustration, comes from the well,
which is always bright and sparkling, and, remarks Jlr. W. F.
Wakeman, " Certainly, at times, contains lusty trout, whether
' enchanted ' or otherwise I cannot say. Some of these fish I
havo myself seen, and Sir William Wilde saw them also. He
describes them as being about half a pound in weight ; those
which I noticed were considerably smaller. The people look

110 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

upon them as very sacred. The ash, over the well, is the largest
of its kind I have ever beheld. Some sixty years ago word was
passed through the country that it was bleeding, and thousands
of people nocked to the well to behold the miracle with their own
eyes. I believe that a reddish stain did actually appear, extend-

....- IllllllllllTl liirilW 1 H'lli ii ~-7T*nZ,1r**X>?, .

ijmmtibx<

Fio. 37.
Well i.l St. Keeran, near [Cells, celebrated for its sacred trout.

ing from the lower fork all down the stem. This was supposed
to be owing to an overflow of decayed vegetable matter, which
had been deposited in a cavity in its trunk."

Many holy wells were formerly celebrated for their sacred
trout of peculiar form and colour. One side of each fish was

SACRED FISH. HI

darker than the other, and on it might be observed strongly
defined marks, which, according to tradition, were accounted for
in the following manner : — The progenitors of these fish had been
caught, by unbelievers, and placed on a gridiron to fry. No
sooner, however, had they touched the iron than they were
mysteriously transported back again into the cooling waters of
the sacred spring, but they still retain marks of the fire and of
the gridiron.

Whether we regard the monumental slabs of the ancient
palaces and temples of Babylon and of Nineveh, or the walls of
the Catacombs of Rome, where the early Christians sought refuge
from the fury of their persecutors, representations of the fish,
an emblem of fecundity, are alike prominent. The God of the
Philistines of Ashdod evidently resembled the fish-figure on
Assyrian sculptures and cylinders : —

" Dagon his name, sea-monster, upward man
And downward fish."

The fish is stated, by Christian writers on the Eoman Cata-
combs, to be a symbol expressive of the name of Christ, but the
appropriateness of. the symbol did not stop here, for Tertullian
observes : — " The fish seems a fit emblem of Him whose spiritual
children, like the offspring of fishes, are born in the water of
baptism." Fish veneration is of Eastern origin, for it is known
that, in certain parts of China, India, Persia, and Africa, there
are wells attached to temples in which sacred fish are fed by the
priests. Many travellers have been struck by this circumstance,
and instances innumerable might be quoted : however, one will
suffice. Near Tripoli there is what is called a convent of sacred
fish : a large and lofty building with snow-white dome. A large
sycamore stands by the edge of a tank filled with water, clear as
crystal. Here may be seen a great number of Moslem boys
assembled to feed the sacred fish, and the old guardian of the
place has great faith in his piscine charge ; he says they are all
inhabited by the souls of Moslem saints.

In the well of Tubber Tullaghan, county Sligo, there is a
brace of trout, not visible to ordinary eyes, but which people
still living declare they have seen. The well, near the summit
of a lofty rock, accounted one of the wonders of Ireland, is
mentioned in the Pinxcnchus and by Nennius, Cambrensis,
O'Flaherty, and numerous other writers. The water, neither
clear nor tempting, covered with an oil-like scum, and full of
minute weeds, has a slightly brackish flavour. The country
people assert that the water-level often suddenly rises and falls :
a circumstance not uncommon, however, in springs in a limestone
district. That, like the Tubbernalt, Tubberkeeran, and Cong

112 WELL WORSHIP AND ITS CONCOMITANTS.

trout, the Tubber Tullagban examples were enchanted, is estab-
lished beyond the possibility of doubt, if we credit current stories
to the effect that they have been taken, cooked, and eaten without
apparent inconvenience to themselves, as may be inferred from
the fact that they were immediately afterwards observed as lively
as ever in their accustomed haunt.

In the present day, fish worship is believed to be almost
extinct ; but within the nineteenth century a gentleman of the
county Sligo, who caught some sacred fish, was detected by the
country people, and obliged to run for his life to escape from a
mob of infuriated peasants. Not long ago women and children
were observed throwing bread into the well of Tubbernalt near
Sligo. Inquiries as to their object in doing this elicited the
explanation that they were feeding the sacred trout in the well,
which were, however, invisible except to the eyes of the faithful.
Any person who will take the trouble to examine carefully a few
holy wells will find pieces of bread in the water, thrown in as
offerings to their sacred piscine inhabitants. Lady Wilde in
Ancient Legends states that a man born blind recited, to attentive
listeners, how he had been made to see, by using the waters of
this sacred well of Tubbernalt. "Oh, look on me," he said;
" I was blind from my birth, and saw no light till I came to the
blessed well ; now I see the water and the speckled trout down
at the bottom, with the white cross on his back." When his
auditors heard that he could see the speckled trout, which was
invisible to them, they of course at once believed in the cure.

In the commencement of the nineteenth century it was cus-
tomary for pilgrims to the sacred mountain of Croagh Patrick, in
Mayo, after having performed a station, to enter the holy well of
Aughawale, " in which are three trouts ; they pick up baits and
throw them into the water, and it is the most lucky omen in the
world to them if a trout come out and eat the bait, but if not,
they cry out to St. Columbkille to send them out. If they do
not appear, there is some misfortune to come upon them, with
loss of friends and relations."

There were, in former times, several " station days" in the
year at the sacred lake of Loughadrine, in the county Cork.
The trout in the lake on being boiled, turned into blood. The
devotees flung bread and biscuits into the water to these holy
fishes, saying at the same time certain prayers. On such
occasions one could take up basketsful of bread out of the lake.
Cures of every kind were effected by the potency of the waters,
and as usual, the period of devotion was always closed by
revelry.

Dion Cassius says the Caledonians of his time never tasted
fish, although their lakes and rivers furnished an inexhaustible

BELIEVED TO BE OF EASTERN ORIGIN. 113

supply. In later times "fish eaters " was one of the contempt-
uous epithets which the Scottish Highlanders applied to the
Saxons of the Lowlands.

In ancient times one of the greatest indignities a conqueror
could inflict upon an Irish chief was the destruction of his
holy fish. For example, O'Conor, king of Connaught, in the
commencement of the eleventh century, wishing to insult his
vanquished foes, the O'Briens, caught and ate the sacred salmon
in the well of Kincora.

In a climate so moist as that of Ireland, it hardly seems
natural that water and water- wells should be objects of devotion ;
and the many instances of the cult which even still exist seem a
confirmation of the traditions which trace the early religion of
the land to an Oriental source ; for although not valuable in the
West, wells were extremely valuable in the East, and if some of
the original population of this country came from oriental lands
they would carry with them the idea of well-worship. This
would account for the apparent incongruity of the worship of
water in a country abundantly supplied, overspread with a sullen
sky, heavy and saturated with moisture — and it is only consonant
with human nature that the after-guardians of these springs
preferred turning them to gain, to turning the people away
from them : —

" . . This may be superstition, weak or wild,
But even the faintest relicks of a shrine
Of any worship, wake somo thoughts divine."

Edward Clodd, f.k.a.s., is however of opinion that the uni-
versality of water- worship is otherwise and more easily accounted
for, as " what seemed so full of life, and therefore, to early man's
reason, so full of spirits, as rivers, brooks, and waterfalls ? To
him it was the water-demon that made the river flow so fast as
to be dangerous in crossing, and that curled the dreaded whirl-
pool in which life was sucked."

The area over which well-worship extends is of surprising
magnitude, and it is impossible to believe that so singular a
custom could have arisen independently in all these countries.
Burton says it extends from east to west, throughout Northern
Africa ; Mungo Park mentions it in West Africa ; he observed a
tree which presented a " very singular appearance, being deco-
rated with innumerable rags or strips of cloth." Baker speaks
of it on the confines of Abyssinia ; Burton also found the custom
in Arabia, during his pilgrimage to Mecca, where the holy-well
Zem-Zem disputes, with the Black Stone in the Kaaba, the
honour of being the most sacred thing in the holy city ; some

VOL. II. I

114 WELL WORSHLP AND LTS CONCOMITANTS.

writers even hold that it, rather than the Black Stone, is the
original cause of Mecca becoming a holy place in the eyes of the
old heathen Arabs. The spring is perennial, and the water, like
the well of Tubber Tullaghan in the county Sligo, already men-
tioned, is slightly brackish, containing alkaline constituents, so
that it is an aperient spring ; the pilgrims thus combine hygiene
with religion, as one of their chief duties is to drink freely of the
holy water.

In Persia, Sir William Ouseley saw trees covered with offer-
ings of rags. Hanway mentions a tree he observed in the same
country, in the immediate vicinity of a well, to which were affixed
a number of rags left there, as health-offerings by persons afflicted
with ague. In Ceylon, Colonel Lewis says that the trees in the
neighbourhood of wells may be seen covered with scraps of
clothing ; and Hue describes this practice as existing among the
Tartars. A curious usage prevails among the Shokas, by which
they arrange for the ascent of their prayer by wind-power, and the
custom appears to resemble the Irish practice of tying rags on
trees round holy wells. These Shokas' mechanical prayers are
simply enough contrived : — " A certain number of rags or pieces
of cloth, usually white, but occasionally red and blue, are fastened
by one end to a string, and then hung across a road, pass, or
path. On crossing a pass, for the first time, Shokas invariably
tear off a strip of cloth and place it so that it will flap in the
breeze, and when materials for a new dress are purchased or
manufactured, it is customary for them to tear off a narrow strip
of the cloth and make a flying prayer of it. While there is
motion in the strips there is prayer, so that the natives tie
them very fast to sticks, poles, or branches. Certain shrubs and
trees in weird poetic spots in the mountains are covered with
these religious signs. Moreover, on the top of nearly every shop,
house, or habitation, similar little flags can be seen, and innu-
merable ones are secured near their shrines and at the outer gates
of the village."

Can this be the origin of the world's flags and standards, for
example the English flag, the cross of St. George, " carrying the
aid of St. George, and invoking Heaven by its fluttering?"

In the New World, Tyior observed in Mexico, an enormous
cypress festooned with votive offerings of the Indians, hundreds
of locks of coarse black hair, teeth, shreds of coloured cloth, rags
and pieces of ribbon. It is thus seen that the custom of wefl-
worship and of rag offerings, is of world-wide extent.

Even though they but seldom effected a cure, holy wells in
Ireland retained, nevertheless, their popularity, and the country-
people continued to believe in them, and sought their aid. The
secret of their continuance in power lay in their appeal to the

CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRA WN. 115

imagination. Eeason might suggest that it is absurd to expect
that ailments could be thus removed, but imagination replied
that there are many more things in heaven and in earth than
are at present dreamed of. The strict silence observed — in all
pagan mystic ceremonies, particularly in seeking for hidden
treasure, silence was essential, for

" . . . if a word thou utter,
It vanishes again."

— the rites to be gone through, the leaving of a gift to an invisible
power, the restriction of the ritual to a certain defined season,
all appealed strongly to the imagination, and surrounded well-
worship with a strange atmosphere of mysticism that acted on
the great fund of credulity latent in human nature.

In conclusion, may we not all echo the sentiment of the poet,
that if at these wells,

" one holy thought

In man's deep spirit of old hath wrought ;
If peace to the mourner hath here been given,
Or prayer from a chastened heart to heaven,
Be the spot still hallowed while time shall reign,
Who hath made thee Nature's own again."

I 2

CHAPTER IV.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

Barrier between the brute and man is language— In popular tales the supposed
link between man and the animal kingdom hardly ever relegated to a sub-
ordinate position — Ancient belief that certain families were endowed with
the power of assuming the form of animals — The Were Wolf — Wolf Lore

Watersprites — " The Master Otter" — Witches assume the appearance of

jj ares _Supernatural Cats — Cat Lore— Cow Lore— Swine Lore — Magical
Boars— Divining by the Blade Bone— Augury — " The Merry Thought"—
Omens — Means adopted to obtain Magical Prescience — Belief in Dreams —
Auguries drawn from the appearance or flight of birds— Rook — Starling —
Blackbird — Robin — Crane— Cuckoo — Raven — Hen — Cock — Swallow —
Water Wagtail — Swan — Barnacle-Goose — Peacock — Magpie — Wren —
Various Ancient kinds of Divination — Omens regarding Sneezing.

Like many other pagan nations, tbe old Irish invested even the
lowest forms of animal life with the power of influencing the
actions of men. This species of worship is an advance on the
veneration of trees, stones, or other inanimate objects. It endows
animals, birds, and even fishes with thought and language, re-
garding them as somewhat like human beings, but under a different
exterior ; then, in course of time, they are supposed to possess
supernatural powers ; they become in the thoughts of their wor-
shippers the ancestors of the tribe, and finally their protecting
gods. Animal worship, in ancient Egypt, was probably a survival
of this worship.* Traces of it are still apparent amongst the
aborigines of Australia, America, and many other localities.

The natives of Australia look upon themselves as of one kind
with their beasts, their birds, their fishes. In these are to be

* Professor Goldwin Smith is of u, contrary opinion, he states that "in
Egypt, Sacerdotalism was strongly developed. The natural phenomena were
highly impressive, while the people apparently were weak and open to
impressions. Up to a certain point the priests appear to have been ministers of
progress; . . they became reactionary, and were aided in the reaction by the
isolation of the country. Animal symbolism degenerated into animal worship,
culminating in Apis. This probably was the true account rather than Fetishism,
the existence of which, apart from symbolism, appears to be doubtful." Cod-
temporuri/ Jierirte, No. -120, p. 900.

BARRIER BETWEEN THE BRUTE AND MAN. 117

found some of the most extraordinary forms of life that have
struggled through, or more probably have escaped ordeals, that,
in other parts of the globe, have weeded out the unfit. Just as
this savage race is still in the Stone Age, which we have left
thousands of years behind, so it is also, as we have seen, a race
which has not risen above the most primitive ideas with regard
to spirits in inanimate objects, as well as in animals, birds, and
fishes. The aborigines of Australia show us what our remote
ancestors really were like ; we represent what it is to be hoped
the Australians' remote descendants may possibly become. Yet
these savages, who seem lower than the beasts in improvidence,
wbo live their entire life without a roof to shelter them, or
clothing to cover them, who are higher only than the beasts in
their use of articulate speech and of flint implements, have
nevertheless evolved a most complex unwritten marriage law and
the most elaborate religious ceremonies of almost any savage
folk. Here, amidst a Tertiary survival, the legends of the aborig-
ines reflect what casual observers might describe as a childlike,
or, shall we not rather style it, Pantheistic conception of Creation,
a perhaps even Tertiary surviving form of worship of the Great
Unknown.

' ' There lives and works
A soul in all things, and that soul is God."

A dim conception of this is at bottom of all mythologies which
peopled nature with living spirits ; but the mind of primitive man
could not conceive abstract notions ; the powers of nature were
regarded by him as concrete objects, and were consequently
designated as persons.

The term " totem " is borrowed from the language of one of
the many tribes which lived around the region of Lake Superior ;
for with North American Indians the meaning of the idea ex-
pressed by the totem is more clearly defined than among other
people who use totemic emblems. It is impossible to say what
governs the choice of a totem, but as a rule the animal, bird,
fish, tree, or object so chosen, is considered sacred, and acts the
role of a tutelary saint whose business it is to guard each member
of the family carrying its representation.

There are many evidences of the former supposed influence
of the brute creation upon human life in Ireland, and of their
interference in human affairs. The peasantry were under the
belief that animals, more particularly domesticated animals, were
cognizant of all their affairs, and could even read their thoughts ;
but it was fatal to ask a question of them ; for if they replied,
the interrogator dropped dead. To the peasantry, as well as to
most people, the position of animals in the great life-scheme is
full of mystery ; gifted with intelligence, and yet dumb as regards

118 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

to them intelligent modes of expressing their ideas, they seemed
to contain imprisoned spirits, suffering punishment for some act
committed in a former state of existence, and to be passing
through a cycle of expiation, at the termination of which they
will be again promoted to human status.

Scientists allege that the great barrier between the brute and
man is language — that man speaks, but that no brute, no bird
has ever uttered a word (Balaam's ass, and parrots, &c, it is pre-
sumed, are excepted), and that language is the rubicon across
which no brute has passed. This assertion of course depends on
the definition which may be given to the meaning of the term
language ; for horses, dogs, cats, and birds, &c, utter sounds
which are akin to language, as they are purposely uttered, made
by one beast or bird, with the specific intention of imparting to
another beast or bird a particular meaning, and these sounds,
varied in the note in which they are uttered, are frequently made
to regulate the action of the auditors. The border-land between
man and the brute creation is therefore narrower than is generally
allowed ; not that it can be crossed at will by superior intellect
or supernatural will-power as was formerly imagined.

In the popular tales of the peasantry the supposed link
between man and the animal kingdom is hardly ever relegated to
a subordinate position, and in most stories animal transformation
occupies a prominent place.

There was, in Ireland, an ancient belief that certain races or
families were endowed with the power of assuming the form of
wolves whenever they pleased, and it is gravely recorded that,
in a.d. 690, a wolf was heard speaking with a human voice.
When thus transformed they committed depredations amongst
flocks and herds, after the manner of wolves ; if their human
bodies which their spirits quitted on these expeditions were
moved, the spirit would not be able to again enter them ; if
wounded whilst abroad, the same wounds would be apparent on
their human as on their wolfish bodies ; and, if killed, the raw
flesh they had been tearing in the fields would be found between
the teeth of the dead human bodies. Giraldns Cambrensis, who
only repeats older Irish legends, places one of these tribes in
Ossory. This idea was also held by the ancients. In a sentence
that might have boen penned by an Irishman, Herodotus thus
mentions the Neuri : — " Still more remote are the Neuri, whose
country, towards the north as far as I have been able to learn, is
totally uninhabited."* In later times Mela says of this people
(Book n., 1), that they possessed the power of transforming

* Melpomene, xvii. — " tovtihv 8£ KarvTrepSe omioviri Nevpol. Nevpav Si ri
wpbs $opT\v &vefiav iprifxos &.v9pamuv, So-ov ri/nts Unev."

PO WER OF A SSUMING THE FORM OF ANIMALS. 119

themselves into wolves, and resuming their former shape at
pleasure.* In the strange pamphlet entitled Beware, the Cat,
the story is given in much the same words as those of Giraldus,
and is to the effect that "there is also in Ireland one nation
(tribe) whereof some one man and woman are, at every seven
years' end, turned into wolves and so continue in the woods the
space of seven years, and if they hap to live out which time, they
return to their own form again. And other twain are turned for
the like time into the same shape, which is penance (as they say
enjoined that stock by St. Patrick for some wickedness of their
ancestors) and that this is true witnessed, a man whom I left
alive in Ireland who had performed this seven years' penance,
whose wife was slain while she was a wolf in her last year. This
man told to many men whose cattle he had worried and whose
bodies he had assailed while he was a wolf, so plain and evident
tokens, which showed such scores of wounds which other men
had given him, both in his man's shape before he was a wolf,
and in his wolf's shape since, which all appeared upon his skin,
that it was evident to all men, yea, and to the bishop (upon whose
grant it was recorded and registered), that the matter was,
undoubtedly, past perad venture."

The " were-wolf" was a human being with an uncontrollable
craving for human flesh — who, by magical arts, assumed at will the
form of a wolf, in order, the more readily, to gratify this unna-
tural appetite — possessed of the strength and all other powers
of the brute, while retaining his human faculties. This trans-
formation was, however (as already represented) in some cases
involuntary, being the punishment for crime. Thus, Vereticus,
a king of Wales, was changed into a wolf, through the curse of
St. Patrick. A similar curse, by a saint of lesser degree, rested
on an Irish family, each member of which, male and female, was
subject to the horrible doom, that, at some period of life, he or
she was forced to assume the form and habits of a wolf, and thus
remain for seven years ere resuming his or her place among
fellow-mortals. Almost the same legend is related by Pliny, who
recounts how, each year a member of a certain family was chosen
by lot, and, on the festival of Jupiter Lycreus, was led to the
brink of the Arcadian lake, into which he plunged. He was in-
stantly transformed into a wolf, under which form he continued
for nine years, when he returned to his family somewhat aged
in appearance, but otherwise none the worse for his lupine
experiences. Ovid records another mythological instance, how
Lycaon, King of Arcadia, presuming to test the omniscience of

* Xeuris stalum singulis tempus est, quo si velint in lupos, inlerumque in
eos qui fucio mutunttir.

120 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

Jupiter by placing before him a dish of human flesh ( St. Patrick,
in similar manner, had cooked cats and dogs set on the table
for him to eat), was straightway transformed by Jupiter into a
wolf — a terror to his pastoral subjects. Herodotus tells of sor-
cerers who, once a year, had the power of assuming the
semblance of wolves. Norwegian and Icelandic Sagas are full
of references to lycanthropy, as this form of magic is called, and
treat of it in all its various developments. In some cases the
transformation was effected by merely assuming the skin of a real
wolf; but, in general, a charm was employed which, while in-
volving no actual change in the human body, caused all beholders
to imagine that they really saw a wolf.

In olden days, from the forest-clad hills and mountains of
Erin : —

" Cruel as death and hungry as the grave,
Burning for blood, bony and gaunt and grim,
Assembling wolves in raging troops descend."

Yet, if credence is to be given to the following anecdote, wolves
were a much maligned race : — A Sligo Androcles found a young
wolf lying on the ground moaning and in great apparent agony.
On examination, he found in the wolf's foot a great thorn, which
he extracted, and he then tended the animal till its recovery.
One morning the man missed his patient, and heaped curses on
the truant's head ; but, imagine his astonishment, when, shortly
after, the grateful beast was seen re-appearing in company with
another wolf, driving between them a fine fat cow, which they
placed, unharmed before the poor man's hut. The finding of the
cow was proclaimed at all the chapels ; but it is needless to add
that the laudable endeavour to discover a lawful owner was un-
successful, or that, finally, the poor man, by his own industry
and the assistance of the wolves, became the wealthiest farmer
in the district.

The following legend, current in the county Sligo, is an olla-
podrida of the supernatural — of wolves and water-sprites. Near
the Hill of Ivesh, close to the village of Ballymote, was bom
Cormae Mac Art, the celebrated King of Ireland. His mother
had been warned by a Druid that if her child were born under a
certain planet, and at a certain hour, some misfortune would
assuredly befall him. One day, her husband and his retainers
being all absent at the chase, she suddenly remembered that
there was no water to cook the spoils of the hunters on their
return, and proceeded to the townland of Cross to draw water
from a well, since called Tobercormac. She walked leisurely,
but had scarce reached halfway to the well when, at the disastrous
hour foretold, she gave birth to her infant, and had sufficient

WOLVES AND WATERSERJTES. 121

forethought to cut from the little toe of the infant's right foot a
piece of flesh, as a private mark whereby to recognize her child.
Whilst she was in a fainting condition, the child was taken from
her arms by a were-wolf, and carried off to a cave, where, like a
second Eomulus, he was suckled by the wolf till about twelve
months old, at which time he was observed essaying to walk by
placing his hands on the wolfs back for support. The father of
Cormac's mother, with whom she then lived, caused some flesh
to be roasted near the cave, when the wolves, attracted by the
appetising scent, rushed to the spot, leaving the infant behind ;
by this artifice the chief was enabled to capture the boy, and his
daughter at once recognised him as her lost son, on observing the
mark on his toe.

At the time that Cormac had grown to manhood, the head-
chief of the district, a great tyrant called Mac Con, kept men to
guard and watch over him during the night, and these guards
were constantly found dead in the morning. At length it fell
to the lot of Cormac to keep watch over his chief. Aware that
Mac Con was the reputed offspring of a water-sprite, and, con-
sequently, unable to close both eyes at night unless near water,
Cormac, on pretence of washing his hands, called for a basin of
water, which he placed surreptitiously under the tyrant's bed, so
that he slept soundly through the night. By this means Cormac
was enabled to observe a vast multitude of water-sprites, who,
being of like nature as Mac Con, were in the habit of paying him
nocturnal visits ; and on these occasions, assisted as supposed by
Mac Con himself, frequently killed the night-guards. Cormac,
however, succeeded in slaying all the sprites, and on the following
morning recounted the occurrence to Mac Con before witnesses,
declaring that he was but " half human." Mac Con was on the
point of putting Cormac to death when, to save his innocent
life, Mac Con's own mother acknowledged the truth. Mac Con
thereupon resigned his position as chief, was never more heard
of, and was succeeded by Cormac. the rightful heir, who after-
wards became King of Tara — so runs the Sligo legend.

W. H. Maxwell, in his Wild Sports of the Wext <>f Ireland,
states that the peasantry believe that animals of extraordinary
formation and strange virtues inhabit the lakes and rivers of the
west. "Among these the sea-horse and master-otter are pre-
eminent. By a singular anomaly the first is said to be found in
certain inland loughs, and his appearance is imagined to be fatal
to the unfortunate person who encounters him. The latter,
however, should be an object of anxious research, for he is endued
with amazing virtues. Where a portion of his skin is, the house
cannot be burned, or the ship east away, and steel or bullet will

122 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

not harm the man who possesses an inch of this precious
material. Antony, indeed, confesses that in the course of his
otter hunting he has never been fortunate enough to meet this
valuable brute ; but he tells a confused story of one having been
killed far down in the north by three brothers called Mont-
gomery, who from poverty became immensely rich, and whose
descendants are opulent to this very day. He says the master-
otter was seen twice in the neighbourhood. At Dhu-hill he
appeared about sixty years ago, attended by about one hun-
dred common-sized animals, who waited upon the master like
loyal and dutiful beasts. He was also observed by one of the
O'Donnel family while passing through Clew Bay in a sailing
boat. Bequiring a supply of fresh water, O'Donnel landed on
an island for the purpose of filling his keg, but found the spring
already occupied by a strange and nondescript animal. After his
first surprise had subsided, he returned to the boat and procured
a gun. This he loaded carefully with five fingers and a-half —
for Antony is minute in all his narratives — and then, and within a
dozen yards, levelled at the "master." Thrice he drew the trigger,
and thrice the gun missed fire. The otter wisely determined not
to give him a fourth chance, and left the well for the ocean.
Mortified at his failure, O'Donnel tried his gun at a passing gull ;
it exploded without trouble, and finished the unfortunate bird —
thus proving beyond a doubt that the gun was faultless, and the
preservative qualities of the animal were alone to blame. ' And
indeed,' quoth Antony, ' he might have snapped at the master
to eternity ; for if an inch of skin can save house, ship, and
man, what a deal of virtue there must be in the whole hide ? ' "

Witches assume the appearance of hares, and, whilst thus
transformed, are subject to the same conditions as individuals
changed into wolves ; indeed the connexion between witches
and the lower animals, more especially cats, is very close.*

The Irish have always regarded cats as mysteriously connected
with demoniacal influence. The house cat is excluded from a
blessing ; on entering a cottage the usual salutation being,
"God save all here, barring the cat." It is considered very
unlucky to take away the house-cat when changing residence ;

* Mr. F. T. Elworthy, in his work on The Ecil Eye (p. 29), states that " belief
in the power of transformation seems in all countries to have heen closely allied
with witches, and with those possessed of the evil eye. The idea is very
common in the stories of ancient mythology, and from the Middle Ages down to
the present time it has possessed' the popular mind. The hare, the wolf, tha
cat and the sow seem nowadays to he the favourite animals, whose shape is
assumed, though many others are believed in."

CAT LORE. 123

consequently cats, especially in large towns, often suffer great
privations, being entirely dependent on the sympathy of anyone
who may chance to take compassion on them.

Cats should not unnecessarily be offended, as they are
revengeful, treacherous, and cunning. If you are going on a
journey, and a cat meet you on the road and look you full in the
face, give up your journey, and turn back, for a witch is in your
path. According to popular belief,, cats understand everything
that is said, and can assume various shapes at pleasure. They
are special objects of mysterious dread, as many of them are
believed to be men and women, metamorphosed into cats by
demoniacal power. Cats have often great battles among them-
selves on account of hidden treasures, of which they are appointed
guardians, when demons, in the shape of enormous cats, lead on
the opposing forces on either side, and gather all the cats in the
country to take part in the fight.

Numerous legends, relating to cats, have gathered around the
earn of Heapstown, near Lough Arrow in the county Sligo, and
may be taken as typical of those recounted by the peasantry
elsewhere of this class of monument, for tumuli and earns are
thought to be inhabited by enchanted cats " as large as a sheep,"
and having " a nail in the end of their tails." At night, lights
are, at certain seasons of the year, seen to move round the earn,
but woe betide the daring person who approaches it. In the
morning, after this spectacle, smoke ascends, for some time, from
the summit of the earn.* Long ago the entrance to the inner
chamber of the earn, where great treasure lies hid, was guarded
by an enchanted animal, an enormous cat as large as a tiger,
which killed and devoured everyone daring enough to approach
the place after nightfall. This monster has not been seen for a
lengthened period, and there are no lately recorded instances of
anybody in the neighbourhood having mysteriously disappeared.
This gigantic creature has, however, left numerous, but degener-
ate, offspring ; for not many years ago, a peasant who lived
in the neighbourhood, accompanied by two dogs renowned for
courage and daring, happened to pass the earn one night, when
he was attacked by a vast number of cats, and compelled to run
for his life. He succeeded in reaching his house, and closed and
barred the door. All night long, however, he heard the cats
around the place endeavouring to get in ; and in the morning
the mangled remains of the two faithful dogs were found strewn
in front of the house.

* Oan tliis tale of smoke ascending from tlio cum be a faint reminiscence of
the time when tires were, at certain seasons, regularly lighted on the summit?
See mile, vol. i., p. 280, footnote.

124 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

The oldest reference to Irish cat-lore is probably that con-
tained in a rare little book in black letter, already quoted, entitled
Beware the Gat, the first edition of which appeared about the
year 1560. The author, William Baldwin, relates that " upon a
certain occasion there fell a controversy between Master Streamer
and the writer, as to whether birds and beasts had reason,
Master Streamer affirming that they had, and that as much as
man, yea, and in some points, more"; and he thereupon told
the story which is the subject-matter of the tract. He relates
that about the year 1550, a "kern" of John Butler's, called
Patrick Apore (probably Hore, an ancient Anglo-Norman Wexford
family), made a raid, accompanied by one of his followers, on two
lone houses, killed their inmates, and drove off all the four-footed
beasts they possessed, which were but a cow and a sheep, and
" got him to a church, thinking to lurk there till midnight was
past, for there he was sure that no man would suspect or seek
him." The rest of the story is better given in the words of the
narrator, but the spelling has been modernized, and the contrac-
tions amplified.

" While this kern was in the church, he thought it best to
dine, for he had eaten little that day, wherefore he made his boy
(follower) go gather sticks and strake fire with his feres ( steel), *
and made a fire in the church and killed the sheep, and, after
the Irish fashion, laid it thereupon, and roasted it. But when it
was ready, and that he thought to eat it, there came in a cat, and
set her by him, and said in Irish, sliane foel, which is, " give me
some meat." He, amazed at this, gave her the quarter that was
in his hand, which, immediately, she did eat up, and asked for
more, till she had consumed all the sheep, and, like a cormorant,
not satisfied therewith, asked still for more. Wherefore, they
supposed it was the devil, and, therefore, thinking it wisdom to
please him, killed the cow which they had stolen, and when they
had flayed it, gave the cat a quarter, which she immediately
devoured. Then they gave her two other quarters, and in the
meanwhile, after the country fashion, they did cut a piece of the
hide, and pricked it upon four stakes which they set about the
fire, and therein they set a piece of the cow for themselves, and
with the rest of the hide they made each of them laps to wear
about their feet, like brogues, both to keep their feet from hurt,
all the next day, and also to save for meat the next night if they
could get none other, by broiling them upon coals. By this time
the cat bad eaten three-quarters, and called for more, wherefore,

* Feres may mean his " companion." It is old English, and is employed in
this sense hy Spenser : —

" Hath won the laurel quite from all his feres."

CAT LORE. 125

they gave her that which was seething; and, doubting lest, when
she had eaten that, she would eat them too, because they had no
more for her, they got them out of the church, and the kern took
his horse, and away he rode as fast as he could hie. When he
was a mile or two from the church, the moon began to shine,
and his boy (follower) espied the eat upon his master's horse
behind him, and told him. Whereupon the kern took his dart,
and, turning his face toward her, flang it, and stroke her through
with it. But immediately there came to her such a sight of cats,
that, after long fight with them, his boy (follower) was killed and
eaten up, and he himself, as good and swift as his horse was, had
much to do to escape. When he was come home, and had put
off his harness (which was a corselet of mail made like a shirt,
and his skull [iron helmet] covered with gilt leather and crested
with otter skin), all weary and hungry, set him down by his wife,
and told her his adventure. Which, when a kittling, his wife
kept, scarce half a-year, had heard, up she started, and said,
' Hast thou killed Grimalkin ? ' and, therewith, she plunged in
his face, and, with her teeth, took him by the throat, and ere
that she could be taken away she had strangled him."*

In Shark Island a peasant, whose only boy was dying of
fever, was warned by the ghostly apparition of the dead mother
to " Batch a crowing hen, and kill her, and sprinkle the blood
over the bed, and take ten straws and throw the tenth away and
stir the blood with the rest; then lay them on the child, and he
will sleep and do well." The father did as advised, and his child
was quite recovered the next morning.

The sequel of the story is thus told by Lady Wilde.

" Now it happened that about three months after, a child of
one of the neighbours grew sick, and was like to die. Then the
mail's wife rose up and said : ' See now, our child is like to die,
but look how Dermot cured his son through the sprinkling of
blood. Let us do the like.' So they caught a crowing hen and
killed her, and sprinkled the blood over the sick child. But, lo,

* A somewhat similar incident occurs in current tradition m Suuth Lanca-
shire. (Xnlen find Qucrirx, 2nd Scries, vol. x., p. 4G3), and is thus related by
Mr. T. F. T. Dyer in Emjlish Folk-Lore, p. 1 10 :— " A gentleman was one evening
sitting cosily in his parlour reading or meditating, when he was interrupted by
the appearance of a cat, which came down the chimney and called out— 'Tell
Dildrum Doldrum 's dead ! ' lie was naturally startled by the occurrence, and
when shortly afterwards his wife entered, he related to her what had happened,
and her own cat, which accompanied her, exclaimed, ' Is Doldrum dead ! ' and
immediately rushed up the chimney, and was heard of no more. Ot course
there were numberless conjectures upon such a remarkable occurrence, but the
general opinion appears to be that Doldrum had been King of Catland, and
that Dildrum was the next heir. A similar legend is current in Xorthumber-
bin.l."

126 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

a terrible tiling happened, for the door was flung open, and in
walked two monstrous black cats. ' How dare you kill my kitten ? '*
said one of them — " my darling only kitten. But you shall suffer
for it.' ' Ay, 1 " said the other, ' we '11 teach you how to insult a
royal cat again, and kill one of our great race, just to save your
own wretched child,' and they flew at the man and tore his face
and hands. Then the wife rushed at them with a churn-dash,
while the man strove to defend himself with a spade. But all
the same, the cats had the best of it, and clawed and tore and
scratched, till the miserable pair could not see for the blood
streaming down their faces.

" Luckily, however the neighbours, hearing the scrimmage,
rushed in and helped to fight the oats, but soon they had to fly,
for the cats were too strong for them, and not a soul could stand
before them. However, at last the cats grew tired, and after
licking their paws and washing their faces, they moved towards the
door to go away, first saying to the man — ' Now we have done
enough to punish you for this time, and your baby will live, for
death can take but one this night, and he has taken our child. So
yours is safe, and this we swear by the blood and by the power of
the great king of the cats.' So they whisked out of the house, and
were never more seen by man or mortal on the island of Shark."

The traditional association of cats with old maids, and the
belief that cats are connected with sorcery, or were the preferred
companions of witches, are probably quite as much founded on
fact, as is the old legend that cats were specially created by the
Almighty to keep down the mice which swarmed in Noah's Ark,
and threatened to consume the food allocated to the support of
the passengers, human and animal.

Mr. T.F. T. Dyer, in English Folk- Lore, states that — "In Ireland
it is considered unfortunate to meet a barking dog early in the
morning, and, on the other hand, just as fortunate for one to enter
a house the first thing in the day. Dogs are not without their
weather -lore. Thus, when they eat grass, it is a sign of rain ;
if they roll on the ground and scratch, or become drowsy and
stupid, a change in the weather may be expected. As in the case
of the cat, most of their turnings and twistings, are supposed to
be prognostications of something."

A multitude of places, throughout Ireland, are named after
cattle. Legends upon the subject of " cow lore " are current
amongst the peasantry ; and stories relating to bulls, cows, and
calves are interwoven with Irish Fairy-mythology, and interest
chiefly from their topographical references. Several of the early

* Evidently n case of unexplained metamorphosis.

COW LORE. 127

Irish Saints — like the Druids — were credited with the possession
of magical cows. Cattle raids and forays afford fruitful themes
for early romances, the most celebrated production being the
Tain bo (Juaihjite, or the cattle raid of Louth, the so called
Nilieluntjcn Lied of Irish History. It has been remarked that
even the celebrebrated abduction of Dervorgil partakes, when
examined by the light of modern investigation, more of the nature
of a cattle foray than a romance, or love passage, between an Irish
Princess aged 44 and a King in his 62nd year.

According to tradition the Druids held the bovine species in
veneration. One of the traditional roads of ancient Erin runs
not far from the village of Ballyvodock, near Cork ; it is called
" the road of the white cow," a mystical animal that appears to
have risen from the sea, walked one day through Ballyvodock on
to Foaty Island, and drank at Lough-na-bo. The road runs over
the hill to Glanmire, near Cork, and, according to tradition, off
to the County Limerick. In popular folk-lore the origin of this,
and other somewhat similarly named magical roads is described
as follows : —

Long ages ago as some fishermen were strolling along the
strand at Ballycronen, in the Barony of Imokilly, they observed
a mermaid asleep on the water's edge. She was captured and
carried to a farmer's house in the immediate vicinity, where she
lived imparting instruction and foretelling future events. On the
May Eve next succeeding her capture she gave directions that she
should be carried back to the strand, and a great concourse of
people assembled to witness her departure. She told them to
assemble again on the same spot on the following May Eve,
as three magical cows would emerge from the ocean, she
then plunged into the billows, and was never seen again. On
that day twelve months all the inhabitants of Ireland gathered
on the cliffs, and about an hour after midday three enchanted
cows suddenly emerged from the sea at Imokilly. The first was
white ; the second red, and the third black. They kept in com-
pany for about a mile ; then the white cow went north-west
towards the county Limerick, the red cow went westward, and
passed around the coast of Ireland, the black cow going north-
east towards the county Waterford. These roads are still pointed
out in many places, and are known as " The White," "The Bed,"
and " The Black Cow's Eoad."

One celebrated cow, called Glasgavlen, is remembered in
tradition all over Ireland ; and there is throughout the kingdom
hardly a county which does not possess a lake, or well, in which
lives an enchanted cow which, at certain times, appears above the
waters. According to tradition, Glasgavlen presented herself
before every house in Ireland, giving to each a plentiful supply

128 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

of milk. This continued for a lengthened period until an
avaricious woman laid by a quantity for sale, whereupon the
offended animal at once left Ireland, plunging into the sea off the
hill of Howth, on her way to Scotland. A similar legend in the
South of Ireland describes her as going to Wales. Another
legend narrates that the cow was deceived by a greedy old woman,
who milked her into a sieve, instead of into a milk pail, in
consequence of which she left Ireland for ever.* It has been
observed that avarice on the one hand, and imprudence on the
other, are two failings frequently held up for reprobation in Irish
folk-lore, whilst a blind reliance on supernatural powers, for daily
sustenance, is strongly inculcated.

In the county Limerick, on the banks of the river Dee, a
legend is current of a cow which frequently emerged from the
stream and grazed on the banks. A farmer who observed this
intercepted her retreat to the water and drove her into his byre.
Were she milked a hundred times a-day she would each time fill
a can ; but after some time the woman who milked her died, and
the farmer put another, who was red haired, in her place. At
her first milking the cow was restless, kicked out, and spilled the
milk. " Bad luck to ye for the same," said the red-haired female,
whereupon the cow at once made off for the river, plunged in,
and was never more seen.

The following legend, recounted by Mr. W. F. Wakeman, seems
to point to the former sacred character of the cow: — "Many
years ago a native of Inishmurry, witli envy and hatred in his

* In Hero-Tales of Ireland, Jeremiah Curtin remarks (pages xliv-xlv),
that — " In a short tale of Glas Gavlen, which I obtained near Carrick, county
Donegal, it is stated that the cow came down from the sky. According to the
tale, she gives milk in unlimited quantities to all people without exception.
Time after time, the rich or powerful tiy to keep her for their own use
exclusively, but she escapes. Appearing first at Dun Kinealy, she goes finally
to Glen Columkil near the ocean, where a strong man tries to confine her ; but
she rises in the air, and, clearing the high ridge on the northern side of the
glen disappears. Since then, there is no free milk in Erin, and none but that
which common cows give. . . . (1'ages 519-500.) Glas Gainach. — inthis name of
the celebrated cow, glas means 'gray'; gainae/i is a corruption of gaunach,
written gamlmaeh, which means a cow whose calf is a year old, that is, a cow-
without a calf that year, a farrow calf. Gamhnach is an adjective from
gamhan, a yearling calf.

" In Donegal, garlen is used instead of gatuiach ; and the best story-teller
informed me that garlen means a cow that has not had a calf for five years.
He gave the terms for cows that have not had inlves for one, two, three, four,
and five ycais. These terms I wrote down ; but unfortunately they are not
accessible at present. Tho first in the seiies is gaunach, the last garhn.
The intervening oues I cannot recall. . . . (Page 55-i.) Bator and Glas Garlen.—
This was a great tale in tho old lime; but it is badly broken up now. If we
could discover who Balor and his daughter were really, wo might, perhaps, be
able to understand why his grandson was fated to kill him. The theft of Glas
Gavlen is I ho first act in a series which ends with the death of Balor."

COW LORE. 129

heart, stole out one night and feloniously slew by stabbing the
cow, which was the chief support of a neighbouring family. The
blood of the milk-giver, thus cruelly slaughtered, flowed, it is
said, in every direction, and, upon congealing, instantly quickened
and became transformed into mice. These animals ultimately
proved a nuisance on the island."

Another legend recounts how a poor herdsman, in charge of

his master's cattle, observed, one bright sunny day, high up in

the heavens, a small black cloud, which descended rapidly, and

he heard a voice saying, " This is the Tarv Connaire ; lie will

descend on one of the cows ; whoever drinks the first milk of that

cow will have the gift of prophecy." The herdsman followed

the advice of the aerial voice, and being thus endowed with the

gift of superhuman knowledge, left his lowly employment ; his

fame ultimately spread all over Ireland, and lingers even yet

wherever the Irish language is spoken. This tale and that of

the Tain lib Cualnge, vividly elucidates the great estimation

in which cattle were held in Ireland in olden times. The plot

of this story is roughly as follows : — The King and Queen of

Connaught indulged in rival exhibitions of wealth, the Queen

enjoyed separate property, which consisted, amongst other things,

of a large herd of cows. Against this the King showed a herd

of equal value, and in addition a beautiful young bull, which could

not be matched by his consort. The Queen thereupon despatched

a trusty messenger to seek a bull of equal excellence, which

at length was found in the possession of the King of Ulster, who,

after some discussion, promised to send it to Queen Maeve.

Unfortunately the messenger, exulting in the success of his

negotiations, and excited by drink, boasted that if the bull had

not been yielded peaceably it would have been taken by force ;

this speech being repeated to the King of Ulster he recalled his

promise. The Queen of Connaught then invaded the northern

Province, and its great hero Cuchullin (Coolin) defended it ;

but the coveted bull was at length carried off.

The similarity of the legendary lore of the East and West is,
as before stated, very striking. The Ramayana contains a long
narrative of a person, seeking to obtain possession of a wonderful
cow, sending messengers with various offers and presents, in
order to procure even a loan of the coveted animal, and with
final instructions that, if these overtures were rejected, recourse
was to be had to force. Negotiations, at first apparently suc-
cessful, are ultimately broken off, and an endless number of
battles and single combats ensue. The plot of the story tallies
with the Irish legend, except that the animal contended for is a
cow and not a supernatural bull.

In a play that, not long ago, was usually acted at wakes all

VOL. II. K

130

ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

the men were turned out of the room, as a preliminary proceeding,
and a young girl was dressed out with a cowhide thrown over her,
and horns placed on her head, whilst girls formed a circle and
danced round her. A loud knocking is heard at the door. " Who
wants to enter ? " asks the master of ceremonies. A voice without
replies : — " The guards demand admittance for the bull." Entrance
is refused, the knocking continues, the door is burst open, and
the bull, a young man with horns on his head, dressed in a
cowhide, enters, followed by a band of young men. The cow and
her attendants affect great alarm ; the bull endeavours to seize
the cow, who is defended by her maidens ; a mock fight takes
place between the intruders and the maidens ; and the scene
terminates in uproarious mirth
and the capture of the cow.

It is almost impossible to
account for the legends about
cows or bulls emerging from
the sea, from lakes, rivers, or
springs, and wandering through
the whole of Ireland, giving
names to lakes, islands, roads,
and meadows (Clontarf, near
Dublin, for instance), or to the
wonderful attributes ascribed to
certain bulls of early pre-Chris-
tian or early Christian tradi-
tion, without supposing that the
people who recounted the stories
derived these strange fancies
from an oriental source, for
classic mythology is filled with,
and many Greek localities re-
ceive their names from, the
wanderings of Io, the beloved of Jupiter, who, on account of
Juno's jealousy, was metamorphosed into a white cow-.

Before leaving the subject of cow-lore, it may be well to draw
attention to a representation in bronze of a bovine head, to be
seen in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy. The art
characteristic of this ornament (fig. 88) appears to be late Celtic.
Tho metal composing it is of fine quality and of a golden colour.
It was formed by a process of casting ; great care seems to have
been taken to spare and to economize the material. Only one
eye-socket remains; it is shallow but still sufficiently deep to
have held an eye, composed probably of glass, vitrified" paste, or
enamel of some kind. The head is open "at the back, and that it
had been attached to some object is sufficiently clear from the

Fig oS.

Representation of Bovine Head in Bronze.
in the collection of the R.I. A. Half
real size. Reproduced from the Jour-
nal of tho present Society of Anti-
quaries of Ireland.

SWINE LORE. 131

fact that the sides are pierced with a row of small apertures that
held pins, by which the neck was secured. It is extremely
probable that this antique belongs to a class of typical eccle-
siastical ornamentation, and attention is directed to the case of
St. Molaise's Gospel, K. I. A., on which this device appears,
apparently as one of the four evangelical symbols.

Hercules slew the Erymanthean boar. In old Irish legends
we find Finn slaying all over the kingdom boars endowed with
supernatural powers. The black pig or boar is a legendary
animal whose deeds and death form a fruitful subject for the
shannachies, or tellers of stories, of almost every county in
Ireland. In oral legends we find the heroes of antiquity slaying
magical boars in various parts of the kingdom. There are strong
indications, in tradition and folk-lore, that, in ancient times, the
boar was held in great dread, or perhaps in great estimation.
One writer even goes so far as to say that the prominence given
to the animal, in topographical nomenclature and legendary tales,
suggests the idea that the boar may be identified with that system
of animal worship which, we have reason to believe, once existed
in this country. Kemble states that, among the Germans and
Anglo-Saxons, swine were sacred animals. A track styled "the
road of the Black Pig " commences near Athlone, passes through
the county Roscommon, and can be traced as far as the Curlew
mountains in the county Sligo. It is said that there are many
other " roads of the Black Pig " throughout Ireland.

We are told that when the Firbolgs ruled the kingdom the
land was overrun with swine, which committed great depreda-
tions : indeed so great were their numbers that Ireland was
styled Muck Inis, or the Island of the Pigs ; but, on the conquest
of the country by the Dedanann, they extirpated all these animals
with the exception of one herd, which continued to devastate
the maritime districts of the county Clare by day and retired at
night to an island. To banish the herd from this, their last
retreat, was found to be beyond the human power of the
Dedanann, who had therefore recourse to magic, and raised a
violent convulsion of the elements which swept the entire herd
into the sea.

In the county Sligo, in the immediate neighbourhood of
Scurmore, there is a tumulus styled " The grave of the Black
Pig." The legend regarding the origin of the name is as
follows : — Many years ago there was, in the north of Ireland,
an enormous magical boar which committed great devastation
throughout the country ; so much so, that all the hunters of
the kingdom assembled, determined to pursue the animal until
they succeeded in killing it. The chase was well sustained, and

k2

132 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

the boar, finding the province of Ulster uncomfortable quarters,
made off, but was overtaken in the Valley of the Black Pig, a
little vale situated in the townland of Mucduff, in the county
Sligo. Here the boar turned at bay, and was slain on the spot
where he was subsequently buried ; his pursuers stood around lean-
ing on their spears, viewing with amazement the huge proportions
of the body, as also the length and strength of the bristles with
which it was covered. One of the hunters incautiously stroked them
the wrong way, thereby causing a venomous bristle to prick his
hand, and fell down writhing in agony, beseeching his companions
to bring him water from a neighbouring well, which would not
alone assuage his unbearable thirst, but would also effectually
cure him. None succeeded in conveying the liquid to him ; for
by some magical property attached to the spring no human
being could carry water away from it. It is quite evident that
this tale is merely a slightly modified version of the death of
Dermod, as recounted in the legend of " The Pursuit of Dermod
and Grania " by Finn Mac Cool, whose hunt of the magical boar
in the county Sligo is related yet amongst the country people,
and is as follows : —

Finn, like many a modern gallant, paid attention to several
of the fairest belles of his day without committing himself to
any one in particular. Each lady imagined that she was the
chosen bride of the great chief ; each, of course, cordially detested
her rivals : the result was an all-round quarrel , carried on with
such acrimony as threatened to throw the entire kingdom into a
hopeless embroilment. Finn perceived that with him alone
rested the power of ending this ; but, as he wished to marry
only one of the ladies, he found himself placed in an unpleasant
predicament, to extricate himself from which some stratagem
must be devised. He accordingly made a declaration of equal
affection and admiration for all the numerous ladies ; but
announced that, as he was not rich enough to marry them all,
he would leave the decision of the question to the agility of their
pretty feet. Finn himself stood at the summit of the hill chosen
for the memorable race to receive the successful competitor.
Amongst the bevy of beauties there was one whose charms had
made an impression upon Finn's heart, and to her he whispered
advice, by adopting which she might be certain to win. This
lady was Grania, the daughter of Cormac, Monarch of Ireland ;
and the counsel which Finn gave her was simply not to attempt
to run too fast in the outset lest she should exhaust herself.
Grania appeared to be left far behind by all the other runners,
who at once put forth their utmost strength to breast the declivity.
Soon, however, they lost breath, and finally sank down, one
after another, completely exhausted, and had then the mortifica-

MAGICAL BOARS. 133

tion to see the princess pass by them. Several made a last
despairing effort, but in vain ; for she alone reached the summit.
The princess had now gained as firm possession of the chieftain's
hand, as formerly she had of his heart, and a long life of happiness
might have been anticipated for the distinguished pair, but the
lady proved as frail and false as Finn was chivalrous and con
fiding. The wedding dinner was prepared by Dermod O'Deena,
one of Finn's celebrated warriors, as well as one of the best cooks
of the Feni. On the neck of Dermod was a mole, which possessed
the magical power of causing any woman who gazed on it to fall
desperately in love with Dermod, who on this occasion, heated by
his culinary work, loosened his throat-fastening, thus exposing
to view the magic spot. Grania, who chanced to see it, fell so
desperately in love that she eloped with Dermod. In vain Finn
pursued them through mountains and fastnesses. During a period
of twelve months they eluded pursuit by sleeping in a different
place each night, under the rude stone monuments called " Der-
mod and Grania's Beds," erected by Dermod after each day's
journey.

At length Finn decided to inaugurate a boar-hunt ; this plan
he considered must be successful, as Dermod could not refrain
from joining a hunt whenever he heard the music of the hounds.
Finn obtained a wild boar, renowned for ferocity, which he placed
in a pit, and put over him a large flagstone, giving orders that
the boar should be kept thus confined until his rage, excited by
the pangs of hunger, should enable him to burst through the
impediment to his freedom. Finn stationed hounds in various
places, at Killala, Jamestown, and all along the Shannon, so as
to prevent the escape of the boar. Eendered frantic by hunger,
the imprisoned animal managed to lift the confining flag. Finn
pursued, with hound and horn, as far as Belagrania, near Col-
looney, where Dermod was then concealed. The latter, hearing
the baying of hounds, joined the hunt, despite the entreaties of
Grania that he should remain. As Dermod emerged from his
hiding-place the boar ran between his legs, carrying him away
astride on his back. At last Dermod, who had not the advantage
of being bound, Mazeppa-like, to his steed, giddy with the pace
and exhausted by his exertion of holding on, relaxed his grasp,
tumbled off, and was severely injured. The fall occurred at
Tobernabostul, near Benbulbin, where he was found by Finn,
who was so moved at his lamentable plight that instead of then
wreaking vengeance on his rival he asked if he could afford him
relief. Dermod thereupon entreated Finn to go to a place indi-
cated by him, there to pull up a bunch of rushes, when a spring
would at once arise, three drinks of which would cure him.
During Finn's absence on this errand the boar returned and

134 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AAD AUGURY.

attacked Dermod, who, though greatly disabled, managed by
superhuman exertions to grasp the fore and hind legs of the boar,
and to pull him to pieces, just as the dying animal had succeeded
in ripping him up. On returning with the magic drink, Finn
was agreeably surprised to find his enemy in his death agonies,
and, in his first surprise, allowed the water, which he was
carrying in the palm of his hand, to pour through his fingers.
On the spot where it fell the Well of Tobernabostul sprang
up. Finn was not as generous to his enemy in death as in life ;
for he cut off his head, and brought it back to Belagrania as a
present to his runaway bride. When the beautiful but hapless
Grania rushed from her hiding-place to meet her husband, she
saw but his freshly-severed head, and, in a paroxysm of despair,
she fell dead, and all the hunters of the country wept tears of
sorrow for the brave and the fair. Grania's corpse was carried to
repose with that of her husband on the mountain slope, in the
townland of Gleniff, in the parish of Eossinver, in a cavern in
the face of a cliff, still called " Dermod and Grania's Bed."*

There are other versions of the tale, as recounted amongst
the country people, which differ slightly from the above. One
of them states that when Finn found the runaway couple he
affected to forgive them, on condition that Dermod promised
never to hunt within the bounds of his territory; but, aware of
Dermod's unconquerable love of sport, Finn caused the boar-
hunters to pass near Dermod's dwelling, certain that he would
join in the chase, and thus afford him an excuse for taking his
life.

Another variant narrates that a cruel act of Dermod's was sup-
posed to have produced his death. His infant son, by Grania,
was at nurse with a swineherd in a lake-dwelling on the lake of
Templevanny. Dermod went to see it ; but, on perceiving that
the swineherd's child was finer than his own, dashed out its
brains. The swineherd seized a sucking-pig — showing that even
at that early date pigs shared the house with human occupants —
and killed it, praying that the slayer of his child might meet the
fate of the pig ; and on the following day Dermod was killed by
the boar.

There is a close resemblance between the Irish legend and
the story of the magical boar of extraordinary size and ferocity
which, according to Herodotus (Clio, 34, 35), appeared near
Olympus, and did immense injury to the Mysians. Vainly they
attempted to kill it, and finally despatched a letter to Croesus,
imploring him to send his son with chosen hunters and dogs to
destroy it. The king, warned in a dream of danger threatening

* Soe ante, vol. i., pp. 50, 51,

MAGICAL BOARS. 135

his son, at first refused, but afterwards relented, and permitted
him to go in pursuit of the magical boar, when his son was
accidentally slain by one of own companions.

The tale of " The Pursuit of Dermod and Grania " has been
translated by Dr. P. W. Joyce from the Irish MSS., and published
in Old Celtic Romances. The foregoing narratives are mostly taken
from letters, written at the period of the Ordnance Survey, in
which are embodied many oral traditions of the peasantry as
then recounted by them.

There is a very curious story in various Irish MSS., styled
The History of MacDatho's Hoy. MacDatho, king of Leiuster
in the first century of the Christian era, invited the kings of
Connaught and of Ulster to a feast, where he caused to be served
up an enormous hog, the division of which, and the assigning
to each chieftain his proper share, became a matter of fierce
contention between the guests, as was intended by their crafty
entertainer ; for the partition of the carcase of the animal had
the same effect in Ireland, as had the presentation of the apple
in classic mythology.

In various late Irish MSS. it is narrated that in many parts
of Ireland, up to the establishment of Christianity, there were
public establishments styled " Brudins " : the destruction of the
most celebrated, that of the Brudin Da Derga, forms the subject
of a curious tale. These institutions were large farm-houses, open
to all comers. Each of them possessed a magical caldron, never
taken off the fire, which yielded a proper share to every guest,
and no matter what quantity of food was put into it to be cooked,
there could be taken out only what was sufficient for the company.
It seems strange that the introduction of Christianity should
have been the means of abolishing these institutions, for if they
were mere houses, providing free entertainment for man and
beast, should we not, on the contrary, have expected to see
them increase in number and in hospitality with the introduction
of the new order of things, and the inauguration of the law of
love ? Any person who studies the supernatural episodes attend-
ing the destruction of Brudin Da Derga will undoubtedly arrive
at the conclusion that this establishment, at any rate, was a
pagan religious institution. A hidden observer saw a person
going through an incantation, in which he failed. From this
failure the unsuccessful performer knew that some unauthorized
individual must be looking on, and he accordingly ordered another
mythical personage, who appears to have been a swine-herd, to
slay his pig, and divine who was looking into the Brudin. This
incident is valuable as denoting the animal, or, at any rate, one
of the animals, from which divination was made ; and it is even
more instructive in another respect, inasmuch as, on the

136 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

Continent, the pig was sacrificed to Mars Sylvanus, the primitive
God of battle.

In the old pamphlet, already mentioned, entitled Beware the
Cat, there is a curious reference to swine. It is as follows
(spelling modernized) : — "I cannot tell by what means witches
do change their own likeness and the shapes of other things.
But I have heard of so many and seen so much myself, that I
am sure they do it, for in Ireland (as they have been in England)
witches are, for fear, held in high reverence, and they be so
cunning that they can change the shapes of things as they list at
their pleasure, and so deceive the people thereby, that an Act
was made in Ireland that no man should buy any red swine.
The cause whereof was this. Witches used to send to the markets
many red swine, fair and fat, to see unto, as any might be, and
would in that form continue long, but it chanced the buyers of
them to bring them to any water. Immediately they found them
returned either into wisps of hay, straw, old rotten boards, or
some other such like trumpery, by means whereof they have
lost their money, or such other cattle as they gave in exchange."*

There does not appear to be any Act in the Irish Statute
Book prohibiting the sale of red swine, to which our "Irish
Munchausen " alludes; but an enactment (2 Elizabeth, chap. 4)
for the preservation of salmon and eel made the feeding or
pasturage of swine upon any strand or the banks of any river,
during certain periods of the year, an offence punishable by
statute. A general Act against witchcraft and sorcery was passed
at a somewhat late period (28 Elizabeth, chap. 2), but without
particulars as to charms or enchantments.

Swine have bequeathed their name to innumerable places ; the
prefix muck, i. e. pig, is attached to upwards of eighty townland
names throughout Ireland.

In the late Celtic period the figure of the boar was used as
decoration, and it is stated to have been a well-recognised Celtic
symbol on the coins of every part of Gaul, as well as on those
struck by the cognate races of Britain, Spain, Styria, and Galatia.t

* Mr. F. T. Elworthy quotes Higden, by Trevisa, his translator, that in
Ireland " olde wyfes and wymnien . by crafts of nygromaneie niaketh fat
swyne, . . and selleth hem in ehepinge and in feires ; but anon these swyne
passeth water they torneth agen in to her own kynde. . . But these swyne
mowe not be i-lcept by no inanere craft for to dure in liknescs of swyn over thre
days." — Hir/ttai, Tolycliroti. Rolls Series, i. 360.

To see pigs running about with straws in their mouths foretells an
approaching storm.

1 Mr. E. T. Elworthy, in The Evil Eye, pp. 333, 334, states that, in ancient
Egypt, both the pig and wild boar were held in abhorrence as unclean animals
unfit forfood. " It was unlawful, says Herodotus, to sacrifice the pig to any gods
but to the moon and Bacchus, and then only at the full moon. Except on this

DIVINING BY THE BLADE BONE.

137

Representations in bronze have been occasionally found in Ireland,
but they belong to a very late period ; two in the collection of the
Royal Irish Academy are here given (figs. 39, 40).

L-'lG. 3U. b'iG. 10.

Representation of a Boar in Bronze, in the Representation ofa li".-ir in Bronze, in the

collection of tho K. I. A. Half real collection of the R. I. A. Half real

s'zo. size.

Camden depicts the Irish of his time as in the habit of looking
through the blade-hone of a sheep to try and discover a dark spot,
foretelling a death. Drayton, in his Polyolbion, describes this
practice as " reading the speal bone/'

" A divination strange the Dutch-made English have
Appropriate to that place (us though some power it gave),
By tlT shoulder of a ram from off the right side par'd,
"Whirl] usually thev boil, the spade-bone being bar'd,
Which when the wizard takes, and gazing thereupon,
Things long toco Eoreshowes, as things don Iongagone."

occasion the people were forbidden to eat its flesh. Even then they did not eat
the pig, which was sacrificed before their door, but gave it hack to the person
from whom it was purchased. Plutarch considered the pig to be connected with
the worship of Osiris, and ii also appears in the legend <>t' Horns. There were
' many small porcelain figures of sows . found, of i later period,' and

probably we may with reason consider them as amulets. Tho boar is represented
in ;i tonil) at Thebes and hr was ' ;ui embleni of Kvil.' In the judgment scenes,
when on weighing the so id it is found wanting, it is condemned li_\ Osiris 'to
return to earth under the form of a pig, or some other urn lean animal.'

" In Greek mythology the pig, as an amulet, becomes clearer, and helps us
further in the explanation of another importanl modem charm of which we
have yet to speak.

u The pig was sacred to 1 lemeter, and, of eourse, also to her ' daughter and
double,' Proserpine, whom wo have proved to be utiam eandemque. It came at
length to be 'an embodiment of the corn -goddess herself '; and at the Thesmo-
nhoria, a festival confined to women, representing the descent of Proserpine into
the lower world, it was customary for the women to eat swine's flesh, to throw
pigs cakes of dough, and pine-branches into the Megara, oi chasms of Demeter
and Proserpine. . The Greeks could not decide whether the Jews worshipped
swine or abominated them, 'for the} might neither eat nor kill thorn,' so that if
eating was Eorbidden on account of uncleanness, tin- unlawfulness of killing
them tells still more strongly for their Banctity. Frazer believes that swine were
rather sacred than unclean to the Jews, and that, in general, so-called unclean
animal-; weir originally sai red, and that they were not eaten because they were
divine."

138 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

The practice of "divining by the blade bone" is not ex-
tinct. It still lingers, it is alleged, in remote parts ; and there
is but little doubt that if careful search be made, it may yet be
found, particularly amongst the Irish-speaking portion of the
population. Proofs that it did exist are numerous, and that it
was practised in the same manner in Ireland, as it is at present
in Greece, as well as amongst the Bedouins, and in most parts
of Asia, as far as the island of Ceylon. The bone used for
divining had to be the right shoulder-blade of a ram. Auguries
were drawn from it by removing the flesh and looking through
the semi-transparent bone. Another process of divining was to
broil the Bone, and divine by the cracks caused by the heat of the
fire. The heat occasions the bone to crack in various directions ;
these cracks generally vary greatly, but there are certain usually-
occurring and principal lines of cleavage, and from these the
result of the augury was drawn. Another method was to reduce
the bone to a powder, then dissolve it in water, and swallow the
mixture.

One of the means adopted to obtain magical prescience of
future events was of a strange character. The postulant, wrapped
in the freshly removed skin of a ram, goat, or bull, slept near a
stream, or waterfall, and in his slumber information regarding
the future was revealed to him. Another receipt is preserved in
Cormac's Glossary. It would not do to thus leave open the door
of the temple of magic to the general reader, could it be for a
moment supposed he would make use of the following rites : —
" Through this the poet discovers whatever he desires to reveal.
He chews a piece of the flesh of a red pig, or of a dog, or cat,
and he brings it afterwards on a flag behind the door, and chants
an incantation on it, and offers it to idol gods ; and his idol
gods are brought to him, but he finds them not on the morrow.
And he pronounces incantations on his two palms, and his idol
gods are also brought to him, in order that his sleep may not be
interrupted ; and he lays his two palms on his two cheeks, and
thus falls asleep, and he is watched in order that no one may
interrupt or disturb him, until everything about which he is
engaged is revealed to him. . . . St. Patrick abolished this, and
declared that whoever should practise it would neither enjoy
heaven nor earth, because it was renouncing baptism."

It must not be imagined that belief in dreams, as a portent
of future events, as a message from the spirit world, or as a
revelation from on High, is, or ever has been, confined to the
illiterate and superstitious. On the contrary, some of the most
eminent men of all ages have clung firmly to the belief in their
supernatural character. A prominent feature in the Confessio
of St. Patrick is his firm belief in certain dreams which he

DREAMS. 139

considered to be direct revelations from the Almighty, and it is to
be observed that, as described by him, there appears to have been
nothing in them to distinguish them from ordinary dreams.
What could be more natural than that, languishing for years in
slavery, he should have his waking thoughts occupied about
flight, and that he should subsequently dream of his escape.
It was not then observed that many dreams arise from an over-
heated imagination, a too full stomach, or are influenced by acts
and occurrences of past life, but now analysis of deductions from
dream-incidents, known as Oneirology or Oneiromancy, practised
in all ayes and in all classes, dethroned from its position as a
science is relegated to the custody of charlatans, although we
might seem to possess the warranty of Holy Scripture for its
orthodoxy as well as for its genuineness, at least under certain
circumstances.

The ancient Greeks imagined that a certain class of dreams
were a revealment of the future, and that their fulfilment could
not be averted but by expiating ceremonies. One method of
frustrating the effects of a menacing vision was to relate its
purport to the Sun, who was credited with the power of safe-
guarding the postulant from evils threatened by the night.

James Sully, in his work on Illusions, remarks that —

" The earliest theories respecting dreams illustrate very clearly
the perception of the remoteness of dream-life from waking ex-
perience. By the simple mind of primitive man, this dream-world
is regarded as similar in its nature or structure to our common
world, only lying remote from this. The savage conceives that
when he falls asleep his second self leaves his familiar body and
journeys forth to unfamiliar regions, where it meets the departed
second selves of his dead ancestors, and so on. From this point
of view, the experience of the night, though equal in reality to
that of day, is passed in a wholly disconnected region.

" A second and more thoughtful view of dreams, marking a
higher grade of intellectual culture, is that these visions of the
night are symbolic pictures unfolded to the inner eye of the soul
by some supernatural being. The dream experience is now, in a
sense, less real than it was before, since the phantasms that wear
the guise of objective realities are simply images spread out to
the spirit's gaze, or the direct utterance of a divine message.
Still, this mysterious contact of the mind with the supernatural
is regarded as a fact, and so the dream assumes the appearance
of a higher order of experience. Its one point of attachment to
the experience of waking life lies in its symbolic function ; for the
common form which this supernatural view assumes is that the
dream is a dim prevision of coming events. Artemidorus, the
great authority on dream interpretation (oneirocritics) for the

140 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

ancient world, actually defines a dream as ' a motion or friction
of the soul in a diverse form, signifying either good or evil to
come '; and even a logician like Porphyry ascribes dreams to the
influence of a good demon, who thereby warns us of the evils
which another and bad demon is preparing for us. The same
mode of viewing dreams is quite common to-day, and many
who pride themselves on a certain intellectual culture, and who
imagine themselves to be free from the weakness of superstition,
are apt to talk of dreams as of something mysterious, if not dis-
tinctly ominous. Nor is it surprising that phenomena which at
first sight look so wild and lawless, should still pass for miracu-
lous interruptions of the natural order of events."

The peasantry were formerly very particular in their observ-
ance of omens. If a countryman, about to start from home on a
journey, or about to undertake a particular work, observes a bad
omen, he abandons the journey, or relinquishes the work, at
leastfor the time ; or he abandons it altogether, in many instances,
if the omen be very inauspicious ; but if from sheer necessity he
must proceed, it is with the full impression that his doing so will
result in failure.

To meet a flat-footed or a red-haired man the first thing in
the morning is unlucky ; red-haired people are, in many districts,
almost savagely disliked, are treated as foreigners, and should
never be trusted. Red-haired men are bad enough, but to meet
a red-haired woman, as you start on important business, is such
a terrible omen, that the man who will not at once turn back
must have " nerve enough to face the devil." Though considered
very unlucky, in actual everyday life, yet, on the other hand, the
red-haired man, or the red-haired woman, generally, in the fairy
world, enacts the role of a benevolent personage, and rescues, or
points out the means whereby the unhappy mortal, who finds
himself helpless under fairy spells, can extricate himself from
their power.

Peeling an apple in a long, thin, narrow strip from core-end to
core-end, swinging the peel three times round the head and then
throwing it over the left shoulder— married or single life being
foretold by the peel remaining entire or breaking — and finding
in the coils of the peel so cast, when on the ground, the initial
or initials of their coming sweetheart is a semi-superstitious,
semi-humorous custom common all over Ireland.

A singular survival of augury by birds is still practised by
children on the " merry-thought " or wishing-bone of a chicken.
This, when pulled asunder, denotes good luck to the one in whose

THE " MERRY THOUGHT." 141

possession the larger portion of the bone remains ; again, when
the " merry thought" is drawn as a lot it gives a wish to the
fortunate drawer of the lucky portion. The belief in the peculiar
luckiness of this bone is evidently derived from the ancient use
of the cock in divination. We know that the cock was the usual
sacrifice offered to unfriendly spirits and to the fairies. Burying
a live cock is described as a remedy for insanity, and even in
late years this cure has been resorted to for epilepsy, and witches
were accused of sacrificing cocks.

Amongst other means used by the Druids to foretell future
events was observation of the movements of birds. Many auguries
are drawn from the appearance or flight of birds on New Year's
morning. A rook perched on the housetop portends a death in
the household ; if perched on the cattle byre some of the inmates
are certain to be afflicted with disease during the oncoming year.
The peculiar whistle of the starling is regarded with especial
trepidation by the peasantry as they are supposed to be communi-
cating with the fairies. To hear a blackbird sing, or to see a
robin approach the doorstep, betokens a severe spring. Whoever
kills a robin will never prosper, for " the robin (in Irish, the
spiildoi/e) is, as is well known, a blessed bird, and no one, no
matter how wild or cruel, would kill or hurt one, partly from
love, partly from fear. They believe, if they killed a robin, a
large lump would grow on the palm of their right hand, prevent-
ing them from working or from hurling."

Many curious anecdotes are on record concerning the appear-
ance of the robin, which is sometimes thought to augur approach-
ing death. In the account of the death of Dr. Doyle, as given
in the Life, Times, and (.'urrnjumilcnce of Jlinhop l>»yle, Vol. n.,
p. 496, Mr. Fitz-Patrick says: — "Considering that the season
was mid-summer, and not winter, the visit of two robin red-
breasts in the sick room may be noticed as interesting. They
remained fluttering round, and sometimes perching on the un-
curtained bed. The priests, struck by the novelty of the circum-
stance, made no effort to expel the little visitors ; and the robins
hung lovingly over the Bishop's head until death released
him."

Should the robin enter a house in autumn it is said to pro-
gnosticate approaching hard weather, frost, and snow.

A good omen is to see a crane, as, whenever this country was
scourged by war, these birds always mysteriously disappeared.

The cuckoo, the "harbinger of spring," as it is poetically
designated, is a wandering voice and a wandering mystery ; for
while you pause, in a futile attempt to locate the sound, it has
boxed the compass. It is doubtless this ventriloquistic charac-
teristic which has made it the subject of strange fancies and of

142 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

wild fables. The cuckoo is associated with ideas of divination,
for the first time, in spring, that the listener hears it, towards
whatever quarter he is then looking, in that quarter he will live
during the next year ; and if he has money in his pocket he will
never be without it during the year.

There is a rhyme current alike in Ireland and Great Britain,
respecting the cuckoo : —

" If a cuckoo sits on a bare thorn,
You may sell your cow and buy com ;
But if she sits on a green bough,
You may sell your corn and buy a cow."

Classic antiquity shows parallel instances, for as Churchill
says : —

' ' A niong the Eomans not a bird
Without a prophecy was heard ;
Fortunes of empires often hung
On the magician magpie's tongue ;
And every crow was, to the State,
A sure interpreter of fate."

The New Year was sometimes poetically reckoned from the
birth of summer, the 1st of May, for an ancient Irish rhyming
augury says : —

" A -white lamb on my right hand,
So will good come to me ;
But not the little false cuckoo,
On the first day of the year."

Toland, in his History of the Druids, recounts the following
anecdote to illustrate the manner in which omens regarding the
raven were looked on in his time : — " When I was in Dublin, in
the year 1697, I walked out one day to the village of Finglass,
and overtook upon the way two gentlemen of the old Irish stock,
with whom I had contracted some acquaintance at the coffee-house.
They told me they were going a good way further, about a business
of some importance ; and not many minutes after one of 'em
cry'd out with joy to the other : ' See, cousin, by heaven, matters
will go well,' pointing at the same instant to a raven feeding and
hopping hard by, which had a white feather or two in the wing
that was towards us. The other appear'd no less transported,
nor would they stir till they saw what way the raven flew, which
being to the south of them, and with a great noise, they were
fully confirm'd about the success of their business. . . . Upon
my putting some questions to those gentlemen, they said it was
certain, by observation of all ages, that a raven having any white
in its wings, and flying on the right hand of any person, croakimr
at the same time, was an infallible presage of good-luck."

OMENS.

143

Fio. 41.

Instrument, wit
ornaments. One

llronzi
bird
fourth

produced from ili<' Dub
tin Penny Journal.

Spenser calls it —

"The ill-fac'd owle, death's dreadful messenger;
'I he hoarse night raven, trompe of doleful dreere."

Sliakspeare, in Othello, describes its harsh
roak, when illness of any kind is visiting
t house, as an inauspicious sound : —

" 0, it conn
,\~ dotli the raven o'er thi
Boding to nil."

in ft

■ mj me
eted hon

Brooches with bird-head ornamentation
have been found on the sites of Lake Dwel-
lings. Petrie states that it is observable on
early eroziers. Fig. 11 represents a very
curious bronze instrument found, aboui the
year 1829, in a bog in the townland of Duna-
verney, within two miles of Ballymoney,
comity Antrim, together with fragments of
wooden vessels, a large bronze pin, and some
stone hatchets. This curious antique is made
in three parts (a, b), joined by pieces of oak
inlaid with thin layers of bronze. At one
extremity is a double hook, al the other a
movable ring. The superior
portion of the instrument, as
seen in the engraving, is per-
forated at unequal distances
with seven holes, through each
of which a wire passes, ter-
minated on one side by a. hi rd

and at tl ther by a ring.

This portion is hollow and
contains a bronze wire with a

zigzag pattern (see fig. 12). Pa "" n "' Bronze

' ' i . Wire running

Al E anil F i^IJg. Ill are tWO through centre ol

holes about one-eighth of an l '" , l l . ,JW '" ''«■ »»■

o l' nil size.

inch in diameter. The repre-
sentations of birds, on this curious relic, point
to the workmanship not being earlier than
the sixth century.

Another instrument five inches longer
than the foregoing, but of similar make, was
discovered, in the year 1851, in the town-
1 land of Lurgy, three miles from l'ungannon,
county Tyrone. It possesses neither lines,
nor birds, but was otherwise perfect. Petrie,

Fi

144 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

who brought under notice the first described antique, ad-
mitted that he was totally unable to form even a rational
conjecture as to its probable use. Another antiquarian was of
opinion that it was employed either for divination — as by a little
sleight-of-hand the birds could be moved to suit the design of
the officiating priest — or for sacrificial purposes.

A hen in the farmyard that can crow like her spouse, is
considered to bring bad luck to the household ; in some localities
it is even regarded as a death herald. We have the well-known,
and to the fair sex, uncomplimentary rhyme : —

" A whistling maid and a crowing hen,
Are good for neither God nor men."

It is good for mortals, however, that the cock should crow,
for by his voice all respectable ghosts are regulated, and at
the first sound of his morning notes, they cease to trouble the
living and return to their proper abode. If a hen crows when
roosting in a cabin, it is a sure sign that it is "fairy struck."
It must be at once caught, its head cut off and flung on the
floor, or one of the inmates of the household will die within the
twelvemonth.

A clocking hen should never be lent. It is lucky for a hen
and chickens to stray into the house ; if a cock comes to the
threshold and crows, visitors are coming.

If anyone is sick in a cabin, and a cock turns his head to the
hearth and crows, the patient will recover, but if it turns its head
to the door whilst crowing, the sick one will die.

Neither destroy, remove, nor rob the nests of swallows that
build about the house ; they bring luck, and if you injure them,
you will certainly suffer. It is fear alone " that saves a swallow
from injury, for it is equally well known that every swallow has
in him three drops of the Devil's blood." He is thus sometimes
called the " Devil's Bird." There is the strange belief that
on everyone's head there is a certain hair, which, if plucked by
the swallow, dooms the unfortunate loser to irretrievable mis-
fortune.

If swallows fly low, they are said to foretell approaching rain ;
if they fly high, they announce continued fine weather. Thus
Gay says : —

" When swallows fleet soar high, and sport in air, «

He told us that the welkin would be clear."

A water-wagtail near the house heralds bad news. Whilst a
man was lying ill with a virulent fever, a water-wagtail came

OMENS. 145

regularly and pecked at the window pane, and even after his death,
the bird still returned each morning and tapped at the glass as
before. Then the family knew, that further misfortune was in
store, and the evil came as foretold ; another person was suddenly
taken ill and died.

A friend of O'Donovan's gave the following account of the
superstition regarding this little bird :— The incident which
occurred in November, 1820, was the death of a water-wagtail
which killed itself by flying against one of the windows of the
bedroom in which lay a dying person. " This trifling event was
made curiously interesting by a sister of the sick person, who
was living in the house, stating over and over again, from day
to day, that she felt sure her brother would live till after a bird of
this kind should kill itself at the window, for one had done so in
several previous cases, where members of our family had died in
that room. Indeed she went so far as to maintain, that it was
always the case, and was preserved as a tradition in the family.
I certainly gave little heed to what she said, till I was startled
from my reading at the window indicated, by a bird of this kind
striking the window with great force, and falling on the window-
stool stunned, and thence rolling off on the roof of a pantry or
office beneath, off which I, in a few minutes after picked up
the bird dead, and brought it to the lady who had actually pre-
dicted the fact. It satisfied the family that the time was at
hand, that all had been looking to for some weeks."

Sir Thomas Browne remarks that " Few ears have escaped the
noise of the death-watch, that is, the little clicking sound heard
often in many rooms, somewhat resembling that of a watch ; and
this is conceived to be an evil omen or prediction of some person's
death ; wherein, notwithstanding, there is nothing of rational
presage or just cause of terror. For this noise is made by a little
sheath-winged, grey insect (Anolium tessellatuin) found often in
wainscot, benches, and woodwork in the summer. We have often
taken many thereof, and kept them in thin boxes, wherein I have
seen and heard them work and knock with a little proboscis or
trunk against the side of the box like a Fiats martiux, or
woodpecker, against a tree. It worketh best in warm weather,
and for the most part giveth not over but under nine or
eleven strokes at a time. He that could extinguish the
terrifying apprehensions hereof, might prevent the passions
of the heart, and many cold sweats in grandmothers and
nurses, who, in the sickness of children, are so startled with
these noises."

It is strange that so many people should, despite the very
obvious origin of the noise, even still regard the tapping made by
this little insect , as an omen of death. Dean Swift wrote the

146 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

following amusing, as well as practical, charm to avert the fatal
omen : —

" A wood worm

That lies in old wood, like a hare in her form ;
With teeth or with claws it will bite or will scratch,
And chambermaids christen the worm a death-watch :
Because like a watch, it always cries click :
Then woe be to those in the house who are sick ;
For as sure as a gun they will give up the ghost,
If the maggot cries click when it scratches the post.
But a kettle of scalding hot water injected,
Infallibly cures the timbers affected ;
The omen is broken, the danger is over,
The maggot will die, and the sick will recover."

In early days in Ireland the swan was doubtless the totem of
some tribe, as an Irish saying, thus translated, demonstrates the
intensity of belief in its sanctity : —

" Then was it Erin's sons, listening to that cry,
Decreed ' that man who slays a swan shall die.' "

Lir was an ocean-god common to Ireland and Britain, and,
as already narrated (vol. i., pp. 147, 148), his children were, by
enchantment, turned into swans, " and the men of Erin were so
grieved at their departure, that they made a law and proclaimed
it throughout the land that no one should kill a swan in Erin,
from that time forth. In Welsh histories he appears as Lear."*
In modern days in Ireland, the prohibition is "more honour'd
in the breach, than the observance."

The movements of swans are regarded as heralding good or bad
weather. They are also supposed " to sing before they die," and
on this superstition Coleridge wittily remarks : —

"... 'twere no bad thing.

Should certain persons die before they sing."

Some of the country people in the county Sligo— and, doubt-
less, elsewhere — still firmly believe that the barnacle goose,
which breeds in the high northern latitudes, i.e. Iceland, Lap-
land, &c, but is a winter visitant to our sea-coast, is really
propagated from the cirriped marine shell-fish so often found
adhering to wooden piles and hulks of vessels ; but, in this idea,
they are not singular, for, in former times, even learned
writers gravely affirmed the same. Probably the delusion first
arose from the designation, " barnacle," being common to both.
It was long, however, before truth prevailed, and the absurd
doctrine of the generation of these sea-fowl was finally refuted.

*The Erilliijt, F. T. Elwortby, pp. 89, 90.

SWAN, PEACOCK, MAGPIE, AND WREN. 147

Giraldus Cambrensis, as early as the twelfth century, pro-
mulgated this view in his Topographia Hibernioe. Sir John
Maundeville, and Gerarde, in his Herball, both allude to it.
Du Bartas describes the various transformations of this bird, on
which Meyer wrote a treatise, and which Sir Robert Murray
describes in Philosophical Transactions.

The possession of peacocks' feathers brings ill-luck. When
peacocks make a loud shrill and discordant noise they are said to
predict rain, and the more they scream the heavier the downpour
that is coming. This is an imported item of folk-lore.

It seems very strange that the folklore pertaining to the
magpie accompanied it, on its introduction into Ireland, late
in the seventeenth, or early in the eighteenth century. Thus
we have amongst us the English popular rhyme regarding the
appearances of magpies : — ■

" One for anger,
Two for mirth,
Three for a wedding,
Four for a birth,
Five for rich,
Six for poor,
Seven for a witch,
I can tell you no more."

Derrick who, in 1581, wrote the Image of Ireland, says : —

1 ' No Piea to plucke the thatch from house,
Are breed on Irish Groundc:
But worse than Pies, the same to burne,
A thousand maie be founde."

Moryson, writing in 1617, states that the " Chattering Pye"
was not present in Ireland; and Smith, in 1774, in his History of
Cork, states that " the magpie, or piant, was not known in
Ireland seventy years ago, but they are now very common."

Many other instances of the importance attached to the
appearance and movements of birds might be given ; that of
the wren, an object of superstitious veneration amongst the
Pagan Irish, shall here suffice. In Cormac's Glossary, the
word drean, i. e. wren, is explained as " DraOi-en, a Druid bird,
a bird that makes a prediction." From hence is probably
derived the saying, " a little bird has told me." In a life of
St. Molaing, it is recounted that, as the saint was reading
a book, the Maijus Avium, so-called "because to certain indi-
viduals it furnishes auguries," came flying to him. A bird
which was an object of respect to the Druids became, almost of
necessity, an object of aversion to the Christian priesthood ; and
the triumphant religion signalised its ascendancy by endeavouring

l 2 *

148 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

to extirpate any object •which appeared to resist it ; for in
striving to effect the destruction of " the king of all birds,"
the priests wished to deal a death-blow to the superstitious
science of augury.

" For some weeks preceding Christmas, crowds of village boys
may be seen peering into the hedges, in search of the ' tiny
wren ' ; and when one is discovered, the whole assemble and
give eager chase to, until they have slain the little bird. In the
hunt, the utmost excitement prevails ; shouting, screeching, and
rushing ; all sorts of missiles are flung at the puny mark ; and,
not unfrequently they light upon the head of some less innocent
being. From bush to bush, from hedge to hedge, is the wren
pursued until bagged with as much pride and pleasure as the
cock of the woods by the more ambitious sportsman. The
stranger is utterly at a loss to conceive the cause of this hubbub,
or the motive for so much energy in pursuit of such small gear.
On the anniversary of St. Stephen (the 26th of December) the
enigma is explained. Attached to a huge holly-bush, elevated on
a pole, the bodies of several little wrens are borne about. This
bush is an object of admiration in proportion to the number of
dependent birds, and is carried through the streets in procession,
by a troop of boys, among whom may be usually found children
of a larger growth, shouting and roaring as they proceed along,
and every now and then stopping before some popular house
where they hope to obtain money" (fig. 43), and at the same
time singing (fig. 44) the following rhyme : —

" The wren, the "wren, the king of all birds,
St. Stephen's day was caught in the furze,
Although he is little, his family's great,
I pray you, good landlady, give us a treat.

" My box would speak if it had but a tongue,
And two or three shillings would do it no wrong,
Sing holly, sing ivy ; sing ivy, sin g holly,
A drop just to drink, it would drown melancholy.

" And if you draw it of the best,
I hope in Heaven your soul will rest ;
13ut if you draw it of the small,
It won't agree with the wren boys at all."

A legend narrates that some soldiers of the army of William
III. were awakened by the noise of a wren pecking on the drum-
bead. The drummer beat to arms, and an intended surprise by
the Jacobites was thus frustrated. Hence, the little bird was a
favourite with the WilHamites, and was persecuted by the Jacobite
peasantry. This legend is even carried back to Danish times ;

THE WREN.

149

but both accounts appear to have been manufactured with the
object of accounting for the prevailing custom.

According to another account this singular practice was
founded on a tradition that, in days gone by, a beautiful but
malignant fairy — some say
Cleena (see vol. i., p. 372)-
exercised such fascination over
young men, that she induced
numbers to follow her to the
seashore, where they were

drowned in the ocean, into
which she enticed them. This
continued for a lengthened
period, until at length one
young man discovered the
charm for counteracting tin
arts of the enchantress, and
not only evaded her spells,
hut laid a plot I'm- ber de-
struction, which she only
escaped by taking the form of
a wren. It was decreed thai ,
as a, punishment tor ber
crimes, she should resume
this form on each succeeding Christmas Bay, and that she

should ultimately fall by tal hand. Hence, it is alleged

originated the barbarous practice of hunting the wren.

l-'io. 13.

'■'I he Wren Roys "

From .Mr. and Mrs. Hall's Ireland.

!pi5^i-^i

^te g %J^^ ^

Fio. I I.

, I y " W i

i.l Mrs. Hall's Irela

Another legend, by no means confined to the Gaelic, accounts
for the importance attached to the tiny wren in the following
manner : — The birds desiring to have a king to rule over them,
assembled to discuss the matter. It was finally agreed that the
bird who could fly bighest should he elected. The eagle felt sure
of the Iringly honour, as lie of all the birds could go nearest
the sun, when, to the astonishment of the assembly, the wren
came forward and asked permission to compete. Up soared the
eagle, and when be could not attain a higher position and had

150 ANIMAL WORSHIP, BIRDS, AND AUGURY.

commenced his descent, lie scornfully exclaimed, " where are you
now, little wren ?" The answer was prompt ; " here, up above
you " ; for the wren had hid itself in the feathers on the eagle's
back. So its cunning prevailed over superior strength, and it was
awarded the crown. Even in the present day to dream of the
little bird is considered to herald good fortune ; to dream you kill
one is a portent of evil. In the Isle of Man, a feather taken
from a wren was formerly considered a most efficacious pro-
tection against shipwreck, and Manx fishermen would seldom put
to sea without knowing their boat to be thus safeguarded.

In an ancient poem, attributed to St. Columbkille, and trans-
lated by O'Donovan, it is evident that the saint alludes to various
kinds of divination : —

" It is not with the Sreod our destiny is,
Nor with the bird on the top of the twig,
Nor with the trunk of a knotty tree.

I adore not the voice of hirds,

Nor the Sreod, nor a destiny on the earthly world,

Nor a son, nor chance, nor woman,

My Druid is Christ, the Son of God."

Sreod is stated, in Ristoria Britonum of Nennius, to signify
" sneezing " ; as an omen here enumerated in conjunction with
other omens, this translation of the word seems to be a very
likely solution of the enigma.

The superstition regarding sneezing is of almost world-wide
distribution. Amongst the Singalese, as well as amongst the
Malabarese, if a person sneezes suddenly, wben anyone is about
to commence work, to take food or drink, or start on a journey,
the hearer allows a short interval to elapse before he resumes the
intended occupation.

The act of sneezing was, under certain circumstances, con-
sidered an auspicious omen amongst the ancients ; we find
Penelope regarding it in this light : —

" She spoke — Telemachus then sneez'd aloud ;

Constraint, his nostrils echoed through the crowd ;
The smiling queen the happy omen hless'd ;
So may these impious fall by fate oppress' d."

Pliny says that sneezing in the morning was unlucky ; at
noon lucky ; to sneeze to the right hand was also lucky, but to
sneeze to the left hand the reverse. When anyone sneezed
amongst the Komans they cried " salvere jusserunt," or, as we
say, " save us." The idea being that sneezing was occasioned by

OMENS REGARDING SNEEZING. 151

some demon. Aristotle states that sneezing is " a motion of the
brain, which through the nostrils expels what is offensive, and in
some degree demonstrates internal strength," and adds, "that
medical people, if they were able to provoke the act of sneezing
from their patients who might be thought dangerously indisposed,
conceived hopes of their recovery."

Amongst the Irish, sneezing was a proof that an evil spirit was
attempting to gain access to the body, so an invocation was
necessary to drive it away ; on the other hand, a child that never
sneezes is regarded as under a spell. According to an old Jewish
story, the custom of saying "God bless you," when a person
sneezes, dates from the days of the Patriarch Jacob. Before
his time, whoever sneezed died of the shock. This fragility of
primitive man was, at the intercession of Jacob, remedied by
the Almighty, on condition that a sneeze should universally be
hallowed by the formula, "God bless you."

CHAPTER V.

TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

Worship of Trees at one time almost universal — Solitary growing Trees held in
great veneration by the Irish— Sacred Trees — The Tree an Emblem of Life
— Properties ascribed to the Rowan — The Thorn — The Alder— The Willow
— Knowledge of the Medicinal Properties of Flowers, Herbs, and Roots,
possessed by the Druids — Weapons Poisoned with Vegetable Decoctions —
The Primitive Surgeon — The Primitive Physician — The Use of Poisons
— The Science of Medicine — The Treatment of the Insane — Medicine Men —
Witch Doctors— Wise Women — They possessed a large Pharmacopoeia-
Witchcraft— The Treatment of Witches— Clergy opposed to Progress in
Medicine — Enumeration of Remedies employed by Witch-doctors — The
use of Saliva— Fairies the Guardians of Healing Herbs — Precautions taken
to circumvent them — Unlucky to cut Finger-nails or Hair without certain
Ceremonies — The idea wide-spread — The Elixir of Life — The Magic
Caldron — The ancient physician diagnosed disease by the character of
the groans emitted by the sufferer — Paid on the principle of "no cure no
pay."

Tree worship is usually, if not indeed always, linked with, but
overshadowed by, other cults, such as the adoration of the sun,
of water, of animals, or of stones, all enshrining or symbolising
a divine principle ; but no other ritual, save perhaps that of
water, has been so widely distributed, or has left behind such
prominent marks to guide our footsteps in the murky twilight of
primitive thought. To us, as to the men of old, the tree is still
the emblem and cause of fertility; as those who, in any country,
have pared the forest to the stump, have, but too late, discovered
to their cost.

At some very early period of the world's at present unwritten
history, the worship of trees appears to have been almost uni-
versal, for the further back we go the more multiform become
the mythological interpretations of the world ; everything was
personified in a manner common to animal and human con-
sciousness alike, and it does not show much judgment to subscribe
to what a recent writer terms the " literary heresy," that the
worship of nature was one of the discoveries of the Renaissance.

TREE WORSHIP ALMOST UNIVERSAL. 153

Long ages before, the genius of the Greek for personification
placed but a thin veil of mythology between the gazer and
nature, for he saw not natural objects but beautiful things.

In ApnllmiiuH Ehoilius, a hamadryad is represented as beseech-
ing a woodman to spare a tree to which her very existence was
bound up : —

" Loud through the air resounds the woodman's stroke,
When, ]o ! a voire breaks from the groaning oak,
' Spare, spare my life ! a trembling virgin spare !
Oh, listen to the Ilnmadryad's prayer!
No longer let that fearful axe resound ;
Preserve the tree to which my life is bound.
See, from the bark my blood in torrents flows ;
I faint, I sink, I perish from your blows.' "

This idea of tree life frequently occurs amongst the literature
of the ancient Eomans. Thus Virgil, in the AUndd (Book viii.) : —

" These woods were first the seat of sylvan powers,
Of nymphs and fawns, and savage-men who took
Their birth from trunks of trees and stubborn oak."

In ancient Babylonian or Chaldean religion there figures a
most important object, the sacred tree, the Tree of Life. If we
turn to the Bible we read of the trees of life and of knowledge,
and in later times of sacrifices under trees. The Pentateuchal
laws condemned the high places of Israel with their associated
symbol of the sacred tree or pole, in Hebrew anhera, unfortu-
nately translated yrore in the authorised version of the Old Testa-
ment. Sacred trees are frequently mentioned in the Pentateuch.

Amongst the old Norse, life was figured as a tree. Edward
Clodd, f.r.a.s., remarks that " The warm climate of Europe at
the close of the great Ice Age favoured the growth of vegetation,
and the whole of the northern part became covered with dense
forests, in which oaks of large size abounded, the wooded region
stretching beyond the Arctic circle. This, in large degree,
explains why, amidst the varied objects of their worship, which
included stones as well as living things, that of trees played so
leading a part among the Aryans ; relics of it survive all over
Europe, in the groups of customs and festivals connected with
agriculture and the seasons. All through nature there are the
ever recurring events of birth and death, of fruitfulness and
decay, of destruction for the sake of reproduction, every grave
being the cradle of another form of life. Hence all the festivals
rich in flowers and fruits, and the offerings of these to the gods
of fruitfulness ; hence, too, the ceremonies of weeping over the
death, and of rejoicing over the birth of nature-gods." Tree-
worship, like all nature-worship is based upon the old belief in

154 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

all-present life spoken of above. Trees and plants grow,
"bleed when cut (sounds issuing from thern sometimes when
wounded), wither, become old and die. So they are credited with
a life like that of man." The life, apparently locked up in the
tree during the long winter, bursts out in spring, in summer, in
autumn, in bud, in leaf, in flower and fruit. The leaves and
branches murmur in the zephyr, moan in the breeze, and
shriek in the gale. Was not this all irrefutable evidence of an
indwelling spirit, that slept and awoke, that died and came to
life again.

Solitary-growing trees were held in great veneration by the
old Irish ; under some of them their chiefs were inaugurated, or
periodical games celebrated, and they were regarded with intense
veneration, for " there exists abundant evidence of the fact,"
remarks W. F. Wakeman, " that in ante-Christian days natives
of Erin, in common with those of the British Islands generally,
were wont to worship certain trees."

Billa — signifying a large tree, was the term used by the Irish
when describing sacred trees — now anglicised bell and bellow
trees, and absurd stories, founded on these designations, may be
heard recounted of their origin. Tree worship was probably the
same in Erin, as that practised elsewhere, and which Grant
Allen sums up thus : — " I do not mean for a moment to assert,
or even suggest, that every individual sacred tree grows, or ever
grew, on the grave of a dead person, but I do mean to say that,
as far as I can see, the notion of the sanctity of trees, or plants,
could only have arisen, in the first place, from the reverence
paid to trees or plants wdiich actually sprang from the remains
of the dead, and so were regarded — like everything else that
came out of the tomb — as embodiments, or avatars, of the dead
man's spirit." In the parish of Ockley, some graves had rose-
trees at the head and foot, and it is stated that in former times
the parishioners thought the soul of the deceased passed into the
plant growing on tbe grave. In the Scottish ballad of " Fair
Margaret and Sweet William " it is related, that after their
death —

" Out of her breast there sprang a rose,
And out of liis a briar ;

They grew till they grew unto the church top,
And there they tied in a true lover's knot."

The Pantheist is probably not so far from the truth. St. Paul
showed a readiness to meet the philosophic pantheism of the
Greeks, whilst addressing them on Mars Hill, when he said
that in God " we live and move and have our being, as certain
also of your own poets have said, we are also His offspring."
And, again, in writing to the Colossians, he says, God " is above

THE TREE AN EMBLEM OF LIFE. 155

all things, and by Him all things consist." Nature seems every-
where endowed with life ; what was once thought special to
animal life is now found to be common to it and to plant life,
and there is a " series of fundamental correspondence between
plant and animal which points to the merging of their apparent
differences in one common origin."

A poem lately written by Mr. William Watson, entitled " The
unknown God," is seemingly a plea for pantheism ; in it he
introduces the pantheism which appears to permeate one of the
newly discovered logia (placed in italics) : —

" The God I know of, I shall ne'er
Know, though He dwells exceeding nigli.
liaise fhott the Htone andjind me there,
Cleave thou the wood and there ttm I,
Yea, in my flesh His spirit doth flow,
Too near, too far, for me to know."

The idea of the tree as an emblem of life may be seen in a
heraldic representation of the descent of a family from some
remote ancestor; and Edward Clodd, f.r.a.s., utilises the same
simile when he states that " The only true mode of presentment,
both of the life that is, and that was, is that of a tree with short
trunk, indicating the common origin of the living from the
non-living, and divided into two trunks representing plants and
animals respectively. From each of these start large branches
representing classes, the larger branches giving off smaller
branches representing families, and so on with smaller and
smaller branches representing orders and genera until we come
to leaves, as representing species, the height of the branch from
which they are hanging indicating their place in the growth of
the great life tree."

The rowan or mountain ash is still popularly supposed, in
country places, to have a peculiar virtue against the attacks of
fairies, witches, or malign influences. When the dairy-maid
churns for a long time without making butter, she will stir the
cream with a twig of rowan, and strike the cow with another,
thus breaking the witch's spell. Bishop Heber, in his
Journey in India, states that he "passed a fine tree of the
mimosa, resembling greatly, at a distance, the mountain ash.
A sprig of this tree, worn in the turban or suspended over the
bed, is supposed to be a perfect security against all spells and
' the evil eye.' The superstition which, in the British Isles,
attaches to the rowan tree is here applied to a tree of nearly
similar form."

According to all tradition the mountain ash was a favourite
tree with the pagans, and with it are still associated many
popular superstitions. The old Irish believed that the first man

156 TREE WORSHIP—HERBS AND MEDICINE.

sprang from an alder, the first woman from a mountain ash.
Both trees are still believed to be endowed with mystic properties.
On May Eve withes, made of the branches of the mountain ash,
are tied round the horns of cows ; temporary hoops, formed in
the same way, are placed round churns, as a spell to counteract
the power of witches and fairies, always busily engaged before
sunrise on May morning, in endeavouring to steal the butter of
poor hard-working farmers.

Some of its many properties are alluded to in the tale_ of
" Dermod and Grania," where the eating of three of its berries,
fasting, in the morning, preserves from all diseases. Those thus
feeding feel as it were the exhilaration of wine, and, however
aged, become rejuvenescent, for the centenarian again resumes
the prime of manhood. Many of its virtues have been already
enumerated, but it may also be mentioned that crosses, formed
of twigs of mountain ash, are still placed over the doors of the
houses of the peasantry, attached to the thatch, as a protection
against witchcraft and fairies.

The white-thorn, according to Aryan tradition, sprang ori-
ginally from the lightning : hence it acquired a wide reverence,
and became invested with many supernatural properties. It was,
amongst other things, associated with marriage rites. The
Grecian bride was, and still is, decked with its blossoms, and the
torch which lighted the Eoman bridal couple to their nuptial
chamber on the wedding-eve was formed of its wood. " It is
evident, therefore, that the white-thorn was considered a sacred
tree long before Christian tradition identified it as forming the
Crown of Thorns ; a mediaeval belief which further enhanced the
sanctity attached to it. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
Irish consider it unlucky to cut down this holy tree." When it
grows alone near the banks of streams, or on forts, it is considered
to be the haunt and peculiar abode of the fairies, and as such is not
to be disturbed without risk, sooner or later, of personal danger
to the person so offending. "Don't tamper with the 'lone bush ' "
is rustic warning everywhere in the remote parts of Ireland.
From the custody of the fairies the thorn trees are sometimes
transferred to that of the saints. " Skeagh Padrig," or
" Patrick's Bush," an aged thorn growing out of a cleft in a
rock, from under which a stream of water flows, is situated
near Tinahely, in Wicklow. Devotees attended on the 4th of
May, rounds were duly made about the well, and shreds were
torn off their garments and hung on the thorn.

One daring man, who had uprooted a few hawthorn bushes
in a fairy circle, was found next morning paralysed in his bed.
The fairies often visibly protect their property. A sacrilegi-
ous farmer, bent on clearing a large earthen fort from a well-

THE THORN— THE ALDER— THE WILLOW. 157

developed growth of bushwood, when proceeding to cut down the
first bush, was politely entreated by a mannikin to spare it, and
to try the next. At the next bush he was encountered by another
pigmy who repeated the same request. He was thus sent from
bush to bush, and in the end was found wandering about the fort
quite distraught. A terrible judgment falls on the person who
first digs within a " fort," particularly one on which these
bushes grow.

Sir Walter Scott, with a mind imbued with Celtic thought,
thus apostrophizes the thorn and other mystic trees : —

" Yon lonely thorn, would he could tell
The changes of his parent dell.

Would he could tell how deep the shade,
A thousand mingled branches made ;
How broad the shadows of the oak,
How clung the rowan to the rock,
And through the foliage showed his head,
With narrow leaves, and hemes red ;
What pines on every mountain sprung,
O'er every dell what birches hung,
In every breeze what aspens shook,
What alders shaded every brook ? "

It is both unlucky as well as dangerous to meddle with any
tree regarded as sacred. During a severe winter a farmer cut off
some branches from an alder that overshadowed an ancient holy
well. Whilst thus engaged he happened to look towards his house
and saw it in flames. Hastening home he found no appearance of
fire, so he returned to his work of desecration, when again the
flames rose high over his cottage, and again he hastened to ex-
tinguish the conflagration, but with the same result, all was safe
at his home. Determined not to be disappointed a third time in
procuring fire-wood he returned to the tree, lopped off as much as
he required from the sacred alder and carried the bundle home,
when, to his dismay, he found his cottage was this time, in reality,
burned to the ground.

With us the willow is associated with the idea of sorrow and
mourning, but, by the Irish, it was believed to possess the gift of
inspiring an uncontrollable inclination to dance. To produce
this effect a willow wand, pared to a quadrangular figure, having
cut upon it some mysterious spells, and placed over the lintel of a
door, caused all the inmates of the house incontinently to dance.

The Irish scholar, O'Donovan, goes so far as to state that
every place in Ireland bearing the name of Cnrve had originally
a sacred tree, of widely extending branches, planted for the pur-
pose of inauguration, or to commemorate the death of some
famous personage. Sacred fires were no doubt often kindled

158

TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICIXE.

under those trees, as there are many localities named Billatinny
or the " old " or " sacred tree of the tire."

The sacred tree may be likened to the tree of Ygdrasil, with
its roots in Heaven, or to that tree whose hoary branches iEneas
saw at the entrance to Averims : —

" Ulmus opaca, ingens, quant sedem Somnia volgo
\'an;i tenere fetent, foliisque sub omnibus haetent."*

Fig. 45 represents a sacred tree in the parish of Clenor,
county Cork, generally known as Crann a India. It is a stunted
ash, growing in a lofty, bleak situation, and has been estimated
as not much over three centuries old. It is most probably a
seedling or offshoot from the parent tree which it has replaced.

Pin. io.

.Sacred Tree in the parish of Clenor, County Cork. Reproduced from the Journal

of the Cot k Histoi ical and Arch* olo& ical Socii ,'.i .

Although the tree is unprotected, " and fuel must have been
■xceedingly scarce in the locality, no turf-bog being nearer than

* " Full in the midsl n spreading elm displayed

His aged nrms, and casl n mighty shade;
Each trembling leaf with some light visions teems,
And leaves impregnated with ain dreams."

7 HE ASH TREE.

159

illed the Big

seven or eight miles," still as much as a branch was never lopped
off. There was also in the neighbourhood, in the townland of
Killura, another tree sacred to St. Craebhnat; but the treatment
meted out to it was quite different from that accorded to Cranna

liiilln. The properties distinctive of the Killura tree were, that
no one who was in possession of the least portion of it could be
drowned. Emigrants, far and near, accordingly provided them-
selves with chilis or twigs, until at last the tree entirely disap-
peared. This occurred about thirty years ago. " 1 have not heard,"
remarks Mr. James Byrne, m.k.c.s., " how this legend arose
that this tree possessed those life-preserving powers ; but it is
very probable that St. Craebhnat bad some extraordinary escape
from drowning, or he rescued some drowning person."'

Fig. i-(') depicts the remains of a huge ash cal
Bell Tree, growing in the
neighbourhood of Borriso-

kane, county Tipperary, as

it appeared in the year

1833. At first sight il

look's as if there were two

separate trees, but it is in

reality nil that had sur-
vived of :i, trunk formerh

al, least HO i'eet in eir-

cumference. It is tradi-
tionally recorded that in

u batever bouse the small

est portion id' this tree was

burned that bouse was

ultimately also burned.
Fitzgerald, in bis Ves-

tiijga and Ri lies u) Youghal,

speaks of sacred trees.

( ine, be mentions, stood

I I iraile, the branches <

be burned. The townlai
sadare, and a locality i
Sligo, probably both
•' Honey I
i

Big

ii. Crowna
which, il
I of Bills
died Crannmore

I their u ! from some sacred tree.

s the remarkable designation of an old sycamore
Q the townland of Coollemoneen, parish of Killadoon, and is s<

L-'icj

LG.

t n.
in t
,; i;

rrisoka
i. year
nuyj,

i f

II!

, Ci

u.

. n PP ,

Rcpru.l

. i r \ ,

I. , : d

a,

or A

II

iki£

ha, i

ear

ssert

II

, c

mid

not

tl

e pai

i-

b

if Ba

iiy-

ore

in

t

le

town

of

III

styled

sum
late lb
lo'o\\ in

n the Ordnance Survey maps. It stands on a mound

,lnl bj slimes, some of which are so disposed as to simu-
Inni'i of a rude altar. Like many other and solitary-
trees, it bus legends and traditions attached to it, some

Ai

wnich are yet current among old people in the neighbourh 1.

iother remarkable tree in the parish of Kilmacteige is styled

ICO TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

" the fern tree." Dr. P. W. Joyce remarks that " one of the
greatest triumphs that a tribe could achieve over their enemies
was to cut down their inauguration tree, and no outrage was
more keenly resented, and, when possible, visited with sharper
retribution."

Knowledge of the medicinal properties of the flowers, herbs
and roots of the country,* was probably possessed by the Druids to
a greater extent than is generally supposed, and weapons poisoned
with vegetable decoctions were, it is alleged, employed. Keating,
in his fabulous History of Ireland, recounts how, many centuries
before the Christian Era, a king of Leinster, hardly pressed by
enemies armed with poisoned weapons, consulted his Druid, who
counselled him to have a magical bath prepared before -the next
battle. As fast as the king's warriors were wounded they were
plunged into the caldron, from which they emerged perfectly
cured. Again in the third century, in the days of Cormac
Mac Art, a Leinster chief named Aengus owned a celebrated
weapon, and from possessing it he was styled " Aengus of the
poison spear." In an Irish sis. entitled " The Adventures of
Seven Irish Champions in the East," the Sea-God Mananan
Mac Lir is represented as instructing Cuchullin in the use of a
sting extracted from a plant or serpent that infested a certain
lake, and this myth would appear to have some bearing on the
use of poisoned weapons in Ireland.

In The Dialogue of the Sapcx, a tract in the Book of Lismore,
there are several passages referring to the use of these deadly
arms ; for instance, a warrior possessed a " lucky poisoned
spear," the venom with which it was coated being of such fatal
character that it never wounded a person who did not immediately
die of the effects of the poison.

The large average size of Irish flint arrowheads militates
against the supposition of their having been poisoned. The size
of arrowheads gives a faint indication towards the solution of the
question, for if missiles are diminutive (a few might have been
fabricated, say for killing small birds) and are found in abund-
ance, there is the more likelihood of their having been originally
envenomed. A heavy weapon launched by the hand, or by a
powerful bow or slinging stick, would stop a wounded man or
animal by its mere weight, and the shock occasioned by it ; whilst
the lighter and less effective missile would require some other
agent to render it effective.

t'UOUS

* III later times dyes for colouring homespuns Mere obtained from indi n ...
plants. Tlie ragweed gives a yellow dye, whilst heather and water-lily root
yield brown and dark colours.

THE PRIMITIVE SURGEON AND PHYSICIAN. 161

The primitive surgeon and physician were of the most rough
and ready type. If the patient was bruised or wounded, the part
affected was rubbed or sucked. Hence "massage" was one of
the very earliest modes of treatment of painful affections. If
you "bark" your shin, you mechanically commence rubbing
the part affected, unconsciously practising primitive "massage."
By slow degrees the budding Esculapius learned that it was better
for his patient to lose a limb than for him to die in trying to
retain it. Trepanning was actually practised in the Neolithic
ages, and if it was performed with the object of freeing an
imaginary demon which held possession of the subject where
the modern operator lectures on the effects of pressure or of the
presence of bacteria, the difference is, after all, mainly one of
terms. Long words do not create new diseases, neither do they
create new panaceas.

The use of poisons and the science of medicine, in their
earliest professional stages, are closely connected with religion.
The most eminent and successful cultivators of these sciences, in
various countries, were, in ancient times, after their decease,
raised to the rank of divinities by their grateful admirers. It
was so in the case of Esculapius, Chiron, and the Irish Dianket.
To the disciples of the latter belonged, in late pagan times, the
carefully elaborated machinery of oracles, omens, auguries,
exorcisms, dream-interpretations, visions, as well as the know-
ledge of the qualities of plants useful for medicinal purposes, the
proper times and seasons for collecting them, together with all
the ritual ceremonies proper to their use and application.

To the " medicine man " of America we owe the discovery of
the properties of many drugs. An American "medicine man "
has some knowledge of human and animal anatomy, and an
Irish Druid was probably equally skilled. Simple ailments are
relieved, as was the case formerly in Ireland, by the heat of the
" sweat-house."

Irish sweat-houses were of two kinds, the permanent erections
built of stone in bee-hive form, and those formed merely of
wattles and scraws.

The hot-air bath, now-a-days designated the " Turkish Bath,"
itself but a degenerated imitation of the luxurious edifices of
ancient Greece and Imperial Borne, was in common use amongst
the ancient Irish, and lingered on until the middle of the nineteenth
century. The late Professor H. Hennessy, f.r.s., states that
what are called " Turkish " baths in Ireland and Great Britain
are styled " Boman-Irish " baths in Germany and Bohemia. He
saw baths designated liiimixchc-lri&che Bader in the year 1879 at
Prague, as well as at Nurernburg. In Ireland, a small, un-
cemented stone structure, erected for the purpose of being utilized

162

TREE WORSHIP—HERBS AND MEDICINE.

as a hot-air bath, is designated by the natives Teach-an-alais,
i.e. a "sweat-house"; many of them yet remain (fig. 47).
They were generally of beehive shape, covered with clay, and hav-
ing a low entrance. The manner of heating the chamber appears
to have consisted in filling it with turf, igniting the fuel, and
when consumed, the ashes were cleared out, and as soon as the floor
and sides of the interior had sufficiently cooled down, the floor
was strewed with green rushes ; the person or persons intending
to take the bath entered the heated chamber, and the door was
closed by means of a temporary screen. This hot-air bath was
much used down to recent times, not only for pleasure, but also
as a cure for rheumatism, for which latter purpose it would seem
to have been eminently successful. In some cases it is stated
that a pool of fresh water, if in the immediate vicinity, was
utilized as a plunge-bath for the perspiring bather who, having
remained in the heated interior as long as practicable, would
then cool himself in the water, and again return.

Fig. 47.
" Sweat-house," Island of Inishmurray.

Reproduced (turn the Journal of [he present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

Mr. S. F. Milligan, m.e.i.a., writing on the ancient Irish hot-
air bath, states : — " Up to comparatively recent times the hot-air
bath was known over many parts of this country as a cure for
rheumatism. In the localities where the English and Scottish
settlers were in the majority it fell into disuse"; but amongst the
Irish-speaking inhabitants its value was fully known and ap-
preciated." Whilst exploring the country lying between Black-
lion, county Cavan, and the borders of Leitrim, he accidentally
discovered a " sweat-house," and inquiry elicited the information
that it had been frequently used by people suffering from rheu-
matism, and but two weeks previously to his visit" it had been
occupied by people who had come from some distance for the

SWEA T- HO USES.

163

cure (fig. 48) ; there was another similar structure in the town-
land of Toarn, about three miles distant.

In the village of Cappagh, near Pomeroy, in the Highlands of
Tyrone, an old man remembers a sweat-house inconstant use, in
which he took baths himself. In this place a tank was attached
to the sweat-house, about five feet in depth, into which the per-
son plunged after leaving it. Several dips into this pool, followed
by a good rubbing, was the mode adopted.

Near Maghera, county Derry, Mr. Milligan found another
" sweat-house " situated in a secluded glen off the ordinary track
and locally known as the "sweat-house" even by people who
had no knowledge of its original use. There is a small hole in
the roof, into which a stone fits like a cork into a bottle. This

m
HfRfc y^ :

Fio. is.

" Swcat-I so," in the nsiuhl rhood ol Blai klion, County Cavan.

Reprodui ed from the Journal of the pr< s< nt Soi iciy oi Antiquaries o( Ireland.

stone can be taken out when the fire is lighted, and replaced when
the interior is heated, and free from smoke. There were five
stone seats placed around inside, on which sods were placed.
At a short distance outside there is a pool of water forming an
excellent plunge bath. In the county Monaghan, people still
take the hot-air bath in the following manner : — "A number of
bricks are heated to redness in the fire ; they are then placed
under a creel ; the person who wants to induce perspiration sits
on it, with a pair of blankets fastened round bis ueck enclosing
all ; a good sweat is procured in this way." Special herbs were
put under the creel, in some places, to give the patient the benefits
of inhalation and fumigation.

164

TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

Mr. Patrick Shields, of Altmore Lodge, county Tyrone, gives
the following interesting information regarding sweat-houses : —

He states that they were common up to fifty years ago. The
last remaining one has not been used for twenty years, and the
ruins have now almost disappeared. Fifty years ago there was
one in a glen near Altmore Chapel, to which people came to get
cured of rheumatism. It was built like a beehive, seven feet
wide and seven feet high ; and was roofed with large flags, ex-
cept a very small opening on the top. The door, four feet high,
was closed by a stone flag kept for the purpose.

Fio. 49.

Sweat-House at Assaroe, Ballyshannon.
Reproduced from the Ulster Journal of Archaology (Second Series*.

" It was heated by fires of turf; when sufficiently hot, the
coals, ashes, &c, were removed, and some cool thing such as
sods, rushes, or stones put in for the person or persons" to stand
upon. When men used it as many as six or eight stripped oft' and
went in, when all openings were closed except what afforded a
little ventilation. A person remained outside to attend to these
matters. When they could suffer the heat no longer, the flag
was removed, and they came out and plunged into a pool of water
within a yard or two of the sweat-house, where they washed, got
well rubbed, and put on their clothes. In case of women, they
put on a bathing dress whilst using the bath, and generally
omitted the plunge or cold bath. People had to be careful
not to lean against the walls inside, otherwise they would get

SWEA T-HOUSES.

165

burned. . . The plunge pool was always used here. The con-
structor was a cooper. He once come to me on crutches, having
contracted rheumatism from lying on a (lamp bed. After four
sweats he was quite well again, and continued so until his death
which took place fifteen years ago. This was the last one used
in this part of the country. My father remembers when there
were three or four of them in the immediate vicinity. One was
in a glen where I had a plantation. A stream of water runs
through this glen, and on either side are rocks. The rock formed
one half of the structure, either shaped by nature or by excava-
tion. The front was built up with stones ; no mortar was used ;

Sweat-House .it Kinlougb, Co. Leitrim.
Reproduced from [be Ulslei Journal of A i-chxology (Second Series).

it was partly covered by the rock itself, and partly by Hags, and
was heated by burning lieather and brambles in it. The stream
was dammed up, and formed the bath."

A sweat-house at Assaroe, near F.allyshannon, described by
Mr. K. W. Lockwood, was built on a somewhat smaller scale
than the foregoing. In plan it is an irregular circle, having an
inside diameter of a little over three feet with a height of six feet.
The structure, covered with elder bushes and ivy, bears the
appearance of age (fig. 49). Water was poured on the stones in
the inside, when healed, thus converting it into a vapour- as well
as a sweat-bath.

Another sweat-house at. Brookhill, a mile from the village of
Kinloush, county Leitrim (tig. 50), has an internal diameter of

166 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

four feet and a height of six feet. There is a small rivulet close at
hand. Access to both structures was had by small creep-openings,
with sloping jambs, about one foot seven inches in height by
one foot ten inches in breadth.

Sweat-houses excavated in the ground or in banks of turf
have long ago disappeared.

The Rev. John Groves, in his account of the parish of Errigal-
Keroge, in the county of Tyrone, written at the commencement
of the nineteenth century, states : —

" Among the mountains the country people make use of
sweating-houses in several cases of sickness. These small hovels
are partly scooped out of the side of a hill, and finished with rods,
with a very small entrance. In one of them, when heated like
an oven with charred turf, the patient stretches himself upon
some straw, and the entrance is closed up. He there lies in a
state of violent perspiration, caused by the close heat, so long as
he or his physician thinks proper. This operation is, as usual,
among the ignorant, considered a sovereign remedy against
almost every disorder, but is chiefly used for rheumatic pains.''

Another site in the county Tyrone is described as excavated
out of a bank of turf, five feet high by five feet wide, with a
flagged floor. The opening was closed with a bundle of heather,
dog-grass, and ferns.

Russian baths, as used by the peasantry, bear a close resem-
blance to the Irish method. They usually consist of wooden
houses situated, if possible, by the side of a running stream. In
the bath-room is a large vaulted oven which, when heated, makes
the paving-stones lying upon it red hot, and adjoining to the
oven is a kettle fixed in masonry for the purpose of holding boil-
ing water. The heat in the bath-room may be much increased
by throwing water on the hot stones in the chamber of the oven.
The Russian baths, therefore, are also vapour baths ; and it ap-
pears as if most of the tribes of American Indians are acquainted
with this plan. Lewis and Clarke, in their voyage up the
Missouri, observed a vapour bath-house consisting of a hollow
square about eight feet deep, formed in the river-bank, by
damming up with mud the other three sides, and covering the
whole completely except an aperture at the top about two feet
wide. The bathers, taking with them a number of heated stones
and jugs of water, descend by this hole, and, after seating them-
selves round the room, place the stones in the centre and throw
water onthem until the steam becomes of a temperature suffi-
ciently high for their purpose.

The sweat-lodge — almost universal among Indian tribes — is,
like the Irish "sweat-house, ' ' usually built on the margin of a stream .
When the Indians bathe in the steam rising from water sprinkled

MEDICINE MEN. 167

upon the heated stones, they generally sing religious songs, for
the bath seems to be a semi-religious act of purification, as both
danger and disease are believed to be averted through its agency.
In diseases of a graver type the "medicine man" falls back
upon his power as an exorcist. With drum, rattle, and chant, he
seeks to expel from the sick man the malignant spirit which has
seized upon him, and in one form the drum is still employed
with us in religious ceremonies, in the use of that drum of metal
now styled a bell* The seat of pain is then ascertained by the
"medicine man," and the after-treatment exactly resembles that
of the present Irish herb-doctor." Suction acts as cupping —
relieves congestion. The Irish " medicine man " sucks the spot
affected by the pain with such severity as to raise blisters, and
these often, by the counter-irritation so excited, effect a cure ;
but if this fails, he next pretends to spit out of his mouth
frogs, thorns, stones, or anything the credulity of the sick man
or his friends may accept as the origin of the disease.

For inflammation in the head, severe counter-irritation on
the crown of the head has long been used and with great success
by Irish "medicine men." The head is shaved, and a plaster
applied, which is left on till a blister rises. Treatment by
counter-irritation has, however, always been much employed by
the medical profession.

A Statistical Account of the Union of Kilrush, written by
the Rev. John Graham in the year 1815, states that " quack
doctors abounded in all directions ; who, beginning their opera-
tions on swine, cows, and horses, proceeded in their medical
career, from drawing teeth and boiling herbs, to the more arduous
tasks of reducing ruptures, amputating limbs, and managing
fevers. Such practitioners could not fail to find abundant em-
ployment, creating it as they went along, and often disseminating
variolous infection of the very worst description. One of this
lion-hearted tribe was known in the year 1802 to adopt an
experiment of Alexander the Great. He was called to the relief
of a labourer in Carnacolla, when, finding some difficulty in
reducing an inguinal hernia, he cut the Gordian-knot, and gave
his patient a summary discharge from the troubles of this
life."

From a pagan, as also from a Christian point of view, the
lunatic or idiot was regarded as one whose body had become the
abode of an evil spirit, or the temporary home of a god. In the
first instance, the only cure was to frighten the demon away by

* The use of bells is not a custom of the early or mediaeval church, but in of
very ancient date. It was adopted from heathendom (see ante, vol. i., p. 197)
into Christendom, though afterwards rejected by Mahomed.

168 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

torture or portentous exorcisms, in the second instance — as
with every uncivilized race all the world over — the idiot was
regarded with reverential awe, and the country people would no
more think of intentionally maltreating such, than they would
of injuring a little child, owing to the deep-rooted belief that
irresponsible simpletons or idiots are in close contact with, and
under the direct protection of God and the saints. In this there
is a striking point of similarity to oriental custom. Yet with all
their reverence for the idiot they seldom refrained, should occa-
sion arise, from perpetrating a practical joke on such a one, care
being, however, taken to avoid injuring the subject of their
wit.

In contradistinction to paganism, with its concomitant
cruelty, and Christianity with its madmen formerly caged and
treated like wild beasts, modern science takes up a humane
standpoint. It regards madness as a mere form of brain disease,
its victims as objects for compassion, not for persecution ; and it
considers gentle treatment far more likely, than harsh treatment,
to effect restoration of reason. Many traces of the old rough and
ready method yet survive. A person suffering from an ulcerated
sore throat is taken, by the country people, by the two ears until
the operators " shake the devil out of him." Governor Eyre, in
his work on Australia, describes a similar performance, by native
sorcerers, in attempting the cure of this ailment.

Exorcisms and incantations by an Irish "medicine man" or
witch-doctor, were expensive operations, as a plentiful supply of
whiskey was always administered as well to the adept as to
the spectators. Lady Wilde thus describes the performances : —

"When any person in the village showed signs of madness
this man (the witch-doctor) was sent for, and after a good pull at
the whiskey, the caster-out of devils began his exorcism by pour-
ing forth a torrent of gibberish in a loud voice, which he called
Latin prayers, while at the same time he dashed holy water all
over the room and the patient. Then, taking a stout blackthorn
stick, he proceeded to thrash the demented person most vigor-
ously, the patient being held firmly all the time by three or four
of the friends or neighbours. When the poor victim was half
stupefied, and unable even to yell any longer, the operator
announced that the devil had gone out of him ; but as the evil
spirit was still lurking somewhere about, he must be expelled by
force or magic. Whereupon he commenced to whirl the black-
thorn stick round in all directions, striking everything animate
and inanimate, that lay in his way, as if crazed with fury ;
especially beating the doors, by which he said the devil might
escape, and he was determined to have a good blow at him ;
and all the time, during the process of beating, he kept on re-

WITCH DOCTORS. 169

citing the gibberish Latin, in a loud strong voice, fortifying his
efforts at exorcism by frequent appeals to the whiskey jar.

" A singular case of attempted cure took place lately in Eos-
common. A young man named Davy Flynn became suddenly
raving mad, or elf-stricken, as the people say, and the great
witch-man of the place was sent for one Sunday morning in all
haste. He found him bound hand and foot, and foaming at the
mouth, while five or six strong men were trying to hold him
down ; and a great crowd was gathered round the door, who
declared that the wretched man was not Davy Flynn at all, the
handsome Davy, once the pride of the village for beauty and
strength, but a fairy demon who had taken his shape. So the
witch-man having examined him, and performed sundry strange
rites and invocations, pronounced his opinion that the lunatic
was certainly not Davy Flynn, but an old French charger, be-
longing to a French general, who came to Ireland long ago in
the times of the troubles, and to keep the real man alive, who
was now in fairyland, the substitute must be well fed with the
proper food for a horse.

" On hearing this, the friends ran for a sheaf of oats and
crammed the straw down the wretched maniac's throat, after
which the exorcist prepared for his mortal combat with the
devil, aided of course by the poteen, five kegs of which were
brought in for the general strengthening of the company.

" The operator first tied a white apron over his shoulders,
then, with a wave of the hand in the form of a cross, he com-
manded silence. After which, he began the invocation by a
volley of gibberish Latin, thundered forth between the occasional
draughts of whiskey, while poor Davy had only a bucket of cold
water thrown on his head, to which he responded by terrible
cries.

" At last the people got tired of the work, and one of them
secretly cut the cord of the halter, which held the supposed
French charger, while the witch-man was busy over the poteen.
Davy, thus finding himself free, sprang at the doctor as if he
would tear him to pieces, on which a panic seized the crowd,
who rushed from the house, the witch-man following, while the
maniac leaped after them with hideous yells and curses. At
length the maniac was secured and tied down by a strong rope
till the magistrate arrived, who ordered him off to the Ros-
common Lunatic Asylum, whither he was at once taken, and
where he eventually died, to the great relief of his friends, who
really believed that he was the old French charger, and that till
the death of the demon-substitute, poor Davy had no chance
of being relieved from the bondage he was under in fairy
land."

170 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

As already stated* there is a valley in Kerry styled Glennagalt,
i.e. the Glen of the Lunatics, and it is believed that madmen, no
matter how far from the locality they live, would, if left to them-
selves, find their way to the Glen.

" Why this place " (Glennagalt), wrote Dr. C. Smith in 1756,
" rather than any other should be frequented by lunatics, nobody
can pretend to ascertain any rational cause, and yet no one truth
is more firmly credited here by the common people than this
impertinent fable." He, however, says that having regard to
the appearance of these desolate glens and mountains, none but
madmen would dare venture into them.

On the other hand a visitor to this valley in 1845 writes : —
"We went to see Glennagalt, or the 'Madman's Glen,' the place,
as our guide sagely assured us, to which all the mad people in
the world would face if they could get loose. After pursuing for
miles our romantic route we came to the highest part of the road
and turned a hill which completely shut out Glen Inch; and
lo ! before us lay a lovely valley, sweeping down through noble
hills to Brandon Bay. The peak of the mighty Brandon himself
ended one ridge of the boundary, while high, though less majestic
mountains formed the other ; and this valley so rich and fertile,
so_ gay with cornfields, brown meadows, potato gardens, and the
brilliant green of the flax, so varied and so beautiful in the bright
mingling of Nature's skilful husbandry, was the ' Madman's
Glen.' I felt amazed and bewildered, for I had expected to see
a gloomy solitude, with horrid crags and gloomy precipices. Not
at all ; the finest and richest valley which has greeted my eyes
since we entered the Highlands of Kerry is this— smiling, soft,
and lovely.

" We took our leave of fair Glennagalt, and assuredly if any
aspect of external nature could work such a blessed change, the
repose, peace, and plenty of this charming valley would restore
the unsettled brain of a poor unfortunate."

The late Professor Eugene O'Curry, in his work on the
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, published in 1873,
makes no reference to madness, idiocy, or possession. He refers
to a sort of witchcraft under the head of divination, where he
gives an instance of a trance produced by magical arts ; of the
mad rage of the hero, and of how, in the midst of that rage, he
was caught, as it were, by the hands and feet, through Druiaical
incantations.

But few will agree with Dryden, that

" There is a pleasure in being rnad
"Which none hut madmen know ";

Vol. i., p. 357. See also p. 356, Aynia, the Goddess of the insane.

ST, FILLAN'S WELL. 171

but we should have a fellow-feeling for the insane; for does not
the poet state that every body is more or less mad, and the
experience of two thousand years has not altered the aphorism
of the Roman satirist : —

" Quisnam igitur sanus ? qui non stultus. Quid avarus ?
Stultus et insanu6. Quid ? si quis non sit avarus ;
Continuo sanus ? Miuiiue. ..."

St, Pillan was a Scottish saint of great reputation, and it is
stated that, though the surrounding population is Protestant, yet
the country people retain some of the superstitions connected
with the wells which bear his name, and there are in Perthshire
several dedicated to him still much frequented. These springs
" are held powerful in cases of madness, and in instances of very
late occurrence lunatics have been left all night bound to the holy
stone in confidence that the saint would cure and unloose them
before morning." Sir Walter Scott alludes to this practice in
Marmion : —

"... St. Fillan's blessed well,
Whose spring can frenzied dreams dispel,
And the crazed brain restore."

_Mr. A. W. Buckland, in Anthropological Studies, states that a
curious use of St. Fillan's bell for the cure of madness was long
employed in Scotland. It would appear that the bell (belonging
to the Monastery of Glendochart) was left for generations in the
open air on a tombstone, but "at the end of the eighteenth
century it suddenly disappeared, and was at last found in the
house of an English gentleman in Hertfordshire, who had written
in his diary his reasons for taking it away, which are quaint
enough. He said that in August, 1790, he rode from Tyndrum
to the holy pool of Strathfillan, which, towards the end of the
first quarter of the moon, was resorted to by crowds of the
neighbouring peasantry, who expected to be cured of their
diseases by bathing in it. Amongst those he saw was an un-
fortunate girl out of her mind who had been brought there for
several moons without effect. When mad people were bathed
they were thrown in with a rope tied round them, after which
they were taken to St. Fillan's Church and placed in a stone
trough (probably a coffin) in the open churchyard, and fastened
down to a wooden framework and there left for a whole night
with a covering of hay over them, and St. Fillan's bell placed
over their head. If they were found loose in the morning the
saint was supposed to be propitious. 'I was told,' he says,
' that wherever this bell was removed it always returned to a
particular spot in the churchyard before morning,' so in order
to test the truth of the story he carried it off to England, and

172 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

we suppose the distance presented an insuperable barrier to its
accustomed nocturnal peregrinations, for it remained in this
gentleman's house for seventy years."

Down to the close of the eighteenth century, deeply-rooted
belief in the reality of witchcraft was universal, and obtained in
Christendom and heathendom alike ; whole hecatombs of victims
were sacrificed at the altar of a superstition which now only
exists, as an established institution, amongst some of the most
degraded tribes of Africa. In the old and the new world alike, per-
secution was based on texts of Scripture which asserted, or rather
were alleged to assert, the existence of the power of witchcraft, and
contained an imperative command for the extirpation of old, or
sometimes young and beautiful women. Witchcraft and supposed
demoniacal possession are complementary ideas. The treatment
of supposed witches was even more cruel than the treatment of
lunatics, and in this persecution all sects of Christians outvied with
each other in the grossest cruelties, but now, as the late Professor
T. H. Huxley remarks : — " The phraseology of supernaturalism
may remain on men's lips, but in practice they are naturalists.
The magistrate who listens with devout attention to the precept,
' Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live,' on Sunday ; on Monday
dismisses, as intrinsically absurd, a charge of bewitching a cow
brought against some old woman ; the superintendent of a lunatic
asylum who substituted exorcism for rational modes of treatment
would have but a short tenure of office."

The Act against witchcraft for the United Kingdom was only
repealed in the year 1736, and its cancelling was regarded by
many religious people with serious misgivings. John Wesley, in
1768, enters in his journal that " the giving up witchcraft is in
effect giving up the Bible.'"" If the value of the Bible really

* Having quoted from Wesley's belief in Witchcraft, it may be as well to
give the contest, i.e. his confession, in full. He writes: —

"It is true that the English in general, and indeed most of the men in
Europe, have given up all accounts of witches and apparitions as mere old
wives' fables. I am sorry for it, and I willingly take this opportunity of
entering my solemn protest against this violent compliment which so many that
believe the Bible pay to those who do not believe if.

" I owo them no such service. I take knowledge these are at the bottom of
the outcry which has been raised, and with such insolence spread throughout
the nation, in direct opposition, not only to the Bible, but to the suffrage of the
wisest and tho best of men in all ages and nations.

" They well know, whether Christians know it or not, that the giving up
witchcraft is, in effect, giving up tho Bible. And they know, on the other
hand, that if hut one account pf the intercourse of men with separate spirits be
admitted, their whole castle in the air — deism, atheism, materialism— falls to
the ground. I know no reason, therefore, why we should suffer even this
weapon to be wrested out of our hands. Indeed, there are numerous arguments
besides which abundantly confute their vain imaginations ; but we need not bo
hooted out of one ; neither reason nor religion requires this."

WITCHCRAFT— TREATMENT OF WITCHES. 173

depended, in any degree, on belief in witchcraft and its concomitant
errors, it would, perhaps, in that unlikely case, be better to give
up the Bible. Sir T. Browne believed in witches, and helped to
swear away the lives of some, as an " expert.'"'' 1 Yet he wrote a
very learned work on " Vulgar Errors," and a very learned and
logical one, too !

In the year 1578, Sir William Drury, Lord Deputy of Ireland,
when in Kilkenny, ordered thirty-six criminals to be executed, of
whom " two were witches and condemned by the law of nature,
for there was no positive law against witchcraft in those days."
Sir Eichard Cox, who mentions this occurrence, had been Lord
Chancellor of Ireland, and it would appear that he really believed
that these two unfortunate persons who were executed were
actually guilty of witchcraft.

The benefit which modern education has conferred, in
freeing the majority of the people from the bondage of old
ideas, can only be properly appreciated when the fatal con-
sequences of beliefs in ancient superstitions in Ireland are brought
to the light of day. Notwithstanding the sympathy which the
fate of so numerous an array of unfortunate victims is calculated
to excite, it must not be forgotten that, although the vast
majority were innocent of any offence against the law of the land,
yet that some of these persons were in the habit of boasting of
their supposed art in order the more readily to extract from their
dupes whatever they desired, and in a few instances they were
vendors of poison, furnishing their customers with the means of
gratifying either their avarice or their revenge.

Ireland has had a liberal quota of troubles, but very few pro-
ceeded from witch-finding and witch-burning on a large scale.
There have been but slight innovations in the rites of sorcery,
the gradual evolution from paganism to modern Christianity
having caused but little change. As evidence of this it will be
sufficient to quote the ceremonies which Lady Alice Kyteler of
Kilkenny, her son William, and their accomplices, were alleged
to have employed about the year 1500.

Lady Alice Kyteler was accused of sweeping the dust of the
street to the threshold of her son, muttering this charm the
while : —

" To the house of William, my son,
llie all the wealth of Kilkenny town."

Lady Alice and her accomplices were also accused of renounc-
ing the Christian faith during certain periods, in which time they
would not attend Mass, say a prayer, or discharge any religious

* We nowadays appreciate at their true value experts and their evidence,
given, in most cases, as it is wanted— und paid for accordingly.

174 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

function. They were accused of killing certain animals, and of
flinging the dissevered portions about at cross-roads, as an
offering or sacrifice to a devil of very low degree. They were
accused, of mimicking the ceremony of excommunication and
employing it against sundry parties to whom they bore ill-will.
They were accused of sacrificing to demons the intestines of
cocks, mingled with worms, baleful herbs, nails, the hair of dead
men, and the clothes and portions of the bodies of unbaptized
children, and of having boiled these and other ingredients in the
skull of an executed criminal. They had also compounded magic
powders and magic candles from hellish mixtures, to excite love
in some and procure lingering death in others.

Lady Alice, especially, had held conferences with the before-
mentioned devil of low degree, when he appeared to her in the
shapes of a black cat, a black dog, and a black man. She also
had sacrificed to him at a certain stone bridge, nine red cocks,
and nine peacocks' eyes ; and on more than one occasion she
had anointed a coulter, and performed long atrial journeys on it.
Lady Alice very wisely managed to escape to England ; her
son William, a man of influence, submitted to imprisonment ;
but one of her alleged accomplices, poor Petronella, was burnt,
after having been flogged six times ; it is probable that she con-
fessed to being present at the magic rites, to escape a repetition
of fresh torture.

The trial of eight women for witchcraft occurred so late as
the year 1711, at Carrickfergus. These women were accused,
by a young girl of eighteen years of age, of having attempted her
life by means of hellish spells. One judge gave it as his opinion,
"that the jury could not bring them in guilty upon the sole
testimony of the afflicted person's visionary images" ; but from
this the other judge dissented, and thought " the jury might,
from the evidence, bring them in guilty," which they promptly
did.

At the commencement of the nineteenth century one of these
witches, or "fairy women," lived near Bed Hills, in Kildare.
According to the Eev. John O'Hanlon, " her reputation as a
possessor of supernatural knowledge and divination drew crowds
of distant visitors to her daily, and from the most remote parts
of Ireland. _ In various instances they were furnished with a
bottle containing some supposed curative liquid, and directed to
return homewards without falling asleep on their journey. This
bottle was filled with water, darkly coloured by a decoction of
herbs, gathered with certain incantations near a rath that
afforded the customary materia mediea of fairy doctors for the
cure of a special disease, on which consultation was required.
The most accomplished and skilful member of the medical faculty

WITCHCRAFT— TREATMENT OF WITCHES. 175

seldom received a more remunerative fee for his services on
behalf of a patient, than the wise woman of the Bed Hills
pocketed from her credulous dupes. At one time a young woman
had been directed to return with the magic draught to her sick
relative's house, she was especially cautioned to keep her eyes
open along the way ; overcome with fatigue, however, and pro-
bably feverish with anxiety and excitement, the young person
was obliged to rest by the roadside. Wearied nature soon began
to claim her usual requirement of ' balmy sleep.' No sooner had
the girl dozed off into dreamy unconsciousness, than one of the
ugliest beings imagination had ever created appeared to her dis-
ordered fancies ; and with wrinkled visage, the spectre seemed
ready to clutch her in his extended arms. With a loud scream
she bounded to her feet, and through terror would doubtless have
left the curative potion behind, had she not already taken the
precaution of securing it within her bosom. The rude monitor
of her obligation was supposed to have been a friend among the
sheeogues. I knew the person thus supposed to have been warned,
and who, in old age, related this adventure. After the death of
Moll Anthony her daughter followed the same profession, but
never enjoyed a like celebrity."

Towards the commencement of the nineteenth century the Kev.
John O'Hanlon had also the opportunity of witnessing the mys-
terious quackery practised by a noted sheeoyue or " fairy doctor,"
known as "Paddy the Dash," and sometimes as " Paddy the Cow
Doctor." He was believed to hold friendly intercourse with the
fairies, as his cabin adjoined one of their raths. He received his
cognomen of " The Dash," from a peculiar stammering or defect
in articulation, that obliged him to jerk out words at irregular
intervals, accompanied by violent gesticulations. Paddy's pro-
cess of treatment was considered desirable in the case of an old
woman, who had fallen into decline, and some of Paddy's young
friends were, by especial favour, admitted to the patient's
chamber to observe operations. " We were but ' wee-bit bodies,'
at the time, and have only an indistinct recollection of Paddy
drawing out of his cota more pocket a large black bottle, with
two or three packages of brown paper, containing dried herbs
and a bunch of bougholawns or boliauns, on which the fairies are
said to ride occasionally through the air. The herbs and tops of
the boiujlielawns were put in a porringer filled with water, that
had been left simmering on the kitchen fire ; afterwards followed
some unaccountable flourishes over the sick woman, then some
strokes on her back and forehead with three shakes. . . . Holy
water had, I think, been used during this sort of necromancy,
and sprinkled on the sick person. The patient's face, hands,
and feet were finally bathed with the warm mixture contained in
a porringer."

176 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

Formerly every district, almost every village, had some sybil-
line like dealer in charms— some old hag, who half believed in
the credulity she excited. Children were brought tocher to bathe
their eyes with concoctions, and to fasten slips of witch-hazel
round their necks, so that the evil eye could not rest on them.
Maidens purchased the dew she gathered on May morning, in
preference to any they could collect themselves.

" The fair maid who, the first of May,
Goes to the field at break of day,
And washes in dew from the hawthorn tree,
Will ever after handsome he."

Young women about to become mothers for the first time,
would apply for charms to keep the fairies away for the nine
days after the birth of the infant ; and people going on journeys
bought charms against the powers of the air, of the water, of the
earth, and of the fire until their return home.

The stock in trade of a witch, or wise woman, who pursued her
calling at the commencement of the nineteenth century ( on the lines
practised by " herb doctors " or "medicinemen," a class of quacks
who, however, in most cases really believe in the efficacy of their
charms) may be thus described — Over her cabin door a horse-shoe
is nailed for luck. Beneath the salt-box is a bottle of holy water
to keep the place purified and to ward off crickets — for crickets are
the supposed harbingers of bad luck, and one should never kill
them as their comrades will avenge their death by eating the
woollen clothes.* A bunch of fairy flax lies on the top of the salt-
box ; sown into the folds of the wise woman's scapular is a four-
leaved shamrock, an invaluable specific for rendering fairies
visible to the human eye. Over the door, over the beds, over the
cattle in the byre hang branches of withered yew, and when the
cows calve the wise woman ties a red woollen thread about their
tails to protect them from being either overlooked or " elf shot "
by the fairies, who, as we have seen, possess a peculiar power
over females, of every species, during the period of parturition.

In the garden grow house-leeks — a specific for sore eyes —
tansy, rosenoble, Solomon's Seal, bugloss, bogbane, and numerous
other herbs, each for some medicinal purpose, and various charms

* As early as possible on the morning of the feast of St. Fintan (3rd Janu-
ary) housekeepers appear to have been absolved from this prohibition, and were
in the habit of performing a very practical exorcism against crickets. This
consisted in pouring boiling water into the holes and crevices frequented by
tliem, whilst repeating the couplet —

" If you have come for luck, stay ;
If not, I warn you away ! "

WISE WOMEN. 177

for toothache, headache, for removing warts and taking motes
out of the eye. Many condiments are kept in stock. Seal oil
for sprains and rheumatism, the tongue of a fox for a poultice
to extract thorns, needles, &c, dandelion for liver complaints,
comfrey as a styptic, samphire boiled in milk for heartburn ;
its leaves are also employed in urinary diseases. This use is
not peculiar to Irish "physicians," for we find mention of it in
many ancient writers. Bryony, with its scarlet berries, some-
times mistaken for red currants, produces death in a most painful
form. There was also another plant kept in stock whose English
name sufficiently indicates its deleterious qualities : —

" Fair to the sight, but by the smell
Unprized, the henbane's straw-ting'd bell
With danger pregnant."

Its roots are liable to be mistaken for parsnips, and are eaten
with fatal results. On breaking in two the stalk of the common
crowfoot, milky juice will be observed to hang on the upper part
of the stem. If this be dropped on a wart by the wise
woman, the wart will fall off. Bags or wool steeped in nettle
juice and put up the nostrils stay bleeding at the nose, where all
other remedies have failed, even including the application of the
key of the front door to the nape of the neck. (The cold of the
iron generally effecting a cure.) A "wise woman" would also have
belladonna, heartsease, ground ivy, or mountain sage for palpita-
tions, or for coughs, bog bark or parsley boiled in milk for gravel,
nettles with ginger, for wind in the stomach, horehound as an
expectorant, mullein as a cough mixture, ivy leaves for a scald
head, and furze tops, broom and carageen moss combined for
a cough mixture ; so there was within easy reach a good
pharmacopoeia.

One need not laugh at this pharmacopoeia, for some herbs
and some of the treatment would really have had the effect
desired, and until a comparatively recent period the system of
medicine was a vast farrago of empirical absurdities. The
favourite Court physician to three kings, James I., Charles I.,
and Charles II., administered fearful abominations. He pre-
scribed pulverised human bones in great quantity ; his celebrated
" gout powder" contained raspings from a human skull, but his
sweetest composition was "balsalm of bats," into which entered
bats, adders, sucking-whelps, earth worms, hog's grease, the
marrow of a stag, and the thigh bone of an ox.

It must be honestly admitted that many of these old medical

superstitions and medical treatments before enumerated have

some justification, though not always that advanced by their

practitioners. It is an undoubted fact that the mind exercises

vol. n. N

178 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

great influence on the body. Thus if an invalid of a superstitious
temperament carries about on the person what he or she considers
a talisman, belief in the charm reacts in a greater or less degree
on the bodily condition of the patient. " Oftentimes, in truth,
the only merit of a plant lay in the charm formula attached to
it, the due utterance of which ensured relief to the patient.
Originally there can be no doubt that such verbal forms were
prayers, ' since dwindled into mystic sentences.' "

Parsons, at any rate, cannot certainly afford to sneer at such
so-called medical treatment, for a philanthropic divine anathe-
matised that greatest of all modern discoveries, chloroform, on its
first introduction as " a decoy of Satan, apparently offering itself
to bless women," and alleging that its use would " harden society
and rob God of the deep earnest cries which arise in time of
trouble for help." A witty surgeon answered the clerical fool
according to his folly, and retorted by quoting his own Scripture
against him to prove that the Almighty Himself was the first to
set the example of performing an operation under anaesthesia,
when he cast Adam into a deep sleep before removing his rib.
Again, when the discovery of inoculation was brought from Con-
stantinople to England, in the commencement of the eighteenth
century, its introduction was strenuously resisted by the clergy. A
similar opposition was exhibited when Jenner introduced vaccina-
tion. A hundred years ago it was almost an exception to see a
face unpitted by small-pox ; now it is the exception to see one so
marked. Thus, though not without bitter resistance on the part
of the clergy, people began to think for themselves, and came to
understand .that pestilences were not punishments inflicted by
the Almighty for religious shortcomings, but the natural con-
sequences of neglect, filth, and wretchedness.

Watercress, boiled with whiskey and sugar, is taken as a
cure for bronchitis. Pounded flag-root is used for dressing cuts
and wounds. Crowfoot, pounded up with butter, is used for
erysipelas.

In the irritating cutaneous eruption, which like a girdle
gradually encircles half the body (hence its English designation,
shingles), the country-people believe that if the rash meets, and
thus forms a complete girdle, the patient will die. A common
cure for the disease is the blood of a black cat smeared on the
parts affected.

"Love potions" are even now frequently given; they are
compounded by a "wise woman," but must be administered to
the man by the woman who wishes to inspire the tender passion.
The giving of a love potion is considered a dreadful act, as the
result is always dangerous and often fatal to the recipient.

Noxious beasts or mad dogs can do one no harm provided a

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WITCH-DOCTORS. 179

bit of columbine provided by a " wise ■woman " be carried about
the person, or the skin be rubbed with it. If another plant, the
Shepherd's Purse, is hung under the necks of sheep they become
invisible to dogs. This herb possesses, therefore, the same
properties as the fern (Filex minor longifolia), which made human
beings invisible. Threlkeld adverts to this subject when he
says: — " A great splutter has been made about fern seed, and
several sauntering stories feigned concerning its collection on
St. John's Eve, or the summer solstice, which are mere
trumpery." But nevertheless the country people still believe
that the roots of bracken and the roots of lilies gathered on
St. John's Eve, if cut after certain incantations, will disclose to
a young woman her true lover's name, and if fern seed be
carried on the person that those so carrying it become invisible.
Ben Jonson alludes to this superstition : —

"I had _

No medicine, sir, to go invisible
No fern seed in my pocket ' ' ;

as does also Shakapeare in 1 Henry IV. : —

" Gadshill. . . We liave the receipt of fern seed, we walk invisible.
Chamberlain. Nay, by my faith, I think you are more beholding to the
night than to fern seed for your walking invisible."

Depression of spirits, called in Irish " sinking of the heart,"
is cured in the following manner: — The "fairy" or "herb
doctor " holds a cup of meal, of which a certain quantity is set
aside for the purpose, close to the patient, saying in Irish —
" Ease to the heart, ease to the heart," and muttering an invoca-
tion. This is done three times on three separate occasions, and
each time the meal in the cup is cast into the fire. When the
last of the three performances is terminated a cake is made of the
flour that is over, the patient sitting by, taking care that no
animal or human being passes between him and the fire until it
is baked. It is then eaten with nine sprigs of watercress, and if
any be left it must be thrown into the fire.

According to John Knott, m.d., "cases of acute catarrh of
the lining membrane of the stomach are, necessarily, fairly
common among the potato-fed peasantry. This condition is
accompanied by pain and tenderness at the ' pit of the stomach,'
and when scrutinised by the specially ' knowledgeable elder ' of
the locality is diagnosticated with the announcement that the
' spool of the breast is down.' The cure is carried out by a
series of three Monday-Thursday operations, in each of which
the painful part is ' drif-cttpjied.' This is done by making a small
piece of dough, in which a piece of candle or a couple of lucifer

n2

180 I REE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

matches may be comfortably anchored, and then lighted. A large
drinking-glass (tumbler) is then inverted on the part, closely ap-
plied to the skin, and the rapid exhaustion of the air proves very
effective indeed in production of a vacuum, and consequent
' cupping.' The cupping-glass is solemnly left in position for a
quarter of an hour, and the patient is strictly enjoined to main-
tain the horizontal position for an hour after its removal. The
relief obtained is very obvious."

Quite recently a Protestant clergyman who suffered from
some obscure affection of the palate was persuaded to consult a
" knowledgeable elder," who, however, did not acknowledge him
as his spiritual adviser. After a careful and lengthened exami-
nation the quack stated that his patient's "palate was down,"
and to draw it back in position suspended the sufferer for a
short time by the hair of his head. He then pronounced that
the palate had been replaced. Strange to narrate, the gentleman
declared that he had been greatly relieved by the process.

It is still a very prevalent idea that toothache is caused by a
little worm, like a diminutive eel, which gnaws a hole in the
tooth.

A terrible " cure " recently practised in the county Sligo is
as follows : — Members of certain families are noted for their
healing powers, as also for the healing property of their blood.
The suffering person goes to the " wise man " or " wise woman "
with a gift ; if it is not acceptable, the postulant is told what must
be brought. The charlatan then opens a vein, and allows a
certain quantity of his or her blood to drop on the sore ; if the
ailment is internal, the blood must be swallowed ; in either case
certain rhymes and incantations are muttered whilst the cere-
mony is being gone through.

Another very similar case occurred in the county Tipperary.
It is thus recounted by a physician now residing in Sligo : — " I
heard of the following remedy — and I know the anecdote to be
authentic — for the cure of ' St. Anthony's Fire ' (erysipelas or
nettle-rash). The blood of any member of a family called
' Cahill,' applied to the part affected, was supposed to be a
specific, and the lady who told me the story knew the woman
Cahill, who used to 'bark her shin ' with a fir-stick, and apply the
blcod with her finger to the patient's skin. The old woman
died only a few years ago."

For inflammation or disease of the eyes, or for disorders of
the stomach, Pagani vero oculorum rnorbo affecti urina qua.
oculos lavare solent, vel eandem, ut alii morbos sanent, bis quo-
tidie potana. Qua? quidem mihi experto bene cognita sunt.
Nempe medieus in hac regione versus eos, qui sibi ita male con-
suluerunt saepe refecerat. Nee non et urinam vulneribus et

REMEDIES EM PL O YED B Y WITCH-DOCTORS. 181

plagis solent infundere quibus emplastram pecudam stereore
commixtum imponunt.

It was recommended, by the oracle of Butos, to Pberon, son
of Sesostris, as a cure for the restoration of his sight ; the anec-
dote is most amusingly recounted by Herodotus, and is well
worthy of perusal, as it is written in quite a Eabelaisian vein of
humour.* That of goats, as well as cows, was employed by other
nations (Herodotus, Melpomene, clxxxvii.). A labourer in the
employment of the writer injured the back of his hand, and a
cancerous growth developed. This was excised, and the wound
healed. Congratulated on the recovery the workman replied :
" It was no thanks to the surgeon, quia de die in diem micturire
in vulnus solibam." In non nullis Hibernieis mss. de medicina,
usum internum humani et canini quoque excrementi ut remedium
morbis quibus dam proscriptum invenimus.

Cow-dung applied as a specific for skin disease, cuts, wounds,
&c, has frequently come under notice. A physician in Sligo
writes : — " The case in which I saw cow-dung used was one of, I
think, eczema or erysipelas of the face, I forget which. It
occurred in the county Tyrone. A stout, well-to-do farmer,
appeared with his face partly washed, clean about the nose and
eyes, but crusted round the ears and forehead with a black, foul
looking substance, which he said was cow-dung the neighbours
had applied as a cure. He had undergone the treatment for
some days, and did not smell exactly like a rose. In time the
crusts were removed, and a lotion healed the whole thing up in
a few days."

* 2ie<rtA)tTTpios Si TeAeuTfjffaeTos, 4nb'4£affdai i\tyov t^v fSaaiXiftyv rbv ira?5a
aurov QepStv rbv &7roSe|a<70ai p.kv oi/Se/xiav oTparrjiriv, (Tvvtvtix9r)vo.i 8e oi
rv<p\bv ytveaQai 5id rot6vZt npoyLta' rov Ttorap-ov Kar*\&6vros p.4ytffra Sri r6n
in OKTWKafSe/ca Tr-tjx^as, ws virep4{ia\e ras apovpas, nvevfiaros 4p.irto-6vros,
KUfiart-qs 6 Troraflbs 4yevtro' rbv 5^ @a.(rt\ea hzyovffi rovrov kraadaXlri
Xpi\adp.tvov, \a&6vra oi'xmV jSaAe'eii/ 4s fxeffas ras Sivas rov noro.p.ov' /xera 5%,
ai/TiKa Ka/j.6vra avrbv robs 6<p6a\Liovs rv(p\ai8rjvai' 5e'/ca ytiv Si] irta tlvai lliv
rv<p\6v hvb'tKa.Tip H $rti amK(<r9at oi fiavr'fj'iop 4k Bovrovs ir6\tos, ws *' 4^j)Ktt
re oi 6 XP° V0S T ^ s Cv^V^t Ka ^ dpajBAe'i/'ei, yvvaittbs otipcp vitydfxtvos robs
o<p&a\Liobs tfris napa rbv ewurrjs avftpa llovvov irt<po[rr]K€ } aWtav avdpatv 4ovo~a
aneipos'" Kal rbv vpterrjs rr)S kwvrov yvvaiKbs iretpaffdai' /xerd 8e, its ovk
dre£Ac7re, iirf^ris iraotuv TTeipaa8ai' avafiKeipavra Sc avvayayeiv ras yvvaittas
rwv i-7Tfipii0T], Tr\i]v t) ttJs T(j> oiipw vityafxevos drej8Aei//e, 4s /xlav noAiv % vvv
Ka\4erai 'Epvdpb jBeoAos* 4s ravryv avvaAto-avra, imoirpr\<Tai ird<ras (rbv avrrt ry
ir6\f rijs tie I't^dufi'os t£ otipip dve'jSAeiJ'e, ravrt\v Z\ €?x € aiirbs yvvaimx.
ui'ath'iuaTa 8i, airotpvyiw r^v irddjjv ruv otp6a\[xwv, fiAAa T6 dj/d to ipd irdvra ra
Adyifxa dpldr/K€, /ca), rov yt \6yov fxdAiora a£i6v 4ari ix* iV ' ^ s T °v 'HAi'ou rb
ipbv a^oOtijra avidtjKe tpya bl$t\ovs Hvo \i8ivovs, 4£ tvbs \6vto. stidrtpov \i0ov,
LtrJKos p.if iKdrepov ttiix* uv ixarbv tlpos Se 6kt&> Tn)x* wv '

182 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

The County Surgeon of Sligo states that a very bad case —
a man whose arm was laid open from wrist to elbow by a blow
from a hedge knife — was brought into the infirmary for treat-
ment. Examination showed that the entire cut had been filled
with cow-dung. The man's neighbours had advised this very
strange application, which, however, it is needless to say, pro-
tracted his recovery.

The Eev. John Wesley, m.a., in his great medical work
entitled Primitive Physick, and sold at all his "Preaching-Houses"
(7th edition, 1776), recommends the following as a cure for " a
windy Eupture " in children: — "Warm Cow-Dung well. Spread
it thick on leather, strewing some cummin-seeds on it, and apply
it hot. It commonly cures a child (keeping his bed) in two
days." A cure for cancer (the opjjrobrium medicorum) in the
breast (according to the same authority) is to " apply goose
dung and celandine, beat well together, and spread on a fine
rag, it will both cleanse and heal the sore." For films on
the eye, the sufferer should " take the white part of hen's
dung, carefully dried, with an equal quantity o£ burnt alum,
and double-refined sugar, sift these, and blow a little into the
eye at going to bed."

In a communication to the writer, John Knott, ji.d., an author-
ity on medical folklore, remarks that, " one of the most prevalent
of the popular surgical notions among the peasantry apparently
is that the organ of vision, when badly injured by the lodgment
of dust, fragments of stone, &c, must be ' taken out of the head,'
washed, and replaced before its functions can be perfectly re-
stored. The brilliant appearance of the tissues of the eye — of
glassy structure in front and porcellaneous over the rest of sur-
face — probably gave origin to this notion. China and glass are,
of course, the articles which are washed everywhere. It requires,
as all will agree, a very clever doctor to take the eye out of the
head, lay it on a plate, brush and wash it, wipe it with a silk
handkerchief, and put it in its place again — properly. An
ordinary ' botch' would damage the sight, ' or put it in crooked' ;
which was often done, and produced many a permanent squint.

" It is well known that in many of the more remote districts
of Ireland, even up to the present day, the dung of animals is
often applied as a poultice to an ulcerated or abraded surface.
That of cows and of pigs is most frequently chosen.

" The symptomatic conditions of jaundice are, of course, very
obvious, and, necessarily, very repulsive to the uneducated eye.
Its very varying causes, and correspondingly varying degree of
obstinacy, must have suggested various modes of treatment;
but the leading characteristic of most would appear to be their
phenomenal degree of loathsomeness. Patients in this condition

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WITCH-D0C10RS. 183

have been made to drink a tumbler-full of their own urine in the
morning, fasting, for nine days in succession. Another specific
was to obtain 'nine couples of lice,' from the person of the
patient, if possible ; boil them in a porringer with some sour
butter-milk, and get the sufferer to swallow the whole — with
care. Nevertheless, it must be noted, that such forms of medica-
tion were by no means so monstrously absurd as they may at
first sight appear to be, as the extreme nausea which was
necessarily produced by their means had a decidedly salutary effect
on the circulation in the liver, and thereby on the excretion of
bile.

" The urine of the cow has been dignified by the application
of the epithet of ' all-flower water.' The reason is obvious : the
animal eats all the flowers, as well as other herbs of the field,
and the evacuated secretion of the kidneys contains their super-
fluous juice.

" Some of the Irish peasantry — at least as lately as twenty-
five years ago — used to dose their children, in all their bodily
ailments, with copious draughts of ' all-flower water,' taken
fresh from the source. The reason for its use was highly logical.
The Creator had undoubtedly, in his mercy, placed the materials
for the relief of all human ailments in the herbs of the field ;
but the sinfulness and negligence of man have hitherto prevented
him from investigating those remedies individually. But ' all-
flower water ' contains the essence of all herbs ; therefore, &c. —
Q. E. D."

Although there is apparently not the remotest connection
between extreme heat and hydrophobia, yet popular belief rules
otherwise, and associates it, in some manner, with the dog days.
The malady is rare in all hot climates, and in the European area
the months in which hydrophobia is most prevalent are not July
and August, but April, November, and December.

People who showed symptoms of hydrophobia were formerly
smothered between two feather beds, a merciful way of putting
an end to their sufferings. However, some country people
believe that madness may be cured by administering to the
afflicted person, " three substances not procured by human means,
and not made by the hands of man. These are honey, milk,
and salt ; and they are to be given him to drink, before sunrise,
in a sea-shell. Madness and the falling sickness are both
considered hereditary, and caused by demoniacal possession."
Various plants were, in days gone by, used for the bites of
mad dogs, and to cure hydrophobia. Angelica, madworts, and
several forms of lichens were favourite remedies. The root of
balaustium, with storax, cypress-nuts, soot, olive-oil, and wine
was the receipt, according to Bonaventura, of Cardinal Bichelieu.

184 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

Among other popular remedies were beetroot, box leaves, cabbage,
cucumbers, black currants, digitalis, and euphorbia. A family
named MacGowan, in the county Cavan, claims to have a cure
for hydrophobia. An inquiry was instituted by the Irish Local
Government Board, and the subject was also brought before
Parliament, by the member for North Leitrim, P. A. M'Hugh.

Lady Wilde, in Ancient Cures, Charms, and Usages of Ireland,
gives the legend relating to the origin of the discovery of this
cure. Nearly two centuries ago two brothers named MacGowan,
"living at opposite sides of the lake, used frequently to cross
over in their boat to visit each other. One day a strange dog
came swimming towards them, and was lifted into the boat, but
he instantly bit one of the brothers severely, and showed all the
signs of decided madness. The. young man gave himself up for
lost, and wandered about the fields all night, till at last, overcome
by fatigue, he lay down in his own garden and fell asleep. Then
and there a dream came to him, that under his head grew a herb
that would cure him, if prepared in a certain way revealed to him
as in a vision. On awakening, he at once sought for the herb, and
having found it, to his great joy, set about the preparations for
the potion exactly as it had been shown to him in the dream.
The result was his perfect restoration from the fatal disease ; and
the strange story having got abroad, the MacGowans became
famous throughout the country for the cure of hydrophobia, large
sums being paid to them for the exercise of their skill and
knowledge."*

Dr. Knott states that a fellow-student of his attended a ease

* " Thus they amassed a deal of money, for the wonderful herb seldom
failed to cure the terrible malady ; hut no amount of money could tempt the
brothers to reveal the name of the herb or the mode of preparation. This great
secret remains, therefore, a mystery to this day, known only to the head of the
MacGowans, who preserves the tradition, and will transmit it only to his eldest
son. But to ensure a perfect cure, certain rules and orders must be rigidly
observed. First, the patient must be brought under care within nine days
after the attack, before the hydrophobia has become virulent ; secondly, lie
must not cross water during the progress of the cure.

" Quite recently a curious case happened, which tested the power of the
MacGowans, and excited the greatest interest throughout the country.

" A pet cat belonging to a farmer's family suddenly showed signs of savage
ferocity, and flew at everyone, inflicting severe bites. Six of the children were
laid up, and even the farmer himself was attacked before the animal could be
killed. Evidently the beast was mad, and, in terror of the consequences, the
family sent an urgent request to the MacGowans to come and help them.

" Three brothers of the name were living at the time, and the eldest agreed
to go and try the cure if fifty shillings were paid to him before starting. This
was a large sum for the farmer to give ; but as six of the children were lying
half dead from fright, he consented, and paid the money.

" MacGowan at once set forth on his mission of mystic healing, bringing
with him two kegs of liquid, each containing about five gallons, also a large

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WITCH-DOCTORS. 185

of hydrophobia which had been treated after the bite by the
MacGowans. The case, a genuine one, ended fatally, of course.
Another charm, as a protective against hydrophobia, in the
case of a person bitten by a dog, is to take a few hairs from its
tail, and place them upon the wound in a poultice, or swallow
them. This practice is most unmistakably the origin of the
toper's advice to any one suffering from headache in the morning
from imbibing too much alcohol the night before : —

" Take a hair of the dog that bit you."

" If the ingestion of a single hair of the domestic cat is not
followed by its evacuation -per vias nnturales, the unhappy subject
of the accident pines slowly away, and surely dies as a direct
consequence. If the hair becomes deposited on the liver, the
symptoms are said to be more rapidly progressive. It is said
that a very skilful doctor can sometimes diagnosticate the source
of the complaint from the complexion of the patient. It will
then be no matter of surprise that so skilful a practitioner always
knows the exact spot at which he must make an opening which
at once reveals the mischievous hair to the eye. It need hardly
be added that in so skilful hands the patient always survives the
operation, and rapidly recovers from the progressive emaciation
which had been hurrying him to his grave."

Formerly hound's-tongue (Vynuijlaxsum) was employed by
country " medicine men " as a cure for external and internal
cancer. Strange to say, cynoglossum powder has recently been
advertised in the newspapers as a " new cancer cure." John
Knott, m.d., drew attention to the resuscitation of the old recipe as

stock of garlic and hazel-nuts. The fluid was of a green colour, and very
nauseous to the taste. The people said it was made of the Atherlus (ground-ivy),
which has singuhir mystic properties ; hut MacGnwan kept strict silence on the
subject, and no one dared to ask him a question as to the nature of the
ingredients.

" The family, meanwhile, were ordered to provide two stone of barley meal
and three pounds of butter, and with these cakes were to be made, moistened
with the fluid from the keg, of which also the patients were to drink copiously ;
and during the three days appointed for the cure they were to have no other
sustenance save the barley cakes and the green fluid.

" If, at the end of that time, the cure was not effected, then the patients
would surely die : their only chance was over, nothing more could be done to
holp them. Happily, however, the cure was quite successful. The children
were all rostored, and, consequently, the fame of the MacGowans increased, and
no end of presents and money were sent to them in addition to the sum paid
down.

" Still the head of the race resisted all entreaties to reveal the name of the
herb or the secret of the green fluid, and to this day no man nor mortal, nor
oven tho priest himself, has ever obtained a knowledge of the mystery, save
only tho oldest son of the eldest son in each successive generation of the
MacGowan family." — (Pages 44-46).

186 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

a "new cure " in the Medical Press (7th Nov., 1900), and says :
"I have not seen the original advertisement, but having regard to
the fact that the only authority cited is that of a manuscript
found in the monastery of Mount Athos, I take it that the apostles
of this new remedy look upon its introduction to the public as an
absolute novelty. The soundness of the foundation upon which
this item of doctrine is built can easily be tested by a cursory
glance at the contents of our early herbals, the materials of
which are, perhaps, too systematically neglected by scientific
practitioners in these days of advanced organic chemistry and
bacteriological pathology."

Dr. Knott then traces the botanical and therapeutical history
of the hound's-tongue from its employment by Dioscorides, the
household physician of Antony and Cleopatra, down to the
present day : — " Its efficiency as a local dressing of all types of
foul ulcers was universally taught and recognized. Cancerous
ulcers are necessarily included in its category. Personally, the
present writer (Dr. Knott), as an enthusiastic lover of his profes-
sion, is extremely glad to greet every attempt to prove the desira-
bility of procuring the resurrection of any of the old herbal
remedies. He is thoroughly convinced that too many valuable
items among them have been long forgotten or ignored. And
although his devotion to truth impels him to show that the
' cancer cure,' in question, is anything rather than ' new,' he
will be none the less pleased to learn that experiment has
demonstrated that its efficacy may yet be proved true."

Not many years ago, in a remote village, in the county Cork,
there died an aged woman named 0' Sullivan, who is stated to
have possessed the secret of a vegetable cure for both internal
and external cancer, but the secret died with her. There are at
present some herb-doctors in Ireland who still claim to possess a
cure for this disease in its external form ; one of the best known
resides in the county Sligo, and should be prosecuted by the
Crown. Some dreadful cases, easily amenable to modern surgery,
and ignorantly treated by him, leaving hideous deformities, have
come under notice. He uses arsenic and chloride of zinc, both
violent caustics. The country people still have themselves bled
by him for diseases in general, often for weakness, which, of
course, only increases the debility from which they are suffering.

Consumption was treated in olden days by vegetable decoc-
tions, in which mullein and carrageen moss were predominant
components, but the secret of the preparation is also lost.
Snails are still esteemed good for chronic coughs and for
consumption. Half a dozen boiled in a quart of barley water
and then strained should be administered in every liquid taken
by the invalid.

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WI1CH-D0CT0RS. 187

Pounded or incinerated snail-shells are also administered
as a cure for consumption. " They may be of use," writes a
physician, " especially when incinerated, supplying the system
with the salts of lime, potash, and magnesium — and thereby
repairing the waste of the tissues in chronic disease, such as
consumption, comparing favourably with the present method
adopted in Germany, of giving sickly children finely powdered
egg-shells to harden their bones."

In the manual of Primitive Physick by John Wesley, ji.a.,
already quoted, he recommends, as a cure for consumption,
" In the last stage suck a healthy woman daily. Tried by my
father."

Spiders are very much used in the cure of certain ailments.
Tied in a small bag and suspended round the neck, they ward
off attacks of fever and of ague ; a black spider eaten every
morning is a cure for consumption ; another cure is to wrap a
living spider in its own web, place it in a lump of butter and
swallow it whilst yet alive. It is believed by the country people
that jaundice is produced by yellow flies, or fly-like grubs, that
introduce themselves into the body, and that the introduction of
spiders and their eggs is a very efficient antidote.

According to Lady Wilde, two remedies employed by the
country people for deafness are as follows : — " Take the cowslip,
roots, blossom and leaves, clean them well, then bruise and
press them in a linen cloth, add honey to the juice thus pressed
out, put it in a bottle, and pour a few drops into the nostrils and
ears of the patient, he lying on his back. Then, after some
time, turn him on his face, till the water pours out, carrying
away whatever obstructives lay on the brain. This must be
repeated for three days." The other remedy is to " fold up two
eels in a cabbage leaf, place them on the fire till they are soft,
then press out the juice and drop it into the ear."

Lady Wilde also quotes the following recipes from an old
Irish MS. of about the year 1450, in the Library of the Royal
Irish Academy as certain cures for epilepsy : —

" ' Put salt and white snails into a vessel for three nights, add
7 lbs. woodbine leaves, and mix them to a paste ; a poultice of
this applied for nine days will cure.

"'Or, the heart of a crow, beaten up with his blood, and
drank for nine days, will relieve the disease.

"'Or, a plaster made of mandragore and ground-ivy, boiled
and laid upon the head. If the patient sleeps he will do well,
and if not, he will not.

" ' Or, a band of the fresh skin of a wolf worn round the body
as a girdle, and as long as the patient wears it he will be free
from the falling sickness.

188 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

'" Or, pour wine upon a pound of hemlock, fresh gathered,
and let it be drank while the person is in the fit.

"'Or, three hairs of a milk-white greyhound to be tied up
and worn on the neck as an amulet. This keeps the fit away.'

" The scribe who copied these receipts says of himself : — ' I
am Conlan MacLiagh, son of the doctor, and in the Monastery of
Tuam I am this 14th day of the moon's age, and a thousand
.years four hundred years, and nine years of age of the Lord.' "
^ Lftdy Wilde also gives other modes of treatment for epilepsy,
still practised by the country people ; as follows : —

" No one should touch the person in the fit, only the man who
works the charm. He first takes a bundle of unbleached linen
yarn, and ties it round the patient, then cuts his hair, and the
finger and toe nails ; these clippings he gathers together and
burns with the linen yarn. The ashes are then divided into two
parts, after which the patient is laid flat on the earth and two
holes are made, one at his head the other at his feet ; into these
are poured the divided ashes, while a harrow-pin is placed over
all. So they leave him for a day and a night. And thus the
falling sickness is buried for ever in that spot, never to rise up
again while the ashes and the iron remain untouched."

" ' By the wood of the Cross, by the Man that overcame death,
be thou healed.' These words are to be said in the left ear
while the fit is on the patient, and he is to be signed three times
with the sign of the Cross, in the name of God and the blessed
Lord, when by virtue of the charm he will be cured."

" Burn the patient with a red-hot church key along the
head, and he will be cured. Should he fall in the fit, put -the
juice of absinthe, or fennel juice,, or sage juice into his mouth,
and he will get well at once."

" The sickness is best cured by the hand of a priest. But it
is said that if on the first attack the person's shirt be taken off
and thrown into the fire and burned, his hair cropped, and. his
nails pared, and the hair and the parings buried, together with
a young cock put down into the grave alive, then he will never
have another attack while he lives."

In the county Sligo, and presumably elsewhere, it was
formerly believed that a certain cure for epilepsy consisted of
the first verse of the Gospel of St. John, written on a small
slip of paper, sewed up in a piece of cloth, and worn suspended
from the neck of the afflicted person. This charm was believed
to be not oniy a cure, but a preservative from the malady, as
a protection from the power of demons and witches, who are
supposed to have still— as they are related to have in ante-
Christian, Gospel and early Christian times— the power of afflict-
ing persons with convulsions, madness, and similar afflictions.

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WITCH-DOCTORS. 189

A dispensary doctor, in the county Sligo, relates that, some
years ago, he was called to attend a country woman after con-
finement, and found the poor creature in a dying state, pale and
bloodless from postpartum hemorrhage. The local nurse, totally
ignorant of midwifery, was known, as the country people say,
to work " the charm."

The doctor states: — " When I entered the room I found this
woman not attending to her charge, but, standing at the door,
shaking a mixture of oatmeal, pepper, and salt over the patient.
I demanded what she meant, and she answered that it was ' the
charm.' My language was not parliamentary, and, pushing the
nurse aside, I immediately set to work, and made my patient all
right. After all was finished, I re-entered the kitchen, where a
number of neighbours had collected, and, in their presence, I
was thus addressed by the midwife : — ' Doctor, you are not
saying half enough for me : did I not save the woman with ' the
charm ?' " The doctor's reply cannot be recorded.

A certain cure for whooping cough is to pour milk into a
saucer, and place it before a ferret ; what it does not drink is
given to the sufferer. Another cure is to keep the child fasting
for some time, then catch a trout, put it in the infant's mouth,
and replace it in the stream alive. Another remedy is to draw
water against the current from a south-running (desiul) stream,
give it to the sick child to drink, then throw the unconsumed
liquid away with the current ; this must be repeated every morn-
ing before sunrise, until the child recovers. Another remedy is
to pass the suffering child three times under a female donkey,
the ass must then be fed on oaten bread, and what the animal
does. not consume is given to the patient. Some of the animal's
milk is procured, of which the child is made to drink on this and
the two following days. A most strange performance for the
cure of sick cattle is recounted by Lady Wilde. The exorcist
mounts astride on the afflicted animal, holding a bannock (or
oatmeal cake), a lump of butter, and a bowl of cream, and
says : — " A bite, a sup ; a bite, a sup ; if it be so ordained, let
the beast get well ; if not leave it to its fate ; but the bannock I
will eat."

Another novel remedy for the hooping-cough is to lift the
child rapidly into a mill-hopper and out again three times in
succession. Any improvement in an ailment occurring on
Friday or Saturday is unlucky, and not likely to be permanent ;
if a person is ill, his bed ought to be placed north and south,
not east and west.

A dried fox's tongue draws thorns from the flesh ; a robin's
breast rubbed on the sore cures "the evil"; the touch of a
posthumous child heals a sore mouth. A person who never

190 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

saw his (or her) father breathes into the affected mouth three
times : (1) in the name of the Father, and (2) of the Son, and
(3) of the Holy Ghost.

In the reign of Charles II. several eminent persons became
conspicuous under the name of " Strokers." Of these the most
renowned was one Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish gentleman, of
whom " the Lord Bishop of Derry declared that he had s.een
dimness cleared and deafness cured, pain drawn out at some
extreme part, grievous sores in a few days healed, obstructions
and stoppages removed, and cancerous knots, in breasts, dissolved.
It is easy to gather from perusal of contemporary records, that
these private manipulators were considered, by some, to trench
upon the kingly prerogative. Thus Dr. Thomas Allen dissuades
persons from applying themselves to seventh sons of these
strokers ; but these seem to have found much favour never-
theless. Some quality, in their times, seemed to favour the
transmission of influence through manipulation." Nor was this
manipulation peculiar to the Old World, according to Dr. Cotton
Mather, who, in his Magnolia Christi Americana, states that it was
no rare thing for the old set of Quakers to proselyte people merely
by " stroking them, or breathing upon them." This, surely,
anticipated latter-day hypnotism.

" Properly investigated, a complete distinction is established
between these cures by private individuals and the cures effected
by sovereigns. In the former case the cure was exhausting —
always needing effort, expenditure of vital force ; in the latter
case, otherwise. On this point accept the testimony of Leverett
the gardener: — 'I am more exhausted by stroking thirty or forty
people, than by digging eight roods of ground,' said he ; whereas
the circumstance has already been noted, that Charles II.
stroked, on an average, twelve per diem for twenty years, thus
making up a sum-total of ninety-two thousand one hundred and
seven — a sufficient proof that the kingly operation of stroking
should not have been exhausting."

Lady Wilde states that there are " certain wise men amongst
the peasants who keep pieces of paper transmitted from their
fathers which, they say, have been steeped in king's blood. And
if the paper is rubbed over the patient, in the name of the
Trinity, he will be cured."

The following paragraphs have also been communicated by
Dr. John Knott : —

_ " The practice of the ' royal touch ' for the cure of ' king's-
evil ' by the sovereigns of Great Britain and of France
is so well known as to require no lengthened account in
this connection. In Ireland, it need hardly be said, that
there existed for the afflicted peasant hardly the remotest

REMEDIES EMPLOYED BY WITCH-DOCTORS. 191

chance of royal contact. But where ' needs must,' and apprecia-
tive emotion is so strong, something by way of proxy is
sometimes made available. In the county Eoscommon, some
twenty-five to thirty years ago, there lived an elderly woman
who possessed the royal blood and remains. Patients afflicted
with the king's evil paid the usual consecutive Monday-
Thursday visits — three in number — and were said to be touched
with a blood-stained rolled-up rag. There were mysterious
prayers muttered at the same time, and the reports of the results
were usually very favourable.

" The chronic glandular enlargements which are so charac-
teristic of the scrofulous constitution in the young is essentially
an unsatisfactory condition to treat medicinally, especially in
remote parts of the country; and surgical interference, in the
pre-antiseptic days, gave still worse results. Accordingly, the
unhappy patient usually underwent a series of Monday-Thursday
visits — three consecutive — to the seventh son of the locality, who
touched, and stroked, and blew upon the tumour. Some prayers
were also said.

" A seventh son in a family (of one father and one mother)
was always gifted with, at least, some powers of a ' docthor,'
even if a daughter, or daughters, had intervened. He was better
still if there had been no feminine interruption. But he was
practically infallible if his father had also been a seventh son.

"The pathology of all these tumours was explained by the
presence of a specific worm. The future surgical efficacy of the
seventh male baby was sometimes tested directly after birth by
sending out the father with his loy to the garden, with instruc-
tions to bring in seven earth-worms. These were washed, and
placed by the attendant in the right hand of the new-born. The
stronger hand of the attendant, of course, enveloped the whole ;
and the efficacy of the cures of the future disciple of iEsculapius
was directly calculated from the limits of the period of survival
of the imprisoned earth-worms. I have heard it stated that the
latter, in some instances, perished instantaneously.

" Among the locally recognised physical ills which appear
specially to affect the labouring peasantry of Ireland is the
'head-fever' (see ante, p. 70). It is characterised by violent
head and general malaise, and follows prolonged severe physical
exertion in the stooping posture. It obviously begins in intense
congestion of the intra-cranial blood-vessels, which, when not
promptly treated at the time, becomes chronic, and so, like other
analogous conditions in other parts of the body, leads to per-
manent structural changes. Under such circumstances the
headache also becomes permanent.

"The individual so afflicted is brought to the person who

192 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

possesses the ' cure.' A series of three visits is essential, always
on Monday or Thursday only, and no intervening Monday or
Thursday can be missed without losing the efficacy of the
remedy. It is sacred : a string is tied horizontally around the
head of the sufferer, with many prayers, and left there till next
visit."

In one instance, which came under notice, the wise woman
measured the head in two ways. She then declared the head to
be swollen, and she set to work to make it the right size again.
The child so treated died of epileptic convulsions. The mother
implored those who knew not to tell the doctor what the wise
woman had done, and went to a neighbour's house sooner than
see her child die. The doctor declared he could not account for
the death of the child. *

"In the treatment of 'strains' (Hibernian for sprains) the
local medical practitioner is seldom consulted. Even if he is,
the after-effects of such injuries are too chronic in their course
to bring him any special credit. Accordingly the aged, skilled
devotee of the locality is visited on a Monday or a Thursday, and
a thread is securely knotted around the injured joint, after this
ligature has been consecrated by the mysterious repetition of
certain formulated prayers over it. The patient generally feels
relief : there is undoubtedly great power in suggestion among so
intensely emotional individuals as the Irish peasantry, who, on
such occasions, are devotedly desirous of being deceived. [See
ante, pp. 70-74.]

" The obstinately-recurring abdominal symptoms of many
delicate children are very frequently explained by the presence of
worms. For the cure recourse is sometimes had to the possessor
of a charm. This is another of the Monday-Thursday opera-
tions, requiring three consecutive applications. The child is
presented, fasting, on Monday or Thursday morning, and is
placed sitting by the operator in a bolt-upright position.
Absolute silence is now observed, while the charmer produces
two pieces of tape, which he places across the vertex of his
patient. These are arranged at right angles to one another, so
as to form a cross. Their relative position is changed from
time to time, while the ' worm-docthor ' repeats to himself, in
silence, the mystic formulas of his awe-inspiring cure. The
operation lasts about a quarter of an hour. Three visits are
necessary, Monday-Thursday-Monday, or Thursday-Mondaj'-
Thursday, as the case may be. No interruption can be allowed
in this order.

"Griping pains in the abdomen, whether of man or beast,

* Seo also vol. i., p. 79.

'1HE USE OF SALIVA. 193

are very frequently attributed by the uneducated peasantry to
the irritating presence of worms. A popular form of treatment,
especially, indeed, in the case of quadrupeds, is to tie the ' worm-
knot ' on a piece of string over the body of the affected animal
(or human being), and then loose the same by the instantaneous
snap which the peculiarity of this knot makes possible. This
operation is repeated three times ; or, in bad cases, three-times-
three (nine) times. Each operation is enforced by the aid of a
muttered blessing. (See ante, p. 73, 74.)

" One of the beautiful crosses in the churchyard of Monaster-
boice is specially patronised by the neighbouring peasantry when
hooping-cough visits the family. The moss which grows on the
surface is carefully picked off, and boiled on new milk, of which
the affected youngster is then made to drink at regular intervals.
It is said by many to be the best of all cures for this troublesome
malady."

" In the abbey " (at Dromahaire) writes a correspondent, "a
very good priest was buried many years ago. He was such a
holy man that the very clay works cures ; it is sent for even
from America, and people get it from far and near. There is an
iron spoon provided to lift it with, and it is generally taken away
in a rag. The cure will not work until the rag, or paper in
which the clay was carried away, is returned. Some years ago
many old rags were to be seen at the grave, and some are still to
be observed there. The grave has been filled in more than once
in recent times. The country people even mix the clay with
water and drink it ; it is put on sores as well."*

A very renowned cure for hemorrhoids, a cure really believed
in, and practised by many in Sligo, who possess greater faith in
it than in the leading physician of the place, is the application
of a very common lichen, the Stiicta pulmonaria, called also the
Tree Lung-wort, Hazel Rag, and Crottles. Pile-wort receives
its popular name from its supposed efficacy in the cure of this
ailment. It can be made up into a jelly, and possesses also a
bitter principle used sometimes in beer making.

Saliva is used for many purposes. Lady Wilde states that
it was formerly used in baptism. Button scurvy is treated
by spitting on the ground, and rubbing on the mixed saliva and
dust with the right thumb. Spittle of a fasting person is useful
for the cure of warts and of many diseases. In some places,
immediately after birth, the infant is spat on by the father for
luck ; whilst in other parts of the country, the father on such
occasions, is carefully kept out of the way. When old crones

* See also vol. i., pp. 296, 297.
VOL. II. o

194 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

gather round a baby to admire it, they spit on the ground, in a
circle all round, to keep the fairies away and neutralize the
danger of the " evil eye," an interesting but disagreeable custom.
A. cow is spat upon for luck ; bargains are concluded by spitting
on the hand or on the " luck-penny."

If an animal is ill, the Arabs spit into the water before giving
it to the sick beast to drink, and parents make their children
spit at them ; the custom is due to the belief that it affords pro-
tection against evil spirits.

A very ancient Irish pagan charm, in which spittle appears
to be the principal or indeed only emolient, used for wounds or
poisons, is translated as follows : — " The poison of a serpent, the
venom of a dog, the sharpness of the spear, doth not well in
man. The blood of one dog, the blood of many dogs, the blood
of the hound of Fliethas — these I invoke. It is not a wart to
which my spittle is applied. I strike disease ; I strike wounds ;
I strike the disease of the dog that bites, of the thorn that
wounds, of the iron that strikes. I invoke the three daughters
of Fliethas against the serpent. Benediction on this body to be
healed ; benediction on the spittle ; benediction on him who
casts out the disease."

If so unlucky as to meet a weasel, early in the morning, you
should at once spit at it ; for if it spits at you first, a great mis-
fortune will befall you. If a person comes unexpectedly on a
bad smell he incontinently spits.

A certain remedy for a person suspected of being bewitched,
is to watch at the door until a stranger passes, as a stranger is
considered to have more power over the fairies than a neighbour.
If he spits on the face of the possessed, the power of the evil
spirit is broken, and the afflicted restored to reason. In fact,
the most effective way of neutralizing the machinations of the
fairies is to spit on the object, animate or inanimate, and say,
"God bless it"; and people often refuse, fearing to anger the
fairies by interfering with their work.

Even at the close of the eighteenth century, the terms "medi-
cine man " and "clergyman" were, in some cases, synonymous.
For example, in the curious manual of medicine, entitled Primitive
Physick: or, An Easy and Natural Method of Curing most
Diseases, by the Eev. John Wesley, m.a., already quoted,
the treatment of a patient by an Irish "wise woman" would
compare favourably with some of the abominations recommended
by this amateur physician. On the last page the use of "fasting
spittle " is prescribed as a cure for almost all diseases :—

"Fasting spittle, outwardly applied every morning, has
sometimes relieved and sometimes cured blindness, contracted
sinews from a cut, corns (mixed with chew'd bread, and applied

THE USE OF SALIVA. 195

every morning), cuts (fresh), deafness, eyelids, red and inflamed,
scorbutic tetters, sore legs, warts. Taken inwardly, it relieves
or cures asthmas, cancers, falling sickness, gout, gravel, king's
evil, leprosy, palsy, rheumatism, scurvy, stone, swelled liver."

When a man or beast has just been smitten by the other-
wise fatal glance of an " evil eye," the effects can be neutralized
by getting the owner of the mischievous optics to spit on the
victim three times in succession : " (1) in the name Father, and
(2) of the Son, and (3) of the Holy Ghost."

A favourite poultice for wounds, or chronic sores, is com-
posed of scrapings of tallow candles and cabbage leaves boiled
together. Another very simple, but unpleasant remedy for an
ulcerated leg, was recommended by a " wise woman," to an old
man, who carried out her directions with the greatest exactness,
and sat with his leg immersed in the water of a bog-hole all
night. In the morning his leg was perfectly healed, but as he
died of bronchitis, occasioned by the exposure, within a few days,
the value of the " cure " is somewhat doubtful.

The following charm for cramp in the leg is, to say the least,
very peculiar : —

" The Devil is tying a knot in my leg
Mark, Luke, and John, unloose it, I beg,
('ranges three are made to ease you,
Two for the thieves and one for Christ Jesu."

The author of this verse appears to have had little belief in the
Evangelist Matthew, or possibly the apostle's name had to yield
to the exigencies of the metre ; the thieves also come in for a
large share of notice.

In Folk-Lore of Plants, Mr. T. F. T. Dyer states that an old
name for the devil's bit (Scabiosa succisu) in the northern counties
of England, in Scotland, and in the North of Ireland " is ' curl-
doddy ' from the resemblance of the head of flowers to the curly
pate of a boy, this nickname being often used by children, who
thus address the plant :

' Curly-duddy do my biddin',
Soop my house, and shoal my widden.'

Iii Ireland, children twist the stalk, and, as it slowly untwists in
the hand, thus address it : —

' Curl-doddy on the midden,
Turn round, an' take my bidden.' "

According to the same writer the wall peniterry (ParieUiria
officinalis) is known in Ireland as "peniterry," and is thus

o2

196 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

described in "Father Connell," by the O'Hara Family (chapter
xii.) : — " A weed called, locally at least, peniterry, to which the
suddenly terrified (schoolboy) idler might run in his need,
grasping it hard and threateningly, and repeating the following
' words of power ' : —

' Peniterry, peniterry, that grows by the wall,
Save me from a whipping, or I '11 pull you, roots and all.

» »»

Young girls were in the habit of gathering milfoil, or yarrow,
upon May and All Hallow's Eve, and placing the plant under
their pillows, and so dreaming about their future husbands. The
herb also banishes evil spirits from those who carry it about their
person, and if placed inside the shoe, beneath the foot, endows
them with temporary fluency of speech. Yarrow is called, in
Irish, " the herb of the seven cures," from its many virtues.
Girls dance around it singing : —

" Yarrow, yarrow, yarrow,
I bid thee good morrow,
And tell me before to-morrow
"Who my true love shall be."

Even to dream that you are gathering yarrow, denotes that
good fortune will be yours.

In Folk-Lore of Plants, Mr. T. F. T. Dyer states that in
Ireland the puff-balls of Lycopodium are styled the devil's snuff-
box, the nettle his apron, and the convolvulus his garter.

Avast amount of legendary lore is connected with "fairy
rings " — little circles of vivid green frequently observed in the
darker green of old pastures, and within which the fairies dance
on moonlight nights. This curious phenomenon of a very
distinctly formed ring, however, "is, owing to the outspread
propagations of a particular mushroom, the fairy-ringed fungus,
by which the ground is manured, for a richer following vegeta-
tion." These fairy rings have, time out of mind, been held in
great reverence by the country people, and when May dew is
gathered by young girls to improve then' complexion, and
enhance their charms, they carefully avoid trespassing on the
magic circles for fear of offending the " good people," who
would be avenged on them by causing them to lose their
beauty.

The common foxglove was one of the most potent herbs used
by the Druids to increase the efficacy of their charms. It is said
by some that the term foxglove [Digitalis purpurea) applied to the
deadly but beautiful wild flower, is a Saxon survival from the
times when the people who so named it, really believed in the
"good folk" : for its red flowers were then the "good folk's

FAIRIES, GUARDIANS OF HEALING HERBS. 197

gloves" ; now shortened — like everything else in this prosaic
age — into " foxglove." This idea is of classic origin for : —

" To keep her slender fingers from the sun,
Pan through the pastures often times hath ran,
To pluck the speckled foxgloves from their stem,
And on these fingers neatly placed them."

The fairies do not unresistingly resign their power over herbs
to mortals, since they may, in some instances, be used against
themselves, and they therefore vigorously punish those who lay
unhallowed hands on them. Thus tbe mandragora or mandrake,
supposed to possess animal life and to shriek when uprooted,
must be drawn from the soil in which it grows, by means of a
dog, as the fairies visit their displeasure on the creature actually
abstracting this plant. Shakspeare thus alludes to the super-
stition : —

" And shrieks like mandrake torn out of the earth,
That living mortals hearing them run mad."

As does also the poet Moore : —

" The phantom shapes — oh, touch them not,
That appal the maiden's sight,
Look in the fleshy mandrake's stem,
That shrieks when plucked at night."

And again : —

" Such rank and deadly lustre dwells,
As in thoso hellish fires that light
Tho mandrake's charnel leaves at night."

Ben Jonson, in the Masque of Queens, makes one of the hags
gathering it say : —

"I, last night, lay all alone
On the ground, to hear the mandrake groan ;
And plucked him up, though he grew full low."

Amongst the Romans, various precautions were adopted when
digging for it. According to Pliny, " when they intended to take
up tbe root of this plant, they took the wind thereof, and with a
sword describing three circles about it, they digged it up, looking
towards the west."

The mandrake has a fleshy root, forked and often in form
resembling the human body ; its juice which was held in great
repute, was used for love-potions or philters. All parts of the
plant are narcotic, and if placed under the head of a patient was
supposed to produce sleep. The Irish and others believed that
the herb was found only under a gallows, nourished by the

198 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

drops which fell from it. The quaint and amusing old botanist,
Caleb Threlkeld, in his Synopsis Stirpium Hibemicarum, states
that it must be pulled with prayer, otherwise the fairies will
carry off the puller ; but this, he gravely assures his readers,
" is an abuse of God s holy ordinance of prayer."

In an Irish ms., said to have been compiled in the thirteenth
century, various herbs are enumerated which protected from
fairy influence those who possessed them. As in the case of the
mandrake, to extract them from the ground was highly perilous,
inasmuch as they, also, were all carefully watched over by the
" Good People." Many are the virtues of these herbs, and
having some about the person is a protection against disease.
For their extraction it is necessary that the aid of a cat, a dog,
or some living creature be requisitioned. A strong cord is tied
to one of the animal's legs, and to the root, and it is made then
to act the role of herb-digger. A farmer desirous of procuring a
particular herb, borrowed a large dog from a neighbour, drew up
the plant he required, in the above manner, and cured a person
afflicted with the "falling sickness." The dog, attacked with
convulsions, was incontinently hanged, but the next day appeared
at his master's door. The dog fell ill a second time, was hanged,
left for dead and recovered ; but again suffering from convulsions,
a neighbour advised that it should be allowed to recover from
the fit, and then be killed. The advice was acted on, and the
dog reappeared no more.

A cure for consumption is an herb styled crov-darrig, or " red
hand." It must be pulled by tying the root of the plant to the
leg of a dog, otherwise its extraction from the soil is fatal to the
mortal who pulls it. The leaves are then squeezed — after which
they are burned — and the previously extracted juice drunk by the
patient on an empty stomach.

Amongst the Eomans it was deemed prudent that some
herbs, when gathered for necromantic purposes, should be drawn
up by the roots, as in the case where Horace describes Canidia
requiring, for her unholy purpose, that the wild fig tree should
be pulled up from the earth.

Marsh marigold is considered a plant of great power, and on
May day garlands are made of it to put on cattle, and to hang on
the door posts to keep the fairies away.

The young buds of the briar are used in spring, and its roots
in winter time as medicine. They are boiled for twelve hours,
in an earthenware vessel ; a cupful of the decoction is adminis-
tered, at intervals, to the sick person, who falls into a profound
slumber, from which he awakes cured. Great efficacy is attri-
buted to_ the briar, especially in cases -ef sprain, or dislocation ;
the species bearing a reddish flower, being considered the best.

FA TRIES, G UA RDIA NS OF HE A LING HERBS. 199

A strong twig of this about a yard long is taken, and split evenly
from end to end, the pieces being then held by two men, about
three feet apart, the " herb doctor " reciting an incantation, and
waving his hands. When the twigs touch, a piece of the briar
is cut off at the point of contact and bound firmly over the sprain.
This ligature is left on for three days, when the sprain is perfectly
cured.

Inflammation of the eyes is removed by the application of an
amber bead, or of any article of gold ; either material should be
heated by friction before application. Another remedy is to
pierce with a thorn the shell of a living snail, and the fluid that
exudes is an unfailing remedy for anything affecting the eyes.
For a stye in the eye, pluck ten gooseberry thorns, throw the
first away, then point each of the other nine successively towards
the stye, and cure will follow infallibly. The tail of a black cat,
if rubbed over the eyelid, will effect a rapid cure.

For bruises, burns or sores, heat limestones in the fire, then
throw them into water until the latter is hot, and bathe the
affected parts once a day until they are healed.

The following charm is also practised : — Select a small stone,
smaller than a boy's marble, for each wart you possess, tie them
up in " a clean linen bag, and throw it out on the highway ; then
find out a stone in some field or ditch with a hollow, in which
rain or dew may have lodged, and wash the warts seven times
therein, and, after the operation, whoever picks up the bag of
stones will have a transfer of the warts."

Verbena officinalis, or vervain is esteemed, in many cases, a
sovereign remedy. When this plant is pulled a peculiar incanta-
tion is used, which is translated as follows : —

" Vervain, thou growost upon holy ground,
In Mount Calvary thou wert found,
Thou curest all sores, and all diseases,
And in the name of the holy Jesus
I pull you out of the ground."

The superstition of the ancient cult is here transferred to the
present professed religion, for the groundwork of the charm has
apparently been retained, but words of Christian ritual have been 1
substituted for the invocation of the ancient deities of the land.
It is alleged that vervain was one of the plants held sacred by
the Druids, and was, in consequence, adopted into Christian
usage. Although gathered by witches to do mischief in their
incantations, yet, on the other hand, it can be employed against
their machinations, and it " hinders witches from their will."
Vervain has long been in repute as a love philtre. In Germany
a wreath of vervain is given to the newly-married bride. In

200 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

France, as in Ireland, it is gathered under the different changes
of the moon, with secret incantations, and is then supposed
to possess remarkable curative powers. Virgil describes it as a
charm used by an enchantress : —

" Bring running water, bind those altars round
"With fillets, with vervain strew the ground."

The wood anemone is used as a plaster for wounds. Mint
tied round the waist is a sure remedy for disorders of the stomach.
The juice of carrots is employed for purifying the blood.

A cure for the mumps is to tie a halter round the neck of the sick
child and lead it to a stream in which it must be bathed three times.

The Irish peasant carefully hides or burns the cuttings from
his hair, or the clippings from his nails ; if he loses a tooth he
throws it away over his left shoulder or into the fire ; a mother
will not permit the nails of her infant to be cut until it attains a
certain age. Sir Thomas Browne, commenting on the supersti-
tion, says : — " The set and statutory times for paring nails and
cutting hair is thought by many a point of consideration, which
is, perhaps, but the continuance of ancient superstition. To the
Eomans, it was peculiar to pare their nails upon the Nundinal
observed every ninth day ; and it was also feared by others in
certain days of the week." Clippings of the hair and nails of a
child, tied up in a linen cloth, and placed under the cradle of
a sick infant will cure convulsions. Here the disease is sup-
posed to be absorbed in a representative portion of the body of
a stranger.

In old Norse belief the nails of the dead were always cut, as
otherwise they hastened the completion of the Death Ship which
is to announce the end of the world. According to the Jewish
Talmud nails must be cut in a certain order, and the parings burnt
or hidden. The custom is still observed in the East. In one of
the sacred books of the Parsees there is a prayer to be said over
nail parings lest the evil demon turn them into weapons, and use
them against their former owners. This apparently inexplicable
custom is elucidated by the practices of the Hindoos and South
Sea Islanders, who make little figures of hair, nail clippings, or
any article belonging to a person they wish to injure or bewitch,
and then pierce, distort, or burn the figure so made, hoping thus
to compass the death of their enemy. The same superstition
was, in England, embodied in this couplet : —

" He that eutteth hair or horn,
Shall rue the day that he was horn."

Another certain cure is effected by some part of the clothes and

CEREMONIES REGARDING CUTTING HAIR. 201

hair being buried with a harrow-pin at the site of the first fit of
falling-sickness. Whoever digs them up will get the disease.

However, it is permissible, and even lucky, to cut the hair at
the new moon, and by the light of the moon ; but it should never
be attempted on a Friday night.

From observing the very visible effects of the moon upon the
level of the ocean, mankind in all ages have imagined its influence
to extend not only to human affairs, but also to the state of the
human body. Travellers in the East draw attention to the fact
that the natives prefer to commence a journey at the time of the
new moon and a similar custom obtained amongst the Jews in
ancient times : —

" For the goodman is not at home
He is gone a long journey :
He hath taken a hag of money with him;
He will come home at the full moon."

Proverbs vii. 19, 20.

And again in Samuel xx. 24, we read : — " So David hid him-
self in the field, and, when the new moon was come, the King sat
him down to eat meat."

Mr. T. F.T.Dyer states that, " according to Vallancey, the Irish,
on seeing the new moon, knelt down, repeated the Lord's Prayer,
at the conclusion of which they cried, ' May thou leave us as safe
as thou has found us ! ' And even still they make the sign of the
cross on themselves (Notes and Queries, 5th series, Vol. v., p. 364),
and repeat the words of the blessing : — ' In the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, Amen ! ' On these occa-
sions, they fancy that they will obtain anything they may wish
for."

At the new moon, it is not an uncommon practice for people
to point with an iron knife at the moon and say : —

" New moon, new moon, be true unto rne,
That I ere the morrow my true love may see."

The knife then is placed under the pillow, and strict silence
observed, or the charm is of no effect.

Hair was an emblem of virility, baldness was the natural
antithesis. This will account for a lock of hair being considered
the representative of the owner's self, when life through it is
sought to be taken or blasted by magic.

The idea at the root of the construction of the similitude of
an animal, or of a human being devoted to destruction, varies
somewhat in different countries, but it is of world-wide practice,
and is as old and general as any primitive religious idea. After
completion the image is pierced with pins, thorns, or other

202 TREE WORSHIPS-HERBS AND MEDICINE.

pointed instruments ; or if of wax or like substance it is slowly
roasted before a fire in the belief that each prick inflicted on the
image will occasion a mortal pang in the human being it repre-
sents, and that melting before a fire, or burning, will ensure
gradual dwindling and pining of the original, or sudden or violent
death, according to the treatment to which the similitude is
subjected.

Amongst the South Sea Islanders prayers, offerings, and
curses, however numerous, were not sufficient for the purpose of
compassing the death of the victim. Ellis, in Polynesian
Researches, explains that it is necessary to secure something con-
nected with the body of the object desired to be destroyed. The
parings of the nails, a lock of the hair, the saliva or other
secretions from the body, or even a portion of the food which the
person is to eat ; any one of these was considered as a vehicle by
which the demon entered the person, who thus became " pos-
sessed." " It was called tabu, i.e., growing or causing to grow.
When procured, the tara was performed, the sorcerer took the
hair, saliva, or other substance that belonged to his victim, to
his house, or marm, performed his incantations over it, and offered
his prayers ; the demon was then supposed to enter the tubu, and
through it the individual who suffered from the enchantment. If
it was a portion of food, similar ceremonies were observed, and the
piece of bread-fruit, fish, etc., supposed by the process to be im-
pregnated by the demon, was placed in the basket of the person
for whom it was designed, and, if eaten, inevitable destruction
was expected to follow. The use of the portable spittoon by the
Sandwich Islander chiefs, in which the saliva was carefully de-
posited, carried by a confidential servant, and buried every
morning; and the custom of the Tahitians in scrupulously
burning or burying the hair when cut off, and also furnishing to
each individual his distinct basket of fruit, originated in their
dread of sorcery by any of these means. When the tara had been
performed and the titbit secured, the effects were violent and death
speedy. The most acute agonies and terrific distortions of the
body were experienced ; the wretched sufferer appeared in a state
of frantic madness, or, as they expressed it, torn by the evil spirit,
while he foamed and writhed under his dreadful power."

Many legends yet recount the miraculous cures effected by the
great Irish physicians or " medicine men " of pagan times. The
most widely known of all their celebrities was Dianket of the
Dedanann race, who was afterwards regarded as the God of
physic. At the second battle of Moytirra he prepared a medicinal
bath, and endued it with such sanative powers that the wounded
warriors who were plunged into it emerged healed and restored

THE MAGIC CALDRON.

203

to strength. Many ages before the Christian era a king of
Leinster was hardly beset by a neighbouring and hostile tribe
whicb used poisoned weapons. His Druid advised him to have a
bath prepared before the next battle, consisting of the milk of
one hundred and fifty white and hornless cows. As fast as the
king's men were wounded they were plunged into the fluid, from
which they arose perfectly healed. It is thus apparent that the
idea of the existence of an elixir of life is of very ancient date in
Ireland.

-.

Fig. 61.

Bronze Caldron found in the townland of Raffcry, parish of Killim hy, county Down.

Extrem tsido (li.mi.'tc-r twenty-two ini hi s.

Reproduced n the Ulster Journal of Archaology.

In the Book of Eir/hts, bronze caldrons are mentioned as the
tribute of inferior chiefs to those of superior rani;, and in
mediaeval times, if the fact happened to be recorded by the
annalists of an Irish chief pillaging the territory of his neighbour,
an enumeration of the number of copper caldrons carried off is
sometimes given. The scene in Macbeth, with Becate and the
witches around the seething caldron, is a good description of
Bril tsb superstition.

■• And now about the caldron Bing

Kin hanting nil that you put 11

204 TREE WORSHIP— HERBS AND MEDICINE.

Irish magical caldrons appear to have been used, not for
destructive so much as for healing purposes. Healing herbs
were decocted, incantations were pronounced, and wounded
warriors carried from the battlefield and plunged into the
magical liquid, were immediately healed and enabled to return
to the fight : for the Druids.

" By force of potent spells, wicked magic,
And conjurations horrible to hear,
Could set the ministers of Hell at work,
And raise a slaughtered army from the earth,
And make them live and breathe and fight again."

A fine bronze caldron (fig. 51) was found in a bog long
used for supplying fuel (at one time at least forty feet higher),
in which numbers of bronze implements have from time to time
come to light. . The vessel, of very superior workmanship, is
formed of golden coloured bronze, as thin as writing paper ; the
thinness and evenness of the plates, and the ingenious mode of
affixing the handles, so as to equalize the strain in lifting the
caldron when filled, are proofs of advanced technical skill.

There is a curious reference in the Book of Lismore to the
magic caldron or bath. Caoilte, at the earnest entreaty of two
high-born ladies, " brought the full of his right hand of potent
fairy herbs with him, such as he knew were used by the chief
women of the Fenians, and he gave them to the women and they
made a bath thereof, and bathed therein, and this brought
back the love of their husbands on them." Camden also
mentions this custom as existing in his time.

The ancient physicians were indeed clever at their profession.
They diagnosed the nature of disease, not by pulse, temperature,
and general symptoms, but by the character of the groans
emitted by the sufferer. A chief, grievously wounded in
battle, had poisonous matter placed, by a treacherous attendant,
in his hurts. The wounds closed, but the agony suffered by the
patient was excruciating. A terribly learned doctor, styled " the
prophetic physician," from his great skill in diagnosis (though
from the story, it would appear that his pupils, not so much as
he himself, possessed this valuable gift), arrived with his three
apprentices, and found the chief lying prostrate, groaning loudly
from the effects of intense pain.

" What groan is that ? " inquired the doctor of his first
apprentice. " It is from a poisoned herb," replied number one.

" And what groan is that ? " demanded the doctor of number
two apprentice. " It is from a hidden reptile," replied number
two.

" And what groan is that ? " inquired the doctor of the third

PRINCIPLE OP "NO CURE NO PA Y" 205

apprentice. " It is from a poisoned seed," replied number
three.

Then the whole four set to work on the unlucky sufferer,
cauterized the wounds with red-hot irons, after which the
poisonous substances were extracted from beneath the skin, and
the chief not only survived the operation, but was actually cured.

If one may judge from mediaeval mss., these "medicine
men " of the pagan era were paid on the principle of "no cure
no pay." When in attendance on a patient, "the doctor" was
entitled to his " coshering " (i.e., free board and lodgings),
together with that of his apprentices or pupils ; but if he failed
to restore the patient to health, he could be made refund his
fee and the cost of the keep of his assistants.

" Physicians mend or end us,

Secundem artem ; but although we sneer
In health, when sick we call them to attend us,
Without the least propensity to jeer."

CHAPTER VI.

STONE WORSHIP.

Pillar- Stones — The most ancient of Monuments — Various causes to which their
erection is attributable — Traditional legendary belief regarding their in-
fluence over women and men — Pagan Pillar-Stones Beeonsecrated to the
New Religion — The Worship wide-spread — Instances cited — St. Patrick
overturns Pillar- Stones — Human Beings metamorphosed into Pillar-Stones
— By Irish Saints, by Druids, Magicians, Witches, and Mermaids —
Divination Stones — Speaking Stones — Stones to which Offerings of Food
were made — Hungry Stones — Holed Stones — The larger-sized apertures
used for the cure of disease — The ailment left behind by the act of transit —
Hence the idea of regeneration and the remission of sins — These ideas adopted
by the Christians — Anecdotes regarding their adoption— Creeping or pass-
ing under certain objects, or passing through a. cleft sapling, &c, gradu-
ally substituted for the original rite — Holed Stones with diminutive
apertures — Adopted into Christianity — Their wide-spread use — Connected
with marriage rites, and with women — Alignments of Stones — Druid's,
Brehon's, and Hag's Chairs or Seats — Inauguration Stones — The Stone of
Destiny, or the Coronation Stone, in Westminster Abbey — The Blarney
Stone — Rocking Stones.

A sentiment common to human beings in all ages, and among
all races of men, is an ardent desire to leave behind something
to perpetuate, amongst succeeding generations, the memory of
their existence. This sentiment, doubtless, led primitive man
to plant erect in the ground the rough pillar-like stones he found
lying prostrate on the surface. In corroboration of this we
notice that these hoary monuments are found in almost every
country throughout the globe ; in Ireland they may have been
mere cenotaphs, but were doubtless erected for a variety of other
purposes. These rude monoliths, or pillar-stones, though found
in Great Britain and on the Continent, are not very numerous in
Ireland. They are by some antiquaries supposed to be idols, lithic
monuments in commemoration of the death of some renowned
warrior, or to have been erected on the spot where some cele-
brated combat, or battle, took place. In support of this it is
stated that in Scotland they are styled "cat-stones," derived

PILLAR-STONES. 207

from cath, " a battle." There is, for example, a stone monument
called the " Cat's Stone," in the county Westmeath. Also it is
possible they may have been employed for the prosaic, but useful
purpose of landmarks. Some writers have even suggested that
they were erected for, and used as sundials, and that, like the
pillars of the temple of the sun at Balbec, these

"... lonely columns stand sublime,

Flinging their shadows from on high,
Like dials, which the wizard Time,
Had raised to count his ages by."

Pillar-stones are still popularly considered to exemplify
that worship of generative power which prevails in many other
lands, and traditionary legendary belief regarding their influence
over women for obtaining favourable results during their confine-
ments, and over men in securing progeny, is, if not very wide-
spread, at least far from extinct.

There are numerous authenticated examples of the wide-
spread custom, adopted by Christians on the Continent, especially
at Rome, of devoting to Christian uses monuments, such as
temples or tombs, that had been anciently pagan, and this system
was in primitive times extensively followed in Ireland. Thus
pillar-stones were consecrated to the new faith by simply engrav-
ing on them the sign of the Greek cross. If we are to believe
the later written lives of St. Patrick, he found the people wor-
shipping pillars, some of which he caused to be overthrown, but
the majority appear to have been reconsecrated to the new worship.
Traces of the survival of the worship of standing-stones are
extremely interesting. There are many examples from ancient
Greece ; similar instances occur in almost all early religions, and
they are still preserved in folk-lore.

The Kaffirs, a tribe of the Hindu Kush, say of the stones they
worship : " This stands for God ; but we know not His shape " ;
and therefore they leave the rock untouched by chisel. Ages
before the appearance of Mahomet people flocked annually to
Mecca to worship at the Kaaba, and to adore the sacred Black
Stone. The astute reformer perceived that the custom was
too firmly rooted to be easily eradicated, so he grafted it on to
his remodelled religion, and made the performance of a pilgrimage
to the Kaaba a religious duty. The Hindoos allege that the
Black Stone in the wall of the Kaaba is no other than the Linga
of Mahadeva, one of their gods, and that when the Kaaba was
rebuilt it was placed in the wall to withdraw it from public
adoration ; but the Prophet's new converts would not relinquish
its worship, and the Mollahs were at length forced to connive at,
and finally to tolerate, and even encourage the cult.

208

STONE WORSHIP.

In a passage in the Tripartite Life of St. Patrick — a compara-
tively modern srs. — the demolition of an idol styled Cenn Cruaich
or Crow. Cruach, "the chief idol of Erin," ornamented " with
gold and with silver, and having twelve other idols ornamented
with brass around him," in the plain of Mag Sleeht, near Granard,
is described. St. Patrick, of course, destroyed or overthrew the
chief idol, and "the earth swallowed the other twelve idols to
their heads." It appears as if the legend was a current popular
story committed to writing from the vernacular, at a compara-
tively late period, and relating to a "standing-stone" and its

Fig. 52.

.Rows of pillar*stones at Carnac

. Brittany-

surrounding circle of boulders. Crom or Crum signifies, accord-
ing to some authorities, a maggot, so Crom Cruach is literally the
" Bloody Maggot." Another idol, in the west of Connaught,
was styled Crom Dulh, or the "Black Maggot," and, in "the
province, the name is still intimately connected with the first
Sunday in August. There seems to be, in these names, and in
their connection with the first day of autumn, some indistinct
reference to death and its accompanying corruption.

In many localities a conspicuous standing-stone, placed in a
prominent position, either by the hand of nature or that of man.

PILLAR-STONES. 209

so as at a distance somewhat to resemble the human figure, is
called by the Irish-speaking peasantry Jar-breaya, a false man.
In the same way the writer has heard the term applied to a
" scare-crow."

When primitive traditionary tales, and mythology, were
converted into religion, it was taught that the gods possessed the
power of transforming human beings into pillar-stones, for
instance, Lot's wife and the giant Ardfind, are examples from
Hebraic and Norse belief. The standing-stones at Carnac (fig. 52)
are said to be one of Caesar's armies metamorphosed, by Celtic
magic, into stones ; but a much earlier belief relates that they
were erected by diminutive supernatural beings who carried the
blocks with them from a far distant East, and set them on end
at Garnac, with the object of confusing seekers after a great
treasure, which they buried under one of these numerous
monoliths.

O'Curry gives an extract from an Irish tale, in which a Druid
transforms three of his enemies into rocks. When life and
magical powers were attributed to inanimate objects nothing was
more natural than to suppose that stones and trees might be
converted into men and women, and conversely men and women
were turned into trees and stones. Even with the Greeks it meets
us in the well-known fable of Deucalion and Pyrrha re-peopling
the earth by casting stones behind them, which changed into men
and women. The tale of stones turning into human beings meets
us, at the present day, in almost every myth of creation collected
by anthropologists in Africa, Polynesia, and America. In some
cases trees take the place of stones, and transformation of men
into both are among the commonest occurrences, as wherever
natural objects present a resemblance to the human figure such
like myths sprang up. Daphne is transformed into a laurel,
Lot's wife into a pillar of salt, and the Cornish maidens and the
Sligo mermaid's children into a circle of stones.

In the south of Cork, there is a pillar stone, which bears, in
the imagination of the peasantry, a rude resemblance to a female
figure. The natives of the locality suppose this to represent
a woman, who, for her misdeeds, had been petrified by a
magician. The legend is especially interesting, as the magician
was in this instance, according to popular tradition, an Irish
saint.

Very little of the old church of Fernagh in the county Kerry
remains, except a fragment of the east wall. The saint after
whom the church is named had a large tract of pasturage
adjoining the sacred edifice. The woman in charge of his cows,
stole and sold the saint's butter, whereupon the holy man turned
the dishonest woman into a pillar stone, the butter rolls into

VOL. II. p

210

STONE IVOR SHIP.

pebbles, and placed them near the church, where they are still
to be seen. The churn and other vessels used in the butter-
making were also turned into stone. The woman happened to
be pregnant at the time, which is shown by the stone to the
present day. She also had a rope with which she used to tie
cross cows,' and the stake to which it was attached grew into a
tree. The rock in which the cavities occur appears to rest on
its natural site on a sloping bank, the north side level with the
earth (fig. 53), and the south side (fig. 54) about three feet
and a half above it. Upon its surface are eight depressions,

Fig. 53.

" The Butter Rolls " (probably cursing-stones), north side, Fernagli old Cburcb,
county Kerrj, from a photo.

varying in size, three of them being slight, and five of good
size. Each cavity contains a worn oval pebble, locally known
as a butter lump. The surface of the rock is about seven feet
square, the larger basins are thirteen inches in diameter, by
about six inches in depth. In the centre oi the rock surface is
laid the upper bait of a quern, found not long ago in a
neighbouring field, but it has otherwise no connection with the
other stones or petrified " nieskins." When the devotees arrive at
this rock, they pray and turn these stones. It is firmly believed

BELIEF REGARDING PILLAR-STONES.

211

that they could not be taken away. Indeed several persons
have tried to do so, hut have always failed, the stones being
found again in their places next morning. A young lad not
long ago attempted to steal one of them, but his horse would
not cross the bridge out of the parish, so he deemed it wiser to
leave the sacred stone back again. There can be little question
as to this site having been formerly a " cursing place," and that
these stones were at one time used for maledictory and other
purposes.

■

— i — t

■

"... *#

Fig. 54.

" The Butter Rolls " (probably cursing-stones), south side, Fcmagh old Church,
county Kerry, from aphoto.

The saints appear to have thus inherited from the
Druidical priesthood, the art of turning people they disliked into
stone. * One of these holy men was persecuted by a malignant

•••■ Toland'a History of the Druids. {FA. 1814, pages 130-131). There are "in
the highlands of Scotland anil in the adjacent ilea numberless Obelises, or
atones set up on end; some 30, some -1 feet high, others higher or lower;
and this sometimes where no such atones are to be dug, Wales being likewise
lull of thorn ; and some there are in tin- least cultivated parts of England,
with \ <-i \ many in Ireland. Jn most places of tliis last kingdom, the common

212 STONE WORSHIP.

hag, who followed him about, hindering the completion of the
edifices he was engaged in erecting. The saint in the act of
superintending the work on a round tower, perceiving his
opponent at the base of the building commencing her incanta-
tions, leaped to the ground and struck her, on the head with his
hammer. The country people show the witch metamorphosed
into stone by the blow, lying close to the foundation, and
still bearing the mark of the holy man's hammer. This round
tower was never finished, for one day, when the architect was at
the top completing the cap, the saint, who strongly objected to
the sum of money the builder was demanding for his fee, had
the scafolding removed, and thought that he could then dictate
his own terms to the designer. "It is easier to pull down than
to build," was the sole comment of the latter, as he commenced
to throw down the masonry. On seeing the tables thus turned,
the saint begged him to desist, and the price he had demanded
would be paid, but the architect, like a wise man, would not again
trust himself in sacerdotal power, and declined either to repair
or complete the work, so the round tower remains unfinished to
this day.

Crofton Croker recounts a legend of human beings, meta-
morphosed by magic into stones, and in the townland of Scur-
more, parish of Castleconnor, county Sligo, there are some
large boulders, bearing the singular title of " Children of the
Mermaid " ; to them is attached a legend which accounts for
their origin. It is as follows : — In olden days, a man walking
along the sea shore, discovered amongst the rocks, a mermaid
lying asleep. Now, everybody, or at least everybody in that
locality, knows that if possession be obtained of an article of
a sea nymph's costume, she at once loses her aquatic
nature, both as regards form and disposition, and degenerates
into an ordinary mortal.* The man therefore approached
stealthily, became the possessor of the magic garment,
and led the metamorphosed nymph home as his bride. Re-
tribution, however, finally overtook him. His seven children
were nearly grown to maturity, when one day his youngest born
saw him abstract the magic garment from its hiding-place, to

people believe these Obelises to be men, transform'd into stones t>v the nia<ne
of the Druids. This is also the notion the vulgar have in Oxfordshire "of
Rollwright stones, and in Cornwall of the hurlers ; erect stones so call'd, but
belonging to a different class from the Obelises, whereof I now discourse.
And indeed, in every country the ignorant people ascribe to the devil or some
supernatural power, at least to giants, all works which seem to them to exceed
human art or ability. Thus among other things (for recording their traditions
will have its pleasure as well as usefulness), they account for the Roman
camps and military ways, calling such the devil's dykes, or the like."
* For the story of the capture of another mermaid, see ante, p. 127.

METAMORPHOSED INTO PILLAR-STONES. 213

deposit it where he imagined it would be still more secure.
The youth ran off to describe what he had seen to his mother,
who seized with a sudden yearning to return to her native
element, resumed possession of her property, and bade her
children follow her to the sea-shore. Being now re-endowed
with all the attributes of a mermaid, she touched each in
succession, changed them into seven stones, and then plunged
into the ocean, and has never since been seen, but the boulders,
seven in number, still stand on the circumference of a circular
rampart surrounding a fine tumulus called Cruckancornia.

It appears to have been a very prevalent belief throughout
Ireland, that some of the large stone circles were human beings,
or giants, metamorphosed by magic into rocks. In one of
Crofton Croker's fairy legends, a mermaid is secured by the
abstraction of an enchanted cap. A story very much resembling
the Sligo legend of the Mermaid, is told by Mr. Hibbert, in his
description of the Shetland Isles. The mermaid, after re-
sumption of her long discarded skin, said to the deserted
Shetlander, as she dived into depths unknown — "Farewell, I
loved you very well when I remained on earth, but I always
loved my first husband better." In Denmark, there are families
who believe themselves to be descended from such mixed
marriages, and similar tales existed in the county Kerry, relative
to the families of O'Flaherty and O'Sullivan, whilst the
Macnamaras, of the county Clare, owe their name it is said, to a
tradition of the same nature. Mermaids are described by Irish
fishermen as "women with fishy tails," thus unwittingly
plagiarising the lines from Horace, Desinit in piscem mulier
furmosa superne* i.e. a woman beautiful above, ends in the tail of
a fish. " The Irish word ' merrow,' correctly written mornadh,
or mornach, answers exactly to the English ' mermaid,' and it
is the compound of muir, the sea, and oiyh, a maid. It is also
used to express a sea-monster, like the Armoric and Cornish
morhuch, to which it evidently bears analogy." According to
Ussher, " morgan " signifies, in the ancient British, " born of
the sea " ; and " Morgan " is, at present, a very common name
in Wales.

According to Crofton Croker, St. John's Well lies at the foot
of a hill about three miles from Ennis, and the water is believed
to possess the power of restoring the use of the limbs and curing
defective sight. Near the well there is a small lough, said to be
the abode of a mermaid, which used to appear very frequently.
" This lady of the lake was observed resorting to the cellar of
Newhall, the seat of Mr. M'Donall. The butler, perceiving the

* Figuratively, a description of bad taste, and incongruity of style.

214 STONE WORSHIP.

wine decrease rapidly, determined, with some of his fellow-
servants, to watch for the thief, and at last they caught the mer-
maid in the act of drinking it. The enraged butler threw her
into a caldron of boiling water, when she vanished, after uttering
three piercing shieks, leaving only a mass of jelly behind. Since
that period her appearances have been restricted to once in every
seven years."

There are but few freshwater mermaids ; they are only plenti-
ful in the sea, and their singing heralds a storm. Some fisher-
men still believe in the real existence of mermaids ; a man de^
clared he had actually seen one on the rocks combing her hair,
but on his approach she took a header into the deep. But how
can we blame these simple folk, when, in the Irish annals, under
date a.d. 807, a dead mermaid is chronicled as having been cast
by the waves upon the sea beach, and details are given of her
dimensions which almost rival those of the sea-serpent of the
nineteenth century. At a later date, in the year 1118, it is
gravely recounted that two mermaids were caught by fishermen.

Mermen are not as attractive creatures as mermaids ; their
hair and teeth are green, their noses red, and their eyes sunk, re-
sembling those of a pig, so that there is little cause of wonder at
mermaids occasionally allowing themselves to be captured by
good-looking fishermen.

The following was recounted by a countryman, a native of
Kilross, county Sligo : — Long ago there lived a celebrated
magician, who possessed a cow that brought wealth and prosperity
to her owner. One of his neighbours, with the assistance of his
son, succeeded in driving it off for the purpose of stealing it. The
magician, soon discovering his loss, pursued and overtook the
thieves. In his hand he bore a magical wand, and, overcome
with passion, struck with it the cow, the boy, as well as the thief,
thereby metamorphosing them all into stone. In the centre
stands the thief, represented by a pillar-stone more than six feet
high ; near him is the boy, of lesser proportions, and a slab, lying
prostrate, represents the cow (fig. 55). Another countryman
stated that the magician was the celebrated witch Vera. He
styled the pillar-stone Clochtogla, /.<;. "the lifted stone," a
fairly conclusive proof that it is all that remains in position of
a former cromleac. As already recounted (ante, vol. i., pp. 360
and 361), Vera, according to one legend, met her death on the
Slieve-na-Cailleach hills ; according to another legend, Vera was
drowned when trying to cross Loc/i-da-ghedh, in the mountains,
above Kilross, where her " house " is still pointed out. Loch-.
'da-ghedh, i.e. Lough Dagea, the Lake of the Two Geese (see
p. 271), has, even at the present day, the reputation of being
the deepest in the county Sligo. One countryman stated that

216 STONE WORSHIP.

there is an underground outlet from it, and if anything were
thrown into it, " it would come out at the bridge of Denmark ! "
He would not say, however, whether Vera's body did so or not.
Another countryman recounted that it was once essayed to drain
the lake for the purpose of recovering the treasure at the bottom,
which was guarded by a huge monster ; but when the workmen
commenced operations they imagined they saw their homesteads
on the plain in flames, and, going down to extinguish them,
found it was the good people who had deceived them (ante, p. 157).
When they returned to their work the trench they had made, to
draw off the water, was filled up.

Kuno Meyer found many references to the Protean character
of Vera in Irish mss. He quotes one in which she is styled
"The old woman of Bcare." The reason " was that she had
fifty foster-children in Beare. She had seven periods of youth,
one after another, so that every man reached death by old age
before her, so that her grand-children and great grand-children
were tribes and races," before she finally succumbed to old age
and debility and sang what may be styled her death song,
commencing : —

" My life ebbs from me like the sea,
Old age has made me yellow."

The antithesis of Wordsworth's well known lines : —

"... An old age serene and bright
And lovely as a Lapland night
Shall lead thee to thy grave."

It would appear from this Irish poem that Vera had been
" a famous hetaira in her time." In it she compares her pre-
sent life with that passed by her in her younger days : —

" It is riches
That you love, not men :
In the time when we lived,
Ic was men we loved.

" The maidens rejoice
When Mayday comes to them:
For me sorrow is meeter,
For I am wretched and an old woman.

" I hold no sweet converse,
No wetliers are killed at my wedding,
My hair is all but grey,
The mean veil over it is no pity.

" Onco I was with kings
Drinking mead and wine :
To-day I drink whey-water
Among withered old women."

In the same ms. Vera is also described as the mother of
St. Fintan, and in another as the wife of a well-known poet

MAGICIANS, HATCHES, AND MERMAIDS. 217

of the eighth century, or more probably of an ancient mythical
personage — a kind of demi-god — of similar name to the poet.
Kuno Meyer states that the demi-god was certainly one of Vera's
lovers as appears from the title of a now lost tale entitled Sere
Caillige Bet-re do Fhothad Canuinne, He also cites other mss.
in which a quatrain, translated as follows, is ascribed to Vera: —

" I have an increase of sight, a keenness that does not . . - ,
One seems to me to be two, two seems to me three."

It is not, however, explained as to whether Vera thus gave
expression to her feelings after one of her drinking bouts.*

The above quoted poem has recently been literally translated
by Kuno Meyer in Otia Memeiana. The lyric appears in two
mss., in the Library, Trinity College, Dublin, of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries respectively, but on grounds of
structure and language the Professor is inclined to date back
its original composition to the eleventh century.

The poem of thirty-six four-lined stanzas, abridged by Mr.
Stephen Gwynn in his metrical rendering to sixteen stanzas
(as several of the transitions were very abrupt) appeared in the
Fortnightly lUrieu- (March, 1901) under the heading A Specimen
of Irish Medimval Poetry, and is here reproduced by kind
permission of the Author and of Mr. Courtney, the Editor of the
Renew.

Mr. Stephen Gwynn observes " that except for the rearrange-
ment of the order and some slight expansions of the magnificent
image which recurs throughout, my version is very close to the
original and at times almost identical with the literal rendering,"
and again " the conflict between the formal protestation of
a late assumed religion and the real cry of the heart is true
enough to nature and it is frequently present in the Ossianic
literature."

" Ebbing, the ware of the sea
Leaves, where it irnntoned before,
Van mid naked the shore,
Heavy the clotted weed :
And in my heart, woe is me !
Ebbs a wave of the sea.

* For ii description of the attributes of Vera, see ante, vol. i.,pp. 360-364.
The Vision of Mae Canrjlinnr, pp. 6, 131-134, 208-210 ; Otia Merseiana, vol. i.,
pp. 119-128. Professor Whitley Stokes stutes that in Scotland a proverb
is ascribed to her : —

" Cliuala mi 'chubliag gun bhiadh ambhroinn,
Chunnaic mi 'n searrach 's a chulaobh rium,
Chunnaic mi 'n tseiloheag air an lie luim,
'S dh 'aithnich mi nach ruchadh a' bhliadhn' ud leam."

From this it is evident that Vera was no ordinary " witch," but a goddess of
the Elder Faiths and whose worship was not restricted to Ireland.

218 ... . STONE WORSHIP.

" I am the Woman of Beare.
Foul am I that was fair :
Gold-embroidered smocks I had,
Now in rags am hardly clad.

" Arms, now so poor and thin,
Staring bone and shrunken skin,
Once were lustrous, once caressed
Chiefs and warriors to their rest.

" Not the sage's power, nor lone
Splendour of an aged throne,
Wealth I envy not, nor state :
Only women folk I hate.

" On your heads, while I am cold,
Shines the sun of living gold ;
Flowers shall wreathe your necks in May ;
For me, every month is gray.

" Tours the hloom : hut ours the fire,
Even out of dead desire.
Wealth, not men, ye love ; hut when
Life was in us, we loved men.

" Fair the men, and wild the manes
Of their coursers on the plains ;
Wild the chariots rocked, when we
Eaced hy them for mastery.

" Lone is Femen : vacant, bare,
Stands in Bregon Eonan's Chair.
And the slow tooth of the sky
Frets the stones where my dead lie.

" The wave of the great sea talks :
Through the forest winter walks.
Not to-day by wood and sea,
Comes King Diarmuid here to me.

" I know what my king does.

Through the shivering reeds, across
Fords no mortal strength may breast
He rows — to how chill a rest !

" Amen ! Time ends all.
Every acorn has to full.
Bright at feasts the candles were.
Dark is here the house of prayer.

" I, that when the hour was mine,
Drank with kings the mead and wine,
Drink whey-water now, in rags
Praying among shrivelled hags.

" Amen ! Let my drink he whey,
Let me do God's will all day,
And, as upon God I call,
Turn my blood to angry gall.

WITCHES AND MA GICIANS. 219

" Ehb, flood, and ebb : I know
Well the ebb, and well the flow,
And the second ebb, all three,
Have they not come home to me ?

' ' Came the flood that had for waves
Monarchs, mad to be my slaves,
Crested us by foam with bounds
Of wild steeds and leaping hounds.

" Comes no more that flooding tide
To my silent dark fireside.
Guests are many in my hall,
But a hand has touched them all.

" Well is with the isle that feels
How the ocean backward steals :
But to me my ebbing blood
Brings again no forward flood.

" Ebbing, the leave of the sea

Leaves, where it wantoned before,
Changed pant knowing the shore,
Lean and lonelg and gray ;
And far and farther from me
Ebbs the ivave of the sea. J1

The witch or goddess Cailleach Vera possessed a celebrated
bull called Conraidh. One day it strayed away from its pastur-
age and swam across a creek, which Vera jumped over. She was
so enraged that she struck the animal with her magical rod and
turned it into stone. The bull-shaped rock is to be seen to this
very day.

At Moytirra, near Highwood, overlooking Lough Arrow, in
the county Sligo, there is a huge rectangular block of limestone,
nearly 18 feet in height, a little over 7 feet broad on two of its
sides, and 11 feet 6 inches on the others. It conveys, at first
sight, the idea of being a pillar-stone, but examination shows
it to be, in reality, an erratic boulder, placed in its present
position by the hand of nature. It was originally of greater
bulk, for two immense pieces have, through the agency of frost,
or other natural causes, been torn from its sides, and now lie
prostrate at the base. This huge block is called the " Eglone "
(fig. 5G), and the country people explain its origin by recount-
ing that the boulder represents a giant, who had a dispute with
a magician, and sought to kill him, but the latter was too
powerful, and metamorphosed the giant into stone by a blow of
his magical wand. It is stated that there is a reference to this
legend in the ms. notes of the Ordnance Survey.

Crofton Croker, in his Killarney Legends, describes " The
Druid's Circle," situated near Killarney. It consists of a

■220

ST02\T£ WORSHIP.

circular embankment, within which stand seven upright stones.
At a distance of about forty feet from the southern side of the
enclosure are two upright stones of much larger dimensions.
The following legend about the monument was related by a
peasant of this neighbourhood : — " A long time ago there were

lhc

Villag
imorph,

Fig. .")G.

I H ii;li i

ligo — a giant

two giants, and they bad seven sous ; and these two big stones
are the giants, and the seven little ones are their children; and
they thought to conquer the country, and take all before them;
so they made war upon Donald Egeelagli (Daniel of the Lake),
who lived down at Ross then — a, mighty great prince he was,

HAGS, WITCHES, AND MAGICIANS. 221

and a great enchanter. So when he could not get the better of
the giants, and their seven sons, by fair fighting, he went to his
enchantments, and turned them into stones — and there they are
from that day to this."

Many years ago the island of Inisbofin was unknown, being
rendered invisible through enchantment ; but one day two fisher-
men, in a currach (a boat formed of wickerwork, covered with
horse or cow hide), were lost in a dense fog and drifted on to a
rock, on which they landed and lighted a fire, but no sooner had
the flame touched the rock than the fog suddenly lifted and the
fishermen found themselves on the solid land of Inisbofin, which
has ever since remained. On one side of the shingly beach, on
which the discoverers found themselves, was the ocean, on the
other side a fresh water lake. Close to them they perceived a
hag, or witch, driving a white cow into the lake, and as it entered
the water she struck it with a wand that was in her hand, when
it turned into a rock. One of the fishermen, angry at what he
saw, struck the old witch, and at once both he and the hag were
transformed into stone. All three are still to be seen — the
white cow, the hag, and the fisherman — in stone.

Formerly when any great event was about to happen the cow
used to emerge from the lake and walk round the island ; but a
long period has now elapsed since she was last seen. From this
magical cow it is stated that the island takes its name Inisbofin,
i.e., the island of the white cow.

According to Cormac's Glossary the Fe, or magical wand, was
made of aspen, an unlucky tree, and the wand was of such a
purely pagan character that in Christian times it could be kept
only in " the cemeteries of the heathen." It had sometimes
symbols, in ogham, cut upon it, and baleful effect was supposed
to be wrought by striking with it whatever was an object of de-
testation to the striker. This is a clear explanation of the wands
described in present day popular folk lore as carried by hags,
witches, and magicians, and it takes us back to a period when
paganism still existed in Ireland.

A wand, formed of different material, appears to have been
also used for healing purposes, for in a medical ms. of the year
1509 it is recommended, as a cure for a man rendered impotent by
magic, to cut the patient's name in ogham on an elm wand, and
to therewith strike the sufferer.

The connection between these Druidical wands (Slatnan
Druiillieacht) and that strange survival, the divining-rod, is not
easy to define, yet it may be taken for certain that the supersti-
tion attached to them is, in both cases, cognate with the adora-
tion of sacred trees, and that the idea underlying belief in the
powers of both wands is the notion that they were animated by

222 STONE WORSHIP.

some species of in-dwelling power — the spirit or qualities of the
tree from which they were cut. It is strange that there are
many people who may otherwise be styled fairly well educated,
who still believe that a forked hazel stick, about eighteen inches
in length, shaped like the letter Y, in the hands of a specially
endowed person, possesses the magical power of revealing the
mineralogical secrets of mother earth, and the faculty of dis-
covering unsuspected springs of water. The diviner grasps the
prongs firmly between the thumbs and two first fingers of each
hand, the straight part held downward. He then walks over
the ground where minerals or water are being sought for. As he
approaches a hidden lode or spring the divining rod commences
to rise — apparently without collusion on his part. When he
arrives directly over the lode or spring it will complete a half
turn upwards, breaking or bending the twigs forming the fork
held between his fingers, until the straight part of the divining
rod is uppermost. The quality and copiousness of the lode or
the water supply is to be judged by the force with which the
rod is repelled upwards from it. A writer remarks that, " the
phenomena of the divining rod and ' table turning ' are of pre-
cisely the same character, and both are referable to an involuntary
muscular action resulting from fixedness of idea."

Mr. E.A. S.Macalister states that by the strange title of "Gates
of Glory," the older generation of inhabitants of Corkaguiney,
in Kerry, describes two standing-stones, situated in a field on the
right-hand side of the road leading from Dingle to Ventry (fig. 57.)
The meaning of the quaint appellation is at present undecipher-
able, but is most probably an allusion to the resemblance of the
stones to a pair of gate-posts, as they stand some five feet apart.
One of the stones is upwards of seven feet in height, the other is
slightly smaller; both are triangular in section and taper to a
point.

Some standing-stones were used by the peasantry for pur-
poses of divination. In the townland of Farranglogh, county
Meath, are two remarkable pillar-stones from whence the
locality derives its name. These are called " the speaking-stones,"
and were formerly consulted in cases where either man or beast
had been "overlooked " by the " good people." At these shrines
it was forbidden to ask the same question twice, and this condition
having been broken by some unbelieving or forgetful inquirers,
the "_ speaking-stones " have since become voiceless. They had
been infallible in breaking the spells of the fairies, in curing the
effects of the evil eye, and they named, with unerring accuracy,
the individual, or individuals, by whom malicious acts were per-
petrated. Were cattle or other valuables stolen or lost, the direc-
tions given by the stones were certain to lead to the recovery of

SPEAKING-STONES.

223

the' missing property, but alas, evil-disposed persons in the
district may now act with impunity, the stones are dumb !

Mr. and Mrs. Hall state that between Dungarvan and Kil-
macthomas, in a glen at a short distance from the road, is a
large insulated rock, called by the country people Cloughlourish,
of which they tell the following legend : — " At some period, by
them undetermined, a dispute arose between two gossips, a thing
in that part of Inland formerly of rare occurrence, as they con-
sidered the affinity of sponsorship bound them more closely
together, than even the closest ties of consanguinity, so that it

Fig. 5

■ (i.itrs of Glory." Standing-stone
, ,■,] hum the Journal oi thi presi

ma
it So

the road leading to Wntry.
iety ol Antiquaries <>!' Ireland.

would be considered a more heinous crime to wrong a gossip
than a father or a brother. This dispute arose out of the accusa-
tion of a man, for some base purpose, that his female gossip had
been unfaithful to her husband. There are no people on earth
more tender of female honour than the Irish, and the slightest
imputation subjects the unfortunate accused to the lowest degra-
dation, neglect, and banishment. It was usual, in such cases,
to refer to the priest of the parish : he, being supposed to have a
greater knowledge of local affairs than any other person, would
best judge of the character both of the accuser and the accused,

224 STONE WORSHIP.

and have no by-interest to serve that would hinder him from
giving a fair and impartial judgment on the point referred to his
decision. In this instance, the woman bore untarnished fame.
Early in the morning all the parties assembled, attended by their
friends and relatives, and set off for the chapel, where the cause
was to be examined before the altar, it being considered im-
possible that any person would there pronounce a lie. Nothing
particular occurred until the party arrived at the stone, where
some altercation ensued between the accuser and the husband of
the accused, when the former, falling upon his knees, called
upon the stone to bear witness to the truth of his allegation. At
the moment, a loud crash was heard, the earth shook, and the
stone was rent from its summit to its base, while the words were
distinctly spoken from the cleft in the rock, ' Asminic een eirin a
shoriv,' which is Englished by ' The truth is bitter sometimes.'
(See page 280.) And it is a common saying, when a doubt hangs
over any allegation made to the prejudice of a person, ' Asminic
een eirin a shoriv, arsa Cloiighlourish a taloubh ' :. ' The truth is
bitter sometimes, says the stone speaking in the earth.' "

There can be but little doubt that Clogher, in the county
Tyrone, like many other places in Ireland, anciently possessed
some remarkable stones, gifted by the credulous with linguistic
powers. According to legend, a hero of antiquity, Connor Mac
Nessa, consulted the oracle at Clogher. He was told to proceed
to the Isle of Man, and there get a noted caird, or artificer, to
make for him a sword, spear, and shield, and the supernatural
power possessed by them would be instrumental in gaming him
the sovereignty of Ulster. It is needless to add, that the predic-
tion of the oracle proved true.

In the Island of Guernsey, there is a Cromleac styled " La
Eoche qui sonne," i.e. the stone that rings, probably on account
of its emitting a ringing sound when struck. This title may be
easily paraphrased into " the speaking stone." In somewhat the
same fashion, the celebrated statue of Memnon, when first
warmed by the rays of the rising sun, is stated to have emitted
vocal sounds : —

" As Memnon's marble harp, renowned of old,
By fabling Nilus, to the quivering touch
Of Titan's rays, with each responsive string
Consenting, sounding through the air
Unbidden strains."

In pre-Christian times, on the Continent, statues supposed to
be gifted with human voices were not uncommon.

A magical stone at Altagore, county Antrim, is styled
Shanven, i.e. " the old woman ; " the owner kept it in his garden,

OFFERINGS OF FOOD TO STONES. 225

and food was always left on it for the " Grogan," as a fairy is
designated, in the north of Ireland, as already stated. The food
consisted of butter and oatmeal cakes : this, it is needless to
say, disappeared during the night. A mason once took this
stone, not knowing it to be enchanted, and built it into a gate
pier ; next morning, however, it was found back in its original
position.

With regard to offerings of food, there is a very strange
custom practised on Twelfth Day, and apparently of pagan
origin. On the eve of this day a large loaf, baked some days
previously, and called the " Christmas loaf," is laid, with great
solemnity, on the table. The doors and windows are then closed,
and one of the family, generally the housewife, takes up the loaf,
and pounding it against the barred door and windows, repeats
three times, in Irish, the following lines : —

' ' We warn famine to retire,
To the country of the Turks,
Form this night to this night twelvemonth,
And even this very night."

The introduction of "the Country of the Turks" is evidently a
very modern substitution for some more ancient phrase.

There are fear-gorta, or "hungry man" stones, upon which,
if you unwittingly tread, or touch in any way, you are instantly
seized with an unappeasable hunger which is fatal if not at once
satisfied. Should you climb the mountains with a peasant, and
finding some particularly green and sheltered spot, propose to
rest, he will appear frightened, make some excuse, hurry you
away and conduct you to another place. He will then inform
you that the first locality was covered with " hungry grass," and
that staying there would have been fatal to both.

W. H. Maxwell, writing at the commencement of the nine-
teenth century, remarks that this mysterious disorder is in reality
nothing but simple exhaustion, consequent upon hunger and
fatigue. " The lower classes are particularly liable to this attack.
They eat but seldom, and at irregular seasons ; and commonly
labour for many hours before they break their fast. Want of food
produces faintness and exhaustion ; and a supernatural cause is
sought for a simple malady, which is only the natural con-
sequence of dyspepsia and an empty stomach. One would
imagine that the specific for ' f aragurta ' would at once point
out its origin. Bread, or even a few grains of corn, are believed
to cure it instantly ; but any kind of food is equally efficacious.
' I have seen,' said my kinsman, ' many persons attacked by
faragurta, and have myself been patient and physician. Some
years ago, a fine active boy, called Emimein (synonymous to
vol. n. Q

226 STONE WORSHIP.

Neddy), commonly attended me to the moors, and one day he
was suddenly taken ill in the very wildest part of the hills. He
lost all power of limb and lay down upon the heath unable to
proceed a step. We had no grain of any kind to administer, and
in this emergency tried that universal panacea, a glass of
whiskey. After he had swallowed the cordial, the boy rather
got worse than better, and we were obliged to carry him to the
still-house at nearly two miles distance. On our arrival, fortu-
nately for Emineein, we found the operators collected round a
skibb (a basket) of potatoes. After eating one or two, the
patient was able to join the party, and next morning proceeded
stoutly home. In my own case, the predisposing cause was no
enigma. I had been one of a knot of fox-hunters who, on the
preceding night, had indulged in a desperate jollification. Find-
ing a disinclination for breakfast, I repaired, contrary to my
habit, without it to the mountains. I had exercised severely
for several hours, when at once I became helpless as an infant,
and sank upon a bank incapable of motion. My pony and
some food were speedily obtained, and the faragurta banished.
But, assuredly, if unassisted, I must have lain upon the heath,
for I could not make the slightest exertion to get forward.' "

Holed-stones, which may, in most instances, be regarded as
pillar-stones, are found in Ireland ; they occur also in Scotland,
England, and France, and from thence can be traced to India.
It is stated, that in India the perforations are used by devotees,
as a means of obtaining forgiveness of sins, or for regeneration ;
if the hole is large enough, the suppliant creeps through, but if
it be small the hand alone is passed through.

A curious religious ceremony is depicted in fig. 58. " Here
we see a well-known South Indian Missionary, endeavouring
vainly to struggle through a small hole in a big stone slab.
This slab is at the top of a hill, about three miles from Kollegor.
The Hindus actually squeeze themselves through this hole, in
order to acquire for themselves merit and the favour of the gods.
Now it is obvious that this squeezing is a painful business, and
clearly it is impossible for our missionary to get through the
opening in the ' penance stone.' "

In the original use of the large apertures they seem to have
been a literal, as well as a symbolic means, whereby an ailment,
disease, or sin, might be left behind, or got rid of ; they were
also symbols by which a compact could be ratified, or an oath
taken, by a well known and public act. The postulants, at first
probably crawled through the orifice ; then when it, through
change in custom, became diminished in size, they probably
passed a hand, or if a compact was to be made, clasped hands

HOLED-STONES*

•l ; il

through it. The act of a bride passing her finger through her
wedding ring may be but a survival of the ceremony, when the
woman would have had to crawl through an aperture in a sacred
stone. Jn one place in England, this observance, it is stated,
still occasionally occurs, i.e. at "St. Wilfred's Needle," in tha
crypt of liipon Minister,

Holi i

I'V,.

... Koll. ior, In..

Photo from Sirand Magazine

Sun t the sacred stones dedicated to early British female

Baints were peculiarly sensitive of evil. Howden was honoured
with a powerful patron-lady, St. Osuna, who evidently possessed
a kern sense of humour. " The rector of the parish kept house-
hold with .1 north-country damsel after a fashion which St.
Osuna was determined to reprove at the earliest opportunity.
This occasion presented itself when the rector's arch-hussey one
day came t" church. The saint's tomb was there, projecting
from the wall like a wooden seat. The reverend gentleman's
• lady,' out of contempt, or fatigue, sat down thereon, and she

<i2

228 STONE WORSHIP.

never forgot it. She was unable to get up again. Her cry for
help brought a host of villagers to her aid ; and if they at last
pulled her away it was not through their strength, but because
St. Osuna chose to let her go, after the flaunting minx had sworn
she was sorry for the past and had promised amendment for the
future. But, even then, St. Osuna did not let her loose from the
seat the girl had sacrilegiously assumed, without making her
leave a token behind her, which consisted of something more
than fragments of the wench's dress. No Howden lass, after
that, cared to hear any reference being made to sitting on St.
Osuna's bench."

An instance where substantial gains attendant on the ritual
of creeping through a holed- stone were early annexed by the
Church is that of St. Michael-la-Biviere, in the diocese of
Bordeaux. A similar practice obtained wherever, in the diocese,
was a church dedicated to St. Michael. In the seventeenth
century the results, both in honour and gain, were considerable,
if we may judge by the bitter quarrels arising between churchmen
connected, with the localities. In the church of St. Michael-la-
Eiviere the sick man was required to pass through a hole at the
end of the apse, after which he left offerings to the church
according to his worldly means. A similar observance was
retained in the Walloon Church of Nivelle, where there was a
crypt. Between the wall and a pillar, close by, was a hole
through which, as the people believed, no one in a state of mortal
sin could pass. In a North German example the object of
veneration was an aged and time worn oak, where the postulant,
after creeping, in the prescribed manner, through a hole in the
decaying trunk, completed the rite by burying a silver coin in
the ground under the roots of the tree. At one time as many as
a hundred sick folk are said to have visited it daily. In this
instance the Church had sadly neglected her opportunities.

A most remarkable stone, which was undoubtedly, in olden
time, used for the carrying out of some pagan rite, marks the
point of junction of the three parishes of the district formerly,
and still by the country people, designated Cuilirra, near the
town of Sligo. In the Brehon Law Tracts, vol. iv., p. 143, a
monument of this class is called "a stone mark," i.e. a district
which is marked by a stone of worship or an immovable stone.
It is a thin limestone flag set on edge ; it measures ten feet
in breadth _ by nine feet in height above ground. The little
stream which issues from Tobernavean, i. e. the " Well of
the Warriors," laves its base. Towards the east side the flag-
stone is pierced by an oblong perforation three feet in length by
two feet in breadth (fig. 59). A very old person, formerly living
in the vicinity, but now long dead, stated to the writer that

HOL EDS 1 ONES.

229

children Buffering from measles and other infant maladies were
passed througb the aperture for a cure. From its mottled appear-
ance tin's slab is called in Irish the " speckled " and also the "grey
stone." (See Frontispiece.)

Without doubt most, if not indeed all of the "holed" and
" bullaned " upright stones, as also the same class of crosses, were
originally pagan pillar stones, which, owing to their hold on the
primitive mind, were consecrated to the new worship, and still

D'ig. 59.

" Holed-stone," called Cloclibhrcac, " the Speckled Stone," and Clachlia, or

"Hi. Gray Stone," at robernavean, Woodville, near Sligo.
Reprodui cd from the Journal ai the present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

assert a powerful influence on the imagination of the peasant
despite 1500 years of Christian effort. The early missionaries
were diplomatic, tolerated their use, and made the most they
could of their converts ; converts resembling those made in our
day ; time-servers, changing belief, in many instances, for the sake
nf worldly gain, who did not give up all their old heathen ideas
and customs, but accommodated themselves to the fashion of the
■ lay, by bringing a good deal of the old order into the new, of

230 STONE WORSHIP.

which the most marked survivals are, undoubtedly, the supersti-
tions still existing regarding stone worship.

It is difficult to believe that the perforations in rude pillar-
stones, and in those bearing Christian symbols could possibly
have been derived from any point of belief or ceremonial of the
Christian Church.

In a field situated in the parish of Aghade, county Carlow,
there is a " holed-stone," called Cloch-a-Phoill. It projects, in
a semi-recumbent position, seven feet six inches above ground,
is five feet eight inches in width, one foot six inches in its
thickest part, and it is pierced, nearly equally distant from the
sides and top, with a round hole eleven and a-half inches in
diameter. Formerly children were passed through this aperture
either as as a cure for or a preventive against the malady
called rickets.*

Near St. Madron's Well,f in Cornwall, there is a block of

* There is still a tradition amongst the country people that a son of one of
the Irish kings was chained to this stone, but that he contrived to break
his chains and escape. One of the contributors to the Ordnance Survey Reports,
and who evidently had a firm and unshaken belief in ancient tradition, states :
— " There are marks left, caused by the friction of the iron on the stone. "We
would at once conclude that it was a bull, or some other animal, that was
chained here, and not a human being, were not the tradition confirmed by
written history, the verity of which we are not disposed to contradict." This
is a reference to a legend in the Book of Ballymote (fol. 77, p. b, col. b), in
which this stone is mentioned, as well as the name of the district (now parish)
in which it is situated, i.e. Athfada (Aghada), the long ford. The following is
a literal translation, as taken from the Ordnance Survey correspondence : —

" The punishment of Eochaidh, son of Enna Cennsealach (King of Leinster).
Eochaidh, the son of Enna Censealach, on a time repaired to the south to his
own country. He determined on going to the house of the poet of Niall of the
Nine Hostages, to ask for victualls, i.e. to the house of Laidginn, son of Baircead,
who was Niall's poet. The youth was refused entertainment in the poet's house.
He returned back again from the south, and burned — after being as a. hostage
from his father in the hands of Niall of the Nine Hostages — the poet's residence,
and killed his only son. The poet, for a full year after that, continued to
satirize the Lagenians, and bring fatalities on them, so that neither corn, grass,
or foliage grew unto them to the end of a year.

"Niall made an expedition to the Lagenians, and vowed that he should not
depart from them until Eochaidh should be given up as a hostage, and they
were compelled so to do. And he was earned to Athfadat, in Fothartaibh Fea,
on the banks of the Slaine, where he was left after them with a chain round
his neck, and the end of the chain through a perforated rock. Then there came
to him nine champions of the champions of Niall, for the purpose of killing him.

_" ' Bad, indeed,' said he, and at the same time he gave a sudden jerk, by
which ho broke the chain. He then took up the iron bar that passed through
the chain (at the other side of the stone), and faced them. He so well plied the
iron bar against them that he killed the nine. The men (i.e. the Hy Niall)
retreat bofore him to the Tulaeh (now Tullow), the Lagenians press after,
slaughtering them, until they had left the country."

t " Mr. 11. C. Hope, in his ' Holy Wells,' refers to a block of stone near
St. Madron's Spring, in Cornwall, locally known as St. Madron's Bed. We

' ' < 'R EEPING -STONES.

231

granite called the " creeping stone,'' pierced in the centre by a
hole. Through this aperture sickly children were formerly passed,
in the belief that the ceremony would effect a cure.

If a man crawls through the hole in the centre of the Maen-
an-Toll, mutterinc a certain incantation, lie will ever afterwards

" Holed-stone." The

Mru'ii - an - Toll

Cornwall. Photo
by Frith ^ Co.
Reigate.

be free from rheumatism, while babies will be freed fromspinal
complaints, if passed through the bole (fig. 60).

air inlit thai '"ii it impotent foils reclined when the) came to trj the cold water
cure. 1 fn the same pai'ish is a pre-historic relic in the form of a grunite Mock
with a hole in the centre of it. Jt i- known in Cornish as Mean-an-Tol, i.e.,
the Stone of the Hole. It.- name in English i^ ' The Creeping Stone.' Sii kly
children were al one time passed through the hole a certain number of times in
the belief that a cure would follow. This superstitious custom recalls what was
at out.' (inn.' done beside St. Paul's Well, in the parish of Fyvie, Aberdeenshire.
Close t<> tin- well were the ruins of an old church. One <>t it> stones was sup-
ported on other two with a spai e below. It went by the name of ' The Shai gar
Stone,' shargar signify ing ' a weakly child.' Tin' stone, in this instance, got its

name IV the custom in tin- districl of mothers passing their ailing children

through the up ice below the >i in tin' belief that « h itever hindered their

growth would thereby be removed."— Fulklon oj Scottish Lochs and Springs,
James M . Mai Kinla\ . M. v., pp. 80, si.

232

STONE WORSHIP.

In the parish of Fyvie, in Aberdeenshire, close to St. Paul's
Well, there was a large stone supported on two others, thus
leaving a space between it and the ground. Through this space
ailing children were passed, in the belief that the sickness, from
which they were suffering, would be removed.

At Minchen Hampton, in Gloucestershire, there is a holed
stone, called the " Long Stone." At its lower end is a perfora-
tion, through which children used to be passed for cure, or
prevention of measles, whooping cough, and other infantile
ailments.

Fig. 01.

1 Holed-stono" — Luristan, Persia, on the grave of a valiant warrior — through

which cowards arc passed to euro thora of cowardice.

From a photo, from Tlic Wide World Magazine.

Fig. 01 is the reproduction of a photograph taken during
Mrs. Bishop's journey in Upper Elam, in Luristan, Persia. It
depicts a native of the country on horseback, and a rude
representation of a stone lion erected on the grave of a war-
rior. Mrs. Baker states that amongst these people "cowardice
is treated as a disease, and in those cases in which fervent prayers
fail to cure the sufferer, lie is taken out on the night of a full
moon to the tomb of a valiant man — denoted as such by one of

HOLED-STONES FOR CURING DISEASES.

233

"W-^

these stone lions on his grave — and the inveterate coward is
made to pass seven times under the lion's body."

The special artist of the Graphic, Mr. W. T. Maud, writing
from the Atbara Camp, during the advance of the Egyptian army
on Khartoum, in lKf)H, says that: — " The natives look upon the
engine as a sort of god, and stand in awe of it. The sapper
officers who built the line, have many amusing yarns to tell
about their reception when first the locomotive came along. At
Gennanetti, an Arab approached the officer in charge, and asked
him if his wife might creep under the engine. The reason for
this extraordinary request, was that the lady was anxious to
have a child, so permission was at once given. Not content
with crawling under the engine once, she asked if she might do
it again, and her husband explained that this would ensure her
having twins."

A custom which prevailed at Ardmore, county Waterford,
greatly resembles this East-
ern rile, iis in this instance
there is no aperture in the
stone, the passage being
underneath, between it and
the rocl< upon which it rests.
The Cloch-Nave-Der/lane lies
amongst the boulders on tin
strand at Ardmore (fig. 02),
The pilgrims, after perform
ing their rounds, squeezed
themselves under it three
t lines. This stone is noted
for cures, especially for pains
in 1 he back. It is a belief

that no line with borrowed

or stolen clothes can pass unharmed under it. This is the rock
which navigated itself on the surface of the sea from Koine (see
vol. i., p. 217). St. Brendan ran his "ship" (a huge rock)
ashore oil' the Donegal coast. Near Kilnamarbhe, on Scattery
Island, there is a graveyard half washed away by the sea, and on
the beach lies the large stone slab on which St. Cannara sailed
about.

In the year 1833, a writer thus describes the rites as seen by
him at the stone of St. Declan : — " 1 devotion had commenced at
the stone previous to my arrival. But it is only at low water
that the people run go under the stone to perform these devotions
there. They musl always take advantage of tin' tide. On the
Saint's day (22nd December) it is always necessary to remove
some of i In' sand w liicli accumulates under the stone, to make a

rii.. 02.

■ Cloch-Navc-Deglane, or "St. Declan's
Sacred Seme," at Ardmore, under which
pilgrims squeeze themselves. From Mr. and
Mis. Hall's Ireland.

234 STONE WORSHIP.

sufficient passage for a large man or woman, as the little rocks on
which the stone rests, form irregular pillars, it is necessary to
have the surface under the stone lower than the front or rere."

"In order to begin here, the men take off hats, coats, shoes,
and stockings, and if very large, waistcoats. They turn up their
breeches above the knee, then lying flat on the ground, put in
hands, arms, and head, one shoulder more forward than the
other, in order to work their way through more easily, and
coming out from under the stone on the other side (from front
to rere perhaps is four feet), they rise on their knees and strike
their backs three times against the stone, remove beads, repeat
aves, etc. They then proceed on bare knees, over a number of little
rocks to the place where they enter again under the stone, and thus
proceed three times, which done, they wash their knees, dress and
proceed to the well (ante, fig. 30, p. 96). The women take off
bonnets, shoes, and stockings, and turn their petticoats up above
the knee, so that they may go on bare knees. I saw but one
woman who put her petticoat under her knees ; a little boy took off
his breeches. The women proceed in the same manner as the
men, excepting indeed, that they appeared less careful of saving
their knees from being hurt by the rocks than the men. I
should have observed that the number of females who went
under the stone could not have been in a greater proportion
than one to ten men."

Near Durrow there is a singularly marked limestone flag, also
famous for curing " pains in the back." The same idea, as is
apparent in the habit of creeping under St. Declan's stone, under
a railway engine, or through the " Lion-stone," is present in the
apparently ridiculous custom of passing children, afflicted with
the whooping cough, three times under an ass or a cow (see
ante, p. 189).

Creeping through, or under certain objects, seems to have
been considered, in later times, as efficacious as creeping under
a sacred stone, or passing through a holed stone. For instance,
if an Irish peasant, on Hallow Eve, creeps under the long
trailing branches of the blackberry briar, he will have his wish
granted, and be free from malign influence, but the words he
must use, and the rites he must perform, are only known to
the initiated.

Some, if not indeed all of these charms, date back to pagan
times. The newly converted natives, merely substituted the
names of the persons of the Trinity, or of distinguished Biblical,
or Hibernian Saints, for their ancient gods and goddesses. No
amount of argument will shake a peasant's faith in these ancient
formula 1 , for above all things, fervent faith is necessary, or the
charm will not be efficacious.

CREEPING UNDER ARCHED BRAMBLES. 235

Mr. T. P. T. Dyer, in J'Jw/lish Folk- Lore, states that, " inDevon-
.shire, a curious charm, consisting in creeping under an arched
bramble, is used to cure blackhead or pinsoles, as they are
sometimes called. A contributor to the Transactions of the Devon-
shire Association (1877, vol. ix., p. 96) tells us that the person
affected by this troublesome malady is to creep on hands and
knees under or through a bramble three times with the sun ; that
is, from east to west. The bramble must be of peculiar growth ;
that is, it must form an arch, rooting at both ends, and if it
reaches into two proprietors' lands, so much the better. Thus, if
a bramble grows on the hedge of one owner, and a branch, of
which the end takes root, extends into the field of another, the
best form for working the charm is provided." There is, in
Ireland, something sacred with regard to this, the blackberry
briar. To dream you are passing through a thicket of these
brambles, portends trouble ; if they scratch or prick you, it is
bad, but much worse if they draw blood.

In some rural districts in England a usage still exists in
which a sapling is employed instead of the aperture in a stone.
When a child is taken ill, it is brought before sunrise by a " wise
woman " to a place where a young ash sapling grows. The child
is undressed, the sapling is split towards its centre, the severed
portions being held far enough asunder to allow the infant to be
passed through by the " wise woman," while certain mysterious
v/ords are pronounced. The cut in the sapling is then carefully
bound together, and plastered over with mud or clay. If the
tree lives, the child will certainly recover, but if it dies, the
disease from which the child suffers will prove incurable.

A case of passing a child through a cleft tree, as a curative
process for physical ailment, was observed in the year 1888 in
liio Janeiro. Not long ago the practice was by no means un-
common in many parts of England, but in comparison with the
observances in India there was a considerable difference, in India
the process being regarded as spiritual, while in England it was
exclusively corporeal. More than a century ago Cullen, in his
Antiquities of Ha instead, writes : — " I may mention a custom
which I have seen twice practised within a few years, namely,
that of drawing a child through a cleft tree. For this purpose a
young ash tree was each time selected, and split longitudinally
about five feet. The fissure was kept wide open by my gardener,
while the friend of the child, having first stript him, passed him
thrice through it, always head foremost. As soon as the opera-
tion was performed the wounded tree was bound up with pack-
thread, and as the bark healed the child was to recover. The
first of those young patients was to be cured of the rickets, the
second of a rupture. About the former," continues Cullen, "I

236 STONE WORSHIP.

had no opportunity of making any inquiry, but I frequently saw
the father of the latter who assured me that his child, without any
other assistance, gradually mended, and at last grew perfectly
well." Another writer says that when walking through a planta-
tion with his bailiff he observed him rather minutely inspecting
a young ash, and perceived that it had a straight seam or scar,
three feet or more in length. On inquiry the bailiff told him that
a child had been passed through the tree, split and opened for the
purpose, to cure its rupture. " The tree is now as thick as one's
wrist, and was not, when the ceremony was performed, above an
inch in diameter. The impression is, that as the tree heals of its
wound, so will the child's ailment be removed. Great confidence
seems to be placed in the mysterious efficacy of the process."

A writer in the Report and Transactions of the Devonshire
Association (vol. viii., p. 54) says: — " Passing lately through a
wood at Spitchwich, near Ashburton, a remark on some
peculiarity in an ash sapling led to the explanation from the
gamekeeper that the tree had been instrumental in the cure of a
ruptured infant, and he afterwards pointed out four or five others
that had served the same good purpose. With evidently perfect
faith in the story, he related that when a young infant is afflicted
with rupture a small maiden ash is split for a length of five or
six feet down the middle, as it stands growing in the wood, The
split halves being forced asunder, the naked infant, squalling as
becomes him, is passed three times in the same direction through
the opening, and thenceforth the defect is cured. The tree is
then restored to its natural shape and as it thrives so this child
thrives. My informant instanced several well-known young men
of the neighbourhood who had been subjected to the process in
their babyhood, and had grown up strong and healthy. In one
case in which the tree had evidently suffered from the experi-
ment, he referred to the deformity and sickly growth of the
youth who had been passed through it."

White, in his Xatural History of Selborne, describes also, very
fully, this practice: — "In a farmyard, near the middle of the
village, stands, at this day, a row of pollard ashes, which, by the
seams and long cicatrices down their sides, manifestly show that,
in former times, they have been cleft asunder. These trees, when
young and flexible, were severed and kept open by wedges, while
ruptured children stripped naked were pushed through the
apertures, under a persuasion that, by such a process, the poor
babes would be cured of their infirmity. As soon as the operation
was over, the tree, in the suffering part, was plastered with loam
and carefully swathed up. If the parts coalesced and soldered
together, as usually fell out when the feat was performed with
any adroitness at all, the party was cured ; but where the cleft

SECOND A R Y HOLED- STONES. 237

continued to gape, the operation, it was supposed, would prove
ineffectual. Having occasion to enlarge my garden not long since,
I cut down two or three such trees, one of which did not grow
together."

In Folk-Lure of Plants, Mr. T. F. T. Dyer mentions that, "in
Somersetshire, the superstition still lingers on ; and in Cornwall
the ceremony, to be of value, must be performed before sunrise ;
but the practice does not seem to have been confined to any
special locality. It should also be added, as Mr. Conway has
pointed out, that in Saxon countries, in the Middle Ages, a hole
formed by two branches of a tree growing together was esteemed
of highly efficacious value. ... It is noteworthy also, that the
Indian belief which describes the holes in trees as doors through
which the special spirits of those trees pass, reappears in the
German superstition, that the holes in the oak are the pathways
for elves ; and that various diseases may be cured by contact
with these holes. Hence some trees are regarded with special
veneration — particularly the lime and pine — and persons of a
superstitious turn of mind ' may often be seen carrying sickly
children to a forest for the purpose of dragging them through
such holes.' "

The same belief and rite obtained in Scotland also. James
Napier, f.b.s.e., quotes the following from the Prexbytery
Ilecorch of Lanark, 1664: — " Compiers Margaret Eeid in the
same parish (Carnwath) suspect of witchcraft, and confessed she
put a woman newlie delivered, thrice through a green hulshe,
for helping a grinding of the bellie ; and that she carried a sick
child thrice about one aikene port for curing of it." " Such
means," continues Napier, "of curing diseases were practised
within this century, and many things connected with the oak
(and ash) were held potent as curatives."

In instances of the " holed-stone " class in Ireland the earliest
perforations appear, as already stated, to have been the largest ;
they gradually dwindled down to such as would little more than
admit a finger. These may be termed " secondary holed-stones."
In connection with ecclesiastical buildings, instances occur
in localities widely apart. Cross-inscribed holed-stones may,
probably, have been so sculptured by the earliest missionaries
amongst the Irish, with the object of thus diverting the prayers
of the pagans into supposed Christian channels.

About a mile from the village of Doagh, county Antrim,
stands a large slab called the " Holed-stone." It is upwards
of five feet above ground. At a height of about three feet
there is a round hole perforated through it large enough to admit
an ordinary sized hand (tig. 68). Whatever other uses it may
have been erected for, there can be little doubt, but that it was

Fig. 63.

Holed-stune," near the village of Doagb, county Antrim, connected wi
aphrodisia. customs. From Welch's Irish Vmv..

H0LED-S10NES AND MARRIAGE RITES.

239

connected with aphrodisiac customs. Marriage contracts are still
ratified at this spot, as country couples go there to signify their
betrothal clasping hands through the hole. It is said that not
longagoa large stone, with a hole through it, stood on a hill near
Cushendall in the Bame county. There is a stone of this class
in the churchya rd of Castledermot (fig. 64).

h'w. Hi.

"Secondary Hiiled-ston"" at Castledermot, railed " I he Swearing-stone," evidently
formerly connected with aphiodisiai customs. From a Photo.

Lord Walter Fitz Gerald slates that "this hole-stone stands
at the bead of a modern grave (belonging to a family named
Abbott) on the south-east side of the churchyard; it is locally
called ' the swearing-stone,' though the use it was formerly put
to is now forgotten, ft is of granite, a class of stone which
abounds in this district.

•• In the beginning of 1889, as the stone bad, in course of

240

STONE WORSHIP.

years, become greatly sunk in the ground, I had it raised, and
found that just about half of it alone had been above ground.
Before replacing it I had a bed of cement made for it, to prevent
it again sinking, and at present only six inches of it are hid
from view The full length of the stone is 3 feet, its width 1 toot
2 in., and its thickness 5+ in. The hole (as is shown m the photo)
is at the junction of the arms of a raised cross, and is 5m. in
diameter. The back, or west side of the stone, is plain. There
is a peculiar vein in the granite on this side, which runs down the
middle of the stone (projecting from it) from top to the bottom.'
Another holed-stone is near the church of hihnalkedar, about
a mile from Smerwick Harbour, county-
Kerry.

On Aran Island there is a perforated
stone inscribed with a
curiously shaped cross
(fig. 65). O'Donovan
states that there were
superstitious rites
held in connection
with it, but he does
not specify their na-
ture. According to
a correspondent who
visited the
when women

Fig. 65.

" Secondary Holed-stone,"
Mainister, Ar;in Island,
connected with aphro-
disiac customs. Repro-
duced from the Journal
of the present Society of

Antiquaries oi Ireland."

tfj-r.

lately

place

are sicl

clothes

pulled

hole.

possess

sacred

Fig.

their linen
are sometimes
through the
It seems to
more of a
character to
the peasantry than
the other crosses on
the Island. It stands
about five feet above
the soil, the ornamen-
tation under the per-
foration seems to partake of the characteristics of a crux ansata.

Fig. (10 is from a sketch by Mr. W. J. Fennell, of a weather-
worn and much mutilated cross of red sandstone in the old

' Secondary Holed-stone."
Weather-worn and muti-
lated Cross, at Layde,
co. Antrim. Reproduced
from the Chte, Journal
of Archaology. (Second
Series.)

* As pointed out by Lord Waller Fitz Gerald, an erroneous description anil
illustration of this si. me appeared in General Vallancey's Collect. </<• rebus
Hiber., 1804; in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1864; in Marcus Keane's Towers
and Temples of Ancient Ireland; in waring' s Stone Monuments : in the Dublin
Penny Journal, 1832; andlastly, in the author's Rude Stone Monuments of Ire-
land, p. 101, fig. 84, taken from the engraving in (lie Dublin Penny Journal.

Fig. 67.

,.,■ ] ,n Eioled-stonc " at Glcm olumbkill, < onnccted with aphrodisiac customs.

From Wcli U's Irish Views.

242

STONE WORSHIP.

graveyard of Layde in the county Antrim. It appears to have
been quite lately replanted in an upright position, as on it is a
newly cut inscription to a person but recently deceased. No
legend regarding it could be gathered.

The holed-stone, at Glencolumbkill, county Donegal, is the
most venerated of all the crosses at this station. At it women
pray for children. The large block of white quartz, to the right
of the cross, is to be noted (fig. 67). The presence of this
material forms a characteristic feature at most ancient stations,
holy wells, pagan sepulchres, and indeed at many modern pagan
religious sites all the world over (see ante, vol. i., pages 329-
331). There are holed-stones at Killbary, on the Shannon, at
Devenish (close to a saint's "Bed"), in Lough Erne (fig. 68)
(attention is drawn to the manner in which the stone is pierced),
and at Inishmurray, off the Sligo coast. The two holed-stones
on this island are styled by the natives " praying stones."
The perforations are not similar to any
described as occurring elsewhere in Ire-
land. One face of the slab is perforated
near the edge by two holes of a size
sufficient to admit only the insertion of
a thumb, and the orifices extend through
the stone and open out at the sides into
apertures cut to receive the fingers of
the hand. One pillar-stone stands on
the southern side of the " Church of the
Men" (fig. 69), and the other near the
" Church of the Women " (fig. 70).
Both monuments are cross-inscribed, one
of them on its western, the other on its
eastern, face.' Near the pillar-stone, at
the "Church of the Men," is a second slab, but imperforated.
Women about to add to the number of the inhabitants of the
island offer up prayers for their safe recovery before these two
" perforated stones." By placing the fingers in the side and
their thumbs in the front holes, they are enabled to rise with
more ease from their kneeling position. The prayers thus
offered up appear to be efficacious, no deaths taking place on
the island under these circumstances.

At the holed-stone of Clocnapeacaib, county Cork, women
were in the habit of drawing some of their clothes through a
hole, when their confinement was approaching, to secure a favour-
able result, and a similar practice is followed in many other
localities of women similarly situated drawing clothes through the
perforated arms of ancient Irish circular-headed stone crosses.
According to John Knott, m.d., the great cross near the

"Secondary Holed-stone,"
Devenish, Loujjh Erne,"
connected with aphrodi-
siac customs. From a
sketch by W. F. Wake-
man.

HEALING POWERS OF CROSSES.

243

ruins of the famous monastery of Clonmacnoise possesses a
peculiar power in the domain of healing, for if a man spans it
with his arms, and is able to make his finger-tips meet, the
application of the palms of his hands to the abdomen of his wife
will bring immediate relief in dystocia.

Sei ondary Holed-scone,"al "The Chun h
ol the Men," Island ..I Inishmurray,
' '[in, , (,.,i with aphrodisiac customs.
Reproduced from tho Journal a\ the
present S ty ol Antiquaries ol Ire-
land.

Secondary Holed-stone," near "The
Church of the Women," Island of
Inishmurray, connected with aphro-
disiac customs. Reproduced from

thr J'Vii-fhil of the present Society
of Antiquaries of Ireland.

Another famous stone at Ardmore has been buried, probably
for thr purpose ofputting an end to its attendant ceremonies. It
must also In 1 classed among relics connected with rites of days long
gone by. It was called the " t'loch-Daha," which is said to
signify •• the stone of Daghdha." It was about two feet long by

244

STONE WORSHIP.

eighteen inches in breadth, and the same in depth, hollowed into
an oval trough-like shape, probably an old pagan bullan or rock-
basin. Its centre was pierced by a hole, in which, on Ash
Wednesday, the young unmarried men of the village inserted a
wattle, on the top of which they tied a quantity of tow. They
then brought with them all the unmarried maidens they could
muster from the village and vicinity, and made them dance round
the " Cloch-Daha," holding the pendant tow, and spinning it
whilst dancing. The ceremony terminated by the young men
dragging the maidens through the village seated on logs of wood.

Fig

i"1.

" Secondary Holed-stone
Steams, near Kirkwall
nected with aphrudi
Reproduced from tbi
the present Society t
of Ireland.

," formerly at
Orkney, eon-
;iac customs.
"Journal of
t Antiquaries

• Holed-stone," at Loch-
gilphead, Argyllshire. From the

Sculptured Stones of Scot hind.
Reproduced from the Journal of
the present Society of Antiquaries
ol [reland.

At the foot of the round tower near Inniskeon, a small village
in the county Monaghan, there was a large stone of porphyry with
a hole in the centre, large enough to thrust the arm through. It
was once used for superstitious purposes ; in more modern times
a pole was placed in the hole, up "which the country people used
to climb at Easter for prizes.

Near Kirkwall, Orkney, at a place called Stennis, there was a
large pillar-stone with a hole through it (tig. 71). The site on
which it stood was deemed a place consecrated to the meeting of

Cross, with liiill.'ni on either side, connected with aphrodisiac customs.
From VVeh h's Irish Views.

THE WITCHES' STONE. 247

lovers, and when they joined hands through the stone, the pledge
of love and truth then given was held sacred. In his tale of
The Pirate, the stone circle of Stennis is specially mentioned by
Sir Walter Scott, who was himself an antiquary as well as a
novelist. The oath to the old Scandinavian gods was sworn by
persons joining hands through the hole in this stone, and the
ceremony was held sacred, even amongst modern Christians.

There is a " secondary holed stone " at Lochgilphead in
Argyllshire represented by fig. 72 from the Sculptured Stones of
Scotland ; no description of it, however, could be found in the
text ; it is not merely " holed " but also " cup-marked," and its
position is close to an apparently sepulchral stone circle. A slab
that may have been intended for a " holed-stone " was found by
Mr. Eugene A. Conwell in his examination of the ancient sepul-
chral cams on the Loughcrew hills, county Meath, also in con-
nexion with a stone circle. It is thus described by him : — " No. 8
contains a circular hole 6J inches in diameter, cut vertically,
with much precision and smoothness, to a depth of 3 inches.
For what use this may have been intended it would be difficult
to conjecture, if we do not suppose that this stone itself had
been unfinished, or not completely pierced through."

It is quite possible that this may be merely a bullan.

The cross at Boho, near Enniskillen, has a bullan at either
side of the base. Men are reported to resort to this stone in cases
where they have no children after marriage (fig. 73).

" The Witches' stone," near Antrim Bound Tower, from its
name evidently originally a cursing site, is a rock bullan. The
tower, according to current tradition, was erected by a "hag" who,
when it was finished, as the readiest way of descending, took a
flying leap and alighted on this stone, situated about 120 yards
from the base of the structure. She stumbled — little wonder —
on landing, and struck the rock with one elbow and one knee,
which accounts for the cup-like depressions seen in the illustration
(fig. 74). These, as is usual, are stated never to be without
water. The largest cavity is 15 inches long, 12 inches wide and
9 inches deep ; the smaller depression is G inches wide by 3 inches
in depth. The rock itself is 6 feet long by about 4£ feet broad.
It lay originally by the side of a brook, but many years ago the
stream was diverted, a wall was built between it and the stream,
and the enclosed area converted into a garden.

In the graveyard of Kilchouslan, on the northern shore of
Campbelltown Bay, Kintyre, there was a fiat, circular shaped
stone, the centre pierced with a hole, large enough to permit of
the hand being passed through. According to tradition, if a
couple, who had eloped, joined hands through this aperture, they
were regarded as lawfully married, and beyond pursuit.

248

STONE WORSHIP -

There are two holed-stones at Bolleit, figured in the Gentle-
man's Magazine for the year 1864. One was then employed for
the utilitarian purpose of a gate-post. There was a third holed-
stone not far distant. The apertures in these average but six
inches in diameter.

Fig. 75 represents stone rings, which have been lying for
ages in the churchyard of Kirk Bradclan, in the Isle of Man.
In times gone by, it was the custom for the brides and bride-
grooms during the wedding ceremony to clasp hands through
the holes in the stones, but though this ancient Manx custom
has fallen into desuetude, these old waifs of antiquity remain
ready for use by any bewildered bridegroom, who may have
forgotten to bring the ring for his bride.

Fig. '■).

" Secondary Holed-stones," connected with aphrodisiac customs. Extraordinary

Stone V eddinfi Kinm, in the Churchyard of Kirk Braddan, Isle ot Man.

From a Photo, by Mr. H. Knowlcs, Great Harwood.

An inscribed stone, bearing upon it a Latin, and a more
recent Arabic inscription, is situated at Chila, near Rabat, in
northern Africa. It acts as a sort of confessional stone, and is
supposed to possess miraculous powers. W omen who seek to
obtain forgiveness of their sins, place their hands in the hole,
which is in the centre of the stone (tig. 76).

" Holed-stones " forming portion of pre-historia sepulchral
monuments have not hitherto been found in Ireland, but are by
no means ot rare occurrence in Great Britain, on the Continent,
and throughout the East, where, particularly in India, they are
very numerous. Colonel Meadows Taylor, in his account of the

Fit.-. 70.

A Roman "Secondary Holed-stonc," with Arabic inscription, at Chela, near Rabat.

Tin- woman is inserting her hand in the stone to gain forgiveness of her sins.

KcpimhiL-ed from The Graphn .

250

STONE WORSHIP.

sepulchral monuments of the Deccan, describes one " holed
dolmen " as having a top slab 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches, and
1 foot thick, the side slabs being upwards of 12 feet broad by about
9 inches thick (fig. 77). The apertures — almost invariably on the
south side— appear, however, to have been left more for facilitating
the supply of food, or other offerings to the manes of the departed,
as well as to allow free exit and entrance to the spirit inhabiting
the tomb, than for any of the purposes to which " holed-stones "
in Ireland were dedicated.

Rude boulders, placed in parallel lines, extending from a few
yards to even miles in length, have been found in Great Britain
and on the Continent (fig. 52). These arrangements of stones
have been styled "alignments," "avenues," and by a variety
of learned names. No alignment, it is thought, has yet been
discovered in Ireland. One antiquary found distinct traces of
several in the county Sligo. These extended for a considerable

Fig. 77.

'\Holcd Dolmen," or sepulchral monument, at Rujunkolloor, in the Deccan.

Alter Colonel Meadows Taylor.

Reproduced from the Journal of the present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

distance. Unfortunately, however, for the theory, the country
people recollected the demolition of stone fences in the locality ; and
it was the traces of their foundations that represented the supposed
1 >ruidieal remains, ltmnst be said, however, that W. F. "Wakeman
— a reliable authority — claims to have disco\ ered alignments of
stones, at Cavancarragh, in the county Fermanagh (fig. 78).
At the same time this writer states that, " it is not too much to
assert that works of this kind, even from the days of Stukeley,
have presented the most difficult problem, which it has been the
task of many British and foreign antiquaries to solve. Hitherto,
we have had little beyond conjecture referring to their uses.
They seem like galleries that lead to nothing ; tombs, temples.
or processional avenues they could not have been, yet their
construction affords unmistakable evidence of organised labour
and deliberate design."

INAUGURATION CHAIRS.

251

Some curiously shaped masses of rock have been named
by antiquaries " Druids' Chairs," " Brehons' Chairs," and
" Inauguration Chairs," according as it was imagined that they
had been used by the Druids when giving instruction, by the
Brehons when laying down the law, or by chiefs when being
installed in office. A good example of this latter class is a chair-
like block of common whinstone, seemingly a freak of nature,
for it is evidently unchiselled. The seat is lower than that of
an ordinary chair ; the back being more high and narrow. This
chair was stated to have been, during a long period, the seat on
which the O'Neills of Castlereagh, near Belfast (fig. 79), were

O

O

A-<-M.- "1 C*£U •

i''io. 78.

Plan of Alignments of Stones and Cams at Cavancarragh.
Reproduced from tile Journal of the present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

inaugurated. On the downfall of that family, in the reign of
James I., the chair was overturned, and so remained until the
year 1750, at which time the sovereign — as the mayor was then
designated — of Belfast caused it to be removed to the Butter
Market. On the demolition of the old market-place the chair,
mixed up with other debris, was about to be broken up, when it was
rescued, purchased, and used as a garden seat by a gentleman of
antiquarian tastes in the county Sligo. It has lately been sold
by the purchaser's grandson, and is now back again in Belfast.

Facing northward, and set about four feet inwards from the
circumference of one of the largest and most conspicuous earns
which crown the summits of the Loughcrew Hills, there is a huge

252

STONE IVOR SHIP.

boulder, weighing about ten tons, and popularly called, ' ' the Hag's
Chair " (fig. 80). The name is derived from Vera, the celebrated
goddess, sorceress, or hag, of ancient days. The legend current
in the neighbourhood, is to the effect that she came one time
from the North to perform a magical feat in the neighbourhood,

Xv f:.,

t'u;. 79.

Chair-like block of whinstone, on which the O'Neills of Castlereagh, near

Belfast, were, it is alleged, inaugurated.

Reproduced frora the present Ulster Journal of Archceology. Welch's Irish Views.

by which she was to obtain great power if she succeeded. She
took an apron full of stones, and dropped a earn on Carnbane ;
from this she jumped to the summit of Slieve-na-eally, or Hag's
Hill, a mile distant, and dropped a second earn there ; from
thence she made a jump, ami dropped a earn on another hill.

TJfK HAG'S CHAIR:

253

about a mile distant. If she could make another leap, and drop
the fourth earn, it appears the magical feat would have been
accomplished, but she slipped, fell, broke her neck, and was
buried in the neighbourhood. The immense block of stone,
constituting the Hag's chair, is ten feet long, six feet high, and
two feet thick ; it has a rude seat, hollowed out of the centre.
The ends are elevated nine inches above the seat. It perhaps
should be stated that the cross carved upon the seat of this chair,
and others on the upright marginal stones, were cut for
trigonometrical purposes, by the men engaged in the survey ;
but the seat also bears traces of real pagan ornamentation,
notably zigzags and concentric circles. In front of, and round
the base of the chair, considerable quantities of quartz, broken
into small lumps, were strewn about.

Repi

Fio. 80.

llii- 1 1 .i^'s Chair,'' Loughi rew group ol Cams.
,<ii ill, Proceeding* at thi Satiety of Antiquaries of Scotland.

The late Air. E. ('unwell imagined that he had identified in
Ibis boulder the judicial bench of no less a personage than Ullamh
ETodhla, whom be describes as " Ireland's famous monarch and
law-maker upwards of three thousand years ago." It is needless
lo add (hat he has not convinced antiquarians, of any standing,
that bis supposed identification of the stone-seat is worthy of
serious consideration.

A very curious looking stone, formed somewhat like a chair,
is situated on the shore of Lough Derg, county Donegal, facing
the island supposed to be the entrance to Purgatory (fig. HI).
By some of the natives it is called St. Dabehoe's Chair, by others

254 STONE WORSHIP.

that of St. Brigid ; all, however, agree that it was used by both

saints.

' St. Brigid's Chair," on the shore ol Lough Derg. county Donegal.
Ftom a sketch by AV. F, "\Vakeman.

It somewhat resembles the chair of the O'Neills, a seat
of nature's formation, and in
size is about as large as a
modern armchair.

The so-called Brehon's or
Druid's chair at Glensouth-
well, near Holly Park, county
Dublin, was in reality a very
tall cromleac or dolmen (fig.
82), Beranger described it
(the cromleac) as a judgment
scat, and snys that close by
stood a (second) cromleac, in
which the Brehon or Druid
was probably buried. This
supposed cromleac was sug-
gested by the presence of a
large stone, evidently the
covering block of the monu-
ment which had slipped off.
Fig. 88 shows the position
of this stone, which has now.
it is stated, disappeared.

Fig

eli. ni\ Chair,"
.i sketch by \\

mty I Mi
. Wake

DR UIH S J (ID GHENT- SEA 1 .

255

A pile of stones styled the Druid's Judgment Seat stands
near the village of Killiney, county Dublin. The entire structure

V

I iV.J .."!»,.-.

tew,*r J - Ij.. ,,\- > " ;

x .. „, > -.

Fio. 83.
" Brehon's Chair," county Dublin. From a sketch by \V. K. Wake-man.

bears the unmistakable impress of very modern fabrication : it
is a mere clumsy attempt to gull the public (fig. Hi).

mmggg

Pi... 84.

■ I Iruid's [uilgrai nl Seat," Killim v. A modern fabrication.
' from a sketi h by W. I'. Wakemau.

Whatever they may have been used for. these seats were
lertainly ool employed as inauguration chairs, tor legend ami

256

S2VN£ WORSHIP.

history both inform us that Irish chiefs were installed in office
by being placed on mere undressed flag-stones, on which, however,
the impression of two feet were sometimes observable. Spenser
alludes to the custom, and also to the mode of election of chiefs
andtanists, as follows : — " They used to place him, that shall be
their captain, upon a stone always reserved for that purpose, and
placed commonly upon a hill. In some of which I have seen,
formed and engraven, a foot which, they say, was the measure of
their first captain's foot, whereon, he standing, receives an oath
to preserve all the ancient former customs of the country inviol-
able, and to deliver up the succession peaceably to his Tanist, and
then had a wand delivered unto him by some whose proper office
that is ; after which, descending from the stone, he turned him-
self round thrice forward
and thrice backward."

In the parish of
Templemore, in the
county Derry, there was
formerly a gneissose slab
called St. Columblrille's
Stone, which exhibited
the impressions of two
feet, right and left, ten
inches in length. Ac-
cording to tradition it
was one of the inaugura-
tion stones of the ancient
Irish chiefs of the dis-
trict. That a stone con-
secrated to this purpose
anciently existed appears
from a passage in the
Tripartite Lin of St.
Patrick. The present and traditional name of the monument
should weigh but little against this conjecture, as the blab might
have been, and very probably was, subsequently consecrated by
St. Columbkille. It should also be borne in mind that, when
their local history was lost, it has been the constant practice
of the peasantry to connect ancient remains with the name of
the patron saint of the district (fig, 85).

Ancient as well as modern beliefs are full of this idea of weird
markings made by the hands or feet of either gods or supernatural
beings. We have the gigantic footprints on Adam's Teak in
Ceylon, and the stone at Jerusalem, on which is to be seen the
impression of the fingers of the angel Gabriel.

The best example which can be cited of this class of " inaugu-

Piu. So.

St. Columbkille
Ordna

s t'kiRSton
ccMcmoil

e. Reproduced from tin
' oj Londonderry.

THE STONE OF DESTINY."

257

ration stones" is the Lia Fail, or Stone of Destiny, of which it
is recounted that the Dedanann race brought it with them to
Ireland. In Christian times it was, of course, given a Scriptural
origin, and was styled Jacob's stone. Consecrated stones, so
often mentioned in the Old Testament, where the authorized
version unfortunately renders the expression images, are at least
as old as the time of Jacob, " who set up and consecrated the
memorial stone that marked Bethel as a sanctuary. It was the
necessary mark of every high place, Canaanite as well as Hebrew,
and is condemned in the Pentateuchal laws against the high
places."

The Lia Fail was held in the highest veneration, and on it
the head-kings of Ireland were
installed. This supposed magic
stone, which roared like a lion
when a legitimate king stood upon
it, was, it is alleged, sent to
Scotland in the ninth century, in
order to secure the then dynasty
on the throne, an ancient Irish
distich, of which the following
is a free translation, having in-
duced the belief that the Scotic
race should rule only so long as
the magic stone was in their pos-

it fate's decre<

\VI„

nc-1 announced
i. kenl tho Si

*Im11

ii- Lia Fail, <>r " Stum.- ol Destiny,"
placed under itie Coronation Chair
in Westminster Abbey. From a
sk. t. Ii by VV. I'. Wakeman.

It was preserved with the greatest

care at Scone, in Perth. ( >n il

tlu' monarcha of Scotland were

crowned till the year 1296, when

Edward, King of England, having

overrun Scotland, carried oil' from

the cathedral at Scone, as a trophy

of victory, this "Stone of Destiny," (fig. 8b) which he placed

under the English coronation chair, where it still remains in

Westminster Abbey, and on it all our monarchs have since been

crow neil. The stone is enumerated in an inventory of the choice

possessions ol King Edward 1., ami is described as " Una petra

magna, super quam Reges Scociae solebant coronari."

Such is the history of the stone, which the greatest empire
on earth preserves as a sacred relic in the most venerated of her
vol.. ii. s

258

STONE WORSHIP.

temples. Such is the stone on which the long line of her
sovereigns have received their crown. Is there in any other
land a coronation seat so hoar with historic and prehistoric anti-
quity » Nevertheless, it must be remembered that, although this
waif of the past commands our deepest veneration, it must not
also be forgotten, that, like many of a less valued class m origin
it was a mere " fetish," adopted by the pioneers of Christianity
into the new religion. It appears to have been first advanced by
Petrie, whose lead has been followed by a host of other writers
on Irish antiquities— much in the way that one sheep follows
another through a gap— that a large pillar-stone standing on one
of the mounds at Tara, is the real Lia Fail or Stone of Destiny.

Fig. 87.

Pillar-stone at Tara, alleged, by
some antiquarians, to be the
true Lio Fail, or " Stone of
Destiny." From a sketch by
W. F. Wakcman.

FlQ. 88.

Former position of the "Blarney Stone."
Kissine: the Stone. From a sketch by
W. F.' Wakcman.

This monolith does not, however, occupy its original position,
for in 1798 it was removed from its former site on " The mound
of the Hostages," to mark the trench into which were thrown
the corpses of some peasants who had fallen in a skirmish with
the troops. The Irish kings, like the present-day urchin (tig. 87),
would have had a very uncomfortable seat if perched on the top
of this pillar.

Irish and Scotch accounts, however, show great lack of agree-
ment as to the history of the " Stone of Destiny."

There is another celebrated stone endowed by tradition with
magic powers, the famous Blarney Stone (tig. 88), which has

R O CKING - STONES.

259

given its name to enrich the English language, and whose
attributes are thus described by Father Prout : —

" There is a stone there
That whoever kisses,
Oli I he never misses

To grow eloquent.
"I'is lie may clumber
To a lady's chamber,
Or become a member

01' Parliament."

Rocking-stones — although by some antiquaries considered as
evidences of Druidical worship, may be looked upon as natural
phenomena, which can be explained by a course of denudation.
The boulder after having been dropped into its present position
by the action of ice, the subsequent agency of water would suffice
to account for the gradual removal of the earth originally sur-

Fig. 89.

Rockiog-stone at Can
Reproduced from tbc Jountal of the pre

kaid,

cnt So

ounty Sligo.
tety of Antiqi

. of Ireland.

rounding these stones, until the blocks are left balanced on a
natural rock-bed, on pretty much the same principle that,
the surrounding ice having been melted away by the action of
the sun, it leaves rocking stones on the surface of glaciers. The
ice covered by the stone is, to a great extent, protected from the
influence of the rays of the sun, and does not melt to any con-
siderable extent, whilst the general surrounding level of the
glacier sinks, and the stone remains eventually, but for a short
period, balanced on the summit of a pedestal of ice. A good
exemplification of the denudation theory of the origin of the

2G0

STONE WORSHIP.

rocking stones is afforded by a boulder in the townland of
Garrickard, county Sligo, where on the slope of a hill, there is a
so-called " roekine-stone " which sometimes rocks and sometimes

Fig. 90.

Rocking-stone, Highwood, county Sligo.
Reproduced from the Journal of the present Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

is immovable. The stiffness occurs after heavy rains when clay
is washed clown the slope and rests in the socket in the rock on
which the boulder is balanced (fig. 89).

Not far from tin's stone, near the village of Highwood,

there is another rock-
ing-stone, very easily
swayed from side to
side (fig. 90). There
is one also on Island
Magee (fig. 91).

Above Blacklion, not
far from Enniskillen,
may be seen a rocking-
stone, weighing several
tons, which can be set
in motion by the hand.
It is a great subject of
wonder to the country
people, who regard it as
having been placed in
its present position, and
used as a plaything, by the giants of long ago.

Eooking-stones have been found in almost every country in
Europe, and also in parts of America. These freaks of nature's
handiwork are in Ireland by no means rare. In Irish, Garrickna-

li'io. 91.

Rocking-stone, Island Magee

The Dublin Penny ';

Reproduced

R CKING-STONES.

201

buggadda or Cloghnabuggadda signifies the " rocking-stone" (fig.
92). In the north of Ireland they are stjded " Shugling" and

" Logan Stones." In good examples, a slight push produces
an oscillation, not fitful or irregular, but like the beating of a
pendulum, and in proportion to the force applied. It is to he
particularly noted that these phenomena appear to occur in
groups, and also seem to be more frequent in some geological
formations than in others.

I'"'

Fig. 02.

Carricknabuggadda, or " I he Roi king-stone," near Wellmoum Lodge,
Cloonacoo], < ounty Sligo.

CHAPTER VII.

THE SEASONS— CERTAIN NUMBERS, DATS, COLOURS,
AND PROVERBS.

The Tear divided into two parts — First day of May looked on as the beginning
of Summer ; the first day of November as the commencement of Winter —
The two Divisions representing the Birth and Death of Nature — The Four
Seasons — The first of May considered as the awakening of the Earth to life
after the long death-sleep of "Winter — Ceremonies and Superstitions
attached to its celebration — Hallow Eve regarded as the end of Summer —
A time of gloom and mourning for the dying Tear — Ceremonies and Super-
stitions attached to its celebration — Days of the "Week — Lucky and Unlucky
Days — Superstitions attached to each — Superstitions attributed to Numbers
— To the numerals two, three, seven, nine, and ten — Superstitions attached
to Colours — To black, white, red, &c. — Proverbs — They form a Synthesis
of National Character— Much used by Irish Speaking peasantry — A few
examples — On women — On the Evil Eye.

The pagan Irish divided their year into two equal divisions.
The first day of May, the beginning of the summer half year,
was by the Irish speaking population, and is yet, called Beltany.

The first day of November, the beginning of the winter half
year, called Sowan, was, like Beltany, a day devoted to various
ceremonial observances.

These divisions of the year were each subdivided into two
equal parts, or quarters of the whole. Aragh, spring, began on
the first day of February ; Sowra, summer, on the "first day of
May ; Fowar, autumn, on the first day of August ; and Gevra,
winter, on the first day of November.

May-day represented to the Irish the awakening of the earth
to life and beauty, after the long death sleep of winter, for they,
like most other races, when advanced to a certain thought-stage,
expressed their belief in another and invisible world by mystic
symbolism.

Demons and fairies must be very advanced radicals, as the best
preventive against their power, is to scatter primroses on the
threshold on May morning, for no spirits can pass over these

THE FIRST DA Y OF MA Y. 263

flowers. Primroses also protect the inmates from the evil-eye of
a stranger, and all strangers during the first three days of May
are looked upon with great suspicion. The familiar story,
typical of the more morose character of the Saxon, told of one
rustic, who inquiring of another regarding a person passing by,
and being informed that his comrade did not know the stranger,
ejaculated, " 'eave a brick at his 'ead," is quite paralleled by the
anecdote recounted of a young student, who was mobbed and
nearly killed by the inhabitants of a small village. They had
noticed him walking backwards and forwards on the grass, on
May-morning, while he read aloud from a book in some strange
language, and therefore imagined that he was bewitching the
herbs, which are especially powerful at this time. Fortunately
a priest was able to rescue him, and to inform the excited crowd
that the young student was simply reading the language that
St. Patrick had brought to Ireland.

On the 1st of May a large bunch of gorse in fall bloom, or of
marsh marigold, may be seen suspended over every door. Some
say it is for the purpose of " pleasing the good people " ; others
that it is " to keep luck in the house." The bunch of gorse or
marigold is afterwards either buried or burnt. In the year 1890,
a person who walked through a street of thatched houses in the
town of Sligo on the 1st of May could, only in two instances, note
the absence of the customary emblem.

A common practice, on May-morning, was for a lover to
search for a snail, bring it into the house, and make it crawl
amongst the ashes of the extinct fire, where it would trace the
initial letters of his fair lady's names. The poet Gay, thus
describes this quaint superstition, as also the concluding
ceremony of the desiul.

" Last May-day fair, I searched to find a snail
That mighl my secret lover's name reveal !
Upon a gooseberry bush a snail I found ,
For always snails near sweetest fruit abound.
I seized the vermin ; home I quickly sped,
And on the hearth the milk-white embers spread.
Slow crawl' d the snail, and if I right can spell,
In the soft ashes marks a curious L.
Oh, may this wondrous omen lucky prove,
For L is found in Lubeikin and Love ;
"With my sharp heel I three times mark the ground,
And turn me thrice around, around, around."

If a girl wishes to retain a beautiful complexion, she must
wash her face in dew, just before sunrise, on May-morning.

Crofton Croker remarks that, " another custom prevalent on
May-eve, is the painful and mischievous one of stinging with

264 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PRO VERBS.

nettles. In the south of Ireland it is the common practice of
school-boys, on that day, to consider themselves privileged to
run wildly about with a bunch of nettles, striking at the face and
hands of their companions, or of such other persons as they
think they may venture to assault with impunity."

It was a general practice, in most villages, to erect May-
poles, but the custom gradually fell into desuetude. The May-
pole in the village of Finglas, near Dublin, stood until the year
1847, when the May games were finally suppressed.

In a Statistical Account of the parish of Maghera, county
Derry, written by the Kev. John Graham, in the year 1814, the
writer states that " on the first day of May, from time immemorial,
until the year 1798, a large pole was planted in the market place
at Maghera, and a procession of May-boys, headed by a mock
king and queen, paraded the neighbourhood, dressed in shirts
over their clothes, and ornamented with ribbons of various
colours. This practice was revived last year."

There was also, in many localities, a pole erected at mid-
summer, on St. John's Day, dressed with considerable taste,
with flowers, silk handkerchiefs and ribbons. It was of con-
siderable height, and on the top a small basket of cakes, or
ginger-breads, and a large bunch of parti-coloured worsted
garters were tied. The best musician was always selected to
perform at the foot of the pole, whilst the dancers vied with one
another for the honour of winning the ginger-breads and the
garters. The young men competed for the garters, the young
women for the cakes.

Lady Wilde was of opinion that in the May-day processions,
the sun was figured as a hoop, wreathed with rowan and marsh-
marigold, and " bearing, suspended within it, two balls to
represent the sun and moon, sometimes covered with gold and
silver paper. This emblem of the hoop and the balls is still
carried on May-day by the villagers. . .. At the great long dance,
held on May-day, all the people held hands and danced round a
tall May-bush, erected on a mound, the girls wearing garlands,
while the pipers and harpers, with gold and green sashes,
directed the movements."

There is perhaps no very direct proof that the Irish regarded
the May-pole as a type of Phallic worship, but there is strong
inferential evidence that they so understood it. Study of
ancient customs demonstrates the evidence of many apparent
absurdities, as for example in the distribution, as before men-
tioned, of prizes from the mid-summer May-pole, as well as the
covert _ obscenities in superstitious observances relating to the
procuring of destined husbands by women, and the gathering
of the seeds of the common fern.

MA Y-DA Y MUMMERS. 265

From tlie diary of Josliua Wight, a Quaker, we learn that so
late as the middle of the eighteenth century, propitiatory rustic
processions took place in the south of Ireland. The observer
records, that about noon in the month of May, 1752, there
passed through the streets of Limerick many thousand peasants
marshalled in companies, representing various branches of
agriculture. First of all came the ordinary labourers, " the men
in their shirts, in ranks ; the women also with green corn and
straw ; the plough driven along and the harrow ; the mowers
with their scythes, the reapers, the gleaners, a great number of
women, and a great number with their flails, walking in a great
procession to congratulate the probability of a good ensuing
harvest. . . . These country people made a second appearance
the next day, at which time the country (people) of Clare and
Limerick joined together, and were very particular in their
representation of personating the several orders of husbandry in
all the branches of it."

Bands of mummers used to make their appearance at all
seasons, but May-day was their favourite and proper festival.
This strange custom, a relic evidently of some pagan processional
rite, is described by Mr. T. Crofton Croker in his Fairy Lerjcnds.
A troop of May- day mummers consisted of a number of girls and
young men of the village and neighbourhood, usually selected for
their good looks, or their proficiency, the females in the dance,
the youths in hurling and other athletic exercises. " They march
in procession, two abreast, and in three divisions, the young men
in the van and the rear, dressed in white or other gay-coloured
jackets or vests, and decorated with ribbons on their hats and
sleeves. The young women are dressed also in light-coloured
garments, and two of them bear each a holly bush, in which are
hung several new hurling balls, the May-day present of the girls
to the youths of the village. The bush is decorated with a pro-
fusion of long ribbons, or paper cut in imitation, which adds
greatly to the gay and joyous, yet strictly rural appearance of the
whole. The procession is always preceded by music, sometimes
of the bagpipe, but more commonly of a military fife, with the
addition of a drum or tambourine. A clown is, of course, in
attendance ; he wears a frightful mask and bears a long pole,
with shreds of cloth nailed to the end of it, like a mop, which
ever and anon he dips in a pool of water or puddle, and besprinkles
such of the crowd as press upon his companions, much to the
delight of the younger spectators."

In this procession we find a tree or holly bush decorated with
ribbon, a clown with a pole, probably representing Phallic
worship, together with the introduction of a water-rite. Thus it
will be seen that, from a review of the whole subject, stone, water,
tree, and animal worship are intimately connected.

266 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

Lady Wilde states that " Whitsuntide has always been con-
sidered by the Irish as a very fatal and unlucky time — for the
people hold that fairies and evil spirits have then great power over
men and cattle, both by sea and land, and work their deadly spells
with malign and mysterious efficacy. Children born at Whitsun-
tide, it is said, are foredoomed; they will either have the evil eye,
or commit a murder, or die a violent death. Water, also, is very
dangerous ; no one should bathe, or go a journey where a stream
has to be crossed, or sail in a boat, for the risk is great of being
drowned, unless, indeed, a bride steers, and then the boat is safe
from harm. Great precautions are necessary, likewise, within the
house ; and no one should venture to light a candle without making
the sign of the Cross over the flame to keep off evil ; and young
men should be very cautious not to be out late at night, for all the
dead who have been drowned in the sea round about come up and
ride over the waves on white horses, and hold strange revels, and
try to carry off the young men, or to kill them with their fiery
darts and draw them down under the sea to live with the dead for
evermore. ... At this season, also, the fairy queens make great
efforts to carry off the fine stalwart young men of the country to
the fairy palace in the cleft of the hills, or to lure them to their
dancing grounds, where they are lulled into dreams by the sweet,
subtle fairy music, and forget home and kith and kindred, and
never desire to return again to their own people : or even if the
spell is broken, and they are brought back by some strong in-
cantation, yet they are never the same ; for every one knows by the
dream-look in their eyes that they have danced with the fairies on
the hill, and been loved by one of the beautiful but fatal race, who,
when they take a fancy to a handsome mortal lover, cast their
spells over him with resistless power."

As May-day was, in olden times, the period of greatest rejoic-
ing, so the first day of November was a time of gloom and
mourning for the dying year, the two divisions representing the
birth and death of nature.

Hallow Eve, considered the end of summer, is a weird period
of dread and ill-omen. The peasantry avoid the neighbourhood
of a churchyard on that night. They do not then willingly leave
home, or if obliged so to do, should they hear footsteps following
them, must beware of looking behind, for it is the dead who are
on their track. Should they behold them face to face the earthly
gazer will assuredly die. Food should be left out of doors to
propitiate the wandering dead. If the offerings disappear the
spirits are friendly, and have eaten them, for of course no mortal
dare carry off the food devoted to the ghosts of the departed.

After midnight many pagan customs are even yet observed ;
young men and girls try to peer into the secrets of the future.

THE FIRST DA Y OF NO VEMBER. 267

The girls hang a garment before the fire, then hide and watch
for the shadowy apparition of their future husbands, or they
throw a ball of yarn from the window. One end of the skein is
retained by the thrower and an apparition takes hold of and
commences to wind the other end.

It is also customary to place three plates before a blindfolded
person, who is then led up to them. One contains water, the
second earth, the third meal. If the blindfolded person puts his
hand in the water it indicates that he shall live beyond the year ;
if in the earth, he must die before the year ; if in the meal, it
betokens long life and attainment of wealth.

In the incantation scene before a looking-glass the face of the
girl's future husband is reflected. Sometimes features appear so
appalling that the beholder becomes insane or is found dead, with
face and limbs horribly distorted, and the mirror shattered into a
hundred pieces. There seems something weird in glass, for it is
considered unlucky to see the reflection of the new moon in a
looking-glass, and you should never look through the glass of a
window at it. If you do so inadvertently you should go out of the
house, bow nine times to it, raise your hand nine times, and if you
have money in your pocket turn it each time, then you will never
want during the year.

A remedy against certain disorders is to go out the first night
the new moon is visible, wave an object nine times round the
head towards the moon, and in the morning the patient will be
perfectly cured.

A girl who desires to conjure up the apparition of her future
husband must gather certain herbs by the light of the first full
moon of the new year, repeating the following rhyme while she
is collecting them : —

" Moon, moon, tell unto me,
When my true love I shall sen ?
What fino clothes I am to wear 'i
How many children I shall bear?
For if my love comes not to me
Dark and dismal my life will be."

Then sbe must cut three small pieces from the sward with a
black hafted knife, tie them up in her left stocking with her right
garter, place the parcel under her pillow, and whatever she
dreams will come to pass.

A contributer to the Scotsman of December 27th, 1889, states
that " when living a few years ago in Ayrshire our housekeeper
used to make obeisance several times to the new moon when first
she observed it, looking very solemn the while ; and when I asked
her why she did so she replied that by doing so she would be sure
to get a present before the next moon appeared. She wished me

268 SEASONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

(then a very young girl) to do so too, and when I told her it was
all nonsense she fired up and said her mother had done so, and she
would continue to do so. I rather think this is no uncommon
practice, for our previous servant did the same thing, and neither
of them was older than forty or fifty." The same observance
was formerly in vogue in many parts of Ireland.

A description must not be omitted of a remarkable rustic
procession, which, not very long ago, used to perambulate yearly
the district between Bally cotton and Trabolgan, on the eve of
Bamhain, i.e. the 31st of October. The processional rite is
undoubtedly of pagan origin, and announces facts in a manner
which, at present, is barely intelligible. The principal characters
posed as messengers of a being styled the " Muck Olla," in whose
name they levied contributions on farmers. The procession was
led by a man enveloped in a white robe or sheet, bearing a rude
representation of a horse's head, accompanied by a number of
youths blowing cows' horns. This personage, called the Lair
Bhan, i. e. " the white mare," acted as master of the ceremonies.
At each house where the procession halted a long string of verses
was recited ; in the second distich two expressions occurred,
savouring strongly of Paganism, and which would not have been
tolerated if publicly uttered elsewhere ; the other verses recited
by a messenger of the "Muck Olla," set forth that, owing to
the goodness of that being, the farmer, whom they addressed,
had been prosperous, that the prosperity would continue as long
only as he was liberal in donations in honour of the "Muck
Olla," and the verses concluded by giving a very unfavourable
description of the state into which the farmer's affairs would
assuredly fall should this being visit him with the vengeance
certain to follow any illiberal or churlish treatment of his
followers. Whether owing to the charm of the poetry, or the
cogency of the appeal, contributions were, in general, on a very
liberal scale ; every description of agricultural product was
bestowed, milk, butter, eggs, corn, potatoes, wool, &c. A rural
retailer awaited the return of the procession and purchased the
offerings at market value. The share of each person in the
procession was then distributed according to previous arrange-
ment. These scenes were enacted at night.

The question arises, could the original " Muck Olla " have
been a deity exhibited, as in Egypt of old, as a living animal ?
Can the rural merchant be a representative of some "druid who
maintained his ground long after the establishment of Chris-
tianity ? To enter fully on an analysis of this strange proces-
sional rite would lead to a too long digression.

It is unlucky to move into a new house on a Monday;

ANCIENT SUPERSTITIONS. 269

E'riday is the most propitious day. To build an addition to a
house on the west side is believed to be always followed by mis-
fortune, and this will continue until the new building is removed.

Two days in the week, Wednesday and Friday, are considered
by the country people most unpropitious for commencing any
important affair of life, such as setting out on a journey or enter-
ing into the matrimonial state. Should the ancient superstitions
be disregarded the project will assuredly have a disastrous termi-
nation.

There also exists a popular rhyme enumerating the days of
the week and their supposed influence on the dispositions of
children born on each, and these two unlucky days are depicted
as affecting the characters and after-life of those infants so
unfortunate as to enter the world upon either day : —

" Monday's child fair in the f-.ice,
Tuesday's child fair of grace,
"Wednesday's child lone and sad,
Thursday's child merry and glad
Friday's child must work for a living,
Saturday's child is Godly given, but
Sunday's child will go straight to heaven."

On the other hand, the most favourable days for charms and
incantations to take effect are the unlucky days, Wednesday and
Friday.

An old legend relates that the blackbird, the stone-chatter,
and the grey cow bid defiance to March after his days were over,
and that to punish their insolence March begged of April nine
of his days, three for each of his insulters, for which he repaid
nine of his own ; hence the first nine days of April are called the
borrowing days : —

" Tri II lomartha an loinn
Tii la sgiuthanta an chlaibhreain,
Agus tri la nit b6 riabhaighe."

" Three days for fleecing the blackbird,
Threo days for punishment of the stone-chatter,
And three days fur the grey cow."

A writer in Notes and Queries gives a different version : — " I
remember when a child in the North of Ireland to have heard a
very poetical explanation of the borrowing days of March and
April. ' Give me,' said March, ' three days of warmth and
sunshine for my poor lambs, while they are yet too tender to
bear the roughness of my wind and rain and you shall have them
repaid when the wool is grown.' " There is also a Scotch proverb
on the three borrowing days still current in Ulster.

270 SEA SONS—SUPERSTITIONS— PRO VERBS.

During examination of Irish names of places, Dr. P. W.
Joyce was greatly struck with the constant occurrence of the
numbers two and three, but the number two is met with more
frequently than any other. Many of ±he triple combinations
may have been given in later times in honour -of, or with some
reference to, the doctrine of the Trinity; but from whatever
cause it may have arisen, " certain it is, that there existed in the
minds of the Irish people, a distinctly marked predilection to
designate persons or places, where circumstances permitted it, by
epithets expressive of the idea of duality, the epithet being
founded on some circumstance connected with the object named,
and such circumstances were often seized upon to form a name,
in preference to others equally, or more conspicuous." In many
of the legends current amongst the North American Indians, the
number two plays a prominent part ; this may be merely a
curious coincidence, but it is also probable that it may be the
result of some half-remembered superstition connected with
numbers. Since the above was written, a most interesting paper
by the Rev. T. Olden, d.d., entitled, Remarks Supplementary to
Dr. Joyce's Paper on the Occurrence of the Number Two in Irish
Proper Names has appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy, and throws a flood of light on the subject. If, as the
author supposes, the Irish speaking colonists were but flint-using
folk on their first arrival, it is easy to gather what this implies,
for according to Mr. Tyler, the New Hollanders, and the abori-
gines of Victoria (all in the Stone Age when first known to
Europeans) possessed no names for numbers beyond two, and
the writer further observes : — "In connexion with this fact, the
existence of the dual number is of great interest. It preceded
the plural, and it continued to survive with the plural for a long
time. . . . According to Dr. Wilson, in his work on prehistoric
man, it preserves to us a memorial of that stage of thought when
all beyond two was an idea of infinite number. Hence, he adds,
the tendency of higher intellectual culture has be6n to discard it
as inconvenient and unprofitable, and only to distinguish singular
and plural. The earliest use of the dual was to express things
which occur naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears, the hands ;
or artificially in pairs, as the horses of a chariot. When things
are thought of in pairs they are regarded as a unity, and in the
classical languages they may be followed by a verb in the singu-
lar. It is in this way that a pair is regarded in Ireland, at the
present day, and this explains the habit of speaking of one foot
as half a foot, or a cow with one horn as a cow. with -half a horn.
These are idioms in the Irish language, the pair being regarded
as a whole. If we apply these observations to the class of names
we are discussing, I think we can understand how they came

SUPERSTITIONS ATTRIBUTED TO NUMBERS. 271

into existence. Thus, to take the instance of snamh da en, that
is the swimming place of two birds. The place was probably
frequented by flocks of aquatic birds, and naturally would derive
its name from that fact ; but our primeval ancestors had no way
of expressing a number beyond unity except by the word two.
Hence, they called the spot the swimming place of two birds, which,
translated into modern language meant, the place where flocks of
water-fowl congregate (see ante, p. 214). So Dromahaire, or Drum-
dd-ethiar, the ridge of two demons, means the haunted ridge; for
the country people, far from limiting demons to two, are of
opinion that the whole atmosphere is swarming with them. . . .
The Irish people it thus appears retained, down almost to modern
times, a custom which had its origin in the remotest antiquity.
Elsewhere it died out, under the influence of hostile invasion
and social changes ; but the Irish dwelling, in their island home,
apart from the intellectual life of Europe, and cherishing the
traditions of the past, handed on from age to age the immemorial
customs of their race."

Another writer on this subject observes that: — "In many
parts of Africa there is considered to be something malefic in the
number two, and the birth of twins is regarded as a most grievous
calamity though, doubtless, many will contend that the unsophis-
ticated black women are by no means unique in this respect.
But the reason for the display of disgust at a • double event ' is
due to a different cause — the white mother only taking into
account the extra care, attention, and expense entailed ; while
the black mother, attaching no importance whatsoever to these
matters, is only influenced by the possible punishment which
will be inflicted upon her for having so flagrantly insulted and
offended some mysterious power by giving birth to two, and to
obviate the difficulty it was customary to suffocate the weaker
of the twins."

With regard, however, to the predilection of the Irish for the
number three, it must be again mentioned that the idea of a
Trinity is not confined to Christianity, but occurs in many much
older religions (see ante vol. i., p. 1G5). In classic mythology
we find the three Graces, the three Fates, the three Furies. An
article may twice be lost, and twice recovered, but if lost the
third time it has disappeared for good. A man may twice pass
through a great danger scathless, but the third time he will
succumb.

Seven appears to have been regarded as a magical number.
The seventh son of a seventh son is dowered with miraculous
powers. When such an infant is born, the nurse places a worm

272 SEA SONS—SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

in each of its hands enclosed in a piece of muslin. The hands
are kept tied up until the worms die, the dead worms are then
thrown away. When the boy grows to manhood he is endowed
with great healing and other miraculous powers (see ante, p. 191).

There is something most extraordinary in the number nine,
a trinity of trinities, a perfect plural, and more credited with
mystic properties than any other number. Amongst people, at
a certain stage of culture, juggling with numbers forms a
special branch of magic of which the Jews and early Christians
present typical examples, as it was characteristic of their
mysteries that numbers had in them, or are supposed to have
had in them, a very deep meaning. A good example is pre-
sented by the Book of Daniel in the Old, and the Book of the
Bevelation in the New Testament.

The number nine, it is stated, was especially sacred amongst
the primitive Germans, and their week originally consisted of
nine days. Be that as it may, the number nine was, amongst
them, held in peculiar reverence.

To cure warts cut a potato into ten slices, count nine, and
throw away the tenth, rub the warts in rotation with the nine
slices which you then bury, and as they decay, the warts dis-
appear.

Another remedy is to take ten stalks of barley-straw, knot
them, count nine and throw away the tenth, rub the wart with
the remaining nine, roll them up in paper, throw them on the
road over which a funeral is passing, and the warts will
vanish.

To cure a stye on the eye, take ten gooseberry thorns, throw
the tenth away, point the nine, one by one, at the stye, then
throw them away, and the stye will be cured.

When going on a journey pull ten blades of yarrow, keep
nine, throw the tenth away, place the nine under the heel of the
right foot, and evil spirits will have no power over you.

Pull ten leaves of the male crowfoot, keep nine, throw the
tenth away, pound them on a rock with salt and spittle and
apply the poultice. It is a certain cure for most diseases in
either man or beast.

According to the old rite performed at St. Patrick's Purga-
tory, Lough Derg, the Prior, on the ninth day of the probation of
the pilgrims, placed them in the cave or purgatory, where they
Avere shut up, stark naked, and were released on the tenth day, at
the same hour they had entered the cave.

On Christmas Eve pick ten berries from the mistletoe, keep
nine and throw the tenth away ; put the nine to steep in a liquid
composed in equal proportions of wine, beer, vinegar and honey,

SUPERSTITIONS ATTRIBU1ED TO NUMBERS. 273

swallow them like pills on retiring to rest, and you are sure to
dream of your future.

A country girl, when shelling green peas, will, if she chances
to open a pod containing nine peas, lay it on the lintel of the
door, and the first unmarried man who enters, it is believed, will
be her future husband. This superstition is described by Gay : —

" As peascod once I pluok'd, I chanced to see

One lhat was closely fill'd with three times three ;
Which, when I cropp'd, I safely home convey'd,
And o'er the door the spell in secret laid.
The latch mov'd up, when who should first come in,
But in his proper person — Lubberkin."

If you walk nine times round a fairy rath at the full of the
moon, the entrance into the underground fairy mansion will
become visible, but if the adventurer enters he must abstain
from eating, drinking, or kissing a young fairy wench ; if he does
he will never be able to return to earth, or leave the enchanted
palace.

A cure for inflammation is nine handfuls of mountain moss,
dried on a pan before the fire, mixed with nine pinches of ashes
from the hearth. Nine pinches of this mixture to be drunk in
whey twice a week, until a cure is effected.

Nine hairs plucked from the tail of a wild colt, and bound on
the ninth day after birth round the infant's ankle, will make him
swift and sure of foot.

A cure for jaundice is to cut nine fibres from the roots of an
ash tree, bury them carefully in the ground, and if they remain
undisturbed the patient will recover, but if they are exhumed, or
in any way interfered with, the sick person will most probably
die.

The process of throwing the evil eye on a person is effected by
gazing fixedly at the object of detestation through nine fingers.

On Lettermore Island, in southern Connemara, the father,
immediately after the birth of a child, throws nine articles of
clothing over the mother, counting as he does so, and the number
is never varied.

A piece of worsted, with nine knots tied in it, is a great charm
for a sprained ankle.

It is to be noticed that in all the first enumerated cases with
regard to the mystic properties of the number nine, the number
ten is deemed an unlucky number ; the various articles are
counted and the tenth is cast away. Now it is a curious fact
that in many parts of Africa if a negress has a tenth child the
infant is at once destroyed. Here also there seems to be an
idea that there is something unlucky in the number ten. After

274 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PR O VERBS.

long investigation the writer has come to the conclusion that
amongst the Irish the uneven numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 are
considered lucky, the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 are con-
sidered unlucky. According to Lady Wilde the number 2 was
esteemed the most unlucky of all numbers. The second day of
November was accordingly set apart for sacrifices to the dead,
and for the incantations used to bring forth the spirits from the
grave and compel them to answer when questioned. To accom-
plish this, blood must, in addition, be spilled, for the spirits
delight in blood, as its colour and odour give them, for the
moment, the sensation of life.

Black seems to have been considered a magical colour. If
you procure possession of one particular bone of a black cat you
render yourself invisible at pleasure. To do this the cat must
be boiled alive and then dissected. The bones must, one by one,
be held in your mouth, and you must observe closely whether
the bone is reflected in the looking glass. When you at last thus
hold a bone that is not reflected in the mirror the mystic article
is in your possession.

The blood of a black cat laid on a wound with a raven's
feather will heal it on the instant.

To cure erysipelas the name of the sufferer should be written
round the part affected with the blood of a black cat, one that
does not possess a single white hair. Again, the first egg laid by
a black hen, if eaten the first thing in the morning, will not only
cure fever, but prevent the eater from taking any infection for the
remainder of the year.

To see a black snail the first thing in the morning is deemed
very unlucky.

To see a white snail the first thing in the morning heralds
good fortune. A white lamb to the right hand is also a good
omen. The milk of a white cow, milked by a maiden's hand,
will cure headache.

Eed is also a magical colour. Rowan berries, strings of red
worsted, or other such coloured material, tied round the tails of
cows after calving, ward off witches and fairies. A red cord is
tied around each of the patient's fingers as a cure for post partum
hemorrhage. The "red rash "is healed by the application of
the blood of a hare on a red rag ; when the cure is effected the
rag must be buried. A lock of hair tied up in a piece of red cloth
worn round the neck cures the whooping cough ; the rag must
then be buried. A red-coloured cat, or a red cock, or a red pig,
are stated to have been often immolated in magical rites.

SUPERSTITIONS ATTACHED TO COLOURS. 275

All the world over there is a regard for the colour red. It
was held sacred to Thor, and it has been suggested that it was
on this account that the robin acquired its sacred character.
Irish and Highland women use the colour red as a charm against
witches ; women in Esthonia put red thread in the babies' cradles
as a preservation against evil, and in China, as in Ireland, red
thread is tied round children's wrists to keep off evil spirits.

With regard to the probable signification of the variously
coloured stones and pebbles deposited with the dead, in pre-
historic interments in Ireland, the reader is referred to vol. i.,
pp. 328-333.

Irish proverbs treat of the most miscellaneous subjects so that
perhaps, on the whole, the best name that can be applied to them
is that by which they are known to the Irish-speaking population,
i.e. Bean Raite, " Old sayings."

Proverbs form a synthesis of national character, and contain
information concerning human actions and tendencies far more
reliable, and certainly more amusing, than the best of Irish mss.
The review of proverbs is a true archseological investigation, for
old sayings are as much relics of days gone by as are the weathered
and moss-grown covering-stones of cromleacs. Irish-speaking
peasants rarely discourse on any subject in which their interest is
deeply roused, without emphasizing their opinion by the quota-
tion of a proverb. The peculiar veneration in which ancient lore
was held is evidenced in the Irish saying : —

" It is impossible to contradict a proverb."

Or again : —

" Though the old proverb may be given up, it is not the less
true."

It has been well said that : —

" A proverb is the wit of one and the wisdom of many."

Even Christ, in His teachings, sometimes cited proverbs, or
old sayings well known to His listeners, to give point to His
doctrine or argument. The habitual use of proverbs or of
proverbial phrases shows, however, a certain poverty of language
in the individual, for he employs a particular expression with
a general application which his hearers, nevertheless, perfectly
understand. Thus a country man cannot inform you that
" perseverance overcomes the most formidable obstacles," but
he says, " a constant drop wears a hole in a stone." His
vocabulary hardly furnishes him with terms to say, " attach

t2

276 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PRO VERBS.

the blame to the culpable individual," he therefore says, "put
the saddle on the right horse." When desirous to express " the
circumstance does not affect you," he says, " it takes no butter
off your bread."

Irish proverbs contain many allusions to pagan beliefs,
superstitions, and customs ; a few on foresight, caution, and
prudence, which do not appear to have their exact equivalents
in English, and others which have distinctive Irish charac-
teristics and colouring, may be of interest. For the original
Irish, the reader is referred to the vols. 5, 6, &c, of the Ulster
Journal of Archaology : —

The Irish proverb, " He that has the quickest hand, let
him have the white hound and the deer," is equivalent to the
English saying, " First come, first served," and seems to refer
to an incident which occurred in some old hunting expedition.

There is another proverb generally applied to persons, who
are constantly talking about doing a thing, but never set about
it, " That is like the intended journey of the hens to Scotland,"
and children when they hear the hens cackling at night, say
they are talking about going back to Scotland, where they came
from. There is also an old Irish tune called Triall no, g-cearc go
h'Albainn.

The raven is believed to predict future events, hence the
saying, " The knowledge of the raven's head." " A black raven
in autumn, and a scald-crow in spring," i.e., signs of good weather.
An enumeration of bad omens is conveyed in the following : —
"I heard the cuckoo when I had no food in my belly; the
first snail that I saw was creeping on a bare stone ; I saw a,
black ram with its hinder parts towards me, so it was easy for
me to know that I would not prosper that year."

"No man ever went to Hell without sixpence at the time of
his death," a relic of a pagan burial custom (see vol. i., p. 240).

" What did Goll say ? that it is hard to take breeches off bare
hips." As hard as to take them off Highlanders.

" He is as great a liar as Oram," a common saying in Louth
and Meath. Origin unknown.

" The three wonders of Ballyore : — a mill without a stream,
a hermitage, and a monastery in a wilderness." Ballyore is in
the county Louth. The mill is driven direct from the lake
without a mill course. The reference to a hermitage is not at
present decipherable. It is proverbial that monasteries were
generally built in the midst of the very best land.

" There were four things that Finn (MacCool) hated ;
A worthless hound, and a slow horse,
A chieftain without wisdom,
And a wife that does not hear children."

PROVERBS. 277

"He is so wise that he would decide between Conall and
E6ghan," referring to the well-known dispute which ended in
the division of Ireland between these two chieftains.

If a woman at a funeral rubbed the earth of a graveyard off
her foot, it was believed that her next child would be deformed
or reel-footed, hence the saying, " He has a churchyard-crook in
his foot." But the clearest allusion to paganism occurs in the
proverb, " The front of everything to the south," alluding to the
ceremony of the desiul. Formerly even ploughmen used to
turn their horses' heads to the south when yoking or unyoking
them.

" Four priests that are not greedy,
Four Frenchmen that are not yellow,
Four shoemakers that are not liars,
These are twelve men not in the country ' ' :

demonstrates, amongst other things, the popular opinion of
the peasantry with regard to the fondness for money of their
spiritual advisers. &k a leunbh fein a bhaisteas a sayart air tiis,
" a priest christens his own child first," is a world-wide proverb
that needs no comment; but the saying, " white breeches are a
good indication of a Christian," is enigmatical, but may point to
the fact that the old Irish pagans did not wear these, at present,
necessary articles of clothing.

Another Irish proverb equivalent to the saying, "throw a
sprat to catch a salmon," is Faisiitn mud na cille le tnnd tuaitlw,
alpdn chuca «'s millin uatlia, alluding to the usual custom of the
nuns with country-women, they receive a great lump, and they
give a small one in return, applicable to ecclesiastics in general,
who were in the habit of giving presents of small value, in the
expectation of receiving greater.

" Blow before you drink," alluding to hot broth, which may
burn the mouth if eaten incautiously ; or to a drink, lest flies or
insects should be floating on the surface ; applied as a warning
against over haste in anything.

"Cut the gad nearest the throat," transports us back to a
time before hemp ropes were used, when criminals were hanged
by a twisted gad or withe, made of willow rods, and meant that
if ono wished to save the life of a culprit one should cut the gad
nearest his throat ; or if a horse had fallen, entangled in this
primitive harness, and was in danger of being strangled, the
same advice would suggest itself. It now signifies, "Do the
thing first that is of the most pressing need."

" Praise your gad and not your rod ; for many a beautiful rod
will not twist," an allusion to the general use of willow rods
(gads) for a variety of purposes.

278 SEA SONS—S UPERSTITIONS—PR O VERBS.

" It is time for you to be softening the gads." It is time to
to prepare for departure.

" She never sells her hen on a wet day," a hen with wet
feathers looking much smaller than when dry, a recommenda-
tion to be cautious in our dealings with knowing people.

" It is better to turn back from the middle of the ford than
to be drowned in the flood " ; better to stop in time than to lose
all, said when one repents of a thing, and draws back at the
last moment. Several Irish proverbs refer to fords in rivers,
which were naturally very important places before bridges were
built.

There is also the proverb : " Let every man praise the ford
as he finds it," i.e. Let every one speak of the place, object, or
individual, as he finds them.

" Let every man praise the bridge he goes over."

" He that waits long enough at the ferry will get over at
last."

" Blue are the hills that are far away."

" However great the flow, it will ebb."

" Listen to the wind of the mountains until the waters
ebb," i.e. let the storm blow by.

" It is the shallowest water that makes the greatest noise."

" Deep water is still."

" On an unknown path every foot is slow."

" Pace the sun ; turn your back to the storm."

" Though the day be long, night comes at last."

"Good luck comes in tricklets ; ill luck comes in rolling
torrents."

" A misty winter brings a pleasant spring ; a pleasant winter
brings a misty spring."

" A wind from the south hvings heat and produce ;
A wind from the west, fish and milk ;
A wind from the north, cold and flaying ;
And a wind from the east, fruit on trees."

" Red in the south means rain and cold,
Red in the east, rain and frost,
Red in the north, rain and wind,
Red in the west, thawing and sun."

" Lie down with the lamb, and rise with the bird,
From the time you see a harrow and a man behind it,
Until you see stacks of turf and cocks of hay."

" The man that stays out long his dinner cools." Applied
to anyone who remains too long from home ; for instance, to
O'Rorke, who was on a pilgrimage, when his wife ran away with

PROVERBS. 279

Dermot MacMurrough, and brought about the English invasion
of Ireland.

" The windy day is not the day for fastening the thatch " ;
thatch is fastened down by a number of wattles or pointed rods
of willow, called sr/olbs. A boisterous day is not the proper time
for such work, and the proverb is applied in all cases where fore-
sight is necessary.

" Many a time the man with ten has overtaken the man with
forty," refers to an Irish game of cards won by marking forty-
five. A player who at the commencement of a deal has only
marked ten, while his opponent has marked forty, may still
overtake him and win the game. The proverb is intended as an
encouragement to persons engaged in business, to prosecute the
trade undiscouraged by their first want of success.

"By degrees the castles are built" (Rome was not built
in a day) : a proverb which no doubt took its rise when the
Irish saw the Anglo-Norman strongholds rising, one after the
other, around the English Pale.

" You have the foal's share of the harrow." You are an
idle spectator. While the mare draws the harrow the foal walks
beside her doing nothing.

" This is Friday and (God prosper them !) they do not hear
us," alluding to the fairies, as the peasantry are averse to
naming them directly. Some say the fairies have no power
over mortals on a Friday.

" A Friday's fast is not better for you than to burn a dar-
daol." The dar-daol, a small species of jet-black beetle, is
superstitiously feared as unlucky and poisonous, and is always
thrown into the fire whenever found. In Notes and Queries,
vol. ii., 4th Series (1868), there is an extraordinary note on the
subject of the dar-daol.

" What the Pooka writes let him read it himself."

"It is true as that there is a Pooka in Kells."

"He got off betwixt hurdle and door-post." In former
times the doors of cottages were made of wattled hurdles. The
proverb signifies that he had a narrow escape, or perhaps that
he escaped secretly, as the hurdle-door in shutting made no
noise.

" The blind man's shot at the tub." A reference to the
story that Ossian, the blind warrior-bard, threw an apple at
St. Patrick's housekeeper, because she gave him scanty rations.
The expression means a random hit, a blind man's cast.

" Though you have broken the bone you have not sucked
out the marrow." You have done the most difficult part of the
work, but not finished it.

" The end of every old curse is an old white horse," meaning

280 SEA SONS—S UPERSTITIONS—PR O VERBS.

that the finishing stroke of ill luck is being served with a law
process. The white horse is apparently an allusion to the arms
of Hanover.

" He is like a bag-pipe : he never makes a noise till his
belly 's full."

" The closing in of an autumn evening is like the running
of a hound on a moor." An autumn night comes on quickly.

" A poem ought to be well made at first, for there is many
a one to spoil it afterwards."

" Do not build the sty before the litter comes." Do not count
your chickens before they are hatched.

" The door-step of a great house is slippery," alluding to the
uncertainty of the favour of great men.

" Many a sudden change takes place in a spring day," a
metaphor applied to the fickleness of youth.

" He thinks that he himself is the very stone that was hurled
at the castle." He was the one that bore the brunt.

" You would be a good messenger to send for Death," said of
a slow messenger when he delays long on the road.

" A slow hound has often luck when a swift hound has not,"
alluding to dogs coursing a hare — sometimes the hare, by a sudden
turn, causes the foremost hound to run past her, when she is
caught by a slower dog. It signifies that often he who plods
steadily at home succeeds as well as he who roams about looking
for business.

" After misfortune the Irishman sees his profit." He sees
too late what he ought to have done.

" Truth is often bitter," (see ante p. 224).

" Cows far from home have long horns." We value things at
a distance, or out of our reach, more than they deserve.

" He got it from nature, as the pig got the rooting in the
ground." He inherits the quality, or vice, from his parents.

" The Leinster-man is sprightly,
The Munster-man boastful,
The Connaught-ruan sweet tongued,
And the Ulster-man impudent."

" He that lies down with the dogs, will rise up with the fleas."
You cannot touch pitch without being defiled.

" If you are fond of dung, you see no motes in it."

" The end of every ship is drowning,
And the end of every kiln is burning ;
The end of every feast is wasting,
And the end of every laugh is sighing."

There is an end to everything. With regard to the application

PROVERBS. 281

of the term " drowning " to inanimate objects, see vol. L, pp. 219,
220. Under date, a.d. 922, the Irish Annals record that the
Danes ravaged Iniscaltra, in Lough Derg, and " drowned its
relics and shrines."

" Say little, and the little you say, say well."

" Repentance will not cure mischief," i.e. sorrow will pay no
debt.

"The heaviest head of wheat hangs its head lowest,"
i.e. merit is modest.

" That is like taking the axe out of the carpenter's hands,"
said when an incompetent person takes any business out of the
hands of one more fit to do it.

" He has got the two ends of the rope, and leave to pull."
He has it all his own way. He is master of the situation.

" The hen going to seek for the goose," said when people
give small presents in expectation of receiving greater ones.
Throw a sprat to catch a salmon.

" The leisure of the smith's helper (that is) from the bellows
to the anvil," i.e. no rest at all.

" He that is not in the habit of riding forgets the spurs."
This proverb has many applications. Sometimes it means that
a man not used to good company is at a loss how to behave.

" Out of her head the cow is milked," signifying that,
according to the manner a cow is fed, she gives better or worse
milk. You may expect to be served by a man according as you
treat him.

" A fight between hornless sheep," i.e. a mock fight ; said of
persons appearing to be very angry with each other, but not so
in reality.

"What happened to him? What was at the hen's foot"
(that is, bad luck).

" Do not go between the tree and the bark," i.e. do not
intermeddle in a family quarrel.

" The tree in the hedge remains, but not so the hand that
planted it."

" Take your thirst to the brook, as the dog does."

" Lat every herring hang by its own tail."

" Night is a good herd : she brings all creatures home."

" Dry soles won't catch fish."

" Honour cannot be patched."

" It is hard to take the twist out of the oak that grew in the
sapling."

" He who has his choice and chooses the worse is to be
pitied."

" Losing the bundle, gathering the wisps."

" Ignorance is a heavy burden."

282 SEA SONS—SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

" Lazy is the hand that ploughs not."

" He that ploughs not at home, ploughs not abroad."

" For whom ill is fated, him will it strike."

" He that does not knot his thread loses his stitch."

" Better knot straws than do nothing."

" A thing is the bigger of being shared."

" A promise is a debt."

" A friend's eye is a good looking-glass," i.e. the best mirror
is an old friend.

" A wise man keeps his counsel ; the fool reveals his."

" A king's son is no nobler than his company."

" He that lives longest sees most."

" Pear is worse than fighting."

" He that conquers himself conquers an enemy."

" Every foot treads on him who is in the mud."

" Prom hand to mouth will never make a wealthy man."

" Friendship is as it is kept."

" He that flees not will be fled from."

"Love hides ugliness."

" What is the good of a pipe if it is not played on."

" Courtesy never broke one's crown."

" Choose your speech."

" Correct counting keeps good friends."

" Assurance is two- thirds of success."

" Marriage comes unawares like a ' soot drop.' "

" Modesty is the beauty of women."

" Take a bird from a clean nest."

" Choose your wife as you wish your children to be."

" Choose a good woman's daughter though her father were
the devil."

" A man's wife is his blessing or his bane."

The ladies of ancient Erin are not complimented in the pro-
verbs : —

" Wherever there are women there is talking; and wherever
there are geese there is cackling."

" Women, priests, and poultry have never enough."

" A. woman has an excuse readier than an apron."

" There are three things that do not bear nursing : an old
woman, a hen, and a sheep," i.e. who are not thankful for being
nursed.

" The secret of an old woman's scolding," i.e. no secret at
all, for a scolding woman will let it out in her rage.

" Do not believe the scald-crow, or the raven,
Nor any false deity of the women ;
Whether the sun rises early or late,
It is according to God's will this day will be."

PROVERBS ON WOMEN. 283

The first, second, and third lines of this distich consist of an
enumeration of pagan omens ; observations on the movements
of the scald-crow or Bav, of the raven ; reliance to be placed
on female deities, or the rising or setting of the sun, declared
to be of no utility and vain as compared with the acme of primi-
tive Christian and Mahometan teaching ; there is no one to be
relied on but God alone, and there is but one God.

" The yellow cows are milked, and their milk is drunk ;

While the white cows come back from the fair and no bid for them."

Yellow cows are believed to give better milk than white cows and,
therefore, sell better. The proverb is applied to women, and
hints that a girl with an uninviting exterior may make a better
wife than a handsome one.

" A pullet's head on an old hen." A hen's age can never be
told by her head. The proverb is applied to an elderly wom;in
dressing herself with a showy cap or clothes more suitable for a
girl.

" You would not do that if you had any flax on your distaff,"
said of a woman spending her time foolishly.

"She has got the length of his shoe." She knows how
to manage him.

" He (or she) has washed his (her) shoes." Sometimes used
as a term for "making oneself at home." Kuno Meyer quotes
a poem ascribed to the dethroned King Diarmait mac Cerbaill,
in which it is employed in this sense : —

" I was the lawful bridegroom

Of the beautiful daughter of Erimon (Erin).

Clerics have thrust me

From the rule of highland Fotla (Erin) ;

Young unlawful kings

Will wash their shoes in her house."

" She is a good wife, but she has not taken off her shoes yet,"
i.e. she has not been proved yet ; speaking of a newly married
woman.

"The old hag is the better of being warmed, but the worse of
being burned." We ought to be kind but not over-kind. Some
say that the proverb refers to the burning of witches.

" The woman has neither excuse nor rest who has not a pipe
or a child."

" Women are shy, and shame prevents them from refusing
the men."

" It is nothing but folly to treat an old woman to a dram,"
you will get no return for it.

" It is the yellow preshagh that brings the Meath women to

284 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

harm." The wild kail, called in Irish preshagh, was made use of
as a kitchen vegetable. The proverb alludes to the practice of
the women who, in going out in the evening to gather it in the
fields, made this an excuse for meeting their lovers.

"A bad wife takes advice 1 , from every man but her own
husband."

" It was not her mother's feet that she washed," said when a
girl turns out badly, i.e. she was not a good daughter and will
have no luck.

" The daughter of an active old woman makes a bad house-
keeper," i.e. an indulgent mother makes a sluttish daughter.

" She burnt her coal and did not warm herself," said when a
woman makes a bad marriage.

"Never take a wife who has no fault," because there is no
such thing.

" Every man can control a bad wife but her own husband."

" She has only as much regard for him as a two-year-old dog
has for his mother."

" A blanket is the warmer of being doubled," said when
relatives marry.

" The husband of the sloven is known in the field amidst
a crowd."

" A ring on the finger and not a stitch of clothes on the back,"
an extravagant woman and a bad housekeeper.

"She has put a bioran suain in his head" (bis hair) : said
of a profound sleeper. The bioran suain was a magical pin
supposed to possess the power of throwing a person into a deep
sleep.

" No trial until one gets married." " No worse thing exists
tban a bad-tempered woman." " There are three without rule :
a mule, a pig, and a woman." In fact, the gibes of the Irish
old-world wits may be summarised in the words of the popular
nineteenth century poet :—

" Down to Gehenna, or up to the throne
He travels the fastest who travels alone."

Eeterence to the superstition of " the evil eye " is conveyed
in the warning, " Take care lest you cast the evil eye on him."
When praising anything, animate or inanimate, one should say,
" God bless it," for expressing admiration of the object without
accompanying and qualifying the praise with a blessing, is an
act of overlooking by the evil eye.

On May eve the evil eye possesses more than usual
malignity, and the mother or the nurse that would carry her
infant charge in her arms anywhere outside the house would be
regarded as devoid of affection, and reprobated as a monster.

PROVERBS ON " THE EVIL EYE." 285

" Youth and loveliness are thought to be especially exposed to
peril ; therefore not one woman in a thousand will then show
herself abroad. Nor must it be supposed that conscious ugliness
is any protection ; on the contrary, neither grizzled locks nor
the brawny hand of the roughest ploughman exempt from the
blast."

The ancient Jews were also firm believers in the power of
the evil eye, if we are to judge from Proverbs xxiii. 6, 7 : —

" Eat thou not the bread of him that hath an evil eye,
Xeither desire thou his dainties ;
For as he reckoneth within himself, so is he :
Eat and drink, saith he to thee ;
But his heart is not with thee."

When a country-woman seeks the good offices of charlatans,
as to damage inflicted on her property by the evil eye of one of
her neighbours, or as to an unaccountable decrease of milk from
the cows, she is advised to place three bronze articles, half-pence
for choice, on the bottom of a tin can, and ask the suspected
neighbour to milk three streams from the cow upon them, and
the spell is thus dissolved. This is a curious superstition, as it
may be said to have the date of its origin attached. Bronze
being regarded as partaking of the supernatural, shows that while
it was known, it was far from common.

Virgil says the notion among his contemporaries was that
evil resulted from the glance of an envious eye ; whilst Pliny
records his testimony as to the efficacy of spittle as a preserva-
tive against ill-luck, witchcraft, or the evil eye. Even in the
present day a labourer before commencing work, spits on the
palm of his hand, a pugilist often does the same before com-
mencing a fight, and in buying cattle at a fair the purchaser
spits on the " luck-penny," and in olden days the faction-fighter
spat on his black-thorn.

A practice to be observed amongst the peasantry between
parting friends is supposed to propitiate good fortune. The
right hand is passed across the mouth, a sharp sound, somewhat
resembling thup is emitted ; the hand is held out, after a similar
observance, the offered palm is met by that of the other person,
and hands are heartily shaken. You should not shake hands with
the left hand, for the Irish have the old saying, " a curse with
the left hand to those we hate, but the right hand to those we
honour."

There are exceptions to the useful property of saliva; for
instance, the Four Masters relate that, in a.d. 734, an Irish
chieftain died, and they account for his decease by the fact that
wicked people used to eject spits in his face, in which they had
put charms.

286 SEA SONS— SUPERSTITIONS— PROVERBS.

Thomas Dinely, in the Journal of his tour in Ireland, in the
reign of Charles II., thus further explains the singular custom
of spitting, " for by their custom they are never to bless, praise,
or commend anything, without spitting thereon, for fear of
witchcraft." When opening the eyes of the blind man, by
mixing clay with spittle, and then applying it with the finger,
may not Christ have wished to teach the Jews a lesson by
utilizing a prevalent and apparently widespread superstition ?

On this subject " Maimonides states that the Jews were
expressly forbidden by their traditions to put fasting-spittle
upon the eyes on the Sabbath day, because to do so was to
perform work, the great Sabbath crime in the eyes of the
Pharisees which Christ committed when he moistened the clay
with his spittle and anointed the eyes of the blind man therewith
on the Sabbath day."

To Greeks and Romans alike fasting spittle was a charm
against " fascination " or the " evil eye." Persius Maccus
says : — "A grandmother, or a superstitious aunt, has taken baby
from his cradle, and is charming his forehead and his slavering
lips against mischief by the joint action of her middle finger and
her purifying spittle."

Here it is not the spittle alone, but the conjoint action of the
spittle and of the middle finger which works the charm. The
middle finger was believed to possess a favourable influence on
sores, or rather it possessed no malign influence, while all the
other fingers, in coming in contact with a sore, were thought to
have a tendency to inflame or poison it.

The restoration of sight to a blind man with fasting spittle
is attributed to Vespasian by both Suetonius and by Tacitus. In
Ireland, to obtain a perfect result, saliva should be used only
after a " black fast," when mixed with dust, it is most effectual
as a cure for sore lips, and other disorders, internal as well as
external (see ante, pp. 193-195).

Mr. F. T. Elworthy remarks that this strange custom of spit-
ting opens up a wide field of inquiry, " for not only is it practised
in the hope of obtaining good fortune, but in all ages, and almost
among all peoples, it has ever been considered as an act to safe-
guard the spitter, whether against fascination or other evils.
Among the ancient Greeks and Romans ' the most common
remedy against an invidious look was spitting ; it was hence
called despuere malum.' According to Theocritus ' it is neces-
sary to spit three times into the heart of the person who fears
fascination.' "

When describing a hurt or wound, if a countryman should,
with a view of illustrating his verbal description, touch the
corresponding part of his own or another person's body, the

PROVERBS ON " THE EVIL EYE:' 287

touch is ominous of ill, is in fact as bad as the glance of the evil
eye, and a sure precursor of similar mischief to the person, or
part so touched, unless the narrator, or some other individual
present, immediately ejaculates, " God bless the mark," or " God
save the mark." This acts as a charm to avert disaster. An
exactly similar superstition prevailed amongst the Eomans, as
we learn from a passage in Petronius, where Trimalchio recounts
a marvellous adventure in which a man thrust his sword through
the body of a sorceress. In describing the incident, Trimalchio
points out, on his own person, the exact locality of the wound,
by laying his hand on the part and exclaims, " Salvum sit
quod tango," " Safe be what I touch," exactly corresponding
to the Irish saying, " God bless (or God save) the mark." The
mere touch is deemed to possess equally malign influence,
whether applied to the naked body itself, or to the garment
covering the part indicated, and the Koman idea seems to have
been precisely the same as the Irish, for it is hardly to be pre-
sumed that Trimalchio exposed his naked body, since that
circumstance is not mentioned by Petronius.

CHAPTER VIII.

TRANSITIONAL ARCHEOLOGY, AND THE CONTINUITY OF
RELIGION.

Chaos presented by the past of ancient Erin — Evolution — Religion in Ireland,
as elsewhere, progressed by gradual development — Reasoning of the savage
regarding body and soul — Similarity between death, and sleep — Soul after
death assumes the form of a butterfly — Gradual amelioration in religious
ideas — Three stages in their development — Rude flint-using man vanished
without leaving a trace of his religion — Polished flint-using man — His
religion — Ancestor worship — Belief in a life after death — Curious evidence
yielded by fractured funeral urns — Important position ascribed to
Goddesses — The individual man creates a God after his individual imagi-
nation — Irish belief a colourless religion — No great All- Father — Christianity
came with a superior civilization — Its long-continued struggle with
Paganism — Early Irish Saints take the place of the more ancient tribal
medicine men — In religion, as in material matters, one custom glided into
the other — No hard dividing line — Primitive rites banished from public
practice, kept alive in local superstitions — Superstition a rudimentary
religious instinct — Unsympathetic treatment of it therefore unscientific —
Absurd theories have retarded the proper study of superstitions — Times
changing rapidly— The present an epoch of religious deception — On the
other hand the men of the Eld believed firmly in their creed — Truth must
eventually triumph over Error — We should hold fast to nothing but that
which is certain.

The student is puzzled by the chaos presented by the past life
of ancient Erin, oppressed by its vastness, and half fears, as he
gazes despairingly into it, that he will never be able to master
its details and produce order out of confusion. We should essay,
however, to read the past in the light of the present. As the
distance increases details tend to disappear, or resolve themselves
into mere outlines, which in turn vanish in the dim perspective
of innumerable ages ; yet, if an uninterrupted view be finally
obtained, it will probably change many preconceived ideas as to
the state of society in the Eld.

We ourselves are in the transition period, and are passing
from an age of mere ideas and theories to one of careful obser-
vation and classification of facts. Great results cannot be at

EVOLUTION. 289

once achieved ; we must be content to advance as we walk, step
by step. An archaeological genius does not suddenly rise up ; he
is the outcome of many more or less successful attempts, for
in the literary limbo, amidst a veritable " Sahara of mediocrity,"
there are to be found many meritorious writers. The mind of
the master must grasp the whole subject ; his precursors have
succeeded only in branches of a science which he must treat in
its entirety ; for a number of undeservedly obscure and half-
forgotten workmen have gathered the materials and rough-hewn
the blocks with which the master-builder erects his edifice.

We now, to a great extent, perceive how, from a primitive
beginning, civilization progressed in the most simple and natural
manner, and we recognise it is a law of all science that, to
master any subject thoroughly, we must have a complete know-
ledge of it, not only in its genesis, but also in its growth, ab ovo
usque ad mala. Once the existence of a great First Cause, whom
no language can describe, is admitted, it matters little whether
creation be regarded as carried on by evolution, or by separate
and distinct creative acts. Evolution is the more wonderful, the
more credible, and the simpler of the two means, and it would
effect, what is also generally to be seen in nature, a smooth,
equally adjusted, and continuous movement. The theory of
Evolution makes clear as the noonday what before was enveloped
in darkness. Why then the bitter opposition with which it is
met by certain sections of the community ? Is it that, like the
science of Geology, it is attacked, not on its own account, but
for the reason that it seems to threaten the overthrow of some
religious dogmas? As it is, " extinguished theologians " already
lie around its cradle, " as the strangled snakes beside that
of Hercules." Substituting abuse for argument will not under-
mine its position. Geology weathered this storm, and so will
the theory of Evolution if it be founded upon truth. If the
theory of Evolution be admitted as a satisfactory account of the
existing conditions under which we find life now manifested on
this globe of ours, may we not apply the theory further. What
reason have we for supposing that, while Evolution has acted so
far, it can act no farther '? Is it not more philosophical to
assume that the same law is in operation beyond ourselves, and
that, therefore, there are in existence beings as much our
superiors, as we are, in our own opinion, superior to primordial
germs. Such beings, if they exist, would no more necessarily
be apparent to ordinary sight than is electricity, which though
a reality is invisible. We cannot define the line which bounds
the physical on one side, the supernatural on the other. We live
on an island of fact surrounded by an ocean of mystery. We
feel the action upon us of invisible forces, and perceive that the

VOL. II. u

290 AR CH^. OLOGY AND RELIGION.

world in which we live is moving in obedience to some vast over-
mastering power. Froude justly observes that, " of the true
nature of our existence on this planet, of the origin of our being,
and of the meaning and purpose of it, of what is life, what is
death, and of the nature of the rule which is exerted over us,
we really know nothing. We live merely on the crust or rind
of things. The inner essence is absolutely concealed from us.
But though these questions admit of no conclusive answer, there
is something in our character which perpetually impels us to
seek for an answer. Hope and fear, conscience and imagination
suggest possibilities, and possibilities become probabilities, when
allied with high and noble aspirations."

As the writer has elsewhere observed, facts, when transmitted
by word of mouth merely, gradually lose individuality and
defmiteness as to time ; they pass rapidly into the class of
myths ; thus true history may be said to begin only with the
introduction of writing. According to native annalists, Erin
burst suddenly on the gaze of mankind in a state of advanced
civilization, without undergoing intermediate stages of improve-
ment. No nation, it is believed, suddenly developed a self-created
civilization ; it must progress even as a man who passes from
tottering infancy through successive stages of advancement ; and
it has been remarked that the savage, hunting, pastoral, and
agricultural phases of advance in the nation, correspond with
those of infancy, childhood, youth, and manhood in the individual.

These stages are plainly traceable in Ireland. First comes
the period when primitive man, the mammoth, the megaceros,
the cave- bear, the reindeer, and other animals shared the
country, man being then only in his infancy or rude flint-using
stage. This race disappears from archaeological observation
and is succeeded by men who use smaller stone weapons more
carefully made and sometimes polished ; this stage is the nation's
childhood. Then appears bronze-using man — this stage is the
nation's youth. Like their predecessors, however, they were
also in a state of savagery. By the term " savagery" it is not
implied that there was amongst them a total absence of culture,
but that they were devoid of the ordinary arts of then existing
civilization. The mere fact of the aborigines being ignorant
of the use of cement in building, prior to the introduction of
Christianity, proves this. If writing had been introduced into
ancient Erin, or if any general or constant means of communica-
tion existed between the Continent and Ireland, the practice of
reducing limestone into a suitable material for solidifying their
stone structures would have come into general use.

It may be laid down as certain that religion, like civilization
in Ireland, progressed by gradual development without the

DE VEL OPMENT OF RELIGION IN IRELAND. 291

occurrence of any vast hiatus or gap. This theory is in accord-
ance with science, whether regarded from an archaeological,
geological, or ethnological standpoint, for no great physical
revolution, no great climatic change, no new and intruding race
of human beings arriving upon the scene from unknown regions
is needed to explain the apparently sharp break between the Old
and the New Stone Age. The extinction of the great Pleistocene
fauna made it no longer necessary to employ such weighty
weapons as hitherto. Man experimented and discovered that a
lighter implement would effect a deadly wound and be easier to
carry, and the rapid growth in the art of chipping flint sufficiently
accounts for the seemingly swift transition from one form of
primitive life to another, but slightly more advanced. The older
implements were now often re-wrought into smaller and more
highly-finished weapons. A similar process may be observed in
the changes from copper to bronze, from bronze to iron, from
iron to steel. We may with advantage recall what has happened
in our own time upon the employment of electricity to illustrate
the results of the changes just mentioned.

We have at last learned that man's origin, history, and reli-
gious feelings are the greatest problems that invite solution, and
that to obtain anything like a good result every shred of evidence
bearing on the subject must be carefully collected and analysed.
Thus, a sketch of the religion of the ancient Irish, opens up an
immense field of research. Paganism existed in the land for
untold centuries, not only before the introduction of Christianity
by the early missionaries, but long after the period when the
religion of Christ became the acknowledged creed of Ireland, and
it has left its impress, faint it is true, but still discernible in the
peculiar beliefs and customs of the peasantry, for in these the
Pan-song of nature still vibrates.

The history of the development of religion in Ireland may be
said to be the history of almost all religions ; we may refer to it
as a trustworthy guide to the gradual development in the mind
of early man of the first crude conception of the Infinite ; for—

" Mun, as yet, is being made, and ere this crowning age of ages,
Shall not a>on after a)on pass, and touch him into shupe."

Physically man remains practically unchanged ; mentally his
development continues. The mental capacity of the average
European is much higher than that of his remote ancestor, and
we cannot set limits to this improvement. Man's age on earth
is well depicted in the epigram, " Dieu est eternel, mais l'homme
est bien vieux."

The reasoning of the savage, when analysed, is, from his
standpoint, very logical. He observes that the shadow only

c2

292 ARCHEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

accompanies the body under certain conditions ; it leaves it in
the twilight, but resumes attendance in daylight. The spirit
leaves the body in sleep, as the shadow leaves the substance in
the absence of the sun ; shadow and spirit are therefore, to
the savage, alike separate entities from the body. The shadow
departs and returns ; the spirit departs and returns ; and though
the visible body dies, there is no proof to the savage mind that
its invisible complement dies also. During captivity amongst
the Indians a traveller relates that he overheard a convalescent
patient reproved for his imprudence in exposing himself to the
atmosphere, as his shadow had not altogether returned to abide
with him. But all this was trifling when compared with the
mocking echo to whom day and night were alike.

It is very certain that the modern, and therefore extremely pro-
bable that the ancient, Irish regarded the echo as a supernatural
or incorporeal being. This was, undoubtedly, one of the most
reasonable of their superstitions ; for it is difficult to convince
an uneducated person that a voice can be heard without pro-
ceeding direct from a human being, Ovid states that the echo
formerly possessed " a body, not a mere voice," and again
describes it as " one who has neither learned to hold her tongue
after another has spoken, nor to speak first herself." There is
a legend regarding the echo told relative to the death of one of
Finn MacCool's warriors. Sorely wounded, he shouted so loudly
that the surrounding hills rang again, and conveyed his cries to
his sister on the opposite side of the lake. Recognising her
brother's voice, she sprang into the lough to his assistance, but
the echo deceived her as to the direction she ought to take ; she
swam round and round ; and finally sank exhausted beneath the
waters. Ever afterwards the echo was called in Ireland " The
Deceiver." The inhabitants of Iceland say it is " the voice of
the Dwarfs." Dick Fitzgerald, in The Lady of Gollerus, calls the
echo " the child of one's own voice." The fanciful antiquary
Vallancey states that a literal translation of the Irish compound
name for echo is " the daughter of the voice," and is a convincing
argument of the Eastern origin of the race; for " what people
in the world, the Orientalists and the Irish excepted, called the
copy of a book the son of a book, and the echo the daughter of a
voice?"*

Again to the savage, the vision of well-remembered hunting

* An amusing anecdote relating to the celebrated echo at Killarney was
lately recounted in The Spectator: " A number of boatmen who were quarrelling
about the division of ' tips ' indulged at the top of their voices in a good deal of
profane language which the marvellous echo repeated verbatim. ' Arrah look
at that now for a schandal,' said one of the party who was of a pious turn,
' taching the poor harmless echo to curse and sware.' "

REASONING OF SA VA GES REGARDING SOUL. 293

scenes, and of the loved ones, the friends, ensmies, and gibing
phantoms which appeared to him at night, were thoroughly
inexplicable. Whence came the landscapes and the creatures
which he saw when he was in dream-, or in spirit-land ? Why
did they vanish with the dawn, only to re-appear with the
darkness ?

' ' Spirit Land, thou land of dreams !
A world thou art of mysterious gleams,
Of startling voices and sounds at strife,
A world of the dead in the hues of life."

There can be little doubt but that dreams leave an impress
" upon our waking thoughts," and that they " make us what we
were not — what they will." Even in our more refined social
conditions we are never able to quite shake off their effect and are
perpetually drawing from them very much the same conclusions
as did our uncivilized ancestors.

In somewhat this fashion did primitive man attempt to solve
the still all-absorbing problem, "Does a man die but to live
again ? " After thousands of centuries of inquiry, this momen-
tous question remains unanswered by science. An impassable
barrier of unbroken silence is still upreared between the quick
and the dead ; for though love and hope have together created
fair fields of beatitude in some fairy-like region far, far beyond
the dread rampart, yet to the student of physical reality there
comes no answer from beyond the barrier. All through the ages
the cry of the survivor has been —

" ! for the touch of a vani9h'd hand,
And the sound of a voice that is still."

There is stoicism in the mere act of living —

"... Men must endure

Their going hence even as their coming hither ; ' '

and yet there seems to be "a still, small voice " in every man
which whispers to him that his account is not closed at death,
but that at birth a portion, however microscopic, of the already
existing universal intelligence is imparted to him, and that
this, when existence here is over, returns again to the fountain
from which it emanated. The inscrutable energy pervading
the universe, as disclosed to us by science, differs profoundly
from the ideas held of any God worshipped by any now existing
religious denomination.

Nowadays Death, to many, is no longer regarded as the King
of Terrors —

" Death, when unmasked, shows us a friendly face,
And is a terror only at a distance."

294 ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

Death is looked on rather as a kindly nurse, who haps us in our
narrow bed when we go to sleep, tired with our day's work. One
may say, in the words of a great man gone before, " It is well
even if the sleep be endless." Annihilation is, however, not a
pleasing sleep without a dream, but is rather, as defined by
Dr. Johnston, " neither pleasing, nor sleep ; it is nothing. Now
mere existence is so much better than nothing, that one would
rather exist in pain than not exist." The doctor evidently
preferred the prospective pains of Hell to annihilation.
Next to death, sleep is the greatest of mysteries —

" How wonderful is Death —
Death and his brother, Sleep ! "

Is the intelligence that dreams the same intelligence that governs
the body when awake ? The latter governs the mind when the
mind is awake. The mind, or imagination, acts without control
when asleep, but the brain continues to act automatically ; hence
the cause of erratic and unconnected dreams. It appears, then,
that the brain does not originate, but merely transmits, thought ;
for when not under waking control it may again and again
transmit these already registered thoughts. When we enter the
dream state we lose something which returns to us in our waking
hours. When the body enters the temporary death of sleep
consciousness is dethroned ; the moment the body re-awakens
consciousness returns to its seat. We know that consciousness is
able, day by day, to leave the body and return. Therefore, when
the body is no longer tenantable, we hope consciousness may be
able to continue to exist elsewhere.

We cannot somehow realise that our hopes and fears, our joys
and sorrows, our loves and hates, are all to end in noughts — that
those we loved in this world, whom even the Pagan Seneca ■
describes as, " Not lost, but gone before," are never to be seen
by us again ; that those we hated, and who wronged us, are
never to be at our mercy ; that mind, intellect, memory, are all
to be absorbed in a material world. One revolts at the very idea ;
but that does not make the idea either true or false. Is it or is
it not true that —

" We are such stuff

As dreams are made on, and our little life

Is rounded with a sleep" ?

The idea of the immortality of the soul is far more widely
spread than the existence of one or more Gods ; for the most
degraded tribes, even those on the lowest rung of the ladder
of civilization, incapable of the smallest mental advance, even
unable to draw self-suggestive inferences, are nevertheless found
to believe implicitly in the perpetuation of life after death. But

THE SOUL ASSUMES THE BUTTERFLY FORM. 295

the very general, almost universal, belief in a future state of
existence cannot be adduced as evidence of its truth. The
aborigines of California, who, when first known, were little
removed from wild beasts, and whom the missionaries likened to
" herds of swine," possessed not the faintest idea of a God or
Gods ; yet they had a vague notion of an after-life, for a writer
who draws this dark picture of their condition adds that he saw
them frequently placing shoes on the feet of the dead, which
demonstrated that they entertained some idea of a journey under-
taken by tin: spirit of the deceased after death. The natives of
Australia, who were quite as debased, believed that after death
their souls mounted to the clouds or crossed the ocean to a distant
land.

The idea — or shall we say doctrine ? — of the immortality
of man's spirit or soul
has taken many different
forms in a gradual scale
of development. In the
first stage the spirit be-
comes a, malignant being ;
in the second it enjoys
,i continuous life, as on
earth ; i lordly, it advances
to the metempsychosis
and lo cyclical life ;
fourthly, if develops into
j superior spiril , as in
more advanced religions,
and in the Christian
ideal.

In one id' i be numer-
ous chapters <>l the Egyp-
tian Book of the Dead,
the Priestly Official Guide, or Manual to Spirit-Land, which
I reals of the rejoining of the soul to the mummified body in the
underground world, there is an illustration of the soul, in the
Eorm id' ;i semi-butterfly-like looking creature bearing a sail, the
emblem of breath, and the ( 'nix >di>.iii,i , that of life, in the act of
revisiting its former tabernacle (tig. '.'Hi. We have a body and a
spirit, but theologians have very weak arguments to rely on
when they attempt to prove that man is gifted with any third
enlisl il uenl .

In a fragment of an Irish " Vision of Hell," translated by
Professor Kuno Meyer (Otirt Merseiana, vol. i., p. 11(5)— dating
from the fifteenth century, but which is apparently derived from
a much more ancient MS. — the following passage occurs : " Then

Fio. 'J:j.

ul rejoining the Dead llndy. From the liofk
of the /'.„,/ (the Egyptian Bible).

296 ARCHEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

all at once, he (the cleric) beheld his soul (hovering) over the
crown of his head, and knew not which way she had come out of
the body."

In a Statistical Account of the Parish of Ballymoyer, county
Armagh, written in 1810, the Eev. Joseph Ferguson states that a
girl chasing a butterfly was chid by her companion, who said to
her, " That may be the soul of your grandfather." Upon inquiry
it was found that a butterfly hovering near a corpse was regarded
as a sign of its everlasting happiness. This is a curious instance
of the lingering on of a pagan superstition.

A very good example of the idea that the soul assumes the
form of a butterfly may be instanced in the story of " The Priest's
Soul" in Lady Wilde's Ancient Legends of Ireland. Unfortunately,
she has dressed it up in a rather too modern style ; the epilogue
is, therefore, only given :—

" The priest lived, though the agony was horrible ; for he
could not die until the twenty-four hours had expired. At last
the agony seemed to cease, and the stillness of death settled on
his face. Then the child, who was watching, saw a beautiful
living creature, with four snow-white wings, mount from the
dead man's body into the air, and go fluttering round his head ;
so he ran to bring the scholars, and when they saw it they all
knew it was the soul of their master, and they watched with
wonder and awe until it passed from sight into the clouds.

"And this was the first butterfly that was ever seen in Ireland;
and now all men know that the butterflies are the souls of the
dead waiting for the moment when they may enter purgatory,
and so pass through torture to purification and peace.

" But the schools of Ireland were quite deserted after that
time, for the people said, " What is the use of going so far to
learn when the wisest man in all Ireland did not know if he had
a soul till he was near losing it, and was only saved at last
through the simple belief of a little child?"

In some parts of Ireland the soul is supposed after death to
remain in the form of a butterfly, or of a small bird, in the
neighbourhood of the body, and then to follow it to the grave.
The Bulgarians also hold that it assumes the form of a butterfly,
and remains in close proximity to the corpse until the funeral is
over. The Servians believe that the soul of a witch often leaves
her body whilst she is asleep, and flies abroad in the shape of a
butterfly. The same belief prevails in some of the islands of
the Pacific. The idea that the soul assumes this shape is,
therefore, by no means confined to Ireland. It was rife in
ancient and classic days ; whilst in modern times Pope's idea of
the " Dying Christian's Address to his Soul " was suggested by
the exquisite and beautiful apostrophe of Adrian to his soul,

A MELIORA TION IN RELIGIO US IDEA S. 297

composed in his dying moments, and recorded by his historian,
Spartianus, as expressive of the Emperor's uncertainty as to a
future existence : —

".Aniniula, vagula, blandula!
Hospes, comesque corporis."*

According to Mr. T. F. T. Dyer, the country-people in York-
shire " used to call, and even now occasionally do so, night-
flying white moths, ' souls.' "

In Gloucestershire, Nottinghamshire, and Somersetshire,
there still exist numerous superstitions regarding butterflies.

An Irish fairy doctor could easily detect if a man had lost his
soul. If he had been bargaining with evil spirits the compact
was readily detected, as at noonday, and even in the brightest
sunshine, his body, demoniacally possessed, cast no shadow. Is
there here not the implied belief that the shadow was a man's
second self, his spirit ? There are two problems, the solution of
which has been attempted in all ages, in all creeds, alike by the
savage and the philosopher, to ourselves still the most important
and interesting that can be proposed, namely— Do we continue
to exist after death, and if so how ?

In proportion as civilization rises, religion also attains a higher
level. The gradual amelioration in religious ideas should be
gauged, not so much by the outward object worshipped, as by the
conception of the Deity or deities, in the mind of the worshippers.
There is at first an absence of all definite ideas on the subject of
a deity ; then a stage, sometimes styled Fetichism, is reached in
which the worshipper believes he can control the material object
or objects worshipped, and compel them to comply with his wishes.
When they do not appear to act in accordance with his demands,
he deposes them from being his gods and chooses others — a
trait still characteristic of human nature. | This cult develops

* " Dear fluttering, fleeting soul of mine,
Thou guest and companion of the body.''

tin the year IS'JO, the salmon fishing at Taeoma, Washington, was very
bad. The local Chinamen engaged in the industry with a view to mending
matters, held a religious festival for a fortnight and prayed to their Joss, but
there was no improvement in the take of fish. They accordingly determined on
another course. Seeing that tlieir devotions were useless, and that so much
time had been unprofilably spent, they wrecked the Joss house, dethroned their
Joss from his position in his temple, tied a ruje about him, dragged him
through the streets and chopped him into atoms. The orthodox Chinese opposed
these violent measures, but the indignant fishermen would not be prevented.

Dans un convent a Paris, St. Joseph n'avait pas exuuee lis demoiselles qui
lui avaient demnnde de leur accorder un beau jour pour leur excursion. J,a
leligicuse avuit mis La Sainte Image dans un placard, et di-ail, " Mesdemoi-
selles ne regardez pas Saint Josoph, il est en penitence."

Un paysan de Naples, sa femme etant en mal d' enfant, priait son saint de

298 ARCHEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

into the adoration of natural objects ; finally the objects wor-
shipped become more powerful than man, and are accessible only
through a restricted caste or class of people. This stage seems
to have been the acme of religious worship in ancient Ireland.
Experience has shown that it easily glides into an idolatry not
unlike that of the earlier stage. From it is developed the theology
of the present, where the Deity is an impeccable and altogether
supernatural being.

Irish Paleolithic man with his religion, if he possessed any,
has vanished, leaving little trace. Neolithic man believed in a
future state resembling that passed by him on earth, as is wit-
nessed by the articles buried with his dead ; and this belief
probably developed finally into some dim conception of a future
spiritual life : —

" Here bring the last gifts and with these
The last lament he said,
Let all that pleased, and yet may please,
Be buried with the dead.

Beneath his head the hatchet hide,

That he so stoutly swung ;
And place the boar's fat haunch beside ;

The journey hence is long."

Fictile vessels, containing a supply of food for the departed,
were placed beside him for sustenance during his long journey
to the land of spirits, to

"The undiscovered country from whose bourn
No traveller returns."

On the non-return of the traveller, Shakspeare is very positive ;

faire cesser ses douleurs. A la tin il perd patience, met le feu au derriere du
saint. Sa femme accouche, et il s' eerie, "Ah, tu m'ecoutes, maintenant que
tu sais ce que e'est."

Mr. F. T. Bullen writing on "Sea Superstitions" in Tlie Spectator, 22nd
July, 1899, draws attention to the fact that it is an unheard of misdemeanour on
board ship to destroy or put to common use any paper on which " good words "
are printed. " The man guilty of such an action would be looted upon with
horror by his shipmates, although their current speech is usually vile and blas-
phemous beyond belief. And herein is to he found a curious distinction
between seamen of Teutonic and Latin race, excluding Frenchmen.
Despite the superstitious reverence the former pay to the written word, none of
them would in time of peril dream of rushing to the opposite extreme, and after
madly abusing their Bibles, throw them overboard. But the excitable Latins,
after beseeching their patron saint to aid them in the most agonising tones,
repeating with frenzied haste such prayers as they can remember, and pro-
mising the most costly gifts in the event of their safely reaching port again,
often turn furiously upon all they have previously been worshipping, and with
the most horrid blasphemies vent their rage upon the whilom object of their
adoration. Nothing is too sacred for insult, no name too reverend for abuse, and
should there be, as there often is, an image of a saint aboard, it will probably
be cast into the sea." See also ante, p. 6S, line 28.

VARIOUS ORNAMENTS FOUND IN GRA VES. 299

not so the ancient Irish, nor indeed the poet Horace, from whom
England's bard appears to have borrowed the idea : —

" Qui nunc it per iter tencbricosum
Illtic unde negant redire quenqiiam."*

By the same process of reasoning we conclude that Neolithic
man believed that his womankind also entered into a future
state ; for in graves we discover all kinds of female ornaments,
rings, ear- or nose-rings, pierced animal teeth and bones, combs,
stones, strings of shells, and in later times beads of amber and
other gauds. This is to be attributed to the same unconscious
process of reasoning that, in the present day, makes the bereaved
parents often place a child's toys in the coffin with the infant,
the afflicted parents quite naturally imitating the old pagan
custom of placing trinkets with the dead to amuse them on their
long journey.

The primitive savage had to content himself, however, with
decorations of a very simple description : trophies of the chase,
shells and ornaments wrought from stone and bone did duty for
what is now represented by precious metals or the skill of the
lapidary. Judging by the amount of gewgaws discovered with
interments, and accompanied by flints or other weapons, it would
appear as if inordinate vanity was not confined to the fair sex,
but that the males of ancient Erin were as proud of what was, in
their eyes, finery, as were the females. Possibly this is yet the
case, for the love of man for showy uniforms and clothes seems
to find its analogy in the feathered kingdom in the bright plumage
of the male bird. Carlyle remarks that " the first spiritual want
of barbarous man is decoration"; indeed, personal ornaments
are amongst the earliest suggestions of vanity, whether in the
race or in the individual. It is a question, which may be left
open to keen archseologists to debate, as to nose-rings or ear-
rings, being more ancient than bracelets or necklaces ; for the
most degraded savages rejoice in the string of shells that circle
their necks, quite as much as do the ladies of the ballroom m
the circlets of gold that pass through their ears. Although,
according to our great poet, Eve in Paradise

" Her unadorned golden tresses wore
Dishevelled."

or, in more modern version, had " her golden hair hanging down
her back," he should also have depicted her, after the Fall, as
adopting, with clothes, the wearing of ornaments, together with
nose- and ear-rings.

* "Who now is travelling along the shaded path, to the spot from which,
they say, no one ever returns."

300 AR CH^S O LOGY A ND RELIGION.

The old inhabitants of the land were at one stage ancestor
worshippers, and their religion consisted in communion with the
dead and offerings to them, for the worship of the dead is
undoubtedly universal, and the stages of the development of the
religious idea, from the germ to full-fledged modern theology,
are as well marked as are the successive forms assumed by
the foetus.

In the thought of early men, the ghosts of their ancestors
were, in a general way, friendly ; the ghosts of members
of other tribes were, taken as a whole, inimical ; for, except
with men of his own tribe, primitive man lived in a state
of isolation : he was unsociable, and feared and hated other
men ; hence, probably, the origin of good and evil spirits.
In fact the Irish aborigines possessed the fundamental beliefs
held by primitive mankind throughout the globe — the simple
creed of the savage who believes very firmly in the exist-
ence of bad spirits, and less firmly, or not at all, in the
existence of good spirits, and who hopes to attain to another
and pleasurable existence where the future will be spent in an
enjoyable manner — practically indeed, the same creed as that
held by a present-day child before these rudimentary notions are
supplemented by developed orthodox theological training.

Certain ceremonies were, however, devised to control the unruly
dead. For instance, after the battle of Sligo, fought in a.d. 537,
Eoghan Bel, King of Connaught, being mortally wounded,
directed that after death he was to be interred at Rathoveeragh,
near Sligo, in a standing position, his blood-stained javelin in
his hand, his face turned towards Ulster, as if still fighting with
his enemies. His instructions were carried out, and the result
was that, as long as the body was left in this position the
Connaughtmen were invincible, and the men of Ulster always
fled before them in terror. At length the latter, learning the
cause of their defeat, disinterred the corpse, and carrying it
northward over the river of Sligo, buried it head downwards, so
as to counteract the talismanic effect of its previous underground
attitude. It is curious that in some parts of the country the
peasantry still retain a dim traditional memory of this mode of
sepulture, the reversal of the usual position of a warrior inihis
last resting place, and of the superstition connected with it. In
the parish of Errigal, county Derry, is a locality styled " The
Dwarf's Tomb." This dwarf was a magician who perpetrated
great cruelties and was slain by Finn MacCool. He was buried
in a standing position, but the following day he appeared in his
old haunts more cruel and more vicious than ever. Finn slew
him a second time and buried him as before, but again he
emerged from the grave and spread terror through the country.

BELIEF IN A LIFE AFTER DEATH. 301

Finn thereupon consulted a Druid, and, by his instructions, he
slew the magician a third time, and buried him in the same place,
head downwards, which device subdued the magical power, so
that the dwarf never again appeared on earth.

The custom of interring kings and chiefs in a standing
position is referred to in Irish tales. King Leoghaire would not
allow himself to be converted to Christianity, but was buried, like
a grand old Pagan, in the external rampart of Tara, in military
harness, weapon in hand, his face turned southwards towards
his enemies, the men of Leinster, as if fighting with them and
bidding them defiance.

The Irish of this period believed that their dead, though
deposited underground, still lived the same life as on earth.
This idea is exemplified in the 3tory of the "Cave of Ainged,"
preserved in several mss. The plot is as follows : Ailell and
the celebrated Medb, King and Queen of Connaught, were
celebrating the feast of Samain, one November night, in their
palace of Croghan. On that night the spirits inhabiting the
tombs and other localities were allowed to emerge from their
retreats and to run to-and-fro upon the earth. This super-
stitious idea is universally crystallized in so-called Christian
belief; Shakspeare describes —

"... the very witching time of night,
When churchyards yawn and Hell itself hreathes out
Contagion to the world."

To test the valour of his household, the King offered a suitable
reward to any young warrior who would sally from the banqueting-
hall and tie a coil of twisted twigs upon the leg of a man whom
he had caused to be hanged, and who was then suspended just
outside the palace.

The only one who attempted it was a hero named Nera ; but on
completion of the act the hanged man came to life and imposed
numerous commands (geiit)* on his resuscitator, who was forced
to comply with them all. When released from his task, he saw
the palace of Croghan in flames and a host of strange men
plundering the buildings. He followed them into the cave or
souterrain of Croghan, was immediately taken prisoner, kept at
hard work, and compelled to marry one of the women of the
place. He finally managed to escape to upper air, and returned
to the King of Connaught with such an amount of information
regarding the cave and its contents, that, on a succeeding Samain,
or November night, earthly forces broke into the treasure-house
of the underground spirit world, and carried off great booty and
costly treasure.

* See ante, p. 66.

302 A R CH^S OLOGY A ND RELIGION.

Even the Greek mind did not rise to the conception that the
soul after death might become a greater spirit power than when
on earth, or that it could exist without a physical body. Their
departed lived, like the characters presented in the Irish legend,
the life they had been accustomed to on earth, and hankered after
the fleshpots of the upper world.

When we reach the period of written records, we find the idea
of a spirit or soul coming into existence, but it cannot even then
be quite divorced from the body. In " The pursuit of Derrnod
and Grama," Aengus, the magician, arrived on the scene after
the hero's death, and carried the corpse from the heights of
Benbulbin to "the Brugh on the Boyne," explaining his action
by stating, that although he could not restore Dermod to life, he
would send a soul into him so that he would be able to talk for a
brief period every day.* This strange passage is also elucidatory
of the constant communication carried on between the abodes of
the living and of the dead. The old pagans imagined existence
after death as a mere slightly differentiated prolongation of earthly
life ; and how could they reason otherwise, knowing, as they did,
nothing about any actual state of existence other than on earth.
The crude and materialistic notions of a future state, still held
in the present day, will indubitably be gradually corrected and
idealised. We shall no longer believe that another life simply
means a useful opportunity of wearing out one's old clothes.
Dust we are, and to dust we return, but the return is final, in so
far as the personality bound up with the dust is concerned.
Even now, we do not know that the dead are held, by even the
frailest link, to those they loved on earth, nor that they are able
to take any interest in our welfare, spiritual or temporal. We
persuade ourselves to believe that they do take an interest in us,
because it would be heart-rending to think otherwise, but a
question of scientific fact cannot be solved by an impassioned
appeal to feelings engendered by old beliefs. Ever since man
became a reasoning being his plaint has been " there comes no
whisper of reply."

An aperture left in the side stones of a sepulchre, the enclos-
ing of a funeral urn in a clay cylinder, or the fracturing of the
base of the vessel when reversed to cover the ashes of the dead-
instances of which have been found in prehistoric interments
in Ireland — point to a very late period, when the dead having,
in the thought of the living, become a spirit, an exit was
left for that spirit ; in the same way that, in some districts,
after a death has occurred, the window or door of the room
which contains the corpse is thrown open, so that tbe spirit

* See ante, p. 134, line 9.

BELIEF REGARDING DOORS AND WINDOWS. 303

may not be compelled to make its exit by the chimney
flue. The mind of uncultured man, is after all, from a modern
standpoint, not quite strictly logical, and there is, to him, nothing
strange in an act that provides a material mode of exit for that
which is immaterial. The well-known superstition of opening
the door to let the spirit out, has been taken advantage of by Sir
Walter Scott in his tale of Guy Manner ing, when he makes Meg
Merrilees act in this manner. While watching at the bedside of
the dying man she exclaims, " He cannot pass away with that on
his mind, it tethers him here, I must open the door," and with-
drawing a bolt, she lifts the latch, exclaiming,

" Open lock, end strife ;
Come death, and pass life."

In his Mountain Mime, published in 1814, J. Tain thus refers
to the same ceremony : —

" The chest unlocks to ward the power
Of spells in Mungo's evil hour."

This superstition originated in the idea that demons (in
modern times exclusively the Christian Devil) seized the soul as
it left the body, and crushed it against a closed door or window. —
which alone can serve the demons' purpose. They thrust it into
the hinges, or into the crevices of the window, and the soul is
crushed and tortured by every movement of the shutting or
opening of a door or window. An open door or window frus-
trates this purgatorial performance, and friends of the departed
have the consolation of knowing that, by thus leaving them ajar,
they are not made the unconscious instruments of torturing the
beloved departed.

The German peasant says ' ' that it is wrong to slam a door
lest one should pinch a soul in it." The same idea is common
in France. The Chinese make a hole in the roof to let out the
departing soul ; whilst the negroes of the Congo have a very
dirty but religious custom of abstaining, for twelve months after
a death, from sweeping out the house that belonged to the dead,
lest the dust thus raised should annoy the ghost.

In Ireland it would appear as if, on the departure of the dead
man's soul from its clayey envelope, it is free to do as it likes ;
sometimes it wanders to-and-fro in the vicinity of the place
inhabited by it in life ; it may flit about in the air ; it may
linger near the tomb ; or it may set out at once to travel to the
world beyond the grave. Thus the Irish peasant still imagines
that not alone do demons continually hover all around him, but

304 A R CH^E O LOGY A ND RELIGION.

the dead also ; and these two apparently distinct classes of
apparitions are, in his imagination, inexplicably jumbled up
together. The deeply rooted impression of the continual pre-
sence of the spirits of the departed is part of his unprofessed
creed, in which, however, he thoroughly believes. He is quite
happy, in his way, in this ideal world of his own — or rather of
his remote ancestors'— creation, in living in an atmosphere of
" Celtic Twilight," with its shadowy and none too agreeable
citizens. He is reticent in divulging old beliefs ; he cherishes
what the past has handed down to him in the deepest secrecy,
and his mind is stored with what his forefathers did. Question
him, however, about a superstition, and his answers are palpable
evasions.

The interment of the dead, is one of the most distinctive marks
of the human animal. • None of the brute creation, not even those
who approach the nearest to man in exhibition of affection,
evince a care for the interment of the body once life has departed.
Eespect for the mere body, when deprived of life, rests on con-
victions, sentiments, and beliefs, the gradual building of many
thousand years of thoughtful reflection.

The important position ascribed to goddesses, in ancient Irish
religious belief, is very noticeable, and was doubtless owing, at
least in part, to the associations of maternity, and the train of
thought following therefrom. Think what we may of sex- worship,
and however repulsive to present day ideas it may appear, it was
nevertheless not only an ancient form of worship, but was also
one of the most natural ways of expressing the ideas of creation,
of renewal, and reproduction. It is not to be judged by modern
standards, the people and the surroundings of their times must
be considered when we endeavour to form a just estimate of
customs once common.

" Is it strange," writes a lady, "that they regarded with rever-
ence the great mystery of human birth ? Were they impure thus
to regard it ? Or are we impure that we do not so regard it ? Let
us not smile at their mode of tracing the infinite and incompre-
hensible cause throughout all the mysteries of nature, lest by
so doing, we cast the shadow of our own grossness on their
patriarchal simplicity." It is extraordinary that there are a large
number of otherwise intelligent people who do not possess the
power of discriminating between what merely sounds profane and
what is really profane.

In later times Christian ecclesiastics were not slow to avail
themselves of a means, ready at hand, of adding to their reputa-
tion and influence, and supplementing their revenues. Women,
who for some cause or another had hitherto been without off-
spring, were encouraged to continue the ancient custom of visiting

POSITION OF GODS AND GODDESSES. 305

the sacred pagan " beds," making proper offerings and going
through the prescribed ceremonies.*

Supernatural generation is a very old as well as a very
wide-spread idea. For instance the native black women of
Australia believe conception to take place sometimes super-
naturally and quite independently of marriage.

Eapid development in religious ideas only occurred at an
advanced stage of mental expansion, when savage man had,
to a certain extent, ceased to ascribe to material objects a life
analogous to that of animated nature, and gods and goddesses
were regarded as semi-spiritual beings, and as the origin, as
well as the guardians or rulers, of the tribe. At this stage the
god or goddess and the worshippers formed a natural unity bound
up with the district they occupied. The dissolution of the tribe
destroyed the tribal religion, and destroyed the tribal deity, the
god or goddess could no more exist without its tribe than the
tribe without its deity. But one has to be very guarded when
making generalisations as to the religious past of the aborigines,
for, as a rule, the masses of mankind neither rise to, nor descend
to the acknowledged precepts of their faith, they do not live up
to the best parts of a good religion, nor do they descend to the
depths of the worst parts of, what we may consider, a bad
religion. It has been remarked that Christians do not rise to the
level of their founder, nor are heathens as depraved as, upon the
Christian theory, they ought to be.

The total absence from Ireland of relics of anything that would
seem to our eyes to have been an idol (we except from this the
idol-, pillar- or holed-stones of a latter date), the total absence of
visible symbols of spirit-like or material beings is almost conclusive
evidence that the natives possessed no materialised representa-
tions of anthropomorphic deities. Does it not afford grave food
for reflection that, with a most thoughtfully displayed care in pro-
viding for the future of the dead, there should have been no
material personification of a deity, or deities, until the introduc-
tion of Christianity ? In this respect mental childhood rises
superior to the Christian creed, for it clothes the idea of a deity
or deities, with vagueness, and does not attempt to impersonate
them. The best executed and most artistic statues of the old
Boman gods are the product of an age of wide-spread infidelity,

* See vol. i., pp. 348-349, also under '•Marriage-lore," "Well-," and "Stone-
worship." The superstition existed with quite as much strength in England. In
the vestry of Jarrow Church, Northumberland, the rude but substantial oaken
chair of the Venerable Bede is preserved, to which brides repair immediately
the marriage service is concluded, and seat themselves upon it. This act,
according to popular belief, will make them the "joyful mother of children" ;
in fact, not long ago, most brides would not have considered the marriage
ceremony completed unless they had gone through this performance.

VOL. II. X

306 ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

for when they were sincere believers in their deities, the Latins
possessed but an indifferent statuary, and Seneca observes that
the primitive clay statuettes were much more propitious than
those of marble, and were certainly worshipped with greater
fervour.

It seems that, at a certain stage in all religions, there is a
natural tendency to worship, or venerate, tangible images of
supposed superior spirit-like beings. The cult may take a longer
or shorter period to develop, it may when developed be sup-
pressed, but it possesses great vitality and there appears to be an
inherent desire in the human breast to revive gross material
worship and idolatry.

Idolatry and idolater are terms applied in a general way to
very different things. An idolator, strictly speaking, may be
defined as a person who worships an image, which the wor-
shipper veritably believes to be itself conscious and powerful for
both good and evil. Many Christians unconsciously practise
what may fairly be described as idolatry, i.e., they look upon the
image as a visible representation of the invisible being addressed,
but few can, strictly speaking, be denned as idolators. Accord-
ing to Miss Kingsley, the well-known African traveller, even in
Fetichism it is not the material object that the more intelligent
negro worships, but the spirit which he supposes dwells in it. If
this be the case, much otherwise unintelligible becomes intelligible.
This may be pressed further, for it is true of most of the heathen
that few amongst them believe the actual image to be endowed
with consciousness. The Eev. E. Taylor tells us that in image
worship, as observed by him on an Island in the Pacific Ocean,
the Atua (spirit or god) was supposed only to enter the image for
the occasion. " The natives declare they did not worship the
image itself, but only the Atua it represented and that the image
was merely used as a way of approaching him." Nam Deus est
quod imago docet, sed non Deus ipsa, hanc cernas sed mente colas
quod cernis in ipsa.

The Church of Ireland forbids its members to hold that God
has parts and passions like themselves, though as He is worshipped
in the Prayer Book, many prayers appear to be departures from
this injunction ; but the Christian differs from the heathen in
this, that his God is to some extent a mental, that of the heathen
a material image. This may be explained, at least in part, by
observing that the language of devotion must always be largely
the language of poetry, and that it is impossible to form any
idea of God without calling anthropomorphism to our aid. Still
a similar observation would go a long way in explaining, or
justifying, heathen methods of worship.

The individual man makes God after his individual imagina-

MAN CREATES GOD AFTER HIS IMAGINATION. 307

tion. We each worship a God of our own. There is a great
foundation of truth in the grim jest " that if God made man
in his own image, man does as much by him."

" The Ethiop'e gods have Ethiop eyes,
Bronze cheeks and woolly hair:
The gods of Greece were like the Greeks,
As keen and cold and fair."

As a French writer has wittily observed, " if the Triangles had a
God, he would be three-sided," and Goethe remarks that " Man
never knows how anthropomorphic he is."

The warrior-like nature of the Scandinavian gods reflects the
characteristics of their worshippers ; the solitude of the desert
welded the Arab into a monotheist. In fact it may be said that
the development of the religious germ depends, to a great extent,
on the nature of the people, on the natural features and geology
of the country more than on political surroundings and social
habits, and its growth is accelerated or retarded by those diurnal
agencies which control the progress of mental expansion. Thus,
the study of the mythological creed of the inhabitants of any
land offers a wide and tempting subject to the inquirer.

Diodorus describing the customs of the Druidical priesthood
designates them " Saruides," and, according to Dr. P. W. Joyce,
the Irish peasantry still apply the term sean-druid, i.e. an old
Druid, to a crabbed cunning old man. Pliny (Nat. Hist., xvi. 95)
derives the word " Druid " from SpSs, an oak; some connect it
with darach, the Celtic for that tree. It is alleged that when an
oak died, the Druids stripped off the bark, and shaped it into a
pillar, pyramid, or cross, and continued to worship it as an
emblem of the God. In the Latin Lives of SS. Patrick and
Columbkille the Druids are styled " Magi." In Bishop
Bedell's translation of the Bible into Irish, Simon Magus
(heading, Acts ix.) is rendered " Simon the Druid," Siomon
mi draui : v. 9, " used sorcery," do bid na dhraui : v. 11, " with
his sorceries," no, dhrauidheachd. The old school of Irish
antiquarians imagined they saw a Druid in every bush.
This led to an inevitable reaction, and now, probably, many
people believe that Druidism had no footing in the land. Yet
numerous singular customs exist which must have originated
from a religious idea. The religious aspect of the rites has
been gradually obscured, and in some cases finally lost, but
the customs have been carried on, in almost stereotyped form,
from the days in which they were practised by mere savages.
If these customs be compared with those described in the
passages illustrative Of rites and observances in ancient Irish
MSS, there will probably be discovered for us the entire secret

x2

308 A R CH^E OLOGYAND RELIGION.

of the religious system of our heathen ancestors, and we shall
see disclosed the means by which the early Christian Church in
Ireland dissolved and absorbed the old Pagan Pantheon— a com-
paratively easy task, for the latter consisted, as we have seen,
of a number of supernatural beings without bond, without cohe-
sion, not held together by any apparent principle and without a
great All-Father, an Odin, or a Jove.

This colourless religion, this worship of a host of single
spirits without marked individuality, would fully account for
the comparatively easy abandonment of the uninteresting divin-
ities. On the other hand, the gods of the Saxons, in the minds
of whose ancestors they had originated, possessed a marked in-
dividuality which forcibly appealed to the idiosyncracies of the
race, so that an effacement of their gods seemed to the Saxons
to be a voluntary abandonment of their own kingdom and of
their own power which were to be handed over to the guidance of
a stranger god, and this revolution was therefore not effected
without a bitter and prolonged struggle.

It was, however, not uncommon for one religion to adopt the
gods of another. Even Judaism seems to have done this in a
modified manner. Welhausen translates Psalm xxix. 1, " Ascribe
to JHVH, ye sons of God, ascribe to JHVH honour and praise,"
and he remarks on the passage : — " Judaism has turned the
heathen gods into angels, commissioned by JHVH to govern the
various nations." The earlier idea may possibly have been, that
JHVH was the supreme god under whom the gods of the peoples
exercised a delegated power. According to a very learned and
entirely " orthodox " writer JHVH is to be identified, or rather
His origin is to be traced, to Ea, or Ya, or Sin, the moon-god of
Babylonia. Another and probably a clearer instance of the
influence exercised on Judaism by heathen thought, is to be
noted in connexion with the cherubim. The cherub of Christian
art is not the cherub of the Old Testament. Painters have
derived their idea from Cupid, but there can be little doubt that
the Cherub of the Bible is, in its original, the winged bull of
Assyria.

Traces of the Elder faiths of Ireland have been described as
far as our present knowledge permits, as also the distinct indica-
tions of the long-continued struggle between Christianity and
Paganism, the former gradually overcoming the latter, and, in
popular usage, adopting much from the conquered faith. Such is
almost invariably the case, more especially when the conquerors
are numerically inferior to the conquered. Owing to the wild
and unsettled condition of the country, teachers must have been
scarce, and there could not have been that oversight from any
responsible and restraining authority which would keep the

CREEDS. 309

standard of Christian doctrine pure amongst the various warring
tribes.

The so-called Irish alphabet, introduced by the early
Christian missionaries, is composed of the ordinary cursive
characters used in everyday transactions of the Koman literature
of the first centuries of the Christian era ; a sentence in Irish
characters might be easily mistaken for a copy of the scratchings
of a popular phrase, or catch sentence, many of which may be
seen scrawled on the walls of the buried villas and buildings of
Herculaneum and Pompeii, and elsewhere. This running hand
differs considerably from the familiar square-shaped letters of
Eoman lapidary inscriptions, and it is a misnomer to designate
it "Irish."

Christianity, coming as it did with a superior civilization,
must have early forced its way into a recognised place. But
after its initial successes, it would, for a time, be barely tolerated
and forced to propagate itself almost in secret. At this stage
there would, doubtless, be a careful concealment from catechu-
mens of much of its teaching (a course of conduct borrowed from
paganism with its mysteries) which would gradually be conveyed
to them when they became illunrinati, or initiates into the
Christian mysteries. They would now learn, probably for the
first time, that their former gods were regarded by their teachers
as devils. In a later stage the two religions would be on an
equality of popular influence ; and, finally, the religion of the
more civilized would attain ascendancy, and, as far as circum-
stances permitted, endeavour, by persecution, to stamp out the
conquered faith. In this onward course it merely followed the
natural order of events and the bent of human nature in all ages,
whether regarded from a religious, political, or moral standpoint.
Christian theology, however, is, now-a-days, gradually purifying
itself from tho physical force with which it formerly associated
itself ; like modern science it is re-adjusting itself to what alone
can stand the test of criticism ; but in former days,

" Christians have burnt each other, quite persuaded
That all tho apostles would have done as they did."

Creeds : —

" Then' lives more faith in honest doubt,
Believe mo, than in half the creeds."

For creeds (if correct synopses) bear somewhat the relation to
religion and to the scriptures, that a small scale map does to
a continent, or rather, as Ptolemy's Map of Ireland (see ante,
vol. i., fig. 75) to a well-finished work of the present century,
or to put it in another way, the creeds bear the same relation to
the truths they are supposed to express, as do the rude attempts

310 ARCHJEOL OG Y AND RELIGION.

of a child to the finished works of a trained artist. The works
of the old Fathers, and of some of their modern imitators,
may remain, as monuments, to show posterity over what trifles
(i. e. trifles, as regarded from a strictly non-theological stand-
point) men wrangled, fought, and slew each other for the greater
honour and glory of their Creator ; whilst incorporated pagan
theology, with its accompanying rites and ceremonies, will serve,
for all time, as a beacon to the antiquarian explorer in his
researches on religious evolution.

Through the ages the progress of the great battle against
compulsory ignorance, for free thought and for free knowledge,
has been very slow ; but great minds have waged the prolonged,
and, at times, apparently hopeless contest, and, little by little,
have added to the range of what may be publicly discussed
without fear of legal penalties being inflicted by either Church or
State. Science has never sought to advance her cause by alliance
with the civil power, and is unstained by crimes ; but in the
name of religion numbers of people, innocent of any offence,
have been socially ruined, mentally and physically tortured, and
have welcomed death as a release from sufferings inflicted in the
name of the founder of the Christian Church.

Christianity by setting itself to dissipate, where it could not
absorb, the ancient mythology, and by inculcating an introspec-
tive and narrow habit of thought, was antagonistic to the growth
of a love of nature and of its mysteries ; but now the wonders
which science has revealed, afford a fresh field to the imagination.
What has been observed, by some thoughtful writers, of the
Christian religion in Ireland in the present century would,
if uttered by an Irish pagan of the fifth century, have been
equally applicable, namely, that it cannot well be done without,
but that, as it is, it cannot be universally accepted ; its outward
aspect must, to some extent, change with the times, for the great
reserve of adaptability to the circumstances of the age with
which it is endowed, is its great source of strength, and a good
guarantee of its practical perpetuity.

The stride from " there is no such God as is now preached,"
to "there is no God," though apparently simple, is not easily
made, but it is frequently brought about by the narrowness and
arrogance of pulpit discourses, which force scientifically trained
minds into active opposition, and do violence to the common
sense of even the wayfaring man.

In the case of our remote forefathers, religion commanded
their faith and subjugated their reason ; to our fathers it became
a dogma ; to many of the present generation it is a mighty
problem which invites solution ; for we have arrived at a very
unsatisfactory stage in mental expansion. We may be described

FROM PAGANISM TO CHRISTIANITY. 311

as having attained the position pathetically described by Hood in
the following lines : —

' ' I remember, I remember,

The fir trees, dark and high ;
I used to think their slender topB,

Were close against the sky ;
It was a childish ignorance,

But now 'tis little joy,
To know I 'm further off from Heaven,

Than when I was a boy."

" Eevealed religion commands our faith and subjugates our
reason ; science requires freedom of search, and appeals to facts."
Froude remarks that : " If I may judge from the prevailing tone
of modern popular literature, from the loud avowals of incredulity
on one side, the lamentations on the other, on the spread of
infidel opinions, it seems as if, after sixteen hundred years of
satisfied belief which came in with Christianity, we were passing
once more into a cycle of analogous doubts ; the sentiments of so
robust a thinker as Lucian, under the same trials, are the foot-
prints of a friend who has travelled before us the road on which
we are entering."

Lucian, who lived in the second century, was not only a
" robust thinker," but a sceptic and a scoffer to boot. The
pagan divinities he treated with open derision, Christianity he
ignored. There are few finer specimens of humour than his
Dialogue of the Gods, where he depicts Jupiter as expressing his
fear that if the human race lost its faith in the divinities of
Olympus, the gods might cease to exist. In this Lucian simply
pushed anthropomorphism to a logical conclusion.

The theory of a sudden and complete conversion of Ireland
from Paganism to Christianity is incompatible with the survival
of so much that is distinctly pagan in the thoughts and practices
of the peasantry. There are even, it is alleged, some recorded
instances of Irish Christian priests travelling or living on the
continent of Europe, before the advent of St. Patrick's mission,
some of whom attained to literary and ecclesiastical eminence.
Mr. Alfred Nutt, however, does not appear to entertain a high
opinion of either the moral or intellectual characteristics of early
Irish ecclesiastics, and points out that there was little to choose
between the Christian priest and the tribal medicine-man. " A
number of stories are extant in which the Irish saints play a part
that assorts singularly ill with our idea of the saintly character ;
they show themselves vehement and unscrupulous partisans, they
resort to trick and dodge to achieve their ends. But the in-
teresting point is, that whilst they approve themselves to be on
the same moral level as the pagan Druid, they likewise approve

315

ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

themselves to be on the same intellectual level. There is the
same belief in the irresistible power of formula, m the irrevocable
nature of the oath, in the efficacy of symbol and spell. Most
legends bear, indeed, witness to the fact that the early Irish
saints were "mere tribal medicine-men, with a Christian instead
of a pagan ba<? of tricks." We should look upon them as sur-
viving b D y sheer force of tradition, " for it is difficult to imagine
that centuries after the firm establishment of Christianity, Irish
story-tellers went out of their way to vilify their national saints
by describing their barbarous acts and their archaic and pre-
Christian modes of thought, with which the writers could not
possibly have been acquainted." It must, however, m all fairness,

Fig. 94.

Cromleac-like Grave in tli
Reproduced from the Journal of the presen

County I.eitrim.

Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

be stated that contemporaneous documents, or to be more correct,
the earliest documents which have come down to us, are, when
compared with the more modern, comparatively simple and free
from miracle. It is in the biographies, composed some centuries
after the saints' deaths, that the above-mentioned characteristics
become most apparent. For example, compare St. Patrick's
" Confcssio " with his life by Jocelin.

In material matters, in sepulture ;is in religion, one custom
glided into the other without any hard dividing line. In many
ancient cemetries connected with the earliest monastic establish-
ments in Ireland, graves formed in pagan fashion are of by no

PA GAN CEMETERIES. 313

means rare occurrence, demonstrating that, in material as in
spiritual matters, there was a gradual and easy transition from
one religion to the other. The tombs of the early Christians
present a variety of forms, rude sarcophagi resembling crom-
leacs, cists, or small earns enclosed by a circular wall of
uncemented stones. Near the Sugar-loaf Hill a cromleac, it is
stated, stands in a churchyard, and there is another cromleac-
like grave in a Christian burial place in the county Leitrim
(fig. 94).

A hillock in the churchyard of Knock, under the Castlerea
hills, marks the site of a demolished cromleac, so that sepulture,
in this spot, dates back to pre-historic and pagan times. There
is also a fine sepulchral mound not far distant ; whether this
mound is the "knock" which gives name to the locality, or
whether the hill on which the graveyard is placed has a better
claim to this title, is a

subject open to discussion, ■ — j— >

but both demolished crom- c'o AS/ /"""•■■

leac and surviving sepul- ( "^\ \ \ j /

chral mound indicate that \ \ s l / °/ ,/' <

the place was a centre for /$'■■■. \ \\ j / //*/

human interment in very '■...<■"' '' ..\$-' \_/ _^--^\

early and pre-Christian ..- __ "•■-... <J- ; f'\ / / ..-•, r^ 3-'"'

times. Eepeated instances ■:.?... '""";■ C"-":0 : -- / <L/!l- 1 '''~^~- — — >

appear to prove the exist- SZZ'.'^ i "5 ° '~^ 1° f~- ^

ence of pagan cemeteries, fo a j ""/0,.. r .-( : -^-' / -..^^

which the early mission- ' """™- ••"•■, sy I / \ \ V? r'-^-.S~~^>

aries selected for the burial ,.•--'" *-'/■•■, J K " .-■.>.. ,\
of their converts. The ''■•?-'•"' / /'/*/ fei V" W )
direction in which these / /' / o / | a \ X 55 '"••.

early Christian graves point ''■■../ / I \ \»>

is generally east and west ; ; --.*./ \j^j

but in a cemetery adjoining „ , „.

a very early church at St.

John's Point, CO. Down, PI- of a Pa ? an Cemetery at Kil,,asa gffart
! . ' Reproduced from the Jonrnal ot the present

and alSO in Other localities, Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.

the cists are arranged in

pagan manner in the form of a circle, i.e. in the same position
as the tenants assumed in life, when lying stretched before one
of their camp fires. For example, a seemingly pagan pillar stone
at Kilnasaggart (fig. 95), but now bearing Christian emblems,
stands at the northern edge of a circle, formed by numerous low,
flat graves, their longer axis pointing towards the centre, with an
inner circle of much smaller graves, concentric with the outer
circle. At the base of the pillar stone (a) lies a round basin-like
stone (b) not unlike, but smaller than those found in the chamber

314 A li CHJB OLOGY A ND RELIGION.

of the Grange Cam. The common centre of these two circles
of graves is marked by a smaller pillar stone (c).

All this cumulative material, as well as folk-lore evidence,
demonstrates that Christianity was, after a time, accepted by the
majority of the ancient Irish. " The beautiful and poetical tale
of the lovely young Mother with her Child- God, wrought upon the
tender feehngs in the naturally sympathetic hearts of tbe Irish,
who adopted it readily into their pagan legends, which were not
overthrown by it, but on the contrary served as a frame to show
off its beauty, and to this very day the old heathen mythology
holds its ground with a vitality but little affected by modern
ideas or by scientific criticism."

Many writers have described, as special characteristics of the
ancient Irish, the qualities of a deep-seated vein of melancholy, a
weird imaginativeness joined to this passionate love of the
beautiful. But primitive folk living in the midst of nature,
and continually witnessing natural phenomena, are bound to be
constantly impressed with a sense of nature's mysteries, and this
feeling finds crude expression in numerous superstitious observ-
ances. These characteristics, however, are no peculiar heritage
of the Irish; they merely represent a certain stage in the evolution
of most primitive folk, and are found in equal force amidst other
and apparently very dissimilar races.

It is a difficult process to trace back to their original source
some chains of thought still current, and to see what those ideas,
which have revolutionized the world, were like in their infantine
beginnings. For in the present day no one can fully understand
the_ mental standpoint, or even the ideas of the civilization on
which the ancient inhabitants based their everyday life ; primitive
man, as a rule, has no wish for change, in fact no ideas enter
his head which tend to effect a transformation in his everyday
existence.

The transforming motor, in Ireland, came through the intro-
duction of a new religion ; its philosophy and classic modes of
thought woke the slumbering mass of the unreasoning multitude
to new intellectual life.

The force of the current of thought in ancient Greece and
Rome seems to have been spent before the introduction of Chris-
tianity. Men were feeding, or rather vegetating, upon the past.
Christianity came, and with it a period of new life and light,
which was in turn overwhelmed by the darkness of the Middle
Ages, caused immediately by the break up of the Soman Empire.
This Middle Age period of darkness would, however, have been
caused more slowly, but as surely, by the exclusive study of the
Bible, as then expounded, together with its addenda of volumi-
nous patristic literature. Then came the Saracenic revival of

7 WO FORMS OF RELIGION CO-EXISTED. 315

literature, which more or less permeated Western literature. In
a later period came the capture of Constantinople by the Turks,
and the flight of Greek scholars to the West, resulting in a
European revival of classic art and classic studies, and ultimately
in that mighty upheaval of art and of thought called respectively
" the Eenaissance" and "the Eeformation." From these, as a
later source, may be traced the genesis of the modern world ;
from them are derived the forces which have transformed the
world, both physically and morally.

In the days of the conversion of Ireland, which process, the
reader will bear in mind, was a long and slow one, zealous
Christian priests, " Mit Kettenldang und einem neuen Gotte,"
might induce their converts to pray to the saints ; but when the
prescribed rite was performed the honest half pagan would turn
with affection to the elder hierarchy, and, paradoxical as it may
at first sight appear, a singleness of religious feeling was the
motor of this seemingly double action, by which he held on to
the old faith, while he at the same time embraced, or tried to
embrace, the new. Thus the early Christian missionaries, in
endeavouring to wean the masses from long-established paganism,
did not attack time-honoured usages directly in front, but turned
their flank, and instead of exterminating the enemy they only
routed and scattered them. Here and there detached bodies
remained, which still offered a resolute, though in general passive,
resistance ; sometimes there occurred a rally, and Christianity
was checked in its conquering career. For more than fourteen
hundred years there existed two forms of religion, side by side —
the traditional creed believed in by the mass of the people, and
the worship of those who held the Christian faith. At length
the antagonism between the two ceased by the almost entire
absorption of the former by the latter, and traces of heathenism
nre now only to bo detected by the differences apparent between
the religion of the educated and of the uneducated ; for experience
demonstrates that primitive beliefs are practically indestructible —
new ideas overlie the old, but do not extinguish them. Take, for
example, the names of the seven days of the week ; every day is
dedicated to an old pagan god or goddess. Primitive rights,
which have been banished for centuries from religion as publicly
practised, are kept alive in local superstitions ; for there has never
been an epoch in the existence of any race in which all old institu-
tions, all old ideas, have suddenly vanished, yielding place to a
brand-new religion. The higher knowledge to which man has
now almost universally attained is " an outgrowth from the lower
knowledge, and this, like the outcrop of older rocks above the
newer rocks, as well as their fusion together, which we see in the
crust of the earth, often overlays or is mingled with more modern

316 AR CH^S OLOGY A ND RELIGION.

beliefs." With unchanged and stereotyped customs and ideas
before us for analysis, the past becomes as the present, the pre-
sent is as the past ; the veil which has hitherto shrouded bygone
ages is to a great extent lifted ; the living become, unconsciously
to themselves, witnesses to the correctness of the descriptions of
the scenes and ideas of the Eld. Thus, after the marriage cere-
mony has been performed according to law, traditional custom
imposes the performance of certain rites which appear irrational.
Hence it is plain that beneath the present-day custom, lie other
and more ancient traditional beliefs — waifs drifted down to us
along the stream of time from a dim and remote past ; but these
primitive customs and illusions which long hung on the borders
of, but are now more or less incorporated with, present-day reli-
gion will in time indubitably die out. They are mere embodiments
of man's childlike notions as regards the respect due to the
unseen, based upon a worship of the forces of nature. Eventually
worship, disregarding tradition, will develop into true religion,
and irrational customs and material objects will be disregarded
for the adoration of a one and only God. Perhaps the Christian
philosopher and seer had caught some glimpse of such a future
when he tells us that the heavenly city had " no temple
therein."

When an older religion has given place to a younger, the old
divinities are apt to be treated in a very cavalier fashion ; yet
customary observances nevertheless continue. Traces of this are,
as we have seen, clearly discernible in popular proverbs, cus-
toms, and folk-lore ; for worships that contain heathenish
elements are to a great extent traditional, and nothing is more
foreign to them than the introduction of forms for which there
is no precedent.

What is regarded as law at one stage of culture may be looked
upon as crime at another. For instance, in ancient Sparta
undetected theft was meritorious; in old Scandinavian society
the murder of a troublesome rival was looked upon as the proper
way of extrication from an awkward predicament. Lacedemonian
thief and Scandinavian murderer alike, doubtless, felt the glow
of a thoroughly approving conscience, when the former had
successfully committed his larceny and the latter had carefully
brained his rival ; but nowadays these former virtues are, unfor-
tunately, from the point of view of those who practise them,
regarded by society in the light of crime, and their perpetrators
become, if detected, the prey of the nearest policeman. Customs
of the peasantry should be approached in an appreciative spirit,
and should be treated on scientific methods. These unadopted
waifs are neither recognised by the present dominant Christian
religion nor by the law of the land ; in fact, they are now to

FESTIVALS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 317

some extent discountenanced by the former, and are certainly
punished by the latter when they run counter to present-day
practices. Though essentially the exclusive property of the least
cultured portion of the community, it is self-evident that they
were not invented by them, but were inherited ; for they accord
with superstitions and customs prevalent amongst present-day
savage tribes, and are, therefore, mere stereotyped fragments of
ancient barbaric thought. Students who have undertaken the
task of trying to unravel the tangled skein of the religious ideas
of savages are of opinion that the ideas of savages, though
apparently bordering upon the gruesome or the ridiculous, are in
reality far removed from anything of the sort. Generated in a
mental atmosphere that we should probably consider as per-
meated with intense ignorance, the beliefs and practices of
savages are nevertheless, according to their ideas, strictly
logical, and, when properly analysed and classified, display the
principles of their original formation and subsequent develop-
ment.

Thus an archaeological writer brings to the light of day things
which would otherwise remain unnoticed, and tries to place an
abstruse and dry subject interestingly before the modern reader,
who, as a rule, like Gallio of old, cares for none of these things —
unless they are written in a popular manner. The archaeological
writer, must, however, record with amplitude, not only important
but also unimportant facts. To do his work properly, an Irish
archiBological writer must also be a cold scientist, too callous to
be affected by the shock, or rather series of shocks, which his
opinions, fortified by the production of facts, may have on those
reared in the sentimental atmosphere of romantic glamour sur-
rounding the past of human existence in ancient Erin, for archaic
life in Ireland can now be traced back to an almost protoplasmic
state of society.

From a review of the past, it is apparent that there was a
slow but constant progress in the ascending scale of religious
as well as of material civilization ; no sudden transition from
savagery to culture, but an amelioration in the general status of
society, which, at the period of the introduction of iron and of
Christianity, had placed the inhabitants above the class of many
tribes of present-day savages. There is complete continuity in
this chain of amelioration — " All things which are now believed
to be of the greatest antiquity were once new ; and what we now
defend by example will one day be quoted as an example." The
links in this chain may be thus roughly described : what is
ancient becomes venerable, what is venerable becomes holy.
The festivals of the Christian Church are traceable to heathen
worship ; and we shall doubtless some time or another discover

318 ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

that these were observances borrowed from a remoter past, the
faint reflex of another and mysterious genesis.

" The footprints of an elder race are here,

And shadows of the old mysterious faiths."

Superstitions may be defined as beliefs and practices, which,
to the mind of the hearer or beholder, are founded upon what
he considers as erroneous conceptions of God and of the — now
well known — laws of Nature ; for almost every man, no matter
how low he may be on the rungs of the ladder of civilization,
has his convictions of, what he considers to be, right or wrong.

In the sense of the above definition St. Paul doubtless used
the word " superstitious "* when he criticised the astuteness of
the philosophic Athenians, desirous of shielding themselves from
the anger of any god whom they might have unintentionally
neglected to propitiate ; but St. Paul's criticism applies not to
his age alone, its applicability extends to every age and tn
every people.

We now-a-days pride ourselves on our freedom from super-
stition, and are, perhaps, inclined to err in the other extreme.
We cast ridicule at " medicine men," quite oblivious of the fact
that among us now there are still found, under other names, men
who firmly believe that they have power with the unseen, and
that they know more about the unknown than has ever been as
yet given to man to find out.

Superstition, after all, is primarily a mere rudimentary reli-
gious instinct, which is liable to become strangely distorted. It
appears as if the germ of the religious idea had been implanted
in the human breast ; that there is within us a strange blending
of the spiritual with the material, and an instinctive feeling that
this world of matter is not to bound our existence. There is the
greatest difficulty in defining where what may be considered
"superstition" ends and where what may be considered "religion"
commences. The superstitious or religious instinct is found in
almost all mankind. At the head of the evolutionary scale
there is a steady and continuous effort to get rid of it ; but,
except with some strong intellects, this appears to be an impossi-
bility, for even with the most intellectual the superstitious
instinct often breaks out in some distorted fashion. On the
other hand, at the bottom of the social scale, it it quite possible
that there may be some savages of low type guileless of any
form of superstition ; again, there may be some in whom the

* Acts xvii. 22, A. V. " too superstitious" ; R. V. "somewhat supersti-
tious," margin, or " religious."

TREATMENT OF SUPERSTITIONS. 319

germ of superstition is still in protaplasm. A savage who
arrives at the lowest stage of superstition has, nevertheless, made
a great advance from the mere brute. The savage who sacrifices
the tit-bits of the victim of his bow or of his spear to his god, is
on a much higher intellectual plane than the savage who devours
the carcase without any propitiatory offering, for the slightest
intellectual or moral advance is pregnant with promise.

The unsympathetic treatment of superstitions is unphilosophic
as well as unscientific ; for superstitions are not the swaddling
bands of infancy, they may rather be compared to the bark grow-
ing on the tree from its infancy and adapting itself to its gradual
development and to the growth which it stimulates or causes.
The importance of a sympathetic treatment of the relics of ancient
Faiths, such as has been attempted, is self-evident to any thinking
mind. To the more thoughtful, ancient rites must always have
had an esoteric meaning, and the grosser the rite the more the
mind must have been fixed on its inner sense.

Thus those who essay to depreciate superstitions in order to
exalt Christianity, play a disingenuous role, for there is a germ
of truth in them all ; and no one can properly weigh the merits
of different trains of thought unless he uses the same just balance.
It would be fatal, too, for any creed to claim immunity from
criticism ; Christianity, unless it has greatly changed since its
early years, certainly does not do so. It enjoyed no such privi-
lege when it overturned the powerful religions of the ancient
world. It was superior to them, and overthrew them on its
merits, just as, at a later date, Mahomedanism overthrew heathen-
ism and a very debased form of Christianity. Heathens may be
converted to a higher religion ; but a greater Faith, such as
Christianity or Mahomedanism, taught in childhood and once
accepted, is rarely, if ever, conscientiously changed for another.

The growth of Theism as embodied in Christianity, with its
hard and fast definitions, its ethical ideas, and its personal rela-
tions with a great and only Spirit has gradually developed from a
much lower form of belief in the supernatural. The mere tribal
God of Israel, the interesting divinities of the Greeks and Romans,
with their doubtful morality, the undefinable God of the Vedas,
have yielded place to the impeccable but personal God of Chris-
tianity, who was described or rather foreshadowed thousands of
years ago in the Prophets and in the Psalms, for it was no mere
blind chance that shaped the growth of the religion of Israel
and finally transformed it into one suitable for all mankind.

The absurd theories started by visionary antiquarians of the
last century have greatly retarded the proper study of the ancient
religion, or religions, professed by the pre-Christian inhabitants
of Erin. Of these writers it may be said, Quot homines tot

320 ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

sententia, which can be paraphrased " so many archasologists so
mariy fancies." This school is, however, even yet, not quite
extinct, for M. Jubainville, a recent French writer, affirms his
belief, in which he is followed by Mr. Yates, that the narratives
of the battles between the Dedanann and the Firbolgs are simply
twisted and distorted allegories, representing the contests between
the powers of Light and Darkness, or of Good and Evil, the
former being represented by the Dedanann, the latter by the
Firbolgs. The Frenchman, M. Jubainville, will probably keep
literary hadesian company (apologies to the shades and to the
reader for the use of the adjective which the writer cannot find
in the dictionary) with the Englishman, Colonel Vallancey, and
the Anglo-Irishman, Mr. Yates, these writers being "more Irish
than the Irish themselves." Their deliramenta doctrina may
in weight and importance be compared to the questions once
seriously argued amongst schoolmen, one of the most warmly
debated being the fixing of the definite number of angels that
could, with convenience to themselves, dance on the point of a
needle. The proverb which says that " nothing is certain but the
unforeseen," was never better exemplified than in the modern
resurrection of a school of archaeology which died of ridicule
nearly a century ago. It is a sign of the times we live in.
Populus vult decipi. Archaeological publications are inundated
with an increasing number of contributors sadly wanting in
sobriety, breadth, and repose, who revel in extravagant, and
even grotesque, idealisms, and the general reading public
(decipiatur) accepts them at their own valuation.

The difficulty of presenting a clear account of a country's past
and unrecorded secular as well as religious history is only too
evident, but we have long passed the time when statements are
admitted without question simply because they were made at a
remote period. The time has gone by when the " history " of
the all credulous Keating and the various Irish Annals can be
placed as classic works on the level of ancient Greek and Latin
histories. A nation's record, however ancient, that is almost
entirely occupied with long accounts of mere local struggles is but
a poor history indeed, and but little else remains when super-
natural occurrences that could never, according to modern science,
have happened, are subtracted from the text. We call to mind
now-a-days that the so-called " historical" Irish writers were pro-
bably often as far, if not indeed farther, removed from the events
they pretend to explain than they are from our times. Our more
critical age takes account of what may be called the historical per-
spective ; for scepticism has its useful side. We have the mediaeval
saying : — Trex medic i, duo athcisti, which may be roughly rendered
that any man who is an adept in science or in research makes a bad

TIMES CHANGING RAPIDLY. 321

churchman, for knowledge begets doubt, and implicit belief
shrinks in proportion to its growth. In almost every age
of human advancement, there is a sceptical stage ; this may
be said to be well marked even in the Bible (Ecclesiastes)
for scepticism makes its appearance in every period when
man commences to reflect on the problem of life, past, present,
and to come ; and the Preacher, like many modem writers,
does not attempt to solve the enigmas he propounds. If it be
true that the general idea of religion expands with the intellect ;
if there be no one final statement of the truth but only provisional
enunciations, are not alternations of ages of faith with ages of
criticism exactly what might be expected under the circumstances ?
Certainly the " age of faith " which could accept unquestioned
the imaginative statements of mediaeval history writers has long
passed, and it is by patient work and study of folk-lore, and of
the strange waifs which have come down to us from bygone ages,
that we may hope to arrive at some idea of the life of prehistoric
man.

Our examination of the survival in Ireland of the traces of older
faiths than Christianity, in the form of national and traditional
folk-lore, may conclude with the summary of this interesting sub-
ject, given by the great Irish scholar, O'Donovan : — " I respect it
(national traditional lore) as a great influence that has been, and
no longer is, or can be. It fed the poetical flame within the
people's mind, and was the parent of true poetry in the more
cultivated ; it nourished the latent instinctive aspirations of the
Irish race, gave them aliment, and directed their movements, and
rescued their ancestors from the dominion of brutish ignorance ;
stirred them up with insatiable thirst for true knowledge, which
when established on a right basis, will raise this ancient and
imaginative people to a truly noble standard among the civilized
nations of modern Europe ; but its office has been fulfilled ; it is
no longer necessary to the exigencies of modern society, with
which the Irish race must either amalgamate or perish. The only
interest it can have is a historical and a poetical one, and most
men will acknowledge that nothing can be more interesting to us,
in this point of view, than the progress of our ancestors, from
rude primeval simplicity, to true civilization and positive
science."

Times are indeed changed, and our lines are fallen upon an
epoch when gods and saints seem to be disappearing in the
present universal swirl and general break-up of all ancient land-
marks, beliefs, and systems, for when the divinities have dis-
appeared from Olympus, when the local goddesses have departed,
when Hades has lost its terrors, a change of faith is surely impend-
ing. Again the awful voice which long ago echoed round the

322 ARCHEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

shores of the central sea, " The great god Pan is dead," gives
forth afresh the dreadful news, until the sound reverberates now in
every corner of the civilized world. The majority of leading
Christian teachers appear to be evolutionists of a more or less
pronounced type, and surely there is nothing in Christianity
itself, nor in the formula of most religious organizations, to
prevent their teachers admitting the doctrine of evolution. But
to bring themselves within the pale of orthodoxy, evolution must
be regarded as arising from the action of an intelligent First
Cause. There are few men in whom we can now unsuspectingly
trust, either in the religious or political world — in the pulpit few
that believe all that they preach — in office, few statesmen that will
not betray their supporters, provided they imagine they, or their
party, will benefit by the betrayal. Political expediency is
transformed into the goddess of Eeason whom we are called upon
to worship. We live in an epoch of political and religious
transition and in an atmosphere of sham. If anyone be so
reckless as to speak the truth he is hounded down, in old-world
manner, as a blasphemer against the gods, as an irreligious man,
or at best is pointed to as a brutally candid thinker to thus tear
aside the veil which hides the seething mass of unbelief
beneath, for society hates those that try to unmask it.
Many are now literally in search of a religion. If one
could only obtain a good look from within at any particular
organization included in what theologians style the Church
Universal, flat heresy would probably be found common enough.
Could we but take an Asmodean flight, and waiving aside all
obstructions to the view, look down on this globe, what a world
we would behold ! Moral bonds are loosening, the age of faith
in all things is shaken to its foundation. The most serious
strain that any civilization has to encounter occurs in that
stage in intellectual development in which religious restraints
are beginning to be disregarded.

Whatever we may otherwise think of them, the men of old
believed firmly in their creed. They could not behold a well
without seeing there the abode of a beneficent being ; a tree
without its local god —

" And to this day the peasant still

With cautious fear avoids the ground,
In each wild branch a spectre sees
And trembles at each rising sound."

They regarded all nature as permeated through and through,
with influence from on high. If we think we possess more
wisdom, we have, in reality, quite as little knowledge of the
workings of the will of the Great Ruler of The Unseen.

TRUTH MUST TRIUMPH OVER ERROR. 323

The upward course of paganism in Ireland has now been
traced (as far as present day knowledge will allow) until the time
when it was conquered by, and to a great extent absorbed into
Christianity; its "childhood shows the man, as morning shows
the day," but we should not, on that account, shrink from ex-
ploring the past, for it with its horrors will never return. Truth
it is said, lies at the bottom of a well ; it is difficult but not
impossible to reach ; its certain and eventual triumph over error
will become a recognised fact in material as well as in moral
matters. It is not too sanguine to predict that it will at length
be reached, and will exhibit early human life in Ireland in a very
different light from that in which it has been hitherto depicted.
At the same time it is necessary to remember that archaeological
truth is purely relative, admits apparently of no finality, and
must be surveyed in all lights and from all standpoints. There
are but few lovers of truth that will not agree in this. Many a
now acknowledged truth was once a struggling and much con-
troverted theory : the basis of every science has been, at one time,
considered a fundamental fallacy. One of the most far-reaching
questions in the New Testament, " what is truth ? "* received no
answer, but the Koman Governor did not wait to listen to an
answer had it been granted, or, paradoxically, as it may seem,
may not silence be regarded as the answer. " We must never
forget that man cannot ascertain absolute truth, and that the
final result of human inquiry into the matter is, that we are
incapable of perfect knowledge ; that even if the truth be in our
possession, we cannot be sure of it." Let us nevertheless try to
establish the sway of what we consider to be the truth over the
wild swirl of a seething archaeological chaos : our sure ally is
time ; we should hold fast to nothing but that which is certain,
and which has been verified by time, following St. Paul's
advice, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good."

The late Professor Huxley states that early in life, he discovered
" that one of the unpardonable sins, in the eyes of most people,

* Pilate's question, Quid est Veritas ? is answered by the anagram Est tir
qui adest, i.e. it is the man here present. Since the above was written, the
following appeared in the Contemporary Jteview from the pen of Prof. Goldwin
Smith: — " If wo know anything of the law of the Universe, it is that our
salvation lies in the single-minded pursuit of truth. Man will not rest in blank
agnosticism ; lio is irresistibly impelled to inquiry into his origin and destiny.
Our business now is to look for rational data, and most obviously in the intel-
lectual and moral nature of man, with its consciousness, its aspirations, its
senso of responsibility, and qualified freedom of will. These, however evolved,
aro not merely physical — though, however conditioned by matter, is not
matter ; if action is subject to causation, physical and moral causations are
not tho same. Nor is it easy to suppose that they are the accidental product
of an unconscious Universe, or that they tell nothing beyond themselves."

324 ARCHEOLOGY AND RELIGION.

is for a man to presume to go about unlabelled. The world
regards such a person as the police do an unmuzzled dog, not
under proper control." Now si par i-a licet mac/nis componere, the
writer is also a vagrant and unlabelled animal, he can neither
defend the chimera of the ancient glories of Ireland, nor, on the
other hand, can he agree with those who paint the natives of Erin
as any worse than their neighbours across the Channel. The
writing of this work has been undertaken with reluctance, much
in the spirit of the zealous Greek, who, after shattering the
beautiful statues he had formerly regarded as his gods, gazes with
regret at the wreck wrought by the blows of his iconoclastic
hammer ; for no spectacle can be more mournful than watching the
dying agonies of an ancient and cherished belief, the belief in a
former almost paradisiacal Ireland, which, in its day, has given
consolation, in the greatest depths of despondency, to many gener-
ations of Irishmen, and there are also few acts which draw down
greater opprobrium on a writer than the demolition of popular fal-
lacies. It is difficult to replace them by well established facts,
and the general reader prefers fallacious information to blank
pages ; for sensible beings who do not require fiction, but prefer
positive concrete information are at present in a very small
minority.

The text is, it is thought, untrammelled by shaky theories
based on premature conclusions ; there are certainly no pet
cranks to uphold at any cost ; there is no "axe to grind."
Nothing has knowingly been extenuated, nothing has knowingly
been set down in malice ; throughout the attempt has been made
to narrate, and it is hoped successfully, " the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth."

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Irregular Use of Maiden Surnames.
[Note to p. 40, line 22, after the word " kindred."]

" It is u common practice for mothers of children, when registering births,
to sign the entry with their maiden surname. Cases have also frequently come
under notice when, in death entries, deceased widows are registered under their
maiden name instead of their married name, the maiden name having been
resumed on the death of the husband.

" The Registrar of Tuam, No. 2, further reports that, in some cases in his
district, the mother's maiden surname is used by the children instead of the
father's, as — ' John'Keane,' real name ' John Dunne.' " — Varieties and Syno-
nyms of Surnames and Christian Names in Ireland. Robert Matheson, p. 25.

The Unholy Bound.
[Note to p. 57, line 4, after the word " sun."]

" One very ancient and persistent superstition had regard to the direction
of movement either of persons or things. This direction should always be
with the course of the sun. To move against the sun was improper and
productivo of evil consequences, and the namo given to this direction of
movoment was withershins. Witches in their dances and other pranks always,
it is said, went withershins. Mr. Simpson in his work, Meeting the Sun, says,
' The Llama monk whirls his praying cylinder in the way of the sun, and fears
lest a stranger should get at it and turn it contrary, which would take from it
all the virtue it had acquired. They also build piles of stone, and always pass
them on ono side, and return on the other, so as to make a circuit with the sun.
Mahommedans make the circuit of the Caaba in the same way. The ancient
dagobas of India and Ceylon were also traversed round in the same way, and
the old Irish and Scotch custom is to make all movements Desiul, or sunwise,
round houses and graves, and to turn their bodies in this way at the beginning
and end of a journey for luck, as well as at weddings and other ceremonies.'

" To go withershins and to read prayers or the creed backwards were great
evils, and pointed to connexion with the devil. The author of Olrig Grange,
in an early poom, skotches this superstition very graphically : —

' Hech ! sirs, but we had grand fun
Wi' the moiklo black deil in the chair,
And the mucklo Bible upside doon
A' ganging withershins roun' and roun',
And backwards saying the prayer
About the warlock's grave,
Withershins ganging roun' ;
And kimmer and carlino had for licht
The fat o' a bairn they buried that nicht,
Unchristcn'd beneath the moon.'
VOL. II. Y 2

326 ADDITIONAL NOTES.

" If a tree or plant grew with a twist contrary to the direction of the sun's
movement, that portion was considered to possess certain powers, which are
referred to in the following verse of an old song : —

' I '11 gar my ain Tammy gae doun to the Howe
And cut me a rock of the widdershins grow,
Of good rantree for to carry my tow,
And a spindle of the same for the twining o't.'

" Pennant refers to some other practices in Scotland in his day, that were
no doubt survivals of ancient heathen worship. Such as, on certain occasions,
kindling a fire, and the people joining hands and dancing three times round
it south- ways, or according to the course of the sun. At baptisms and marriages
they walked three times round the church sun-ways. The Highlanders,
in going to bathe or drink in a consecrated fountain, approach it by going
round the place from east to west on the south side. When the dead are laid
in their grave, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner.
The bride is conducted to the spouse in presence of the minister round the
company in the same direction ; indeed all public matters were done according
to certain fixed ideas in relation to the sun, all pointing to a lingering ray of
sun-worship." — Folk-Lore, by James Napier, f.e.s.e., pp. 133, 135.

Sir Walter Scott, in his tale of " The Antiquary," designates the locus of the
bogus mining operations directed by the charlatan Dousterswivel as Glenwither-
shins, i.e. " the unlucky Glen."

Ceremonies at Ttoberkalt Well.
[Note to p. 101, line 12, after the word "flowers."]

The following cure for diseases, as performed at the above-named well, is
derived from information given by a person who has frequently made the
prescribed rounds : —

Before coming to the well, the " Stations of the Cross " are recited by the
postulant kneeling in front of the Altar. The postulant then picks up three
stones, and approaches the "blessed well"; reverently he enters it, placing a
foot into each side-wall of the well without touching the water (for if he does
so, it invalidates the ceremony), stoops, and to do so his head must go partially
into the recess on the opposite side of the wall.

He then turns round, without touching the water, looking up towards the
sky, throws the first stone into the water in the name of the first person of the
Trinity, the second for " the Son," and the third for " the Holy Ghost."

This done, he returns to the Altar ; kneeling in front of it, he again performs
the " Stations of the Cross," and the ceremony is concluded.

The above rites are generally performed by a substitute for a friend who is
suffering from an infirmity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS AND WORKS

ON

Ertsfj pre=Cfjrtgtian &rcijjeologg anti jFolfclore

WHICH CAME UNDER THE WRITER'S NOTICE.

.*. Arranged alphabetically by Subjects and Authors.

•Classification of Subjects (alphabetically arranged) in the subjoined

Bibliography : —

Numbered

I. Amber, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,2

Amulets, Magical-, Cursing-, and Healing-Stones,
&c. (See Religion and Folk- Lobe, No. XXV.)

II. Antiquities in General, . . . . . . . . 3-31

III. Architecture, . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-56

IV. Bog Butter, 57-68

V. Bronze, 69-133

VI. Bullans, 135-138

VII. Caves, 139-147

VIII. Clothing, 148-153

IX. Fictilia, 154-200

X. Flint and Stone Implements, . . . . . . 201-231

Folklore. (See Religion and Folklore.)

XI. Forgeries, 232-242

XII. Fossil Mammalia, 243-298

XIII. Geology, 299-302

XIV. Glass, 303-315

XV. Gold, 316-359

XVI. Human Crania, Osseous Remains and Ethnography, 360-392

XVII. Jade, 393,394

XVIII. Jet, 395-402

XIX. Kitchen Middens, or Refuse Heaps, and Open-Air

Cooking Places, . . . . . . . . . . 403-417

XX. Lake Dwelling 418-479

XXI. Ogham, 480-527

XXII. Pillar-, Holed- Stones, &c 528-539

XXIII. Querns, 540-545

XXIV. Paths 546-569

XXV. Religion and Folklore, . . . . . . . . 570-677

XXVI. Rock Sculpturings and Ornamentation, . . . . 678-702

XXVII. Roman Coins, Antiquities, and Pre - Christian

Notices of Ireland, . . . . . . , . 703-725

XXVIII. Rude Stone Monuments, Cists, Graves, and Ceme-
teries, 726-820

XXIX. Runes, 821-823

XXX. Sea-side Settlements, 824-831

XXXI. Silver, 832-839

XXXII. Souterrains, 840-872

XXXIII. Urns op Stone, 873-875

XXXIV. Vivianite, 876-S77

XXXV. "Wooden Objects 87S-90S

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PAPERS AND WORKS.

I.— AMBER.

1 Graves, Rev. James :

On an amber bead with an Ogham inscription.— Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. i., new series, pp. 149, 150.

2 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i. a:

On amber. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, p. 537.

II.-ANTIQUITIES IN GENERAL.

3 Bali,, Robert :

Means used by the ancients for attaching handles to metal implements. —
Proo. R.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 511-513.

4 Coleman, J., h.m.c. :

Prehistoric remains in East Cork. — Journal of the Cork Historical and

Archajological Society, vol. ill. , pp. 163-168.
Topography and Traditions of the Great Island and Cork Harbour. —

Journal of the Cork Historical and Archaeological Society, vol. iii.,

pp. 34-36, 52-54.

5 Dav, Roiieht, JrN., r.B.A :

Antiquities at Cork Industrial Exhibition, 1883. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 210-213.

6 Du Noyer, G. V. :

Drawings of Irish Antiquities. —Proc. R.I. A., vol. vii., pp. 249-262,
302-315; vol. viii., pp. 61-67, 282-289, 429-441.

7 Fitzoerald, Edward :

Vestiges and Relics in the vicinity of Toughal of the Primeval or Pagan
period. — Youghal, 1858.

N Graixher, Rev. D., m.r.i. a. .

Diggings of an Antiquary. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society,
1880, pp. 48-52.
VOL. II. Z

330 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

9 Graves, Rev. James :

What we learn from Wilde's Catalogue of the Museum E.I.A.— Journal
Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 110—139.

10 Gray, William :

Report on the Glenny Collection.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th
series, pp. 162, 163.

11 Griffiths, Richard :

Antiquities presented by the Shannon Commissioners to the Museum
R.I.A.— Proo. R.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 312-316.

12 Hitchcock, Richard :

Miscellaneous Antiquities.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.

140 141

Archaeological Court of the Exhibition of 1853.— Trans. Kil. A.

Society, vol. ii., pp. 280-295.

13 Jones, Colonel:

Antiquities found in the River Shannon.— Proc. R.I.A., vol. ii., pp.
594, 595.

14 Joyce, P. W., ll.d. :

Origin and History of Irish Names of Places, 1st and 2nd series (2 vols.),
Dublin, 1875.

15 Kemble, J. M. :

Utility of Antiquarian Collections in relation to the Prehistoric Annals
of Europe.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. vi., pp. 462^tS0.

16 Kinahan, G. H.:

Geology of Ireland.

17 Milligan, Seaton F. :

Archa3ological Exploration.— Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society,
1886-7, pp. 40-54.

18 Mulvany, W. T. :

Collections of Antiquities made by the Officers of the Board of Works.—
Proc. R.I. A., vol. v., pp. 239, 243-245 ; Appendix No. 2.

19 O'Donovan, John, ll.d. :

Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (translated by above), 7 vols.

20 Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a. :

Description of the Benn Collection, Belfast Museum. — Journal

R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 294-303.
The Benn Collection of Antiquities, Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil.

Society, 1SS2, pp. 1-17.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 331

21 PoWXALL, GoVERXOR :

Account of some Irish Antiquities. — Archaeologia, vol. iii., pp. 355-370.

22 Prim, Mr. :

Antiquities discovered in trenching a small rath. — Journal Kil. A.
Society, vol. iii., new series, pp. 307, 308.

23 Romnnox, Rev. T. R., d.i>. ;

Contents of an ancient bronze vessel. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv., pp.
237-246.

21 Smith, Rev. W. S. .

Antrim — its Antiquities and History. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, 2nd
series, vol. iv., pp. 13-19.

25 Todd, Rev. J. H., d.d. .

Antiquities presented by the King of Denmark and the Royal Society of

Antiquities of Copenhagen.
On the same : Petrie, George. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp 250, 253.

20 Trevelan, Mu. :

Letters on Irish Antiquities. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. v.,
pp. 150-155, 185-187, 336-342.

27 Vai,lancey, General Charles :

Collectanea de Rebus Hihernicis (valuable as a contribution to general
knowledge : facts correct, theories baseless), 6 vols.

28 Wakeman, W. F. :

Archscologia Hibernica: a Handbook of Irish Antiquities, Pagan and
Christian (2nd edition).— Dublin, 1891.

29 Westropp, Hoduer M. :

Prehistoric Phases or Introductory Essays on Prehistoric Archaeology.—
London, 1872.

30 Wilde, Sir W. R., m.r.i.a. .

Catalogue, Museum R.I. A. — Dublin, 1857.

Lough Corrib ; its shores and islands. — Dublin, 1872.

On Antiquities — weapons, ornaments, domestic implements, sepulchral

urns, and somo animal remains found in ancient tumuli. — Proc. R.I. A.,

vol. iii., pp. 260-263.
Statement on the presentation of certain Antiquities. — Proc. R.I. A.,

vol. viii., pp. 324-330, 428.
The Beauties of the Boyne and its tributary the Blackwatcr. — Dublin,

1849.

31 Wohhaae, J. J. A. :

Classification of Antiquities found in West Europe. — Proc. R.I. A., vol.
iii., pp. 310-315, 327-344.

Z 2

332 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

III.— ARCHITECTURE.

32 Anonymous :

Description of an ancient Building on Greenan Mountain, Donegal. —

Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iii., pp. 349, 350.
Note on Vitrified Forts. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. viii., 4th series,

p. 344.
The Moat of Ardscull.— Journal Kildare Arch. Society, vol. ii., pp.

186-197.

33 Beaufort, L. C. .

Architecture and Antiquities previous to the landing ofj the Anglo-
Normans. — Trans. R.I.A., vol. xv., pp. 101-242.

34 Bernard, Dr. Walter :

Restoration of the Grianan of Aileach. — Proc. B.I. A., Pol. lit. and
Ant., vol. i., pp. 415-423.

35 Bland, F. C. ;

Description of Staigue Fort (1821). — Trans. [R.I.A., vol. xiv., pp.
17-29.

36 Bucanan, Edward :

Sweat House. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iv., p. 273.

37 Crowe, J. O'Beirne :

Origin and meaning of the word " clocan," as applied to a class of Irish
Pagan and early Christian buildings. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,
4th series, pp. 328-330.

38 Deanf., Sir Thomas Newenham :

Report on ancient monuments in Co. Kerry. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series,
vol. iii., pp. 100-107.

39 Du Noyer, George V., m.r.i.a. .

Remains of ancient stone-built fortresses and habitations occurring to
the west of Dingle, Co. Kerry. — The Archaeological Journal, pp.
1-24.

40 Dunuaven, Edwin, third Earl of:

Notes on Irish Architecture. — London, 1875, 2 vols.

41 Geoghegan, A. G. :

On the origin of Raths.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., 2nd series, pp.
87, 88.

42 Havurty, Martin :

The Aran Isles, &e, — Dublin, 1859.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 333

43 Kirker, S. K., c.b. :

Resemblance between some ancient remains in Greece and Ireland. —
Journal R.S.A., Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 271-279.

44 Kinahan, Geokok, f.u.g.s.i., m.u.i.a. :

Ancient Villages, &c— Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 25-30.
Cromleac-like Doorway to a Less, or Earthen Fort. — Journal R.H A. A. I.,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 282-284.
On Vitrified Forts. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp.

756, 757.
Ruins of Ardilaun, &c. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 551-555.
Sweat House at Glentidaly, Co. Donegal. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol.

ix., 4th series, p. 282.

45 Macalisteh, R. A. Stewaut, m.a. :

On an ancient settlement in the 8. W. of the Barony of Corkaguiney,
County of Kerry. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xxx.

46 Mayo, Earl of :

Rathmore. — Journal Kildare Arch. Society, vol. ii., pp. 112-115.

47 Millioan, Seaton F., m.r.i.a. ;

Ancient forts, &c. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, pp. 574-582.
Irish hot-air bath. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp.

268-270.
Irish hot-air bath. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society,

1889-90, pp. 37-41.

48 Molyneux, Thomas, m.d. :

A discourse concerning the Danish mounts, forts, and towers of
Ireland.— London, 1725.

19 Mooiie, Rev. W. P. ;

On a Vitrified Fort.— Proc. R.I.A., vol. v., p. 69.

50 Mulcahy, Rev. D. B. :

An ancient Irish hot-air bath. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series,
pp. 589, 590.

51 Otway, Rev. Cakbau :

Vitrified fort.— Trans. R.I. A., vol. xiii., pp. 123-127.

52 PhTHiE, George, u.h.a. :

Architecture anterior to the Anglo-Norman invasion. — Trans. R.I. A.,

vol. xx.
The round towers and ancient architecture of Ireland. — Trans. E.I. A.,

vol. xx., pp. 1-521.

53 Wakeman, W. F. :

Dunnamoe Cashel, Co. Mayo. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th
series, pp. 182-183,

Inismurray and its antiquities. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th
series, pp. 175-332 ; also twice reprinted as an annual volume of the
Society. Shows the connecting links between Pagan and Christian
architecture ; a most important work and a good authority.

The hot-air bath. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, p. 165.

334 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

54 Westropp, Thomas Johnston :

Antiquities of Tara. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. iv., 5th series, pp.

232-242.
Magh Adhair, Co. Clare — the place of inauguration of the Dalcsssian

Kings. — Proc. E.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 55-60.
On cashels and stone forts. — Journal U.S.A. I., vol. vii., 5th series, pp.

300-321.
Prehistoric stone forts of central Clare. — Journal U.S. A. I., vol. ii., oth

series, pp. 281-291, 432.
Prehistoric stone forts of northern Clare. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. vi.,

5th series, pp. 142-157, 363-369.
Prehistoric stone forts of northern Clare. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. vii.,

5th series, pp. 116-127.
Sweat House near Eglish. — Journal U.S. A. I., vol. iv., 5th series,

p. 180.

55 Windele, John :

Cahir Conri. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. viii., pp. 111-126.

56 Writers, various :

Cyclopean ruins near Dundalk. — Vallancey's Collectanea De Eebus
Hibernicis (No. 10) — Wright's Louthiana. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, pp. 234-235.

IV— BOG BUTTER.

57 Anonymous :

Ancient Irish butter. — The Reliquary, vol. 4, p. 240.

58 Cliuuorn, Edward :

Bog butter. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology. — vol. vii., pp. 288-293.

59 Dai.ton, Mr. .

On a discovery of bog butter. — Trans. Eil. A. Society, vol. iv., new
series, p. 96.

60 Frazer, W., f.r. c.s.i. :

Bog butter. — Proc. E.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, pp. 583-S.

61 Hitchcock, Eichard :

Discovery of a quantity of bog butter. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol.
iii., pp. 175-178.

62 M'Evoy, Mr. .

Bog butter. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, p. 14S.

63 O'Lavertv, James :

Bog butter.— Ulster Journal of Arehrcology. vol. vii., pp. 28S-294.

64 O'Laverty, Rev. James :

Why butter was buried in bogs P— Journal E.S.A.I., vol. ii., 5th
series, pp. 356, 357.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 335

65 Scott, Rev. J. H. :

Discovery of bog butter.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series,
p. 350.

00 Stanley, Thomas:

On the discovery of some bog butter. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th

series, pp. 123, 124.
Bog butter.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, p. 314.

67 Wilde, Sin W. R., m.h.i.a. :

Bog butter.— Oat. Mus. R.I.A., pp. 267-269.

68 Wright, Rohert :

On a discovery of bog butter.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. 2, p. 189.

V— BRONZE-

G9 Allman, Professor:

Ancient copper mine.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 64-66.

70 Anketell, M. J. .

A collection of shoes of bronze. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. v., pp. 27-29.

71 Anonymous:

Ancient bronze brooches. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv., pp. 45,

46, 66.
Antiquities discovered on the shore of Ballynass Bay. — Ulster Journal

of Archtcology, vol. vi., pp. 361-353.
Bronze caldrons. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix., pp. 140,

147, 321, 322.
Bronze dagger with original handle, found near Castleisland, Co.

Kerry. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 423-425.
Interesting find in Moyntaghs, Co. Armagh. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol.

vii., 5th series, p. 191.
On the use of certain antique bronze articles. — Ulster Journal of

Archaeology, vol. ix., pp. 271-277.

72 Armstrong, Rev. Wm. :

On certain bronze antiquities. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 369, 370.

73 Atkinson, George M. :

Bionzo ring found in a kist, Ballinling West, Co. Coik. — Journal
R. II. A. A. I., vol. v., 4th scries, pp. 638-640.

71 Ball, Rodert :

On the dotal.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., pp. 135-6.

75 Barry, Rev. E. :

On a bronze sword. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. vi., 4th series, pp.
179-181.

336 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

76 Bell, Dr. William :

On ring money. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. viii., pp. 253-268.

77 Beranoer, Gabriel :

Bronze implement.— Journal E.H.A.A. I., vol. i., 4th series, pp. 123,
124.

78 Betham, Sir William, m.r.i.a. .

On an astronomical instrument. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xvii., pp. 3-6.

79 Bkenan, Eev. Samuel Arthur :

Supposed workshop of hronze articles. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi.,
4th series, p. 439.

80 Browne, Arthur, s.f.t.c.d :

Ancient trumpets dug up in a bog near Armagh. — Trans. E.I. A., vol.
viii., pp. 11, 12.

81 Caruuthers, Mr. .

Instrument of bronze. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii.,pp. 64, 65;
Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i. , p. 324 — George Petrie.

82 Clibborn, Edward :

On the discovery of iron cores in certain bronze antiquities in the
Museum, E.I. A. —Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., pp. 299-301.

83 Coffey, George :

Classification of spear-heads of the bronze age. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iii.,
3rd series, pp. 486-510.

84 Cooke, Thomas L. :

Bronze antiquities found at Downs, King's County. — Proc. E.I.A.,
vol. iv., pp. 423-440.

85 Day, Eobert, Jun., m.r.i.a. .

Bronze leaf-shaped sword, retaining the original bone handle. — Journal

E.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 23-25.
Bronze sword.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, p. 117.
Discovery of a hoard of bronze antiquities.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol.

v., 4th series, pp. 263, 266.
Find of fragmentary bronze articles. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th

series, p. 120.
Irish bronze war trumpets.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series,

pp. 422-432.
On a bronze leaf-shaped sword found in Ireland, with bone baft.— The

Eeliquary, vol. .<., pp. 66, 66.
On stone hammers from old copper mines.— Journal E.H.A.A. I., vol.

6, 4th series, p. 281.

86 Dillon, Hon. L. Gerald :

Bronze leaf-shaped sword.— Journal E.H.A.A. I., vol. vi., 4th series,
pp. 19, 20.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 337

87 Donovan, M.

Analysis of the gold-coloured bronze antiquities found at Dowris,
King's Country.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 463-470.

88 Duoan, C. W. :

Interesting find of a bronze vessel in the Montiaghs, Co. Armagh. —
Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 437, 438.

89 Du Noyer, George V. -.

Classification of bronze arrow-heads. — Arch. Journal, vol. vii., pp.

281-283.

Classification of bronze celts. — Arch. Journal, vol. iv., pp. 1-G,

327-337.

90 Editou Ulster Journal of Archaeology :

African and Irish fibula;. — Ulster Journal of Archa:ology, vol. v., pp.

246-248.
Bronze pin found near Ballymoney, County Antrim. — Ulster Journal of

Archaeology, vol. v., p. 157.
Bronze spear-head. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iii., pp. 777,

778.
On two bronze fibula). — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 347,

348.
On two bronze fibulaj. — Ulster Journal of Archeoology, vol. vi., pp. 103,

104.

91 Enniskillen, Earl of :

Bronze sword. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th scries, p. 116.

92 Evans, John, d.c.l., &c. .

The anciont bronze implements, weapons and ornaments of Great
lii-itain and Ireland. — London, 1881.

93 Frazer, W., f.r.c.s.i. :

On three bronzo celts found in Co. Mayo. — Proc. R.I. A., 2nd series

vol. ii., pp. 417-423.
So called sickles of bronzo found in Ireland.— Proc. R.I. A., 2nd series,

pp. 381-390.

94 Graves, Rev. James, b.a. :

Bronze shields.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol iv., 4th series, pp. 487, 488.
Bone-bafted bronze sword. — Journal R. II. A. A. I., vol. ii., 4th series,

pp. 257, 258.
Bronzo-hafted dagger, and a dagger hilt of bronze. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. iv., 4th series, pp. 186, 187.

95 Haughton, Rev. Samuel .

Geological and Statistical Notes on Irish Mines. — Journal Geologica
Society, vol. v., pp. 279-285.

96 Hemans, G. W. :

On presenting some Antiquities to the Academy. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv.,
pp. 665, 566.

338 BIBLIOGRAPHY,

97 Hewson, G. J. :

Finds of bronze weapons. — Proe. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th. series, pp.

484, 485.
On two bronze pins.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp.

67, 68.

98 Hitchcock, R. :

On the discovery of bronze celts, &c. — Trans. El. A. Society, vol. iii.,
pp. 175-178.

99 Jones, Colonel H. D., c.e. :

On certain Antiquities. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 394-396.

100 Knowles, W. J., m.r.i.a. ;

Report on some recentfindsin Co. Antrim. — JournalR.H.A.A.L, vol. is.,
4th series, pp. 107-113.

101 Lamb, Rev. Patrick, p.p. :

Bridle bit of bronze. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp.
58, 59.

102 Langtky, George:

Bronze caldron found at Cape Castle, Co. Antrim. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 20-23.

103 Lenihan, Maurice, m.r.i.a. :

Observations relative to a rare example of an ancient shield. — Journal

R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 11S-121.
On an ancient bronze shield.-Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., Pol. Lit. and Ant.,

pp. 155, 156.

104 Long, J., c.e. :

On the age of the various stone and bronze antiquities found during the
Shannon Navigation operations, as bearing on the antiquity of man in
Ireland. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp. 264-267.

105 Mac Adam, Robert :

Ancient Irish trumpets. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. viii., pp.

99-110.
Brazen cauldron. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 82-90.

106 M'Evoy, D. :

On a magnificent specimen of an antique bronze caldron. — Trans. Kil.
A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 131, 132.

107 M'Nulty, R. :

Recent find in Co. Donegal— bronze celt.— Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vi..
5th Series, p. 382.

108 Mallet, J. W. :

Report on the chemical examination of antiquities from the Museum,
R.I. A. —Trans. R.I. A., vol. xxii., p. 313.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 339

109 Mautin, James, m.d. :

On an ancient bronze object. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series,
pp. 88, 89.

110 Millioan, Seaton F. :

Hammer and anvil of bronze. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series,

p. 538.
On crannogs in the Co. Cavan.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th

series, pp. 148-152.

111 Mohe, A. G., f.l.s. :

Ancient bronze implement. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. i., Pol. Lit. and Ant.,
pp. 25, 26.

112 Norueyb, Sir Denham Jephson:

Observations on the mode of constructing a remarkable Celtic trumpet in
the Museum, E.I. A. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. iv., 4th series, pp.
277-279.

113 O'Connell, Maurice :

An account of certain antiquities presented to the Academy. — Proc.
E.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 166, 167.

114 O'Donovan or Lissaud :

Curious object composed of ivory and bronze. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,
vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 181, 182.

115 O'Donovan, John:

Bronze reaping-hook. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., p. 108.

116 O'Gorman, Thomas :

Bronze dagger with oaken handle still attached. — Journal Kil. A. Society,

vol. i., new sories, pp. 286, 287.
Contents of a sepulchre of the bronze period.— Journal E.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 164-168.

117 O'Laverty, Eev. James :

Eelativo antiquity of stone and bronze weapons. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 122-127.

118 O'Leary, Denis A. :

Bronze sword and axe. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp.
11, 12.

1 19 0U8LEY, Ralph :

Account of three metal trumpets found in the County of Limerick in the
year 1788.— Trans. R.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 3-6.

120 Patterson, W. H. :

Bronze hatchot found nenr Stoneyford, Co. Antrim. — Journal E.H.A.A. I.,
vol. iii., 1th series, p. 163.

340 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

121 Peakson, Rev. J. M. .

Bronze spear-head found embedded in a human skull. — Trans. Kil. A.
Society, vol. i., p. 32, vol. ii., p. 287.

122 Pegge, Eev. W. :

Observations on some brass celts and other weapons discovered in Ire-
land, 1780. — Archaeologia, vol. ix., pp. 84-95.

123 Petri e, George :

Ancient Irish bells or crotals. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., p. 376.
Ancient Irish trumpets. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. ii., pp. 27-30.
Ancient Irish war club. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. ii., p. 20.
Historical sketch of the past and present state of the Fine Arts in Ire-
land. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 83, 84.

124 Power, Rev. P. .

On a find of bronze implements in County Waterford. — Journal of the
Waterford S. -E. of Ireland Archaeological Society, vol. iv., pp. 47-53.

125 Prim, John G. A.

Antiquities discovered on trenching a rath. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,

vol. Hi., new series, pp. 307, 308.
On some bronze and other antiquities. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii.,

new series, p. 59.
On two bronze fibulae. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series,

p. 53.

126 Reade, Rev. George H. :

Ancient bronze antique. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, pp.

194, 195.
Enamelled bridle-bit and boss of bronze. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol.

i., new series, pp. 422, 423.
On two bronze antiques. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new series,

pp. 96, 97.

127 Richardson, C. W. .

Discovery of a number of bronze antiques. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol.
iii., 4th series, p. 438.

128 Robinson, Rev. T. R., d.d. ;

Contents of an ancient bronze vessel found in the King's County. —
Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 237-246.

129 Searanke, J. S. ;

On certain antiquities presented to the Academy.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv.,
pp. 388, 389.

130 Stanley, T. =

Bronzo pin found in a bog.— Journal R.U.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series,
pp. 153, 164.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 341

131 Vioohs, Colonel Philip D..

Slings and sling stones. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th scries, pp.
357-366.

132 Wakeman, W. P. :

Bronze pins.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 97-99.
Ornamented bronze celt. — Journal E.H. A.A.I. , vol. v., 4th series, pp.

258-261.
On the original handle of a fine bronze rapier, apparently of whalebone ;

also a bronze dagger with its haft of the same metal still attached. —

Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 195-198.
On two ancient brooch pins. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series,

pp. 155-160, 439.

133 Wood-Maktin, Col. W. G., m.u.i.a. .

See Lake Dwellings of Ireland, Index, under Bronze.

Vl.-BULLANS.

135 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i.a. :

Kilmannan Bullan, Co. Wexford. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th

series, p. 39.
Observations on bullans. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp.

204, 205.
On bullans or stone basins. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series,

p. 174.
Probable use of bullans for bruising grain. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol.

vi., 4th series, p. 214.

136 Macnamaua, Gisoiiqe V. :

Double bullan. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series, p. 79.

137 Martin, James, m.d. :

On billions. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 438, 439.

138 Wakeman, W. F. :

On the bullan, or rock basin. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd scries, vol. i., pp.
257-264.

VII.— CAVES.

139 Adams, A. Leith, f.k.s. :

Shandon Cave, on the exploration of. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xxvi., N.S.
p. 187.

140 Adams, Professor Leith ; Ussheh, R. J. ;

Notes on the discovery of a bone cave containing remains of the Irish
Elk, associated with traces of Man. — Journal Royal Geological
Society of Ireland, vol. v., new series, pp. 170-172.

342 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

141 Courtenay, Rev. Canon :

The Mitchelstown Caves. — Journal of the Cork Hist, and Arch. Society,
vol. iii., pp. 1-5.

142 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. :

Geological and Archaeological questions connected with the North of
Ireland.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1877-9, series 2, vol. i., pp.
346-348.

143 Haughton, Rev. Professor, m.d.,f.r.s. ; Macalister, Professor, m.d. ;

Plunkett, T. :

Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. — Proc. R.I.A., 2nd series, vol. ii.,
pp. 465-483.

144 Martel, M. E. A. :

Irlande et cavernes Anglaises. Paris.

145 Petrie, Dr. :

The Caves of Kish-Coran, Co. Sligo. — The Irish Penny Journal, vol. i.,
pp. 9, 10.

146 Plunkett, Thomas:

A detailed account of the exploration of Knockmore Caves, Co.

Fermanagh. — Journal Royal Geological Society of Ireland, vol. iv.,

new series, pp. 131-140.
Exploration of the Knockninny Cave. — Proc. R.I. A., Pol. Lit. and

Ant., vol. i.,pp. 329-334.

147 Wakeman, W. F. :

An inscribed cavern. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 327-329.

Cavern at Knockmore, Co. Fermanagh. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp.

395-397.
Cave of Knockmore.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 229-232.

VIII.— CLOTHING.

148 Anonymous :

African and Irish fibulas. — Ulster Journal of Avchseologv, vol. v., pp.
246-248.

149 MacAdam, Robert :

Ancient leather cloak. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix., pp.
294-300.

150 O'Kelly, A. :

Proc. Royal Dublin Society, vol. xiv., appendix to report, 1829.

151 O'Neill;

Irish crosses.

152 Petrie, Dr. :

Dublin Philosophical Journal, vol. i., p. 433, 1S25.

153 Walker:

On tho clothing of the Irish.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 343

1X.-F1CTILIA.

154 Anonymous :

Ancient urns.— Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., p. 108.
Antiquities of Co. Down. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv., pp. 97, 98.
Prehistoric burial. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 189, 190.
Remarkable ancient cemetery. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix.,
pp. 111-113.

155 Armstrong, Rev. Wm. .

Ancient earthenware vessel. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 309, 370.

156 Beauford, William, it. a. :

Ancient sepulture discovered in the Co. Kildare in the year 1788. — Trans.
R.I. A, vol. ii., p. 51.

157 Benn, Edward:

Curious discovery of a cinerary urn. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. \'.,

new series, pp. 133, 131.
Discovery of some cinerary fictilia. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv.,

new series, pp. 101, 102.
Discovery of urns in Co. Antrim. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., new

series, pp. 210-220.

158 Buick, Rev. Geohqe R. .

Cinerary urns discovered near Dundrum, Co. Down. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. vi., p. 164.

159 Carruthers, James :

On some antiquities found near Belfast. -Ulster Journal of Archeology,
vol. iii., pp. 127, 128

160 Coffey, George, h.e. .

Double cist, grave and remains recently discovered at Oldbridge, Co.

Meath. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd scrips, pp. 747-752.
On a cairn excavated by Thomas Pluukett, m.u.i.a., on Belmoie

mountain, Co. Fermanagh. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv.,

pp. 659-666.

161 Cook, Richard (and other writers) :

On sepulchral remains. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 136-139.

162 Couhtown, Earl <>v:

Discovery of a cinerary urn. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new
series, pp. 144, 145.

163 Editor, Ulster Journal of Archeology :

Remarkable ancient cemetery in the Co. Down. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. ix., pp. 111-113.

344 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

164 French, Rev. J. F. M. :

Cinerary urns found in the parish of Adamstown, Co. Wexford. — Journal

R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 19, 20.
Cinerary urn found in the parish of Adamstown, Co. "Wexford, 1897. —

Journal R.S.A.I., vol. viii., 5th series, p. 70.

165 Frazer, W., m.d. :

Earthen vases found at Palmerston, Co. Dublin. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. x.,
pp. 336-340.

166 Geoghegan, Arthur Gerald :

An account of an interesting fictile vessel. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., 4th

series, pp. 29, 30.
Discovery of cinerary fictilia. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new

series, pp. 304, 305.

167 Glascott, J. H. .

On fragments of two large fictile vessels. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iii., p. 204.

168 Ghaves, Rev. James:

Cinerary urns found at Danesfort. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new

series, p. 285.
Discovery of several sepulchral urns, one with a cover or lid. — Journal

Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., new series, pp. 168, 169.

169 Gray, William :

Ancient burial, County Antrim. — JoumalR.H.A.A.L, vol. is., 4th series,

p. 74.
The sandhills of Ballintoy. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society,

1887, p. 17.

170 Green, Thomas :

Urn found in County Wicklow. — Trans. R.I.A., vol. i., pp. 161-162.

171 Hasse, Rev. Leonard, m.r.i. a. :

Urn-burial on the site of Monasterboice, Co. Louth. — Journal R.S.A.I.,
vol. ii., 5th series, pp. 145-150.

172 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i. a. :

Notes on some megalithic structures and other ancient remains. —Journal

R.H.A.A.I, vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 201-205.
Notice of an urn found at Ballykale, Co. Wexford. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. v., 4th scries, p. 744.
On antiquities in the neighbourhood of Drumdarragh, Co. Antrim. —

Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 374-380.
On some peculiarities in sepulchral urns. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,

4th series, pp. 759, 760.

173 Knowles, W. J., m.r.i.a. :

Prehistoric pottery from the Sandhills, and its antiquity — Journal

R.S.A.I., vol. iv., 6th scries, pp. 243-255.
Report on some recent "finds" in Co. Antrim. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 107-113.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 345

174 Lalor, M. W. .

Description of a discovery of kists, &c. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,
4th series, pp. 446, 447.

175 Lawlbk, John :

Discovery of a fictile'vessel. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. vi., new series,
p. 7.

176 Lecky, Mu. :

Excavations made in the pagan cemetery at Ballon Hill. — Journal Kil. A.
Society, vol. vi., new series, pp. 209, 210.

177 Lkntaigne, J., m.d. :

On an urn and the fragment of another. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp.
187, 188.

178 Lett, Rev. H. W. :

On two cinerary urns found at Magheralin. — Belfast Nat. Field Cluh,
1879-1881, 2nd series, vol. i., p. 430, vol. ii., p. 10.

179 LjONOFIELD, T. II. :

Cinerary urns found at Tallaght, Co. Dublin. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series,
vol. ii., pp. 400, 401.

180 M'Nulty, R. ;

Discovery of an urn. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,
p. 382.

181 Malcombon, R. :

Fictile vessel found in Co. Carlow.— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv.,

now sories, pp. 12, 13.
On a fictile vessel curiously ornamented. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii.,

4th series, pp. 252, 253.

182 Mautin, James, m.d. :

On a cinerary urn. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 55, 56.
On a perfect and highly ornamented urn of small size. — Journal
R.H.A.A.I., vol. Hi., 4th scries, pp. 436, 437, 481.

183 Millen, William:

Urn burial. — Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. iv., pp. 270, 271.

1S3a Millioajj, Seaton F., m.k.i.a. :

Cist and urn found near Carrickfcrgus, and urn discovered near Cole-
raine.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 86, 87-

181 Mooiie, John :

Cinerary urns discovered at Columhkill. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol.

v., now series, pp. 328, 329.
vol. ii. 2 A

346 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

185 Neary, Rev. Me. .

Discovery of a remarkably fine fictile vessel. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 115, 116.

186 Patterson, W. H., m.r.i.a. :

Discovery of cinerary urn at Campbell College, Belmont, near Belfast. —
Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd series, pp. 184, 185.

Fictile vessel found at Altegarron, near Belfast. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. i., 4th series, pp. 506, 507. ■■

187 Perceval, J. J. :

Cinerary urn found near Wexford. — Journal R. S.A.I. , vol. v., 5th
series, pp. 384, 385.

188 Plunkett, Lt.-Col. G. T., r.e. .

On a cist and urns found at Greenhills, Tallagbt, County Dublin. —
Proc. R.I.A., vol. v., 3rd series, pp. 338-347.

189 Plunkett, Thomas, and Coffey, George :

Report on the excavation of Topped mountain cairns. — Proc. R.I. A.,
3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 657, 658.

190 Prim, John G. A. :

Two sepulchral vases. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new series, p.
234.

191 Rotheram, E. Crofton :

Remains of urn found in a Cavan bog. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. viii., 5th
series, p. 177.

192 Searanke, J. S. ;

On certain antiquities, &c. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 38S, 389.

193 Sigerson, George, M.D. :

Observations on some sepulchral urns. — Proc. R.I.A., Pol. Lit. and
Ant., vol. i., pp. 14-19.

194 Smith, J. Huband :

Cinerary urns discovered in the Hill of Rath, near Drogheda. — Proc.
E.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 259-261.

195 Upton, Henry A. S. .

On some prehistoric graves. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vi., 5th series, pp.
387-389.

196 Vigors, Colonel P. D. :

Ancient grave in the County Carlo w. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. viii.,
4th series, pp. 491-494.

197 Wakeman, W. F. :

Notice of a chambered cam at Cavancarragh, Co. Fermanagh.—
Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 434, 435.

On a pagan cemetery at Drumnakilly, near Omagh, Co. Tyrone-
Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 499-513, 520, 522, 523.

On some antiquarian discoveries in Co. Cavan. — Journal R.H. A. A. I.,
vol. v., 4th series, pp. 183-200.

Prehistoric remains discovered at Broughderg, Co. Tyrone.— Journal
R.H. A. A. I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 740-744.

See also under Lake Dwellings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 347

198 Walsh, Eev. Robert, ll.d. :

Sepulchral urn found in the parish of Kilbride. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. i.,
pp. 296-298.

199 Wilde, Siu W. K., m.ii.i.a. : .

Catalogue Mus. R.I. A., pp. 169-194.

Cinerary urn found near Bagnalstown.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp.
35, 36.

200 Wood-Martin, Colonel W. G., m.b.i.a. :

See Lake Dwellings of Ireland, Index, under Fietilia.

X.— FLINT AND STONE IMPLEMENTS.

201 Anonymous :

Flint implements found in the gravel near Whitehead. — Belfast Nat.
Field Club, 1867, pp. 6, 7.

202 Ball, Roneiit :

Means used for attaching handles to stone implements. — Proc. R.I. A.,
vol. ii., pp. 511-513.

203 Bklkakt Nat. Field Cluii (1st Report) :

Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Larne Gravels,
and dotermine the position in them of the Flint Flakes and Cores for
which they are noted.— Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol.
ii., pp. 519-530.

2nd Report, Praegcr, R. L., Wee. Report of a Committee of Investiga-
tion on the Gravels and associated beds of the Curran at Larne. —
Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol. iii., pp. 198-210.

Praeger, R. L., Sec. Report of the Sub-Committee appointed to
investigate the Gravels of Ballyrudder, Co. Antrim. — Proc. Belfast
Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol. iii., pp. 518-525.

204 Benn, Edwaud:

Flint implements, Co. Antrim. — Journal KM. A. Society, vol. v.,
new series, pp. 294-300.

205 Buick, Rev. Geohgb Raphael, m.a. :

Flint workshop sites. — Journal R. II. A. A. I., vol. vi., 4lh scries, pp.

120-120.
Irish Hint arrow-heads. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. v., 5th series, pp.

41-63.
The development of the knife in flint. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii.,

4th series, pp. 241-248.

206 Cabruthebs, Jami-s :

Antiquities found near Belfast. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol.
iii., pp. 127, 128.

348 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

207 Clibhorn, E. .

Probable age of flint instruments found in gravel beds. — Ulster Journal
of Archaeology, vol. vii., pp. 324-333.

208 Cody, P. .

Stone mould. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new series, pp. 307,
308, 380.

209 Day, Robert, Jun., f.s.a. :

Danish spear-head. — Journal U.S. A. I., vol. v., 5th series, p. 176.
Flint flakes from the neighbourhood of Belfast. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 147, 148.
Flint implements found on Toonie Bar. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol.

v., new series, pp. 227, 228.

210 Dv Noyer, G. V. ;

Worked flints. — Journal Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 1868.

211 Evans, John, f.r.s., &o. .

Ancient stone implements, weapons, and ornaments of Great Britain,

pp. 640.— London, 1872.
Stone implements in Lough Neagh. — Archseologia, vol. xii.,pp. 397-40S.

212 Fprbnch, Rev. J. F. M :

Small object in stone. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., 4th series, pp. 2S7, 2SS.
On two flint celts. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, pp. 342, 343.

213 FrAZER, W., F.R.C.S.I., &C. .

Polished stone implement, — Proc. R.I.A., 3rd series, vol. i., pp. 216-

220.
Sandstone mould. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 289-291.
Small hammers. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 293, 294.

214 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. :

Character and distribution of the rudely-worked flints of the North of

Ireland. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 109-143.

Contains a bibliography of papers on the subject up to date.
Co. Antrim raised beaches. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, pp.

38S-390.
On flints from the gravels.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1882, 1SS3, series

ii., vol. 2, pp. 287-289.
Rough flint celts of the Co. Antrim. — Journal R.H. A. A. I., vol. viii.,

4th series, pp. 605, 506.
Stone celts found near Belfast.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th

series, p. 138.
The Flint- Flake Foundation of the pre- Adamite Theory.— Belfast Nat.

Field Club, 1866, pp. 44-4S.
The rudely-worked flints of Antrim and Down.— Proc. Belfast Nat.

Fiold Club, new series, vol. i., pp. 108-113.
Worked flints, ancient and modern.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, series ii.,

vol. iii., pp. 545, 648.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 349

215 Hasse, Rev. Leonard :

Classification of flint flakes found on the raised beach at Carnlough, Co.
Antrim.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 153-158.

216 Hitchcock, E. :

On a primitive Stone Implement.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii.,
p. 371.

217 Knowles, W. J., M.U.I. a. :

Flint arrow-head with portion of shaft and ligature of sinew, &c. —

Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 126-128.
Flint arrow-head with wooden shaft attached.— Journal E.H.A.A.I.,

vol. ix., 4th series, p. 113.
Flint flakes in the Ballyrudder gravels. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, series

ii., vol. iii., pp. 410-414.
Flint implements of the N.E. of Ireland.— Proc. E.I.A., 3rd series, vol.

i., pp. 188, 189.
Flints from the raised beaeh at Larne, &c. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Field

Club, series ii., vol. ii., pp. 539-542.
Irish flint saws. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 341-348.
Survivals from the Palaeolithic Age among Irish Neolithic implements. —

Journal E.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 1-18.
Stone axes and chisels. — Journal U.S. A. I., vol. iii., 5th series, pp.

140-163.
Tracked stones. — Journal E.H. A. A. I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 497-502.
Worked flints.— British Assocation Meeting, Belfast, 1874; Dublin,

1878 ; Sheffield, 1879.

218 Long, J., c.k. :

On the age of tho various stone antiquities found during the Shannon
Navigation operations. — Journal E.H. A. A. I., vol. i., 4th series,
pp. 264-2G7.

210 M'Nultv, E. :

Graves, stone celts, &c. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. vi., 5th series,
pp. 382, 383.

220 Macadam, Eobert:

Stone battleaxe. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol iii., pp. 233.52, 4.

221 O'Laverty :

Relative antiquity of stone and bronze weapons. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 122-127.

222 Patterson, W. II., m.r.i.a. :

Flint implements found at Ballymisert, Co. Down. — Proc. Belfast Nat.
Hist, and Phil. Society, 1880, pp. 165, 166.

On a find of worked flints in submerged peat at l'oitrush, Co. Antrim. —

Journal M.S. A. I., vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 383, 384.
Site for worked flints. — Journal E.S.A.I., vol. ii., 5th series, pp. 154,
' 156.

223 I'llnkett, Thomas, and Cofi'ey, Georoe:

Eeport on tin; excavation of Topped mountain cairns.— Proc. B.I. A.,
3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 651-658.

350 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

224 Raphael, George:

Arrangement of collections of arrow-heads. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. v., 4th series, p. 663.

225 Rotheram E. Crofton:

Discovery of flint implements. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vii., 5th series,

pp. 425-427.
Remarkable stone spear-head. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. vi., 5th series,

p. 171.

226 Simpson, W. J. .

Worked flints found on a raised beach. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series,
vol. i., pp. 76, 77.

227 Staples, J. H. :

Flaked, chipped, and worked flints in the gravel, Holy wood, Co.
Down.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1868-1869, p. 42.

228 Tenison, Thomas J. :

On stone celts. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp.
446-448.

229 Vigors, Colonel Philip D. :

Slings and sling stones. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series,
pp. 357-366.

230 Wakeman, W. F. :

Antiquities discovered in the Co. Cavan. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,

4th series, pp. 183-200.
Flint knife.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 258-261.
Stone celts as found in Ireland. — Proc. R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series

pp. 155-157.

231 Writers, Various :

Geological Survey Memoirs.

XI— FORGERIES.

232 Anonymous :

Flint Jack.—" All the Year Round."— vol. xvii., pp. 259-264.

233 Belcher, T. W., m.d. (and other writers):

Discovery of a number of glass beads on the seashore, Co. Cork. —
Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 59, 60, 95, 202, 314.
These beads were part of the cargo of a ship wrecked on the beach.

234 Bisnn, E. :

Stone antiquities. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp. 205-7.

235 Ferguson, Samuel, ll.d., &c. :

Inscribed stone on Callan mountain. — Proc. R.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant.,
vol. i., pp. 160-171.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 351

236 Flanagan, Theophilvn :

See Ogham. — O'Flanagan.

237 Gbaveb, Rev. James :

Supposed inscription on Tory Hill. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i.
pp. 300-304.

238 Geay, William :

Counterfeit bronze sword. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series,

pp. 122, 123.
Flint Jack and his work.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1873, pp. 51-53.

239 Knowles, W. J., m.u.i.a. :

Counterfeit antiquities. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series,

pp. 430, 431.
Irish antiquities and modem forgeries. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1872,

1873, p. 53.

240 Jhwitt, L. Lewellynn :

Flint Jack; a memoir and an appeal (with portrait). — The Reliquary
vol. viii., pp. 65-76.

241 Tighe, W. :

Inscription in the Co. Kilkenny. — Archseologia, vol. xvii., pp. 118-123.

242 Wood-Mahtin, Colonel W. G., m.u.i.a. :

Flint Jack.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, p. 211.

XII.— FOSSIL MAMMALIA.

243 Adams, A. Leith., m.d., f.b .s. :

Alpine hare, bear, wolf, dog, fox, horse, sheep, and goat, red deer
reindeer, mammoth.— Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy
1876, vol. xxvi., part 5, p. 187.

Journal Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 187/, vol. xiv., new
series 4, p. 246. ..

Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, 1878, vol. n., new series,

Bear! Irish elk.— Journal Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 1879,

vol. xv., new series 5, p. 170.
Alpine hare, bear, wolf, dog, fox, horse, cattle, red deer, Irish elk, wild

boar.— Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 1881,

vol. i., series 2, p. 177.

244 Anonymous :

Dog.— Irish Penny Journal, 1841, vol. i., p. 353.
Irish wolf dog.-Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 9, 10, 408.
Teeth of the elk found in a cist.— Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. 4,
p. 170.

352 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ub Bailey, William H., f.g.s. .

Irish elk, reindeer. — Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland,
1878, vol. xv-, new series 5, p. 97.

246 Ball, E., ll.d :

Bear. — Annals of Natural History, 1850, vol. v., p. 234. (.Reprint of a

previous Paper.)
Bear. — Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy, 1849, vol. iv., pp. 214,

and 416-420.
Cattle.— Proceedings of the Boyal Irish Academy, 1839, vol. i., p. 253.
Idem, 1844, vol. ii., p. 541.
Cattle. — Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1844, vol. iii.,

p. 50.

247 Benn, Edward :

Contemporary existence of man and the Cer. Meg. Hib. — Journal Kil.
A. Society, vol. i., new series, pp. 155—159.

248 Blythe, E. :

Bear — Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1864, vol. a.,

p. 173.
Sheep and goats, cattle, Irish elk. — Proceedings of the Royal Irish

Academy, 1864, vol. viii., p. 472.

249 Boyd-Dawkins, Prof. "W., f.r.s. :

Early Man in Britain, 1880, p. 257, &c.

250 Brenan, E. .

Alpine hare, bear, horse, reindeer, mammoth. — Journal of the Eoyal
Dublin Society, 1859, vol. ii., pp. 344-350, plates x.-xn.

Alpine hare, bear, horse, reindeer, mammoth. — Natural History Review,
Dublin, 1859, vol. vi., pp. 494-500. (Reprint of previous Paper.)

251 Bryce, Dr. James :

Horse, sheep and goat, cattle, red deer.— British Association Reports,
1834, p. 658. (Ballintoy Caves.)

252 Cane, Robert, m.d., &c. :

Irish fossil deer. — Trans. Ril. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 164-167.

253 Carte, A., m.d. :

Alpine hare, bear, horse, reindeer, mammoth. — Journal of the Royal
Dublin Society, 1859, vol. ii., pp. 351-357, plates x.-xm.

Reindeer.— Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1863, 1864,
vol. x., pp. 103-107, and p. 166, pi. vn.

Bear.— Hem, pp. 114-119, and 173-4.

Irish elk.— Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 1866,
vol. xi., p. 151.

254 Close, Rev. M. H., m.a., f.g.s. .

Irish_elk, reindeer.— Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland,
1878, vol. xv., now series 5, p. 74.

255 Cody, Patrick :

Head of Cer. Meg. Hib.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., p. 38S.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 858

256 Denny, Henry :

Irish elk. — Proceedings of the Geological and Polyteelrnical Society,

W. Riding of Yorkshire, 1855, vol. iii., pp. 400-439.
Bear.— Idem, 1869, vol. iv.,pp. 338-358.

257 Du Noybii, G. V. :

Irish elk. — Journal of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland, 1866,
1867, vol. xi. (N.S., vol. i.), pp. 247-248.

258 Geniiz, Professor H. 15. -.

Irish elk. — Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1863, vol. ix.,
p. 338.

259 Glennon, R. :

Irish elk.— Zoologist, 1847, vol. v., p. 1589.

260 Going, "W. Q. :

Bear, Irish elk. — Explanation to sheet No. 133 of Map of Geological
Survey of Ireland, 1862, p. 34.

261 Grainqer, Rev. Canon, u.d., m.ii.i.a. :

Extinct wild life.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1885-6. Series ii., vol. ii.,
pp. 437-439.

262 Graves, Rev. James :

Sawn fragments of deers' horn.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th
series, pp. 434, 435.

263 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. .

On the Megaceros Hibernicus. Head and horn found at Island Magee,
Co. Antrim.— Belfast Field Club Report, 1863-5, p. 7.

264 Harkness, Professor:

Mammoth. — Geological Magazine, 1870, vol. vii., p. 253.

265 Hart, Dr. John :

Irish elk. — Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, 1824, vol. Ix.,

p. 238.
Irish elk. — " On the Skeleton of the Fossil Deer of Ireland," Dublin,

1830, pp. 1-36, plates 1, 2.
Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1838, vol. i., pp. 20-23.

266 Hauohton, Rev. S., m.u., r.it.s. ■

Irish elk.— Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1861, 1862,

vol. ix., p. 340.
Red deer, Idem, 1863, 1864, vol. *., pp. 125-127.

VOL. II. 2 B

354 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

267 Haughton, Professok, m.d., f.r.s., Macalister, Professor, m.d., and

Plunkett, T. :

Exploration of the Knockninny Cave, with an account of the animal
remains. — Proc. E.I. A. (2nd series), vol. ii., pp. 465-483.

268 Hewson, G. J. :

Finds of elk heads, &c. — Journal R.S.A.I., vol. i., 5th series, pp. 485-
488.

269 Hibbert, S., m.d. :

Irish elk. — Edinhurgh Journal of Science, 1825, vol. iii., pp. 15 and

129. ("Irish elk in Isle of Man.")
Irish elk.— Idem, N.S., 1830, vol. ii., p. 306. " Hist. Notices of Irish

Elk."

270 Hogan, Rev. Edmund, S. J. :

The Irish wolf dog.— Dublin, 1897.

271 Hull, Professor E., f.r.s. :

Journal of the Geological Society of Ireland, 1875, vol. xiv. (N.S., iv.),

pp. 49-53.
Physical Geology of Ireland, 1878, pp. 267-272.

272 Jukes, Professor J.B., f.r.s. :

Irish elk. — Journal of the Geological Society of DubliD, 1863 and 1864,
vol. *., pp. 127-137, and pp. 168-171.

273 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i.a. ;

Fractured hones of Irish elk found in a souterrain at Mullagheep, Co.

Donegal. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, p. 2S6.
Geology of Ireland, 1878, p. 293.
Irish elk. — Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 1S80

and 1881, vol. i., ser. 2, p. 177.
Irish elk. — Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society, 1883,

vol. xvii.

274 Knowles, "W. J. :

Dog, horse, cattle, red deer, wild boar. — Journal of the Anthrop.

Institute, 1877, vol. vii., p. 202. (" Ballintoy.")
Remains of the great deer from 'Wnitepark Bay, Co. Antrim. — The

Irish Naturalist, vol. viii., pp. 4-6.

275 Lentaigne, Sir J., m.d. :

Irish elk. — Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1864, vol. x..
p. 168.

276 Molyneux, Thomas, m.d. :

Irish elk. — Philosophical Transactions, 1697, vol. xix., pp. 489-512.

PI. of the " Irish Elk "
Mammoth.— Philosophical Transactions, 1717. vol. xxix., p. 370. PI.
of mammoth teeth.

(Both the above are reprinted in Boates' Natural History of Ireland,
1765.) '

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 355

277 Maunsell, Archdeacon :

Irish elk. — Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, 1842, vol. lx.,

pp. 169 and 211 ; idem, 1825, vol. lxi., p. 93.
Irish elk.— Annals of Philosophy, 1826, vol. ix., pp. 305-312.
Irish elk.— Froriep Notizen, 1826, vol. xiv., col. 305-307.

278 Moss, R. J., f.o.c. :

Irish elk, reindeer. — Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 1876,
vol. ii., sec. 2, p. 547.

279 Nevil, Francis :

Mammoth. — Boates' Natural History of Ireland, Dublin, 1715, p. 128.

280 O'Keepe, CM.:

Horses and hounds of ancient Ireland— Ulster Journal of Archseology,
vol. vii., pp. 65-71.

281 O'Reilly, Profebsor, j.p. :

History of the Irish wolf-dog. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. i., pp.
333-339.

282 Oldham, T., ll.d., f.r.s. :

Irish elk.— Journal of tho Geological Society of Dublin, 1844, vol. iii.,

p. 70.
Red deer, Irish elk— Idem, 1847, vol. iii., pt. iv., pp. 252-253.

283 Oswald, H. R. :

Edinburgh Journal of Science, 1825, vol. iii., pp. 28-31 (" Fossil elk
of Isle of Man").

284 Owen, Sir R., f.r.s. :

Bear. — Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 1849, vol. iv., pp.

418-420.
Irish elk— Zoologist, 1847, p. 1620, Megaceros.

285 Phayer, J. R. :

The Irish elk.— Trans. Kil. A. Soociety, vol. i., p. 33.

286 Prim, Mr. :

Discovery of antlers of tho Cer. Meg. Hib.— Journal Kil. A. Society,
vol. v., new serios, p. 330.

287 Praboer, R. Lloyd :

On truces of the Megaceros — Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1891-2, series 2,

vol. 3, pp. 422-423.
Report upon the raisod beaches of the north-east of Ireland, with special

reforence to their fauna. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 30-54.
Skull of Irish elk.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol. iii., pp. 416,

417.

2b 2

356 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Richardson, H. M. ;

Irish elk.— Zoologist, 1847, pp. 1623 and 168S.

Irish elk.— The Irish giant deer. (M'Glashan, Dublin, 1846.)

289 Sohakff, R. F., PH.D., b.so. :

On the origin of the European fauna.— Proo. R.I.A., 3rd series, vol. iv.,

pp. 427-514.
Origin of the land and freshwater fauna of Ireland. — Proo. R.I.A.,

vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 479-485.

290 Soott, R. H., f.r.s. :

Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1864, vol. x., p. 143.
Geological Magazine, 1870, vol. vii., pp. 413^120.

291 Scouler, Db.^John :

Irish elk. — Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, 1838, vol. i.,

pp. 197-210.
Dog, Irish elk.— Idem, p. 224-231.
Irish elk. — Idem, 1844, vol. iii., p. 15.

292 Smith, Charles, m.d. :

Dog.— Ancient and Present State of the County and City of AVaterford,.

1741, p. 58, pt. 4, fig. 2, mammoth's rib.
"Wolf, Irish elk.— History of the County of Kerry, 1756, p. 173.

293 Thompson, "William :

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1837, pt. 5, p. 53.
Cattle, red deer, wild boar. — Report of the British Association, 1840,

p. 362.
The Irish hare. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 177, 178.

294 Ussher, R. J . :

Cattle, Irish elk, wild boar.— Journal of the Royal Geological Societv of

Ireland, 1879, vol. 15 (N.S.V.), p. 170.
Cattle, Irish elk, wild boar. — Scientific Transactions of the Royal

Dublin Society, 1881, vol. i., series 2, p. 177.
The great auk, once an Irish bird.— The Irish Naturalist, vol. 8, pp. 1-3.

295 AVeaver, Thomas, m.r.i.a. :

Irish elk.— Annals of Philosophv, London, 1825, vol. ix r> 463
(" Fossil elk in Co. Down.") '

296 Wilde, Sir W. R., m.r.i.a. :

Dog, sheep goat, cattle, wild boar.— Proceedings of the Royal Irish

Academy, 1840, vol. i., pp. 420-426.
Cattle, wild boar.— Idem, 1861, vol. vii., pp. 64-7-5.
Bear wolf, dog, sheep, goat, cattle, red deer, Irish elk.- Idem, 1861,

vol. 7., pp. 181-212.
Dog.— Natural History Review, 1S58, vol. v., pp. 276-287.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 357

297 Williams, William :

Irish elk.— Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, 1878,

vol. ii.,pt. 1, p. 105.
Irish elk.— Geological Magazine, 1881, N.S., vol. vii., p. 354.

298 Young, E. M., e.a., m.r.i.a. :

On a recent find of Irish elk bones, etc., in Belfast.— The Irish
Naturalist, vol. hi., pp. 81, 82.

XIII.— GEOLOGY.

299 Ball, Sir Rohekt, ll.d. :

The cause of an ice age. — London, 1892.

300 Geikie, James, f.r.s.e. -.

The great ice age and its relation to the antiquity of man. — London,
1874.

301 Hull, Edward, ll.d. :

Physical History of the British Isles. — London, 1882.
The physical geology and geography of Ireland, 1878.

302 Kinaiian, G. H., m.r.i. A. :

Geology of Ireland. — London, 1878.

XIV.— GLASS.

303 Atkinson, George M. :

Glass beads. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi.,4th series, pp. 69-71.

304 Ball, V., c.b., ll.d., &c. ;

On a block of glass enamel. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xxx., pp. 277-293.

305 Bf.nn, Edward:

Ancient glass beads. — Proc. Historic. S. of Lan. and Cheshire, vol. viii.

306 Day, Robert, Jun., f.s.a. :

Ornaments of glass. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp.

336-338.
Ornaments in glass. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp.

112-114.

307 Ffrench, Rev. J. F. M. .

Ancient glass manufactory. — Journal R.H.A. A. 1., vol. vii., 4th series,
pp. 420-423.

358 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

308 Fowler, James, f.s.a. :

On the process of decay in glass, etc. — Archseologia, vol. xlvi., pp.
65-162.

309 Hasse, Rev. Leonard, m.r.i.a. :

Glass beads.- — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 359-366.
Irish beads. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 382-391.

310 Knowi.es, W. J. :

Beads and amulets. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 522-
537.

311 Nesbitt, Alexander, f.s.a. :

Probable origin of beads of glass. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th
series, pp. 592-596.

312 O'Byrne, Daniel:

Glass bead. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, p. 8.

313 Patterson, "W. H. :

Benn collection, Belfast Mus. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol v., 4th series,
p. 296.

314 "Wilde, Sir. "W.R., m.r.i.a :

Catalogue Museum R.I.A., pp. 162-169.

315 "Wood-Martin, Colonel "W. G., m.r.i.a. :

Lake Dwellings of Ireland, pp. 122-125.

XV.— GOLD.

316 Anonymous :

Ancient gold balls. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iii., p. 144.

Antique ornaments of gold found in the County Clare. — Ulster

Journal of Achaeology, vol. iv., pp. 147-153.
Druid's Altar. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol i., p. 209.
Gold Fibulas discovered in Ireland. Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. 5, 5th

series, p. 386.
Gold in Ireland. — Chambers' Journal, part 16, 1899, pp. 287-289.
The Wicklow gold mines. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 115-116.

317 Ball, Robert, ll.d. :

The dying gladiator. Proc. R.I. A., vol. 6, pp. 152-154.
The original use of certain golden ornaments and other articles in the
Museum R.I.A. Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., pp. 25-27.

318 Betham, Sir "William, m.r.i.a. :

Modern and ancient ring money. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. i., p. 20.
The ring money of the CelttK.— Trans. R.I.A. , vol. xvii., pp. 7-20,
91-98.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 359

319 Birch, Samuel :

The Torque of the Celts. — The Archaeological Journal, vol. iii., pp.
27-38.

320 Brash, Richard Bolt, m.u.i.a. ;

The precious metals and ancient miningin Ireland. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.
vol. i., 4th series, pp. 509-534.

321 Cane, Robert, m.d. :

The ring money of ancient Ireland. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i.,
pp. 322-328.

322 Clibborn, Edward :

Historical arguments on the origin of the Irish gold antiquities. — Ulster

Journal of Archaeology, vol. viii., pp. 88-98.
Gold ornaments lately found near Naas. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. iii., p. 99.
The gold antiquities found in Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,

vol. viii., pp. 36-54.

323 CONYNGHAM, LORD ALBEUT, F.S.A. :

Description of some gold ornaments recently found in Ireland. —
Archajologia, vol. xxx., p. 137.

324 Crokeh, T. Crofton, f.s.a. :

Collectanea Antiqua, vol. iii., pp. 131-152, 221-250.

325 Day Bobert, m.r.i.a., and others :

Gold Torques. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol v., 4th series, pp. 7, 8.
A recent important find of gold torques in Co. Donegal.— Journal
B.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th scries, pp. 182-185.

326 Day, Bohert, Jus., f.s.a.

On a collection of gold ornaments. Trans. Kil. A. — Society, vol. i.,
3rd series, pp. 219.

327 Duoan, C. Winston, m.a. :

The gold antiquities of Ireland. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, series ii., vol.
iii., p. 304.

328 Fbazeu, W., F. 11. C.S.I. ;

On fine gold fibula?, lately discovered in the south of Ireland, and on the

art processes used in their manufacture. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iii., 3rd

series, pp. 776-783.
On gold lunulas, with description of those contained in the Boyal Irish

Academy's museum, anil other collections ; and on the source of gold

employed to make Irish gold ornaments. — Journal B.S. A, Ireland, vol.

vii., 5th series, pp. 53-66.
On Irish gold ornaments. Whence came the gold, and when ? Part 2,

Journal B.S. A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 359-370.
On the manufacture of a gold fibula purchased for the Museum B.I. A. —

Proc. B.I. A., vol. v. 3rd series, pp. 336, 337.

360 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

329 Graves, Rev. Charles :

An antique gold ornament.— Proc. R.I.A., vol. iii., pp. 460-463.

330 Giiaves, Rev. James :

Gold fibula. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 351, 352.
The extraordinary discovery of gold ornaments in Co. Clare. — Trans.
Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 181, 182.

331 Gray, William :

A gold torque discovered near Bushmills, Co. Antrim. — Journal
R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, p. 138.

332 Greaves, J. H :

Unique specimen of gold ring " money " found in the Co. ^Vaterford. —
Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, pp. 254, 255.

333 Hitchcock, Richard :

The discovery of a curious gold ornament near Omagh. — Journal Kil.
A. Society, vol. i., new series, p. 79.

334 Hoare, Captain Edward :

Ancient Celto-Irish unique collar of gold. — Journal Kil. A. Society,

vol i., new series, pp. 360-362.
A penannular gold ring. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i. , new series,

391, 392.
A penannular ring of gold. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series,

pp.320, 321.

335 Johnson, Edmond :

On fine gold fibulas lately discovered in the south of Ireland, and on the
art processes used in their manufacture. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd
series, pp. 776-783.

336 M'Naughton, John Alexander :

An account of a golden rod found by a peasant in the neighbourhood of
Ballycastle, Co. Antrim. — Archaeologia, vol. xvi., p. 353.

337 MacAdam, Robert:

Gold dish found in Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol iv.,
pp. 164-168.

338 Madden, R. R. .

Gold rings found at Strokestown. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., p. 389.

339 Madden, Rev. Samuel:

Discovery of a gold ring.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii,, new series,
pp. 398, 399.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 361

340 Mallet, William:

On the minerals of the auriferous districts of Wicklow. — Journal
Geological Society, Dublin, vol. iv., pp. 269-277.

341 Moleswouth, William :

Concerning some golden antique instruments found in a bog, Co.
Armagh. — Trans. R.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 37-39.

342 Mooue, Rev. Philip :

Discovery of a gold torque. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., p. 27.

343 O'Connell, Maurice:

An account of certain antiquities presented to the Academy. — Proc.
R.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 166, 167.

344 O'Reilly, Phofessou J.P., o.e. :

The Milesian colonization considered in relation to gold mining. — Proe.
R.I. A., vol. vi., 3rd series, pp. 36-78.

345 Ousley, Ralph, m.u.i.a. :

Account of four circular plates of gold found in Ireland.— Trans. R.I. A.,
vol. vi., pp. 31-33.

346 Pethie, Geohge, ll.d. ;

Gold torques found near Tara Hill. Plates of gold found in Ireland. —

Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 156/244.
Gold rings found at Stroliestown. — Proc. R.I. A., vol iv., p. 389.
Two gold torques found at Tara.— Proc R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 274-276.

347 Plummep., Rev. R. :

The discovery of three gold fibula;, a gold bracelet, and a bronze celt. —
Journal R.S. A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, p. 343.

348 Tococke, Rioht Rev. Richaub, late Lord Bishop of Meath :

An account of some antiquities found in Ireland. — Archocologia, vol. ii.,
pp. 32-41.

349 Pownall, Govehnou:

Account of some Irish antiquities. — Archa3ologia, vol. iii., pp. 355-370.

350 Pownall, Thomas :

Further observations on early Irish antiquities. — Archajologia, vol. vii.,
pp. 161-169.

362 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

351 Robertson, J. G. :

A gold ornament found at Claragli, Co. Kilkenny. — Journal R.H.A.A I.,,
vol iii., 4th series, pp. 480, 481.

352 Ross, Rev. Alexander :

Gold ornament discovered in the Parish of Dungiven. — Parochial Survey
of Ireland, vol. i., pp. 304, 305.

353 Smith, Aquilla, m.d. :

Depositions made in the year 1673 relative to the theft of ancient gold
torques, &c. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 207-
209.

354 Smith, Ernest A., f.c.s., Assoc, r.s.m.

Notes on the composition of ancient Irish gold and silver ornaments. —
Proc. R.I.A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 733-746.

355 Way, Albert :

Gold armilla? and rings. — The Archaeological Journal, vol. vi., pp.
48-100.

356 Welsh, Alexander Colville :

An ornament made of gold and hronze, or an early attempt at counter-
feiting. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 95, 96.

357 Wilde, Sir W. R., m.r.i.a. ■

A descriptive catalogue of the antiquities of gold in the Museum, Royal

Irish Academy.— Dublin, 1862, pp. 1-100.
Gold antiquities found in Ireland prior to 1747. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. viii. v

pp. S3-86.
The destruction of a splendid gold fibula. — Journal Kil. A. Society,

vol. ii., new series, p. 445.
The gold antiquities recently added to the Museum. — Proc. R.I. A.,

vol. viii., pp. 406-409.

358 Windele, John :

Ancient Irish gold. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix., pp. 2S-50.
Ancient Irish gold and its origin. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix.,

pp. 197-222.
The ring money of ancient Ireland. — Trans. Kil. A Society, vol. i.-

pp. 32S-333.

369 Young, R. M. ;

Gold mines in Ulster. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, new series,,
vol. iii., p. 61.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 36S

XVI — HUMAN CRANIA, OSSEOUS REMAINS AND
ETHNOLOGY.

360 Anonymous :

Crania. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix., p. 147.

Discovery of an ancient sepulchral chamher. — Ulster Journal of Archae-
ology, vol. iii., pp. 358-365.

Prehistoric burial.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 189,
190.

361 Browne, Charles B., m.d., &c. :

Ethnography of Inishborfin, &c— Proc. E.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iii. f

pp. 317-370.
On some Crania. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. ii., pp. 649-654.
The ethnography of Ballycroy, County Mayo. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv.,

3rd series, pp. 74-111.
The ethnography of the Mullet, Iniskea Islands, and Portacloy, Co.

Mayo.— Proc. E.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iii., pp. 587-649.
The ethnography of Garumna and Lettermullen, in the County

Galway. — Proc. E.I.A., new series, vol. v., pp. 223 — 268.

362 Coffey, Georhe, b.e. :

Double-cist grave and remains recently discovered at Oldbridge, Co.
Meath. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 747-752.

363 Coffey, Geo. : Browne, C, m.d. . 'Westiiopp, T. J., m.a. -.

Eeport on a prehistoric burial at Newcastle, County of Wicklow. —
Proc. E.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 559-562.

364 Cunningham, D. J., m.d., F.u.s. : and Brown, C. E., m.d. :

Osseous remains found at Old Connaught, Bray, Co. Dublin. — Proc.

E.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 421-427.
On some human remains recently discovered near Lismore. — Proc.

E.I. A., 3rd serise, vol. iv., pp. 552-558.

365 Davies, J. Baunard, m.r.c.k.e., f.s.a..

Irish Ethnology — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. viii., pp. 145-148.
Crania Britannica.

366 Editor Ulster Journal of Archeology :

Sepulchral Chamber. — Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. iii., pp.
368-305.

367 Frazer, W., f.r.c.s.i. :

Irish anthropology. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp.

391-404.
Irish crania. — Proc. E.I. A., 3rd series, vol. ii., pp. 643-647.
Find of cist with human remains, Dunfanaghy, Co. Donegnl. — Journal

E.S.A. Iroland, vol. viii., 6th series, pp. 49-52.

364 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

368 Geoghegan, Arthur Gerald:

Human crania. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new series, pp.
343-345.

369 Giiattan, John :

Examination of a sepulchral mound.— Ulster Journal of Archaeology,

vol. i., pp. 274-285.
Human remains. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., pp. 27-39.
Human remains. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., pp. 221-246.
On measming human crania. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. i.,

pp. 198-208.
Skulls, and casts of skulls from various Irish sources. — Proc. Belfast Nat.

Hist, and Phil. Society, 1873-4, pp. 121, 126.
Worn down teeth in ancient skulls. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,

vol. ix., p. 239.

570 Haddon, Professor A. C. &c. :

Ethnography of Aran Island. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. ii., pp.

768-830.
Irish craniology. — Proc R,I.A., 3rd series, vol. ii., pp. 759-767.
Irish craniology. — Proc E.I.A., 3rd series, vol. iii., pp. 311-316.
Studies in Irish craniology. II. Inisbofin, Co. Galway. — Proc. K.I. A.,

3rd series, vol. iii., pp. 311 — 316.
Studies in Irish craniology. III. A Neolithic cist-hurial at Oldhridge,

Co. of Meath. — Proc. K.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 570-585.

371 James, Charles, l.r.c.s.i. :

Report on human osseous remains. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iv.,
4th series, p. 13.

372 Kinchella, Mu. .

Stone axe found embedded in a human skull. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. ii., 4th series, p. 255.

373 Lalor, M. W. :

Discovery of human remains. — Journal K.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series,
pp. 446, 447.

374 Lawlor, J. :

Discovery of a skeleton. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. vi., new series,
pp. 7,8.

375 Lentaigne, J., m.d. -.

On some portions of a skeleton. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 187, 188.

376 Long, J., c.e. :

On the antiquity of man in Ireland.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,

4th scries, pp. 264-267.

377 Lynch, P. J. :

Human remains.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., 5th series, pp. SO-82.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 365

378 M'Elheran, John, m.i.c.s.e. :

Ethnological sketches. The Fisherman of the Claddagh, at Galway.—
Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. ii., pp. 160-167.

379 M'CoRMACK, JAME8, O.E. ;

Discovery of human skeletons.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4thseries,
pp. 447-449.

380 M'Nulty, R. .

Graves, stone celts, &c— Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,.
382-383.

381 O'Donovan, John, ll.d. :

Physical characteristics of the ancient Irish. — Ulster Journal of Archas-
ology, vol. vi., pp. 191-202.

382 Pearson, Rev. J. M. :

Bronze spear-head found embedded in a human skull. — Trans. Kil. A.
Society, vol. i., p. 30.

383 Plunkett, Thomas : Coffey, Geokge :

Report on the excavation of Topped mountain cairns. — Proc. R.I.A.,
3rd sories, vol. 4, pp. 651-058.

384 Reade, Rev. George II. .

Ancient interment at Dromiskin. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new

sories, pp. 199-206, 341, 342.
On human osseous remains. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., p. 277.

385 Searanke, J. S. :

On certain antiquities, &c. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 388, 389.

386 Smith, J. Richardson :

Explorations in a pagan cemetery, discovery of a decapitated skeleton. —
Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 374, 375.

387 Ui'TON, Henry A. S. :

On some prehistoric graves. — Journal R.S. A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,
pp. 387-389.

388 Ussher, R. J. .

Discovery of human and other remains similar to those of a crannoge,
high above the present valley of the Blackwater. — Proc. R.I. A. 3rd
series, vol. iv., pp. 650, 551.

389 Westropp, T. Johnson :

Primitive liurial at Rylanc, County Clare. — Journal R.S. A. Ireland,
vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 178, 179.

3.66 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

390 Whitk, Kev. P. :

Human remains found in a cist, also in a earn. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. iii., 4th series, p. 240.

391 Wilde, Sir "W. P., m.r.i.a. :

Beauties of the Boyne and Blackwater.— Dublin, 1849, pp. 40, 41, 212-

240.
On human remains. — Proc. B.I.A., vol. vii., pp. 89-91.

392 "Writers (Various) :

Human interments. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 26-29.

XVII.— JADE.

-393 MacIlwaine, Rev..Canon:

Jade axe, discovered in the Co. Antrim.- — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,
4th series, pp. 316-323.

-394 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i.a. :

Geology of Ireland, 1878.

On different kinds of rocks called Jade. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,
4th series, pp. 323, 536, 537.

XVIII.— JET.

395 Atkinson, George M. :

Jet ornaments. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 69-71.

396 Ball, V., c.b. :

An account of mediasval Ireland. — The Irish Naturalist, vol. iii., pp. 74-
76.

397 Coffey, George, b.e. :

Double cist-grave and remains recently discovered at OMbridge, Co.
Meath. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., 2nd series, pp. 747-752.

-398 Frazer, ~W., f.r.c.s.i. :

Jet Beads. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., 5th series, pp. 221-223.

399 Prim, John, g.a. :

Antiquities discovered on trenching a rath. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iii., new series, pp. 307-308.

400 Shearman, John F. ;

On a collection of large jet beads.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., p. 32.
vol. ii., p. 287.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 367

401 Wilde, Sir W. R., m.r.i.a. :

" Catalogue" Museum R.I.A., pp. 240-242.

402 Wood-Martin, Col. W. G.,|m.r.i.a. :

Lake Dwellings of Ireland, pp. 121-123, 142, 169, 177,191, 201«, 205h.
Pagan Ireland, pp. 286, 293, 529, 530-532, 587.

XIJL.-KITCHEN MIDDENS OR REFUSE HEAPS AND OPEN-
AIR COOKING PLACES.

403 Anonymous:

Open-air cooking places. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi.
pp. 101, 185.

404 Atkinson, George M. :

Kitchen middens. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4thscries, pp. 258-261.

405 Graves, Rev. James :

Ancient Pagan cemetery. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., p. 191.

406 Hackett, William :

Ancient cooking places.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 59-61.

407 Keatinoe, Patrick, m.d. :

Supposed ancient open air cooking place.— Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iii., pp. 11, 12.

408 Kinahan, G. II., m.r.i.a. :

Some unrecorded antiquities. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series,
pp. 10-13.

409 Lymberry, Rev. John:

Kitchen middens on Clare Island. —Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new
series, pp. 121, 122, 181, 182.

410 Malcomson, Robert:

Kitchen midden near Ardnahue. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., now
series, pp. 117-121, 182, 373.

411 Martin, James, m.d. :

Ancient cooking places. — Journal R. 11. A. A. I., vol. is., 4th series,

p. 142.
Ancient kitchen midden. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series,

pp. 88, 89.

368 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

412 Prim, John G. A. :

Antiquities discovered in trenching a small rath. — Journal Kil. A. Society,

vol. iii., new series, pp. 307, 308.
Excavation of a rath.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 119-127.

413 Quinlan, John :

Cooking places of the Stone Age. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th
series, pp. 390-392.

414 Eobertson, James G. :

Primitive cooking place. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series,
p. 153.

415 Townsend :

Open air cooking places. — Statistical Survey of Co. Cork, 1815, vol. i.,
p. 145. Also Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., p. 101.

416 Dsshek, R. J. .

Objects found in the kitchen middens of raths. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 362-368.

417 "Wiutehs (Various) :

Ancient Cooking places. — Townsend's Survey of the Co. Cork, vol. i.,
p. 145 ; Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., pp. 101, 185 ; Trans.
Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 57, 58 ; Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii.,
pp. 663, 664 ; Keating's History of Ireland.

XX.— LAKE DWELLINGS.

418 Anonymous :

Account of an attack on a crannog in the year 1566 (extracted by Dr.
Caulfield, from a ms. in the Public Record Office.— Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. viii., 4th series, p. 344.

Lake habitations of Switzerland and Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archeo-
logy, vol. vii., pp. 179-194.

A " Find" in Coolasluasty Lough, Co. Clare. (The probable site of a
lake dweUing with prehistoric hearths round the margin of the lakel.—
Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, p. 179.

Ancient helmet found in an Island in Killeney Lough, Breasagh,
Co. Down. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iii., pp. 53-55.

Ancient iron fetters from a crannog.— Ulster Journal of Archajologv,
vol. vi., pp. 168, 169.

Canoe finds in the Co. Cork and Co. Roscommon.— Journal E.S.A.
Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, p. 431.

Note on Lake Dwellings.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series,
p. 174.

Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., p. 279.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 869

419 Ball, Rouert, ll.d.; Enniskillen, Eari. of; Kelly, Denis H. ;

Petuie, George, ll.d. :

(I.) Antiquities discovered in the Lake of Cloonfree, Co. Roscommon.
(II.) Discoveryof bones of the Fossil Elk. (III.) On Crannog Islands. —
Proc. R.I.A., vol. v., p. 214, 215.

420 Benn, Edward-.

Observations on Irish Crannogs. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., new

series, pp. 86-90.
On some antiques found in crannogs. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv.,

now series, pp. 36-38.
On some objects of antiquity found in the parish of Lotighguile, Co.

Antrim. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd scries, pp. 20-22.

421 Buick, Rev. G. B., ll.d., m.r.i.a. :

Crannog of Moylarg. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. iii., 5th series,

pp. 27-43.
Second notice. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 315-331.

422 Ckowe, J. O'Beirne :

Ancient lake legends of Ireland. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series,

pp. 100, 101.
Etymology of the word " crannog." — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd

seri'-s, pp. 221-223.

423 D'Arcy, Dii. S. A.

A crannog near Clones. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series,
pp. 205-220, 389-403.

424 Day, Robert, Jus. :

Flint implements found on Toome Bar, Lough Neagh, on supposed
crannog sites.— Jouraaal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, pp.
227, 228.

425 Dugan, C. Winston', m.a. :

Notice of an ancient Irish cott found at Maghery, County Armagh,
August, 1894.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp.
224-226, 382.

426 Dunne, Right Hon. General :

Crannog in Lough Annagh.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series,
pp. 154-156.

427 Editor Ulster Journal of Auchjeology :

Articles found on the site of a crannog.— Ulster Journal of Archeology,
vol. vi., p. 103.

428 Enniskillen, Earl of. •%•<■ Ball.

vol. 11. 2 c

370 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

429 Falkineu, Rev. William, m.a. :

Notice of a crannog at Lough-a-Trim, Killucan, County Westmeath.—
Pro. R.I.A., vol. v., 3rd series, pp. 216-218.

430 Fitzpatrick, Bernard :

Crannogin Grantstown Lake, Queen's County. — Journal El. A. Society,
vol. viii., new series, pp. 228, 229.

431 Gardiner, J. Starkie, f.l.*. :

On a helmet from a crannog.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1884-1885,
series ii., vol. ii., pp. 364-368.

432 Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a. :

An ancient Irish lake dwelling.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1886-1887,
series ii., vol. ii., pp. 517-519.

433 Graves, Rev. James:

Stone and bone antiquities found at a crannog in Ballinderry Lough, Co.

Westmeath. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 196-202.
Trouvaille from the crannog of Lisnacroghera, near Broughshane, Co.

Antrim. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 375-408.

434 Gray, William ;

Crannog canoe from Lough Mourne, Co. Antrim. — Journal B.H.A.A.I.,

vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 371, 372.
The crannogs of Lough Mourne. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., p. 177-

435 Hall, Mr. & Mrs. J. C. .-

Ireland ; its scenery, &c, vol. iii,, p. 259.

430 Harkness, Professor B. :

Crannog, Drumkeery Lough, Co. Cavan. — Archaiologia, vol. xxxix.,
pp. 433-440.

437 Hayman, Rev. S., m.a. :

On a submarine crannog.— Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. v., 4th series, pp.
154, 155.

438 IIore, Herbert F. :

The Earl of Essex' enterprise for the recovery of Ulster. — Ulster Journal
of Archaeology, vol. ix., p. 251.

439 Kane, W. he V. :

Noics on crannogs in Leitrim .— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th
series, pp. 407-409.

440 Keller, Ferdinand :

The lake dwellings of Switzerland, &c— London, 1878.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 371

441 Kelly, Denis H. :

Antiquities discovered in the Lake of Cloonfree, Co. Roscommon. — Proc.
R.I. A., vol. v., pp. 208-214.

442 Kelly, Geouoe A. P., m.a. -.

"Find" in Co. Roscommon. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 6th
series, p. 180.

443 Kilbiude, Rev. W. :

Etymology of the word " crannog." — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,
3rd series, pp. 219-222.

444 Kinahan, G. Henry, f.u.o.s.i., m.k.i.a. :

Crannog in Lough Nahinch. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. ix., pp. 176-179.
Crannog in Lough Naneevin. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. a., pp. 31-33.
Crannogs in Iiallin Lough. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. ix., pp. 172-170.
Crannogs in Loughrea. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. viii., pp. 412-427.
Geology of Ireland, 1878.
Observations on the exploration of crannogs. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 4th series, pp. 459-461.
Stone crannogs in Lough Bola. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii. ,

5th series, p. 438.
Unrecorded antiquities in Iar Connaught. — Journal R.H. A.A.I., vol. ii.,

4th series, pp. 10-13.

445 KniKEtt, S. K. :

Cloughoughter Castle, Co. Cavan. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th
series, pp. 294-297.

116 Knowles, W. J., m.k.i.a. :

1'ortion of a harp and other objects found in the crannog of Carnervagh,
Co. Antrim. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 114,
115.

447 Layard, Edgau L., c.m.g. :

Fortified stone lake dwellings on Islands in Lough Skannive, Connemara.
— Journal R.S.A., Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 373-378.

448 Lett, Rev. II. W., m.a. :

Ancient canoe found at Lisnagonnell. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,
new series, pp. 233, 234.

449 Lewis' Topoouamiical Dictionary :

Wooden house in Lough Annagh, vol. ii., p. 175.

450 Lockwood, F. W. :

Examination of crannogs, Lough Mournc, near Carriekfergus. — Proc.

Belfast Nat. Field Club, scries 2, vol. ii., pp. 170-174.
On the crannogs of Lough Mourne. — Journal R.H. A. A. I . vol. vi.,

4th series, p. 177.

2 c 2

372 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

451 Lockwood, W. J. :

Examination of crannogs in Lough Mourne, near Carrickfergus. — Journal
E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 194, 195.

452 MlLLIGAN, SEATON F. ;

On crannogs in the Co. Cavan. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th
series, pp. 148-152.

453 Morant, George, Jux. :

Ancient floor, Cavgaghoge, barony of Farney. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 269, 270.
Crannog in Monalty Lake. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new

series, p. 379.
Crannogs in the late of Ballyhoe. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. vi.,

new series, pp. 8-10.

454 Mudge, Capt. William, r.n. :

Ancient structure dug out of Dnimkelin Bog, parish of Inver, Co.
Donegal. — Archteologia, vol. xxvi., pp. 361-367 ; also Dublin Penny
Journal, 1836, pp. 381-383.

455 Mulvany, T. J. .

Artificial stockaded islands in Leitrim, Cavan, and Monaghan. — Proc.
E.I. A., vol. v., p. 43.

456 MUNKOE, Eobert :

The lake dwellings of Europe. — Cassell & Co., pp. 600.

Lake dwellings in Lough Mourne, Co. Antrim. — Proc. S.A. (Scotland),

vol. xx., pp. 321-330.
The structural features of lake dwellings. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,

vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 105-114.
Second notice, pp. 209-221.

457 O'Callaghan, C. G. :

Crannogs in Lough Bridgid, Co.^Clare.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i.,
5th series, p. 487.

458 O'Donovan, John, ll.d. .

Froissart, Johne's translation quoted. — Ulster Journal of Archa?ology >
vol. vi., pp. 197, 19S.

459 Otway, Eev. Caesar :

Sketches in Erris and Tyrawley.

460 Patterson, W. H. :

Silver brooch found at the crannog of Aghaloughan, Co. Antrim.—
Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, p. 74.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 373

461 Pjstims, George, lt..d. :

See Ball.

462 Plunkett, T. :

Ancient structure found in peat, near Boho, Co. Fermanagh.— Proe.
E.I. A., vol. ii., 2nd series, p. 66.

463 Reade, Rev. George H. :

Discovery of a crannog, parish of Aghnamullen, Co. Monaghan.—
Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, p. 229 (correction)
p. 334. v '

464 Reeves, Rev. W., d.d.

Crannog of Inishrush and its ancient occupants. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. vii.

pp. 212-217.
On certain crannogs in Ulster. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. vii., pp. 153-158.

465 Shirley, E. P. .

Crannogs and remains discovered in them. — Archaeological Journal, vol.

iii., pp. 44-49.
Territory and Dominion of Farney. — London.

466 Stanley, Thomas:

Crannog in Lough Annagli. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp.
156, 157.

467 Stures, Major-general F. W. :

Antiquities of Dromiskin, Co. Louth. — Journal R.H.A.A.I, vol. ix., 4th
series, pp. 271-276.

468 Sydney, Sir Henry :

Account of an attack on a crannog in the year 1566, sent by the Lord
Deputy, Sir Henry Sydney, to Queen Elizabeth. Extracted from MSS.
in the Public Record Office, London, by Dr. Caulficld. — Journal
R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp. 16, 17.

469 Traill, Antony, ll.u. -.

On two crannog sites (Innis-a-lochcn and Ballylough). — Journal
R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, p. 168.

470 Trench, H. B. :

Crannog in Lough Xahincb. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. ix., pp. 176-179.

471 Taliiot, Hon. James :

Antiquities found at Lagore, Iroland. — Archaeological Journal, vol. vi.,
pp. 101-108.

374 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

472 TJsshek, E. J. :

Discovery of human and other remains similar to those of a crannog,
high above the present valley of the Blackwater between Lisniore
Castle and Cathedral. — Proe. E.I.A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 550-561.

Submarine crannog discovered on the peat under high-water mark at
Ardmore Bay. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, p. 154 ; also,
Proc. B.I.A., vol, ii., ind series, p. 61.

473 Vigors, Colonel P. D. :

Outline sketch of crannogs, with some notes on a crannog recently dis-
covered in the County Eildare. — Journal Kildare Arch. Soc, vol. i.,
pp. 391-402.

474 Wakefield, Edward:

Account of Ireland, vol. i., p. 94.

475 Wakemax, W. F. :

Antiquities discovered in the crannog of Cornagall, Co. Cavan. — Journal

E.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp. 461-465.
Crannog at Ballydoolough, Co. Fermanagh. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol.

i., 4th series, pp. 360-371.
Crannogs in Drumgay Lake, near Enniskillen. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 4th series, pp. 232-235, 305-314.
Crannogs in Lough Eyes, Co. Fermanagh. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,

4th series, pp. 553—564.
Crannogs of Drurndarragh, otherwise Trillick and Lankill, Co. Fer-
managh. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 372-3S9.
Discoveries of ancient crannog structures, chiefly in the Co. Fermanagh. —

Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 324-339.
Irish Antiquities. — Collectanea Antiqua, vol. iii., pp. 37-44.
Observations on the principal crannogs of Fermanagh. — Journal

B.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 305-324.
Eemarks on Irish crannogs. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, new series,

vol. L, pp. 47-49.
Trouvaille from the crannog of Lisnacroghera, near Broughshane, Co.

Antrim. Journal B. II. A. A.I. , vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 375-40S.
Second notice. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 96-106.
Third notice. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 542-545.
Fourth notice. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 673-675.

476 Wilde, Sir William E., m.k.i.a, :

Account of three crannogs. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. vii., pp. 147-153.

" Catalogue" antiquities Museum, E.I. A., pp. 220-237.

Animal remains and antiquities found at Dunshaughlin. — Proc. E.I.A.,

vol. i., pp. 420-426.
Crannog in the Co. Cavan.— Proc. E.I. A., vol. viii., pp. 274-27S.

477 Wilson, Miss :

Crannog of Ballylougb.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1867. pp. 22-26.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 375

478 Wood-Mautin, Coi.. "W. (}., m.u i.a. :

Crannog site, Co. Meath— Proe. R.I.A., vol. ii., 2nd series, Pol. Lit.

and Ant., pp. 480^184.
Notes on crannogs in Longford.— Journal R.H.A. A. I., vol. vii., 4th

series, p. 410.
Lacustrine settlement in Moynagh Lake, Nobber, Co. Meath.— (Read at

Meeting, R.I. A., Nov. 12, 1888.)
The Lake Dwellings of Ireland.— Dublin, pp. 268.
Various references to crannogs. —Journal R.H.A. A.I., vol. vii., 4th series,

pp. 065-007.

479 Wylie, William Michael, m.a., f.s a. :

Lake Dwellings of the early period. — Archaeologia, vol. xxxviii., pp.
177-187.

X.XI. -OGHAM.

480 Allen, J. Romii.ly, f.s.a. (Scot.) :

Ogham inscribed stones. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., 5th series,
pp. 105-170, 255-267, 276.

4-81 Anonymous:

Dunloe ogham cave, Dingle. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series,

pp. 012, 615.
Ogham stones. — Journal R.H.A. A. I., vol. v., 4th scries, pp. S, 9.
The ogham Rosetla stone. — Archaeologia Cambrensis, vol. vi., 3rd series,

pp. 128-136.

482 Audfekt, Tin: Ven. Alien beacon of:

Ogham monument, Co. Kerry. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. vii., pp. 100-106

483 Armagh, Very Rev. Tin: Dean of:

Ogliam stone preserved at tho Public Library, Armagh. — Journal
R.H.A. A. I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 367-370.

484 Atkinson, Geoiioe Mounsey :

Ancient Iiisb Treatise on ogham writing, illustrated by tracings from
the original MS.— Journal R.H.A. A. I., vol. iii., 4thseii'cs, pp. 202-230.

Ogham ea\'e at Dunloe, Co. Kerry. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new
series, pp. 523 -524.

Ogham stones at Lisgenan and Glenawillan.— Journal R.H.A. A. I., vol.
vi., 1 th series, jiri. 307-310.

485 Bauuy, Rev. Liimonii :

Fifteen ogham inscriptions at Iiallyknock, Co. Cork. — Journal R.S.A.

Ireland, vol. i., 5th scries, pp. 511-535.
Discovery of an ogliam inscription at Rathcanning in the County Cork. —

Journal of the Cork Hi*t. anil Aich. Society, vol. iii., pp. 41-14.
Ogham inscription in Co. Cork. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th

series, pp. 7'J, SO.
On ogham stones seen in Kilkenny County. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland,

vol. v., 5th scries, pp. 348-368. Vol. vi.. 5th series, pp. 122-135.
Three ogliam stones near Kilmacthomas. — Journal of the Wateiford and

S.E. of Ireland Arclucological Society, vol. ii., pp. 22S 233.

376 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

486 Blackett, W. R. :

Ogham inscription. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., new series,
pp. 7-9.

487 Brash, Richard Bolt, m.r.i.a. .

Ogham chamber at Dunloghan, Co. Waterford. — Observations by the

Eight Rev. Charles Graves, d.d., Lord Bishop of Limerick. — Proc.

B.I.A., vol. x., pp. 103-121.
Ogham inscribed stones at Ballycrovane, Co. Cork.— Proc. E.I.A. Pol.

Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 196-200.
Ogham inscribed stones at Camp, or Glenfais. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol.

iii., 4th series, pp. 320-322.
Ogham inscribed stone at Dunbel. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th

series, pp. 238-246.
Ogham inscribed stones at Glen Fais, Co. Kerry. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. x.,

pp. 384-395.
Ogham inscribed stones at Gowran, Co. Kilkenny. — Journal R.H. A. A. I.,

vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 437—444.
Ogham inscribed stone at Kilbonane, Co Kerry. — Proc. R.I. A.. Pol. Lit.

and Ant., vol. i., pp. 27-29.
Ogham inscribed pillar-stone at Kilcullen, Co. Cork. — Proc. R.I A. Pol.

Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 304-316.
Ogham inscribed stones at Killeen Cormack. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol.

iii., 4th series, pp. 165-182.
Ogham inscribed stone at Kiltera, Co. Waterford. — Proc. R.I.A., Pol.

Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 4-7.
Ogham inscribed pillar-stone at Monataggart, Co. Cork. — Proc. R.I.A.,

Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol., i., pp. 172-175.
Ogham inscribed stone at Seskinan, Co. "Waterford. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 118-130.
Ogham inscribed stones at Tinahally, Co. Kerry. — Proc. R.I.A., Pol.

Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 186-191.
Ogham inscribed stones, Co. Cork. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd

series, pp. 254-264.
Ogham readings.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 168-186,

438, 439.
Review of a work by R. R. Brash, entitled "The Ogham inscribed

monuments of the Gaedhil," etc. — Journal R.H. A. A. I., vol. v., 4th

series, pp. 450-452. The Ogham inscribed monuments of the Gaedhil.—

London, 1879.

488 Brown, J. ;

Ogham inscribed bone pins and stone amulets. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. iv., tth series, p. 11.

489 Buick, Rev. G. R., ll.d. .

Report on Ogams recently discovered near Connor, County Antrim.—
Proc. R.I. A., vol. vi., 3rd series, pp. 265-271.

490 Caulfield, Richard :

Oghiim inscription in a souterrain in Co. Cork.— Proc. R I A vol iv .
pp. 387, 388. "'

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 377

491 Cochrane, Eomert, f.k.a. ;

Notes on the newly-discovered Ogham stones in County Meath. —
Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 53-60.

492 Colleb, Dk. J. A. Purepoy :

Note on a supposed Ogham stone, Boss Hill, County Gahvay.— Journal
Il.II.A.A.L, vol. i., 4th series, p. 268.

493 Elcock, Charles :

Ogham stone, Co. Cavan. — Journal E.H. A.A.I. , vol. viii., 4th series,
pp. 503, 504.

494 Elliott, Bev. John :

Stone bearing inscribed scorings. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th
series, pp. 370, 371.

495 Ferguson, Sin, Samuel, ll.d. :

Difficulties attendant on the transcription of Ogham legends, and the

means of removing them. — Proc. K.I. A., l'ol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,

pp. 30-64.
Ogham inscribed stone, Mount Music, Co. Cork. — Proc. B.I. A., Pol.

Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 192-196.
Ogham inscribed stone on Callan Mountain, Co. Clare. — Proc. B.I.A.,

Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i., 160-171.
Ogham inscriptions at Breastagh, Co. Mayo, at Monataggart, Co. Cork,

and at Mullagh, Co. Cavan. — Proc. B.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,

pp. 201-214, 289-297, 303, 351-353.
Fasciculus of prints from photographs of casts of Ogham inscriptions. —

Trans. B.I.A., vol. xxvii., pp. 47-56.
Ogham inscriptions in the cave of Bathcroghan, Co. Boscommon. — Proc.

B.I. A., vol. ix., pp. 160-170.
Ogham inscriptions in Ireland, Wales and Scotland. — Edinburgh, 1N87.
The Ogham monumonts of Kilkenny, &c. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. ii.,

4th series, pp. 222-238.

496 Fitzgerald, Edward :

Jotting in archieology. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, pp.

40-49.
Ogham inscription, St. Declan's Oratory, Ardmorc. — Trans. Kil. A.

Society, vol. iii., pp. 227, 282-284.
Ogham monument at Ardmore. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new

series, pp. 152, 153.
On J.ni/mVs Laieltt and the Duivhiii Dcglain. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,

vol. iii., new series, pp. 47-53.
Supposed Ogbnm inscription. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new

series, pp. 286, 2S7.

497 Geooiiegan, A. G. : —

Ogham i-tme. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, p. 122.

378 BIBL 10 GRA PHI '.

498 Grates, Rev. Charles, d.d., Lord Bishop of Limerick:

Crosses on stones, along with Ogham inscriptions. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. v.,

p. 234.
Notes on the Ogham character on the margin of an ancient ms. of

Priscian.— Proc. E.I.A. , vol. vi., pp. 199, 209-216
Ogham character and alphahet, part ii. — Proc. E.I. A., v<J. iv., pp.

356-369. ' i

Ogham inscription. — Trans. E.I.A , vol. xxvii., pp. 31-4SM:5.
On a general method of deciphering secret alphabetic writings, as

applicable to the Irish Ogham. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 70-73.
On an Ogham inscription lately discovered near Gortalea, Co. Kerry. —

Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 1-4.
On an Ogham monument recently found in Co. Kerry. — Proc. E.I.A. ,

3rd series, vol. iii., pp. 374-379.
Orra silver brooch, with an inscription in the Ogham character. — Proc.

E.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 183, 184.
On Ogham monuments. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. v., pp. 401-403.
On the age of Ogham writing. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.

305-307,312-317.
On the Ogham character. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 173-180.
Proper names occurring in Ogham inscriptions in the cave of Dunloe. —

Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 665-672.
Note on Oghams. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi.. 4th series, pp.

439-440.
Ogham inscription at. Cahireiveen. — Proc. E.I.A., Pol. Lit. and Ant.,

vol. i., pp. 157-159.
Oghiim inscription supposed to hear an Anglo-Saxon name. — Trans.

E.I.A., vol. xxx., pp. 97-108.
Ogham monument found in Co. Kerry. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iii., 3rd

series, pp. 374-379.
Ogham monument at Kilcolman. — Trans. E.I.A., vol. x\ix., pp. 33-42.
On Ogham inscriptions. — Hirmathena, vol. vi. , pp. 241-268.
On the Ogham Beithluisnin, with a note on Scythian letters ; Hernia-

thena, vol. iii., pp. 208-252.
The Ogham alphabet. — Hermathena, vol. ii., pp. 443-472.

499 Graves, Eev. James :

Ogham cave at Dunloe. — Journal K.H. A.A.I. , vol. vi., 4th series, pp.

312, 313.
On an Ogham inscription in the Co. Kilkenny. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,

vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 432-434.
On an amber bead with an Ogham inscription. — Trans Kil. A. Society,

vol. i., new series, pp. 149, 150.
On slone and hone antiquities, with oghamic inscriptions. — Journal

K.H. A. A. I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 190-202.
On the supposed Pilasgian inscription on Torv Hill. — Trans. Kil. A.

Society, vol. i., pp. 300-304.

500 Haioh, Eev. D. II. .

Comparison of the earliest inscribed monuments of Britain and Ireland.

— Proc. E.I.A., Vol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp. 424-456.
Cryptic inscription on the cross of Hackness in Yorkshire. {The paper

contains a good din/ of information rctalire lo Irish Offhams), — Trans.

Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, p. 170-194.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 379

501 Hayman, Eev. Samuf.l, m.a. :

Ogham stone, Youghal.— Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp.
38-40.

502 Hewson, Eev. E. F., j..*. .

On Oghams, including three recently discovered in the Co. Kilkenny,
and one in the Co. "VVaterford.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th
series, pp. 22-28.

503 Hitchcock, Eichaiid :

Discovery of some Ogham stones. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. i\\, pp. 271, 272.

Ogham inscription. — l'roc. E.I. A., vol. vi., pp. 439-441.

Ogham inscriptions. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. i., pp. 101-105.

504 Lane Fox, Col. Augustus:

Eoovesmore Fort, and stones inscribed with Oghams, Aglish, Co. Cork.
— Archaeological Journal, vol. xxiv., pp. 123-139.

505 LaNOHISIIE, E. :

Ballyboodan Ogham stone. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,

pp. 177, 178.
Fragment of an Ogham stone. — Journal E. II. A. A. I., vol. iii., 4th series,

p. 482, vol. iv., 4th series, p. 175.

50G Lett, II. W., m.a. :

Discovery of an Ogham stono in tho North of Ireland. — Journal
E.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 1G3-1C5.

507 Macaliktku, E. A. S., m.a. :

Ogham inscription containing Latin words. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,

vol. vi., 5th scries, pp. 175-177.
Notes on some of the Kilkenny Oghams. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland,

vol. vii., 5ih series, pp. 221-231.
Studies in Irish epigraphy, containing the Ogham inscriptions of tlio

barony of Corkaguiney and tho Counties of Mayo, \Vicklow and

Kildiue.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 74-76.
Sliobhan na (jc-ola. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series pp.

177, 178.
The Cumins Ogham. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii. ,5th series, p. 1S4.
TheKilleen Cormaic stones. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. 6, othscrie.-,

pp. N1-K3.
The Ogham retrospect of 1896.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th

series, pp. 392, 393.
The Ogham ictrospeet of 1897. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th

herics, p. G7.

508 Millioan, Skatox F., m.u.i. a. .

Ogham inscription, Co. Tyrone.— Proc. Belfast Nat. Ilist. and Phil.
Society, 1SS7-8, p. 64.

380 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

509 Nash, D. W., f.l.s. :

Irish Ogham inscriptions. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii.,
pp. 60-66.

510 Nevins, Hugh N. :

Ogham stone, Co. "Wexford.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., p. 179.

511 O'Daly, John :

Ogham inscriptions and evidence of their antiquity. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. iii., pp. 9-13.

512 O'Flanagan, Theophilus :

Ancient inscription in. Ogham character. — Trans. E.I.A., vol. i.,
pp. 3-16.

513 O'Gorman, Thomas:

Supposed Ogham inscription on a ruined cromleac at Castlederg, Co.
Tyrone. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. 5, new series, pp. 184, 185.

514 Oldham, Thomas :

On some stones with Ogham characters. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. ii-,pp. 513-
517.

515 Peim, John G. A. :

Ogham monuments in the rath of Dunhel, Co. Kilkenny. — Trans. Kil.

A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 397-408.
Ogham inscription. — Journal K.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 281,

282.
Ogham monuments of Kilkenny, &c. — Journal E.H.AA.L, vol. ii.,

4th series, pp. 222-238.
Ogham monument, Tullaherin, Co. Kilkenny. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,

vol. iii., pp. 86, 87.

516 Mac Cullagh, James,Je.t.c.d. :

Ogham stone, Co. Wexford. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., p. 136.

517 Eedmond, Gabhiel, m.d. :

Ogham stone in Salterbridge Demesne. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. vii.,
4th series, pp. 418, 419.

518 Eice, Lieut. -Col. E. J. :

Kerry Ogham finds. — JournalE.S.A. Ireland, vol.viii., 5th series, pp.69,
170.

519 Ehvs, John, m.a. :

Irish Ogham inscriptions. — Proc. E.I. A. Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,

pp. 298-302.
Query as to Killarney Oghams. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,vol. vi., 4th series,

pp. 314, 315.
Notes on an Ogham hunt in the North of Ireland.— Journal E.S.A.

Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 101-105.
Report on the Island Ogham at Brueklaghboy, near Ballyhaunis. — Proc.

E.I. A., vol. vi., 3rd series, pp. 279-282.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 381

520 Shearman, Rkv. John Francis:

Billingual Ogham inscription at Killeen-Cormac. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 544-561.
Inscribed stones at Killeen-Cormac, near Dunlavin. — Proc. R.I. A.,

vol. ix., pp. 253-260.

521 Stephen, Professor George :

On scribings from a. cave, Co. Fermanagh. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iv., new series, pp. 11, 12.

522 Todd, Rev. James Henthorne, d.d. .

On an Ogham inscription. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. ii., pp. 410, 411.

523 Tuomey, J. C. .

Ogham monument, Castletimon, Co. Wicklow. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iii., pp. 187-194.

524 Vallanoey, Col. Charles :

Observations on the alphabet of the Pagan Irish. — Archasologia, vol. vii.,
pp. 276-285.

525 Wakeman, W. F. .

Ogham pillar-stone at Aughascribbagh, Co. Tyrone. — JournalR.H.A.A.L,

vol. v., 4th series, pp. 750-756.
On an Ogham from tho earn on Topped Mountain, Co. Fermanagh. —

Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 529-542 ; vol. iv.,

4th series, p. 10.

626 Williams, William :

/
Ogham chamber at Drumloghan, Co. Waterford. — Journal R.II.A.A.L,

vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 35-39.
Ogham readings, &c. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series,
pp. 324-340.

527 Windrle, John :

Irish Ogham inscriptions. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. i.,

pp. 43-52.
On Ogham inscriptions. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 142, 143.
On the age of Ogham writing. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 307-

311, 317-322.

XXII.— PILLAR; HOLED-STONES, &c.

528 Anonymous :

Druid's altar.— Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv., pp. 268, 269.

629 Belcher, T. W., m.d.:

Pillar-stones.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii, new series, p. 16.

630 Cody, Patrick :

Pillar-stones.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 3S5-389.

382 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

•531 Con well, Eugene A.

The Lia Fail on Tava Hill.— Proc. R.I.A., vol. ix., pp. 539, 540.

■632 Frazer, "W., f.k.c.s.i. .

On holed and perforated stones in Ireland. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland,
vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 158—169.

533 Hithcock, Richard :

Original purpose for which gallauns were erected. — Trans. El. A.
Society, vol. iii., pp. 280-282.

534 Joly, Mons. P. :

Observations on the history of holed-stones in France and Ireland. —
Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 243-245.

635 Kelly, W. E., c.e.

Inscribed pillar-stones, Co. Mayo. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii.,
5th series, pp. 185-187.

536 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i. a. :

On standing-stones in the County Wexford. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 39-41.

537 Mac Ritchie, David, f.s.a. (Scot.):

Holed-stones. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., 5th series, pp. 194-297.

538 Wakeman, W. F. :

Markings on pillar-stones, &c. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th
series, pp. 445-474.

639 'Wood-Martin, Col. W. G., m.k.i.a. :

Holed-stone in the Co. Carlow. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th

series, pp. 471, 472.
Holed-stones. — Rude stone monuments of Ireland, &c. , pp. 94-10S.

XXIII.— QUERNS.

540 Anonymous :

Ancient hand-mill or quern. — Dublin Pennv Journal, vol. iv., pp. 295,
296.

541 Frrz Gerald, E. :

Primitive hand-mill found near Youghal. — Journal El. A. Society,
vol. i., new series, pp. 36, 37.

542 Smith, J. Huiiand :

On the quoins used by the Irish.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 390-393.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 383

543 Tenison, Thomas J. :

On the quern.— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 352-
354.

644 Wilde, Sir W. R., m.u.i.a. :

Cat. Mus. R.I.A., pp. 103-115.

545 Wood-Martin, Col. W. G., m.r.i.a. :

Lalte-dwellings of Ireland, pp. 85-90.

xxiv.-^ras.

546 Anonymous :

Irish and Danish Raths. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iii., p. 182.
The Moat of Ardscull. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol ii., pp. 186-197.

547 Bigger, Francis Joseph, m.r.i.a. ;

Prehistoric Ruths in the vicinity of Belfast. — Belfast Nat. Field Club,
vol. iv., 2ndseries, pp. 71-82.

648 Brownrigg, John :

The fort of Ardnorcher, or Horseleap, near Kilbeggan, Co. Westmeath.

Trans. R.I. A., vol. ii., pp. 43-50.

649 Byrne, Daniel :

The Dun of Cloch-an-Phuca and Los-an-Chorain. — Trans. Kil. A.
Society, vol. i., pp. 298-300.

650 Dickson, John M. .

Relative antiquity of Rath, Cromleac, and Tumulus. — Belfast Nat.
Field Club, vol. iv., 2nd series, pp. 55-70.

651 Falkineh, Rev. William, m.a. .

Notes upon a Rath souterrain at Gurteen, Garristown, Co. Westmeath. —
Proc. R.I. A., vol. v., 3rd series, pp. 211-21.5.

552 Geogheoan, A. G. :

On the origin of Raths. — Trans. Kil. A. Socielv, vol. i., 3rd series, pp.
87, 88.

553 Graves, Rev. James :

Rath at Glenfoyle.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 246, 247.
Report on the souterrain of a rath. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th

series, pp. 207, 208.
The ancient tribes and territories of Ossory.— Trans. Kil. A. Society,

vol. i., pp. 240, 247.

664 Healy, Rev. W. ;

The rath of Borrismore. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol i., 5th series,
p. 490.

384 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

555 Hitchcock, Richard :

On bones found in the souterrain of a rath.— Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iii., pp. 175-178.

556 KlNAHAN, G. H., M.lt.I.A. .

Rathgorey, &c, Co. Wexford.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th
series, pp. 39, 40.

557 Martin, James, m.d. ;

On a liss at Portnascully.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp.

87, 88.

558 Mayo, Earl or :

Rathmore.— Journal Kildare A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 112-115.

559 Milligan, S. F., m.r.i.a. :

The forts of Erin from the Firbolg to the Norman. — Proc. Belfast Nat.
Hist, and Phil. Society, 1887-8, pp. 54-60.

560 Molyneux, Thomas, m.d., etc. :

A discourse concerning the Danish mounts, forts, and towers of Ireland.
Dublin, 1725.

561 Moore, Cai>t. A. Montgomery :

On some explorations on the Cnrragh of Kildare. — Journal Kil. A.
Society, vol. ii., new series, pp. 443, 444.

562 Moore, Rev. Philip :

Observations on raths. — Trans. Kil. Society, vol. i., pp. 22-26.

563 O'Donoghue, Rev. Denis :

Note on Barrow n-Eanach. — Jourual R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series,
pp. 315, 316.

564 Petrie, George, r.h.a. .

On the antiquities of Tara Hill.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 68-71, 75,

76.
On the history and antiquities of Tara Hill. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xviii.,

pp. 25-232.

365 Prim, John, G. A. :

Rath, at Dunbel, Co. Kilkenny. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp.

119-127.
Antiquities discovered in trenching a small rath. — Journal Kil. A.

Society, vol. iii., new series, pp. 307, 308.

666 Ross, Charles, m.d. :

Double ditched quadrangular fort. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. vi.,
new series, pp. 3, 4.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 385

567 Ussbee, E. J. ;

Objects found in the Kitchen middens of raths.— Journal R.H.A.A.I..
vol. vii., 4th series, pp. 362-368.

568 WniGHT, Thomas :

Louthiana ; or, an introduction to the antiquities of Ireland.— London,
1758.

569 Wuiteub (Various) :

On the fort of Tullaghhog.— Ulster Journal of Arch Ecology, vol. v.,
pp. 235-242. '

XXV — RELIGION AND FOLKLORE.

670 Anonymous :

Archaic Eock Inscriptions, London, 1891.

Bonfires of bones. — Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. viii., p. 76.
Cannibalism in Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iv., p. 71.
Cities buried beneath the waters of lakes. — Ulster Journal of Archae-
ology, vol. vii., p. 348.
Exclusion of women from sacred places. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,

vol. iv., p. 282 ; vol v., p. 155.
Fairy Annals of Ulster. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vii., pp.

131-143.
Fairy Superstition. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vii., pp. 73, 74.
Folk-lore. — Journal of the Cork Historica and Archaeological Society,

vol. iii., pp. 66, 133-136.
Folk-lore of the months. — Journal Cork Historical and Archaeological

Society, vol. i., 2nd series, pp. 413-420, 553-557 ; vol. ii., pp. 157-

160, 316-323, 365-367.
Funeral customs. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 86, 87.
Healing Well. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, vol. i., new series,

p. 401.
Holed stone near Eoscan round tower, Galway. — Journal E.S.A.

Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, p. 286.
Notes and queries, vols. viii. and ix., 7th series. See under heading of

Couvade.
Eustic proverbs current in Ulster. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,

vol. ii., pp. 126-129.
Some Irish legends. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vii., p. 70.
The cow legend of Corofin, Co. Clare. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,

vol. v., 5th series, p. 227.
Weasel folklore in Munster. — Journal E.S.A., Ireland, vol. vi., 5th

series, pp. 256, 267.

571 Atkinson, G. M. :

Imokilly amulet. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 440-
444.

572 Baldwin, William :

Beware the cat. — London (circa 1560).
VOL. ii. 2 D

386 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

57 3 Baud an, Patrick :

The shamrock.— Journal U.S.A. Ireland, Yol. v., 5th series, pp. 178,
179.

574 Banon, Bernard :

Need fire. — Journal E.H. A.A.I. , vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 64, 65.

575 Baring-Gould, S., m.a. :

The origin and development of religious belief. — London, 1871.

576 Beat/ford, "William, a.e. :

Caoinan; or, the ancient Irish lamentation. — Trans. E.I. A., vol. iv.,
pp. 41-54.

577 Bigger, Francis Joseph, m.r.i.a. :

Belfast folklore. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd series, vol. iii.,

p. 136.
Holy well and bullan stone at Temple Feaghna and the holy well and

shrine of St. Finan's, Co. Kerry. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,

vol. viii., 5th series, p. 314.
Local folklore. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, vol. iii., 2nd series, pp. 545-

548.

578 Blackett, W. E. .

Antiquities in the Co. "Waterford. Holywell. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. i., p. 497.

579 Blair, Mrs. J. :

Items of folklore. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, vol. iii., 2nd series, pp.
583-586.

580 Brady, Dr. Maziere :

Swearing stones. — Eecords of Cork, Cloyne, and Boss. Dublin, vol. i.,
p. 190.

581 Buenan, Eev. Samuel Arthur :

Folklore. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, pp. 59-63.

582 Browne, Charles, m.d. :

The ethnography of Ballycroy, Co. Mayo. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iv., 3rd

series, pp. 74-111.
The ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea Island, and Portacloy, Co.

Mayo.— Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 587-649.

583 Buchanan, Edward :

Cure for warts. — Ulster Journal of Archteoiogy, vol. iv., p. 272.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 387

584 Bcckland, A. W. :

Anthropological studies. London, 1891.

685 Byrne, D. :

Folklore.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 149-154.

686 Camden Society Publications :

Witchcraft ; proceedings against Dame Alice Kyteler, prosecuted for
sorcery in 1324 by Richard De Ledrede, Bishop of Ossory. Edited bv
Thos. Wright, f.s.a., 1843.

587 Caulpield, Dr. :

Garnavilla amulet. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, p. 347.

588 Clodd, Edward :

The childhood of religious. London, 1891.
The childhood of the World. London, 1893.
The story of Creation. London, 1896.

689 Cody, Patrick :

Folklore.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 87-102.

590 Colgan, Nathaniel, m.r.i.a. :

The shamrock in literature, and critical chronology. — Journal R.S.A.

Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 211-226, 349-362.
Witchcraft in the Arran Islands. — Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th

series, pp. 84, 86.

591 Choker, T. Crofton :

Fairy legends and traditions of the south of Ireland. London, 1862.
The keen of the south of Ireland. Printed for the Percy Society.

692 Crowe, J. O'Beirne, a.b. :

Religious beliefs of the Pagan Irish.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,
3rd series, pp. 307-334.

693 Day, Robert, h.s.a. :

Folklore.— Journal R. H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 414, 415.

594 Duncan, Leland L. :

Folklore gleanings from County Leitrim.— Folklore, vol. iv., pp. 176-
194.

695 Dunne, John :

Fenian traditions of Sliabh-na-m-Ban.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i.,
pp. 333-362.

2 D 2

388 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

596 Dyer, T. F. Thiselton Dyer, m.a. :

English folklore. London, 1884.
The folklore of plants. London, 1889.

597 Editor Ulster Journal of Archeology :

The shamrock.— Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. v., pp. 12-20.

598 Feltus, B. B. :

Similarity between Irish and Eastern customs. — Journal Eil. A. Society,
vol. v., new series, p. 58.

599 Ferguson, Samuel, ll.d., etc.'

Evidences bearing on Sun worship. — Proc. B.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant.,

vol. i., pp. 265-272, 315-322.
The ceremonial Turn called " Desiul." — Proc. E.I. A., Pol. Lit. and

Ant., vol. i., pp. 355-364.

600 Fitzgerald, E :

Jottings in Archseology. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series,
pp. 40-49.

601 Flaherty, John T., b.a. :

Beligion of the Celtic Nations, &c, &c. — Trans. E.I. A., vol. iv., pp.
79-139.

602 Frazer, William, f.r.c.s.i. .

Holed stones found in France. — Journal B.S.A., Ireland, vol. vii.,
5th series, p. 187. |£

On holed and perforated stones in Ireland.— Journal B.S.A. Ireland,
vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 158-169.

On Hy-Brasil, a traditional island off the west coast of Ireland, plotted
on a map of the Geographer Eoyal to Louis XIII. — Journal Royal
Geographical Society of Ireland, vol. v., new series, pp. 12S-132.

The Shamrock. — Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 132-135.

603 Fitzgerald, Lord Walter, m.r.i.a., etc. :

The Holestone of Castledermot. — Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., 5th
series, pp. 68, 69.

604 Gomme, George Laurence, p.s.a. :

Ethnology in Folklore. — London, 1892.

605 Gomme, G. L., f.s.a. (Edited by) :

The Gentleman's Magazine Library. — -London, 1885.

606 Graves, Bev. James :

Amulet for the cure of sore eyes.— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new
series, pp. 149, 150.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 389

607 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. .

Holy "Wells.— Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club, vol. iv., series 2, pp.
86-95.

608 Gwynn, Stephen :

A specimen of mediaeval Irish poetry. — The Fortnightly Review, March,
1901.

609_Hackett, William :

Folk-lore, Bovine Legends. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp

311-319.
Folk-lore, Porcine Legends. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp.

303-310.
The Irish Bacach, or professional beggar, viewed archa3oIogically. —

Ulster Journal of Archseoiogy, vol. ix., pp. 265-271.

610 Haddon, Professor A. C. :

A batch of Irish Folk-lore.— Folk-lore, vol. iv., pp. 349-364.
Wedding Dance-Mask, Co. Mayo. — Folk-lore, vol. iv., pp. 123, 124.

611 Hall, Mk. and Mrs. S. C. .

Ireland: its scenery, character, &c, 3 vols. — London, 1843.

612 Hardy, Philip Dixon :

Legends, Tales, and Stories of Ireland. — Dublin, 1827.
The Holy Wells of Ireland.— Dublin, 1836.

613 Hartland, E. Sidney, f.s.a. :

Pin-wells and Eag Bushes. — Folklore, vol. iv., pp. 451-470.

614 Hennesby, W. M. .

The Goddess of war of tho ancient Irish.— Proc. B.I.A., vol. x., pp.
421-440.

*15 Hp.wson, George T. :

Mad Stone.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 470, 471.

616 HicKSON, Mary Agnes :

Legend of Molaga's Well, Co. Kerry. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii.,
6th series, pp. 170, 171.

617 Hitchcock, Richard:

Holy Well.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 499, 500.

618 Hope, R. C, f.s.a., etc. :

Holy Wells of England.— London, 1893.

390 BIBLIOGRAPHY

619 Hore, Herbert :

Origin of the Irish superstition regarding Banshees and Fairies. —
Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. 5, 5th series, pp. 115-129.

620 Hore, Herbert Francis :

The Ossianic Age. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., pp. 294-315.

621 Hunt, John, d.d. :

Pantheism and Christianity. — London, 1884.

622 Hutchinson, Rev. H. 1ST. .

Extinct Monsters. — London, 1893.

623 Jewitt, Llewellynn, f.s.a. :

The Mermaid, and the symbolism of the fish, in art, literature, and
legendary lore. — The Reliquary, vol. xix., pp. 193-200.

624 Joyce, P. W., i.l.d. :

Old Celtic Romances. — London, 1879.

The origin and history of Irish Names of Places. — Dublin, 1875, 2 vols.,
2nd series, 1875.

625 Kennedy, Patrick :

Legend of Mount Leinster. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp

415-417.
Legendary fictions of the Irish Celts, 2nd ed., 1891.

626 Kinahan, G. H., m.u.i.a. :

Folk-lore. Doctor Stones. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series,

p. 72.
Madstones. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series, p. 72.
Some Holy Wells, Co. Donegal. — Journal R.H.A.A. Ireland, vol. ix.,

4th series, pp. 279-282, 284.

627 Larminie, William :

West Irish Folk Tales and Romances. — London, 189S.

628 Lubbock, Sir John, Bt. :

The Origin of Civilization, 5th edition. — The Couvade, Marriage by
Capture, pp. 14-18, 111-134.

629 Lynch, Rf.v. J. Fane :

Cork Historical and Archosological Society Journal, vol. i., 2nd series,
pp. 564-566.

630 MacAdam, Robert :

Six hundred Gaelic Proverbs collected in Ulster.— Ulster Journal of
Archreology, vol. vi., pp. 172-183, 250-267 ; vol. vii., 278-287 ;
vol. ix., 223-236.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 391

631 Macalistkk, E. A. S., m.a. :

A Lake Legend in the Dingle District. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland.

vol. viii., 5th series, p. 71.
Sliobhan na Gula. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., oth series, pp.

177, 178.

632 Mackenzie, W. :

Gaelic Incantations, with translations. — Inverness, 1895.

633 Malcomson, Robert :

On an ancient pamphlet, entitled " Beware the Cat." — Trans. Kil. A.
Society, vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 187-192.

634 Mason, "William Shaw, m.k.i.a :

Statistical Account or Parochial Survey of Ireland, 3 vols.

635 Maxwell, William Hamilton :

Wild Sports of the West of Ireland. — London.

636 Meyer, Kuno and Nutt, Alfred :

Stories and Songs from Irish mss. — Otia Merseiani, vol. i., pp. 115-128.
The Vision of MacCouglinn. — London.
The Voyage of Bran. — London.

037 Millioan, Seaton F. :

Witchcraft in the Co. Tyrone. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th
scries, pp. 406, 407.

638 McLennan, John F., m.a. :

Primitive Marriage. — Edinburgh, 18C5.
The Patriarchal Theory. — London, 1885.

639 Mollan, L. :

Pishogues from Tipperary. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series,
pp. 348-350.

640 Napier, James, f.r.s.e. :

Folk-lore, &c. — London.

641 Nolan, Joseph, f.u.c.s.i. :

Notes on the well called Tobcrkeelagh. — Journal R. II. A. A. I., \ol. i.,
4th series, pp. 4th series, pp. 348-350.

642 Nutt, Alfred :

Celtic Mvth and Saga.— Folklore, vol. i., pp. 234-260 ; vol. iii., pp.

387-424 ; vol. iv., pp. 365-387.
Irish Tales among the Redskins.— Folk-lore, vol. ii., pp. 130, 131.
Irish version of the Jealous Stepmother.— Folk-lore, vol. ii., pp. S7-89.

643 O'Byhne, Danikl :

Folklore of tho midland Counties of Ireland.— Journal Kil. A. Society,
vol. ii., new series, pp. 105-109.

392 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

644 O'Conor, Dr. ;

Columbanus ad Hibernos, vol. ii., pp. 77-105, 3rd letter — London,
1810.

645 O'Donovan, John, ll.d. :

Elegy on the death of the Rev. Edmond Kavanagh. — Journal Kil. A.

Society, vol. i., new series, pp. 118-143.
Traditions of Kilkenny.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 362-372.
Physical characteristics of the ancient Irish. — Ulster Journal of Arehse-

ology, vol. vi., pp. 191-202.

646 O'Kearney, Nicholas:

Folklore.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 32-39.

May day and midsummer. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol i., pp. 373-382.

On Folklore.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol i., pp. 144-148.

647 O'Keefe, C. M. :

Persecution of the "Wren. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iv., pp.
98, 171, 172.

648 O'Laverty, James:

Correspondence of Irish, Greek, and Oriental legends.— Ulster Journal
of Archaeology, vol. vii., pp. 334-346.

649 O'Laverty, Rev. James, m.r.i.a. .

The Wren Bovs. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 240-
242.

650 Olden, Rev. T., d.d. .

Remarks supplementary to Dr. Joyce's paper on the occurrence of the
number two in Irish proper names. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol iv.,
pp. 636-643.

651 Otway. Rev. Cesar :

Sketches in Erris and Tyrawley. — Dublin, 1841.

Tour in Connaught. — St. Fechin's cursing stone. — Dublin.

652 Patterson, W. H. .

Holywell. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, p. 477.

Irish Fairies. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol. iii., pp. 573-583.

653 Patterson, W. H. :

Antiquities in S.W. Donegal.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1871, pp. 54,

55.
Healing Stones. — Journal, R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, p. 469.

654 Peacock, Mauel :

Folklore gleanings from County Leitrim. — Folklore, vol. iv., pp. 349-
364.

656 Petrie, George, r.h.a. :

Well, Co. Clare. — Irish Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 401, 402.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 393

656 Philpot, Mrs. J. H. .

Tho sacred tree, or the tree in Religion and Myth. — London, 1897.

657 Pouter, Eev. Thomas H., d.d. :

The shamrock. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 12-16.

658 Pium, John G. A. :

Customs and games at wakes.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 333,
334. J

659 Purdon, H. S., m.d. :

Note on an old surgical remedy. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, new
series, vol. ii., pp. 205, 206.

660 Richardson, John, Clk. .

Great folly, superstition, and idolatry of pilgrimages in Ireland. — Dublin,
1727.

661 Ryche, Barnaby :

A new Irish prognostication, &c. — London, 1624.

662 Salmon, John, m.h.s.a., Ireland :

Druidical sacrifices in Ireland: were there human victims? — Ulster
Journal of Archaeology, new series, vol. i., pp. 218-226.

663 Seaton, R. C :

On the couvade. — The Archaeological Review, vol. iv., pp. 308-310.

664 Stokes, M'hitley, ld.d. :

The Bodleian Dinnshenchus. — Folklore, vol. iii., pp. 467-516.

666 Toland, John :

History of the Druids. Second edition, 1814.

666 Wake, C. Staniland :

The development of marriage and kinship.— London, 1889.

667 Waxf.man, W. F. :

Wells in the N.W. of Ireland.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series,
pp. 365-384.

668 Walkinqton, Miss L. A. :

A Bundoran legend.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol vi., 6th series, p. 84.

669 Weuii, Wilfred Mark, f.l.s. ;

True shamrock, and sham shamrocks, with illustrations. — Harmsworth
Magazine, vol. vi., pp. 106-8.

394 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

670 WESTitopr, J. J. :

Folklore in Limerick and Clare. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th
series, pp. 491, 492.

671 "Westropp, Thomas Johnson, k.a. .

Magh Adhair, Co. Clare, the place of inauguration of the Dalcassian
Kings. — Proc. R.I.A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 55-60.

The churches of County Clare. Contains a list of holy wells. — Proc.
E.I. A., vol. vi., 3rd series, pp. 100-180.

672 Wilde, Lady :

Ancient cures, charms and usages of Ireland.— Loudon.

Ancient legends, mystic charms and superstitions of Ireland. — London.

673 Wilde, Sip. W.E., m.k.i.a. :

Altar stones.— Cat. Mus., R.I.A., pp. 131, 132.
Lough Corrib, its shores and islands.

674 Windele, John :

Medical superstitions. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, pp.
306-326.

675 Wood-Mahtin, Colonel W. G., m.k.i.a. -.

Cursing and healing stones. — History of Sligo, vol. iii., pp. 360-369.

676 WitiGHT, Thomas, f.s.a. (edited by) :

Proceedings against Dame Alice Kyteler. — Camden Society.

677 Yeats, W. B. :

Irish Folklore.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, series 2, vol. iv., pp. 46-48.
The broken gates. — Fortnightly Review, April, 1898.

XXVI.— ROCK SCULPTURINGS AND ORNAMENTATION.

678 Anonymous :

Archaic Bock inscriptions. — London, 1891.

679 Buash, Richard R., m.k.i.a. :

Inscribed cromleacs. — JournalR.H.A. A. I., vol. iii. ,4th series, pp. 101-103.

680 Cofpey, Geokoe, jj.a., m.k.i.a. :

Inscribed stones at New Grange, &c— Trans. R.I.A., vol. xxx.,pp. 1-96.
Knockmany. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 93-111.
Note on the derivation of the New Grange spirals.— Journal R.S.A.

Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 248-253.
On stone markings, ship figure, &c. , recently discovered at Dowth, in the

County of Meath.— Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 586-588.
The origin of Prehistorio Ornament in Ireland.— Journal R.S.A.

Ireland, vol. iv., 6th series, pp. 349-379.
The origin of Prehistoric Ornamentation in Ireland, second notice.—

Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol., v., 5th series, pp. 16-29, 195-211,

vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 34-69, vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 28-52.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 395

681 Conwell, Eugene A. ;

Inscribed cromleac. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. ix., pp. 541-545.

682 Day, Robert, Jun., e.s.a. -.

Rock carvings in County Cork.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series,
pp. 91, 92.

683 Deane, T. N. :

Some ancient monuments, &c— Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. i.,pp. 161—
165.

684 Du Noyer, George V., m.r.i.a. :

Carved rock at Ryefield, Co. Cavan,— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v„

new series, pp. 379-385.
Remarks on a kistvaen and some carvings on an " earth fast " rock in

the Co. Louth. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, pp.

497-501.

686 Ferguson, Samuel, ll.d. :

Inscribed eromleacs. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp.
523-531.

686 Prazer, W., l'.n. o.s.i. :

Notes on incised sculpturings on stones in the cairns of Sliabh-na-
Callinghe, near Loughcrew, Co. Meath, Ireland, with Illustrations,
from a series of ground plans and water-colour sketches, by the late
G. V. Du Noyer, of the Geological Survey of Ireland. — Proceedings
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1894, pp. 294-340.

On a series of coloured drawings of scribed stones in the Loughcrew
cairns, by the late G, V. Du Noyer. — Proc. R. I. A., 3rd series,
vol. i., pp. 451-453.

On cup-markings in megalithic monuments due to Echinus Lividus.—
Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 64-71.

Rude bone pins of large size. — Proc. S. A. (Scotland), 1896, pp. 340-
345.

687 Graves, Rev. Charles :

On a rubbing of an inscription at Lennan, Co. Monaghan. — Proc,
R.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 368, 369.

688 Graves, Very Rev. Charles, d.d. :

Inscribed monuments in the Co. Kerry. — Proc. R. I. A., vol. ix., pp.
179-181.

689 Graves, Rev. James, a.h. :

Boulder with carvings at Clonfinlough, King's County. — Journal Kil. A.

Society, vol. v., new series, pp. 354-362.
Cup and circle sculptures as occurring in Ireland. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. iv., 4th series, pp. 283-286.

690 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. :

On cup markings in the north of Ireland. — Belfast Nat. Field Club,
1879-1880, 2nd series, vol. i., pp. 427, 428.

396 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

691 Jones, Colonel:

Scribings on a rock at Drumlish. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., pp. 147-149.

€92 Kelly, "W. E„ c.e. :

Inscribed pillar stones, Co. Mayo. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. v.,
5th series, pp. 185—187.

693 KlNAHAN, G. H., M.li.I.A. :

Cup-marked and inscribed stones in the Counties of AVicklow and Wex-
ford. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 222-237.

The Mevagh inscribed stones and other antiquities. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,
vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 427-437.

694 Milligan, Seaton F. :

Cup-marked cromleacs. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series,
pp. 526-528.

695 Magennis, J. P. :

Incised scorings on the sides of a natural cave, known as the " lettered
cave," on Knockmore mountain, near Derrygonnely, Co. Fe rman agh
— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., new series, p. 171 ; vol. iv., pp.
11, 12.

696 Parkinson, Henkv :

Curious inscribed stone found near Cabinteely, Co. Dublin. — Proc.
E.I.A., vol. x., pp. 240-242.

697 Eotheuam, E. Crofton :

Inscribed Stones. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp.

171, 172.
Ornamental bone flake from Slieve-na-Caillighe. — Journal E.S.A.

Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 257, 25S.
Slieve-na-Caillighe. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, p.

427.

698 Simpson, Sir J. T., Bt. :

Archaic sculpturings of cups, circles, &c, upon stones and rocks. —
Edinburgh, 1862.

699 Smith, Owen :

Bone comb, Kilniessan, Co. Meath.— Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv.,
5th series, pp. 390-392.

700 Smith, Eev. G. Sidney, d.d. :

An account of some characters found on stones on the top of Knock-
manny Hill, Co. Tyrone.— Proc. E.I. A., vol. ii., pp. 190, 191.

BIBLIO GRA PHY. 397

701 Wakeman, W. F. :

Monument exhibiting cup markings and circles with channels, from the

neig Lo°^? 0d of Youghal.— Journal K.H.A.A.I,, vol. v., 4th series,
pp. o03, 604.

On certain markings i on rocks, pillar stones, and other monuments.—

Journal K.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp. 445-474.
On sepulchral scribings and rock markings, with suggestions for their

classification.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 538-561.
On the cavern called " Gillies' Hole," at Knockmore, Co. Fermanagh.

—Proc. E.I.A., vol. x., pp. 395-397.
On the inscribed cavern in the parish of Bohoe, Co. Fermanagh —Proc

R.I.A., vol. x., pp. 327-329.
The cave of Knockmore, with remarks on the character of the primitive

scorings.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 229-232.

702 Westropp, Hoddeu M. :

On rock carvings. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. x., pp. 232-234.

On the Pre-Christian Cross. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. viii. pp. 322-324.

XXVII.

ROMAN COINS, ANTIQUES, AND PRE-CHRISTIAN
NOTICES OF IRELAND.

703 Aethicus :

Cosmographia Aethici, Istrii, ab Hieronymo, ed. H. Wuttke.— Lipsiae,
1854: see also Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii., pp. 281 282 •
vol. iii., pp. 80, 81.

704 Beauford, William, a.b. :

Ancient Ireland, according to Ptolemy. — Trans. R.I. A., vol iii do
51-77. " LV '

705 Betham, Sir "William (and Others) :

Etruscan coins supposed to have been found in Ireland. — Proc. R.I A
vol. iv., pp. 29-34, 36, 37, 74, 75.

706 Bradley, Henry :

Ptolemy's Geography of the British Isles. — Archocologia, vol. xlviii.,
pp. 377-396.

707 Carrvjthehs, James :

On Roman remains. (The- remains appear to be of purely native manu-
facture.) — Journal, Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, pp. 164, 165.

List of Roman coins found near Coleraine. — Ulster Journal of Archaeo-
logy, vol. ii., pp. 187-192.

On the discovery of some coins. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new
series, pp. 49, 50.

On the discovery of some coins. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp.
61-64.

Recent discovery of Roman coins and other articles near Coleraine, Co.
Deny. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii., pp. 182-192.

398 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

708 Drummond, Rev. W. H., d.d. .

Roman coins.— Proc. E. I. A., vol. ii. pp. 185-190.

709 Fkazer, "W., f.r.c.s.i. :

On a find of Eoman coins. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series,
pp. 103-106.

710 Hardimam, James, m.r.i.a. :

Maps, &c, relating to Ireland. — Trans. E.I.A., vol. siv., pp. 57, 58.

711 Ledwick, Rev. Edward, ll.b., etc. :

Eomantic History of Ireland. — Trans. E.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 21-32.

712 MacCullagh, Professor:

Eoman coins. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 184, 185.

713 M 'Sweeney, C:

Antiquity of letters in Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii.,
pp. 281, 282, vol. iii., p. 80, 81.

714 O'Donovan, John :

Pre-Christian notices of Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol.
viii., pp. 239-251.

715 OurEN, Goddard H. :

Ptolemy's map of Ireland. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series,
pp. 115-128.

716 Petrie, George, ll.d. :

Ancient coins. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. v., pp. 199, 200.
Eoman coins found near Eathfamham. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. vi., pp. 441—
445.

717 Pictet, Professor Adolphe :

Origin of the name of Ireland. —Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. v.,
pp. 52-60.

718 Pinkerton, AV. :

Roman intercourse with Ireland. — Ulster Journal of Archeology, vol. v.,

pp. 32-36.
Contribution towards a history of Irish commerce. — Ulster Journal of

Archaeology, vol. iii., pp. 177-180.

719 Porter, J. Scott:

Discovery of Roman coins and other articles near Coleraine, Co. Deny. —
Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii., pp. 182-192.

720 Reape, Rev. G. H. :

Roman coin found at Brugh-na- Bourne. — Trans. Eil. A. Society, vol. i.
3rd series, p. 50.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 399

721 Robs, Rev. Alexandeu:

Coin of the Emperor Nero. — Parochial Survey of Ireland, vol. i., p.
304.

722 Trail, Rev. Robert :

Coin of the Emperor ValentiniamiB. — Parochial Survey of Ireland, vol.
i., p. 155.

723 Walker, Joseph Coopeu, m.r.i.a. :

Origin of romantic fabling. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. x., pp. 1-19.

724 West, William, m.d. :

Ancient geography of the British Isles. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., p. 144.

725 Wood, Thomas, m.d. :

Mixture of fable and fact in the early annals. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xiii.,
pp. 3-80.

XXVIII— RUDE STONE MONUMENTS, CISTS, GRAVES,
AND CEMETERIES, &c.

720 Annesley, Loud :

Cromlech near Castlewilliam.— Journal R.S. A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th
series, p. 87.

727 Anonymous:

Cromleac. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., p. 245.

Cromleacs. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. ii., pp. 101, 293, 301, 308,
309, 381, 382.

Discovery of an ancient sepulchral chamber. — Ulster Journal of Archae-
ology, vol. ill. , pp. 358-365.

Druid seat. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. ii., p. 256.

Excursion to the Jjoughcrew Hills. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v.,
5th series, pp. 303-310.

Fires of bones. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vii., p. 77.

Loughcrew. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv., p. 287.

Pre-liistoric burial.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, voi. vii., 5th series, pp.
189, 190.

Rocking stone. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. ii., p. 213.

The Finncr Cairn.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp.
81, 82.

728 Atkins, Ringbose, m.a., m.d. :

The rude stono monuments of our own and other lands.— Journal of the
Waterford and S.E. of Ireland Archaeological Society, vol. ii., pp. 60-
80, 131-161.

729 Atkinson, G. M. :

On a stono circle.— Journal R.H.A.A.I.,';vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 300,
307.

400 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

730 Benn, George :

Alleged discoveries in a earn. — Journal El. A. Society, vol. i., new
series, pp. 107-109.

731 Beranger, Gabriel:

Eude stone monument. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 4th series, pp.
150, 151.

732 Brash, Bichard B., m.r.i.a. :

Cromleac at Castlemary. — Trans. El. A. Society, vol. ii., new series,

pp. 255-259.
Inscribed Cromleacs. — Journal B.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th series, pp.

101-103.
Tumuli.— Trans. El. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 272-276.

733 Bkiley, W. P. :

The gallan at Tallaght. — Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series,
pp. 173, 174.

734 Brogan, M. :

Sepulchral monuments. — Proc. B.I. A., vol. x., pp. 440—443.

735 Brown, Dr. S. F., t.c.d., etc. :

Vicar's earn. — Trans. E.I. A., vol., viii., pp., 3—9.

736 Buick, Rev. George B.

White stone in a grave. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp.
336, 337.

737 Byrne, D. ;

On a cromleac. — Trans. El. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 131, 132.

738 Clark, Henry P. :

Small sepulchral cist. — Trans. El. A. Society, vol. ii., p. 1S1 ; vol. iii.,
pp. 139, 140.

739 Clark, Rev. Francis E., m.d., ll.d. .

Notes on the Tinncarra Cromlech near Boyle. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. v.,
3rd series, pp. 374-376.

740 Clibborn, E. ;

Suggestions as to the manner in which great covering stones were lifted
on their supports.— Trans. El. A. Societv, vol. v., new series, pp.
484-486. • " FF

741 Cody, Patrick :

On some cists.— Trans. El. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 385-389.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 401

742 COPFEY, GeOKOE, h.a. ;

Double cist grave and remains recently discovered at Oldbridge, Co.

Meath. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 747-752.
Knockmany. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 93-111.
Notes on the prehistoric cemetery of Loughciew. — Trans. E.I. A., vol.

xxxi., pp. 23-38.
On a cairn excavated by Thomas Plunkett, m.r.i.a., on Belmore mountain,

Co. Fermanagh. — Proc. R.I.A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 659-661.
On stone markings (ship figure) recently discovered at Dowth, in the

County of Meath. — Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 586-588.
Prehistoric Cenotaphs. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., 3rd series, pp. 16-29.
Tumuli at New Grange, &c. — Trans. R.I. A., vol. xxx., pp. 1-96.

743 Coffey, George; Brown, C, m.d. ; Westkopp, T. J., m.a. :

Report on a prehistoric burial near Newcastle, County of Wicklow.—
Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 559-562.

744 Conwell, Eugene Alfred, m.r.i.a. :

Ancient cemetery of Loughcrew. — Proc. R.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant. vol.i.,

pp. 72-106.
Ancient sepulchral earns and other remains. —Proc. R.I. A., vol. ix., pp.

42-50, 355-379.
Cromleac near Rathkenny.- — Proc. R.I. A., vol. ix., pp. 541-545.
Tomb of Ollamh Fodhla.— London, 1873.

746 Cooper, Colonel Edward H. .

Megalithic remains at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo. — Journal R. H.A. A. I.,
vol. v., 4th series, pp. 165-157.

746 Cornwall, Robert R. :

Graves near Killucan. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. iv., p. 149.

747 Cosoravb, Rev. Constantine :

Cromleac. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 57, 58.

Sepulchral monument. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, p. 62

748 Deane, Sir T. N. ;

Ancient monuments. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 161-165.
Ancient monuments in Co. Kerry. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. iii., 3rd series,
pp. 100-107.

749 Dickie, G. :

Tumulus near Carrickfergus. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi.,
pp. 276, 277.

760 Dickson, John M. :

Relative antiquity of rath, cromleac, and tumulus. — Belfast Nat. Field
Club, vol. iv., 2nd series, pp. 55-70.

751 Dillon, Hon. L. Gerald :

Remarkable megalithic monument. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th
scries, p. 19.

vol. n. 2 e

402 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

752 Dix, E. E. M°U. :

New Grange, Co. Meath. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,
pp. 83-84.

753 Du Noyer, George V., m.r.i.a. .

Cromleaes near Tramore, &c. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new

series, pp. 474—482.
Eemarks on a certain class of cromleaes. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,

3rd series, pp. 40—46.
Eemarks on a Kistvaen. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series,

pp. 497-501.

754 Editor Ulster Journal of Archjeology :

Cemetery in the County Down. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. is.,
pp. 111-113.

755 Elcock, Charles :

Notes on the prehistoric monuments at Carrowmore near Sligo. — Belfast
Nat. Field Club, 1883, 1884. Series 2, vol. ii., pp. 249-258.

On the stone monuments at Carrowmore, near Sligo. — Belfast Nat. Field
Club, 1882, 1883. Series 2, vol. ii., pp. 179-181.

Prehistoric monuments at Carrowmore. — Systematic Lists illustrative of
the Archaeology, &c, of the North of Ireland, vol. i., pp. 249-258.

756 Ferguson, Samuel, ll.d. .

Ancient cemeteries, &c. — Proc. E.I. A., Pol. lit. and Ant., vol. i., pp.

114-128.
Inscribed cromleaes. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp.

523-531.

757 Fprench, Eev. J. F. :

Megalithic sepulchral chamber, Co. Wicklow. — Journal E.H.A.A.I.,
vol. iv., 4th series, pp. 183, 184.

758 Finegan, Joseph :

Cromleac in the Co. Kilkenny. — Archseologia, vol. xvi., pp. 264-271.

759 Frederick VII., King of Denmark :

On the construction of cromleaes. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol.
vii., pp. 314-323.

760 Frazer, W., m.r.i.a. :

Find of cist with human remains, Dunfanaghy, Co. Donegal. — Journal
E.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 49-52.

761 Goodman, Eev. James :

Tulachs as places of sepulture. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 185,

186.

762 Guaves, Eev. Charles :

Cromleac. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iv., pp. 368, 369.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 403

763 Graves, Rev. James :

Ancient Pagan cemetery.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 190-

Xu Z,

Excavation of a cam.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 289-294.
Injury to the great chambered-tumulus atDowth. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,

vol. v., 4th series, pp. 13, 14, 205-209.
On cromleacs. — Trans Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 129-132.
On the "AncientMonuments Protection Act, 1882." — Journal R.H.A.A. I.,

vol. vi., 4th series, pp. 220-222.
Pagan cemetery. — Trans. Kil. A. Socieiy, vol. ii., pp. 295-303.
Sepulchral tumulus. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii.. p. 358.
Tumulus, &c. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., p. 358.

764 Gray, William, m.ii.i.a. ;

Ancient remains, Co. Antrim. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1871, pp. 05-

69.
Cromleacs in Counties of Down and Antiim. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol.

vi., 4th series, pp. 354-367.
Cromleacs of Antrim and Down. — Systematic Lists illustrative of the

Archaeology, &c, of the North of Ireland, vol. i., pp. 226-248.
Discovery of an ancient sepulchre. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th

series, pp. 164, 165.
Notes on the rude stone monuments of Antrim and Down. — Belfast Nat.

Field Club, 1882, 1883, series 2, vol. ii., pp. 182, 183.
The cromleacs of Antrim and Down. — Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1882, 1883,

series 2, vol. ii., pp. 225-248.

765 Haiidman, Edward T. :

Remarkable megalithic structure near Sligo. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. v., 4th series, pp. 57-65.

766 Hasse, Rev. Leonard, m.r.i.a. ;

Urn burial on the site of monasteries. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii.,
5th series, pp. 145-150.

767 Hill, Mr. c.e. :

Report on a cairn in the Co. Clare. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol. iv., 4th
scries, p. 12.

768 Holden, J. Sinclair, m.d. :

Description of a tumulus and its contents. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,

3rd series, pp. 350-352.
Giants' graves.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1879, pp. 11-17.

769 Kelly, Dillon, m.r.i.a. :

Opening of a tumulus, Co. Westmeath. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol. iv.,
4th series, pp. 177-183.

770 Kinahan, G. H., m.r.i.a. :

Megalithic structures. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol. i., 3rd series, pp.

442-445 ; vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 10-13, 201-205 ; vol. iii., pp.

374-380; vol. v., pp. 253-257; vol. vi., pp. 434-436; vol. vii., pp.

424-429 ; vol. ix., pp. 277-286.
Tho Rocking-Stone, Dalkoy Island. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v.i.,

5th series, p. 433.

2e2

404 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

771 Knox, H. T. :

Note on the dolmen at Ballina, in the County of Mayo. — Journal
U.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, p. 430.

772 Lalob, M. "W. .

Discovery of cists. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 446,

447.

773 Lee, Alfred T. :

Opening of a tumulus. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. vi., pp.
169-171,276,277.

774 Lett, Eev. Henry W. :

Megalithic structures. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol. v., 4th series, p. 303.
Report on ancient monuments. — Journal R.H.A.A. I., vol. vi., 4th series,
pp. 431-434.

775 Lock-wood, F. W. :

Notes on Irish sweathouses and on several rude stone monuments. —
Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2nd series, vol. vii., pp. 82-92.

776 Lukis, Rev. W. C, f.s.a. :

"What is a cromleac ? — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, pp.
492^97.

777 Mac Adam, Robert:

Opening of a cam. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. iii., pp. 315-320.

778 Macalister, R. A. Stewart, m.a. .

The Gallans near Dingle. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5thseries,
pp. 161-164.

779 M'Cormack, James, c.e. :

Discovery of graves. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, dd.
447-449. "

780 Mac Enery, J. :

Opening of a sepulchral mound, New Castle, Co. 'Wicklow.— Journal
R.H.A.A.. I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 163, 164.

781 MacMahon, J. D. ;

Tulachs as places of sepulture.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii. dd
182-185. FF

782 M'Nulty, R. :

Graves, stones, celts, &c— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series,
pp. 382, 383.

783 Mease, Rev. James :

Discovery of a cist.— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 382-389.
On a cromleac— Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., new series, p. 359.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 405

784 Milligan, Seaton F., M.R.I.A. ;

Notes on a cist and urn. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. ix., 4th series, pp.

86, 87. VV

On some eromleacs. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp.

526-528. ' VV

Sepulchral structures, &c— Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society,

1888-9, p. 43.

785 Miller, William :

Rude stone monuments in Antrim. — Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club,
vol. i., new series, p. 351.

786 Moore, Capt. A. Montgomery :

On some explorations. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series,

pp. 443, 444.

787 Mooue, Rev. Philip :

Giants' graves. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 11-14.

788 Newman, Lieut., r.n. :

Tumulus near Rush, Co. Dublin.— Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 247-249.

789 O'Byrne, Daniel :

Discovery of two cists near Timahoe. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii.,
new series, pp. 105, 106.

790 O'Daly, John :

Tulachs as places of ^sepulture. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, 'vol. iii., pp.
87-96.

791 O'Donovan, W. J. :

Kistvaen.— Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, p. 252,

792 O'Lavehty, Rev. James, m.r.i.a. .

Pagan monuments. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp.

103-108.
Pagan monuments in the immediate vicinity of ancient churches, and on

peculiar forms of intorments observed. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. v.,

4th series, pp. 103-108.

793 O'Neill, Henry :

Rock monuments of Co. Dublin. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp.
40-46.

794 O'Reilly, Professor J. P. ;

On the orientation of somo cromleacs in the neighbourhood of Dublin. —
Proc. R.I. A., 3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 589-605.

796 Petrie, George, r.h.a., etc. .

Coronation Chair. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., p. 208.
New Grange, Co. Meath. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. i., pp. 305, 306.
Stone circles, cams, &c, Carrowmore. — Proc. R.I. A., pp. 140-142.
Tomb in the Phoenix Parle— Proc. R.I. A., vol. i., pp. 186-193, 196.

406 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

796 Plunkett, Lieut. -Col. G. T., b.e. :

On a cist and urns found at Greenhills, Tallaght, County Dublin. —
Proc. R.I.A., vol. v., 3rd series, pp. 338-347.

797 Plunkett, Thomas :

Exploration of a Long Barrow. — Proc. R.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,
pp. 323-328.

798 Plunkett, Thomas; Coefey, George:

Report on the excavation of Topped mountain cairns. — Proc. R.I.A.,
3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 651-658.

799 Pownall, Thomas :

Sepulchral monument at New Grange. — Arehaeologia, vol. ii.. pp.
236-271.

800 Prim, John G. A. :

Giants' graves. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 14-22.

801 Rapmund, Rev. F. :

Cams in County Tyrone. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., p. 190.

802 Reade, Rev. George H. :

Ancient Pagan sepulchral circle. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series,

pp. 159-162.
Circular arrangement of graves at Kilnassagart. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,

vol. i., new series, pp. 316, 317.

803 Rhind, A. Henry, p.s.a. (Scot.) :

Sepulchral earns in Scotland identical in internal design with tumuli on
' the Boyne. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ii., pp. 100-108.

804 Riggs, Dr. Ledlie :

Notice of the "The Vicar's Cam. "—Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,
3rd series, pp. 157-159.

805 Rotheram, E. Crofton :

Inscribed stones. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 171,

172.
On the excavation of a cairn on Slieve-na-Caillighe. — Journal R.S.A.

Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 311-316.
The Moat of Patrickstown, Co. Meath.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland,

vol. viii., 5th series, pp. 62, 63.

806 Shearman, Rev. J. F. .

Discovery at Mullaboden.— Journal R. H. A.A.I. . vol. ii., 4th series,
pp. 13-16.

807 Sigerson, George, m.d. :

Monuments in the Co. Tyrone.— Proc, R.I.A., Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,
pp. 14-19.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 407

808 Smith, J. Huband :

On the recent discovery of a earn. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 163-165.

809 Smith, Owen :

Sepulchral chamber near Ballyhaunis.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv.,

5t.h series, p. 390.
Tracked Btone.— Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 390-

392.

810 Stanley, Thomas :

Giants' graves, &c. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. i., 3rd series pp. 278,

279.
Monuments around Tullamore. — Journal R.H. A. A. I., vol. i., 4th series,

pp. 27-29.

811 Stephenson, S. M., m.d. :

An Historical Essay on the Parish and Congregation of Greyabbey. —
Belfast, 1828.

812 Tenison, Thomas Joseph :

On the cromleac at Leac-an-scall. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv.,
new series, pp. 309, 310.

813 Traynor, Patrick :

On the state of New Grange. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th
series, pp. 327, 328.

814 Tuomey, J. C. :

Description of a cromleac. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 187-194.

815 Wakeman, W. F. .

Antiquities of Knockninny. — Proc. R.I. A., Pol. Lit. and Ant., vol. i.,

pp. 335-338.
Lines of stones and other antiquities. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iv.,

4th series, pp. 499-512.
Megalitbic structures, &c. — Journal R.H. A. A. I., vol. i., 4th series,

pp. 579-590; vol. ii., pp. 134-138; vol. iv., pp. 95-106, 266, 267;

vol. v., pp. 183-200; vol. vi., pp. 162-171 ; vol. viii., pp. 107-111.
On Cromloacs. —Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 260-266.
Sepulchral mound. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 54-

64.
Chambered earn at Cavancarragh, Co. Fermanagh. — Journal R.H. A. A. I.,

vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 434, 435.
On a recently discovered Pagan sepulchral mound at Old Connaught,

Co. Dublin. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, pp. 106-114.

816 Westropp, T. Johnson :

Dolmens at Ballycroum, near Feakle, County Clare.— Proc. R.I. A.,

vol. vi., 3rd series, pp. 85—92.

Primitive burial at Rylane, County Clare. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland,

vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 178, 179.

The distribution of cromlechs in tho County of Clare. — Proc. R.I.A.,

3rd series, vol. iv., pp. 542-549.

408 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

817 White, Eev. Patrick. :

Discovery of a tomb near Ennis. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. iii.,
4th series, pp. 160, 161 ; vol. iv., pp. 12, 13.

818 Wilde, Sib W. E., m.p-.i.a. :

Moytirra. — Proc. E.I.A., vol. ix., pp. 546-550 ; vol. x., pp. 20-24.
Tumuli.— Proc. E.I.A., vol. iii., pp. 260-263.

819 Windele, John :

Ancient cemetery. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 230-239.

820 Wood-Martin, Col. W. G., m.r.i.a. :

Monuments of Northern Moytirra. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th

series, pp. 442—470.
Eude Stone Monuments, Co. Sligo. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vii.,

4th series, pp. 470-487; vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 50-94, 118-159,

254-299, 367-381.
Eepublished in the annual volume E.H.A.A.I., 1888-9.

XXIX.— RUNES.

821 Lefroy, Major-General J. H., k.a., etc.;

Bronze object bearing a Eunic inscription. — Archaeological Journal,

vol. ii., pp. 284-313.
Bronze object bearing a Eunic inscription. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. i.,

4th series, pp. 471-502.

822 Eeade, Eev. Geokge H. :

Bronze object bearing a Eunic inscription. — Journal E.H. A. A.I. , vol. i.,

4th series, pp. 333, 334, 479-480.

823 Stephens, Professor George :

On scribings from a cave, Co. Fermanagh. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. iv., new series, pp. 11, 12.

XXX.— SEA SIDE SETTLEMENTS.

824 Bigger, Francis Joseph, m.r.i.a. :

Prehistoric settlements at Portnafady, Connemara. — Proc. E.I.A.,
vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 727-732.

825 Gray, William, m.r.i.a. -.

Hunting in the sand-dunes.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, 1876, 1877,
series 2, vol. i., pp. 264-267.

826 Hasse', Eev. Leonard, m.r.i.a. :

Objects from the sandhills at Dundrum, and their antiquity. — Journal

S.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv., 5th series, pp. 1-13.
Objects from the sandhills at Portstewart and Grangemore, and their

antiquity. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 130-13S.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 409

827 KlNAHAN, G. H., M.B.I.A. :

Notes on ancient settlements in west Galway. — Journal B.H.A.A.I.,
vol. i., 4th series, pp. 350, 351.

828 Knowles, W. J., m.r i.a. ;

On prehistoric remains at Portstewart.— Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club,
vol. i., new series, p. 100.

On prehistoric sites in Whitepark Bay, near Ballintoy, being the first
section of a report intended to comprehend the other sites of the Neo-
lithic folk in the North of Ireland.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vii.,
4th series, pp. 104-125.

Eeport on the Prehistoric remains from the sandhills of the coast of
Ireland. —Proc. E.I.A., vol. i., 3rd series, pp. 173-187, 612-625.

The prehistoric sites of Portstewart, Co. Londonderry. — Journal
E.H.A.A.I., vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 221-237.

Third Eeport on the prehistoric remains from the sandhills of the east of
Ireland. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 650-663.

Investigation of the Prehistoric settlements near Roundstone, Connemara,
report of a committee. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. v., third series, pp. 433—440.

829 Patterson, W. H., m.r.i.a. :

Notice of a prehistoric site at Ballykinler, Dundrum Bay, Co. Down. —
Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. iii., 5th series, pp. 80, 81.

830 Wynne, Eev. G. E., d.d. :

Traces of ancient dwellings on the sandhills of West Kerry. — Journal
E.S.A. Ireland, vol. iii., 5th series, pp. 78-80.

831 Young, E. M., m.r.i.a :

Brief antiquarian notes at Bushfoot and Ballemagarry. — Proc. Belfast
Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society, 1892-3, pp. 37-44.

XXXI.— SILVER.

832 Cane, Robert, m.d. :

Ring-money of ancient Ireland. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.
322-328.

833 Day, Alderman, f.s.a. :

Silver armlet and bracelet dug up in the Co. Kerry. — JournalR.H.A.A.I.,
vol. v., 4th series, pp. 346, 347.

834 Day, Robert, m.r.i.a. :

Silver armlet found near Eathcormac, Co. Cork.— Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. vi., 4th series, p. 185.

835 Hoare, Edward :

Silver penannular brooch.^Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii., pp. 10, 11.

836 Patterson, W. H. :

Silver brooch found near Randalstown, Co. Antrim. — Journal
E.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, p. 74.

410 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

837 Smith, Ernest A., ass. r.s.m. -.

Notes on the composition, of ancient Irish gold and silver ornaments. — •
Proc. E.I. A., vol. iii., 2nd series, pp. 733-746.

838 Westropp, R. :

Twisted silver " torque " found near Rathcormack, Co. Cork. — Journal
R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series, p. 52.

839 Windele, John :

Ring-money of ancient Ireland. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.
328-333.

XXXII SOUTBRRAINS. .

840 Anonymous :

Cluttahina souterrain. — Journal R.S.A. Ireland, vol. rii., 5th series*

p. 271.
Discovery of an artificial cave at Oldbridge, Co. Meath. — Journal

R.S.A. Ireland, vol. v., 5th series, p. 86.

841 Brash, R. R. :

Souterrain at Curraghely, near Kilcrea, Co. Cork. — Proc. R.I. A.,
vol. x., pp. 72-74.

842 Broderick, T. :

Souterrain of Greenville, Co. Galway. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v.,

4th series, pp. 637, 638.

843 Cauleield, Richard :

Discovery of a chamber in Killeen Fort, near Cork. — Proc. R.I. A.,.

vol. iv., pp. 441-444.
Souterrain in the Co. Cork. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 387, 388.
Souterrain beneath a church. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.

384, 386.

844 Cody, Patrick :

On some souterrains, &c. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 385-389.
Souterrain in the parish of Killahy. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii.,
pp. 206, 207.

845 Cooke, T. L. :

Subterraneous chambers in the Co. Clare. — Trans. Kil. A. Society,
vol. i., pp. 294-298.

846 Croker, Thomas Crofton, p.s.a., etc. :

Subterraneous chambers discovered- near Carrigtohill, Co. Cork, and at
Ballyhendon, near Fermoy, in the same county. — Aichasologia, vol.
xxxiii., pp. 79-84.

Ibid. — Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iii., pp. 350-352.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 411

847 Egan, J. W. .

On a cave. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vii., 4th series, p. 166.

848 Elliott, Eev. John :

On a subterranean chamber.— Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series,
pp. 370, 371.

849 Fbnnell, W. J. ;

Souterrain in the Grange of Muckamoie. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology,,
new series, vol. ii., pp. 272, 273.

850 Ferguson, Samuel, ll.d. .

Evidence touching the age of the rath-caves. — Proc. R.I.A., Pol. Lit.
and Ant., vol. i., pp. 129-136.

851 Fitzgerald, "Walter :

The Killashu caves. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. i., p. 146.

852 Foot, Charles H. :

Exploration of a remarkable series of subterranean chambers, townlandof
Doon, parish of Lis, King's County. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iii.,
new series, pp. 222-229.

853 French, Bev. J. A. :

Souterrains at Drumcliffe, Co. Sligo. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi.,
4th series, p. 483.

864 Gillman, Herbert Webb, b.l. :

Problem of tho souterrains. — Journal Cork Hist, and Arch. Society,

vol. iii., pp. 1-7, 149-151.
Souterrain at Deelish, County Cork, &c, vol. ii., 2nd series, pp.

153-157.
The problem of the souterrains, &c, pp. 417-422.

855 Graves, Rev. James :

Report on the souterrrain of a rath.— Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. i., 4th

series, pp. 207, 208.
Souterrains, on various references to. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. vi.,

4th series, pp. 318, 319.

866 Gbav, William, m.r.i.a. :

Notes on some Co. Down souterrains. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. iv.,
5th series, pp. 45, 46.

867 Hackett, William :

On a certain class of small souterrains. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. iii.,
pp. 84-86.

412 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

858 Hamilton, G. A., m.p. ;

On a "north house" in the demesne of Hampton, &c. — Proc. E.I.A.,
vol. iii, pp. 249-252.

859 Healy, Eev. W. :

On an underground chamber. — Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th

series, pp. 594, 595.
The rath of Borrismore. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series,

p. 490.

860 Hitchcock, E. .

Souterrain near Tralee. — Trans. El. A. Society, vol. iii., new series,
pp. 175-178.

861 Keatinge, Dr. :

On some souterrains in raths. — Journal El. A. Society, vol. ii., new
series, pp. 11, 12.

862 Enahan, George H., m.r.i.a. :

On souterrains in raths. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. vi., 4th series,

pp. 11-14.
On souterrains in the Co. Donegal. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th

series, pp. 277-286.

863 Lanyon, J. :

Subterranean chambers at Connor, Co. Antrim. — Ulster Journal of
Archaeology, vol. vi., pp. 97-100.

864 Milugan, Seaton F. .

On some souterrains in Ulster. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. ix., 4th series,
pp. 245, 246.

865 Moore, Courtenay :

Artificial caves, Co. Antrim. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series,
p. 595.

866 Morgan, Arthur P. :

Underground Chamber, Co. Mayo. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th

series, p. 716.

867 Orpen, Goddard H. :

Subterranean chambers atClady, County Meath. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,
vol. i., 5th series, pp. 150-154.

868 Power, Eev. Patrick

asey's Lios, Ballyg
vol. viii., 4th series, pp. 407-408.

Casey's Lios, Ballygunnermore, Co. "Waterford.— Journal E.H.A.A.I.,
il. viii.,

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 413

869 Eothebam, E. C. .

On a cave recently discovered near Oldcastle. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland,

vol. vii., 5th series, pp. 427-429.
On some caves in the Slieve-na-cailliagli district, Co. Meath. — Proc.

R.I. A., vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 305-310.

870 Rowland, John T. :

Souterrain at Ardee. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 404-406.

871 Smith, Eev. W. S. .

Souterrain at Tirgracey. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, new series,
vol. iii., p. 58.

872 Tipping, Edward :

Artificial cave in the townland of Bellurgan, parish of Ballymascanlan,
Co. Louth. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. v., new series, pp. 183,
184.

XXXIII.— URNS OF STONE.

873 Mao Adam, Eobert :

Stone sepulchral urns. — Ulster Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix., pp. 236-
238.

874 Eowland, John T. :

Eudely cut stone found in a souterrain. — Proc. E.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 404-
406.

876 Wilde, Sir W. E., m.b.i.a. .

Stone urns.— Cat. Mus. E.I.A., pp. 133, 134.

xxxiv.-v;vMJv/re.

876 Gages, Alphonse:

On V vianite. — Journal Geological Society, Dublin, vol. viii., pp. 176-
179.

877 Wood-Martin, Col. W. G., m.b.i.a. :

Eude stone monuments of Ireland. — County Sligo and Island of Achill.—
pp. 28, 81.

JLH.JS.V.— WOODEN OBJECTS.

878 Allingham, Hugh, m.b.i.a. :

Wooden objects found in peat bogs, supposed to have been otter traps.-
Joumal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. vi., 5th series, pp. 379-382.

414 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

879 Anonymous :

Ancient canoes.— Belfast Nat. Field Club, Appendix 1863-4, p. 10 ;

1868-9, p. 9 ; 1869-1870, p. 14.
Wooden implement. — Ulster Journal of Archasology, vol. vii., p. 165.

880 Ball, Eorert :

Means usedfor attaching handles to stone and metal implements. — Proc.
B.I.A., vol. ii., pp. 511-513.

881 Bannon, Bernard :

Stakes found under a great depth of peat. — Journal B.H.A.A.L, vol. v.,
4th series, pp. 500, 501.

882 Brooke, W. G. :

Canoe.— Proc. E.I.A., vol. ix., pp. 210-215.

883 Buick, Bev. George B. :

Wooden trap. — Journal E.S.A. Ireland, vol. i., 5th series, pp. 536-541.

884 Cooke, T. L. :

Ancient boat. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., pp. 71-75.

885 Dillon, Lord :

Ancient instrument. — Trans. E.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 33-35.

886 Dunne, Eight Hon. General :

Staked fence found beneath a depth of peat, with wooden implements. —
Journal B.H.A.A.L, vol. iii., 3rd series, pp. 436-438.

887 Geoghegan, Arthur Gerald :

Canoes. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol. iv., new series, p. 343.

888 Hitchcock, Eichard :

Pieces of wood, called "arrows." — Proc. E.I.A., vol. iv., p. 272.
Pieces of yew, styled "arrows." — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp.
140, 141.

889 Hughes, W. J. :

Ancient boat.— Proc. E.I. A., vol. ii., pp. 246-248.

890 Jewitt, Llewellynn, f.s.a. :

On the discovery of some oak canoes. — The Eeliquary, vol. xxiv., pp.
193-205.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 415

#91 Kinahan, Gboege H., m.r.i.a. :

Ancient otter traps.— Journal U.S.A. Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, pp.

184, 185.
Antiquities near Drumdarragh. —Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th

series, pp. 374-380.
Wooden causeway.— Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp.

435, 436.

892 Knowleb, W. J., m.r.i.a. :

Flint arrow head with wooden shaft attached. — Journal R.H.A.A.I.,
vol. ix., 4th series, p. 113.

893 Langtry, Geokoe :

Wooden dish. — Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. iii., 4th aeries, pp. 22, 23.

894 Lookwood, F. W. ;

Canoes found in Lough Mourne, and in Co. Fermanagh. — Proc. Belfast
Nat. Field Club, vol. iii., 2nd series, pp. 52, 53.

895 Martin, Henry :

Single piece canoe. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. ii., new series, p. 205,

89p Mooney, W. Enraght :

Wooden howl found at the Doon, King's County. — Journal U.S.A.
Ireland, vol. viii., 5th series, p. 176.

897 Moore, J. S. :

On the discovery of a cache in Ballintona Bog near Blessington.

Journal B.S.A. Ireland, vol. ii., new series, pp. 174-176.

898 O'Brien, William Smith :

Wooden stakes, &c. — Proc. R.I.A., vol. vii., p. 75.

899 0' Byrne, Daniel:

Wooden enclosure found under peat. — Journal Kil. A. Society, vol.
new series, pp. 155, 156.

900 O'Donovan, John, ll.d. (and other writers) :

Ancient Irish water mills. — Trans. Kil. A. Society, vol. i., pp. 154-164.

flOl^PoiiTER, Rev. Thomas, d.d. :

Articles dug up in peat. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iii., pp. 21, 22.

902 Stoney, Charles Butler :

Road of planks found under peat. — Journal R.H. A.A.I. , vol. i., 3rd
series, p. 439.

903 Tarleton, Mrs. :

Wooden vessel found at the Doon, near Athlone. — Journal R.S.A.
Ireland, vol. vii., 5th series, p. 182.

416 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

904 Wakeman, W. F. :

Antiquities of oak. — Journal E.H.A.A. I., vol. ii., 4th series, pp. 16-18.
Curach, or wicker and skin boat. — Journal E.H.A.A. I., vol. ii., 4th

series, pp. 74-76.
"Wooden yokes. — Journal E.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 507-510.

905 Westby, James :

Wooden sword. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. iv., pp. 440, 441.

906 Wilde, Sir W. E., m.r.i.a. :

Wooden shield. — Proc. R.I. A., vol. viii., pp. 487-493.
Catalogue Mus. R.I. A., pp. 197-237.

907 Wood-Martin, Col., W. G. m.r.i.a. :

Lake Dwellings of Ireland. See Index under Wooden.

908 Young, Robert :

Worked logs alleged to have been found embedded in boulder clay. —
Journal R.H.A.A.I., vol. v., 4th series, pp. 307-309, 449, 450. Other
writers, pp. 361, 362.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

[The appended figures in this List correspond with the numbers prefixed to Names
of Atithors in the Bibliography .~\

Adams, A. Leith, m.d. : 139, 140,

243.
Aethious : 703.
Allen, J. Romilly : 486.
Allingham, Hugh : 878.
Allman, Professor : 69.
Anketell, M. J. : 70.
Annesley, Lord : 726.
Anonymous: 32, 57, 71, 148, 154, 201,

232, 244, 316, 360, 403, 418, 481,

528, 640, 646, 570, 678, 727, 840,

879.
Ardfert, The Ven. Archdeacon of: 482.
Armagh, Very Rev. the Dean of: 483.
Armstrong, Rev. Wm. : 72, 155.
Atkins, Ringrose, m.d. : 728.
Atkinson, George Munsey : 73, 303,

395, 404, 484, 571, 729.

Bailey, William If. : 245.

Baldwin, "William : 572.

Ball, Rohert, ll.d. : 3, 74, 202, 216,

317, 419, 880.
Ball, Sir Robert, ll.d. . 299.
Ball, V., ll.d. : 304, 396.
Bannon, Bernard: 574, 881.
Bardan, Patrick: 573.
Baring-Gould, S. : 675.
Barry, Rev. Edmond: 75, 485.
Beauford, William : 156,576, 704.
Beaufort, L. C. : 33.
Belcher, T. W., m.d. : 233, 529.
Belfast Nat. Field Club (1st Report) :

203.
Bell, Dr. William, 76.

VOL. II. 2

Benn, E. : 157, 204, 234, 247, 305, 420.

Benn, George : 730.

Beranger, Gabriel: 77, 731.

Bernard, Dr. Walter : 34.

Betham, Sir William : 78, 318, 705.

Bigger, Francis Joseph : 547, 577,

824.
Birch, Samuel: 319.
Blackett, W. R. : 486, 578.
Blair, Mrs. J. . 579.
Bland, F. C. : 35.
Blythe, E. : 248.
Borlace, W. C. : 731a.
Boyd-Dawkins, Prof. W. . 249.
Bradley, Henry : 706.
Brady, Dr. Maziere : 580.
Brash, Richard R. : 320, 487, 679, 732,

841.
Brenan, E. : 250.

Brenan, Rev. Samuel Arthur: 79, 581.
Briley, W. P. : 733.
Broderick, T. : 842.
Brogan, M. : 734.
Brooke, W. G., 882.
Brown, Dr. S. F. . 735.
Brown, J. : 488.
Browne, Arthur, s.f.t.c.d. : NO.
Browne, Charles R., m.d.: 361,363,

364, 582, 743.
Brownrigg, John : 548.
Bryce, Dr. James : 251.
Buchanan, Edward: 36, 683.
Buckland, A. W. : 584.
Buick, Rev. George R. : 158, 205, 421,

489, 736.
Byrne, Daniel : 549, 585, 737.

418

INDEX OF A UTHORS.

Camden Society Publications : 586.

Cane, Robert, m.d. : 252, 321, 832.

Carruthers, James: 81, 159, 206, 707.

Carte, A., m.d.: 253.

Caulfield, Dr. : 587.

Caulfield, Richard: 490, 843.

Clark, Henry P. . 738.

Clark, Eev. Prancis E., m.d., ll.d. :
739.

Clibborn, Edward : 58, 82, 207, 322,

740.
•Clodd, Edward : 588.

Close, Rev. M. H. . 254.

Cochrane, Robert, c.e. : 491.

Cody, Patrick: 208, 255, 530, 589,
741, 844.

Coffey, George, e.e. : 83, 160, 189,
223, 362, 363, 397, 680, 742, 743,
798.
Coleman, J.: 4.
Colgan, Nathaniel : 590.
Colles, Dr. J. A. Purefoy : 492.
Conwell, Eugene A. : 531, 681, 744.
•Conyngham, Lord Albert: 323.
Cook, Richard (and other writers) :

161.
Cooke, Thomas L. : 84, 845, 884.
Cooper, Col. E. H. : 745.
-Cornwall, Robert M. : 746.
Cosgrave, Rev. C. : 747.
Courtenay, Rev. Canon: 141.
Corn-town, Earl of : 162.
Croker, T. Crofton : 324, 591, 846.
Crowe, J. O'Beirne : 37, 422, 592.
Cunningham, D. J., m.d. . 364.

Dalton, Mr. : 59.

D'Arcy, Dr. S. A. : 423.

Davies, J. Barnard : 365.

Day, Robert, jun. : 5, 85, 209, 306,

325, 326, 424, 593, 682.
Deane, Sir Thomas Newenham: 38,

683, 748.
Denny, Henry ; 256.
Dickie, G. : 749.
Dickson, John M. : 550, 750.
Dillon, Hon. L. Gerald : 86, 751, 885.

Dix, E. R. M'C. : 752.

Donovan, M. : 87.

Drummond, Rev. "W. H., d.d. : 708.

Dugan, C. Winston : 88, 327, 425.

Duncan, Leland L. : 594.

Du Noyer, George V., 6, 39, 89, 210,

257, 684, 753.
Dunne, John: 595.
Dunne, Right Hon. General : 426.
Dunraven, Edwin, third Earl of: 40.
Dyer, T. E. Thiselton Dyer : 596.

Editor Ulster Journal of Archaeo-
logy: 90, 163, 366, 427, 597, 754.
Egan, J. W. : 847.
Elcock, Charles: 493, 755.
Elliott, Rev. John : 494, 848.
Enniskillen, Earl of, 91, 419, 428.
Evans, John, d.c.l., &c. : 92, 211.

Falkiner, Rev. "William: 429, 551.

Feltus, B. B. : 598.

Fennell, W. J. : 849.

Ferguson, Sir Samuel, ll.d. : 235, 495,

599, 685, 756, 850.
Ffrench, Rev. J. F. M. ; 164, 212,

307, 757.
Finnigan, Joseph: 758.
Fitzgerald, Edward : 7, 496, 541, 600.
Fitzgerald, Lord "Walter : 603,851.
Fitzpatrick, Bernard : 430.
Flaherty, John T. : 601.
Flanagan, Theophilus : 236.
Foot, Charles H. : 852.
Fowler, James : 308.
Frederick VII., King of Denmark:

759.
French, Rev. J. A. : S53.
Frazer, William, p.r.c.s.i. : 60, 93,

165, 213, 328, 367, 398, 532, 602,

686, 709, 760.

Gages, Alphonse : 876.
Gardiner, J. Stiu'kie : 431.
Geikie, James : 300.

INDEX OF A UTHORS.

419

Genitz, Professor H. B. : 258.
Geoghegan, Arthur Gerald ; 41, 166,

368,497, 552, 887.
Gillman, H. W. : 854.
Glascott, J. H. : 167.
Glennon, E. : 259.
Going, W. Q. : 260.
Gomme, George Laurence : 604, 605.
Goodman, Rev. James : 761.
Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d.: 8, 261,

432.
Grattan, John : 369.
Graves, Rev. Charles, d.d., Lord

Bishop of Limerick : 329, 498, 687,

688, 762.

Graves, Rev. James : 1, 9, 94, 168, 237,

262, 330, 405, 433, 499, 553, 606,

689, 763, 855.

Gray, William : 10, 142, 169, 214, 238,

263, 331, 434, 607, 690, 764, 825,
856.

Greaves, J. H. : 332.
Green, Thomas: 170.
Griffiths, Richard: 11.
Gwynn, Stephen : 608.

Hackett, William : 406, 609, 857.
Haddon, Professor A. C. : 370, 610.
Haigh, Rev. D. H. : 500.
Hall, Mr. and Mrs. S. C. : 435,

611.
Hamilton, G. A., m.p. : 858.
Hardiman, James: 710.
Hardman, Edward T. : 7C5.
Hardy, Philip Dixon : 612.
Harkness, Professor B. : 264, 436.
Hart, Dr. John : 265.
Hartland, E. Sidney : 613.
Hasse, Rev. Leonard: 171, 215, 309,

766, 826.
Haughton, Professor, m.d. : 95, 143,

266, 267.
Haverty, Martin : 42.
Haymau, Rev. Samuel : 437, 501.
Healy, Rev. W. : 554, 859.
Hemans, G. W. : 96.
Honnessy, W. M. : 614.

2

Hewson, George T. : 97, 268, 615.

Hewson, Rev. E. F. : 502.

Hibbert, S., m.d. . 269.

Hickson, Mary Agnes: G16.

Hill, Mr. : 767.

Hitchcock, Richard: 12, 61, 98, 216,

333, 503, 533, 555, 617, 860,

888.
Hoare, Captain Edward : 334, 835.
Hogan, Rev. Edmund : 270.
Holden, J. Sinclair: 768.
Hope, R. C. : 618.
Hore, Herbert: 619.
Hore, Herbert Francis : 438, 620.
Hughes, W. J. : 889.
Hull, Professor E. : 271, 301.
Hunt, Rev. John, d.d. : 621.
Hutchinson, Rev, H. N. ; 622.

James, Chakles : 371.

Jewitt, Llewellynn : 240, 623, 890.

Johnson, Edmond : 335.

Joly, Mons. P. : 534.

Jones, Colonel H. D. : 13, 99, 691.

Joyce, P. W., ll.d. : 14, 624.

Jukes, Professor J. B. : 272.

Kane, W. de V. : 439.

Keatinge, Patrick, m.d. : 407, 861.

Keller, Ferdinand : 440.

Kelly, Denis H. ; 441.

Kelly, Dillon: 769.

Kelly, George A. P. : 442.

Kelly, W. E., c.e. : 535, 692.

Kemble, J. M. : 15.

Kennedy, Patrick : 625.

Kilbride, Rev. W. : 443.

Kinahan, George Henry : 2, 16, 44,

135, 172, 273, 302, 394, 408, 444,

536, 556, 626, 693, 770, 827, 862,

891.
Kinchella, Mr. : 372.
Kirker, S. K. : 43, 445.
Knowles, W. J. : 100, 173, 217, 239,

274, 310, 446, 828. 892.
Knox, H. T. : 771.

f2

420

INDEX OF A UTHORS.

Lalob, M. W. : 174, 373, 772.

Lamb, Eev. Patrick, p.p.: 101.

Lane Fox, Col. Augustus : 504.

Langrishe, B. : 505.

Langtry, George : 102.

Lanyon, J. : 863.

Larminie, William : 627.

Lawler, John : 175, 374.

Layard, Edgar, L. . 447.

Lecky, Mr. : 176,

Ledwick, Rev. Ed ward : 711.

Lee, Alfred T. : 773.

Lenihan, Maurice : 103.

Lentaigne, Sir J., m.d. . 177, 275, 375.

Lett, Eev. H. W. : 178, 448, 506, 774.

Lewis' Topographical Dictionary : 449.

Lockwood, F. W. . 450, 775, 894.

Lockwood, W. J. : 451.

Long, J. : 104, 218, 376.

Long, Eev. W. C. : 776.

Longfield, T. H. : 179.

Luhbock, Sir John, Bt. : 62S.

Lymberry, Eev. John : 409.

Lynch, P. J. : 377.

Lynch, Eev. J. Fane: 629.

Mao Adam, Bobeut : 105, 149, 220,

337, 630, 777, 873.
Macalister, E. A. S. : 45, 143, 267,

507, 631.
Mac Enery, J. : 780.
MacMahon, J. D. : 781.
Magennis, J. P. : 695.
M'Cormack, James : 379, 779.
Mac Cullagh, James, p.t.c.d. : 516,

712.
M'Elheran, John: 378.
M'Evoy, Mr. ; 62.
M'Evoy, D. . 106.
Mac Ilwaine, Eev. Canon, 393.
Mackenzie, W. . 632.
McLennan, John F. : 638.
Macnamara, George V. : 136.
M'Naughton, John Alexander: 336.
M'Nulty, E. : 107, 180, 219, 3S0, 782.
MaeKitehie, David: 537.
M'Sweeney, C. : 713.

Madden, E. E. : 338.
Madden, Eev. Samuel : 339.
Malcomson, Eobert : 181, 410, 633.
Mallet, J. W. . 108.

Mallet, William : 340.

Martel, M. E. A. : 144.

Martin, Henry : 895.

Martin, James, m.d. : 109, 137, 182 r
411, 537.

Mason, William Shaw : 634.

Maunsell, Archdeacon : 277.

Maxwell, William Hamilton : 635.

Mayo, Earl of : 46, 558.

Mease, Eev. James : 783.

Meyer, Kuno and Nutt, Alfred : 636.

Millar, William: 785.

Millen, William: 183.

Milligan, Seaton F. : 17, 47, 110, 183a,
452, 508, 559, 637, 694, 784, 864.

Molesworth, William : 341.

Mollan, L. . 639.

Molyneux, Thomas, m.d. . 48, 276,

560.
Mooney, W. Enragbt : 896.
Moore, Capt. A. Montgomery : 561,.

786.
Moore, Courtenay : 865.
Moore, John : 184.
Moore, J. S. : 897.
Moore, Eev. Philip : 342, 562, 787.
Moore, Eev. W. P. ; 49.
Morant, George, jun. : 453.
More, A. G. : 111.
Morgan, Arthur P. : 866.
Moss, E. J. . 278.
Mudge, Capt. William : 454.
Mulcahy, Eev. D. B. . 50.
Mulvany, T. J. : 455.
Mulvany, W. T. ; IS.
Munroe, Eobert : 456.

Napier, James : 640.
Nash, D. W. : 509.
Neavy, Eev. Mr. : 1S5.
Jvesbitt, Alexander : 311.
Nevil, Francis: 279.
Nevins, Hugh N. : 510.

INDEX OF A UTHORS.

421

Newman, Lieutenant : 788.
Nolan, Joseph : 641.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson : 112.
Nutt, Alfred : 642.

O'Brien, William Smith : 888.
O'Byrne, Daniel: 312, 643, 789, 899.
O'Callaghan, C. G. : 457.
O'Connell, Maurice: 113, 343.
O'Conor, Dr. : 644.
O'Daly, John: 511, 790.
O'Donovan of Lissard : 114.
O'Donovan, John, ll.d. : 19, 115, 381,

458, 645, 900.
O'Donovan, John : 714.
O'Donovan, "W. J.: 791.
O'Donoghue, Rev. Denis : 563.
O'Flanagan, Theophilus : 512.
O'Gorman, Thomas: 116, 513.
O'Kearney, Nicholas : 646.
O'Eeefe, C. M. : 280, 647.
O'Kelly, A. : 150.
O'Laverty, Rev. James: 63, 117, 221,

648, 649, 792.
O'Leary, Denis A.: 118.
O'Neill: 161, 793.
O'Reilly, Professor J. P. : 281, 344,

794.
Olden, Rev. T. : 650.
Oldham, T., ll.d. : 282.
Oldham, Thomas : 514.
Orpen, Goddard H. : 715.
Oswald, H. R. : 283.
Otway, Rev. Caesar: 61, 459, 651.
Ousley, Ralph: 119, 345.
Owen, Sir R. . 284.

Parkinson, Henry : 696.

Patterson, W. H. ; 20, 120, 186, 222,

313, 460, 652, 658, 829, 836.
Peacock, Mahel : 654.
Pearson, Rev. J. M. : 121, 382.
Pegge, Rev. W. . 122.
Perceval, J. J. : 187.
Petrie, George, ll.d.: 52, 123, 145,

152, 346, 419, 461, 564, 655, 716,

795.

Phayer, J. R. : 285.

Philpot, Mrs. J. H. : 656.

Pictet, Professor Adolphe : 717.

Pinkerton, W. -. 718.

Plummer, Rev. R. : 347.

Plunkett, Lt.-Col. G. T. ; 188, 796.

Plunkett, Thomas: 143, 146, 189, 223,

267, 383, 462, 797, 798.
Pococke, Right Rev. Richard, late

Lord Bishop of Meath : 348.
Porter, J. Scott : 719.
Porter, Rev. Thomas H., d.d. : 657,

901.
Power, Rev. Patrick : 124, 868.
Pownall, Governor: 21, 349.
Pownall, Thomas: 350, 799.
Praeger, R. Lloyd: 287.
Prim, John G. A. : 22, 125, 190, 286,

399, 412, 515, 658, 800.
Purdon, H. S., m.d. : 659.

Quinlan, John : 413.

Raphael, George : 224.
Rapmund, Rev. F. : 801.
Reade, Rev. George H. . 126, 384,

463, 720, 802, 822.
Redmond, Gahriel, m.d. . 517.
Reeves, Rev. \V., d.d. : 464.
Rhys, John: 519.
Rice, Lieut.-Col. R. J. : 518.
Richardson, C. W. : 127.
Richardson, John : 660.
Richardson, H. M. : 288.
Riggs, Dr. Ladlie : 804.
Rhind, N. Henry: 803.
Robertson, James G. : 351, 414.
Robinson, Rev. T. R., d.d. : 23, 128.
Rotherham, E. Crofton : 191, 225, 697,

805, 869.
Ross, Rev. Alexander: 352, 721.
Ross, Charles, m.d. . 566.
Rowland, John T. : 870, 874.
Ryche, Barnaby : 661.

Salmon, John : 662.
Scharff, R. F. : 289.

422

INDEX OF A UTHORS.

Scott, Eev. J. H. : 65.

Scott, E. H. : 290.

Scouler, Dr. John: 291.

Searanke, J. S. : 129, 192, 385.

Seaton, R. C. . 663.

Shearman, Eev. John Francis : 400,

520.
Shirley, E. P. : 465.
Sigerson, George, m.d. : 193.
Simpson, W. J. : 226.
Simpson, Sir J. Y., Bt. : 698.
' Smith, Aquilla, m.d. . 353.
Smith, Charles, m.d. : 292.
Smith, Ernest A., 354, 837.
Smith, J. Huhand ; 194, 542, 808.
Smith, J. Eichardson: 386.
Smith, Owen ; 699, 809.
Smith, Eev. G. Sidney, d.d. ; 700.
Smith, Eev. W. S. : 24, 571.
Stanley, Thomas: 66, 130, 466, 810.
Staples, J. H. : 227.
Stephen, Professor George: 521, 823.
Stephenson, Dr. S. M. : 811.
Stokes, Whitley, ll.d.. 664.
Stoney, Charles Butler : 902.
Stubhs, Major-General F. W. : 467.
Sydney, Sir Henry : 468.

Talbot, Hon. James : 471.

Tarleton, Mrs. . 903.

Tenison, Thomas J. : 228, 543, 812.

Thompson, William : 293.

Tighe, W. : 241.

Tipping, Edward : 872.

Todd, Eev. James Henthorne, d.d. : 25,

522.
Toland, John ; 665.
Townsend : 415.
Trail, Eev. Robert : 722.
Traill, Antony, ll.d. : 469.
Tray nor, Patrick : 813.
Trench, H. B. . 470.
Trevelan, Mr. : 26.
Tuomey, J. C. : 523, 814.

Upton, Henry, A. S. . 195, 3S7.
Usshcr, E. J. : 140, 294, 3SS, 416,
472, 567.

Vai.lancey, General Charles : 27,

524.
Vigors, Colonel Philip D. . 131, 196,

229, 473.

Wakefield, Edward : 474.
Wakeman, W. F. : 28, 53, 132, 138,

147, 197, 230, 475, 525, 538, 667,

701, 815, 904.
Wake, C. Staniland : 666.
Walker, Joseph Cooper: 723.
Walker: 153.

Walkington, Miss L. A. : 668.
Walsh, Eev. Eobert, ll.d. : 198.
Way, Albert : 355.
Weaver, Thomas : 295.
Webb, Wilfred Mark : 669.
Welsh, Alexander Colville : 356.
West, William, m.d. : 724.
Westhy, James : 905.
Westropp, Thomas Johnston: 54, 363,

389, 670, 671, 743, 816, 838.
Westropp, Hodder M. . 29, 702.
White, Eev. Patrick : 390, 817.
Wilde, Sir W. E. : 30, 67, 199, 296,

314, 357, 391, 401, 476, 544, 673,

818, S75, 906.
Wilde, Lady : 672.
Wilson, Miss : 477.
Williams, William : 297, 526.
Windele, John : 55, 35S, 527, 674, 819,

839.
Wood, Thomas, m.d. : 725.
Wood-Martin, Colonel W. G., 133, 200,

242, 315, 402, 478, 539, 545, 675,

S20, 877, 907.
Worsaae, J. J. A. . 31.
Wright, Thomas : 56S, 676.
Wright, Eobert: 6S.
Writers, Various : 56, 231, 392, 417,

569.
Wylie, William Michael : 479.
Wynne, Eev. G. H. ; S30.

Yeats, W. B. . 677.

Young, E. M. : 298, 359, 831, 908.

INDEX

[The figures appended refer to the pages of the Volume.]

Acts of Parliament against witchcraft,

136, 172.
Adder stones, 74.
Adrian, Emperor, address to his soul,

296.
Aengus of the Poison Spear, 160.
the Magician and the Soul of

Dermod, 302.
Africa, West, idol with nail offerings,

85.
Agate, Pliny's account, 76.
Aghade, " Cloch-a-Phoill " stone, 230.
Ailell, King of Connaught, " Cave of

Ainged" story, 301.
Alder tree, superstitions, 156.
Alignments of stones, 250.
Allen, Dr. Thomas, warns against

"strokers," 190.
Allen, Grant, tree worship, 154.
Alphabet, Irish, origin, 309.
Altagore, " Shanven " stone, 224.
Amulets (see Charms) .
Ancestor worship, 300.
Animal worship, animal transforma-
tion, 118.
Goldwin- Smith's opinion,

116.
Animals, language of, 118.
Antrim, witch's stone, 247.
Anvil used as a spell-worker, 107.
Apple-peel omen, 140.
April and March legend, 269.
Aran Island, holy wells, 99.

secondary holed stone, 240.

Archaeologist, Irish, qualifications, 317.
Ardmore, sacred stones, 233, 243.
Aristotle on sneezing, 151.

Ash trees, Big Bell Tree, 159.

virtues of, 235.

Assaroe "Sweat-house," 165.

Atheism, temptations to, 310.

Athos, Mount, women forbidden to set

foot on, 26.
Atkinson, G. M., Imokilly amulet,

75.

murrain stone, 78.

Augustine, St., headless beings, 23.
instructions as to Britain.

Mission, 48.
Australia, Pantheism, 116.
sore-throat cure, 168.

Babylonian religion, "Tree of Life,'*

153.
Baker, well worship, US.
Baldwin, William, cat story, 124.
Ballycotton, "Muck Olla" custom,

268.
Ballymascanlan cromleac, stones used

as charms, 29.
Ballysummaghan, cursing stones, 64, 65.
Ballyvourney, murrain stone, 75.
Baptism customs, Ireland, 39.

Somerset, 51.

Barnacle goose, origin of, 146.

Barrenness, cure of, 28.

Baths, Irish, early use of, 161.

Battles, fairy, 21.

Beam, couvade, 40.

Bed of the Holy Ghost, 29.

" Beds," ceremonies performed at, 304.

Dermod and Grania's, 133.

St. Patrick's, ceremonies, 88.

424

INDEX.

" Beds," legends, 26, 28.

Ben Jonson, fern seed, 179-

Bells, church, origin of, 167.

Beranger, ""Well of Assistance," ac-
count of, 105.

" Beware the cat," magical pigs, story,
136.

Bible, mention of evil eye, 285.

Billa, sacred tree, 154.

Bird omens, 141.

ornaments, 143.

Birth, charms used at, 273.

reverence for, 304.

superstitions, 13.

Black leg, cure, 74.

Blarney stone, 258.

Blindness, cures, 286.

Bloodstone amulet, 76.

"Bobby," account of, 98.

Bobo, Cross, 247.

Book of Ballymote, Tuapholl, 57.

Leinster, Druid spells, 108.

Macba's chariot race, 40.

Lismore, Lammas Sunday, 103.

magic caldron, 204.

poisoned weapons, 160.

Borlace, "W. C, cursing stone, 66.

" Desiul," 55.

Borrisokane, " Big Bell Tree," 159.

Boyaghan wells, 92.

Brady, Dr. Maziere, sacred stones, 66.

Brambles, creeping under arched
brambles, 235.

Brehon's chair, 254.

Breton fairy song, 21.

Briar, uses of, in cures, 198.

Brigid, St., " chair," 254.

Brittany, marriage lore, 30.

Bronze caldrons, 203.

instrument with bird ornaments

143.

Brooches, bird-head ornamentation, 143.

Brookhill, "sweat-bouse," 165.

Browne, Sir Thomas, death watch,
145.

nails and hair, clipping of,

superstitions, 200.

witches, belief in, 173.

" Brudins," Brudin Da Derga, 135.

Buccaneers, hidden booty protected by
spirits, 2.

Buckland, Mr. A. "W., St. Fillan's
well, 171.

Buddhism and Christianity, 47.

Bullen, Mr. F. T., sea superstitions,
298.

Burial customs, burial standing up, 300.

women, burial, 31.

Buried treasure, 6.

Burton, well-worship, 113.

Burying, cure by, 64, 65.

Butter, fairies take the butter, 8.

" Butter rolls, " stones, 209.

Butterfly, origin of, 296.

Byrne, James, St. Craebhnat's tree, ac-
count, 159.

Caher island, cursing stone, 106.
Cahill blood, efficacy of, 180.
Caldrons, magical, 203.
Cambrensis, holy wells, account of, 99.
Camden, divining by the blade bone,

137.

magic caldron, account of, 204.

Campbell, J. F., stone heaps in Japan,

30.
Cancer cure, 185.

Cape of Good Hope, ancient name, 4,
Cappagh "sweat-house," 163.
Carlyle quoted, 299.
Carrickard rocking stone, 260.
Carrickfergus, witches trial, 174.
Carricknabuggadda, meaning of word,

261.
Castledermot swearing-stone, 239.
Catarrh of the stomach, cure, 179.
Cats, superstitions, 122.
" Beware the cat," 119,

124.

black cat, sacrifice, 6.

Dyer, Mr. T. F. T., 125.

Wilde, Lady, stories, 125.

Cattle, sick, cures, 189.
Cavancarragh, alignments of stones,

250.

INDEX.

425

Cave of Ainged, story, 301.

Ccara, St., feast of, 4.

Cemeteries, pagan, 312.

"Chairs," druids', 251.

Charms, agate, 76.

Ballyvourney murrain stone, 75.

bloodstone amulet, 76.

connoeh, 79.

Garnavilla amulet, 75.

Imokilly amulet, 75.

Mac Carthy amulet, 76.

Chapel wells, salt-water holy well, 93.

Chichester, Rev. Edward, marriage
customs in Ireland, 31.

salt-water wells, 93.

Chiefs, elections of, 256.

Chila, miraculous stone, 248.

Childbirth debility of the Ulstermen, 40.

Childbirth superstitions, 13, 273, 204.

Children, fairy changelings, 13, 14.

Christian observances accommodated to
heathen superstitions, 47.

Christianity, Greece and ltome, intro-
duction, 314.

Ireland, existed side by side with

Paganism, 315.

gradual development, 308.

survival of, possible, 321.

Church Island, Our Lady's Bed, 29.

Churchill, bird omens, 142.

Civilization in Ireland, gradual develop-
ment of, 290.

Clare, holy wells, list, 90.

Cleena, wren story, 149.

Clenor, sacred tree, 158.

Clodd, Edward, tree worship, 153.

family tree, origin, 155.

water worship, 113.

Clogher, Tyrone, remarkable stones,
224.

Clonmacnoise cross, healing powers of,
242.

Cock, black, sacrifice, 6.

Colours, superstitions relating to, 274.

Columbkille, Saints (see that title).

Conall, healing-stone, 69.

Conlan Mac Liagh and the scribe's de-
scription of himself, 188.

Connoeh amulet, 79.

Connor Mac Nessa, Clogher oracle, 224.

Consumption cures, 52, 186, 198.

Conwell, Mr. E., holed stones at Lough-
crew, description, 247.

Ollamh Fodhla's chair, description,

253.

Cooldrumman battle, " Desiul " de-
nounced, 53.

Coollemoneen, " honey -tree," 159.

Corkaguiney, "gates of glory"
stones, 222.

Cormac, death caused by fairies, 8.

Cormac Mac Art, wolf legend, 120.

Cormac' s Glossary, recipe for magical
dream, 138.

"Couvade," 40.

Cowdung cure, 181.

Cow lore, classical source, 130.

Druidic veneration for cows, 127.

game at wakes, 129.

Glasgavlen, 127.

" Roads of the White, Black, and

Red Cows," 127.

superstitions relating to cows, 6.

Tarv Connaire, 129.

Tain B6 Cuailgne, 127, 129.

head in bronze in R. I. A., 130.

Cramp in the leg, charm, 195.

Creeds, relation of, to religion, 309.

Cretans, women's position amongst, 44.

Crickets, St. Fintan's day ceremony,
176.

Croker, Crofton, "changeling" legend,
15.

druid circle near Killarney, de-
scription, 219.

fairy song, 14, 20.

magic stones, account of, 212.

■ May day mummers, description,

265.

mermaid story, 213.

Crom Cruach and Crom Dubh, 208.

Crosses, Aran Island, 240.

Boho, 247.

• Glencolumbkill, 242.

Layde, 240.

Crukuaragh hill, fairy story, 19.

426

INDEX.

Cuchullin, " Childbirth debility of the
Ulstermen," 40.

poison weapons, 160.

T&in B6 Cuailgne, 129.

Cuckoo omens, 141.

Cuilirra, Sligo, holed stone, 228.

Culdaff, ceremony at birth of an infant,
39.

marriage by capture, 31.

Cullen, cleft tree, cure, description, 235.

Cupples, Rev. Edward, Baptism cus-
toms, 39.

"Curl-doddy," account of, 195.

Cures, agate used for, 76.

"all flower water," 183.

blood cure, 180.

cleft tree, passing under, 235.

healing stones, 69.

holy well cures, 88, 90, 92.

peist, 73.

" strokers," cures by, 190.

transference of disease, 82, 84.

various, 189, 193.

wise women's cures, 176.

Curses, averting, 64, 65.

cursing stones, 59.

"fire of stones," 58.

O'Donovan's account, 57-

"private curse," 57.

public curse, 59.

Cursing stones, 59.

Caher Island, 106.

flagstone of the seven

daughters, 66.

Inishmurray, 61.

Iniskea, 66.

St. Bridget's Stone 61.

St. Fechin's Stone, 65.

" Summaghan Stones," 64,

65.

Trummery Church, 64.

Curson, Mount Athos, women forbidden

to set foot on, 26.
Curtin, Jeremiah, Glas Gavlen, account

of, 128.

Dabehoe, St., " chair," 253.
Danish folk-lore story, 6.

Days of the week, superstitions re-
lating to, 268.

Dead, burial of, 304.

fear of, 2.

sacrifices to, 274.

Deafness, cure, 187.

Death, various views concerning, 293.

watch, 145.

Declan, St., black relic, 70.

stone, 233.

Dedanann, O'Curry's opinion of, 3.

swine banished by, 131.

Demon possession of lunatics, 167.

Demons, power of against the soul,
303.

Denis, St., walks without his head, 23.

Dermod, soul of, 302.

Dermod and Grania legends, various,
132, 134, 156.

bed, 123, 134.

" Desiul" or Holy Bound, 51.

Greek and Roman custom, 54.

Hebrides, 52.

Joyce's account, 53.

Portugal, 55.

Devenish Island, description, 28.

Dianket, magic bath, 202.

medical knowledge, 161.

Diodorus, Druids, customs of, 307.

Dion Cassius, account of the Cale-
donians, 112.

Dinely, Thomas, spitting superstitions,
286.

Diseases, transference of, 82, 84.

Divining rods, 221.

Doagh, holed stone, 237.

Dogs, superstitions concerning, 126.

Door opened to let the spirit out,
examples of, 302.

Douglas, Professor, couvade, 43.

Downes, Bishop, holy well, account,
94.

Doyle, Dr., death, robin omens, 141.

Dreams, effect of, 293.

Greek opinion of, 139.

magical recipe for, 138.

St. Patrick's belief in, 138.

Sully, James, opinion, 139.

INDEX.

427

Dromahaire, origin of name, 271.
Druid, derivation of word, 307.
Druids, chairs, 251.

circle, at Killarney, 219.

customs, 307.

judgment seat, Killiney, 255.

medical knowledge, 160.

spells and incantations, 108.

wands, 221.

Dmmcliff, holy wells, 88.

Drury, Sir William, execution of

witches, 173.
Dual number, superstitions relating to,

270.
Duan Gircanash, Pictish rape of wives,

37.
Dublin, holy wells, 90.
Dullaghan, 23.
Dwarf's tomb, story, 300.
Dyer, Mr. T. F. T., cat story, 125.

" Curl-doddy," account of, 195.

■ Devonshire superstitions, 235.

dog superstitions, 126.

moon, Irish superstitions, 201.

moths called " souls," 297.

plant folk-lore, 196.

trees, holes in, virtues of, 237.

Dyes, colours obtained from plants, 160.

Echo, superstitions regarding, 292.

" Eglone" stone, 219.

Egypt, Sacerdotalism in, 116.

Egyptian Book of the Dead, soul, form
of, 295.

Elian, St., cursing well, 66.

Elixir of life, 202.

Ellis, sacred stones, Haiwaii, 68.

South Sea Islanders' Magic, 202.

England, holed stones, 227.

Eoghan Bel, buried standing, 300.

El worthy, Mr. F. T., baptism customs,
Somerset, 57.

evil eye, 122.

magical swine, 136.

pig in Egyptian and Greek my-
thology, 136.

spitting custom, remarks on, 286.

Epilepsy cures, 187.
Errigal-Keroge "sweat-house," 166.
Erysipelas cure, 58, 180, 274.
Evil eye, 122.

charms against, 273, 284.

proverbs on, 284,

Evolution, truth of, 289.

Eye, diseases, cures, 76, 180, 182, 199,

272.
Eyre, Governor, Australian cure for

sore throat, 168.

Fairies, battles, 21.

butter taken by, 8.

changelings, 13.

Christian explanation of, 5.

Columbkille and Finvarra, 5.

Danish stoiy, 6.

" Dark Fairy Rath," poem, 12.

Dullaghans, 23.

dust storms, 8.

fear of, 8.

feast of St. Ceara, 4.

feet-water story, 9.

food, must not be partaken of, 19.

— — hawthorn trees sacred to, 156.

hunters, 8.

incantations, 15.

invisible in daylight, 4.

— iron a charm against, 8, 11, 14.
■ leprechaun, 22.

moonlight dances, 16.

mounds, 19.

music, 20.

name, mention of unlucky, 4.

nature of, description, 5.

" Night of the Big Wind," 4.

nurses, mortal mothers, 13.

rescue from, 11.

sacrifices to, 6.

spirits of the dead and fairies, dis-
tinction between, 2.

spitting as a charm against, 194.

two classes, 3.

Ulster, 3.

Fairy-rings, 196.

Farranglogh, "speaking-stones," 222.

428

INDEX.

Fe, magical wand, description, 221.
Fear, keystone of primitive religions, 2.
Fechin, St., cursing-stone, 65.
Ferguson, Rev. Joseph, butterfly form

of the soul incident, 296.

Sir Samuel, cursing-stones, 59.

Fern seed, mystical properties, 179.

Femagh church, butter-stones, 209.

Fetichism, 306.

Fever cure, 274.

Fillan, St., well, 171.

Finn Mac Cool, boar hunt, magical,

132.

Crania, marriage with, 132.

"Finn's Tooth of Knowledge," legend,

109.
Finvarra, fairy king, 21.

interview with Columbkille, 5.

Fire of stones, 58.

" bishop's grave,'' stories, 60.

Fish, sacred, 108-113.
Fish-eaters, term of contempt, 113.
Fitzgerald, sacred trees, account, 159.

Dick, echo, name for, 292.

Lord Walter, holed stone at

Castledermot, description, 239, 240.
Fitzpatrick, Mr., Dr. Doyle's death,

account, 141.
Flags, origin of, 114.
Food offerings to stones, 225.
Foxglove, 196.

Foyoges, "bishop's grave," 60.
Froude, purposes of existence, opinions

on, 290.

scepticism, opinion of, 311.

Furies, Greek name for, 4.
Fyvie, sacred stone, 232.

Gallows, Highland reverence for, 4.

Garland Sunday, 101.

Garnavilla amulet, 75.

Generation, supernatural, 305.

Gigha Island, incantation, 105.

Giraldus Cambrensis, animal transfor-
mation, 118.

Giraud-Teulon, M., couvade, 42.

Glasgavlen, Jeremiah Cur-tin's account
of, 128.

Glencolumbkill cross, 242.
Glendinning, Dame, mentions the fairies,

4.
Glennagalt, Glen of the Lunatics, 170.
Glensouthwell, Brehon's chair, 254.
God, name of, identical with that for

wind, 107.

mysterious name, 4.

" God save the mark," charm of, 287.

Gods, fickleness to, 297.

resemble those that worship them,

306.
Goddesses, importance of, 304.
Gold, pot of, fairy treasure, 6.
Gorse used for luck, 263.
Goustan, St., marriage patron, 30.
Graham, Rev. John, Irish quack

doctors, account of, 167-

Maypole, account of, 264.

" Grave of the Black Pig," 131.
Graves, ornaments found in, 299.
Greek idea of the soul, 302.
" Grogan," fairy, description, 3.
Groves, Bev. John, "sweat-houses,"

account, 166.
Greatrakes, Valentine, " Stroker," 190.
Griffin, Gerald, "Desiul" custom, 53.
Guernsey, speaking-stone, 224.
Guiana, couvade, 41.
Gwynn, Mr. Stephen, Vera, goddess,

poem on, 217.

Haii-, superstitions relating to, 200.
Haiwaii, sacred stones, 68.
Hallow Eve, observances, 266, 26S.
Hamilton, Mr. C. J., fairies, stories of,

10, 19.
Handshake, superstitions relating to,

285.
Hardy, Philip Dixon, rite performed at

Aughawale well, 105.
Hawthorn tree, sanctity of, 156.
Headache, cure, 274.
"Headfall" disease, 39.
" Head-fever," cure, 191.
Heapstown, cat legends, 123.
Heart-sinking, cure, 179.

INDEX.

42»

Heartburn, cure, 7.

Heber, Bishop, mimosa tree, supersti-
tions, 155.

Hebrides, "desiul" custom, 52.

Hemorrhoids, cure, 193.

Hen, crowing, unlucky, 144.

Hennessy, Prof. H., Turkish baths, 161.

Herbs, cures made from, 176, 185, 200.

fairy influence on, 198.

Hercules' Temple, women forbidden to
enter, 27.

Herodotus, descent through female line,
44.

magical boar of the Mysians, 134.

spells for raising the wind, 107.

transformation of human beings

into wolves, 118.

Hibbert, Mr., mermaid story, 213.

Higden, magical swine, 136.

History, Irish, value of, 320.

Hofer, Andreas, " desiul " custom, 55.

Holy Ghost, bed of the Holy Ghost, 29.

Holy wells, wells (see that title) .

Homoeopathy, ancient, 80.

Hope, Mr. R. C, St. Madron's stone,
230.

Horace, quoted, 299.

Horso-shoe, fairy charm, 11.

Hound's-tongue, herb, cancer curt 1 , 185.

Howdon, St. Osuna's stone, 227.

Hungry stones and hungry grass, 225.

Huxley, Prof., man unlabolled, 323.

witchcraft, 172.

Hydrophobia, cures, 76, 79, 178, 183.

Hyginus, "desiul" practice, account,
54.

Idols, absenco of, in Ireland, 305.

symbolism of, 306.

Images of persons who are to be be-
witched, 200, 201.
Imokilly amulet, 75.
India, " holed-stones," 226.
Indian tribes, "sweat-lodge," 166.
Infants, ceremonies at birth, 39.

superstitions regarding, 1 3.

Inflammation, cure, 273.

Inisbofin, magical cow, 221.
Iniscathy Abbey, women forbidden to

enter, 27.
Iniskea, cursing-stone, 66.

neewoge, 106.

Iniskill, cursing-stone, 66.
Inismurray, burial customs, 31.

cursing-stones, 61.

praying-stones, 242.

well of assistance, 104.

Insanity, cure, 65.

Invisible, to render oneself, 274.

Iona, sacred stones, 69.

Iron, charm against fairies, 8, 11, 14.

Island Magee rocking-stone, 260.

Islands, Holy, women forbidden to land

on, 26.
Isle of Man, stone rings, 248.
Ita, St., Bed, well. 29.

Japan, stone heaps, 30.

Jaundice, cures, 182, 273.

Jews, marriage customs, 38.

Johnston, Dr., annihilation, opinion of,

294.
Joyce, Dr. P. "W., "desiul" custom,

53.
"Finn's Tooth of Knowledge"

story, 109.
— — holy wells, 92.

number two in Irish names, 270.

" Pursuit of Dermod and Grania,"

135.

sacred trees, 160.

— • — Sean Druid, meaning of, 307.
Juhainville, M., archaaology of, 320.
Judaism, influence of heathen thought

on, 308.

Kames, Lord, marriage customs, Wales,

35.
Keating, history of Ireland, 320.

magical bath, account, 160.

marriage contracts, 38.

Kemble, swine as sacred animals, 131.
Kevin, St., " Bed," 26.

430

INDEX.

Khasi, custom relating to the dead, 24.
Kilchouslan, holed stone, 247.
Kilkeary, mill, account, 31.
Kilkenny, fairy battles, 21.
Killady, St. Ita's bed, 29.
Killalta church, station, 97.
Killarney, stone circle, 219.

echo, story of, 292.

KiUeany, cursing-stones, 59.
Killery, straining-string, 71.
Killiney, druid's judgment seat, 255.
Killowen, cromleac, straining-string,

72.
Kilmacteige, " fern tree," 159.
Kilmoon, cursing -stones, 59.
Kilnasaggart, Pagan cemetery, 313.
Kilranelagh churchyard, holy well, 92.
Kingsley, Miss, fetichism, 306.
Knock, Pagan cemetery, 313.
Knott, John, Dr., cancer cure, 185.

catarrh of the stomach, cure, 179.

Clonmacnoise cross, healing

powers, 242.

eye diseases, cures, 182.

lactation, paper, 44.

royal touch cure, 190.

Kyteler, Lady Alice, witchcraft of,

173.

Lactation, opinions on, 44.

Lamb, scalded, story, 7.

Lammas Sunday, rites, 101.

Laws, Irish marriage, 38.

Layde, cross, 240.

"Lee Penny," 78.

Leg, cramp in, charm, 195.

Leinster, Book of, Madia's chariot

race, 40.
Leoghaire, King, buried standing, 301.
Leprechaun, 22.

Lewis, Colonel, well worship, 114.
Lia Fail or Stone of Destiny, 257.
Life, elixir of, 202.
Limestones, heated, used as cures,

199.
Lir, children of, enchantment, 146.
Lochgilphead, holed stone, 247.
Lough Beg, rag offerings, 98.

Loughadrine, sacred lake, 89, 112.
Loughanlea lake, 93.
Loughcrew hills, " hag's chair," 251.
Lockwood, Mr. F. "W., "sweat-house,"

account, 165.
Loman, St. church, 29.
Love potions, 178.
Lubbock, Sir John, couvade, 42.
Lueian, anthropomorphism, 311.
Lucretius, "desiul" custom, 54.
Lunatics, reverence for, 167.

St. Fillan's cure, 171.

Lycanthropy, 120.

Lycaon, King of Arcadia, turned into

a wolf, 119.

Macalister, Mr. K. A. S., " Gates of

Glory" rocks, 222.
MacCarthy annulet, 76.
"MaeDatho's Hog," story, 135.
M'Donall of Newhall, mermaid story,

213.
MacGowan family, hydrophobia cure

possessed by, 184.
Macha, chariot race of, 40.
MacKinlay, James M., Lammas Sunday

rites, 101.

St. Madron's bed, account, 231.

MacLennan, Mr. John F., marriage

customs, 38.
Macnamara family, memiaid origin,

213.
Madron, St., well of, creeping stone,

230.
"Madstone," 79.

Maeve, Maev, or Medb, Queen of Con-
naught, "Cave of Ainged," story,

301.
childbirth debility of the Cltonians,

40.
— Tain B<5 Cuailgne, 129.
Maghera, Deny, May-pole, account of,

264.
Magpie omens, 147.
Maimonides, Jews, saliva cure, 286.
Manannan Mac Lir, poison weapons,

160.

INDEX.

431

Mandrake, 197.

Marcellus, " Deeiul " practice, 54.
March and April, legend, 269.
Marriage customs :

" Abduction without leave," 37.

Brittany, 30.

capture, 31.

holed stones, rites at, 237, 230.

Ireland, 32.

Japan, 30.

Jews, 38.

Heating's opinion, 38.

Kerry, 33.

law, 38.

MacLennan's, John, account, 38.

maiden names of married women,
40, 325.

"Straw Boys," 35.

Picts, 35.

ring, 44.

stone-throwing, 29.

Telltown marriage, 39.

Wales, 35.
Mars Sylvanus, pigs sacrificed to, 136.
Marsh-marigold, 198.
Martin, " Dosiul " or holy round,
account of, 62.

MacDonald amulot, description, 76.

Martin, St., cow dedicated to, 6.
Massago, early use of, 161.
Massey, Mr. Gerald, "couvade," ac-
count of, 43.
Mather, Cotton, Quaker proselytisers,

190.
Maud, i. W. T., Egyptians' rever-
ence of engines, 233.
Maxwell, W. A., " Bobby," account
of, 98.

"hungry grass" stories, 225.

strange animals in lakes and rivers

of the West, 121.
May Day, lucky flowers, 262.

— Maypoles, custom, 264.

morning rites, 176.

— ■ mummers, 265.

processions, 265.

Modical scionce, connection with re-
ligion, 161.

Medical science, primitive, 161.
Medicinal properties of flowers, herbs,

and roots, 160.
Medicine man, Irish, 167, 202.

" Paddy the Dash," 175.

Mermaids, legends relating to, 212.
Mermen, legends relating to, 214.
Merrythought omen, 140.
Meyer, Kuno, Vera, accounts of, 216.
"Vision of Hell," translation,

295.
Midwifery, charms used in, 189.
Milk, libations for fairies, 7.
Milligan, Mr. S. F., "sweat-houses,"

162.
Milton, Eve, description, 299.
fairy ministrations to children,

13.
Mistletoe, rite connected with, 272.
Molaise, St., "bed," 28.
Monaghan, "sweat-house," 103.
Monasterboice cross, cures performed

by, 193.
Moon, observances connected with,

201, 267.
Moore, Thomas, St. Kevin and St.

Senan, 36.
Moray, desiul custom, 52.
Mount Sion, meaning of, 19.
Moytirra, "Eglone" stone, 219.
Muck Inis, name of Ireland, 131.
" Muck 011a " custom, 268.
Muller, Max, " couvade," account of,

42.
Mumps, cure, 53, 200.
Mungo Park, well worship, 113.
Murrain, cure, 75, 78, 79.
Music, fairy, 20.
Mweelrea mountain, sacred to fairies,

10.

Nails, offerings, 85.

pairing of, superstitions relating

to, 200.
Napier, James, trees, rites connected

with holes in, 237.
Nelson, Prof., sacred stones, 67.

482

INDEX.

Nennius, Mill of Krlkeary, account, 31.

Pict, rape of wives, account, 35.

Nettles, use of, in May, 263.

Neuri, transformation of into wolves,
118.

New Guinea women, regulations re-
garding, 31,

Nine, number, magical significance of,
272.

"Notes and Queries," wishing- wells,
account, 81.

November, first day of, observances,
266.

second day of, sacrifices to dead,

274.

Numbers, superstitions relating to, 270.

Nutt, Mr. Alfred, early Irish ecclesias-
tics, opinions of, 311.

O'Connor, Dr., holy well customs, 86.
O'Curry, Eugene, divination, 170.

fairies, two classes ol, 3.

human beings changed into rocks,

instance from, 209,

Shannon, origin of, 30.

O'Donovan, Aran Island pillar-stone,

description, 240.

" crceve," meaning of, 157.

curses, efficacy of, 57.

divination, Columbkille's poem,

150.

cursing-stone at Caher Island, 106.

traditions, value of, 321.

water-wagtail story, 145.

O'Flaherty family, mermaid origin, 213.
O'Hanlon, Eev. John, fairy incantation,

translation, 15.
witch and fairy doctor, account of,

174.
Olden, Eev. T., number two in Irish

names, 270.
Ollamh Fodhla's chair, supposed, 253.
Omens, 140.

birds, 141.

O'Neill's "chair," history of, 251.

Oneirology, 139.

Orkney, witchcraft formula, 59.

O' Sullivan family, mermaid origin, 213.
O'Summaghan, cursing-stones, story,

65.
Our Lady's bed, 29.
Ouseley, Sir 'William, well-worship,

114.
Ovid, echo, remarks on, 292.
wolves, transformation of human

beings into, 119.

"Paddy the Dash," fairy doctor, 175.
Page, Eev. James, St. Patrick's bed,

description, 29.
Pantheism, Australia, 116.

St. Paul's pantheism, 154.

"Watson, Mr. William, poem, 155.

Parliament, Acts of, against witchcraft,

136, 172.
Patria potestas, Irish laws, 3 .
Patrick, Saints (see that title).
"Patrick's Bush," 156.
Paul, St., Pantheism of, 154.
Peacock omens, 147.
Peist, cure, 73.

" Peniterry," account of, 195.
Pennant, St. Elian's curse, 67.
Pentateuch, sacred trees, 153.
Persia, coward's cure, 232.
Petronius quoted, 297.
Physic, god of, 202.
Physicians, ancient science, 204.
Picts, descensus per umbilicum, 37.
Piers, Sir Henry, marriage customs,

Ireland, 32.
Pigs, Brudins, 135.

Celtic symbol in decoration, 136.

Egyptian and Greek mythology,

137.

Finn Mac Cool's boar bunt, 132.

Jewish opinions of, 137.

Mac Datio's hag, 135.

magical red pigs, 136.

place name "Muck," 136.

superstitions, 131.

Pile-wort, 193.

Pins, crooked, luck attached to, S2.

Plague cure, "Lee Penny," 78.

INDEX.

433

Pliny, adder stones, 74.

agate, properties of, 76.

Druid, derivation of word, 307.

evil eye, 285.

sneezing, opinion of, 150.

transformation of human beings

into wolves, 119.
Plutarch, " desiul" custom, 54.
Poisoned wounds, cures, 204.
Potter, Rev. F. A., marriage customs,

Ireland, 40.
Primroses used as a charm, 262.
Proselytisers, Quaker, 190.
Proverbs, Irish, evil eye, 284.

various, 275.

women, proverbs on, 283.

" Piilleek stone," 29.

Quaker proselytisers, 190.

Rag offerings, 84, 98, 113, 114.

Ramayana, cow story, 129.

Rathovocragh, Eoghan liel's burial
place, 300.

Raven omens, 142.

Rod-haired people, superstitions con-
cerning, 140.

Rod-hills, witch, 174.

Red rash cure, 274.

Religion in Ireland, gradual develop-
ment, 290.

Rheumatism cure, 231.

Rhys, Professor, Lammas rites, 101.

Rickets cure, 230.

Rings used in marriage, origin, 44.

" Road of the Black Tig," 131.

Roberts, George, "Dark Fairy Roth,"
translation, 12.

Robin Goodfellow's song, 14.

Robin redbreast omens, Ml.

Rocking stones, 259.

Rods, divining, 221.

Rosses Point, holy well, 87.

Rowan tree, virtues of, 155.

Russian baths, rcsomblance to Irish,
160.

Ryehc, Barnaby, Irish holy wells, 90.
VOL. II. 2

Sabines, rape of, story common to many

nations, 35.
Sacerdotalism, Egypt, 116.
Sacrifices, fairies, propitiation of, 6.
St. John's Day, customs, 264.

Point, cemetery, 313.

Saints :

Augustine, Britain, mission to, 48.

preached to men without

heads, 23.

Brigid's chair, 253.

Ceara, feast of, 4.

Columbkille, desiul denounced hy,
53.

Finvarra, interviewed with,

5.

holy wells, 50.

poem on divination, 160.

slate, 106.

stone, 256.

women, horror of, 27.

Conall's healing stone, 69.

Craebhnat, sacred tree, 159.

Dabehoe, chair, 253.

Declan, black relic, 70.

stone, 233.

Denis walks without his bead, 23.

Elian, cursing well, 66.

Fechin, stono, 65.

Fillan, well, cures madness, 171.

Fintan, cricket ceremony, 170.

Goustan, marriage patron, 30.

Holiness of Irish saints, 27.

Ita, bed, 29.

Kevin, "bed," 26,

Loman, church, "bed," 29.

Madron, well, creeping stone, 230.

Martin, cow dedicated to, 6.

M alaing and the wren, 147.

Molaise, " bed," 28.

Gospel, symbol, 131.

Patrick, " bed," 29, 88.

— — dreams, belief in, 138.

purgatory, rite performed at,

272,

Paul, pantheism, 154.

Senan, 27.

Trivialities of Irish saints, 312.

434

INDEX.

Saliva, cures, 286.

spitting for luck, 285.

uses of, 193.

Salt, superstitions relating to, 16.

Samoa, wine libation, 7-

Saxon gods, influence of, 308.

Science, independence of, 310.

Scots, Mary Queen of, amulets, belief
in, 79.

Scott, Sir Walter, desiul custom, 53.

gallows, superstitions about, 4.

monks, opinion of, 27.

St. Fillan's blessed well, 171.

stone circle of Stennis, 247.

trees, poem on, 157.

Scrofula, cure by Royal touch, 190.

Scurmore, "Grave of the Black Pig,"
131.

Sea superstitions, Bullen, Mr. F. T.,

account, 298.
Senan, St., 27.
Senchus Mor, marriage law of Ireland,

38.
Seneca, Christianity of, 50, 81.

immortality, opinion on, 294.

Seven, magical number, 271.
Shadow, casting no shadow supersti-
tion, 297.
Shakspeare, bird omens, 143.

dead, non-return of, 298.

fern seed, 179.

Shannon river, origin of, 30.

Shark Island, cat story, 125.

" Sheeauns," fairy mounds, 19, 22.

Sheep, divining by the blade bone,

137.
Shields, Mr. Patrick, "sweat-houses,"

account, 164.
Shingles, cure, 178.
Ships, lucky names for, 5.
Shokas, rag offerings, 114.
Sleep, mystery of, 294.
Sligo, Co., holy wells, list, 88.
Smith, Dr. C, Glennagalt, account,
170.

Prof. Goldwin, animal worship,

116.
truth, pursuit of, 323.

Snails, superstitions relating to, 263,

274.
Sneezing, origin of, superstitions con-
cerning, 150.
Solinus, Irish infants, 40.
Song, fairy, 20.
Soul, departure of, by open door, 302.

Dermod's soul, 302.

form of, 295.

immortality, 294.

South Sea Islanders, magical practices,

202.
Spenser, bird omens, 143.

fairy changelings, 14.

" Desiul " and " Tuaphall," 57.

elections of chiefs, description,

256.
Spiders used as cures, 187.
Spitchwich, magical ash tree, 236.
Spitting lucky, 2S5.
Sprains, cures, 71, 73.
Stennis, pillar -stone, 244.
Stokes, Prof. Whitley, goddess Vera,

217.
Stone Age, Neolithic Period, 291.

ornaments found in graves, 299.

Palaeolithic Period, 291.

religion, 298.

Stone of Destiny, 257.

Stone rings, Eirk Braddan, 248.

Stones :

Altagore, " Shanven " stone, 224.

Aran Island, 240.

Ardmore, Cloch-Daha, 243.

Blarney Stone, 25S.

Butter-rolls, 209.

Bolleit, holed-stones, 248.

Castledermot swearing stone, 239.

Chila, 248.

" Children of the Mermaid," 212.

Christianity reconsecrates, 207.

" Cloch-a-Phoill " stone, 230.

Clocnapeacaib, 242.

Clogher, 224.

" Cloughlourish " legend, 213.

Cowardice, cure of, 233.

Croni Cruach and Crom Dubh, 208.

Cuilirra speckled stone, 228.

INDEX.

435

Stones :

Cures derived from, 228, 230, 231.

Cursing-stones (see that title).

Deccan, 248.

Destiny, Stone of, 257.

Doctor-stones, 74.

Doagh holed stone, 237.

Druid Circle, Killamey, 219.

Druid transformations, 209, 211.

Far-hreaga, 209.

" Gates of Glory " stones, 222.

Guernsey, 224.

Haiwaii, 68.

Healing-stone of St. Conall, 69.

Holed stones, 226, 237, 242, 244,

248.
Human beings changed into, 209.
Influences on our men and women,

207.
Inisbofin, magical cow, 221.
Iniskeen holed stone, 244.
Inismuvray, 242.
Kaaba, black stone of the, 207.
Kilchouslan, 247.
Kilross cow-stealer turned into,

214.
" Lee Penny," 78.
Lochgilphead, 247.
Loughcrew hills, 247.
" Maen an Toll " stone, 230.
Marriage customs at, 29, 30.
Norway, 67.
Offerings of food to, 225.
Pacific Islands, 67.
Pillar-stones, origin, 206.
Rocking-stones, 259.
St. Bridget's stone, 61.
St. Declan's stono, 70, 233.
St. Osuna's stone, 227.
Saint's transformations, 209.
Secondary holed-stones, 237.
" Speaking-stones," 222.
Stennis holed-stone, 244.
Straining strings, 71.
Toberaraght well, 70.
Toomour " dicket-stones," 69.
Wishing stones, 80.
Witches' stone, Antrim, 247.

Storms, spells for raising, 104-108.

wind wells, 104.

Straining strings, 71 ff.

Strains, cure of, 192.

" Straw-boys," 35.

" String-bridge," legend, 25.

" Strokers," account of, 190.

Struell wells, curative property of the

water, 99.
Sully, James, dreams, opinion on, 189.
Superstitions, rudimentary religion, 318.
Surgery, primitive, 161.
Swallow omens, 144.
Swan, sanctity of, 146.
" Sweat-houses," 101.
Swift, Dean, death-watch charm, 145.

Tain, J., quoted, 303.

Tain B<5 Cuailgne, 127, 129.

Taylor, Colonel Meadows, Deccan, holed
dolmen, description, 248-250.

Jeremy, 97.

Rev. E., image worship only sym-
bolic, 300.

Teeth, superstitions relating to, 10.

Teltown fair, superstition, 56.

marriage, 39.

Tempo, name origin, 53.

Tertullian, fish an emblem of Christian-
ity, 111.

Theano, 44.

Theism, growth of and embodiment in
Christianity, 319.

Theocritus, spitting as a charm, 286.

Thor, red, sacred to, 275.

Three, number, Irish predilection for,
271.

Tlirelkeld, Caleb, fern-seed supersti-
tion, ITS.

mandrake superstition, 198.

Throat, sore, cure of, 168.

Tighernach's Annals, Cormac's death,
account of, 8.

Tirehan, holy wells, 47.

Toam, sweat-house, 163.

Tobacco smoking, North American
Indian custom, 7.

436

INDEX.

Toberaraght well, 87.

sacred stones, 70.

Toberboyoga holy well, 92.
Tobermonachan holy well, 92.
Tobernabostulwell, 133.
Toberroddy, holy well, 87.
Toland, bird omens, 142.

" desiul " and "tnapholl," 56.

Druid stones, account, 211.

sacred stones, Iona, 69.

Tomfinlough church, plague stones, 74.

Tomlinson, C, "couvade," 43.

Toomour, " dicket stones, " 69.

Tory Island, wishing stone, 80.

Totemism, 38, 117.

Trabolgan, "Muck Olla " custom.

Trees, sacred, 152.

— — creeve, meaning of, 157.

holes in, virtues of, 235, 237.

life, emblems of, 153, 155.

— — unlucky to meddle with, 157.
Trepanning, early use of, 161.
Trimalchio, salvum sit quod tango, 287.
Trinity, origin of idea of, 271.
Trummery Church, cursing stones, 64.
Truth, what is truth ? 323.
Tuapholl or unholy round, 55.
Tubber Tullaghan well, sacred fish,

111.
Tubberkeeran holy well, 87.
Tubbernalt holy well, 82.
Turkish baths, origin, 161.
Turner, Eev. George, Samoa customs, 7.
Taylor, Dr. E., "couvade," account

of, 42.
well- worship, 114.

Ulcerated leg, cure, 195.
Ulster, fairy beliefs, 3.

Vnllancey, archaeology of, 320.

echo, Irish name for, 292.

moon superstitions, 201.

Vera, goddess, " hag's chair," 251.

legends relating to, 214.

Scotch proverb relating to,

217.

Vereticus, changed into a wolf, 119.
Vervain, superstitions relating to, 199.
Virgil, evil eye, 285.

"Wake, Mr. C. Stanisland, " abduction
without leave," 37.

couvade, account, 42.

"Wakeman, W. F., alignments of stones,
discovery, 250.

enchanted trout, 109.

murdered cow story, 128.

" withershins '' custom, 56.

AVakes, games, cow capture, 129.

Wales, marriage customs, 35.

Wands, magical, 221.

Warts, cures, 84, 199, 272,

Water, feet washed in, superstition, 10.

holy, curative properties, 97.

spirits cannot cross, 23.

Water wagtail omens, 145.

Watson, William, Pantheism, poem on,

155.
Weasels, superstitions relating to, 5.
Wedding rings, 44.
Weddings (see Marriage customs) .
Welch, Mr. E., " straining strings,"

72.
Wells, holy :

Aran, 99.

Assistance, Well of, Inismurray,
104.

Aughawale, 105, 112.

Boyaghan, 92.

Britain, offerings, 49.

Cambrensis' account, 99.

"Chink Well," 95.

Clare, list of names, 89, 90.

Cranfield, 99.

Cromleacs, 86.

Cursing wells, 66.

" Desiul " or holy round, 51.

Drunieliff, 88.

Dublin, 90 S.

Faughart, 99.

Fish, sacred, 108, 111, 112.

Gortnasoolboy, 93.

Kilmichael, 100.

INDEX.

437

Wells, holy :

Kilranelagh churchyard, 92.
Kineigh, 94.
Loughanlea, 93.
Loughharrow, 99.
Number of, 47.
Offerings, 49, 81, 84, 97.
"Patterns," 93,94.
Pre-Christian origin, 47.
Rag offerings, 81, 84.
Rosses Point, 87.
St. Bartholomew's, 'J(i.
St. Berach's, 98.
St. Bridget's, 97.
St. Columbkill's, 50.
St. Conall's, 99.
St. Declan's, 96.
St. Fillan's, 171.
St. Keeran's, 109.
St. Lacteen's, 88.
St. Molaiso's, 104.
St. Senan's, 97.
Sale of water, 100.
Salt water wells, 93.
Scatteiy Island, 95.
Seven Daughters, well of, 60.
Sligo, list of name's, 88.
Struell wells, 99.
Three classes, 46.
Toheranlcise, 93.
Toberaraght, 70, 87.
Toborboyaga, 92.
Toberkeelagh , 9-1.
Tober-Kilnagreina, 93.
Tobermonia, 104.
Tober Monachan, 92.
Tobernabostul, 133.
Tubeiroddy, 87-
Tubberkeeran, 87.
Tubberkileilke, 94.
Tnbbornalt, 92, 101.
Tubberpatiit'k, rites, 96.
TubborTullaghan, sacred fish, 111.
Wishing Wells, 80.
Women forbidden to use, 30.
Worship, Oriental source, univer-
sality of, 113.
Zem-Zem, 113.

" Were-wolf," 119.

Wesley, John, "primitive physick,"

182, 194.

witchcraft, belief in, 172.

Westmeath marriage customs, 32.
Westropp, Mr. T. J., cursing-stones,

60.

holy wells in Clare, 90.

" plague stone," 74.

Wheatley, wedding ring superstition,

45.
Whitsuntide, unlucky time, 266.
Whooping-cough, cures, 189, 193.
Wight, Joshua, May Day processions,

description, 265.
Wilde, Lady, bed of the Holy Ghost,

29.
blind man restored, account of,

112.

cat story, 125.

childbirth superstitions, 13.

"chink well," 95.

deafness, cure for, described, 187.

epilepsy, cure for, described, 187.

Garland Sunday, account of, 103.

Irish marriage festival, 33.

MacGowan, hydrophobia cure,

origin of, 184.

May Day customs, 264.

medicine man's exorcisms, ac-
count, 168.

number two, unluckiness of, 274.

Royal touch cure, described, 190.

scalded lamb, story of , 7 .

sick cattle, cure, described, 189.

sprains, cures for, 73.

" The Priest's Soul," 296.

Whitsuntide customs, 266.

Wilde, Sir William, enchanted trout,
109.

"Will-o'-the-wisp,'' explanation of,
24.

Willow tree inspires a desire to dance,
157.

Wind, name of God identical with that
of, 107.

" Night of the Big Wind," 4.

Wine libations, custom of, 7.

438

INDEX.

Witchcraft, Acts of Parliament against,

136, 272.

animal transformation by, 122.

belief in, 172.

formula for acquiring, 59.

■ herb cures, 176.

Kyteler, Lady Alice and her son,

173.

stock in trade of witches, 176.

Wesley's belief in, 172.

" Withershins," 53, 55, 325.

"Wolves, Cormac Mac Art reared by >x

wolf, 120.
human beings transformed into,

118.
Women, burial customs, 31.
descent through the female line,

41, 42, 44.

Women, holy islands forbidden to, 26.

holy wells forbidden to, 30.

proverbs on, 283.

purity, 44.

■ saints horror of, 26.

— — savage customs regarding, 31.
Worms, diseases caused by, cures for,

192.
Wounds, cure, 274.
Wren, superstitions, origin of, 147-

Xanthians, women's position amongst,
44.

Yarrow, used as charm, 196.

Tear, divisions of, 262.

Yeats, W. B., archaeology of, 320.

END OP VOLUME II.