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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 


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Library 


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the Cornell University Library. 


There are no known copyright restrictions in 
the United States on the use of the text. 


http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924101529166 


New Zealand Fruits. 


netia. Banksii. Coprosmia, 3 sp. 


Dysoxvnan spectabile 


ants of New Zealand 


R. M. LAING, B.Sc. 


AND 


KE. W. BLACKWELL. 


With 160 original Photographs by EB. W. and F. B. Blackwell. 


Notothlaspi rosulatum (4 nat. size). 


CHRISTCHURCH, WELLINGTON, AND DUNEDIN, N.Z.; 
MELBOURNE AND LONDON: 


WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED. 


1906 


— Harth’s crammed with Heav’n, 

And every conumon bush afire with God ; 

But only he who sees takes off his shoes.” 
—E. B. BRownIne. 


PREFACE. 


The Flora of New Zealand is one of the most remarkable known. 
Indeed, it is so highly specialized, that these islands are generally 
considered to constitute a distinct Botanical Region. Drude divides 
the earth into fourteen such Regions, and New Zealand is the 
twelfth on his list.“ This little colony is therefore botanieally equal 
in importance to districts of much vaster area. In spite, however, 
of the fact that our Flora is one of the most interesting on the face 
of the earth, there are very few who have any real acquaintanceship 
with it. This ignorance is doubtless due to the inaccessibility and 
technicality of the literature dealing with the subject. In this 
work an endeavour has been made to give an account of our native 
plants that will be intelligible to all. As few technical terms as 
possible have been employed herein, and those used have been 
explained either in the text or glossary. An attempt has also been 
made to give as many interesting particulars of the species as the 
limits of our space will allow. 

It is hoped, therefore, that the volume will be of service to all 
who wish to know something more of a vegetation that is unique. 
To New Zealand teachers, but especially to those interested in 
nature study, it should be of considerable value; as well as to all 
colonists who have any love for the wild flowers of their neighbour- 
hood. Tourists, also, will tind here the means for readily identifying 
wll the more conspicuous plants that they are likely to meet with, 
whilst en route through the colony. Though no new species are 
deseribed here, many fresh facts have been embodied in the text, 
and a great quantity of botanical information has been culled from 
many sources for the book. Hitherto the student has only been 
able to obtain much of this material by wide and laborious reading 
in English and German publications and journals. Hence the 
book will—we trust—-be of some value to the botanist who wishes 
to procure, in small compass, a suggestive guide for further research. 


* Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie. 


V1 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The work is not a Flora, and therefore does not include all known 
species. It deals only with flowering plants, and, amongst these, 
omits the grasses, and certain less important orders. The grasses 
have been dealt with in special publications by Mr. Buchanan. 
The other orders omitted are represented by species little likely to 
attract the attention of any but the trained botanist. All the more 
important and conspicuous flowering plants, and many of the rarer 
ones, have been here described, except in the larger genera, such as 
Coprosma, Veronica, Ranunculus, Olearia, and Senecio, where we 
have been reluctantly compelled to content ourselves with a 
selection of the chief types. 

Such a book as this must be to a considerable extent a compila- 
tion; and we have therefore made free use of the labours of our 
predecessors in the field. Amongst these, especial mention may be 
made of Sir J. Hooker, Dr. Cockayne, Dr. Diels, and Messrs. T. 
Kirk, T. F. Cheeseman, G. M. Thomson, and D. Petrie. Indeed, all 
botanical papers in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute™ 
have been carefully consulted, and all literature obtainable, bearing 
on the subject, has been read. Unfortunately, the profound paper 
of Dr. Diels on the New Zealand Flora still remains untranslated, 
and so is unaccessible to most students. We have therefore made 
free use of it. We have to thank Dr. L. Cockayne for helping 
us over many slippery places, and for much generous assistance 
freely given. We are indebted to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman for the 
identification of many dried specimens, and for other kindnesses. 
Assistance has been received from Miss Irene Wilson in the 
preparation of the glossary, and from Mr. J. Christie in the proof 
reading. We are also under obligations to the following gentlemen 
for the gift of photographs for reproduction as illustrations: Mr. J. 
Deans, Mi. A. C. Gifford, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. H. Larkin, Mr. 8. 
Page, Mr. J. Crosby-Smith, and Mr. R. Speight. 

It should be mentioned that for the first time an endeavour has 
been made to bring the classification of the New Zealand towering 
plants into accord with modern ideas. We have therefore arranged 
the families according to Engler’s system, and not in accordance 
with that of Hooker and Bentham, hitherto in vogue. (Unfortunately 
we have been unable to find room for a synopsis of the families, but 
this may be obtained in any good modern text-book of botany.) 


* These are shortly referred to in the foot notes, as Trans. 


PREFACE Vil 


The book accordingly starts with the pines,—the lowest group of 
plants described,—and ends with the Composites, the most highly 
specialized family in the Vegetable Kingdom. This arrangement 
is much more in harmony with evolutionary ideas than that usually 
adopted. 

It is hoped that the book will be found up to date, and, though 
its authors are conscious of its many short-comings, they trust 
it will be of service to all who wish to learn something of the 
fascinating problems in the Plant World around them. 

R.M.L. 


E.W.B. 
March 30th, 1906. 


TABLE OF CO} 


INTRODUCTION. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION, p. 1. The open country, p. 3. The fern land, p. 6. The 
bush, p. & The natural permanence of the bush, p.10. The destruction of the 
forest, p. 12. ‘ The Passing of the Forest,” p.13. Types of forest, p.15.  Lianes, 
p. 16. Epiphytes, p. 20. The scrub, p. 21. Alpine vegetation, p. 22. 


THE AGE AND AFFINITIES OF THE FLORA, p. 24. Oceanic and Continental islands, p. 26. 
The age of the Flora, p. 27. The affinities of the Flora, p. 30. The Australian 
element, p. 32. The Melanesian element, p. 35. South American element, p. 36. 
Sub-Antarctic element, p. 36. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION, p. 38. Plant Life, p. 38. Root and stem, p. 39. The leaf, ». 39. 
The flower, p. 43. The dispersal of seeds, p. 45, Classification, p. 46. Key to the 
New Zealand tamilies of flowering plants, p. 49. 


THE GYMNOSPERMS. 


THE Pini FAMILY, p. 58. The Kauri, p. 60. The Kawaka, »p. 66. The Miro, p. 68. The 
Totara, p. 69. The Black Pine, p. 69. The White Pine, p. 70. The Red Pine, p. 74. 
The Celery-leaved Pine, ). 76. 


THE ANGIOSPERMS. 


THE MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 80. The Screw-pine Family, p. 80. The Pahn Family, p. 80. 
The Lily Family, p. 88. The Ivis Family, p. 109. The Orchid Family, p. 109. 


THe DICOTYLEDONS WITH FREE PETALS, p. 127. The Pepper Family, p. 127. The Beech 
Fawily, p. 128. The Nettle Family, p. 136. The Mistletoe Family, p. 138. The 
Bottle-Brush Family, p. 145. The Sandal-wood Family, p. 148. A Family of Root 
Parasites, p. 149. The Buckwheat Family, p. 151. The Beet Family, p. 154. The 
Pink Family, p. 156. The Marvel of Peru Family, p. 159. The Mesembryanthemum 
Family, p. 159. The Buttercup Family, p. 160. The Magnolia Family, p. 172. The 
Pukatea, p. 174. The Laurel Family, p. 175. The Wallflower Family, p.177. The 
Sundew Family, p. 180. The Currant-Tree Family, p. 185. The “ Matipo” Family, 
p. 189. The Rose Family, p. 195. The Pea Family, ». 203. The Geranium Family, 
p. 215. The Flax Family, p. 218. The Rue Family, p. 218. The Mahogany 
Tree Family, p. 222. The Spurge Family, p. 224. The Maple Family, 
p. 224. The Tutu Family, p. 226.  Pennantia, p. 230. The Karaka, p. 233. 
The Buckthorn Family, p. 235. The Lime-tree Family, p. 242. The Mallow 
Family, p. 250. The Violet Family, p. 261. The Passion-flower Fainily, p. 268. The 
Daphne Family, p. 269. The Myrtle Family, p. 270. The Fuchsia Family, p. 290. 
The Haloragis Family, p. 295. The Dogwood Family, p. 297. The Ivy Family, p. 309. 
The Parsley Family, p. 313. 


THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH UNITED PETALS, )).¢ The Heath Family, p. 323. The Myrsine 
Family, p. 331. The Primrose Family, p. The Olive Family, p. 334. The Nux- 
Vomica Family, p. 334. The Gentian Family, p. 336. The Periwinkle Family, 
p. 340. The Bindweed Faiiily, p. 342. The Borage Family, p. 346. The Verbena 
Family, p. 349. The Thyine Family, p. 364. The Nightshade Family, p. 365. The 
Snap-dragon Family, p. 367. The Gloxinia Family, p. 366. The Butterwort Family, 
p. 388 The Madder Family, p. 389. The Honeysuckle Family, p. 399. The 
Cucumber Fainily, p. 399. The Canterbury Bell Fainily, p. 401. The Goodenia 
Fainily, p. 404. The Daisy Family, p. 405. 


LIST OF 


iG. 
Aciphylla Colensoi 103 
Monroi 104 
Agathis australis (bush) 6 
a4 re (cones) 7 
$5 o (tree) 5 
Aristotelia racemosa 75 
Arthropodium cirrhatum 27 
Astelia Banksit 26 
» Cunninghamii 24 
yy) nervosa 25 
Avicennia officinalis 116 
(aerial roots) 
Avicennia ofticinalis (flower) 115 
(roots) 117 
at a (seed) 118 
Beech Forest 37 
(Photo by A. C. Gifford) 
Beilschmiedia Tarairi 51 
Brachyglottis repanda 154 
Cabbage-tree bush 21 
Carex secta 2 


(Photo by J. Deans) 
Carmichaela australis (flower) 62 


? eh (seed) 61 
Carpodetus serratus 55 
Cassinia Vauvilliersii 152 
Cehnisia coriacea 144 

$3 ay 145 
», longifolia 146 
Clematis indivisa 46 
(staminate form) 
Clematis indivisa 47 
(pistillate form) 
Clematis indivisa 45 
(seed) 
Clemutis parviflora 48 
Clianthus puniceus 63 
Coprosina arborea 133 
a lucida 132 
i tenuicaulis 134 
Cordyline australis (bush) 21 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE | FIG. PAGE, 
318 | Cordyline australis (flower) 23 95 
320 | Coriaria ruscifolia 69 227 

61 | Corynocarpus levigata 70-231 
65 a i (trees) 71 234 
59 (Photo bu S. Page) 
245  Corysanthes macrantha 35 126 
103. Craspedia uniflora 153 484 
101 = Cupressoid Types 124 3874 
97 (Photo by H. Larkin) 
99 Dacrydium cupressinum 12 T7 
355 Dactylanthus Taylori 42 150 
Dendrobium Cunninghamii 34-1238 
353 (Photo by A. C. Gifford) 
357 Discaria toumatou 73 240 
359 (Photo by Dr. L. Cockayne) 
131 Dracophyllum uniflorum 108-330 
Drosera auriculata 52. 181 
176 ay spathulata 53 183 
435 {Photo by J. Crosby Smith) 
93. Dysoxylum spectabile 68 223 
5 Barina suaveolens 3 117 
” Ne 33. «121 
207 = Elwocarpus dentatus 76 247 
205 re Hookerianus ie 249 
187 — Entelea arborescens 74 2438 
431  Epacris pauciflora 107-328 
419 | Flax, New Zealand 28 105 
421 Freycinetia Banksii (flower) 13 63] 
423 ne ne (fruit) 14 81 
163.) Fruits, Group of Frontispiece 
Fuchsia excorticata 94 291 
165° Gaya Lyall $1 259 
Gaultheria rupestris 106 326 
16L | Geniostoma ligustrifolium 111-336 
| Gentiana corymbifera 112. 339 
167 } Gnaphalium trinerve 147425 
209 | Griselinia littoralis 95 299 
393, | (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) 
391 Hedycarya arborea 50 173 
395 | Helichrysum bellidioides 151 429 
93 fe grandiceps 150 428 


(Photo by S. Page) 


(flower) 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
FIG. PAGE FIG. 
Helichrysum species 124 374 | Myrtus bullata 93 
(Photo by H. Larkin) — _ | Nertera dichondriefolia 135 
Herpolirion novae-Zelandiae 29 108 | New Zealand Flax 28 
(Photo by J. Crosby Smith) ; Ngaio Tree 119 
Hoheria populnea 79 253 1 Photodi Be Pagel 
(var. angustifolia) | Nigger-heads 9 
” ” 78 251 | i. (Photo by J. Deans) 
Ixerba brexioides 54 186) Nikau (bud in sheath) 16 
Kahikatea berries 11 75 », (flower 17 
Karaka grove 71 9234 i. e (nat. size) ie 
a (Photo by S. Page) WA (Grove of) 15 
Kauri bush 6 61 | a (abnormally branched) 19 
ge COMES 7 65 | Nothofagus (trees) 37 
ft a - Ahi (Photo by A. C. Gifford) 
Xnightia excelsa 7 re Menziesii (flower) 38 
Kowhai (yellow) 64 211 | Nothopanax Colensoi 97 
(red) 63 209 | Notothlaspi rosulatum 
Leptospermum ericoides 87 9 277 fie by R. Speight). 
$5 scoparium 85 273 | Olea Cunninghamii 110 
(bush) | Olearia Forsteri 142 
a 6 86 275 (Photo by H. Larkin) 

(flower) A) es furfuracea 138 
Leucopogon fasciculatus 105324 | 4, ~~ ilicifolia 139 
Lianes 4 17 (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) 

(Photo by S. Page) ” insignis 137 
Ligusticum piliferum 102-316 (Photoby A. Hamilton) 
Luzuriaga marginata 22, 94 ee nunmmularifolia 10 

(Photo by J. Crosby Smith) ” virgata 141 

- Macropiper excelsum 36 129 | Orchids (group) 30 
Mangrove (flower) 115 B53 Ourisia macrophylla 130 

* (aerial roots) 116 355 (Photo by A. Hamilton) 

ie (stilt roots) 117. 357.|-~Paratrophis microphyllus 39 

a (seed) 11g 359 | Parsonsia capsularis 113 
Melicope simplex 66 219 | Passiflora tetrandra Bo 

* - (nat. size) 67 221 | Phormium tenax 28 
Melicytus ramiflorus 82 265  Pimelea virgata 84 
Meryta Sinelairii 100 310 Pittosporum cornifohum 57 
Metrosideros hypericifolia 89° 279 (Hower) 

me robusta (flower) 90 = 283 ” ” (seed) 58 

is ,, (tree) 88-278 | ie tenuifohum 56 

i écandens 92 987 | Plagianthus divaricatus 80 

fe fomentoca: 91 285 , Plearophyllum speciosum 145 
Microtis porrifolia 30. 113 GENO DIE: npn 
Miro berriés 8 67 ' Podocarpus dacrydioides 10 
Mithlenbeckia axillaris 44154 e ferrugimea i 

ia complexa 43° 153 fig totara f 2 
Myoporum lietum (flower) 120 363 Pomaderris phylicefolia ie 

fe e (tree) 119 36g | Pseudopanax crassifolium 99 


Title Page 


Xl 


PAGE 
289 
397 
105 


362 


on 


305 


Xu PLANTS 

FIG. 

Pseudopanax crassifolium 98 
(tree) 

(Photo by H. Larkin). 
Pterostylis Banksii 32 
Ranunculus Lyallii 49 
Raoulia australs 148 

(Photo by H. Larkin) 

mamumiullaris 149 

(Photo by H. Larkin) 
Rhabdothamnus Solandri 131 
Rhipogonum scandens 20 
Rhopalostylis sapida (grove of) 15 
Rhopalostylis sapida 19 

(abnormally branched 
specimen) 
Rhopalostylis sapida (bud in 
sheath) 16 
Rhopalostylis sapida 
(inflorescence of) py 
Rhopalostylis sapida (flower, 
nat. size) 18 
Rimu (spray of) 12 
Rubus australis 60 
of Schmidehoides 59 
Scheftlera digitata 101 
Selliera radicans 136 
Senecio cassinioides 155 
Lyallii 156 


yy 


OF NEW 


PAGE, 
306 


85 


86 


ee) 
an 


q 


im) 
199 
197 
312 
404 
437 
438 


ZEALAND 


Senecio saxifragoides 
Solanum aviculare 
Sophora tetraptera (flower) 
5 ‘a (seed) 

Stilbocarpa polaris 

(Photo by A. Hamilton) 
Styphelia acerosa 
Supple-jack 
Tawhera 
Thelymitra longifolia 
Totara 

(Photo by S. Page) 
Tree-ferns 
Tupeia antarctica 
Tussock Country 

(Photo by J. Deans) 
Veronica cataractae 
lycopodioides 
monticola 
saheifoha 


ia 
speciosa 
5 Traversii 
Veronicas (whip-cord) 
(Photo by H. Larkin) 
Vitex lucens 
Whip-cord Veronicas 
(Photo by H. Larkin) 
White Pine 
(Photo by S. Page) 


FIG, 


157 
121 
64 
65 
96 


109 


Soul gall apollo onl eel ox’ 
wmHowwnwwowt vw 
wooanrnnyt@o 


ra 
a 
- 


123 


H 
j=) 


PAGE 
439 
365 
211 
213 
B01 


332 
91 
81 

113 
71 


ants of New Zealand 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 


““Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home, 
I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome, 
And when I am stretched beneath the pines, 
Where the evening star so holy shines, 
T laugh at the lore and the pride of Man, 
At the sophist schools and learned clan. 
For what are they all, in their high conceit, 
When Man in the bush with God may meet ?”’ 
R. W. EMERSON. 


NEW ZEALAND is almost in the centre of the greatest water- 
surface of the globe. It 1s indeed the Land’s End of the 
world; and as such affords to the geologist, biologist, and 
ethnologist, material of the highest interest. But not to the 
scientist alone is it full of fascination. Any lover of Nature 
will find here an inexhaustible store-house for his wonder and 
admiration. Life everywhere is infinite in its variety and 
unfailing in its resourcefulness. In New Zealand it has 
developed many plants and animals unknown in any other 
part of the world. Indeed, two-thirds of the indigenous 
species of flowering plants are not to be met with elsewhere. 
This is a much higher percentage of local forms than can be 
found in any other islands of approximately the same extent. 
This unparalleled proportion of endemic species is due, partly, 
perhaps, to the long isolation of the islands, partly to the great 


9 


2 


2 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


variety of conditions they offer, and partly, no doubt, to the 
nature of the floras from which their own has been derived ; 
but also to unknown factors that have not, as yet, come 
within the ken of the investigator. 

Not only does the flora contain a unique assemblage of 
local species, 1t also shows an unusually varied assortment of 
plant families and associations. Nor is this to be wondered 
at, if we consider the changes of climatic, geographical, and 
geological conditions to be met with every few miles. We 
would certainly expect to find many very different kinds of 
vegetation between the warm sub-tropical ravines of the 
voleamc Kermadecs, and the wind-swept heights of the sub- 
Antarctic Auckland Islands; and we are not disappointed in 
our search. Hooker, and other early botanists, declared that 
the plant covering was constant over wide areas; but this 
generalisation was largely due to an imperfect acquaintance 
with the distribution of the species, and with the rarer forms 
of the flora. It has not been borne out by the work of more 
recent imvestigators. Many New Zealand plants are very 
restricted in their distribution. 

The altitudinal changes of clinate are as well marked as 
those of latitude. There is often not more than twenty or 
thirty mules distance between the line of sea-level and that of 
perpetual snow. Thus, within a comparatively small area, all 
types of plants may be found, from those of the sea-shore, to 
those of alpine heights. Great variations in rainfall are also 
to be met with in places not far apart. This, of course, is 
largely due to the presence of high mountain chains, such as the 
Southern Alps, the Kaikouras, and Ruahines. The smallest 
average rainfall yet recorded is that of Clyde, with 15 inches, 
and the highest, 228 inches, at Puyseew: Point. The former 
place is in Central, the latter in South-Western Otago; and 
the distance between them is only 150 miles. Indeed, there 
are few districts of equal extent that can show so many 


changes of climate, elevation, and surface in such a small 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION : 3 


space as New Zealand. It umght be expected, therefore, that 
not many plants would cover large areas of the country to the 
exclusion of other species; and this is the case. Except for 
the beeches, the manuka, the tussock-erass, and the bracken 
fern, few species monopolise any large tract of country. The 
constant changes of surface, altitude, and climate must of 
necessity be reflected in the plant-covering of the land. Even 
the most careless observer is struck by the great differences 
in the floras of the eastern and western sides of the dividing 
range—differences corresponding in a large measure, to increase 
or decrease of average rainfall. In some places, within a 
distance of a mile or two, the beech forest of the drier regions 
changes into the mixed bush of the moister western area. 

New Zealand, therefore, presents a field of unsurpassed 
interest to the botanist. Here he may find plants grouped 
together into as many different associations as on a continent. 
All classes of habitat, from the littoral to the alpine ; from the 
arid plain to the lake, from the rock to the peat-bog, from 
moorland to salt meadow, are well represented. Plants are to 
be met with in an almost endless variety of situations. We 
shall, however, at present consider only the plants of the open 
plains, the forest (or, as it is locally termed, the “ bush ”’), the 
scrub, and the mountains. 


THE OPEN COUNTRY. 
‘“T see again the upland wilds, 
Stern, rugged, bleak, and bare ; 
The strong winds sweep o’er the hill sides steep 
And the tussocks toss in the icy air 
Silver and gold in the changing light, 
Gold and silver far up on the heights 
Of the mountain wild and bare.”’ 


DAVID MCKEE WRIGHT. 
Throughout New Zealand, from Southland to the North Cape, 
there are numerous open plains of greater or lesser extent. 
In England such spaces would be meadow lands, carpeted with 


4 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


a grassy sward, which would in spring and sumer be spangled 
with flowers. In New Zealand, they are covered with a 
vegetation of a very different type. As far north as Lake 
Taupo, it consists chiefly of tussock grass, toi-toi, and cabbage 
tree (palm-lily). This plant formation is most highly developed 
in Canterbury, where wide open tussock-clad plains cover an 
area of two and a half million acres. The Enghshman, on his 
arrival here, is puzzled by the appearance of detached hillocks 
of grass, in place of the continuous turf of the green tields to 
which he 1s accustomed. He cannot understand that this dry 


Fig. 1—Tussock Country. 


hard wiry straw can repluce, to a large extent, the pasture 
lands of Ineland. This plant association not only covers 
much of the flat country, but is found in many places 
throughout the South Island upon the hills, especially on the 
eastern slopes of the ranges. The chief species of grasses 
found in it are Poa cuespitosa and Festuca duriuscula, buat 
soe Danthonias are also to be met with in such situations. 
The tussock country is dearly loved by every New Zealander. 
Tt is full of associations for him. The stock-rider, the shepherd, 


the swagger, and even the sun-downer know every aspect of 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 5 


it. They have seen it in early morning, when every 
tawny thread had its string of clammy mist drops. They 
have seen it again at midday, a parched and thirsty land, 
that seemed to be covered with broken yellow wavelets, 
flying before the fierce squalls of the nor’-wester. They 
have stumbled through the entangled tufts at night, too tired 
to lift thei feet. They have slept amongst them, tying 
together adjacent bunches to form a tunnel in which they 
might be sheltered from the cutting night winds of the plain. 

In many places, particularly near water courses or shingly 
river beds, the toi-to1 (drundo conspicua) largely replaces the 
tussock. It is the tallest and most conspicuous grass in the 
New Zealand Flora. It bears a considerable resemblance to 


Fig. 2—Nigver-heads. 


the magnificent Pampas Grass of the Argentine, now cultivated 
all over the world. It is not, however, so large or so beautiful 
as the American grass ; it flowers at a ditferent season, and may 
readily be distinguished by the more graceful droop of the 
flowerstalk. The plumes of the pampas grass are taller, 
straighter, and stiffer than those of the toi-toi. The edges of 
streams on the tussock-clad plains are often fringed with flax 
and bulrush, whilst, in the water itself, stand numbers of 
blackened stumps about two feet high, bearing on their summits 
drooping brushes of long, coarse, green, or tawny threads. 
These are termed by the colonists, nigger-heads. 

This plant, (Carex secta) carries out literally the advice of 
St. Augustine, and makes of its dead-self a stepping stone to 


6 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


higher things, for the lower portion of the stump consists of the 
dead roots of past seasons; and by growing on these the plant 
gradually raises itself out of the water of the bog in which it 
erows, into higher and drier levels. 

The edge of the New Zealand swamp has been well 
described by Mr. A. H. Adams, in a poem called The Brave 
Days To Be 


“Out in the open, by the swampy pools, 

The army of waving grasses went ; 

First in the van the hosts of traupo reared 
Long lines of ruddy spears ; close following 
The green ranks of the *harakeke came, 
Lifting aloft their sullen flashing blades, 

And sturdy bronze-brown standards; and, behind, 
The *tois’ white battalions flaunted far 

Their dazzling banners and soft silver plumes, 
While gaunt and motionless upon the hill, 
The naked *cabbage-trees stood sentinel.”’ 


THe Fern Lanp. 


North of Lake Taupo, the tussock country ends. In 
Auckland the open land is covered with heath or fern. Fern 
country is found throughout New Zealand, but becomes more 
plentiful towards the North. Here there are large areas 
covered with the bracken, (Pteris aquilina ; var. esculenta). 
In many places it grows in great luxuriance, rising to the 
height of ten feet, and forming miniature forests that cover 
the land to the exclusion of all other vegetation. 

The rhizome of this fern, as 1s well known, was used by the 
Maoris for food when none other could be obtained. It 
therefore held an important place in their dietary, though it 
can scarcely be described as a staple article of food. To 
prepare it for use it was soaked, washed, placed on a flat rock, 


and repeatedly beaten by a heavy stone pestle or club (patu.) 


1. The bulrush (Typha augustifolia). | 3. Arundo conspicua, 
2, The flax (Phormium tena). 4. Cordyline australis. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7 


During the beating the fibres were picked out. The material 
left behind bore some resemblance to arrowroot, but only the 
pangs of hunger would induce the European to consider it 
palatable. 

Though there are no other varieties which cover so wide an 
area, yet the ferns form such a prominent feature in the 
Flora, that New Zealand is often termed ‘The Land of 
Ferns,” and a fern frond has been taken as its emblem. 


Fig 3—Tree-terns. 


Perhaps there is no country of equal size outside of the 
Tropics, which has such a large number of different kinds of 
ferns as New Zealand, and possibly none could show greater 
magnificence of fern-life. Prominent amongst the species are 
the tree-ferns. These help to give the forest that semi-tropical 
appearance, which will shortly be described. There are, 
in addition, a large number of species of Filmy-Ferns, 
(Hymenophyllum), Polypods, Aspleniums, and Lomarias. The 


& PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


New Zealand Club-Mosses (Liycopods) are also exceptionally 
well developed, and are the largest of the order known. The 
discovery of a nwuber of the germinating spores of various 
species in New Zealand is likely, before long, to add consider- 
ably to our knowledge of the life-history and affinities of this 
interesting order of plants. 


Tue Busu. 


x 


Tam Tane—the Tree-God ! 

Mine are forests not a few— 

Forests, and I love them greatly, 

Moss-encrusted, ancient, stately.”’ 
DOMETT. 

The New Zealand bush can scarcely be said to show any 
typical aspect. It reflects the prevailing lack of uniformity of 
the plant associations. Consequently, it is impossible to describe 
ina single epithet its chief characteristic. Indeed, so varied 
is it, that one can often find in a single forest, as many 
ditferent kinds of trees as there would be in half of Europe ; 
and these, not belonging to a few orders as do the Kuropean 
trees, but to the most widely divergent families. Palm and 
pine, rata and mangrove, cabbage tree and fuchsia, beech and 
fern—the Malayan and South American plant grow here in 
apparent, if not real amity. At first sight, it would seem as if 
the ends of the earth had been laid under contribution for 
strange forms, which were afterwards assembled on these 
islands, but a closer examination shows that this has not been 
the case; for, though the bush has quite a pateh-work appear- 
ance, most of our trees, as will be shown subsequently, have 
come to us from Malaysia, or at any rate from Melanesia. 

There 1s, however, one undeniable characteristic of the 
forests. They are gloomy, though it may be doubted whether 
they are nore sombre than those of many other regions. The 
dark hue and leathery texture of the fohage, is no doubt due to 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9 


the fact that the native trees are evergreen. Leaves that 
have to last through several seasons are rarely so soft in 
texture, or light in tint, as those that have only to withstand the 
storius of a few months. There are but few deciduous plants 
of any kind in New Zealand. Gaya Lyallii, Plagianthus 
betulinus, Olearia Colensoi, two species of Mihlenbeckia, a 
North Island variety of Sophora, the Fuchsias, Discaria 
toumatou, are perhaps the only deciduous, or partially deciduous, 
plants to be found here. Hence the tender greens and browns, 
which in spring delight the eye in the English woods, and 
the more brilhant tints of autumn, are almost wanting in New 
Zealand. Some few of the evergreens, however, (e.g., Hntelea, 
Aristotelia racemosa) mn addition to the native deciduous 
species, have leaves of hghter green and softer texture than 
the ordinary bush tree. Indeed, if a forest 1s closely looked at 
from above, it will be found to show many different shades, 
though the prevailing type of foliage is undoubtedly the dry, 
hard, glossy, dark-green, simple, more or less oblong leaf. 

Nor is the characteristic gloom of the forest relieved by its 
blossoms, for the flowers of most of the New Zealand trees are 
quite inconspicuous. They are generally small, and oftentimes 
green, and completely hidden by the fohage. There are, of 
course, exceptions. Among these may be mentioned those of 
the whau, the hinau, pokaka, Gaya, Hoheria and the various 
species of Metrosideros (rata and pohutukawa). As none of 
these except the ratas ever form large forests, to the more or 
less complete exclusion of other trees, it is rare to find the 
bush showing any great profusion of bloom. Occasionally, 
however, the rata covers with its crimson flowers the flanks of 
some great mountain range, and the sight is then well worth 
going far to see. 

Such brilianey of colouring, however, israre. Yet, particu- 
larly in the North Island, the beauty of the bush is much 
enhanced by the Nikau Paln, the fern-tree and the cabbage- 
tree, which are frequently found growing together in great 


10 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


profusion. It would then almost seem as if the vegetation of 
a tropical island from the warm Southern Seas had been 
dropped in amongst our more sombre flora, for these three plants 
all bring with them suggestions of a warmer land than this. 
Indeed, some have said, basing their statements on this and 
similar facts, that the climate of New Zealand has been, in 
recent geological times, much warmer than at present. They 
endeavour to strengthen their argument by adducimg in 
support of it, the evidence afforded by the profusion of 
climbers and twiners, which often render the bush an almost 
nunpenetrable jungle. However, conclusions as to past climate 
based only on present characteristics of mature plants are of 
little value. The true explanation of the resemblance between 
our forests and those of sub-tropical regions is to be found in 
the fact that nearly all owr bush trees are of Melanesian 
origin. The beeches are the most important exceptions to 
this rule. 


THe NaturaL PERMANENCE OF THE BUSH. 


Another erroneous opinion is that the bush is impermanent ; 
that it actually flies before the advancing footsteps of civili- 
gation. It is said that whenever tracks are cut through it, 
decay sets in on both sides, the undergrowth dies, the ferns 
and mosses disappear, and even the trees themselves become 
gaunt and misshapen, and their leaves few and tattered. This 
statement can only be regarded as incorrect. Even in the 
drier districts where the trees are struggling against very 


6“ 


adverse conditions, a forest that has been ‘‘ cut out” will, in 
tine, replace itself, if not subjected to the interference of man 
and other animals. Surveyors’ tracks through damp bush are 
soon overgrown when left undisturbed ; and, as Dr. Cockayne 
has shown, a burnt area is soon re-forested, in the wetter 
districts at least, though not necessarily retaining the same 
predominant species. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 11 


Yet, it must be admitted that the limits of conditions within 
which the varied life of the forest can maintain itself, are 
comparatively narrow. Many of the native trees are 
extremely susceptible to frost. Some of the bush-plants of 
Otago cannot endure the winters of the more Northern 
Canterbury Plains, but this is not because the forest is 
decadent. The chmate of these plains is an extreme one. 
Plants that can flourish there must be able to withstand 
excess of drought, heat, cold, and insolation. Mr. T. W. 
Adams, of Greendale, has shown that there are but few foreign 
trees and shrubs which can adapt themselves to these con- 
ditions. It is, therefore, scarcely a matter for surprise that 
this district and the somewhat similar one of Central Otago, 
should be treeless. Undoubtedly, they were both once partially 
bush-clad; but the destruction of their forests was probably 
not in any way due to an increasing severity of climate. It is 
susceptible of quite another explanation. In these districts 
the rainfall does not reach thirty inches a year. Now, the 
experience of many countries, but particularly of the United 
States, proves that forests cannot exist permanently in regions 
with a rainfall of less than thirty inches per annum. If, 
owing to a cycle of wet weather, accompanied perhaps by 
other contributing causes, they manage to get a foothold in 
arid districts, they are always liable to be swept off by fire; 
and, being once so destroyed, it 1s difficult for them, without 
artificial assistance, to become reinstated. 

The soil, unprotected by the shade of the foliage, 
dries up, and germination is soon made impossible. On hull 
slopes the spongy mosses no longer retain the moisture. 
After vain, the rivers and streams become more quickly 
flooded. Hundreds of acres of soil are thus frequently swept 
away, and a bare rocky surface replaces the once dense forest. 
This process is going on throughout New Zealand wherever 
the bush is being artificially cleared, but the devastation is 
greatest on the steep hill tops. In America it has been found 


2, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


necessary to take special steps at great expense, to re-forest 
the upper mountain slopes. In New Zealand, the Forestry 
Department, with admirable foresight, has already secured a 
number of climatic reserves on mountain summits. These 
will have to be fenced off to secure the exclusion of sheep and 
cattle, for such animals work ivretrievable havoc in the forest 
undergrowth, and to them must be attributed much of the 
apparent decadence of the natural forests. Wherever they 
have secured admission to the dense bush, seedlings and young 
trees are soon trodden under foot, broken down, and killed: 
hight is let in, and the bush gradually decays and disappears. 


THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST. 


As we have already seen, much of the tussock country of 
the South was at one time forest-clad. The evidence of 
charred logs on or below the surface of the ground, proves that 
some of it, at any rate, was cleared by fire in recent times. 
This may have been started spontaneously, or may have been 
the work of pre-historic dwellers in the land. The Maoris in 
the South Island have a tradition that when the Te Rapuwai 
tribe spread over the country, Invercargill was submerged by 
water, the forests of Canterbury and Otago were destroyed by 
fire, and the Moa was exterminated. Canon Stack put this in 
his list of uncertain traditions; but there is at least nothing 
inherently Lmprobable in the destruction of these forests about 
this time. In Auckland, the presence of the kauri gum in vast 
areas now treeless, or occupied only by the manuka and 
other heath plants, is proof that at one time the kauri forests 
were of much greater extent than at present. The cause of 
their disappearance is unknown. 

Whatever may have been the causes in the past, affecting 
the reduction or increase of forest areas, they fall into insig- 
nificance compared with the changes artificially wrought since 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 13 


the arrival of Europeans. It 1s impossible to give any but 
the roughest estimate of the area covered by forest, when the 
first white men reached New Zealand, but it was undoubtedly 
very great. In 1893 the area still bush-clad was estimated at 
twenty mullions of acres. This acreage is being reduced 
annually by an amount of not less than 100,000 to 200,000 
acres. Clearly, our forests will last only a comparatively short 
time if this rate 18 maintained. Of course, only a very small 
proportion of timber is removed and utilised. Most of it is 
burnt on the spot. Much of this destruction has been inevi- 
table, but some of it, unfortunately, has been wanton. The 
remark of Sir Julius Vogel, “that a swagger would burn down 
a forest to light his pipe,” 1s perhaps somewhat of an exaggera- 
tion, though it must be confessed that some of the finest 
kauri forests have been destroyed by such acts of carelessness. 
Happily, most of the bush is too damp to be in danger of 
accidental burning. The bigger trees must first of all be 
felled, and the forest afterwards set fire to m the drier season 
of the year. However necessary this clearing may be, it can- 
not fail to leave with the lover of nature a feeling of sadness. 
The Hon. W. P. Reeves (High Commissioner of New Zealand 
in London) has well expressed this sentiment in a noble poem. 
He has kindly given his consent to its publication here. The 
final stanza is, we believe, now for the first time printed. 


“THE PASSING OF THE FOREST.” 


All cannot fade that glorifies the hills, 

Their strength remains, their aspect of command, 
Their flush of colour when calm evening stills 

Day’s clamour, and the sea-breeze cools the land. 
With shout of thunder and with voice of rills, 

Ancient of days in green old age they stand 
In grandeur that can never know decay, 

Though from their flanks men strip the woods away. 


14 


PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


But thin their vesture now—the restless grass, 
Bending and dancing as the breeze goes by, 
Catching quick gleams and cloudy shades that pass, 
As shallow seas reflect a wind-stirred sky. 
Ah! nobler far their forest raiment was 
From crown to feet that clothed them royally, 
Shielding their mysteries from the glare of day, 
Ere the dark woods were reft and torn away. 


Well may these plundered and insulted kings, 
Stripped of their robes, despoiled, uncloaked, discrowned, 
Draw down the clouds with white enfolding wings, 
And soft aérial fleece to wrap them round, 
To hide the sears that every season brings 
The fire's black smirch, the landslip’s gaping wound ; 
Well may they shroud their heads in mantle grey, 
Since from their brows the leaves were plucked away ! 


Gone is the forest world, its wealth of life, 
Its jostling, crowding, thrusting, struggling race, 
Creeper with creeper, bush with bush at strife, 
Warring and wrestling for a breathing space ; 
Below, a realm with tangled rankness rife, 
Aloft, tree columns, shafts of stateliest grace. 
Gone is the forest nation. None might stay ; 
Giant and dwarf alike have passed away. 


Gone are the forest birds, wrboreal things, 
Eaters of honey, honey-sweet of song, 
The tui, and the bell-bird,—he who sings 
That brief, rich music we would fain prolong. 
Gone the wood-pigeon’s sudden whirr of wings ; 
The daring robin, all unused to wrong. 
Wild, harinless, hamadryad creatures, they 
Lived with their trees, and died, and passed away. 


And with the birds the flowers, too, wre gone 

That bloomed aloft-ethereal, stars of light ; 
The clematis, the kowhai like ripe corn, 

tusset, though all the hills in green were dight : 
The rata, draining from its tree forlorn 

Rich life-blood for its crimson blossoms bright, 


Red glory of the gorges—well-a-day ! 


Fled is that splendour, dead and passed away. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15 


Gone are the forest tracks, where oft we rode 
Under the silver fern-fronds climbing slow, 

In cool, green tunnels, though fierce noontide glowed 
And glittered on the tree-tops far below. 

There, mid the stillness of the mountain road, 
We just could hear the valley river flow, 

Whose voice through many a windless summer day 
Haunted the silent woods, now passed away. 


Drinking fresh odours, spicy wafts that blew, 
We watched the glassy, quivering air asleep, 
Midway between tall cliffs that taller grew 
Above the unseen torrent calling deep : 
Till, ike a sword, cleaving the foliage through, 
The waterfall flashed foaming down the steep ; 
White, living water, cooling with its spray 
Dense plumes of fragile fern, now scorched away. 


Keen is the axe, the forest fire streams bright, 
Clear, beautiful, and fierce, it speeds for man 
The Master, set to change and stern to smite, 
Bronzed pioneer of nations !—Ay, but scan 
The ruined wonder wasted in a night, 
The ravaged beauty God alone could plan, 
And builds not twice! A bitter price to pay 
Is this for progress,—beauty swept away ! 


TYPES OF FOREST. 

Though the bush is generally of mixed type, vet, in certain 
districts, particular species predominate to the more or less 
complete exclusion of others. The Oxford and Alford Forests 
consist almost entirely of Nothofagus Solandrt.  Nothofagus 
Cliffortiotdes often forms the sole species in mountain districts. 
In the North of Auckland the kaw is found in groves, and 
sometimes even in forests. There are large areas in the east- 
central portion of the North Island, in which the totara is the 
prevailing tree. Throughout the lowland forests of the South 
Island the rimu is plentiful, but the sub-alpine forests of the 


16 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


western ranges consist almost entirely of the various species of 
Nothofagus. In many districts of the North, particularly in 
the south of Auckland Province, the tawa is found in immense 
quantities. In swamps in both Islands large masses of 
kahikatea (white pine) occur. In other places scattered through 
the islands the rata is the prevailing tree. The coastal forests 
usually produce a very great variety of trees. The beech, 
rata, and kauri forests will be described more fully when the 
trees themselves are dealt with. 


LIANES. 


“Bxulting Nature so delights, 
So riots in profusion, she 
Twice over does her work for glee ! 
A tangled intricacy first she weaves, 
Under and upper growth of bush and tree 
In rampant wrestle for ascendancy, 
Then round it all a richer overflow 
Of reckless vegetation flings, 
That here close-moulding on the shrubs below 
A matted coat of delicate leaves, 
Mantles the muffled life whereon it clings, 
Into a solid mass of greenery. 
There mounting to the tree-tops, down again 
Comes wildly wantoning in a perfect rain 
Of trailers—self-encircling living strings 
Unravellable ; see how all about 


The hundred-stranded creeper cordage swings!’ 
DOMETT. 


Plants which depend upon others for existence, and therefore 
cannot group themselves into associations, are said to form 
Guilds.* No description of the bush would be complete 
without some reference to the guilds it contains. The chief 
of these are the climbers or hanes, epiphytes, saprophytes and 
parasites. Of these, only the first two need be considered here. 
The clinbing and creeping plants have had a special fascination 


'Ger., Genossenschaften, 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 


g 


Fig. 4—Lianes. 


17 


18 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


for many writers. The term lane, lke the blessed word 
Mesopotaimia, seems ahnost to have been sufficient to bring 
tears to the eves of Kerner. In a rapturous passage he alludes 
to it as the ‘ beautiful word lane” the ‘sweet word lane.” 

It is difficult to see why the bush climbers should have 
aroused so much enthusiasm. Possibly, it is because they are 
comparatively rare in Europe, and have, therefore, been 
looked upon as symbolizing the luxuriance and strangeness of 
the tropical forest. In England there are no climbers that 
reach the tops of the trees except the ivy and honeysuckle. 
Lianes reach their highest development in the Tropics, but 
particularly in the West Indies and Brazil. In New Zealand, 
both they and the epiphytes are better represented than 
in any other extra-tropical country except Chil, whose forests 
show frequent resemblances to those of New Zealand. 

The advantage of a climbing stem to the bush plant is 
obvious. Little direct sunlight can penetrate into the cavernous 
depths of the forest. The interior of the New Zealand 
bush is immersed in a cathedral-hke gloom. Few plants, 
therefore, can grow upon its floor. Only when some giant of 
the forest falls, is there room for another to develop. Such 
seeds as germinate must quickly struggle up to the hght 
overhead or die. There is no time for them to grow into 
trees. Many, therefore, have developed a climbing habit, 
in order to be able to ascend rapidly to the surface of the 
ocean of green boughs, that toss above in the wind under 
the ‘sweet flooding sunshine.’ They are careless of the 
means by which they climb. Their one cry seems to be, 
“more heht, more heht!’’* 

Amongst our climbers many different methods are adopted 
for reaching the hght. The kie-kie sprawls awkwardly over 


~ It is easy to be guilty of the “ pathetic fallacy,’ and to read into their upward 
strugeles our hiunian emotions, as Kingsley has done in a well-known passage in At Last; 
but such an interpretation will not help us towards a real understanding of plant nature. 
At the same time, in mere description, it is often difficult to avoid the use of words or 
phrases which may seein to imply in the plant a human motive. Where such may 
happen to occur in this book, they must be understood purely in the descriptive and not 
in the teleological sense. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19 


the ground until it falls across a tree. Then it fixes its roots 
into the crevices of the bark, and pulls itself up. It often 
ends in smothering its living ladder with immense masses 
of sword-hke foliage, whose weight must be tremendous. 
Sinularly, several of the rata vines ascend by ivy-lke rootlets. 
The large rata-tree, however, strangles its support, putting out 
transverse finger-lke roots that cannot fail to impress the 
ordinary observer with the apparent purposefulness of their 
erasp. The lawyer, on the other hand, cat-like, fixes its 
recurved claws into the bark of a tree, and thus drags itself 
up. The Clematis and Passiflora climb by tendrils. The 
Supplejack, Mihlenbeckias, Convolvuli, Parsonsias, Ipomea, 
and Senecio sciadophilus twine. None of these are strong 
enough to support themselves, though some of them— 
particularly the lawyers and Miihlenbeckias—may occasionally 
be found in the open, where they form mounded heaps, often 
many feet in diameter, and several feet in height. 

Wanderers through the bush are often puzzled by observing 
cable-like stems that fall pendent from the roof of the forest to 
its floor, without support. It seems impossible that these 
climbers, with their flexible stems, could have got into such 
a position without some external help. Often it will be found 
that these rope-like lianes belong to a species of Rubus, (the 
bush-lawyer). They have originally been endowed with hooks 
by which they have climbed up a tree. Their weight and 
upward growth have finally disengaged them from the trunk 
by which they have ascended, and in the course of years 
they may be removed by various processes to a considerable 
distance from it. If the lane is not a Rubus, then its position 
can only be explained by supposing that the tree up which 
it climbed has died, probably in an unavailing effort to push up 
to the light. Many young trees throughout the forest must 
perish in this way. 

The structure of the stem in lanes is of considerable 
interest, but for a description of this some text book of botany 


must be consulted. 


20 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


EPIPHYTES. 


“What a load 
That sturdy giant lifts in air! 
His mighty arms are strong and broad, 
But all with alien growths are furred, 
A shaggy hide of creepers rare ; 
Their forks are all blocked up and blurred 
With tufts of clogging parasites 
That crowd till not a spot left bare 
Might offer footing for a bird! ”’ 
DOMETT. 


The epiphytes constitute another important plant guild. 
These are plants which grow upon others, yet receive no 
nourishment from them. They must be carefully distinguished 
from parasites, with which they are often confused. The 
parasite obtains its nourishment more or less completely from 
the plant on which it grows. Some of the epiphytes, perhaps, 
owe their existence to the same cause as the lianes. They 
are plants which have assumed a habitat in the forks, or on the 
branches of trees, in order to obtain more light; but this 
explanation will scarcely account for the New Zealand species, 
as these, without exception, are occasionally found growing on 
rocks. 

It is obvious that a plant which grows upon the bark of 
a tree must often suffer from scarcity of water. Hence most 
of our epiphytes have contrivances to protect them from 
excessive transpiration, A plant, therefore, which can live 
epiphytically, is also adapted for living on such a dry situation 
as a rocky chff. There, however, it may suffer from an excess 
of sunshine. The physiological adaptations demanded by the 
one situation are not necessarily quite the same as those 
required for the other. Hence, though most epiphytes are 
inore or less commonly found growing on rocks, the converse 
is by no means true. 

Epiphytes, lke hanes, are generally supposed to be the 
mark of a tropical chinate. In Great Britain epiphytical 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 2Q1 


shrubs and trees are unknown, and the chief plants found 
on trunks and hmbs of trees are accidental epiphytes, such 
as mosses and ferns. The light spores of these are blown 
about by the wind, and thus are able to reach lofty situations 
on the face of a cliff, or in the forks of a tree. The seeds 
of some dicotyledonous epiphytes, such as those of the rata, 
may be carried about in the same way, but others are deposited 
in position by birds. In New Zealand the number of epiphytes 
is very large, considering the latitude of the country. We 
must again, as in the case of the lanes, go to Chili to find 
forests in a similar latitude with an equal abundance of 
epiphytic growths. Diels suggests that this characteristic 
is due to large rainfall in the forest regions of both countries. 
The following list includes the most important of the epiphytic 
species amongst the flowering plants :-—A stelia Cunninghamit, 
A. Solandri, A. spicata, Earina mucronata, H. autumnalis, 
Dendrobium = Cunninghamit,  Bolbophyllum —pygmaeum, 
Sarcochilus adversus, Peperonia Urvilleana, Pittosporum 
cornifolium, Metrosideros robusta, M. Colensot, Griselinia lucida. 
Diels includes in his list Hlatostema rugosum and Gaultheria 
epiphyta, but is surely in error in doing so. &. rugoswm is 
found only on the sides of creeks and rivers, and in very moist 
places. It is plentiful, for example, on the rocky walls of 
the Wanganui River in some parts of its course. G. epiphyta 
is misnamed, and the error has apparently misled Diels. 


THE SCRUB. 

Perhaps some mention should be made here of the Scrub, as 
it is strange to the visitor from the Northern Hemisphere. 
The light underwood of the English copse or thicket is very 
different from the impenetrable shaggy scrub of New Zealand. 
In the wind-swept regions of the south, it 1s sometimes so 


22 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


dense that progress through it is impossible. It must be 
either avoided altogether or walked over. Anyone who essays 
the latter method of advance, does so with the risk of falling 
through the uneven floor of rigid branchlets which supports 
him. Should this accident happen, he may be much bruised 
or scratched, though he is not lkely to be seriously hurt. The 
scrub consists chietly of Coprosmas, but also contains species 
of Cassinia, Olearia, Myrtus, etc. The leaves of the typical 
scrub plant are small and sparse, the branches rigid, twiggy, 
and often pointed. The manuka is often termed a scrub 
plant, but its characteristics are rather those of the Heath, 
which will be described later. 


THE ALPINE VEGETATION. 


In the South Island, the mixed lowland forest is generally 
replaced at altitudes of from 1,000 feet to 2,000 feet, by the 
beech forest. Beyond 3,000 or 4,000 feet this passes into the 
the region of sub-alpine shrubs, which are mostly Veronicas and 
Compositae. These, again, gradually give way to the alpine 
herbs of the mountain meadows, moors, and shingle-slips. 
With the line of perpetual snow all vegetation ends. In the 
North Island there are only three peaks which rise over 
7,000 feet, the volcanic mountains, Ruapehu, Egmont, and 
Ngauruhoe. The first of the three is the highest, being 
just over 9,000 feet. In the South Island, the Southern Alps, 
which culminate in Mount Cook, 12,349 feet high, have 
hundreds of peaks which are over 7,000 feet. Hence the 
alpine vegetation flourishes best on that range. The perpetual 
snow-line ranges from about 7,000 feet in Otago, to &,000 feet 
in Nelson. The Kaikoura range on the East Coast also has 
several peaks which are never free from snow. There, too, 
alpine herbage has been found, but this range has hitherto 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 23 


been explored very imperfectly by botanists. The vegetation 
of the Southern Alps, thanks to Buchanan, von Haast and Dr. 
Cockayne, 1s now comparatively well known, though there are 
doubtless a considerable number of mountain species yet to be 
discovered. It is to this range, then, that botanists must turn 
to find the best known New Zealand alpine plants. Nor need 
they be mountaineers, for many of the species that belong 
climatically to higher levels, come down to the lower passes, 
and sometimes descend the river beds almost to the plains. 
On the top of Arthur’s Pass, on the Canterbury- Westland 
coach road, numerous alpine and sub-alpine species are to be 
found. Here, in January, the wild flowers blossom in the 
ereatest profusion, forming a garden whose uncovenanted 
beauty might easily put to shame the stately flower ranks and 
geometrical foliage beds of many a prized parterre. True, 
white is the prevailing colour, broken occasionally by gleams 
of yellow, but though there is no gorgeousness, there is at 
least no disharmony of tone. Ranunculus Lyallit with its 
large white cups, and Celmisias of various species, with their 
large daisy-like flowers, are conspicuous in such an alpine 
meadow, by the size, beauty, and profusion of their blooms. 
Even when these plants are not flowering, there is still to be 
seen that wonderful variety of leafage so dear to every 
mountain climber’s heart. Ruskin has well described it, 
though writing of European forms. ‘The leaves of the 
herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if 
to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped, 
spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, 
serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, im spires, in wreaths 
endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same 
from footstalk to blossom; they seem perpetually to tempt 
our watchfulness, and take delight in outstripping our 
wonder.” 

The alpine plants and foliage must always have a fascination 
for those who delight in beauty and variety of leaf-form. 


24 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Their flowers, too, are certainly the most attractive amongst 
those of the herbaceous plants of New Zealand. Town 
dwellers, in their untravelled and untrammelled ignorance, 
frequently say that New Zealand has no wild flowers. 
Certainly we have none in the neighbourhood of the cities, 
or on the plains, that can compare with those of the fields 
and hedgerows of England. One reason for this 1s obvious. 
Where not too dry, the land has, previous to the advent of the 
white man, been covered with forest. There have been no 
damp meadows or shady lanes to provide a home for annual or 
bulbous plants. But though we have no pale beauty of 
primrose or deep glow of violet, there is many a handsome 
plant and many a_ sweet-scented flower amidst the great 
lonelinesses of the Alps, for the pleasure of those who care to 
leave the cities, and live for a time in the fresh air and glorious 
scenes of the mountain heights. 


THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLoRA. 


The discussion of the relationships of the fauna and flora 
of Southern regions has given rise to some of the most 
fascinating speculations of modern science. It has provided us 
with quite unexpected glimpses into the past history of the 
earth’s surface, and of the climatic conditions then prevailing. 
We have learnt from it stories of sunken continents, 
and of warm seas full of life, where now there are 
only barren ice-sheets. However pleasant it might be to follow 
the by-paths of Science in the investigation of such questions, 
the huutations of our space prevent us from giving them any 
adequate treatinent here. A consideration of the chief factors 
involved in the present distribution of animal and vegetable life 
in the South Temperate Zone, would require references to strati- 
graphical geology, ocean soundings, and to general geological 
and astronomical theories quite outside the scope of this work. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 25 


At present we are concerned solely with the origin of our 
flora. It is clear, however, that such a question can only 
be very imperfectly treated, if confined to a discussion of the 
present distribution of plant life in southern lands. Any 
conclusions derived from the study of botanical relations alone, 
must be subjected to such modifications as may be demanded 
by evidence obtained from the study of the other sciences. 
For example, the plants of two widely separated districts often 
show closer relationships than the animals do. This apparent 
anomaly will be explained, if we remember that stretches of 
sea which may prove insuperable barriers to the passage of 
land animals, may be crossed by plants. We must, therefore, 
inour treatment of the subject give conclusions that have been 
based on a wider discussion than is possible here. 

Whilst domg this, we shall consider shortly the evidence 
ot fossil botany, and of the present distribution of plant life 
throughout the Southern Hemisphere. The first problem that 
naturally arises in the discussion, is the connection existing 
between the New Zealand flora and the Australian. This 
is larger than can be accounted for by mere proximity. 
Another question of unusual interest, is the origin of the 
remarkable South American and Antarctic elements in our 
flora. Probably the most complete and ingenious theory, yet 
put forward to account for this connection, is that of the late 
“Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. Some of his views have been 
ccombated by Dr. A. R. Wallace and others; but undoubtedly 
the New Zealand biologist had a much wider knowledge of the 
present and past conditions of distribution prevailing in the 
Southern Henusphere, than any of his critics. We shall, 
therefore, adopt his views here. In one point all are agreed, 
and that is as to the past great extension of the Antarctic 
Continent into sub-temperate seas. The demonstration of this 
has been recently termed ‘‘one of the greatest triumphs of 


“In the recent death of this distinguished scientist, New Zealand has suffered a loss 
.that can scarcely be too much deplored. 


26 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


modern science.” We are proud to say that this magnificent 
generalisation is in considerable measure due to the work of 
New Zealand botanists. Before, however, considering the 
botanical evidence, we must treat shortly of the general 
characteristics of our fauna and flora. 


OcEANIC AND CONTINENTAL ISLANDS. 


For the purposes of the biologist, islands may be divided 
into two classes, continental and oceanic. A continental island 
is one which has at some period of its existence been united to 
an adjacent land-mass. Its fauna and flora contain few 
endemic species, and differ little, if at all, from that of the 
neighbouring continental area. Great Britain is an excellent 
example of a continental island. The British fauna and flora 
are simply parts of the European fauna and flora. In quite 
recent times the Straits of Dover have been dry land. An 
oceanic island, on the other hand, is one that has never been 
united to any continental area. Its fauna and flora are often 
very fragmentary, and frequently contain a high percentage of 
endeinic species. Its plants and animals are generally provided 
with good powers of distribution ; and have reached the island 
from across the sea. The Azores may be taken as an example 
of a group of Oceanic islands. 

To which of these two classes shall we assign the islands of 
New Zealand? It has characteristics both of continental and 
oceanic islands, and it is, therefore, sometimes termed 
anomalous. However, there is much evidence to show 
that it was at one time attached to a land area probably much 
larger than that of Kurope; and that it 1s consequently entitled 
to rank, geographically speaking, as a continental island. 
Yet its fauna, unlike that of most large land areas, is very 
fragmentary. The flora, though more complete than the fauna, 
has also many gaps in it, and both fauna and flora contain 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 27 


a larger proportion of endemic species than a typical con- 
tinental island usually does. Nevertheless, there are many 
reasons for the behef that the ancestral stock from which New 
Zealand plant and animal lite originated, was a continental one. 
Before attempting to answer more precisely the question : 
“Whence has our plant life come?’ we must try to decide as 
far as possible how long the present flora has been in 
existence, and whether we must look for its ancestry here, or 
in some foreign land. 


THE AGE OF THE FLORA. 


There is a common but erroneous opinion, that the New 
Zealand flora shows marks of exceptional antiquity. There 
are perhaps several groups of facts which have led to this 
mistake. (1) Many of the New Zealand geological formations 
are of great age. New Zealand is an old land. (2) The 
almost complete absence of indigenous mamuialia, and the 
presence of certain ancient forms of animal life, e.g. Peripatus 
Sphenodon, (the tuatara, etc.), prove the unusual age of 
the fauna. (3) The remarkable development of fern trees 
and of club-mosses, and the comparative absence of large and 
showy flowers seem almost to imply antiquity for the flora. 

But none of these facts are sufficient to justify the belief. 
The high age of part of the rocks and of the fauna is not a 
necessary proof of the antiquity of the flora. Plants can 
transport themselves over barriers insurmountable to animals. 
Few wingless land animals can cross five hundred miles of 
sea, yet we have evidence that this has been done by the seeds 
of many plants. Hence, a comparatively young flora may 
sometimes be found living in company with a much more 
ancient fauna. We must, therefore, rely entirely on the evi- 
dence of the plants themselves for determining their antiquity 
or otherwise. Hooker, it is true, states that the New Zea- 
land lycopods “are the largest of the order, and present nearer 


28 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


attinities to the fossil Lycopodiaceae of the coal period, than 
any other existing plants* ” ; but this opinion cannot justify the 
extraordinary statement seen at times in the books of popular 
writers, that the New Zealand flora is more like that of the 
Carboniferous than is any other existing flora. Asa matter of 
fact, our species of ferns and lycopods do not show affinities that 
tend to prove them older than the ferns and lycopods of other 
lands. Further, the evidence of the flowering plants does not 
suggest that those of New Zealand are of any high degree of 
antiquity. Many ancient forms, that once existed in New Zea- 
land, and still exist in other lands, have been replaced here by 
plants of a more modern type. One of the oldest orders of the 
phanerogams is the Cycadeae. We have now no cycads 
in New Zealand, though fossils show that they formerly 
existed here. Changes of climate may have driven them out. 
At one time they formed a considerable portion of the 
vegetation of the globe, and they are still found in 
large numbers in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of both 
hemispheres. Turning to the Monocotyledons, we obtain 
somewhat similar evidence. These plants are generally 
supposed to be older than the Dicotyledons, though the testi- 
mony of the rocks on this point is by no means indisputable. 
They are, however, assuredly extremely old, and if our flora 
were exceptionally ancient, we might expect them to be well 
developed in New Zealand. The contrary, however, is the 
case. Throughout the southern hemisphere the monocoty- 
ledons are more poorly represented than in the northern. 
Again, the facts of fossil botany seem to show that the palis are 
one of the oldest orders of monocotyledons. In New Zealand 
we have only one species of palm-tree. This paucity of 
forms may perhaps be due to climatic or similar conditions. 
In the tropics they are plentiful. On the other hand, it is 
to be admitted that we have an ancient monocotyledon in 
the cabbage-tree (Cordyline). 


“Handbook of the New Zealand Flora.” (p. 387). 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 29) 


Amongst the dicotyledons, one of the oldest groups contains 
the willow, poplar, oak, hazel-nut, birch, beech, chestnut, and 
hornbeam. This group is highly characteristic of the Northern 
Hemisphere, but though once well developed in New Zealand, 
is now no longer represented here, except by the genus 
Nothofagus, m which are included the ‘“birches”’ of the sub- 
alpine forests. The most highly developed family of plants, on 
the other hand, 1s the Conwpositae ; and this, though almost 
wanting in the bush, is well represented in the open country 
and in the alpine and sub-alpine scrub by more than 230 
species. There is, indeed, little if anything in the distribution 
of the dicotyledons, to suggest that the New Zealand Flora is 
older than the European. 

Again, it may be suggested that the large number of 
green, inconspicuous flowers and the separation of the 
sexes In an unusual proportion of the species are marks 
of a primitive floral organization; yet it is doubtful whether 
they can be so interpreted. The former characteristic is 
obviously to a large extent dependent on local conditions ; 
tor the foreign representatives of New Zealand genera with small 
flowers have often large and showy blossoms. The New Zealand 
species of Viola, Passiflora, Myosotis, and of the various genera 
Orchidaceae have less conspicuous blooms than the corres- 
ponding species in other lands. This lack of brilliancy of the 
local forms, obviously cannot be due in all cases, to their greater 
antiquity, but 1s much more likely to be the result of the 
adjustment, or lack of adjustment, of the flowers to the insect 
life of the country. The unisexual condition of many of the 
flowers may be susceptible of a similar explanation. It is at 
any rate not a primitive but a secondary condition, for it can 
easily be shown that most of our dicecious plants were in quite 
recent times hermaphrodite. In a word, the long isolation of 
New Zealand has certainly resulted in the development therein 
of many unique forms, and also perhaps in the preservation of 
some antique types, yet it cannot be said there is a sufficient 


30 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


ass of facts to justify the statement that the flora as a whole 
is of an exceptionally ancient type. 

One line of evidence that might help us largely is, unfor- 
tunately, not available at present to any large extent. Of the 
fossil botany of these islands we know very little. The chief 
paper on the subject is by the famous palao-botanist, Baron 
von Ettingshausen. A translation of this appears in volume 
xxill. of the Transactions. If the data contained in it are 
reliable, it would seein (1) that the living flora has largely 
been derived from the tertiary flora; (2) that the tertiary 
flora was part of the original universal flora from which are 
descended all plants of the present day; and (3) that only one 
part of the tertiary flora has been changed into the living 
flora, the rest having become extinct. It would appear also 
that at one time there existed in New Zealand, trees similar to 
the great redwoods of California, the Norfolk Island pine, the 
she-oaks and gum-trees of Australa, the alders, oaks, 
elms, and maples of the Northern Hemisphere, and the fig. 
With the exception of the gum-trees, and perhaps the fig, 
these are all old types, now extinct here, though existing 
elsewhere. These identifications have in most cases been 
made from fossil leaves only, and in the absence of flowers 
and fruit; some of them, therefore, can only be regarded 


as tentative. 


Tue AFFINITIES OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA. 


The relationships of the New Zealand flora to those of other 
lands, have given rise to greater discussion than its affinities to 
those of the past. We have obviously much more material for 
the investigation of the present distribution of plant life, 
than for that of times long gone by. Still, many of the 
problems concerned are very difficult of solution. Amongst 
those who have dealt with these questions may be mentioned 
the late Captain Hutton, Dr. A. R. Wallace, Professor Engler, 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 31 


Mr. G. M. Thomson, and Mr. W. Botting Hemsley. It 
is impossible to deal fully with the results of their work, but 
an attempt will be made to give an intelligible, though 
necessarily brief account of it. 

Of the 1,400 flowering plants which New Zealand contains, 
some two-thirds are found nowhere else. A considerable pro- 
portion of the remainder is confined to New Zealand and 
Australia, or to New Zealand, Australia, and other southern 
districts. A section of the New Zealand flora shows a most 
striking South American aftinity. There are a few cosmopolitan 
plants, and there is also an element usually termed Scandinavian, 
which shows a relationship to a certain portion of the flora of 
the Northern Hemisphere. As, however, the endemic species 
constitute by far the greater portion of the flora, the foreign 
affinities are best shown in the genera. Of these, 80 per cent. 
are found in New Zealand, 10 per cent are endemic, and the 
remaining 10 per cent are variously distributed. It is clear, 
therefore, that the basis of the New Zealand flora has either 
been derived from Australia, or that the element common to 
both has come from the same source. As a matter of fact, the 
latter hypothesis is best supported by the evidence. 
Several lines of argument, as has already been stated, show 
that at one time New Zealand was more extensive than it is 
now. It then stretched to the northward, through Lord Howe 
and Norfolk Island, to New Caledonia, and perhaps even 
as far as the Solomons. Another continental arm connected 
Queensland with New Caledonia. Through these northern 
extensions there passed, though not necessarily at the 
same time, southward to New Zealand, and westward 
to Queensland, the ancestral forms of much of the 
vegetation common to the two countries. In this migra- 
tion we have an explanation of the sub - tropical facies 
of the New Zealand forests, and also of the fact that nearly 
ninety per cent of our forest flora has Melanesian affinities. 
It is probable that this northern extension existed in Miocene 


32 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


times, but by the Eocene, much of it had disappeared. Thus 
far, the problem of the Australian relationships of our flora is 
comparatively simple, but on further examination we are soon 
confronted with the fact, that, although New Zealand plants 
show so many Australian affinities, yet most of the prevailing 
and characteristic Australian forms are entirely absent from 
our shores. An attempt to explain this anomaly will require 
a somewhat fuller comparison of the two floras. 


THe Fruoras oF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA. 


Isolation, varied environments, and doubtless other facts, 
have been at work for a long time to give New Zealand a 
unique flora. A visiting botanist would find here only 
unknown plants around him. He would be puzzled, not only 
by the strange local species, but also by the large number of 
dissimilar plant associations to be met with in a small area. 
Perhaps there is no more difficult flora in temperate regions 
for the botanical tyro to classify. It seems to be a mixture of 
many incongruous elements. The visitor from Australia 
would be little better able to cope with its difficulties, than the 
traveller from England. In spite of the fact that so many of 
the New Zealand genera are also to be found on the 
neighbouring continent, no adjacent floras elsewhere are so 
unlike as those on either side of the Tasman Sea. Yet the 
distance between the two lands is little more than a thousand 
miles. This hkeness with unlikeness constrained Sir Joseph 
Hooker to say: “ Under whatever aspect I regard the flora of 
Australia and New Zealand, I find all attempts to theorize 
on the possible community of feature, frustrated by anomalies 
of distribution, such as I believe no two other similarly 
situated countries on the globe present.” 

The New Zealand forest 1s varied and mixed. The 
Australian often varies little over immense areas of country. 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 33 


renee ; : : é 
The New Zealand bush is generally an impenetrable jungle, 
while throughout a great part of Australia 
“The land lies desolate and stripped ; 

Across its waste has thinly strayed 

A tattered host of eucalypt, 

From whose gaunt uniform is made, 

A ragged penury of shade.’’ 


A mixed bush, somewhat similar to that of New Zealand, is 
however, found in the wetter regions of South-Eastern 
Australia. But the enigma which baffled the speculations of 
the earlier botanists, lies in the fact that the most important of 
the Australian genera are completely absent from New Zealand. 
Hence results the lack of superficial resemblance between the 
floras of the two countries. The guin trees, wattles, she-oaks, 
bottle-brushes, hakeas, &c., which are so abundant in Eastern 
Australia, are without a single representative here. It might 
well have been expected that some of these would have found 
means of crossing the Tasman Sea. 

It is little to be wondered at, then, that Sir Joseph Hooker 
should have found it difficult to theorize concerning the relation- 
ships of the two floras. Yet he seems scarcely to have realised 
suthciently that the differences of chmate, surface, and geological 
conditions existing between the two countries, are such, 
that similar plant associations could not be expected to occur in 
each. It must, however, be admitted that these differences in 
themselves do not constitute a sufficient explanation of the 
absence from New Zealand of the characteristic Australian 
species and genera. The gum trees, wattles, hakeas, and she- 
oaks, flourish as well here as in their native land; and some of 
these at least can and do maintain themselves without artificial 
aid in our islands. Of course they have been much assisted in 
gaining a foothold here by the presence of clearings effected 
by civilized man. Yet, their complete absence from New 
Zealand, before the arrival of the HKuropean, can be 
explained only on the assumption that they never before 
obtained an opportunity of establishing themselves here. As 

4 


34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


we have no large deserts, we could scarcely expect to find in this 
country the mallee scrub, the myall, the salt-bush and the 
spinifex of the Australian ‘‘ bad lands”; but we might at least 
have anticipated that forms related to these should occur in 
New Zealand, modified only by the different conditions obtain- 
ing here, though their absence may perhaps be explained on 
the assumption that the specialized Australian forms did not 
reach the inter-continental bridge, which formerly connected 
New Zealand with the great northern land-area. 

This answer to the problem may prove to be sufticient, but 
there is at present no consensus of opinion amongst biologists 
upon the subject. Dr. Wallace, looking rather to an Aus- 
tralian than to a Melanesian origin of our flora, has put forward 
a highly ingenious theory to account for the anomalies observed 
by Sir J. Hooker. This theory, at one time received tentatively, 
has more recently been subjected to considerable criticism at 
the hands of Mr. C. Hedley and others.* 
of its general interest, it will probably be worth while to 
outline it here, without attempting to form an exact estimate 
of its value. In Cretaceous times, Austraha existed as two 
islands, an eastern and a western. A wide belt of sea, broken 
by islets, stretched from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the mouth 
of the Murray river. The western island, according to Wallace’s 
hypothesis, was the more ancient, and already possessed 
many of the ancestral forms of the peculiar and character- 
istic flora of to-day. In eastern Australia, however, the 


On account, however, 


flora consisted chiefly of Melanesian and Antarctic species, 
with possibly a small proportion of the more typical Australian 
forms. About this time, or in the Eocene, the eastern island 
was united by way of a land-bridge to New Zealand, and 
by this connection the New Zealand flora obtained its 
Australian element. Subsequently the eastern and western 
islands became one, the connection with New Zealand 
was broken, and the Australian types overran the new 


*Natural Science, Septeinber, 1893, p 187 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 35 


continent. This theory seems to lay too much stress on the 
direct connection of Australia with New Zealand, whereas the 
facts of the case scarcely require any such connection. 
Indeed, we have in recent times received from Australia 
a few species of plants directly across the Tasman Sea. Species 
of Olearia, Senecio, Epacris, and of the Orchidaceae, have 
probably reached us in this way. All these plants, however, 
are provided with seeds that are either small, or furnished 
with a pappus, so that they may have readily been blown 
across the intervening ocean by a high wind. The fauna, 
however, shows that our connection has been with the islands 
to the north, rather than with Australa. There is evidence 
of a much more recent connection with New Guinea and 
Melanesia than with temperate Australia, which has 
perhaps not been united with New Zealand since the 
Triassic period. 
Other Foreign Hlements. 

Other important elements in the New Zealand flora are the 
Antarctic and South American. It 1s difficult to measure their 
amounts statistically, as they depend not so much upon com- 
munity of species, as upon the similarity of representative forms 
in many genera. The American section is that part of the 
flora which shows resemblances to plants living in temperate 
or tropical South America. The Antarctic element consists 
of plants which are related to others found in one or all of the 
following places: Patagonia, Southern Chih, Tierra del Fuego, 
the Falkland Islands, Tristan d’Acunha, The Crozets, 
Kerguelen Land and the mountains of Victoria and Tasmania. 
The term ‘‘ Antarctic’? as applied to these plants has been 
objected to, as all the districts referred to, le outside of the 
Antarctic Circle. Dr. Cockayne has suggested the word 
““Fuegian,” in place of it; but it 1s probable that the more 
correct term, ‘‘ Sub-Antarctic,” will be adopted. A few of the 
plants belonging to this section are also found in South 
Africa. 


36 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


South American Element. 

The South American element is better developed in New 
Zealand than in Austraha; this may be due to our being 
somewhat nearer to Peru and Chili, than Australia is. The 
venera Fuchsia and Calceolaria ave confined to New Zealand, 
and temperate or sub-tropical South America. Myosurus 
aristata, Sophora tetraptera (The Yellow Kowhai), Haloragis 
alata, Hydrocotyle Americana, Veronica elliptica, and a few 
other species, are also confined to the same two districts. It 
may, however, be questioned whether the forms of these 
species, occurring on both sides of the Pacific, are exactly the 
samme in every case. Further investigation 1s required on this 
point. Probably about a fourth of the New Zealand geneva 
are also found in South America, though not confined to these 
two places. A connection of such a pronounced nature as 
this indicates that at some time the two stations must have 
been united by land, or at least by a chain of islands. 

The evidence of animal life shows that the former alternative 
is the more probable one, and that there has been direct land 
connnunication with South America, perhaps in sub-tropical 
regions. From these and other reasons, Captain Hutton 
assumed that in the Cretaceous, or Early Eocene, a Pacitic 
Continent connected New Zealand and New Guinea with 
Chili.* 

Sub-Antarctic Element. 

But a much more striking phenomenon is the existence 
between latitudes 55° 5. and 65° 8. of groups of islands separated 
sometimes by thousands of niules of sea, yet often possessing 
native plants of the same species. This community of species 
shows that these islands must have been in comparatively close 
communication with each other in quite recent times. Some 
of the plants referred to are found in New Zealand, more 
particularly in the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. A 


“Nature”’ July 13th, 1905, (This letter is probably the last published scientific 
writing of the great bioloxist). 


GENERAL INTRODUCTION 37 


few of them are also found in the Alps of South Hastern 
Australia. The following plants may be taken as examples of 
these sub-Antarctic types. Acaena sanguisorbae is known 
from the Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and is also found in 
Australia and Tristan d’Acunha, while 4. adscendens occurs 
from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chil, 
Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands. Tillaea moschata is found 
throughout New Zealand and the Southern Islands, and also 
in South Chih, Fuegia, the Falkland Islands, Ixerguelen’s Land, 
and Marion Island. O.xalis magellanica has been collected in 
Victoria, Tasmania, South Chili, and Fuegia as well as in 
New Zealand. Callitriche antarctica is found in the Snares, 
The Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, the Antipodes, 
Macquarie Islands, Kerguelen’s Land, Falkland Islands, and 
South Georgia. Other similar examples might readily be 
given, but these will probably suttice for our present purposes. 
This remarkable connection becomes even more striking, when 
we examine the floras of the sub-Antarctic islands themselves. 
Thus Mr. Hemsley* states that of eighty-four genera found in 
the Falkland Islands, fifty-six are also represented in New 
Zealand. More recent research may have modified these 
numbers, but the proportion will probably not be largely 
altered. Though these sub-Antarctic islands show such 
marked resemblances in their plant life, there 1s no such 
similarity amongst them in the distribution of the higher 
types of land animals. Obviously, the connection, though a 
very recent one, has not been a close one. Hence Captain 
Hutton concluded that in Phocene times ‘A number of 
islands existed in the Antarctic Ocean, which have since 
then disappeared.” According to this theory, there has been 
no direct connection with the Antarctic contiment since 
the Jurassic period. At that time, New Zealand, South 
America, and South Africa are believed to have been united 
by land. 


*Challenger Reports: Botany Vol. I, p. 57. 


38 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Such a hypothesis as this is at best only tentative, and its 
chief value les in the stimulus it gives to research, and the aid 
it affords in placing subsequent hypotheses on a more solid 
foundation. There are numerous other problems of considerable 
interest in connection with both the internal and external 
distribution of our indigenous plants, but these will not be 


dealt with here. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION. 
Puant LIFE. 

At one time people spoke as if the life of the plant were 
ditferent from that of the aninal. There are few so ignorant 
now as to think that a distinction can be drawn between 
plant and animal hfe. The plant responds to stimuh, 
reproduces its kind, and grows, just as the animal does. 
Moreover, every plant has the power of spontaneous motion as 
a whole, or in some of its parts. Amongst the higher plants, 
movements are confined to parts of the plant—the tendrils of 
the vine twine; the stamens of the barberry respond to a 
touch with a Jumping motion ; the leaves of many plants close 
at night; others alter thei position with the direction of the 
light that falls upon them. In all, there are movements in 
response to gravitation, and to the action of light, and in 
connection with the processes of growth. In recent times 
sensation has been claimed for many plants. All apparently 
have the power of “sensing” gravitation, and some have been 
‘ocelli” for perceiv- 


‘ 


recently declared by Haberlandt to possess 
ing ight. However, the life of the plant is so remote from all 
that man knows of himself, that he can never hope to do more 
than realize its meaning very imperfectly, though it can 
scarcely be doubted that the more fully he can appreciate it, 
and the more fully he can enter into sympathy with it, the 
more fully will he understand himself. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 39 


Root and Stem. 

For our present purposes, a plant may be considered as 
consisting of root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. 
The root* is developed from the rootlet or radicle of the 
embryo, and serves two purposes. It fixes the plant in the 
soul, and absorbs water and salts in solution by means of 
minute thin-walled hairs on the rootlets. The stem supports 
the leaves and branches. The crude sap ascends through it to 
the foliage at the tips of the highest twigs by a process or 
processes, even now not well understood. Here the water is 
evaporated, and any salts that it still contains are left behind 
in the leaves and shoots. The stem and branches therefore, 
as well as supporting the plant, enable the sap to ascend and 
descend, and thus provide communication between different 
parts of the tree. 


THe Lear. 
The leaf is the chief organ by which the plant nourishes 
itself. Air enters it by minute pores (stomata, singular stoma), 
and brings with it a small percentage of carbon dioxide. The 
leaf retains the carbon, giving up most of the oxygen. With 
the carbon, water, some oxygen and the salts obtamed from 
the soil, the plant is built up by marvellous and httle known 
chemical reactions. The leaf, like all other parts of the plant, 
consists of layers of very small cells. The first solid product 
to appear in certain highly specialized cells as a result of the 
absorption of carbon dioxide, is starch. This consists of the 
three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and is produced 
only in the presence of the green colouring matter (chlorophyll) 
by the action of sunlight. The process by which starch is 
produced is termed assemilation. 
A description of the structure of a typical dicotyledonous 
leaf, will enable us to understand this function better. 


*(The root is considered rather more fully under dvicennia.) 


40 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The surface of the leaf is covered by a thin layer of waxy 
material, which is almost impervious to water. This is 
called the ewticle, and prevents the leaf from shrivelling up im 
drying winds. Immediately below the cuticle hes a layer of 
cells, which form the epidermis. In some cases they are 
specially modified for the purpose of providing storage 
for water, as a provision against drought. Below the 
epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf, les a layer of 
elongated cylindrical cells, called the palisade cells. These 
are regularly arranged with thei longitudinal axes at right 
angles to the surface of the leaf, and constitute the wonderful 
laboratories in which the process of assimilation is carried on. 
The sap from the roots reaches these cells by way of the 
nudrib and veins. From the outer ai they obtain carbon 
dioxide. They are also provided with a large number of 
microscopie grains stained with chlorophyll—the chloroplasts. 
In the chloroplasts, under the action of sunight—bright or 
dittused—starch is formed. This is afterwards converted into 
sugur, and conveyed by means of the conducting tissues or leaf 
veins, to the parts of the plant where it is required. Below 
the palisade tissue le a number of loosely arranged cells of 
rather irregular shape, with air spaces between them. These 
constitute the spongy tissue, and though they doubtless 
manufacture some food, yet they cannot receive as much 
light as the cells above them. Consequently they do ttle work 
in the process of assimilation. The epidermis of the leaf is 
broken in numberless places by minute openings, the stomata, 
which have been already mentioned. These are often confined 
to the lower surface of the leaf. Hach stoma 1s surrounded 
by a pair of crescent-shaped guard cells, which by alterations 
in them form: can open or close it, and thus check or 
increase the amount of evaporation or transpiration from the 
leaf. 

Now, although there are thousands of plants in which the 
leaf structure conforms comparatively closely to that already 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 4] 


described, there are many others in which the leaf is more or 
less modified to suit its special environment. 

The anatomy and form of the leaf depend, to a very large 
extent, upon the reaction between the plant and its surroundings, 
as regards transpiration and assimilation. The object of the 
plant is to expose as large a leaf surface as possible to the 
action of the hight; while at the same time a balance must be 
maintained between the loss of water and its supply. If 
more water leaves the plant than enters it, the leaves must 
inevitably wither, and this 1s a danger that the plant has to 
guard against at all hazards. Plants living in dry situations 
have adopted most ingenious devices to reduce transpiration to 
a muninwn, whilst obtammeg a maximum of assimulatory 
surface. Some of these devices will be considered in connection 
with the various species exhibiting them. Plants hving in 
wet situations require a different structure from those that 
erow on bare rocky cliffs or shingle-slips. Hence, recent 
writers have found it convenient and helpful to group plants 
together, according to the modifications of stem and leaf 
structure that they exhibit, in response to their special 
environments. As the water supply is the chief factor in 
moulding the form of the plant, this classification has reference 
chiefly to it. Dry soils, such as those of desert regions, 
soils at times subject to a low temperature, or bogs abounding 
in humic and other acids, are generally inhabited by plants 
which have contrivances to check transpiration. Such plants 
are termed Nerophytes. In New Zealand this group is 
exceptionally well developed. Indeed, Dr. Diels, no mean 
authority upon the subject, speaking of the shrubs of the open 
plains, states ‘Their xerophytic structure is of striking 
intensity, and difficult to understand in comparison with other 
floras.’ Again, in discussing the plants of the sub-alpine 
pastures, he tells us their xerophytism is so extreme that their 
physiognomy can be compared only with that of the 
almost rainless Persian steppes. (For a fuller discussion 
of this anomaly, see Discaria, Plagianthus betulinus, etc.) 


42 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Plants which have been evolved in soils containing more 
than a half per cent. of salts in solution, ave termed halophytes. 
Such plants are found chiefly near the sea-shore, by river 
estuaries, or in salt marshes. They sometimes occur also in 
desert areas, particularly in the dried-up beds of salt lakes. 
They often bear resemblances to xerophytes. The water of 
salt-ineadows 1s apparently not readily absorbed by plants, and 
consequently such situations may be physiologically dry. 
Probably the presence of salts in solution interferes with the 
passage of moisture by osmosis into the plant cells. A fuller 
consideration of the structure of halophytes will be found under 
the family Chenopodiaceae. 

Hydrophytes ave plants which have been produced amidst 
abundance of water of moderate temperature, and in the 
absence of an excessive amount of dissolved salts. They will 
be further considered under Myriophyllum. Mesophytes, 
on the other hand, are plants whose structure indicates that 
they have been developed in intermediate conditions, where 
there was neither saturation with moisture, nor was there 
drought. Mesophytes frequently lose their leaves at the end 
of the growing season, and often die back to the ground. 
Amongst them are a large number of annuals, bulbous, and 
tuberous plants. New Zealand has remarkably few mesophytes. 
Trees such as Entelea and Aristotelia racemosa ave mesophytic, 
but dicotyledonous herbaceous mesophytes are almost com- 
pletely absent from New Zealand. We have scarcely any 
annuals, and very few bulbous plants. It is due to lack of 
them that our lowland pastures and hedgerows do not display 
in spring and early summer such brightness of colour as is 
to be seen in many other Jands. 


30TANICAL INTRODUCTION 43 


THE FLOWER. 

The function of the flower is to produce seed, and so to 
perpetuate the species. The essential parts are the stamens 
and pistil. The pistil is in the centre of the flower, and 
contains the female organs. At its base is the seed vessel, or 
ovary, containing the unfertilized seeds or ovules. At the tip 
is the stigma, which is the part of the flower specialized to 
receive the pollen or male element. The stigma is frequently 
supported by a stalk termed the style. In some flowers the 
pistil consists of a number of parts called carpels, each con- 
sisting of ovary, style, and stigma. These carpels may be 
separate from each other, or united to form a composite pistil. 
In some cases the union is so complete, that it is difficult to 
say of how many carpels the pistil is formed. Generally, 
however, the number of compartments or cells in the ovary, or 
the number of stigmas, affords a sufficient indication of the 
number of carpels present. Round the pistil the stamens are 
usually arranged in one or more concentric circles. They 
consist of a stalk known as the filament, and an enlarged tip, 
usually yellow, the anther. Here the pollen is borne. It 
consists of very minute yellow grains which escape by the 
opening of the anther. Before seed can be developed, 
fertilisation, or union, must take place between the male 
and female elements. The pollen grain is conveyed to the 
stigma. It there grows, and puts out a long tube, which 
penetrates through the loose tissues of the style into the 
ovary. In the ovary, it enters the egg-cell contained in one 
of the ovules, and there fertilisation takes place. After 
fertilisation the ovule commences to develop into the seed. 

The process by which pollen is conveyed to the stigma 1s 
called pollination or loosely, fertilisation. (Throughout the 
book we shall use the more correct term in place of the more 
popular one). Just as the formation and structure of the leat 
depend to a large extent upon its adaptations to its environ- 
ment, in respect of assimilation and transpiration, so the form 


44 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


and structure of the flower depend to a large extent on the 
method of pollination adopted by it. 

These methods are very numerous, and often very different, 
and a great deal of complexity of contrivance, and apparent 
purposefulness of action, 1s manifested by flowers in their 
endeavours to secure effective pollination. If the pistil is 
polhnated from its own stamens, it 1s said to be self-pollinated. 
Darwin and others have shown, that, as a rule, seed obtained 
from cross-pollinated flowers 1s healthier and more productive 
than that from self-pollinated flowers. The result of continued 
inbreeding is harmful to flowers as well as to aninals; but 
there are probably more exceptions to this rule than was at 
first supposed; and in imany plants there are special adapta- 
tions for self-pollination. Cross-pollination may be brought 
about by the action of wind or insects, or, more rarely, by 
birds or other animals. 

The exact methods adopted will be discussed in connection 
with specific cases. 

Tf stamens and pistil are found in one flower, it 1s said to be 
hermaphrodite. If they are found on different flowers but on 
the same plant, the species is then said to be monacious, but 
if on ditterent plants, it is termed diwcious. 


THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 


Surrounding the stamens are usually two floral envelopes. 
The outer one is the calyx, and the inner is the corolla. The 
corolla 1s usually brightly coloured, and serves as an organ of 
attraction for insects and other animals. The individual 
leaves of which it 1s composed are termed petals. They may 
be free or united, regular or irregular in form, and, indeed, 
inamifest an infinite variety of shape, colour, texture and 
arrangement. These characteristics depend almost entirely 
npon the adjustment of the flower to the function of pollination. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 45 


The calyx is chiefly used as an organ of protection for 
the flower bud. Its individual parts are termed sepals. They 
are usually coloured green, but occasionally the calyx becomes 
brightly coloured, and usurps the functions of the corolla. Calyx 
and corolla together constitute the perianth. Sometimes 
there is only a single ring (whorl) of parts in the floral 
envelope, or both rings may be similar. In such cases the 
floral envelope is termed simply a perianth. Flowers without 
a perianth are said to be naked. If, however, it 1s clear that 
the perianth is either calyx or corolla, but not both, the more 
definite term may be employed. The missing whorl is then 
described as suppressed or obsolete. Any leaf on a flower stalk 
not belonging to the perianth 1s termed a bract. 


Tur DISPERSAL OF SEEDS. 


After the seed is ripe, it has to be scattered. Many curious 
devices are used by plants to accomplish this end. The seeds 
may be so light or so small as to be blown about by the wind. 
They may be provided with down (¢.7., as in the dandelion), to 
assist them in travelling before a breeze. Sometimes they are 
set in mucilage (as in Pittosporum). This may enable them 
to cling to passing animals, and so to be carried for longer or 
shorter distances ; or, again, they may be provided with hooks 
for the same purpose, (as in the sedge Uncinia), or with a 
erapnel-head, (as in Acena). Again, the whole fruit may 
become sweet and succulent, and thus birds are attracted to it, 
and eat it. The seeds then pass through the digestive 
canals of the birds, and are distributed over the country 
by them. The elder, gooseberry, flowering-currant, etc., 
are thus being distributed by birds over New Zealand. 
Should the seed on the other hand fall to the ground 
immediately below the parent plant, it would very 
likely be choked in the struggle for existence, or might 


46 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


not obtain a sufficient amount of hght to enable it to 
flowish. Hence, it is to be expected that plants whose seeds 
are provided with good means for distribution, should be 
found widely spread over the country, and this is often, 
though by no means always, the case. The dandelion grows 
everywhere, but Senecio perdicioides, with similar means of 
distribution is confined to one locality. It is often difficult 
to say why one plant survives, and another becomes extinct, 
in the struggle for existence. However, new light is being 
thrown on plant mechanisms daily, and we are beginning 
to understand more fully the many adjustments of the plant to 
its environment. It 1s certain, too, that our outlook upon the 
vegetable world is gradually altermg, and that the centre of 
gravity of our ideas concerning the principles that guide plant 
evolution is also shifting to some extent. 


CLASSIFICATION. 


The vegetable world may readily be separated into two 
ereat divisions, plants without flowers, and plants with flowers. 
The former division includes the bacteria, sea-weeds, pond- 
shmes, moulds, fungi, toadstools, lichens, hverworts, mosses, 
ferns, and club-mosses. They do not come within the scope 
of this work. The flowering plants may again be readily 
divided into two classes: (1) those in which the ovules are 
not enclosed in an ovary, Gymnosperms (pines, firs, ete.) ; 
(2) those with the ovules enclosed in an ovary (dngiosperms). 
There are probably about 100,000 distinct kinds or species of 
angiosperms at present living on the face of the earth. They 
include the vast majority of all flowering plants. In order 
that they may be properly studied they have to be classified in 
a complete and complicated fashion. One of the chief objects 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 47 


of this classification is to enable the investigator to identify 
with certainty the specimen under investigation. In some 
cases this can be done only after an elaborate study of the 
plant; but in the majority of instances, half-an-hour’s work or 
less should be sufficient to enable the student to name it. To 
assist him in his work a key is here provided (v. p. 49). 

The Angiosperms are first sub-divided into two sub-classes, 
the Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The dicotyledons, on 
germination, produce two seed-leaves or cotyledons, the mono- 
cotyledons only one. The seed-leaves of the dicotyledons are 
generally entire, simple, rather fleshy leaves, unlike those 
subsequently produced by the plant. The solitary seed-leaf of 
the monocotyledons is usually long, narrow and similar to 
those subsequently produced. There are many other external 
differences between the two classes. In the monocotyledons, the 
chief veins of the leaves run more or less parallel to the length 
of the blade; in the dicotyledons the chief veins are not 
parallel to each other, and are connected by a net-work of 
smaller veinlets. Leaves of the former kind are said to be 
parallel-veined. The latter are termed reticulate, or netted- 
veined leaves. The parts of the flowers in a monocotyledon 
are usually in three, or in some multiple of three. In the 
dicotyledons there are usually four or five, or some multiple of 
either of these numbers. The monocotyledon produces a root 
consisting of a number of fibres, which sprout from the base of 
the young plant. The seedling dicotyledon produces a single 
root (tap-root), which is continuous with the stem. ‘These 
differences may be tabulated thus :— 


MonocoTyLEDONs. DICOTYLEDONS. 
1. One seed-leat. Two seed-leaves. 
2. Fibrous roots. Tap-root. 
3. Parallel-venation. Netted-venation. 
4. Parts of flower in threes. Parts of flower in fours 


or fives. 


48 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


For ordinary field purposes, the venation is the most readily 
available distinctive character, but the student will soon 
recognise the differences between a mono- and a di- 
cotvledon. The leaves of the monocotyledon are usually long 
and narrow, and often sword-shaped. They frequently have 
sheathing bases. The chief New Zealand monocotyledons are 
the grasses, rushes, cut-grasses, bulrushes, native flax (Phor- 
mium), cabbage-tree, supple-jack, and Nikau-palm. The 
dicotyledons constitute the great majority of flowering plants. 

The classes are sub-divided into sub-classes. The sub- 
classes are split up into orders, the orders into families, the 
families into genera, and the genera into species. The species 
form the units on which the whole classification is built up. 
Tt is impossible to define a species further, than by saying that 
all plants of one kind are included in it. All individuals within 
the species, are more hke each other than they are lke 
any plants outside of it. The species are built up into genera. 
The genus may contain any number of species. Thus, there 
is only one species of Entelea known, and it is confined to the 
Auckland province. On the other hand, there are some eighty 
species of Veronica in New Zealand, and many more in other 
parts of the world. 

Every plant has two names: (1) the name of the genus to 
which it belongs; (2) the name of the species. Thus, there 
are two kinds of native flax, each with the same generic name 
(Phormium) but with different specific names, P. tenaxr and 
P. Cookianum. To the scientific name of the plant, should be 
attached the name of the author of the species. This has not 
been done here, as the names given in Mr. Cheeseman’s hand- 
book have been adopted, except in one or two specially 
mentioned instances. 

In endeavouring to identify a species, the student should 
remember that there 1s scarcely any rule in botany without 
exceptions. Many of our New Zealand plants do not 
completely exemphfy the characters of the order, or genus, 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 49 


to which they belong. It must not be supposed that a plant 
cannot belong to a family, because in one or more points it 
does not completely agree with the characters of the family. 
On the other hand, it is also unsafe to suppose that 
because a plant has certain characters of a family or genus it 
must necessarily belong to that family or genus. The student 
cannot be too strongly warned against Jumping at conclusions 
of this sort. It is better, moreover, in identifying a specimen 
to proceed by the method of “exhaustion” than by that of 
identification, that 1s to say, it 1s safer to exclude first all 
those familes and genera to which the plant cannot belong, 
before determining that to which it does belong. An example 
will illustrate clearly the various classificatory divisions. 
The native flax belongs to the— 
SPECIES: tena. 
GENUS: Phorniwm. 
Famity: Liliaceae. 
ORDER: Liliiflorae. 
Sup-Cuass: Monocotyledons. 
CLASS: Angtosperms. 


KEY TO CLASSICATION.” 
SUB-KINGDOM: Phanerogais or Flowering Plants. 


1. Ovules not enclosed in an Ovary—Class 1, GYMNOSPERMAE, p. 46. 
2. Ovules enclosed in an Ovary—Class 2. ANGIOSPERMAE, p. 46. 
(i) Seed with one seed-leaf, leaves generally 
parallel-veined. MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 47. 
(ii) Seed with two seed-leaves, leaves 
generally netted-veined. DICOTYLEDONS, p. 47. 


ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE ANGIOSPERMAE. 
SUB-CLASS I. : Monocotyledons. 


1. Perianth absent. 2. 
Perianth present. 3. 

2. Climbing, shrubby plant. Leaves long, prickly. Freycinetia, p. 80. 
Erect water or marsh plants. tPypha. 


*N.B.—It is to be remembered that in many cases this key is true only for New 
Zealand forms. ; 
+ Not further described. 5 


50 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


3. Perianth superior, of 6 leaflets in 2 rows. 4. 
Perianth inferior, segments petaloid or fleshy. 5. 
4. Flowers very irregular. Anther 1, attached to 
the style. ORCHIDACEAE, p. 109. 
Flowers regular, stamens 3. Libertia, p. 109. 
5. Perianth petaloid. Fruit a 1-3-celled, 3 or 
more seeded berry or capsule. LILIACEAE, p. 88. 
Perianth fleshy. Fruit a 1-seeded drupe. Bhopalostylis, p. 84. 


SUB-CLASS II. : Dicotyledons. 


1. Flowers having both calyx and corolla. 2. 
Flowers with a single perianth or 0, the 
calyx or corolla or both being absent. 80. 
2. Petals free. 3. 
Petals more or less completely united. 50. 
3. Stamens more than 20. 4. 
Stamens less than 20. 12. 
4. Ovary inferior. Leaves usually opposite. 5. 
Ovary superior. 6. 
5. Leaves with translucent dots. Shrubs or trees. MYRTACEAE, p. 270. 
Leaves fleshy. Creeping or trailing herbs. AIZOACEAE, p. 159. 
6. Leaves stipulate. 7. 
Leaves exstipulate. 9: 
7. Anthers 2-celled. Bi 
Anthers l-celled. Leaves simple. MALVACEAE, p. 250. 
8. Carpels free. Leaves compound. ROSACEAE, p. 195. 
Carpels combined. Leaves simple. TILIACEAE, p. 242. 
9. Stamens hypogynous. 10. 
Stamens perigynous, carpels free. ROSACEAE, p. 195. 
10. Carpels free. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. 
Jarpels united. 11. 
11. Leaves with transparent dots. t Hypericum. 
Leaves without dots. TILIACEAE, p. 242. 
12. Ovary inferior (or apparently so). 13. 
Ovary superior. 22. 
13. Flowers umbelled or in heads. 14. 
Flowers not in umbels or heads. 15. 
14. Herbs. Stamens 5. Fruit of 2 carpels separ- 
ating when ripe. UMBELLIFERAL, p. 312. 
Shrubs or trees (rarely herbs); fruit of two or 
more combined carpels. ARALIACEAE, p. 300. 
15. Leaves stipulate. RHAMNACEAE, p. 235. 
Leaves exstipulate. 16. 
16, Style 1; stigma simple. 17. 
Styles or stigmas 2 or more, or stigma divided. 20. 


+Not further described. 


17. 


18. 


19. 


20. 


Bhs 


22, 


23. 


24. 


25. 


26. 


27. 


28. 


29, 


30. 


31, 


32, 


33. 


34. 


35. 


36. 


37. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 51 


Stamens pipetalous or alternate with the 


petals. 18. 
Stamens perigynous. Petals overlapping in 

the bud. ONAGRACEAE, p. 290. 
Stamens epipetalous. LORANTHACEAE, p. 138. 
Stamens alternate with the petals. 19. 
Cells of fruit 1-seeded. CORNACEAE, p. 297. 
Cells of fruit many seeded. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. 
Cells of fruit 1-seeded. 21. 
Cells of fruit many seeded. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. 
Shrubs. Griselinia, p. 298. 
Herbs. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295. 
Leaves stipulate. 23. 
Leaves exstipulate. 33. 
Carpels solitary or free. 24. 
Carpels combined into a 1- or more-celled 

ovary. 25. 
Carpels solitary, 2 or more seeded. Flowers 

irregular. LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203. 
Carpels several, free, |-seeded. Flowersregular. ROSACEAE, p. 195. 
Ovary 1-celled. 26. 
Ovary 2 or more celled. 30. 
Ovules on the walls of the ovary. 27. 
Ovules fixed to the base of the ovary. 29. 
Climbing shrubs. PASSIFLORACEAE, p. 268. 
Herbs or shrubs not climbing. 28. 
Viscid glandular herbs. Flowers regular. DROSERACEAE, p. 180. 
Herbs or shrubs, not glandular. Flowers 

regular or irregular. VIOLACEAE, p. 261. 
Herbs. Stamens 3-5, attached to the petals. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156. 
Stamens hypogynous. 31. 
Stamens perigynous. 32. 
Leaves opposite. Water herbs. tElatine. 
Leaves alternate. Herbs. GERANIACEAE, p. 215. 
Stamens opposite the petals. Ovules 1 in 

each cell. Shrubs. RHAMNACEAE, p. 235, 


Stamens 5, alternate, or 10 opposite and 
alternate with the petals. Ovulesmany. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. 


Carpels several, free, or one. 34. 
Carpels combined into a 1 or more celled 
ovary. 41. 
Carpels several, free. 35. 
Carpels solitary, 1-celled. 38. 
Leaves opposite. 37. 
Leaves alternate. 36. 
Herbs. Carpels 5 or more. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. 
Tree. Leaves simple, aromatic. DRIMYS, p. 172. 
Herbs. Fruit dry. { Tillea. 


tNot further described. 


. Stamens 5. 


. Herbs. 


PLANTS OF NEW 


Shrubs or herbs. 
carpels. 


Fruit enclosed by the fleshy 


. Stamens hypogynous or epipetalous. 


Stamens perigvnous. 
Ovule 1. 


Stamens 10. Ovules 2 or more. 


. Stamens 4-5, epipetalous. 


Stamens 5. Ovule 1, pendulous, 


. Ovary 1-celled, many ovuled. 


Ovary 2 or more celled. 


. Glandular herbs. 


Herbs, not glandular. 


3. Stamens hypogynous. 


Stamens perigynous or inserted at the base of 
a tumid disk. 

Sepals 4. 

Stamens 5 or 10. 


Trees or shrubs. 
Stamens 6. Ovary 2-celled 


45. Shrubs or trees. Stamens free. Ovary 2-5 
celled. 
Herbs. Ovary 5-celled. 
46. Stamens 5. 
Stamens 10, occasionally several sterile. 
47. Leaves with transparent dots. 
Leaves without dots. 
48. Leaves pinnate. 
Leaves simple. 
49. Sepals free. Petals lobed or cut. 
Calyx 5-lobed. 
50. Ovary inferior. 
Ovary superior. 
51. Flowers minute, usually numerous, collected 


into involucrate heads. 
Flowers not collected into involucrate heads, 


. Leaves opposite and stipulate, or whorled. 


Leaves alternate, exstipulate. 


Stamens 5. 


. Stamens inserted on the corolla lobes. 


Stamens cpigynous, or inserted at the base of 
the corolla. 


. Stamens alternate with corolla lobes. 


Stamens opposite the corolla lobes. 


. Corolla regular, 


Corolla irregular, 2-lipped. 


(Not further described, 


ZEALAND 


Coriaria, p. 226. 

40. 

39. 
Corynocarpus, p. 233. 
LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203. 
MYRSINACEAE, p. 331. 
Pennantia, p. 230. 

42. 

43. 
Drosera, p. 180. 


CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156. 


44, 

47. 
CRUCIFERAE, p. 177. 

45. 


Pittosporum, p. 189. 
46. 
Linwm, p, 218. 
GERANIACEAE, p. 215. 
(including 
OXALIDACEAE). 
RUTACEAE, p. 218. 
48. 
Dysorylum, p. 222. 
49. 
TILIACEAE, p. 242. 
Iverba, p. 186. 
51. 
56. 


COMPOSITAE, p. 405- 
52. 

RUBIACEAE, p. 389. 
53. 


. Stamens 2, filaments cohering with the style. tSTYLIDIACEAE. 


54. 

55. 
CAMPANULACEAE, p. 401 
(ncluding LOBELIACEAE. 

and GOODENIACEAE) 


Alsewosmia, p. 399. 
Samolus, p. 333. 
5h. 


57. 


64. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


71. 


75. 


76. 


. Leaves opposite. 


3. Herbs. 


. Shrub or tree. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 


Ovary and fruit very deeply 2-4 lobed; lobes 
1-celled, 1-seeded, 

Ovary not deeply lobed. 

Ovary 4-lobed. 

Leaves alternate. 


. Ovary 4-lobed, 


Ovary 2-lobed. 


. Leaves alternate or radical (0 in Cuscuta of 


Convolvulaceae), 
Leaves opposite. Stamens epipetalous. 


. Stamens epipetalous. 


Stamens 10, hypogynous. 


. Ovary 1-celled. 


Ovary 2 or more celled. 

Sepals 2. 

Herbs or shrubs. Sepals 4 or 5. 
Shrubs, leaves with glandular dots. 
Herbs, leaves not dotted. 


. Fertile stamens more than 6. Anthers 1-celled. 


Fertile stamens 6 or fewer. 


. Stamens 4, filaments long. 


Stamens alternating with scales or antherless 
filaments. 

Scales and sterile anthers absent. 

Leaves alternate. 

Leafless climbing herb. 

Anthers 1-celled. Shrubs or trees. 
5-10-celled. 

Anthers 2-celled. 

Climbing or trailing herbs. 

Erect shrubs. 

Corolla-lobes overlapping in bud. 
celled. 

Corolla-lobes plaited in bud. 

Stamens 2 or 4. 

Stamens 5. 


Ovary 


Ovary 2-4- 


Ovary 2-celled. 


2. Climbing shrubs, anthers adhering to the 


stigma. 
Herbs or shrubs, erect or prostrate. 


3. Herbs, sepals 2. 


Calyx 4 or 5-cleft. 


. Herbs, very bitter. 


Erect or prostrate shrubs. 
Leaves opposite. 

Leaves alternate or 0. 
Ovary 4-lobed to the base. 
Ovary not deeply 4-lobed. 


58. 

60. 
LABIATAE, p. 364. 

59. 
BORAGINACEAE, p. 346. 
Dichondra, p. 344. 


61. 

Ls 

62. 
ERICACEAE, p. 323. 

63. 

65. 


+PORTULACEAR. 


64. 
Myrsine, p. 331. 
Samolus, p. 333. 
MALVACEAE, p. 250. 
66. 
+ Plantago. 


67. 
68. 
+ Sapota. 
Cuscuta, p. 344. 


ERICACEAE, p. 323. 
69. 
CONVOLVULACEAE, p. 342. 
70. 


VERBENACEAE, p. 349. 
SOLANACEAE, p. 365. 


SCROPHULARIACEAE, p. 366. 


72. 
Parsonsia, p. 340. 

73. 
t+PORTULACEAE, 

74, 
GENTIANACEAE, p. 337. 
LOGANIACEAE, p. 335. 

76. 

TDs 

TT. 

78. 


+Not further described. 


54 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


77. Herbs. LABIATAE, p. 364. 
Shrubs or trees. VERBENACEAE, p. 349. 
78. Ovary l-celled, nearly 2-celled from the 2 
projecting placentae. Rhabdothamnus, p. 388. 
Ovary 2-celled. SCROPHULARIACEAE, p. 366 
79. Small trees. Stamens 4. Leaves with 
pellucid dots. Myoporum, p. 362. 
Herbs. Stamens 2. Leaves hair-like or 0. Utricularia, p. 388, 
80. Perianth single. 81. 
Perianth wholly wanting. 118. 
81. Ovary inferior. } 82. 
Ovary superior. 92. 
82. Trees or shrubs. 83. 
Herbs. 87. 
83. Parasiticshrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. * LORANTHACEAE, p. 138. 
Trees or shrubs not obviously parasitic. 84. 
84. Flowers bisexual. 85. 
Flowers wnisexual. 86. 
85. Shrubs or small trees, leaves alternate with 
deciduous stipules. Pomaderris, p. 236. 
Leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate. SANTALACEAE, p. 148. 
86. Tree. Leaves alternate, with deciduous 
stipules. Nothofagus, p. 128. 
Tree. Leavesalternate, exstipulate, verylarge. Meryta, p. 313. 
87. Flowers bisexual. Acena, p. 201. 
Flowers unisexual. 88. 
88. Stamens more than 20. t{Ac@ena glabra. 
Stamens less than 20. 89. 
89. Tuberous root parasite. Stems scaly. Dactylanthus, p. 150. 
Non-parasitical leafy plants. 90. 
90. A plant climbing by tendrils. *Sicyos, p. 400. 
Not climbing by tendrils. 91. 
91. Aquatic plants. Leaves opposite or whorled. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295. 
Scape bearing plants. Leaves radical. *Gunnera, p. 297. 
92, Leaves stipulate. 93. 
Leaves exstipulate. 95. 
93. A spiny shrub or small tree, often leafless, 
stipules small. Discaria, p. 239. 
Spineless herbs or shrubs. 94. 
94. Herbs and shrubs. Stipules membranous, 
sheathing the stem. POLYGONACEAE, p. 151. 
Herbs and shrubs, stipules free. Flowers 
unisexual. URTICACEAE, p. 136. 
95. Carpels many, free. 96. 
Carpels solitary or 1-celled, or ovary 2- or 
3-celled, 97. 


Those marked * have veally a double perianth, but the calyx is so obscure, that they 
are likely to be sought for in this division. 
+Not further described. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 55 


96. Stamens hypogynous. 
Stamens perigynous. 


RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. 
MONIMIACEAE, p. 174. 


97. Carpels solitary or ovary 1-celled. 98. 
Ovary 2- or 3-celled. 113. 

98. Leaves 0. 99. 
Leaves opposite or alternate. 101. 

99. Twining, slender, parasitic plant. Cassytha, p. 176. 
Plants not parasitic or twining. 100. 

100. Fleshy, jointed, maritime herb. Salicornia, p. 156. 
Smallshrub. Branches grooved. Fruitred. +Hzocarpus. 

101. Leaves opposite. Herbs. 102. 
Leaves alternate. Shrubs or trees. 106. 

102. Flowers unisexual, minute, green. Stamens4. Parietaria, p. 138. 
Flowers hermaphrodite. 103. 

103. Flowers minute, white. 104. 
Flowers minute, green. 105. 

104. Flowers in axillary fascicles. tAlternanthera. 


Flowers in pairs. Stamen1. Seed 1. t 
105. Flowers in axillary spikelets. Ovule 1. 
Ovules many. 
106. Stamens 6 or more. 
Stamens less than 6. 
107. Flowers unisexual. Stamens 6-8. Leaves 
pinnate. 
Flowers hermaphrodite, leaves simple. 
108. Leaves large. Stamens 6-10, hypogynous. 
Stamens 6-15, perigynous, opening by valves. 
109. Flowers minute, green. Stamens 1-5, peri- 
gynous. 
Stamens 2-5, attached to the perianth lobes. 
110. Stamens 2 or 4, on top of the perianth tube. 
Stamens 4 or 5. Leaves not imbricated. 
111. Leaves with transparent dots. Stamens on 
the base of the perianth lobes. 
Leaves without transparent dots. 
112. Stamens on base of deciduous perianth lobes. 
Stamens 4 on middle or top of deciduous 
perianth lobes. 
113. Shrubs or trees. 
Herbs. 
114. *Herb, juice milky. Leaves alternate. 
Herb, sepals 4, stamens 6. 
115. Leaves opposite or 0. 
Leaves alternate. 
116. A spinous shrub. Leaves opposite or 0. 
Stamens 4 or 5, perigynous. 


Scleranthus. 
Chenopodium, p. 155. 
CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156. 
107. 
109. 


Alectryon, p. 225. 
108. 
Prsonia, p. 159. 


LAURACEAE, p. 175. 

CHENOPODIACEAE, p. 154. 
110. 

THYMELACEAE, p. 269. 
111. 


MYRSINACBAE, p. 331. 
112. 
Santalum, p. 148. 


PROTEACEAB, p. 145. 

115. 

114. 
Euphorbia, p. 224. 
CRUCIFERAE, p. 177. 

116. 

117. 


Discaria, p. 239. 


*The apparent perianth is really a ring of bracts. 


+Not further described. 


56 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Shrubs or trees. Stamens 2. Olea, p. 335. 
117. Tree. Flowers unisexual. Stamens on the 
perianth segments. PROTEACEAE, p. 145. 
118. Leaves reduced to scales. Root parasite. Dactylanthus, p. 150. 
Leaves present. 119: 
119. Leaves opposite. 120. 
Leaves alternate. 121, 
120. Leaves serrate, stipulate. tAscarina. 
Water-herb, leaves exstipulate. Stamen 1. t+Callitriche. 
121. Herbs, leaves fleshy. Peperoniia, p. 127. 
Shrub, leaves very aromatic. Macropiper, p. 128. 


An example or two of the method of using this key will 
probably be of assistance to the novice. He has found,—let us 
suppose,—an unknown plant which from its venation and 
general appearance he recognizes as a dicotyledon. It will be 
useless in most cases to try and identify it without the flower, 
and frequently specimens algo of more or less mature fruit will 
be required. The first thing to notice is whether both calyx 
or corolla are present. This being determined in the 
affirmative, the student 1s directed to No. 2 in the Key. On 
ascertaining that the petals are free he passes to No. 3. In 
this flower the stamens are less than 20, this brings him 
to No. 12. At this point he decides the ovary is inferior and 
so passes on to No. 13. As the flowers are not in umbels or 
heads, he proceeds to No. 15. His plant has exstipulate 
leaves, and this brings him to No. 16. | The simple style and 
stigma lead to No. 17, and the stamens alternating with the 
petals to No. 18, thence to No. 19; and as the cells of the 
ovary in his specimen are many seeded, he concludes that it 
belongs to the family Saxifragaceae. On looking this up, he finds 
a key to the genera. This he follows out in a simular 
manner, and arrives at the Genus Carpodetus. There 1s 
only one species, C. serratus, and in all probability he will 
find his specimen coincide in detail with the description given 
of this. Let us take one more example. In this case the 
plant has the petals united. That leads us to No. 50, and as 
the ovary 1s superior, we come to No. 56. The corolla of our 


tNot further described. 


BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 57 


plant is regular, so we reach No. 57; and the ovary not being 
deeply lobed we proceed to No. 60. The leaves being alternate, 
we reach No. 61, and the stamens being attached to the petals 
we arrive at No. 62. The one-celled ovary brings us to No. 
63, and the fact that there are five sepals to No. 64. Our plant 
is a herb, so that it must evidently belong to the genus 
Samolus, and as there is only one species it must be S. littoralis. 
Of course, if there is a large number of species in the genus, 
it may be impossible to determine the specific name of the 
plant from the information in this volume. Recourse must 
then be had to one of the standard floras of New Zealand 
(e.g. Cheeseman’s, Kirk’s, or Hooker's). 


Coniferae. 


THE PINE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—The Coniferae form a widely distributed and ancient family, 
having been well represented in the Carboniferous Age. In the northern regions 
of the northern hemisphere they outnumber the ordinary broad-leaved trees by 
about ten to one, and are of great importance and utility. The order includes a 
number of large and valuable timber-trees, whose juices are almost invariably 
resinous, and are used in the manufacture of turpentine, pitch, and Canada 
balsam. Some of the New Zealand genera, such as Agathts, Phyllocladus and 
Dacrydiumn differ much from the true pines, but all possess the same straight, 
strong timber and resinous secretions. Outside New Zealand the best known 
species are the Scotch Fir, the Norway Pine, the Californian Redwood, the 
English Larch, the Norfolk Island Pine, the Deodar of the Himalayas, and the 
Cedar of Lebanon. The last named is one of the most majestic and imposing of 
trees. Sequoia gigantea of California (the Wellingtonia of our gardens), is the 
largest known Conifer, the finest specimen seen having reached the height of 
329 feet; while the tiny Dacrydiwm laxifolium, 2 inches in height, found in 
alpine districts in New Zealand, is the smallest. 


CHIEF CHARACTERS. 

The true Pine has a branching trunk and evergreen leaves, 
which are pointed and needle-like—sometimes set in little 
bundles of two, three, or five. The plants bear pistillate 
and staminate flowers upon the same stem. The staminate 
flower is composed of a floral axis, bearing a number of 
stamens, and the pistillate flowers form a catkin, each flower 
being composed of a scale-like bract* with ovules suspended 
on its inner surface. When the flowers ripen, these scales 
become hard and thickened at the top, thus forming the 
collective fruit called a cone. 

The cone of the fir-tree differs from that of the pine, being 
furnished with thin scales, rounded at the apex. Its leaves 
also are more scattered. The leaves of the Larches 
spring from a bundle of scaly buds, and become scattered 
or solitary by the lengthening of the stem. The im- 
brications of the cone are very loose, and the leaves 


‘The hoinologies of the various parts are still in dispute. 


FAMILY 


THE PINE 


gathis). 


A 


auri ( 


A giant K 


5. 


Fig. 


60 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


ave deciduous. The Cedars, again, differ from the Larches 
in keeping their leaves for several years, and in bearing closely 
imbricated cones. The stamens of the Junipers and Cypresses 
bear spheroidal pollen, instead of oval, as do the Pines; and the 
Yew is easily distinguished by its coral-like drupes or berries. 
The leaves of this tree are poisonous to animals, but the 
berries appear to be innocuous. The Yew attains to a great 
age, and has been reckoned to live for three or four hundred 
years. 

The woody tissue of the Conifers 1s noted for the absence of 
ducts or vessels, and the presence at the same time of 
bordered pits. This structure can be readily perceived even 
in silicified wood. There is a similar structure in some of the 
Magnohaceae, such as Drimys, etc., but the character of this 
wood differs considerably in other ways. The New Zealand 
Coniferae include the Kauri, the Kahikatea, the Totara, the 
Rimu, the Matai, the Tanekaha, the Miro, etc. The Tanekaha 
(Phyllocladus) possesses only  scale-leaves, the functions 
of the leaves being performed by leaf-hke — flattened 
branchlets (phyloclades). The genus Agathis is an ancient 
one, related to the Auracarias (Monkey Puzzle, ete.) 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Fruit a cone. 2 
Fruit a nut or drupe. 3) 
2. Leaves oblong. Cone large, of many over- 
lapping scales. Agathis, p. 60. 
Leaves small. Cone of few, erect, woody 
scales. Tibocedrus, p. 66. 
3. Fruita drupe, on fleshy, scarlet pedunele. Podoearpus, p. 68. 
Fruit a nut ina fleshy cup. 4 
4. Stes flattened into fan-shaped phylloclades. Phyllocladus, p 76. 
Leaves linear or scale-like. Dacrydiun, p. T4. 


Genus Agathis. 

This genus is found only in Australia, New Zealand, the Malayan and Fiji 
Islands, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. Leaves flat, broad, parallel-veined ; 
ovule solitary. Seed winged. Agathis orientalis of the East Indies is remarkable 
for the quantity of valuable resin (Damar) which it produces. (Name from the 
Greek meaning « ball of thread, in allusion to the nearly spherical cone). 1 sp.* 


‘The number of species frou. New Zealand and the outlying islands recorded in 
Cheesemuan'’s Handbook. 


THE PINE FAMILY 61 


Fig. 6. Kauri Bush 


62 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Agathis australis. 


The Kauri Pine is one of the most magnificent timber trees 
known, but it is unfortunately fast disappearing under the 
onslaughts of bush fires and needy colonists. Nor are 
new plantations formed, as is the case with many other trees, 
for the kauri is of such slow growth, that no man thinks it 
worth his while to plant trees which take a thousand years 
to mature. A kauri forest is a wonderful sight, with the 
clean, erect stems rising like grey columns to a height of 
from 80 to 100 feet,—sometimes 60 or 70 feet without throwing 
out a branch. The bark is thick and lead-coloured, and 
peels off in heavy flakes. ‘The ashy hue of the bark 
appears under certain atmospheric conditions to surround 
the trunks with an undefined haze.”* Though from 80 to 
100 feet is the usual height of the forest kauri, trees have 
been found 150 feet high. There is a specimen at Mercury 
Bay, which is 80 feet to the lowest branch, and 24 feet in 
diameter. A tree five feet in diameter has been calculated to 
be three centuries old. The undergrowth is usually not so 
thick in a kauri forest as in ordinary mixed bush. A small 
tree-fern, Nikau palms, a variety of Astela, the fragrant 
crimson Alsewosmia, and the climbing fern (Lygodium 
articulatum) are, however, often found growing under the 
stately pines. 

The germinating kauri develops two seed leaves, narrow 
and flat, extremely unlike any of those produced by the pines 
of the Northern Hemisphere. The leaves in the young plants 
are often spotted, and are of a reddish brown colour. They 
have no foot-stalks. The older leaves are thick, leathery, and 
green. The branches are large and spreading,—leafy towards 
the top of the tree. The male and female flowers are 
produced in separate cones on the same tree; the 


male catkins bemg one inch long, and the cones almost 


*Kirk’s Forest Flora of New Zealand. 


THE PINE FAMILY 63 


round, two to three inches in diameter, and borne 
near the tips of the branches. Each scale of the cone 
bears a single ovule. The seeds are wedge-shaped and 
brown, bearing at the top on one side a thin, transparent wing, 
which enables the wind to carry them readily. The kauri is 
noted for its sound timber—hollow and defective trees being 
rarely found. The price of the timber is usually ten shillings 
for one hundred feet. The wood takes a fine polish, and is 
generally wavy in grain, but a mottled variety is found which 
is especially valuable in cabinet work. This mottled variety is 
most frequent in rocky situations, and is sometimes caused by 
the excessive development of small branchlets, but in many 
cases the bark cannot keep pace in speed of growth with the 
woody tissue. Flakes of bark thereupon become enclosed in 
the sapwood, and under the tremendous pressure form dark 
patches on a light ground. Occasionally thin films of clear 
resin are also enclosed, which add to the colour and beauty of 
the markings. 

When the kauri trees are felled, it is a work of some 
difficulty to transport them, as the country north of Auckland, 
the special home of the kauri, is exceedingly rough and broken. 
If the trees are growing on the banks of some stream, they are 
felled, cut into suitable lengths by means of cross-cut saws, 
worked by two men, and the logs rolled into the water. Here 
they lie until a “fresh” drives them down to the creek or 
harbour where the ‘‘ boom” lies waiting. This boom is formed 
of a circle of logs fastened together with chains. There may 
be as many as fifty logs forming the chain, which sometimes 
encloses acres of water. The logs enter the boom,—are 
fastened together into a kind of raft, and towed to their 
destination. If, however, the felled trees are far from deep 
water, their carriage is much more difficult. A skidded road, 
six to eight feet wide, is formed of greased logs. Thus a sort of 
rough wooden tramway is made. The logs are hoisted on to 
this road by means of “Jacks,” or dragged by a team of 


64 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


bullocks, anyhow, over and through the bush, breaking down 
the thick undergrowth as they pass. The timber shrinks very 
little if cut at the dormant season. It is used for general 
building purposes,—for houses, bridges, wharves, and for boats, 
masts, deck-planking, etc. 

The whole tree is extremely resinous. Even the leaves of 
fallen trees shew sinall white patches of gum when they begin 
to shrivel, while large masses often form in the forks of the 
branches. Clianbing for guin is a difficult and dangerous task. 
The fact of the barrel of the tree being so huge, and rising so 
high without a branch, renders the usual kind of climbing 
impossible. A piece of weighted twine attached to a rope is 
flung over the lowest bough, and the rope is hauled up over the 
branch and down the other side. The climber then ascends 
the rope, gains a foot-hold, and cuts out the gun from the 
forks of the branches. A good tree-climber is said to make £3 
or £4 per week, but men sometimes come to their death in 
this dangerous work. The resin of the highest value, 
however, 1s that which has been fossilized, and which is dug up 
on lands where kauri bush once stood. This is the kauri gum 
of commerce. Clear, transparent pieces command a high price, 
and are used in place of amber in the making of small 
ornaments. The scrapings and dust are used in the 
manufacture of fire kindlers; the gum is used for varnish. 
Sometimes clear pieces of gwn are found in which are 
embedded cones, leaves, small insects, ete. These specimens 
ave iwuch admired. The colour of the gum varies from a pale 
lemon-yellow to a reddish-brown, or even black. When the 
children of the settlers desire a little pocket money, they will 
often ask permission to go guim-digging in some newly ploughed 
paddock, and are usually rewarded within a few hours by a 
find of gum which will fetch several shillings at the store. 
The price of the resin varies from £60 to £120 per ton. Guin 
digging is the great resource of those who cannot find work 
elsewhere, as w merely nominal fee is charged for digging on 


THE PINE FAMILY 65 


Fig. 7. Kauri Cones (4 nat. size), 


66 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Crown lands, and the work requires only a hght iron rod and 
a spade. Those who are old hands at the work are quick to 
discover the best places to dig. When a large tree falls, its 
roots tear up the earth, and form a mound with a hollow 
beyond it. By the position of these mounds and hollows, an 
expert will quickly decide on the direction in which the tree 
fell. By the size of the mound, he judges the probable height 
of the tree, and by the height of the tree he guesses the position 
of the first branch. Then, stepping out this distance, he puts in 
his spear to find the gum which lay in the forks of the branches 
when the tree was alive and standing. One of the finest 
collections of kaur1 gum has been gathered by a Mr. Rentoul 
in the Kaipara. These valuable and beautiful specimens are 
worthy of a fine museum. The Maoris often use pieces of gum 
to hight their fires, or as torches on a dark night. Such 
torches burn with a bright flame, but give off a dark, heavy 
smoke, with a strong resinous odour. 


Genus Libocedrus. 

Shrubs or trees. Branches in young plants much flattened ; four-sided when 
mature. The male flowers form small catkins of 6 or 7 stamens; the female, 
small cones of four woody scales. Ovules 2; seed winged. A genus of eight 
species, two in Chili, two in New Zealand, and one each in New Caledonia, 
Japan, China, and California. (Name from the Greek, signifying the drooping 
cedar). 


Libocedrus doniana (The Kawaka). 

A lofty pine, 60-100 feet high, believed at first to be a Dacrydium. Its 
foliage in the young stage somewhat resembles a fern. The leaves are of two 
kinds, and are arranged in four rows. This four-sided arrangement is most 
plainly seen in the mature branches. The male and female flowers occur on the 
saine tree, and are borne on the tips of the branchlets. The cone is din. long, 
small and woody, containing either two or four seeds. The timber is finely 
marked, and of a deep red colour, much valued for ornamental work by the 
cabinet-maker. North Island only. Bay of Islands, Hokianga. Native name 
Kawaka or Ngavaka, often termed New Zealand Arbor vite by the settlers. 


Libocedrus Bidwillii (Bidwill’s Libocedrus). 
This is a smaller and more common tree. Its timber is durable and useful, 
but not so beautiful as that of the Aawaka. It is found in mountain districts in 
both islands. The tree is often known to the bushmen as the Kaikawaka, 


67 


FAMILY 


THE PINE 


Miro Berries (nat. size). 


Fig. 8. 


) 


68 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


a 


though Colenso states that its correct name is Pahautea. The polysylabie name 
‘ Totarakirikotukutuku’’ has also been applied to it, but Colenso, with admirably 
unconscious humour, states that ‘‘no old Maori would have thought of such a 
thing.’’ It and the previous species are sometimes also called the New Zealand 
Cedar, but must not be confused with Dysoryluim spectabile, to which this name 
is often applied. 
Genus Podocarpus. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves very variable. Catkins variable. Fruit a drupe, 
often edible. A large genus found in tropical and sub-tropical countries. 
According to the theory of Celakowsky, the female flower consists of one carpel, 
and one ovule with two integuments. In most of the New Zealand species, as 
the ovule ripens, the integuments become crimson and fleshy, thus attracting 
birds. (Name from the Greek signifying foot-fruited, in allusion to the fleshy 
peduncle). 7 sp. 

Podocarpus ferruginea (The Rusty Podocarpus or Miro). 

A large tree, covered with a grey or blackish bark, 
which peels off in large flakes. The leaves are narrow and 
pointed, and are set in two rows on the branches. Male 
and female flowers are on separate trees—both axillary. 
The fruit is of the size of a small plum. It is of a bright 
red colour, and is covered when first ripe with a waxy 
powder, which gives it a delicate bloom. Native pigeons are 
very fond of the miro berries, and become very fat and 
lazy when feeding on them. These fruits have the odour and 
the taste of turpentine. They ripen in July and August, and 
the flowers are produced in October and November. The 
timber is hard and tough. It is not easily worked, neither is 
it so durable as that of most of the other pines. The gum 
which oozes from this tree possesses healing properties. It is 
found in both islands. The specific name alludes to the rusty 
colour of the leaves. 


Podocarpus nivalis (The Mountain Totara). 


A much smaller tree than the preceding, often only a low shrub, densely 
branched, The branches grow outwards rather than upwards, and send out. 
roots from their lower surfaces, thus forming a matted growth over the surface 
of the ground. These matted roots serve to hold together the loose soilgand 
shingle of the alpine slopes, thus preventing landslips. The leaves are thick and 
leathery, with a stout midrib. The integuments of the ovule become very 


THE PINE FAMILY 69 


swollen and form an attractive fruit, pleasantly sweet to the taste. Podocarpus 
nivalis grows at an altitude of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The specific name has 
reference to its sub-alpine habitat. 


Podocarpus totara (The Totara). 

A lofty timber tree, one of the most valuable in the colony. 
The wood is of a reddish colour, and is equalled only by the 
kauri for hghtness, toughness, and durability. It is used for 
telegraph posts, wharf piles, and sleepers—in fact, for anything 
where durability is required. The Maoris hollowed out their 
war canoes, sometimes seventy feet in length, from single 
totara logs. Its timber was so highly prized by the natives 
that fine, healthy trees became heirlooms, and disputes for 
possession of these trees often led to bloodshed. Its chief 
defect is in its brittle nature, as, when loaded to its full 
strength, it may break suddenly without warning. It is very 
hard, and resists the boring of the teredo or ship-worm (a 
marine boring mollusc) more successfully than any other 
timber. This tree is pecuhar to New Zealand, and attains its 
greatest height on low levels. The stiff, narrow leaves 
culminate in a sharp, needle-like pot. The bark of the tree 
is often horizontally ringed near the base, and hangs in thin, 
papery strips. The foliage is of a brownish hue, especially in 
the young state. 


Podocarpus spicata (The Spiked Podocarpus or Black Pine). 

This pine, known to the natives as the Mataz, is a lofty tree, 
but never of very great diameter. In its young state the 
branches are drooping, and bear scattered leaves of a deep 
coppery tint. When mature, however, the branches are 
upright and spiky like those of an ordinary pine. Both 
male and female flowers are born in spikes; hence the name 
spicata. 

The young and the old trees are so extraordinarily different 
in appearance, that they were for some time believed to be 
separate species. Specimens have, however, been observed 


70 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


with the weeping, copper-tinted branches below, and ordinary 
upright ones above. These are generally young trees of from 
ten to twenty years old. 

At a certain time of the vear the matai trunks present a 
brilliant appearance. Where the bark peels off, bright scarlet 
or crimson patches appear below, and a tree thus scaled is a 
beautiful object. 

The wood of this tree is of great value, but 1s very slow in 
growth. It is often used for the floors of ballrooms, skating 
rinks, etc., as it takes an excellent polish, and can be made to 
reflect ahnost like a Jooking-glass. One curious fact in 
connection with this timber is, that it will le prostrate in the 
bush for years without decaying. Mr. Buchanan tells of a 
prostrate matai over which three broadleaf trees (Griselinia 
littoralis) had grown, enfolding it with their roots. These trees 
were calculated to be over 300 years old, yet the matai was 
perfectly sound, and was spht up for fencing posts. Another 
was discovered with a fuchsia stem nine inches in diameter 
growing across it. 

One would not at first sight, imagine the matai to be one of 
the Coniferae, as its leaves are flat rather than needle-shaped, 
and its fruit is hke a small black plain, containing only one 
seed. The cotyledons, also, are two in number, as in any 
broad-leaved tree. The shape of the mature tree is not conical 
like that of a pine, but spreading, after the fashion of an 
ordinary dicotyledon. 


Podocarpus dacrydioides (The Dacrydium-like Podocarpus or 
White Pine.) 
Native name, Kahikatea. The following, probably fanciful, derivation has 
been given of this name: fea, whitish, from the colour of the wood, and lrahiha, 
an ancient chief. 


The Nea-potiki Maoris tell a pretty story concerning the 
origin of this stately tree. It is said that a chief named 
Pou-ranga-hua was once blown out to sea in his canoe and 


cast ashore upon a strange island. The name of this island 


THE PINE FAMILY 


“1 
— 


Fig.9. The Totara (Podocarpus totara). 


72 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


was Hawaiki. Here Pou-ranga-hua abode for some time, and 
was kindly treated by the inhabitants, but longed to return 
to his home and his wife. His canoe, however, was destroyed, 
and he had no means of reaching the maimland. At last 
his yearnings for home could be stifled no longer, and he 
begged a huge bird, of the name of Tawhaitari, to fly with him 
to Aotea-roa (New Zealand). On approaching the mainland, 
Pou reached out his hand, and stretching under the wings 
of the great bird, pulled out some of its finest and downiest 
plunes, which he threw into the ocean. From these plumes 
arose a lofty tree, which still bears fruit in the midst of 
the waters. A branch of this was broken off by the 
wind and cast ashore, and from this branch came all the 
kahikatea forests of New Zealand. It is said that Pou carried 
with him upon his aerial journey two baskets of seed kumaras, 
which were unknown in New Zealand until that time. 

The trunk of this tree 1s often branchless for seventy or 
eighty feet. The young leaves are flat and bronze-coloured, 
but those of the mature tree are green and scale-like. The 
catkins are very small, and are borne on the tips of the 
branchlets. The fruit 1s set upon a curious red berry, eaten 
by the Maoris. This berry or drupe is not the actual fruit, 
but is formed from the scales which bear the fruit. In their 
earliest stages these scales are white, and each one carries 
an ovule. As a rule, only one of these ovules comes to 
perfection. When this has occurred, the scales unite, become 
fleshy, and of a rich crimson colour, forming an oval receptacle 
with the shining blue-black nut embedded at its point. 
The undeveloped ovules are still seen as httle white points 
at the base of the receptacle. 

The timber of the kahikatea is light in colour, and the logs, 
having the same specific gravity as water, will not float 
until fully immersed. Some of these logs, however, will 


6c 


not float at all, and are known to the bushmen as ‘“‘ sinkers.”’ 


73 


PINE FAMILY 


THE 


Fig. 10. The White Pine or Kahikatea. 


74 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The wood is very suitable for the manufacture of paper and 
is now used for that purpose. The tree grows chiefly in 
swampy districts and in both islands. 


Genus Dacrydium. 


Shrubs or trees, found only in New Zealand, Tasmania, the Malay 
Archipelago, and the islands of the Pacific. Leaves narrow and scale-like. Male 
and female flowers on separate trees. Fruit, a small nut enclosed in a fleshy 
cup. (Name from the Greek for a tear, in allusion to the weeping habit of some 


= 


of the species). 7 sp. 


Dacrydium cupressinum (The Rimu or Red Pine.) 


This pine is one of the most beautiful objects in the New 
Zealand bush. Its pale-green, drooping branches differ from 
those of any other forest tree. ‘The leaves are only small 
prickles, running up a long stem, from which branch out other 
sinall stems whose united weight causes the main stem to hang 
like the branches of the weeping willow.” The whole tree, 
when young, has the appearance of a lycopodium. Spruce- 
beer was made from the young branches by Captain Cook, and 
proved an excellent remedy for the scurvy. The seed is 
curious, consisting of a nut placed in a cup lke that of an 
acorn. This fruit is tiny, but beautiful, the nut being of a 
blue-black and the cup red. The male flowers are produced in 
inconspicuous green catkins at the end of erect branchlets. 
The female are solitary, at the tip of curved branchlets, and 
the nut 1s about one-eighth of an inch long. Prickles such as 
those on the leaves run spirally round the trunk. The timber 
is of a red or yellow colour, and beautifully marked. It 
is used to great advantage in dadoes, panels, and for ceilings. 
The Taranaki rimu is especially straight in the grain and 
very resinous. It is much used for bridge-building in that 
district. The heart-wood is extremely resinous, and was made 
into torches by the natives. It was split into shreds and tied 
into bundles, and only needed the ashes to be occasionally 
knocked off to burn with w bright, steady blaze. The rauu 


THE PINE FAMILY 15 


Fig. 11. Kahikatea Berries (nat. size). 


_ 


16 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


bark is said to be healing, but must be taken, so say the 
natives, from the side of the tree toward the sunrise. 


Dacrydium laxifolium (The Loose-leaved Dacrydium). 

This is the smallest conifer known. Trees of only two inches in height may 
sometimes be found in fruit. The largest specimens are from 2 to 3 feet high, but 
these have weak, straggling stems, and are compelled to support themselves by 
the bush amongst which they grow. The flowers and fruit are similar to those of 
the ordinary rimu, 


Genus Phyllocladus. 


A small genus, confined to New Zealand, Tasmania and Borneo. Leaves of 
two kinds, some linear, others small and scale-like. True leaves are found only 
upon young plants. <As the tree grows these leaves disappear and their place is 
taken by fan-shaped phylloclades. Male and female flowers upon the same tree. 
Fruit, a small nut. (Name from the Greek signifying twig-leaf, in reference to 

Q 


the fact that the leaves are replaced by shoots). 3 sp. 

Phyllocladus trichomanoides (The Celery-leaved Pine). 

The native name of this tree—Tanehaha—is said to signify 
virile, or strong in growth. It is chiefly remarkable for the 
beauty of its leaf stalks, which are so enlarged and flattened 
out as to present the appearance of true leaves. In shape 
they are fan-like, and closely resemble the fronds of a maiden- 
har fern. This curious metamorphosis of the leaf-stalks 
usually takes place in those plants which inhabit hot and arid 
regions. 

The female flower of this pine is borne upon the edges of 
the phylloclades, and the male flowers upon catkins at the tips of 
the branches. The seeding tanekaha bears long, narrow 
leaves, brownish-red above and green below, but these soon 
fall away, and the true leaves are seen only as small scales on 
the ends of the branches. The fruit 1s a small, inconspicuous 
nut. The tree will grow to a height of sixty or seventy feet, 
and the tumber is much valued for its strength and durability. 
The bark contains a large quantity of tannin, and a red dye is 
obtamed from 1 which is sometimes used in the preparation of 
kid for gloves. The tannic acid of the bark is a valuable 


THE PINE FAMILY 77 


Fig. 12. A Spray of Rimu (nat. size) 


78 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


astringent. The young saplings make excellent walking 
sticks. If the stem, while erowing, is bruised by some blunt 
instrument, at regular intervals, the red dye contained in the 
bark stains the white wood, giving to the stick a beautiful 
mottled appearance. 


Phyllocladus alpinus (The Mountain Celery Pine or Toa-toa.) 

This tree, like Phyllocladus trichomanoides, produces no 
true leaves, but only flattened twigs, which exercise all the 
functions of leaves. These, however, are very differently 
shaped from those of the lowland tanekaha. They are 
clustered heavily together at the ends of the branches, and are 
thick and fleshy, rather irregular in outline, and usually finely- 
toothed. The male catkins are found in clusters of from three 
to seven at the tips of the branches. The female are in 
cones, the ovules in fleshy cups of a bright crimson colour. 

The growth of this tree is rather curious. The 
lower branches bend down in a_ sweeping curve, 
rooting where they touch the ground. The tips of these 
branches, however, rise again, and form the stem of a new 
tree. This, in its turn, when its own branches are sufficiently 
grown, will repeat the process and so form another new 
generation. An old tree will in this way form a series of 
rings, with the parent still growing in the centre. The tree 
thus performs for itself the process of layering carried out by 
nursery gardeners with many herbaceous plants. (There 
must be, one would think, some difficulty in the ripening or 
dispersion of its seeds, which has caused the tree to adopt a 
different method of reproduction.) 


THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY 79 


Fig. 13. Freycinetia Banksii (The Kie-kie) Flower (4 nat. size). 


loa) 
jo) 


PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Pandanaceae. 


THE ScrEW-PINE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—Chiefly a tropical family, Some of the species form large 
trees, but the majority are thick bushes. The name Screw-pine was given on 
account of the remarkable twisting of the stem in some species. The various 
species of Pandanus are noted for the large aerial roots, which, like flying 
buttresses, prop the stem. Their leaves contain a strong fibre, which is used 
in the making of sugar-sacks and fish-bags. 


Freycinetia Banksii (The Kie-kie). 

A lofty, climbing shrub. Leaves 2ft. in length, finely-toothed, concave, 
sheathing at the base, with prickly margins. Flowers in terminal spikes, 
3in.-4in. long, surrounded by white, fleshy bracts. Male flowers consisting of 
bundles of stamens, female of several ovaries, surrounded by infertile stamens. 
Fruit an oblong green spadix, with numerous, closely compressed carpels, 
each in. long ; the lower part soft and hollow, filled with pendulous seeds; the 
upper part hard and solid. Seeds small, numerous, oblong. The fleshy white 
bracts and young spikes of fruit are eaten by the natives and by children. The 
long fibrous leaves are used in the manufacture of baskets. North Island : 
and west coast of the South Island to Milford Sound. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori 
name Hie-kie. The fruit is usually called Tawhara. 1 sp. 


Palmaceae. 


THE Paum Fami.y. 


Trees or shrubs, rarcly climbers. Leaves large, divided, fan-lke, with 
sheathing petioles. Flowers on «a branched axis, enclosed in a spathe. 
Perianth of 6 segments ; stamens 6, Fruit a berry or drupe. 

Distribution.—This family of plants, which is said to be more valuable than 
any other, is represented on the mainland of New Zealand by a single species— 
the Nikau Paln—Rhopalostylis sapida. his tree is closely related to the Betel- 
nut of the East (Areca Catechi). 

Palm-trees are chiefly found in tropical regions, where they are often of 
wonderful utility, in bestowing upon the inhabitants of those lands shelter, food, 
light, heat, and clothing. The Coco-nut Palm, the Date Palm, the Sago Pahn, 


THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY 81 


Fig. 14. Freycinetia Banksii Fruit (tawhara), (} nat. size.) 


7 


82 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


and the Oil Palm together furnish sugar, starch, oil, resin, cordage, writing 
materials, material for building and thatching, edible fruits, pleasant beverages, 


vinegar, soap, etc. The palms reach their southernmost limit in New Zealand. 


The stem of the palm differs greatly in structure from 
that of other trees. The ordinary forest tree grows in 
thickness by depositing fresh layers of tissue between the 
wood and the bark. If a felled trunk be observed, 1t will 
be seen at once that there is or has been a central pith, and 
around this, concentric shells of wood have been deposited. 
In young plants, the pith occupies a considerable portion of 
the stem, in old trees 1t becomes obsolete. The stem of the 
mature tree is, in fact, made up of a series of hollow cylinders 
of woody tissue tapering to the top, and placed one inside the 
other. The growth of such a stem is due to the presence of a 
generating tissue unmediately below the bark, which annually 
gives rise to a layer of wood. Hach woody sheath is in 
reality made up of a number of longitudinal strands or bundles 
(the fibro-vascular bundles). Between the bundles, lines may 
be seen radiating out from the centre to the outer edge of the 
wood. These are the medullary or pith rays. The bundles 
comprising such a trunk are said to be open, because the 
generative tissue does not become exhausted, but the stem 
continues to grow in thickness from year to year. Such a 
structure 1s typical of the stem of a pine or dicotyledon., 

On the other hand, in a monocotyledonous tree, such as a 
pahu, the pith always constitutes a considerable portion of the 
stem, and the woody bundles are scattered through it, not 
arranged in a circle round it as in the dicotyledons. Such 
bundles are no longer capable of growth in thickness, as the 
generating tissue 1s exhausted in their production. They are 
therefore said to be closed. The stem of a palm-tree therefore 
tapers but little, and cannot go on increasing in thickness. 
This 1s typical of a monocotyledon™. 


* The stem of the cabbage-tree, Cordyline, is exceptional, 


83 


FAMILY 


PALM 


aH 


THI 


ve (Rhopalostylis sapida), 


TOV 


1 
r 


A Nikau C 


Fig. 15. 


84 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The fan-like appearance of the beautiful leaves is due to the 
splitting up of the large, entire leaf, caused by the shrinkage 
of certain tissues. The flowers are sometimes borne on the 
axils of the leaves, but in other cases are terminal. They 
are, however, always enclosed while in bud, in a large spathe 
or sheath. 

Genus Rhopalostylis. 


Trees with pinnate leaves, and ringed trunks. Flowers in large axillary 
panicles. Flower-buds enclosed in a spathe. Stamens 6. Fruit a drupe. 2.sp. 


Rhopalostylis sapida (The Nikau Pali). 

A tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Stem ringed, green. Leaves 4ft. in 
length. Spathes 2 or 3, 12m. long. Flowering axis white; flowers white. 
Drupe gin. long. Both islands: as far south as Akaroa on the east coast and 
Dusky Bay on the west. 

This elegant and graceful palm is found usually in thick 
bush. Any specimen standing alone will have its leaves 
bruised or broken. The Maoris used the nikau leaves in the 
construction of their whares, or native huts. A frame-work 
was made of manuka sticks, and the roof and walls composed 
of palm leaves, which formed a covering as water-tight as if 
built of iron. These leaves keep out the wet in a marvellous 
manner, even though sitting underneath them, one can see 
the clouds and stars through the interstices. Hvery separate 
leaf division is a little channel, which conducts the rain-drops 
to the ground outside. Nikau whares are extremely pretty 
and picturesque, but are now rarely seen, owing to the 
unfortunate cheapness of corrugated iron. Bushmen, how- 
ever, still make them occasionally for temporary residences. 

The top of the stem is fleshy and juicy, and 1s sometimes 
eaten. The mkau palm will stand fire almost as well as the 
cabbage-tree. After a big bush fire most of the trees are 
killed, except the nikaus, the cabbage-trees, and the fern- 
trees. 

The flowers are sessile upon a thick, fleshy axis, the whole 
inflorescence bemg enclosed when young in a large spathe. 


THE PALM FAMILY 


*(eZIS 


“qeu § 


) 


“ppidvs 


s1Ajsoppdoy sy 


“NBAIN ot] JO pu 


TOMOTLT OL 


9 


T° 


86 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The fruit is of a vivid red when ripe, appearing like a huge 
bunch of coral. The berries are about the size of a large pea, 
and are extremely hard. They have been used by settlers for 
bird-shooting when ammunition was scarce. Though so hard, 
however, they are much relished by the kakas or wild parrots. 
These birds, unable to find foothold upon the smooth stem of 
the palm, hang upside down, with one claw fixed on the base 
of a leaf, and thus enjoy their meal. 


Fig. 17. Flower of the Nikau. Rhopalostylis sapida. (+ nat. size). 


The leaf-strips are much used by the Maoris for weaving 
into baskets and kits of every description. 

The bark is ringed with cicatrices formed by the falling off 
of the dead leaves. The base of a fallen leaf, with the fan-like 
part torn off, makes an excellent basket for carrying flowers. 

A curious six-headed specimen of the nikau, about forty 
feet Iigh, was discovered not long ago in the Kaipara. 
(Fig. 19). 


THE PALM FAMILY 87 


Fig. 18. Flower of Nikau (nat. size), 


8s PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


A species of Polypodium is sometimes found climbing up 
the mkau stem, but as a rule the trunk is too smooth and 
polished to allow creepers to gain any hold upon it. 


Liliaceae. 


THe Lity Faminy. 


Distribution.—An extensive family, occurring in all climates. The greater 
number of these beautiful plants are herbaceous, with bulbous roots, but in 
tropical countries they sometimes attain to the size of large trees. Two of the 
most notable plants of this family, found in New Zealand, are the Cabbage Tree 
(Cordyline australis) and the Flax (Phormiwm tenax). The lilies, tulips, and 
hyacinths are well-known garden flowers, while the onion, leek, and asparagus 
are useful vegetables. The Butcher’s broom is the only shrubby British species. 
The calyx of all liliaceous plants is petaloid, that is, the sepals have the 
appearance of petals. The herbaceous species usually produce large and showy 
flowers. 


Key to the Genera. 


(a) Leaves net-veined. Fruita berry. 


Climbing shrubs. Rhipogonum, p. 90. 
Creeping berbs. Luzuriaga, p. 92. 

(b) Leaves parallel-veined. Fruita berry. 
Glabrous terrestrial herbs. Berries blue. Dianella, p. 98. 
Tutted silky herbs, usually epiphytic. ; Astelia, p. 98. 
Trees, or rarely herbs. Flowers white. Cordyline, p. 92. 

(c) Lea parallel-veined. Fruit a capsule. 

1. Flowers racemed, yellow, with spreading perianth. Bulbinella. 
Flowers panicled. 2 

2. Flowers white, perianth spreading. Pedicels jointed. Arthropodium p. 100. 
Flowers red and yellow, tubular. Phormium, p 102. 
Flowers, solitary, in spathes (sheathing 

bracts), when in bud. Herpolirion, ». 108. 


Genus Rhipogonwmn. 
A genus of three species, one New Zealand and two Australian. Rope-like 
. Perianth of 6 
arlet. (Name 


climbers with alternate leaves, and racemes of greenish flowe 
leaflets. Stamens, 6; longer than the petals. Fruit, a berry, 
from the Greek, meaning jointed twig). 1. sp. 


SC 


THE PALM FAMILY 89 


Fig. 19. Abnormally branched Nikau (Rbopalostylis sapida). 


90 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Rhipogonum scandens (The Climbing Rhipoyonum). 


This 1s one of the most curious plants of the order. No 
one who saw for the first time the black, snaky lane-like 
stems of the supple-jack, would dream of relegating this plant 
to the lily tribe. The flower is green and inconspicuous, and 
is borne in long spikes or racemes, at the end of the shoots. 
It is only by noting the number and arrangement of petals 
and stamens, that one can realize that the Rhipogonum is a 
lily. This strangling creeper forms one of the chief obstacles 
in getting through the bush; and occasionally renders progress 
nnpossible. The brown and black ropes hang and_ twist 
everywhere, binding one tree to another, and forming loops 
and nooses above and below. The leaves, which are seen 
mm any number only near the ends of the shoots, are opposite, 
oval, and entire, thick and leathery, with a metallic sheen 
upon them. The berries are oval, pointed at the end, and of 
a brilliant scarlet. The wiry stems are so strong, that they 
may be used as cords without fear of breaking. Rope-ladders 
have been made from them, for the purpose of climbing the 
steep cliffs which shut in the Wanganui River. They are 
used also in basket-work. In the Chatham Islands, we hear 
of native huts built of fern-posts, lashed together with supple- 
jacks, and thatched with toi grass; also of rafts formed of 
the flower stalks of Phormuim Tenax, spliced with supple- 
jacks. 

The roots of the Rhipogonwm are used by bushmen as a 
medicine, and the plant is sometimes called ‘“ Bush Sarsa- 
parilla.” ‘The native name is fave-ao, which 1s plausibly 
interpreted to mean @ twisting rope. FI. Dec.-Feb. 


Genus Luzuriaga. 


Small, creeping, glabrous herbs, with stems knotted at the joints. Leaves 
with netted venation, alternate. Flowers regular.  Perianth of 6 Jleaficts. 
Fruit a berry. A genus of two species, one in South America and one in New 
Zealand, 


THE LILY FAMILY 91 


Fig. 20. Spray of Supple-jack (4 nat. size), 


92 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Luzuriaga marginata®™ (The Maryinate Luzuriaga). 


A pretty little plant, found chiefly in hilly districts. Leaves shining, #in. 
in leneth. Petioles twisted. Flower terminal, white, }in. long. Berry round. 
Both islands. Fl. Dee. and Jan. (The plant appears under the synonym 
Callizene parviflora in Hooker’s Handbook and as Enargea marginata in 
Cheeseman). 


Genus Cordyline. 


A genus found in New Zealand, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The five 
New Zealand species are all endemic. Herbs or trees. Leaves crowded, and 
sword-like. Flowers regular, bell-shaped, white. Stamens inserted on the 
petals. Berry whitish, containing angular, black seeds. (Name from the Greek 
signifying a club). 5. sp. 


Cordyline belongs to the sub-family Dracenoideae, and is 
therefore related to the dragon-trees. Dragon’s blood is the 
resin which exudes from the bark of Dracena Draco. A very 
famous specimen of this tree existed on the island of Teneriffe. 
It was supposed to be about 6000 years old, but was 
unfortunately blown down in 1868. It was then 70 feet 
high, and nearly 45 feet in girth. 

A pecular secondary thickening of the stem takes place 
in this sub-family. The primary arrangement of the bundles 
of the stem is the same as in one of the palm-trees (v. 
p. 82); but after all the woody cylinders have been originated 
and are in course of development, a generating tissue appears in 
certain regions of the stem round the bundles, and grows 
radially, thus giving rise to secondary wood. For a fuller 
description of the processes of division and extension of the 
erowing tissue, some text book of anatomy should be con- 
sulted. The anatomy of the stem in the New Zealand species 
of Cordyline does not appear to be known at all fully, and 
would probably afford a profitable subject of investigation. 

Diels makes a curious mistake with regard to C. australis. 
He is surprised to find that it has a xerophytic structure, 


‘This name is given on the authority of Engler and Prantl’s PAanzenfamilien. 


THE LILY FAMILY 93 


though it grows, according to him, in dense shade. As a 
matter of fact, the cabbage tree, though often found in swamps, 
is characteristic of open dry lands and bave grassy hill sides. 
(See fig. 21). It is, therefore, not a matter for wonder that 
the leaves should have devices protecting them against 
excessive transpiration. The stomata are placed in the grooves 
of the leaves, and are covered by cuticular projections, and 
thus the passage of gases from and into the leaf is checked. 


Fig. 21. Cabbage Tree Bush. 
A similar arrangement is to be found in Dracophyllum 
latifolium. 
Cordyline australis. 
(Ti-kouka. The Cabbage Tree, or Palm Lily). 
This is allied to the celebrated Ti (Cordyline terminalis) of 


the South Sea Islands, which formed an important part of the 
food of the Polynesians. The prepared roots were eaten, and 


94 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


from them an intoxicating drink was also obtained. The leaves 
are eaten by cattle. They are also used in thatching, and a 
rough kind of cloth is woven from the fibres. The genus is 
found over the greater part of the tropical old world, but 
chiefly in New Zealand, Australia, and the islands of the 
Pacific. There are several interesting species found in New 


Zealand—some tall and palm-lhke,—others stemless, sending 


up their long, narrow leaves straight from the crown of the 
plant just above the soil. 

The cabbage-tree forius one of the most striking objects of 
the New Zealand bush scenery. Its inappropriate name 1s 
said to have been given by the early settlers, who used the 
young and tender heads in place of cabbage. Palm Lily, 
however, 1s a better term. The long bare stems, with 
thei bushy heads of grass-like leaves, cannot be confounded 
with those of any other tree, and give to the landscape a 


py 


THE LILY FAMILY 95 


strangely tropical appearance. It is one of the largest of the 


linaceous plants. Colenso states that he once saw a specimen, 


Fig. 23. Cordyline australis (Hower and leat) 4 nat. size. 
the trunk of which was sufficiently large to be used as a store- 
room. A Maori had fitted a door into the trunk, and kept his 
tools and baskets within it, though the tree was still living. 


96 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


These plants appear to be wonderfully tenacious of life,—indeed 
it seems to be almost nnpossible to kill them. A number of 
trees were once cut down and thrown over a fence on to the 
shinely beach of a creek. For eight months they lay there, 
one fortnight rolling up and down in the salt tide, the next 
baking high and dry in the sun. At last an exceptionally 
Ingh tide lifted them back again over the fence into the 
paddock. As soon as they found themselves upon soil once 
more, they sent out rootlets, and shortly afterwards were seen 
to be budding vigorously. 

A gum-digger in the north made his chimney of cabbage- 
tree stems, digging a trench, and setting in the trunks side by 
side. These were then nailed together, and for some months a 
fire was kept ahght continuously,—until the stems were 
burned through, and only parts of the outside bark left. The 
man then left the place, and within a short time, that which 
had been a blackened chunney, became a mass of living green, 
Even a dry chip, flying from the axe, will, if it falls into a damp. 
place, root and bud. The fibre of the leaves 1s perhaps stronger 
than that of the flax (Phormiwn), and is much used by the 
settlers in place of twine. The leaves are well adapted for 
the making of paper. 

The flowers of the various kinds are all white or cream- 
coloured, and give out a strong, sweet scent. They are much 
visited by bees. The fruit 1s not capsular, as is usual among 
the hhaceae, but succulent, and contains a number of angular 
black seeds. 

The cabbage-tree differs from most of its tribe in bearing a 
huge tap-root, instead of bulbs or rhizomes. This root, when 
the plant 1s dead, rots away in the ground, and leaves a 
narrow, round hole, sometimes eight feet in depth. Ferns and 
small plants grow over the hole, and an unwary rider may be 
easily thrown if the horse catch jis foot in it. 

The decaying leaves of the cabbage-tree are often phos- 
phorescent at mght. Pigeons feed upon the muilky-white 


THE LILY FAMILY 97 


Fig. 24. Astelia Cunninghamii (4; nat. size.) 


98 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


berries. It is found in both islands, and flowers m November 
and December. 

Cordyline Banksit is distinguished from Cordyline australis by its much 
longer leaves, 5 ft. to 6 ft. in length, and its drooping panicle of flowers. 

Cordyline indivisa is a smaller tree, not often more than 10 ft. in height. Its 
leaves are very thick and leathery, with yellowish midribs. This plant has also a 
drooping flower-panicle. The fibre of its leaves was used by the Maoris in the 
making of garments, and is said to be stronger than the fibre of the Phormiwm. 

Cordyline pumilio is a small grass-like herb, with leaves not exceeding 2 ft. in 
length, and a loose spreading panicle of white flowers. It is found only in the 
northern parts of the North Island, and is easily distinguished from the other 
species. 

Genus Dianella. 


A small genus, chiefly Australian. Rigid, shining herbs, with large panicles 
of white or blue flowers. Leaves long, narrow. Perianth of 6 leaflets. Stamens 6. 
Filaments incurved. Berry round or oblong. Seed, round. Root a rhizome. 
(Name from the Latin ‘‘ Diana,’’ the Goddess of the woods). 1 sp. 


Dianella intermedia (The Intermediate Dianella). 


This plant is found in woods or open fern lands. The leaves are from 1 ft. 
to 5ft. in length, and the flower panicles 10 in. to 18in. long. Flowers $in. 
across, white or pale blue. Berry 4in. long, blue. Both islands, also Norfolk 
Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


Genus Astelia. 


Large herbs, with heads of sword-hke leaves, usually 
epiphytic. (Name from the Greek, meaning wanting 
a stem or trunk). A very noticeable genus, forming 
immense tufts high up on the branches of the loftiest 
forest trees. The flowers are produced in large spreading 
panicles, like those of the Cabbage-tree (Cordyline). The 
male and female flowers are found upon separate plants, 
and owing to the height at which they grow, there has been 
some difficulty in matching the sexes. Now and again, in 
traversing the bush, one will find a mass which has been torn 
from its support by its own weight, and has fallen to the ground. 
In such a case it 1s possible to examine at leisure the long, 
silky, chaffy leaves, with their sharply defined nerves, and—if it 
happens to be the flowermg or fruiting time—the great silky 


THE LILY FAMILY 99 


panicle of sweet, creamy or purplish blossoms, or close-set, 
transparent, wine-coloured berries. In the European forests, 
the trees invariably shed their leaves during winter, thus 
giving to the smaller plants which grow beneath them a 
possibility of obtaining air and sunshine, which is never 
available in the New Zealand bush. The dark-green gloom 
of the latter is never lightened, and few rays of sunshine can 
ever filter through its leafy roof. The smaller plants are thus 


Fig. 25. Astelia nervosa (3 nat. size) 


threatened with death by suffocation, and their only chance of 
life is to raise themselves to the level of the forest trees, and so 
share with them the upper, sunnier air. Some, starting on 
the ground, wreathe themselves around a sturdy tree-trunk 
and climb steadily, leaving behind them leafless rope-like 
stems, until they reach a place where they may open out into 
leaves and flowers, with some surety of bringing them to 
perfection. Others, like the Astelias, rest securely in the 


100 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


forks of the highest branches, eighty or one hundred feet 
above the ground, appearing to the beholder from below hke 
huge birds’ nests. 

The flowers of Astelia are sometimes tinged with purple ; 
and the long sprays of berries, with mtermingled colours of 
red, yellow, and green, are very pretty. The latter have a 
sweet taste, and are eaten by the Maoris. There are two 
species of New Zealand Asteléas which grow in the open, 
instead of in the bush, and are consequently not epiphytic. 
These are linearis and nervosa, both of which are found in 
sub-alpine districts in the North, but at lower levels in the 
South Island. 

The Astelias, like many other epiphytic plants, provide 
against a long drought, by storing up water in the thick, 
curved bases of their circle of leaves. In the hottest and 
driest summer, when even the great forest trees are beginning 
to show signs of drought, the climber can rarely pull down a 
tuft of Asteka without a sprinkle of water-drops. These 
plants are natives of Australia, Tasmania, the Pacific Islands, 
and New Zealand. The latter country possesses seven species, 
of which all are endemic. The berry is 1-celled in A. linearis, 
and A. Cunninghamii; it is 3-celled in the other species. 


A. Cunninghamii—Leaves 2ft.-5ft. long, 4in. to lin. broad, silky. 
Flower scape 1 ft.-14ft., much branched. Perianth jin. A. Solandri is 
distinguished from 4. Cunninghamii by its broader leaves, (3 in. across), and its. 
larger flowers (4in. in diameter). 4. linearis is a small alpine species, with 
leaves rarely more than 6 in. in length, and long, red berries. 


Genus Arthropodium. 

Herbs, with long grass-like leaves, and large, showy panicles of white flowers. 
Perianth of 6 leaflets; stamens 6. Fruit a capsule; seeds angular, black. 
Roots fibrous, fleshy. A small genus, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New 
Zealand. (Name from the Greek signifying jointed foot or pedicel.) 2 sp. 


Arthropodium cirrhatum (The Curled Arthropodium). 
A handsome plant, 2ft.-3ft. high, with shining leaves and conspicuous white 
flowers. Bracts leafy ; leaves 1ft. long, 14in. broad. Flowers }in.-lin. across. 
The stamens of this plant are exceedingly beautiful. Seen under a magnifying 


THE LILY FAMILY 


Fig. 26. Astelia Banksii Fruit (4 nat. size) 


102 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


glass they resemble small bottle-brushes, covered with orange or pink bristles. 
Northern Island, growing profusely upon rocky clifis. Fl. Noy.-Dec. (Name in 
allusion to the brush-like filaments.) Usually known as the Rock Lily. 


Arthropodium candidum (The White Arthropodium). 
A much smaller plant, usually Jin. or 8in. in height, with soft, grass-like 
leaves. Flower-stem very slender; flowers white, Sin. across, with recurved 
petals. Damp woods, both islands. Fl. Jan.-Feb. 


Genus Bulbinella. 


Herbs, with fibrous or bulbous roots. A large genus, found in all temperate 
climates. Leaves from the root, long and narrow. Flowers in racemes. 
Perianth of 6 leaflets; stamens 6; filaments of stamens bearded. Fruita 
capsule ; seeds black. 2 sp. 


Bulbinella Rossii (Ross’s Bulbinella.) 


A tall, sturdy plant, sometimes reaching 4ft. in height. Stem very thick ; 
leaves 8in.-16in. long, recurved. Flowers yellow, asphodel-like, 4in. across. 
This plant is abundant in Lord Auckland’s group, and in Campbell’s Island, 
while the smaller species, Bulbinella Hookeri, is found in lowland and sub-alpine 
pastures in both the Northern and Southern Islands of New Zealand. The 
flowers are as large as in the former species, but the leaves and the whole plant 
are smaller. It is frequently—at least in the Southern part of New Zealand— 
known as the Maori Onion. In some places a whole mountain side may be seen 
covered with a blaze of yelow from the presence of myriads of racemes of this 
plant. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 


Genus Phormawn. 


Large, tufted, perennial herbs, with fibrous roots, and radical isobilateral 
leaves. Flowersin large panicles. Perianth of 6 leaflets, tubular, red, or yellow. 
Stamens 6, longer than the petals. Fruit a long capsule, many seeded. A 
genus of two species, both endemic. (Name from the Greek for a basket, in 
allusion to the use of the leaves by the Maoris in basket-making). Maori name, 
Harakeke. 


Phormium tenax (The New Zealand Flax, or Flax-Lily). 


This is a remarkable species, peculiar to New Zealand and 
Norfolk Island. Like the cabbage-tree, it forms a distinct and 
unmistakeable feature of the New Zealand landscape. It is 
totally unlike the flax-plant known to Europeans, though the 
two may be compared in the strength and usefulness of their 
fibres. The Linaceae (Flax Tribe) constitute a family in 


THE LILY FAMILY 


Fig. 27. Arthropodium cirrhatum (The Rock Lily) 6) nat. size.) 


104 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


themselves, and are all small, herbaceous plants, with delicate, 
pale-blue petals. But the flax of the New Zealand swamps 
and hillsides is an entirely different plant. The coarse, dark- 
ereen Jeaves are often six feet or more in length, while its 
flower-stem occasionally rises to a height of fifteen feet. The 
finest variety is found by running water, while the plant of 
the stagnant swamp remains comparatively small. 

The settler is never in want of a piece of twine with a flax 
bush growing near his home. He has merely to take one of 
the long leaves, and tear a strip from it, and he holds in his 
hand a piece of string that it 1s almost impossible to break. 
The Phormium fibre is stronger than that of any other flax, but 
it is also more brittle when twisted. As to the treatment of it 
by the natives in the early days, we read in “ Nicholas’s 
Voyage,” (1814), that “the natives, after having cut it down 
and brought it home green in bundles, scrape it with a large 
mussel-shell, and take the heart out of it, splitting it with 
their thumb-nails. The outside they throw away, and spread 
the rest out in the sun to dry, which makes it as white as 
snow. They spin it ina double thread, with the hand on the 
thigh, and then work it into mats, also by hand. Three 
women may work on one mat at a time.” 

This plant was known in England in the early part of the 
nineteenth century. In the Annual Register of 1819, it was 
stated that ropes made from the Phormiuwm had been 
experimented with in the Portsmouth dockyards, and found to 
stand the test. The ropes were said to be strong, phable, and 
very silky. 

A Maori named Tupai visited England in the time of 
George III., and was amused to see a plant of flax growing 
ina pot under glass. It is said to have been cultivated in the 
open by a Frenchman of the name of Freycinet, in 1813, when 
it grew to a height of six feet, and bore a large spike of 
flowers. It seeins also to have been, a little later, successfully 
cultivated in the British Isles, and to have ripened seeds as 


THE LILY FAMILY 105 


far northas the Orkneys. It can bear uninjured a temperature 
of 15° Fahrenheit, and it is only at 9° that the tops of the 
leaves become frost-bitten. It appears to be a plant suitable 
for universal naturalization, on account of the varying 
temperature it will bear unhurt, and the fact that sheep and 
cattle do not usually eat it. 


Fig. 28. Phormium tenax. (The New Zealand Flax.) 

The root of the Phormium 1s a thick, creeping rhizome. 
The leaves have no footstalks, but ascend straight from the 
crown of the plant. The flowers are more curious than 
beautiful, and are of a dull, dingy red, or sometimes yellow 
colour. The dark stamens hang out far below the petals, and 
are tipped with bright yellow anthers. These blossoms secrete 
a great quantity of nectar, which is very attractive to birds. 


106 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


They are visited constantly by the tuis and parrots, which 
thus cross-pollinate them. The seeds are black, shining, flat, 
and packed closely in a capsule. 

This plant has often been used medicinally. A pulp made 
from the roasted and macerated roots is sometimes applied as 
a poultice for abscesses, while a decoction of the same is said 
to act ike a charm upon unbroken chilblains. The soft part 
at the base of the leaf is placed over wounds to stop bleeding, 
though some bushmen have an idea that the juice of the leaf 
acts as a poison to a cut, and aver that cuts obtained in the 
handling of the leaves in a flax-mill usually fester. 

A great quantity of the flax-fibre is now exported annually, 
and is at present valued at £24 per ton. The Maoris used 
this fibre for various purposes, such as making fishing-nets, 
cloth, and many ornamental articles. 

Love-tokens are said to have been made by the Maoris in 
the early days from strips of flax-leaves.* A double slip-knot 
was formed, which, if tightly pulled, ran into one large single 
knot. The double loop was presented by the young Maori to 
his sweetheart, who signified her consent to his silent proposal, 
by drawing the two knots into one. 

A flax-stick, or dried flower stem, is known to colonists as 
a korari, koradi, or kaladi. The first name is of course, the 
correct one (v. Acena). It is very light and full of a 
brown pith. By the Maoris of old time these stems were put 
to many uses. 


THe Lrar oF PHORMIUM. 


The leaf of the flax is one of the strongest and most 
remarkable known. When fully grown it attains a length of from 
three to ten feet, with a breadth of from 3in. to 4in. The colour 
varies from light yellow-green to a deep blue-green, with a 
yellow or red margin. There are, however, many varieties. 
The Maoris recognized more than fifty. Some of the cultivated 


* John White’s ‘Te Rou, or The Maori at Home.” 


THE LILY FAMILY 107 


forms are much more richly tinted than the ordinary wild 
varieties. The bronze-leaved flax is perhaps the finest of 
those usually found in gardens. A variety, said to come from 
the Chatham Islands, has, along with a tinge of bronze in the 
leaves, beautiful crimson, almost translucent margins, and is 
much more pendulous and graceful than the ordinary stiff 
bayonet-lke form. Variegated sports are common. One 
of them at least appears to have originated in the Jardin des 
Plantes at Paris. The leaf is linear-lanceolate in shape with 
an acute point, and is folded longitudinally from tip to base, so 
that at about a third of its length from the point, the two 
upper and inner surfaces of the blade come together, and 
throughout half the length of the leaf are in close contact. 
At the butt of the leaf, the two halves are again separated by 
the younger leaves, which are ensheathed by the older ones. 
Large quantities of gum, which have been a source of great 
ditficulty to rope-makers, are secreted between the halves of 
the blade. The leaves are arranged in fans. After the fan 
has produced its flower, it withers away. 

The minute structure of the foliage is no less remarkable, 
than its form and general appearance. There is perhaps no 
leaf on the face of the earth, that has greater powers of 
withstanding tension than this one. The blade is intersected 
longitudinally, by large numbers of plates of strong-walled 
fibres, placed transversely to the breadth of the leaf. Between 
each pair of plates there are strands of similar fibres, running 
along the surface immediately below the cuticle (skin). Thus. 
a considerable amount of rigidity, accompanied by most 
unusual strength, is developed in the leaves. The rigidity 
enables them, in spite of their length, to stand vertically ; and 
their great strength prevents them from being whipped to 
pieces by the wind. The tenacity of the fibres arises chiefly 
from the fact that the cells of which they are composed are 
dry, hard, filed only with air, and have very much thickened 
cell-walls. Schwendener has calculated that the sustaining 


108 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


power of such cells is equal to that of the best wrought iron 
or hammered steel, while their ductility is from ten to fifteen 
times as great as that of iron. Moreover, such mechanical 
tissues are generally so arranged as to withstand the maximum 
amount of strain, though oceupying the minimum amount of 
space in the leaf. 

Habitat: Both islands, and Norfolk Island. Fl. Nov.-Jan. P. Cookianwn, 


asmall species, is found in both islands on dry hill sides. It is occasionally 
epiphytic. 


Fig. 29. Herpolirion Novae-Zelandiae. 


Genus Herpolirion. 


Creeping, wiry herbs, with narrow, sheathing leaves. Flower-bud enclosed 
in one or more spathes. Perianth 6-parted, tubular. Stamens 6. Fruit a 
capsule. A small alpine genus of two species, one found in New Zealand, and 
one in Australia and Tasmania. (Name from the Greek, signifying a 
creeping lily.) 1 sp. 


Herpolirion Novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand 
Herpolirion). 


This little plant is found in elevated swamps in Nelson and Canterbury, on 
the Taupo plains, and in lowland swamps in Otago and Stewart Island. The 
leaves are narrow and glaucous, lin.-2in. long; the flowers }in.-$in. across, 
white, or pale blue, almost sessile; the bud is enclosed in 2 single spathe. FI. 
Dec.-Feb. 


THE IRIS FAMILY 109 


Iridaceae. 


THE Iris Faminy. 


Distribution.—A large family, chiefly natives of warm and temperate 
regions. Saffron is obtained from Crocus sativus, and orris root is the fragrant 
rhizome of Iris florentina. The Flag, the Gladiolus, the Ixia, and the Crocus 
are well-known garden plants. This family is represented in New Zealand by 
the one genus Libertia. 


Genus Libertia. 

Herbs, with umbellate panicles of white flowers. Stamens with united 
filaments. Capsule rounded, leathery or membranous. Seeds angular, deeply 
pitted in the New Zealand species. (Named after Madame Libert, a French 
botanist). 3 sp. 

Libertia ixioides. (The Lria-like Libertia). 

Stem 6in.-2ft. in height. Leaves narrow, hard, pointed, $in.-tin. broad. 
Flower-stalk panicled. Branches enclosed in spathes, bearing umbels of from 
2-10 white flowers. Perianth #in.-lin. across; petals larger than the sepals. 
Capsule brown or yellow, jin.-3in. long. Both Islands: common. FI. Oct.-Jan. 


Libertia grandiflora. (The Larye-flowered Libertia). 
Stem 2ft.-3ft. high. Leaves $in. broad. Capsule fin.-3in. long, turgid, 
obovoid. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


Orchidaceae. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY. 


Perennial herbs, terrestrial or epiphytic, with remarkably irregular flowers- 
Leaves entire, usually sheathing at the base. Perianth of 6 parts; sepals 3; 
petals 3, the lower of these called the labellum or lip, usually large, spurred, and 
differing in form from the other two. Stamens united with the style to form a 
column, containing from 2-8 masses of pollen. Fruita capsule ; seeds numerous. 


Distribution.—One of the largest orders of plants, consisting of nearly 5,000 
species, and represented in almost every part of the globe, except where the 
climate is excessively cold. The beauty and strange irregular shape of the 
flowers of this order are due to the variation in size, shape, and colour of the six 
parts of the perianth. 


110 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Its Fantastic Flower-Forms. 

“There is no order of plants,” says Dr. Findlay, in his 
paper on Orchidaceae in the ‘ English Cyclopedia,” “ the 
structure of whose flowers is so anomalous as regards the 
relation borne to each other by the parts of reproduction, or 
so singular in respect to the form of the floral envelope. By 
an excessive development and singular conformation of one of 
the petals, called the labellum or lip, and by irregularities, 
either of form, size, or direction of the other sepals and petals, 
by the pecuhar adhesion of these parts to each other, and by 
an occasional suppression of a portion of them, flowers are 
produced so grotesque in form that it is no longer with 
the vegetable kingdom that they can compare, but their 
resemblance must be sought in the animal world.” This is 
no fanciful, far-fetched resemblance, as might be imagined by 
those who have no large acquaintance with these strange 
flowers. Anyone, observing for the first time the bee orchis 
(Ophrys apifera) of the English downs, would find it hard to 
believe that he did not see before him the real insect, so 
exactly does the flower reproduce the brownish-velvety body, 
streaked with gold bands, and the pollen-covered legs. The 
Fly, the Lizard, and the Monkey Orchis are likewise natives 
of Great Britain. 

In tropical countries the flowers of orchids, or parts of them, 
show many curious resemblances to various animals. Grass- 
hoppers, mosquitoes, dragon-flies, butterflies, swans, pelicans, 
the skin of the tiger and of the leopard, the eyes and teeth of 
the lynx, the face of the bull, the grin of the monkey, the head 
of the serpent, the tail of the rattlesnake, frogs, lizards, even the 
head of the extinct Dinotherium, are all mimicked by them. 

The New Zealand species are not so curious in this respect 
as those of most countries, though the little Silverback 
(Corysanthes macrantha), with its lurid purple flowers, and 
long antennae, has somewhat the appearance of a purple 
beetle or cockroach (Fig. 35). Pterostylis graminea and P. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 111 


Bankswt have large, hooded, greenish flowers. Dendrobium 
Cunninghamit, with its many flowered racemes of pale rose 
and white, is perhaps our most beautiful orchid, though the. 
sweet-scented Harina mucronata and H. suaveolens are hardly 
less beautiful. The commonest one is Microtis porrifolia, 
which has a single, cylindrical, tubular, onion-like leaf, bearing 
a flower-spike with numerous small green flowers. 

The family Orchidaceae is found in almost all parts of the 
world, but reaches its highest development in tropical regions. 
In the temperate zone, these plants are chiefly terrestrial, but 
in tropical countries they are usually epiphytic. The Neottia 
nidus-avis of the British woods, like our Gastrodia, is a brown, 
leafless saprophyte, deriving its nourishment from the decay- 
ing organic matter of the soilin which it grows. The finest 
forms come from the Malay Archipelago, and from South 
America. Collectors go to these districts to hunt for new and 
rare plants, and often risk their lives for the sake of getting a 
fresh variety. Though the New Zealand forms are none of 
them large and showy, yet they are full of interest to the 
flower-lover and the naturalist. 


STRUCTURE OF THE ORCHID FLOWER. 


Darwin has shown that the orchid is probably a much 
modified, highly specialized lily. Both orchid and lily have 
three outer, and three inner perianth leaves, though these are 
probably not completely homologous, and in the case of the 
orchid they are generally very irregular and varied in shape. 
In the lily they are usually regular and similar. The stamens 
are reduced in number, generally either one or two anthers 
only being present. The filaments and style are fused 
together to form the “‘column,” in the centre of the flower. 
The anthers are superior to the stigma, but are usually 
separated from it by an intervening platform, termed the 
rostellum, that assists in preventing self- pollination. The 


112 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


pollen grains are collected together into a few club-shaped 
masses termed pollinia. These are often provided with a 
small glutinous pedicel, by which they may be strongly 
cemented to any object with which they come in contact. 
The ovary is inferior, (and in this respect therefore unlike that 
of the lilies), and produces numerous minute seeds. 


Pollination of Orchids. 


Though most of the orchids require cross-pollination, and 
many have elaborate devices to secure it, yet if these fail, 
some of the species can be pollinated from their own anthers. 
Many Orchid flowers remain open for a long time. Thus the 
flower of one species of Cypripediwm is said to last forty days, 
and of another, seventy days. This would seem to suggest 
that insect visits to these species are few and far between. 
Mr. G. M. Thomson also remarks on the infrequency of insect 
visits to those New Zealand orchids which he examined, though 
he attributes this,* in part at any rate, to the general cold- 
ness of the previous season. In spite of all their lures, 
therefore, even the orchids at times are compelled to 
resort to self-pollination. It is impossible to do more than 
mention one or two of the more extraordinary devices, by means 
of which cross-pollination is secured amongst foreign orchids. 
We will then give a short account of the methods adopted by 
New Zealand forms. Perhaps the mode of pollination adopted 
by Coryanthes, as described by Dr. Criiger, 1s one of the most 
extraordinary.t 

“This orchid has part of its labellum or lower lip hollowed 
out into a great bucket, into which drops of almost pure water 
fall from two secreting horns which stand above it, and when 
the bucket is half-full, the water overflows by a spout on one 
side. The basal part of the labellum stands over the bucket, 


*Trans. Vol. XI. 11, p. 418 
+Darwin, Origin of Species, Sixth Edition, pp. 154-155. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 


114 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


and is itself hollowed out into a sort of chamber with two 
lateral entrances; within this chamber there are curious fleshy 
ridges.’ The most ingenious man, if he had not witnessed 
what takes place, could never have imagined what purpose all 
these parts serve. But Dr. Criiger saw crowds of huge 
humble bees visiting the gigantic flowers of this orchid, not in 
order to suck nectar, but to gnaw off the ridges within the 
chamber above the bucket; in doing this they frequently 
pushed each other into the buckets, and their wings being thus 
wetted, they could not fly away, but were compelled to crawl 
out by the passage forming the spout or overflow. Dr. Criiger 
saw ‘a continual procession’ of bees, thus crawling out of 
their involuntary bath. The passage is narrow, and 1s roofed 
over by the column, so that a bee, in forcing its way out, 
first rubs its back against the viscid stigma, and then against 
the viscid glands of the pollen masses. The pollen masses 
are thus glued to the back of the bee which first happens 
to crawl out through the passage of a latelv expanded flower, 
and are thus carried away. . .  .  . When the bee 
thus provided flies to another flower, or to the same flower a 
second time, and is pushed by its comrades into the bucket 
and then crawls out by the passage, the pollen mass necessarily 
comes first into contact with the viscid stigma, and adheres to 
it, and the flower is fertilized. Now at last we see the full use 
of every part of the flower; of the water secreting horns, and 
of the bucket half full of water, which prevents the bees from 
tlying away, and forces them to crawl out through the spout 
and rub against the properly placed viscid pollen masses and 
stigma.” 

In Catasetum, an allied orchid, the method of cross-pollination 
is simpler, but none the less remarkable and effective. The bees 
come to gnaw the ridges of the labellum, and in so doing must 


touch a long sensitive ‘‘ antenna.” This apparently transmits 


a sensation to another part of the flower,—a spring is set free, 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 115 


and the pollen mass is shot out like an arrow against the back 
of the entering bee, which carries it off to the female flower. 


Pollination of some New Zealand Species. 


The methods of pollination of some of the New Zealand 
forms, have been described by Mr. G. M. Thomson and by 
Mr. Cheeseman.“ It would appear from Mr. Thomson’s 
investigations, that several at least of our native orchids are 
self-pollinated. Mr. Fitzgerald has shown in his “ Australian 
Orchids,” that in the genus Thelymitra all forms may be found 
between plants which are regularly self-fertile and are never 
cleistogamic, and those which are completely dependent upon 
insects for pollination. The New Zealand Thelymitra longifolia 
is a very puzzling case. It is one of the commonest of New 
Zealand orchids. In the North Island it is almost everywhere 
abundant except in the dense bush. In the South Island it is 
hardly less common. According to Mr. Cheesemant “ the 
flowers usually open about nine o’clock in the morning, neatly 
reclosing about four or five in the afternoon. There is, 
however, considerable irregularity as to this, some varieties 
only opening for a short time in the middle of the day, others 
remaining expanded for a much longer period.’ On the other 
hand, in the South Island, it is rare to find an open flower. 
Even in fine weather not more than a few per cent. of the 
flowers open properly. The chief reason why flowers do not 
open in wet weather is that rain destroys their pollen; many 
of them therefore close in rain or adopt ingenious con- 
trivances for keeping their pollen dry. Now, Mr. Cheeseman 
has observed, (loc. cit.), that rain reduces the pollen of this 
plant toa pulpy mass. This is perhaps the primary reason 
for its closing. One would consequently expect to find it 
more frequently opened in the drier climate of Australia, than 
in New Zealand. However, observations seem to show the 


* Trans. Vol. V. p. 352, and Vol. XIII., p. 291. 
t Trans. Vol. XIIL., p. 293. 


116 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


reverse to be true. Though the plant is well adapted for 
cross-pollination, imsects rarely visit it. Mr. Cheeseman 
states, ‘‘ For the last seven years I have made it a practice to 
watch beds of this orchid, and, save on two occasions, I have 
never seen winged insects enter the flower, and in both these 
cases the pollinia were not removed.” Out of 218 flowers 
examined, only seven had lost their pollinia. Thus, it would 
appear, that the plant 1s occasionally, though very rarely, 
cross-pollinated. On the other hand, as the species is a 
predominant one, 1t must obviously be largely self-fertilized 
and often  cleistogamic, thus apparently forming an 
exception to the general rule that it is a disadvantage to 
a flower to be self-pollinated.  Harina, Dendrobium, and 
Corysanthes, on the other hand, are apparently completely 
dependent upon insects to secure pollination. The following 
description is abstracted from Mr. G. M. Thomson’s account 
of the pollination of Harina suaveolens: “The flowers are only 
about one-third of an inch in diameter, white in colour, with a 
yellow centre, and with an almost overpoweringly sweet 
perfume. The labellum is 3-lobed, and stands nearly erect in 
front of the column. There is no nectary, but the tissue at the 
base of the labellum is easily punctured, and exudes beads of 
moisture. The column is short and erect, the stigmatic 
surface very concave, with the viscid rostellum projecting 
prominently forward above it. The anther is terminal and 
deciduous, and encloses four pollinia attached in pairs to a 
short stem, and resting on the rostellum. From the position 
of the parts it appears to be impossible that  self-pollination 
could take place. The pollinia are very coherent, and le 
closely ensconced in the anther case. For pollination by 
insects, however, the parts are very simply fitted. An insect, 
visiting the flower, would insert its head or proboscis into the 
small square aperture between the labellum and the column, 
and in withdrawing it would inevitably touch the viscid surface 
of the rostellum, and bring away the pollinia. Were these to 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 


Fig. 31. Earina suaveolens (nat. size). 


118 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


be withdrawn just as they lie on the summit of the column, 
they would hardly be in a position to strike the stigmatic 
surface of another flower in the hollow below the rostellum, 
but in being withdrawn, the cap of the anther pulls them 
shghtly downward and depresses them considerably, so that 
they are easily placed on the stigma of a second flower.” 
Pollination in the genus Pterostylus has been well described 
by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman.* The lip is sensitive, and, when 
touched, closes up against the column. An insect landing upon 
it is thus entrapped, and the only means by which it can escape 
is by the narrow channel left between the column and the lip. 
In passing along this channel, it must strike first the viscid 
stigma below the rostellum, and afterwards the anthers above 
the rostellum. The back of the insect will now be 
sticky, so that it will carry off with it the pollinia, or portions 
of them, to the next flower which it visits, and place them 
upon its stigma. As each plant bears only a solitary flower, it 
is clear that cross-pollination must be effected not only 
between different flowers, but between different plants. The 
flowers of this genus are pollinated by certain species of flies. 
This method of entrapping insects seems to be unique in 
the order. The large green hooded flowers of this genus are, in 
spite of their size, not very conspicuous, and it is not always 
easy to determine what attraction they possess for the insects. 


The Absorption of Moisture. 


Orchids are not only remarkable for the structure of the 
flower, and for their methods of pollination, but in many other 
ways. Thus, they have often highly specialized methods of 
absorbing moisture. There is in New Zealand, a minute 
species of Bolbophyllum, B. Pygmeum. It is not uncommon, 
but is frequently overlooked, as it is so inconspicuous. 
The genus has received its generic name, because, at the base 
of each leaflet, is a small bulb, in which are concealed the 


‘Trans. Vol. V., p. 352. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 


Fig. 32. Pterostylis Banksii (% nat. size). 


120 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


stomata by which the plant transpires. The object of this 
arrangement 1s two-fold. It enables free transpiration to go on 
in the wet season, when the plant is surrounded by moisture 
that would otherwise choke the pores; and, in the dry season, the 
concealment of the pores checks excessive transpiration. Again, 
Dendrobium and Karina very frequently grow upon trees, or in 
the clefts of rocks. In such situations, of course, no moisture 
can be received from the soil; and if the leaves were thin and 
broad, there would be excessive transpiration, and the plant 
would wither. Consequently, they are narrowed, and have 
become rather thick and leathery. The dimensions given in 
Hooker’s Handbook for the breadth of the leaves in these 


genera are: H. mucronata + to ¢ in., EH. suaveolens 4 in., 


D. Cunninghama 3 in. Contrast these leaves with those of a 
shade-growing plant like Corysanthes macrantha. The latter 
has round flaccid leaves full of moisture, which would soon 
wither if exposed to strong sunhght. In Microtis, the leaf 
has been rolled up into a cylinder, no doubt with the object of 
conserving its moisture. In Bolbophyllum, the leaf has been 
reduced to a scale-like process. 

But Harina and Dendrobium, have not only endeavoured to 
check transpiration through the leaves, they have also increased 
the root surface, and specialized it for the absorption of 
moisture. After clamping themselves to the rock, or to the bark 
of a tree, by their roots, they produce numerous other white, 
membranous, papery, filamentous roots. The outer surface of 
these roots is composed of a spongy tissue, that cannot fail to 
absorb any moisture in the vicinity. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Perennial epiphytes or rock plants. 2 
Roots terrestrial, stems annual. 6 
2. Pollen granular, 3 
Pollen waxy. 4 
3. Stem slender, leafy, Sepals free. Disk of lip 
naked. Earina p. 122. 
4. Leaves not on pseudobulbs 5 


Leaves on pseudobulbs. Bolbopbyllum p. 124. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 121 


Fig. 33. Earina suaveolens on tree bark. 


PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


yay, 
5. Stem,slender, leafy. Lateral sepals attached 
to column. Lip with crests on its face. Dendrobium, p, 124. 
Stems very short, leafy. Lip concave, middle 
lobe solid. *Sarcochilus. 
6. Plants with 1 or more leaves. 
Plants leafless. Flowers numerous, brown. Gastrodia, p. 124. 
7. Leaf solitary (2 in Caladenia bifolia). 8 
Leaves 2 or more. 15 
8. Leaf solitary, broad, membranous. 9 
Leaf solitary, slender, flat or terete (2 broad 
in Caladenia bifolia). 12 
9. Flower 1. 10 
Flowers few. 11 
10. Flower sessile, purple, large. Sepals long, 
filiform. Corysanthes., p. 125 
Flower with a long stalk. Sepals broad, 
upper concave. *Adenochilus. 
11. Sepals and petals acuminate or awned. Acianthus, p. 124. 
Sepals and petals linear, obtuse. Cyrtostylis, p. 125. 
12. Leaf tubular. Flowers many, minute, lip 
below. Microtis, p. 125. 
Leaf rounded, linear or flat, but not tubular. : 13 
13. Flowers many, minute, with lip uppermost. *Prasophyllum. 
Flowers few, pink, blue or yellow. 14 
14. Leaf flat. Flowers 1-4, pink. Lip glandular. Caladenia, p. 125. 
Leaf, rounded, thick. Flowers 1 or more, 
yellowish or blue. Lip, sepals, and 
petals all similar. Thelymitra, p. 126. 
15. Flowers solitary. 
Flowers more than one. 16 
16. Flower large, green, helmeted. Lip narrow. Pterostylis, p. 126. 
Upper sepal arched. Lip with large purple 
gland. *Chiloglottis. 
17. Flowers numerous. Upper sepal oblong, *Spiranthes. 
Flowers several. Upper sepal helmeted. 18 
18. Lip with 5 ridges. *Lyperanthus. 
Lip 3-lobed. Orthoceras, p. 127. 
*Not further described. 
Genus Earina. 
Epiphytic herbs. Leaves, narrow, leathery, numerous. Flowers in terminal 


Sepals and petals almost equal in 
Fruit a capsule. (Name from the 


spikes, white, lip touched with yellow. 
shape; lip 3-lobed. Pollen masses 4. 
Greek signifying Spring-flowering). 


Earina mucronata (The Sharp-pointed Earina). 
Leaves strap-shaped, 4in.-Gin. long, 4in. broad, marked with whitish 
longitudinal lines. Flowers in slender panicles, white, tin. broad, lips spotted. 
Fragrant. Root fibrous, fleshy. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 2 sp. 


Earina suaveolens (The Fragrant Earina). 

Leaves linear, alternate, 2in.-3in. long, 4in. broad, rigid. Flowers in 
short, stiff racemes, larger than in mucronata. Sepals oblong. Petals ovate. 
Lip broad, 3-lobed, with two orange spots. Peduncle twisted, spotted with 
black dots, as are the backs of the sepals. Both islands. Fl. April-June. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 123 


Fig. 34. Dendrobium Cunninghamii (} nat. size) 


124 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Dendrobvum. 

Epiphytic herbs, rigid in habit. Leaves, narrow, numerous. Flowers large, 
usually racemed, rarely solitary. Petals smaller than the sepals. Lip large, 
3-lobed. Pollen-masses, 4. A large genus, many of whose plants are cultivated 
for the beauty of their flowers. (Name from the Greek, signifying ¢ree-life, in 
allusion to the epiphytic habit). 1 sp. 


Dendrobium Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Dendrobiwn). 

Stems shining, branched, pendulous, 1ft.-2ft. in length. Leaves lin.-1din. 
long, tin. broad, pale green, striped. Flowers in short racemes, #in. across, pale 
rose-coloured. Petals as long as the sepals. Lip with a small claw. Both 
islands. Fl. Nov.-Feb. 


Genus Bolbophyllum. 


Minute, leathery, epiphytic herbs. Stem matted, bearing small tubers or 
bulbs, each carrying one or two leaves. Flower solitary or spiked, very similar 
to Dendrobium. (Name from the Greek, signifying leaf-bulb). 1 sp. 


Bolbophyllum pygmzeum (The Pygmy Bolbophyllum). 
A very minute species. Bulbs no larger than a pea. Leaf solitary, sessile. 
Flower solitary, minute. Both Islands. 


Genus Gastrodia. 

Terrestrial, leafless herbs, with twisted fleshy roots. Stem clothed with 
brown scales. Flowers drooping, in racemes, brownish white. Petals smaller 
than the sepals. Pollen-masses, 4. Found only in Australia, New Zealand, 
Tasmania, and the Indian Islands. (Name from the Greek, signifying pot- 
bellied). 


Gastrodia Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Gastrodia). 

A curious plant, 2ft. in height, with a thick, starchy root-stock, which was 
sometimes used as food by the natives. Flowers, 10-20 upon a spike, dirty-green, 
spotted with white, aromatic but unpleasant. Not uncommon in damp bush in 
both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 3 sp. 


Genus Acianthus. 
Slender herbs, with tuberous roots, and one single heart-shaped leaf. 
Flowers large for the size of the plant, green or brown. Pollen-masses 8. (Name 
from the Greek signifying pointed-flower). 1 sp. 


Acianthus Sinclairii (Sinclair's Acianthus). 
A tiny, transparent-looking plant, with small greenish-white flowers, two to 
six iInaraceme. Leaf deeply two-lobed at the base. Common in the North 
Island. Fl. Aug. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 125 


Genus Cyrtostylis. 
These are similar plants to Acianthus, difiering only in the winged column, 
and un-awned perianth. (Name from the Greek, signifying a curved colin). 


Cyrtostylis oblonga has an oblong leaf, and C. rotundifolia, a round one. 
The former may be found in both islands; the latter on the east coast of the 
Northern Island only. 


Genus Corysanthes. 


Small fleshy herbs, with broad leaves, and solitary purple flowers. Petals 
smaller than the sepals. Pollen-masses four. Found in Australia, New Zealand, 
and the Malay Archipelago. The species are usually distinguished by the varying 
shape of the leaves, e.g. C. triloba, C. oblonga, C. rotundifolia. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying helmet-flowered). 2 sp. 


Corysanthes macrantha (The Large-fowered Corysanthes). 
This is the largest of all the species. Leaf lin.-14in. broad, very thick, 
silvery on the under-side. Flowers 4in.-lin. across, deep purple, with long- 
tailed slender sepals and petals. Lip broad, spotted, recurved. Both islands : 
damp bush. Also in Lord Auckland’s group. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 


Genus Microtis. 
Erect slender herbs, with sheathing leaves. Flowers in a thick spike, green, 
minute. Pollen-masses four. A small genus, chiefly Australian. (Name de- 
rived from the Greek, meaning a little ear). 1 sp. 


Microtis porrifolia (The Onion-leaved Microtis). 
A variable plant, from 6in.-24in. high. Leaf solitary, tubular. Flower- 
spike 20-80-flowered. Flowers yyin. long, green. Abundant in both islands. 
Fl. Oct.-Jan. 


Genus Caladena. 


Slender, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaf solitary (rarely 2). Scape 1-4-flowered. 
Column winged. Pollen-magses four. (Name from the Greek, signifying a 
beautiful gland). 


Caladenia minor (The Lesser Caladenia). 


A slender, hairy plant, 2in.-8in. high. Leaf solitary, narrow. Flower 
solitary, pink or purple, jin.-4in. across. Lip 3-lobed. Abundant on dry hills 
in the Northern Island. Found also in Otago. Fl. Oct.-Jan. C. Lyallii is 
a larger plant, with 1-2 flowers, 4in.-lin. broad. C. bifolia is a distinct plant, 
with two radical, oblong leaves, and a solitary flower, #in.-lin. broad. Lip 
broad, entire, with two lines of glands. Found on grassy hills in both islands. 


126 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


1 Re +e oe 
Genus Pterostylis. 

Slender, leafy, shining herbs, with tuberous roots, and solitary green 
flowers. Leaves radical or cauline. Column broadly winged. Pollen-masses 
4. A genus confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying a winged column). 11 sp. 


Fig. 35. Corysanthes macrantha (3 nat. size). 


Pterostylis Banksii (Banks’ Pterostylis). 
A tall, slender herb, with numerous alternate leaves, and solitary, hood- 
shaped green flowers, striped with white. Stem Gin.-18in. high ; flower 2in.-3in. 
long. P. graminea is very similar to P. Banksii. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Jan. 


Genus Thelymitra. 

Erect, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaves 1 or 2, narrow, with a membranous 
sheath below. Flowers in a short spike, blue, purple, or yellow. Column hooded. 
Pollen masses 4. A large genus, found only in Australia, Tasmania, New 
Zealand, and the mountains of Java. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the 
hooded column capping the anther). 8 sp. 


THE ORCHID FAMILY 127 


Thelymitra longifolia (The Long-leaved Thelymitra). 
A variable plant. Leaves jin.-lin. broad, leathery. Spike 2-10 flowered. 
Flowers }in.-3in. broad, blue or purple. 
Thelymitra pulchella (The Pretty Thelymitra) is a large-flowered species ; 
T. Colensoi (Colenso’s Thelymitra) and 7. imberbis (The Beardless Thelymitra) 
have yellow flowers. 


Genus Orthoceras. 
Erect, glabrous herbs, 10in.-12in. high, with tuberous roots, and radical, 
grassy leaves. Upper sepal hooded ; lateral sepals lengthened into long tails, 
erect. Pollen masses 2. (Name from the Greek, signifying a straight horn). 1 sp. 


Orthoceras Solandri (Solander’s Orthoceras). 

Leaves very narrow, with sheathing bases. Flower-spike 2in.-6in. long. 
Bracts large, boat-shaped, greenish-brown. Flower 4in. long, livid purple. 
Lateral sepals 3in.-1jin. long. Lip drooping, with yellow stripe. Abundant on 
clay hills in the North Island. Also found in Nelson. 


Piperaceae. 


THE PEPPER FAMILY. 


Distribution.—The pepper plants are mostly natives of tropical or sub- 
tropical regions. The structure of the wood is anomalous, but it is too 
complicated for description here. The Piperaceae are noted for their pungent 
leaves. Piper nigrum, the pepper-vine, produces our table pepper. This plant 
bears spikes of red fruits, which, when dried by heat, become black and shrivelled. 
These are known as peppercorns, and are ground into powder, forming 
Black Pepper. White Pepper is obtained from the same fruit macerated in 
water. The Kawa of the South Sea Islands is a member of this family, and is 
closely related to the New Zealand Piper excelsum. 


Genus Peperomia. 

A large genus of 400 species, with two representatives in New Zealand. 
Stems and leaves fleshy, bright green. Flowers in erect catkins. Stamens 2. 
Ovary sessile; stigma sessile; berry sessile. (Name from its affinity to the 
Pepper). 


128 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Peperomia Upvilleana (D’ Urville’s Peperomia). 

A juicy creeping herb, 4in.-10in. high. Leaves alternate, 3in.-lin. long, 
broadly oblong, obtuse. Catkin with a footstalk, pale-green, erect, lin.-1ld4in. 
long. North Island: wet rocks, mossy stumps, etc. Kermadec Island, Norfolk 
Island. Fl. March-April. 

Genus Piper. 

A large tropical genus of climbing shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate. 
Flowers in erect, solitary, or twin catkins, axillary, green. Stamens 2. Ovary 
sessile ; stigmas 2-5. 


Macropiper excelsum (The Lofty Pepper). 


A small tree, sometimes 20ft. in height, shining, aromatic. Leaves heart- 


shaped, 3in.-5in. long, pointed at the tip, 5-7 nerved at the base. Leaf-stalks 
winged at the base. Catkins slender, lin.-4in. long. Fruit a yellow berry. 
Both islands as far south as Banks Peninsula. Kermadec Islands. Fl. Oct.- 
Nov. Maori name Kawakawva. 

A decoction of the leaves 1s used by the natives to allay 
toothache, to cure rheumatic pains, and also to reduce 
swellings or inflammation of any kind. The wet leaves and 
twigs slowly burned produce a bitter smoke, said to be fatal to 
insect life. 


Fagaceae. 


THE CHIEF FEATURES OF THE FAMILY. 


The flowers of the order are small and inconspicuous, and as they are adapted 
to wind pollination, have no special devices for attracting insects. Stamens and 
pistil are found on the same plant, but in different flowers. The male flowers 
are generally borne in catkins. 

Distribution.-—No older family of dicotyledonous trees than this is known. 
It includes the birch, alder, hazel, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. Closely 
allied to these are the willow, poplar, and walnut. The earliest oaks come from 
the Cretaceous, and were coeval with the first undoubted dicotyledons. The 
method by which the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac in some plants of the 
order is of a highly archaic type, known elsewhere only among the primitive 
Casuariniae (she-oaks, etc.) of Australia. If antiquity, then, were a claim to 
representation in the New Zealand forests, this family should be conspicuous 
by the number of its species. It is, however, represented here only by some 


THE PEPPER FAMILY 


Fig. 36. 


Macropiper excelsum (% nat. size). 


130 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


half-dozen species belonging to the southern genus Nothofagus, which is found 
also in South America and Australia. In the northern hemisphere on the other 
hand, the family is very largely developed, and includes most of the important 
deciduous trees of North America and the Eurasian Continent. The forests, 
therefore, of the north temperate zone are really of older type than those of 
south temperate regions. 

In South America, however, Nothofagus in many places forms as large a 
component of the flora as in New Zealand. Darwin’s description, in ‘‘ The 
Voyage of a Naturalist,’’ of the forests of Tierra del Fuego, might well have been 
written of some bush creek in south-western Otago. Replace Fagus betuloides 
by a local species, and the Winter’s Bark by the closely allied Drimys avillaris, 
and the picture is now completely true for New Zealand. 

Probably nowhere else in the southern hemisphere could one find two such 
similar forests, sundered by an ocean one-third of the circumference of the earth 
in width. 


THE BrEEcH FOREST. 


The beech is a most attractive tree, whether growing in 
countless hosts, or in solitary state. When scattered over a 
plain, such as the valley of the Upper Hutt, it gives the 
landscape a spacious and park-lke aspect. It is equally as 
handsome, when it covers the folds of some giant alp with a 
garment of uniform thickness and changeless hue. Perhaps 
the beech forest is most beautiful when its depths are illuminated 
by the rays of sunset. 

It often happens in Canterbury, during a north-west gale, 
that just before nightfall the sun drops below the heavy 
curtain of clouds into the clear arch of sky below, and “ at 
evening it is light.” As the level beams are thrown into the 
recesses of some sombre bush-clad ravine in the foot-hills, 
the sight is one to be remembered for a lifetime. Though 
quite natural, it seems, from the vividness of its spectacular 
effects, unnatural. The giant himbs of the trees push forth on 
all sides with lance-like thrust, and the inter-spaces between 
thei wide-spreading horizontal branches, form pathways, by 
which the shafted hight can penetrate far into the bush. ‘The 
great halls of greenery are revealed in vista after vista, and in 
the background are seen the brown, dead leaves, that ‘“‘lag the 
forest brook along,” for in these drier districts there is little 


THE BEECH TREE 131 


ae yee 


In the Beech Forest 


132 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


undergrowth. Over the countless green mosaics of the living 
branches, with their two-ranked twigs and leaves, the evening 
sunshine passes, and stirs into activity all the hfe within, 
at the same time throwing into relief the infinite detail of 
tracery and arabesque in bough and bole. The bearded lichens 
trailing from the branches are almost motionless, though the 
wind thunders overhead. One side of the valley is in the 
dimmest twilight, whilst on the other every shoot flares out in 
almost garish distinctness. The contrast is a violent one; but 
it is soon gone, and only the rosy colours of the clouds above 
remain to break the darkness. With sunset the north-wester 
always lulls for a short time, and then its roar gives place 
to the coo-ee of the weka and the melancholy ery of the owl. 


DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND SPECIES. 


The genus Nothofagus has some half-dozen representatives 
in New Zealand, all forest trees known to bushmen as “birch,’” 
but more correctly termed beech. It is now futile to hope that. 
the more exact name will become popular ; but we might at least. 
expect some consistent nomenclature to be adopted through 
the islands. At present the various species are designated 
almost indifferently, white, red, black, silver birch, etc. What. 
is the white birch in one part of the country may be the black 
in another. Mr. T. Kirk proposed a set of names, which 
might well replace the confused series now in use. Indeed, 
the same authority tells us that “it is not too much to say 
that the blundering use of common names in connection 
with the New Zealand beeches, when the timber has been 
employed in bridges and constructive works, has caused 
waste and loss to the value of thousands of pounds.” The 
use of the name birch in place of beech is, perhaps, somewhat 
excusable, as both N. Menztesti of New Zealand and N.- 
betuloides of South America show some external resemblance 
to the English birch. 


THE BEECH FAMILY 133 


Unhke most of the other New Zealand trees, the beeches 
form great forests in which few other plants are to be found. 
Ordinarily, the bush is extremely varied. Sometimes as many 
as forty or fifty species of trees and shrubs can be found in an 
acre of ground,—a greater variety than exists in the whole of 
the British Isles. In Europe, on the contrary, one or two 
species of trees generally constitute the greater part of the 
forest. Amongst these, the beech may be mentioned as a 
dominant form. Fossil evidence seems to show that the oak 
in many places has given way to it. We know too little of 
the past history of New Zealand, to enable us to determine if 
the beech forests are on the increase or decrease here. Dr. 
Cockayne considers that their distribution tends to show that 
they are decreasing. This may be so, but beech forests that 
have been cut out, if left undisturbed by man and animals, 
will soon replace themselves. Other forest-forming trees do 
not do this. The kauri, at least, is decadent, and the white 
pine forests are largely confined toswamps, which often dry up 
on the felling of the bush. Whereas the beeches are found both 
in wet and dry lands; though they seem to prefer the drier 
slopes of the mountains. 

N. cliffortioides is a sub-alpine species only coming down to 
sea-level in south-western Otago. N. Menziesii is found at 
similar levels from Hauraki Gulf southward. N. Solandri is 
perhaps the most abundant of our beeches, and forms immense 
forests, particularly in drier situations, throughout the islands 
as far north as the East Cape. On the dry eastern slopes of 
the Canterbury ranges there is little else to be found in the 
forests. N. fusca is more sparsely distributed throughout the 
islands, being found in wetter situations. It is rarer in 
Canterbury Province than in any other, though found in 
small quantity on Banks Peninsula. One remarkable feature 
in connection with the distribution of the beeches, is their 
total absence from Stewart Island. This is quite inexplicable 


134 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


at present. It can scarcely be thought that they have never 
existed there. Possibly they have been displaced. 


Genus Nothofagus. 
G Nothofay 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves leathery, stipules deciduous. Male flowers several. 
Perianth bell-shaped, 5-G-lobed. Stamens, 8-12, inserted round a central disk. 
Female catkins usually erect; flowers, 2-4, sessile, with an involucre formed of 
small scales. Ovary, 3-celled; cells, l-ovuled. Fruit consisting of from 2-4 
angular nuts enclosed in a prickly 4-valved involucre. (Name, signifying the 
Southern Beech). 


N. Menziesii (Wenztes’ Beech). 


A large tree, SOft.-100ft. in height, with silvery bark. Young shoots clothed 
with brown hairs. Leaves shining, dark green, din. long, ovate or rounded, 
obtuse, crenate. Fruiting involucre downy, 4in.-}in. long, with soft spines, 
glandular at the tips. Nuts downy, 2-3-winged ; wings sharp, pointed. North 
Island: Ruahine Mountains and Waikare Lake; South Island: from Nelson 
to Dusky Bay. The *Silver Birch or Red Birch. Fl. Nov.-March. 


N. fusca (The Dusky Beech). 


Trunk 80ft.-100ft. in height, sometimes 12ft. in diameter. Branches downy. 
Leaves lin.-lfin. long, oblong-ovate, serrate. Male flowers 1-3; perianth 
5-toothed. Fruiting involucre ovate. Nuts winged; wings toothed. North 
Island : mountainous districts ; South Island: abundant. The * Black Birch or 
Red Birch. 


N. Solandri (Solander’s Beech). 


Trunk 100ft. in height, 4ft.-5ft. in diameter. Bark white in young trees, 
black in old. Young shoots very downy. Leaves }in.-jin. long, oblong, obtuse, 
entire, oblique at the base, white below. Male flowers solitary ; perianth broad. 
Fruiting involucre, hairy or shining, jin. long; segments with scales entire or 
toothed. North Island: mountain forests ; South Island: alt. 3,000ft.-6,000ft. 
The * White Birch. Fl. Nov.-Jan,. 


N. cliffortioides (The Cliffortia-like Beech). 


A small tree, with leaves rounded or cordate at the base, in other respects 
resembling N. Solandri. North Island: Ruahine Mountains; South Island: 
Alps of Nelson and Canterbury. (Cliffortia is a genus of the Rosaceae.) The 
* Mountain Birch. 


“These names are comnmion but unreliable. 


135 


BEECH FAMILY 


THE 


nat. size). 


3 
+ 


Flower and leaf (4 


Nothofagus Menziesii. 


Fig. 38. 


136 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Urticaceae. 


THE NETTLE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A family of under 500 species found in almost every part 
of the globe. The Nettles are the best-known plants belonging to it. The 
stamens are bent down in the bud and often explode when ripe. Some of the 
species yield remarkably tenacious fibres, which are used in cordage. (Name 
from the Latin, signifying to burn, from the burning, stinging sensation caused 
by the hairs of the nettles.) 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Tree, juice milky. Male flowers spiked. Paratrophis, p. 136. 
Shrubs or herbs, juice watery. 2 

2. Leaves with stinging hairs. Flowersin spikes or racemes. Urtica, p. 136. 
Leaves without stinging hairs. Flowers in cymes or 

clusters. 3 

3. Shrubs. Leaves entire. Stamens, 4. Parietaria, p. 138 
Herbs. 4 

4. Herbs, leaves crenate. Stamen 1. tAustralina. 


Herbs, with red brown leaves. Flowers in afleshy receptacle. Elatostema, p. 138. 
tNot further described. 


Genus Paratrophis. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, hard, evergreen. Flowers in spikes or 
catkins, diecious. Perianth of 4 leaflets. Ovary, ovoid; styles, 2. Fruit a nut 
or drupe, 1-seeded. A small genus, chiefly tropical. 3 sp. 


Paratrophis microphyllus (Zhe Smatl-leaved Paratrophis). 


Tree, sometimes 30-40 ft. in height. If a slit be cut in the bark of this 
tree, a thick, sweet, milky juice will flow from it. Leaves $ in.-2 in. long, oblong, 
toothed. Male flowers in catkins, 4in.-}in. long; female in short spikes or 
clusters, whitish green. Drupe, red. Both islands. The Milk-tree of the 
settlers. Fl. Oct.-Noy. 


Genus Urtica. 


Herbs or shrubs, with stinging hairs. Leaves, opposite; flowers in axillary 
clusters or spikes. Calyx of male flowers 4-partite, stamens 4. Calyx of female 
flowers 2 or unequally 4-partite; stigma tufted. Ovary, ovoid. Ovule, erect. 
Fruit a small dry nut. About 30 species, natives of tropical and temperate 
regions. 4 sp. 


Urtica ferox (The Fierce Nettle). 

A tall shrub; stem woody; stinging hairs rigid, 4 in.-} in. long. Leaves 
Qin. - 5in. long, variable in shape, coarsely serrate teeth ending in a hard bristle. 
Leaf-stalks also covered with stinging hairs. Flowers in racemes. Both islands. 
Fl. Jan.-March. Maori name Onga-onga, 


137 


FAMILY 


TTLE 


*, 
th 


Z 
ca) 
a 


). 


size 


llus (about nat. 


y 


ratrophis microph 


Pa: 


Fig 39 


138 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The stinging sensation produced by this plant will sometimes last for three 
or four days. 
Genus Parietaria 
Weak herbs, rarely small shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, offen downy. 
Flowers in axillary cymes. Male flowers with 4-partite perianth. Stamens, 4. 
Female flowers tubular; perianth, 4-partite. Ovary ovoid; ovule erect. Nut 
minute. A small but widely distributed genus; found in waste places. The 


Pellitory is a well-known English plant of the genus. (Ancient Latin name 
referring to the growth of some species on walls). 1 sp. 


Parietaria debilis. (The Weak-stemmed Parictaria). 


Slender annual. Stem, 6 in.-24 in. long. Leaves, } in.-2 in. long, ovate, 
acute. Female flowers in dense clusters. Both islands, common. FI. 
Nov.-Dee. 


Genus Hlatostema. 


Succulent herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves unequal-sided, bronzed or brown- 
red. Flowers often inconspicuous, surrounded by fleshy involucres. Male flower 
with a perianth of 2 or 4 pointed leaflets. Female flowers with a small, im- 
perfect perianth. Fruit a small compressed nut. A large tropical genus. 1 sp. 


Elatostema rugosa. (The Wrinkled Elatostema). 


A robust herb, shining or downy. Stem, 1ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves, 
4in.-10in. long, alternate, sessile, acute, toothed, auricled at the base. 
Flowers, dicecious. Male flowers, with fleshy receptacles 4in. across, surrounded 
by bracts. Female flowers with smaller, more hairy receptacles. North Island : 
damp bush, or by the sides of creeks. 


Loranthaceae. 


THE MistLetoE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—The plants of the Mistletoe Family belong chiefly to the 
hotter parts of Asia and America, though a few are found in Europe, Africa, and 
New Zealand. In the genus Loranthus, a cup-like expansion of the flower-stalk 
just below the perianth is considered by some botanists to be a calyx, and the 
4-8 lobes of the pcrianth are regarded as petals. The members of this family are 
wll partially parasitic, and grow on trees and shrubs. 


A plant, which can get the whole or part of its 
carbonaceous food by robbing another, will require either no 


THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 139 


leaves, or leaves considerably reduced in size. Hence it is 
that many parasitic plants have a very much reduced stem 
structure and leaf area. In some of them little more than a 
flower is developed, cf. Cuscuta, Cassytha, Dactylanthus. 
Since parasites do not grow like other plants in the soil, but 
send out processes which penetrate into the woody tissues of 
their hosts, their method of germination is often quite 
abnormal. Very frequently also the seed leaves are poorly 
developed or altogether wanting, and the parts of the embryo 
are but little differentiated. (Contrast A vicennia.) 

New Zealand is very rich as compared with Great Britain 
in woody parasites. In England there is only one such plant, 
the Mistletoe (Viscum album). It grows commonly on soft- 
wooded trees such as the poplar, silver fir, and apple. It 
rarely attacks the oak, and when it did so it was an object of 
worship to the Druids of early Britain. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Leaves 0., branches jointed, flattened. Viscum, p. 144. 
Leaves present. 2 
2. Leaves opposite. Flowers hermaphrodite. Loranthus, p. 139. 


Leaves opposite and alternate, flowers dicecious. Tupeia, p. 144. 


Genus Loranthus. 


An extremely interesting genus of about 200 species, all the members of 
which are semi-parasitic shrubs. Flowers solitary or in racemes. Calyx cup- 
shaped, more or less toothed. Corolla tubular, petals 4, free or united below. 
Stamens 4, inserted on the petals. Style slender, deciduous. 6 sp. 


The genus Loranthus is widely distributed throughout 
tropical and sub-tropical regions, and some of the species 
produce handsome and brilliant flowers in great abundance. 
The finest of the New Zealand forms is L. tetrapetalus. It is 
found most frequently upon Nothofagus Solandrt. No finer 
floral display can be seen in New Zealand than a gloomy forest 
of Fagus trees lit up by immense masses of scarlet Loranthus 
flowers, glowing like jewels among the dark green leaves of 
the beech. It is seen, perhaps, at its best when one rows up 


140 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


some sluggish lowland stream such as the Turakino, through 
beech forest, whose boughs, brilliant with Loranthus 
blossom, meet overhead. Tourists are very apt to mistake 
this plant for the rata. L. Fieldie* is perhaps as fine, but it is 
little known. It grows in the beech forests to the south 
and west of Ruapehu. Myr. Field says of it, ‘ The Loranthus 
forms large bushes in the tops of the trees, and the blossoms 
are so abundant as almost to hide the foliage, so that each 
bush, when in flower, looks lke a flame. I believe the 
largest bushes are quite ten feet in diameter, and those of six 
feet ave common. As the blossoms fall, the whole ground is 
sprinkled with petals. They are yellow at their bases, but 
shade gradually, through orange and scarlet, to crimson, and 
even carmine at the tips.” 

The flowers of this species open in a curious fashion, for 
which at present no explanation is forthcoming. A few open 
outwards from the apex in a normal way; but in most of 
them the petals become detached at their bases, and roll 
upwards and outwards (c.f. Anightia excelsa.) The weight 
drags the stamens downwards, and these finally break 
off and fall to the ground, with the petals still attached to 
them. We have probably here some curious and unexplained 
device to secure cross-pollination; but the description 
given by Mr. Field is obscure at one or two points, and, as in 
a conjuror’s trick, the facts which have not been observed, 
are probably the facts necessary for a solution of the problem. 

L. micranthus is the species that 1s most abundant in the 
lowland forests. It is almost everywhere common in any 
piece of “bush” on the East Coast, from the Bay of Islands 
southwards. It has many different hosts, and 1s sometimes 
found in unexpected places. It has been obtained upon totara, 
Carmichaelia, Coprosma, and even upon Rubus (the bush 
lawyer). It also flourishes upon many introduced plants. 
Mr. Potts noticed if upon the plum, pear, Abatilon, 


‘Trans. XVIL., p. 288. 


THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 141 


white-thorn, pink-thorn, peach, and laburnum, at Ohinitahi 
(Lyttelton). At Akaroa it grows abundantly, and flourishes 
upon the false-acacia (Robinia). The great variety of its 
habitats probably shows that the plant is not very dependent 
on its hosts for nourishment. Indeed, its mass of green, 
glabrous, glossy leaves look as if they could easily sustain it. 
Obviously, when growing on the Robinia, it must, like the 
English Mistletoe, sustain itself during the winter, as the false 
acacia is deciduous. 

The means by which the New Zealand species obtain their 
nourishment, and their methods of germination, have not been 
closely observed. Mr. Potts ( Out in the Open,” p. 136) has 
however, described with some detail the early stages in the 
growth of ZL. micranthus. The berries of all loranths are 
extremely attractive to birds. In the case of L. micranthus, 
as they ripen they become whitish, or slightly roseate, and 
finally assume a rich golden-yellow hue. As soon as they are 
ripe they are greedily eaten. Before the introduction of 
foreign birds, they were probably eaten by the tui and the 
bell-bird ; now it is the blackbird and thrush that feed upon 
them. The seeds pass through the digestive canal of the 
bird, and are glued by its slimy excrement to the branches of 
trees. In some cases, doubtless, the viscid pulp of the berries 
themselves enables the seeds to adhere to the branches of the 
tree, so that it is not absolutely necessary that they should be 
eaten. ‘In the first stage towards development,” says Mr. 
Potts, “the adherent seed may be seen lying on the fostering 
spray, quite firmly fixed, covered over with a strong coating 
of transparent varnish ; the indication of the future growth, a 
smooth green speck at the large end of the seed.” For some 
time no feeding stems are put forth. Long branches some- 
what resembling rhizomes of a polypodium are then produced, 
and follow the course of the branch of the host, sometimes 
even descending the trunk of the main tree. Where these 
stems cross each other they inosculate. At different points 


142 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


they send out suckers into the tree, and at these points, 
rounded woody lumps ave formed, invested with dark-brown 
membranous scales. The earher leaves of the plant are 
strongly tinged with reddish purple, some are of a pale bronze 
margined with claret, and the branches are of a rich warm 
brown. Some years elapse before the plants assume the 
darker shades of green. 

L. Fieldii often puts out short rootlets which clasp the 
branch, and frequently grows on branches simaller than 
itself. ‘“ Thus,” Field (loc. cit.), ‘‘ one with roots from one to 
one and a half inches thick will grow on a branch no thicker 
than a man’s little finger, which, of course, bends down with 
its weight, so that the Loranthus swings about with every 
breath of air.” Yet it 1s evident that the plant is nourished 
by the beech tree, for, if the beech 1s killed, the Loranthus 
invariably dies with it. 

There are many points of interest known with regard to 
the development of Huropean species of Loranthus, and a 
closer investigation of New Zealand forms will undoubtedly 
well repay the labour spent upon it. 


Loranthus Colensoi (Colenso’s Mistletoe). 


A large glabrous shrub. Leaves 1$ in.-2 in. long, broadly oblong or 
obovate, with a short stout petiole. Flowers 14 in.-2 in. long, scarlet, in pairs, 
on a short, stout, 3-9-flowered peduncle. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 

LL. Freldiv is a little-known somewhat similar species from the centre of the 
North Island. 


Loranthus tetrapetalus (The Four-petaled Mistletoe). 


A much branched rigid shrub. Leaves decussate, $ in.-} in. long, ovate or 
elliptic. Flowers axillary, in opposite 2-4-flowered racemes. Petals free, scarlet, 
recurved at the tips. Both islands. Common on Nothofagus Solandri. Fl. 
Jan.-Feb. 


Loranthus flavidus (The Yellow Mistletoe). 


Leaves 1 in.-2 in. long. Racemes drooping, 10-12 flowered. Flower 
yellow, $ in. long. Both islands. 


THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 143 


Fig. 40. Tupeia antarctica (pistillate flowers and berries) (4 nat. size.) 


144 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Loranthus micranthus (The Small-fowered Mistletoe). 


Leaves 14 in.-3 in. long, obovate or oblong. Flowers minute, green, + in. 
long. Abundant throughout the islands. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Viscum. 

Parasitical shrubs. The New Zealand species are leafless, small, with 
flattened, jointed branches, much constricted at the joints. Flowers very 
minute, unisexual, in spikes, or solitary, or whorled at the joints of the 
branches. Male flower : perianth 3- or 4-leaved, anthers sessile on the perianth 
lobes ; female flower : perianth 3- or 4-lobed. Style 0 or short, stigma obtuse. 
Name from the Greek. 2 sp. 

To this genus belongs the Mistletoe. Round it clings many 
a myth from old Keltic and Teutonic times. The New 
Zealand species, however, are insignificant, and seem to have 
been unnoticed by the Maoris. The mode of attachment to 
the host 1s quite unknown. The European mistletoe puts out 
a radicle which terminates in an attachment disk, that 
becomes cemented to the host. From the centre of this disk 
is pushed out a “sinker ”’ into the tissues of the branch below. 
No further development takes place in the first year. 
Subsequently, there is developed an extremely complicated 
series of suckers, which may be compared to a rake in shape. 
The process is very intricate, but highly interesting. 


Viscum salicornioides (The Salicornia-like Mistletoe). 
A small plant, much branched, 3 in.-4 in. high. Joints $ in.-4 in. long, 
rounded. Flowers very minute, solitary or few together. Perianth 3-lobed. 
Both islands, parasitic on various shrubs. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Viscum Lindsayi (Lindsay's Mistletoe). 

A small plant, 4 in.-6 in. high, branching, succulent. Joints of stem flat, 
rather longer than broad, s in. broad. Flowers in spikes, } in. long, very 
minute, Perianth 3-lobed. Parasitic on Coprosma, Metrosideros, Melicope, etc. 
South Island. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Genus Tupeia. 


Distribution.—An endemic genus of one species. It does not, like 
Loranthus, send out rhizomes which fasten themselves at many points to the 
host, but has only one root. It is found parasitic on many different plants ; in 
the south, perhaps, most frequently upon Panaz. In the north of Auckland, 


THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 145 


however, it is the tarata (Pittosporwun eugemoides) which is attacked almost 
exclusively. jases of double parasitism have been frequently observed in 
connection with Tupeia. Thus, in Riccarton Bush, Mr. J. B. Armstrong 
discovered Loranthus micranthus growing upon it. At Broken River, Mr. T. 
Kirk found Loranthus tetrapetalus growing on Nothofagus Solandri, and itself 
bearing 7. antarctica. 


The staminate flowers of Tupeia are found in panicles, in 
which the individual blossoms are not only more numerous, 
but larger in size than those on the pistillate panicles. Both 
forms are of a greenish yellow hue. The berries are beautiful 
and very varied in colour, ranging from white and pink to 
deep purple on the same branch. The flowers and leaves 
droop unmediately the parasite is cut away from its host. 


Tupeia antarctica (The Antarctic Tupeia). 


Leaves 4 in.-14 in. long, obovate, with short petioles, pale-green. Panicles 
6-10 flowered. Flowers $ in. in diameter, greenish-yellow. Both islands. FI. 
Oct.-Dec. 


Proteaceae. 


Distribution.—A remarkable family, found chiefly in Australia and the 
Cape of Good Hope. Many species are grown for their curious or brilliant 
flowers. The Australian Bottle-Brush (Banksia) is one of the most remarkable 
species. Leucodendron argentewm is the Silver-Tree of the Cape. 


Key to the Genera. 


A small tree. Leaves entire. Fruit a drupe. Persoonia. 
A lofty tree. Leaves serrate. Fruit dry. Knightia. 


Genus Knightia. 


Slender, lofty trees. Leaves leathery, shining, serrate, Flowers in dense 
cone-shaped racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, the 4 segments finally 
; ipl weenie 
separating and becoming revolute. Ovules 4. Follicle 1-celled. Seeds winged 
at the tip. A genus of two species, one of which is found in New Caledonia. 
(Named after Knight, a writer on vegetable physiology), 
11 


146 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Knightia excelsa. (The Honey-suckle). 


A tree, sometimes reaching to the height of 100ft. Leaves 4 in. - Sin. long, 
stiff, roughly notched or toothed, obtuse, linear-oblong. Flowers in racemes, 


sessile, red, velvety, 2in.- 3in. long, 2in. in diameter. Perianth lin. - 14in. 


long before expansion ; ,y in. diameter in the middle. Follicle woody. North 
Island and Pelorus sound. Fl. Nov.-Dec.. Maori name Rewa-rewa. It is 
sometimes called the Bucket-of-water-tree, because it is so slow of com- 
bustion. 

This plant is related to the Australian bottle-brushes. It 
is found only in the North Island and Marlborough, and, from 
a distance, bears a considerable resemblance to the Lombardy 
poplar. Several points in the growth and development of the 
long tubular flowers are worthy of notice. The buds are set 
round a long floral axis, and the whole cluster has a strange 
appearance, lke a bottle brush composed of red velvet. The 
gradual opening of these buds is very curious, and well worth 
watching. The top of the tube opens first, very slightly, so 
as to expose the tip of the style. It then splits open, for a 
short distance, into four separate segments at the base of the 
perianth, leaving the tube still for the most part closed. 
Finally, it bursts suddenly, and the four elastic segments 
thus set free, roll themselves downwards, and coil into spiral 
bands at the base of the perianth. The flower, now fully open, 
presents a strange, tangled appearance, very different from 
that of the bud. 

The anthers, which are attached to the top of the perianth, 
and in contact with the style, mature their pollen, while the 
tube is still closed, and deposit 1t upon the swollen portion of 
the style. This would suggest a device for self-pollination, 
but a closer examination shows that it is, after all, an 
ingenious contrivance to provide for cross-pollination. The 
stiginatic surface is minute, and depressed in a small cup at 
the top of the stigma. The flower is much visited by the 
tuis and bell-birds. These birds, pushing their beaks into a 
bunch of newly-opened flowers, receive the pollen upon the 
front of the head, and probably smear it over the stigmas of 


THE BOTTLE-BRUSH FAMILY 147 


Fig. 41. Knightia excelsa (Bud and flower) (4 nat. size). 


148 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


more fully developed clusters. The stigmas ripen later than 
the anthers, and there is consequently little hkelihood of self- 
pollination. The opening of the flower, and its subsequent 
pollination, would afford excellent subjects of observation for 
a nature study class. The wood of this tree is much used for 
ornamental cabinet-work. 


Genus Persoonta. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, leathery, variable. Flowers axillary, in 
short spikes or racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, opening by 4 segments. 
Ovules 1 or 2. Drupe with a 1 or 2-celled nut. A large Australian genus. 
(Name after Persoon, a botanist of Cape Colony). 1 sp. 


Persoonia toru. (The Toru or Toro). 
A small tree. Leaves narrow, 3 in. - 8 in. long, leathery, entire, polished on 
both surfaces. Flowers in axillary 6-10 flowered racemes, 1 in. long. Perianth 
din. long. Ovary sessile, shining. North Island: Auckland only. FI. Oct.-Nov. 


Santalaceae. 


THE SANDAL-woop FamIny. 


Distribution.—A widely distributed family. The species found in Europe 
and North America are herbaceous, while those inhabiting India, Australia, and 
New Zealand, are shrubby or arborescent. Santalwm album, (The Sandal-wood), 
an Indian species, is much prized for the fragrance of its wood. The family is 
represented in New Zealand by two genera, each consisting of one species only. 


Genus Santalum 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate or opposite. Flowers cymose, axillary, 
green. Perianth bell-shaped, composed of 4-5 leaflets, hairy at the base. 
Stamens, 4-5. Disk, 4-5-lobed. Ovules, 2-4. Drupe, round, or shaped like a 
top, 1-seeded. An Asiatic, Australian, and Pacific Island genus. 


Santalum Cunninghamii. (Cunningham’s Sandal-wood). 

A small tree, with variable leaves, opposite in young plants, alternate in 
mature trees, 2in. - 4in. long, dotted, veined. Flowers, tin. - fin. long, 4 - 5 lobed. 
Drupe, 4in. long. North Island: northwards from the east coast. 


ROOT PARASITES 149 


Balanophoraceae. 


A Famity or Root Parasiras. 


Distribution.—A small family, chiefly tropical, of which Balanophora and 
Cynomorium are the principal genera. The latter was the Fungus Melitensis of 
the Crusaders. The New Zealand species is endemic. 


Lire History. 

There 1s perhaps no more remarkable family of flowering 
plants than this. Its members are all root-parasites, and like 
all parasites, have become very much reduced in structure. 

The life history of one of the Balanophoraceae is shortly as 
follows. The seed, which is very rudimentary, falls to the 
ground, and reaches a suitable root buried under the vegetable 
mould of the forest. It adheres to the root, and forms a little 
tubercle. The bark of the host is broken open, and an 
extraordinary series of developments takes place, that has as 
yet received no adequate explanation. The wood fibres of the 
host separate into a fan-like mass, and being diverted from 
their original course, pass up towards the parasite. This in 
its turn sends out cells and vessels, which penetrate between 
the ascending vascular bundles of the host; and, by the 
coalescence of the tissues of the two plants, an intermediate 
zone is formed, composed partly of the cells of each, though, 
in some still stranger cases, there are also developed cells whose 
origin cannot be definitely referred to either plant. This 
phenomenon somewhat resembles a natural grafting, but it is 
a grafting between plants of completely different types. 

The tubercle now grows to the size of a fist, or larger, and 
short, thick, fleshy shoots are sent out from it. These do not 
develop true leaves, but in many cases produce scales, which 
surround the flower-heads. The flowers are either terminal 
or in spikes. The colouring of these flower shoots is often 
most remarkable. They are frequently fungoid in appearance. 
Indeed, early writers of the nineteenth century were so 


150 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


puzzled by their resemblance to fungi, that they considered 
them to be in some fashion crosses between a fungus and a 
co} 
flowering plant. Such an idea, of course, appears ridiculous in 
the light of modern knowledge. Crosses or hybrids only occur 
5 oD od wo 
between closely allied forms. The Balanophoraceae are true 
flowering plants, that have become highly specialized in 
order to maintain their existence. Although they mimic 
fungoid growths, they are no more closely related to the 
funei than penguins are to fishes. 
fo) to) 


Fig. 42. Dactylanthus, from Taylor's New Zealand, 


Dactylanthus Taylori (Taylor's Dactylanthus). 

There is only one representative of the order in New 
Zealand, Dactylanthus. This solitary species forms a distinct 
tribe by itself. It was originally discovered in New Zealand by 
the Rev. R. Taylor in 1857, growing on roots of Pittosporum and 
Nothofagus, somewhere near the head waters of the Wanganui. 
Since then it has been met with on several occasions, in widely 
different parts of the North Island; but it is evidently not 
common. My. Taylor describes it as having an earthy and 


ROOT PARASITES 151 


rather unpleasant smell*. On the other hand Mr. Hill, who 
found it in the East Cape district, states that it was “the 
delicious daphne-like fragrance which it einitted,” that first 
drew his attention to it. Our plant, indeed, is not one of 
the foul-smelling or fungoid forms, although the flowering 
stems are inconspicuous and of a dull-brown colour, and are 
clothed with overlapping fleshy scales. According to Taylor, 
the “ petals of the flowers are slightly tinged with pink in the 
centre, but in general they are of a dirty white and brown 
colour.” 

By the Maoris the plant is called Pua-o-te-reinga (The 
flower of Hades). Why this term was applied to it, is not 
clear, but it seems not inappropriate. It has been found on 
the roots of Scheflera digitata and Coprosma grandifolia, as 
well as on the roots of the plants already mentioned. Fusanus 
Cunninghamit and Euphrasia cuneata ave also, it is believed, 
partly root parasites. (The name Dactylanthus is from the 
Greek, meaning Finger-flowered, in allusion to the finger-like 
spike). 


Polygonaceae. 


THE BuckWHEAT FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A widely distributed family of plants, occurring both in 
arctic and tropical regions. The leaves and stems are usually acid or astringent, 
and frequently contain oxalic or malic acid. The Rhubarb, Sorrel, Dock, and 
Buckwheat are well-known members of this family. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Flowers, unisexual. Miihlenbeckia, p. 152 
Flowers, hermaphrodite. 9. 

2. Stigmas, tufted. Rumex, p. 152. 
Stigmas capitate. Polygonum. 152. 


*Rev. R. Taylor. New Zealand, and its Inhabitants, p. 697. 


152 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Polygonum. 


Very variable herbs, rarely shrubs, sometimes aquatic. Stipules often 
fringed. Flowers white or red, usually in spikes or racemes, sometimes axillary 
and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed; stamens usually 6-8. Ovary triangular. A 
large genus, of which the British species are known as knot-grass, bistort, etc. 
(Name from the Greek, meaning many knots, in allusion to the knotted stems). 
3 sp. 


Polygonum aviculare. (The Conunon Knot-grass). 


Stem woody at the base. Branches hard, grooved, often prostrate, 6in. - 24in. 
long. Leaves in. - 1din. long, leathery, linear oblong ; stipules silvery, ragged. 
Flowers small, axillary, 1-3. Nut triangular. Very common on waste ground, 
perhaps introduced. Fl. Dec.-March. 


Genus Mtihlenbeckia. 


Shrubs, often climbing. Flowers usually spiked or panicled, sometimes 
axillary and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed, becoming fleshy in fruit, white. 
Stamens, 8. Ovary triangular in shape. Nut ovoid, black, enclosed in the white, 
fleshy perianth. A small genus found in South America, New Zealand and 
Australia. 4 sp. 


Muhlenbeckia adpressa. (The Close-fitting Miihlenbeckia). 


A large rambling climber. Stem, twining, grooved. Leaves 4-in. - 2in. 
long, oblong or heart-shaped, 3-lobed in young plants. Flowers in spiked 
panicles, green, small. Stigmas, plumose. Nut black, enclosed in the white 
fleshy perianth. Both islands: common. Also in Norfolk Island, Australia and 
Tasmania. Fl, Nov. 


Muhlenbeckia complexa. (The Clasping Miihlenbeckia). 


Stems slender, creeping or climbing, interlacing, wiry, grooved. Leaves 
shining, }-inch -3inch long, rounded or heart-shaped. Flowers in spikes or 
panicles, few. Nut black, enclosed in the white fleshy perianth. Both islands. 
Fl. Nov. 


Muhlenbeckia axillaris. (The Axillary-Flowered Mihlenbeckia). 


A small, variable species, with slender, tufted branches. Leaves small, 
shining, 7pin. - fin. long, oblong, obtuse. Flowers axillary, solitary. Perianth 
fleshy in fruit. Both islands: chiefly in mountainous districts. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Rumen. 


Herbs, rarely shrubby. Stipules ragged. Flowers in racemes or panicles, 
inconspicuous, green or reddish. Sepals, 6, the 3 inner enlarged. Styles 3. 
Fruit a triangular nut, covered by the three enlarged inner sepals. A large and 


widely distributed genus, to which belong the Docks and the Sorrels. 2 sp. 


THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY 


Fig. 43. Mtihlenbeckia complexa (4 nat, size) 


154 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Rumex flexuosus. (The Tortuous Dock). 


A much branched herb, 1ft. - 2ft. long, prostrate, shining. Leaves 4-in. - 8in. 
long, linear-oblong, sometimes waved at the margins. Flowers in distinct 
whorls. Lobes of perianth in fruit f;in. long, veined, sometimes with 1-4 
spines, keeled. Keel sometimes spiny. Both islands: common. Fl. Noy.- 
March. 


Fig. 44. Miiblenbeckia axillaris. Fruit (life size). 


Chenopodiaceae. 


THE BEET FamIny. 


Distribution.—A large family, distributed all over the world. Soda was at 
one time obtained from the ashes of those species which grow in salt marshes. 
Spinach (Spinacia) and beet (Beta) are used as table vegetables. 


Sand-dunes, sea-marshes, deserts, and old lake bottoms are 
more or less impregnated with salts of sodium, calcium, 
magnesium, and potassium. Plants growing in such situations 


THE BEET FAMILY 155 


are termed halophytes, and it is in these localities that most 
of the chenopods are found. Wherever the ground, on 
drying, rapidly becomes encrusted with salt, there only 
halophytes can grow. Plants usually halophytic may, 
however, sometimes be found in soils that do not contain any 
specially large amount of alkaline constituents; but in such 
positions they often lose many of their chief characteristics. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Stem leafless, cylindrical, jointed. Salicornia, p. 156. 
Stem leafy, not jointed. 2 

2. Perianth without bracts. Chenopodiuin, p. 155. 
Perianth with bracts, in the female flowers at least. 3 

3. Perianth of male flowers without bracts. tAtriplex. 
Perianth of male flowers bracteate. 4 

4. Perianth fleshy in the fruit. lSuaeda. 
Perianth winged or keeled in the fruit. Salsola, p. 155. 


{Not further described. 


Genus Chenopodium. 
Herbs, often covered with a mealy dust, composed of the bladder-like, readily 
separable cells of the hairs which cover the stems and leaves. Flowers 2-sexual, 
small, greenish. Perianth 3-5 partite. A large genus of way-side weeds, the 


fat-hens and goose-foots. (Name from the Greek signifying goose-foot). 7 sp. 


Chenopodium triandrum (Lhe Triandrous Chenopodium.) 

Stems 6 in.-12 in. high, much branched. Leaves $ in.-% in. long, entire. 
Flowers minute, fascicled at the ends of the branches. Stamens 2-4. Both 
islands, Auckland to Otago. Fl. Nov.-Mar. This species appears to be endemic 
in New Zealand. The specific name ‘‘ triandrum’’ implies that there are three 


free stamens. 


Genus Salsola. 


Herbs or shrubs, with fleshy, often prickly leaves, extremely saline- 
Flowers minute, axillary, 2-sexual. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt). 


1 sp. 


Salsola australis (The Southern Salsola). 
A low woody shrub, 1 ft.-2 ft. high. Leaves hard, sharp-pointed, ovate, 
4 in.-} in. long. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and stamens usually 5. This. 
is, perhaps, the same as the northern Salsola kali, which, as its name implies, 
was at one time one of the chief sources of alkali. 


156 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Salicornia. 
Succulent, jointed, leafless herbs. Flowers minute, 2-sexual, sunk in the 
joints of the stem. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt-horn). 1 sp. 


Salicornia indica (The Indian Salicornia). 

Stems prostrate. Branches ascending 6 in.-12 in. long. Joints variable in 
size, sometimes bright pink in colour. Branches terminating in cylindrical 
cones. Calyx fleshy. Stamens, 1 or 2. Fruit membranous. Both islands : 
stony or muddy beaches. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 


Caryophyllaceae. 


FAMILY OF PINKS. 


Distribution.—A large family, distributed over cold and temperate regions. 
With the exception of the Pinks and Carnations, the flowers of the order are of 
little general interest. Many of them are British weeds, and a number of them 
have been introduced into the Colony. The juices possess no active properties 
except in the case of Saponaria, which contains the poisonous principle 
saponine. 

Key to the Genera. 


1. Sepals 4 or 5, united or free. 1 
Sepals 2. Hectorella. p. 158. 
2. Sepals free or united only at the base. 3 
Calyx 5 toothed and nerved. |Gypsophila. 
3. Petals 0. tColobanthus. 
Petals present. 4 
4. Stipules 0. Stellaria, p. 156. 
Stipules present, membranous. +Spergularia. 


(| Not further described). 


Genus Stellaria. 

Usually weak, straggling herbs, with small white flowers, found in temperate 
and cold regions. Petals and sepals 4-5. Stamens 8-10. Of 80 species, 6 are 
endemic in New Zealand. Many others have become naturalized. The chick- 
weeds, stitchworts, &c., belong to this genus. (Name from the Latin, in allusion 
to the star-like appearance of the flower). 


Stellaria Roughii (Rough’s Chickweed). 

This is a very distinct species, found only in the alpine districts of the South 
Island. It is an erect, succulent herb, not more than four inches in height. 
Leaves 4 in.-§ in. long. Flowers 3 in,-}? in. across, terminal, solitary, green. 
Petals smaller than the sepals. Seeds large, brown, hairy. 


FAMILY OF PINKS 157 


FLORA OF THE SHINGLE Fans. 

The range of mountains known as the Southern Alps is a 
very ancient one, and comparatively dry on its eastern slopes. 
Consequently, there is not a sufficient amount of denudation 
to carry off to lower levels, the broken rock formed by the 
winter’s frosts. Immense masses of detritus collect on the 
eastern flanks, forming in many places great shingle fans, which 
are thousands of feet in height. In these localities have been 
developed certain highly specialized plants not to be found 
elsewhere. One of these, Notothlaspt rosulatum, is elsewhere 
described at some length, others are Stellaria Roughti, Cotula 
atrata, Ligusticum carnosulum, Craspedia alpina, Lobelia 
Roughw. It is the first of these that we have now to deal 
with. It grows at an altitude of from 4,000 ft. to 6,500 ft., 
on the shingle slips in various parts of Canterbury and 
Nelson. 

It is obvious that the ordinary chickweed of the garden 
could not exist for long at such an altitude. Such a flaccid, 
weak, prostrate plant would soon be broken and bruised by the 
rain of shingle from above, or destroyed by the heat of summer 
and the frosts of winter. For few, if any, plant habitats are so 
subject to extremes of climate and the violence of storms, as 
the shingle ship. In summer, the surface layers are dry, and 
burning hot. In winter, they are wet, and even when not 
covered by snow, icy cold. At a considerable depth below 
the surface is a stream of water, often derived from melting 
snow. At all seasons of the year, furious gales blow over the 
unsheltered surfaces of the fans. In winter, the south-west 
winds drive over them, laden with snow and sleet, and in 
summer, they are swept by the no less furious, and sometimes 
parching nor’-westers. Only a plant with a constitution of 
surpassing hardiness and vigour can live under such rigorous 
conditions. One of the strangest features in connection with 
them, is that they endure all these hardships with little or no 


soil to feed upon. 


158 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Let us consider, shortly, how this alpine chickweed has 
endeavoured to adapt itself to its remarkable habitat. Like 
nearly all the other shingle plants, it has adopted as its colour 
the dusky grey of its surroundings. Further, it is the only 
erect. native chickweeed, and thus, by its habit, it is to some 
extent protected from moving shingle. Dr. Cockayne has 
erown it from seed, and studied its changes of form.* Seeds 
collected on Mount Torlesse, and grown at New Brighton 
(Canterbury), took more than a year to germinate, and some of 
them a year and tenmonths. The first pair of leaves after the 
cotyledons, were spathulate, and of rather a glaucous green, 
with long petioles. In the adult plant the leaves are sessile 
and linear, and thus well protected from excessive trans- 
pivation. This reduction of leaf surface may also be regarded 
as a protection against excessive insolation. Hiven in the 
earlier stages of the plant both surfaces of the leaf are 
protected by a thick cuticle, and on the under-surface there 1s 
in addition a two-layered epidermis. Thus the colour, habit, 
leaf-form, and leaf-structures are all doubtless adaptations to 
environment. 


Genus Hectorella. 


A genus of one species, which is a small, tufted, fleshy plant, with leathery, 
imbricating leaves. The flowers are white, nearly sessile; stems 1 in.-14 in. in 
height. Flowers } in. long. Capsule membranous. Named in honour of Dr. 
Hector who discovered it in the alpine districts of Otago. 


Hectorella cespitosa (The Tufted Hectorella). 


This is a curious alpine patch plant of somewhat uncertain position. It is 
generally included in the Portulaceae, but as Diels has shown, it should almost 
certainly be regarded as one of the Caryophyllaceae. It was originally discovered 
by Sir James Hector in 1862. The flowers are arranged in circles, on the 
flattened tops of the branches. It is probable that the structures which Hooker 
considered to be two sepals, are really sepaloid bracts, and that what he termed 
the corolla is a petaloid calyx. If these interpretations are correct, then the plant 
is closely allied to such a Caryophyllaceous plant as Lyallia of Kerguelen’s 
Land. 


Trans. XXXIIL p. 267. 


THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY 159 


Nyctaginaceae. 


THE Marvet or Perv Faminy. 

Distribution.—A small family of plants, principally natives of warm 
countries. Mirabilis dichotoma is the garden plant known as the Marvel of 
Peru, or the Four o’clock Plant, from its habit of opening its flowers at that 
hour of the afternoon. Bougainvillea spectabilis is remarkable for its large 
rose-coloured bracts. Pisonia is the only New Zealand genus. The prickly 
seeds of P. Brunoniana exude a glutinous substance which adheres to the wings 
of small birds, and makes them easy of capture. Another West Indian species 
has strong hooked spines on its branches, which render it an annoyance to 
travellers. 


Genus Pisonia. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, alternate or whorled. Flowers small, 


green or reddish, in terminal corymbs. Perianth 5-lobed. Stamens 6-10, 
unequal. 1 sp. 


Pisonia Brunoniana (The Parapara). 
A small tree, 12 ft.-15 ft. in height. Leaves opposite or whorled, 4 in.- 
12 in. long, oblong, weak, entire. Flowers in compound cymes, hairy, 2 in.-4 in. 
across. Perianth 4 in. long. Stamens 7. Perianth of the fruit sticky, ribbed, 
lin.-1$ in. long. Maori name para-para, sometimes called by the settlers the 
Bird-catching plant. North Island: Ngunguru, Whangarei. Fl. nearly all 
the year round. 


Aizoaceae. 


THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A family of nearly 500 species, found chiefly in tropical and 
sub-tropical regions, notably in South Africa. 


Key to the Genera. 


Leaves angular. Petals many. Mesembryanthemum. 
Leaves flat, petioled. Petals absent. Tetragonia. 


Genus Mesembryanthemum. 

Xerophytic herbs, usually creeping, offen succulent. Leaves opposite, 
without stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals and 
stamens numerous. Ovary with 5 or more cells. Fruit a capsule opening in 
moist air only; seeds minute. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the time 
at which the flower expands.) 2 sp. 


160 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Mesembryanthemum australe (The Southern 
Mesembryanthemum). 


Stems 1 ft.-2 ft. in length, prostrate, rooting at the nodes. Leaves united 
at the base, 1 in.-3 in. long, thick, fleshy, shining. Flower-stems short, thick. 
Flowers with spreading petals, % in.-1 in. across, white or pink. Petals 50-60. 
Styles 5-8. Ovary 5-8 celled. Both islands: abundant on the sea-shore. Fl. 
Nov.-March. Called by colonists, pigs’ faces or ice-plant. 


Genus Tetragonia. 


Herbs, erect or trailing. Leaves succulent, alternate. Flowers axillary. 
Calyx 38-5 lobed. Petals 0. Stamens few or many. Styles 2-8. Ovary 2-8- 
celled. Cells l-ovuled. Fruit round or angular, fleshy, sometimes horned. 
(Name from the Greek, in reference to the angular calyx-tube.) 2 sp. 


Tetragonia expansa. 


An erect, branched, fleshy herb. Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, glistening with 
papille. Flowers solitary or in pairs, sessile or with very short stalks. Calyx 
4-lobed. Stamens 12-16. Styles 3-8. Ovary 3-8-celled. Fruit angular, 
usually with 2-4 horns. New Zealand Spinach. Kermadecs to Stewart 
Island: on the seashore. Fl. Dec. to Feb. 


Ranunculaceae. 


ButrEercup, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A family of about 700 species, found chiefly in temperate and 
colder regions. It includes about 50 New Zealand species. Most plants of the 
order contain an acrid juice which is almost invariably poisonous. Some furnish 
valuable drugs, e.g., Hellebore and Aconite. Others are cultivated on account 
of their beauty, such as Ranunculus, Anemone, Christmas Rose, Columbine, 
Larkspur, and Clematis. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Climbing shrubs Clematis. 
Herbs. 2 
2. Petals none. Caltha. 


Petals present, Ranunculus. 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 161 


Fig. 45. Seed of Clematis indivisa (+ nat size). 


““ Clematis, so lovely in decline, 
Whose star flowers, when they cease to shine, 
Fade into feathery wreaths, silk-bright, 
And silvery-curled.’’ 
DOMETT. 


162 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Clematis. 


Shrubs climbing by twining petioles, with opposite compound leaves. 
Flowers diwcious. Corolla wanting, sepals petaloid. (Name from the Greek, 
signifying a vine-shoot). 9 sp. 


Two peculiarities of New Zealand plants are well illustrated 
by this genus. (1) A large number of our flowers are green 
and inconspicuous, or at least not brightly coloured; (2) an 
unusually large proportion of the species have stamens and 
pistils on different individuals. 

The genus Clematis in other lands contains many species, 
which are blue, purple, or yellow. New Zealand has nine 
species. Two of these have white flowers; in the remainder 
the flowers are greenish-yellow or yellowish. In none are 
they brightly coloured, and this lack of colour one finds 
throughout the flora. The New Zealand violets are white, 
the gentians are nearly all white, the flax proper (Linwm 
monogynum) 1s white. The corresponding species in other 
countries are blue, or brightly coloured. Examples might be 
multiplied indefinitely (e.g., most of our Compositae, Veronicas, 
Pimeleas, etc., are white). 

There is no doubt that the prevalence of white in the Flora 
is In some way connected with the paucity of insects in New 
Zealand. It has been said, that not only are our insect 
species few in numbers, but there are few individuals of each 
species. Such a broad statement, as this, is, however, 
unwarranted. It is true that we have only fifteen kinds of 
butterfly, and that several of these are rare, so that these 
insects play a smaller part in the work of pollination here 
than elsewhere. However, we have a considerable number of 
forms of night-flying moths, several of the families being well 
represented, and it is generally supposed that they pollinate 
white flowers, which are more conspicuous in the gloom than 
coloured ones. It also seems probable that flies play a larger 
part in the work of pollination here than they do elsewhere. 
Too little, however, is known at present about the indigenous 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 163 


Fig. 46. Clematis indivisa—Staminate flowers (% nat. size). 


Meek clematis, tree dweller, child of dew, 

Nursling of light and air! 

Slow trailing stars, or showers of misty suns, 

Whence is the hand thou reachest wistfully 

Feeling, on earth, for something not of earth ? 
JOHANNES ANDERSEN. 


164 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


species in the lower orders of insects, to enable one to speak 
definitely about them and their relationships to flowers. 


Uniserual flowers. 


Perhaps in no other part of the world is there such a large 
percentage of unisexual flowers to be found, as in New 
Zealand. Genera which are hermaphrodite elsewhere, are 
often unisexual here. Out of 433 species examined Mr. G. 
M. Thomson found 46 per cent—a remarkably high 
proportion—more or less unisexual.“ Of the remaining 54 
per cent., probably only a few are self-pollinated, although the 
flowers are hermaphrodite. There is reason to believe that in 
some few cases (¢.g., the willow and the oak), the unisexual 
condition is the primitive one; but, in many of the New 
Zealand plants, the presence of rudimentary organs, and the 
hermaphroditism of closely allied forms elsewhere, prove that 
suppression has taken place, and that we have here to do with 
a secondary and not a primitive condition. 


Clematis indivisa (The Entire-leaved Clematis.) 

This is one of the best-known of the bush flowers. The leaves are thick 
and glossy, and the Howers have no petals, the sepals acting both as protective 
and attractive organs. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name Pua-wananga, 
Pikiarero,. 

Plants of C. indivisa, with their festoons of starry white 
flowers, looped from tree to tree, light up with delicate beauty 
the edges of the dark bush in the early spring. It 1s not to be 
wondered at that the northern Maoris gave to this species the 
name of Pua-wananga, 1.e., the sacred or sanctified flower. Its. 
feathery wreaths of seed are almost as beautiful as the flowers,. 
each seed in the cluster bearmg a long silky, silvery plume, 
which enables the wind to carry it to a distance. Pairs of 
rudimentary leaves are found beneath each flower-stalk, and 
these are believed to remain undeveloped, so that the flower 


‘Trans. XIII., p. 248. 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 165 


Fig. 47. Clematis indivisa—Pistillate flowers (nat. size). 


Fancy could almost declare 
That great Ophiucus, down-hurled 
From his throne in the skiey star-world, 
Had been caught with his glittering gems, 
’Mid those giant entangling stems. 
DOMETT. 


166 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


may not be shaded, or hidden from the sight of the insects 
upon which it depends for pollination. 

The leaf-stems coil themselves spirally round the branches 
of other trees, and so drag the plant up to the sunshine, which 
is needed for the expansion of their flowers. When young, 
these leaf-stems are remarkably sensitive, and, if gently rubbed, 
will turn in the direction from which the friction comes. 
They will seize, therefore, and coil themselves around any 
twig or branch against which they are blown by the wind. 


Clematis hexasepala (The Six-sepaled Clematis). 


Very similar to C. indivisa, but smaller. Found throughout the islands, 
but not so commonly as the former. Fl. Sep.-Nov. 


Clematis afoliata (The Leafless Clematis). 


A remarkable plant, with leafless branches, and yellow flowers ; often 
binding together, with its long wiry stems, the bush upon which it grows. 
Found chiefly in the South Island: not common. It may still be collected 
within a short distance of the foot of Colombo Street, Christchurch. Fl. Oct. 
Clematis fetida (The Feetid Clematis) produces fragrant, greenish-yellow 
flowers in great profusion, on long sprays. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Clematis parviflora 
(The Small-flowered Clematis)—Flowers fewer, leaves smaller and softer than in 
C. fetida. Rather local in the North Island, and rare in the South Island. 
FI. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Ranunculus. 


Most of the species of this genus are known as Buttercups. Sepals 3-5. 
Stamens many. Fruit a head of beaked achenes. 37 sp. 


Ranunculus Lyallii (Lyall’s Ranuneulus). 

Stem erect, without runners. Achenes silky. Leaves peltate, flowers 
white. Alpine districts of the South Island. Fl. Jan.-March. 

This stately plant is the finest species of the genus. The 
leaves, which are kidney-shaped in the young plants, are 
circular and concave in mature specimens, thus forming saucers. 
In them water often collects, and, as there are deep grooves 
over the leaf-veins, Diels considers that moisture may be 
absorbed at these places, but the matter has not yet been sub- 
jected to experiment. The plant is known to colonists as the 
Mountain, Shepherd’s, or Mount Cook Lily. The name is 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 167 


Fig. 48. Clematis parviflora ( nat. size). 


168 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


most Inappropriate, as the plant is not a lily, but a large white 
buttercup. However, any large-leaved herbaceous native plant 
is called by the colonists a lily, especially if it has white 
flowers. For another instance of the misuse of the name, v. 
Chatham Island Lily, Myosotidiwm nobile. 

Ranunculus Lyallit is not unlike the English king-cup in 
its habit of growth, having the same large, round, fleshy 
leaves and juicy stems. But the flower of the king-cup 1s 
golden, and that of the Mount Cook Lily is of a pure and 
waxy white. This Ranunculus grows only in the alpine 
districts of the South Island, and at an altitude of from 
2,000 to 4000 feet. It may, however, be readily seen on 
Mackinnon’s Pass, on Arthur’s Pass, and near Mount Cook, 
where it forms dense patches as high up as the Ball Hut on 
the edge of the Tasman Glacier. It is one of the most 
beautiful plants in the New Zealand alpine flora—its white 
anemone-like flowers contrasting well with its large, dark glossy- 
green leaves which sometimes measure fifteen inches across. 
This plant and R&R. Travers are the only species with peltate 
leaves. It is cultivated with dithculty, as it requires the 
greatest heat possible during summer, and the most severe 
cold in winter. 

Other species which have extremely showy flowers are R. 
Buchanani (Otago lake district), R. Godleyanus (headwaters of 
the Rakaia), R. insignis (southern Nelson, Tararua, and 
Ruahine Mountains), &. nivicola (Mount Egmont). The only 
similar species known outside of New Zealand, is R. Bauriti of 
the Transvaal mountains. 


Ranunculus crithmifolius (The Samphire-leaved Ranunculus). 
Similar to the next species, R. Haastii, but with shining green fleshy leaves, 
and short 1-flowered scapes. Wairau Gorge. Known only from a single 
specimen. 
The plant descriptions of many of the earlier botanists were 
often of necessity very unperfect, and, consequently, later 
investigators have frequently had much difficulty in identifying 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 169 


Fig. 49. Ranunculus Lyallii (3 nat. size). 


170 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


the species to which these descriptions allude. Sometimes 
not a scrap of the original specimens, from which the 
characters have been drawn up, is to be found in herbaria. 
Under these circumstances, it is a matter of astonishment 
how many of the original species have been identified with 
certainty. In spite, however, of all the perseverance and 
research of modern workers, a few of the forms apparently 
known to the earliest explorers, have not been re-discovered in 
recent times. In some cases it is probable that the plant has 
been redescribed under a fresh name; in a very few cases, it 
may be, that, by some lucky chance, the first collectors found 
a plant that, on account of its extreme rarity, has never been 
seen again. In R. crithmifolius we have a plant which has 
not been re-identified since first found by Travers on the 
shingle-slips of the Wairau Gorge. Even then only a single 
plant was seen. (cf. Cotula filiformis, Senecio perdicioides, 
and Pittosporum obcordatum. 

It seems more than likely, therefore, that the plant was a 
casual variant of some other form, than really a distinct 
species. If, however, the original description is to be trusted, 
R. crithmifolius is one of the most remarkable species of the 
genus. 

Like all other shingle-shp plants, it 1s highly specialized ; 
otherwise it would not be able to live in the place whence it 
was reported. A full description of the conditions of hfe in 
such a locality will be found under Stellaria Rough. R. 
crithmifolius has leaves, which, on a smaller scale, closely 
resemble those of the rock samphire, a plant of an altogether 
different order. They are thick, succulent, bluish-green, and 
highly polished. They thus differ widely from the normal 
leaf-forms of the genus. 

Diels compares them with the leaves of Ligusticum carno- 
sulum, which is one of the most singular species of the 
flora, and also grows on the same shingle-slips in the Wairau 


Gorge. 


BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 171 


Ranunculus Haastii (Haast’s Ranunculus). 

Stem simple, erect, without runners. Achenes glabrous; leaves few, much 
divided, leathery. Scape few-flowered, with leafy involucre. Perhaps the only 
New Zealand species with a stout, fleshy rootstock. Shingle-slips in the South 
Island, from Nelson to Otago. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 

A similar plant to R. crithmifolius, but much more widely 
distributed. Both species, however, were said to be found 
together on the shingle-shps of the Wairau. &. Haasti has. 
flower-stalks as thick as the finger, and a stout, fleshy root- 
stock that burrows deep into the shingle. Thus, by 
increasing the succulence of its parts, it has managed to- 
adapt itself to an exceedingly inclement situation. 

Ranunculus hirtus and Ranunculus lappaceus are the New 
Zealand representatives of the English meadow buttercup, 
whilst R. rivudaris, R. acaulis, and R. macropus are found in 
swamps and pools. There are also many introduced species. 


Genus Caltha. 


A genus of few species, occurring in temperate and cold regions. Perennial 
herbs, with large, shining, radical leaves, and yellow flowers. 2 sp. 


Caltha novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Caltha). 

A stout, fleshy plant, with heart-shaped, auricled leaves, and 1-flowered: 
scapes. Petals none. Sepals coloured, petaloid. Stamens numerous. Carpels 
5-8. Both islands in alpine districts. Dwarf specimens are found also in 
Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Jan. 

This is a little alpine marsh-marigold, interesting on 
account of its leaf structure. The functions of the upper and 
lower sides of the leaves have been largely reversed. The 
stomata are found on the upper surface, and the water storage 
apparatus on the lower. The lobes at the leaf base are 
usually bent upwards, or even turned right over upon the 
blade. A similar folding is found in the South American C. 
dioneaefolia, and in this case Goebel considers that the object. 
of the bent leaf-bases is to secure wind-still spaces for the 
stomata to function in. The margins of the leaf are also 


172 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


sometimes so much inrolled as almost completely to overarch 
the stomatic areas. 

This method of obtaining wind-calm spaces 1s known in 
other groups of plants. The leaves of many of the 
Papillonaceae, for example, are infolded to protect the 
stomatic surfaces. 

In other species of the genus Caltha, normal leaf-structure 1s 
found. Thus, in C. andicola of the Upper Andes, the stomata 
are borne on the lower surface, and the leaf is otherwise of 
the usual type. Intermediate forms between this and C. 
novae-Zelandiae are found elsewhere. The abnormal form 
is evidently an adaptation to an alpine environment. 


Magnoliaceae. 


THE Macnouia FAMILY. 


Distribution.—The plants of this order are chiefly natives of southern 
North America, and of tropical and temperate Asia. Many of them are hand- 
some shrubs, cultivated for their beauty and for the sweet scent of their flowers. 


Genus Drimys. 


Sepals 2-4; petals 5 or 6, in two rows. Stamens many; fruit a berry. 
(Name from the Greek, signifying pungent). 3 sp. 


Drimys axillaris (The Awxil-flowered Drimys). 

A small, evergreen tree, with glossy, alternate leaves, and black bark. The 
flowers occur in the leaf axils, or in the scars of fallen leaves, hence the name 
artllaris, Leaves simple, alternate, pellucid-dotted. Stamens 10-20. There is 
in the South Island a pungent species, D. colorata, which has leaves 
blotched with red, with a purple bloom on the under-surface and 2-seeded berries. 
The wood of this tree is reddish in colour, and is used for inlaid work. The bark 
is very aromatic, and is a tonic and astringent. A decoction of the leaves is often 
used by bushmen as a medicine, and has earned the name of ‘* Maori Painkiller.’’ 
Flowers yellowish-green. Fl. Oct.-Dec. Called by settlers the Pepper Tree. 
Maori name Horopito. 


THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY 173. 


Fig. 50. Hedycarya arborea (§ nat. size) 


174 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Monimiaceae. 


Distribution.—A small family, chiefly tropical, found in South America, 
Southern India and Tasmania. Leaves sometimes aromatic. 


Genus Laurelia. 


A genus of 4 species, including one found in Chili and two in Australia. 
Trees. Leaves opposite, aromatic. Flowers dicecious, in panicles. Perianth 
5-8 parted. Stamens 6-20 in the male, flowers reduced to scales in the female. 
Ovaries 5-20, hairy. Achenes with long feathery styles. (Name in allusion to the 
laurel-like leaves). 1 sp. 


Laurelia novae-Zelandiae (The Pukatea). 

One of the loftiest of New Zealand forest trees, sometimes reaching the 
height of 150 ft. Trunk from 3 ft.-7 ft. in diameter, flanked with thin spreading 
buttresses at its base. Bark pale. Leaves thick, 14 in.-3din. long, # in.-14 in. 
wide, toothed, shining. Flowers racemed, axillary, } in. across. Stamens 6-10. 
Achenes 6-10. North Island ; northern parts of the South Island. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 
Maori name Pukatea. 

The wood of this tree is pale-brown, tinged with yellow, and 
streaked with darker shades. It is much valued for boat- 
building, 
pukatea, like the tawa, furnishes the Maori with an illustration 


of cowardice. 
Te waka pukatea, te waka kohe-kohe. 
The pukatea canoe, the kohe-kohe canoe ; 


as 1t does not split, and will not readily burn. The 


i.e., The coward is like the canoe of pukatea, which, being 
made of soft wood, soon gets water-logged and slow of motion. 
The brave man is like the kohe-kohe canoe, swift and strong. 


Genus Hedycarya. 
Trees. Leaves opposite. Flowers in panicles, axillary, dicecious. Perianth 
5-10-lobed. Anthers sessile, numerous in the male flower. Ovaries numerous, 
stigma sessile in the female flower. Ovule solitary. 1 sp. 


Hedycarya arborea (The Tree-like Hedycarya). 

Trunk 20 ft.-30 ft. in height. Bark dark in colour. Leaves 1 in.-4 in. long, 
oblong, coarsely-toothed, rarely entire, shining or slightly hairy. Flower- 
panicles hairy, shorter than the leaves. Perianth 4 in. across, yellowish. Fruit 
oblong, 4 in long, orange-red, beaked. Both Islands: as far south as Akaroa. 
Fl. Noy.-Dec. Maori name Porokaiwhirt or Poporo-kawhirt. 


THE LAUREL FAMILY 175 


Lauraceae. 


Ture LavuREL FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical family, with only one European 
species (Laurus nobilis), the Sweet Bay tree. Cinnamon, Cassia-bark, Camphor 
and Clove Nutmegs, are all obtained from various species of this family. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Leafless twining herb. Cassytha, p. 177. 
Leafy trees. 2 

2. Small tree. Flowers in a 4-5 leaved involucre, Litsea, p. 175. 
Lofty forest trees. Flowers in panicles. Beilschmiedia, p. 175. 


Genus Litsea. 


Shrubs or trees, leaves usually alternate. Flowers in axillary umbels, 
dicecious. Perianth absent, or 4-8-parted. Stamens 6-15 in the male flowers ; 
rudimentary in the female. Berry ovoid. 1 sp. 


Litsea calicaris. 

A leafy, shining tree, 30ft.-40ft. in height. Leaves 3in.-4in. long, 
oblong, entire, obtuse, pale brown when young. Leaves of involucre 4 in.-} in. 
long. Flowers 4 or 5 together, delicately fragrant. Perianth of 5-8 segments, 
eream-coloured. Stamens usually 12; anthers large,4-valved. Berry ? in. long, 
red. North Island. Bay of Islands to east coast. Fl. Sep.-Oct. Maori name 
Mangeao. 

Genus Betlschmiedia. 

Lofty forest trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in panicles, terminal or 
axillary. Perianth of 6 segments. Stamens 12, some of which are usually 
infertile. Berry ovoid. This genus is endemic in New Zealand. 2 sp. 


Beilschmiedia Tarairi (Lhe Taratri). 

A handsome tree, 60 ft.-80 ft. in height, with large, glossy leaves. Young 
shoots and leaf-stalks clothed with rusty-coloured down. Leaves 3 in.-6 in. long, 
leathery, ovate-oblong, obtuse, sometimes whitish below. Flowers in branched 
panicles, inconspicuous, 1 in.-2 in. across. Perianth 4 in. across. Fruit an oval 
berry, 14 in. long, purple, plum-like, very attractive to birds, but, unless boiled, 
said to be poisonous to man. North Island: Auckland district. Fl. Nov. 
Maori name Tarairt. 


Beilschmiedia Tawa (The Tawa). 

A forest tree, 60 ft.-70 ft. in height, with slender branches, and pale, usually 
narrow, leaves, 3 in.-4 in. long. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in.-3 in. across, 
green. Perianth 7; in. long, smooth, shining. Fruit resembling a damson, 
edible, 2in. long. North Island: abundant in hilly districts. South Island: 
near Cook Strait. 


176 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The tawa seed provides the Maori with two proverbs :— 
Ka mahi te tawa who ki te riri ! 
Well done tawa kernel fighting away ! 


He tawa para! He whati kau taana,. 
A tawa pulp! He only runs away ! 


Fig. 51. Beilschiniedia Tarairi (4 nat. size). 


The hard date-like stone of the tawa fruit symbolizes the 
hero, whilst the fleshy pulp is the emblem of the coward. 


Genus Cassytha. 


Herbaceous plants, leafless, parasitical upon shrubs, to which they attach 
themselves by suckers. Stems very slender. Flowers in heads, spikes or 
panicles. Perianth of 6 segments. Stamens 12, 3 of which are imperfect. 
Anthers 2-celled. Fruit enclosed in the tleshy perianth. A large genus, chiefly 
Australian. (Name from the Greek, signifying the dodder, in allusion to the 
resemblance between the two plants). 1 sp. 


~l 
= 


THE LAUREL FAMILY 1 


Cassytha paniculata (The Panicled Cassytha). 

Stems shining, 74 in.-¢5 in. in diameter, with small membranous scales in 
the axils. Flowers in spikes, 1 in.-2 in. long. Perianth £ in.-4 in. long, with 
small round bracts at the base. Ovary glabrous. Northern parts of the North 
Island. 

This is a widely spread genus found chiefly in warm 
chmates. The New Zealand species is so abundant in some 
districts north of Auckland as to cause frequent tripping. The 
same form 1s also to be found in Eastern Australia, where the 
genus is highly developed. The long, twining, thread-like 
stems of the parasite much resemble those of the dodder, 
though the two plants are not closely allied botanically. 
Further, the methods by which they attack the host plant, 
and the way in which they germinate, are in both cases so 
much alike, that one description will suffice for both genera. 
(v. Cuscuta.) 


Cruciferae. 


WALLFLOWER FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large and useful family, comprising many plants used as 
vegetables (e.g., turnip, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, cress, etc.). There are 
nearly 200 genera and 1200 species, and these are found chiefly in cold and tem- 
perate regions. In the Tropics they are rarely seen. The juices of the plants 
belonging to this order are entirely innocuous. Of the seven New Zealand genera, 
Pachycladon and Notothlaspi present most points of interest. Both are 
endemic in these islands. The following genera of Cruciferae are also represented 
in New Zealand, Nasturtiwn (the water-cress); Cardamine (the bitter-cress) ; 
Sisymbriwm (the hedge-mustard) ; Capsella (the shepherd’s purse), and Lepidiwm 
(the pepper-wort). 


Genus Pachycladon. 

An endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Leaves radical, tufted. 
Root fleshy. Sepals, 5; stamens, 6. (Name from the Greek, signifying thick 
branches). Isp. 

13 


178 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Pachycladon novae-Zelandiae. (The New Zealand 
Pachycladon). 


A stout, branching herb, found in mountainous districts of the South Island. 
Leaves in rosettes. Scape, 2-5-flowered. Petals twice as long as the sepals. 
Ascends to 5000 feet. 


This is a remarkable endemic cruciferous genus of Central 
and South-Western Otago. There is only one species, P. 
novae-Zelandiae, unless indeed a form reported from the 
mountains at the head of Lake Ohau, should prove to be 
distinct. The folage is arranged in the form of a rosette, ¢.e., 
there is no stem. The leaves are, therefore, all radical, and 
arranged in concentric circles round the flower stem. The 
common dandelion is a typical rosette plant. Anyone who 
has dug one of these weeds out of a lawn, knows what an 
ugly bare patch is left behind. The rosette plant so completely 
covers the soil beneath it, that nothing else can grow there. 
In the struggle for existence it successfully chokes out its 
competitors. However, the desire for exclusive territorial 
possession, cannot be the purpose of the rosette of Pachycladon, 
for it grows on the shingle-slips, where there 1s plenty of room. 
Positions on such exposed situations are not greatly coveted, 
for few plants can successfully brave the hardships of life in 
such localities. 

It is probable that Pachycladon owes its rosette form, 
not to its environment, but to its ancestry. Many of the 
Cruciferae have this type of leaf arrangement, and it is not 
infrequently met with on the shingle shps. (See also 
Notothlaspi). 

Genus Notothlaspt. 


A small endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Herbs, with thick 
radical leaves, and scapes of white flowers. Stamens 6. Pods compressed, 
winged, 4in. - lin. in length. 


Notothlaspi rosulatum. (Lhe Rosette-like Notothlaspt). 

An erect, stemless herb. Leaves in a crowded rosette, hairy when young, 
glabrous when old. Flowers white, fragrant, pyramidal. Shingle beds in the 
alpine districts of the South Islind. The Pen-Wiper Plant of the Settlers. Fl, 
Dec.-Jan. 2 sp. 


THE WALLFLOWER FAMILY 179 


This is a singular endemic genus, of the detritus fans 
and upper river-beds of the South Island. Kirk describes N. 
rosulatum “as one of the most remarkable plants known,” 
but is surely in error when he speaks of it “as now becoming 
rare owing to the ravages of sheep.” The plant is quite 
common in many sub-alpine districts, and certainly does not 
appear to be generally attacked by sheep. It is sometimes 
sought after by the settlers, and taken indoors, on account of 
the delicious orange-like fragrance of the flowers. 

As the name implies, the leaves are arranged in a rosette— 
a plant form not unusual in such a habitat (v. Pachycladon 
p. 178). The structure of the rosette, however, is very 
remarkable, if not altogether unique. The flower-head, as 
shown in the photograph on the title page, 1s much shorter 
than in the typical form, but the picture gives a much better 
idea of the character of the rosette than those drawn by 
previous writers. That given by Mr. and Mrs. Featon in their 
Art Album of the New Zealand Florais particularly misleading, 
evidently having been drawn by someone who had not seen 
the plant growing. The leaves overlap like the shingles of a 
roof, and the whole rosette itself is curved hike an umbrella, so 
that only the outer edges touch the ground. Thus, all rain 
falling on it, quickly rolls off, and is rapidly conducted through 
the loose shingle to the long characteristic tap-root, which 
firmly anchors the plant amongst the drifting pebbles. 
Underneath the umbrella-like foliage is a cavity, which is not 
without its value in the economy of the plant. During the 
day, since the shingle is hot, and the under surface of the plant 
cool, vapour must then be condensed on the under-surface of 
the rosette. Thus the leaves obtain a copious supply of 
moisture throughout the period of insolation. At might the 
shingle cools down more rapidly than the plant, and 
condensation now takes place upon the ground. The foliage 
is thus kept dry, and protected to some extent from the effects 
of frost. 


180 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


One of the chief dangers the plant has to contend with, 
arises from the continual moving of the stones of the shingle- 
shps. Indeed, its rosettes are often buried, and sometimes 
destroyed by them. However, specimens are not infrequently 
found, in which a second rosette has been developed above the 
origmal one, that had been covered by the ever-moving 
shingle. Obviously, the fleshy leaves, the long-tap root 
reaching to the wet stones below, the thick flower stem with 
its conical mass of low-growing, densely crowded flowers, have 
all been developed by the plant in its attempt to adjust itself 
to the perils of a difficult environment. As in other plants of 
the shingle-ships, the folage is of a sandy hue, that suggests 
protective resemblance, but no sufficient explanation has yet 
been given of this assimilation of colour to habitat. 


Droseraceae. 


THE SunDEw F amity. 

Distribution.—A remarkable family, with carnivorous habits ; usually 
found in marshy or sandy ground. Dionwa mascipula, the Venus’ Fly-Trap of 
the North-American bogs, is wonderfully specialized for the catching of insects. 

The Droseraceae are a widely distributed family, but the greatest number of 
species is found in Australia. D. rotundifolia is found in almost all English 
bogs. The leaves of this plant, when young, are curled like the fronds of a fern. 
Some of the species yield a purple dye. 


Genus Drosera. 
Sepals, petals and stamens, 4, 5, or rarely 8. Flowers, white or purple, on 
long weak stems, 6in.-18in. in length. The leaves of the different species are 


very varied in shape. 6 sp. 


Drosera pygmea. (The Pygmy Drosera). 
A very minute plant, with leaf rosettes less than gin. across. Stem, 1- 
flowered, #in. high. Flowers white. Calyx 4-lobed ; capsule 4-valved. Both 
islands: local. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


UNDEW FAMILY 


182, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Drosera spathulata (The Spathulate-leaved Drosera). 
Leaves in a rosette, each leaf from 4-in. - fin. long. Flower-stem, lin. - 6in- 
long; 1-6 flowered. Petals, white. Calyx, 5-lobed; petals, 5; stamens, 5. 
From Mangonui to Stewart Island; local. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


Drosera binata (The Twin-leaved Drosera). 


A very distinct species, with leaves like a two-pronged fork, all radical. 
Flowers on slender stems, white, fin. -4in. across, 6 to 8 on a stem. 
Sepals, petals, and stamens, 4-5. Both islands; common in clay bogs. Fl. 
Nov.-Feb. 


Drosera auriculata. (Lhe Har-shaped Drosera). 


A pretty little plant with pink or purple flowers, growing in dry soils. The 
stems are slender and straggling; sometimes 2ft.-3ft. in length. The root- 
leaves are few in number; those on the stems alternate, with two long narrow 
processes on the upper part, like pointed ears. These, as well as the remainder 
of the leaf, are covered with the long red hairs common to all Sundews. Seen 
under a microscope, by artificial light, the leaf of the Sundew is a most beautiful 
object, and well worth studying. 


INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. 


Plants which grow in bogs often find 1 difficult to procure the 
nitrogen necessary for their sustenance ; and they have, there- 
fore, evolved means of catching and digesting flies and other 
insects. Darwin was the first to investigate thoroughly, and 
establish the carnivorous nature of numerous plants. Many of 
the facts connected with them are highly remarkable, and for a 
full description, the great evolutionist’s work on Insectivorous 
Plants should be consulted. In the Droseraceae, or Sundews, 
the upper surface of each leaf bears a number of bright red, 
clubbed, glandular hairs, every one with a glistening drop of 
viscid fluid at the upper end. These tentacles are longest round 
the margin of the leaf, and grow gradually shorter towards the 
centre. If an insect touches the centre of the leaf, it becomes 
glued to the hairs, and, a few minutes afterwards, the marginal 
tentacles bend towards it, and seize it. The orifices of its 
respiratory organs become blocked up by the viscid fluid, and, 
finally exhausted by its struggles, the unfortunate insect dies. 
The amount of the secretion from the tentacles increases, 


THE SUNDEW FAMILY 


183 


Fig. 53. Drosera spathulata (2 nat. size). 4.0. Smith. 


184 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


and, if the insect 1s large, the whole leaf becomes more or less 
concave, and large quantities of juice are poured out from the 
glands. This juice is in many ways similar to the human 
gastric fluid, and accomplishes the same purpose, for, after 
several days, the insect is digested, and little of it is left, except 
the wings and horny casing. The leaf then gradually opens 
out, and, after a day or two, is again in a position to capture 
insects. The sensitiveness of the tentacles 1s marvellous. 
Thus, it has been said, that the four-thousandth part of a 
milhgram of ammoniun carbonate is_ sufficient to produce 
motion in thei, while a piece of a woman’s haw about two- 
tenths of a millimetre (¢.e. less than one-hundredth of an inch 
in length), placed upon a gland, also caused inflection in the 
filament belonging to the gland. The above description deals 
chiefly with D. rotundifolia, an English and continental plant. 
To it alone, Darwin devoted 270 pages of his book; but he 
also experimented on two Australasian species—D. spathulata 
and D. binata. He found that functionally they differed httle 
from D. rotundifolia. Both these species occur in New Zealand, 
though Darwin’s specimens came from Australia. The very 
handsome D. binata, in particular, interested him very much. 
He refers to it as ‘this almost gigantic Australian species.” In 
it the bifurcated leaf-blade, which is very long and narrow, 1s 
itself in no case inflected. Glands are borne, not only at 
the ends of the tentacles in this species, but “‘ on both upper 
and lower surface of the blade, there are numerous minute, 
almost sessile glands, consisting of four, eight, or twelve 
There are also on the backs of the leaves of this 


yo 


cells 
species, a few tentacles near the margins. These tentacles 
are remarkable in possessing no power of motion, but 
even had they this power, they are generally too short to 
bend round to the upper surface of the leaf. In their 
present situation, they seem to be of little use; and Darwin 
regards these and the sessile glands, as vestigial structures, 
which have been lost in other species of the genus. 


“Darwin “‘Insectivorous Plants,"’ p. 282. 


THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 185 


Splendid specimens of this plant are to be found at the head 
of Paterson’s Inlet (Stewart Island). Another well-known and 
readily accessible habitat 1s the Bluff Hill. Mr. G. M. 
Thomson experimented on specimens of D. arcturi, from the 
bogs on the top of Maungatua.” He considers that, owing to 
its frequent complete immersion in wet weather, 1t 1s seldom 
to be found in its native habitat with insects on the leaves. 
However, he found that four specimens of Aphis (blight) from 
rose leaves were completely digested in about four days’ time 
by a single leaf of D. areturt, though young leaves were 
easily sickened by an overdose of meat. 

The method of pollination in the New Zealand species does 
not seem to have been observed, though it is probably of con- 
siderable interest. 


Saxifragaceae. 


THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY. 

Distribution —A large family, containing many beautiful Alpine species. 
The London Pride, or None-so-Pretty (Saxifraga wmbrosa) is used as a border 
edging in English gardens. Many other plants of the family are cultivated in 
rockeries, wand some are remarkable for the chalky crust which forms on the 
margins of their leaves. The British Grass of Parnassus (Parnassus palustris) 
js one of the most beautiful of bog plants. The Currant and the Gooseberry are 
largely cultivated for their fruits. The New Zealand genera have all woody 


stems. 
Key to the Genera. 

1. Leaves opposite. 2 
Leaves alternate. 3 

2. Flowers in panicles. tAckama p. 
Flowers in racemes. Weinmannia. p. 188. 

3. Ovary superior. Ixerba. p. 186. 
Ovary inferior. 4 

4. Flowers racemose. Petals overlapping in bud. Quintinia. p.18 . 
Flowers panicled. Petals touching in bud. Carpodetus. p. 188. 


‘Trans. N.Z. Inst. Vol xiii., p. 261. 
{Not further described. 


186 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Quintinia. 

Shrubs or trees with alternate leaves, and axillary or terminal racemes of 
white or lilac flowers. Calyx-tube 5-toothed. Petals 5; stamens 5. Seed 
winged. Q. serrata and Q. acutifolia are both endemic in New Zealand. (Name 
in honour of La Quintinie, a French Botanist). 2 sp. 


Quintinia serrata (The Serrated Quintinia). 
A small tree, sometimes 20 ft. in height. The young shoots are extremely 
viscid, and the whole plant is covered with small whitish scales. Leaves 


Fig. 54. Ixerba brexioides ( nat. size). 


3in.-6 in. long, oblong, roughly serrate, leathery. Flowers 4 in. in diameter, 
pale-lilac. Racemes axillary, 3 in.-4 in. long. Called by settlers New Zealand 
lilac. Maori name, Kumarahow. North Island only: Auckland, Hawke’s Bay, 
and Taranaki. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Irverba. 

An evergreen tree, with thick, leathery leaves, and flat panicles of white 
flowers. Calyx 5-lobed; petals 5; stamens 5. (Name an anagram of Brewxia.) 
1 sp. 

Ixerba brexioides (The Brexia-like [rerba). 

A beautiful tree, sometimes 70 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long, 

coarsely-serrate, 4 in.-l1 in. broad. Flowers 14 in. across. | Petals waxy, white, 


THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 187 


Fig. 55. Carpodetus serratus (3 nat. size). 


188 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


pointed. North Island from Whangaroa to Hawke’s Bay. In woods, not 
common. Maori name Tawari. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 

Kirk considers this to be perhaps the most beautiful tree in 
the flora. This and the following genus are endemic. 


Genus Carpodetus. 

A shrub or tree, with alternate leaves, and axillary panicles of white flowers. 
Calyx 5-6 lobed; petals 5-6; stamens 5 or 6, inserted with the petals. Fruit 
round, fleshy, girdled by the calyx. (Name from the Greek in allusion to the 
fruit being girt by the calyx-limb). 1 sp. 


Carpodetus serratus (The Serrate Carpodetus). 

A curious, flat-topped tree, about 20 ft. in height, with branches spreading 
hike a fan. Leaves and branches slightly hairy. Leaves beautifully veined and 
marbled in appearance. Flowers very fragrant, small, white, in broad cymes, 
hidden amongst theleaves. Fruit the size of a pea, black when ripe. This fruit 
is very slow to ripen, taking nearly twelve months to come to perfection. As is 
the case with many New Zealand plants, flowers and ripe fruit may be seen 
together upon the tree. Found from North Cape to Stewart Island. 
Fl. Nov.-Mar. 

The native name Puta-puta-weta is derived from the fact 
that the curious and repulsive insect known as the Weta 
usually chooses the Carpodetus as a fit tree in which to bore 
its holes. In the North Island, trees of this species are rarely 
cut down unperforated by the longitudinal galleries of these 
insects, which are frequently discovered in their holes. 
Puta-puta literally signifies full of holes. Another name 
by which it is known is that of Punaweta. In the 
Uriwera country it 1s called Hat-weta (t.e. weta food). The 
weta, or Maori Devil, is a large orthopterous insect of the 
genus Deinacrida. 


Genus Weinmannia. 

Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves, and regular flowers. Calyx-tube 
4-5-partite ; petals 4-5 ; stamens 8-10, inserted with the petals. Fruit a capsule. 
A large genus of about 50 species, found chiefly in tropical countries. (Named 
after Weinmann a German writer). 2 sp. 


Weinmannia silvicola (The Forest-loving Weinmannia). 
A tree with dark-coloured bark, sometimes rising to a height of 70 ft. 
Leaves opposite, very variable in form, unequally pinnate, or 1-3 foliolate; 


THE ‘ MATIPO”’ FAMILY 189 


leaflets in from 1-9 pairs. Flowers in slender racemes, 2 in.-6 in. long. Single 
flowers 35 in. across, white. Capsule shining. Seed with a tuft of hairs at either 
end. North Island. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Maori names, Tawhero, Kamali. 


Weinmannia racemosa (The Racemose Weinmannia). 


A tree, from 70 ft.-90 ft. in height, with larger leaves and flowers than those 
of W. silvicola. Leaves coriaceous, serrate, usually 1-foliolate, though young 
shoots often develop 3-foliolate leaves. Racemes stout, erect, 1 in.-4 in. long. 
Flowers white 4 in. across. Both islands. Fl. Jan. 


Pittosporaceae. 


THE ‘ Matipo”’ Faminy. 


Distribution.—A small family, chiefly Australian. All the New Zealand 
species are endemic. The North Island is richer in species than the South. 
Some of the Australian species are cultivated for their flowers and coloured 
berries. 

Genus Pittosporum. 

Flowers regular, axillary or in terminal umbels; dark-purple, red, or 
yellowish green. Petals often recurved. Capsule woody. Some of the species 
were known to the Natives as Mapau. 18 sp. 


Pittosporum tenuifolium. (The Thin-leaved Pittosporum). 

A small tree, with black bark, and flowers of so dark a purple as to appear at 
times almost black. The branches give out a pungent odour when broken. 
Leaves pale-green below, often reddish above, undulate, 1 in.-3in. long. Capsule 
3-valved. A very variable plant, of which there are four named kinds. FI. 
Sept.-Nov. 

This species is largely used for the formation of ornamental 
hedges, and is then called the ‘‘ Matipo.” This is a misnomer, 
as the Maoris apparently appled this name to a species of 
Myrsine. P. tenuifolium was called by them the Tawhi- 
whi. The fragrant gum taken from it was collected and 
hung round the neck in a sachet (v. Aciphylla Colensoi). 
The plant is evidently pollinated by msects. The flowers are 
bright purple at first, but become darker, and finally almost. 


190 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


black. Small drops of nectar are to be found at the base of 
the corolla. Mr. G. M. Thomson* is in error in saying that 
there is no perceptible fragrance. At night the flowers diffuse 
a sweet odour that fills the air for many yards around. This 
scent is evidently intended to attract night-flying insects. It 
is strange, therefore, that the flowers should be so dark in hue, 
for most night pollinated flowers are of a bright white colour. 

Its dense pale-green foliage, black twigs, and shapely form, 
make it one of the most attractive of the smaller native trees. 
For some unaccountable reason, it is known to gardeners as 
P. nigrescens. 


Pittosporum obcordatum. (The Obcordate-leaved Pittosporum). 

A small tree, with divaricating branches, small leaves, and white flowers. 
Fruit not seen. 

This plant was first collected by Raoul about 1842. He 
reported it from Banks’ Peninsula, and it has been sought 
for there by numerous later botanists, but never found. 
For sixty years the plant was not again met with, and was 
then found near Kaitaia by Messrs. Mathews and Carse. As 
Raoul had visited this district, 1t 1s therefore very probable 
that the habitat given in the first place was wrong. It is 
the only New Zealand species with white flowers. 

This error in the habitat has led Diels into supposing that 
the smallness of the leaves in this species is due to its inhabit- 
ing “one of the coldest districts in the wide area of distribu- 
tion of the genus.” Even had the plant been found at Akaroa, 
this statement would scarcely have been correct, for Akaroa 
has a mild climate, with only very light frosts. P. tenuwifoliwm 
var. fasiculatum however is found in Preservation Inlet, in 
South-west Otago, where the climate is much more severe, 
while P. rigidum 1s sub-alpine. 


Pittosporum cornifolium (Lhe Cornel-leaved Pittosporum). 
An epiphytal species. This is a beautiful little shrub, with small, drooping 
terminal umbels of delicate reddish flowers. Flowering stem and buds deep red. 


*Tyans. XIII. p. 254, 


THE ‘‘MATIPO”’ FAMILY 191 


Fig. 56. Pittosporum tenuifolium (} nat. size). 


192 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Petals 4 or 5, recurved through half their length back to the stem, pale-green 
inside. Sepals 5, very narrow, pale-green. Leaves bright green, coriaceous in 
the older stage, beautifully veined on the under surface. Capsule 3-valved ; 
valves of a brilliant orange colour on the inside. North Island chiefly. South 
Island: Pelorus Sound, and Titi Island. Fl. Sept. 


Pittosporum cornifolium, though possessed of rather Insig- 
nificant flowers of a dull purple, has very showy seeds. These, 


Fig. 57. Pittosporum cornifolium—Flower (3 nat. size) 


as in other plants of the genus, are imbedded in gluten, which,. 
in this case, is of a yellow colour. The seeds themselves are 
blackish purple, and when the capsule opens, 1t discloses the 
inner side of the valves, which are of a bright orange. The 
combination of colours is very striking. It is probably 
intended to attract birds, but, apparently, no investigation has. 
been made to ascertain whether the seeds pass uninjured 


THE “‘MATIPO”’ FAMILY 193 


Fig. 58. Pittosporum cornifolium—Fruit (4 nat. size). 


14 


194 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


through their digestive canals, or in what way they are 
distributed by them. 


Pittosporum Kirkii (Avrk’s Pittosporwm). 


One of the most beautiful species. Bark reddish-purple. Flowers in terminal 
umbels. Leaves narrow-linear, 2 in.-5 in. long. Epiphytal. North Island. 
Ascends to nearly 3,000 feet. 


Pittosporum crassifolium (The Thick-leaved Pittosporum). 


A tree, with black bark. Shoots, sepals and under-surface of leaves covered 
with close white hairs. Leavescoriaceous. Valvesdowny. Flowers in terminal 
umbels, often solitary, deep-purple, nearly 4in. long. Capsule round, 2-4 valved. 
North Island, chiefly on the East Coast. Fl. Sept. 


This is a sea-side plant, and, ike most species growing in 
such a position has the epidermis and cuticle of the leaves 
thickened to protect it from excessive transpiration. 


Pittosporum Eugenioides (The Eugenia-like Pittosporwm). 

A tree sometimes 40 ft. in height, glabrous, with large corymbs of fragrant 
flowers of a greenish-yellow hue. Leaves 2in.-3in. long, broadly oblong, 
usually waved at the margins. Bark white. Capsules 2-3-valved. Both 
Islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name Tarata. (Name from Hugenia, a genus 
of myrtles). 


A beautiful tree whose pale-green leaves with undulating 
margins, emit, when bruised, a lemon-like odour. The delicate 
venation and light-coloured, almost white, midrib add to the 
beauty of the leaf. The Maoris mixed the resinous exudation 
from the bark with the juice of the sow-thistle, and worked it 
into a ball, which they chewed. In October the tree produces 
masses of yellowish-green flowers, whose heavy honied odour 
is almost sickly in its intensity. According to Mr. G. M. 
Thomson, the plant is probably often self-pollinated ; but Mr. 
Kirk points out in his Forest Flora, that, though stamens 
and pistils are always present, one or other 1s often abortive, 
so that the flowers are often practically unisexual. 

The wood of this species, lke that of the other species of 
the genus, 1s almost worthless. The tree is often cultivated 
for its beauty, and is sometimes—though not so often as P. 


THE ROSE FAMILY 195 


tenurfolium—used to form an ornamental hedge. It is known 
by a variety of names amongst the colonists, such as Mapau, 
White Mapau, and even Maple and Lemon-tree. The Maori 
name seems to have been Tarata, but it is also called the 
Mapau. 


Pittosporum Ralphii (Ralph's Pittosporum). 


A somewhat similar species to P. crassifolium, but distinguished from it by 
the broader leaves with slender petioles, the shorter peduncles, and smaller 
capsules. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


A beautiful, somewhat laxly branched shrub 15 ft -20 ft. 
high, found chiefly in the central district of the North Island 
from the Wanganui to Tolago Bay. It grows abundantly in 
the Christchurch Public Gardens. Its dark-crimson fascicled 
little flower bells with their shghtly emergent yellow anther 
tips, resting on the downy white young foliage, make it, when 
in bloom, one of the most attractive of our larger shrubs. 
The ripe introrse anthers may often be found in contact with 
the viscid stigmas, so that the plant is probably frequently 
self-pollinated. 


Rosaceae. 


THE Rose Famity. 

Distribution.—An almost universally distributed family, though most 
abundant in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The plants of 
this family are remarkable for the sweetness of their fruits, and the beauty of 
their flowers. Hydrocyanic acid is contained in the seeds, leaves, and young 
shoots of the Pruneae and Pomeae, but the other tribes possess only harmless 
juices. The rose, the apple, the peach, the cherry, the strawberry, the plum, 
all belong to this wide-spread and useful family. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Climbing, prickly shrubs. Rubus, p. 19% 
Herbs with simple or pinnate leaves. Achenes many or few. 2 

2. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Achenes 1 or 2. Aceena, p. 201 
Leaves simple or pinnate. Achenes many. 3 

3. Leaves pinnate. Styles short. tPotentilla. 
Leaves simple or pinnate. Styles elongated. tGeum. 


tNot further described. 


196 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Rubus. 


Scrambling, thorny shrubs, with alternate leaves, often palmately divided. 
Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5, stamens many. Fruit a cluster of fleshy drupes, on a 
cone-shaped receptacle. New Zealand species dicecious. (Name from the Latin 
for a Bramble.) 4 sp. 

The New Zealand Bramble is of the same tribe as the 
raspberry and the blackberry, though its fruits are not so 
fine. Its twining stems and hooked prickles form one of 
the chief obstructions to a journey through the bush. 
These hooks are so placed as to allow the plant to shp easily 
up any support, though they will not permit it to be dragged 
down. The centre of the female flower is filled with carpels, 
each one of which develops in the autumn into a small red or 
yellow fruit. The aggregate of these little fruits forms the 
berry, which is pleasant to the taste, and is often made by 
settlers into a preserve. A sweet juice, which drops freely 
from the cut stems, 1s drunk by bushmen when thirsty. The 
native name, Tataramoa, signifies a heap of prickles. The 
Maoris have also bestowed this name upon the English furze, 
and upon brambles generally. 

The New Zealand species of Rubus do not present the 
bewildering variety of form that is found in the genus in 
Central Europe; but they nevertheless add considerably to 
the perplexities of the local botanist. Nor have these 
perplexities been reduced by the carelessness of various 
writers on New Zealand plants. Thus A. R. Wallace™ tells us 
that “In New Zealand the prickly Rubus is a leafless trailing 
plant, and its prickles are probably a protection against the 
large snails of the country, several of which have shells from 
two to three and a half inches long.’’ Such an error could 
scarcely have been made by anyone familiar with the natural 
history of the country. Rubus is one of the commonest 
species on the edge of the forest; and the snails referred to 
belong to rare and disappearing species—rarely, if ever, found 


*“* Darwinism,’’ Colonial Edition, p. 433. 


THE ROSE FAMILY 


Fig. 59. Rubus Schmidelioides (4 nat size). 


198 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


in the neighbourhood of Rubus. The correct explanation is 
given by tKerner. It is, perhaps, worth quoting :— 

“A plant distinguished by its unusually rich development of 
barb-hke spines, and deserving special mention here, is the 
New Zealand bramble, Rubus squarrosus (R. cissoides), 
Each of its leaves is divided into three portions, each being 
provided with a tiny blade at its apex; these three portions, 
as well as the leaf-stalk, are green throughout their entire 
length, and beset with yellow pointed prickles, which anchor 
so firmly in the intertwined bushes and shrubs, that a wholly 
mextricable tangle is the result.” 

The passage quoted is provided with a good illustration of a 
spray of R. cissoides. 

Some confusion has also been caused in the determination 
of the species, by the neglect of most botanists to notice 
carefully enough the relation between the form of the plant 
and its habitat. 

Dr. Cockayne has, however, given a full account of the 
development of R. cissovdes* and a description of the various 
forms which it assumes. Like the other New Zealand 
species, in the forest it is a liane climbing by prickles, 
and there it is provided with lanceolate acuminate leaflets. 
The flowers are yellowish, and the fruit red. When found 
in the open, it is a leafless mounded bush, consisting of 
intertwining stems and midribs, with far more numerous 
prickles, than it has, when growing in the forest. This 
is the stage described above by Kerner. An extraordinary 
fact. about this depauperated form is, that it has never been 
known to produce flowers or frmt. This is probably due 
to the fact that the leafless plant 1s merely an arrested stage 
in the development of the mature form. Dr. Cockayne 
has also suggested that the absence of flowers may be due 
to the destruction of the young growing points in exposed 
situations. 


a Natural History of Plants. I., 677 (English Translation.) 
‘Trans. XXXIII., p. 291. 


THE ROSE FAMILY 


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2:00 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Be this as it may, it is at least clear that, in one generation, 
the plant changes from the leafy flowering hane of the forest, 
to the leafless, compact, flowerless xerophyte of the open 
country. As this form is unable to propagate itself, it has to 
be perpetuated by escapees from the forest limits. The long 
green twining stems of this variety with their yellow hooks 
have a fascinating beauty, that must render the plant most 
attractive to all lovers of nature. 

The species of Rubus are generally known to colonists as 
bush lawyers, apparently because it is much easier to get 
into their clutches than out of them. Domett, with less than 
his usual benevolence, refers to them as 

“That vile twine of prickles fine, 

Which, if it touch you, cuts and clings 

Where’er you pass through brier and bush.’’ 
Yet, in spite of this general condemnation, Rubus australis is 
one of the finest ornaments of the fringe of the forest, when 
in early summer it flings its great panicles of heavily-scented, 
snow-white flowers over every bush and tree on the forest's 
edge. 


Rubus australis (The Southern Bramble.) 


A lofty climber, Leaves very variable ; the midribs armed with sharp, 
hooked prickles. Leaflets usually 3-5, in long petioles, toothed. Flowers in 
panicles, small, pink or white, axillary or terminal, fragrant. Fruit reddish, 
dry. Both islands: in the bush or on its outskirts. Fl. Sept.-Dec. 


Rubus cissoides (The Ivy-like Bramble). 


Amuch smaller plant than the preceding. Stem without prickles, petioles 
and midribs with few. Leaflets 3-5-foliate, very narrow, sometimes reduced to 
midribs. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in.-4 in. long. Petals yellowish. Fruit 
very crowded. Poth islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. 


Rubus Schmidelioides (The Schmidelia-like Bramble). 


A dense bush. Midribs without prickles. Leaves usually 3-foliolate, with a 


longer petiole to the terminal leaf. Leaflets oval, rounded below, coriaceous. 
d 


Flowering panicles 2-6 in. in length. Petals broad, flowers 3 in. across. Fruit 


yellow, sweet, juicy. 


THE ROSE FAMILY 201 


Rubus parvus (The Small Bramble). 

A slender, prostrate plant, with reddish stems, 12 in.-18 in. long. Leaves 
bronze in colour, simple, 1 in.-3 in. long, sharply toothed. Flowers few, 
prickles few. Fruit $ in.-1 in. long, red, sweet. 

This is a beautiful little forest species, hitherto only found 
near the head-waters of several western rivers of the South 
Island. The leaves are most delicately veined, and in autumn 
turn to a beautiful bronze colour. It is, therefore, one of 
the few New Zealand plants that show autumn tints. Others 
are Fuschia excorticata and a species of Nothofagus. Here 
autumn lays no “ fiery finger on the woods,” and spring does 
not renew. The lack of these seasonal changes undoubtedly 
detracts much from the beauty of the New Zealand forests. 
The colours of the bush, though varied, are as a whole rather 
sombre, and alter but little throughout the whole circle of the 
year. 

Genus Acena. 


Perennial, prostrate herbs, with dense heads of minute flowers, and spinous 
fruit. Leaves pinnate, the whole plant often reddish in colour. Calyx 4-5- 
lobed, petals none. Stamens 1-10, rarely 30-40. Calyx-tube bristly, with 
hooked or barbed spines. These calyces sometimes cling to the wool of sheep in 
such quantities as to materially damage the fleece. (Name from the Greek for a 
spine, in reference to the spinous calyces). Maori name Piri-piri.* 6 sp. 


Acezena sanguisorbae (The Bidi-bidt). 

Leaflets 8-10, + in.-? in. long, coarsely toothed. Flowers in globose heads, on 
peduncles 3 in.-6 in. long. Fruiting calyx 4-angled, with a long barbed purple 
bristle at each angle. Stamens 2. Stems prostrate. Fl. Oct.-Jan. (Sanguisorba 
means blood-stanching, and is in allusion to the supposed properties of the 
European Sanguisorba or Burnet). 


Aczena novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Acena). 
Stems erect. Stamens 2 or 3. Fruiting calyx silky, red, slightly winged. 
Bristles barbed, reddish purple. Flower-heads larger than in A. Sanguisorbae. 
Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Aczena microphylla (The Small-leaved Acena). 


Chiefly distinguishable by the absence of barbs upon the bristles of the 
‘calyx. Flower-stems 1 in.-3 in. long; heads sometimes sessile. Bristles 4, 
bright red. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


*This name was applied to other small plants. 


202 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The common Ac@na was called by the Maoris Pini-piri, but 
colonists frequently corrupt the Maori name, and call the 
plant Bidi-bidi. As a general rule, the Maori names are 
more incorrectly pronounced as we go southward from 
Auckland to Otago. This is largely due to the fact that, in 
the north, Europeans have been brought into closer contact 
with the Maoris than in the south. In some few cases, the 
difference in pronunciation may be due to differences in the 
Maori dialects. The changes that take place often follow 
phonetic laws—thus the Maori “p” is softened into the 
European “b” as above, while “xr” is replaced by “1” or 
“d.” Poro-poro (Solanum aviculare) becomes Bulli-bulli, and 
Puniri becomes Boradi. This also explains such a form as 
“ Kowdie” pine for Kauri pine.  Korari—a_flax-stalk — 
similarly becomes Koradi or even Kalladi. ‘ K”’ is also 
sometimes altered into “g,” thus Kie-kie (Freycinetia Banksit) 
becomes ghi-ghi. The last vowel in a reduplicated syllable 
was faintly pronounced in Maori, and often disappears 
altogether in the European form of the word, e.g., Poro-poro 
gives Bulli-bull, and Piri-pini gives Bidi-bid. 

Thus it is often possible to arrive at the correct Maori form 
of a word from the aborted European spelling. At the same 
time the reader should be careful not to assume that the 
Maori plant-names given in the ordinary botanical text-books 
are completely reliable. Very often they are merely local 
Maori names, or are names apphed wrongly by Europeans, or 
even merely fanciful terms, invented by some Maori on the 
spur of the moment to please his botanical inquisitor. 


Distribution of the Genus. 

The genus is found only in the temperate regions of 
the Southern Hemisphere. All the New Zealand species 
are endemic, with the exception of A. sanguisorbae and 
A. adscendens. These are more widely distributed. A. 
sanguisorbae is a sub-Antarctic form. It is known from the 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 203: 


Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and also has been collected in 
Australia and Tristan d’Acunha, while 4. adscendens occurs 
from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chili, 
Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands. 


Leguminosae. 


FAMILY OF THE PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 


Distribution.—One of the largest of the families, comprising between 6,000: 
and 7,000 species. Only 26 of these are native to New Zealand, and all of these 
belong to the sub-order Papilionaceae, though many others have now been 
introduced, such as the Broom, Gorse, Clover, etc. The New Zealand species. 
may all be readily recognized by their papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers, and 
long seed-pods. From this family are obtained many vegetables, (e.g. Peas, Beans, 
Lentils, etc.), while the Vetches and Clovers are useful for fodder. Wistaria, 
Laburnum and Sweet-Pea are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. Other 
plants furnish valuable resins and dyes (e.g. Copal-resin, Gum-arabic, Gum 
Tragacanth, Balsam of Tolu, Indigo, etc.). 


Sup-Famity PapiILIoNACEAE. 

This is an immense sub-family, abundant in most parts of 
the world, but poorly represented in New Zealand. Plants 
belonging to it are best recognized by the shape of their 
corollas. The flower of the pea may be taken as a typical 
example. There are five petals, of which the two front ones 
are united to form the ‘ keel.’”’ The two side petals are called 
the “‘ wings,” and the back petal, which is generally large and 
erect, is called the “ standard.’ Inside the keel will be found 
the ten stamens. One of these is usually free from the 
other nine, which are united. Together they encircle the 
pistil, which consists of a one-celled ovary, with a single style 
and stigma, and develops into the well-known pod (legume) of 
the pea. The New Zealand genera are all more or less 
aberrant. In Sophora the two petals forming the keel are 
scarcely united, the stamens are all free and the pod is 


204 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


monihform. In Clianthus the keel is comparatively large 
and the standard small. Carmichaelia is remarkable for 
its strange dehiscence. The pod of Huttonella, and of 
Notospartium, is indehiscent, whilst the three last mentioned 
genera, together with the aptly named Corallospartium, are 
nearly leafless brooms. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Stamens all free. Flowers large, yellow. Sophora, p. 210. 
Stamens united. 2 
2. Leatiess or nearly leatiess shrubs. 3 
Herbs or shrubs with pinnate leaves. 5 
3. Stem yellow, stout, leafless. |Corallospartium. 
Steins green, often flattened. 4 
4. Flowers pinkish-white, pods indehiscent. tHuttonella. 
Flowers white, lilac, or variously coloured. 
Valves of seed pods falling away. Carmichaelia, p. 204. 
5. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Flowers blue 
or purple. +Swainsonia. 
Shrubs. Flowers large, scarlet, in drooping 
racemes. Clianthus, p. 210. 


‘Not further described. 


Genus Carmichaelia. 


Shrubs with grooved flattened branches, leafless except in very young plants. 
talyx 5-toothed; wings auricled at the base. Pods 1-12 seeded. A very 
remarkable genus, peculiar to New Zealand and Lord Howe’s Island. The sides 
or valves of the seed-pod fill away when the fruit is ripe, and the tiny black or 
scarlet seeds are left hanging by a slender thread from the bare framework of the 
pod. Flowers solitary, or in racemes or fascicles, white, red or lilac. (Named in 
honour of the Cryptogamic botanist Carmichael). 19 sp. 


Carmichaelia nana (The Dwarf Carmichaelia). 


A small, sub-alpine species, about 4 inches in height. Branches thin, flat. 
Leaves not seen. Flowers red, $ in.-§ in. long. Racemes 2-3 flowered. Pod 
oblong, 4 in. long, with a short, straight beak. Seeds 2-4, black. Both islands : 
in hilly districts. Fl. Dec. 


Carmichaelia australis (The Southern Carnichaeclia). 
A much-branched shrub, 3 ft.-9 ft. high. Branches very flat, with distant, 


alternate notches. Seedling leaves often 3-5-foliolate. Flowers striped lilac, 
pale or dark, fascicles 3-12-flowered, very fragrant. Pods oblong with a short 
beak. Seeds 1-4, scarlet. North Island: common. South Island: rare. 
Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 


Fig. 61. Carmichaelia australis—Fruit ($ nat. s 


206 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Carmichaelia flagelliformis (The Whip-like Carmichaelia). 


A slender shrub, 4 ft. in height. Leaves on young plants, 3-5-foliolate. 
Young shoots much elongated, like whip-cord. Flowers usually fascicled, 
3-7-flowered. Pod oblong, with short, stout beak. Seeds 2-4, flat mottled with 
yellow or red. Both islands, local in the North. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


No genus is perhaps more characteristic of New Zealand 
than this. The only representative outside these islands is the 
well-named C. exstl of Lord Howe’s Island. In Carmichaelia, 
particularly in the dwarf species, the reduction of leaf surface 
has been carried almost to the disappearing point. It is 
probable that this reduction is due to an attempt to protect 
the plants from loss of moisture, and not from excessive loss 
of heat by radiation, as neavly all the forms of the genus are 
glabrous. There is evidence to show that Carmichaelia was 
originally a genus of leaf-bearing forest shrubs.  C. easud puts 
forth its many tender leaves in the moist shade of the famous 
palm-forests of the picturesque Lord Howe’s Island. The 
New Zealand species, compelled to live in the dry open plains, 
develop leaves only in their early stages, or when growing in 
shade. Some of the dwarf forms (e.g. C. Enysw*), never go 
through a true leafy stage, but pass directly into a semi-leafy 
form with flattened branches, and then into the leafless mature 
form. They probably represent the last developed type of the 
genus. The flattening of the branches, which is seen in most of 
the species, is useful to the plant in various ways. It enables it 
to obtain a larger accumulating surface, without exposing this 
surface directly to the hot rays of the mid-day sun. Indeed 
the chief advantage of a flattened stem over a leaf, for the 
purpose of assimilation, 1s that the stem is in a vertical 
position, and, therefore, transpiration from its surface will not 
be so great as from the horizontal leaf-blade. Further, the 
flattened stem gets the full ight from the rising and setting 
sun, when the heating effect is not excessive. In the closely 
allied, scarcely distinct genus Corallospartium, the stomata are 


*Dyr, Cockayne. Trans. XXXIII, p. 91. 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 


2. Carmichaelia australis—Flowers (4 nat. size). 


208 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


protected by being sunk in hair-lined grooves in the stem. 
According to Diels, the stiff branches of this genus prevent any 
shaking which might promote evaporation; and the unusually 
well developed cuticle supplies further protection against 
excessive transpiration. The stem is of a remarkably bright 
yellow with deep grooves of a greenish hue running down it 
longitudinally. 

A leafless plant, such as C. australis, with long slender, 
rounded branches, is sometimes termed a switch plant. The 
dwarf species form patch-plants (v. Raoulia) in river-beds, 
and on dry mountain sides. Their habit is extremely 
singular, and they frequently give the impression of having 
been comparatively tall plants that have been mown down by 
the scythe, or of plants that have been suddenly arrested in 
their growth. The squat, broad stems are singularly ungainly. 

The genus 1s characterized by the strange method in which 
the pod opens to allow the seeds to escape. The sides fall 
away from the thickened edges, which are left on the plant, 
and form a frame enclosing the seeds. These seeds are 
suspended by slender threads, and are generally black or of a 
brilhant red. Sometimes they are mottled. The number in 
a pod varies from one to twelve. Frequently there are only 
one or two. Occasionally in their shape and markings they 
resemble lady-birds. 

The flowers of Carmichaelia, though small, are often very 
dainty in appearance, and beautiful in colour and markings. 
C. australis has thick clusters of delicate lilac blossoms, striped 
with darker lines, and possesses a sweet scent. Many of the 
species are yet insufficiently known. 

The flowersof Huttonella, Notospartium, and Corallospartium 
are very similar to those of Carmichaelia. Both species of 
Notospartiwm are beautiful and graceful plants, now rare. 
Corallospartium is one of the most remarkable plants of the 
flora. Its long, yellow, coralloid, switch-like stems are almost 
unique amongst flowering plants. 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 209 


nthus puniceus (4 nat. size). 


210 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Clianthus. 


A small genus of perhaps four species. The New Zealand species is endemic. 
Small trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx 5-toothed, 
Wings half as long as the keel. Pod oblong, 2-valved, many seeded. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying a reclining flower, in allusion to the recurved standard). 


Clianthus puniceus (The Scarlet Clianthus). 

A drooping undershrub, with silky branches. Leaves 4 in.-6 in. long, 
pinnate. Leaflets in 8-14 pairs. Flowers in long, pendulous racemes, bright 
scarlet, 2 inches in length. Auckland Province, rare; chiefly near old Maori 
cultivations. Fl. Aug.-Oct. This tree is known as the Red Kowhait, Parrot’s 
Till or Kaka’s Beak. Native name Aowlhai-ngutu-kaka, signifying the Parrot- 
beaked kowhai. It is also called in the Uriwera Country Ngutu-Kakariki, the 
Parroquet’s Beak. Fl. Aug.-Nov. 

This is one of the most gorgeous of our flowering plants. Its 
flowers in their briliancy of colour form a marked contrast to 
the greens, whites, and yellows, of most other New Zealand 
species. Though such a showy plant, it is scarcely a graceful 
one. The heavy, dark-green, glossy, pinnate leaves do not set 
off the scarlet flowers to the best advantage. However, the 
plant is widely cultivated, and when introduced into England 
in 1831, specimens of it were sold at £5 each. It grows well 
in Dunedin, but is apt to be cut back in winter by the more 
severe and continuous frosts of Christchurch. 

The plant—always rare—is now scarcely ever seen except 
in gardens, and is becoming extinct on the mainland, though 
still to be found on the cliffs round Lake Waikare-Moana, and 
on the Great Barrier Island. At one time it was comparatively 
comunon in the East Cape district, and in the early days it was 
seen near the Bay of Islands. It would probably have been 
long ago exterminated, had it not been cultivated by the 
Maoris, and also by the Europeans. The flowers are pollinated 
by birds (ef. Phormium, Sophora, Viter, etc.) 


Genus Sophora. 


Trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx inflated. 
Standard very broad; wings shorter than the keel. Stamens 10, free. Pod 
angled or 4-winged ; seeds oblong. (Name from Sophero, the Arabic for w 
papilionaceous-flowered tree.) 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 211 


+t 


Fig. 64. Sophora tetraptera (3 nat. size). 


212 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Sophora tetraptera (The Yellow Kowhat). 

A handsome tree, sometimes 40 ft. in height, with pinnate leaves and large 
gold-coloured blossoms. Leaves curled in bud, like the fronds of a fern. The 
trees are often bare of leaves in the early spring, and the flowers are produced in 
the axils of the leafless branches. Leaflets very variable, in from 6-40 pairs. 
Calyx greenish ; stamens hanging loosely below the petals. Standard scarcely 
reflexed. Pods 1 in.-5 in. long, with four membranous wings. Both islands. 
Fl. Sept. Maori name Kowhai. 

Var. grandiflora. Trunk sometimes 3 ft.in diameter. Flowers large, deep- 
coloured ; standard slightly reflexed. Leaflets in 10-25 pairs. 

Var. microphylla, Standard not reflexed. Stamens exserted. Leaflets in 
25-40 pairs. Flowers rather broader than in grandiflora. 

Var. prostrata. Stems prostrate. Flowers small. Stamens exserted. 
Leaflets in 2-4 pairs. 

We have followed the usual practice of botanists in separating 
the New Zealand species of Sophora into three varieties, but 
this discrimination is by no means satisfactory. The life 
histories of the various forms are at present insufficiently 
known, and no doubt, when they are more fully studied, 
several species will be created. It can scarcely be doubted but 
that the vanity grandiflora is entitled to specific rank. 
Again, a common North Island form is deciduous, and 
produces in early spring, before the bursting of the leaves, 
dense inasses of pale yellow blooms. 8S. microphylla goes 
through two distinct stages in its development. In the first, 
it is a flexuose shrub with wiry, yellowish, interlacing stems, 
and a few small leaves. When the plant is from eight to 
twelve feet in height this is gradually replaced by the mature 
form, which has a rounded leafy head, naked trunk, and 
straight brown branches. Dr. Cockayne informs us that 
neither the typical form, nor S. grandiflora, goes through the 
“serubby ” stage, but assumes the mature leafy form at 
once. 

The distribution of S. tetraptera outside of New Zealand is 
generally given as South Chih, Juan Fernandez, Haster Island, 
and Lord Howe Island. However, it may be doubted whether 
one and the same species 1s to be found in all these widely 
separated districts. It has been shown again and again, that 


PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 


214 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


plants considered by the earliest botanists to be the same, but 
growing in habitats distant from each other, are really distinct 
species. Dr. Cockayne has clearly proved* that there are at 
least three, perhaps more, distinct species of Sophora in New 
Zealand. The question at once arises, which of these are 
endemic in the Colony and which are more widely distributed ? 
Until the Chiltan and other forms have been closely compared 
with our local plants, if is impossible to say which foreign 
species (if any) are identical with the New Zealand foris. 
This much, however, may be admitted. We have in the 
distribution of the genus Sophora, evidence of a former closer 
comiunication with the South American Continent. 

The kowhai is one of the earliest of the spring-flowering 
plants. The flowers are sulphur-yellow in colour, with a calyx 
of old gold. At the time of opening, the corolla shows most 
delicate tints of green at its base, which, however, disappear 
when the blossoms are fully expanded. They secrete a large 
quantity of nectar. The tuis or parson-birds will not take the 
trouble to insert their brush-tongues to get at the honey, but 
in their hurry, tear open the flowers with their beaks, leaving 
the beautiful petals torn and ragged. The Maoris are said to 
have regulated the time of thei potato-planting by the 
flowering of the kowhat. 

The wood of this tree is handsome, and very valuable on 
account of its extreme durability. House blocks have been cut 
from felled trees which have lain from twenty to twenty-five 
years in the damp bush. These logs show no sign of decay, 
even when they have almost to be dug out of the ground. 
The tree is sometimes called the New Zealand Laburnwm. 
The Maori name is said to mean yellow (the colour of the 
flowers). 

As might have been expected, the kowhai has not failed to 
attract the attention of most writers of New Zealand poetry, 
and it has been described in verse more often perhaps than 


“Trans. XXXI. p. 373. 


THE GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS 215 


any other native plant. Beautiful descriptions of it are to be 
found in the writings of Domett, Dora Wilcox, Johannes 
Andersen, and others. 


Geraniaceae. 


(Including the Oxvalidaceae). 


THE FAMILY OF GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS. 


Distribution.-—A family of 20 genera and 750 species, found chiefly in 
temperate and hot climates. Many of the species have astringent and aromatic 
properties. Oxalic acid is obtained from the Oxalidaceae. The Geraniums and 
Pelargoniums are well-known garden flowers. Most of the latter are natives of 
the Cape of Good Hope. This family is very nearly allied to the Linaceae. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Flowers irregular. +Pelargonium. 
Flowers regular. 2 

2. Leaves lobed. Geranium, p. 215, 
Leaves foliolate. Oxalis, p. 216. 


tNot further described. 


Genus Geranium. 
About 100 species. Two of the New Zealand species are endemic. Herbs 
with stems swollen at the joints, and stipulate leaves. Flowers regular. Fruit 
with a long beak. 5 sp. 


Geranium dissectum, var. australe (The Cut-leaved 
Geranwum). 
A downy plant, lft. -2ft. in height. Leaves 5-7 lobed. Flowers two on 
a stem, $-inch across. Petals, notched, pink. Seeds, pitted. Both islands, 
more common in the north. Fl. Nov.-Feb. 


Genus Oxalis. 

Flowers, regular. Stamens, 10, all fertile. Stems very slender. Leaves, 
3-foliolate, the leaflets folding one upon another at night. About 240 species, 
found chiefly in S. Africa and 8. America. O. acetosella produces cleistogamic 
flowers. Some tropical species have pinnate leaves. Flowers yellow, white, or 
pink. (Name from the Greek, signifying sharp or acid), 2 sp. 


216 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Oxalis corniculata (The Horned Ovxalis). 


A perennial herb, sometimes creeping. Leaves shining or downy. Stipules, 


very small. Flowers, from 1-6 ona stem, $in.-J in. across. Petals yellow. 


Fruit an oblong capsule. Fl. Oct.-Mar. 


Oxalis magellanica (Mayellan’s Oxalis). 


This little plant much resembles the English Wood Sorrel (O. acetosella). 
It is smaller than corniculata, with slightly fleshy leaves, and solitary white 
flowers. Capsules, round. Stipules, large. Both islands: in shady places. Fl. 
Aug.-Oct. 


Our two dwarf species of Oralis are interesting from 
several points of view. On a bright day O. corniculata enlivens 
the turf with a blaze of little yellow flowers. It grows chietly 
in dry sunny localities, and it is one of the last of our indige- 
nous plants to disappear before the advance of civilization. 
There is no town in New Zealand in which there is such a 
dearth of uncultivated native plants as in Christchurch, yet 
this little Oxalis may be found on many of the lawns, even in 
the centre of the town. Hagley Park les almost within the 
borders of the City, and here a few wild flowers eke out a 
poverty-stricken existence for the delight of the town-dweller, 
if he care to notice them. The list is a short one, and 
(excluding monocotyledons) includes Ovwalis corniculata, 
Carmichaelia flagelliformis, Ligusticum (Aciphylla) Colensot, 
Raoulia Monrot, Geranium  microphyllum, Muhlenbeckia 
avillaris and Cotula speciosa. None of them, except the httle 
Oxralis, have brightly coloured flowers; none of them are 
showy or conspicuous, but every one of them is well worthy 
of study, and in a German town of size equal to this, would 
already have been monographed and examined  micro- 
scopically throughout, in all its stages. 

O. magellanica is found chiefly in bogs and damp woods. 
It is a widely distributed form, with a sub-antarctic range, 
being found in Victoria, Tasmania, South Chili, and Fuegia. 
Mr. G. M. Thomson found that the flower produced no seed 


GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS Q17 


even when the “ stigma was abundantly smeared with its own 
pollen.” It is difficult to understand how such an extra- 
ordinary characteristic as this is developed, but it is not 
uncommon, particularly amongst the Orchidaceae. O. corni- 
culata is endemic. 

The genus O.walis shows well the folding of the leaves known 
as the “sleep of plants.” The head of the petiole droops, 
and each blade is folded along the midrib, so that only the 
edges, and not the surfaces of the leaf are exposed to the sky. 
The position is, no doubt, as Darwin suggested, a method of 
protection against excessive loss of heat by radiation to a clear, 
cold sky; but when this has been said, many things still 
remain to be explained. The movement is generally stimulated 
by the oncoming of darkness. However, it will take place at 
regular intervals, for a time at least, in prolonged darkness, or 
in constant illumination. There is, therefore, a tendency in 
the plant to carry on the regular changes of position, in the 
absence of the stimulus; but sooner or later unnatural con- 
ditions produce disease, or an abnormal response in the leaves. 
The mechanism, by means of which the movements are carried 
on, 1s fairly well known. In many plants, it consists of a 
cushion of cells on the petiole, which can be distended or 
contracted by the injection of fluid into them, or its removal 
from them. When the cushion is in a state of turgidity, 
the leaf is raised; when it 1s flaccid, the leaf droops. The 
“sense-organs "—if so they may be termed—by means of 
which the plant can distinguish light from darkness, or 
variations in light, are as yet very imperfectly known. 
Haberlandt, however, has endeavoured to show that there are, 
in many leaves, transparent microscopic lenses which he terms 
“ocelli”’ (little eyes), whose function is to detect the alteration 
in the amount of light received by the leaf, and thus, perhaps, 
receive a stimulus, which will automatically control the motion 
of the leaf. 

This ‘ Somnus plantarum,” as Linneus termed it, may be 
readily witnessed in O. corniculata. 


218 LANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Linaceae. 


THe FuAx FaAmILy. 


Distribution.—A large family, found chiefly in tropical regions, and not 
unlike the Malvaceae in the mucilaginous character of the seeds, and the 
tenacity of the fibres. Linseed Oil is prepared from the oily seeds of the 
Linum (or flax), and the woven material known to us as linen takes its name 
from this plant, which produces it. The flowers of the flax are of a delicate 
pale-blue, and the petals fall readily. 


Genus Linum. 


This is the largest genus of the order, and is usually found in temperate 
climates. The New Zealand species is endemic, but several other species have 
been naturalized. 


Linum monogynum (The True New Zealand Flax). 

A perennial woody herb, 6 in.-24 in. in height, with pale-green shining 
leaves, and terminal corymbs of white, mallow-like flowers. Flowers lin. in 
diameter. Usually found on dry banks and cliffs, especially near the coast. 
North and South Islands, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct.-Jan. 
Native name Raauhu. 


This is the true New Zealand flax; the plant which 1s usually 
so called being a lly. The only point of resemblance between 
the two plants 1s the possession by each of a strong fibre. 


Rutaceae. 


THe Rur Famity. 

Distribution.—A large family, found in warm and tropical regions. These 
plants are usually remarkable for their powerful and aromatic odour. The leaves 
contain glands filled with a bitter volatile oil, The common Rue (Ruta 
graveolens) is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic.  Dictanmus fraxinella, 
the false Dittany, is said to exhale so much of this volatile oil that the 
surrounding air becomes charged with it, and faint flashes of light may be 
obtained on warm still evenings, if a flame be brought near the plant. Of the 
78 genera comprised in the order, only two are found in New Zealand. 


THE RUE FAMILY 


Fig. 66. Melicope simplex (+ nat. size). 


220 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Key to the Genera. 
Sepals and petals, 5. Stamens, 10. Phebalium, p. 220. 
Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Melicope, p. 220. 


Genus Phebalium. 


Shrubs, with alternate, pellucid-dotted, simple leaves, and corymbs of white 
flowers. Calyx small. 28 species are found in Australia, but only one in New 
Zealand. 


Phebalium nudum (The Naked Phebalium). 

A slender, branching shrub, with reddish bark. Leaves, lin. - 1Jin. long ; 
flowers,  in.-§ in. across; white, in terminal corymbs; endemic. North Island : 
as far south as the Thames. Great Barrier Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name 
Mairehau. 

Genus Melicope. 

Flowers, regular. Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Ovary of 4 carpels. 
Shrubs or trees, with dotted leaves, simple or ternate. Flowers terminal or 
axillary; small. About 15 species, two of which are endemic in New Zealand. 
(Name from the Greek, in reference to the lobed glands round the ovary). 


Melicope ternata (The Ternate-leaved Melicope). 

A small tree, with shining yellowish-green leaves, and axillary cymes of 
greenish flowers. Leaves opposite ; 3-foliate ; leaflets, 2in.-4in. long. Flowers, 
din. in diameter. Seed, black, shining. Common in the North Island; local in 
the South. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name Wharangi. The gum of this tree is 
said to have been chewed by the natives. 


Melicope simplex (The Simple-leaved Melicope). 

A small tree, 3ft.- 12ft. high. Leaves alternate, usually simple, rarely 
3-foliolate, }in.- fin. long. Leaf stem flattened, broad. Flowers, }-in. across, 
white or pink, fascicled on the branches. The appearance of this plant is 
different in every respect from that of M. ternata. 


This is one of the few New Zealand plants that have been 
shown to have cleistogamic flowers (v. Viola Cunninghamii.) 

Mr. G. M. Thomson found specimens of Melicope simpler 
on Pigeon Island in Lake Wanaka, with closed flowers that 
were seeding freely.“ On examining them he found that the 
flowers were much reduced, and adapted for self-pollination. 
The sepals were normal, and the petals nearly so, but of the 
eight stamens found in the well-developed flower, four were 


“Trans. Vol. XXIV. ». 416. 


THE RUE FAMILY 221 


elther altogether rudimentary, or had the anthers apparently 
aborted. The other four had large anthers on short filaments. 
The four carpels, in place of being in contact, were completely 
free, and instead of having four united styles, as in the 
normal flower, with a single stigma, the cleistogamuc flower 


Fig. 67. Melicope simplex (life size). 


had four more or less distinct styles. The flowers were pen- 
dulous, and probably the pollen matured early, and was shed 
into the apex of the corolla, thus reaching the stigma. As the 
filaments were shorter than the ovary, it was mnpossible for 
the pollen to pass directly from anther to stigma. 

This plant, like several other New Zealand species, is found 
sometimes with hermaphrodite, sometimes with dicecious. 


222 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


flowers, an anomaly that has never been fully explained. It is 
probable that we have here, examples of species that are 
changing from the hermaphrodite to the unisexual condition, 
or vice versa. The problem presented is one of considerable 
interest and importance, and should in the future attract the 
attention of investigators. 


Meliaceae. 


THe Famity oF MAaHnoGany TREES. 

Distribution. — A tropical family of forest trees, which includes the 
Mahogany, the Indian Satin Wood, and the Red Cedar of Australia. Found 
chiefly in Asia and America. 

Genus Dysorylum. 

About 30 species, all large forest trees, often with a strong odour of garlic. 
One species alone is found in New Zealand, and that is endemic. (Name from 
the Greek, meaning sowr or acid, in allusion to the bitter principle contained in 
the leaves.) 

Dysoxylum spectabile (The Handsome Dysorylum). 

A tree, often 50 ft. in height, with handsome glossy leaves, unequally 
pinnate. Flowers 4 in. broad, white, produced in drooping axillary panicles. 
The fruit is large and conspicuous, the hard thick capsule opening gradually, and 
showing the brilliant scarlet covering of the seeds. This extra covering is called 
the aril. (Mace is the aril of the nutmeg.) This tree is known to settlers as 
the New Zealand Cedar. Maori name Kolhekohe. 1 sp. 

This is one of the most beautiful trees of the New Zealand 
flora. Its large glossy leaves, its white, lily-of-the-valley-lke 
flowers, springing from the bare parts of trunk or branch, and 
its large fruits, make it a conspicuous object in the bush of the 
North Island, to which it 1s practically confined. In the South 
Island it is rare, and 1s found only in the north of Nelson and 
Marlborough. The leaves are very bitter, and an infusion of 
them 1s sometimes used by bushinen as a tonic. The wood is 
hight, and very useful for fencing posts in loose sand. In 
such situations 1t 1s more durable than any other New Zealand 


tree. 


THE FAMILY OF MAHOGANY TREES 223 


Fig. 68. Dysoxylum spectabile.—Unripe fruit (4 nat. size). 


294 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Euphorbiaceae. 


THE SPuRGE FaAmIby. 

Distribution.—A large and interesting family of plants, with about 4000 
species, but poorly represented in New Zealand. In some respects this family is 
allied to the Geraniaceae, but, from the absence of petals in many genera, it is 
placed amongst the Incompletae by Hooker. Xylophylla has flattened branches, 
which bear flowers on their margins. The milky juice contained in the stems of 
many of the species is usually highly poisonous. Some species produce resin; 
caoutchoue, or oil, while others yield a valuable food-starch, from which cassava, 
arrow-root, and tapioca are made. The Croton-oil, and Castor-oil plants are 
members of this family, while the Common Box is well-known as a garden 
edging. Some euphorbiaceous plants, such as Poinsettia, are cultivated in 
gardens and greenhouses for their brilliantly coloured bracts. 


Genus Huphorbia. 


Herbs with milky juice, rarely shrubs. Flowers cymose, terminal, enclosed 
in a perianth-like 4-5-lobed involucre, with yellowish or purple glands between 
the lobes. Stamens unequal, jointed in the middle. Each separate stamen of 
the inflorescence is regarded as a male flower. Often it is provided with a scale- 
like bract at its base. In the centre of this cluster of male flowers, is a single 
female flower, consisting of a stalked 3-celled ovary. Cells 1-ovuled. Capsule 
3-lobed. Some of the African and Canary Island species closely resemble Cacti, 
and sometimes attain a height of 30 ft. The common weed known as the 
Spurge, is a European Euphorbia. 1 sp. 


Euphorbia glauca (The Glaucous Euphorbia). 


A shining, glaucous herb, 1 ft.-2 ft. high. Rootstock woody, thick. Stem 
branched at the top, leafy. Leaves 1 in.-4 in. long, broadly oblong or narrow. 
Floral leaves broad, whorled. Involucres bell-shaped, } in. across, fleshy, with 
tor 5 purple glands. Capsule the size of a pea, smooth. Both islands: sea- 
beaches. Common. Fl. Oct.-Feb. 


Sapindaceae. 


THE MapLE aNb HorsE-CHESTNUT FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical, family, including many plants with 
poisonous properties, Some species yield a pleasant fruit, while their leaves are 
highly poisonous. The nut-like fruits of the Sapindaceae lather freely in water, 
and are used in the West Indies for washing purposes. The Maples and 


THE MAPLE AND HORSE-CHESTNUT FAMILY 225 


Horse-Chestnuts are amongst the most handsome trees belonging to the order. 
The North American Sugar Maple, Acer saccharinwm, contains a great quantity 
of sugar in its sap. 

Key to the Genera. 


Leaves simple(in the N.Z, species). Dodonea, p. 225 


225, 


Leaves pinnate, Alectryon, p. 225. 


Genus Dodonea. 
Small trees, sometimes viscid. Leaves alternate. Sepals 3-5, petals none, 
stamens 5-8. A genus chiefly Australian. Flowers terminal or axillary. 
(Named after Dodoens, a German botanist.) 


Dodonea viscosa (The Viscid Dodonea). 

A small hard-wooded tree, with viscid shoots. Leaves linear-oblong, entire, 
1-3 in. long. Flowers in small terminal panicles, green. 10-12 stamens are 
found in the male flowers. Fruit dark-brown, flat, winged. Both islands: dry 
woods. Fl. Oct.-Nov. Native name *Ake-ake, perhaps signifying for ever and 
ever, in allusion to the durability of the wood. The wood was much used for 
native clubs, and is now valued by settlers for making mauls, as it does not 
spread. 1 sp. 

Genus Alectryon. 

A tree, with black bark, and hairy branches. Leaves pinnate, 4 in.-18 in. 
in length; leaflets 2 in.-4 in. Flowers in erect panicles. Calyx 4-5-lobed ; 
petals none; stamens 5-8. Fruit a capsule, coriaceous. (Name from the Greek, 
signifying a cock, in allusion to the scarlet, comb-like aril of the seed). 1 sp. 


Alectryon excelsum (The Lofty Alectryon). 

A handsome tree, sometimes 60 ft. high, Flowers, fruit, and branches 
clothed with a rusty-coloured down. The whole of the flowering panicles 
appear to be of a reddish brown, from the deep colour of the anthers. The seed 
is black and shining, enclosed in a bright scarlet aril. An oil obtained from 
these seeds is said to have been used in the making of native perfumes. This 
tree is sometimes called The New Zealand Ash, and its timber is largely used. 
Maori name, Titoki. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 

One of the best known of the bush trees, often comprising 
a large portion of the forest. It grows as far south as 
Banks Peninsula, where, with several other North Island 
forms, it reaches its southern-most habit. The prominent 
jet-black seed, embedded in its scarlet envelope with flattened 
crest and one side terminating in a spur, is one of the most 


attractive objects for the ordinary visitor to the bush. 


*This name was applied by the Maoris to other hard-wooded trees. 
16 


226 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Coriariaceae. 


THe Tutu Faminy. 

Distribution.—A small family of about 12 species, found in Europe, China, 
Japan, India, Peru, and New Zealand. The four New Zealand forms vary 
greatly. 

Genus Coriaria. 


Herbaceous plants, or small trees. Racemes erect or drooping. Flowers 
axillary. Leaves, ¢in.-3 in. long. 4 sp. 


Coriaria ruscifolia (The Ruscus-leaved Coriaria). 

A small tree, with shining opposite leaves, and long drooping racemes of 
tiny, greenish flowers. These racemes are 6in.-12in. long. The flower petals 
become red and fleshy while the seeds are ripening, and are filled with a purple 
juice. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name: Tupakihi or Tutu, perhaps 
from Tutu, deep crimson (colour of the fruit). (Ruscus is the plant known as 
the Butcher’s Broom). 

The family Coriariaceae possesses only one genus, Coriaria, 
whose remarkable distribution has been given above. Of the 
New Zealand species, two, C. ruscifolia, and C. thymifolia, are 
said to be found also in South America; the identity, however, 
of these forms with ours has been questioned. This dis- 
tribution has been used to prove a former land connection 
between New Zealand and South America, but the order is 
probably a very ancient one, and the discontinuity of 
distribution 1s more likely to be due to relict endemism, 
than to direct communication between these two remote 
districts. The family may at one time have been widely 
distributed over the face of the globe, and have died out in all 
places except those in which it is now found. 

C. thymifolia is known in New Granada as the Ink-plant, 
as the juice of its fruit is used as a writing fluid. Rather a 
curious character of the genus is the formation of the fruit 
from the persistent petals, which become fleshy and full of 
purple juice. 


THE TUTU FAMILY 


227 


Coriaria ruscifolia (4 nat. size). 


Tig. 69. 


228 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


EFFECTS OF THE POISON. 


The tutu is well known as the most remarkable of New 
Zealand’s poisonous plants. Some of the animals hberated 
here by Captain Cook died from the effects of eating the 
leaves, and in the early days of the Colony the settlers lost 
large numbers of their animals in this way. Thus Dr. Lauder 
Lindsay states in the “ British Medical Review” (July 1865) : 
“He seemed a fortunate farmer or runholder who had not lost 
more than 25 per cent. of his stock from toot-poisoning, whilst 
in some instances, the losses were so high as 75 per cent.” 
Sir Julius von Haast narrates how an elephant travelling with 
a circus, died from eating this plant by the way-side. Further, 
there are on record a few cases in which human beings have 
lost their lives from eating the shoots or berries of the tutu. 
The poison produces vomiting, convulsions, frothing at the 
mouth, and death. 

It has been found that a dose of about a milligram of the 
extract “ produces nausea, vomiting, and incapacity for work 
extending over twenty-four hours in a healthy, full-grown 
man.””* 

Various methods of treatment have been employed to 
counteract the effects of the poison, including the use of 
lime-water, ammonia, stimulants, and the inhalation of 
chloroform followed by sedatives and bleeding. If the ex- 
perience of stock owners is to be trusted, the last mentioned 
is the most efficacious means of atfording relief. No antidote 
is known. Maori children, poisoned by eating the berries, were 
smoked over a fire of green boughs, being shaken all the time! 

There is some reason to believe that the accounts given of 
the effects of the poison on stock have been exaggerated. 
Horses have been known to eat freely of this plant without 
evil results. Possibly the over-driving of cattle and shee 
has in many cases intensified the action of the poison. 


*Rasterfield and Aston: Trans. Vol, XXXIII., p. 345. 


THE TUTU FAMILY 229 


Tutu WINE. 


Though the green shoots and seeds are intensely poisonous, 
the Maoris prepared from the juice of the berries a beverage, 
of which, according to Colenso, they drank large quantities. 
In the early days of the Colony the settlers also used to 
make a wine from the fruit, after removing the seeds. 
However, this wine was not above suspicion. Canon Stack 
relates how he drank the wine upon one occasion when 
travelling in company with Bishop Harper. Fortunately, 
neither of them did more than taste it. Shortly after 
swallowing it, the Canon lost all feeling in his extremities, and 
could scarcely retain his seat, but felt that he must fall forward 
on his face. A mist came over the room, and he perceived 
that he was being poisoned, and must ask for an emetic. Soon, 
however, his feet began to tingle, and the strange sensation 
passed. The good Bishop was similarly affected, so, judging 
from this case, the beverage can scarcely be recommended for 
general use. 


Tue NATURE OF THE POISON. 


The poison apparently affects the medulla oblongata, and 
basal ganglia of the brain. Various attempts were made to 
isolate the poisonous principle, and this was finally accom- 
plished by Professor Easterfield and Mr. Aston in 1900. 
The results of their work will be found in the paper already 
referred to. At the end of their article is also a full biblio- 
graphy of the subject. These workers find that “all the New 
Zealand species of Coriaria, contain a highly poisonous 
crystalline glucoside, of the formula C,,H,,0,.”’ To this they 
give the name “tutin.” The poisonous principle of tutu is, 
therefore, allied to the bitter substances found in many plants, 
such as amygdalin, found in bitter almonds ; liquorice-sugar, 
found in the liquorice root; salicin, contained in the leaves 
and young bark of poplars and willows ; and convolvulin, 


230 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


obtained from the jalap-root. The poisonous constituent of 
the European C. myrtifolia has been termed “ corlamyrtin ” 
and is distinct from ‘“‘tutin,”’ though both probably belong to 
the same chemical series. 


Icacinaceae. 


THE LAsSIANTHERA FAMILY. 


Distribution.—An unimportant tropical family, comprising 38 genera, of 
which only one is found in New Zealand. This genus is also found in Norfolk 
Island. 


Genus Pennantia. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in large terminal panicles. 
Sepals and petals 5. Stamens 5, attached to the top of the stem. Drupe 
small, stone three-angled. The genus is named after the Scotch naturalist, 
Pennant. 

Pennantia corymbosa (The Corymbose Pennantia.) 


A tree, 10-40 ft. in height. Leaves 1 in. to 4 in. long. Flowers small, 
numerous, waxy-white, fragrant; flowering stems white and hairy. Drupes 
black and fleshy. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name, Kaikomako. 

This is an interesting little tree, not uncommon in many 
parts of the country. In its young state it is a shrub, with 
long, flexuous, interlacing branches, and small, distant, sessile, 
truncate, variable, wedge-shaped leaves. When full-grown, it 
is a handsome tree, 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, with broadly oblong, 
short-stalked, glossy leaves, about two inches in_ length. 
Only a keen student of nature would recognize in the rather 
ugly shrub, the precursor of the ornamental tree. The 
profuse, white, fragrant flowers make it well worthy of 
cultivation. The curious black fungus, so common on the 
native beeches, is sometimes found on the bark of this tree. 

The seed is suspended in the ovary by a remarkable 
filamentous process, which originates outside the fruit, and, 


THE LASIANTHERA FAMILY 


Fig. 70, Cor sarpus levigata (4 nat. size). 


232 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


after running along one of the external faces, enters by a pore 
near the apex. 
The Katkomako in Maori Lore. 

The story concerning the origin of fire is one of the best 
known Maori legends. There are several variants of it. 
Maui, the famous hero and demigod, one evening maliciously 
extinguished all the household fires, so that, when morning 
came, 1t was impossible for his mother to cook the daily meal. 
This the hero had foreseen, and it gave him the required 
excuse to go to the bowels of the earth, where dwelt the dread 
voddess of fire, Mahuika. He thus hoped to discover whence 
came fire. He reached the abode of the goddess by a 
subterranean path, and begged from her a spark to rekindle 
the terrestrial hearths. On receiving this daring request, the 
goddess pulled out one of her finger-nails, and with it there 
leaped forth a stream of fire. Mai carried off the flame with 
him, but, wishing to learn more of its origin, put it out before 
he had gone far. He returned to the cavern of the goddess, 
and told her that he had accidentally lost the fire. She drew 
out a second finger-nail, and Maui carried off the fire and 
extinguished it as before. The same trick was repeated by 
Maui until Mahuika had pulled out all her nails except that 
on one of her big toes. By this time, however, the goddess 
recognized that she was being tricked. So, when Maui 
returned for the twentieth nail, she tore it out and violently 
dashed it on the ground. Immediately her dwelling was filled 
with flames. Maui escaped to the upper world, but was chased 
by the goddess with conflagration. With great presence of 
mind, he turned himself into a bird, but even then he was 
likely to have perished, for a pool of water mto which he 
plunged, was boiling hot. Indeed, he would undoubtedly have 
been burned, had he not called to his assistance the gods of 
the wind and rain and hail. These quenched the fires, and 
Mahuika, appalled by the terrors of the tempest, fled shrieking 
to the underworld. As she went, however, Maui saw her 


THE KARAKA FAMILY 233 


throw the seeds of fire into several trees. Amongst these were 
the kaikomako, mahoe, totara, and pate. Thus he obtained 
the coveted knowledge, for if a sharp pointed kaikomako stick 
is worked vigorously along the surface of a flat piece of mahoe 
(Melicytus ramiflorus), or pate (Schefflera digitata), a groove 
is formed, which fills with fine dust. This, being gathered to 
one end of the groove, will presently smoke; and, if the 
worker is sufficiently adroit and strong, he will at last be able 
to kindle a flame. 

Strangely enough, this primitive method of obtaining fire 
was the only one known to the Maoris. Those, who have 
tried it, alone know what violent exertion and care are needed 
to ensure kindling by these means. Smoke is readily obtained 
by the vigorous worker, but flame rarely ever. 


Corynocarpaceae. 


THE Karaka FamILy. 
Distribution.—A family of two species, one in New Zealand and the other 
found in New Caledonia and the adjacent islands. 


Corynocarpus laevigata (The Smooth Corynocarpus). 


A handsome tree, with glossy, laurel-like foliage. Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long, 
oblong. Flowers in erect panicles, 4 in. in length. Flowers $ in. in diameter, 
white. Petals concave. Fruit oblong, 1 in. in length, extremely poisonous. 
Found in both islands. Fl. Aug.-Dec. Maori name, Karaka. This tree is 
often called by settlers the ‘‘ New Zealand Laurel.’’ The Karaka forms the 
chief forest in the Chatham Islands, and was much used by the natives in the 
making of canoes. 


This is one of the handsomest of New Zealand trees. The 
rounded, massive heads of laurel-like leaves are to be seen 
rising near most Maori clearings, as far south as Long- 
Look-Out Point, on Banks Peninsula. This is its southern- 
most habitat, though it also grows in the Chatham Islands, 


234 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


where it is known to the natives as Hopi. It is common in 
many places near the coast in the North Island, where it has 
obviously been planted by the Maoris; and it is also 


sometimes to be found along river-banks, being specially 
plentiful in the neighbourhood of the Wanganui River. In 
the South Island it is rarer, though Kirk (Forest Flora, 
p. 173) is scarcely right im calling it ‘‘ very rare,” as it grows 


Fig. 71. Karaka Grove. 


in great abundance along the coast-line north of Kaikoura in 
the neighbourhood of old Maori settlements. 

The kernel of the orange-coloured, damson-shaped fruit was 
one of the staple articles of diet of the Maori. Consequently, 
the tree was much cultivated, and, as the young plants grow 
readily from self-sown seeds in the shade of the old, the 
karaka 1s very often to be found in groves. These groves, 
according to Colenso, were strictly tapu. His account™ of the 


‘Trans. IV., p. 317. 


THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 235 


manner of preparation of the food, and the action of the poison 
is extremely interesting. 

Mr. Skey investigated the nature of the poison, and came 
to the conclusion that it was probably a glucoside (v., under 
Coriaria ruscifolia.) He isolated the bitter principle in 
beautifully radiating acicular crystals, and considered that 
it was similar to digitaline (7.e., the drug obtained from the 
root of the fox-glove). (v., also under Pomaderris.) 


THE HoME OF THE KARAKA. 


The Maoris state that they originally brought the karaka 
with them from their semi-mythical Eden (Hawaiki), but 
science contradicts this statement. Until quite recently, the 
genus was believed to be endemic, but it has now been found 
in New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, so that it is 
probable the plant came into New Zealand when there was a 
land extension to the north. It is apparently quite unknown 
in the Western Pacific, whence the Maoris came to New 
Zealand, but a very similar tree growing in Polynesia bears, it 
is said, the same name. It is probable, therefore, that the 
name karaka was attached to the New Zealand tree by the 
Maoris, because of its resemblance to a tree found in their 
former home, and not because they brought it with them. 
The Maoris wore chaplets of the leaves upon their heads, 
when they visited the graves of their ancestors on any 
important occasion. 


Rhamnaceae. 


THE BucktHORN FaAmIty. 

Distribution.—A widely-distributed family, occurring in warm and 
temperate regions. Some of the species possess edible fruits, while the bark of 
others yields a tonic, and is used in medicine. Yellow, green and blue dyes 
are also obtained from some of the fruits. The leaves of Ceanothus americanus 
have been used as a substitute for tea. 


236 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Key to the Genera. 


Leafy shrubs. Leaves alternate. Pomaderris, p. 236. 
Spinous shrubs. Leaves opposite or 0. Discaria, p. 239. 


Genus Pomaderris. 


Shrubs, clothed with a hoary stellate down. Leaves alternate. Calyx-tube 
divided into 5 lobes. Petals 5 or 0. Stamens 5, Flowers in terminal or 
axillary corymbs or panicles. About 22 species, found only in Australia, New 
Zealand, and New Caledonia. (Name from the Greek, signifying a covering and 
the skin, the fruit being loosely covered by the calyx). 


Pomaderris elliptica (The Elliptical-leaved Pomaderris). 


A branching shrub, 2-10 ft. in height. Leaves 2-3 in. long, shining above, 
white with down on the under-surface. Cymes fragrant, many-flowered. Calyx, 
white. Petals crisped at the edges, greenish-white. North Island: dry hills. 
Fl. Sept. Native name, Awnarahou, from Kumara, a tuber-like root, and how, 
growimg deep or strongly. 


Pomaderris apetala (The Taint). 


A small tree 6 ft.-20 ft. in height, trunk 5 in.-6 in. in diameter. Leaves, 
flowers, and flowering stems clothed with dense soft hairs. Cymes many-flowered. 
Petals none. Fruit a capsule. North Island only, rare and local. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 
Maori name Taina. 


THE DISCOVERY OF THE TAINUI. 


This plant was discovered in New Zealand by Sir James 
Hector, and described by him in 1879* as Pomaderris Tainut. 
It is of special interest because of the Maori legend attached 
to it. When Sir James was in the Mokau district in 
December, 1878, he was informed by the Maoris, that a certain 
tree, which had sprung from the green boughs used in the 
flooring of the canoe ‘“'Tainui,” was still growing in that 
district. The Tainui was one of the six famous canoes of 
the Great Heke, and in it the ancestors of the Waikatos, 
Ngatimaniapotos, and other tribes, came to New Zealand some 
five hundred and fifty years ago. Sir James expressed a 
doubt as to the credibility of this statement concerning the 
origin of the tree. The Maoris then offered to show him the 
living specimens, which were growing on a spur between the 


‘Trans. XI. p. 428. 


THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 237 


Mokau and the Mohakatina Rivers. The scientist, on seeing 
them, was forced to admit that he had not observed any tree 
of the kind in New Zealand before, and the Maoris considered 


Fig. 722. Pomaderris phylicefolia (5 nat. size). 
this admission was prima facie evidence of the truth of their 
tale. Sir James concurred in their view, and suggested that, 
“Gf we could hereafter determine the original habitat of the 
tree, it might give us a clue to the whereabouts of their 


238 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


ancestral home, Hawaiki, the place whence the Maoris originally 
migrated to New Zealand.”” But, unfortunately for the lover 
of romance, there is a sequel to the tale. When the earthen 
pot of tradition, and the iron pot of science, go down the 
stream together, it 1s the former which is likely to be broken. 
Kirk has shown (Forest Flora, p. 11) that the plant is none 
other than the Australian Pomaderris apetala. Moreover, the 
genus Pomaderris, so far as is at present known, is peculiar to 
New Zealand and Australia, and does not occur in the South 
Seas. It is obvious, therefore, that the story has grown up to 
explain the tree, and that the presence of the plant in New 
Zealand is no proof of the truth of the legend. Indeed, on 
examination of the tale, discrepancies in it soon appear. The 
species 1s not confined to the habitat where it was first found, 
nor was the ‘‘Tainui”’ stranded near the Mokau, but at Kawhia. 


Pomaderris phylicefolia (The Phylica-leaved Pomaderris). 

A strongly scented, heath-like shrub, which grows profusely amongst the 
small tea-tree, upon gum-lands. The branches are thickly covered with soft 
hairs, and the leaves so much recurved as to appear to be round rather than flat. 
The flowers are axillary, in cymes of 3-5, and are of a yellowish colour. North 
Island. Fl. Aug.-Oct. Maori name Tauhinw.* (Phylica is an African genus of 
the order, consisting of heath-like shrubs). 

This plant is often abundant in the open country in the 
North Island, and constitutes, particularly in Auckland 
Province, one of the chief components of the lowland heaths. 
Its structure also is typical of the heath-plant. The small 
leaves bear their stomata on the under-surface, in wind-still 
tubes, formed by the inrolled margins and the rough hairs. 
Transpiration is thus checked, and the plant is enabled to 
withstand long continued insolation. Similar leaves may be 
found in Olearia virgata, Cassinia retorta, and Celmisia 
longifolia. 

The roots of this plant were, according to Colenso, some- 


THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 239 


Genus Discaria. 


About 14 species, of which 1 is found in New Zealand. Much branched, 
almost leafless, usually thorny shrubs, with twisted interlacing stems. Branches 
grooved. Leaves 4 in.-$in. long. Flowers axillary, fascicled, small. Petals 0, 
or4or5. Stamens4or5. Fruit a dry hard drupe. (Name from the Greek 
signifying a disk, from the ovary being situated on a broad disk). 


Discaria toumatou (The Wild Irishman). 
A spinous bush, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Flower 4 in. in diameter, white; 
calyx, downy. Leaves, when present, fascicled or solitary in the axil of 
spines. North and South Islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Tumatakuru. 


XEROPHYTIC LEAVES. 


It doubtless sometimes happens, that, owing to slow move- 
ments of the earth’s crust, the climate of a plant habitat 
alters. There is reason, for example, to believe that, at some 
past time, the chmate of the Canterbury Plains, and perhaps 
of other parts of New Zealand, was much more arid than it 
now is. Under changing circumstances, a plant has either to 
accommodate itself to its new environment, or give place to 
other and better adapted species. There are many ways in 
which a plant can adjust its leaf to the conditions of a 
desert climate. The leaf may be set obliquely to the sun, 
as in Hucalyptus ; 1t may provide itself with water-storage 
apparatus, as in Mesembryanthemum ; the leaf margins may 
be recurved, as in Olearia virgata; the total leaf surface 
may be reduced, as in many Veronicas; or again, the leaves 
may become spinescent, as in Actphylla. If all these 
methods fail in protecting the transpiring surface sufficiently, 
the plant may become leafless. Then the stem has to 
take on the functions of a leaf, as in Carmichaelia, Clematis 
afoliata, etc. 

Now Discaria has nearly been reduced to these straits to 
prolong its existence. Such extreme measures, however, are 
only adopted by the plant, if other devices for protection against 
drought fail, or are unavailable; for a stem cannot be expected 
to carry on the work of assimilation as efficiently as a leaf. 


240 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The leaves of the Wild Irishman are fairly abundant in spring, 
become fewer in summer, and are altogether wanting in 
autumn and winter. Most of the shoots are reduced to green 
pungent spines, sometimes with brown tips. These when old 
lose their chlorophyll, and become very hard and dry. They 
are then so strong and needle-like, that they were often used 


Fig. 73. Discaria toumatou (4 nat. size). 
(Moist air form on the left, ordinary form on the right.) 


by the Maoris for tattooing, when bone or other needles were 
unprocurable. 
Dr. L. CocKayNnr’s HXPERIMENT. 

The small deciduous leaves, and hard green acuminate shoots 
of Discaria at once proclaim it a plant of dry localities. Asa 
matter of fact, it is found chiefly on sand-dunes, on arid or 
clayey hill-sides, and on stony plains. That it should acquire 
such a highly xerophytic structure is therefore little to be 


THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 241 


wondered at, but the strangest part of the story yet remains 
to be told. Dr. Cockayne has studied its development, and has 
also shown by an experiment, which is probably destined to 
become classic, that Discaria was originally a spineless leafy 
plant adapted to a inoist habitat.* The seedling plant is erect, 
leafy, and bears no spines. After it attains an inch or two in 
height, spines begin to develop in the leaf axils, and the 
foliage becomes gradually sparse. If, however, the plant is 
now put into a warm moist chamber, no more spines will be 
developed, the leaves will be retained, and,—in a word,—the 
plant returns to its seedling form. Nor is this a temporary 
change, for this form will be retained as long as the plant 
remains in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. And in 
this complete suppression of the spines, Dr. Cockayne’s 
experiment is unique. Goebel, perhaps the greatest living 
botanist, recently said :—‘‘ I do not think that up till now any 
more has been proved, than that in moist air the formation of 
prickles and thorns is retarded; there is no proof that it can 
be suppressed.” + Dr. Cockayne seems clearly to have shewn 
that complete suppression is possible. 

Such a remarkable experiment as this cannot fail to be 
profound and far-reaching in its effect on biological ideas of 
the species. As will be pointed out (v. Plagianthus betulinus, 
p. 256), the seedling often passes through the ancestral forms 
of the species in its development. We must, therefore, assume 
that Discaria had originally small thin leaves, adapted to a 
moist chmate, but has changed its characters in response to 
the stimulus of a drier atmosphere. Sixty years ago the 
dogma of the fixity of species was one of the most sacred 
beliefs of biologist and layman. Darwin showed us that 
species are not fixed; and now there are not wanting many 
indications, which seem to prove, that in some cases, 
individuals even, may show a marvellous plasticity. 


*The New Phytologist Vol. IV. No. 4, On the Significance of the Spines in Discaria 
toumatou. 
{Plant Organography Eng. Trans. Part I. pp. 263, 264. i 
7 


242, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Tiliaceae. 


THE Lime-TREE FamMI.y. 


Distribution.—A family of 40 genera, and 340 species. Tilia is the only 
genus found in cold regions. The English Lime-tree (Tilia ewrop@a), the 
typical plant of the order, furnishes the bast used by gardeners. Bast mats are 
made from it in Russia. From Corchorus capsularis, the Jute, the Indian 
tribes made their nets and fishing-lines, while another variety of the same plant 
was used by the Egyptians as a vegetable. It is said that one species of 
Aristotelia possesses fibres of such strength and toughness, as to be used as 
strings for musical instruments. Sparmannia africana, a pretty shrub with 
umbels of white flowers, and with evergreen leaves, is cultivated in Britain as a 
hothouse plant. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Fruit a spinous capsule. Entelea, p. 242. 
Fruit a drupe or berry. 2 

2. Leaves opposite. Aristotelia, p. 244. 
Leaves alternate. Eleeocarpus, p. 248. 


Genus Hnitelea. 


A genus of only one species, almost confined to the North Island of New 
Zealand. Leaves alternate, flowers regular. Sepals and petals, 4 or 5. Stamens 
numerous ; fruit spiny. (Name from the Greek, signifying perfect, referring to 
the stamens, as opposed to the wnperfect ones of Sparimannia). Maori names, 
Whau, Hauama. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Entelea arborescens (The Shrubby Entelea). 

The genus is confined to these islands, and this 1s its only 
species. The tree may, therefore, be regarded as peculiarly 
a New Zealand plant. Its large leaves and beautiful white 
flowers make it one of the handsomest of small trees. It used 
to be common along the coast of the northern part of the 
North Island, being particularly plentiful north of Auckland 
and in the neighbourhood of Gisborne. It 1s not found nearer 
Wellington than Paikakariki, and in the South Island has been 
seen only in the Collingwood district and near the Croiselles. 
In some places this tree is called the New Zealand Mulberry, 
on account of the shape of the leaves. 

These leaves are very large, sometimes nine or ten inches in 
length, heart-shaped, and with toothed margins. They are 


THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 243 


beautifully veined, soft, and fade quickly when gathered. The 
flowers are produced in large drooping clusters, and are of a 
pure white, with crumpled petals, each single blossom being 
about an inch in diameter. The petals are pointed, and are four 
or five innumber. The fruit is dark-brown, and rough with 
long bristles. These spines are often an inch in length. It is 
unfortunate that this beautiful tree is now becoming rare. 


Fig. 74. Entelea arborescens—Flower and Fruit (% nat. size). 


However, it is easily cultivated from seed, and will grow in 
any sheltered situation. 

The wood is remarkably light, and was used by the Maoris 
in the construction of floats for their fishing-nets, and of small 
rafts. It is about half the weight of cork, and the whau is 
sometimes, therefore, termed “ the cork-wood tree.” Mr. T. 
Kirk suggested that it might be utilized for life-belts. 


244 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


This is one of the three large-leaved trees of New Zealand 
that by their foliage seem to suggest a tropical origin. The 
other two are Meryta Sinclairti and Pisonia brunoniana. Its 
nearest relation 1s apparently Sparmannia of the Cape of Good 
Hope. It has been suggested that the spinous character of the 
fruit is probably due to the need for protection against grazing 
animals, in the country whence it originally came. Perhaps 
the only other New Zealand fruit similarly protected, is the 
nut of Sicyos australis. 

It seems, however, unhkely, that either of these plants has 
indued itself with bristles, as a safeguard against browsing 
mammalha. Bitter juices are a better protection than thorny 
leaves, and an edible fruit is often of more value to the plant, 
than one which is inedible. As a matter of fact, the spious 
fruits of the whau form no protection to it, for if stock are 
running in the neighbourhood, all the young plants are eaten 
up by cattle, before they have time to develop their seeds. 
Indeed, were the fruit of the whau edible, the bristles upon it 
would be a quite insufficient defence against grazing animals, 
as they are often fond of sharp plants. Horses, for example, 
will eat dead thistles in preference to grass. Sheep sometimes 
eat the prickly leaves of Leptospermawn scopariwm, and, did 
they taste sufficiently pleasant, the sharp tips would not 
hinder stock from grazing on the plant. It is the bitter acrid 
juice developed in the leaves which is its chief safeguard. 
It seems probable, therefore, that some other reason must be 
sought for to explain the spinous coat of the seed of the whau. 


Genus Aristotelia. 


Small trees, with opposite, deeply-toothed leaves. Flowers in panicles or 
racemes. Fruit a berry. (Named in honour of Aristotle). 3 sp. 


Aristotelia racemosa (The Racemose Aristotelia). 
A small tree 6ft.-30ft. high, with red bark. Flowers in large panicles, 
varying in colour from a faint rosy flush to deep claret. Fruit, a red 3- or 
4-celled berry. North and South Islands. FI. Nov.-Dec. 


THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 


Fig. 75. Aristotelia racemosa (4 nat. size). 


246 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


This is another handsome tree of the same order as the 
whau. It is common everywhere throughout the islands at 
altitudes from sea-level up to 2,000 ft. In bush clearings, it 1s 
one of the first plants to come up, and would, on this account, 
be termed by the Americans a “‘fireweed.” It goes by 
different names in different districts. In Otago, it 1s the New 
Zealand Currant, or Moko-mok’. In Canterbury, it is called 
the Wine-berry. In the North Island, it is the Mako-mako. 
Its graceful plumes of rosy flowers make it one of the most 
attractive objects of the bush in Spring. The red-brown 
under-surfaces of its leaves flash into view with every breath 
of wind, and the memory of their beauty 1s one of the pleasantest 
recollections of the lover of the New Zealand bush. The genus 
also occurs in South America and Australia. Our species, 
therefore, perhaps indicate an American connection at some 
remote period. The wood is white, and is much used for 
conversion into charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder. 


Aristotelia fruticosa (The Shrubby Aristotelia). 

A much-branched shrub, 3ft.-6ft. high. Flowers solitary, or in small cymes 
or racemes. Leaves linear, lanceolate to elliptic, oblong, entire, crenate or 
serrate. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 

A sub-alpine plant of the most variable habit, and extreme 
mutability of leaf form. These changes of form may be due to 
the extreme sensitiveness of the plant to alteration of environ- 
ment, or 1t may possibly be due to the fact that the plant 
is undergoing mutation (v. Veronica). At any rate, few of 
our variable species afford more promising material for 
experiment. Like so many other New Zealand plants, in one 
of its stages it resembles a twisted Coprosma (v. Plagianthus 
betulinus). The leaves of the seedlings are sometimes 
similar to those of A. racemosa. The leaf form of the last- 
mentioned species, according to Dr. Cockayne, may, therefore, 
possibly be regarded as typical of the “common ancestral 
stock.” 


THE LIME-TREE FAMILY DAT 


Fig. 76. Elawocarpus dentatus. (Six flowers life size.) 


I48 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Hleocarpus. 


Soft-wooded trees, with alternate leaves, and long racemes of white or 
greenish flowers. The two New Zealand species are endemic. Leaves coriaceous, 
serrate. Fruit adrupe. (Name from the Greek, signifying an olive and fruit, 
the drupe resembling an olive in appearance.) 


Elzocarpus dentatus (The Toothed Eleocarpus). 

A round-headed tree, with trunk 1ft.-3ft. in diameter, and oblong-obovate 
leaves, with recurved margin. The leaves of H. Hookerianas are linear, oblong 
or lanceolate, and the margins are flat. This distinction enables the two species 
to be separated. Maori name Hinaw. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 

One of the most beautiful flowering trees in the New 
Zealand bush. In a good season, the whole tree is covered 
with racemes of creamy, saucer-shaped flowers, each raceme 
having the appearance of a spray of lly-of-the-valley. The 
petals are deeply fringed at the edges, and the leaves are 
strongly notched. The fruit resembles the damson, and was 
used for food by the Maoris, who greatly valued it. A chief who 
owned a fine grove of Hinau trees was considered a wealthy 
man, while to rob the grove of its fruit was regarded as 
a capital offence. The fruit was prepared in the following 
way :—It was collected into the hull of a canoe, and soaked in 
water. After along steeping, the berries were rubbed between 
the hands, the stalks and skins strained out, and the coarse 
ervey meal, left behind, was made into a cake, baked and eaten. 
This cake had a dark appearance, and was too oily for 
European tastes. 

Rats are very fond of the kernel of this fruit, and bore 
cleverly through the shell in order to obtain it. 

The bark of the Hinau makes an excellent blue-black dye, 
and was used by the Maoris for dyeing the black threads in 
their garments. This bark contains over twenty per cent. of 
tannin, but is not much used. The wood is ditticult to burn, 
and might be employed with advantage where there is special 
danger of fire. In the Maon language hi signifies to bleed or 
elnit sap; naw is a shrub or tree. 


THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 249 


Fig. 77. Eleocarpus Hookerianus (life size), 


250 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Elesocarpus Hookerianus (Hooker's Ele@ocarpus). 
A smaller species, called Pokaka by the Maoris. The flowers do not open 
out so widely as those of the Hinau, and are greenish-white in colour. Drupe 
blue, small. Found in both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Malvaceae. 


THe Faminy oF MaLtLows AND RIBBON-WOODS. 


Distribution.—An important and widely distributed family, occurring 
chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Of the 60 genera belonging to the 
order, only four are found in New Zealand, and of these, three are endemic. The 
Malvaceae are generally mucilaginous, and non-poisonous. The most valuable 
genus is Gossypium. The delicate unicellular hairs which cover the seeds of these 
plants, form the cotton so largely used in manufacture. 

The Hollyhock (Althwa), the tree-mallow (Lavatera), the Abutilon, and the 
Hibiscus, are much cultivated for their flowers. Hibiscus cannabimus is the 
Deccan Hemp of western India. A decoction of the Marsh Mallow is used in 
throat affections. 

Some of the New Zealand trees of this order are noted for the strength and 
beauty of their inner bark, which is used for various ornamental purposes. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Ovary 1 or 2 celled. Plagianthus, p. 253. 
Ovary 5 celled. 2 

2. One ovule in each cell, Hoheria, p. 250. 
Two or more ovules in each cell, Hibiscus, p. 260. 

5. Ovary 10-12 celled. Gaya, p. 260. 


Genus Hoheria. 


Trees with tough inner bark. Leaves extraordinarily variable. Flowers 
white, axillary, on jointed peduncles. (Hoheria is a modification of the native 
name). Maori names How, Whawwohi, Houhere. 1 sp. 

Plants of both this and of the next genus (Plagianthus), are popularly 
known as Ribbonwoods. The bast or inner bark is perforated by the medullary 
rays, and this gives to it a characteristic ribbon-like appearance. This genus:is 
endemic in New Zealand. 


Hoheria populnea (The Poplar-like Ribbon-wood). 
The varied names given by the Maoris in different districts 
to this plant, are all said to spring from the same root. Whauw 


MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 251 


R ve os if 


ewe FL = ZeFig. 78.8Hoheria populnea, var. vulgaris (7 nat. size). 


252 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


signifies wrapped about, netted,—like lace, and the tree 1s so 
called from the character of its inner bark. The settlers name 
it lace-bark, ribbon-wood, or thousand-jacket. This inner 
fibre is remarkably tough, and is, therefore, often used for 
cordage. It is also beautifully perforated, and has been 
employed for many ornamental purposes, such as trimming for 
ladies’ hats, basket work, etc. Lace-bark bonnets are said to 
have been at one time fashionable in Nelson. The houhere 
is one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the forest. 
It is covered in autumn with a sheet of white, starry flowers, 
which are often developed in such profusion as entirely to 
conceal the leaves. There is a large number of recognized 
varieties, but, as Dr. Cockayne has shewn, H. angustifolia at 
least should be regarded as a distinct species. It is found 
only in the South Island, flowers earlier than the North 
Island variety, and the seedling stages of each are different. 
When several feet in height, it becomes like one of the 
twisted shrubby Coprosmas (v. Plagianthus betulinus, p. 256). 
The branches are then wiry and interlacing, and the stems 
reddish, not dark brown or black as in older specimens. 

Thousands of plants in this stage may be seen on the 
Akaroa-Flea Bay Road. The North Island form does not pass 
through a coprosma-lke stage. The two varieties illustrated 
will show the difference between H. populnea, var. vulgaris, 
and var. angustifolia. The former has broad, ovate, deeply- 
toothed leaves, while those of the latter are long and narrow. 
The Hohertas sometimes grow to a height of 40ft. 

The flowers are very beautiful, with snow-white petals and 
numerous stamens. They are produced in fascicles in the axils 
of the leaves, sometimes only two or three together, and 
sometimes in bunches of from twelve to twenty. The stamens 
are curiously arranged, being united, as in all the Malvaceae, 
into a tube, but breaking apart again lower still into separate 
bundles, each of which contains five or six stamens. The 
fruit is dry, and the seeds pendulous. 


MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 253 


The wood of this tree is white and very tough. It is 
occasionally used by cabinet makers, and makes excellent 
firewood. A soothing drink was made from the bark by the 
Maoris. 

Genus Plagianthus. 


Shrubs or trees, with rough inner bark, and divaricating branches. Flowers 
axillary or terminal. Leaves usually entire. Seeds pendulous. (Name from 
the Greek, signifying oblique, from the unequal petals). 3 sp. 


Fig. 79. Hoheria populnea, var. angustifolia (3 nat. size). 


Plagianthus divaricatus (The Wide-branched Ribbon-wood). 


A curious shrub, with slender, widely-branched, tough stems. Leaves and 
flowers both minute. Leaves fascicled; flowers white, tubular, axillary. 
Stamens, 6-10. Fruit a round capsule containing one or two seeds. Both 
islands. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


This plant is very different from the other species of the 
genus. It grows only by the seaside, where it forms dense 
bushes, which become very compact owing to the interlacing 
of the delicate sprays. Diels classifies it with dvicennia 
as a mangrove plant, and, according to him, the stout. 


254 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


cuticle and leaves rich in slime, show excellently how 
dependent the mangroves are upon the dampness of the 
atmosphere for their moisture. However, P. divaricatus, 
though found at the head of tidal creeks and estuaries is really 
a plant of the salt meadows, and not of the tidal flats, and can 
scarcely be termed a mangrove. 


Plagianthus betulinus (The Birch-like Ribbon-wood). 


A tree, varying from 30ft.-60ft. in height, with terminal panicles of white 
flowers. The young shrub forms a mass of tortuous interlacing branches. 
Leaves lobed, or coarsely toothed. Petals rounded at the tips. North and 
South Islands, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands. Fl. Jan.-Feb. 


P. betulinus is readily distinguished from most of the other 
denizens of the New Zealand forests by its softer leaves, 
which resemble those of a deciduous tree, rather than those 
of an evergreen. Indeed, in most localities of the South 
Island, the plant does lose its leaves on the approach of 
winter. It has obtained its specific name (betwlinus) from the 
resemblance of its foliage to that of the HEnglsh birch. 
Plagianthus, however, has much larger leaves than Betulus. 
Owing to the presence of an inner, ribbon-like bark, it 
1s generally called the Ribbon-wood by the colonists. The 
Maoris used this bark for making rope and twine for their 
fishing nets. It also makes a good substitute for the Raphia, 
used by gardeners in tying up soft plants. 


STRANGE SEEDLING Forms. 


The young stages of the plant are very different from 
the older forms. An extraordinary proportion of New 
Zealand trees and shrubs pass through one or more distinct 
intermediate stages before reaching the adult form. In a 
considerable number of cases (e.g. Pennantia corymbosa, 


MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 


i 
¢ 
| 
| 


Fig. 80. Plagianthus divaricatus (with pistillate flowers). (2 nat. size.) 


256 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Hoheria angustifolia, Plagianthus betulinus) the termediate 
form, in its compact scrubby habit, and small leaves, bears 
a remarkable resemblance to certain Coprosmas. In other 
examples, the intermediate form, though not of the type of a 
Coprosma (e.g. Pseudopanax), is simpler than either the first 
or third stages, which often resemble each other. These 
remarkable differences between the appearance of New Zealand 
plants in thei earher and later stages, have puzzled botanists 
very much. They seem to be but little known outside of our 
islands. Thus, Dr. Cockayne states :—‘‘ On this point I can 
speak with some authority, since during the past few years, 
I have personally raised from seed thousands of species of 
extra-tropical plants, and in few, save certain Australian 
genera and Conifers, have I noticed any marked change in 
leaf to take place.”* 


THEr Law oF RECAPITULATION. 


Now it 1s generally believed that the same law of develop- 
ment holds in the plant world as in the animal world, 7.e., 
that the individual in its development goes through, in order, 
the same stages that its ancestors have gone through, in their 
development. Thus, in the mammalian embryo, a fish stage 
and a reptilian stage are clearly to be recognized. However, 
this law must not be interpreted too literally, and in 
considering any special example, large allowances have to be 
made for the effect of environment, and for unknown factors. 
We cannot, therefore, reason backwards from embryonic to 
ancestral hfe, with any assurance of accuracy. However, the 
law is broadly true, and of considerable biological value. 
Now evolution, —unless accompanied by degeneration, — 
usually proceeds from the simple to the complex. But, 


*Trans., Vol. XXXI. p. 356. 


THE MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 257 


one of the difficulties that has presented itself to the 
investigator of the New Zealand trees and shrubs, is, that the 
intermediate stage is often simpler than the seedling form, 
and thus the usual law seems to be reversed. This puzzled 
Dr. Diels considerably. In reference to Pseudopanar, he 
states, that the most remarkable thing about the leaf changes 
is, that in all similar cases there is a progression from simple 
to more complicated forms, but here, on the contrary, the 
high degree of differentiation of the young foliage suffers 
reduction later on. Hence, he considers, that in this case, 
recapitulation of the ancestral history is not probable. 


Dr. CockaYNE’s THEORY. 

Recently, however, Dr. L. Cockayne has put forward a 
theory to account for these curious metamorphoses.* Within 
our limits, 1t is not possible to discuss this interesting 
hypothesis fully, though it is certainly one of the most 
remarkable and suggestive ever put forward with regard to 
our native plants. 

It had already been shewn by Dr. Diels, that an unusually 
large percentage of the trees and shrubs in the New Zealand 
Flora are xerophytic in structure (v. Introduction, p. 41, also 
Veronica, Aciphylla, Discaria, etc.). This type of plant 
structure seems to indicate, that the past climate of New 
Zealand was much more arid than at present. The vegetation 
of the Canterbury Plains in particular, is of a desert type. 
Such a belief is supported by the geological evidence. 
Captain Hutton has pointed out} that during the Phocene 
period, the Southern Alps were much higher than they are 
now. He considered that the land surface of New Zealand 
then extended eastward to the Chathams, and southward to 
the Auckland Islands. Under these circumstances the 
climate of the interior would approach to the continental in 


*Tyans., Vol. XXXIII., p. 277 +Trans., Vol. XXXII. p. 182. 
18 


258 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


character. The plains to the east of the Southern Alps 
would be subjected to a great range of temperature, and 
great drought. Dr. Cockayne ingeniously explains the 
developmental stages of the present lowland plants, by 
reference to these past conditions. Obviously, only those 
plants that could develop protection against the rigours of the 
climate, would survive the test of such an environment. 
When the land again sank, the climate would become moister 
and more insular, Xerophytic plants, if still plastic, would 
again assume their original form, or, if unable to do this, 
would become extinct, or retire to the shingle-fans, dry rocks, 
and river-beds, where we now find them. 

Let us now apply this hypothesis, to explain, if possible, 
the forms through which Plagianthus betulinus passes in its 
development. A seedling of this species goes through three 
distinct stages in reaching the mature form. (1) The stem 
and branches of the young plant are erect, the leaves are of 
definite shape, somewhat similar to those of the mature stage, 
but with truncate or cordate bases. (2) The seedling, now 
grown into a shrub, changes its appearance completely. The 
branches become long, drooping, twiggy, flexuous, and of a 
red-brown colour. The leaves are very much reduced in size, 
and very variable in shape. The plant might now be taken for 
one of the Coprosmas. None but a careful observer would be 
likely to recognize in this unkempt twisted shrub, the young 
form of the handsome beech-like tree. (3) The third or 
mature form, already described, is a handsome, graceful tree, 
with large, alternate, rather flaccid leaves. 

These forms, if Dr. Cockayne’s theory is correct, represent 
in order (1) the early Pliocene type, existing when the climate 
was mild, before the elevation of the mountains; (2) the 
interwoven coprosma-like stage of the later Pliocene deserts ; 
and (3) the mature form of the present day, which resembles 
the early Phocene type, as the climate has once more become 
comparatively temperate. 


THE MALLOWS AND RIBBON-WOODS 259 


Such a daring hypothesis as this, shows how botanists 
are beginning to believe in the extraordinary plasticity of 
plant hte. Whatever explanation of these strange changes of 
form may ultimately be held, the problem suggested by the 


Fig. 81. Gaya Lyallii (4 nat. size). 


wonderful transformations, which many New Zealand plants 
undergo in their development, must surely give pause to any 
belated believers in the immutability of species. They cannot 
possibly have any theory to account for such unnecessary 


260 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


instability of form. Even those who believe that each species 
has a certain definite type form, which is independent of 
environment, will find themselves confronted with many 
paradoxes amongst antipodean plants. 


Genus Hurbiscas. 

Herbs or shrubs, with large and handsome flowers. A chiefly tropical genus. 
Flowers axillary or terminal. Capsule 5-valved. (Hibiscus is the Greek name for 
the flower.) 2 sp. 

Hibiscus trionum (The Starry Hibiscus). 


An annual or biennial herb, 1-2 ft. high. Stems rough with hairs. Flowers 
1lin.-l4in. in diameter, straw-coloured, with dark eye. Calyx inflated, 
membranous. Leaves palmately-lobed. From the North Cape to Whangarei, 
local. South Island: West Wanganui. (The specific name literally means of 
the constellation of the Wain). 


Genus Gaya. 


Shrubs or small trees, with large white flowers. Leaves alternate, entire. 
About 7 species, one of which is endemic in New Zealand. (Called after the 
botanist, Gay.) 

Gaya Lyallii (The Larye-flowered Ribbon-wood). 


A beautiful shrub, found only in the mountainous districts of the South 
Island. This is one of the very few New Zealand trees which shed their leaves. 
in the winter, and show autumnal tints. The leaves are clothed with stellate 
hairs, and are deeply notched. South Island, sub-alpine. FI. Feb.-March. 


This plant is one of the many surprises of the New Zealand 
forest. The traveller, who sees for the first time its cherry- 
like blossoms amidst the greenery of the bush, usually regards 
it as an escape from some garden. Its soft, tender, deciduous 
leaves are in strong contrast to the normal, hard, glossy 
leaf of the typical trees of the New Zealand forest, whilst its 
flowers are equally different from the typical, minute, greenish 
clusters of Nothopanax, Griselinia, Melicytus, ete. 

Owing to a mistake of Sir Julius von Haast, it is generally 
stated that the tree 1s deciduous only at high levels, but the 
errov has been recently corrected by Dr. Cockayne.* The 


Trans. XXXVIL., p. 368. 


THE VIOLET FAMILY 261 


plant is probably deciduous even at sea-level. It certainly is 
so in the Christchurch Gardens, where it grows only a few 
feet above high-water mark. 

The under-surface of the leaf of the var. ribifolia, is 
covered with a down of stellate hairs. As this variety is only 
found in drier localities, the obvious value of this covering is 
to enable the leaves to retain their moisture. G. Lyallit has 
hairs only on the veins. The two forms are never found 
growing together; and this discontinuous distribution, as well 
as other characters, seems to show that they are specifically 
distinct. 

The inner-bark of this tree has the same _lace-lke 
appearance as that of Hoherva. 


Violaceae. 


THE VIOLET FAMILY. 


Distribution Family of about 300 species, found both in temperate 
and tropical regions. The temperate forms are usually herbaceous, while those 
of warmer climates become shrubs or trees. The Violet and Pansy are well- 
known garden flowers. 

Key to the Genera. 


1. Flowers irregular. Viola, p. 261. 
Flowers regular. 2 

2. Flowers dicecious. Melicytus, p. 264. 
Flowers perfect. Hymenanthbera, p. 266. 


Genus Viola. 


Three New Zealand species, all endemic. Petals unequal, the lower one 
spurred. Capsule with three valves. In most of the species of Viola, the 
ordinary flowers set no seeds. The plant, however, produces, at a later stage, 
green-coloured, self-pollinated flowers, which seed freely. 


Viola filicaulis (The Thread-like Violet). 


So-called from its slender, thread-like stem, which is prostrate. Leaves 
alternate, shining, heart-shaped. Flowers yellowish. Abundant in both 
islands. Ordinary flowers Nov.-Dec. ; cleistogamic flowers Jan. and Feb. 


262 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Viola Cunninghamii (Cunningham’s Violet). 

Stem short, with a woody rootstock. Leaves tufted ; peduncles longer than 
the leaves. Both islands, in damp situations. Flowers white. Produces 
cleistogamic Howers in the lowlands. 

The New Zealand violets are practically scentless ; or, if they have any odour 
at all, it is that of musk. The situation in which they are often found is well 
described in the following stanza : 

‘ Here, in this bend of the creek, in the rushes, and long lush grasses, 

Wild white violets nestle, and musk in the water weeds : 

Here there is stillness and shelter, for the wandering wind as it passes 

Is caught in the tall green flax, and dies in the rushes and reeds.”’ 


Insect POLLINATION IN THE GENUS VIOLA. 

The method of cross-pollination in the genus Viola is well 
worthy of study. It is best illustrated by reference to the 
garden Pansy (J. tricolor); for the flowers of the cultivated 
varieties of this plant are larger than those of any of the wild 
species, and the parts therefore admit of readier examination. 
The description here given apples, therefore, to the common 
forms of the pansy, but it 1s also correct with shght 
modifications for the other species of the genus. The flower 
is unsymmetrical, and one of the petals is provided with a long 
hollow spur. The anthers are prolonged into a hood, or 
projection, which surmounts them. This forms part of the 
connective (i.e. the part joing two anther-cells together). In 
two of the stamens, the connectives are also produced 
backward into long narrow arms, terminating in the spur of 
the corolla. The stamens do not, as in most flowers, open 
outward, but the pollen escapes on the inside into the ring 
formed by the hoods of the anthers, and falls thence on to a 
brush-like series of hairs on the lower petal. The pistil has a 
short, somewhat curved style, with the stigma in a hollow on 
the side of its rounded head. Just below the stigmatic 
surface is a small platform, or lid, the function of which will 
be presently clear. 

The two long arms of the anthers have honey-glands on 
their base ; and the honey secreted by them is collected in the 
spur of the corolla. An insect endeavouring to get at this 


THE VIOLET FAMILY 263 


honey, therefore, will encounter with its tongue the pollen 
collected on the hairs of the petal, and, in drawing back its 
head, will force the little platform on the style against the 
stigmatic surface, and thus protect the flower from self- 
pollination. In going to another flower, the insect will 
naturally brush the upper side of the projecting lid, when 
entering the flower, and thus cross-pollination will be effected. 


CLEISTOGAMIC FLOWERS IN THE GENUS VIOLA. 


Although cross-pollination is essential to the welfare of many 
plants, there are many others in which self-pollination results 
in the production of good seeds. In other cases, fowers which 
are usually cross-pollinated, become adapted for receiving the 
pollen from their own stigmas, when, from some reason or 
other, cross-pollination fails. Under these circumstances 
many plants produce what are known as cleistogamic flowers. 
(Cleistogamic, from the Greek, meaning concealed marriage). 
These are flowers which never open, but which nevertheless 
produce seed, as a result of the application of their own 
anthers to their own styles. Cleistogamy is known amongst 
plants belonging to widely divergent orders. Thus it is found 
amongst species belonging to the following genera :—Arabis, 
Azalea, Gentiana, Hypericum, Oxalis, Veronica, etc. Probably, 
however, it is better known in the genus Viola, than in any 
other. 

Cleistogamy is generally resorted to, when wet weather 
prevails about the time when the flowers should open, or when 
the plants themselves happen to grow in moist or shady 
places. This method of pollination is sometimes effected by 
mechanisms as ingenious as those found in plants which are 
cross-pollinated. The petals which are no longer required 
for the attraction of insects, become rudimentary, or are 
altogether wanting. When they are present, they are 
generally greenish, or greenish-white. The anthers are so 
situated, that they come into contact with the stigma as soon 


264 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


as it 1s mature, or there may be a space between the anther 
and stigma. In this case the pollen grains put out their 
tubes, which attach themselves to the stigmatic surface. Thus 
pollination is effected with certainty. It is obviously better for 
the plant to be self-pollinated, than to remain infertile. In 
New Zealand, cleistogamy has been studied in the genus Viola 
by Mr. G. M. Thomson.” 

In Viola filicaulis, cleistogamic flowers are often found in 
the months of January and February. They are borne very 
close to the root, on short curved stalks less than an inch in 
length. The sepals are normal, and the petals, in place of 
being irregular in shape, as they are typically in the violet, 
are all of the same form. The stamens are apparently all 
represented, and have the anthers, when present, appressed 
to the pistil. (However, in many cases, one or only two 
filaments have anthers, and in no case is the connective 
produced backward into a spur). The style is as long as 
usual, but if straight, would be beyond the reach of the 
anthers. It therefore lies coiled up on the top of the ovary. 

In V. Cunninghame, the reduction of cleistogamic flowers 
has been carried further even than in JV. filicaulis. In the 
former species there is no trace of petals, and the stamens 
are much more rudimentary. Only two are provided with 
anthers, and these, enclosed in their hoods, are closely applied 
to the stigmatic surface. 


Genus Melicytus. 

Small trees, with regular flowers and alternate leaves. Fruit a berry, 
containing angular seeds. Found only in New Zealand and Norfolk Island. 
(Name from the Greek, signifying honey and a cavity, in reference to the small 
scales behind the anthers, at first mistaken for nectaries). 4 sp. 


Melicytus ramiflorus (The Branch-flowered Melicytus). 

A tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height, with white stems and greenish-yellow 
flowers. The latter are produced in fascicles upon the branches below the leaves, 
and are minute, being only $ in. in diameter. Leaves oblong, serrate. Berry 
violet-coloured. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. Maori names Mahoe, Ini-ini. 


*Trans., Vol. XI. p. 415. 


THE VIOLET FAMILY 


Melicytus ramiflorus (4 nat. size). 


266 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


A small tree, most abundant in the bush, growing to a 
height of 30 ft., with a rounded head, and many short, brittle 
branches.. It sends up a large number of young saplings, or 
suckers, from the ground at the foot of the trunk. The leaves 
are alternate, with toothed margins, and the flowers are 
produced, either in the axils of the leaves, or upon the bare 
branches. The male and female flowers are found upon 
separate trees. The fruit is a violet coloured berry, containing 
black, angular seeds, and is a favourite food of the wild pigeon. 
Though so much smaller than many of the forest trees, the 
mahoe 1s a noticeable object in the bush, as its straight, thin 
trunks are often covered with a white fungoid growth, which 
is like a coating of whitewash. This was one of the woods 
used by the natives, in the making of fire by friction. In the 
South the plant is generally known as the IJni-Ii, in the 
North it 1s called the Mahoe. On Banks Peninsula it is some- 
times called the Cow-leaf, as cows are very fond of its foliage. 


Genus Hymenanthera. 

A small genus of woody shrubs, found in New Zealand, New South Wales, 
Tasmania and Norfolk Island. The foliage differs considerably in the different 
species. The leaves may be toothed or entire, fascicled or alternate; the flowers 
solitary or fascicled. Name from the Greek, signifying awnited anthers. 


Hymenanthera crassifolia (The Thick-leaved Hymenanthera). 


A low shrub, with rigid, twisted branches, and white bark. The flowers are 
small and axillary ; the berries purple and white, } in. in diameter. Maritime 
rocks in both islands, and up to 2,000 ft. near the coast. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 

This plant frequently forms a dense cushion of short rigid spinous branches, 
closely appressed to a rock or stone. The berries and flowers are produced on the 
underside of the branches, and are completely invisible from above. 


THE PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY 


Fig. 83. Passiflorat etrandra (j nat. size). 


268 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Passifloraceae. 


THE Passion-FLOWER FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A fairly large family, chiefly natives of the West Indies, and 
of tropical America. The New Zealand species is endemic. The fruit of some 
of the species is edible, and contains numerous small seeds enveloped in 
mucilage. The Passion-flower and the Tacsonia are beautiful and well known 
garden and greenhouse plants. 


Genus Passiflora. 


Climbing plants, with slender, elongated tendrils. Calyx-lobes 4-5. Petals 
4-5, rarely 0; stamens 4-5. Fruit juicy. Seeds black. 1 sp. 


Passiflora tetrandra (The Tetrandrous Passion-flower). 

A slender climber, with glossy leaves 14 in.-4in. long, and delicate flowers, 
4in.-lin. across. Sepals and petals 4. Flowers cymose, green, with beautiful 
coronas of white or yellow filaments. Fruit very handsome, bright orange, 
1 in.-14 in. in diameter, many-seeded. In both islands, on the edge of the bush. 
Banks Peninsula the southern limit of many species. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 

This, our only passion-flower, finds its southernmost habitat 
on Banks Peninsula. Here, in the warm, sheltered, almost 
sub-tropical valleys of the various bays, several native plants 
are found which do not occur further south. Amongst them 
may be mentioned the titoki, the nikau palm, the karaka, the 
true pepper (Macropiper), and the ake-ake (Dodonea). At 
one time, a piece of bush ran from the hills across the plains 
in a north-westerly direction, to beyond Papanui. The only 
fragment now left of this forest 1s Deans’s Bush, which also 
contains several of the plants just mentioned. The passion- 
flower still grows wild there, and in a sheltered gully, known 
only to a few, near Sumner. In more remote portions of the 
Peninsula it is not uncommon. There is still a grove of 
karakas at Long-look-out Point, originally, perhaps, planted 
by the Maoris. Scattered trees are to be found elsewhere in 
the neighbourhood. The nikau forms a forest in, and gives 
its name, to a beautiful bay on Akaroa Harbour. The titoki 
is the chief component of a handsome forest remnant near 


THE DAPHNE FAMILY 269 


Kaituna. The ake-ake is not uncommon in several places. 
Many specimens of it may be seen near the Maori village at 
Rapaki. 

According to Colenso, the dried wood of the passion-flower 
formed an excellent slow match, by means of which the Maoris 
were able to carry a spark from village to village. 


Thymelaceae. 


Tue DapHone FaAmIty. 


Distribution.—A family of about 500 species, most of which are natives of 
Australia and South Africa. The flowers of Daphne are sweet-scented, and the 
berries of some of the species are poisonous. The Lace-bark tree of the West 
Indies is a member of this family, and the fibre of other Indian and Chinese 
species is made into paper. 

Key to the Genera. 


Stamens, 2. Pimelea. 
Stamens, 4. Drapetes (not further described). 


Genus Pimelea. 


Erect or prostrate shrubs, with opposite leaves, and terminal heads of white 
or yellow flowers. Perianth tubular, 4-lobed. Stamens 2. Fruit dry or pulpy. 
A genus peculiar to Australia and New Zealand. (Name from the Greek, 
signifying fatness, in allusion to the oily seeds). 12 sp. 


Pimelea longifolia (The Long-leaved Pimelea). 

A shrub, 2ft.-6ft. in height. Leaves numerous, shining, 1in.-2in. long, 
din.-tin. broad, flat. Flowers silky, fragrant, white, 4in. long. Stamens 
exserted. Nut enclosed in the tube of the perianth. Abundant in the North 
Island; found also in the northern parts of the South Island. 


Pimelea arenaria (The Pimelea of the Sand-dunes). 

A small, silky, shining plant, white, with soft hairs. Stem 8in.-24 in. high. 
Leaves close-set, spreading, }in.-4in. long, oblong or rounded, hairy, silky, and 
shining. Flowers white, silky, tin. across. Fruit pulpy, edible. North 
Island: sand-dunes. Fl. Jan.-April. 


270 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Pimelea prostrata (The Prostrate Pimelea). 


A very variable species, often with erect, ascending branches. Stems 
2in.-10in. long, hairy. Leaves variable, p; in.-Sin. long; floral leaves slightly 
larger. Flowers fin.-jin. long, hairy or silky; the lobes of the perianth 
shorter than the tube. Fruit usually fleshy. Both islands: abundant. FI. 
Oct.-March. 


Pimelea virgata (The Twiggy Pimelea). 

Asmall erect shrub, 1 ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves spreading 4 in.-1 in. long, 
narrow, oblong, silky or shining. Floral leaves similar. Flowers in a small 
head, 8-10 together, fin. long, silky; lobes broad. Nut dry or pulpy. Both 
islands : common. 

The genus Pimelea is exclusively Australasian. It consists 
of a number of Veronica-like shrubs. The species are very 
variable, and pass into each other. P. arenaria is a halophyte 
(v. p. 42) of the sand-dunes, which has a clothing of wool and 
sunk stomata, for the purpose of hindering transpiration. The 
cell-structure is similar on both sides of the leaf, which hangs 
down more or less vertically. A similar arrangement of leaf- 
cells is found in other plants of the sand-hills. In such 
situations they are exposed to much wind, fierce and long- 
continued sunshine, and extremes of drought. Special 
adaptations are clearly required in order to enable a plant to 
exist under such conditions. P. arenaria, like most of the 
sund-dune plants, has long roots. Other species are found in 
the heaths, and some reach sub-alpine elevations. 


Myrtaceae. 


THE MyrtLr FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large family of about 2000 species, chiefly tropical. 
Many of them abound in aromatic oils, while others furnish gums. 

The flowers of this family are very similar to those of the Rosaceae, the 
main distinction between them being that the carpels are more or less free, 
particularly in the stigmatic region, in the Rosaceae ; whilst in Myrtaceae, the 
carpels are completely united, the union extending to the stigmas. Many of the 


FAMILY 


THE DAPHNE 


o 
| 
n 

wey 
8 
=) 

ae 
3 

s 
3 
=o 
u 

a 
= 
3 
2 
o 
q 
a 

.m 

a 


Fig, 84. 


272 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


myrtles, also, have glands in all their parts, which secrete ethereal oils that give 
the plants an aromatic odour. This is, perhaps, the most striking character of 
the family. The corolla is usually white, and the filaments, which are often a 
bright red, serve as the chief organs of attraction for insects. Cloves are the 
flower buds of a species of Hugenia. Another species of the same genus 
furnishes the fruit from which allspice is obtained. The guava is the fruit of 
Psidiwm guava. The only European species is the well-known Myrtle. 

The oil of eucalyptus, obtained from EH. globulus, is antiseptic in its action. 
This tree is often planted, on account of its rapid growth, for the purpose of 
drying up swamps, and thus keeping off malarial fevers. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Fruit a capsule. 2 
Fruit a berry or drupe. 3 

2. Leaves alternate. Leptospermum, p. 272. 
Leaves opposite. Metrosideros, p. 278. 

3. Seeds solitary. Eugenia, p. 288. 
Seeds 2 or more. Myrtus, p. 288. 


Genus Leptospermum. 


Shrubs or trees, with alternate, entire leaves. Flowers regular, white or 
pink. Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5; stamens numerous. Capsule woody. About 28 
species, of which 3 belong to New Zealand, and 20 to Australia. 


Leptospermum scoparium (The Manuka Broom). 

A shrub or tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Leaves leathery, hard, with 
sharp points. Flowers scentless, on very short stalks, white or rosy, 4 in.-} in. 
across. Capsule bursting by 4 or 5 valves, very woody. Maori names Manaka, 
Kahikatoa. Colonists’ name, Tea-Tree. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-April. 

This is the most abundant of New Zealand shrubs. It is 
the colonial counterpart of the English broom and gorse, and 
is as beautiful as either of these. One of the loveliest sights 
of the land is a great valley at Christmas-time, clad with 
Leptospermum in full flower. From the distance of a mile or 
two, the country seems to be spread with a sheet of snow, so 
profusely does the plant flower. A variety is known which 
has the petals splashed with deep crimson. It is often 
cultivated in gardens, and vies in beauty with many more 
pretentious blooms. 

To the Maoris the tree was known as the manuka. By the 
settlers it is generally called tea-tree. It has acquired this 
name because early voyagers and colonists sometimes used its 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 273 


Fig. 85. Leptospermum scoparium. 


274 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


pungent leaves in place of tea. Indeed, the whole plant, 
including leaves, flowers, fruit, and young shoots, 1s highly 
aromatic, and the oil which it contains, will perhaps, in future, 
be put to some useful purpose. 

The flowers are generally hermaphrodite, but are sometimes 
imperfect or unisexual. A branch may occasionally be found 
bearing flowers which are staminate only, while on the lower 
portion of the same branch last year’s seed capsules are borne. 
The capsule is hard and woody, of a reddish-brown colour. 
Very small specimens occasionally bear flowers. A plant 
was once observed, not more than half-an-inch in height, 
which bore a flower and duly developed seed. The flower 
appeared to be actually lying upon the ground. 

The wood of this tree is largely used for fences and 
firewood. The Maoris made use of it for their paddles and 
spears, and a bunch of the twigs makes an excellent broom. 


Leptospermum ericoides (The Heath-like Manuka). 

A larger tree than the preceding. Leaves narrow, acute, glabrous or silky, 
fascicled. Flowers 4 in. across, white, very fragrant. Maori name Manuka- 
raurtki. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 

This is nearly, but not quite as common a plant, as the 
previous one. Like the former species, at high levels, in 
wind-swept localities, it becomes prostrate, and is reduced to a 
few inches in height. In suitable positions, however, it grows 
to be a larger tree than L. scoparium, sometimes attaining a 
height of sixty feet, and a diameter of one to three feet. Its 
timber is hard and durable, and is used for jetty piles, spokes 
of wheels, fence-rails, and other purposes. It is also much 
sought after for firewood, and this has led to the cutting out 
of all the larger trees over wide areas, so that in many places 
it 1s now impossible to procure it. To many old settlers, 
however, the odour of burning manuka logs brings memories 
of the pleasant winter evenings of times long past. 


ie 
~] 
or 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 86. Leptospermum scoparium (life size). 


276 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Older trees of both species have their trunks covered with a 
light brown bark, that readily strips off, and is frequently 
used for fire-kindling. For the camper-out, Leptospermum 
provides fragrant bedding, easily collected, and not readily 
surpassed for comfort. 

There is little undergrowth in the manuka copse, and the 
ground below it becomes carpeted with dead leaves, almost as 
in a pine forest. There are, perhaps, several reasons for this 
lack of undergrowth. The plant often grows on poor ground ; 
the resinous leaves may, like the pine needles, make bad 
mould ; and the shrub itself probably exhausts the soil. Yet 
sometimes certain orchids are found below it, which are rare 
elsewhere, and various other plants seem to prefer the manuka 
grove as a habitat. 

Mr. G. M. Thomson has discussed the probable origin 
of the New Zealand species. L. scopariwm, with sharp 
leaf tips, 1s found abundantly in south-eastern Australia ; 
but L. ericotdes, with less pungent points to its leaves, is 
endemic. Mr. G. M. Thomson states that the rigid, 
sharp-pointed leaves of the former indicate that the species 
originated in a land, where there were herbivorous mammalia, 
for he considers that “such sharp-pointed leaves are 
probably so developed in order that they may be as 
obnoxious as possible to grazing animals.”* As the genus 
has come to us from a northern land, where possibly 
marsupials and other grass-eating animals were abundant, 
this explanation seems feasible. It also appears to receive 
confirmation from the fact that the endemic species has 
less prickly leaf-tips than the one with wider distribution. 
However, there is another, and, perhaps, simpler interpre- 
tation of such sharp-pointed leaves. They may be due 
merely to leaf-reduction, produced as a means of protection 
against excessive transpiration (v. Aciphylla, Veronica, 
Discaria). Indeed, that the modification, in the case of 


*New Zealand Journal of Science, Vol. II., p. 371. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 277 


Fig. 87. Leptospermum ericoides (life size) 


278 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Leptospermum scoparium, 1s climatic rather than defensive, 
is shown by the fact, that, in certain mountain localities, 
the leaves become less rigid, more rounded, and less acute. 
(See, however, under Entelea for a further discussion of the 
matter.) 


Fig. 88. Metrosideros robusta, showing encircling roots. 


Genus Metrosideros. 


Shrubs or trees, often climbing. Leaves opposite, leathery. Flowers in 
terminal cymes, umbels, or racemes, white, pink, or scarlet, often very showy. 
Calyx 5-lobed ; petals 5, small. Stamens numerous, very long, white or scarlet. 
(Name from the Greek, meaning iron-hearted, in allusion to the iron-like 
hardness of the timber). Plants of the genus are usually known to the colonists 
by the Maori name Rata. 11 sp. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 279 


Fig. 89. Metrosideros hypericifolia (4 nat. size). 


280 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Metrosideros florida (The Flowery Rata). 

A shrub, or lofty climber. Leaves 14 in.-3 in. long, oblong, obtuse, entire, 
shining. Flowers in large terminal cymes. Petals yellowish, or pale pink, 
inconspicuous. Stamens 1 in.-14 in. long; filaments orange-red to crimson, 
anthers golden. Fruit a woody capsule, half the length of the calyx-tube. Both 
islands: common on forest trees. Fl. Nov.-April. Maori names: Aka, 
Akatawhuohi, Pua-tawhiwht. English name Rata-vine. 

The rata-vine is one of the most remarkable climbers of the 
New Zealand forest. The stem is sometimes six inches in 
diameter, and climbs to the tops of the highest trees. It is 
often confused with Metrosideros robusta, but it is the latter, 
not the former, which strangles its support. 

Bushmen quench their thirst with the juice of the rata-vine. 
A sht is cut in the wood, and the bark left hanging, when a 
clear juice drops freely from the cut. A piece of rata-wood 
four feet in length, and three inches in diameter, was kept in 
a workshop for three weeks, until apparently quite dry. Then 
a cut was made lengthwise in it, and it yielded a gallon 
and a half of liquid. This juice was of a clear, bright, pinkish 
hue, and tasted somewhat like dry cider. The inner rata-bark 
is used to heal sores, and to stop bleeding. It 1s sometimes 
boiled with the bark of the rimu and the kauri, to make a 
lotion for the sore backs of horses. According to the Maori 
tradition, the bark of this, as of other trees, when required for 
healing purposes, should be cut from the side upon which the 
sun rises. 


Metrosideros hypericifolia (The Hypericum-leaved Rata). 

A straggling climber. Bark ragged ; branches 4-angled. Leaves sessile, 
4 in.-2 in. long, oblong, shining, rather membranous. Flowers small, in lateral 
cymes or racemes. Petals white or pink, $ in.-4 in. long. Capsule 4 in. long. 
Damp bush, in both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Metrosideros lucida (The Shining Rata). 

A shrub or tree, 40-60 ft. high. Leaves 1 in.-34 in. long, silky when young, 
shining when mature, pointed at both ends. Flowers in short terminal cymes. 
Petals small, scarlet. Stamens nearly an inch long, scarlet. Both islands ; 
Lord Auckland’s group. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A variety with yellow flowers has been 
found on Arthur's Pass. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 281 


Metrosideros lucida, the rata of the South Island, is known 
as the iron-wood in Otago. It grows in masses on the slopes 
of the Southern Alps, and in a good rata year, adds much to 
the beauty of the scenery. New Zealanders speak of the 
Otira Gorge at such a time as one of the sights of the world, 
but their patriotism has perhaps led them to overpraise it a 
little. Yet, when in J anuary, the flanks of a great mountain 
range are ablaze with 

“Flowers, that with one scarlet gleam 

Cover a hundred leagues, and seem 

To set the hills on fire! ”’ 
the sight is one which many would travel far to see. In 
Canterbury, on the eastern slopes of the Alps, this rata is rare. 
It apparently cannot stand a dry climate. It is much more 
common on the east coast of Otago, south of Dunedin, where 
it frequently overhangs the sea-cliffs, though it does not root in 
the same fantastic manner as the pohutukawa. 

In the Auckland Islands, it is the chief component of a 
forest, as fantastic as any that was ever goblin haunted. 
It reminds one of the sunless forest of Undine, or of the still 
more terrible forest of the Seventh Circle of the Inferno :— 

““ Where no track 
Of steps had worn a way, not verdant there 
The foliage, but of dusky hue, not light 
The boughs and tapering, but with *knares deformed, 
And matted thick: fruits there were none, but thorns 
Instead, with venom filled.’’ 

The rata, as its common name, ironwood, suggests, produces 
an extremely hard timber, with qualities similar to those of 
other members of the genus. 


Metrosideros albiflora (The White-flowered Rata). 


A climbing shrub. Leaves shining, 1 in.-3 in. long, narrowed at both ends. 
Flowers in terminal cymes. Petals small, white. Stamens very slender. 
Capsule $in. long. North Island: in forests. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


*Knares, gnarled branches. 


282, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The long twining stems of the rata vines were used by the 
Maoris for varlous purposes; and references to them appear in 
several legends. Metrosideros albiflora (the Akatea) gives rise 
to the Maori equivalent of Nil desperandum. Thus an ancient 
proverb runs: 


, 


‘“Rangitihi upoko i takaia ki te akatea.’ 
Rangitihi’s head was bound up with the akatea. 
Rangitihi was a hero of old who had his head split by his 
enemy’s club. With splendid courage he bound the broken 
skull round with akatea, and, encouraging his fleeing men, led 
them on again. This time it was to victory. 


Metrosideros robusta (The North Island Rata). 

A tree, 50 ft.-100 ft. in height. Trunk sometimes 10 ft. in diameter. 
Leaves lin.-14in. long, oblong, obtuse, leathery, shining. Flowers in large 
terminal cymes. Petals small, scarlet. Stamens 1 in. long, scarlet. Capsule 
tin.-} in. long. NorthIsland. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Rata. 

This is the North Island rata. It is often described as 
twining round some forest tree, ensheathing it, and finally 
killing it by a close embrace; this account, however, misrepre- 
sents, if 1t does not traduce, MW. robusta. It does not begin 
life as a climber, though there are species which do s0, ¢.g., 
Metrosideros florida ; but it very often germinates as an 
epiphyte high up in the forks of a tree. The seeds are 
minute, and readily blown about by the wind, so that they 
may thus be driven to a considerable elevation. As the 
young plant develops, it sends down roots towards the ground. 
These roots mosculate, and slowly enclose the stem of the 
supporting tree, which at last is crushed by the grip of the 
rata (v. Fig. 88). This, at least, is the generally accepted 
explanation. It must, however, be confessed that the details 
of the process have hitherto escaped observation. Apparently 
the only tree which can resist this iron hug is the puriri—the 
strongest and toughest of all New Zealand trees. It may 
sometimes be seen bursting the encircling roots of the 


epiphyte. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 90. Metrosideros robusta—Ruds and flowe 


284 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The crimson stamens of the rata give to it, as to other 
species of the genus, a most attractive appearance when in 
flower. Though not so gorgeous as the pohutukawa, it is, 
perhaps, brighter in colour than the more southern M. lucida. 

The Maoris have a proverb about the flower, which is a 
curlous commentary upon their ideas of truthfulness. 


Keiwhawhati noa mai te rau o te rata! 


Don’t pluck and fling about to no purpose the blossoms of the rata ! 


According to Colenso, this means : 


Don’t become ashamed when your lying is detected. 


The timber of the rata is hard and durable, but scarcely so 
valuable as that of the pohutukawa. Like other species of the 
genus, it makes excellent firewood ; and a green rata tree once 
kindled in the bush will sometimes smoulder for months. 


Metrosideros tomentosa (The Downy Rata). 


A handsome tree, sometimes 70 ft. in height, with spreading branches. 
Branchlets and under surfaces of leaves covered with short, dense white hairs. 
Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, variable in shape, with recurved margins. Flowers in 
large terminal cymes, brilliant scarlet. Buds snow-white, woolly, petals small, 
scarlet, stamens lin.-14in. long, scarlet. Capsule woody, 3-lobed and 3-valved. 
North Island: cliffs on the sea-coast. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name 
Pohutukawa. 

M. tomentosa varely grows far from the sea or an inland 
lake. It finds a foothold in all sorts of impossible looking 
plates. Often it clings to the side of a cliff, and puts forth 
long twisted roots that attach it to the rocky wall. Specimens 
may frequently be found hanging from the top of a bank, 
with the roots above, and the branches almost dipping into 
the sea below. Oysters may sometimes be gathered from 
these pendent branches. When growing on level ground, 
great bunches of red, fibrous rootlets may occasionally be seen 
hanging from the boughs. These do not reach the ground, 
and their function is unknown. 


Lo 
5 
or 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 91. Metrosideros tomentosa (% nat. size). 


286 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The usual habitat of the pohutukawa is well described in 
the following lines :— 
‘“ The stony faces of the cliffs thus rent 
Showed twisted strata, strangely earthquake bent, 
Running on each side circularly up— 
A great grey hollow like a broken cup! 
From crest and crevice, tortuously flung 
Those monstrous iron-hearted myrtles hung— 
Stiff snaky writhing trunks, and roots that clave 
And crawled to any hold the ramparts gave.’’ 
“ Ranolf and Amohia,’’ p. 474. 

Thus Domett, with his affluence of epithet, describes the 
tree as 1t clings to its rocky stronghold. Surely it was some 
vague perception of its fantastic shape and ocean-loving 
nature, that led the Maoris to think that a bough of 
pohutukawa was the last earthly hand-hold of the spirit when 
it leapt off from the world above into Reinga (the under- 
world). For 1t was believed by them in olden times, that the 
ghosts of the dead travelled northward along the mountain 
ranges, until they came to the ridge of “‘ wild rocks” running 
out to sea inthe extreme north, known as Cape Reinga. 
Passing along this to the very extremity of the land, they 
came at last to a giant pohutukawa, with a great limb 
overhanging the rocks of ocean. To this branch the spirits 
hung for some time, reluctant to leave the upper world. At 
length, through a sea-weed fringed cavern, they plunged into 
the gloomy realms of Po. But time changes all things. So 
many were killed in the wars of Hongi, that the great branch 
became bent downwards by the number of spirits who 
thronged it. When Mr. Cheeseman visited the Reinga in 
1895, the famous “ Spray-sprinkled’’* tree was still to be 
seen. It however bore marks of extreme old age, and the 
projecting branch had long before been broken off. Only its 
whitened stump remained. And little wonder, for though the 
wars of Hongi killed their thousands, European customs and 
European civilization have killed their tens of thousands. 


*Pohutukawa is said to mean spray-sprinkled. The name therefore is singularly apt. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 287 


Fig. 92. Metrosideros scandens (life size). 


288 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


By the settlers, the tree is often known as the Christmas 
Tree, because it flowers about the end of the vear. Kirk 
considers it to be “‘ perhaps the most magnificent plant in the 
New Zealand Flora.” The timber of the pohutukawa, is 
extremely hard and durable. 


Metrosideros scandens (The Climbing Rata). 

A climbing shrub. Leaves 4in.-$in. long, sessile, broadly oblong, obtuse, 
shining, the under-surface covered with glandular dots. Flowers in cymes, 
3-flowered, axillary. Petals small, white. Stamens 4 in. long, white. Capsule 
gin. long. Bothislands. Fl. Feb.-March. Maori name Aka. 


Genus Hugenia. 
Shrubs or trees. A genus very similar to Myrtus. The only New Zealand 
species is endemic. Calyx 4-5-lobed; petals 4-5, often deciduous. Stamens 
numerous. Fruit a berry. 


Eugenia Maire (The Maire). 

A tree, 20ft.-50ft. high. Bark white; branchlets 4-angled. Leaves 
lin.-2in. long, oblong, lanceolate, pointed at the tip. Flowers in axillary or 
terminal corymbs. Calyx 5-toothed; petals 5. Berry red. North Island and 
north of South Island. Fl. June-July. Maori name, Maire Tawhaki. 


Genus Myrtus. 

Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, evergreen, dotted with glands. Flowers. 
axillary, solitary, or in small cymes. Calyx-lobes 4-5; petals 4-5; stamens 
numerous. Fruita berry. <A chiefly tropical and sub-tropical genus. The four 
New Zealand species are all endemic. 


Myrtus bullata (The Embossed Myrtle). 

A shrub or small tree. Leaves reddish-brown, swollen between the veins, 
3in.-2in. long. Calyx 4-lobed. Flowers 4in.-?in. across. Petals white, 
Berry red. Both islands: rare in the South. Fl. Dec-Jan. Maori name 
Ramarana. The leaves of this plant are very beautiful, and much used by 


florists in making nosegays and button-holes. 


Myrtus obcordata (The Obcordate-leaved Myrtle). 
Leaves }in.-} in. long ; flowers fin.-}in. across. Calyx 4-lobed. Berry red, 
black, or violet. Both islands, rather local. FJ. Dec.-Jan. 


Myrtus pedunculata (The Pedunculate Myrtle). 
Branchlets 4-angled. Calyx and peduncles shining. Leaves rounded at the 
tip. Calyx 5-lobed. Berry small, yellow or red. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 
Maori name Rohutw. 


THE MYRTLE FAMILY 289 


290 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Onagraceae. 


THE Fucusia FAmity. 
Distribution.—A considerable family, chiefly inhabitants of temperate 
regions. Some of the species possess slightly astringent properties, and others, 
of the genera Fuchsia, Clarkia, and Ginothera, are cultivated for their flowers. 


Key to the Genera. 


Herbs. Fruit a capsule. Epilobium, p. 294. 
Shrubs or trees. Fruit a berry. Fuchsia, p. 290. 


Genus Fuchsia. 


Shrubs or trees. Bark thin, papery. Leaves alternate. Flowers solitary, 
axillary, trimorphic. Calyx with 4 segments; stamens usually exserted. Fruit 
a berry, black or purple. (Named after Fuchs, a German physician). 3 sp. 


This well known and closely defined genus is represented in 
New Zealand by three species. The flowers of the New 
Zealand forms, though not without beauty of their own, have 
scarcely the attractiveness of the ordinary garden varieties. 
However, Fuchsia procumbens (generally known to gardeners 
under the synonym Fuchsia Nirkit) is often to be found in 
cultivation in our gardens and greenhouses. It lacks the 
graceful, pendulous flower-stalks, which enhance so much the 
beauty of the cultivated forms, but it is a very dainty little 
species. The sharp contrast between the beautiful waxy 
yellow of the calyx, and the intense pure blue of the pollen, 
would make it noticeable anywhere. Any other colour but 
yellow is rare in pollen, and such a bright hue as this has 
probably some definite though unknown significance. It is of 
the same colour in the two other New Zealand species. It 
is also extremely viscid. This no doubt enables it to cling 
readily to any insect which may enter the flower. The tui 
and the korimako may sometimes also be seen with their fore- 
heads smeared with it, for the flowers are cross-pollinated by 
them. The viscidity 1s due to the development by the pollen 
grains, of structureless drops of a glutinous fluid, that very 
readily draws out into long fine threads. A similar secretion 


THE FUCHSIA FAMILY 291 


Fig. 94. Fuchsia excorticata (? nat. size). 


292, PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


may be found in the pollen grains of the evening primrose, 
Godetia, Clarkia, and some species of Epilobium. 

All the New Zealand forms of the genus Fuchsia are 
endemic, and the only other known species come from South 
America and Mexico. Thus our Fuchsias well illustrate the 
former connection existing between New Zealand and South 
America (v. Introduction p. 36). 

But, for botanists, the chief interest of the New Zealand 
forms les in the methods by which cross-pollination is attained. 
It has long been known that in flowers of certain plants, 
dimorphism or trimorphism exists, ¢.e., stamens and styles are 
found of two, sometimes of three different lengths. It was 
not, however, until Darwin had investigated the matter, that 
a complete explanation of these variations of form was forth- 
coming. In his work on the ‘‘ Forms of Flowers” he has 
dealt with this subject very fully. The common English 
meadow primrose is the first plant which he discusses, and it 
is usually taken as the type of a dimorphic flower. If a number 
of primrose flowers are examined, it will be found that in 
some the anthers are placed at the top of the corolla tube, and 
in others they are attached inside the tube half-way down its 
length. Those flowers which have the anthers at the rim of 
the corolla tube, have a style which is concealed within the 
tube, and the other flowers, with the short stamens, have a 
style which protrudes from the tube. In other words, long 
stamens go with a short style, and vice versa. Now a bee 
pushing its way into a flower with short stamens, gets the 
pollen on to its tongue, but, if it goes into a flower with long 
stamens, the pollen sticks to its head. The pollen from its head 
can clearly only be placed upon the stigma of a flower with a 
long style, while that from the tongue, must, on the other hand, 
be placed upon the stigma of a flower with a short style. 
Thus cross-pollination is inevitable. It has further been shown 
that the primrose is infertile with its own pollen, so that its 
existence is dependent upon the presence of insects. 


THE FUCHSIA FAMILY 293 


Mr. G. M. Thomson was the first to show” that the New 
Zealand fuchsias have several forms of flower in the one 
species, but the late Mr. T. Kirk investigated the matter 
more fullyt. He showed that in each of the three New Zealand 
species of Fuchsia there are three forms of flower, and in some 
cases, also, intermediate forms. In every case, however, there 
are eight stamens, and a single style with a globose stigma. 
The differences in the flowers of the various species may thus 
be shortly summarized :— 

Fuchsia excorticata.—(1) Long-styled form. The style is 
more than twice the length of the calyx-tube. The stamens 
are almost without filaments, attached to the calyx-tube. 
The pollen grains, if present, are yellow, and apparently 
abortive. The flower is therefore a female one. 

(2) The mid-styled form. The style is about one and a half 
times the length of the calyx-tube; the anthers have long 
filaments, but are shorter than the style; the pollen is well 
developed, and of a deep mazarine blue. This flower is 
hermaphrodite. 

(3) The short-styled form. The style is little, if any, longer 
than the stamens, which are about the same length as in the 
second form. The pollen is well developed. The flower is 
hermaphrodite. 

Fuchsia Colensoi.—Only the long-styled and mid-styled 
forms are known in this species, but Kirk “ entertains no 
doubt ” of the existence of a short-styled form. 

Fuchsia procumbens.—There is a long-, short-, and mid- 
styled form ; but the stamens are of the same length in each 
case. . 

The exact significance of these forms is not well known, 
and would form an interesting subject of investigation for 
students. All the forms of £. excorticata are found in the 
same district, but on different plants. The long-styled form is 
obviously pollinated by the short and mid-styled forms ; and it 


_ *Trans. XIII., p. 263. tTrans. XXV., p. 261. 


294 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


produces fruit more abundantly than either of the other forms. 
This makes it probable that forms with short styles are not 
self-pollinated. However, the evidence on the point is 
unsatisfactory. Kirk failed to find fruit in any quantity 
on Ff. procumbens, and explained its absence by the statement 
that the three types of F. procumbens were not growing in the 
same district ; but Dr. Cockayne informs us that it fruits as 
readily as the other species. Obviously, a full explanation of 
the characteristics of this flower has yet to be given. 

The timber of F. excorticata is heavy, and difficult to work, 
but very strong and durable. 


Fuchsia excorticata (The Tree Fuchsia). 

A shrub or tree, 10 ft.-45 ft. in height. Leaves 1din.-4in. long, silvery 
beneath, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, obscurely toothed. Flowers 
drooping, } in.-1 in. long. Calyx dark-purple; petals red-purple. Pollen-grains 
blue. Berry oblong. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl. Aug.-Dec. Maori 
name Kotukutuku or Kohutiwhaatu, and of the fruit, Koni. 


Fuchsia Colensoi (Colenso’s Fuchsia). 


A smaller species, often not more than 1 ft. in height. Petals minute. 
From the Waikato to Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Feb. 


Fuchsia procumbens (The Prostrate Fuchsia). 
A slender, prostrate plant, 6in.-18in. long. Leaves ovate or cordate, 
i in.-4in. long. Flowers 4 in.-? in long, solitary, axillary, erect. Petals0. Berry 
shining, pale-red. Auckland: sandy or rocky places. Fl. Nov.-Feb. (Often 
called by the synonym /’, Kirk). 


Genus Hpiuobuin. 


Herbs, rarely woody. Leaves opposite or alternate. Flowers in axillary or 
terminal spikes or racemes. Sepals 4, petals 4, stamens 8. Fruit a 4-valved 
capsule. Seeds crowned with tufts of white hairs. New Zealand possesses about 
32 species, 27 of whichare endemic. (Name from the Greek meaning upon a pod, 
in reference to the position of the flower). 


The genus Hpilobiwn has been recently monographed by 
Prof. Haussknecht of Jena. There are about 160 species, 
chiefly in temperate and arctic regions. The English species 


THE FAMILY OF MARE’S TAILS 295 


are known as Willow-herbs. The Epilobiums are generally 
comparatively insignificant, though often dainty little plants. 
Many of them show interesting devices for securing 
pollination. 


Haloragidaceae. 


THE Faminty oF Marnr’s Tals. 


Distribution.—A small family, widely distributed, but of little importance. 
All the British species are aquatic. The flowers are inconspicuous, and often 
devoid of petals. The Haloragidaceae are closely related to the Fuchsia family, 
but the flowers in the former are often much reduced. 


Genus Haloragis. 
Herbs, erect or creeping. Leaves usually opposite. Flowers usually 
axillary, rarely in spikes or panicles. Calyx-lobes 4; petals 4 or 0; stamens 4-8. 
Fruit a small nut, 2-4-celled. 5 sp. 


Haloragis erecta* (The Erect Haloragis). 


An erect or sub-erect herb, 1 ft.-3ft. high. Stem 4-angled; leaves opposite, 
$in.-1$in. long, coarsely serrate. Flowers minute, green, in drooping, terminal 
racemes. Nut 4-angled, green. Both islands: dry hills. Stewart Island. FI. 
Nov.-Jan. (H. alata of Cheeseman, etc.) 


Genus Myriophyllum. 


Aquatic or marsh plants. Leaves usually whorled, much dissected when 
submerged. Flowers small, axillary, white. Pistillate flower destitute of petals. 
Stamens 4-8. Fruit, 2-4 1-seeded nuts. (Name from the Greek, signifying a 
thousand leaves, from the deeply-cut foliage). 


Myriophyllum elatinoides (The Elatine-like Myriophyllum). 
Leaves 4 in a whorl. Flowers white, on a leafy spike, 2in.-6in. long. 
Fruit of 4 minute nuts. 


This species may be taken as typical of a water plant. It 
grows submerged in ponds and streams, and, consequently, 
requires a very different structure from a land-growing plant. 


*Das Pflanzenreich (Engler), under Haloragidaceae. 


296 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


‘Where water is at all times available without stint, obviously, 
an elaborate root system is not required. Hence, water plants 
have few roots, and sometimes none at all. In the latter case 
they float (e.g. Utricularia protrusa) ; at other times the roots 
are merely hold-fasts, for in many water plants there is a thin 
epidermis, so that water can be taken in all over the whole 
surface of the plant by osmosis. Consequently, also, water 
conducting tissues in the stem are not required; and, as no 
firm tissues are needed to keep the plant upright, woody fibres 
are always wanting in the stem, which is maintained in 
position by the buoyancy of the water. In most water plants 
there are large air chambers, which reduce the specific gravity 
of the plant, and assist to float it. It is therefore very flaccid, 
and, when removed from water, collapses. The leaves, too, 
are generally cut up into many narrow segments. In many 
of the Ranuncult, a submerged leaf may be much divided, 
whereas a leaf growing in air on the same plant remains 
undivided. In many water plants, the ratio of leaf surface to 
leaf bulk, is at least a hundred times greater than it is in 
certain xerophytes. Taken altogether, the structure of a 
submerged plant is simple, as compared with one of the same 
order, growing on land. 

In most cases, the flower stem is elevated above the water 
before flowering commences. In Limosella, which lives in 
rain pools, if the plant should happen to be submerged at the 
time of flowering, the flowers become cleistogamic (v. Viola, 
p. 264) and self-pollinated. The perianth is, of course, water- 
tight, and so the pollination takes place in air. Plants, the 
pollination of which takes place in water are extremely rare. 
Amongst them, however, may be mentioned the grass-wrack, 
(Zostera), which may be found throughout the colony, on the 
mud-flats of the sea-shore. However, in Zostera, the pollen 
grain has a unique structure. 

In Myriophyllum, the flowers are raised to the surface of 
the water. Most of the species are moncecious, and, as in all 


THE CORNEL OR DOGWOOD FAMILY 297 


other moncecious plants, the pistillate flowers mature before 
the staminate ones, and so cross-pollination is inevitable. 


Genus Gunnera. 


Creeping herbs, with small, inconspicuous flowers, Sepals 2 or 3; petals 2, 
3, or O; stamens 2 or 3. Ovule solitary. Fruit a small drupe. The New 
Zealand species have no petals. (Named after Gunner, a Swedish bishop and 
botanist). 


Gunnera monoica (The Solitary Gunnera). 


Tufted, creeping. Leaves } in.-} in. across, crenate, kidney-shaped. Flowers 
in slender panicles. Perianth of two narrow segments; stamens 2. Drupe 
grin. long. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Cornaceae. 


THE CORNEL OR Dogwoop FaAmILy. 


Distribution.—A small and unimportant family, chiefly found in temperate 
regions.  Aucuba japonica, the variegated laurel, and the Cornelian Cherry, 
Cornus mas, are cultivated in gardens. Two or three of the species are said to 
possess tonic properties. 

Key to the Genera. 


Leaves white underneath. Flowers perfect. Corokia, p. 297. 
Leaves glossy. Flowers unisexual. Griselinia, p. 298. 


Genus Corokia. 


Shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves, silvery beneath. Calyx 5-toothed, 
Petals, 5, silky, yellow. Stamens, 5. This small genus is peculiar to New 
Zealand and the Chatham Islands. (Name from the Maori). 3 sp. 


Corokia buddleoides (The Buddleia-like Corokia). 


A small tree, with long narrow leaves, shining above, and downy beneath. 
Flowers in slender panicles. Corolla fin. long, yellow. Drupe, orange-red. 


298 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


North Island: Mangonui to East Cape. Fl. Dec. Native name Aorokta- 
taranga. 


Corokia Cotoneaster (The Cotoneaster-like Corokia). 


A vigid shrub, with interlacing black branches. Leaves alternate or fascicled, 
oblong or ovate. Petals yellow, broader than in Corokia buddleoides. Drupe 
fin. across, red. From the North Cape to the Bluff. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Griselinia. 


Shrubs or trees, often epiphytic. Leaves very thick and glossy, oblique, 
leaving a scar when they fall. Calyx 5-toothed; petals 5. Stamens, 5. 
Staminate and pistillate flowers on separate trees. The New Zealand species 
are endemic. 2 sp. 


Griselinia lucida (The Shining Broadleaf). 


From 3ft.-30 ft. in height, often epiphytic. Leaves 4in.-8 in. long, very 
thick, shining. Flowers in axillary panicles, green or yellow, 3in-6 in. 
long. Petals 0. Drupe dark-purple. Both islands, but more common in the 
north. Fl. Noy.-Dec. (Native name Puka. A name given to any broad-leaved 
tree). 


Griselinia littoralis (The Broadleaf). 


A tree, sometimes 60ft. in height, differing from Griselinia lucida in its 
terrestrial habit, and smaller, less glossy leaves, which vary from 1 in.-3 in. 
in length. Flower panicles small. The pistillate flowers possess 5 petals. This 
tree, though often crooked in growth, is valued for its timber, which is very 
durable. Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Nov. 


THE CORNEL OR DOGWOOD FAMILY 299 


Fig, 95. Griselinia littoralis. 


300 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Araliaceae. 


THE FAMILY oF ARALIADS, OR IvywortTs. 


Distribution.—This family is closely allied to the Umbelliferae, but is 
chiefly tropical in its distribution, though some species are found in Canada, 
N.W. America and Japan. The New Zealand species are all endemic. The 
British Hedera Helix, the Common Ivy, is well-known, and much cultivated. 
The berries are emetic and purgative. Tetrapanar papyrifera furnishes the 
rice-paper of the Chinese. The stems of this plant, which is found only in 
the island of Formosa, are filled with a pure white pith, from which the 
paper is made. This pith is also used in the making of artificial flowers. 
Some of the species of Aralia haye slight medicinal properties. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Herbs. Stilbocarpa, p. 300. 
Shrubs or trees. 2 

2. Leaves 9 in.-20 in. long, entire, glossy. Meryta, p. 312. 
Leaves smaller, simple or digitate. o 

3. Flowers in simple or compound uinbels. 4 
Flowers in large panicles. Scheftiera, p. 312. 

4d. Styles distinct, tips recurved, ovary 2-4-celled. Nothopanax, p. 304. 

4. Styles united into a cone. Ovary 5-celled. Pseudopanax, p. 306. 


Genus Stilbocarpa. 


A genus of two species, endemic in New Zealand. Leaves radical, large. 
Flowers crowded, conspicuous. Petals, 5; stamens, 5; styles, 3 or 4. Fruit, 
round ; axis hollow. Cells, 1-seeded. (Name in allusion to the shining fruit). 


Stilbocarpa polaris (The Polar Stilbocarpa). 

A large herbaceous plant. Leaves, 6 in.-12 in. broad ; round or kidney- 
shaped, thick, rough with hairs, lobed, coarsely toothed. Leaf-stalk 12 in.-18 in. 
long, with a lobed sheath. Flowers in terminal or axillary umbels, 4 in.-9 in. 
across. Corolla } in. across, yellow, with a purple eye. Fruit the size of a 
peppercorn, shining. Auckland, Antipodes, Macquarie, and Campbell Islands. 
Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Punt. 


Stilbocarpa Lyallii (Lyall’s Stilbocarpa). 

A robust herb, 1 ft.-3 ft. in height. Stems horizontal, giving out long 
arched trailing branches, which tend to root atthe tip. Leaves radical, shining 
above, hairy beneath, round or kidney-shaped, lobed, toothed. Flowers in 
umbels, purplish-red, 3 in.-12 in. across. Petals, 4; stamens, 5. Fruit round, 
black, shining ; cells 1-seeded. Coasts of Foveaux Straits, Stewart Island, 
The Snares. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 

We have followed Engler and Prantl (Pflanzenfamihen I[II., 8, 57) in 
placing Kirk’s Aralia Lyallii under the genus Stilbocarpa, thus restoring it to 
the position originally given it by Mr. J. B, Armstrong. 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 301 


All the outlying islands of New Zealand, if not mere 
rocks, contain one or more species of plants not found on 
the mainland. Thus the Chatham Islands possess one 


Fig. 96. Stilbocarpa polaris. 


genus, Myosotidiwm, and about thirty species of flowering 
plants and higher Cryptogams not found elsewhere. Dr. 
Cockayne gives the following numbers for the endemic species. 


302 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


of flowering plants on the Southern Islands out of a total 
number of 145 :—Auckland Islands, 10; Campbell Island, 
7; Antipodes Islands, 3; Macquarie Island, 3; Snares 
Islands, 2. In addition to these, there are no less than 29 
species not found on the mainland, but growing on more 
than one of the southern Islands. On the three Kings Islands 
five species are endemic, and three others are known only from 
other outlying Islands (Cheeseman). In the Kermadecs only 


5 species out of 115 are endemic, 


a smaller percentage than 
might have been expected. 

Stilbocarpa polaris, the plant under discussion, is found on 
the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, and Macquarie Islands. 
It must not be confused with the equally fine S. Lyalli, 
which is found on Stewart Island, and the islands of Foveaux 
Straits. A full discussion of the origin of these remarkable 
forms, found only in isolated spots of the earth’s surface, 
would be out of place here; but the subject is of so much 
interest and importance, that it cannot be passed over without 
some slight reference to theories regarding it. It 1s obvious 
that these plants may be divided into two groups, (1) those 
that are very closely related to mainland forms, (2) those that 
are not closely related to any species of the mainland. 
Amongst the latter are some of the most magnificent plants 
of the Flora (¢.g., Plewrophyllum speciosum ; Myosotidiwm.) 

Now, there are two possible explanations of the distribution 
of species limited to narrow areas and solitary islets : (1) it 
may be due to relict endemism, that is to say, the plant was 
once widely distributed, but has for some reason or other 
become almost extinct, and now exists only on outlying 
islands, or in remote corners of the mainland. Thus, to take 
an example from the human race, the lmitation of the once 
widely distributed Kelts to Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and the 
North Scotland, is a case of relict endemism. (2) If, however, 
the species has been developed on the off islands, or outlying 
peninsulas, owing to special conditions existing there, then we 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 303 


Fig. 97. Nothopanax Colensoi (# nat. size). 


304 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


have a case of initial endemism. Now it is often difficult to 
say which explanation should be adopted, in a given case. 
If the plant is closely allied to one existing on the mainland, 
we probably have a case of initial endemism. If, however, 
it belongs to a type not represented on the mainland, it is 
more likely that we have to do with an example of relict 
endemism ; and that the species was once widely distributed, 
and now, having been almost exterminated, finds a sanctuary 
only in inaccessible localities and remote islands. In some 
cases Paleeo-botany comes in to give us assistance in solving 
the problem. Thus, fossils show us that the genus Agathis 
was once widely distributed, though now restricted to 
Auckland province (where the Kauri is found), to the Malay 
Archipelago, and to Queensland. Thus in the Kauri we have 
a clear case of relict endemism. The older botanists, 
however, generally neglected this method of explaining 
restricted distribution, in favour of the hypothesis of initial 
endemism. There can, however, be but little doubt that 
forms like the one under consideration, are more likely to have 
been at one time widely spread, than always to have been 
restricted to their present habitats. Though Sttlbocarpa is a 
genus endemic in these islands, yet it is closely connected 
with the widely distributed genus Aralia. On the mainland, 
Stilbocarpa 1s now confined to South-western Otago, but, as 
it must have reached that district from the outside, it has 
certainly, at one time, had a wider distribution. 

S. Lyallit sends out runners, which pass under stones 
and through crevices in the rocks, rooting in suitable 
localities. It is thus able to cover wide areas. This 
characteristic also readily distinguishes it from S. polaris, 
which is without runners. 


Genus Nothopanac. 
A remarkable genus of shrubs or trees, showing much variation in leaf- 
form. All the New Zealand species are endemic. Flowers in umbels, racemes, 
or panicles, green, inconspicuous. Petals and stamens 5. Ovary 2-4-celled. 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 305 


Fruit fleshy, 2-5-celled, 1-seeded. (Name from the Greek, signifying a remedy 
for everything, in allusion to the Chinese drug Ginseng, obtained from a plant of 
this family, and believed by the Chinese to possess healing virtue of a miraculous 
kind. The prefix notho signifies southern). 7 sp. 


Nothopanax lineare (The Narrow-leaved Nothopanaz). 


A shrub, 5 ft.-8 ft. in height. Leaves of two forms: (1) linear, erect 
or spreading, 6 in.-9 in. long, } in.-4 in. broad, leathery, broad, sharp-pointed, 
with a noticeable midrib ; (2) linear lanceolate, crowded at the tips of the 
branches, 14 in.-34 in. long, very leathery, acute or obtuse. Flowers in small 
terminal umbels. Fruit urn-shaped, 3-5-celled and seeded. South Island: 
Southern Alps; rare. Nelson to Southland. Fl. Jan.-Feb. 


Nothopanax simplex (The Simple-leaved Nothopanaz). 


Asmall tree, 5ft. - 20ft.in height. The most variable of all the species. 
Leaves : (1) Ovate, serrate, on long foot-stalks ; (2) 5-foliolate, leaflets petioled, 
linear, lobed, or pinnate-partite ; (3) 3-foliolate ; leaflets sessile, lanceolate ; 
(4) 1-foliolate, oblong, 2 in.-5 in. long, serrate, or almost entire. Flowers in 
short terminal or axillary compound umbels. Fruit compressed ; 1-seeded. 
Both islands ; Stewart Island; Auckland Islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


Nothopanax Edgerleyi (Edgerley’s Nothopanaz). 

A tree, 20ft. - 40ft. in height. Leaves of two forms: (1) 3 - 5-foliolate ; 
leaflets oblong—lanceolate, acute, pinnatifid or lobed, purple beneath ; (2) 1- 
foliolate, 3 in.-9 in. long, oblong-lanceolate or obovate, membranous, shining. 
Petioles jointed to the blade, 1 in.-4 in. long. Flowers in axillary compound 
umbels, racemose. Styles 3 or 4. Fruit small, round, purplish-black, 3 - 4- 
seeded. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl.-Jan.-Feb. Maori name Raukawa. 
The leaves are aromatic, and were used by the Maoris in the making of 
perfumed oils. 


Nothopanax anomalum (The Anomalous Nothopanaz). 


A shrub, 6ft. - 12ft. high, with rough divaricating branches. Leaves of two 
forms : (1) 3-foliolate, with stipules at the base of a widened petiole, in the 
mature stage leaflets rarely pinnatifid ; (2) 1-foliolate, with secondary stipules at 
the base and apex of the flattened petiole. Flowers small, in small axillary 
umbels, 2-10-flowered. Styles 2, recurved. Fruit 4 in.-$ in. in diameter, 
compressed, mottled. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. Maori name Wawa-paku. 


Nothopanax Colensoi (Colenso’s Nothopanazx). 


A shrub, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-9 in. long, 3-5 foliolate, with a 
2-lobed sheath. Leaflets 2 in.-6 in. long, thick and leathery, roughly toothed ; 
veins indistinct. Flowers in heavily scented terminal umbels. Fruit roundish, 
compressed, 2-celled and 2-seeded. Styles 2. Both islands: as far north as 


the Thames. Fl. July-Oct. Maori name, Raukawa. 
21 


306 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Pseudopanax. 

Shrubs or trees, with shining leaves, extremely variable in form during 
different stages of the tree’s growth. Flowers in umbels, panicles, or racemes. 
Staminate flowers with 5 petals and 5 stamens. Pistillate flowers without 
petals, ovary 5-celled. Fruit rounded, fleshy. (Name signifying a false Panaz). 
6 sp. 

Pseudopanax crassifolium (The Thick-leaved Lancewood). 


A spreading tree, 20 ft.-60 ft. in height; trunk 10 in.-20 in. in diameter. 
Leaves polymorphic. Flowers in terminal compound umbels. Stamens, 5; 
styles 5; seeds 5. Fruit round. The leaves and wood of this tree send out an 
unpleasant odour. The timber is used for fencing posts, sleepers, piles, etc. 
Both islands ; Stewart Island. Var. wnitfoliolatwm is common in the Auckland 
district, but rare elsewhere. Fl. Feb.-April. Maori name Horoeka. 


Pseudopanax ferox (The Savage Lancewood). 

A small tree, 15 ft.-26 ft. in height. Leaves of 3 forms. (1) Of seedlings, 
narrow, linear-lanceolate, acute, toothed, brownish. (2) Of unbranched shrubs, 
12 in.-18in. long, 4 in. broad, the tips turned downwards towards the stem, very 
thick and leathery; roughly toothed; teeth sharp, hooked. (3) Of mature trees, 
3 in.-5 in. long, + in.-$ in. broad, linear-obovate, thick, rigid, pointed. Flowers 
in terminal umbels; staminate flowers in 6-10 racemes, with 4 petals and 4 
stamens. Pistillate umbel compact, ovary 5-celled. Fruit oval, shining, larger 
than in P. crassifolium, 1-seeded. Both islands. Much rarer than the preceding 
species. 

This 1s an endemic genus, distinguished chiefly by the 
remarkable metamorphoses through which the foliage of the 
species P. crassifolium and P. feror passes. Many New 
Zealand plants show strange vicissitudes in their leaf-develop- 
ment, but in none are they stranger than in these. Yet, 
curiously enough, no account of their minute structure has 
yet been published, though the leaves of many other species 
have been microscopically examined. In no other genus, 
perhaps, are the leaf forms so well worthy of the student’s 
research; so different are they in the juvenile, from the mature 
stages, that, on several occasions, the earler botanists put the 
mature and immature forms of the same plant, in different 
genera. P. crassifolium was discovered on Cook's first 
voyage, and, in Dr. Solander’s MS., the young form is 
called Xerophylla longifolia, while the mature is termed 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 307 


bah ey = 


Fig. 98. Pseudopanax crassifolium. 


(Tree with deflexed and mature leaves.) 


308 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Aralia crassifolia. Even so late as 1867, Sir J. Hooker,—the 
greatest of all systematists,—described the mature state as 
Panax crassifolium, and the young state as P. longissimum, 
and yet he had had the plant under cultivation at Kew for 
fifteen years. 

The seedling forms of P. crassifoliuwm have been described 
by Kirk,* and more fully by Dr. Cockayne.t ° In the following 
description, drawn up from specimens gathered by us in the 
Kaipara district, the chief stages are lettered. (a) The 
cotyledons are persistent, with prominent swollen midrib, and 
reddish, slightly recurved margin. (b) The first leaf is 
somewhat leathery, lmear-oblong, green, often blotched with 
pale-brown, one or two inches in length, and irregularly 
coarsely toothed, with a leaf-stalk one-third the length of the 
blade. (c) The second and third leaves are linear-lanceolate, 
with minute distant teeth. The upper surface is black-green, 
spotted with pale brown, whilst the under surface is lighter in 
colour. The midrib is raised on both surfaces. (d) The 
fourth and few succeeding leaves are linear, spreading, and 
pointed slightly upwards, with stout, distant teeth, quite 
different from the serrations of the first leaf. The tips are 
yellowish, the upper surface black, with green shining through 
it, often marked with paler brown blotches. The leaves are 
now quite stalkless, and clasp the stem with a slightly smaller 
leaf-sheath. (e) This stage is the most remarkable, and 
remains permanent from fifteen to twenty years. The leaves 
are rigid and deflexed, and surround the top of the tree like 
the ribs of a half-closed umbrella. They are of great length, 
and extremely narrow. Kirk measured them up to 43 in. in 
length. Their average width is about half-an-inch. They 
are very thick and leathery in texture, with sharp tips, and 
distant marginal teeth. The midrib is highly developed, 
occupying nearly a third of the leaf surface, and is yellowish in 
colour. The blade is a polished metallic black, faintly tinged 


* Forest Flora,’’ p. 260. +Trans. XXXI., p. 391. 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 309 


Fig. 99. Pseudopanax crassifolium—Flower. (4 nat. size.) 


310 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


by the underlying green, and sometimes blotched with green 
or brown near the teeth. In this stage the stem is usually 
simple, and reaches a height of from fifteen to twenty feet. 
(f) After a long period of growth, these simple linear leaves 
are followed by dark-green compound leaves, consisting of 
three to five leaflets, 8-10 in. long, with petioles several inches 
in length. These leaflets are not so thick and rigid as those of 
stage (e), and the stalks are not yet more than half-an-inch in 
length. (g) The succeeding leaves are of a similar type, but 
have longer petioles, and the leaflets are broader and thicker. 
If the stem is branched, the plant now occasionally flowers. 
(h) This is the final stage. The leaves again become simple, 
but are, at first, not otherwise different from the previous 
stage. The following leaves, however, become very hard and 
thick, the teeth gradually become fewer and more distant, and 
sometimes disappear altogether. The leaf of the mature 
plant is from 4 in. to 6 in. in length, linear, almost or quite 
entire, hard and thick, dark green with prominent midrib, 
jointed to a short, thick petiole. Probably such an extra- 
ordinary series of changes in the leaf-form of any tree is. 
unique. It must not be supposed that all the species go. 
through as many transformations as P. crassifoliwm, though 
all of them show many variations in leaf shape. In P. crassi- 
folm, var. unifoliolatum, the deflexed leaf-form passes by 
imperceptible gradations into the final stage, and there is no- 
trifoliate stage. The later deflexed leaves become, in this case, 
very coarsely toothed, incised, and expanded at the tips, before 
adopting their final form. If the head of the tree is destroyed, 
shoots are developed at the base, and these again reproduce 
the long, black, toothed leaves of the juvenile form; but the 
leaves in this case are frequently not deflexed, but horizontal. 
Kirk's statement that the large toothed simple leaves pass, as 
a rule, more gradually into the mature state in the South 
Island than in the North, (Forest Flora, p. 60), scarcely seems 


THE FAMILY OF ARALIADS 311 


Fig. 100. Meryta Sinclairii (4 nat. size). 


312 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


to be accurate, as in the Kaipara district, at least, the 
prevailing variety is P. unitfoliolatum. 


Genus Meryta. 


A genus of about 16 species, of which one is endemic in New Zealand. 
Branches resinous. Leaves large, glossy. Flowers in terminal panicles, sessile. 
Staminate flowers with a 3-5-toothed calyx; petals and stamens 4-5. Stamens 
longer than the petals. Fruit an oblong berry. 


Meryta Sinclairii. 

A handsome tree, from 12 ft.-24 ft. in height. Leaves very glossy, 
alternate, 9 in.-20 in. long, 4 in.-10 in. broad, margin waved, nerves prominent. 
Flowers in erect panicles, greenish-yellow. Staminate flowers in fours, each 
with 4 stamens. Pistillate flowers solitary or crowded, petals 5-6, styles 3-6, 
unfertile stamens 5-6. Fruit 3 in. long, oblong, black, shining, 3-6-celled, 
l-seeded. Three Kings Islands, Taranga Island. Rare. Fl. June. 


Genus Schefflera. 


About 20 species, of which one is endemic in New Zealand. Shrubs or 
trees, with digitate leaves. Flowers umbellate, in racemes or panicles. Calyx 
5-toothed. Petals and stamens 5. Styles 5-10. Fruit round, fleshy, 5-10- 
celled, 5-10-seeded. 


_ Schefflera digitata. 


A small tree, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 5-10-foliolate, with sheathing 
petioles ; leaflets petioled, membranous, toothed, 3 in.-7 in. long, oblong- 
lanceolate, sometimes pinnatifid. Umbels } in.-} in. across. Fruit purplish- 
black, #in.-~j>in. in diameter. Both islands: abundant. Stewart Island. 
Fl. Feb.-March. 


Umbelliferae. 


THe PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large and widely distributed family of plants, which, from 
their varying properties, may be divided into four groups :— 

(1) Those which possess a poisonous watery sap, such as the Hemlock ; 
(2) those which contain aromatic oils, such as the Caraway and Anise ; (3) those 
which yield gum-resins, such as Asafcetida; (4) those whose roots, stems, or 
leaves are edible, and are used as vegetables, such as Celery, Carrot, Parsley, etc. 
Of the New Zealand genera, Aciphylla and Ligusticum are the most important. 


ARALIADS 


= 


THE FAMILY 


Schefilera digitata (4 nat. size). 


Fig. 101. 


314 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Key to Genera. 


1. Umbels simple or irregularly compound, fruit without oil-cavities. 2 
Umbels usually compound. Oil-cavities present. 5 
2. Fruit compressed laterally, or constricted at the narrow surface of 
junction of the two carpels. 3 
Fruit with broad surface of junction, almost cylindrical. Eryngiun, p. 315. 
3. Stems (in the New Zealand species) usually creeping. 4 
Leaves radical. Actinotus. 
4. Fruits flat. Hydrocotyle, p.314. 
Fruits scarcely broader than thick. Azorella, p. 314. 
5, Umbels usually compound, primary ridges only present. 6 
Umbels compound, secondary ridges present, often more strongly 
developed than the primary. 11 
6. Stems creeping. Umbels simple. Crantzia. 
Stems erect, sub-erect or climbing. Umbels compound or 
irregularly compressed. 7 
7. Carpels winged. 
Carpels not winged. 10 
8 Stems erect or climbing. Carpels with two broad lateral wings. Angelica, ». 322. 
Carpels with 3 or 5 wings on each face. 9 
9. Umbels compound. Ligusticum, p. 315. 
Uimnbels in erect spikes or panicles. Aciphylla, p. 316. 
10. Ribs 5. Glabrous herbs with lateral or terminal umbels. Apium, p.315. 
Ribs 5. Usually a hairy plant, umbels borne on a scape. Oreomyrrhis. 
ll. Fruit bristly. Daucus. 


Daucus, Oreomyrrhis, Actinotus, and Crantzia are unimportant genera, with 
inconspicuous flowers, and will not be further noticed here. 


Genus Hydrocotyle. 

A rather large genus of small, creeping herbs, with inconspicuous green 
flowers. Leaves round or kidney-shaped, often 3-7 lobed. (Name from the 
Greek, signifying water, and a salver, in allusion to the shape of the leaves in 
some species). 9 sp. 


Hydrocotyle novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Hydrocotyle) 
Leaves obscurely 5-7-lobed ; umbels 5-12-flowered. Carpels with one rib. 
Both islands. FJ. Nov.-March. 


Hydrocotyle asiatica (The Asiatic Hydrocotyle). 
Leaves kidney or heart-shaped, almost entire. Umbels 2-4-flowered, rarely 
1-flowered. Carpels with 3 ribs. Both islands. F]. Oct.-March. 


Genus Azorella. 
Tufted herbs, with simple or divided leaves. Umbels simple or irregularly 
compound. Fruit sub-quadrate, 5-ribbed. A genus of about forty species, of 
which nine are endemic in New Zealand. 


This is an Antarctic genus of cushion plants. Azorella 
selago has a typical sub-Antarctic distribution Acena (cf. 
p. 203), being found in Macquarie Island, Tierra del Fuego, Port 


THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY 315 


Famine, Hermit Island, Kerguelen’s Land and the Crozets. 
Most of the New Zealand species grow on the sub-alpine 
moors, Where our sub-Antarctic genera are generally to be 
found. Some of the Chihan Azorellas are so compact and 
covered with hairs, that, at a short distance, they bear a 
considerable resemblance to madrepore corals. 


Genus Eryngium. 


Thistle-like herbs, with rigid, prickly, often glaucous leaves. Umbels 
reduced to heads. Flowers mixed with bracts. The roots of the British Sea 
Holly (Eryngium maritinum) are candied and used as a sweetmeat. Some of 
the species are cultivated in gardens for the sake of the delicate blue colour of the 
whole plant. (An old Greek name for a kind of Thistle.) 1 sp. 


Eryngium vesiculosum (The Vesiculate Eryngium). 


A small rigid herb, 2in.-5in. high. Leaves toothed, spinous. Flower-heads 
axillary. Both islands: sandy beaches. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


Genus Apiwmn. 
Glabrous herbs. Leaves pinnate; umbels compound, terminal or lateral. A 


small genus, to which belongs the Celery of our gardens. (A Latin name for the 
Wild Parsley and similar plants). 1 sp. 


Apium prostratum (The Prostrate Parsley). 


Leaves very variable, sessile or stalked, alternate, or radical and fascicled. 
Flowers white, rays 3-12. Both islands: common. FI. Nov.-March. 


Genus Ligusticum. 


Erect herbs, usually glabrous and aromatic. Leaves pinnate or decompound. 
Umbels compound, rarely simple. Flowers white or red. Carpels with 3-5 
winged ridges. Oil-tubes often obscure. (Name from Liguria, the home of the 
officinal species). All the New Zealand species are endemic. 17 sp. 


Ligusticum latifolium (The Broad-leaved Ligusticum). 

A robust plant, 3ft.-5ft. in height. Stem 3in.-4in. thick at the base, 
radical leaves 1 ft.-2 ft. long, coriaceous, 2-pinnate. Bracts large. Umbels 
2in.-3in. across; crowded. Flowers reddish. Fruit ¢in. long. Carpels with 5 
primary ridges, rarely 4 or 3. Auckland and Campbell Isles. FI. Dec.-Jan. A 
magnificent species. 


316 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Ligusticum piliferum (The Bristly Ligusticwm). 


Stems 10in.-20in. high, reddish-purple. Leaves 3in.-12in. long; leaflets 
6-12 pairs, sessile, $in.-lin. long, ovate, toothed, 2-3-lobed to the base, margins 
of teeth tipped with bristles. Umbels 2in.-3in. across. Flowers white. 
Carpels 3-winged or one 5-winged. South Island: mountainous districts. Fl. 
Feb.-March. 


Ligusticum carnosulum (The Fleshy Ligusticum). 

Leaves and umbels all from the root. Leaflets cut into fleshy lobes 
tin.-3in. long. Umbels glaucous, compound. Involucral leaves in 3-5 segments. 
Carpels 4-ridged. South Island: rare and local. Fl. Jan. 

This is a remarkable shingle-slip plant, which, according to 
Diels, “ shows in the numerous irregular windings of the thick 
stem, traces of the never ceasing battle with the shingle.” 
Whenever the shoot is buried, it turns again to the nearest 
point of the surface, and works its way up to daylight. The 
leaves do not begin to develop until the stem has grown above 
the accustomed level of the shingle-stream. The stem 
remains quite naked below. The umbels are so_ shortly 
stalked, that the flowers remain within the protection of the 
foliage, which does not open out until the seed is ripe and 
ready to escape. The leathery leaves can withstand a 
considerable vain of shingle, and so great is their flexibility, 
that Diels compares them to little india-rubber tubes, whose 
fine division secures the freest mobility to the individual 
sections. 


Genus Aciphylla. 


Erect, rigid, perennial herbs. Leaves with sheathing bases, pinnate or 2-3 
pinnate, with dagger-shaped segments. Flowers in long spikes or panicles. 
Bracts linear. The New Zealand species are all endemic. Besides these, two 
species are also found in Australia. (Name from the Greek, meaning needle- 


leaved). 13 sp. 

The genus Aciphylla is foundin New Zealand and Australia 
only. All the New Zealand species are endemic, and most of 
them are characterized by long, sword-like, spinous, radical 
leaves, which form a dense tuft of lance-like spikes, a foot or 
two in height. The long flower stalks are clothed with 


THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY 


Fig. 102. Ligusticum piliferum (4 nat. size). 


318 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


similar spinescent bracts, guarding the flowers with veritable 
chevaux de frise. No plant could be better defended 
against the attacks of grazing animals, and the earlier 
botanists naturally concluded that the purpose of the spines 
was protective. One thing puzzled them. Why should 
plants, which were indigenous to a land where no animals 
browsed, be guarded by such terrible thorns? There was no 
satisfactory answer to this question, though Wallace” even 
goes so far as to suggest that ‘they may have gained their 
spines to preserve them from being trodden down by the 
moas, which for countless ages took the place of mammals in 
New Zealand.” However, the trend of recent investigation is 
to show that the spines are not protective, but the natural 
results of modifications resulting from the struggle against 
drought. 

Many New Zealand plants at some stage or other of their 
existence are of a xerophytic type, (v. Introduction, p. 41) and 
perhaps no better example could be found than Aciphylla. 
Why so many of our plants should be xerophytic is a puzzle 
to botanists, but a fuller discussion of the question will be 
found under Plagianthus betulinus (pp. 254-258). 

That the leaves should be reduced to spines in Aciphylla is 
especially remarkable, because the leaves of other members of 
the family are often large, and well developed. Those, 
however, of 4. Colensot and A. squarrosa ave in the seedling form 
quite flaccid and grass-liket, while, according to Mr. Cox of 
the Chatham Islands, the leaves of A. Traverstit are so soft that 
sheep eat them greedily. On well stocked stations the plants 
therefore suffer severely, and are soon exterminated. These 
anomalies of leaf-form tend to show that the ancestors of the 
genus Aciphylla were of a normal type. 

If further argument were required to show that the spinous 
leaves of Aciphylla are really drought-forms, and not protective 


** Darwinisin,’’ Colonial Edition. p. 433. 
| Cockayne: Trans. XXXIIL., p. 279. 


THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY 319 


Fig. 103. Aciphylla Colensoi. 


320 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


against grazing animals, it is to be found in the fact that 
Aciphylla quickly disappears on country over which stock 
runs. By a curious irony of fate, the protection of the spines, 
when needed most, is wanting.* The young plants are 
greedily eaten by cattle and sheep, and so, as the old plants 
die off, no others are allowed to grow up and take their 
place. Rabbits, too, attack the mature plants and destroy 
them. They are small enough to eat a single leaf, without 
danger from its neighbours. 


Aciphylla Colensoi (Colenso’s Spaniard). 


Plant 2 ft.-8 ft. high. Leaves 1ft.-2 ft. long, 4 in.-3? in. broad, spinous, 
greenish-yellow. Leaf-sheath also provided with a pair of simple or divided 
spines, the whole forming a mass of bayonet-like spikes. Umbels arranged in a 
stout, erect, leafy raceme. Both islands. Maori name, Taramea. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


Aciphylla squarrosa (The Rough Spaniard). 

A much smaller plant than the preceding, and greyer in colour. The leaf 
segments are also narrower, being only <4 in.-4 in broad, and the fruit is much 
smaller. Maori name, Kuri-Kuri; Colonists’ name, Spaniard or Wild Spaniard. 

This plant yields a semi-transparent resinous gum, which 
afforded the most prized scent in use among the Maoris. The 
species is not found in the lowlands, and in the North Island is 
generally alpme or sub-alpine. Hence the gum was only 
obtained with some labour and difficulty. Certain observances 
also had to be carried out in collecting it. According to 
Colenso,t it could be collected only by maidens, and then only 
after the proper prayers and charms had been said by the 
priest (tohunga). 

There is a dainty little Maori lullaby, in which the name 
taramea occurs with those of other odorous plants :— 


oe 


Taku hei piripiri 
Taku hei moki-moki 
Taku hei tawhiri 
Taku kati taramea.’’ 


+Petrie: ‘'N.Z. Journal of Science,”’ 1891, p. 260. 'Trans. XXIV p. 458. 


THE PARSLEY AND CARROT FAMILY 321 


Fig. 104. Aciphylla Monroi (5 nat. size). 


te 
in 


322 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Colenso thus translates it :-— 


“+ My little neck satchel of sweet scented moss, 
My little neck satchel of fragrant fern, 
My little neck satchel of odoriferous gum, 
My sweet smelling neck locket of sharp pointed taramea.”’ 


The gum of the taramea was collected at early dawn; and 
with it were mixed the fronds of moki-moki, (the fern Doodia 
caudata), and of the piri-piri, (certain species of Hepaticae), 
the fragrant resin of the tawhiri, (Pittosporwm tenwifolium), 
the oil of the miro, (Podocarpus ferruginea), and the flowers 
of pa-totara (species of Leucopogon and Gaultheria). The 
mixture was subjected to heat for some days; and then 
strained through a sieve made of the plumes of the toi-tol 
(Arundo conspicua). It was afterwards placed in carved boxes, 
where the mats of the chiefs were kept, or was used as a 
satchel by girls, in the way described by Colenso. 


Aciphylla Monroi (Monro’s Spaniard). 

A small, flaccid species, 6 in.-18in. high. Leaves 3 in.-5 in. long, shining, 
pinnate. Scape slender, soft. Umbels in an open branched panicle, in the axils 
of flaccid, 3-5 parted bracts. Flowers yellowish. Fruit § in. long. Carpels 
5-ribbed, or one 3-ribbed. South Island: alpine or sub-alpine districts. Fl. 
Dec.-March. 

Genus Angelica. 

Erect or climbing herbs. Leaves pinnate or 2-3-pinnate. Flowers in 
umbels, white. Fruit compressed. Primary ribs3 : wings 2. A small genus of 
about 25 species. (Thus named on account of its supposed healing properties). 
5 sp. 

Angelica geniculata (The Jointed Angelica). 

Stems 2 ft.-4 ft. long, forming tangled masses, scrambling over other shrubs. 
Leaves when young, 3-lobed; entire in the mature state, ovate, slightly crenate. 
Flowers white, in terminal or axillary umbels. Carpels 3-4 ribbed, 2-winged ; oil 
canals present. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb, 


Angelica Gingidium (The Native Anvseed). 


A herbaceous plant, with radical pinnate leaves, oblong in outline. Flowers 
white, umbels compressed, 1 in.-3 in. in diameter. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


The whole plant is highly aromatic. It is greedily eaten by 
sheep, and, though originally very abundant, is often almost 
exterminated by them in accessible places. The plant is 
known to shepherds and runholders as Aniseed. 


THE HEATH FAMILY 323 


Ericaceae. 


(Including Epacridaceae). 


THE Heats Famity. 


Distribution.—A considerable family, often with astringent properties. 
Some species are narcotic and poisonous, while a few produce edible fruits. 
Many are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. In Australasia they are 
represented chiefly by the Epacridaceae. 

The headquarters of the family are in Cape Colony, where there are at 
least 400 species of heaths. These are small evergreen shrubs, which grow in 
great abundance, and form the chief vegetation of open plains and dry hill sides. 
An assemblage of such plants, from its prevailing constituents, is generally also 
termed aheath. Naturally not all the plants in a heath belong to the order 
Ericaceae. The typical heath plant, however, whether belonging to this order 
or not, has small, dry, hard leaves, often sharp-pointed, and with inrolled margins. 
The Scotch heather may be taken as an example. 


In New Zealand, in addition to various genera of Ericaceae 
(e.g. Gaultheria, Leucopogon, Epacris, Dracophyllwm) there 
may be found in the heaths, particularly in the South, Cassinias, 
Oleartas, Coprosmas, and some other shrubs. In the Auckland 
province, Pomaderris phylicefola and Pimelea are found 
along with the true heaths, Leucopogon fasciculatus and 
Epacris pauciflora. Everywhere however, Leptospermum, is 
the chief component of the heath associations of New Zealand. 

By far the commonest plant of the order here, is 
Leucopogon Frazeri, which is found throughout the islands on 
dry open ground from sea-level to 5,000ft. Its small orange 
drupe is sometimes eaten, and has a sweetish taste. Gaul- 
therias are found in both North and South Islands, The 
white fruit of G. antipoda is known as the snow-berry in 
Otago, and is occasionally eaten. Like most of the other pro- 
ducts of the New Zealand bush, it cannot be recommended 
to the epicure. The white, fleshy, outer portion, consists of 
the calyx, which has remained persistent, and become juicy. 
According to Hooker, the fruit is strangely variable, dry 
dehiscent capsules being found on the same spray as the 


324 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


berries. No other observer seems to have noted the occur- 
rence of this curious phenomenon. It certainly is very rare, if 
existent. Its little white bell-like corollas make Gaultheria 
the prettiest of our common heaths. 

Mr. G. M. Thomson has tried to prove the existence of 
a correlation, between the pungent tips of the leaves, in 
certain species of this order, and the presence of herbivorous 
animals. Leucopogon Frazeri, which has sharp-pointed leaves, 
is found, not only in New Zealand, but also in Australia. 
LL. fasciculatus, which he erroneously states to be without 
pungent leaf-tips, 1s endemic. Of five species of Archeria 
two found in New Zealand, and one in Tasmania, have rounded 
apices to the leaves, whereas the two Australian species have 
sharp-pointed tips. It is possible, that the acute apices 
of the Australian plants, may be a protection against grazing 
animals, but it 1s just as likely, that they may be an adaptation 
to the drier conditions of the Australian climate. The fact 
that many of the endemic species of the genus Dracophyllum 
have leaves with pungent tips, seems in favour of the latter 
hypothesis. 

This genus has its headquarters in New Zealand, with 
a few outlying representatives in Australia and New 
Caledonia. Plants belonging to it are generally known to 
colonists as grass-trees, though this term is also applied in 
Otago to the lance-wood (Pseudopanar). The name is. 
doubtless due to the long grass-like leaves of most of the 
species. The broad-leaved species, D. Traversii of the South 
Island, and D. lattfoliwm, found chiefly in the kauri forests 
of the Auckland province, are known as nei-nei, and might. 
almost be taken for a kind of cabbage-tree. D. latifolium 
produces a great spike of handsome red flowers. D. subulatum 
and D. Urvilleanwm are components of the heaths, the former 
being found only in the North Island. D. longifolium is a 
common sub-alpine tree in the South Island, reaching sea-level 
in Southern Otago and Stewart Island. The leaves of D. 


THE HEATH FAMILY 


Fig. 105. Leucopogon fasciculatus (% nat. size.) 


326 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


latifolium were sometimes used by the Maoris in the 
manufacture of specially fine garments. 


Key to the Genera. 


Sub-family Ericeae. Stamens, hypogynous; anthers, 2-celled, 
opening by pores. 
Fruit a false berry. Gaultheria, p. 326. 
Sub-family, Epacrideae. Stamens, epipetalous; anthers, 1-celled. 
1. Fruit a drupe. 


wo 


Fruit, a many-seeded capsule. 4 
2. Fruit with a1-10-celled bony nut; cells with one pen- 
dulous seed. 3 
Fruit with 5 or more minute 1-seeded nuts. *Pentachondra. 
3. Pedicels covered with imbricating bracts. Styphelia, p. 328. 
Pedicels with few bracts, close to the calyx. Leucopogon, p. 328. 
4. Leaves with broad sheathing bases. Dracophyllum, p. 330. 
Leaves without sheathing bases. 5 
5. Flower solitary. Bracts, as in Styphelia. Epacris, p. 326. 
Flowers racemed. Bracts few or 0. *Archeria. 


*Not further described. 


Genus Gaultheria. 


Shrubs with alternate, rarely opposite leaves. Corolla bell-shaped or urn- 
shaped. Stamens 10, anthers opening by pores, each pore provided with 1 or 2 
awns. Disk cup-shaped, 10-lobed. Ovary 5-celled. 

A genus of about 100 species, found in America, South-Eastern Asia, 
Tasmania, and New Zealand. G. procumbens furnishes the Checker-berry of the 
United States. 


Gaultheria antipoda (The Snow-berry). 


A very variable, erect, or prostrate bush. Branches with scattered black 
or yellow-brown bristles. Leaves hard, shortly stalked, orbicular-oblong, 
lanceolate. Flowers small, white or pink, usually solitary. Corolla ~5in. in 
length or more. Berry pink or white, $in. in diameter. Both islands: common 
at all elevations. Colonists’ name Snow-berry. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 

G. rupestris (the Rock Snow-berry) is a similar plant, also very variable, 
with flowers usually in racemes. It is not so common as the previous species. 


Genus Epacris. 


Small shrubs. Leaves usually closely imbricating, but not sheathing. Corolla 
tubular or bell-shaped, lobes not bearded. 


Epacris pauciflora (The Few-flowered Epacris). 


A twiggy shrub, 1ft.-4 ft. high. Leaves coriaceous, 4 in.-tin. long, 
concave, oblong-lanceolate, narrowing suddenly at the tip. Flowers collected 
at the tips of the erect branches, white. Corolla with a very short tube. 


THE HEATH FAMILY 327 


Fig. 106. Gaultheria rupestris (7 nat. size). 


B28 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Auckland to Nelson. Fl. Sept.-Nov. A handsome plant, whose rod-like 
inflorescence of white flowers is one of the most beautiful objects of the Northern 
heaths. 


Genus Leucopogon. 


Shrubs, leaves imbricating or 
scattered. Flowers white or pink, 
solitary, or in racemes or bundles. 
Corolla tubular, lobes spreading, 
bearded. An Australian and Malayan 
genus of about 130 species, some- 
times included in Styphelia. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying white 
beard, in allusion to the bearded 
lobes of the corolla). 3 sp. 


Leucopogon fasciculatus 

(The Bundle-flowered 

Leucopoyon). 

A shrub or small tree, leaves 
somewhat whorled, spreading, $in.- 
Lin. long, linear-lanceolate, pointed, 
obscurely veined below. Flowers 
in fascicled spikes. Abundant in 
the northern heaths. Fl. Oct.-Noy. 


Leucopogon Frazeri 
Frazer's Leucopogon. 

A small, erect or prostrate, strag- 
vling plant, 2in.-6in. high. Leaves 
close set, 4 in.-tin. long, linear- 
oblong, with pungent tips. Flowers 


solitary, axillary, rather la red- 


dish-white. Fruit an orange coloured 
edible drupe. Extremely abundant 
in all dry situations. Fl. Oct.-Jan. 
Maori name Pa-tolara, 


Genus Styphelia, Sm. 


Fig. 107, Epacris pauciflora (7 nat. size.) Shrubs. Leaves rigid, pungent, 

purallel-veined below. Flowers small, 

white or yellowish. Corolla funnel-shaped, or urm-shaped. A genus of the 

Pacific Islands and Australasia, with about 30 species. (Name from the Greek, 
meaning hard or rough, im reference to the leaves). 5 sp. 


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Dracophyllum uniflorum (7 nat. size). 


Fig. 108. 


330 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Styphelia acerosa (The Prickly Styphelia). 


A shrub or small tree, with blackish branches. Leaves about 4 in.-3 in. long, 
acerose, linear. Margins often recurved, with 3-7 parallel veins on the under side, 
Drupe white or red, 4 in.-} in. in diameter. Abundant throughout the islands, 
variable. Fl. Oct.-Nov. Maori name Mingi-mingi. (Cyathodes acerosa of 
Cheeseman.) 

S. robusta is a very distinct and handsome species from the Chathams. 
S. empetrifolia is a sub-alpine species. These shrubs have a slight resemblance 
to young plants of the genus Podocarpus. : 


Genus Dracophyllum. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves long, rigid, grass-like, with sheathing bases, and 
generally crowded to the endsof the branches, which are marked by the ring-scars 
of the fallen leaves. Flowers in racemes or spikes, rarely solitary. Corolla 
tubular or bell-shaped, generally white. Anthers 5, sessile at the mouth of the 
column. Disk of 5 erect scales. (Name signifying dragon-leaved, in allusion to 
the resemblance of the leaves to those of the Dragon-tree of Teneriffe, rv. p. 92). 

A strange genus of Australasian and New Caledonian Epacrids, known to 
Colonists as Grass-trees. 18 sp. 


Dracophyllum latifolium (The Broad-leaved Grass-tree). 

A shrub or tree, from 10ft.-25 ft. high, branches given off in whorls. 
Leaves 10 in.-2ft. long, and from 1in.-2in. broad at the base, tapering into 
drooping points, and forming a head resembling that of the cabbage-tree. From 
the centre of this head rises a large cylindrical panicle of closely packed red 
flowers, from 6 in.-18 in, long. The flowers themselves are minute, about $ in. 
long. Both islands: common in Auckland, but rarer towards the South: in the 
South Island, only in Nelson and Westland. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Maori name 
Nei-nei. 

This singular plant is replaced in the mountainous districts of the South 
Island, by the closely allied Dracophyllum Traversti. 


Dracophyllum longifolium (Lhe Long-leaved Grass-tree). 

A shrub or tree, 3ft.-30ft. high. Leaves 3in.-10in. long, with a large 
sheath at the base, which is suddenly contracted into a narrow blade, 4 in.-3 in. 
broad. The flowers are white, in crowded racemes, 1in.-2in. long. Each flower 
has a large brown bract at its base. North Island, rare, becoming more common 
towards the South. In Campbell Island it forms the chief portion of the woody 
vegetation. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 

Dracophyllum uniflorum (The One-fowered Grass-tree). 

A stout, erect shrub. Leaves } in.-3in. long, ~yin.-4in. broad, pungent. 
Flowers solitary, ¢ in.-4 in. long, almost hidden by the sheathing bracts. An 
alpine species of the South Island. FI. Dec.-Feb. 


THE MYRSINE FAMILY 331 


Other species of Dracophyllum are D. Urvilleanum, some- 
what resembling D. longifoliwm, but much smaller. It. is 
found in both islands. D. rosmarinifolium (The Rosemary- 
leaved Grass-tree) is a small, often prostrate, alpine species of 
the South Island, with obtuse leaves and with the flowers 
solitary or in pairs. D. subulatum is an allied form with 
pungent leaves, found only in the North Island. 


Myrsinaceae. 


THE MyRsINE FaAmIty. 


Distribution.—An unimportant family, chiefly tropical. A few, however, 
reach Cape Colony, New Zealand, and Florida. They are only to be 
distinguished from the primroses by their fruit and habit. They differ from the 
Sapotaceae in not having a chambered ovary. According to Mez,* the family 
contains some 900 species and 32 genera. These plants are, however, of little 
economic value. 

Key to the Genera. 


Petals completely free. Suttonia.t 
Petals more or less united, sometimes only at the base, 
but more often through a third of their length. Rapanea, p. 331. 


tSee, however, Cheeseman’s ‘‘ Flora,” for remarks on this nomenclature. 


Genus Suttonia. 
A large genus of trees and shrubs. Flowers usually fascicled, small. Calyx 
4, rarely 2 or 0. Petals 4, deciduous. Fruit a drupe. (Named in honour of 
Sutton, an English botanist.) 


Suttonia divaricata (The Divaricate Suttonia). 
A straggling bush. Leaves and flowers very small, the former 4 in. long, 
the latter 7; in. in diameter. Drupe round, depressed. Both islands: damp 
bush. Also Lord Auckland’s Group. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Genus Rapanea. 

Sepals small, 4-5; sometimes almost free, sometimes united at the base. 
Petals 4-5, generally papillose on the margin. Stamens inserted on the throat. 
of the corolla, sessile. Fruit spherical, dry or fleshy. Trees or shrubs, with 
entire, rarely toothed leaves. 


*Cockayne, Trans. XXXV. p, 355 


332 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Rapanea salicina (The Willow-leaved Rapanea). 


A small tree, sometimes 40 ft. in height, with narrow, shining leaves, 4 in.- 
6 in. long, produced chiefly at the tips of the branches. Flowers in numerous 
small fascicles on the bare branches, whitish-green, 74 in. broad. Berry red, 
fin.-5 in. long. Both islands. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Maori name, Toro. 

The timber of this tree is of a red colour, and is beautifully veined. It is 
much used by cabinet-makers, but is not sufficiently durable for outside work. 


Fig. 109. Styphelia acerosa (4 nat. size). 


Rapanea Urvillei (D’ Urville’s Rapanea). 


A small tree, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Leaves reddish-brown, with 
waved margins, 1 in.-14 in. long. Flowers small, white, in fascicles on the 
lateral branchlets. Berry § in. long, black. FI. Dec.-Feb. Native name 
Mapau, Mapou, or Matipo. The name Matipo is generally applied by 
Europeans to Pittosporum tenwuifolium, but this is apparently the plant to which 
the Maoris attached the name. It bears some resemblance to Pittosporum 
tenuifoliun, but can be readily distinguished by the reddish colour of the leaves, 
Common in both islands. 


THE PRIMROSE FAMILY 333 


Primulaceae. 


THE PRIMROSE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—This is a family of wide distribution, but chiefly found in 
temperate regions or alpine districts. The species possess no economic value, 
but many are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. The Primrose, the 
Auricula, the Polyanthus, and the Cyclamen are well-known garden plants. The 
little alpine Soldanella is remarkable for its heat-producing powers. This 
delicate little plant generates warmth sufficient to melt the ice above it, so that 
it can raise its blue-fringed bells into the air for the purpose of attracting 
pollinating insects. New Zealand possesses only one representative of the 
Primulaceae, the inconspicuous and unimportant herb Samolus. 


Genus Samolus. 


Herbs, with alternate leaves, and regular flowers. Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla 
5-lobed; stamens 5, alternating with 5 staminodia. Capsule 5-valved. (Accord- 
ing to Pliny, the name is Druidical for a healing marsh plant.) 1 sp. 


Samolus littoralis (The Sea-side Samolus). 


A small creeping herb. Leaves thick, shining, } in.-1 in. long; spathulate, 


often recurved. Flowers } in.-} in. across, white. Both islands: by the sea- 
coast. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 


This little genus is remarkable for its wide geographical 
range, being found in wet, gravelly places almost everywhere. 
It is also interesting, as being the only group in the family 
known to possess staminodia. In all the other genera the 
stamens are antipetalous, i.e., they are situated opposite to 
the petals ; and it has been suggested that possibly this 1s due 
to the suppression at some time of an outer whorl of stamens, 
still present in Samolus as staminodia. S. lttoralis frequently 
carpets the salt meadows, and produces a profusion of white 
flowers, which are in beautiful contrast to the brown-green of 


the leaves. 


384 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Oleaceae. 


THE OLIVE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A family of nearly 400 species, occurring chiefly in tropical 
and warm temperate regions. This family includes two British species, the Ash 
(Fravinus) and the Privet (Ligustrwm), The Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is a well- 
known garden plant. From the Olive (Olea) a valuable oil is obtained. 


Genus Olea. 


Trees or shrubs. Leaves usually opposite, entire, leathery. Flowers 
axillary, inconspicuous, racemed or panicled. Staminate flowers with a 2-4-lobed 
calyx. Petals absent. Stamens 2; anthers large, exserted. Pistillate flowers 
with an unequally 4-lobed calyx. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit a drupe, 1- or 2-celled. 


Olea Cunninghamii (The Maire). 


A large tree, with whitish branches. Young shoots downy. Leaves 3 in.- 
6 in. long., linear-oblong, obtuse, leathery. Flowers greenish-white, 10-15 
together. Raceme 4 in.-? in. long, erect. Drupe 4 in. long. North and east of 
the North Island. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Olea lanceolata. 


Smaller in all its parts than O. Cunninghamti. Bark white. Leaves 2 in.- 
4 in. long, acute, with raised veins. Racemes 6-10-flowered, slightly hairy. 
Flowers minute. Berry crimson, 4 in. long, North Island: bush. Fl. Oct.- 
Dec. 


Loganiaceae. 


Tur Nvux-Vomica FamIny. 


Distribution.—An essentially tropical family, but extending to North 
America, Australia, and New Zealand. Many of the plants contain powerfully 
poisonous principles, notably so the genus Strychnos. Strychnos nux-vomica, 
the poison-nut of the East Indies, yields the poisonous drug strychnine. The 
Upas tree of Java is also well known as containing a deadly poison. 


THE OLIVE FAMILY 335 


Fig. 110. Olea Cunninghamii (4 nat. size), 


336 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Geniostoma. 

Shrubs. Flowers small, axillary. Calyx 5-cleft. | Corolla bell-shaped, 
5-parted. Stamens 5. Fruita capsule. The genus is also found in Madagascar 
and the Bourbon Islands, and in the Asiatic and Polynesian Islands. (Name from 
the Greek, signifving bearded mouth, in allusion to the hairs at the mouth of the 


corolla). 1 sp. 


Geniostoma ligustrifolium (The Privet-leaved Geniostoma). 

Asmall tree, with shining, pale-green leaves. Leaves 14 in.-3in. long, ovate- 
oblong, membranous, pointed. Flowers in short corymbs on the branches, in. 
across, green or white. Corolla lobes reflexed. Stigma large, 2-lobed. Capsule 
round, pointed, }in. in diameter, valves separating from the placentiferous axis. 
North Island: not uncommon. FI. Sept.-Oct. 


Gentianaceae. 


THE GENTIAN ]AMILY. 

Distribution.—The plants of this family range over the entire globe. 
They contain a bitter tonic principle, which is used medicinally. The New 
Zealand species are chiefly alpine, but the little pink Centaury (Erythr@a 
Centatriwn), an introduced plant, is common on waste ground throughout the 
Colony. The Gentians are the most striking flowers of the European Alps. 


Key to the Genera. 


Flowers large, ovary with one style. Gentiana,p. 336. 
Flowers small, ovary with 2 styles. “Sebiea. 
‘Not further described. 


Genus Gentiana. 
Erect herbs, with opposite leaves, and solitary or cymose flowers. — Calyx 
4-5-cleft. Corolla bell-shaped, 4-5-cleft. Flowers blue, yellow, or white, large 
and conspicuous. 6 sp. 


Gentiana saxosa (The Gentian of the Rocks). 
An erect herb. Stem-leaves few. Flowers large, 3 in. long, white, 
numerous. Root-leaves usually in a rosette, 4in.-3in. long, often thick and 
fleshy. Both islands: in mountainous districts. Fl. Feb.-March. 


Gentiana cerina (The Waxy Gentian). 
A trailing herb, with shining leaves, and thick fleshy stems. Flowers 
crowded at the ends of the branches, 4 in. long. Corolla white, striped with 
reddish-purple. Auckland Islands. 


THE NUX-VOMICA FAMILY 337 


Fig. 111. Geniostoma ligustrifolium (4 nat, size). 


338 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


CoLoUR IN GENTIANS. 


The flowers of this genus include some of the brightest 
gems of alpine regions. The corolla differs much in hue in 
different species, but no finer shades of blue are known than 
those of G. verna and G. clusii. They surpass in beauty all 
the blues of lower levels. Ruskin, in his matchless diction, 
writes of the “Star Gentian in its uncontested queenliness, 
wholly without similitude.” The yellow gentian, with its 
spires aflame on the crown of an Alpine pass, stirred 
Matthew Arnold to unwonted admiration. 

Indeed, nearly all the species foreign to New Zealand are 
brilliantly coloured. Of sixteen species found in the Andes 
and Peru, half are red, four purple, two blue, one yellow, and 
one alone white. But, as has already been pointed out 
(v. Clematis, p. 162), flowers which are brightly tinted 
elsewhere, are in New Zealand very frequently pure white. 
When we come to examine the New Zealand species, of which 
there are about ten, we find that they are all, if true to type, 
white. Some, occasionally, however, exhibit shades of red, 
purple, violet, and pale lemon; but the deep blues, yellows, or 
purples, so characteristic of the gentian elsewhere, are here 
unknown. Strangely enough, the most briliant of our species 
is Gentiana cerina of the Auckland Islands. Like so many 
other Auckland Island plants (v. Pleurophyllum), it has 
a depth of hue unknown amongst plants of the same genus on 
the mainland. According to Kirk,* it is one of the most 
beautiful plants in the flora. The corollas vary in colour from 
a pure waxy white, to white with a vertical stripe, purple, 
reddish-purple and violet. It is in other respects, also, an 
extremely variable plant ; and, like most of the gentians, very 
interesting botanically. 


*Trans., Vol. XXVII. p. 330. 


THE GENTIAN FAMILY 339 


Fig. 112. Gentiana corymbifera (life size). 


340 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 
Apocynaceae. 


THE PERIWINKLE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large family of about a thousand species, chiefly tropical, 
of which the Periwinkle (Vinca) is the only British genus. Many of the plants 
possess more or less poisonous properties, though some have edible fruit. The 
Oleander, every part of which is poisonous, is cultivated for the beauty of its 
flowers. 


Genus Parsonsia. 


A small genus (about 10 species) of climbing plants. Leaves remarkably 
variable. Flowers in panicles. Fruit of two, long, narrow, pod-like capsules. 
Seeds silky-haired. (Named in honour of Parsons, a botanist). 2 sp. 


Parsonsia heterophylla (The Varied-leaved Parsonsia). 
Stems as thick as a quill, shining. Leaves leathery, 1in.-2 in. broad, oblong, 
or lanceolate, 3 in.-4in. long, with lobed margins. Flowers white, scented, } in. 
long. Anthers within the corolla. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


Parsonsia capsularis (The Capsulate Parsonsia). 
Stems slender. Leaves usually 2in.-3in. long, narrow. Panicles few- 
flowered. Corolla 7 in. long, white, red, or rarely yellow. Anthers protruding 
beyond the corolla. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


There can be but httle doubt that the New Zealand species 
are insufficiently defined. It is probable that there are still 
one or more undescribed species in the country. The young 
plants, with their long, narrow, leathery, red-brown leaves, 
will not be recognized, unless their development has been 
watched. The beautiful fragrant panicles of white or red 
jessamine-lke flowers are much sought after, by visitors to 
the bush. 


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342 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Convolvulaceae. 


Tor BINDWEED FAMILy. 

Distribution —A large family, chiefly tropical. The large rhizomes. 
frequently contain an acrid, milky juice, sometimes used for medicinal purposes. 
The flowers are usually large and ornamental. The Kumara or Sweet Potato, 
which was introduced into New Zealand in very early times, belongs to this 
family. From the roots of Exogoniunt, jalap is obtained. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Steins leafy, prostrate or twining. 2 


Stems leafless, twining, parasitic. Cuscuta, p. 344. 
2. Corolla plaited. Style 1. 3 

Petals overlapping in bud, Styles 2. Dichondra, p. 344. 
3. Stigmas 2. 4 

Stigma 1-, 2-, or 3-lobed. *Ipomeea. 
4. Ovary imperfectly 2-celled. Bracts large, 

enclosing the calyx. Calystegia, p. 342. 
Ovary 1-celled, bracts sinall or wanting. Convolvulus, p. 342 


*Not further described. 


Genus Convolvulus. 


Perennial herbs, with milky juice, climbing by means of their twining stems. 
Flowers funnel-shaped, white, pink, or rarely blue. Sepals 5; corolla 5-angled. 
Stamens 5. Fruit a capsule. 1 sp. 


Convolvulus erubescens (The Blushing Convolvulus). 


Stems prostrate, 2in.-12in. long, never twining. Leaves variable in shape, 
usually oblong-hastate or cordate. Flowers white. In Australian specimens. 
they are often rose-coloured. Both islands, in dry places. Fl. Noy.-Dec. 


The species of this genus and the next are often widely 
distributed. C. erwbescens is closely alhed to the English C. 
arvensis, and 1s found chiefly on dry hill sides. It is common 
near Sumner (Christchurch). Calystegia sepium is another 
plant, which, though sometimes rose-coloured elsewhere, is 
always white in New Zealand (cf. Wahlenbergia). The 
name erubescens therefore, as applied to our species, 18 not: 
significant. 

Genus Calystegia. 

Closely allied to the previous genus, and sometimes united with it, but. 
distinguished by the characters given in the Key to the Genera. 4 sp. 

Many species are cultivated for their large showy flowers. 
In the bud, the corolla is spirally twisted. The anther lobes, 


THE BINDWEED FAMILY 343 


as in the gentians, separate at the base, and thus assume the 
shape of an arrow head. They produce large pollen grains. 
These, however, are considerably exceeded in size by the 
pollen of the melon and marrow. Insects alighting on the 
long projecting style, smear it with pollen from the flowers 
they have visited, and so cross-pollination is effected. This at 
least is the method probably adopted in most of the species. 
However, C. sepiwm in Europe is chiefly pollinated by a 
particular species of hawk-moth (Sphine convolvuli), and the 
areas of distribution of the plant and moth largely correspond. 
Still, the plant often does not set seed. It would be 
interesting to examine the process of pollination of the New 
Zealand species, and find what insect takes the place of the 
European moth. 


Calystegia sepium (The Bindweed). 

Stem slender, climbing. Leaves 2 in.-4in. long, oblong, deeply lobed at the 
base, lobes rounded or truncate. Bracts enclosing the calyx longer than the 
sepals. Corolla bell-shaped, 2 in.-4 in. broad, white. Both islands, becoming 
less common towards the South. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 

A very handsome plant, which becomes a mischievous weed 
in gardens. It not only sends up thousands of suckers which 
exhaust the soil; but also strangles and smothers with its 
entwining stems and large leaves, any other plant which may 
be near. 

C. septum was known to the Maoris as ‘‘pohwe,’ and the 
roots were used by them for food. This is strange, as those of 
the English plant supposed to belong to the same species, are 
considered purgative. A similar case is that of Solanwm 
nigrum, a cosmopolitan plant, whose leaves are usually 
considered poisonous, and yet were used by the Maoris as 
ereens. As is well known to gardeners, the Convolvulus is 
abundantly provided with roots, hence doubtless the Maori 


proverb given by Colenso :-— 
““ He nui pohue toro ra raro.”’ 
The Convolvulus (roots) are many and spread below. 


“ey The thoughts of man’s mind are many and secret. 


344 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Calystegia Tuguriorum (The Smaller Bindweed). 
Corolla 1in.-2in. across. A very similar plant to the proceeding, but smaller 
in all its parts, and generally not climbing, but sprawling over bushes at the 
edge of the forest and elsewhere. Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


C. Tuguriorum is one of the brightest of way-side flowers. 
It may often be found clambering over clumps of 
Miihlenbeckia ov Rubus, by the roadside. Its large snow- 
white blossoms form one of the chief floral ornaments of the 
later summer. 


Calystegia soldanella (The Soldanella-like Calystegia). 

Stems prostrate, often buried beneath the sand; leaves fleshy, rounded or 
kidney shaped ; flowers solitary, almost as large as in the previous species, pale 
rose-coloured, or red, striped vertically with yellow, or yellowish white. Both 
islands : abundant on sandy beaches. Native name Nihi-nilii. HKuropean name 
Sea-bindweed. F]. Dec.-Feb. 


Genus Dichondra. 


A genus found in Australia, Tasmania, South America, and New Zealand. 
Calyx 5-parted ; corolla 5-lobed. Fruit a capsule. 2 sp. 


Dichondra repens (The Creeping Dichondra). 


A small, prostrate herb, with silky leaves, and small yellow flowers. Calyx 
longer than the corolla. 


Genus Cuscuta. 

Parasitic plants, adhering by suckers to their hosts. Leaves 0. Flowers in 
small clusters or racemes, white, pink or yellow. Stems thread-like, often red in 
colour. Calyx petaloid, 4-5-parted ; corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5.  Cuscuta 
europaea is a most beautiful little plant, with bright red stems, and waxy-white 
clusters of flowers. 

This is a genus of twining leafless parasites, found in all 
parts of the world. Only one New Zealand form is known, 
and it is rare. The clover-dodder (C. trifolit) has, however, 
been introduced from Europe, and is proving a pest in some 
localities. The seeds in this genus develop on damp ground. 
No cotyledons are formed, but the young plant is a spirally 
twisted thread. It germinates late in the year, when there is 
already plenty of vegetation about it. As it grows, the upper 
end of the plant keeps on revolving from right to left, while the 


THE BINDWEED FAMILY 345 


lower end fastens itself to the soil. As the seedling contains 
hittle or no chlorophyll, and does not produce cotyledons, it 
obviously must cease to grow as soon as the reserve material 
contained in the seed is exhausted, unless it has by this time 
come in contact with some other plant, from which it can 
obtain nourishment. If, within four or five days after 
germination, 1t does not meet with some support, the filament 
falls to the ground, but may retain its vitality there for 
several weeks, “ waiting for something to turn up.” Extra- 
ordinary as it may appear, the dodder seems to be quite 
unable to put out suckers or rootlets of any kind to obtain 
nourishment from the damp earth. Should, however, it touch 
a living plant in the course of its gyrations, it makes two or 
three coils round it. It is apparently able to distinguish 
between a dead and a living support. Wherever a coil 
touches its prop, a row of small protuberant suckers appears, 
which forces itself into the tissues of the host, and extracts 
nutriment from it. When this attachment is made, the 
portion of the plant below the lowest series of suckers, dies. 
It has now severed its connection with the ground. If it has 
the good fortune to find a host with juicy tissues, it quickly 
puts forth a net-work of intertwining threads and tendrils, 
that justify the name of ‘‘Hell-bind,” sometimes given to it. 
The development of Cassytha p. 177 is very similar to that of 


Cuscuta. 


Cuscuta densiflora (The Dense-flowered Cuscuta). 
A small plant, with matted, thread-like stems, and crowded racemes of 
flowers, }in. long. It is found only in the South Island, and much resembles 
the Brazilian C. racemosa. Port Underwood, South Island. 


346 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Boraginaceae. 


THE BoraGE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large family, found chiefly in temperate regions. It is 
represented in New Zealand by three genera only. The rough, bristly leaves 
were considered by Linneus to be so characteristic of the family, as to allow of 
his giving to it the name of Asperifolia or Rough-leaved Plants. The economic uses 
of the family are unimportant, but the flowers of many of the species are of a 
most beautiful blue colour. Myosotis palustris, the Water Forget-me-not, is one 
of the best known plants of the order. 

Key to the Genera. 
Nuts large. Myosotidium, p. 347. 
Nuts minute. Myosotis, p.346. 
‘ ‘ : 
Genus Myosotis. 


About 30 species in all. Herbs, annual or perennial. Root-leaves stalked ; 
stem-leaves sessile. Flowers in racemes. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-lobed; mouth 
partly closed by 5 small scales. Nuts shining. 4 sp. 


The genus Ewarrhena, formerly considered distinct, 1s now 
included in Myosotis. The forget-me-nots of New Zealand 
are little hkely to give rise to such a wealth of romance and 
poetry, as that which clusters about the European species. 
Myosotis capitata, best known from the Auckland Islands, is 
the only one of a deep blue colour, and even a white form of it 
is known. WM. australis and M. uniflora have, strange to say, 
yellow flowers. Those of M. macrantha ave purple or white. 
The flowers of the remaining species are generally insignificant 
and without any depth of colouring. 


Myosotis spathulata (The Spathulate-leaved Myosotis). 


A weak, prostrate herb. Leaves }in. long, slightly rough. Flowers fin. 
across, solitary, white, with a yellow eye. Both islands: in stony places. 


Myosotis capitata (The Capitate Myosotis). 

A robust plant, 6 in.-18 in. high. Leaves softly hairy, with broad petioles. 
Flowers in dense racemes, blue or purple, } in. long. South Island: Otago. 
Auckland Islands. The specific name hag reference to the fact that the 
flowers are crowded together, so as almost to form heads like those of the 
Composites, 


THE BORAGE FAMILY 347 


Genus Myosotidium. 
Large fleshy herbs, 1 ft.-3 ft. in height. Leaves large, ovate, parallel-veined. 
Flowers regular, in dense 1-sided racemes. Calyx 5-lobed ; corolla 5-lobed ; 
throat closed with 5 swellings. Stamens5. Fruit large, 4-angled, winged. 1 sp. 


Myosotidium nobile (The Chatham Island Lily). 

Leaves thick and shining, bright green. Flowers in a dense head, 2in.-5 in. 
across. Corolla in.-3 in. broad, azure blue, with purple eye. Fruit the size of 
a hazel nut. Chatham Islands only. 

It is remarkable how many of our large-leaved plants are 
to be found only on the off-islands. Amongst such may be 
mentioned Meryta Sinclairii of the Northern Islands, 
Stilbocarpa polaris, Ligusticum latifolium, Pleurophyllum 
speciosum of the Southern Islands, and Myosotidium of 
the Chatham Islands. Other species, with leaves of more 
than average dimensions found chiefly in the Southern 
Islands, are Olearia Lyallw and Stilbocarpa Lyallit. 

Myosotidiwm is one of the noblest species in the flora, but is 
fast becoming extinct in its original home. It soon disappears 
wherever stock are running, and is now scarcely to be found 
anywhere, except at the foot of chffs, and in similar inac- 
cessible positions. At one time it was mistakenly supposed 
to be found upon the Snares, as well; but it is probable that 
Stilbocarpa Lyallit seen from a distance, was mistaken for it. 

As most of these large-leaved forms have probably at some 
time been more widely distributed (v. Stilbocarpa polaris, p.301) 
it would seem that on the New Zealand mainland, such 
plants are in some way at a disadvantage in the struggle for 
existence. There are no herbaceous plants in the North or 
South Island, amongst the dicotyledons, with leaves as large 
and handsome as those of Myosotidiwm. Amongst the most 
conspicuously large-leaved forms are Colensoa, Ranunculus 
Lyallit, and allied species of buttercup. There are, however, 
two or three shrubs or small trees in the North Island, 
(Brachyglottis rangiora, and Pisonia Brunoniana), and one in 
the South, (Senecio Hectort), with leaves that reach a foot or 


348 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


more in length. The whau (Hntelea arborescens), also has 
leaves of more than usual size. Of these species Brachyglottis 1s 
the only one that iscommon. Entelea is becoming rarer every 
year, and Pisonia is local in its distribution, being confined to 
Auckland Province. Obviously then, the large flaccid leaves, 
characteristic of the Tropics, are not suitable for our colder 
climate, though they seem to have been more common in New 
Zealand once, than they are now. 

Myosotidium, indeed, would still flourish in the Chatham 
Islands, were it not for the interference of man. Unfortunately, 
it is more exposed to the attacks of enemies than most 
members of the family. It differs, in the lack of barbed 
bristles on the nuts, from the allied genus Cynoglossum, and 
from most Boraginaceae, in the absence of the coarse hairs, 
which is their marked characteristic. It has been suggested 
that the lack of bristles and hairs is due to the fact that 
Myosotidiwm has been evolved in the Chatham Islands, where 
it has not required such protection ; but it is perhaps just as 
reasonable to suppose that Myosotidiwm may have existed 
elsewhere, and that it has been exterminated in other districts 
owing to its lack of protection, or, more probably, to the 
unsuitability of its huge leaves for its habitat. 

The plant is much cultivated in gardens in New Zealand, 
and is then known as the Chatham Island Lily. A much 
better name would be the Giant Forget-me-not. The great, 
dark-green, glossy leaves form a striking contrast to the 
masses of deep-blue flowers. It may be noted that blue 
flowers are extremely rare in the New Zealand flora. Indeed, 
the brightest blues are to be found in the flowers of the 
outlying islands. No Veronica of the mainland has such a 
depth of colour as Veronica Bentham of the Auckland Islands. 
There is no such blue to be found amongst the native flowers 
of either the North or South Island. Solanwm aviculare is 
violet to magenta, and Wahlenbergia is sometimes pale-blue. 
The flowers of Colensoa and Lobelia are also more or less 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 349 


distinctly blue, but the intense azure of the alpine gentian, or 
the borage, is entirely absent from the mainland flora. 

Little is known of the significance of blue in the floral 
world. Kerner considered that the indigos of the order 
Boraginaceae may, in many cases, be due to the fact that the 
plants live amongst faded yellow-grasses, with which blue 
provides an excellent contrast. New Zealand, however, does 
not furnish further evidence for this theory, for in accordance 
with it, one would expect to find blue a common colour in the 
tussock country ; but this is not the case. Herman Mueller 
considered that bees preferred a deep violet-blue to any other 
colour, and claimed that it was the latest colour evolved. The 
presence of blues like those of Myosotidiwm and Veronica 
Benthami in the outlying islands, and their absence in New 
Zealand, does not appear to support his claim. 


Verbenaceae. 


THE VERBENA FAMILY. 


Herbs, shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, rarely alternate, without stipules. 
Flowers regular, or irregular. Calyx 4-5-parted, corolla 4-5-lobed, often 2-lipped. 
Stamens usually 4 or 5, often in pairs. Ovary 2-4-celled; cells 1-2-ovuled. 
Fruit a drupe ; or separating into 4 1-seeded nutlets. 


Distribution.—The Vebenaceae are found chiefly in tropical or sub-tropical 
regions. They possess no important properties, though some are slightly 
aromatic. The Verbenas of our gardens are American in their origin. The 
Lemon Plant is a South American species. Vitex littoralis, the New Zealand 
Puriri, and Tectona grandis, the East Indian Teak, furnish timber of a very 
durable character. 


350 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Key to the Genera. 


wo 


1. Corolla 2-lipped. 


Corolla regular. 3 
2. Trees. Leaves 3-5 foliolate. Flowers pink or 
red. Vitex, p. 350. 
Shrubs. Leaves simple. Flowers white. Teucridium, p. 350. 
3. Maritime trees. Leaves opposite. Flowers 
yellow-brown. Avicennia, p. 351. 
Leaves alternate, pellucid-dotted. Flowers 
white, lilac-spotted. Myoporum, p. 362. 


Genus Vitex. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves 3-5-foliolate. Flowers in axillary, or terminal and 
paniculate cymes. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed, corolla 2-lipped. Stamens 4. 
Drupe 4-celled. 1 sp. 


Vitex lucens (The Purirt). 


A fine tree, from 5O0ft. to 60ft. in height, often called the New 
Zealand Oak, on account of the strength and durability of its 
timber. It is not injured by damp or exposure, and is 
therefore extremely valuable for ship-building purposes. The 
logs are often perforated with large holes, but these do not 
affect the timber, except in so far as it has sometimes to be 
cut to disadvantage. These holes are made by a soft-bodied 
grub, which develops into the puriri moth. The leaves of the 
puriri are handsome, being of a bright, glossy green, the 
leaflets 38in.-4in. long. The flowers are in axillary panicles, 
4-8 together, pink or red, irregular in shape, and with exserted 
stamens. The roots of the puriri never penetrate deeply into 
the ground, but he near the surface, so that the tree is easily 
blown over in a gale of wind. It is endemic in New Zealand, 
and is restricted to the northern part of the North Island. It 
is easily cultivated, and flowers more or less all the year 
round. 


Genus Teucridium. 


Shrubs, stem 4-angled, slender. Leaves opposite, entire. Flowers solitary, 
axillary. Corolla 2-lipped ; stamens exserted. Ovary 4-lobed, 2-celled. Fruit a 
small, rough, 4-lobed nut, consisting of 4 1-seeded achenes. (Name in allusion 
to its resemblance to Tewcriwm, the Wood-sage or Germander). 1 sp. 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 351 


Teucridium parvifolium (The Smail-leaved Teucridium). 

A shrub, 2ft.-5ff. in height, forming close thickets; branches and leaves 
slightly hairy. Leaves roundish or oval, fin. long. Calyx bell-shaped, with 5 
sharp teeth. Corolla hairy, bell-shaped, gin.-4in. long. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


Fig. 114. Vitex lucens (3 nat. size). 


Genus Avicennia. 
Maritime trees, with branching roots. Leaves opposite, entire, hoary. 
Flowers in capitate panicles, sessile, surrounded by bracts. Calyx 4-5-parted 
Corolla leathery, small, 4-5-lobed. Stamens 4, short. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit an 


352 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


oval nut, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Sced a large embryo, cotyledons very broad and 
thick. (Name in memory of a celebrated Oriental physici 


Avicennia officinalis (The Mangrove). 

A tree, with spreading branches, growing in salt creeks and_ estuaries. 
Leaves 2in.-3in. long, oblong, obtuse, leathery. Flower-panicles yellowish- 
brown, corolla ¢ in. long. North Island: as far south as Thames River. Fl. 
May-June. Maori name, Manawa. (Forster originally named this plant 4. 
resinifera, from the belicf that the gum chewed by the natives came from this 
source. This gum was perhaps kauri-gum. Lindley, in his “ Vegetable 
Kingdom,’’ when speaking of the Mangrove, improves upon Forster’s statement 
thus: ‘‘It exudes a kind of green aromatic resin, which furnishes a miserable 
food to the barbarous natives of New Zealand.’’ The source of the error may be 
traced to Crozet’s ‘‘ Voyage to Tasmania ’’ ; v. Ling-Roth’s Translation p. 36). 

This is the mangrove of the Auckland Coast. It is to be 

to) 

found on all tidal flats north of Kawhia on the West, and of 
Tauranga on the Kast Coast. The species, however, 1s not 
endemic, but occurs also in Austraha, throughout Melanesia 
and Malaysia to India, and sporadically as far North as Mount 
Sinai in the Red Sea. It is replaced by another species of the 
same genus elsewhere in the tropical world. Mangroves have 
been generally regarded as the pariahs of the forest, and 
A. officinalis has not escaped the usual condemnation. Thus, 
the following impassioned but somewhat inaccurate description 
of it occurs in one of the earliest of New Zealand novels :— 

“Oh! those mangroves. I never saw one that looked as if 
it possessed a decent conscience. Growing always in shallow 
stagnant water, filthy black mud, or rank grass, gnarled, 
twisted, stunted, and half bare of follage, they seem like 
crowds of withered, trodden down old criminals, condemned 
to the punishment of everlasting life. I can’t help it if this 
seems fanciful. Anyone who has seen a mangrove swamp will 
know what I mean.” 

Doubtless, however, much of the evil reputation of the 
mangrove forest, 1s due to the fact that, to its presence, has 
long been erroneously attributed the prevalence of malaria in 
tropical river estuaries. Miasmatic vapours were supposed to 
arise from the pestilential mangrove swamps, and spread their 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 3538 


fe 
Zz 


Fig. 115. Avicennia officinalis. The Flower (life size). 


354 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


contagion around. Science had not then burdened the muis- 
guided mosquito with sins of transmission, as well as of 
comission. Fortunately, New Zealand does not possess the 
malaria carrying mosquito (Anopheles), and so her mangrove 
forests, in spite of their foul appearance, are no more dangerous 
to human life than any other part of the country. Indeed, at 
high tide, a mangrove swamp is often a pleasant place to punt 
in, for then the somewhat sickly odour of the mud, is replaced 
by the fresh smell of the sea. 

Nor is the New Zealand mangrove so ugly, as those of more 
tropical regions. The gruesome conception of the mangrove 
forest existing in the minds of most people, is doubtless derived 
largely from the well known word picture of Kingsley’s ‘‘ West- 
ward Ho.” The passage begins: “ The night mist began to 
steam, and wreath upon the foul beer-coloured stream,” etc. 
Then follows a description of the hoarse night raven; the 
loathly alhgators lounging in the slime; the sad-coloured 
mmangrove-hens wailing sadly; and the great purple crabs 
crawling over the snake-like roots. Of these hideous accessories, 
only the mangrove-hen (the weka), and the crabs, are to be 
found in New Zealand. 


LIFE IN THE ManGrRove Swamp. 


The twisted and gnarled stems and roots give to the tree an 
unwarranted appearance of age, so that even the youngest 
mangrove looks old. Barnacles and oysters fix themselves 
upon the roots which are uncovered by the withdrawal of the 
tide ; eels wriggle in and out of their holes, and the mass of 
fibrous rootlets which forms a mat beneath the mud, provides 
dwelling places for innumerable blue and red crabs. These 
are sought after, not only by the sober-hued wekas, but also 
by the beautiful kingfishers. A dark-coloured fish, with curious 
flexible dental plates, may frequently be seen swimming over 
the flats at low tide, so that there is no lack of life in the 
swamp. 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 3 


THE Roots oF THE MANGROVE. 
A tree which grows in salt water must, of necessity, have roots 
differing much from those of a tree growing on land, and the 
root structure of Avicennia, as of all mangroves, is replete 


Fig, 116. Mangrove trees, showing aerial roots. 


with points of interest. Botanically speaking, the root is the 
result of the development of the rootlet of the embryo, and it 
would seem an easy matter, therefore, to distinguish between 
root and stem. In many cases it 1s so, but there are some 
plants in which the root simulates a stem (v. Metrosideros 


356 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


robusta, p. 282), and many in which the root produces shoots. 
As a result, it is very often difficult to determine whether a 
plant structure is a root or stem. Ordinarily, the stem 
produces shoots bearing leaves, grows upwards, and, especially 
in herbaceous plants, contains green colouring matter 
(chlorophyll). On the other hand, the root does not usually 
produce shoots, does not contain chlorophyll, and grows 
downwards. These distinctions suffice in most cases, but not 
inall. Thus, the tuber of the potato is a stem which grows 
underground, and its shoots are under ordinary circumstances 
reduced to buds (‘eyes’). Many plants have creeping 
underground stems (rhizomes) ¢.g., Solomon’s Seal. On the 
other hand, some roots are aerial (v. Dendrobiwm, p. 124), or 
produce shoots, e.g., suckers of the white poplar, plums, etc. 
There is only one point which can be certainly relied upon to 
distinguish a root froma stem. <A root never directly produces 
leaves. A stem does. 

Now, the roots of the Rhizophora, a tropical mangrove, are 
not derived from the rootlet of the embryo, but from the stem 
of the plant—so, on account of their mode of origin, they are 
termed adventitious roots. 2.e., roots not formed in the natural 
manner. They are obviously used to stay the plant, and give 
it foothold in the soft mud. <Avicennia has few of these 
supports, but makes use of its roots in a way that is almost 
unique. Kirk (Forest Flora, p. 272) tells us that, “ At low 
water their naked trunks are exposed, and the mud is seen to 
be thickly studded with erect shoots from 1 ft. to 3 ft. high, 
given off from the tangled roots.” He has here fallen into 
error. The structures described are not shoots, but upward 
growing roots containing chlorophyll, and are not more than a 
foot m height. They never produce leaves, and only very 
rarely fork or branch. They must therefore be regarded as 
roots which have lost their most characteristic reaction, and 
which grow upwards instead of downwards. As they contain 
chlorophyll, it 1s probable that they assist in the work of 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 357 


Fig. 117. Mangrove roots. 


358 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


nourishment. But they have a more remarkable function 
than this. If they are closely examined, they will be found to 
be studded with pores, similar to the lenticels found in the 
branches of many trees. These pores are for the purpose of 
allowing air to enter and leave the internal tissues of the 
plant. The mangrove, growing in the tidal mud, where little 
or no oxygen can get to the roots directly, turns the tips of 
its roots into the air, and by this ingenious means obtains its 
necessary supply of oxygen. Nor is this the only adaptation 
of the root to its altered environment. Most rootlets are 
provided with a small shield at the tip, technically known as 
the ‘“‘root-cap.”’ This protects the tender, growing point as it 
forces its way between the particles of the soil. Such protec- 
tion would be superfluous in plants rooting in water,—in the 
mangrove, and in many marsh-growing plants, it 1s wanting. 
But the grey-green, asparagus-like pegs which arise from 
the thickly interlaced network of fibres, also serve another 
purpose. One cannot but notice the similarity in their 
appearance and arrangement, to the breakwaters formed of 
single posts, which may be seen in many English seaports. 
They run sometimes in straight lines, sometimes in curves, 
and sometimes in vandykes. Usually, they are from two to 
four inches apart, but in some places the mud is so thickly 
studded with them, that it would be scarcely possible to slip a 
pencil between. When the tide is coming in, or when a flood 
comes down the creek, these vertical pegs greatly break the 
force of the water. They are exceedingly elastic, and spring 
back at once into an upright position if a heavy weight is 
placed upon them and then removed. Not content with 
keeping back the flood, they gather in their myriad rootlets, as 
in a sponge, all the silt and sediment that is brought down by 
the rivers. The thick mud settles and cakes among the root 
fibres, while the pegs hold back any sticks, straws, or rubbish 
afloat in the water. The fibrous matting between the pegs is 
rarely laid bare, save after a heavy flood, and spreads widely, 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 359 


Fig. 118. Seeds of Avicennia officinalis. 


360 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


forming a huge disk that prevents the mangrove from being 
upset. The tree is further propped up by a number of stilt 
roots. These, however, are not so large or so long as in the 
typical mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) of the tropics. 

The trees, thus buttressed, stayed, and fixed by their varied 
roots, stand firm in the highest tide and the strongest flood, 
and gather about them material for a rich soil, which 
eradually becomes suitable for cultivation. Then they step 
farther out into the water and begin their work again. So far 
as can be roughly estimated, the mud-flats are thus raised by 
the action of the mangroves, on an average, a little over an 
inch each year. This rate of speed is probably only that of the 
present time, as it must have been much slower in past years, 
before the bush was so extensively cut. Since the clearing of 
the land, ships have become much more frequent, and hence 
the rate of deposition is now faster than before. 


THE GERMINATION OF AVICENNIA. 


It is obvious that, if the seed of the mangrove fell 
undeveloped into the mud below the tree, it would be liable to 
be carried off by the rising tide. To avoid this fate, the 
embryo in many mangroves passes through no resting stage, 
but continues to grow until its weight breaks it away from 
the seed-case and from the tree. Thus the young plant of 
Rhizophora mucronata sometimes attains the length of two 
feet, before it falls from the parent tree. It then drops 
vertically downwards, and its weight and club-shaped form 
cause it to penetrate for some distance into the mud, where it 
remains standing in an upright position. According to 
Schimper, within the short space of a few hours, it produces 
roots which fix it firmly in position. Medieval travellers, not 
content with this marvellous series of adjustments to environ- 
ment, spoiled the story by stating that the mangrove trees 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 361 


gave birth to barnacle-geese, which dropped from the seeds 
placidly into the water below them—a truly appalling meta- 
morphosis ! 

With all their ingenious contrivances, the young Rhizophoras, 
however, may sometimes be found cast up in the drift left by 
the falling tide on the shore. In Avicennia the embryo is 
provided with two large fleshy cotyledons, which present the 
extraordinary and almost unique feature of being unaccom- 
panied by any trace of a rootlet. 

Although well developed, it does not fall from the husk 
before it leaves the tree. The whole seed drops to the mud. 
There it splits and allows the embryo to escape. The plantlet, 
as in Cuscuta (v. p. 345), shows wonderful vitality. As the 
cotyledons possess a large food supply, the embryo may 
remain drifting with the tide for weeks without a holdfast, 
and yet survive. Generally, however, it quickly attaches 
itself to the mud by putting forth four or five adventitious 
rootlets, which are so arranged as to give the maximum 
support possible. They are stout, stiff, and divergent, and 
penetrate the mud at an angle of 50° or 60° with the 
surface. 

The descriptions given of the germination of the mangrove 
in Dendy and Lucas’s Botany, Kirk’s Forest Flora, and other 
standard works, are quite erroneous. Kirk’s description, also, 
contains various other errors, in addition to those already 
pointed out. He states that the tree only attains its greatest 
luxuriance in deep water. On the contrary, the tree never 
grows in deep water, and its luxuriance depends largely on 
the depth of the mud in its vicinity. The wood is described 
as being white, straight in the grain and perishable, whereas 
it is brown and durable, with the tissues arranged in layers 
which cross each other diagonally, thus making it difficult 
or impossible to split, except on the round. 

Much work has yet to be done on the development and 
germination of the embryo in A vicennza. 


362 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Myoporum. 

Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, entire or serrate, pellucid-dotted. 
Flowers axillary, solitary or in fascicles. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-lobed, 
stamens 4. Ovary 2-5-celled; cells 1-, rarely 2-seeded. A genus found chiefly in 
Australia and the Pacific Islands. (Name from the Greek, in reference to the 
leaf glands). 1 sp. 


Fig. 119. Ngaio tree on the sea-beach. 


Myoporum leetum (The Nyaio). 

A small tree, 10 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 2 in.-4 in. long, lanceolate, acute, 
partially serrate, bright-green, shining. Flowers 2-6 together. Corolla 4 in.-3 in. 
broad, white, spotted with lilac. Drupe jin. long. Both islands : usually 
near the sea-shore. Fl. Oct.-Dec. 

The Ngaio tree is well known throughout the islands. 
Though not restricted to the sea-coast, it is seldom found 
far inland. At times it may be met with growing almost 
within high-water mark. When young, it is a_ beautiful, 


THE VERBENA FAMILY 


ee 


Fig. 120. Myoporum letum (life size). 


364 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


shapely bush ; but, as it grows older, the lower branches get 
broken off, and the tree becomes gnarled and distorted. The 
black buds are protected by a gummy secretion. The leaves 
are full of translucent oil-glands, which give them a highly 
characteristic appearance. These glands, though most con- 
spicuous in the leaf, are found in other parts of the plant, and 
indeed similar secreting spaces are found throughout the order. 
Their function is apparently unknown. As the upper epidermis 
is often lens-shaped over the glands, it is possible that they 
may in some way or other be related to the light reaction of 
the leaf. 

According to Colenso, a decoction, made from the leaves of 
Myoporum, was used by the Maoris to protect the face and 
hands from the bites of sand-flies and mosquitoes. 


Labiateae. 


THE THyME Famity. 


Distribution.—A very large family, chiefly found in temperate regions. The 
species are often aromatic, the leaves containing volatile fragrant oils. These leaves 
are much used for flavourings, or as ingredients in perfumes. Some of the species 
are medicinal. The Lavender, Mint, Rosemary, Sage, Patchouli, Marjoram, 
Penny-royal, Thyme, Basil, and Horehound, all belong to this family. Some 
exotic species of Salvia are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. The family 
is represented in New Zealand by two unimportant genera. 


Key to the Genera. 
Calyx almost equal. Stamens equal. Mentha, p. 364. 
Calyx 2-lipped. Stamens in pairs. tScutellaria. 
tNot further described. 


Genus Mentha. 


Perennial, strongly aromatic herbs. Flowers in whorled cymes, often form- 
ing dense heads. Calyx 5-toothed ; corolla 5-lobed or 2-lipped. Stamens, 4. 
Nuts smooth, dry. Several British species have been introduced into New 
Zealand. (Name from the Greek). 1 sp. 


THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY 36 


Mentha Cunninghamii (Crunningham’s Mint). 


Stems often matted, hairy. Leaves 


A slender, prostrate, fragrant herb. 
r 1j * j } 
$ .-g in. long, rounded or oblong, obtuse, pellucid-dotted. Flowers axillary, 
Calyx 7p in.-d in. long. Both islands: dry places. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 


solitary. i 


Fig. 121. Solanum aviculare (4 nat. size). 


Solanaceae. 


Tur NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 


Distribution. — A large family, chiefly tropical. A few of the species 
furnish edible fruits or tubers, but the greater number are narcotic and poisonous. 
The most important of all the species is Solanwiu tuberoswmn, the Potato. This 
plant contains a small quantity of the narcotic principle solanine, which, 
however, is destroyed by cooking. The Tomato, the Egg-plant, the Capsicum, 
the Cape Gooseberry, and the Winter-cherry, are all members of this family. 
Datura, Nicotiana, and Petunia are cultivated for their flowers. The Henbane 


(Hyoscyamus niger), the Mandrake (Mandragora officinalis), and the Deadly 


366 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Nightshade (Atropa belladonna), possess strongly narcotic and poisonous pro- 
perties. The last-named plant furnishes the valuable drug atropine. Solanwin 
is the only genus found in New Zealand. 


Genus Solanum. 


Herbs, shrubs or small trees. Flowers regular, blue, purple, or white. 
Calyx and corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5. Anthers usually exserted, forming a 
cone in the centre of the flower. Berry round or oblong, 2-celled, many seeded. 
(Latin name for the night-shade, found in Pliny). 3 sp. 


Solanum aviculare (Zhe Poro-poro). 

A branched leafy shrub. Leaves 4 in.-10 in. long, oblong or lanceolate, entire, 
or lobed, or pinnatifid, membranous, shining. Flowers cymose, 3-10 together, 
usually dark-purple. Anthers spreading. Berry oval; edible. Both islands, 
Norfolk Island, Tasmania. Fl. Dec.-March. The plant is often called by the 
settlers, the Bulli-bull (v. Aceena, p. 202). 


Solanum nigrum (The Black Nightshade). 
A common weed. Stems, 1ft.-3 ft. high. Leaves lin.-4in. long, ovate, 
rarely lobed. Flowers fin.-}in. across, in umbels, white. Berry fin.-}in. in 
diameter, black or red. Both islands. Fl. all summer. 


Scrophulariaceae. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large and widely-distributed family. It is well repre- 
sented in New Zealand by about 100 species. A few of the species are partially 
parasitic ; some produce deadly poisons, and many are cultivated for the beauty 
of their flowers. The Veronica, Fox-glove, Snap-dragon, Mullein, and Calceolaria 
are well-known garden plants. The powerful drug digitalin is prepared from the 
Fox-glove. The leaves of Scrophularia nodosa, Verbascum Thapsus, and Veronica. 
officinalis have also been used medicinally. 


The corolla in this order is two-lipped, but the lips are 
closed, not open, as in the Labiatae. The flowers of the 
snap-dragon (Antirrhinwm), monkey musk (Métmulus), and 
Calceolaria, are typical of this order, while those of the 
Veronica are less so. From their structure, it 1s obvious that 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 367 


most of them are insect-pollinated. The monkey-musk is 
especially interesting, as it shows very marked stigmatic 
movements. When an insect pushes its way into the 
flower, its head comes into contact with the style, which 
terminates in two flaps, between which lie the stigmatic 
surfaces. They immediately close, and thus protect the 
stigma from receiving pollen from its own stamens, as the 
insect withdraws from the flower. If they have not been 
pollinated, the lps of the stigma re-open in about five 
minutes, and remain open until again stimulated, but 
as soon as the influence of the pollen is felt, they remain 
permanently closed. Other members of the order show 
similar movements. 

Calceolaria Sinclairti is a beautiful plant found growing 
beside streams, from Hawke’s Bay to Hast Cape. It produces 
erect panicles, a foot in length, of white flowers, spotted with 
purple. The pretty little Mazus radicans is not uncommon in 
boggy places, in both islands. The upper lip is purple and 
bi-lobed ; the lower is tri-lobed with a “‘ wide band formed of 
three rows of brownish-yellow hairs leading down to the 
honey cavity.” This of course is a guide-line for insects 
entering the flowers. The style is found immediately under 
the upper lip, and bears at its apex a pair of stigmatic plates. 
These are sensitive, as in the monkey-musk, and close rapidly 
on being irritated. The flowers are very fragrant. The most 
important genus in New Zealand is Veronica, which ig more 
fully described below. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. The teeth of the upper lip cover the lateral teeth in the bud. 2 

The teeth of the upper lip covered in the bud by one or both 
of the lateral teeth. 7 

2. Fertile stamens, 2. 3 
Fertile stamens, 4. 4 

3. Corolla inflated. Stigma with more or less rounded head, Calceolaria, p. 368, 
Corolla not inflated. Stigma of 2 blades. 1Gratiola. 

4. Stigma of 2 blades. 5 
Corolla minute, stigma not divided. 6 

5. Corolla swollen at the throat. t{Mimulus. 
Corolla not swollen at the throat. Mazus, p. 368, 


t+Not further described. 


368 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


6. Stigma flattened, large. Glossostigma, p. 368. 
Stigma club-shaped. tLimosella. 

7. Stamens, 2. Veronica, p. 369. 
Stamens, 4. 8 

8. Stigma with a rounded head. Ourisia, p. 384. 
Stigma dilated. Eupbrasia, p. 386. 


‘Not further described. 


Genus Calceolaria. 


Soft-leaved herbs. Flowers in short racemes. Calyx 4-cleft; corolla 2- 
lipped. In the American species, the lower lip only is inflated, but in the New 
Zealand species both lips are swollen. Capsule 2-valved. A large South 
American genus. (Name from the Latin for a slipper). 2 sp. 


Calceolaria Sinclairii (Sinclair’s Calceolaria). 


An erect, slender herb, with coarsely-toothed leaves, and branched panicles 
of small white flowers, spotted with purple. Corolla } in. across. Capsule 4 in. 
long. North Island: East Cape, Hawke’s Bay. Fl. Dec.-Feb. A charming 
plant, well worthy of frequent cultivation. 


Genus Magzus. 


Herbs. Flowers usually racemose, terminal. Calyx campanulate. Corolla 
2-lipped, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. Stamens 4. Capsule 2-valved. 
(Name from the Greek signifying a breast, erroneously given in allusion to the 
supposed swollen corolla). 2 sp. 


Mazus pumilio (The Dwarf Mazus). 


Scape 1-6-flowered. Leaves fascicled. Corolla blue, }in.-}in. across. 
Both islands, as far south as Canterbury. 


Genus Glossostigma. 


Tufted, prostrate herbs. Leaves spathulate. Flowers solitary. Calyx 
3-5-lobed. Corolla 2-lipped, 5-lobed. Stamens 2-4. Stigma large, dilated. 
Capsule 2-valved. (Name from the Greek in allusion to the tongwe-shaped 
stigma). 2 sp. 


Glossostigma elatinoides (The Elatine-like Glossostiqma). 

A minute plant, 1 in.-2 in. long. Stems rooting at the nodes. Leaves $ in.- 
4 in. long, entire. Flowers 4 in. long. Stamens 4. Both islands: damp 
places. 

This is an interesting, moss-like, swamp-plant, differing 
from a Mimulus in the minute corolla, and in the large 
tongue-shaped stigma. As in Mimulus, the stigma is 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 369 


sensitive, but its movements are quite different from those of 
the two-armed style of the latter plant. The method of 
pollination of the Glossostigma, which is remarkably 
interesting, has been described by Mr. Cheeseman.” 


Genus Veronica. 


A genus of about 200 species. Herbs or shrubs, rarely trees, with opposite 
leaves. Flowers in axillary racemes, usually blue, purple, or white. Sepals 4-5; 
corolla 4- (rarely 5-) lobed. Stamens 2. Capsule 2-celled. (The name is Greek, 
signifying the sacred picture. A European species is said to bear upon its petals 
a representation of Christ). Maori name Koromiko. 84 sp. 

Distribution.—A large European and Asiatic genus, which reaches its 
highest development in New Zealand, where there are more than 80 species 
already recorded, while doubtless others still remain undiscovered. Since the 
publication of Hooker’s Flora, the two independent genera, Pygmaa and Logania, 
have been amalgamated with it, and this has helped somewhat to swell the list of 
species, until now it outnumbers that of any other native genus. Nowhere else 
do the Veronicas constitute such a large and prominent portion of the flora. 
Many of them are handsome shrubs, and nearly all of them have somewhat 
conspicuous flowers. They may be found almost anywhere from the sea-coast up 
to Alpine heights, except on dry open flats, like the Canterbury Plains, where 
little grows but the tussock grass. They may well therefore be considered one of 
the most representative genera of the Flora. 


VARIATION IN VERONICA. 


As might be expected, in no other local genus, are the 
species so dittcult of discrimination. They show such an 
extreme variability, that it is possible to describe only the 
chief forms. From a piece of ground a few yards square, may 
sometimes be taken a dozen specimens, all showing differences 
of shape and structure, that in another genus would entitle 
them to varietal, or even to specific rank. To increase the 
ditticulties of the systematist, many of the species,—particularly 
those belonging to the whipcord section,—alter largely under 
cultivation and change of environment. Most large genera 
show variability, but this one to such an excessive extent, that 
it compels one to doubt the possibility of defining the species 


*Trans. X. p. 355. 
25 


370 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


by morphological characters alone. Each variety will require 
to be grown from carefully selected seed, and its whole life 
history known, before its claim to distinctiveness can be 
properly determined. Until this has been done, no satisfactory 
list of species can be prepared. 

An enquiry into the causes of this Protean fickleness of 
form would lead us too far afield. No biological problems 
however, are more fascinating, or more important, than those 
presented by the variation of individuals within a species ; 
several of them may therefore be mentioned here. (1) How 
far 1s hybridism responsible for variation 2? (2) To what 
extent does change of environment induce variation? (3) Does 
variation take place by imperceptible gradations, or by small 
leaps and bounds? (4) How far are variations, induced during 
the life-time of the individual, mherited by its descendants ? 
These questions have absorbed the attention of many 
naturalists for years. Vast quantities of information have 
been collected concerning them. They seem to have been 
studied, theoretically at least, from every point of view, yet it 
is questionable whether we have acquired a deeper insight into 
them than Darwin had, when he wrote his “Origin of 
Species,’ now nearly fifty years ago. (1) Some aftirm the 
importance of hybridization in producing variation, while 
others deny it. (2) Change of environment probably induces 
greater variation than was at one time considered possible. 
Nature is infinitely plastic (v. Discaria, p. 240). (3) The 
third question has recently been asked anew by the famous 
botanist, Prof. Hugo de Vries, of Amsterdam: and he has 
adduced a considerable amount of experimental evidence, to 
shew that new species do not arise by imperceptible changes 
out of the old, but that a large number of similar and 
concomitant, though perhaps minute, variations are found in 
certain individuals of the species, and from these individuals a 
new type arises. Such a discontinuous variation he terms a 
mutation, and species producing them are said to be mutable. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY B71 


e 


(4) The fourth question stated above may be termed 
Weismann’s problem. It has caused more discussion than any 
other Darwinian question, and has divided evolutionists into 


Fig. 122. Veronica speciosa (4 nat. size). 


two camps. It is by no means solved as yet, though perhaps 

at times we feel that we have a glimmering of the solution. 
These, and other similar problems, are of the highest interest 

to biologists, and not without their bearing on human life, but 


372 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


they cannot be discussed further here. They are mentioned 
merely for the sake of pointing out that the students of the 
New Zealand Flora have opportunities, such as are granted to 
few, of studying such questions. The great variety of 
environment to be found in the islands, the extreme 
sensitiveness of many species to change of habitat, the fact 
that representatives of a single genus lke Veronica can be 
found at all altitudes from the sea-shore to snow-line, the 
wonderful variety of forms, in this and other genera, to be 
found in a single locality, all combine to afford the New 
Zealand student of plant ecology, a field for investigation 
perhaps unsurpassed within the same area, in any other part 
of the Globe. 


WHIP-CORD VERONICAS. 


For our present purposes, we may roughly divide the New 
Zealand Veronicas into four sections. (1) Shrubs. with 
normally expanded entire leaves; (2) shrubs with munute 
scale-like leaves, often imbricating, and closely appressed to 
the stem ; (8) shrubs with toothed, generally fleshy leaves ; 
(4) herbs or semi-herbaceous plants with creeping slender 
stems. The second of these divisions only, will require 
consideration here. This includes the remarkable species often 
spoken of as the whip-cord veronicas, on account of the close 
resemblance of their stems to a piece of green whip-cord, or 
the plaited thong of a whip-lash. It has also been termed 
the “mimetic” series. Some resemble a cypress so closely 
as to deceive any but the expert botanist; others mimic 
the tamarisk, and another might well be taken for a lycopod. 
There are few, if any, more remarkable forms than these 
amongst our flowering plants. Various endeavours have 
been made to explain their extraordinary appearance,—an 
appearance, however, that is largely shared by certain species 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 373 


of Helichrysum belonging to the sub-genus Ozothamnus (v. fig. 
121). A partial clue to their origin is to be found in the fact 
that all species of this section, under certain circumstances, 
put forth leaves of a type, widely distinct from, and much 
more normal, than the scale-like plates with which they are 
usually covered. A similar phenomenon appears in many 
other aberrant plants. Other New Zealand species which 


Fig. 123. 1. V.propinqua. 2. V. tetrasticha. 3. V. Hectori. 4. V. Armstrongii. 
5. V. elliptica. 6. V. epacridea. 7. V. cupressoides. 


show a like heterophylly, as it may be termed, are 
Helichrysum (Ozothamnus) coralloides, Raoulia bryoides, and 
Raoulia mammillaris. There can be but little doubt that, in 
each case, the larger leaved form is the ancestral one. It 
may therefore be expected, in accordance with the ordinary 
law (v. p. 256), that the seedling form in its development 
would pass through a stage with large leaf-surfaces. Such 
a stage is often termed a “ reversion shoot.’ Reversions 


374 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


to the earlier form are, however, not necessarily confined to 
young plants, but are also sometimes found upon the mature 
specimen. 

Unfortunately, but little attention has hitherto been given 
to the leaf-forms of the whip-cord Veronicas. Prof. Goebel, 


Fig. 124. 1. Helichrysum microphyllum. 2. H. coralloides. 3. H. microphyllum (var.) 
4. Veronica lycopodioides. 5. Libocedrus Bidwillii. 6. V. Tetrasticha. 


the famous botanist of Munich, was the first to study them. 
experimentally, and, after him, Mr. R. Brown, of Christchurch, 
showed how extremely plastic these strange forms are. It is. 
to be regretted, that the latter has not published an account. 
of his experiments, in some accessible scientific periodical.. 
Recently, however, Dr. Cockayne, in his valuable studies on 
the germination of New Zealand seedlings, has carefully 
investigated the younger stages of a considerable number of’ 
species of Veronica. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 375 


He has found, that in several cases at least, the seedling 
passes through a stage with large leaves, unlike those of the 
mature form. The development of Veronica tetrasticha* may 
be taken as an example. It is a beautiful little sub-alpine 
plant, with tetrangular stem and cupressoid leaves. Dr. 
Cockayne collected seeds of it, from plants growing on shingle 
slips on the Craigieburn Mountains. They were planted, and 
found to be slow of germination, and the remarkable conclusion 
was come to, that, “ between the juvenile and mature plants, 
so far as observed, there is no resemblance.” The adult plant 
has minute, overlapping, dark-green leaves, appressed to the 
stem, narrowly triangular in shape, with broad sheathing bases 
that meet round the stem. They are fleshy, concave on the 
upper surface, and flat on the lower, and often bear a row of 
marginal hairs. On the other hand, the first leaves produced 
subsequently to the cotyledons, are spathulate, with or without 
petioles, ‘‘ pale-green above and purplish beneath, covered above 
and beneath with erect, stout-hooked, white hairs, with hooks 
turned upwards towards the apex of the leaves.” The base 
only of the leaf is appressed to the stem, the rest of it being 
spreading, with the apex curving downwards. The leaves, 
though succulent, are scarcely fleshy. So far as the other 
whip-cord veronicas have been observed, similar differences 
between the young and mature forms have been noticed. 
Perhaps the most remarkable result of Dr. Cockayne’s 
researches, was the proof that the seedling form remains 
permanent, so long as the plant is kept in a warm moist 
atmosphere. 

Various theories have been put forward to explain the 
depauperated leaf forms of these veronicas. Prof. Henslow 
compares them to Tamarix, Thuja and Cupressus,+ and 
says, with regard to the origin of all such plants, that: “such 
forms are due to precisely the same causes; the same or 
homologous organs put on precisely the same morphological 


*Trans. XXXI., p. 377. tThe Origin of Plant Structures, p. 108. 


376 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


features, in response to the similar and direct actions of a lke 
environment, so that all these species have arisen without any 
aid from natural selection whatever.” Without entering into 
the wider question as to the method of evolution, which 1s 
obviously outside of the scope of this work, 1t may at once be 
admitted, that the remarkable reduction of leaf surface in 
these plants, 1s a direct response to altered environment, but 
surely Prof. Henslow is wrong in suggesting that the reduction 
in the size of the leaf is due to the alpine habitats of the 
species, as most of them are plants of the upper river terraces, 
rather than of the high alps; and they often grow in 
clefts of rocks, on shingle slips, and in other arid situations, so 
that their depauperated leaves are more likely due to their 
xerophily than to the rigours of an alpine habitat. It must be 
remembered that the vertical distribution of these species was 
but little known when Hooker’s Handbook of the New 
Zealand Flora was published, and Professor Henslow has 
apparently relied largely on the altitudes given there. 


Veronica speciosa (The Handsome Veronica). 


A stout shrub, with angular branches. Leaves oblong, thick, shining, 
1 in.-4 in. long, 1 in.-14 in. broad. Flowers in dense racemes, deep purple, $ in. 
in diameter. Stamens long. Capsule tin. long. North Island: Hokianga 
(now extinct). Fl. Oct. 

A vare and beautiful form with crimson flowers, which 
flourishes best, when in reach of the sea spray. It was 
formerly found at Hokianga Heads, but is apparently now 
extinct in that locality. According to Myr. Rutland, it is 
however, still to be found in Titirangi Bay, Marlborough ; but 
this habitat requires confirmation. Many varieties of this 
plant are cultivated in gardens. The glossy green leaves, and 
large racemes, densely packed with flowers, make it a very 
attractive shrub. As in other sea-side plants, the leaves are 
protected by a two-layered epidermis. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 


Fig. 125. Veronica salicifolia (4 nat 


378 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Veronica salicifolia (Lhe Willow-leaved Veronica). 

A large shrub; branches cylindrical. Leaves linear, 2 in.-6 in. long, shining. 
Flowers variable, in long racemes, white, mauve, or bluish-purple. Corolla 
lin.-tin. diameter. Capsule din. long. Both islands, abundant. Fi. 
Dec.-Jan. Maori names, Kokoromiko, Koroniko. 


Of all the species of the genus, this is probably the most 
abundant. It is almost everywhere common throughout the 
islands, and along with various hybrids between it and 
Veronica speciosa and Veronica macrocarpa, is much cultivated 
in gardens. There are a number of allied species, which are 
only being gradually separated from it by botanists. The 
flowers are usually white, and produced in densely packed 
racemes several inches in length. The leaves are much used 
as a remedy in cases of diarrhoea. 


Veronica Traversii (Zravers’s Veronica). 

A small shrub. Leaves #in.-lin. long, 4in.-}in. broad, leathery, flat. 
Racemes lin.-2in. long. Corolla fin. diameter. Capsule #in. long. South 
Island: river-beds (Canterbury) ; Southern Alps; Otago. Fl. Jan.-Feb. 

Dr. Cockayne* raised a number of young plants of this 
species, from seeds gathered from a single parent plant. The 
seedlings showed marked differences amongst themselves. It 
is, of course, possible, that this may have been due to 
hybridization, which, according to Hooker at least, occurs 
frequently among the veronicas. In order to eliminate the 
probability of error from this cause, capsules were collected 
from three other plants, and their seeds on germination showed 
the same variability. No two seedlings seemed to be alike ; 
hence Dr. Cockayne came to the conclusion, “that the 
individual does not nearly produce itself true from seed.” 
Young plants, however, derived from the same parent, were 
more like each other, than they were like the descendants of 
any other plant. Dr. Cockayne informs us that he is not 
altogether satisfied with the accuracy of these results, and 
considers that the experiments should be repeated, with 


‘Trans. Vol. XXXI. p. 376. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 379 


further precautions against error, such, for example, as the 
artificial pollination of the plants employed. 

Such a variable species as this is likely to give evidence of 
some value for or against de Vries’s Mutation theory 
(v. p. 870), and it also throws some hight on the wonderful range 
of forms of Veronica sometimes found in a single locality. So. 


Fig. 126. Veronica Traversii (} nat. size). 


numerous are these, and so difficult of discrimination, that 
Baron Miiller once proposed to solve all difficulties, by lumping 
together nearly twenty distinct types under one specific name ! 


Veronica monticola (The Mountain-loving Veronica). 
Leaves close-set, more or less overlapping, 3 in.-1 in. long, 4 in.- in. broad, 
narrowed into a short, thick petiole, slightly concave above, but not keeled 
beneath. Racemes 1 in.-14 in. long, dense-flowered. Flowers white, } in- 
across. Mountain districts from Nelson to Otago. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 


B80 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Veronica lycopodioides (The Lycopodium-like Veronica). 

A large, erect shrub. Branches 4-angled, leaves closely imbricate, yy in. 
long. Flowers in dense heads at the tips of the branches, white. Corolla 4 in across. 
South Island: Southern Alps, Macaulay River, Wairau Gorge, Lindis 
Pass, Otago. This plant is one of the whip-cord veronicas referred to on p. 372. 
Fl. Dec.-Mar. 

Veronica tetrasticha, Veronica Hectori, Veronica salicornioides, and Veronica 
cupressoides belong also to this class of yveronicas, having the same closely 
imbricated leaves. 

Veronica epacridea (The Epacris-like Veronica). 

A small, rigid shrub. Leaves closely imbricate, recurved, rendering the 
branches 4-angled in appearance. Flowers without stalks, in pairs among the 
upper leaves, forming an oblong head. South Island: Tarndale, Southern Alps, 
Mt. Darwin, Wai-au-ua Valley, etc. 

This species belongs to the rock-growing group of veronicas. 
Dr. Cockayne says of the seedling: “The whole plant is very 
succulent and soft. Such structure is an admirable provision 
against drought, growing as it does on solid rock or shingle- 
slips, for it cannot put down a long root in search of water, as 
the adult plant can; nor is there so much danger of its drying 
up with excessive transpiration, since, being of very low 
stature, the large stones of the shingle-slips, or the fissures of 
the rock, where alone the seed can germinate, will protect it 
from drying winds. The same remark would apply to 
Veronica tetrasticha, a companion plant. It is curious that 
this soft, succulent form of leaf is the permanent form of 
Veronica Haastii, a closely allied plant, restricted to regions 
subject to the western rainfall.’’* 


Veronica Lavaudiana (Lavaud’s Veronica). 

Asmall, stout herb. Stem at first prostrate; branches ascending. Leaves 
4in.-% in. long, broad, leathery. Flower-spikes $in. long, in corymbs 1 in.-2in. 
broad. Corolla 4in. across, white or purple. South Island: Banks Peninsula. 
Fl. Nov. 

This beautiful little Veronica was one of Raoul’s discoveries. 
He named it after Lavaud.! It belongs to the third section 
of veronicas, @.¢e., those with toothed and rather fleshy 


*Trans. XXXI., p. 381. 
'Comninodore of the Nanto-Bordelaise expedition for settling the South Island. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 381 


Fig. 127. Veronica monticola (life size). 


BS PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


leaves. They are nearly all rock-growing plants, and are 
generally found in limited and discontinuous areas. Veronica 
Lavaudiana is an extremely rare species, being found in only 
a few localities on Banks’ Peninsula. It is still to be seen on 
Dover Castle, The Giant's Causeway, and on some other 
isolated rocks, that rise like islands from a sea of tussocks on 
the tops of the Lyttelton Hills. These cliffs afford a sanctuary 
to several other rare species. Unfortunately, the frequent 
grass fires, and grazing animals, are together causing much 


Fig. 128. V. lycopodioides (4 nat. size). 


havoc amongst native plants upon these hills, and the only 
ones that appear likely to survive are those that can exist on 
the bare faces of inaccessible cliffs. Amongst the rare forms of 
the Peninsula may be mentioned Senecio saxifragordes, 
Celmisia Mackaut, and Veronica Lavaudiana, all of them 
interesting and handsome species. 

Veronica Lavaudiana bears pink buds, and beautiful white 
blossoms, that open in late October, after the cultivated spring 
flowers are past, and before the annuals have come into bloom. 
Coming as it does between the seasons, it is sometimes of 
considerable value to florists in the preparation of wreaths, 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 383 


and floral decorations. Unfortunately, however, it is not well 
known, and is in cultivation only in a few gardens near 
Christchurch. 

Veronica Hulkeana, on the other hand, is not infrequently 
to be seen listed in gardeners’ catalogues. It is an allied 
species from the mountains and river gorges of eastern Nelson, 


Fig. 12. Veronica cataractae (life size). 


and bears long sprays of lilac-coloured flowers in loose panicles, 
sometimes a foot in length. It 1s one of the handsomest and 


most graceful species of the genus. 


Veronica cataractae (The Waterfall Veronica). 

Asmall, slender herb. Stems prostrate at the base, and ascending. Leaves 
very variable, oval or oblong, 4in.-6in. long, serrate. Racemes very slender, 
few-flowered. Corolla $in.-? im. broad, white with red spots. Stamens short. 
North Island: East Coast, Ruahine Mountains. South Island: Western Otago. 
Fl. Feb.-March. 


384 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


This species may be taken as a type of the herbaceous 
section of the genus. The flowers are very pretty, the petals 
being white, spotted with dark-red at the entrance to the 
throat. The species is often cultivated, particularly in gardens 
in and around Dunedin. These, and the allied species, 
approach more closely to the European forms, than do the 
other New Zealand veronicas. It is strange, however, that 
they should be separated from their congeners by a hemu- 
sphere, for the veronicas do not grow in the tropics. It is 
difficult to say if the veronicas covered at one time all the 
intervening area, or whether they have spread from north to 
south, or south to north. Certainly, the greater development 
of the genus in the south, lends some colour to the latter 
surmise, but general opinion has regarded northern forms as 
coming south, and not vice versa. 


Genus Ourisia. 


Alpine herbs with perennial roots. Calyx 5-lobed; corolla 5-cleft; stamens 4. 
Capsule 2-valved. (Named in honour of Ouris, a French Governor of the 
Falklands). 8 sp. 


Ourisia macrophylla (The Large-leaved Ourisia). 


Stem erect. Leaves all from the roots, hairy, 1in.-6in. long. Flower-stem 
2in.-30in. in height. Flowers in umbels. Corolla 4in. long. Capsule } in. 
long. Both islands: mountain ranges. Fl. Jan.-Feb. 


Ourisia ceespitosa (The Tufted Ourisia). 


Stem creeping. Leaves opposite, numerous, round, } in. across. Flower- 
stem 2in.-4in. long, lin.-6in. flowered. Corolla 4in.-}in. across, white, 
Capsule 4 in. long. Both islands: Ruahine Mountains, Southern Alps, Otago. 


Fl, Feb.-March. 


Ourisia glandulosa (The Glandular Ourisia). 


A small, stout herb. — Leaves closely imbricating, }in.-lin. long, 4 in.-? in. 
broad, thickly covered with rough glandular hairs. Flower-stems 1 in.-2 in. long. 
Flowers 1 in.-3 in., white, 4 in.-}in. across. South Island: Mt. Sealy, Southern 


Alps, Otago Lake district. Fl]. Jan.-Feb. 
A genus of distinctly Antarctic distribution, found in the 
mnountains of Tasmania, New Zealand, South America and 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 385 


Fuegia. The beautiful white flowers, and large cordate leaves, 
bear some slight resemblance to those of the Chinese Prim- 
rose, and it is possibly on this account that O. macrophylla 
is called by colonists, the New Zealand Primrose. The leaves 
decrease in size, and become more coriaceous, the higher up 


Fig. 130. Ourisia macrophylla (4 nat. size) 


the mountains the plant is found. Thus Ourista macrophylla, 
with large, tender leaves, up to six inches in length, is found 
in damp shady places at lower altitudes, reaching nearly to 
sea-level in Stewart Island. In Ourisia Colensot, found on the 
tops of the Ruahine Range in the North Island, and at an 
altitude of 3,000 feet in the Waiau Mountains in the South 
Island, the leaves are half an inch or less. In Ourisia 
cespitosa, found on the Southern Alps at altitudes of from 


26 


386 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


3,500 to 6,000 feet, the leaves are thickly coriaceous, and only 
4 in.-4 in. in length, whilst Ourisia glandulosa, found at the 
height of 5,000 feet in the Otago lake district, has become 


reduced to a patch-plant. 


Genus Buphrasia. 

Herbs, with opposite leaves. Calyx 4-lobed, rarely 6. Corolla 2-lipped, 
5-cleft. Stamens 4. Capsule oblong, 2-valved. A small genus, chiefly found in 
Australia and New Zealand. The European species are partially parasitic. 
(Name from the Greek for joy, in allusion to its reputed virtue). 8 sp. 

Euphrasia antarctica (The Antarctic Eyebright). 

A small herb, lin,-2in. high. Leaves 7; in.-4 in. long ; margins recurved. 

Flowers } in.-} in. across, Both islands : in alpine situations. Fl. Jan.-March. 


The genus Euphrasia belongs to a group of plants which 
are nearly all root-parasites. (v. Dactylanthus, p. 150.) The 
New Zealand species are also doubtless parasitic, though 
they have not as yet received any close investigation. The 
Euphrasia seedlings develop first of all normally, but, on the 
secondary rootlets, there are produced small round nodules— 
not unlike those on the roots of a leguminous plant. Their 
function, however, is completely different. | When they come 
in contact with the root of another species, they put out short 
absorption-cells, which penetrate the tissues of the host. 

They are mostly little known alpine plants; often tufted, or 
moss-like. The genus owes its English name to the once 
prevalent behef that the juices of one of the species removed 
blindness, or at least improved the sight of the eyes. 


Gesneriaceae. 


THE GLoXINIA FaAmIuy. 

Distribution.—A large, chiefly tropical family, possessing no important 
properties, but much cultivated for the beauty of its flowers. Some of the South 
American species are epiphytic. Gloxinia is one of the best-known stove-plants. 
The Calabash tree of N, America, Crescentia Cujete, has edible fruits. The 
family is represented in New Zealand by a genus of a single species. 


THE SNAP-DRAGON FAMILY 


Fig. 131. Rhabdothamnus Solandri. 


388 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Rhabdothamnus. 


A slender, twiggy shrub, 2 ft.-6 ft. high, with opposite leaves, and pretty 
yellow and red striped flowers. Sepals 5; corolla bell-shaped, 2-lipped. Upper 
lip 2-lobed, under 3-lobed. Stamens 5, one rudimentary. Anthers combined. 
Ovary l-celled ; ovules numerous. Capsule 2-valved; seeds minute. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying a twiggy shrub). 1 sp. 


Rhabdothamnus Solandri (Solander’s Rhabdothamnus). 

Stem hairy. Leaves round or broadly oblong, 4in.-}in. across, toothed, 
rough, membranous. Flowers terminal or axillary; corolla 3 in. long, 
orange-red. North Island: as far South as Wellington. FI. Oct.-Nov. 

This is the only New Zealand representative of the large 
tropical family Gesneriaceae. Mr. Petrie has recently* studied 
the pollination of the flower, which presents various points of 
interest. It seems probable that it will have to be added 
to our list of bird-pollinated species, which is already 


comparatively long. 


Lentibulariaceae. 


THE BurTERWoRT FAMILY. 

Distribution.—A widely-dispersed family, of which the two principal genera 
are Pinguicula and Utricularia. The leaves of plants of the former genus contain 
w principle which will render milk solid without forming whey, hence the name 
Butterwort. 

Genus Utricularia. 

Herbs usually aquatic and floating, with no true roots; the root stock 
giving off long, root-like capillary branches. Calyx 2-partite; corolla 2-lipped ; 
stamens 2, capsule 2-valved. Flowers yellow, white, or purple. Name from the: 
Latin, meaning a lvtle bladder, in reference to the small spherical traps with 
which the plants are provided, for the purpose of catching insects, etc. 6 sp. 

Few plants, surely, can show a more complete series of 
adaptations to thelr environment than these. The bladders 
float the flower to the surface of the pond, so that pollination 


*Trans. XXXV., p. 321. 


THE MADDER FAMILY 389 


may take place above the water, and also collect nitrogenous 
material; the filamentous leaves of some species are an 
adaptation to the aquatic habitat; the shape, colouring, 
and arrangement of the parts of the flower secure cross- 
pollination where possible, whilst, if this fails, self-pollination 
ensues as a result of a delicate readjustment of the position 
of stigma and anther; and, finally, isolation by water, secures 
the plants from attacks by creeping insects, and insures the 
visits of flying insects, which, alone, are likely to be useful to 
them. 


Utricularia Protrusa.—A floating, slender plant, with a scape of yellow 
flowers. Leaves finely divided; stem bearing minute bladders. Bogs in the 
North Island. Utricularia novae-Zelandiae has white flowers, and entire 
radical leaves. This plant was discovered growing upon damp rocks in Palliser 
Bay. Utricularia monanthos is not more than lin. in height, with a single, 
purple flower. The rhizomes bear minute bladders. It has been found in the 
South Island, and also in Tasmania. 


Rubiaceae. 


THE MApDDER FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large and widely distributed family of about 4500 species, 
divided into two tribes, the Cinchonoideae and Coffeoideae. Most of the species 
are found in warm and tropical regions. Coffee is obtained from the seeds of 
Coffea arabica, and Quinine and Peruvian Bark from plants of the genus 
Cinchona. Ipecacuanha is prepared from the rootstock of Cephaelis Ipecaci- 
anha, a native of Brazil. Bowvardia is cultivated for its flowers. The New 
Zealand plants belonging to the family have all inconspicuous flowers, and are 
often wind-pollinated, though most foreign species are insect-pollinated. 


Key to the Genera. 


1, Trees or shrubs. Fruit a berry-like drupe. Coprosma, Dp. 390. 
Herbs, leaves opposite or whorled. 2 
2, Creeping herbs, with opposite leaves and red berries. Nertera, p. 398. 


Slender, erect, or trailing herbs with whorled leaves. 3 
3. Corolla wheel-shaped. tGalium. 
Corolla funnel or bell-shaped. +Asperula. 


{Not further described. 


390 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Coprosma. 

Shrubs or trees, very variable in size and appearance. Leaves opposite, 
rarely whorled, often pitted on the under-surface, in the axils of the veins. 
Flowers regular. Calyx 4-5-toothed or lobed; corolla campanulate or funnel- 
shaped, 4-5-lobed. Stamens 4-5. Anthers exserted. Styles divided into from 
2-4 lobes, usually long. Drupe round or oval. (Name from the Greek, signifying 
excrement, in allusion to the smell of one or two species.) 39 sp. 

New Zealand has no more highly developed, or characteristic 
genus, than Coprosma. The name is derived from the Greek, 
and refers to the evil odour that the leaves of certain species 
give out, when bruised. Anyone who has forced his way 
through scrub, formed of the well named C. fetidissima, 
knows that the smell from it becomes in time almost insup- 
portable. The stench is somewhat suggestive of carbon 
bi-sulphide, but apparently no attempt has yet been made to 
determine its source. There are some forty species in the 
genus, ranging in size from small prostrate shrubs, to trees 
of 20 ft. to 30 ft. high. In some parts of New Zealand the 
scrub consists chiefly of Coprosma. The most characteristic 
species of the genus are twiggy shrubs, which frequently 
cover the ground so thickly, that it is impossible to force a 
way through them. Oftentimes, the only method of getting 
past the coprosma-scrub is to walk over the top of it. This 
method of progression, however, is not a very satisfactory one, 
as there is often much risk of fallig through, up to the neck. 
The shrubby coprosmas generally produce small, round, or 
linear leaves, less than an inch in length. It must not, 
however, be imagined that all shrubs with small leaves and 
twiggy interlacing branches, belong to this genus. 

It has already been pointed out that there is a considerable 
number of species of plants, which, in a juvenile stage of their 
existence, assume a coprosima-like appearance (v. Hoheria 
angustifolia, p. 256.) Other plants, in their mature forms, 
also often resemble the coprosma type, ¢.g., Olearia virgata, 
Myrtus pedunculata, Paratrophis, ete. 


THE MADDER FAMILY 391 


Fig. 132. Coprosma lucida (& nat. size). 


392 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


The larger species of Coprosma bear little resemblance to 
coprosma-scrub. They have often leaves several inches in 
length, which are of a brighter green than those of the 
shrubby forms. Some of these are well known plants, and 
are frequently cultivated. Thus C. lucida, which with several 
other arboreous species, is known as Karamu, is frequently 
found in gardens, being valued on account of the beauty of its 
small orange-red berries. It has been suggested that the 
seeds of this and of C. Bauert might be ground for coffee, as 
the genus is not far removed from that of the coffee plant. 
Indeed, a member of the Wellington Philosophical Society 
once provided his fellow members with ‘ coffee” from the 
latter plant. This drink was said to possess a splendid aroma, 
but the experiment does not seem to have been repeated. 

C. Bauert is much used for hedges in Wellington and Mel- 
bourne. In the former place it is generally known as taupata 
(sometimes naupata); in the latter it is called the looking- 
glass plant. It is a sea-side plant with bright glossy green 
leaves, which possess a two-layered epidermis. In_ this 
respect it differs from many other species of the genus. 

Veronica speciosa, another sea-side plant, differs similarly 
from many of the other veronicas. C. Bauert seems to 
flourish best, when in reach of the ocean spray. The stipules 
of this and of other species possess an apical gland, 
which secretes a viscid fluid that protects the tender leaf bud. 
Similarly, the bud scales of the horse-chestnut are covered with 
an extremely sticky secretion, that protects the bud in winter. 

In many of the species there are developed in the axils 
of the lateral veins, and the midrib, small pits that have 
given rise to much investigation,* but their function is still 
unknown. 

POLLINATION IN CoPROSMA. 

Probably the flowers of all species of Coprosma ave wind- 

pollinated. Pistillate and stamimate flowers are formed on 


*Greensill: Leaf structure of Coprosma, Trans, XXXV., p. 342. 


THE MADDER FAMILY 393 


Fig. 133. Coprosma arborea (3? nat, size). 


394 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


different plants; and vary little in different species. In their 
insignificance, their protruding stamens with pendulous 
anthers, and dust-like pollen flying in clouds, they are 
typical of wind-pollinated plants. Insects are seldom seen on 
the flowers, though, according to Mr. Cheeseman,” a small fly 
visits the male flowers of C. propinqua, possibly to feed on the 
pollen, but, as it is never seen on the female flowers, it can be 
of no use in the work of pollination. The styles are long and 
projecting, and are covered with stigmatic protuberances, 
which are well calculated to catch the wind-blown pollen. 


FRUIT. 


The fruit is a berry, containing generally two plano-convex 
seeds. It may be of various colours, and is often very pretty. 
The pale-blue translucent fruits of C. acerosa, var. brunnea, 
are very attractive, and are often eaten by children. In C. 
spathulata the drupe 1s black, in C. lacida—as already stated— 
orange-red, in other species (e.g. C. Cunninghamat) it is 
colourless and translucent, in C. rhamnoides the immature 
fruit is bright-red, and finally becomes black. In C. obconica 
it is yellowish white, and broader than it is long: thus the 
characters of the fruits are valuable, in discriminating the 
species. The flowers throughout the genus are useless for this 
purpose, as they are so much alike. 


Coprosma grandifolia (The Large-leaved Coprosma). 


A shrub, 6ft.-15ft. in height. Leaves 4in.-8in. long, 14in.-3in. broad, 
acute, membranous, not shining. Flowers in terminal or lateral fascicles, 
sessile, green. Calyx minute; corolla narrow, funnel-shaped or tubular. Drupe 
}in. long, orange-red. North Cape to Buller River. Fl. April to June. Maori 
name, Raurekauw. 


Coprosma lucida (The Karamu). 


Glossy-leaved, except in var. obovata, 2 ft.-15 ft. in height. Leaves 2in.-5 in. 
long, oblong, acute, coriaceous. Calyx 4-5-toothed. Corolla 4-5-lobed ; stamens 
dor 5. Styles very long, slender. Drupe 4in. long, orange-red. Both islands. 
FI. Sept.-Nov. 


*Trans. XIX., p. 225. 


THE MADDER FAMILY 395- 


Coprosma Baueri (The Taupata). 
A shining shrub, from 1 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves almost fleshy, ovate, 
glossy, margins often recurved. Stipules broad. Staminate flowers in dense- 
heads ; calyx 4-toothed ; corolla 4-lobed. Pistillate flowers 3-5 only; calyx and 


Fig. 134. Coprosina tenuicaulis with berries (4 nat. size). 


corolla 4-toothed. Drupe }in.-}in. long, orange-yellow. North Cape to 
Greymouth: sea cliffs. Norfolk, Kermadec, and Chatham Islands. Fl. 
Sept.-Nov. Maori names, Taupata and Naupata. 


396 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Coprosma robusta (The Robust Coprosma). 
A stout shrub, 2 ft.-12 ft. in height. Bark pale-brown. Leaves shining, 
1 in.-5 in. long, 4 in.-2 in. broad; margins often slightly recurved. Flowers in 
dense heads. Calyx and corolla 4-5-toothed or lobed. Drupes thickly set, } in. 
long, red or yellow. North Island and northern part of South Island, Chatham 
Island. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Maori name, Aakaramu or Karamu. 


Coprosma arborea (The Tree Coprosma). 

A small tree, 15 ft.-30ft. in height. Leaves 1in.-2in. long, 4in.-1in. broad. 
Petioles winged, reddish below. Flowers in round heads, sessile, greenish-white, 
on arrested axillary shoots. Calyx and corolla 5-lobed  Pistillate flowers 4-10, 
in round clusters. Drupes in dense heads, } in. in diameter, translucent, 
finally black. A most distinct species. North Island: as far south as the 
Lower Waikato. Fl. Oct.-Nov. 


Coprosma rotundifolia (The Round-leaved Coprosma). 

A spreading shrub, 4 ft.-12 ft. in height. Bark pale; young shoots hairy. 
Leaves in pairs, distant, }in.-lin. long, ovate, round or oblong, membranous, 
downy. Flowers sessile, axillary, solitary or fascicled, greenish-white. 
Staminate flowers without calyx; corolla deeply 4-5 cleft. Pistillate flowers 
with 4-5-toothed calyx, and 3-4-lobed corolla. Drupes usually in pairs, roundish, 
din. broad, red. Both islands: in thick bush. Fl. Sept.-Oct. 


Coprosma areolata (The Areolate Coprosma). 
A slender shrub, 6 ft.-15 ft. in height. Branches often fastigiate. Leaves 
} in.-2 in. long, ovate or oblong, acute, thin, membranous, flat, with large spaces 
between the veins. Flowers axillary, solitary, or in clusters of 2-4. Staminate 
flowers with spreading lobes, 4 in. across, pale-mauve or pink.  Pistillate flowers 
funnel-shaped, 4-lobed. Drupe solitary, round, #5in.-$in. in diameter, black. 
Both islands. Fl. Sept.-Oct. 


Coprosma parviflora (The Small-fowered Coprosma). 

A rigid shrub, 4 ft.-14 ft. in height. Bark pale-brown ; young shoots hairy. 
Leaves } in.-~ in. long, leathery, fascicled, linear-oblong or obovate ; veins faint. 
Flowers solitary, or 2-4 together, 7) in.-y in. long. Drupe round, white, or 
tinged with violet; finally black, Both islands: abundant. Fl. Nov.-Jan. A 
very variable species. 


Coprosma acerosa (The Acerose Coprosm«). 


A low shrub, 1 ft.-4 ft. in height. Stem prostrate or sub-erect, with 
interlacing branches. Leaves usually in pairs, } in.-} in. long, slg in.-?y in. 
broad; veins faint. Flowers on minute terminal branchlets. Staminate 
flowers solitary, or 3-4 together, without calyx; stamens 4. Pistillate flowers 
solitary, ¢y In.-yy in. long, tubular, 4-lobed. Drupe round or oblong, 4 in.-} in. 
long, clear, white, or pale-blue. Both islands: sea-coasts or river-valleys. 


THE 


MADDER FAMILY 


397 


Fig. 135. Nertera dichondrefolia (life size). 


398 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Coprosma propinqua (The Kindred Coprosma). 

A thickly-branched shrub, 6 ft.-20ft. in height. Bark brown; young shoots 
downy. Leaves #in.-Sin. long, #yin.-}in. broad. Flowers solitary or 2-5 
together ; fascicles involucrate. Staminate flowers usually fascicled ; calyx 0; 
corolla Jin.-4in. long.  Pistillate flowers 75-qyin. long, 3-4-lobed. Styles 
short. Drupe round, opaque, din. long, usually changing from yellow or white 
to black. Both islands: damp places. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Maori name 
Aingimingr. 


Coprosma linariifolia (The Narrow-leaved Coprosma). 


A slender shrub or tree, 4 ft.-20 ft. in height. Young shoots downy. Leaves 
not faseicled, Sin.-15in. long, Jin.-}in. broad, flat, rather membranous, veins 
faintly seen. Flowers terminal, on small branchlets. Staminate flowers in 
small fascicles; calyx 0; corolla }in.-fin. long.  Pistillate flowers solitary, 
yy in.-}in. long. Calyx 4-5-lobed; lobes long. Drupe broadly-oblong, 4 in.-}in. 
long, translucent, finally black. Both islands. Fl. Oct. 


Coprosma feetidissima (The Fetid Coprosma). 


A slender, twiggy shrub, 6 ft.-10 ft. in height, or a small tree 20 ft. in height. 
Branches interlacing, young shoots downy. Bark pale-red or grey. Leaves 
variable, distant, $in.-24in. long, fin.-$in. ‘broad; midrib obvious. Flowers 
axillary or terminal, sessile, fuchsia-like, solitary or in pairs. Staminate 
flowers $in.-3in. long, funnel-shaped, 4-5 to 8 or 10-lobed, rarely 6-lobed. 
Stamens as many as the lobes. Pistillate flowers 3-5-lobed. Drupe }in.-} in. 
long ; yellow or red, rarely white and translucent. Odour of shrub strong and 
unpleasant. Both islands, Chatham, Stewart, Auckland, and Campbell Islands. 
Fl. Aug.-Oct. 


Genus Nertera. 


Prostrate soft-leaved herbs. Stipules minute. Flowers terminal or axillary, 
solitary, sessile. Calyx 4-toothed ; corolla 4-5-lobed; stamens 4-5; anthers 
exserted. Fruit a fleshy drupe. 4 sp. 


Nertera depressa (The Oblate-berried Nertera). 


A perennial herb, growing in patches. Stem rooting at the nodes. Leaves 
round or ovate, shining. Flowers terminal. Drupe red, depressed. Both 
islands: Stewart and Auckland Islands. Fl, Oct.-Jan. 


Nertera dichondreefolia (The Dichondra-leaved Nertera). 


Stem creeping, hairy, 3in.-2 ft. long. Leaves dull-green, membranous, 
hairy, ovate or cordate. Stipules acute. Flowers and fruit larger than in 
N. depressa. Both islands. Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Dec. (Dichondra is a 
genus of Convolyulaceae, q.v.) 


THE MELON AND CUCUMBER FAMILY 399 
Caprifoliaceae. 


THE HOoNEYSUCKLE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—The Caprifoliaceae are natives chiefly of the northern parts 
of Europe, Asia, and America. They are more rare in the Southern Hemisphere. 
Their uses are unimportant, but many of the species are cultivated for the 
beauty and fragrance of their flowers. The Guelder Rose, the Honeysuckle or 
Woodbine, the Elder, the Snowberry, the Lawrustinus, the Leycesteria, and the 
Weigelia, all belong to this family. 

The only genus by which the family is represented in New Zealand is that of 
Alsewosmia, which is endemic. 


Genus Alseuosimia. 


About 4 species, very difficult to determine on account of their variability. 
Shrubs with alternate leaves, and fragrant, drooping flowers. Calyx 4-5-toothed ; 
corolla 4-5-lobed ; stamens 4-5. Berry crimson, 2-celled. Minute tufts of 
reddish hairs are produced in the leaf-axils. (From the Greek for a grove and a 
sweet-smell, in reference to the delicious odour of the species). 


Alseuosmia macrophylla (The Large-leaved Alseuosmia). 


A shrub, 4ft.-10ft. in height. Leaves 3 in.-7-in. long, oblong, often glossy. 
Flowers drooping, solitary, or in 1-3-flowered fascicles. Corolla lin. long, 
crimson. Berry }$in. long, crimson. Both islands: rare and local, FI. 


Oct.-Nov. 


Alseuosmia quercifolia (The Oak-leaved Alseuosmia). 


A slender shrub. Leaves 1in.-4in. long, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, variable, 
entire or lobed, almost membranous. Flowers solitary, or in fascicles of 3-6. 
Corolla 3 in.-? in. long; tube red, lobes greenish. Stigma often longer than the 
petals. Both islands: rare and local. FI. Oct.-Dec. 


Cucurbitaceae. 


THE MELON AND CUCUMBER FAMILY. 


Distribution.—A large family, chiefly tropical. Many of the species 
furnish fruits and vegetables, such as the Melon, Cucumber, and Pumpkin. The 
plants contain a strong purgative, which, in some species, is so concentrated as 
to render them poisonous; in others, however, this substance is so diffused, 
especially under cultivation, that the plants become useful as food, 


400 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Sicyos. 

Annual creeping herbs. Calyx 5-toothed, corolla 5-lobed. Filaments 3-5, 
anthers united. Staminate flowers racemed, pistillate panicled. Fruit small, 
leathery, 1-seeded. Tendrils branched. (Name from the Greek, signifying a 
cucumber.) 

Sicyos australis (The Southern Sicyos). 


A glabrous herb, with stems 2 ft.-10 ft. long. Leaves 5-7-lobed. Flowers 
green, § in. across, axillary. Fruit a nut, with barbed spines. Both islands: 
very rare. Fl. Dec.-March, Found also in the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island. 


This is one of the many climbing plants of New Zealand. 
Sicyos clinbs by tendrils, as also do Clematis and Passiflora. 
The tendvil-bearing plant has a great advantage over other 
forms of climbers. It can grip hold of smaller projections 
than can be seized by a twining stem, and can climb up 
great tree-trunks by this means, when such a stem would 
fail altogether to ascend. Nature rarely develops a new 
organ for a new function, but generally modifies an old 
one to do the work. Thus, we find that tendrils are merely 
modified leaves or stems, or even roots. In Clematis, it is the 
petiole that forms the tendril; in Passiflora tetrandra, and 
Sicyos, the tendrils are probably modified branches. The 
twining of a tendril is caused by its outer side growing more 
rapidly than the inner, and thus producing curvature. The 
tendrils of Stcyos are unusually sensitive, and, a few minutes 
after they touch an obstacle, the tips will completely encircle 
it. The tendency to curve is also communicated to the rest 
of the tendril, so that it coils up lke a corkscrew. Now, as 
both of its ends are fixed, it is clear that the torsion would 
soon cause it to snap, 1f some provision were not made 
to guard against such an accident. This misfortune is 
ingeniously prevented, by the reversal of the spiral. One 
part of the tendril coils from right to left, while the other part 
is twisted in the opposite direction. A short straight portion 
unites the two coils. There are several advantages in the 
reversed spiral. If a tendril is twisted an equal number of 
times In opposite directions, then there is no strain from the 


THE CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY 401 


torsion, and the tendril can be pulled straight without any 
twists being left in it. If, on the other hand, a continuous 
spiral is strained, the convolutions can be effaced, but kinks 
are left in it, and a break is likely to ensue at any one of 
them. In a strong wind, therefore, the continuous spiral 
would be broken, whilst the plant with tendrils in reversed 
spirals “rides out the gale with a long range of cable paid 
out.” The coiling of the tendrils brings the plant and its 
support close together in calm weather, and enables them to 
separate somewhat in a storm. The reversed spiral is not 
uncommon in nature. It is frequent in the twining stems of 
Miihlenbeckia. It 1s often found where a long band, whose 
ends are fixed, has to be packed in a short space, e.g., the 
intestines of the tadpole, the pond mussel, and the colon of a 
ruminant. It may be well seen in the tendrils of Szcyos 
australis. 

From this short account, it may be gathered that the 
tendril is one of the most perfect of Nature’s contrivances. 
Those who wish to pursue their investigations further, should 
read Darwin’s classic work on Climbing Plants. 


Campanulaceae. 


(Including Lobeliaceae.) 


Tue CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY. 


Pollination.—The flowers of this family approach in type those of the 
Composites. The anthers ripen first, and the style receives pollen shed by the 
anthers, while the stigmas are closed. The flower afterwards becomes female, 
and, if not insect-pollinated, self-pollination takes place in a similar way to that 
described under Compositae. (For further details, see Wahlenbergia). 


27 


402 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Key to the Genera. 


Sub-Family Campanuloideae : Flowers regular. Anthers 


usually free. Corolla bell-shaped, stamens free. Wahlenbergia, p. 402. 
Sub-Family Lobelioideae: Flowers irregular. Anthers 
united. 
1. Fruit, a coriaceous capsule, 2-valved at the top. Lobelia, p. 403. 
Fruit a berry. 2 
2. <A tall herb, with flowers in racemes, and large leaves. Colensoa, p. 404. 
Small creeping plants with prostrate stems. !Pratia. 


!Not further described. 


Genus Wahlenbergia. 


Erect or ascending, generally glabrous, milky herbs. Flowers terminal, 
drooping in the bud, white or blue.  Calyx-lobes 3-5 ; corolla bell-shaped, 
5-lobed. Stamens 5, epigynous, with filaments dilated at the base. Ovary 2-5- 
celled. Style simple, hairy at the top. Stigmas 2 or 3. (Named after a 
Swedish botanist.) This genus largely takes the place in south temperate 
regions of the North Temperate Campanula. 3 sp. 


Wahlenbergia gracilis (The Graceful Blue-bell). 


A slender annual. Stem 1 in.-24 in. high, angular, branches terminating in 
slender 1-flowered peduncles. Leaves § in.-2 in. long, radical, spathulate, 


petioled, toothed; cauline sessile, linear oblong. Flowers variable in size and 


form. Corolla $ in.-5 in. long; blue, purplish, or white. Abundant throughout 


the islands, up to 4000 ft. Fl. Oct.-Mar. 

W. saxicola has larger and more beautiful flowers, and is common in the 
hilly and sub-alpine districts of Otago. 

W. gracilis is one of the commonest of flowers in dry 
situations on open plains, and grassy hill-sides. It might be 
described as the New Zealand blue-bell, except that the 
application of the term to a flower, which is more often white 
than blue, is scarcely appropriate. The colour, though 
commonly a dingy white, varies in shade from white to deep 
blue. In Tasmania and Australia, where the plant is also 
abundant, the colour of the corolla is generally brighter than 
in New Zealand specimens. JV. cartilaginea is a curious 
little sweet-scented mountain species, found in Nelson. The 
coriaceous petioles, with cartilaginous margins, short stout 
scapes, and low habit, are highly characteristic of an alpine 
plant. 


THE CANTERBURY BELL FAMILY 403 


The method of pollination in the genus is typical of that of 
the order. The anthers ripen before the stigmas, and the 
pollen is discharged on to the hairs on the outside of 
the style, which at this time is closed, but afterwards divides 
into two arms. ‘The pollen is carried up by the growing 
style, but cannot reach the stigmatic surfaces, which are 
closely pressed together. On the hairy tip of the style it is 
presented to imcoming insects, which remove it to other 
flowers. Honey is secreted at the base of the style by a disk, 
and is, in most Campanulaceae, protected by the expanded 
base of the filament, so that 1t can only be obtained by an 
insect which can insert its proboscis into the narrow slit, 
between two adjacent stamens. This arrangement, and the 
drooping habit of the flower, show that plants of this family 
are specially adapted for bee pollination, though other insects 
may also visit them. 

As the pistil ripens, the two arms of the style separate, 
disclosing the papillose stigmas, and finally become recurved. 
They are right in the way of any insect which may enter the 
flower, or endeavour to obtain the honey at the foot of the 
bell. Thus cross-pollination is likely to be effected; but, if 
this fails, then the recurvature of the stigmas against the 
pollen-covered surface of their own styles, will secure self- 
pollination; so that, im one way or another, fertilization 1s 
ensured. The flowers of Pratia, Lobelia, and Colensoa, are 
similar to those of Wahlenbergia. In Pratia, the white 
corolla is provided with purple guide-lines, leading back to the 
honey-glands at the base of the flower. 


Genus Lobelva. 


Erect or ascending, milky herbs. Leaves alternate. Flowers racemose or 
axillary. Corolla-tube split to the base down the back, 2-lpped ; ovary 2-celled, 
Capsule usually dehiscing by 2 valves at the top. (Named after a Flemish 
botanist). A large and widely-spread genus, of which several species are 
commonly grown in gardens. 3 sp. 


404 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Lobelia anceps (The Doubtful Lobelia). 


A herb, 6 in.-12 in. high. Stems triangular. Leaves 1 in.-3 in. long, 
spathulate or oblong. Flowers } in. long, pale blue, on short axillary peduncles, 
North Island, and northern part of South Island. DL. Roughii is a remarkable 
alpine and sub-alpine species, from the mountains of Nelson. 


Genus Colensoa. 


This genus is separated from Lobelia, on account of the berried fruits. 1 sp. 


Colensoa physaloides (The Physalis-like Colensoa). 


Stem flexuose, branched, 2 ft.-3 ft. high, woody at the base. Leaves 
alternate, membranous, ovate, with petioles 3 in.-6 in. long. Racemes 6-12- 
3 in. in diameter. Northern 


parts of Auckland province. (Physalis is the Cape Gooseberry). 


flowered ; corolla 1 in.-2 in. long, blue. Berry 


Goodeniaceae. 


THE GOODENIA FAMILY. 


A small family of chiefly Australian and Polynesian plants, differimg only 
from the Campanulaceae in the absence of milky juice, and in the presence of a 
pollen-cup (v. Selliera). 


Genus Selliera. 


Small, hairless, rather fleshy, 
creeping herbs. Corolla 1-lipped, 
split posteriorly to the base. 
Stamens 5, epigynous, anthers 
free. Ovary 2-celled, style simple, 
carrying at its apex a small 2- 
lipped cup. Fruit a berry. 1sp. 


Selliera radicans 
(The Rooting Selliera). 
Stems juicy, 2 in.-10 in. long. 

Leaves } in.-3in. long, spathulate, 
obtuse, entire, petiole half-clasping the stem. Flower-stalks solitary, or several 
together, 1- or 2-flowered. Flower }in. long. Berry very variable in size. 
F]. Nov. Jan. Both islands, abundant in the salt meadows. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 405 


The plant is found abundantly in the salt marshes along the 
coast line; often forming, with Samolus littoralis, a carpet 
starred with white flowers, just above high water mark, on the 
edges of the estuaries and salt-water lagoons. Its method of 
pollination is most interesting”. 

The little white flower has a curiously one-sided appearance, 
and the casual observer almost invariably thinks that half the 
corolla is torn away. 


Compositae. 


Tuer Datsy, DaNDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY. 


Distribution.—This is the largest family of flowering plants, comprising 
12,000 species. Some of the species contain a milky, acrid juice. Under cultivation, 
many of the Compositae produce so-called ‘‘ double ’’ flowers, e.g. the disk florets, 
usually tubular, tend to become ligulate or rayed. This is seen in the Daisy, the 
Chrysanthemum, the Dahlia, etc. 

The Chicory, the Endive, the Artichoke, and the Lettuce, are also members 
of this family. 


CONTRIVANCES FOR POLLINATION AND SEED DISPERSAL. 


A family which includes nearly ten per cent. of all the 
known flowering plants must be one which is well fitted to 
survive in the struggle for existence, and is likely also to 
represent a highly developed type. Indeed, the Composites are 
generally regarded as being at the head of the Vegetable 
Kingdom. It is worthy of note that the majority of the 
species are herbs, though, amongst the New Zealand forms, 
there is an unusually large percentage of shrubs. Very often 
they are plants with radical leaves. 

In such a successful family, it might be anticipated that the 
various devices for pollination and distribution of the seed 
would cause diversity of structure, but the characters of the 


*Cheeseman Trans., Vol. IX. p. 342. 


406 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


flowers and seeds are remarkably constant. This is, doubtless, 
due to the fact that the contrivances employed for pollination 
and seed-distribution, though comparatively simple, are yet. 
highly efficient. The family may be contrasted in this respect 
with the Orchidaceae, (qg.v.). In spite of there being many 
and most complex adaptations for pollination among the 
orchids, yet their flowers are often sterile, and species have to 
rely for survival upon the occasional production of large 
numbers of seeds in a single capsule. In the Composites, on 
the other hand, each pistillate floret produces only one seed, 
and many florets are abortive. Nevertheless, some of the 
species (e.g. dandelions, thistles, etc.) are amongst the most. 
abundant weeds known. No plants are more often victorious 
in competition with their rivals, or better adapted for offensive 
warfare. 

The chief contrivances by which the success of the family 
has been procured are the following. The involucral bracts 
replace the calyx, and protect the flower-head as a whole in 
the bud, and also as a rule bend up and enclose the young 
fruit. The sex of the florets varies in different species. 
Commonly, however, the ray florets are pistillate, and the disk 
florets hermaphrodite. Not infrequently, however, the florets 
of the ray are sterile, and therefore only of value in attracting 
insects. The first obvious gain in the massing together of the 
flowers in heads is conspicuousness. Another advantage 1s 
that insects may pass from flower to flower without loss of 
time. 

Cross-pollination is thus effected in the family. Honey is 
secreted by a ring of glands round the base of the style. When 
the flower opens, the style-arms are closed. The stamens 
ripen first, and the pollen falls upon, and is carried up by the 
still growing style through the anther ring. Any insects now 
visiting the flower must come in contact with it on entering, 
and remove some of the pollen. Finally, the arms of the style 
expand, and expose the now mature stigmas. Should these 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 407 


fail of insect pollination, they frequently curl back, until they 
touch the pollen collected on the style itself, and thus effect 
self-pollination. These stages may be readily followed in the 


Fig. 137. Olearia insignis (? nat, size). 


dandelion. (c¢f. also Campanulaceae, p. 403). After pollina- 
tion, the calyx tube usually grows upwards, bearing on its 
summit a parachute of bristles or hairs (the pappus). In this 
way the well known “clock” of the dandelion is formed. 
The pappus hairs vary considerably in character, and generic 
distinctions are sometimes based upon their differences. The 


408 


PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


seed, thus provided with down, may be floated for long 
distances by the wind. 


wn 


17. 


1s, 


20, 


21, 


Key to the Genera. 


Flowers of the disk not strap-shaped. No milky juice. 
All flowers strap-shaped. Milky juice present. 
Anthers obtuse at the base, or shortly tailed. 

Anthers sagittate at the base, or long tailed. 


Stigmas flattened with marginal rows of papillae, and terminal 


hairy unreceptive portions. 

Stylearms usually truncate, rarely produced into appendages, 
generally with a crown of long hairs at the base. 

Pappus 0 or obscure. 

Pappus present. 

Achenes contracted into a short beak. 

Achenes obtuse or truncate. 

Achenes rounded or slightly flattened. 

Achenes much flattened. Ray-florets in 2 or more series. 

Shrubs or trees. 

Herbs with radical leaves. 

Florets 1. 

Florets more than 1. 

Herbs with heads on erect racemose scapes. 

Herbs with solitary terminal heads. 

Head solitary on a slender peduncle. 

Heads deeply sunk amongst the apical leaves. 

Pappus 0, or abortive. 

Achenes usually crowned with a bristly pappus. 

Heads pedunculate, or mossy alpine herbs. 

Heads axillary, sessile, not mosslike herbs. 

Heads pedunculate. 

Alpine herbs with sessile or sub-sessile heads. 

Outer florets small, two lipped. Anthers shortly tailed. 
Shrubs. 

Outer florets filiform, ligulate or tubular. 

Herbs, outer florets in two or three series, filiform. 

Herbs or shrubs, inflorescence terminal, outer 
ligulate or tubular. 

Anthers sagittate. 

Anthers usually with long, slender tails. 

Annual or perennial herbs. 

Shrubs, cushion like, or with alternate leaves. 

Pappus bristles capillary, in 1 series, often slightly united 
at the bas 

Pappus hairs as long as the florets, plumose, head com- 
pound with a common involucre. 

Cushion-like, or tufted plants. 

Upright shrubs with alternate leaves. 

Pappus, or at least some of it, of plumose bristles. 

Pappus of simple bristles. 

Achenes angled, spinulose, and prolonged into a beak. 

Achenes rounded, narrowed above and not beaked. 


florets 


The genera Centipeda, Abrotanella, Picris, Crepis, 


11 
5 
6 
Lagenophbora, p. 410. 
Brachycome. p. 410. 
7 
10 
8 
9 
Olearia Forsteri, p. 415. 
Olearia, p. 411. 
Pleurophyllum, p. 417. 
Celmisia, p. 418. 
Vittadinia, p. 411. 
Haastia, p. 423. 
12 


Centipeda. 
Cotula, p. 434. 
Abrotanella. 


Brachyglottis, p. 435. 
15 
Erechtites, p. 434. 


Senecio, p. 436. 
Helichrysum, p. 430. 
17 
18 
19 


Gnaphalium, p. 425. 


Craspedia, p. 433. 
Raoulia, p. 425. 
Cassinia, p. 433. 
Picris. 

21 
Taraxacum. 
Crepis. 


and 


Taraxacum (the dandelion) are not further dealt with. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 409 


Fig. 138. Olearia furfuracea, (life size). 


410 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Lagenophora. 


Small, perennial, daisy-like herbs. Leaves radical, rarely cauline. Ray- 
florets white, rarely purple.  Disk-florets yellow. Achenes compressed, 
sometimes with a short beak. Pappus 0. (Name from the Greek, signifying a 
flagon and to bear, in allusion to the form of the achenes). 6 sp. 


Lagenophora Forsteri (Forster’s Lagenophora). 


Leaves roundish, obtuse, lobed or crenate. Flower-stem 1in.-6in. long, 
slender. Heads jin.-4in. across. Ray-florets numerous, white. Achenes 
beaked. Both islands. Kermadecs, Stewart Island, Chatham Island. Native 
Daisy: Maori name Papatanwhaniwha. FI. Oct.-Jan. 


Fig. 139. Olearia ilicifolia (4 nat. size). 


Genus Brachycome. 


Small, tufted, perennial, daisy-like herbs. Leaves mainly radical. Disk- 
florets numerous; ray-florets in 1 series, white, blue or purplish, revolute. 
Achenes flat, with winged margins or 4-angled; beak 0. Pappus of short 
bristles or 0. (Name from the Greek, signifying short-haired, in allusion to the 
pappus). 45 sp. 


Brachycome Sinclairii (Sinclair's Brachycome). 


A shining herb, with radical leaves, #in.-3 in. long, rounded at the tip, entire, 
lobed, pinnatifid. Flower-stems 2-6. Heads 4in. across. Bracts of involucre 
green, or with purple margins. Achenes very small, shining. Native Daisy. 
Both islands. Fl. Dec.-Feb. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 411 


Genus Vittadinia. 

Herbs, with a woody rhizome. Ray-florets numerous; disk-florets fewer. 
Achenes narrow, compressed, ribbed. Pappus unequal. A genus of about 
thirteen species, chiefly natives of the Sandwich Islands. 1 sp. 

Vittadinia australis (The Southern Vittadinia). 


Stems 3in.-10in. high. Branches slender, leafy, Leaves 4in.-$in. long. 
Head solitary, terminal. Rays white. Fl. Oct.-Feb. 


Fig. 140. Olearia nummularifolia (% nat. size). 


Genus Olearia. 


Shrubs or trees. Leaves very hard, leathery, usually white or buff-coloured 
on the under-surface. Heads terminal or axillary, varying much in size. 
Florets usually numerous, 5-lobed. Anthers 5. Pappus of one or more rows of 
hairs. Achénés ribbed. (Name from Olea, the Olive, in allusion to the shape of 
the leaves, in some of the species.) 35 sp. 

Distribution.—This is a large New Zealand and Australian genus of shrubs 
and trees. All the New Zealand forms, however, are endemic, thus indicating 
that the Australian species have long been separated from ours by the Tasman 
Sea. Some of the most beautiful of the New Zealand shrubs belong to this 
genus. As in most genera with many species, a great amount of variability 
is found. Thus Dr. Cockayne* points out that in O. semidentata of the Chatham 


*Trans. XXXIV. p. 288. 


412 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Islands, the leaves show great variation in several respects. The proportions, 
and actual size, not only vary largely, but some bear abundant tomentum on the 
upper surfaces, there being none in others. Three plants growing side by side 
in the vicinity of Lake Rangatapu might readily have been taken for distinct 
species, yet the conditions under which they were growing appeared to be the 
same. 

In large genera, such as Veronica and Coprosma, the 
variability is so great that it 1s most difficult to fix the 
limits of the species. The same difficulty presents itself in 
Olearia ; but will to some extent be removed when our 
knowledge of the genus is fuller than at present. Several 
species are known only from a few specimens, and others are 
extremely local in their distribution. This is the more 
remarkable, as the pappus with which the seeds are provided 
is eminently calculated to scatter the species widely. Some 
of the finest plants in the genus are endemic in the off-islands. 
Thus O. semedentata 1s found only on the Chatham Islands. 
Tt bears handsome flowers of a bright purple, whose colour is 
a striking contrast to the white of other species. According 
to Mr. Cox, a white-rayed form 1s, however, sometimes found. 
But this is not the only Olearia endemic to these islands. 
O. Chathamica, which somewhat resembles the magnificent 
O. angustifolia and O, Traversit, with opposite leaves, are also 
found nowhere else. The latter was originally mistaken by 
Dieftenbach for the Mangrove (Avicennia officinalis), which it 
slightly resembles. Many specimens of it are to be seen in 
the Christchurch Gardens, and there are also several well- 
grown plants beside the Hereford Street Bridge in the same 
town. O. operina is only known from the Sounds on the 
West Coast of Otago. O. angustifolia—a beautiful plant, 
whose flowers have white rays and a violet disk is found 
chiefly in exposed places near Paterson’s Inlet (Stewart 
Island), though it has been reported fron south-west Otago. 
O. Traillii, another noble species, is known only from one or 
two localities on the mountains at the head of Paterson’s 
Inlet; O. Lyallit is endemic in the Snares and Auckland 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 141. Olearia virgata, var. aggregata (? nat. size). 


414 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Islands, where it forms thickets. It is a plant with large 
leaves, green on the upper surface, and covered with a white 
tomentum below. The effect of the wind on a forest of such 
plants has been well described by a New Zealand poet (Mr. A. 
H. Adams). 


“As the leaves to a fiercer gust lean, 
The wind throws their undersides 
Upwards to sight ; 
And the foam of the forest-sea flashes to white, 
Out over full fathoms of green.” 
O. Buchanani appears to be known from one specimen only, 
and comes from an uncertain locality in the North Island. 
O, Allomii is a distinct species from Great Barrier Island. 
O. angulata has only been reported from the North Cape 
district. There is considerable reason for believing that this 
locality was in recent times, — geologically speaking, — an 
island, and, as such, it appears to have possessed several 
endemic species in addition to this one, e.g., Cassinta amena, 
Haloragis cartilaginea, and a Coprosma. Several other 
species of Olearia are, apparently, very rare. 

This remarkable development of endemic species in the off- 
islands of New Zealand, undoubtedly suggests that we have in 
these, new forms originated by isolation. The distribution of 
the genus, therefore, well illustrates initial endemism, and 
may be contrasted with such a form as Stilbocarpa polaris 
(v. p. 301), which illustrates relict endemism. 


Olearia semi-dentata (The Toothed Olearia). 


A small, slender shrub, 1ft.-2ft. in height. Leaves white below, thin, 
lin.-24in. long, }in.-4in. broad, acute, partially serrate. Heads numerous ; 
ray-florets purple. Chatham Islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. A bog plant. 


Olearia insignis (The Remarkable Olearia). 


A shrub, 1 ft.-8 ft. in height. Leaves 3in.-5in. long: lin.-4in. broad, very 
thick, shining above, white below. Heads terminal, 3in. across. Rays narrow. 
Achenes silky.  Pappus-hairs in one series. The finest species of the genus. 
South Island: Nelson and Marlborough. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 415 


This is a straggling plant growing in the crevices of the 
rocky banks of the Clarence, Conway, and several other rivers. 
The leaves are white underneath, and a beautiful glossy green 
shines through the greyish bloom of the upper surface. The 
white involucral bracts are in a large series of rings, and form 
a cup-like envelope to the flower, similar in shape to that of 
the Scotch thistle. The large, beautiful, daisy-hke flowers, 
with their ragged white rays, seem strangely out of place in 


Fig. 142. Olearia Forsteri (7 nat. size). 


the blaze of the sun on the dry, burning, rocky walls of some 


river gorge. 


Olearia furfuracea (The Bran-like Olearia). 

A shrub or tree, 6 ft.-20ft. in height. Leaves 2in.-3in. long, 1} in.-24 in. 
broad, obtuse, rarely acute, margins often unequal at the base, silvery below. 
Branches velvety, twigs grooved. Corymbs large, loose. Heads 4in. long; 
florets 8-12. Ray-florets white; pappus white. Achene slightly hairy, angled. 
North Island: Auckland, Taranaki, Mokau River. Fl, Sept.-Oct. A bush plant. 


Olearia nitida (The Shining Olearia.) 
Leaves less leathery than in O. furfuracea, and more ovate in shape; very 
silvery below. Heads din.-tin. long, numerous.  Florets 16-20. Both 
islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A bush plant. 


PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


416 
Olearia macrodonta (The Large-toothed Olearia). 
Leaves 


Leaves and branchlets whitish. 
Corymbs large ; 


A small tree, 6 ft.-20 ft. in height. 
Both islands : 


2 in.-4 in. long, 1 in.-14 in. broad, acute; veins divergent. 
heads fin. long; florets 8-12; rays 3-5. Achenes ribbed, hairy. 
mountainous places. Fl. Jan. The whole plant emits a musky scent. 


Olearia ilicifolia (The Holly-leaved Olearia). 
Leaves glaucous, musk scented, 3 in.-4 in. long, 4 in.-? in. broad, acute 
margins with spinous teeth, yellowish below. Corymbs large, musk-scented. 
Disk-florets 5-6: rays 5-7. Achenes ribbed, hairy. Both islands. Fl. Nov.- 
Jan. Much cultivated. 
Olearia moschata (The Musky Olearia). 
A shrub or tree, 5 ft.-14 ft. in height. Leaves white below, }in.-?in. long, 
obtuse, leathery. Corymbs 2-4 times as long as the leaves. Heads few, florets 
12-20, rays 7-12, long, white. Achenes ribbed, silky. South Island: local, Fl. 
Jan.-March, 
Olearia avicennizfolia (The Avicennia-leaved Olearia). 
Branches grooved. Leaves 14 in.-4in. long, #in.-14 in. broad, narrowed at 
hoth ends, white below. Ray-florets 1, rarely 2, ray broad: disk- 
Achenes silky. South Island: Stewart 
Fl. Jan.-Feb. 


Heads small. 
Pappus-hairs in one series. 


florets 2. 
Much cultivated. 


Island. 


Olearia virgata (The Twiggy Olearia). 
Leaves }in.-}in. long, opposite, 

12, white. Achene 

A plant of 


A twiggy shrub, often forming thickets. 
leathery, white beneath. Heads } in. across; florets 7- 
glabrous. Pappus white or reddish. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Jan. 
the open country or seashore. 


Olearia Forsteri (Forster's Olearia). 

Stem 5 ft.-20 ft. in height. Leaves 1} in.-3 in. long; 1 in.-2 in. broad, 
leathery, oblong, white below, obtuse, margins waved. Heads numerous, 
sessile, shining. Anthers exserted. Both islands. FI. Maori 
A plant of the open country, or edge of the bush. 


name Akiraho, 


Apr.-May. 


Genus Pleurophyllum. 
Leaves mainly radical, with strongly-marked ribs. 
Achene marked with 


Large, succulent herbs. 
Flowers in racemes, on a long scape. Florets numerous. 
lines, and set with stiff hairs. Pappus-hairs in 3 series. Name from the Greek, 
meaning ribbed-leaved), 3 sp. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 417 


Pleurophyllum 
speciosum 


(The Handsome Pleuro- 
phyllum). 


Leaves all radical, 6 in.- 
18 in. long, 6 in. - 10 in. 
broad, usually flat upon 
the ground, forming a large 
rosette, bristly above, woolly 
below. Flower stems with 
several leafy bracts. Heads 
8-20, 1} in.-24 in. across. 
Ray-florets purplish-white, 
handsome. Achenes covered 
with stiff hairs, all lying in 
one direction. Pappus- 
hairs not thickened up- 
wards. Auckland and 
Campbell Islands. Fl. Dec.- 
Jan. 


Pleurophyllum 
criniferum 


(The Hairy Pleuro- 
phyllum). 


Radical leaves, 1 ft.-4 ft. 
long, 4in. - 12 in. broad, 
entire, with long sheathing 
petioles, white beneath, 
slightly rough above. 
Nerves 7-15 ; margins with 
a few distant teeth. Scapes 
2 ft.-6 ft. high, grooved. 
Stem-leaves sessile, white. 
Heads 15-30. Ray-florets 
inconspicuous. Achenes as 
in P. speciosum. Pappus- 
hairs slightly thickened up- 
wards. Antipodes Islands. 
Auckland and Campbell 
Islands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. 

The Auckland Islands 
contain 2 magnificent 
assemblage of herbaceous 


Fig. 143. Pleurophyllum speciosum. 


418 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


plants, unrivalled in beauty on the mainland of New Zealand. Amongst them 
are several species belonging to the endemic genus Pleurophyllian. The general 
appearance of these plants is well described by Kirk.* 


Genus Celmisia. 

Herbs, aster-like, with radical, simple leaves, more or less clothed with silky 
or cottony hairs. Stems 1-flowered. Heads large. Ray-florets white. Pappus of 
2 series of rigid bristles. Achene glabrous or silky. A beautiful genus, of which 
all but 2 species (C. longifolia, and C. Lechleri) are endemic in New Zealand. Of 
these, C. longifolia is found both in New Zealand and Australia, and C. Lechlerv 
is a doubtful Peruvian species. 43 sp. 


Celmisia coriacea (The Leathery Celmisia). 

Leaves 8 in.-20 in. long, }# in.-3 in. broad, acute, with deep longitudinal 
furrows, sheathing at the base, woolly above, silvery below. | Flowerimg-stem 
6in.-36 in. high. Head 14in.-4in. across ; bracts numerous, cottony. Achene 
fin. long, hairy, compressed. Rays many, narrow, 14in. long. Both islands : 
mountainous districts. The Mountain Daisy. Fl. Dec.-March. 


Celmisia Monroi (Mozro’s Celmisia). 

Leaves 3 in.-7 in. long, 4 in.-{ in. broad, acute, white with wool. Sheath 
half as long as the blade. Flower-stem very woolly. Heads 1 in.-14 in. across. 
Rays few, spreading. Achene glabrous. Bothislands. Fl. Dec.-Jan. A species 
midway between C. coriacea and C. longifolia. 


Celmisia longifolia (The Long-leaved Celmisia). 


Leaves 1 in.-16 in. long, 5 in.-3 in. broad, acute, silvery above, cottony 


below. Head $in.-1}in. broad, bracts often black at the tips. Achene glabrous 
or silky. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl. Dec.-March. 


Celmisia vernicosa (The Varnished Celmisia). 

Leaves in rosettes, sessile, lin.-4in. long, 4in.-jin. broad, thick, rigid, 
sometimes slightly serrate at the tip. Flower-stem 1in.-8in. high, with broad 
bracts, Disk-florets purple, rays white. Achene roughly hairy. Very shining 
in all its parts. Auckland wand Campbell Islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 

Closely allied to the genus Olearia, and differing from it 
chiefly in habit, is the genus Celmisia. There are some forty 
species in New Zealand, which, with one exception, are all 
endeunc. The flowers are white, daisy-like, and often very 
beautiful. Most of the species are found in sub-alpine regions, 
wnd hence are termed by the settlers, Mountain Daisies, The 
leaves are frequently set in a rosette, and are often. stiff 


*Report of the Australasian Association, 1891, p. 220, 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 419 


Fig. 144. Celmisia coriacea (t nat. size). 


420 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


and sword-hke. They are usually covered with a brown, 
silvery, silky, hoary, gold-coloured, snowy, or buff tomentum, 
which makes them extremely attractive in appearance. In 
some cases, the midrib is also brightly coloured. Thus, in 
Celmisia Traversit, the leaves and flower stems are covered 
with a rich brown velvety coating of hairs; the midrib 1s a 
deep purple, and the sheath is covered with a silky, snow- 
white tomentum. Several species are frequently to be found 
in cultivation, in rockeries and alpine gardens. 

The leaves in most species are constructed so as to avoid 
excessive loss of water by transpiration. For example, those 
of C. coriacea are stiff and leathery. The lower side 1s covered 
with a thick silvery felt of hairs, which also covers the upper 
sides of the young leaves. As they grow older, however, 
the tomentum of the upper-side becomes woven into a thin 
skin that les close to the surface of the leaf. Underneath 
this pellicle, hes the two-layered epidermis used for water- 
storage. The sheaths are covered with a loose felt, whose thin 
walled hairs probably absorb the water that runs down to them 
from the surface of the leaves. This may be of special value 
to the plant when the ground is frozen in winter, and water 
cannot reach it through the roots. According to Kirk, 
shepherds use the tomentum of this plant for lamp-wicks. 

C. Lyallit is even more admirably adapted than C. coriacea 
for an alpine habitat. Indeed, Diels considers the structure 
of its leaf umgque amongst dicotyledons. It has narrow 
linear leaves, that might be readily mistaken for those of a 
grass, and which Diels compares in structure to those of a 
steppe grass. True palisade cells are wanting, and are replaced 
by a chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma of small rounded cells, 
similar to that found in the leaf of an iris or grass. It is 
curious that this structure should have been adopted, in a plant 
of an order so widely divergent from the grasses, but many 
Composites have leaves which externally resemble those of a 
grass, though it would be very difficult, perhaps impossible, to 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 421 


ee: 


Fig. 145. Celmisia coriacea (4 nat. size). 


429 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


find one with an internal structure similar to that of the 
leaf of C. Lyallii. Probably the large palisade cells were 
insufficiently protected from transpiration, and hence the 
adoption of the grass-like leaf. The stomata are in hair-filled, 
longitudinal grooves, on the under surface of the leaf, and thus 
the exposed transpiration surface is reduced to a minimum. 

We have here, therefore, a remarkable example of the 
principle, that the shape, and general appearance of the foliage, 
depend to a greater extent upon environment, and less upon 
heredity, than is generally supposed. 

In C. sessiliflora the leaves are reduced to an inch or two in 
height, and the plant forms broad masses surrounding the 
flower heads, which are sunk amongst the apical leaves; and in 
C. argentea the leaves have become needle-like and involute. 
The leaves are also reduced to needles in C. lateralis and 
C. laricifolia. It is such remarkable adaptations as these, that 
have enabled Celmisia to become one of the dominant genera 
of the New Zealand sub-alpine meadows. 

Though so highly characteristic of mountain regions, the 
genus is also found on the lowlands, and by the sea-shore. 
C. longifolia, for example, in one of its many forms, is found 
throughout New Zealand, from the sea-coast, up to the height 
of about 5,000 feet. C. Mackaui, however, another very 
distinct form, is only known with certainty from one spot on 
Banks Peninsula. There, however, it is fairly plentiful, and 
is scarcely hkely to suffer extinction, unless at the hands of 
too enthusiastic collectors, so that perhaps it will be wiser not 
to disclose the exact position of its habitat. 

Some of the Celmisias, ke many Olearias and other 
Composites, have varnished leaves. Some also closely 
resemble the Andean Asters and Erigerons, and_ this, 
doubtless, more because of similarity of habitat, than because 
of affinity. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 423 


Genus Haastia. 
Tufted, woolly shrubs, forming dense masses, sometimes several feet across. 
This genus differs from Raoulia in having tailless anthers. Flower-heads large, 
solitary, sunk amongst the upper leaves. Ray-florets female. Disk-florets 


Fig. 146. Celmisia longifolia, var. (j nat. size). 


numerous. Achene shining, narrow, sometimes ribbed. Pappus-hairs rigid, 
white. (Name in honour of Sir Julius von Haast). This genus is endemic in 
New Zealand. 4 sp. 


424 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Haastia pulvinaris (The Cushion-like Haastia). 
Rootstock woody : plant forming a cushion 3 in.-5 ft. across. Leaves tawny 
or buff-coloured, with thick, close wool, densely imbricating. Heads $ in.-4 in. 
across. Rays very short. Achene shining. Pappus-hairs free to the base. 
South Island: mountainous districts. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Colonists’ name, Vegetable 
Sheep. 

Haastia pulvinaris has been more closely studied than any of 
the others. It is sometimes incorrectly described as belonging 
to the shingle-slips, but is really a rock-plant. Though often 
found at the edges of the fans, and sometimes even surrounded 
by detritus, it will, if examined, be found rooted to the 
under-lying rock. It has been found only on the mountains 
of South Nelson, and exists there at an altitude of from 
5,000 feet to 6,000 feet ; it is therefore a true alpine, and, hke 
other alpines, has had to devise special means of protection 
against the rigours of the climate. 

Hapir. 

Haastia is a shrub, but it is as unlike a typical shrub as 
possible. It has no httle twigs to be broken, or slender 
branches to sway in the wind. It is a compact, low-growing 
cushion plant,” often covering an area of from twelve to twenty 
square feet. The branches are all of the same height, and so 
closely fitted together, that it is impossible to thrust a pencil 
point between them. The wind may sweep round the plant, 
but it cannot move or shake it. The leaves of Haastia, how- 
ever, are its most unique characteristic. They are from 41n. to 
4 in. in length, and so closely packed together as to be matted 
into a cushion, and indistinguishable from each other, while 
attached to the plant. Whenever they are exposed, they are 
thickly felted with long, slender, woolly hairs, that give the 
plant its characteristic appearance, and its popular name of 
vegetable sheep. On the tip of the leaf, as might be expected, 
the covering of wool is densest. One value of this covering is 
clearly to protect the plant from the intense cold, to which it 
is exposed. Indeed, its whole structure is evidently not only 


“up. 426. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 425 


intended “to keep the cold out,” but also to protect it from 
loss of heat by excessive radiation, to the clear cold skies of 
winter.* 

Genus Gnaphalium. 


Woolly or cottony herbs. Leaves alternate. Heads small, solitary, fascicled, 
or in corymbs. Florets all fertile, bracts usually white. Achene small, hairy. 
Pappus-hairs in 1 series, sometimes united at the base. (Name from the Greek, 
referring to the wool with which the plants are covered). 10 sp. 


Fig. 147. Gnaphalium trinerve. 


Gnaphalium luteo-album (The Yellowish-white Gnaphalium). 
Annual or biennial. Leaves narrow, 3in.-2 in. long, woolly, the upper ones 
without foot-stalks. Heads fascicled, 4 in.-4in. long, yellowish-brown. — Bracts 
shining. Achene dotted with pits. Both islands; Stewart Island. Fl. Dec.- 
March. A common weed. 


Genus Raoulta. 


Small, tufted, alpine herbs, often growing in dense masses. Leaves very 
small, imbricate, often silky or woolly. Heads small, terminal, solitary. 


*v, Trans. XXXIL., p. 150. 


426 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Disk-florets numerous, outer florets in 1 or 2 series. Pappus of 1 row of hairs. 
Achene small, oblong. A small genus almost confined to New Zealand. (Named 
after Raoul, the French botanist). 17 sp. 


Raoulia Haastii (Haast’s Raoulia). 

A prostrate herb, much tufted. Branches not more than lin. high. Leaves 
closely imbricating, ,; in. long, obtuse, coriaceous. Plant glabrous, sometimes 
with a few loose hairs. Head }in.-}in. long; florets 6-8.  Achene slightly 
hairy. South Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. 


Raoulia eximia (The Extraordinary Raoulia). 


Stems 1 ft. in height, forming cushions, sometimes several feet in length. 
Rootstock woody. Leaves ¢in. long, «almost hidden by dense tufts of white 


Fig. 148. A Cushion Plant (Raoulia australis). 


velvety hairs. Heads numerous, terminal, sunk among the leaves. Achene 
silky. Pappus few-haired. Vegetable Sheep. South Island; mountainous 
districts. Fl. Jan. 


Raoulia mammillaris (The Breasted Raoulia), 

Stems 1 ft.-2 ft. in height, forming knobby grey patches, sometimes several 
feet in length. Leaves 4)j in.-7g in. long, imbricate, cottony or woolly. | Heads 
sin. long, terminal, sunk amongst the leaves. Florets about ten. Achene 
compressed, silky. Pappus few-haired. Vegetable Sheep. South Island : 
mountainous districts. 


CUSHION-PLANTS. 


Plants which grow in low, compact muasses, are frequently 
‘patch-plants.” In 


‘ 


called “ cushion-plants,” and sometimes 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 42,7 


Fig. 149. Raoulia mamunillaris. 


428 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


many parts of the world there are no examples of these 
curious and interesting forms of vegetation, except amongst 
the mosses. In New Zealand, however, there is quite a large 
number of phanerogamic cushion-plants. The most typical 
examples are to be found in the genera Raoulia and Haastia. 
When species of these genera are covered with woolly hairs, 


Fig. 150. Helichrysum grandiceps (} nat. size). 


they may, from a short distance, so resemble a sheep, as to 


vc 


deceive the unwary. Hence has arisen the name, “ vegetable 
sheep,” which is applied to the species of Haastia, and to 
several species of Raoulia. The New Zealand forms of 
cushion-plant are found chiefly in stony river-beds (e.g. of the 
Waimakariri, Rakaia, Waitaki), on rocky mountain sides, and 
also on shingle-fans. Their curious forms of leaf and stem 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 151. Helichrysum bellidioides (life size). 


430 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


have been developed, probably, as a protection against drought 
and excessive radiation (v. Haastia pulvinaris, p. 424). In 
other parts of the world, patch-plants are found chiefly in 
alpine districts. Their occurrence in low-land regions, as in 
New Zealand river-beds, is exceptional. In the Swiss Alps 
they are represented by certain species of Androsace and 
Sacifraga, which, however, are rather rosette-plants, than true 
cushion-plants. They are most abundant in the Andes, where, 
according to Schimper, their representatives are forms of most 
diverse affinity. This really shows that the common habit of 
the various cushion-plants is due to environment, and not 
to relationship. Indeed, the conditions of life in some parts of 
the Andes, are so similar to those in the Southern Alps, that 
the vegetation in these widely separated districts 1s externally 
much alike. A New Zealander, suddenly put down in the 
Andes of Peru or Bolivia, might still think himself at home, on 
account of the similarity of the plant forms about him, to those 
of his native land. This resemblance, however, 1s only in 
small part due to actual affinity, and much more to parallelism 
of evolution, resulting from similarity of surroundings. 

The New Zealand Raoulias are often very beautiful, owing 
to their symmetry of form and leaf arrangement. Some are 
coralloid in appearance, though resilient to the tread, like a 
good carpet. They grow where other forms of life cannot find 
a footing, and thus have generally plenty of room to develop 
their own individuality. 


Genus Helichrysum. 

Herbs or small shrubs. Leaves alternate, woolly. Heads solitary or in 
coryinbs. Bracts of the involucre often appearing like petals. Disk-florets 
4-5-toothed. Ray-florets few. Pappus-hairs simple, or studded with short 
bristles. About 16 species in New Zealand, all endemic. (Name from the 


Greek, signifying an everlasting flower) 16 sp. 


Helichrysum selago (The Selago-like Everlasting). 
A shrub, 4ft.-9ft. im height. Leaves closely imbricate, leathery, concave, 
woolly. Head terminal, sessile, solitary, not sunk amongst the leaves. Florets 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 43] 


432 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


numerous. Achene slightly hairy. Pappus-hairs not thickened upwards, 
South Island: Kaikouras, Mount Torlesse, Otago. Fl. Jan. (Selago, a South 
African genus of plants.) 


Helichrysum grandiceps (The New Zealand Edelweiss). 

A tufted herb. Stems 1lin.-7in. high. Leaves closely imbricating, silvery- 
white on both surfaces, }in.-}in. long, tips often recurved. Heads terminal, 
surrounded with leafy bracts, white with wool. Florets numerous. Achene 
hairy. Pappus-hairs slightly thickened upwards. South Island: mountainous 
districts. Fl. Jan.-March. Very similar to the Swiss Edelweiss, differing only in 
the rounder shape of the leaves and bracts. 

Helichrysum is a large genus, found in most parts of the 
world. It includes the plants known as Immortelles, which 
owe much of their beauty to the scaly bracts collected round 
the flower-heads. These involucres may be snow-white, 
golden-yellow, or rose-red. The sacred flower, which the 
Greek pilgrims bring from Mount Athos, is H. virginewm. H. 
arenariwm is well known in the Rhine Valley. The genus is 
closely related to Raoulia and Haastia on the one hand, and 
to Gnaphalium on the other. The New Zealand species are 
all endemic, and are usually divided into three sub-genera. 
Sub-genus (1) Xerochlaena consists of herbs with daisy-like 
flowers ; (2) sub-genus Ozothammus consists of shrubs, some- 
times of a most extraordinary appearance, while the plants of 
sub-genus (3) Leontopodioides much resemble the Swiss 
Edelweiss, Gnaphahwum leontopodiwm. H. grandiceps is the 
Edelweiss of the Southern Alps. Probably the most 
remarkable species of the genus is Helichryswm (Ozothamnus) 
coralloides (fig.123). It 1s a rare, sub-alpine rock-plant, with 
thick, fleshy, closely appressed, overlapping, grey, shiny 
leaves, which give the plant the appearance of being dead and 
withered, though it may be in active growth. H. depressum 
presents a somewhat similar appearance. The living plant 
might readily be taken by the passer-by for a bush of leafless 
twigs, that had been dead for months. In H. coralloides the 
tips of the leaves are hard, brown, and scale-like, and suggest 
strongly the appearance of the bracts of a pine cone. Indeed, 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 433 


a branchlet of this species might well be taken for a small pine 
cone, or for an unusually hard and membranous unopened 
catkin. Unfortunately, the leaves have not hitherto received 
any close examination, and so no account of their microscopic 
structure can be given. The interstices between the bases of 
the leaves are closely packed with felted hairs. On the outer 
surfaces the tips of the hairs are brown-red; elsewhere they 
are white. 
Genus Cassinia. 

Shrubs. Leaves small, entire, often rusty-coloured below. Heads terminal, 

in corymbs or panicles. Florets tubular. Achenes papillose. Pappus-hairs in 


1-4-rows, slightly thickened at the tips. (Name in honour of M. Cassini, a 
French botanist). 5 sp. 


Cassinia leptophylla (Lhe Narrow-leaved Cassinia). 

Stems 5 ft.-12ft. high. Branches and under-surfaces of leaves clothed with 
white tomentum. Leave 7; in.-y5in. long, obtuse, marginsrecurved. Headsin 
corymbs, $ in.-} in. long. Florets 6-10. Both islands. Colonists’ name 
Cottonwood, Maori name Tauhinrw. 


Cassinia Vauvilliersii (Vuuvilliers’ Cassinia). 
Stems 2ft.-8ft. high. Branches covered with viscid yellowish tomentum. 
Leaves $in.-$ in, long, coriaceous, obtuse, glutinous. Heads in round corymbs 
Lin. long. Both islands. 


Cassina fulvida (The Yellow Cassinia). 
Stems 2ft.-5ft. high, with slightly viscid yellow tomentum. Leaves 
4 in.-} in. long, sessile, obtuse, glutinous above, clothed with yellow tomentum. 
Heads $in.-}in. long, in corymbs. Florets 6-10, Scales among the florets few 
or 0. Both islands. FI. Sept.-March. 


Genus Craspedia. 

Erect, leafy, perennial herbs, with globose, woolly heads. Leaves radical and 
alternate. Florets 5-12, tubular, 5-toothed, intermixed with transparent scales. 
Achene silky, oblong. Anthers 2-tailed, Pappus of 1 row of soft feathery hairs. 
(Name from the Greek, signifying a fringe, in allusion to the white hairs upon 


the margins of the leaves), 1 sp. 


Craspedia uniflora (The One-flowered Craspedia). 

Stem 4 in.-20in. high. Leaves chiefly radical, 1in.-8 in. long, fringed with 
white hairs. Head rounded like a ball, or disk-shaped, $ in.-2 in. across. 
Florets yellow or white. The whole plant is usually clothed with a white, woolly, 
or cottony tomentum, but is sometimes glabrous. Both islands. Fl. Dec.- 


March. Several species seem to be included under this name. 
29 


434 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Genus Cotula. 


Perennial herbs, often succulent, sometimes aromatic. Stems prostrate or 
creeping. Leaves radical or alternate, usually pinnatifid. Heads small, 
terminal or axillary. Florets 
4-5-toothed. Anthers without 
tails. Achenes compressed, some- 
times winged. Pappus 0. About 
50 species, of which 19 are 
endemic in New Zealand. (Name 
from the Greek, signifying a 
cup, in allusion to the shape of 


the involucre). 


Cotula Coronopifolia 
(The Coronopus-leaved 
Cotula.) 


Stems fleshy, creeping, rooting 
at the nodes. Branches 3 in.- 
10in. high. Leaves 4 in.-2in. 
long, sheathing at the base, lobed 
or pinnatifid. Heads 3 in. across, 
yellow. Ray florets in 1 series ; 
corolla 0, Achene flat, winged. 
Both islands ; marshy _ places. 
Fl. Sept.-March. English name 
Yellow - button. (The English 
Coronopus is the Wart-Cress. 
The name is originally from the 
Greek, Meaning raven-footed). 


Genus Hrechtites. 


Erect, glabrous, or cotton, 
herbs, 1 ft.-4 ft. in height. Leaves 
simple or pinnatifid. Heads in 
corymbs. Rays 0. Florets tubu- 
lar, 3-5-toothed. Anthers without 
tails. Pappus in many series of 


Tig. 153. Craspedia uniflora (4 nat. size). 


small, soft hairs. About 7 species, 
of which 3 are endemic in New Zealand. (A Greek name for growndsel). 


Erechtites prenanthoides (The Prenanthes-like Erechtites). 
Leaves 2 in.-6in. long, narrow, hairy or shining, the upper ones sessile, with 
toothed auricles. Heads in loose corymbs. Florets about 18 in.-20in.  Disk- 
florets 4-lobed. Achenes angular.  Pappus-hairs rigid. 3oth islands. FI. 

Qet.-Jan. (Prenanthes is w European and West African genus of Composites). 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 435 


Genus Brachyglottis. 
Shrubs or trees. Branches and under surfaces of leaves white with tomentumn. 


Heads numerous, in large panicles. Achenes short, papillose. Pappus-hairs 
seriate. 2 sp. 


Brachyglottis repanda (The Wavy-leaved Rangiora). 
Stems 8 ft.-20ft. in height. Leaves 14 in.-6 in. long, soft, dull green above, 
milky-white below, wavy in outline. Flower-panicles drooping, usually terminal. 
Heads #in.-din. long, whitish, bracts of involucre shining. North Island 
chiefly. Fl. Aug.-Oct. 


Fig. 154. Brachyglottis repanda (+ nat. size). 


Brachyglottis Rangiora (The Rangiora). 
Stems 8 ft.-14 ft. in height. Leaves 6in.-9 in. long, glossy, often unequal at 
the base. Flower panicles axillary or terminal, with an entire ovate leaf at the 
base of the branch. Involucres purple. North Island chiefly. Fl. July-Sept. 


Plants of this genus are well known to the Maoris, under the 
name Rangiora. The leaves were much used by them for 
application to wounds, and old sores. Possibly the poisonous 
principle found in them is antiseptic, and thus the wound was 
cleansed by the use of the leaf. Horses are not infrequently 
poisoned by eating the foliage of Brachyglottis. The late Mr. 
Skey endeavoured to isolate the poisonous principle, but failed 


436 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


to do so, though he obtained some curious reactions with the 
balsamic exudation from the stem of the freshly cut shrub.* 
The leaves of Brachyglottis rangiora are very handsome, and 
rival in size those of Entelea or Meryta. The flowers are 
produced in large, heavily scented plumes, and are very 
attractive to bees. 
Genus Senecio. 

Herbs, shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves. Heads terminal ; flowers 
solitary, or in corymbs or panicles. Florets yellow ; rays rarely white or purple. 
Disk-florets tubular, 5-toothed. Pappus of one or more rows of hairs. | Achene 
round or angular. (Name from the Latin, signifying an old man, from the white 
hairs of the pappus). 30 sp. 


Senecio lautus (The Elegant Senecio). 

Stem sometimes prostrate, 3in.-24in. long. Leaves fleshy, 1 in.-2 in. long, 
often auricled at the base, narrow, toothed, lobed or pinnatifid. Heads in 
coryimbs, ¢ in.-$in. across. Rays 10-15, vellow. Achene grooved, shining or hairy. 
Pappus soft, white. Both islands: Stewart and Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct.-March. 


This is a genus of world-wide distribution, and very varying 
habitat, of which the common groundsel 1s generally regarded 
as the typical form. In New Zealand it is well represented, 
and includes among its species some of our most beautiful 
shrubs. The prevailing white of the New Zealand flora is 
generally modified in this genus to yellow. There are over 
thirty indigenous species, which, with one exception, are 
also endemic. As in Olearia, many of these forms, though 
provided with excellent means of distribution, are extremely 
local. oS. glaucophyllus is apparently only known from the 
lnmestone rocks of Mount Arthur in Nelson, and S. Pottsti 
froma single habitat inthe Upper Rangitata. S. perdicioides, 
originally discovered by Banks and Solander, and then lost for 
nearly a hundred years, is found only in the East Cape 
district. The remarkable S. Huntit is confined to the 
Chathams, S. Muellert to an island in Foveaux Straits and to 
the Snares, S. antipodus to the Antipodes. Perhaps the only 
one which can be said to be abundant, is the multiform 
S. dautus, though S. bellidioides, and one or two other sub- 
alpine species are comparatively common. The handsome 


‘Trans. XIV., p. 400. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 


Fig. 155. Senecio cassinioides (nat. size), 


438 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


S. savifragoides, supposed by Kirk to be confined to Banks 
Peninsula, is undoubtedly the typical S. lagopus of Raoul 
(Choix 21. T. 17). It still produces its large-leaved rosettes 
on the southern faces of cliffs, where Raoul found it, 
near Akaroa. It is also plentiful behind Lyttelton, often 
growing in altogether inaccessible localities, and it is the only 
Senecio which haunts these situations on the peninsula. It 
may be found in flower from early spring to late autumn ; but 


Fig. 156. Senecio Lyallii (+ nat. size). 

its blossoms are produced in greater profusion m summer. 
S. sctadophilus is an interesting liane, the only New Zealand 
climber of the genus. It is known from only a few scattered 
habitats in the South Island. It may occasionally be seen in 
the neighbourhood of Akaroa, covering the green top of some 
tree with its network of yellow flowers. S. rotundzfolius 
is the mutton-bird scrub of Stewart Island. Its leaves are 
much used by tourists for post cards, the white tomentum of 
the underside affording a suitable surface for writing. 


DAISY, DANDELION, AND THISTLE FAMILY 439 


Fig. 157. Senecio saxifragoides (4 nat size). 


GLOSSARY. 


ABERRANT, differing from the usual 
structure, varying from the ordinary 
type. 

Abortive, imperfectly developed. 

Acerose, needle-shaped, with a stiff 
point. 

Achene, a small, hard, dry fruit, which 
does not open spontaneously. 

Acicular, slender, or needle-shaped. 

Acrid, harsh, biting. 

Acuiminate, narrow, tapering to a point. 

Acute, sharply pointed, but not drawn 
out. 

Albuininous, containing albumen, a form 
of food material stored within the 
seed. 

Annual, a term applied to plants which 
perish in one year. 

Anther, v.p. 43. 

Apex, the growing point of a stem or 
root, the tip of an organ. 

Apical, at the point of any organ or 
structure. 

Appendage, a part added to another, ¢.g., 
leaves are appendages to a stem. 

Appressed, kept under, lying flat for the 
whole length of the organ. 

Arborescent, attaining the size or 
character of a tree. 

Aril, a membranous or fleshy  seed- 
covering, formed by an expansion of 
the stalk attached to the ovule, 
often brightly coloured. 

Assimilation, v. p. 39. 

Auricled, having ear-shaped appendages. 

Awn, a bristle-like appendage, especially 
occurring in grasses. 

Axil, the angle formed between the 
branch and trunk, or between the 
stem and the leaf. 

Axillary, growing in an axil. 

Axis, an imaginary line, round which the 
organs are developed. Floral aris, 
that part of the stem or branch upon 
which the flowers are borne. 


Ss 


BAsT, the inner, fibrous bark of a tree. 

Bearded, having tufts of hairs. 

Berry, a pulpy fruit containing seeds. 

3iennial, a term used of plants which live 
through two years. 

Blade, the expanded portion of a leaf. 

Bract, an undeveloped leaf on a flower 
stalk. 


CALYX, v, p. 44. 

Cambium, a layer of tissue formed 
between the wood and the bark, 
producing wood on the inside, and 
bark on the outside. 

Campanulate, bell-shaped. 

Capitate, arranged in a head. 

Capillary, slender, hair-like. 

Capsule, a dry seed-vessel, which splits 
open spontaneously for the purpose 
of shedding its seeds. 

Carpel, v. p. 43. 

Cartilaginous, hard and tough, (as the 
skin of an apple-pip). 

Catkin, a pendulous spike of flowers, of 
one sex only. 

Cauline, belonging to the stem, applied 
to leaves borne on the stem, as 
distinct from those that spring near 
the root. 

Cell, an independent unit of protoplasm, 
usually contained in a membranous 
envelope. 

Cellulose, the material composing the 
cell wall, the carbohydrate which 
is the basis of paper. 

Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter 
contained in plant-cells. 

Cleistogamic, having flowers which never 
expand, and which are necessarily, 
therefore, self-pollinated. v. p. 269. 

Compressed, more or less flattened. 

Cone, the fruit of a pine tree, formed of 
woody bracts. 

Connective, that part of the anther which 
separates the two lobes. 

Cordate, a term applied to heart-shaped 
leaves, with the petiole at the broad 
end, 

Coriaceous, tough, leathery. 

Corolla, v. p. 44. 

Corona, a series of out-growths from the 
corolla, either free or united, which 
may appear like an additional ring of 
petals or stamens. 

Coryinb, a flat-topped panicle of flowers. 

Cotyledon, a seed leaf, the first leaf 
produced by a young plant. v. p. 47. 

Crenate, a leaf form in which the inargin 
is divided into rounded teeth. 

Cruciferous, in the form of a cross, 

Cupressoid, cypress-like. 

Cuticle, the outermost skin covering the 
epideriiis. 


GLOSSARY 


Cyme, a broad and flattened branched 
flower-cluster of which the middle 
flower opens first. 

Cymose, bearing, or relating to cymes. 


DeEciDvuoUS, applied to those parts of a 
flower which fall when the fruit is 
formed, or to trees whose leaves fall 
in autumn. 

Decompound, several times divided. 

Decussate, in pairs, alternately at right 
angles. 

Deflexed, bent, or turned abruptly down- 
wards. 

Dehiscent, opening spontaneously when 
ripe, as seed capsules. 

Depressed, sunk down, hollowed, as if 
flattened from above. 
Dicotyledon, a plant with 

leaves. 

Digitate, fingered, a compound leaf in 
which all the separate parts spring 
directly from the apex of the petiole, 
as in Schefilera. 

Dilated, expanding 
though flattened. 

Die cious, v. p. 44. 

Dimorphism, v. p. 292. 

Disk, a circular development, usually of 
the receptacle within the flower, 
sometimes consisting only of a ring of 
prominences, which secrete nectar. 

Dissected, applied to a leaf, divided into 
numerous irregular portions. 

Divaricating, spreading asunder 
wide angle, extremely divergent. 

Drupe, a stone fruit, such as a plum. 
(The fruit of Rubus is an aggregation 
of drupes). 


two seed- 


into a blade, as 


at a 


Ecotocy, the study of plant-life in 
relation to environment. 

Embryo, the rudimentary plant formed 
within the seed. 

Endemic, confined to a certain locality, 
peculiar to a country. 

Entire, applied to a leaf of which the 
wargin is not indented. 

Epidermis, v. p. 40. 

Epigynous, placed on the ovary, applied 
to corolla and stamens. 

Epipetalous, seated on the petals. 

Epiphyte, v. pp. 20, 21. 

Epiphytic, growing on other plants by 
way of support. 

dxserted, protruding beyond, as stamens 
beyond the tube of the corolla. 

Exstipulate, without stipules. 


FASCICLE, a dense cluster of flowers, 


leaves, stems, or roots. 


441 


Filainent, a slender thread, the stalk of 
the anther. v. p. 43. 

Filiforin, thread-like. 

Flaccid, weak, flabby. 

Flexuous, bending alternately in different 
directions. 

Floret, a small flower, one of a cluster of 
compound flowers. 

Florula, a small flora, the 
account of a small district. 

Foliaceous, leafy, leaf-like in texture. 

Foliate, clothed with leaves. 

Foliolate, provided with leaflets. 

Follicle, a fruit of one carpel, opening by 
the inner or anterior seam. 


botanic 


GLABROUS, 
hairs. 

Gland, an organ for secreting oil or other 
liquids on the surface of some part of 
the plant. It sometimes ends in a 
hair or bristle. 

Glandular, bearing glands. 

Glaucous, sea-green, covered with a 
bloom, as a cabbage-leaf. 

Gluten, a tough nitrogenous substance 
occurring in grain after the removal 
of starch. 

Glutinous, covered with a 
exudation. 


smooth, shining, without 


sticky 


HALOPHYTE, v. pp. 42 and 155. 

Hastate, spear-shaped. 

Herbaceous, a term applied to plants 

without a woody stem. 

Hermaphrodite, v. p. 44. 

Heterophylly, the occurrence of leaves of 
more than one form upon the same 
stem. 

Hoary, grey with fine hairs. 

Host, the plant from which a parasite 
draws its nourishment. 

Hybrid, a plant obtained by the 
application of the pollen of one 
species to the stigma of another. 

Hydrophyte, a water-plant. v. p. 42. 

Hypogynous, seated beneath the ovary. 


IMBRICATE, overlapping, like the scales of 
a fish. 

Indehiscent, applied to fruits which do 
not open along regular lines to 
liberate the seed. 

Indigenous, native to a country. 

Inferior, below some other organ; é.¢., 
calyx below ovary. 

Inflorescence, the arrangement of the 
flowers and flower-stalks. 

Inosculate, to grow together at points. 

Insolation, exposure to the direct rays of 
the sun. 


442 PLANTS OF 


Introrse, turned inwards. 

Involucre, a circlet of bracts, placed 
around a flower-cluster. 

Involucrate, having an involucre. 

Involute, having the margins of the 
leaves rolled inwards. 

Irregular, unsymmetrical, wanting in 
regularity of form. 


LANCEOLATE, narrow and tapering, like 
the head of a lance. 

Lateral, fixed on or near the side of an 
organ. 

Legume, a two-valved seed-vessel, open- 
ing down both seains. 

Lenticel, an opening occurring in the 
bark of a plant through which water 
vapour is given off. 

Liane, a woody climber. v. pp. 16-19. 

Ligneous, woody. 

Linear, narrow, several times longer 
than wide. 

Lobe, any division of an organ, especially 
a rounded division. 


MESOPHYTE, a plant which avoids both 
extremes of moisture and drought. 
v. p. 42. 

Moniliform, necklace-shaped, like a 
string of beads. 

Monocotyledon, a plant producing only 
one seed-leaf. v. p. 82. 

Moneecious, v. p. 44, 


NE 


CTARY, the organ in which honey or 

nectar is secreted. 

Node, that part of a stem from which 
leaves, branches, or leaf-buds are 
given off. 

Nodule, a small knot, or rounded body. 

Nut, a hard, one-seeded fruit, with woody 

covering. 


OBOVATK, applied to leaves that are 
ovate, with the broader part towards 
the apex, 

Obscure, uncertain, hidden. 

Obsolete, scarcely apparent, almost 
vanished, 

Obtuse, blunt or rounded at the end. 

Orbicular, applied to a leaf with a 
circular outline. 

Osmosis, the mixing of liquids through a 
membrane separating them. 

Ovary, that part of the pistil which 
contains the ovules. v, p. 43. 

Ovate, exz-shaped, applied to a solid 
body, as a fruit. 

Ovule, the young seed in the ovary 
ve p. 43. 


NEW ZEALAND 


PALMATE, applied to leaves with five 


lobes. 
Papillae, soft superficial glands or 
protuberances. 


Papillose, covered with papillae. 

Pappus, thistledown, the tufts of hairs 
on achenes or fruits, the calyx of 
coimnposite florets. 

asite, v. p. 20. 

Pedicel, a tlower-stalk, the support of a 
single flower. 

Peduncle, the general naine for the stalk 
of a flower or flower cluster. 

Pedunculate, on a peduncle. 

Pellicle, a small skin, the outer cuticular 
covering of plants. 

Pellucid, partially or wholly transparent. 

Peltate, target-shaped, applied to leaves 
attached by their lower surtace to the 
stalk, instead of by the margin. 

Perianth, v. p. 45. 

Perigynous, inserted round the ovary. 

Persistent, remaining till the part which 
bears it is wholly matured, as the 
leaves of evergreens. 

Petal; v. p. 44. 

Petaloid, like a petal, having a floral 
envelope resembling petals. 

Petiole, the footstalk of a leaf. 

Phanerogamic, v. pp. 49, 428. 

Phylloclade, a flattened branch assuming 
the form and function of a leaf. 

Phyllode, a petiole taking on the form 
and function of a leaf. 

Pinnate, with leaflets arranged along each 
side of a common petiole. 

Pinnate-partite, pinnately parted, with 
the lobes extending more than half- 
way to the mid-rib. 

Pinnatifid, cut into lobes extending about 
half-way from the margin to the mid- 
rib. 

Pitted, marked with sinall depressions. 

Pistil, v. p. 43. 

Placenta, the organ which bears the 
ovules in an ovary. 

Placentiferous, bearing placentae. 

Plumose, feathery, as the pappus of 
thistles. 

Pollen, v. p. 43. 

Pollination, v. pp. 43, 44. 

Pollinia, v. p. 112. 

Polymorphic, with several or various 
forms. 

Pome, an inferior fruit of several cells, 
of which the apple is the type. 

Protandrous, having the anthers mature 
before the pistils in the same flower. 

Protogynous, having the pistils receptive 
before the anthers have ripe pollen. 

Puberulous, minutely downy with hairs. 


GLOSSARY 


QUADRATE, four-sided, square, or nearly 
square. 


RACEME, an inflorescence in which the 
flowers are born on pedicels along a 
single, undivided axis. 

Racemose, baving raceines, raceme-like. 

Radical, applied to leav or flowers 
springing from or very near the root- 
stock. 

Radicle, the rudimentary 
embryo. 

Receptacle, the point of the peduncle 
(above the calyx) upon which corolla, 
stamens, and ovary are inserted; also 
applied to the axis upon which a 
head of capitate flowers is situated. 

Regular, uniform, symmetrical. 

Revolute, having the margins rolled out- 
wards. 

Rhachis, or rachis, the axis of an inflores- 
cence, or of a compound leat. 

Rhizome, a stem of root-like appearance, 
prostrate or underground, producing 
roots below and stems above. 

Rosulate, collected into a rosette. 


root of the 


SAGITTATE, applied to a leaf shaped like 
an arrow head. 

Saprophyte, a plant which 
dead organic matter. 

Scandent, climbing. 

Scape, a leafless flower-stalk arising from 
the ground. 

Sepal, v. p. 45. 

Sepaloid, resembling a sepal. 

Series, a row. 

Serrate, with regular pointed teeth, like 
a saw. 

Sessile, without a stalk. 

Simple, consisting of a single piece. 

Spadix, a spike with a fleshy axis. 

Spathe, a large bract enclosing a flower- 
cluster. 

Spathulate, oblong, with the lower part 
narrow and tapering. 

Spike, an inflorescence bearing sessile 
flowers along a common axis. 

Spinulose, with minute spines. 

Sporadic, occurring here and there in a 
scattered manner. 

Stamen, v. p. 43. 


lives upon 


445 


Staminodia, false stamens, bearing no 
anthers 

Stellate, star-shaped. 

Stimmna, v. p. 43. 

Stipule, a leaf or scale-like appendage at 
the base of the leaf-stalk. 

Stoma, stomata, v. p. 39. 

Style, v. p. 43. 

Sub-quadrate, nearly square. 

Sucker, a shoot of subterranean origin. 

Superior, growing or placed above, usually 
applied to the ovary when free from 
the calyx; or to the calyx when it 
appears to be above the ovary. 


TERETE, circular in transverse section, 
cylindric, and usually tapering. 

Ternate, in threes, as three in a whor] or 
cluster. 

Tetrangular, four-angled. 

Tetrandrous, having four stamens, free 
from the pistil. 

Tomentuim, short, soft, dense, cottony 
hairs. 

Transpiration, v. p. 40. 

Trimorphic, occurring in three forms. 

Truncate, abruptly terminated, as though 
cut off at the end. 

Tubular, hollow and cylindrical. 

Tumid, having a blistered appearance, 
swollen. 


UNDULATE, wavy in outline, 

Umnbel, a flower cluster in which several 
pedicels of about the same length 
spring from one point, like the ribs 
of an umbrella. An umbel is simple, 
when each of its branches bears a 
single flower ; compound, when each 
ray bears a secondary umbel. 

Unicellular, formed of one cell. 


VASCULAR, relating to or furnished with 
vessels. 

Venation, the mode of veining. 

Vernation, the order of unfolding froin 
leaf-buds. 

Volute, rolled up. 


WHORL, the arrangement of any organs 
in a circle around an axis. 

Winged, with a membranous expansion 
attached. 


INDEX. 


Abrotanella, 408 
Absorption of moisture, 118 
Ac@na, 45, 54, 106, 201, 202, 314, 366 

af adscendens, 37, 202, 203 

i glabra, 54 

microphylla, 201 

a novae-Zelandiae, 201 

= sanquisorbae, 37, 201, 202 
Acianthus Sinclairii, 124 
Aciphylla, 216, 239, 257, 276, 312, 316, 318, 


321 
a Colensoi, 189, 318, 320 
re Monroi, 322 


a squarrosa, 318, 320 
a Traversii, 318 
Actinotus, 314 
Adams, Mr. A. H., quoted, 6, 11, 414 
Affinities of New Zealand flora, 30, 31 
Affinities of South American flora to that 
of New Zealand, illustrated 
by Fuchsia, 292 
Agathis, 58, 60, 304 
a australis, 62 
Aizoaceae, 50, 159 
Aka, 280, 28 
Akatawhiwhi, 280 
Akatea, 282 
alhke-che, 225, 268, 269 
Akiraho, 416 
Aleetryon, 55, 225 
i eccelsum, 225 
Alpine vegetation, 22-24 
Alps, Southern, 157 
Alpine leaf-forms, described by Ruskin, 23 
Alsewosmia, 52, 62, 399 
5 macrophylla, 399 
5 quercifolia, 399 
Alterations in climate, 239 
Alterations in leaf-form, due to moist 
habitat, 241 
Alternanthera, 55 
Anemone Family, 160 
Aniseed, 322 
Angiosperms, 43, 47 
Angelica, 322 
ab geniculata, 322 
i gingidiam, 322 
Angiospermae, 49 
Annuals, absence of, in New Zealand, 42 
Antarctic element in New Zealand flora, 
25 
Antiquity of New Zealand flora, 27-30 
Apium, 315 
“t prostratum, 315 


Apocynaceae, 340 
Aralia, 300, 304 
sy crassifolia, 307 
‘1 Lyaliti, 300 
Araliaceae, 50, 300 
Archeria, 323, 
Aristotelia, 242, 244 
om Ffruticosa, 246 
es racemosa, 9, 42, 244, 246 
Armstrong, Mr. J. B., referredito, 145, 300 
Arthropodium, 100 
aa candidum, 102 
~ cirrhatum, 100 
Arundo conspicua, 5, 322 
Ascarina, 56 
Ash, New Zealand, 225 
Asplenium, 7 
Assimilation, explanation of, 39 
Astelia, 62, 98, 99, 100 
ie Cunninghamii, 21, 100 
5 linearis, 100 
4 nervosa, 100 
ns Solandri, 21 
- spicata, 21 
Auckland Island forest, description of, 
281 
Australian Bottle-brushes, 146 
ts element in N.Z. flora, 25, 32-34 
Avicennia, 139, 253, 3. 
ae officinalis 
a germination of, 360 
Azorella, 314, 315 
mn selago, 314 


Balanophoraceae, 149, 150 
Pe fungoid appearance of, 149, 150 
” germination of, 149 
Beeches, 8, 10 
Beech Forest, 130 
Beet Family, 154 
Beilschmiedia, 175 
eh Tarairi, 175 
Bn Tawa, 115 
Bidi-bidi, 202 
Bindweeds, 342, 344 
Birches, 29, 134 
Bird-catching plant, 159 
Bitter juice as safeguard against browsing 
animals, 244 
Black Pine, 69 
Blue colour, significance of, in flowers, 
348, 349 
Bolbophyllum, 118, 120, 124 
i pugmaum, 21 124 


INDEX 


Boradi, 202 
Borage Family, 346 
Boraginaceae, 53, 346, 348 
Botanical Introduction, 38 
Botting Hemsley, Mr. W., referred to, 31 
Bottle-brush Faiily, 147 
Bottle-brushes, Australian, 145, 146 
Brachycome, 410 
om Sinclairti, 410 
Brachuyglottis, 348, 435, 436 
oe Rangiora, 347, 435 
Bracken fern, 3, as a food, 6 
Bramble, 196 
Bristles, as protective organs, 244 
Broadleat, 70, 298 
Brown, My. R., of Christchurch. referred 
to, 374 
Buchanan, referred to, 23 
Bucket-ot-water tree, 146 
Buckthorn Family, 235 
Buckwheat Faiily, 151 
Bulbinella, 102 
an Hookeri, 102 
5 Rossii, 102 
Bulli-bull’, 202, 366 
Bush, The, &, tropical appearance of, 10, 
Melanesian origin of, $%, 
natural permanence of, 10 
Bush lawyer, 19, 200 
Bush sarsaparilla, 90 
Buttercup Family, 160, 166 
Butterflies, pollination by, 162 
Butterwort Family 388 


Cabbage-tree, 4, 8, 9, 28, 48, 88, 93, 9f 
98 

Caladenia, 125 

bifolia, 125 

DLyallii, 125 

minor, 125 


Calceolaria, 36 
Sinelairit, 
Callitriche, 56 
antaretica, 36 

Caltha, 171, 172 

a novae-Zelandiae. 171, 172 
Calystegia, 342 
sepiion, 342, 343 
soldanetla, 344 

4. Tuguriorum, 344 
Campanulaceae, 52, 401, 403, 407 
Canterbury Bell Family, 401 
Caprifoliaceae, 399 
Carex secta, 5 
Carmichaclia, 140, 204, 206, 208, 239 
australis, 204, 208 
Bnysii, 206 
esul, 206 
Hagelliformis, 206, 216 
a nana, 204 


68 
367, 368 


445. 


Carpodetus, 56, 188 

49 serratus, 56, 188 
Carrot Family, 313 
Caryophylaceae, 51, 55, 156, 158 
Cassinia, 32, 433 

an amoena, 414 

$3 Fulvida, 433 

‘sy leptophylla, 433 

94 retorta, 238 

5 Vauvilliersii, 433 
Cassytha, 55, 139, 176, 345 

a paniculata, 177 
Catasetum, pollination of, 114 
Cedar, New Zealand, 222 
Celery Pine, 76 
Celmisia, 23, 418, 422 

SG argentea, 422 

ws coriaced, 418, 420 


i laricifolia, 422 
3 lateralis, 422 


3 Lechleri, 418 
* longifolia, 238, 418 
As DLyallii, 420, 
a Machaii, 382, 422 
sf Monroi, 418 
st sessiliflora, 422 
ry Traversti, 420 
55. vernicosad, 418 
Centipeda, 408 
Chatham Island Lily, 168, 347, 348 
Cheeseman, Mr. T. F., referred to, 48, 57, 
115, 116, 118, 286, 368, 405 
Chenopodiaceae, 55, 154 
Chenopodium, 55, 155 
si triandrum, 155 
Chickweeds, 156, 157, 158 
Chloroplasts, 39, 40 
Christmas Tree, 288 
Classification, key to, 49 
Classification of Plants, 46 
Cleistogamic flowers, 116, 220, 221, 263 
9 : in Viola, 263, 264 
Cleistogainy, 296 
Climate, etfect of on plants, 239 
Climate, variation in, 257 
Climatic reserves, 12 
Climbing plants of New Zealand, 400 
Climbing Plants, profusion of, 10 
Climbing stem, advantages of, 18 
Clematis, 19, 162, 400 
Clematis, colour of, 162 
Clematis seed, description of, 164 
Clematis afoliata, 166, 239 
he.wasepala, 166 
indivisa, 164, 166 
As parviflora, 166 
Clianthus, 204, 210 
Gs puniceus, 210 
Clover-dodder, 344 
Clover Family, 203 


446 PLANTS 


Club-mosses of New Zealand, 8, 27 
Cockayne, Dr. L., referred to, 10, 23, 133, 
158, 198, 206, 212, 214, 246, 252, 
5 260, 294, 301, 321, 
(footnote) 374, 375, 378, 380, 
411 
a Dr., on Disearia, 240, 241 
Colenso, Dr., referred to, 238, 284, 321, 322, 
343, 364 
Colensoa, 347, 348, 403, 404 
i physaloides, 404 
Colour in gentians, 338 
Colour in New Zealand flowers, 162,349, 436 


Com positae, 29, 52, 346, 401, 405, 406, 422 
45 colours of, 162 
a sub-alpine, 22 


Coniferae, 58, 60, 70, 256 
Connection between New Zealand and 
Australian Floras, 25 
Continental islands, 26 
Convolvulaceae, 
Convolvulus, 19, 342, 343 
A erubescens, 342 
Coprosma, 22, 140, 246, 256, 258, 323, 390, 
392, 414 
Coprosma, fruit of, 394 
Coprosma, pollination of, 392 
Coprosma arcolata, 396 
a acerosa, 394, 396 
my arborea, 396 
a Baweri, 392, 395 
‘ Cunninghamii, 394 
+4 foetidissima, 390, 398 
is grandifolia, 151, 394 
Pr linariifolia, 398 
ee lucida, 3 94 
obconica, 394 
parviflora, 396 
ve propingiua, 394, 398 


a rhamnoides, 394 
ey robusta, 396 
me rotundifolia, 396 


spathulata, 394 

. tenuicaulis, = 

Corallospartiam, 204, 206, 208 
Cordyline, 28, 92, 98 


indivisa, 98 
pumilio, 98 


Coriaria, 52, 226, 229 

ae ruscifolia, 226, 235 

a thyumifolia, 226 
Coriariaceae, 226 
Cork-wood tree, 243 
Cornaceae, 51, 297 
Cornel Family, 297 
Corokia, 297 

ue Luddleoides, 

cotoneaster, 


297 
298 


OF NEW 


ZEALAND 


Corynocarpaceae, 233 
Corynocarpus, 52 

46 levigata, 233 
Corysanthes, 116, 120, 125 

= macrantha, 110, 125 
Cottonwood, 433 
Cotula, 434 

at atrata, 157 

a coronopifolia, 434 

i filiformis, 170 
speciosa, 316 
Cow-leaf, 266 
Cranesbill, 215 
Crantzia, 313 
Craspedia, 433 

A alpina, 157 

+ uniflora, 433 
Cre pis, 408 
Cross-pollination, 44, 112, 106 
Cross-pollination in Compositae, 406 

ri in Viola, 262 

7 in Wahlenbergia, 403 
Cruciferae, 52, 177 
Criiger, Dr., quoted, 112 
Cucurbitaceae, 379 
Cucumber Family, 3% 
Cupressoid leaves, 
Currant tree Family, 185 
Currant, New Zealand, 246 
Cusecuta, 53, 139, 1977, 344, 345, 361 
Cuscuta densiflora, 345 

ro trifolit, 344 

“ti germination of, 344, 345 
Cushion plants, 424, 426, 428 
Cuathodes, 329 
Cycadeae, 28 
Cynoglossum, 348 
Cypripedium, 112 
Cyrtostylis, 125 

a oblonga, 125 

na rotundifolia, 125 


Dacrydium, 58, 74 
a larifolium, 58, 76 
Fa cupressinum, T4 
Dactylenthies, 54, 56, 139, 150, 151, 386 
‘ Taylori, 150 
Daisy Family, 405 
sy Mountain, 418 
re native, 410 
Dandelion Family, 405 
Dandelion, 407, 408 
Danthonia, 4 
Daphne Family, 269 
Darwin, referred to, 111, 182, 184, 292, 370, 
401 
Daucus, 314 
Deciduous trees of New Zealand, 9, 260 
Dendrobium, 116, 120, 124, 356 
oa Crunninghamil, 21, 111, 124 


INDEX 


Destruction of forest, 12, 13 
Dianella, 98 
a intermedia, 98 
Dichondra, 53, + 
af repens, 
Dicotyledonous plants, 47, 49 
Diels, Dr., referred to, 21, 41, 158, 166, 170, 
190, 208, 253, 257, 317 
Dimorphisin, 292 
Discaria, 41, 54, 55, 239, 241, 257, 276, 370 
eT touma tou, 9, 239 
Dispersal of seeds, devices for, 45 
ia in Compositae, 405-6 
Dodder, 176, 345 
Dodonea, 225, 268 
225 


ry viscosa, 
Dogwood Family, 297 
Domett, quoted, 8, 16, 20, 161, 286 
Di 


Doodia caudata, = 
Dracophyllion, 323, 324, 330 

+ latifolium, 324, 330 
longifolium, 324, 330, 331 
rosmarinifolium, 331 
subulatum, 325, 331 


a Traversti, 325 
4 uniflorum, 330 
a Urvilleanum, 325 


Drimuys, 51, 172 
aacillaris, 130, 172 
colorata, 172 
Drosera, 52, 180 
Droseraceae, 51, 180, 182 
Drosera arcturi, 185 
auriculata, 182 
binata, 182, 184 
or pyagmecda, 180 
rotundifolia, 180, 184 
spathulata, 182, 184 
Duyso.cylum, 52, 222 
spectabile, 68, 222 


Farina suaveolens, 21, 111, 116, 120, 122 

we mucronata, 21, 111, 120, 122 
Edelweiss, New Zealand, 432 
Edible fruits, 244 
El@ocarpus, 248 
dentatus, 248 

oe Hookerianus, 248, 250 
Blatine, 51 
Elatostema, 138 

oj rugosum, 21, 138 
Emerson, R. W,, quotation from, 1 
Endemic plants of New Zealand, 1, 2, 31 
Endemism, initial, 304 

a relict, 302 
Engler, Prof., referred to, 30 
Entelea, 9, 42, 48, 242, 278, 348, 436 

2 arborescens, 242, 348 
Environment in New Zealand, varied, 2 
Epacridaceae, 323 


447 


I paeris, 35, 323, 326 

Pr parcifiora, 323, 326 
Epilobiiem, 292, 294 
Epiphytes, 16, 20, 21 
Ericaceae, 53, 323 
Brechtites, 434 

#3 prenanthoides, 434 
Eyyngiwm, 315 

ae vesieulostum, 315 
Kttingshausen, Baron von, referred to, 30 
Eugenia, 194, 288 

a maitre, 288 
Euphorbia, 55, W4 

a glauca, 224 
Buphorbiaceae, 224 
Buphrasia, 386 

<5 antaretica, 386 

a cuneata, 151 
iverdreen leaves in New Zealand, 9 
EBxarrhena, 346 
EB wocarpus, 55 
Experiments, Dr. Cockayne’s, 240 
Byebright, 386 


Fagaceae, 128 

Fern country, 6 

Ferns, nwnber of in New Zealand, 7 

Fern-trees, 9, 27 

Festuca durinseula, 4 

Field, Mr., quoted, 140, 142 

Filnny-ferns, 7 

Findlay, Dr., quoted, 110 

Fire, origin of in Maori legend, 232 

method of obtaining by Maoris 
233 

Fireweed, 246 

Fitzgerald, Mr., referred to, 115 

Flax, New Zealand, 48 

Flax-Lily, 102 

Flax Tribe, 102 

Flax Fainily, 218 

Flax, treatment of by natives, 104 

Flies, pollination by, 162 

Flora, Melanesian element in, 8 

differences between Australian 

and New Zealand, 33 

Floral envelopes, 44 

Flower, description of a, 43 

Flower of Hades, 151 

Flowering plants, number of in 

Zealand, 31 

Foliage, poisonous, 435-6 

Forest, types of, 15, 16 

destruction of, 12, 13 

Passing of the, by the Hon. 

W. P. Reeves, 13-15 

Forget-ine-nots, 346, 348 

Fossil botany of New Zealand, 28, 30 

Freycinetia, 49 

Banksii, 80, 202 


New 


448 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Frost, native trees susceptible to, 11 | Guilds Plant, 16 
Fruits, edible, 244 | Guin, fragrant, of taramea, 321, 322 
Fruit, used as food by the Maoris, 248 ai Kauri, 64, 66 
Fuchsia, 8,9, 36, 292 Gunnera, 54, 297 
Fuchsia Family, 290 5 monoica, 297 
a pollination of, 290-294 | Gymnospermae, 46, 49 
Fuchsia Colensoi, 293, 294 | 


” excorticata, 201, 293, 294 | Haast, Sir Julius von, referred to, 23, 226 

8 Kirkiti, 290, 294 260 

i procumbens, 290, 293, 294 Haastia, 423, 424, 428, 432 
Fungus on birches, 230 | a pulvinaris, 424, 430 
Fusanus Cunninghamii, 151 | Haberlandt, Dr., referred to, 38 

F r ae | Hades, Flower of, 151 

Gastrodia Cunninghamii, 122, 124 | Halophytes, 42, 1 
Gaultheria, 322, 323, 325, ¢ Haloragidaceae, 51, 54, 295 

38 antipoda, 323, 327 Haloragis, 295 

.  epiphyta, 21 alata, 36, 295 

rupestris, 327 | es cartilaginea, 414 


Gaya, 260 

on DLyaltii, 9, 260, 261 

aig Lyallii, var. vibifolia, 261 
Geniostoma, 336 

ds ligustrifolium, 336 
Gentiana, 2 336 Hectorella, 158 

ina, 336, 338 “ cespitosi, 158 

ye elusti, 338 Hedley, Mr. C., referred to, 34 

$5 sa.cosa, 336 Hedyearya, 174 

” vernc se arborea, 174 
Gentianaceae, | Helichrysum, 372, 430 
Gentian Fainily, 336 coralloides, 373, 432 
Gentians, colour of, 162 


9 erecta, 295 
Harakeke, 6 
Hauama, 242 
Heath Family, 323 
Hector, Sir James, referred to, 158, 236 


\ : a depressum, 432 
Geraniaceae, 51, 215, 22. ie grandice ps, 432 
Geranium, 215 oe selago, 430 
as dissectum, var, australe, 215 a virgineum, 432 
an microphyllion, 216 


Hell-bind, 345 

Hemsley, Mr. W. Botting, referred to, 37 
Henslow, Prot., referred to, 375, 376 
Herpotirion, 108 


Geranium Family, 215 
Germination of Aviceninic, 360 
= ot Balanophoraceae, 149 


= . Bee ae a novae-Zelandiae, 108 

e of Kauri, 62 Hibiscus, 260 

aie of Loranthus, 141 Fy Trionum, 260 
Gesneri ae, 386, 388 Hill, My., referred to, 151 
Glossostigma, 368 Hinau, 4, 9, 28, 248 

fe elatinoides, 368 Hohervia, 9, 250, 252, 261 
Gloxinia Family, 386 ” angustifolia, 390 
Graphaliom, 425, 432 | ” populned, 250 

me lwontopodiam, 432 a popilned, var, vulgaris, 252 

sy luteo-albium, 425 | Honeysuckle, 146 
Goebel, Prot., referred to, 171, 241, 374 Honeysuckle Family, 399 
Goodeniaceae, 52, 404 Hooker, Sir Joseph, referred to, 2, 33, 34 
Goodenia Family, 404 | 57, 323 
Grass-trees, 329 | Horoeka, 306 
Green flowers, number of in N.Z., 29 | Horopito, 172 
Greensill, Miss, referred to, 392 Horse-Chestnut Family, 224 
Griselinia, 51, 260, 298 Houi, 250 

littoralis, TO, 298 | Houhere, 250 

ay lucida, 21, 298 | Hutton, Captain, referred to, 25, 30, 36, 37 

Groundsel, 434, 436 | Huttonella, 204, 208 


Guard-cells, 40 Hybrids, 159 


Hydrocotyle, 314 

@ Americana, 36 

alsiatica, 314 

ee novae-Zelandiae, 314, 
Hydrophytes, 42 
Hu menanthera, 266 

ty crassifolia, 266 
Humenophyllum, 7 
Hu pericin, 50, 263 


Icacinaceae, 230 
Ice-plant, 160 
Tucompletae, 224 


INDEX 


Inconspicuons flowers, nwnber of in N.Z., 


9, 29 
Tni-ini, 284, 266 
Initial endemism, 304 
Ink-plant, 226 
Tusects, paucity of in N.Z., 162 
Insect pollination in Viola, 262 
Insectivorous plants, 182 
Introduction, General, 1 
oF Botanical, 38 
Inmnnutability of species, 
combated, 259 


theory 


Tpomea, 19 
Tridaceae, 109 
Tris Family, 109 
Trishinan, Wild, 239 
Tronwooad, 281 
Islands, Oveanic and Continental, 26 
Islands, outlying, tlora of 
Ivyworts, 300 
Trerbu, 52, 186 
ae brewioides, 186 


Kahikatea, 16, 70, 272 


of, 


Kie-kie, 80, 202 


Kirk, Mr. T., referred to, 57, 132, 179, 188, 
194, 234, 284, 243, 293, 310, 338, 


358, 361, 420, 438 

Knightia, 145 

a vrcelsa, 140, 146 
Knot-grass, 152 
Kohe-kohe, in Maori proverb, 174, 222 
Kohutuhutu, 294 
Kkokoromiko, 378 
Kopi, 234 
Koradi, 202 
Korayi, 202 
Kkorokia-taranga, Jos 
Koromiko, 369 
Kotukutuku, 294 
Kowdie Pine, 202 
Kowhai, yellow, 36, 212, 214 

‘is red, 210 
Kowhai-ngutu-kaka, 210 
Kumara, 72 
Kuinarahou, 186, 236 
Kuri-kuri. 321 


Labiateac, 53, 364, 366 
Laburnuin, New Zealand, 214 
Lacebark, 252 

Lagenophora Forsteri, 410 
Lancewood, 306 

Large leaved plants, 347 
Lasianthera Family, 230 
Lauraceae, 55, 175 

Laurel Family, 175 

Laurel, New Zealand, 233 
Laurelia novae-Zelaondiac, 174 
Leaf, description, 39 

Leat, dicotyledonous structure of, 39 


449 


Leaf, modifications in 41, 62, 69, 76, 78, 93, 
106, 118, 120, 139, 246, 252, 256, 
25K, 276, 296, 305, 307, 319, 324. 


RKaikawaka, 66 
Kaikomako, 230, 233 
Pe in Maori lore, 232 


Kai-weta, 148 
Kakaraimnu, 396 
Kaka's Beak, 210 
Kalladi, 202 
Kamiahi, 189 
Karamu, 394, 396 
Karaka, 233, 235, 268 
Karaka Fautily, 233 
in Maori lore, 235 

Karaka poisoning, 235 
Karaiiu, 392 
Kare-ao, 90 
Kauri, 60, 62, 304 
Kauri gum, 12, 64, 65 
pine, 202 

re timber, 63 
Kkawaka, 66 
Kawakawa, 128 
Key to Cl fication, 49 
Kerner, referred to, 198 


373, 400, 422 

Leatiess plants, 198, 204, 344 
Leaves, evergreen in New Zealand, 9 
Legends, Maori, 70, 232, 236 
Leguminosae, 51, 203 
Lemon tree, 195 
Lentibulariaceae, 385 
Leptosperimaum, 272, 276, 323 

Pe scoparium, 244, 272, 274, 278 

si ericoides, 274 
Leucopogon, 322, 323, 328 

6 Fusiculatis, 325 

an Frazeri, 323, 325, : 
Lianes, 16-19, 99 
Libertia, 50, 109 

ae iLrioides, 109 
Libertia qrandifilora, 109 
Libocedsis, 66 

a Bidwillii, 66 

22 doniana, 66 


450 PLANTS 


Ligusticum, 313, 315 
carnosulign, 157, 170, 316 
3 Colensoi, 216 
en latifolivum, 315, 347 
2. piliferwm, 316 
Lilac, New Zealand, 186 
Liliaceae, 50, 88, 96 
Lily, Chatham Island 347, 348 
Lily, Mountain, 166 
Lily Fainily, 88 
Lime tree Family, 242 
Limosella, 296 
Linaceae, 102, 215, 218 
Lindsay, Dy. Lauder, referred to, 228 
Linwm, 52, 218 
monogynim, 162, 218 
Litsea calicaris, V5 
Lobelia, 348, 403, 404 
ns cance ps, 404 
ny Roughti, 157, 404 
Lobeliaceae, 401 
Localisation of species, 3 
Logania, 369 
Loganiaceae, 53, 335 
Lomaria, 7 
Looking-glass plant, 392 
Loranthaceae, 51, 54, 138 
Loranthus, 138, 139, 140, 142 
aa Colensoi, 142 
decussatus, 145 
Fieldii, 140, 142 
a Havidus, 142 
a micranthus, 140, 141, 144, 145 
+5 tetra petalus, 139, 142 
Luzuriaga marginata, 92 
Lyaltia, 158 
Lycopods, 8, 27, 28 


Macropiper, 56, 268 
ay excelsum, 128 

Madder Family, 389 

Magnolia Fainily, 172 

Magnoliaceae, 172 

Mahoe, 233, 264, 266 

Mahogany trees, 222 

Mahuika, legend of, 232 

Maire, 335 

Mairehan, 220 

Maire-tawhaki, 28 

Mako-mako, 246 

Mallows, 250 

Malvaceae, 50, 218, 250, 252 

Manawa, 352 

Mangeao, 175 

Manzroves, 4, 253, 254, 352, 361 

Mangrove roots, 355 

a swainp, life in, 354 

Manuka, 3, 12, 22, 272, 274 
Broom, 274 
rauriki, 274 


o 


OF 


NEW ZEALAND 


Maori flower names, pronunciation of, 


202 
Maori Onion, 102 
a legend, of Kahikatea, 70 


8 legend, of Kaikomako, 232 


= legend, of Tainni, 236 


ay lullaby, 320 
3 Painkiller, 172 
a proverbs, quoted, 174, 


284, 343 
scents, 321 
” traditions, 280, 286 
Mapau, 189, 195, 332 
Maple, 195 
sa Family, 224 
Mare's Tails, 295 
Marsh Marigold, 171 
Marvel of Pern Family, 159 
Matai, 69, 70 
Matipo, 332 
Maui, legend of, 232 
Mazus, 368 
si pumilio, 368 
BS radicans, 367 
Medullary rays, 82 
Melanesian element in New 
flora, 8 
Melanesian affinities of New 
flora, 31, 34 
Meliaceae, 222 
Metlicope, 220 


Hi simples, 220 

eA ternata, 220 
Melicytus, 260, 264 

ss ramiflorus, 233, 264 


Melon Faiily, 399 
Mentha Cunningha mii, 365 
Meruyta, 54, 312, 436 

& Sinelairii, 244, 312, 347 
Mesembryanthemum, 159, 239 

% australe, 160 
Mesembryanthemion Family, 159 
Mesophytes, 42 
Metrosideros, 9, 278 

“i albiflora, 281, 282 

as Colensoi, 281 

ey florida, 280, 282 

a hy pericifolia, 280 

ay lucida, 280, 281 

te robusta, 21, 282, 356 

Hs scandens, 288 

ae tomentosa, 284 
Microtis, 120, 125 

ra porrifolia, 111, 125 
Mimutlus, 366, 368 
Mingi-mingi, 329, 398 
Mint, 365 
Miro, 68, 322 
Mistletoe family, 138 
Mistletoe, 142, 144 


176, 282, 


Zealand 


Zealand 


Moki-moki, 321, 322 
Moko-mok’, 246 
Monimiaceae, 55, 174 
Monocotyledons, 49 

= description of, 47 

i exalnples of, 48 
Mountain Daisy, 418 
Mountain Lily, 166 
Moths, pollination by, 162 
Movement in plants, spontaneous, 38 
Miihlenbeckia, 9, 19, 152, 344, 401 


34 adpressa, 152 
is axillaris, 152, 216 
ay comple.ca, 152 


Mulberry, New Zealand, 243 
Miiller, Baron von, referred to, 379 
Mutation of species, 370 
Mutation theory, de Vries, 379 
Mutton bird scrub, 438 
Myoporum, 54, 362, 364 

oF letum, 362 
Myosotidium, 301, 302, 347, 348 

‘ nobile, 168, 347 
Muyosotis, 29, 346 

ai australis, 346 

is capitata, 346 

ng macrantha, 346 

oF spathulata, 346 

55 uniflora, 346 
Myosurus aristata, 36 
Myriophyllum, 295, 296 

Fit elatinoides, 295 
My naceae, 52, 331 
Myrsine, 53, 189 

a Family, 331 
Myrtaceae, 50, 270 
Myrtle, 272 
Muyrtus, 22, 288 

bullata, 288 

a obcordata, 288 

0 peduneulatea, 288, 390 
Myrtle Family, 270 


Native Daisy, 410 
Natural permanence of Bush, 10 
Naupata, 392, 395 
Nei-nei, 329 
Nertera, 398 
4 de pressa, 398 
* dichondraefolia, 398 
Nettle Family, 136 
New Zealand Arbor Vite, 66 
rr Ash, 225 
“4 Brainble, 196 
; Cedar, 68, 222 
ee Club-mosses, 8 
PA Currant, 246 
ae Edelweiss, 432 
AS Flax, 88, 102, 218 
a Laburnum, 214 


INDEX 


451 


New Zealand Laurel, 233 
ait Lilac, 186 
" flora, affinities of, 30, 31 
i flora, Antarctic element in, 35-37 
on flora, antiquity of, 27-30 
flora, Australian element in, 25, 
32-34 
‘i Hora, foreign elements of, 35 
flora, origin of, 24-26 
flora, South American element 
in, 25 
on flowers, colour of, 162, 338, 349 
Po Mulberry, 242 
a Oak, 350 
sa Primrose, 385 
A Spinach, 160 
Nightshade Family, 365 
Nigger-heads, 5 
Nihi-nihi, 344 
Nikau Palm, 9, 48, 80, 84, 268 
3 abnormal, 86 
of whares, 84 
Nitrogen, needful for plants, 182 
Ngaio, 362 
Negawaka, 66 
Ngutu-kakariki, 210 
Nothofagus, 16, 29, 130, 132, 134, 150, 201 
fe betuloides, 132 
Fa cliffortioides, 15, 133, 134 
a Fused, 133, 134 
A Menziesii, 132, 133, 137 
Be Solandri, 15, 133, 134, 139, 142, 145 
Nothopana.r, 144, 260, 304 


i canomaliem, 305 
‘ih Colensoi, 305 
on lineare, 

‘se simplex, 305 


Notothlaspi, 177, 178 
Ae rosulatum, 157, 178, 179 
Notospartium, 204, 208 
Number of flowering 
Zealand, 31 
Nux-Vomica Family 335 
Nyctaginaceae, 159 


plants in New 


Oak, New Zealand, 350 
Oceanic islands, 26 
Olea, 56, 334, 411 
aa Cunninghamii, 334 
a5 lanceolata, 334 
Oleaceae, 335 
Olearia, 22, 35, 323, 411, 414, 418, 422, 436 
‘is AUlomii, 414 
es angulata, 414 
avicenniefolia, 416 
re Buchanani, 414 
Colensoi, 9 
a Forsteri, 416 
io: furfuracea, 415 
na ilicifolia, 416 


Olearia, insignis, 414 
a Lyallii, 347 
ae macrodonta, 416 | 
oF moschata, 416 
a nitida, 415 
a semi-dentata, 411, 414 
er virgata, 238, 239, 390, 416 
Olive Family, 335 
Onga-onga, 136 
Onagraceae, 51, 290 
Orchid Family, 109 | 
Orchidaceae, 29, 35, 50, 109, 406 
Orchids, fantastic forms of, 110 
oe pollination of, 112, 115 
v7 structure of flowers, 111 
Oreomyrrhis, 314 
Origin of fire, Maori legend of, 232 


5 of New Zealand flora, 24-26 
oe of New Zealand flora, theories 
of, 34 


Orthoceras Solandri, 127 
Osmosis, 296 
Ourisia, 384 
a cespitosa, 384, 385 
4 Colensoi, 385 
ne glandittlosa, 384, 386 
sie macrophylla, 384, 385 
Oxalic acid, 215 
Oxalidaceae, 52, 215 
Owalis, 215, 216, 217, 263 
A corniculata, 216 
a magellanica, 37, 216 
Ozothamnus, 372, 432 


Pachycladon, 177, 179 

3 novae-Zelandiae, 178 
Pahautea, 168 
Palin, 8 
Palmaceae, 80 | 
Pali Family, 80 
Palin-lily, 93, 94 
Palms, paucity of in New Zealand, 28 
Palm tree, 28 
Pandanaceae, 80 
Papataniwhaniwha, 410 | 
Papilionaceae, 172, 203 
Pappus, 407 
Para-para, 159 
Parasites, 16, 139, 344 
Paratrophis, 136, 390 
Paratrophis microphyllucts, 136 
Parietaria, 55, 138 

_ debilis, 138 
Parroquet’s Beak, 210 
Parrot’s Bill, 210 
Parsley Family, 312 
Parsonsia, 19, 53, 340 

capsularis, 340 

‘6 heterophylla, 340 

Passifloraceae, 51, 268 


PLANTS OF NEW 


ZEALAND 


Passifiora, 29, 268, 400 
os tetrandra, 268, 400 
“ Passing of the Forest,” 13 
Passion flower, 19, 268, 400 
Patch plants, 158, 208, 426, 428, 430 
Pate, 233 
Pa-totara, 322, 328 
Pea-family, 203 
Pennantia, 52, 230 
ai corymbosa, 256 
Pen-wiper plant, 178 
Peperomia, 56,127 
es Urvilleana, 21, 128 
Pepper-tree, 172 
Percentage of unisexual flowers in New 
Zealand, 164 
Periwinkle Family, 340 
Persoonia toru, 148 
Petrie, Mr. D., referred to, 320, (footnote), 
388 
Phebatiion nuit, 200 
Phormium, 48, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 210 
Phormiium Cookin, 108 
Phormium tence, 48, 88, 90 
Plyllocladius, 58, 60, 76 
aA alpinus, 78 
a trichomanoides 76, 78 
icris, 408 
Pikiarero, 164 
Pimelead, 162, 269, 2' 
re arenaria, 
Be longifolia, 269 
8 prostrata, 270 
virgata, 270 


Pine, 8 
Pine Family, 58 
Pink Fainily, 156 
Piperaceae, 157 
Piper, 128 
ne exrcelsum, 127 
Piri-piri, 201, 320, 322 
Pisonia, 58, 159, 348 
yy brunoniana, 159, 244, 347 
Pits in Coprosma. leaves, 392 
Pittosporaceae, 189 
Pittosporum, 45, 52, 150, 189 
i cornifolinm, 21, 190, 192 
ae crassifolium, 194 
ee eugentioides, 145, 194 
fs Kirkii, 194 
= nigrescens, 190 
as obcordatum, 170, 190 
5. Ratlphii, 195 
re rigidum 190 
a tenuifolium, 189, 194, 195, 322, 332 


es tenuifolium, var, fasiculation, 
190 
Plagianthus, 250, 253, 254 
ae betulinus, 9, 41, 241, 246, 254, 256, 


258, 318 


INDEX 


Plagianthus diva ricatus, 253, 254 
Plant groups, 41 
Plant guilds, 16 
Plantago, 63 
Plant life, 38 
Plants of shingle slips, 157, 170 
Plants, sense organs in, 217 
Plants, sleep of, 217 
Plants spontaneous motion in, 38 
Plasticity of forms of plant life, 259 
Pleurophyllum, 338, 416, 418 

5 crinitum, 417 

speciosum, 302, 347, 417 
Poa cespitosa, 4 
Podocarpus, 68, 329 


ex dacrydioides, 70 
»  ferruginea, 68, 322 
a nivalis, 68, 69 

s spicata, 69 


6 totara, 69 
Pohue, 343 
Pohutukawa, 9, 284, 286, 288 
Poison of tutu, 228 
13 karaka, 235 
8 rangiora, 435, 436 
Pokaka, 9 
Pollination of Catasetum, 114; Convol- 
vulus, 343; Coprosma, 392; Cory- 
anthes, 112; Earina suaveolens, 
116; Fuchsia, 290, 294; Knightia 
excelsa, 146; Melicope simple.c, 
220, 221; Orchids, 112; Phormiwn, 
106; Pittosporum Ralphii, 195; 
P. tenuifolium, 190; Thelymitra 
longifolia, 115; Pterostylis, 1183 
Utricularia, 389; Wahlenbergia, 
403 
Pollination by birds, 106, 210, 214, 290, 388 
7 by butterflies, 162 
F by flies, 162 
” by moths, 162 
ee by wind, 128, 392 
Pollination, processes of, 43, 44 
cross, in Compositae, 406 
cross, in Viola, 262 
cross, in Wahlenbergia, 403 
self, explained, 44, 263 
self, in Compositae, 407 
ay self, in Thelymitra, 115 
Polypods, 7 
Polygonaceae, 54, 151, 152 
Polygonum, 152 
a aviculare, 152 
Pomaderris, 54, 235, 236, 238 
apetala, 236, 238 
‘& phylicefolia, 238, 323 
Poporo-kaiwhivi, 174 
Poro-poro, 202, 366 
Portulaceae, 53, 158 
Potts, Mr., 140, 141 


” 


Pratia, 403 
Prickles, purpose of, 276 
Primrose, Family, 333 
Primrose, New Zealand, 385 
Primulaceae, 333 
Pronunciation of Maori flower names, 
202, 
Proteaceae, 55, 56, 145 
Pteris aquilina, 6 
Pterostylis, 118 
ae Banksiti, 110, 111, 126 
= gramined, 110, 126 
Pseudo pana.c, 256, 257, 306, 325 
ssifolaamnt, 306, 308, 310 
= fero.w, 306 
Pua-o-te-reinga, 151 
Pua-tawhiwhi, 280 
Pua-wananga, 164 
Pukatea, 174 
Puna-weta, 188 
Punui, 300 
Puriri, 202, 282, 349, 350 
Puta-puta-weta, 188 
Pyamea, 369 


Quintinia, 186 
PA serrata, 186 


Rama-raima, 288 
Rangiora, 435 
Ranunculaceae, 50, 55, 160, 166, 168, 296 
Ranunculus, 166 
ae acaulis, 171 
a Bawrii, 168 
rr Buchanani, 168 
crithmifolius, 168, 170, 171 
fs Godleyanius, 168 
5 Haastti, 168, 171 
a hirtus, 171 
insignis, 168 
PY lappaceus, 171 
Lyallii, 23, 166, 347 
macropus, 171 
Pa nivicola, 168 
5 rivularis, 171 
re Traversii, 168 
Raoul, referred to, 190, 380, 438 
Raoutlia, 208, 423, 425, 428, 430, 432 
5 australis, 426 
bryoides, 373 
= eximia, 426 
+ Haastii, 426 
mammiillaris, 373, 426 
a Monroi, 216 
Rapanea, 331 
Fs salicina, 332 
6 Urvillei, 332 
Rata, 8, 9, 21, 278, 280, 281, 282, 284 
Rata-vine, 19, 280 
Rauhuia, 218 


454 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 


Raukawa, 305 !  Seandinavian element in New Zealand 
Raurekau, 394 | flora, 31 
Recapitulation, law of, 256 Schethera, 313 
Red Kowhai, 210 | ee digitata, 151, 233, 312 
Reeves, the Hon. W. P., quoted, 13 Schimper, referred to, 430 
Relict endemisim, 302 | Scleranthus, 55 
Reserves, climatic secured, 12 Screw Pine Family, 80 
on shoots, 374 | srophulariaceae, 53, 54, 366 

Reversed spiral, in tendrils, 401 | Serub, the, 21 
Rewa-rewa, 146 | Serub plants, typical leaves of, 22 
Ribbonwood, 250-254 Sea-bindweed, 344 
Rimiu, 15, 60, 74 | Seed Dispersal, 45; in Compositae, 405-6 
Rhabdothamnus, 54, 388 | Seedling Forms, 254, 257, 308 

ay Sola nari 388 | Self-pollination, explained, 44; in Com- 
Rhamnaceae, 50, 235 positae, 407; in Thelymitra, 
Rhipogonum scandens, 90 | 115 
Rhizophora, 356 | Selliera radicans, 404 
Rhopatostylis, 50, 84 | Senecio, 35, 436 

Br sapida, 80, 84 ] mA antipodus, 438 
Robinia, 141 | i bellidioides, 438 
Rock-lily, 102 % glaucophyllius, 436 


Rohuhu, 288 | Hectori, 347 
Roots, adaptation of to environment, 358 | - Huntii, 436 
” membranous, 120 | = lagopus, 438 


oe parasitic, 149 | lautus, 436, 438 
stilt, 360 | » Muelleri, 438 

4 Structure of, 39, 356 | 4 perdicioides, 46, 170, 436 
Rosaceae, 50, 195, 270 * Pottsti, 436 
Rose Family, 195 | es rotundifolins, 438 
Rosette plants, 178, 179, 180 5 scacifraqgoides, 382, 438 
Rubiaceae, 52, 389 | a sciadophilus, 19, 438 
Rubs, 19, 149, 196, 198, 200, 344 Sensation in plants, 38 

eA australis, 200 | Sense organs in plants, 217 

cissoides, 198, 200 Shepherd's Lily, 166 

is parvus, 201 Stellaria Roughti, 170 

8 Schmidelioides, 200 Shingle-slip plants, 157, 170, 178, 180, 317, 
Rue Family, 218 | 428, colour of, 158 
Rumew, 152 Steyos, 54, 400 

bs fexcuosus, 154 | A australis, 244, 400 
Ruskin, quoted, 23 Skey, Mr., referred vo, 436 
Rutacene, 52, 218 | Sleep of plants, 217 
Rutland, Mr. J., referred to, 376 Snap-dragon Family, 366 

| Soda, obtained from plants 154 

Salicornia, 55, 156 | Solanaceae, 53, 365 

5 indica, 156 | Solander, Dr., referred to, 
Salsole, 155 Solanum, 366 

a australis, 155 ei aviculare, ¢ 
Samolus, 52, 57, = 5% nigrum, 3 


| 
iy littoralis, 57, 333, 405 | Somnus plantarum, 217 
Sandalwood Family, 148 Sophora, 9, 203, 210, 214 
Santalaceae, 54, 148 | ae tetraptera, 36, 212 
j 


Santalum, 148 re tetraptera, var. grandifiora, 36, 
sy Cunninghamii 148 212 
Sapindaceae, 224 ff tetraptera, var. microphylla, 212 
Sapota, 53 a tetraptera, var. prostrata, 212 
Sapotaceae, 331 South American element in New Zealand 
Saprophytes, 16, LIL | flora, 25, 36, 292 
58 


Sarchochilus adversus, 21 | Southern Alps, 157, 
wparilla Bush, 90 | Spaniard, Wild, 321, 322 
Saxifragaceac, 51, 145 Sparmannia, 244 


INDEX 455 


Spinach, New Zealand, 160 
Spines, use of, 319, 321 
Spinous plants, 276 
Spongy tissue, 40 
Spontaneous motion in plants, 38 
Spurge Family, 224 
Stack, Canon, referred to, 12 
Stellaria, 156 

re Roughii, 156, 157 
Stem, processes of, 39 


Pr structure of, 82, 356 

ae structure of, in Conifers, 60, in 
Palnaceae, $2, in Cordyline, 
89, 92 


Stigymatic movements, 367 
Stilbocarpa, 300, 304 
4 Luallii, 300, 302, 304, 347 
a polaris, 300, 302, 304, 347 
Stitchworts, 156 
Stomata described, 40 
Structure of water plants, 295-6 
Stylidiaceae, 52 
Stuphetlia, 328 
Pa acerosa, 330 
ay empetrifolia, 330 
a robusta, 330 
Sub-antarctic element in New Zealand 
flora, 36 
Sundew Family, 180, 182 
Supple-jack, 19, 48, 90 
Suppression of spines, due to alteration 
of climate, 241 
Suttonia, 331 
at divaricata, 331 
Tainui, 236, 238; in Maori lore, 236 
Tanekaha, 60, 76, 78 
Tarairi, 175 
Taramea, 321, 322 
Tataramoa, 196 
Tarata, 194 
Taraxacum, 408 
Tauhinu, 238, 433 
Taupata, 392, 395 
Tawa, 16,175; in Maori proverb, 176 
Tawari, 188 
Tawheyra, 40, 189 
Tawhizri, 321, 322 
Tawhiwhi, 189 
Taylor, Rev. R., referred to, 150, 151 
Tea-tree, 272 
Tendril-bearing plants, 400 
Tetragonia, 160 
si expansa, 160 
Teucridium, 350 
Re parviflorum, 351 
Teucrium, 350 
Thelymitra, 115, 126 
imberbis, 127 
aS longifolia, 115, 127 
ey pulchella, 127 


Theory, Dr. Cockayne’s, on leaf varia- 
bility, + 
aa Dr. Wallace's, on the origin of 
the New Zealand flora, 34 
Thistle Family, 405 
Thomson, Mr. G. M., referred to, 31, 112, 
115, 116, 190, 194, 216, 220, 264, 
276, 293 
Thousand-jacket, 252 
Thyme Family, 364 
Thymelaceae, 55, 269 
Tiliaceae, 50, 242 
Tillea, 51 
aa moschata, 37 
Timber, of Kauri, 63-4; Kahikatea, 72; 
Matai, 70; Miro, 68; Puriri, 350; 
Rimu, 74; Tanekaha, 76; Titoki, 


Toa-toa, 78 
Toi-toi, 4,5 
Tomentum, purpose of, 420 
Toot, 228, 230 
Toro, 332 
Toru, or Toro, 148 
Totara, 15, 60, 69, 233 
35 Mountain, 68 
Transpiration, 40, 41, 120, 238 
Trimorphism, 292 
Tumatakuru, 239 
Tupakihi, 226 
Tupeia, 144 
si antaretica, 145 
Tussock Country, 12 
oe description of, 4,5 
on grass, 3,4 
Tutin, 229, 230 
Tutu, 226, 230 
Tutu Poisoning, 228, 229 
Tutu Wine, 229 
Twining Plants, 19 
Twining of leaf stems, in Clematis, 166 
Types of Forest, 15 
Typha, 49 
oy angustifolia, 6 
Umbelliferae, 50, 312 
Uneinia, 45 
Uniformity, lack of, in bush, 8 
Unique fiower forms in New Zealand, 29 
Unisexual flowers, 164 
Urtica, 136 
” ferox, 136 
Urticaceae, 54, 
Utricularia, 54, 388 
oy monanthos, 389 
a novae-Zelandiae, 389 
nA protrusa, 389 


Variation leaf,in Veronica, 369 
a in Pana, 307 


456 PLANTS OF 


Variation in Parsonsia, 340 
ni in Rubus, 196-200 
Vegetable Sheep, 424, 426, 428 
Venation of leaves, 48 
Verbenaceae, 53, 54, 349 
Verbena Family, 349 
Veronicas, sub-alpine, 22 
an colour of, 162 
Veronicas, 239 
Teronica, 246, 257, 263, 270, 276, 348, 366, 
37, 369, 371, 374, 379 
a Benthami, 348 
Ex eataractae, 383 


ms cupressoides, 380 

Pes elliptica, 36 

3 epacridea, 380 
80 


a Hectori, 380 
Hulkeana, 383 
Lavaudiana, 380, 382 
lycopodioides, 380 


an macrocar pa, 378 

565 monticola, 379 

ss salicifolia, 278 

£3 salicornioid 380 


ee speciosa, 376, 378, 392 
% tetrasticha, 375, 380 
6 Traversti, 378 
Viola, 29, 261, 263, insect pollination in. 
262 
Violaceae, 51, 261 
Violet Family, 261 
Violets, 262, 264, colour of, 162 
Viola Cunninghamii, 220, 262, 264 
45 filicaulis, 261, 264 
a tricolor, 262 
Viseum, 144 
*s, Lindsay, 144 
me salicornioides, 144 
Vite.c, 210, 350 
os littoralis, 349 
lucens, 350 


NEW ZEALAND 


Vittadinia australis, 411 
Vogel, Sir Julius, referred to, 13 
Vries, Prof. Hugo de, referred to, 370 


Wahlenbergia, 342, 348, 401, 402, 403 
a cartilaginea, 402 


5 gracilis, 402 
Wallace, Dr. A. R., referred to, 25, 30. 34, 
196 


Wallflower Family, 177 
Water Plants, structure of, 295. 296 
Wattle Family, 203 
Wawa-paku, 305 
Waxy Gentian, 337 
Weismann, referred to, 371 
Weinmannia, 188 
” racemosa, 188, 189 
af silvicola, 189 
Wharangi, 220 
Whau, 9, 242, 244, 246 
Whauwhi, 
Whipcord Veronicas, 372, 374 
White flowers, prevalence of in New 
Zealand, 162 
White Pine, 16, 70 
Wild Spaniard, 321 
i Trishman, 239, 240 


Wind-pollinated plants, 128, 392 
Wind-still spaces, 171, 172, 238 

Wines, made from Tutu, 229 

Wineberry, 246 

Wright, David McKee, quotations from, 3 


NXerochlena, 432 
Xerophytes, 41, 42, 159, 200, 239, 258, 296, 318 
Xerophylla longifolia, 306 


Yellow-button, 434 
Yellow Kowhai, 36, 212 


Zostera, 296 


Printed by Whitcombe & Tombs Limited, Christchurch,— 13126.