THECUSTODIfln
n. E. VILES
From the collection of the
z n
z m
o Prelinger
1 1 a
v Uibrary
San Francisco, California
2006
THE
CUSTODIAN
AT
WORK
By
NELSON E. VILES
Director of School Building Service, Missouri State
Department of Education. Instructor in Educational
Administration , University of Missouri. Director of
Missouri Janitorial Training Schools.
THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY
LINCOLN KANSAS CITY NEW YORK DALLAS
Ackno wledgem ents
FOR COURTEOUS PERMISSION to use indicated material, grateful ac-
knowledgement and thanks are extended to the following authors,
publishers and periodicals.
U. S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Missouri Inspection Bureau, Fire Insurance Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.
Mr. L. W. Mahone, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
The American School Board Journal, The Bruce Publishing Co., Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin.
Floorcrajt, Continental College of Floor Efficiency, Brazil, Indiana.
Handboo^ for School Custodians, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Nebraska.
Committee of Ten — Coal and Heating Industries, Chicago, Illinois.
Standards for Public School Janitorial Engineering Service, by Engel-
hardt, Reeves, and Womrath, Teachers College, Columbia University.
National Education Association of the United States, 1201 Sixteenth
Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.
Efficient Business Administration of Public Schools, by Womrath, The
Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED IN 1941 BY THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COM-
PANY WHICH RESERVES ALL RIGHTS. SET UP, ELECTROTYPED, AND PRINTED IN
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
K. B.
Foreword
THE IMPORTANCE OF adequate school housing facilities to the
welfare of the child and to the work of the school merits
the attention of all school officials. Suitable operating and main-
tenance practices are essential to efficient modern school pro-
grams. Teachers and administrators have complained of poor
service but have made no concerted effort to improve this serv-
ice. The lack of acceptable standards and of basic information
on methods, materials, and procedures available to janitors and
administrators has delayed progress.
The material contained in this volume was developed to pro-
vide information on general methods and procedures for all
who have any duties or obligations in school plant manage-
ment. While this information was prepared primarily for the
school janitor, it should be of value to superintendents, prin-
cipals, or to teachers in rural schools, all of whom are interested
in housekeeping, sanitation, safety, heating, and ventilation.
It was assembled over a period of years in directing custodial
training schools and in supervising the maintenance program.
It is hoped that it may be of value to the administrators in
supervising their maintenance programs, to janitors now em-
ployed, or to those prospective janitors who are training for a
position. It should also serve as a general source or textbook
for janitorial training schools. In order to provide the needed
information and to insure its relation to various situations and
conditions, certain basic facts and procedure outlines are re-
peated in more than one section.
Hi
iv FOREWORD
The complicated task of school plant maintenance makes it
essential that a competent janitor be employed. He should be
able to plan his work in an intelligent manner. He should be
interested in learning more about his job. The capable janitor
should not need regulations outlining in detail each task to be
done. To this end the information provided here is presented
on an instructional basis rather than as a set of rules and regu-
lations on a "do" and "don't" basis.
In presenting this volume, credit must be given to the school
plant specialists in the National Council on Schoolhouse Con-
struction under whose direction this study was started, and to
the many janitor-engineers who have spent much time in the
study of school plant care. Credit is also due the progressive
janitorial supply and floor maintenance firms who have con-
tributed much to the improvement of school plant maintenance.
Special credit is also due L. W. Mahone, Assistant Professor,
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames,
Iowa; Dr. K. O. Broady, Teachers College, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, and Dr. I. J. Montgomery, Uni-
versity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, for careful reading and
valuable suggestions.
NELSON E. VILES
Table of Contents
CHAPTER PAOE
1. THE SCHOOL BUILDING AND A MODERN EDUCA-
TIONAL PROGRAM . . . , 1
Housekeeping in the School 6
2. THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND His JOB 9
Janitorial Qualifications . . 10
Responsibilities and Obligations 17
Public Relations 20
3. ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 23
Employment, Tenure and Salary Schedules .... 25
Rules and Regulations 30
Janitorial Cooperation 37
"Code of Ethics for the Columbia, Missouri, Public
School Custodians" * 39
Control of Supplies . . • 40
4. HOUSEKEEPING • • • * 42
Cleaning Tools
Brooms . . ' . . . . . 43
Brushes . ' 44
Mops . * , - :il> . - -'"- •' 47
Dusters 48
Pans and Pails 49
Scrubbing Machine 51
Miscellaneous Cleaning Tools 51
Tool Selection, Purchase and Care 54
Cleaning Supplies
Abrasives . .
V
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Soap 57
Drain Pipe Cleaner 59
Acids 59
Caustic Cleaners 60
Disinfectants . . . . ' .. . . . . . • • 62
Deodorants 65
Concrete Floor Hardener 65
Floor Seals ' .\ .'.'.. . . . 66
Terrazzo Seal . . . . . „-..-,,., . . . 67
Floor Wax . . , . . .< .„' . . v ... 67
Dance Floor Preparations 67
Miscellaneous Preparations '. . . ' ." . . . . 68
Purchase and Storage of Materials 71
5. DAILY FLOOR CLEANING . . '. . . . . ... 74
Tools for Cleaning . . ..-••. v 75
Vacuum Cleaning . . . . » . . . '.- . . . 77
Sweeping Compound ..... . . . . . . 79
Frequency of Cleaning . . .. ; , . . . . . 79
Time of Cleaning . .-. .... ...:... 80
Methods Vary with Type of Floor . SI
Methods Vary with Tools Used . . . , . . . 82
Methods Vary with Room Use and Equipment . . . 84
6. OTHER CLEANING DUTIES . . . ; . . 97
Care of Toilet, Shower and Locker Rooms .... 97
Cleaning of Glass . .. . .. . . . . .. /•"; . . 104
Blackboard Cleaning . . „ ... . " .. • .\ . . 110
Cleaning Erasers . . .. . .^. *.:... * . . 114
Dusting . ... • '-••• •••;:•-* . -. & ^ . . . .. 115
Cleaning Classroom Walls and Ceilings . ., . . . 119
7. GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT . . •; ' . . 123
Care of Walks, Lawns and Play Areas 123
CONTENTS ^
CHAPTER pACE
Care of Trees, Shrubs and Lawns 128
Care of Light and Electric Service 132
Electric Lighting Service 136
Care of Window Shades 140
Care of the Flag . . . ......... 142
8. SAFETY IN SCHOOLS . 144
Prevention of Accidents 144
Fire Prevention in School Buildings 151
Fire Prevention and the Janitor 153
Hazards in Special Units 158
Careless Housekeeping Practices 160
Getting Pupils Out of the Building 161
Classes of Fires . . ^ 162
Fire Extinguishment 163
Characteristics of Hand Fire Extinguishers .... 168
Check Lists of Fire Hazards and Exit Facilities in
Schools ..'...... 171
9. DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM .... 175
Making a Work Schedule 176
Janitorial Records and Reports 187
10. SCHOOL FLOORS . 202
Types and Cleaning 202
Wood Floors 203
Masonry Floors ._._.. 205
Composition Floors . . . 209
Rugs and Carpets 213
Cleaning School Floors 214
Scrubbing and Mopping 216
11. SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 227
Conditioning and Reconditioning Floors
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Oiling 231
Sealing Floors 233
Waxing Floors ...... V 235
Maintenance Practices and Standards . . . . . . 240
Maintaining Masonry Floors 242
Maintaining Composition Floors . . . . . . . 246
12. HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS . ... ... 250
Principles of Heating . • , •> • .... ^-:;>'; • 252
Types of Heating Systems . . . ..,..;# . 255
Steam Generating Boilers ....... .V * . . ,, .*$ . 260
Hot Water Heating Systems . , » .: . ..> . 262
Hot Air Heating Systems . . . . . . . .. . „ - ^ . 263
Factors in Heating Efficiency ........ 264
Ventilating Systems . . . . ,. ,;. . ... , » . 270
13. FUELS AND COMBUSTION ..-.*. . . . . t . 275
Coals . W(.,.^:.. ... .. ,?| ;. '. .:. ; : .£&& . .. 275
Other Fuels . . . . . . / . . . .- -.." . . . 280
Combustion ...... ... ^ . . . . . 282
Some Heating and Ventilating Terms Defined . . . 288
14. FIRING THE FURNACE , . ;;..,... . .,, ;.. . 294
Firing with Coal . ... . . . . . .... 296
Hand Firing Methods ....... . . . . 297
Stoker Firing . . . . 304
Damper Control . . . , . . ..'... . 308
Ash Removal . . . ;• . . . 310
Smoke Control .... .*' . . ."%.i. . 312
Starting Fires . ...... . '•••.- • ?. ••"* '^^. .: 313
Banking Fires . . . . i; ; . . y. .... 314
Firing with Other Fuels . * „ 315
15. CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS . . . 317
Temperature Control 318
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTE* PACE
Ventilation Controls 319
Furnace Drafts 321
Furnace Grates 322
The Steam Heating System 324
Boiler Water 326
Radiator Care 330
Summer Care 331
Care of Hot Air Systems 333
Miscellaneous Operating Problems 334
16. MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 336
Care of Furniture 336
Termites and Termite Control 341
Miscellaneous Helps 345
17. SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ... 348
Typical Maintenance Problems 353
18. IMPROVING JANITORIAL SERVICE 367
Training for Janitorial Service 368
Evaluating the Work of the Janitor 371
Check List of Janitorial Service 373
\
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 383
Chapter 1
The School Building and a Modern
Educational Program
MANY DECADES much attention has been given to the im-
provement of educational practice, but only during recent
years has much attention been given to the improvement of
the school building facilities and to the methods of maintaining
these facilities.
Much tradition and some sentiment has grown up around
the mythical "little red school house." Tradition does not tell
us of the lack of comfort existing in these buildings where
pupils froze on one side while they baked on the other; where
they sat in uncomfortable seats and were subjected to eye
strain and other discomforts. It is true that many a boy has
left his mark deeply carved on such buildings. It is even more
easy to believe that such school houses have left lasting marks
in depreciated vitality and physical defects upon the boys and
girls who attended them.
No longer do we depend upon or expect to see many of the
old cast iron box stoves. The old Smede or burn-out toilet
systems and the slate urinals are being superseded by modern
equipment. Modern buildings being erected today do not con-
tain winding wood stairways to become fire traps for children.
Neither are modern school buildings equipped with flat grain
pine floors which splinter and become difficult to maintain.
i
2 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
The old water bucket with the common dipper is in most places
only a memory or a relic. The increasing complexity of the
modern educational program has made it necessary to provide
a greater variety of facilities in the present day school buildings.
The dark old schoolroom lighted by a few windows covered
by stringy window shades, effectively shutting out much of
the light is now being replaced by modern rooms with windows
reaching to the ceiling. Likewise, the old single drop fifty-watt
light bulb is being replaced with modern electric fixtures of
the semi-direct or indirect type, using as much as 1200 to 2000
watts of light for the ordinary classroom.
The old flat grain pine floors, covered by accumulations of
grease and oil, are being replaced with hard maple or beech
wood floors or with some of the newer linoleum or mastic types
of surfacing. Stairs and corridor floors are surfaced with tile,
terrazzo, or some other non-combustible material. Tile or lino-
wall wainscots are now provided to protect the walls from
heel marks and fingerprints. Acoustical tile board and acousti-
cal plaster have been applied to reduce reverberation and noise
in the building. Large playroom areas and assembly units have
been provided for the group activities of the school and com-
munity.
With these changes in housing methods have also come many
changes in the mechanical systems and facilities. Electric clocks,
electric bells and motors call for a different type of maintenance
than did the old kerosene lamp and the hand bell. Central
heating plants with a battery of boilers or furnaces distribute
heat some distance from the source. This heat is regulated to a
range of two or three degrees with automatic control. These
plants have delicately adjusted machinery and appliances which
must be properly installed and protected in order to deliver
the type of services desired. School officials have found open
THE SCHOOL BUILDING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 3
window ventilation is not always effective, for on cold days all
windows are closed. Present day systems are planned to change
the air in the classrooms at fixed intervals and to do it without
a noticeable change of temperature or air movement. Vacuum
cleaners have been installed to replace the corn broom and
shovel. Controlled humidity is provided to help regulate the
temperature in the schoolroom. Modern plumbing facilities
provide sanitary features for all school pupils.
With the newer buildings and with the improvements in the
older buildings have come demands for a better type of house-
keeping. This demand came first from those responsible for
installing the modern machinery and service features in the
school building. As the patrons learned of the improvements
that were being made, the demand became equally imperative
from the public that the school buildings be maintained in a
manner which would provide more adequate heating facilities,
improved ventilation, automatic temperature control, and sani-
tary facilities.
One of the major purposes of school maintenance is to pre-
serve the district investment in school property. This may seem
to be a small factor when we consider only one school janitor
at a time. It becomes far more important when we recognize
the fact that the elementary and high school districts of the
public schools in the United States have an investment of ap-
proximately six billion dollars in school plants and equipment.
Lack of proper care may cause this property to deteriorate
rapidly. It is often stated that the life of a school building is ap-
proximately fifty years. If we accept this figure as a basis, it
seems evident that any program of maintenance that prolongs
the life of this property by as much as three or five years will
effect substantial savings to the school districts in the United
States. School maintenance involves more than the saving and
4 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
protection of property. It also involves the protection of mate-
rials and supplies brought to the building for use.
A second and more important purpose in school housekeep-
ing is to provide facilities for the protection of the children.
With groups of children collected in a school building, we may
expect to find some disarrangement and some disorganization.
In short, we may expect the building to show the effects of
being used. While pupils should aid in protecting the school
building, the nature of the work done in the building will cause
some wear. The maintenance program should be developed to
provide the facilities needed, with the least possible building
deterioration.
One of the essentials of a school building is that it shall pre-
serve the health and safety of the pupils by providing suitable
and adequate conditions. Every building should provide fire
resistive exits, non-slip stair treads and other features designed
to provide safety for the children. In housekeeping, it is essential
that no obstructions be permitted in corridors and exits, and
that exits be unlocked when the pupils are in the building. It
is also important that safety from explosions or from flying
glass in doors or windows be provided. A second phase in safety
is that of health protection. To protect the health of pupils, it
is essential that the building have properly regulated tempera-
ture, suitable air movement, and adequate sanitation. It is also es-
sential that the pupils work in classrooms which are free from
draft. The light should be of proper intensity to prevent eye
strain, thus preventing eye fatigue and later sight defects. The
school is the home of many children throughout the day. Here
they may be exposed to contagious diseases and many other
common ailments. It is essential that these hazards be reduced
to a minimum by proper care of the building.
A third effect of proper school housekeeping is on the con-
THE SCHOOL BUILDING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 5
duct of the students. A dull, uninteresting room or building in-
vites marking and marring much more than does a clean, at-
tractive, well lighted building. Children have energies that must
have outlet. Under conditions where this energy is directed into
proper channels, there will be less tendency on the children's
part to display it in non-sanctioned school activities. Pupils
who are proud of their school and who feel it is theirs want to
support the school and to be on their best behavior when in
the building. Pride in a building can be developed if the build-
ing is worthy of appreciation. Few of us had any real pride in
the older schoolrooms. The scarred desks, the torn window
blinds, the unattractive and unsanitary toilet rooms are not
cherished memories. Too often the school building and grounds
were an eye sore on the landscape.
The fourth purpose of school housekeeping is to keep the
building in such condition that effective and economical work
may be done. In order to do good school work, the pupil should
be alert and active mentally. Children are more likely to be
receptive to mental improvement when the schoolroom and
conditions are conducive to mental activity. Listlessness, men-
tal lethargy and a slowing of the learning processes are to be
expected in rooms that are not properly heated or ventilated.
It seems apparent that poor housekeeping methods may cost
the school system many times more each day than the amount
paid for housekeeping services.
Pupils learn more readily when in a happy mood. A happy
mood is associated with comfort and cheerful surroundings.
School housekeeping is of even greater importance when we
realize the value of the school building as a teaching device.
One of the major purposes of education is to teach the boys
and girls to want the better things in life and to help them,
insofar as possible, in developing the necessary skills to satisfy
6 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
these wants. For many boys and girls, the school building is the
finest building that they will ever call home. For many of them
it is the best appointed, the most comfortable, the most sanitary
and the most convenient building in which they will ever live.
Many of the boys and girls set up their ideals of conveniences
and of comfort, as well as of housekeeping practices, by the
conditions they find in the school building.
Housekeeping in the School
The housekeeping program for a school system is a coopera-
tive enterprise in which each member of the system participates
to some extent. A lack of understanding of the importance of
school housekeeping by any one group will nullify the work
done by others.
I. The first responsibility rests with the school administrator. Many
of the school administrators are well versed in teaching methods
but have not had an opportunity to secure training in school plant
management with all its varied factors. While it does not seem
feasible to request these men to become specialists in building care,
it is essential that they know something of the principles involved.
It is also essential that they have the ability to organize and super-
vise the work of the people directly responsible for the care of the
building. Care in planning is needed that there may be a proper
balance between utility and ease in cleaning. It is obviously impos-
sible for the administrator to supervise closely all the activities
necessary in building care and it is essential that he delegate power
and hold responsible those to whom authority is delegated.
II. It naturally follows that the administrator should have authority
to recommend for employment men. for the janitorial and mainte-
nance force. He should also be expected to have authority to recom-
mend for promotion. He should be able to organize this force of
men by appointing certain men as supervisors or directors. He
should assist in setting up and should pass on a program of work to
be set up by these men. Since many of the school janitors are not
trained for their jobs, the superintendent or administrator in charge
should aid these men in securing adequate training. However,
THE SCHOOL BUILDING AND EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 7
the responsibility of the administrator does not end here. He should
supervise the training of teachers in the principles of building care.
Finally, he should directly or through his assistants to whom he
has delegated authority judge the results obtained. He should be
able to sense weaknesses or defects in the organization before they
are obvious to the casual observer. He should be able to instill en-
thusiasm and to secure cooperation of all concerned in the use and
care of the school plant.
III. The teacher also has a definite responsibility in building care. She
should not be expected to dust erasers or to clean windows, but
she must accept the responsibility if pupils fail to assist in main-
taining buildings in a satisfactory manner. She is the leader of the
pupils and by her actions and teaching sets up the housekeeping
standards for the pupils. It is she who can do most to teach pupils
to appreciate suitable surroundings and to develop a pride in their
buildings. It is often difficult for the teacher to overcome some of
the handicaps of a poorly planned room, a lack of storage space,
and poor surroundings. However, the ingenious teacher will be
able to improve conditions now found in many buildings. She
should never forget that proper ideals and practices in housekeep-
ing may be as essential to the child as the development of skills in
some of the class subjects. One of the first steps in schoolroom
housekeeping is to develop a system for storing equipment and
supplies needed in the room. Spaces should be provided for globes,
maps, books, and other teaching devices. The children should be
taught to store these materials in the space assigned. The teacher
should teach the pupils responsibility in the care of individual
wraps and supplies. Her work in housekeeping does not end at
the door of her room. She can teach pupils never to enter the
school building with mud on their shoes. The teacher is expected
to train the pupils to refrain from marking on the walls. She
should teach them to conserve toilet room supplies and to protect
the shrubbery on the grounds. The teacher may also supervise
the hanging of pictures and the development of many of the dec-
orative features that aid in making the school building a fitting
school home for the children. She should also learn to cooperate
with the janitor in his work and to encourage him in his efforts to
maintain a clean, spotless building. In order to have a check on
her work in school housekeeping, the teacher might set up some
guiding principles similar to the following:
8 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
1. Know the principles of heating and ventilation. Use a ther-
mometer. Have ventilation, but avoid drafts.
2. Provide a sample of housekeeping in my end of the room
that I am willing to have the pupils copy.
3. Teach pupils not to carry dirt into the building on their shoes.
4. Teach use of the wastebasket. Do not permit pupils to leave
paper on the floor.
5. Have a place for everything. See that supplies are kept in their
proper places.
6. Leave desk tops clean that they may be dusted.
7. Teach a sense of fitness. Do not use desk tops for storage pur-
poses.
8. Teach children to use the walks and not to destroy the shrub-
bery.
9. Do not permit pupils to throw paper on the ground.
10. Teach pupils to erase blackboard when through with it.
11. Teach pupils to hang wraps in space provided.
12. Visit toilets frequently. Teach pupils that these rooms should
be kept in a sanitary condition.
13. Do not drive nails in plaster or trim.
14. Do not paste stickers on windows or blackboards.
15. Lock cases and doors if same are to be locked. Lend keys only
on order of superior officers.
16. Cultivate the good will of the janitor.1 He may become a
friend in need.
The teacher as the leader of the pupils may assume a double
responsibility. Many of the pupils are young and have had
little training in housekeeping. Unless the teacher can aid them
in developing a pride in their building, she cannot expect them
to assist in maintaining a schoolhouse of which she and they
will be proud.
1 As used in this and later chapters, the terms "janitor" and "custodian" have the
same meaning. As used they apply to those men whose chief duties are school house-
keeping. The term, "janitor-engineer," as used will apply to those men whose chief
duties are the care of heating and ventilating systems, but who may also have some
housekeeping duties.
Chapter 2
The School Janitor and His Job
THE NEW AND improved school building facilities that have
been provided will not render the service for which they
were intended if the men employed for building maintenance
service fail in their duties. The modern school janitor fills an
important place in the school program. He reaches the building
first in the morning to prepare it for the activities of the day.
He takes charge of the building after the teachers and pupils
have completed their duties for the day. He is the caretaker,
the engineer and the person having direct responsibility for
the comfort of the occupants of the building. The janitor who
does his work well contributes much to the efficiency of the
school system. The best janitor is the janitor who does his work
quietly and thoroughly.
He should be considered an integral part of the school system
and should be consulted when making plans for the schools.
Many schools have found it desirable to have him attend an oc-
casional faculty meeting. This relationship typifies the growing
conception of the importance of the school janitor. School
officials are beginning to realize that the modern janitor is bet-
ter qualified and that he is better trained than was the janitor of
a few years ago. The old type of janitor received his position
through pull or friendship and often knew little of building
care. He is being replaced by well trained men who are willing
10 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to put forth some effort to give adequate service. The janitor
who sees in his job only the tasks of firing the furnace and an
occasional sweeping of schoolrooms has no place in our modern
school buildings. Not until a majority of our school building
maintenance departments are manned by alert, capable, well
trained janitors and janitor-engineers may we expect the build-
ings to render the service for which they were intended.
Janitorial Qualifications
It is difficult to set up qualifications in terms of age, ex-
perience, and specific training for janitors. In a building or
system where many men are employed the work may be so
organized that each man does the tasks for which he is best
trained. In the smaller systems or even in the smaller buildings
of any school system one man may be required to do all tasks
connected with the maintenance of a building. In such cases
it is essential that the janitor in charge have a wide range of
abilities. Womrath 1 stated that the janitor should be an econo-
mist in the use of supplies, a sanitarian, a moralist, a first-class
housekeeper, a sociologist, a diplomat, a maintenance engineer,
and an expert mechanical engineer.
Age ana* Physical Condition
Many school boards will not employ a new janitor who is
less than twenty-five or more than fifty years of age. Physical
ability is usually considered more important than age for the
men already employed. Many boards do not set up a definite
age limit for the retirement of janitors from active service.
If no retirement age has been set up some boards permit the
janitor to remain in service until he is physically unable to do
1 Womrath, G. R, Efficient Business Administration of Public Schools. 1932, pp.
279-81.
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 11
the work in an adequate manner. Litle 2 found from a sampling
of Missouri school janitors that the average age of the men
now in service is 49.16 years. He also found that the average
janitor had 5.22 years of experience.
Lack of good vision and partial deafness are handicaps which
may make it difficult for the janitor to perform his work in a
satisfactory manner. The work of the janitor in firing the
furnace, in cleaning windows, and in making repairs, coupled
with the long hours that many of the men work, require a
man with some agility and a good physique. Many of the tasks
involve much risk for a janitor who is not sure of his footing on
ladders and on window ledges. Other tasks require lifting of
tables and other heavy objects. The school boards that select
janitors physically unable to do the necessary tasks around a
school building may expect patrons to complain of the type of
service rendered. In addition to physical ability, the janitor must
be free from contagious diseases. He should be required to con-
form to the same health regulations as the teachers.
Character and Personal Qualities
The janitor has an important influence on the lives of the
school children. In the elementary schools, he is often the only
male employee of the school system with whom the children
have intimate contact. Some of them go to him for advice and
many model their actions on his. The influence he exerts makes
it important that he be clean in body, mind, and habits. He
should be the type of person with whom the parents are willing
to have their children associate. His character and reputation
should be above reproach. He should never forget that he is a
representative of the school system. Mothers realize that his
2Litlc,Roy K, "A Study of Missouri School Janitors," 1937, an unpublished manu-
script, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri.
12 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
work may directly or indirectly affect the physical and moral
welfare of their children. It is essential that he cultivate habits
that merit the respect of teachers and patrons. He should not
be addicted to the use of liquor or narcotics. Surliness, excessive
familiarity, vulgarity, the use of profanity, laziness, or the chew-
ing of tobacco around the school building, will bring criticism
from parents and will undoubtedly result in the loss of position
for the janitor. In general, the ideal janitor is a citizen of the
United States, married, courteous, dependable, industrious,
truthful, honest, and respectful.
General Education
There are no definite qualifications in terms of years of
schooling for janitors. There are several different types of
janitorial positions and some require more general training
than do others. Most boards require that the janitor have the
equivalent of an eighth grade education. He should be able to
read and write reports and records. He should be able to read
and understand written and printed instructions relative to his
work, his tools, and the supplies that he uses. It is also desirable
that he have a background that enables him to understand the
organization, purpose and function of the school system. He
should be able to speak the English language. In addition to
his general education, he needs certain specific training which
will be discussed under another heading.
Dress and Appearance
The janitor is the maintenance engineer and the school house-
keeper. Cleanliness and neatness begin with him. It is difficult
for a janitor who is not clean in person and in dress, or who
does not know what cleanliness means, to maintain an attrac-
tive, sanitary school building. Children are sent to school to
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 13
develop habits and ideals. Remember that not all the learning
takes place in the schoolroom. Pupils develop ideals of house-
keeping, or cleanliness, and of sanitation from their surround-
ings in the school building. In spite of the tasks that the janitor
has to perform, he should give attention to his personal ap-
pearance. He should shave each day and should have his hair
cut every two or three weeks. He should bathe every day. Dirty
fingernails, uncombed hair, tobacco stain on his teeth, and a
dirty face or clothes are to be avoided.
The janitor is often the first person visitors meet when they
enter the school building. His dress and appearance should be
in keeping with the dignity of the school. It is understood that
he has many dirty tasks to perform. For this work he should
provide overalls or coveralls that may be removed before he
comes before the teachers and pupils in classrooms or corridors.
Dilapidated shoes run over at the heels, bibbed overalls, a vest
without a coat, exposed suspenders, baggy trousers, shirt open
over the throat and upper chest, all detract from the personal
appearance and show a lack of self respect. The janitor should
be proud of his appearance.
Many schools require the janitors to wear a uniform con-
sisting of trousers and shirt to match, shoes, tie, and a belt. Most
janitors welcome this change. The colors perferred seem to be
gray trousers with or without a light stripe and a gray shirt.
However, some schools have adopted a khaki color with satisfy-
ing results. These are accompanied by black shoes or oxfords,
black hose, a black belt, and a black bow tie. Many janitors have
been able to secure black leather (semi-leather) neckties that
look well, wear well, and do not require laundering. A head
covering is not recommended for indoor work, but if one is
desired it should be a cap to match the uniform. Dress caps or
old hats should not be worn in the corridors or schoolrooms.
14 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
These uniforms may be obtained at the regular clothing
counters in light weights for summer and heavier weights for
winter wear. The clothing should fit snugly but should allow
freedom of movement. It should be of a material that will wear
well and that may be cleaned easily. It is essential that each
janitor have more than one uniform that he may have clean
clothing as needed. The cost of this clothing is no more than
that of any other good outfit that the janitor may assemble.
The belt should be fitted with a leather tool kit that will hold
a small screw driver, a putty knife, and a small pair of pliers.
The janitor should avoid wearing a flowing tie or loose clothing
that may be caught in fans or other moving machinery.
Skills and Abilities
In a school system where a chief engineer, a repair crew, and
other specialized workers are employed, there is opportunity
for each man to perform the tasks for which he is best fitted.
In such systems each man may train for a specific type of
service. In other school systems or buildings where these special
service men are not available, each man in charge of a building
should be able to do most of the essential tasks necessary for
building care and maintenance. The skills discussed in the fol-
lowing paragraphs are those essential for complete building
care. In the smaller systems it may be necessary for each janitor
to possess most or all of the skills listed.
With the introduction of vacuum cleaning systems, vacuum
pumps, motors, automatic temperature control, humidifying
systems, as well as several types of floor finish, public address
systems, and rheostat control for stage lighting, the building
maintenance tasks have become varied and complex. It is
anticipated that there will be some tasks for which a skilled
mechanic from outside the school system should be employed.
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 15
These instances are becoming less frequent as the janitors im-
prove in their ability to care for school buildings. Where the
men employed by the district have the skill to do minor repair
jobs in a satisfactory manner, these repairs may be made when
needed and usually at less cost than if outside mechanics are
employed. The janitor who does not have the skill or ability to
do minor repair jobs is being taught to do them or is being re-
placed by men with greater ability. Many school systems now
find it unnecessary to employ any outside help unless new con-
struction is contemplated.
As a Housekeeper
The janitor must be a good housekeeper. He should know
the best methods of cleaning and preserving the various types
of floors found in school buildings. He should know the compo-
sition of and the effects of various types of cleaning agents on
different surfaces. It is essential that he know the best methods
of cleaning glass, wall surfaces, furniture, building hardware,
and blackboards. He is responsible for maintaining sanitary
conditions in the building. He must know the value and use
of water traps to prevent seepage of sewer gas into the building.
It is essential that he know modern methods of cleaning foun-
tains, urinals, lavatories, toilet stools, toilet rooms, and shower
stalls of all waste accumulations or water deposits that might
mar their appearance or aid in creating unsanitary conditions.
His sense of order and arrangement should be apparent in the
manner in which he leaves each classroom with each article
of furniture properly located and with the erasers in place, or
in his own quarters where all supplies are properly stored, tools
in place, and where all rubbish has been eliminated. The good
janitor knows and practices modern methods of building main-
tenance, knows how to eliminate dirt, and is eternally vigilant
16 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
for marks or dirty spots that might mar the appearance of his
building.
The janitor of yesterday whose experience as an engineer was
confined to having fired a boiler for a sawmill or even to a
short period as a locomotive fireman is not necessarily qualified
to care for the heating and ventilating systems for a modern
school system. The janitor in charge of the heating and ventila-
tion should have a knowledge of the principles involved and
some experience either as an apprentice or in other capacities
in similar systems. He should know the principles of fuel
combustion, the value of various fuels and the proper methods
of firing. He should know the proper temperature range for
the various school units and the importance of humidification.
The well trained heating engineer will know the principles of
heating and ventilation and the importance of securing this
ventilation economically and without noticeable drafts. He will
know how to clean the boilers, to care for radiator traps, motors,
and fans so that the whole system may render the service for
which it was intended.
In addition to his routine operating tasks the janitor has a
definite duty to preserve the building from too rapid deteriora-
tion. He must possess many skills that enable him to repair
breaks and to replace pieces which are too badly worn to give
adequate service. The janitor should have sufficient skill in the
use of woodworking tools to make shelves and window boxes.
He should be able to make roof repairs, to tighten loose win-
dows, to replace broken window cords, and to replace broken
glass. He should be able to adjust door closers or panic exit
devices, and to repair lockers. He should be able to use a
sanding machine, to repair desks, and to replace broken pieces
with those salvaged from discarded desks. There are times
when the ability of the janitor to make minor plumbing re-
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 17
pairs such as opening clogged pipes or stools or the adjusting of
leaking valves, will maintain all fixtures ready for use, prevent
a waste of water, and save a plumber's bill. While it is not
essential that the janitor be a licensed electrician, he should
know how to replace blown fuses with fuses having the proper
resistance. He should know how to care for motors, lamps, and
electrical appliances. In practice the well balanced and well
trained janitorial force does not need to call a boiler maker to
replace boiler flues or to replace a broken water glass.
The janitor should know how to care for and to trim hedges
and shrubbery, to care for flower beds, and to maintain lawns.
It is generally understood by school officials that public support
of the system is closely related to public appreciation of the
schools. To a large number of citizens the exterior appearance
of the building, yards, and playgrounds is a measure of the
efficiency of the school system. It is much easier for patrons to
appreciate and to develop a pride in a well-kept, attractive
school yard and building than in a poorly kept yard and a
dilapidated, unpainted building. Hence, the ability of the jani-
tor to maintain an attractive building may be an important
factor in public approval of the schools. Although the janitor
may possess many skills, we may perhaps best summarize by
stating that he must be an expert housekeeper.
Responsibilities and Obligations
The janitor has many responsibilities in the care, preservation,
and protection of school property. It is his duty to maintain a
sanitary building. It is also his duty to provide the heat and
ventilation needed to protect the health of the children in the
building. His work in maintaining the building in such condi-
tion that the pupils may work in comfort may add materially
to the efficiency of the school system. In addition to the regular
18 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
duties, the janitor may be called on to care for the building for
many evening activities. It is desirable that he be given as-
sistance for evening duties, but if not, in spite of long hours of
service, he feels obligated to be present when his building is
open for use.
The janitor should attempt to prevent property loss that may
be caused by freezing, neglect, or careless usage. He may find
it necessary to drain pipes or to maintain fires over week-ends
or during holidays in extremely cold weather. He should con-
serve the supplies and equipment used in the building. He
should watch for breaks or weak spots in the building and, if
he cannot make the needed repairs, should report them to his
superior officer. Negligence on the part of the janitor may be
responsible for losses of various sorts. He is the "keeper of the
keys." These, he should not let out of his possession except on
the order of his superior officer. Before leaving the building
each evening, he should check to see if doors are locked and
windows latched as per his (written) instructions. It is advisable
that he make a circuit of the building each morning to de-
termine any loss during the night.
Responsible for Safety
In his position as caretaker, the janitor is responsible for many
factors that add to the safety of the children in the building. He
is obligated to see that snow is removed from walks and door-
ways, and that sand, sawdust, or cinders are scattered over icy
spots on steps or walks when needed. He should see that exit
lanes are unobstructed by cases, tools, or furniture, and that all
exits may be opened easily when pupils are in the building. He
should be alert to the dangers of fire escape doors that do not
operate freely, ice on fire escapes, hanging icicles, loose hand
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 19
rails, and loose stair nosings. He should install and make use of
temperature control valves on hot water lines to lavatories and
showers. Door closers should be adjusted to prevent a too rapid
slamming of heavy exit doors during windy weather.
The janitor in charge of each building is responsible for
preventing and eliminating many fire hazards. There may be
certain structural defects which create fire hazards, but which
the janitor cannot eliminate. He should report these in writing
to his superior officer. There are many fire hazards which he
may remove. He should keep fire extinguishers filled as per
the schedule of instructions for each type and ready for use.
Inflammable materials should not be stored in the building un-
less in a fireproof vault. A recent disastrous school fire origi-
nated when a janitor, after having applied too much floor oil
to a floor that was already fully soaked, decided to dry up the
excess oil by building a big fire in the furnace, which had little
clearance or protection between it and the oil soaked joists
and floor boards above it. A janitor should avoid storing paper,
oils, or other combustibles under stairs, stair landings, or exits.
He should know the hazards of the careless use of the electric
service. Before leaving each evening, the janitor should make a
circuit of the building to look for fire hazards. He should make
frequent detailed inspections of the building from the attic to
the basement to look for any loose wires, accumulations of
waste, or other fire hazards. Frequent inspections should be
made in "hot spots" such as the furnace room, home economics
department, science rooms, and shop units for any possible fire
hazards. When a fire does occur, the janitor should aid first
by sounding the alarm. His second and most important duty is
to aid in getting the pupils out of the building safely and with-
out panic, and his third duty is to protect property values.
20 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Public Relations
The janitor should understand that the purpose of all his
work in the building is to provide an adequate place for the
activities of the pupils and teachers. Personal desires or personal
opinions should not be permitted to interfere with the activities
necessary to promote the work of the school or the welfare of
the pupils. The practice of employing janitors directly by board
members on the basis of friendship, sympathy, or any basis
other than efficiency is passing.
Few janitors now find it necessary to apply to board members
for a position or to make any reports directly to the board. The
janitor should understand that he is under the supervision of
and responsible to his superior officer. In some cases he is re-
sponsible to the superintendent of buildings and grounds or in
the smaller systems to the superintendent of schools for the
general care of the building, and to the principal of the build-
ing for his daily housekeeping activities.
Relation with Teachers
The janitors and teachers have a joint responsibility in main-
taining clean, attractive, comfortable buildings. The tactful
janitor should be able to secure the cooperation of the teachers
in teaching pupils not to bring dirt into the building, to avoid
scattering paper on the floor or grounds, and in preventing the
marking and marring of the walls of the building. Teachers
often request janitors to erect shelves or to make some other
improvements in their rooms. In some cases they may request
him to run errands or to perform some task which may inter-
fere with his regular duties. The janitor should expect to give
assistance when it will promote the work of the school, but the
thoughtful teacher will understand that the janitor has a regular
THE SCHOOL JANITOR AND HIS JOB 21
schedule of work and that she should not expect too much of
his time. The diplomatic janitor does not refuse to perform tasks
outside his assigned duties, but may request the teachers to get
the approval of the principal of the building if the janitor is
to vary his schedule in doing non-routine tasks. Teachers
should know what periods of the day the janitor is available
for other than routine tasks and the type of service he is able to
render. Conflicts between teachers and janitors over the time
for cleaning rooms and over the conditions of the rooms may be
avoided by developing a mutual understanding of the duties
and obligations of each in relation to the school. The trained
janitor will study the desires and the schoolroom habits of each
teacher and attempt to make her his friend.
Pupil Relations
The janitor is thrown into direct contact with many pupils.
Some of them go to him for advice and many of them copy
his ideals and habits. The janitor who does not like children
nor have the ability to get along with them should secure an-
other job where he will not come into contact with children.
The janitor who is fair but firm in his dealings with children
is usually able to secure their respect and cooperation. A janitor
who is domineering or one who caters to children of influential
parents may find his path difficult and his future in that build-
ing uncertain. It does not seem desirable to have the janitor
punish children, but since he is charged with the conservation
of supplies and oftentimes with the general management of
the toilet rooms, pupils should understand that he is in charge
of and responsible for certain parts of the school property. He
may advise students in regard to the care of school property
and is obligated to report to the principal infractions of certain
fixed school regulations. The tactful janitor will be able to
22 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
secure the cooperation of the teachers and pupils in maintain-
ing a clean, scarless building, not marred by pencil or heel
marks, and a yard with a protected lawn free from paper and
other rubbish. He should be able to secure the cooperation of
the teachers in preventing the accumulation of waste paper on
the floor, in teaching pupils to flush toilets, in checking waste of
sanitary supplies in the toilet room, and in developing in and
with the pupils a pride in the building and grounds.
The Janitor and the Public
The janitor is the most intimate contact between the school
and a portion of the public. He often contacts certain groups
that no other representative of the school has reached. He
should understand that it is his duty to promote understanding
of and good will for the school system. Many friends and
patrons will come to him for information about the school.
Knowing he is not the authorized information bureau for the
school, the wise janitor will not, by implication or by word,
cast any reflection on the management of the school or the
work of the teachers.
The janitor may be an important contact agent between the
school and a portion of the public. He often contacts certain
groups that no other representative of the school has reached.
Many friends and patrons and even some inquisitive board
members may come to him for information about the school.
Some janitors having the best intentions are flattered by this
attention and give out information that may be misinterpreted
by those who do not have all of the facts. The diplomatic janitor
can aid his friends in developing an appreciation of the school
system without resorting to cheap gossip.
Chapter 3
Organization for Janitorial Service
IN MOST SYSTEMS the superintendent of buildings and grounds
is recommended by and is responsible to the superintendent
of schools. The line of authority, as it relates to janitorial
service usually found in these schools, is illustrated in the
diagram shown here.
Board of Education
Superintendent of Schools
Superintendent
of Buildings
Supervisors of
Custodial Service
Head Janitor Engineer
Supervisors
Engineers Janitors
Principals
Teachers
Assistants
Apprentices
The board of education or the board of trustees is in nearly
all cases designated by law as the control body for the local
23
24 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
school system. The members of these boards are usually laymen
who are not trained in school administration, and who do not
have time to give attention to the details of school management.
Therefore, a school head or manager is necessary. These boards
select a superintendent of schools to serve as a leader and an
executive officer. He is responsible to the board for the school
system. He delegates to various other officials, principals, super-
visors, and the superintendent of buildings and grounds certain
duties and obligations.
This type of organization may vary in the different school
systems. In some systems the superintendent of buildings and
grounds may also be the business manager. If no special super-
visors are employed there may be one or more head janitors
or engineers who are to do their work under the direction of
the superintendent of buildings and grounds. In some of the
smaller school systems the superintendent of schools may also
be superintendent of buildings and grounds. In such cases he
usually finds it desirable to select a head janitor or a head en-
gineer and to grant him some authority in directing the work of
building maintenance. If the school systems are such that only
two or three janitors are employed, these men are usually re-
sponsible directly to the superintendent of schools. Each janitor
should understand thoroughly the line of authority in that
particular school system. He should know his relationship to
other janitors and to whom he should look for directions for
the technical phases of his work.
In a few school systems, building maintenance work is done
by a contractor who agrees to care for the buildings for a speci-
fied sum of money each year. This system has not proved popu-
lar and will not be considered or recommended in this dis-
cussion. It will be noted from the diagram that the janitors and
head janitors also receive some direction from the principal of
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 25
the building. From the nature and organization of the school
system this dual responsibility seems inevitable. The work in
each school building is for the purpose of promoting the edu-
cational program in that building. It is understood that the
principal is in charge of this program. It is generally found
desirable for the janitor to receive instructions for all tasks that
immediately affect the educational program from the principal
of the building. He receives instructions for the technique of
his work from, and is responsible to, the superintendent of
buildings and grounds for the general condition of his plant.
He also works under the superintendent of buildings and
grounds in making repairs and in the use of fuel and certain
supplies. In theory all requests from teachers for janitorial as-
sistance should come through the principal. In practice, par-
ticularly in the smaller buildings where the teachers and jani-
tors are more intimately associated, the teachers often make
their requests directly to the janitor. This seems to be a satis-
factory procedure in caring for minor tasks if the doing of these
tasks does not interfere with the routine work of the janitor.
Many janitors state that small favors done for teachers may aid
in securing their cooperation in preventing an accumulation of
waste and dirt in the rooms.
Employment, Tenure and Salary Schedules
In former years the employment of janitors and the control
of janitorial service was under the direct supervision of the
board. In some cases each board member was responsible for
the appointment, retention, and promotion of the school jani-
tors working in his ward. Although this type of control has
proved inefficient and although it is condemned by students
of school administration, certain phases of the system still pre-
vail in some of the smaller school districts.
26 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Selection and Promotion
It is generally agreed that the janitor should be selected on
the basis of his ability to do a particular job. Up to this time no
one seems to have determined the best method of evaluating the
merits and abilities of prospective janitors. Many school officials
accept new men without investigation, hoping that the new
man will be better than the old one. In some cases the janitor
is required to pass a civil service examination before becoming
eligible for appointment. In other school districts, janitors who
have charge of heating plants must pass an examination set up
locally for engineers and firemen. During the last few years an
increasing number of school systems require each new janitor
to pass an examination outlined for that particular district.
Each of these systems has some merit in eliminating untrained
men. On the other hand, no examination system seems to be by
and of itself an adequate basis for selecting new janitors. The
best system seems to be an examination prepared by school
officials preceded or followed by an investigation of the ap-
plicant's character, ability, and habits.
The best practice seems to be for the supervising officer,
superintendent, or superintendent of buildings and grounds,
after giving all examinations desired and after making proper
investigations, to recommend new men for employment. This
supervising officer should keep a file showing the standing and
availability of each applicant. It is understood that the final au-
thority rests with the board of education and that all contracts
which call for a payment of district funds must be passed on by
the board. However, it should not and generally would not
be necessary or wise for individual janitors to appeal to board
members for positions or for promotions. Authority for pro-
motion should go with the power of selection. When a new
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 27
janitor is employed he should be put on probation for six
months or one year. During this time it is desirable to have
him work as an assistant to a well trained janitor. At the end
of the probation period he may be promoted to regular assist-
ant or placed in charge of a small building. Regular promotions
should come only upon recommendation of the principal of
the building in which he works and the supervisor under
whose direction he has worked.
Tenure
After a janitor has passed his period of probation he should
be able to feel secure in his position as long as work, habits,
and attitudes' warrant retention in the system. In school systems
where teachers and other employees must be elected each year,
the competent janitor should be re-employed without having to
apply for the position. Unfortunately this practice is not always
followed. Many experienced and well qualified janitors have to
compete with untrained men on a price basis each year in seek-
ing re-employment. This lack of stability is demoralizing to
the janitorial force, leads to less efficient service, and fails to
encourage janitors to secure additional training for their jobs.
Records that are available seem to indicate that janitorial tenure
in the larger school systems is more secure than in the smaller
schools. They also indicate that trained men have a decided
advantage over the untrained men in holding their positions.
Litle * found that of 400 Missouri school janitors, fifty per cent
had been in their present positions four or more years. In spite
of recent movements toward permanent tenure, there is still
some question of the value of any tenure system that is not
coupled with a program of evaluating services rendered, in
1 Litlc, Roy F.
28 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
order that merit rather than seniority may be a determining
factor in retention and promotion.
Salary Schedules
Information provided by the Research Division of the Na-
tional Education Association2 indicates that the average an-
nual salary for school janitors in 1936-37 was:
IN CITIES WITH A POPULATION OF
100,000 or more $1,297
30,000 to 100,000 1,298
10,000 to 30,000 1,231
5,000 to 10,000 1,068
2,500 to 5,000 1,023
Litle found that during the same year the average annual salary
for Missouri school janitors in school districts with a population
range of from 100,000 to 1,000 was $807.50. These salaries are
below the average salary generally recommended for skilled
workmen in other lines of activity. A study of the situation
seems to indicate that several factors contribute to the main-
tenance of the present low wage scale:
1. The hiring of men not trained in building maintenance principles
and practices.
2. Custom, coupled with an old feeling that anyone can take care of a
school building.
3. The hiring of men physically unfit for strenuous work.
4. Poor standards of housekeeping demanded by school officials.
5. Small buildings which require the presence of a janitor but not the
full time labor of a capable man. School boards may try to econo-
mize here by selecting the type of man that may be hired at a small
annual salary.
There are many factors involved in establishing a satisfactory
wage scale for the janitor in any school system. Some of these
2 National Education Association, Research Bulletin, Vol. XV, No. 2, March 1937,
P. 62, 63, 64, 65.
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 29
factors are: the prevailing wage scale in other lines of work
of similar difficulty and importance, the hours of labor, the
amount of evening work required, the number of months for
which a salary is paid, the security of tenure, living costs, pay
for overtime, vacations with or without pay, holidays granted,
time off for illness, the responsibility, the repair work done,
experience, training, ability, and the amount of work assigned
to each janitor. One of the irksome features of janitorial work
as now planned in many school systems is the time that the
janitor is expected to remain on duty. Where two or more men
are employed in each building, this difficulty can be overcome
by alternating the hours of labor. A few school systems have at
least partially solved this difficulty in one-janitor-buildings by
the use of a flying squadron of night men who have the build-
ings warm when the regular man reports for duty, and by
employing special men for duty when the building is open at
night. School officials can and should, in so far as possible, em-
ploy and pay on a twelve months basis all janitors who render
real service in maintenance and repair work during the sum-
mer months.
A satisfactory work program and wage scale should include:
1. A living wage if employed full time, regardless of the size of the
building.
2. Decent working conditions.
3. Fair treatment with promotion and retention based on merit and
the services rendered.
4. A salary scale based on responsibility, labor involved, and ability to
do the job.
5. Hours of labor limited to acceptable standards.
6. Employment during summer months.
7. Security of position.
8. Extra pay for overtime.
9. Vacation and sick leave permits similar to those granted teachers.
10. A retirement plan.
30 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
It is understood that many of these standards are not met,
particularly in some of the smaller school systems. These repre-
sent ideals which should be kept in mind by school officials and
janitors. Until some of these conditions prevail we cannot hope
to have adequate maintenance service in our schools. In general
the schools are paying for the type of service they are receiving.
Janitors should not feel discouraged over the lack of some of
these advantages. As training programs are developed and the
janitors become more proficient, working conditions and sal-
aries will be brought into line with the services rendered. Re-
gardless of the salaries paid and of other conditions under
which he must work, the school janitor should expect to do
in a proper manner the work assigned without grumbling or
fault finding. It is entirely proper for him to consult his fellow
workers about salaries and working conditions, but he should re-
member that the school is operated not for his benefit but for
the benefit of the children. If he cannot improve conditions
peacefully or receive what he thinks a desirable wage for the
services rendered, he should seek employment elsewhere.
Rules and Regulations
A study of the organization for janitorial service indicates
that in a majority of the smaller school systems all directions
are given orally and that few of them have a typed or printed
list of rules and regulations. On the other hand, many of the
larger systems have detailed codes or rules and regulations cov-
ering each and every activity of the janitors. Each of these ex-
tremes may be subject to some criticism. Regardless of the size
of the system it is desirable to have an outline setting forth
the general status, duties, obligations, and responsibilities of the
janitors. The extent to which the rules and regulations should
be detailed will depend on the type of men employed and the
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 31
degree of freedom granted these men in planning the work in
their buildings.
In keeping with the modern trend toward cooperative plan-
ning and greater participation by school employees in the gen-
eral management of the system, many schools now invite mem-
bers of the janitorial staff to aid in setting up a proposed set of
regulations and approved practices of building care and main-
tenance. This trend is worthy of commendation. School ad-
ministrators hope to develop a janitorial staff of skilled men
each of whom is vitally interested in the schools and in the job
he is doing. In fact, certain principals occasionally invite the
janitor to sit in conference meetings with a part of the faculty
to discuss school and building policies. An examination of the
available rules and regulations leads to the belief that many of
these were prepared by school administrators. Few of them
gave consideration to the rights, privileges, or position of the
janitor in the school system. Little attention is given to tech-
nique or methods of work. However, much attention is given
to such problems as: eligibility, dress, line of authority, habits,
salaries, cooperation, hours of work, care of supplies, duties and
responsibilities. The following list of rules and regulations is
not offered as a model list, but as a sampling of some that are
now used.
I. Organization and administration
1. The general line of authority shall be:
Superintendent of buildings and grounds
Supervisors and chief engineers
Head janitors and engineers
Assistant janitors and engineers
Apprentices and substitutes.
2. Directly and through his supervisors the superintendent of
buildings and grounds shall have charge of the care of the
physical plant. Each janitor shall be responsible to him for the
32 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
general condition of the building and the technique of his work.
3. The principal in each building shall have general control of the
building and the activities therein. Janitors should confer with,
and take orders from the principal on the care of the building
and on all tasks necessary to promote the work of the school
and the welfare of the pupils.
4. Where more than one janitor is employed in a building the
assistant janitor shall work under the supervision of the head
janitor.
II. Eligibility, qualifications, promotions
1. Janitor shall be twenty-one years of age, physically able to do
the work, free from contagious diseases, and should, if possible,
reside within easy walking distance of the building.
2. After the janitor has passed the physical and technical examina-
tions he may be selected for apprenticeship training. Each
janitor shall serve first as an apprentice and then as an assistant
janitor before being placed in charge of a building.
3. A janitor shall pass the required examinations and have the
approval of the head janitor and the principal before being
promoted.
III. Personal habits
1. The janitor shall wear the uniform approved by the school.
2. He shall be neat and clean in appearance.
3. He shall refrain from profane and indecent language.
4. He shall not be addicted to the use of liquor or narcotics. Smok-
ing in the building other than in the janitor's quarters is for-
bidden.
IV. Duties and responsibilities
1. He shall maintain the building in a proper condition for the
work to be done therein.
2. In so far as possible he shall protect the building from damage
and loss through fire, theft, and too rapid deterioration.
3. He shall leave the building during the hours of his employment
only when he has the permission of the principal. He shall so
plan his work that he may employ his time to the best advan-
tage.
4. He shall have the building open, clean, and with the tempera-
ture properly regulated, at least thirty minutes before school
opens in the morning.
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 33
5. He shall make the required records and reports on time and
on the proper forms.
6. One or more janitors shall be on duty at all times when the
building is in use.
V. Care of tools and supplies
1. The janitor shall keep his tools properly stored and in a usable
condition.
2. He shall be responsible for the economical use of the supplies
allotted to the building.
3. He shall keep a record of gas, electricity, water, and coal used
in the building.
VI. Salaries and hours of labor
1. Salaries shall depend on the rating of the janitor, the hours on
duty, the type and size of the building.
2. Hours of service shall be from to each day school
is in session with a hour period of service on Saturday.
3. Time off for illness shall be the same as that allowed teachers
in the system.
4. The janitor shall accept no pay from non-school organizations
using the building. The board will collect all fees and the
janitor will be paid at the rate of times his hourly wage
for such overtime. For occasional school activities held during
the evening the janitor will receive no extra pay. If evening
school work calls for frequent use of the building a night man
will be assigned to the building.
Other special regulations relate to the frequency of cleaning,
care of keys, etc.
In a school system where the buildings are large enough to
require the services of several men in each building it is not
difficult to plan the work so that each man will have what may
be termed a normal load of work. In many other systems where
the buildings are smaller, part time and night men may relieve
the men in the one man buildings by taking over a part of his
work of cleaning or by having the building warm each morn-
ing when he reports for duty. In many of the smaller school
systems little attempt is made to develop equitable work sched-
34 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
ules. On the other hand, many of these schools vary the salary
according to the size of the building. One result is that the pay
in the smaller buildings is insufficient to attract and hold skilled
men. It naturally follows that many of these buildings are cared
for by men untrained and physically unable to render the type
of service needed. The development of reasonable work sched-
ules should make it possible to pay adequate salaries for each
man, should aid in securing the type of man needed, and
in improving the quality of the janitorial service.
The Work Load
School boards and school administrators find it difficult to
determine the desirable work load in developing a work sched-
ule for each janitor. General information provided in the fol-
lowing paragraphs is developed as an aid to administrators in
studying the work load. (A more detailed outline of the work
of the janitor in developing a work program will be discussed
in Chapter 9.) Several standards such as the number of class-
rooms, floor area, and the number of pupils enrolled, have been
used to measure the work load of each janitor. All of these
taken together do not constitute an adequate measure of the
work to be done. They do not even provide a reasonable basis
for comparison unless many other factors are recognized. In
studying the work load of each janitor the administrator should
consider the importance of the following factors and condi-
tions.
1. Where only one man is employed, hours of service are not easily
alternated.
2. If special men are employed for repair work, night service, or for
early morning firing, the work of the regular janitor is made easier.
3. Buildings in smoky areas are harder to maintain in a satisfactory
manner.
4. Old buildings usually present problems not found in modern plants.
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 35
5. The lack of scrubbing machines, brushes, mops, etc., and of the
proper cleaning materials, increases the time required for cleaning.
6. Old wood, or pitted concrete floors, require more cleaning time than
do smooth surfaces.
7. Small glass panes, although having other advantages, require more
time for cleaning than do large panes.
8. More time is spent in temperature control in an area where the
temperature is below freezing for many days during the year.
9. There is usually more night work in junior and senior high school
than in elementary school buildings.
10. Ash hoists, automatic temperature control, and stokers, now do many
of the tasks once done by janitors.
11. Gas and oil fuels require less labor and cause less dirt than does soft
coal.
12. Old enamel ware plumbing fixtures check and require more atten-
tion than does the smooth surface of porcelain.
13. The large areas now recommended for playgrounds with their
ornamental planting require care and attention.
14. Muddy grounds or surfaces covered with gravel or cinders permit
the tracking in of material injurious to schoolroom floors.
15. The use of the building at night, particularly by non-school organi-
zations, calls for extra care and attention on the part of the custo-
dian.
16. Work shops, science rooms, and rooms where cooking is done, are
usually difficult to maintain.
17. Small fixed seats with multiple legs are factors in the time required
for daily cleaning.
18. Smooth glazed wainscots absorb little dirt and require less cleaning
time than do rough surfaces.
19. In some areas the water is impregnated with minerals that accumu-
late on plumbing fixtures and in heating systems, thus involving
more work on the part of the janitor.
20. It is necessary to know the amount of assistance that the janitor will
give in toilet room supervision or in other non-cleaning jobs.
In computing the work load and the amount of work to be
assigned to each janitor, it is desirable to list the tasks and to
determine the time that should be allotted to each task in that
building. It is also necessary to know how often these tasks
36 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
must be done. The supervisor or administrator should aid and
encourage the janitor in an analysis of his job and in develop-
ing a schedule of work. An excellent analysis of this type has
been made by officials of the Minneapolis Public Schools.3
A Plan of Work Essential
There are many duties and tasks to perform in caring for a
school building and if the janitor is not taught how to plan his
work he may neglect some of these duties. If the janitor is to
do his work in an efficient manner and to make the best use
of his time, the work must be so planned that certain tasks may
be done at a time when routine activities are demanding less
of the janitor's attention. Some of his tasks must be done daily,
and some several times daily. Certain other tasks should be
done weekly and some need to be cared for only after longer
intervals of time ranging from two weeks or a month to a year.
A systematic schedule or work program will enable the janitor
to do more work and to avoid to some extent peak loads of
work during certain hours of the day.
In developing a work program it is not possible entirely to
separate operation and maintenance activities. Certain repairs
and replacements must be made as the need arises. However,
aside from the problem of financial accounting, there seems
to be little need to distinguish between the maintenance task
of replacing broken glass and the adjustment of seats which
may be termed an operation task. No complete schedule can
be developed that would apply alike to all classes and types of
buildings. In order to develop a suitable work schedule, it is
necessary to analyze the work load as outlined in previous para-
graphs. In the larger buildings where several men are em-
3Pykaski, Conrad. Methods of Calculating Public School Janitorial-Engineering
Man-Power. Board of Education, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September 1935.
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 37
ployed, the hours of service may be alternated and the work
divided so that each man will have certain tasks to perform.
Even in smaller buildings where a special man is employed to
care for the building during night meetings a schedule may be
arranged permitting him to do certain cleaning tasks while
he is in the building. In school systems having several small
buildings one man may be employed to give part time assist-
ance in two or more buildings. Any work schedule developed
should allow some time for repair and other non-routine tasks.
In a few two-janitor-buildings the work is so outlined that
janitor "A" comes on duty in time to heat the building before
school opens. He remains on duty until noon. He is then off
duty until about three o'clock when he returns to assist in the
daily cleaning. Janitor "B" comes on duty at noon and works
until about five o'clock. He then returns to the building at
about seven P.M. for night service and to complete all cleaning.
The work schedule for each building should represent the
combined thinking and planning of the principal, the superin-
tendent of buildings and grounds, and the janitor in charge.
The development and use of a schedule calls for some records
and reports. These should be simple for the clerical work of the
janitor should be reduced to the minimum. Schedules should be
typed or mimeographed. It probably will not be necessary for
the janitor to check his daily chart after he has become accus-
tomed to the routine. He may check the weekly, monthly, or
yearly charts as a reminder to himself and as a report of tasks
done. For these charts a dating as (2/12) may serve as a
check.
Janitorial Cooperation
Any man who must work alone, and who is denied the in-
spiration obtained from talking with and exchanging ideas
38 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
with others interested in the things in which he is interested,
may easily become self centered and is sure to miss hearing
about some of the newer methods or supplies used by others in
the same line of work. It is natural for each janitor to crave
companionship and friendly relations with other men having
similar interests. In many school systems the janitors, particu-
larly those in the smaller buildings where only one or two men
are employed, have had little opportunity to associate with
other janitors. A lack of cooperation and oftentimes a feeling
of rivalry and jealousy have aided in preventing progress or the
improvement of morale in the janitorial force. The thought-
ful supervisor or administrator encourages and makes an op-
portunity for his men to get together that they may discuss
problems of common interest.
There has been an attempt in certain cities to unionize school
custodians and engineers. The fact that school custodians are
public employees and thus restricted from some activities has
prevented this movement from becoming popular. There is
a National Association of Engineers and Custodians which has
attracted some interest. However, this organization is too re-
mote from the average janitor to have much direct influence
or appeal. The janitors see more immediate profit from local
organizations where the men have frequent personal contact
with other members. Such organizations have been in existence
in some city school districts for a number of years. Since the
development of janitorial training schools in Minnesota,
Colorado, Oklahoma, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, and else-
where, many local janitorial clubs or associations have been
organized. In most cases these men meet monthly to discuss
their work and to exchange ideas. School administrators often
cooperate with the janitors by setting aside one evening each
month for janitorial meetings. All buildings are closed on these
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 39
evenings and no other public meetings calling for janitorial
service are scheduled for this time. In many of these organiza-
tions the men prepare their own refreshments and a few of the
more ambitious ones serve an annual banquet to which the
school board and other school officials are invited. The school
boards and other school officials in a few districts sometimes
reverse the order by serving a dinner in a school cafeteria for
all local and visiting janitors. School administrators generally
report that these janitorial organizations have aided in im-
proving the morale of the men, reducing discontent, and in
developing a cooperative spirit among the men. In some school
systems the janitors have developed for themselves a code of
ethics for their use. A sample code developed by and for the
custodial force at Columbia, Missouri, is given below.
"Code of Ethics for the Columbia, Missouri, Public School Custodians" *
The following Code of Ethics was adopted by the janitors of the
Columbia Public Schools December 15, 1936:
That we may ever have our thoughts directed toward the proper care
of the school plants, and that custodians' work may truly be a profession,
we proclaim this code of ethics:
We Believe That
First: Our profession stands for ideals and efficient service.
Second: Our highest obligation to the boys and girls is keeping the
schools in a sanitary condition.
Third: Custodians should be selected or appointed upon the basis of
professional merit.
Fourth: The custodians should apply for a position to or through the
superintendent of schools.
Fifth: No custodian should be elected unless recommended by the super-
intendent of schools.
Sixth: The custodian should be physically sound and in good health.
For his own happiness and for the well-being of the pupils, the cus-
todian must guard his health at all times.
* The word custodian includes engineers.
40 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Seventh: A worthy custodian will possess a pleasing personality and a
love for children.
Eighth: A worthy custodian will possess a desire for knowledge o£ and
training in operation and maintenance of the school plant.
Ninth: It is perfectly proper at all times for custodians to seek prefer-
ment and promotion by legitimate means.
Tenth: It is the duty of the custodian to inform the administration as
soon as possible of a definite decision to resign.
Eleventh: It is unprofessional for a custodian to violate a contract. Unless
the consent of the Board of Education is obtained, releasing the obliga-
tion, the contract should be filled.
Twelfth: Whenever the work of any custodian is unsatisfactory, the ad-
ministration should notify the custodian and give him a chance to
make the correction before dismissal is recommended.
Thirteenth: If a custodian is not re-elected he is entitled to know the
cause of non-election, if it is in the power of the administration to
report the same.
Fourteenth: It is unprofessional for a custodian to offer a destructive
criticism to the administration; to other custodians, teachers, pupils,
or to patrons about a fellow custodian, teacher, pupil, or about the
management of the school in general. All criticism should be construc-
tive in character and voiced to the proper authority and only for the
purpose of remedying the existing evil. It becomes equally unprofes-
sional not to report to the administration, therefore, matters that in-
volve the best interests and well being of the school.
Fifteenth: The custodian should consistently refrain from becoming a
partisan upon issues which divide the community.
Sixteenth: We believe that our Code of Professional Standards and Ethics
is a statement of conscientious practice.
Control of Supplies
While a more detailed discussion of supplies will be given
later, it seems advisable to state that the control and use of
supplies plays an important part in the administration of the
janitorial service. Without proper supplies the janitor in charge
cannot hope to do an efficient job in an economical manner. It
is futile and wasteful to attempt to clean rough oily floors with-
out the proper cleansing agents. On the other hand, the use of
ORGANIZATION FOR JANITORIAL SERVICE 41
a strong soap or cleansing powders may mar the finish of floors
or woodwork. Each janitor should be encouraged to study the
use and composition of various cleaning compounds. In the
larger schools, the supplies will be kept in a central storehouse
and delivered to each building upon request. Each janitor
should be taught how to estimate his needs, to make out his
requisition forms, and to check on supplies used.
In a well planned school system the janitor will feel that he
has a definite place in the school organization. He will under-
stand something of the duties and obligations of his fellow
workers. The alert janitor will know enough about the school
system to enable him to adapt his program to the needs of the
school. He will know how to plan his work, without waiting
for detailed instructions for each activity. He will be proud of
his school and his school will be proud of him.
Chapter 4
Housekeeping
Cleaning Tools
MANY JANITORS FAIL to realize full value for the energy ex-
pended in school building care because they do not have
the proper tools and supplies for the work they are to do. On
the other hand, some of the men do not know how to secure
best results from the tools and supplies available.
The janitor is responsible for the operation, protection, and
maintenance of the school building. Hence, it is essential that
he have the proper tools and that he know how to care for
them. In many cases, the poor quality of the work found in
the building may be attributed partly to the lack of proper
tools and partly to the condition of the tools that are used. It
is important that the janitor know the composition and use
of cleaning agents. He should know that certain agents clean
through a chemical action, that others clean through an
abrasive action, and that some agents combine both actions.
Some abrasives may scratch and mar polished surfaces. On
the other hand, certain agents may contain chemicals that
attack the surface to be cleaned. The alert janitor will know
that strong alkaline preparations may bleach wood floors, and
that acid cleaners will attack enameled iron. One janitor states
that, when in doubt, he uses water. While this is generally a
42
HOUSEKEEPING 43
safe practice, it is true that water may be harmful to certain
fabrics or to fiber board ceilings and tack panels.
In many cases, one tool or implement may be adapted to use
in more than one location or for more than one purpose. The
use of the proper tools and materials will effect a saving in time
and will bring more satisfying results. In his daily housekeep-
ing and maintenance duties, the janitor will need a number of
cleaning tools, tools for yard work, and special small hand tools
for a handy repair kit. Other tools which are necessary for the
heating engineer may also be of some value to the maintenance
and repair man. Wherever possible, the tools should be stand-
ardized to a sufficient extent that the men in the various build-
ings may use similar tools for like activities. This will permit
greater possibility in the exchange of tools and will facilitate
the purchase of tools for all of the men at one time. It will also
make it easier to provide repair and replacement parts.
The cleaning tools will include brooms, brushes, mops, dust-
ers, pans, pails, squeegees, chamois skins, cheese cloth, and
many others which will be used by the custodian in his care of
the building.
Brooms
The old corn broom, long the chief tool of the school cus-
todian, is now practically out of use in modern school plant
maintenance. A few of these brooms have been retained for
cleaning up around boiler rooms and coal rooms, and for the
sweeping of walks. In some places, the corn broom is still used
by pupils as an aid in cleaning mud from overshoes. When a
corn broom is purchased for the purposes outlined above, it
should be one having stiff straws bound securely to the handle.
There is another broom known as the palmetto broom which
44 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
has been used for rough cleaning and for the sweeping of
leaves. This has not found general favor in schools.
Brushes
Many types of brushes are used in school plant cleaning.
Some of these are of fiber construction, some of bristles, some
of horse hair, and some of a combination of these. Each of
these types of brushes probably has use in a school building
and each may be adapted to several uses. The use of a brush
not adapted to the work to be done may result in a waste of
time and effort.
Floor Brushes
Several years ago there was a decided swing away from the
use of the corn broom to the use of floor brushes. At the present
time, the floor brush is being replaced by sweeping or dust
mops. There is still some need for floor brushes in school build-
ings where the concrete floors are old and pitted or on certain
wood floors that are rough and can not be cleaned easily with
a sweeping mop. In some cases, the janitor finds it necessary
to use a floor brush, even in buildings having good floors, if
the playground and soil conditions outside contribute to the
carrying in of excessive amounts of dirt on the feet of the
pupils. In these cases, the janitors often use the floor brush to
remove the heavy dirt and follow up with the dust mop. The
size of the floor brush best fitted for a particular job will de-
pend upon the area to be cleaned. In schoolrooms with fixed
seats it probably is not possible or desirable to use a block over
16" in length. On large areas, such as corridor units, the janitor
can use a 36" block or head with a saving of time to himself
and with satisfying results. The best floor brush commonly
found in school buildings is that of Russian or Chinese bristles.
HOUSEKEEPING 45
The cost of a pure bristle brush is high and most schools find
it desirable to purchase a brush composed of about sixty-five
or seventy per cent bristles with fifteen to twenty per cent horse
hair and some fiber. The fiber aids in holding the bristles in
an erect position when sweeping. Most janitors prefer a brush
with bristles about 4" in length with these bristles extending
out at the end and to each side in a sort of flare. The use of
rubber bumpers at the ends of the brush will be unnecessary
if the bristles of the brush have the proper flare at the end.
With the general abandonment of heavy floor oils, the problem
of using a wire set instead of a glue set brush seems less impor-
tant. One feature that the janitor demands in a floor brush is
that it have "kick." When the janitor lifts the brush at the end
of his stroke, the bristles should have resiliency enough to kick
out and throw the dirt slightly ahead, freeing the brush of
particles of dirt. This prevents the carrying back of dirt on the
brush, to be dropped at the beginning of the next stroke. These
brushes usually come with holes bored on two sides of the block
to permit changing the handle that the brush may wear evenly
from both sides. In general, the smooth handle treated with
oil is preferable to the painted one in that it moves more easily
through the hand. Most janitors do not prefer the handle at-
tached to the brush with a spring. While the handles come in
various lengths, it is desirable to reduce the handle length so
that when the brush is standing on the floor, the top of the
handle comes approximately to the eyes of the one using the
brush. If the bristles become matted or filled with lint, they
may be cleaned by combing.
Scrub Brushes
Under modern methods of floor maintenance not much
scrubbing is done. Scrubbing, as used in this connection, refers
46 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to a scouring process to release dirt and grime from the floor.
A considerable part of the scrubbing is done by machine but
some must be done by hand. For this purpose, the hard fiber
brush of palmetto or similar material is desirable. These
brushes should be purchased in pairs, one for the hand and one
on a handle. The fiber should be comparatively short, prefer-
ably not over 3". The block should be of a type of wood that
resists deterioration from frequent immersions in water and
scrubbing solution. These brushes should be rectangular in
shape with square corners so that they may be used to reach
corners in the building. No specific care is necessary other than
that of cleaning the caustics and other scrubbing compounds
from the brush after it has been used.
Toilet Brushes
The janitor finds frequent use for a stiff fiber brush mounted
on a short handle for the purpose of cleaning toilet stools,
urinals, and other fixtures. Some janitors prefer to have two
or three brushes of different shapes in order to reach into all
of the corners. Some of the brushes have a wood handle with
a wire set fiber. Others have a wire head with fiber twisted into
it. Each type seems to work satisfactorily. At least one brush
used for this purpose should be so designed that it may be used
to reach otherwise inaccessible corners and crevices in the fix-
tures. One of these brushes with stiff %" to 1" fibers may be
used to scrub heavy incrustations from fixtures.
Radiator Brushes and Counter Brushes
The janitor will need a radiator brush of horse hair which
may be used in cleaning between the sections of the radiator
and which may be used to clean back of or under the radiators.
Most brushes of this type are on wire handles and are cylindric
HOUSEKEEPING 47
or oval in shape that they may be inserted between the sections
of the radiators. The counter brush is usually a small hand
brush like that used in the home to brush crumbs from tables.
Mops
Mops may generally be grouped into two classes commonly
known as dry mops and wet mops.
Dry Mops
The dry mops, commonly known as dust mops, are used for
dry cleaning or for sweeping. Three types of dust or dry mops
are found in the various school buildings. The first is the short
string mop with strings 4" to 6" in length attached to a mop
head. In some cases these mops are made in the form of a
pull-on or mitten type which may be slipped over a head of
heavy wire or wood. These mops are composed of short strings
attached to or through a heavy canvas cloth. The mop head
used for sweeping or cleaning the rooms with fixed seats is
usually not over about 16" in length. Those used for cleaning
large areas may be as much as 36" to 42" in length. There is
another type known as the dry dust mop with a straight head
18" to 30" long and with strings of about 9" to 12" in length.
These mops are generally used as push mops in cleaning large
areas. In using this type the strings may be piled up in front
of the mop as it is pushed down the corridor over the floor
surface. Another dry mop has strings 12" to 15" in length at-
tached to a round head. This long string mop is generally used
in a sort of circular motion for picking up dust and light
particles of dirt. All the dust mops need to be cleaned fre-
quently, hence should be detachable. These mops should be
washed in warm water with a neutral soap preparation. When
they are partly dry they may be sprayed with a light applica-
48 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
tion of a suitable polish or wax preparation. The mop is then
ready for use and will pick up and retain dirt better than will
an untreated mop. Heavy applications of oil should be avoided.
Wef Mops
The wet mops are used for damp cleaning, particularly on
tile, linoleum, and asphalt floors. In certain cases they are also
used on wood floors. These mops usually have a string from
15" to 20" in length and are rigidly attached to the mop head.
There is not complete agreement among janitors relative to
the comparative merit of linen and cotton strands for these
mops. The cotton strand does seem to pick up and hold dirt
more readily than the linen. There is some tendency for the
cotton strand to ravel and to catch on projections more than does
the linen strand, and the linen strand usually wears better. Wet
mops should be washed out frequently. It is a waste of time
to attempt to clean a floor with a dirty mop. These mops are
not scrub mops and should not be used as such. The mops of
unbleached material are cheaper and more durable. The loosely
twisted (4 to 8 ply) mops do not wear as long as the denser
twists but are more absorbent. For the skilled janitor a 24 to
32 ounce mop is desirable. For less skilled moppers, a 16 to 24
ounce head is satisfactory. Full length strands with several rows
of head stitching are best. All mops or dusters should be
washed in clean warm water using a neutral soap.
Dusters
The old feather duster gave way to the dust cloth which has
in turn been generally superseded by the string-mop duster.
The use of old rags for dusting is generally objectionable. In
many cases the rags have heavy seams and sometimes buttons
and catches which may mar surfaces to be dusted. Although
HOUSEKEEPING 49
some janitors do use cheesecloth, experience seems to indicate
that the string-mop dusters do the work as efficiently and more
rapidly.
The string-mop duster is usually composed of cotton strands,
2" to 4" in length, attached to the canvas back which is made
into the form of a mitten to be used on the hand or as a slip-on
head to be pulled over a wire form fitted into a handle. The
most desirable length for the duster head seems to be 8" to 12"
of dusting surface. The longer head seems cumbersome. The
shorter heads do not cover enough area. For most janitors the
handle should be approximately 10" to 14" in length. Special
dusters are made with forked heads to be used on chair rounds
or Venetian blinds. Several dusting heads should be provided
so that a fresh supply will be on hand while others are drying.
When these dusters become soiled they should be washed with
a warm water and neutral soap solution and then dried. They
may be treated with a light application of furniture polish after
washing. Special duster head mops of the floor mop type may
be used for dusting walls. The handle of the duster may be re-
versed so that it may be used to remove the dust from the tops
of the ledges, picture moldings, and railings above the normal
reach of the janitor.
Pans and Pails
In building maintenance and in cleaning operations, the
janitor should have an ample supply of pans and pails.
Dusf Pan
It is desirable to have a dust pan about 16" wide to pick
up dust and dirt while cleaning the building. These may be
obtained with either a short or a long handle. The short
handled one is less expensive and less cumbersome than the
50 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
one with the long handle. The dust pan with a hump to hold
back the dirt has not been favored by many janitors. If the long
handled dust pan is used, it should be weighted or balanced
so that the dirt collects at the back end when the pan is lifted.
Pick-up Pan
The janitor also needs a pick-up pan for water. These are
usually made with a hump so that the water may be shoved
into the pan by the use of the squeegee. It is necessary that the
lip extending to the floor be on the long side of the pan to per-
mit use of a long squeegee. The pans of heavy galvanized ma-
terials do not rust out as quickly as do the lighter weight pans.
PO//S and Wringers
It is desirable that the janitor have a tight pail of large di-
mensions or a fiber board case for the collection of waste paper.
This should be tight enough that it will also hold dust. It
should be equipped with a bail or strap for ease in carrying.
The janitor should have several ten or twelve quart pails for.
the transfer of water and other liquids. He will also need one*
or two mop pails of sixteen to twenty quart capacity. He
should have a mop wringer which may or may not be attached
to the pail. Some wringers are equipped with cranks, but most
janitors prefer wringers that press the water out of the mop.
The press wringer may be either a foot pedal or a hand lever
type. In either case, the wringer side should be perforated so
that water pressed out of the wringer may fall back into the
pail. If the hand lever wringer or press is used, it may be de-
sirable to have a pedal on the mop pail that the janitor may
steady the pail with his foot. In many cases it is found desirable
to have the pail on casters so that it may be moved while mop-
ping without leaving marks on the floor. A heavy screen or a
HOUSEKEEPING 5,
grill should be provided for the bottom of the mop pail in
order that the sediment settling to the bottom of the pail
will not be picked up by the mop each time it is dipped. Some
janitors like to use a mop pail truck. This has some advantages
in ease of moving but presents difficulties in transferring from
floor to floor unless the building has elevators. The janitor will
also need one-half pint, pint, quart, and gallon measures.
Scrubbing Machine
While the scrubbing machine will not eliminate wet mopping
in daily floor cleaning, it is a valuable tool for use in removing
heavy accumulations of floor dirt.
There are various types and makes of scrubbing machines
on the market. Prices vary and the scrubbing machine pur-
chased should be the one best adapted to the task to be done.
Miscellaneous Cleaning Tools
It is essential that the janitor have available a number of
towels for use in cleaning. He should also have a lambs-wool
applicator for use in applying wax. This may consist of one
head with several pads. The janitor will also need a number of
chamois skins for the various cleaning jobs. The good chamois
absorbs water readily and does not harden when dried. The
best chamois skins are imported. Some of the cheaper native
skins may feel clammy when wrung out. After use, chamois
skins should be rinsed and then dried slowly. These skins are
not scrub cloths but are to be used for drying and polishing
smooth washed surfaces.
To//ef Tools
It is essential that the janitor have available a plunger, known
as "the plumber's friend," for aid in freeing the passage of
52 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
choked stools. It is also desirable that he have a flexible worm
or snake equipped with a handle for use in opening closed
stools and drains.
Pocket Tool Kit
No janitor should feel fully equipped for work who does
not have a pocket kit containing one small putty knife, one
small screw driver, and a pair of small pliers. These can be
carried easily if put into a pocket case which may be attached
to the belt or carried in a pocket. These tools are invaluable in
making minor repairs, removing gum from the floor, and re-
pairing seats as the janitor works about the building.
Yard Tools
The importance of yard maintenance to the appearance of
the school and to the public and pupil appreciation makes it
essential that the janitor be provided with the necessary tools
for maintaining the premises in a suitable manner. He will
need a common rake that may be used around flower beds. If
there are many trees on or near the yard he will need a heavy
leaf rake that can be used to collect leaves. He should have one
or two hoes for use in cultivating shrubs and flower beds; a
spade, shovels, sprinkler, and an ample length of water hose.
Probably the water hose should be arranged on a reel and
should be accompanied by a sprinkler head. The janitor should
be provided with hedge shears, a hand ax, and the necessary
tools for maintaining the lawns. A lawn mower is indis-
pensable. If the area to be mowed is large, this lawn mower
should be a power driven machine. A step ladder for use in
and out of the building is essential, and for roof and gutter
cleaning a long extension ladder will be needed.
HOUSEKEEPING 53
Window Jack
The janitor will also find it necessary to have the tools needed
for window cleaning. For this purpose, he will need a window
jack that may be attached to the various windows in the build-
ing. This jack should be one which is secure so that when he
risks himself on it he may be assured that it will not give way.
A home-made jack may be made from assorted lengths of
2 x 4's with 1 x 6's for the platform. It is also desirable that the
janitor have a suitable belt and strap for window washing. The
window strap is of more value if adequate loops or hooks are
fastened to the walls at each side of the window so that the
straps may be snapped into these loops. The window belt
should consist of a heavy body belt with straps running from
this belt to the wall loops. This should be reinforced with a
second set of ropes or straps which will catch the body in case
one of the first straps gives way. This belt and strap should
support a weight of 800 to 1000 pounds.
There are many pieces of equipment which are so vital to
the cleaning program that the janitor often thinks of them
as cleaning tools. Some equipment items that play an impor-
tant part in cleaning are the foot scrapers and the door mats.
Foot scrapers are of many types. The common bar type at-
tached to the edge of the sidewalk may present a hazard to
pupils who play in this area. This hazard can be in part re-
moved by placing a gas pipe shield two or three feet above the
foot scraper. Some janitors make the scrapers portable by at-
taching to a small frame platform. Another plan is to install
scrapers along the walk but parallel to and near the building.
All foot scrapers should be far enough off the ground to permit
the dirt to collect below the scraper. It is often desirable to
54 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
provide a brush rack where the pupils may complete the shoe
cleaning process. The janitor can make these brush racks by
attaching stiff fiber brushes to a rack. One of these brushes
should be placed at the bottom of the rack with the fibers up.
Two other brushes may be attached to the side of the rack with
the fibers pointing toward the center. The door mats are
usually placed near the entrance. There are about three types
of door mats in common use. Many janitors place a steel mesh
mat outside the entrance doors. If the grounds are quite muddy
they place a cut rubber mat just inside the door. A fiber mat
may then be placed in the entrance or corridor. The use of
several mats may aid in eliminating much of the dirt and grit
that might be carried into the classrooms.
Tool Selection, Purchase and Care
The janitor should make a study of the tasks he must per-
form and of the tools best adapted for his work. He should be-
come acquainted with new tools that are being developed by
other janitors and by the various supply houses. While he may
not have authority to order his own tools, he should be able
to recommend and to back with suitable proof his recom-
mendations for tools of a certain type and quality.
After tools are purchased proper attention should be given
to their care. Some tools need to be conditioned or broken in
before being put into regular use. Mops, brushes, dust pans, and
other tools should not be left in corridors, alcoves, or corners
open to public view. Mops and brushes should be stored in
suitable racks or hung on hangers designed for that purpose.
Pails and pans should be stored where they will be out of the
way yet accessible when needed. Bench tools should be stored
in cases or racks near the work bench. Each tool should be so
maintained that it is ready for use when taken from its case or
HOUSEKEEPING 55
place of storage. It is difficult to keep tools in good condition
if used by various unskilled workers. For this reason, it has
been found desirable to keep a separate set of tools to be used
by teachers and pupils in occasional project activities.
Cleaning Supplies
Modern building maintenance requires many types of sup-
plies for cleaning and general use in the building. In the clean-
ing of a building, the chief cleaning agent is water. In some
cases water is the carrier for the cleansing agent, but in nearly
all cases water is the chief cleaning agent. Dirty water is of
little value in cleaning and the water should be changed fre-
quently so that only clean water will be used.
Abrasives
For many years, people have realized that certain abrasive
substances may be used to remove dirt. Some of the abrasives
used today are tripoli, talc, chalk, and coarser abrasives such
as fine sand. Some of these abrasives are combined with soap
in order to reduce their cutting effect. The janitor should be
careful to use a type of abrasive that is fine enough not to mar
the surface to be cleaned. Most of the floor scouring powders
contain abrasives. These are generally more effective when ap-
plied to damp surfaces in powder form than when suspended
in water.
Bow/ Scouring Powder
There are a number of bowl scouring powders which are
used in school buildings. In general, these have a slight amount
of abrasive action with some cleaning or soap action. Tripoli
with tri-sodium phosphate (commonly known as T.S.P.) is
often used as a basis for these powders. In some cases a small
56 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
amount of muriatic acid is added, particularly for use in toilet
bowls. This powder is usually not coarse enough to scar the
surface of the fixtures. Powder used on toilet bowls, lavatories,
or fountains, should contain no iron.
Floor Scouring Powder
The term scouring powders refers to those used on bowls
and floors. Scouring powders are often used on dirty or greasy
floors. Most scouring powders have an abrasive in the form
of tripoli, volcanic ash, or lava. Some abrasives have bone meal
in them, but bone meal tends to dissolve and become gummy
on the floor. Most good floor scouring powders do not have
much alkali but consist primarily of abrasive materials with
a small amount of soap to give a smooth action effect and to
reduce the sharp cutting of the abrasive.
Steel Wool
Steel wool as an abrasive material has gained in popularity
with janitors during recent years. It is used for buffing floors
and for the purpose of removing accumulations of grease and
even patches of varnish. Steel wool with a rather coarse tex-
ture is used on the floor to smooth the rough surface and after
the surface becomes smoother, a finer texture is used. The
steel wool may be used as a hand tool, in pads on brushes, or
on rotating drums.
Whiting with Oxalic Acid
One abrasive that is used by a number of janitors is a combi-
nation of whiting with oxalic acid. If one is careful where this
is used and if it is rinsed off afterwards, it makes a rather satis-
factory abrasive. Another abrasive used by many janitors is a
combination of whiting and T.S.P. In this mixture the T.S.P.
HOUSEKEEPING 57
may act as a chemical in dissolving some of the oils on dirty
surfaces.
A janitor can test the coarseness of an abrasive and determine
the possible effect in scratching the finish by grinding some of
the powder between two pieces of glass.
Soap
Soap is one of the cleaning agents most often found in school
buildings. Soap is generally made from caustics such as caustic
potash or caustic soda (lye) in combination with fats or oils.
Soaps are of two types, according to composition. These are
known as alkaline soaps and neutral soaps. The alkaline soaps
contain more "builder" than the neutral soaps. The builder
is usually some material like tri-sodium phosphate or some
similar substance. The alkaline soaps are more harsh in effect
than the neutral soaps. The heavier alkaline soaps usually have
from seven to eleven per cent builder. The neutral soaps usually
contain about one per cent builder.
The janitor may use soap chips or dry soap mixed with water
to make up the soap for use. The liquid soap may contain
seventy to seventy-five per cent water. If he desires a soap with
an alkaline content, he should add some builder like tri-
sodium phosphate. Some of the milder soaps are used as clean-
ers and some of them are used for toilet purposes. There has
been much contention relative to the comparative merit of
liquid and powdered soap for cleaning purposes. It is true that
soap action is effective only when water is present, but it is not
difficult for the janitor to add the water. Powdered or chip
soaps are usually cheaper than liquid soaps. Pleasing aromas
and brilliant colors may make the soaps more attractive but
add nothing to their cleaning qualities.
For toilet purposes it is desirable to have a mild soap, free
58 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
from caustics. However, there seems to be little reason to pay
high prices for highly scented soaps. It is estimated that the
germicidal effect of the so-called chemical soap is slight. Most
toilet soaps are made with a coconut or olive oil base. This is
usually purchased in a forty per cent base and reduced to about
ten per cent by dilution. In using this soap it is desirable to see
that the dispensers are kept clean and that the holes are open
so that action may be free. There are many other soaps used
for heavier cleaning. Some of these will be discussed as special
cleaners under the section on floor scrubbing. A majority of
these heavy duty cleaners are made up of soap and an alkaline
substance like T.S.P. with or without an abrasive, depending
on the anticipated use. There seems to be no one best soap for
all uses. The many types of surfaces make it desirable to use
several types of soap. For heavy cleaning where oils and dirt
accumulations require a strong cleaner, an alkaline soap may
be used on surfaces not affected by the alkalies. On most fabrics
and finishes found in school buildings, it is advisable to use only
neutral soaps.
However, a majority of the cleaning compounds have some
soap content. The janitor should understand that the detergent
value of the soap depends to a great extent upon its saponifica-
tion. In other words, if the soap does not make the water "slick"
it is of little value as a cleaner. After the soap makes the water
slick, the soapy water tends to form a film around the dirt
particles so that they may be more easily floated off in the
cleaning process. Soap that is slow to dissolve in the water
forms this film slowly. The water may be so hard that it takes
a lot of soap to get results. In many cases this saponification can
be speeded up and more economical results obtained by the
addition of some substance which will break down the hard-
ness, thus making it possible to obtain the results desired. Fail-
HOUSEKEEPING 59
ure to soften the water means the use of more of the costly soap
materials.
Drain Pipe Cleaner
There are a number of drain pipe cleaners on the market.
Most of these are composed of lye or sodium hydroxide with
zinc or some other metal to speed the action. If the drain pipe
is only slightly choked and if this material does reach an open-
ing, it is valuable in removing grease and other things that
often choke drain lines. However, if the pipe is sufficiently
choked that the material does not go on through, it may unite
with the grease in the pipe and form a jelly-like soap which
may be more difficult to remove than the original obstruction.
For this reason, many janitors prefer to use a pump or worm
to remove obstacles in drain pipes. Some janitors have all of
their drain lines equipped with plugs or a "T" at each bend so
that they may get at them more easily for cleaning purposes.
Acids
School janitors should beware of the use of strong acids.
Practically all of the acids will affect any material containing
lime or calcium and are particularly hard on marble finish or
on limestone which is used in concrete. They may also affect
iron and may burn wood. The janitor can usually detect the
acid by its sour taste. However, it is not advised that he attempt
to test the stronger acids in this manner. There are three princi-
pal acids used in school building cleaning.
Muriatic
Muriatic acid (which is commercial hydrochloric acid) is
much used to clean mortar off brick. It is also used in toilet
bowls to remove rust and iron stains. It acts as a corrosive and
should be diluted before being used. This acid is often used as
$0 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
a basis for various commercial bowl cleaners. An acid or cleaner
of this type is not needed if the bowl is already clean. This
acid should not be used on enameled iron or on other surfaces
where the effect may be harmful. When it is used, the surface
should be rinsed thoroughly to remove all the acid. Adding
one spoonful of formaldehyde to dilute muriatic solution may
reduce its effect on iron.
Sulphuric Acid
This acid is not often used in school building cleaning. It
has an effect similar to that of muriatic acid.
OXQ//C Acid
This is a milder form of acid than the muriatic. It is often
used to remove ink stains from the floors and may be used to
remove a number of other stains. This acid deteriorates when
kept in an open container so many schools purchase the acid
in a crystal form. In some instances, this powder form is put
on the floor to take out certain discolorations. It seems to have
more effect if moistened and scattered lightly on the spots to
be removed. The fumes from this acid are harmful and the
janitor should be careful not to breathe them. Floors or other
surfaces should be rinsed well after the use of oxalic acid. All
of these acids are used in chemical laboratories, and if poured
in sinks may affect the pipes. If spilled on masonry floors or
window stools, they may cause partial disintegration. The jani-
tor should provide earthenware jars for acid wastes in chemical
laboratories. These jars should not be emptied into enameled
sinks.
Caustic Cleaners
The school janitor should also be careful in the use of any
strong caustic solution in cleaning the building. The strong
HOUSEKEEPING 6,
caustic solution may cause a discoloration of the floor and is
harmful to the finish. It may discolor wood, leaving it some-
what red in appearance. It will remove varnish and paint. It
will discolor certain metal and masonry finishes and may
take the sheen off marble. Strong caustic solutions will burn
the hands.
Caustic Soda
One of the principal caustics used in school buildings is
sodium hydroxide or caustic soda (NaOH) commonly known
as lye. This is often used as the basis of a drain cleaner. It is
also used as a basis for certain soaps. Like most caustics, it
has a slippery feeling when wet.
Caustic Potash
Caustic potash (KOH) is also used in soaps. It has an effect
much similar to that of sodium hydroxide.
Tri-sodium Phosphate
During recent years, there has been an increase in the use of
tri-sodium phosphate (commonly known as T.S.P.), both as
a water softener and as a cleaning agent. The T.S.P. is some-
times used alone in water as a cleaner and sometimes in combi-
nation with other compounds. It is one of the basic ingredients
of several cleaners sold in packages; however, the local school
can purchase it in the natural state or powdered form at ap-
proximately one-third the cost of most commercial prepara-
tions. The T.S.P. is somewhat like sugar in appearance and
has a bitter taste. It has a tendency to precipitate and thus to
remove sulphates and lime from a water solution. It serves as
a water softener and thus assists in reducing the surface tension
of the water. It also has a slight tendency to break down greases
62 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
and certain other organic compounds and thus becomes an
active cleaning agent. When the T.S.P. is used in strong solu-
tions, it may be harmful to many surfaces. It may even remove
paint. When the T.S.P. is used as a water softener, only
enough should be used to give the water a slick feeling. If
added to water used in washing glass, it aids in cleaning with-
out giving the slippery effect often obtained when washing
with soap.
Ammonia
Ammonia was once used extensively in cleaning. It has a
somewhat caustic effect. However, the ammonia fumes were
hard on the eyes and for this reason it has been generally dis-
carded in building cleaning. It may cause discoloration of
marble.
Sodium Bi-sulphate
Sodium bi-sulphate is still used in some schools to remove
iron stains in toilet stools. This is sometimes known as niter
cake. This material is not good for use on enameled iron but is
satisfactory for vitreous china. As with the other cleaners, this
material is not needed in bowl cleaning if the bowls are main-
tained in a satisfactory condition.
Disinfectants
Much money is spent for disinfectants in school buildings.
In many cases disinfectants have been used to smother odors,
when it would have been more desirable to remove the cause
of odors. The use of disinfectants is not a satisfactory substi-
tute for cleanliness and in many cases the presence of strong
odors from disinfectants or deodorants leads one to question
the cleaning practices in that particular building. Since cleanli-
HOUSEKEEPING 63
ness is the basis of sanitation, the best disinfectant is a combi-
nation of soap, water, and labor.
It has been contended that drinking fountains may spread
disease from one mouth to another; that toilet stools may con-
tribute to the spread of venereal diseases, and that shower room
floors may spread athletes foot. There may be some basis for
this contention, but even in these places cleanliness is the best
preventive. At one time there was a common practice of spray-
ing disinfectants on walls, floors, and ceilings of classrooms to
kill disease germs. This practice is of questionable value in the
elimination of the hazards of contagious diseases.1 It seems more
desirable to remove the person carrying the disease germ than
to attempt to control the hazard through disinfectants. There
are a number of disinfecting agents on the market.
Carbolic Add
One of the most common disinfectants is carbolic acid, which
is made from coal tar. This acid, or its derivatives, forms the
basis of many of the disinfectants. In fact, disinfecting stand-
ards of various compounds are usually rated on the basis of the
phenol coefficient. (Phenol is a strong antiseptic or disinfectant,
often called carbolic acid.) The phenol disinfectants have
obnoxious odors.
Chlorine
Chlorine is another basic disinfectant. Chlorine is a pungent
gas and comes to the school in many forms; one of these forms
is known as chloride of lime or bleaching powder. The chlorine
disinfectants, like those from the carbolic acid, are contact dis-
infectants. However, the chlorine disinfectants have an odor
that is pleasing to many people.
1 Adapted, "Journal of American Medical Research." March 28, 1931. Page 1098.
64 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Sodium Hypochlorite
Shower rooms and locker rooms where pupils walk in their
bare feet may contribute to the spread of a disease known as
"athletes foot." One of the best preventives for this disease is
sodium hypochlorite. This may be used in scrub water for these
rooms with some effect. Best results seem to be obtained when
a solution of water and sodium hypochlorite is placed in a
shallow pan where pupils may immerse the feet when leaving
the showers. This vat or pan should not be located directly in
front of the showers where the solution may be diluted until
it has no effect. Sodium hypochlorite deteriorates rapidly and
it is necessary to add to that in the pan frequently. A solution
of one per cent seems to be effective. If the stock solution of
sodium hypochlorite is left open to the air it loses some of its
value. There is now on the market a powdered form of sodium
hypochlorite which may be mixed with the water in the foot
bath to make an effective solution. The powdered form does
not deteriorate as rapidly as does the liquid form.
Another chlorine disinfectant is known as javel water which
is a combination of chloride of lime and sodium hypochlorite.
This is often used to remove fruit stains.
Of the many commercial forms of disinfectants on the mar-
ket, most are based on one of the two basic disinfectants
listed here. Much money could be saved and better results ob-
tained by removing the cause of foul odors and by using a
simple disinfectant when one is needed. The use of T.S.P. and
certain other mild caustics is an example. These mild caustics
will dissolve the fats that may accumulate in and around toilet
fixtures. These fats may then be washed off, thus eliminating
the cause of many foul odors. The disinfectants listed here
should kill disease germs on contact. The older practice of at-
HOUSEKEEPING 65
tempting to kill disease germs by scaring them away with
obnoxious odors does not seem to have been effective. Fumi-
gants and air sprays are seldom used in modern schools.
Deodorants
The deodorants leave a fragrant odor in the air. They gen-
erally have little or no disinfecting value. Some of the deodor-
ants have a pine oil base with an attractive odor added. Others
are a combination of formaldehyde and perfume diluted with
water. If it is felt desirable that these should be used in school
buildings in order to provide a pleasing odor, the janitor can
at a small cost prepare a deodorant by using a small amount of
formaldehyde, adding some perfume and then diluting. He
can also prepare the pine oil deodorant if desired. The pine oil
is a good cleansing agent and in that respect has some disinfect-
ing value. Many janitors use a machine containing pine oil and
some other preparation to allay toilet fixture odors. Others
throw a quantity of deodorant blocks in the toilet stools or
urinals to keep down odors. These have little more value than
do other deodorants. If the cause of the odor is removed there
will be no need for deodorant blocks.
Concrete Floor Hardener
As stated previously, strong acids and strong alkalines are
harmful to concrete floors. However, many concrete floors are
inclined to dust and some type of surfacing is desirable. Of the
effective concrete floor hardeners on the market, sodium silicate
is one of the cheapest and most easily applied. This material is
also used to some extent for crack filling in terrazzo and
cement floors. When purchased for this purpose, it is probably
desirable to get the heavier combination with about thirty-five
to thirty-six per cent silicate and about thirteen per cent alkali.
66 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
This is mixed with water and diluted to the ratio of about one to
four.
A second simple concrete floor hardener is known as mag-
nesium silico fluoride crystals. This is applied in two or three
coats, making the first coat rather thin and the next coat some-
what thicker. This is usually prepared by using about five
pounds of crystals to two gallons of water. It serves as a stock
solution and is mixed in the ratio of about one-two with water
for the first coating in using as a floor hardener. The U. S.
Bureau of Standards, L. C. No. 139, outlines some of these ma-
terials in more detail.
Floor Seals
The newer practices of floor maintenance have called for a
different type of floor treatment. Hence there has been a grow-
ing demand for floor seals. At one time there was an extensive
use of linseed oil as a floor seal. This has been used less during
recent years, partly because of its tendency to rise to the surface
and oxidize. Most of the floor seals today have a china wood
oil base (commonly known as tung oil). If this seal is not
loaded too heavily with gums of various types it is what is
known as a penetrating seal. If it does have a quantity of gums
included it may become a surface seal. It may adhere to the
floor, but it may build up a surface on top of the floor. Some
of the gums used in seals are copal, bakelite, etc.
The bakelite seals usually dry quickly. However, if they con-
tain much bakelite they may be inclined to build up a surface
on the wood. In general the requirements for the seals are that
they shall not powder. They should be resistive to alkali, they
should be fairly rapid in drying, and should not turn white
when moistened. The solids in the seal should not settle to the
bottom, and the seal should be resistive to heat, shoe burns, and
HOUSEKEEPING 47
friction. Many manufacturers like to put in about one pound of
the bakelite to three pounds of china wood oil. However, the
combination should vary for different uses.
Terrazzo Seal
Much difficulty has arisen in attempting to maintain a de-
sirable surface on terrazzo floors. Waxes usually make the floor
too slick. Seals may darken the floor and may fail to penetrate
sufficiently to give the bond desired and to give the sheen
needed. Many terrazzo seals are on the market. Most of them
have some value. Many janitors today are obtaining satisfying
results by the use of a sodium silicate preparation mopped on
the floor. This usually is mixed about one part of sodium
silicate to four parts of water. If this wears off, it is easy to apply
another coat. This solution will be inexpensive and is easy to
apply. A new application may be made when the old seal shows
the effects of wear. A seal of this type usually prevents bloom-
ing or efflorescence of terrazzo floors.
Floor Wax
Liquid waxes are now used almost exclusively in schools.
There are two general types, the spirit solvent and the water
emulsion wax. The first needs polishing but the second is often
called a self-polishing wax. Most schools prefer to use liquid
waxes. They have a liquid carrier and a gum suspended in the
liquid. The spirit solvent waxes include benzine or some similar
solvent. These waxes usually need buffing. The water emulsion
waxes are often called non-buffing waxes.
Dance Floor Preparations
Many good gymnasium floor finishes are spoiled by use for
dancing and for other activities where people must be on the
68 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
floor with various types of shoes. A preparation of borax crys-
tals may be scattered on the floor before use for these purposes.
TJiis gives the type of surface usually desired for dancing.
Miscellaneous Preparations
Roach Powder
One base for roach powder is sodium fluoride. This is not
costly and is used in many commercial roach powders.
Crack Filler
Equal parts of corn starch and wheat flour mixed with lin-
seed oil and Japan filler may be used.
Varnish Remover
One quart of benzol, plus one ounce of paraffin dissolved.
To this, add one quart of denatured alcohol and one quart
acetone. This is spread on the floor and sprinkled with scouring
powder. When scrubbed with warm water, most of the old
varnish is removed. Caustic soda or T.S.P. may also be used to
remove paint or varnish. (Do not use on oak.) These may be
mixed with starch. Apply hot. Rinse well. Protect hands and
clothes.
Paint Remover
Wood alcohol — 2 pints
Benzine — 2 pints
Paraffin — 1 pound
Grease Spof Remover
Mix whiting with carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, kero-
sene, or turpentine. Make paste, cover the spot, let stand, then
wash. This prevents spreading and rings from grease. May be
used on fabrics if used before setting.
HOUSEKEEPING 69
Ink Spot Remover
To remove ink spots from an unprotected floor after it has
been cleaned, add to three gallons of warm water three pounds
of oxalic acid crystals and mop entire floor if spots are scattered
over the room. Allow solution to remain on the floor until dry.
Then rinse with clean warm water.
Cleaning Stone
1 gallon soft soap
1 quart of water
2 pounds of F. F. Powdered pumice stone
1 pint liquid household ammonia
Brush the loose grit and dirt from the surface, apply with a
brush. Let stand fifteen or twenty minutes; then scrub with
warm water and rinse off.
Ce//ar Wall Mold Remover
Use one tablespoon of arsenate of lead to one gallon of water
for mold on cellar walls.
Gum Solvent
When chewing gum is imbedded in a surface so that it can-
not be scraped off, it usually may be dissolved by the use of
carbon tetrachloride, gasoline, or naphtha.
Furniture Polish
One of the best furniture polishes is a thin wax solution simi-
lar to that used on the floor (water wax). However, the janitor
may, if he wishes, make up a polish with an oil base.
No. 1 Paraffin— one part
Kerosene — one part
No. 2 Paraffin oil— three parts
Turpentine — one part
Vinegar — one-half part
70 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Mix oil and turpentine together and add vinegar. If he uses an
oil base he will need to rub furniture vigorously to remove all
traces of dust catching oil.
Cleaner for Paint
Lukewarm water — one gallon
Tri-sodium phosphate — one teaspoonful
Neutral soap — one-fourth pint
Fine scouring powder — one tablespoon
Stir often and after using this cleaner wash the surface
thoroughly with clean water to which has been added a little
vinegar.
Wfj/fewasfjes
1. Soak 5 Ibs. casein (glue substance) in two gallons hot
water until softened. Dilute three pints ammonia (commercial)
with one gallon of water. Add to casein mixture and dissolve.
To hydrated lime 50 Ibs. (or 38 Ibs. quick lime) add six gallons
of water. When cold, mix two solutions — stir well. Just before
using, mix five pints formaldehyde with three gallons of water
and add slowly to first mixture, stirring constantly.
2. Make thick cream 50 Ibs. hydrated lime and about seven
gallons of water. Mix 3 Ibs. glue and two gallons of water. Mix
and stir. Thin as needed.
3. Use two parts lime, one part Portland cement, add water
to thinness desired.
Metal Polish
Paraffin oil
Fine scouring powder
A little ammonia
Mix to desired thickness, apply with a cloth, let dry and polish,
HOUSEKEEPING 71
Floor Sweeping Compound
While there is little demand or need for the use of sweeping
compound in modern school buildings, it is still used in some
places. If the janitor must use a sweeping compound he can
make one much more economically than and equal to those
purchased. One is made as follows:
Fine sand— 20 to 35% by weight
Sawdust— 40 to 50%
Paraffin oil— 8 to 15%
Water— 6 to 10%
Purchase and Storage of Materials
It is not intended here to recommend that the janitor prepare
any or all of the cleaning agents. It has seemed desirable to call
attention to the need for a study of the various cleaning agents,
their value, methods of purchase, and their use. It is difficult
to set up specifications for supplies and equipment. There is
still much experimenting and testing needed in this field since
the materials are not sufficiently standardized to permit general
purchase on specifications. As a result, those in charge of school
buildings have resorted to purchasing from known distribu-
tors. This practice may be commended, particularly if the pur-
chasers and users know that they are getting materials best
suited to their needs at a reasonable cost. It must be remem-
bered that many distributors depend upon commercial sales-
men who must sell quantities of material in order to earn their
commissions. Some of these salesmen are willing to overload
the buyer or to sell materials not needed. Some schools do at-
tempt to buy on specifications but find it difficult to make
specifications that designate the material desired without limit-
ing the competition to one bidder. When purchasing, the
school officials should expect the distributor to guarantee that
72 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
the material purchased is on a par with the sample presented,
that it meets specifications set up, and that it has behind it the
guarantee of a reliable distributor. The purchaser should under-
stand that price alone is no indication of quality or cheapness.
Purchase orders should state whether the material is to be
delivered f.o.b. the school, the local shipping point, or the
factory. They should also state whether containers are included
in the price listed. Purchase orders should also state how goods
are to be delivered.
When goods are received they should be checked in to the
general storeroom by the janitor in charge, unpacked, and the
condition of the contents noted. Each item should be checked
against the invoice and later against the purchase order. When
materials are checked, this list should be added to the store-
room list of stock on hand, showing total gallons or pounds
of "X" material available. Materials of like quality should be
stored together. Combustible or highly inflammable materials
should not be stored in places where they present a fire hazard.
Supplies should not be sent from the shipping point directly
to a building other than the general storage room, unless they
are delivered in full or one-half case with a definite record
made of the distribution. In general, it is desirable to have all
materials come to the general storeroom and to charge against
each building and to the janitor in that building the supplies
distributed to that building. In this way, a check may be made
of the materials used in each building. If materials are taken
from the general storeroom for each building, the storeroom
records should be extended to show how the materials are
distributed.
The janitor in each building will probably not have the
authority to purchase any of the supplies or tools used in his
HOUSEKEEPING 79
building. He should, however, keep some record of the various
materials used. He should be able to inform the purchasing
agent of the utility and durability of the supplies and tools
used in his building. He should have a record of the date cer-
tain floor finishes were applied and value of these finishes.
Chapter 5
Daily Floor Cleaning
PROBABLY NO TASK of the janitor is more important than the
daily cleaning of classrooms. One of the principal parts of
this daily cleaning is that of floor care. Teachers and pupils
alike seem to react quickly and favorably to clean, attractive
floors. On the other hand, unattractive floors may mar the ap-
pearance of a room even though the walls and ceiling are in
a satisfactory condition. There was a time when sweeping, and
firing the furnace, constituted the two principal tasks of a school
janitor. In many schools the term "sweeping" was even then
a misnomer since the amount of dirt carried in made the
cleaning procedure almost a shoveling process.
The changes that have come in school plant construction and
school plant maintenance have made a great difference in the
floor cleaning tasks of the janitor. Surfaced yards have cut
down the amount of dirt carried into the building. Treated
floors of better materials have made it easier to remove the
dirt that has been brought into the building. The development
of new cleaning tools and machinery have made easier the
cleaning tasks. On the other hand, an awakened consciousness
of the necessity for clean floors has made it imperative that the
floors be maintained in a satisfactory condition. Teachers,
pupils, and janitors need to cooperate in maintaining satisfac-
tory floor conditions. School officials should realize that all
floor finish is subject to wear and that it cannot be maintained
74
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 75
in a satisfactory condition unless protected from unusual and
unnecessary abuse. Muddy yards may yield bushels of dirt to
be carried into the rooms by the pupils. It should be the duty
of the janitor and the school administrators to provide suitable
playground surfaces and adequate and sufficient foot scrapers,
brooms and brushes at the door, that all mud may be cleaned
from the shoes before pupils come into the room. It should be
the duty of the janitor to keep these tools and cleaning ap-
pliances in a satisfactory condition. It should be the duty of
the teachers to see that no pupil comes into a room until shoes
have been properly cleaned. The teacher should instruct the
pupils how to aid in floor care by keeping the floor free from
scrap paper, chalk, or sharp sand. By the use of suitable door
mats, the janitor can also help protect his floors from the harm-
ful effects of sand, dirt, and water that may be carried in on the
shoes of the children. Some janitors find it desirable to provide
three sets of mats near the entrance. The coarse metal mat in
front of the entrance, a cut rubber mat just inside the entrance
and a fiber mat in the entryway. Pupils entering will have an
opportunity to remove all mud and grit from their shoes before
entering the classrooms. The janitor should clean these mats
frequently. It is desirable to have more than one fiber mat for
each entrance, that one may be drying while another is in use.
The title "daily floor cleaning" is used because some floors
may be mopped daily and others will be swept with some type
of cleaning broom. The term, "sweeping" when used should be
interpreted to mean any accepted method of daily floor clean-
ing.
Tools for Cleaning
The type of tools needed in floor cleaning will depend upon
the condition of the floor, the amount of dirt carried in, and the
76 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
furniture in the room. In a few places, such as the boiler room
or on walks, the janitor may need to use the corn broom. In
other rooms where much dirt has collected, he may need to use
the floor brush. In rooms with treated floors he should be able
to use either the long-string or the short-string dust mop. In
almost all floor cleaning it will be essential that he have a dust
pan and a counter brush. In rooms where radiators are exposed
he may need to have a radiator brush. It is anticipated that the
janitor will have in his pocket tool kit a putty knife to be used
in scraping gum from the floor. In each room there should be
a suitable waste paper can. The janitor will need to carry with
him some sort of pail or receptacle into which he will put the
dirt and sweepings from the floor. In some cases, janitors de-
posit floor sweepings in the can used to gather waste paper.
Most janitors find it better to provide a large container for
waste paper and to use a fourteen or sixteen quart pail for the
sweepings. It is obvious that the dust receptacle and the room
waste paper basket should have solid sides so that shavings
from the pencil sharpener, and other small bits of rubbish will
not fall through the sides to the floor.
Core of Tools
It is particularly desirable that the janitor know how to care
for his cleaning tools. Sweeping brushes should have reversible
heads and should be reversed often so that the brushes or fiber
will not develop a permanent set in one direction. These
brushes should be combed out often with a palmetto or wire
brush. When not in use, the brush should be stored in racks
erected for that purpose, or should be hung on racks or hooks
so that the heads do not touch the floor. Dust mops should be
of a type that may be slipped off the head. They should be
washed as soon as they become soiled. For this purpose the
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 77
janitor will need to have several dust mops for each head. The
mop can be washed by soaking overnight in a solution of warm
water and neutral soap. If the janitor has steam pressure, the
mops can be immersed in a small tank of water so connected
to the boiler that steam pressure may be used to cause the
water to boil. After the mop heads are washed they should be
rinsed out in clear warm water and hung up to dry. While
the mop is still a little damp it should be given a treatment
which will make it better adapted for picking up dirt. Where
the mop is used on oiled floors, this treatment may consist of
a small amount of high grade oil. For use on treated floors the
mop should be treated with the wax or other preparation used
on the floor. This may be sprayed on the mop or in some cases
it may be applied by pouring some of the solution into a pan,
letting it contact the sides and bottom of the pan and then by
pouring the solution out of the pan leaving only that film that
is on the side and bottom. If the mop is placed in this pan it
will absorb some of the treating liquid. The treated mops should
then be stored in fireproof containers until ready for use. The
janitor should keep a pair of shears to trim off loose and ragged
strands from the mop.
Vacuum Cleaning
Until a few years ago there was a tendency to install vacuum
cleaning units in all of the larger buildings. Vacuum cleaning
systems are of two types. The type that has been generally
favored is the central vacuum cleaning system with motor and
suction fans located at a convenient point in the basement and
connected to each room by suction lines. In these systems the
janitor carries into the room fifty to sixty feet of hose with a
suction nozzle. He attaches the hose to the suction pipe in the
wall and proceeds with his cleaning. Of course, all openings
78 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
in the suction pipe must be closed tightly except the one in use.
A second type of vacuum cleaning system which has been used
some during recent years is the portable type. One of the most
common portable types of machine is that used in the home for
rugs and floors. These are not generally large enough for
school cleaning. There is, however, a larger portable machine
which has been used satisfactorily. Some of these machines are
of considerable size and are not easily moved from floor to
floor in buildings that do not have elevators. There are a number
of advantages in the use of vacuum cleaners. In the first place,
there is no dust to float about the room and since dust is a germ
carrier, this is very desirable. They are particularly good on
stairs and in corners where it is difficult to reach with a broom.
Vacuum cleaning units are also good on rugs, mats, and other
materials of this type. The vacuum cleaner will pick up small
pieces of paper, and in cleaning large areas like corridors the
janitor can clean with a back and forth movement, thus reduc-
ing his travel distance. There are, of course, some disadvantages.
The hose is cumbersome and difficult to manipulate in rooms
with a considerable amount of furniture. The central systems
are costly, and if not properly adjusted are subject to a considera-
ble amount of wear.
In the use of vacuum cleaners it is necessary that the janitor
have the joints and connections tight. The vacuum nozzle part
is usually moved lengthwise of the boards rather than across
'the boards. During the time when cleaning methods stirred
much dirt into the air, vacuum cleaning was so much superior
to other methods that many systems were installed. Vacuum
cleaning is still preferred by many custodians, but the use of
the dust mop which is lighter and more quiet, has made it pos-
sible to use other methods without raising an excessive amount
of dust.
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 79
Sweeping Compound
Up until a few years ago the janitor felt that he could not
sweep a floor unless he first put down a quantity of sweeping
compound. This compound was usually composed of sawdust,
sand, and floor oil. In some cases this sweeping compound
cost a considerable sum of money each year. Today few janitors
use sweeping compound and do not use it at all on rooms that
are cleaned with the dust mop. A sweeping compound which
contains oil should not be used on linoleum or asphalt tile
floors or on wood floors having a waxed surface. The sweeping
compound may spot these floors. Sweeping compound is prob-
ably not needed on floors having an oiled finish. On untreated
floor surfaces the sweeping compound may have some merit.
Frequency of Cleaning
The frequency of sweeping will depend almost entirely on
the location of the building and the use of the floor. Most
janitors find it necessary to sweep or clean classroom floors
each day, although in instances where much mud is brought
into the building it may be necessary to clean floors more often
than once a day. Corridor floors may need to be swept two or
three times a day. Offices are usually cleaned daily. The fre-
quency of cleaning the auditorium and gymnasium floors de-
pends on their use. If the auditorium is used for daily assembly
purposes it may be necessary to clean it each day, and if used
for evening meetings it may be necessary to clean it again
before evening usage. However, auditorium units used only
occasionally will need to be cleaned just before usage. In gen-
eral the room should be cleaned as often as necessary to main-
tain it in a satisfactory condition. Gymnasium floors used
regularly should be cleaned each day.
80 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Time of Cleaning
A few years ago the janitor was not permitted to enter the
classroom to sweep the floor until all of the teachers had gone
home. This often created difficulties, particularly in those build-
ings or rooms where teachers wished to remain in the room
until five or six o'clock. In these cases, the janitor often had to
work long hours in order that the cleaning might be done
before he left the building. However, during that time the
methods of sweeping raised so much dust that the teacher
could not easily stay in the room while it was being cleaned.
The amount of dust raised made it almost impossible to sweep
the room in the morning before pupils arrived and to have the
dust settled sufficiently to be removed by dusting. With present
methods of cleaning with a dust mop many janitors clean
the room while the teacher is still in the room after the pupils
have gone, without creating any dust or annoying the teacher.
In other schools, the schedule is so arranged that the janitor
can clean several rooms at some time during the day when these
rooms are not in use for classes. In many buildings the janitor
cleans all of the classrooms during school hours, and in
these buildings he may be ready to complete his work within
thirty to sixty minutes after the close of the last class period.
Experience indicates that this does not make for poorer clean-
ing and it does relieve the janitor of the long hours of daily
service. It should be understood by the janitor that the class-
rooms are erected for the purpose of providing school facilities
for the pupils. On the other hand, it should be understood by
the teachers and administrators that when the schedule of
classes permits, the janitor should be allowed to clean vacant
rooms at a designated time. The janitor should expect to start
the day with a clean corridor floor. Then if the corridors be-
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 81
come dirty he should expect to clean them again during the
day, preferably during class periods, when he will interfere
least with the pupil traffic.
In general it is possible to clean the auditorium unit some-
time during the day when it is not used for pupil activities.
The exact time for each particular auditorium unit will depend
upon the schedule of usage. In many cases it is not possible to
clean a gymnasium in the evening because of practice classes
in gymnasium activities. If the janitor does not find a vacant
period during the day when he can clean the gymnasium he
may find it necessary to clean this unit each morning. In many
cases, offices are in use until the time the janitor wishes to leave
the building in the evening. In these cases it probably will be
necessary to clean the office unit in the morning before the
teachers and principals arrive. The janitor can clean the toilet
rooms and dressing rooms for boys at any time during the day
and if a matron is employed she can care for the toilet rooms
for the girls in the same manner. If no matron is employed, it
may be necessary to leave the cleaning of the toilet and locker
rooms for girls until evening.
Methods Vary with Type of Floor
The procedure to be followed in the cleaning of floors will
depend somewhat on the type of floor to be cleaned. In gen-
eral, floors composed of linoleum, asphalt tile, or mastic can
be cleaned with a dust mop. Smooth wood floors may be
cleaned rapidly with a dust mop if the floor is treated with
wax or other suitable material. Smooth wood floors that are
covered with a heavy oil may need to be cleaned with a floor
brush. Rough wood floors may best be cleaned with a brush.
This is particularly true with flat grain pine or other floors
that are cupped and splintered. It is also necessary to use a
82 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
brush on floors that have wide cracks or that are so badly
worn that the splinters of wood would catch on the mop.
Terrazzo and marble floors may be cleaned with either a brush
or a mop. In neither case should a tool having oils on it be
used. If these floors are smooth, the mop seems to give the
best result; if the floors are rough or pitted, or if they have
numerous cracks, it may be necessary to use a brush. On rough
concrete floors use a brush for satisfactory results. On smooth
concrete floors with a treated surface, use either a brush or mop
for satisfactory results.
Methods Vary with Tools Used
There is still a use for a floor brush in many school buildings.
Floor brushes are necessary on rough concrete floors, on rough
wood floors, or untreated smooth floors. There are two general
types of movements practiced in sweeping with the brush.
Some janitors attempt to use the brush as they would a push
mop, attempting to bear down on the brush or to push it from
one end of the room to the other. Brushes are not designed to
serve as squeegees or shovels and should not be so used. Brushes
work best when used with a stroke of thirty to thirty-six inches
(depending on the dirt on the floor). At the end of the stroke
the brush should be raised so that the bristles may have a chance
to kick out, thus freeing themselves from the dirt on the head.
When the brush is brought back to a point near the advanced
foot, it should be set down with a sliding motion and should
not be dropped on the floor. This practice helps avoid depos-
iting a quantity of dirt off the brush at the place the brush
strikes the floor.
In using the brush with the stroke method, janitors find
that they secure better results if the handle of the brush is cut
off to the proper length. The proper length for each janitor is
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 83
usually determined by setting the brush head on the floor and
marking the point about even with the eyebrows. Then when
using the brush the skilled operator places the power hand
(which is usually the right hand for right-handed men) on
the end or near the end of the brush handle. The other hand
serves as a guiding hand and is placed on the handle with the
palm down at about an arms length from the power hand.
This hand provides the power to pick the brush up and also
helps guide the stroke. The janitor permits the handle to
slide through the guiding hand as he makes the stroke.
Use of Dust Mops
The type and condition of the floor may be an important
factor in the use of dust mops. On treated floors with large
open areas the dust mop may be used in one continuous move-
ment; that is, the janitor starts at one end of the floor area
and places the mop head on the floor. Then by resting the mop
handle against his hand which is in turn supported by his
shoulder, he pushes the mop from one end of the floor area
to the other where he shakes the dust free from the mop and
turns to repeat the process going to the other end of the room
or floor. For this type of sweeping, most janitors prefer the
long string mop with strings ten to fourteen inches in length.
In this case, the mop head is given a flip before being set down
so that the strings pile up in front of the mop head. A mop
with a head of thirty to thirty-six inches in width is preferred.
If the janitor does not have this type of mop head, he may get
rather satisfactory results by using two mops. In sweeping with
the short string mop some janitors attempt to use the pushing
method similar to that used with the heavier long string long
head mop. The light string does not have the weight necessary
for this type of stroke on dirty floors. Some janitors use the short
84 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
string mop with a slight circular movement. In using this stroke
the strings are supposed to contact and hold the dirt. Where
there is not much dirt and with a properly treated mop this
stroke is quite effective. If there is much dirt on the floor, or if
the mop is not treated, this stroke serves principally to move
the dirt from one place to another. Many janitors use the short
string mop with a straight stroke method similar to that used
with the brush. In using this stroke the janitor must be particu-
larly careful not to drop dirt on the floor at the beginning of
the stroke. It requires some practice before the janitor learns
to obtain the best results for each floor with the short string
mop.
In using the long string mop with the round head a swing
motion is used. This movement should cause the mop strands
to contact the dust on the floor. Some skill is required if the
janitor is to reach all corners and around all furniture. The
motion should be regular and should not flip or twist the mop to
throw off the dust. When using this stroke the mop is not
shaken until the janitor reaches the end of the room.
Usually the corn broom is not used except in the furnace
room, on walks, or other areas that may be very dirty. Even on
these surfaces the broom should be used in such a manner that
little dust is thrown into the air. The corn broom gives best
results when the ends of the straws are in direct contact with
the surface to be cleaned. An excessively long stroke reduces
the efficiency of the broom.
Methods Vary with Room Use and Equipment
Sweeping methods vary with the type of floors and also with
the usage of the room. If all floor areas were free from furniture
and other obstacles, sweeping would be a comparatively easy
task. However, furniture is essential in schoolrooms and the
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 85
janitor must adapt his method to the type of furniture and
equipment found in the room. There are many types of equip-
ment used in school rooms. Some rooms are equipped with
desks having four legs each and accompanied by chairs or seats
having four legs each. Other rooms are equipped with a com-
bined desk and seat having four legs attached to the floor. Still
other rooms are equipped with combined pedestal desks and
seats. These make for ease in sweeping but experience indicates
that they are not popular with pupils and teachers. Still other
rooms are equipped with pedestal desks and pedestal seats.
Some of the rooms for primary pupils are equipped with low
seats which make it difficult for the janitor to get the sweeping
tools under the seats. Some classroom and many library units
are equipped with tables and chairs which must be moved
when the janitor sweeps the room. Still other rooms are
equipped with movable tablet arm seats so arranged that there
is only one aisle from the back to the front of the room. Each
of these call for a different procedure in cleaning the floors.
Classrooms with Fixed Seats
Through practice many janitors have developed a regular
method of procedure in sweeping classrooms with fixed seats.
With the single pedestal seat.the janitor can sweep the room
almost like an open area. However, most rooms are equipped
with the combined seat and desks having four legs. Tests and
experience seem to indicate that the janitor will save time in
cleaning these rooms if, on entering the room he carries his
pail and tools to the front inside corner of the room. He then
proceeds to wipe out the chalk tray and to use his counter brush
to rake paper or waste from under the radiator and the radiator
brush to remove dust from the radiator. He then picks up the
sweeping tool, either the brush or mop, carrying it in a per-
86 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
pendicular position with the head down and the strings or
bristles away from his leg. The sweeping tool is carried in his
right hand and with his left hand he raises the seats as he goes
down the outside aisle to the back of the room. He then sweeps
to the rear of the seats, pushing the dirt down the aisle and
under the seats. He proceeds down the outside aisle, sweeping
the aisle and under the row of seats to his right, pushing the
dirt under the seats as far as his sweeping tool will reach con-
veniently. As the brush or mop is brought out from under the
seat he sweeps the dirt in the aisle ahead of him. When he
reaches the front of the room, the dirt is swept across the front
of the room towards the dust pail. He then picks up the mop
or broom and proceeds in the same manner down the next
aisle, raising the seats as he goes. This procedure is repeated
until all of the dirt is gathered at the front inside corner of
the room. He then proceeds to pick it up, using the sweeping
tool and the dust pan. All dirt should have been removed from
around the seat legs and the corners. Pencils and books should
have been picked up before starting the sweeping process. He
gathers his tools and proceeds to the next room. Note that this
process or procedure does not take care of the waste paper in
the room but most janitors can handle the waste paper more
readily if they bring to the corricjpr a basket or box big enough
to handle the waste paper from each room, and gather the
waste paper before they start sweeping. The procedures out-
lined here are for men who are right handed and who use their
right hand to give power to the sweeping movement. Men
who are left handed will start at the other side of the room
and will reverse the process, winding up in the front outside
corner of the room.
The process outlined here will be applicable to untreated
floors or to treated floors of either wood, linoleum, or asphalt
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 87
having fixed seats. In some instances, schoolrooms have fixed
seats on runners or strips of wood. In these cases the use of the
long string mop may not prove practical. However, the short
string mop or the brush may be used with ease. The procedure
will vary somewhat for classrooms with different types of seats
but in general the process outlined here will be found usable.
Classrooms with Loose Seats
There are a number of different types of loose seats. One type
of loose seating is that which has the seat and desk built into
one unit and connected by a gas pipe or rod near the floor line.
These present some difficulty since the janitor's sweeping tool
will not pass under this connecting bar or rod. This may make
it necessary to move these seats when cleaning in the room. A
second type of loose seating is that which has a chair and desk
combined with book rack or drawer under the seat. These
seats have little open area between the book rack and the floor
and it becomes necessary to move the seats when cleaning the
room. A third type of loose seating is that known as the tablet
arm chair. These are usually located close together so that the
janitor cannot sweep between them. Hence these too must be
moved.
One of the first precautions of the janitor caring for the
rooms with loose seats is to see that all seats are equipped with
gliders or other appliance that makes it possible to move them
over the floor easily without scratching or marring the floor.
Janitors differ as to the best method of moving the various types
of movable seating. Some janitors like to proceed as with fixed
seats, leaving their tools at the front of the room, cleaning the
chalk rail and the radiators and then sweeping the outside
aisle, moving the first row of chairs over in this aisle, thus
making another aisle or row to be cleaned. Other janitors pre-
88 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
fer to get behind a row of seats and to push all seats toward
the front of the room, thus making it possible to clean a con-
siderable area of the floor at the back of the room before the
chairs are moved back. This method is somewhat difficult be-
cause of the fact that chairs are not always in straight rows or
because the tablet arm or desk part may extend out sufficiently
in front of the chair seat to cause the chairs to get out of line.
Probably the most efficient method is that where the janitor
pushes the back row of seats up to the next row and then pro-
ceeds to sweep the side and back aisle, after which he moves
back one or two rows of chairs into the swept area. He then
proceeds in a like manner with the next chairs and the area
under them. Either of these procedures involves moving the
chairs at least twice. However, the moving of only one row of
chairs at a time seems to cause less scratching and marring
of the finish on the chairs. It has one distinct advantage in that
the chairs may be moved with the floor boards more easily
than across the cracks. In moving the chairs the janitor may
find it desirable to give the chair a slight bump on the floor to
remove the dirt that might be around the legs of the chairs,
before moving it back into the cleaned area. After the whole
room is swept, the janitor proceeds to pick up the dirt as in the
process described for rooms with fixed seats, and passes on to
the next room. Many janitors have developed methods of
sweeping rooms so that they can clean an average classroom
in a satisfactory manner in from four to six minutes.
Classrooms with Tables and Chairs
These rooms present several problems in floor cleaning. As a
rule, the janitor cannot sweep under the chairs. Hence, the
chairs must be moved. A few janitors practice pulling out one
chair from the table and placing this chair in the aisle and
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 89
then sweeping the area where this chair originally sat. They
then move the next chair into this place and proceed in that
manner on around the table, placing the chair first moved into
the place vacated by the last chair. This method makes it
necessary for the janitor to move one chair at a time, and if he
uses his hands to pick up the chair, he finds it necessary to
remove his hands from the brush or mop handle. If he tries
to shove the chair over by the use of the mop he may scar the
chair or leave a streak of dirt on the chair from the mop. It
also has the objectionable feature that a part of the dirt is
pulled out from under the table and chair while a part of it is
pushed through. Experience seems to indicate that the dirt can
be pulled with the mop but that the brush works better when
pushed.
A second procedure is to set all chairs on top the tables,
sweep the room, and then to come back and place the chairs
in the proper position. This procedure has merit provided the
tables are free from obstructions and provided the chair legs
are clean and smooth and do not leave dirt or scratched places
on the table. This method permits the janitor to complete his
sweeping at one time and to handle the chairs at one time.
Where this method is not practical, a number of janitors prac-
tice pulling out the chairs from the table, sweeping the dirt
from under the table, and then replacing the chairs. This
method is practical if the tables are far enough apart that the
chairs can be moved about with ease. Throughout all of the
rooms where loose furniture is used, the janitor should be very
careful not to bump chairs against plastered walls or against
tables. In all sweeping he should be careful to avoid bumping
the brush or mop against the baseboard or the furniture. It will
be easier to do this if he uses mops or brushes of the proper
size for that particular room. It seems obvious that a primary
90 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
room having the chair or desk legs only seventeen or eighteen
inches apart cannot be swept with an eighteen inch mop head
without bumping against the furniture. For these rooms, a four-
teen or sixteen inch mop or brush head should be used. For
larger equipment it may be possible to use either a sixteen or
eighteen inch head.
Cleaning Floors in Special Rooms
The janitor faces many problems in cleaning special rooms.
Shop units often have an accumulation of metal shavings, bits
of metal, and perhaps of oily drippings from drills and ma-
chinery. Usually the shop instructor will teach the pupils to
remove the metal pieces so that the janitor may sweep the
room. In some cases, the instructor has the pupils clean the
room each evening. In these rooms the janitor usually finds
that he must keep a special brush or broom that is not used in
other parts of the building. Methods of sweeping will depend
almost entirely on the arrangement of the equipment and the
type of floor. A similar condition exists in the woodworking
rooms. In each of these rooms the janitor should be careful to
watch for any condition that creates a fire hazard or that might
become a hazard to the health of the pupils. Some of these
hazards will be discussed in Chapter 8. One hazard that he
should watch in his cleaning is that of greasy spots or slippery
places near power machines.
In Home Economics units teachers usually instruct the pupils
on methods of cleaning and in most cases the janitor does not
have the task of daily sweeping. He does have the occasional
task of mopping the rooms. If he is required to sweep these
rooms he should use the dust mop if floor conditions will
permit. Living room units having a mat or rug floor covering
should be swept as are the office units. Kindergarten rooms and
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 91
those used for primary pupils, where the teacher follows the
practice of permitting the pupils to play on the floor or to lie
down on the floor on mats, should never have sweeping com-
pound or oils placed on the floor. If possible, these rooms should
be cleaned only with the dust mop. If there is an excessive
amount of dirt it will be desirable first to sweep the rooms and
then to go over them with the dust mop to leave a surface
suitable for use by the small children. Offices are often equipped
with rugs or carpet floor coverings. In many cases the janitor
has spoiled the finish of these coverings by the use of a brush
containing some of the floor oils or wax picked up in other
rooms, or by the use of brooms which pull the nap out of
the rug. Rugs and carpets should be swept with a carpet
sweeper or vacuum sweeper adapted to rug cleaning. If a part
of the floor is not covered with rugs this can be cleaned with
the dust mop. The janitor should be careful to raise the edges
of the rug frequently that he may clean around and under the
borders. While it is necessary for the whole school to be cleaned,
he should remember that this is one place where visitors are to
be received, and should attempt to maintain it in a satisfactory
condition.
Corridors
As stated previously, corridors should be swept as frequently
as needed. Most janitors find it desirable to sweep the corridor
sometime before noon and then again sometime during the
afternoon. Where the corridor has smooth floors either of as-
phalt tile, linoleum, terrazzo, or concrete it can be swept with
the long string dust mop in a very short time. If the corridor
floor is rough or if there is an excessive amount of dirt it may
be necessary to sweep it with a brush. In either case, the dust
mop or brush with a thirty to thirty-six inch head saves time
92 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
for the janitor and secures satisfactory results. The brush should
be used in a stroke method. The janitor usually finds it desir-
able to sweep lengthwise of the corridor when using a brush,
covering the whole width as he proceeds. When he is using the
push method with the long string mop he proceeds from one
end of the corridor to the other, moving the dirt down the cor-
ridor as he proceeds. If the amount of dirt becomes too heavy
he may use the dust pan and pail to pick up part of it before
reaching the end of the corridor. Since the corridors are usually
swept during the day, he should be particularly careful not to
create an excessive amount of noise and not to have the tools
in the corridor during a change of pupil location between class
periods. Corridors or entry ways may be swept with the brush
before the mop is used.
Before starting to sweep the corridors he should clean out
dirt from behind and under radiators and under bookcases or
other places where dirt might collect. In sweeping the corridor
with a brush using the stroke method he should avoid attempt-
ing to take excessively long strokes and setting the brush down
in such a manner that he will leave a streak of dirt showing at
the beginning and ending of each stroke. He should avoid the
practice of knocking the end of the brush head on the floor to
free it from dust.
Stairways
Probably no sweeping task of the janitor is more poorly done
than that of stair cleaning. Janitors do not agree as to the best
method of sweeping stairs. Many janitors make more noise in
stab: sweeping than in cleaning all of the rest of the building.
Some janitors sweep stairs with a counter brush, sweeping from
one side to the other and pulling the dirt from one stair down
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 93
to the next step. This procedure causes the janitor to bend over
in a rather tiresome position and usually calls for the use of a
counter brush which is not well designed for moving a quan-
tity of dirt. Some janitors clean the stairs with either a brush or
mop while standing below the stair to be cleaned and pull the
dirt down towards them. Other janitors stand above the stair
to be cleaned and push the dirt below them. While standing be-
low the stair to be cleaned does cause the brush to be used with
a pulling motion, it places the janitor in a better position to see
the area to be swept. It also puts him in a position to see
whether or not any dirt is being left on the stair. The practice
of standing above the stair to be cleaned makes it difficult for
the janitor to see the area to be cleaned and also causes him to
work on a level below his feet. From experience it seems that
the most economical work is done by those janitors using a
floor dust mop or brush and who clean the stair above where
they stand, pulling the dirt from one side of the stair to the
other and then pulling the dirt down to the next stair. There
seem to be fewer bumping noises made in sweeping the stair
and less dirt left on the stair. This procedure becomes some-
what complicated if the janitor finds an open banister on one
side or on both sides of the stair. Oftentimes the presence of
one banister will cause the janitor to use the sweeping tool in
a left-handed manner or a manner opposite to that to which
he is accustomed. Where open banisters are found on one side
of the stair, the janitor can sweep the dirt across the tread to
the other corner but where there are open banisters on both
sides of the stairs he will find it necessary to pull the dirt from
each end of the stair to the center where it may be pulled down
on the next step. In cleaning stairs janitors should be particu-
larly careful to get the dirt out of the corners and to avoid us-
94 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
ing sweeping compounds or other material that might stain
the stairs. The use of sweeping compound may be necessary on
certain stairs but not on those stairs that are sealed.
Gymnasium Units
Gymnasium units usually have treated floors with a built-up
surface on top of the wood. This surface of hard finish should
not be exposed to sweeping compounds or oils of any type.
Most gymnasium floors can be swept or cleaned by the use of
the long head dust mop. As stated previously, it may be neces-
sary to clean this room each morning. Since gymnasium floors
get rather hard usage from the effect of basket ball and other
play, those floors which are older and which have loose boards
may give rise to an excessive amount of dust coming from the
cracks between the boards. If the floor is old and has cracks it
may be necessary to sweep with a brush which may aid in
cleaning some of the dirt out of these cracks. The highly pol-
ished surface of the gymnasium floor makes it essential that
the janitor use a method in sweeping that does not leave any
streaks of dirt across the floor. For this reason, even if he has
used the brush to sweep up the dirt, he may find it desirable to
use the dust mop to remove all traces of dirt or dust from the
floor. The dust mop used on this floor should not have any
treatment that would cause the floor to become slick. Although
the janitor will probably mop the dressing rooms and toilet
rooms adjacent to the gymnasium or in other parts of the build-
ing frequently, he may also find it necessary to sweep these
rooms daily. The janitor is indeed fortunate who has the co-
operation of his teachers and physical education director in
keeping the clothing of the children, waste paper, uniforms
and apparatus off the floor so that the floor may be swept with
a minimum of effort.
DAILY FLOOR CLEANING 95
Auditorium Units
In some instances auditorium units are equipped with mov-
able seating. If this movable seating has suitable protection on
the bottom of the chair legs to prevent scratching the floor, it
may be moved about to permit sweeping the floor, as is done
in classrooms with movable seating. The auditorium having
fixed seats presents a different problem in sweeping. Many of
the auditorium floors slope towards the front which makes it
somewhat easier for the janitor in sweeping. In those states
that require an open aisle back of the seats and an open aisle
between each bank of seats and the wall, the sweeping problem
of the janitor is somewhat simpler. As a rule he finds it desir-
able to sweep back of the back row of seats, sweeping the dust
under the seats toward the front. He usually finds it necessary
before sweeping the row of fixed seats to put down the seats on
the row in front of the one to be swept. This becomes necessary
because the back of the seat is farther from the floor when the
seat is down ready for use than when the front of the seat is
raised to provide passageway. Then carrying the brush in the
method outlined under classroom sweeping, he proceeds to turn
down the seats and sweep under each row as outlined above.
If the aisle between seats is covered with a rug or carpet mat or
other loose material he may find it desirable to roll this up be-
fore sweeping. If it is not easily removed it may be necessary
for him to sweep the aisle separately from the space under the
seats. In sweeping the auditorium the janitor should be careful
not to raise dust which will settle on curtains, light fixtures and
the walls. He should also be careful to avoid bumping the
furniture or the seats with his sweeping tools.
Throughout the whole procedure of cleaning school floors
it is anticipated that the janitor will carry the ever-faithful
96 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
putty knife for the removing of gum from the chair backs,
floors, and desks. It should also be understood that he must
watch for loose seats, broken parts that might cause damage,
or projections and splinters that might tear the clothing or ho-
siery of the children.
When the janitor has completed the cleaning of any floor he
should look back over the area cleaned. If his task has been well
done all dirt will have been removed from the floor. There will
be no visible broom, brush, or mop marks. There will be no dirt
in the corners or around the legs of seats or furniture. The floor
should be clean enough that it will not soil the clothing of the
children. When he leaves the room he will leave no tools or
cleaning supplies in the room.
Chapter 6
Other Cleaning Duties
/-pHERE ARE OTHER cleaning duties that must be cared for as
J_ the need arises. Toilet and shower rooms, door and win-
dow glass, blackboards and erasers must have frequent atten-
tion. Dust must be removed from seats and building trim.
Room walls and furniture must be dusted.
Care of Toilet, Shower and Locker Rooms
It seems impossible to overestimate the importance of proper
care of the toilet and sanitary facilities in a school building.
The health of the children may be vitally affected by the lack
of sanitary facilities in the toilet rooms. Proper care is important
to the appearance of the building, to the morale of the school,
and to the habits of the pupils. Many school buildings which
are otherwise pleasing in appearance are often unattractive in
and around the toilet rooms. Obnoxious odors, marked and
unattractive walls, waste paper on the floor, drippings of dirty
water and soap in the lavatories indicate a state of general neg-
lect in many of the toilet rooms. It is important that the health
of the school child be protected. It is also important that the
child be taught, through proper methods and suitable environ-
ment, desirable health habits and bodily care. He should be pro-
vided a place where he may care for the needs of his body with-
out being forced to enter ill-smelling, unattractive places. The
97
98 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
building that has a dirty, odorous toilet room will probably be
a dirty building.
Not all the responsibility for the care of the toilet room rests
upon the janitor. In many school buildings there is no janitress
and the janitor finds it impossible to enter the toilet rooms used
by the girls between the hours of eight and five. Some buildings
have only women teachers who cannot freely enter the boys'
shower and toilet rooms. The responsibility for toilet room
care should be shared by the janitor, the teachers, and the prin-
cipal. The principal of the building should arrange that certain
teachers have definite obligations at various hours for super-
vising toilet room control. Teachers having smaller pupils
should instruct them on the use of the toilet room, on methods
of flushing the stools, the use of supplies, and toilet room sani-
tation. Since the janitor is not authorized to punish children
for infraction of local regulations there should be some ar-
rangement whereby he may secure the cooperation of the
teachers in eliminating toilet room waste and the writing on
walls. It may be desirable for the janitor to be in or near the
toilet room for boys at times during recess periods. Because of
the conditions under which he works, it requires much tact on
the part of the janitor to be able to secure pupil cooperation in
the care of the toilet rooms.
The janitor should realize that a clean toilet room does not
have obnoxious odors. He should understand that most toilet
room odors arise from decaying or decayed fats and organic
matter. Oftentimes this organic matter has lodged in crevices
in stools or has adhered to dirty surfaces in the room or in the
fixtures, thus permitting an odor to arise. Smooth impervious
toilet room and fixture surfaces that are easily cleaned collect
less of this waste than do rough surfaces. If the janitor does not
have hard wall plaster or die on the lower part of the toilet
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 99
room he should cover the surface with enamel paint. Toilet
stalls either of wood or of metal should be covered with a paint
or an enamel that prevents the adherence of filth to the surface.
Floors and ceilings should have smooth surfaces that are im-
pervious to moisture and odors.
In many cases, the janitor will find it necessary to apply some
finish to the floors and walls in order to give the protection de-
sired. A type of fixture should be provided which does not
have a rough surface to collect waste matter which may later
cause odors. Light, and particularly sunlight, and ventilation
are vital to toilet room sanitation. The janitor cannot depend
on open window ventilation to provide the air movement
needed in his toilet rooms. The toilet room vents should extend
directly from the toilet room out through the roof so that odors
may not be distributed to other parts of the building. These
vents should be kept open.
It should be understood that toilet rooms do not provide the
greatest service unless supplies are available. Many supplies,
particularly paper towels and soap, are wasted in the toilet
rooms. The janitor will probably not have control of the pur-
chase of these supplies, but he does have control of the distri-
bution. He sees the waste that occurs. He also realizes that this
waste is generally caused by a few pupils and not by all the
pupils. However, if the waste is permitted to continue by a few
pupils, others get careless. The janitor cannot afford to deny
all pupils the supplies needed in order to punish a few wasteful
pupils. He may, in cooperation with the teachers, develop a
plan whereby pupils are taught proper use of the supplies. If
certain pupils persist in waste, he may then report them to the
principal. The type of paper and the type of fixture become im-
portant factors in waste. Pupils often use three, four, or five
towels when one would do. In many instances, an examination
100 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
of the towel after it is used indicates that only a small part of
the towel has been dampened.
It is apparent that in toilet room control the use of fixtures
which permit the rolling off of quantities of paper seems to
encourage wastefulness and leads to unattractive toilet rooms.
During recent years the inner fold towel and toilet paper dis-
pensers have come on the market. In many cases these dis-
pensers were designed for one particular type of filler, thus
obligating the user of the fixtures to purchase paper from one
certain house. This type of fixture should not be selected. In
general, if roller type fixtures are used they should be of a type
that checks, thus preventing the distribution of extensive lengths
of paper. Soap dispensers can be regulated so that they do not
drip soap on the lavatories. Waste of any type, and dirty toilet
rooms seem to bear a close relationship.
No set regulation can be developed for the cleaning of toilet
rooms. Toilet rooms used frequently need to be cleaned more
often than others. The general regulations are that toilet rooms
should be kept clean. If this requires cleaning four or five times
a day, they should be cleaned that often. Stools and fixtures
should be kept clean. In some areas iron and other minerals in
the water cause the fixtures to stain more quickly than in other
areas. These stools should be cleaned more often.
Floors, Walls and Woodwork
Floors for the toilet room should be of impervious material.
These should be smooth enough that they may be swept with
a mop, or flushed with a hose as often as needed. There should
be a drain in the floor to permit water to escape. In many cases
this drain is through the floor urinals when such are provided.
Floors should be swept daily and in most cases they should be
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 101
mopped each week. The janitor should clean around all cor-
ners, around the fixtures that are attached to the floor, and any
other place where dirt might lodge. Floor should be mopped
with hot water which has been broken down with sufficient
T.S.P. to make an efficient cleaning liquid. Some janitors use
ammonia in the mop water, but the T.S.P. is generally pre-
ferred. It is often desirable to use a disinfectant in the mop
water. Accumulations of dirt or waste matter should not be
permitted on the toilet room floors. Scrubbing with hot water
and a stiff brush may remove from corners and crevices dirt
not reached in the mopping process. The janitor should not
forget that fresh air is essential to toilet room sanitation. Win-
dows may be left open at various times in order to insure a
good supply of fresh air. Toilet stalls should be washed each
week and door knobs, handles on fixtures, and other places
where pupils may place their hands, should be wiped with a
cloth which has been immersed in a disinfecting solution. Writ-
ing and marks on stalls and walls should be removed as quickly
as possible. It is desirable that the walls be painted (unless the
walls are of glazed tile) and that this paint be renewed as
needed. There seems to be much more tendency for pupils to
mark on dark finish than on an attractive light colored finish.
Light fixtures should be kept clean and the whole room should
be as attractive as it is possible to make it.
Drinking Fountains
Dirty and stained drinking fountains are unattractive and
unsanitary. These should be cleaned frequently. Since acids
should not be used on the fountains, rust and other accumula-
tions are usually removed with a cloth and a mild abrasive.
Thorough rinsing is essential.
102 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Toilet Sanitation
As has been stated previously, many janitors attempt to cover
up foul odors by other odors. The best provision for sanitation
in the toilet rooms is cleanliness. Some disinfectants that are
put in toilet bowls are oily and tend to cling to the side walls
and may in turn collect accumulations of waste which cause
odors. Deodorizing blocks and deodorizing crystals often are
an indication of an odor that would not need to be covered up
if the cause of the odor had been removed. Because of these
facts, one of the best disinfectants for toilet rooms is some prep-
aration like tri-sodium phosphate which will help dissolve the
fats and make them easy to wash away.
Plumbing Fixtures
The janitor who has a first-class toilet room with suitable
walls and adequate ventilation is fortunate. The janitor who
has first-class toilet fixtures is also fortunate. The best toilet
fixtures are of vitreous china. This china is impervious to most
acids and chemicals. Enameled iron fixtures are subject to de-
terioration, thus exposing the iron to the action of the chemicals
and to other materials that pass through the fixture. When the
finish in these fixtures becomes rough it is almost impossible
to maintain them in a satisfactory condition.
Toilet Stools
Toilet stools should have a large water seal. With the large
water seal there is less chance for waste to contact and stick to
the sides of the stool before it is washed out. As stated previ-
ously, the toilet stool that is of vitreous china may be cleaned
with sodium bi-sulphate. A weakened solution of muriatic acid
or T.S.P. in water may be used without damage to the stool.
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 103
There is a tendency for the stools to collect a coat on the sides
and throat of the stool. This coating is the cause of many of the
foul odors arising from the stool. This coating should not be
permitted to collect and if it has collected it should be removed.
Some stools that otherwise appear clean have a coating of dirt
up around and under the rim. This should be removed. Some
janitors practice using a hand mirror to get a good view of the
under side of the rim. Loose stools should be reset in putty. No
leakage around the stool should be permitted. The flushing
device should be kept in proper order and so adjusted that the
stool will flush readily without using an excessive amount of
water. Toilet stool cleaning may best be done by two means.
One is the use of a scouring powder of pumice, volcanic ash,
or tripoli with water. In some instances some of these powders
are mixed with T.S.P. or a small amount of soap in order to
give a washing effect along with the abrasive action. Only a
small amount of powder will be needed. The stool should be
well rinsed after washing. A mild solution of muriatic acid or
sodium bi-sulphate may be used to remove rust stains from
vitreous china stools. As stated previously many of the bowl
cleaning compounds have a muriatic base. These should be
placed in the stool and permitted to stand long enough to dis-
solve the stains before washing the stool. On stools of enameled
iron a mixture of T.S.P. and whiting or tripoli may be used.
The janitor should use a stiff fiber brush that will reach down
into the throat of the stool and up around the rim. He should
not hesitate to use a cloth and his hands if necessary to clean
the stool. Kerosene or heavy oils should not be used in stools.
A plumber's friend, a suction pump, or a worm (snake) may
be used to remove obstructions from the stool. The janitor
should clean toilet seats at least once a week. After cleaning he
should wipe them with a cloth on which he has sprinkled a
104 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
disinfectant. He should remove cores from toilet paper or towel
rolls as soon as empty so that pupils will not have an oppor-
tunity to throw them into the stools. Receptacles should be pro-
vided in the girls' toilet rooms for sanitary napkins and other
waste. Teachers should teach the girls not to throw this waste
material into the toilet stools.
Urinals
Urinals must be kept clean. Urinals of vitreous china may be
cleaned by the process recommended for vitreous china toilet
stools. Urinals of enameled iron may be cleaned with hot water
and T.S.P. Iron stains and other accumulations may be removed
by the use of a mild abrasive. In some instances it may be neces-
sary to remove the strainer at the bottom of the floor urinals in
order to clean the traps. Rough concrete or other porous floors
near the urinals should be mopped frequently and scrubbed
occasionally with hot water to which has been added some
T.S.P. and some disinfectant.
The janitor should remember that frequent cleaning of all
toilet fixtures will prevent the accumulation of stains and heavy
incrustations. Lavatories and sinks should be washed as often
as needed to keep them clean.
Cleaning of Glass
Glass is installed in school buildings for three purposes. It
is used to admit light to the schoolroom, to protect the contents
of certain cases from dust, and at certain places as a decorative
feature. To a great extent, it fails in all three of these purposes
if not maintained in the proper manner. The janitor in the
school building is responsible for the care of the glass in the
building. He should realize that dirty windows may shut out
fifteen to twenty-five per cent of the light that normally would
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 105
enter the room through the windows. He should also realize
that dirty windows detract from the appearance of the build-
ing and that finger marks on glass in doors and cases are indi-
cations of poor housekeeping.
Time of Cleaning
The frequency of cleaning will depend to a great extent upon
local conditions and use. In certain buildings where outside
dust and smoke cause dirt to settle on the windows they may
need to be cleaned often. Basement or ground floor windows
close enough to the ground to permit dirt to splash upon them
may need to be cleaned more frequently than other windows
in the building. It is generally considered necessary to wash
outside windows three to four times each year. The inside of
the windows may need to be washed more often. Many janitors
practice washing transom glass and the inside of the window
panes monthly or more often if needed. It is often advisable to
wash glass in doors and cases each week. The glass in doors and
cases may be cleaned by wiping with a moist chamois skin. In
areas where sand and dust storms are common it may be diffi-
cult to maintain glass in a satisfactory manner. The time of
cleaning will depend upon local conditions, the use of the
building, and the schedule of work for the janitor. Inside clean-
ing, if done properly and with the proper tools, may be done
at almost any time the room is unoccupied. Outside window
cleaning will, as a rule, be done at the time the janitor can be
away from his other work in the building for a period of time.
Many janitors form the habit of cleaning windows on holidays,
during vacations or at the end of certain weeks throughout the
year. In some cases, it is found desirable to clean the windows on
one side of the building during one week end and those on the
other side during the next week end. It is not feasible to attempt
106 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to clean the outside of the window panes during extremely cold
weather.
Methods
There are many methods used for cleaning glass. There
seems to be no one best method for cleaning glass panes of all
sizes and in all locations. In cleaning large panes of outside
glass, a few janitors use a hose or a brush and squeegee. This
method is applicable to large plate glass areas, but is usually
somewhat sloppy when applied to window panes. These meth-
ods are most easily used when windows are near the ground
level. It is not easy to use a long handle squeegee on windows
on the second floor. For these windows, many janitors use a
cheese cloth for washing and then dry the windows with a
hand squeegee. Although this method lets water drop on the
sills, it is about as rapid as any method for the larger paned
windows and gives satisfying results. The third cleaning
method used on outside windows is the use of two cheese
cloths, one for washing and one for drying. This process seems
slow and the cloth may leave some lint on the windows. The
fourth method, and one that is practiced by many janitors, is
the use of cheese cloth for washing, with the chamois skin for
drying. This method seems to be used by more janitors than
any other method for outside glass.
Methods used for washing the glass on the outside of the
building may not be practical for inside cleaning. The hose
or the wet brush are not practical because of the amount of
water that is permitted to run down over the sash and window
stools. The two cloths or the cloth and the chamois may be
used on the inside with satisfying results. Even the hand squee-
gee on the inside of the glass seems to permit too much water
to be scattered over the trim of the room. Again on the inside
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 107
the use of two cloths does not seem to be as satisfactory as the
use of the cloth and chamois skin. The janitor should remem-
ber that the cloth is used for washing and the chamois skin is
used for drying and polishing. Many janitors find it possible
to do the work more rapidly and also find it necessary to run
to the water pail less frequently if they fold the clean cheese
cloth in several folds and then wet the cloth in the water. The
fold of the cloth is then used to wash the first pane. The cham-
ois skin, which has been wrung out and hung over the shoul-
der, is used to dry the pane. The cheese cloth is then changed
so that another side of the cloth is available and the next pane
is washed. The janitor proceeds in this manner until the cloth
is too dry to use or until all clean sides have been used.
In all of the glass cleaning it has been found that rotary or
circular movements take more time and do not produce as sat-
isfactory results as do the vertical or horizontal strokes. Most
janitors prefer to use back and forth (horizontal) strokes com-
mencing at the top of the window making strokes from side
to side and washing from the top of the window down. Janitors
find it desirable to use a duster to remove the loose dirt from
the windows before they attempt to wash. This makes it pos-
sible to use the same wash cloth for a longer period without
cleaning. It will also leave less dirt to be washed down upon
the window sash.
Glass in cases should be dusted frequently and washed as
often as necessary. The janitor should watch glass in cases and
in doors for fingerprints and grease marks. Washing case glass
and door glass will be about the same as that for the inside of
the windows, except that the doors will probably need to be
washed more often. Transom sash may be cleaned by using the
methods and tools recommended for the inside of the window
panes.
108 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Cleaning Agents
Many cleaning agents have been used in the cleaning of glass.
Kerosene is not used extensively in glass cleaning, for many
janitors now feel that the kerosene leaves a film of oil on the
glass which will in turn collect more dirt. Some janitors use
ammonia in the cleaning water. Ammonia does aid in mak-
ing the glass clear, but it has a tendency to darken putty when
in contact with it and for this reason is not in general use.
Many janitors put some alcohol in cleaning water. This seems
to give satisfying results and does aid in cleaning the glass. A
few janitors still use some sort of powder in cleaning glass.
Any cake or powder form of cleaner must first be spread on the
glass and then washed or wiped off. Cleaning results with
powder do not seem to be superior to the other methods and
the amount of work is almost double. In addition, the powder
tends to collect around the corners of the panes or to fly off in
powder form, which makes other cleaning necessary. It seems
to be a waste of time and effort to attempt to put something on
the window which must later be taken off. There are a number
of patented cleaning liquids on the market, and while these
seem to work in a satisfactory manner, they probably are little
better than preparations that can be made locally by the janitor.
Smoke and soot form a gum that is difficult to remove. Many
janitors now prefer to put a tablespoonful of tri-sodium phos-
phate in the pail of cleaning water before washing the glass.
The T.S.P. aids in cutting greases and makes cleaning easier.
There is no powder or solution in the water to collect on the
window and if the solution is not made too strong, this prepa-
ration will not affect the paint or finish of the window sash
or window stool. Paint spots on the glass may be removed with
a knife or with an old razor blade. If the paint is hard and
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 109
is difficult to remove, it may be softened with a small amount of
turpentine.
In washing windows, the janitor should be careful not to
have too much water on the cloths and should not allow water
to run down over the sash or drip on surrounding surfaces. He
should be careful to clean out all corners and to avoid leaving
streaks on the glass.
Safefy
He should also avoid taking unnecessary personal risks. No
janitor should be permitted to stand on open window ledges
without the assistance of some protective device when washing
windows. If the janitor has windows that are arranged so that
they may be turned with the outside in when cleaning, he may
avoid taking unnecessary risks. However, if he does not have
such features, it will be necessary for him to clean the windows
from the outside. The practice of attempting to clean the out-
side of the panes by reaching up from the inside of the window
is not satisfactory. For outside cleaning he should have a win-
dow jack which will reach through the window. This jack
should have claws or hooks which permit it to be attached
rigidly to the window sill. The outside platform should have
a square area of six or eight square feet, sufficient to permit the
janitor to move around on it and to carry the cleaning pails. It
is desirable that the inside of the platform be tipped with rub-
ber so that the bumpers or ends of the platform will not mar
the finish of the window. It is desirable to have a platform with
a surrounding railing. This gives added protection. Window
jacks of this type with a collapsible railing may be purchased.
However, the janitor who is handy with tools may be able to
make a satisfactory jack for his own use. In addition to the jack,
it is desirable that the janitor have a safety belt. This belt is
110 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
usually three or four inches wide and should have heavy straps
extending to the side of the window where the ends may be
snapped into hooks. In addition to this strap, there should be a
second safety feature in the form of a rope which will also at-
tach to the hooks at the side. These hooks should be rigidly
attached to the masonry and window frame and should be
tested frequently to determine whether they provide the safety
needed. For cleaning the windows on the inside the janitor will
need a step ladder. It is desirable that this step ladder be
equipped with a platform either at the side or top to hold the
pails and other equipment that must be used during the clean-
ing process.
After the janitor has cleaned the glass he should pause to
look back over his work, preferably from the inside out towards
the light. Any streaks or spots should be removed. All sash and
sills should be kept clean.
Blackboard Cleaning
Clean, attractive blackboards add much to the appearance
of the schoolroom. Dirty boards with chalk scattered over the
floor detract from the appearance of the room and are an in-
dication of poor housekeeping practices, both on the part of
the teacher and the janitor. In many schools the responsibility
for blackboard care is not clearly established by the school offi-
cials. It should be understood that the cleaning of the black-
board is an obligation of the janitor. It should also be under-
stood that it is the duty of the teacher and the pupils to keep
erasers and pieces of chalk of! the floor. As a rule, the teachers
will have the blackboard erased before they leave the room each
evening. However, since the janitor may wish to erase any
marks left on the board, the teacher should place a "DO NOT
ERASE" sign near any work to be retained. Although the
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES m
teacher should be expected to give some attention to blackboard
care, it is the duty of the janitor to complete the cleaning proc-
ess.
Authorities do not agree on the procedure to be followed in
the care of blackboards, either in the methods to be used or in
the frequency and time of cleaning. The frequency of cleaning
will depend somewhat on the use. In grade rooms where the
boards have much use, they may need to be cleaned twice a
week. In other rooms where the boards are used little, cleaning
weekly or twice each month may be sufficient. The time of
cleaning will depend upon the methods used.
Cleaning Methods
Some school officials still recommend that blackboards be
washed with a mixture of water, alcohol, and kerosene. The
alcohol may be harmful to the finished surfaces of manufac-
tured boards. The kerosene, or any other oil, may make the
board slick. If boards are to be washed, a small amount of
T.S.P. or of vinegar in the water will probably give the best
results. Where water is used, most administrators recommend
that the board be cleaned with horizontal or vertical strokes of
a bath towel folded and wrapped around a stick and used as a
swab or laid along the forearm and used in the same manner.
In these cases, the board is washed from the top down. If the
board is somewhat rough, the use of a towel laid along the
forearm seems to give more satisfactory results. The rotary mo-
tion of cleaning leaves streaks. The use of a sponge and water
usually spills much water upon the floor and along the chalk
tray. Any method of washing may soften the chalk (calcium
carbonate) and binder leaving a film of this mixture in the
pores of the board. Using large amounts of water to remove
this film may permit water to run down back of the mouldings
112 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
or to drip on the floor. While washing is not recommended as
the best method of cleaning blackboards, it is understood that
some boards will be washed. If the janitor does wash a black-
board he should wipe the board until no moisture remains on it
or in the pores. This requires that he go over the board twice,
but unless this is done washing may have more harmful effects.
During recent years a new practice of blackboard cleaning
has been developed. This is what is sometimes known as dry
cleaning. With this method, the blackboard is erased as for any
other cleaning and then is wiped clean with a dry chamois skin.
This process is recommended by the blackboard manufacturers
and is considered effective by almost all janitors who have used
it. If the chamois skin is taken out of the room before being
dusted this method does not distribute the chalk dust in the
air in the room. When using the chamois skin in cleaning the
board it will not be necessary to clean the chalk tray until the
board has been wiped clean. When using this process the teach-
ers and pupils will use the erasers as usual and the janitor will
do the cleaning with the chamois skin. With this process, the
janitor does not have to carry pails of water and other cleaning
appliances into the room.
Genera/ Care of B/acJcfaoards
It is essential that the janitor know the purpose and use of
the blackboard. He should also know that excessive amounts
of blackboard absorb light that may be needed in the room.
If the room has more blackboard space than needed he may
find it desirable to cover some of this space with tack board or
fiber board. We speak of the board as "blackboard" while in
fact many of them are not black. Some of the schools are using
green boards. No one seems to know the best color for boards
but in general the blackboard with a slight gray tint is better
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 113
than an intense black color. The intense black board seems to
provide too much contrast in color to make it easy for the child
to visualize the words written on the board. For this reason, the
board cleaned with a chamois skin and which has a rather gray-
like color, seems easier on the eyes than do the boards that have
been washed.
The janitor should know how to treat the boards. When the
board is purchased and installed or after it has been washed
(if ever) he should break it in before it is used for writing. In
breaking it in he should cover the whole board with chalk by
rubbing over it a piece of chalk held parallel to the board.
When this is erased he has a smooth even appearing board.
Future chalk marks are more easily erased.
Regardless of the type of board, it is understood that the
board is effective only if it has a bite to rake off some of the
chalk that is drawn across it. If the board becomes smooth or
glossy it loses its bite. Chalk is composed partly of calcium car-
bonate held together with a binder. This binder is usually a
glue. It is contended that when boards are washed the glue re-
maining on the board may be washed into the pores of the
board, thus filling them up and making the board slick. Slick
boards make writing difficult and present a glossy surface
which reflects light into the eyes of the pupils. The effect of
this glare and of other blackboard defects may seriously affect
usefulness of the boards and may place strain on the eyes of
the pupils. Old boards that cannot be resurfaced in a satisfac-
tory manner should be replaced by new boards.
In the cleaning of blackboards the janitor should wipe the
dust trays and leave the board, chalk trays, and erasers in a
neat condition. The cleaning of chalk trays is made easier if
the janitor has removable dust trays or if he has a vacuum
cleaner. As a rule, the chalk tray is cleaned and wiped with a
114 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
dry cloth which may be followed with a damp cloth if desired.
Water should not be used frequently in the dust trays.
When the janitor has finished his work on the blackboard,
he should stand back and view the board from the front and
the side. If any streaks appear or if the board appears gummy,
it should be recleaned. He should also make a hasty examina-
tion of the erasers that have been cleaned and of the chalk trays.
If these remain dusty, his task is not completed and more work
is necessary in order to make these facilities ready for the use
of the teachers and the pupils.
Cleaning Erasers
The dusting of erasers is one of the most undesirable tasks
of janitorial work. In too many cases, the dusting of erasers is
left to pupils who take them out and beat them on the side of
the house. While the pupils should give attention to house-
keeping in the school, they are not obligated and perhaps
should not be permitted to do the eraser dusting, at least under
practices ordinarily found. The dust may be harmful to the
respiratory tracts of many children. No one seems to be able
to state how often erasers should be dusted. In rooms where
they are used frequently they may be dusted each day. In other
rooms they may be dusted weekly. Erasers that are used in
rooms having a dust trough tray will not need to be dusted as
often as other erasers.
Methods of Cleaning
There are several methods of cleaning erasers. Probably the
best method is the vacuum system where the eraser may be
passed over the intake or the suction of a vacuum system. Tests
seem to indicate that these erasers are well cleaned. However,
many janitors do not have vacuum cleaning systems and must
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 115
use some other method. Almost every janitor can obtain one
of the hand operated eraser cleaners. Some of these have rotary
brushes and vacuum fans to take the dust away. These cause
less dust and do better work than do most other types of
cleaner. These should be equipped with fiber revolving
brushes. Other cleaning methods are what might be termed
hand methods. They include the use of a stiff brush, the rub-
bing of erasers together, the beating of erasers together, etc.
None of them seem to be very effective but when the janitor has
no other tools he may have to use one of these methods. In some
instances janitors have erected a cleaning rack of hardware
cloth on which they beat the erasers.
Although it is a generally recognized fact that fire box doors
to the furnace should not be left open, this is often times the
only spot that the janitor can have a draft to pull the chalk
dust away from him while he dusts erasers. If this is true, and
if the janitor has no eraser cleaning device, he probably would
be justified in leaving the door open long enough to clean his
erasers. He should have extra sets of erasers that he may leave
clean erasers in the room when he picks up the dirty ones. He
may then dust the dirty set and have them ready for replace-
ment in other rooms.
Dusting
School buildings which are cleaned daily with vacuum clean-
ers, or those where the floors are cleaned with dust mops, will
not have excessive amounts of dust spread into the air by the
cleaning process. However, the dust from the outside air and
from that used in ventilation will enter the room and settle on
the walls and the furniture. This dust may become distinctly
harmful to the health of the pupils, many of whom have re-
spiratory weaknesses which may be irritated by the dust. Dust
116 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
on the furniture or any part of the room detracts from the
appearance of the room. No good housekeeper will permit this
dust to remain on the furniture and on the various parts of the
room. It is a part of the duty of the janitor to remove this dust.
In many cases teachers and pupils keep dust cloths and dust a
part of the furniture. While this may be good housekeeping
practice for the pupils, and while there is no objection to their
doing this type of work, this does not in any way release the
janitor from his obligation to maintain a clean room, free from
dust. The amount of dust accumulated will depend to some
extent on atmospheric conditions, on the methods of cleaning
the building, and on the condition of the clothing of the chil-
dren. If their clothing is dirty and much dirt is tracked in,
there is likely to be much dust in the room. If the heating
system is of a fan driven type and is not equipped with a filter
more dust will accumulate. Any method of sweeping that stirs
the dust into the air may cause much dust to settle on the furni-
ture. One of the tasks of the janitor is to keep this dirt out of
the building. He will not be able to prevent the infiltration of
dust through the ventilating ducts, but he can prevent the in-
filtration of dust and smoke through the heating plant (this
applies particularly to a hot air heating plant). He can also
provide foot scrapers and brushes where the children may re-
move the mud from their shoes before they come into the build-
ing. He may be able to secure the cooperation of the teachers
in preventing pupils from carrying excessive amounts of dirt
into the building.
Time
Most janitors do their dusting in the morning. However, the
work schedule which permits the janitor to sweep classrooms
during the day at periods when they are not in use may make
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 117
it possible for him to dust a number of the rooms before he
leaves the building each evening. This reduces the burden of
morning dusting. Classroom furniture, entrance doors, door
knobs, stair landings, and other places where pupils sit or
where they may have their hands should be dusted daily. Cases,
windows, window stools, and other places the pupil may touch
should be dusted as often as needed. In many cases, these are
dusted each week. More remote places, like the tops of picture
moulding, ledges, the tops of bookcases, in and around radia-
tors and Venetian blinds may be dusted monthly or five or
six times each school year. Each janitor should set up a sched-
ule of dusting for his own building. This schedule should be
worked out with the principal in charge of the building. The
teacher should understand that the janitor is to be permitted
in the room at the time designated for the purpose of dust-
ing.
Too/s
Many different tools have been used in dusting. At one time,
the janitor made extensive use of the feather duster which
stirred up the dust but did not remove it from the room. During
recent years, many janitors have used cloths for dusting. These,
if used in a flipping method are little superior to the feather
duster. If a cloth is used, some material like cheese cloth or
cotton flannel is preferred. Old rags often have heavy seams,
buttons, or hooks which may mar the surface to be dusted.
The duster preferred by many janitors today is known as a
sanitary duster. This is composed of a slip-on mitten to be used
on the hand or on a wire frame. The head of this duster con-
sists of heavy canvas into which are looped strands of cotton
string. The head of this duster is usually ten or twelve inches
long and the handle about the same length. The duster with
118 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
the handle or head too long is somewhat cumbersome and
difficult to use.
Methods
In dusting classrooms with fixed seats, it is desirable that the
janitor go to the rear of the room and proceed up the aisle,
dusting first the back of the desk next to him, then the top of
the desk in front, and proceed to the next desk. Some janitors
attempt to use a duster in either hand. In general the use of two
dusters does not produce results that are satisfactory. With the
sanitary duster not more than two sweeps across the desk will
be necessary to complete the dusting. Various types of dusters
are available for the purpose of dusting slats in Venetian blinds.
Some janitors find it easy to dust the tops of exposed pipes
and picture moldings with a duster made by inserting a long
handle in the bottom of a short string floor mop.
No duster should be used after it becomes soiled. The janitor
should have several duster heads for each handle and should
replace each soiled head with a clean one as soon as it becomes
dirty. Dirty duster heads should be washed in a solution of
warm water and neutral soap and hung up to dry. Before the
duster head is quite dry, a small amount of furniture polish or
wax may be sprayed into the head. It will then be ready for use
as soon as dry. Dust cloths may be maintained with a similar
treatment. The janitor should carry a dust cloth even when he
has the sanitary duster, that he may use it in corners and other
places that cannot be reached easily with the duster head.
When the janitor has completed his work, he should look
back over the room to see if any dust remains. He should
frequently make a test with a piece of clean white cheese cloth
or linen to see if any dust may be picked up on it from the
desks or on other parts of the building. If dust is picked up on
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 119
this cloth, the surface is dirty and should be redusted. Furni-
ture, seats, and desks which remain dirty or dusty will soil
the clothing and hands of the children.
The teacher should keep her desk clear so that it may be
dusted. She should teach the pupils to leave their desks in a
suitable condition for dusting. This means that books and
pencils should be put away each evening. A few friendly con-
ferences with the teacher will be of value in securing the co-
operation desired.
Cleaning Classroom Walls and Ceilings
It is important that the classroom walls be clean and attrac-
tive. Soiled walls do not reflect light. They may cause rooms to
seem dark and gloomy. Dirty walls are health hazards and are
indicative of poor housekeeping practices.
Types of Surfaces
The work of the janitor in cleaning walls is made more com-
plex by the many types of wall surfaces found in school build-
ings. These range from sand floated untreated plaster to glazed
tile, unglazed tile, oil painted surfaces, those treated with a
water mixed paint, linoleum, and those covered with cork or
fiber board. This variety of surfaces makes necessary a number
of cleaning methods. Some of these surfaces cannot be washed
while others may be washed at will. On some of them only
clear water may be used while on others a strong cleaning
solution may be used.
Frequency of Cleaning
The need for cleaning will depend on the type of surface, the
location, the use of the room, and outside conditions. In smoky
120 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
areas or in buildings where smoke and dirt enter the room from
the heating plant, cleaning should be done often.
The tools for wall cleaning will vary. A step ladder, sponges,
pails, and clean water are essential. Cheese cloth or clean rags
may be used. Brushes or mops are desirable. A dust mop, or a
cloth spread over a floor brush may be used.
Adaptation to Surfaces
On glazed tile or similar surfaces a damp cloth will provide
all the cleaning necessary. The use of mild cleaning compounds,
however, will do little harm to these surfaces. Unglazed tile
may be washed, but not so easily as the glazed tile. Some scour-
ing or cleaning compound may be necessary for any oils that
may be on the wall.
On marble surfaces clean water and a sponge will clean
without harm to the polish. Strong cleaning solutions should
never be used. Some janitors clean marble surfaces by applying
a starch paste which is later removed carrying the dirt with it.
This may mar the finish.
Untreated smooth or sand-floated plastered walls may be
washed. In doing this the janitor should be very careful not to
saturate the plaster which may absorb some of the water. In
general, untreated plastered walls are washed only in order to
remove accumulations of dirt before applying paint. Portland
or Keene's cement plaster will stand washing better than will
gypsum plaster.
Painted Walls
Until recently walls painted with water-mixed paint could
be washed only when the old paint was to be removed and a
new paint applied. Some of the newer paints of this type may
be washed by using water with a mild cleaning agent. On these
OTHER CLEANING DUTIES 121
walls a detergent similar to T.S.P. is better than soap which may
require rinsing to remove the soap. Oil paints may be washed
without difficulty. In cleaning surfaces of this type only a mild
cleansing agent may be used. A strong solution may dim the
surface. The janitor should realize that each cleaning or wash-
ing removes some of the paint and that repainting is necessary
at regular intervals. Many schools have developed a practice of
painting one year, washing once during the second year. They
wash again in the third year and repaint during the fourth year.
In a few cases washing is done on alternate years after painting.
Then if the walls are washed twice painting is done each six
or seven years. This practice permits spreading the painting
program so that a part of the rooms may be repainted each
year. During recent years school boards have practiced placing
a starch film over all new paint. This film remains until the
first washing which opens up a fresh paint surface. The painted
surface is then washed once more when dirty before repaint-
ing. This practice lengthens the life of the paint and provides
attractive wall surfaces.
Other Surfaces
Linoleum wall surfaces may be cleaned with a damp cloth.
Fiber board walls and ceilings cannot be cleaned by washing.
Some of these surfaces and cork tackboard can be cleaned by
rubbing with corn meal or some similar material. When pos-
sible, it is better to clean than to paint these surfaces, since paint
may destroy some of the acoustical properties.
Cleaning Methods
Some janitors contend that there is less streaking if they start
at the bottom of the wall and wash to the top. However, many
janitors start at the top and wash down. The washing is usually
122 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
done with a sponge which must be rinsed frequently to pre-
vent streaking. The washing is done with perpendicular or
horizontal strokes. Some janitors hold a second sponge in the
other hand and follow the first cleaning with this to remove
streaks. The removal of all sponge marks and streaks is im-
portant. The janitor should avoid having the sponge too wet.
The dirty water should not drip on the floor or wood trim. The
water must be changed frequently. Where a cleaning com-
pound is used on a wall, the janitor should clean only a small
space at a time and then rinse. Both of these regulations are
important and should be followed.
Wood trim, baseboard, window stools, and doors may be
washed as other painted surfaces. They should be wiped fre-
quently with a moist cloth or a cloth treated with a good grade
of furniture polish.
Chapter 7
General Care of the School Pknt
JANITOR HAS many duties in caring for the school plant.
-L He is responsible for the care of the yards, the electric serv-
ice system, the window shades, and the flag.
Care of Walks, Lawns and Play Areas
Home owners know the value of well kept lawns and walks.
More and more school officials are recognizing the value to the
school system of well kept lawns and properly placed shrubbery.
Many patrons seem to appreciate attractive school yards; often-
times they obtain their most vivid impressions of the school by
the appearance of the exterior of the building and the yards.
For many citizens, the school yard and grounds represent the
showcases of the janitor. Many school janitors make their school
grounds the beauty spot of the neighborhood. In some cases,
school grounds were laid out before the janitor took charge
and in too many cases no plan was followed. During the years
that the janitor cares for the grounds he can make changes
and may eventually change the original design of the grounds.
Attractive school grounds and yards don't "just happen." They
are the result of careful planning and painstaking care. The
yards, walks, and building locations should be so laid out that
they lend themselves to planning. In general, it is desirable to
have the playground to the side or rear of the building so that
it is easier to maintain an attractive lawn at the front of the
123
124 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
buildings. Walks and driveways should be laid out to accom-
modate traffic. Trees may be planted around the border or in
certain selected areas away from the building. Trees should not
block a view of the building from the main street or road.
Neither should they be planted close enough to the building
that their shade may cut oft needed light in the building. Shrub-
bery may be planted in selected corners, along walkways, or
driveways, and in many cases may be banked near the build-
ing. Hedges are attractive if properly cared for. If they cannot
be cared for, it is best that they be destroyed, since unattractive
and poorly kept hedges do not add to the appearance of the
grounds. Where possible, walks should be laid in the nearest
direct line of traffic for pupils. Heavy traffic on one particular
street may make it desirable not to have walks leading to this
section of the grounds. If it becomes necessary to locate play
areas at the front of the building, they can be segregated from
the building by walks, drives, or decorative shrubbery. Play
areas should be laid out for the games played on the school
ground. In many cases it will be necessary to provide special
play areas including sand or sawdust boxes and teeter boards
for the small children. In planning a school site, advantage
should be taken of the slope of the ground. In some cases it will
be necessary to build a slight terrace to prevent washing on
steep slopes. In planning, it is desirable to know the location of
sewers, drains, and of yard hose connections.
Planting
One of the tasks that will fall to the lot of the janitor is new
planting or replanting of the trees, shrubbery, flowers, and grass
on the school yard. In many cases, he will have little to say
concerning the type of tree or shrub selected. In other cases,
he will be given an opportunity to see what he can do in de-
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 125
veloping an attractive school yard. He should learn to make use
of the plants adapted to his locality. Some trees, shrubs, and
flowers are particularly adapted to certain areas in the United
States. The lists given here include many of the plants adapted
for use in the central part of the United States. The state Agri-
cultural College is always of real help in such matters.
Trees
In general, trees should be selected that are native to, or which
do well in, a particular locality. Honey locust and other trees
which tend to spread rapidly through runner or root sprouts
are not desirable. For rapid growth, the white poplar, syca-
more, or silver leaf maple are considered desirable. However,
these trees break in the wind, and for this reason have not
found favor in school yards. Some of the trees liked for school
yards are elm, hard maple, ash, and the various types of native
oak. Trees should be planted at a depth that is approximately
the same as that in which they grew before being dug up for
transplanting. In general, the tree should be planted in a hole
that is sufficiently large to permit a full spread of the roots that
are attached to the tree. If the soil is packed, it may be necessary
to loosen it, either by blasting or digging a large hole before
the tree is planted. When planting the tree, the soil should be
worked down around the roots. It is desirable to cut off a part
of the top of the tree at the time of planting so that the leaves
will not make too heavy a demand for food and water before
the roots have had an opportunity to develop. In planting trees,
the janitor should recognize the various needs of different trees.
When a wide spreading shade tree is desired, the trees should
be planted some distance apart. If a lofty stately effect is de-
sired, such trees as the poplar or pine should be planted in
clusters.
126 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Shrubs
The type of shrub to be planted will depend to some extent
on the location and the need. Shrubs are often used to mask
unsightly places and to break the lines between the building
and the lawn at the front. They should not be planted where
they will shut out the sunlight from the classrooms. The type
of shrubbery selected will depend upon the use and location.
Some tall shrubs like lilac, mock orange, or snowball are often
planted at the rear while the shorter shrubs are planted at the
front. This intermingling of the shrubbery provides a more at-
tractive bank. Shrubbery which grows eight or ten feet high
should be planted five or six feet apart, while some of the
medium height shrubbery, such as Japanese Rose, Spirea, and
red dogwood, may be planted three or four feet apart. Some
of the low growing shrubbery, such as Japanese Barberry, may
be planted two or three feet apart. The method of planting
will depend somewhat on the type of shrubbery. As a rule,
shrubbery used in banks should not be set in rows, but in a
rather haphazard fashion with the smaller shrubs at the front.
Privet, when used as a hedge, may be set in trenches which
places it in a straight row and makes an attractive hedge. It is
desirable to scatter a small amount of humus in the trenches
when planting. Vines which are related to shrubbery are often
planted along old fences or stone walls to mask them from
view. The planting of vines around the school building to climb
up the walls helps provide an attractive wall, but there is some
question whether the practice is good.
Flowers
Many school janitors do not know how to care for flower
beds. Some of them have never grown any flowers. The average
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 127
janitor will do well to depend upon the advice of the florist in
the planting of flower beds. He does need to know that flowers
are usually planted in beds or along borders. As a rule, sporadic
planting of flowers over the yards is to be discouraged. He also
needs to know that certain flowers are classed as annuals and
are reproduced from seed. Some of the most popular seed an-
nuals for school yards are poppies, snapdragons, sweet peas, and
dahlias. In order to get early spring color, many schools set out
beds of bulbs during the months of October and November.
Popular bulbs for school yards are narcissus, tulips, jonquils,
and crocus. Some of the popular perennial flowers, that is,
those that do not need to be planted annually, are the peony,
larkspur, chrysanthemum, and iris.
Lawns
In planting and designing school lawns, one of the most im-
portant factors is a suitable seed bed. Many school yards are
composed of fresh dirt from excavations and have a bed of
broken concrete, plaster, and brick which makes it difficult to
establish a suitable seed bed. Before planting it is necessary that
the bed be thoroughly pulverized and that it contain enough
humus to support the growth of the plants. The most common
grasses for school yards are Kentucky blue grass, red top, white
clover, and Bermuda grass. A grass that forms a complete sod
should be used. Weeds are inclined to grow more rapidly than
the grass, and nurse crops are often planted with the grass. The
type of nurse crop depends on the time of sowing. Lawns are
usually seeded early in the spring or in late fall. The nurse crop
should not be heavy or rank enough to shade the grass crop
that is to follow. The nurse crop should be removed after it has
served its purpose. The grass should be given a chance to de-
velop. In developing and planning school lawns, the basic re-
128 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
quirements are plenty of humus and moisture. If fertilizers
are used, it is probable that some nitrogen fertilizer, such as am-
monium sulphate, cotton seed meal, or a complete mixture, will
be needed.
Care of Trees, Shrubs and Lawns
So many factors are involved that only a brief description
can be given here.
Tree Care
The practice of cutting off the heads of trees every three or
four years is not recommended by experts in the field and
should not be attempted by an inexperienced worker. It may be
necessary to do some pruning of the trees. If this is done, at-
tention should be given to the prevention of crotches that
may split. Attention should also be given to the removal of
old snags or stubs of limbs. It will be necessary for the janitor to
provide water for the trees in many cases. Both the trees and the
grass under them compete for soil water, and a lack of water
may hinder their growth. Trees that are located in crowded
areas or with sidewalks around them sometimes do not get
enough air and water. In these cases it may be necessary to
sink a tile from the surface down to the roots in order to pro-
vide both water and air. Trees are subject to a number of
diseases and pests. Some of these pests can be controlled by
sticky bands around the trees; others by burning out the nests,
and still others by spraying. The treatment will depend on the
type of pest.
Shrubbery Core
In general, the care required for shrubs will be cultivation
and the supplying of plenty of water. The shrubs which grow
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 129
in clumps need little pruning. If there is a need for pruning,
cut out some of the old wood so that the young shoots may de-
velop near the base of the plant. Honeysuckle and quince send
out many shoots from the base, and pruning of these new
shoots may be necessary. Snowball, barberry, and spirea are
usually left in their natural state while shrubs like hydrangea,
hedge, and dogwood are often trimmed. The time of trimming
shrubs other than the hedge is not very important. Most janitors
find it desirable not to prune until after the blossoms have
fallen. Hedges are usually pruned three to five times per year,
depending upon the growth. In pruning, the hedge should be
lined up by the use of string until the desired shape is obtained.
Then it may be maintained in this shape. If the janitor is not
familiar with the methods of pruning, he should obtain out-
side assistance until he has learned the principles to be fol-
lowed. Occasionally it is necessary to spray certain shrubs and
hedges for diseases. Privet and other hedges in use are suscep-
tible to winter kill. Some janitors now mulch these hedges
during the winter with leaves or straw, removing this in the
spring before the first cultivation of the shrubs.
Lawn Care
The care of lawns often proves one of the most difficult tasks
of the janitor. Many lawn grasses are particularly susceptible to
drouth conditions. The root systems are limited, and where the
lawns are mowed frequently, the mowing prevents the building
up of plant resistance. In addition, the lawns are subjected to
damage from pests, such as moles, ants, and worms. They are
often infested with noxious weeds. Many janitors may spend
a summer developing a lawn, only to have an excellent crop
of dandelions next spring.
After the lawn is first sowed, the janitor will probably find
130 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
that some spots are bare. He must recultivate and reseed these
spots, being careful to provide good seed, free from weed seed.
After the lawn is started, he will find it necessary to mow as
needed. Before mowing the lawn, it may be necessary to roll
the lawn. When mowing a new lawn, the grass should not be
cut too close to the ground. Later, mowing will depend upon
weather and soil conditions. If the janitor has a large area to
cover, he probably will have a power mower. He should mow
under the shrubs and along the walk to give the whole yard a
neat appearance. He should fill trenches and drains before
mowing. The yard should never present an unsightly ap-
pearance because of the lack of care. The addition of organic
matter will increase the water holding capacity of the soil and
make it easier to cultivate. The organic matter may be supplied
by hauling a good black dirt to the site or by adding fertilizer.
New soil should be free from noxious weed seeds.
Weeds and Pesfs
The types of weeds that grow will indicate some of the soil
conditions. For instance, sorrel often indicates a sour soil. In
caring for the lawn, the janitor will find it necessary to trap
moles, to use oil or some other agent to kill ants, and he may
find it necessary to put out poisoned mash to kill worms. In
each case, the remedy will depend on the type of pest. Some of
the most common lawn weeds are dandelions, buckthorn,
plantain, sheep sorrel, knot weed, and crab grass. Some weeds
are deep rooted and stand upright. Some of these are kept in
check by mowing. Other weeds like crab grass have a tendency
to creep along the ground and to reproduce from the point
where the joints make contact with the ground. Weeds like the
dandelion produce a seed that is wind carried. Hence, the elimi-
nation of the dandelion in the yard supervised by the janitor
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 131
may have little effect if the neighbors grow a good crop of
seed. Many patented killers, including ammonium sulphate,
crude oil, and other materials, have been developed for the
killing of weeds. In most cases, the killing agent also destroys
the grass. In a few cases, a spray or a squirt gun is used to apply
the killing solution directly on the weed. For many weeds,
digging is the best method of elimination. This is true of the
deeper rooted weeds, but is not effective unless all the roots are
destroyed. Constant care and attention, as well as some pride in
its appearance, are essential if the janitor is to develop and
maintain an attractive school yard.
Yard Cleaning
He must prevent an accumulation of waste paper around the
building and other places in the yard. He may find it desirable
to place waste paper containers at various points in the yard and
near places where pupils may collect during the fall months to
eat lunch. He should make a daily round of the yards to pick
up loose paper. Janitors have found that the use of a pointed
stick or a stick with a nail at the end and a sack to be hung
over the shoulder provides about the best method of collecting
paper from the yards. It may be necessary to remove leaves from
the yards. This may involve raking the leaves into piles and
having them hauled away. Leaves should not be burned on
grass spots.
Walks
One task that is with the janitor all the year is the care of
walks. During the summer time he will find it necessary to
make some repairs on various walks. It may be necessary to
trim around the walks. A hoe with a straight shank or a
specially developed spade may be used to trim the sod back
132 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
from the walks in order to provide an attractive appearance.
The janitor should remove snow and ice from the walks as
soon as possible. As a rule, he can remove the snow before it
becomes trampled with the use of a snow shovel or pusher he
makes for that purpose. If the snow and ice develop so rapidly
that they cannot be removed and if the walks become slick, he
may use salt to melt the ice. Some janitors use sand on icy spots.
This does aid in preventing slipping but it also provides a
place where sand is picked up on the feet and carried into the
building to cut the floor finish. The use of cinders or sand is
sometimes objectionable for this reason. If they are used, an
ample supply of brushes and brooms should be provided that
this sand may be brushed off the shoes before the children come
into the building. Some janitors provide tow sacks and lay
them on the walks that become slippery. These seem to be of
some value. The janitor should be watchful and should repair
walks as soon as he finds broken places. He should also be care-
ful to protect from the hazards of slick walks. While the school
district probably will not be liable for damage from injury from
walks, the janitor should take all possible care to prevent in-
juries arising from bad walks.
Care of Light and Electric Service
During recent years there has been a great increase in the
electric current used in the school buildings. The demand for
more illumination and an increased demand for power for fans,
heating units, pumps, lifts, potato peelers, dishwashers, solder-
ing irons, and power machines for industrial shops has multi-
plied the current consumption many times. Because of the
nature of electricity it presents a number of potential hazards
to both people and property. Most light current is brought to
school buildings with a voltage of 110. Power current may be
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 133
220 to 440 volts. While pupils, teachers, and janitors are ac-
quainted with the use of electricity, few of them exercise suffi-
cient care in its use. The janitor as building custodian has an
obligation to help conserve electrical energy, to protect against
electrical hazards, and to aid in securing adequate illumination
from the electric lights in use.
Wires and Fusing
Many of the older buildings were wired before the present
janitor came on the job. Some of these wires are too small to
carry the present load. The increased consumption of power
has added to the overloading. In some cases, the old wiring and
the newer extensions are not properly installed. Some of the
wires are insulated with a poor grade of rubber with no protec-
tive braid to add strength. Much of the old knob and tube
work is not installed properly and the wires have sagged until
they are in contact with combustible surfaces. When wires are
overloaded they tend to become hot. In order to give protection
against this resistance and heat, fuses are placed in the line.
These fuses are designed to serve as weak spots in the line. They
are supposed to offer less resistance than the rest of the line and
to give way before the line becomes too hot. Oftentimes a short
in the line or an overload may cause these fuses to blow out.
When this happens several times, some janitors may replace
the blown fuses with heavier ones. This practice closes the
weak (fuse) gap and throws added resistance back on the line,
but when an overload again occurs, the line may become hot
and a fire may be the result. All fuse panels should be marked,
showing the size of fuse to be used in each line when installed.
If these panels are not marked, the janitor should seek the ad-
vice of a competent electrician and mark each fuse socket. The
janitor should never use a heavier fuse than that designated for
134 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
that particular line. Neither should he wire around the fuse
or place a coin back of a fuse to prevent a break at that point.
The lines in each panel box should be marked, showing the
room or lights served by each line. Many janitors keep extra
fuses and a flashlight on hand. If the fuse panel box is properly
arranged, one or two extra new fuses may be left in the bottom
of the panel box to hasten replacements. Cartridge fuses are
often used for power lines. Before attempting to replace these,
the janitor should throw the switch connecting that line. He
should use a fuse puller to dislodge the old fuse. The newer
fuse and switch panel boxes have what is known as a dead face
front. This is arranged so that pupils and janitors cannot come
in contact with any wires when the box door is open. Doors to
the older exposed type of boxes should be kept locked to pre-
vent possible hazards from these sources.
Extension Cords
The janitor should be careful in the use of extension cords.
Light fabric wrapped cords should never be used in places
where they may become moist or wet. For these places heavy
rubber insulated cords with cage protectors over the lamp,
such as those recommended for garage repair shops, should be
used. Portable extension cord lamps should be equipped with
a hanger that they may be attached to some object when used
in making temporary repairs. Extension cord lamps should be
for temporary use and should not be used for permanent light-
ing. In no case should extension cords be hung over nails or
tied around water, gas, or steam pipes. All splices in extension
cords should be securely taped. Tieing knots in extension cords
in order to shorten them is bad practice.
The use of cheap extension cords for temporary lighting is
hazardous. This is particularly true of some of the Christmas
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 135
lighting. The use of these poorly insulated lights should be
prohibited in all school buildings. In many school rooms tempo-
rary decorations are suspended from the light fixture. In some
cases these lights are of the old drop cord type where the weight
of the fixture and the lamp are supported by the cord. The fact
that these cords swing from side to side may cause the cord to
become worn at its connection with the upper outlet until the
wires are exposed. When this occurs a short may be the result.
Any flimsy decoration connected with this light can lead to a
fire.
Heavy Duty Units
The janitor should know that electrical heating units build up
a considerable amount of resistance. Some of these units such
as electric irons, glue pots, radiant heaters, stoves, and soldering
irons may be left turned on when not needed, using costly
current, and developing possible fire hazards. For this reason,
all electrical heating units should be equipped with a pilot
light connected in the line. This light should be so arranged
that it shows red when the heating unit is turned on for use.
Heating units or any heavy power units should never be con-
nected with a cord or pull chain. These are not heavy duty out-
lets and may arc when called upon for heavy duty. In fact,
heating and heavy duty units should not be connected to
ordinary suspended light sockets. They should have direct con-
nections or should be connected with heavy duty wall plugs.
Large motors are usually equipped with starting switches.
Some of these are designed to kick out if for any reason the
resistance is excessive. Where possible the janitor should ask
that such switches be installed and should use these starting
switches. He will thus avoid probable contact with exposed
switches.
136 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Repairs
The janitor should be careful in his use and care of electrical
equipment. Open and dusty motors throw off sparks that may
start a fire in shavings and other combustible materials. He
should avoid forming a ground for some faulty connection.
This hazard is greater if he is in contact with metal piping or
if he is standing in a wet place. The janitor is often called on to
make minor electric repairs, to splice wires, or to locate new
outlets. He should not attempt these repairs unless he knows
how to do the work properly. On the other hand, many janitors
find that if they do not make these minor repairs some less
skilled pupil or teacher does attempt to make them. It may be
better for the janitor with some training and skill to do minor
repair work than to have the work improperly done. Many
janitors have developed the ability to make adjustments in the
public address, bell, clock, and other low voltage electric equip-
ment in a satisfactory manner and at a saving to the district.
Electric Lighting Service
One of the tasks of the janitor is to assist in protecting the
health of the pupils. Adequate controlled illumination is a
distinct factor in the protection of the eyesight and conse-
quently the health of the pupils. The janitor usually has no
control over the original installation of classroom lighting.
There are many factors in lighting efficiency over which the
janitor does have some control. Most lighting circuits are laid
out to carry and use 110 volt current. The fuses and wires from
the panel boxes to the lamps are limited in the load they will
carry and the lamps they will serve. When overloads are placed
on any circuit there is a dimming of lamps and a loss in ef-
ficiency.
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 137
Lighting Principles
There are certain basic school lighting principles that the
school janitor should know. He should know that light in stair-
ways and in other places where danger may exist will reduce
the number of accidents. He should know that ample con-
trolled illumination makes rooms more cheerful and speeds up
school work. On the other hand, glare from glossy surfaces or
from bright lamps in the child's line of vision may be tiresome
to the eyes. He should realize that a major part of the light
falling on the desk of the pupil is reflected light. This reflection
comes from the walls, ceilings, and other surfaces in the room.
Black or dark surfaces like blackboards do not reflect much
light. Dirty floors, walls, and ceilings reduce the possible re-
flection and cause a greater consumption of current if the room
is to be properly lighted. Pupils should not be required to face
the light. It is better if the light comes from the side and above.
There should be no shadow on the desk. In locating school
room seats the janitor should so place them that the pupils
have natural (day) light coming from the left.
Lamps and Their Care
Better diffusion of light is obtained in the average classroom
if several lamps (luminaires) are used. Many of the better
schools now install six lamps in the average classroom. These
lamps should be located above the normal line of vision of the
pupils seated in the room. In practice these lamps are usually
located about nine or nine and one-half feet from the floor.
Since the inner side of the classroom is the darker area it is
desirable that the inner row of lights be on a separate switch
that these lights may be turned on when the outer row or rows
are not needed. It is desirable to have this light come from above
138 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
and slightly to the rear of the pupils. The front row of lights
is not at the front of the room.
Types of Lamps
An open bulb provides an intense illumination and a bright
spot immediately surrounding the lamp. To provide better il-
lumination and to prevent eye injury, these lamps are usually
encased in some type of diffusing globes. One of the most com-
mon types is the enclosing white glass. These lamps are usually
known as semi-direct lights. Since the use of lamps that are too
large may cause these diffusing globes to be too bright for the
eyes of the pupils, the janitor should know the size of globe
used in each. It is recommended that the following limits be
observed. For a 14 inch diffusing globe, a lamp or bulb of not
over 150 watts; for 16 inch globe, not over 200 watts; for 18 inch
globe, not over 300 watt lamps should be used. The dimensions
of the diffusing globes represent the total crosswise or hori-
zontal spread. A second type of lamp is the indirect lighting
fixture. This fixture has an opaque bowl and throws the light
against the ceiling where it is to be reflected down to the desks.
Care of Lamps
The semi-direct or white glass lighting fixtures throw a part
of the light on the ceiling and walls from where it is reflected
on the desks. Dirt that has accumulated on or in these fixtures
may reduce their efficiency by half. Dust will get inside these
globes and prevent a complete diffusion of light. The indirect
fixtures throw the light to the ceiling. These fixtures are usually
open at the top and dirt settles in them. All these light fixtures
must be kept clean. The janitor should wipe out the bowls of
the indirect fixtures often. He should remove and wash fixtures
as often as needed. For this purpose, he will need a step ladder
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 139
and other tools similar to those used in window washing. After
washing, the fixtures should be fastened securely to the fitter
or hanger. There must be no danger of their falling when
pupils are in the room. Care does not end with washing the
lamps. Walls and ceilings must be kept clean if the schoolroom
lighting is to be satisfactory and economical.
Bulbs that have been in use for some time become dark and
lose their efficiency because the filament gradually dissolves and
is deposited on the bulb. They should be replaced. This re-
placement is not a difficult task in classrooms where the lamps
are not far from the floor. In auditorium and gynasium units
the task of replacing lamps or of washing fixtures is more diffi-
cult. In some of the newer buildings the whole fixture may be
lowered to the floor for replacements or for cleaning. In some
of the new gymnasium units the fixtures are so arranged that
they may be serviced from above. There is now on the market
a combination suction cup mounted on a long pole that makes
it possible to replace high lamps from the floor. This instrument
is equipped with a trigger that releases the suction cup after
the new lamp is set.
Control of Current Consumption
The janitor does not have control over the amount of elec-
trical energy consumed. Yet he is often required to turn out
lights not needed. In some instances the building is equipped
with keyed switches which only he can operate. This practice
requires that the janitor watch each room to determine just
when and how many lights are needed. This control is not
economical since the janitor cannot watch all rooms at all times.
Another practice is to permit the janitor to pull fuses control-
ling rooms where the teacher is wasting current. It seems better
to instruct the teacher how to use and to enforce teacher control
140 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
of lights and window shades than to deprive pupils of needed
light as a retaliation for teacher negligence. It seems desirable
to provide suitable switches in the room convenient to the
teacher, and located on the knob side of the doorway. It is pos-
sible for the janitor to conserve current by turning out lights
in vacant rooms and by adjusting window shades before the
room is occupied.
Records
The janitor should make a record of meter readings and of
the current used. It probably is desirable that he make the
readings at or about the same time the meters are read by the
service company. Power and light readings should be recorded
separately if so metered. The following is a sample of a record
sheet kept by some janitors. Readings are taken monthly and the
amount of current used is determined by subtracting the present
reading from the previous one.
(Sample)
BUILDING
DATE
LIGHT METER
POWER METER
Current
Reading Used
Current
Reading Used
3-10-40
^10-40
15270
15375 105
Care of Window Shades
Window shades are provided for the purpose of shutting out
or breaking up the direct rays of the sun. However, the shades
should not shut the daylight out of the classrooms. Several
types of shades have been used in an attempt to secure the de-
sired results. The older filled green or dark cloth shades shut
out too much light. When the shades with a heavy filler check
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 141
or crack they present an unattractive appearance in the room.
The heavy duck shades also shut out a great deal of light.
Venetian blinds when dirty fail to reflect much light.
Cleaning Shades
The janitor has a real problem in attempting to care for all
of the window shades in the building. Dirty shades shut out
light. Spotted or discolored shades are unattractive. Window
shade cords break and must be replaced.
Many of the modern cloth shades can be washed. For this
purpose they should be removed from the rollers and washed in
a neutral soap solution. Some of the newer shades can be
cleaned by wiping with a moist cloth. Care should be exercised
to avoid streaking the shades when cleaning in this manner.
After the shades are washed they should be dried before being
attached to the rollers. Faded spots and streaks are difficult to
remove. When they are bad it is probably wise to replace the
shades. Frequent dusting of the cloth shades will prevent some
of the accumulation of dirt. Venetian blinds should be dusted
frequently. A soft brush may be used for this purpose. If no
brush is available, a cloth may be used.
Control of Shades
Many teachers insist on pulling the shades down to cover
about half the window, regardless of weather conditions or the
amount of electric current consumed. The janitor has no con-
trol over this practice. Many building principals overcome this
practice by instructing teachers in the control of shades and
by forbidding the use of window drapes. They also instruct the
janitor to raise (retire) all shades on the west side of the build-
ing each morning before school opens and to raise those on the
east side of the building during the noon hour. The janitor
142 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
should keep all shades in good condition with the springs
properly tensed and all cords in good repair.
Care of the Flag
Our national flag is an emblem of our national and individual
liberties and should be treated with respect. The school should
always be able to furnish an example for the community with
regard to the proper methods of displaying the flag. In some
schools the responsibility of caring for the flag is assigned to the
janitor. Frequently, through carelessness or ignorance, school
children may violate the flag code, and it is important the
janitor be definitely informed.
1. The flag should always be in good repair. A torn, ragged, or dirty
flag should never be raised. When the flag becomes unfit for display
it should be burned in the furnace. It should never be left lying
around, or kept with the waste or wiping cloths.
2. The flag should not be flown during rainy or stormy weather. If
the weather becomes stormy during the day the janitor should see
that the flag is taken down.
3. Generally the flag is raised at the beginning of the school day, and
is lowered at the close of the school day. By all means the flag should
be lowered by sunset, and should never be left up during the night.
4. Of course the flag should always be raised with the blue field up-
permost. Yet nearly every year each school has the experience of
having the flag raised "upside down." Remember that the flag in
that position is a sign of distress. Carelessness in this respect is cer-
tain to expose those responsible for the flag to a great deal of ridi-
cule.
5. The flag should be kept folded when not in use. The Boy Scout
plan for doing this is an excellent one. When the flag is raised it
should never be permitted to drag on the ground. As it is lowered
it should be caught in the arms and not allowed to touch the
ground.
6. When a flag is displayed flat on the walls it should be hung with
the blue field to the flag's own right. As an observer would see it,
the blue field would always be to the left.
GENERAL CARE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT 143
7. The flag should never be used as drapery over a desk or a speaker's
stand. At no time should anything be placed on the flag.
8. The flag should not be used as a ceiling covering, or as a covering
for a pillow.
9. In parades it should be carried on a staff, and should never be
carried in flat or horizontal position. It should never be draped on
a float or a car.
10. Bunting should be used for decorative purposes, draping a float or
a car. The blue in the bunting should be at the top.
11. No other flag or emblem should be placed above our flag.
12. When the flag is to be flown at half mast (half way up the pole) it
should be first raised to the top of the pole, and then lowered. On
Memorial Day it should be flown at half mast until noon, and then
raised to full mast until sunset.
13. When the flag is displayed on a stafT on a speaker's platform, it
should always be on the speaker's right, and the audience's left.
14. When the flag is displayed on a staff and is placed on the floor with
the audience (not on the speaker's platform), it should be on the
audience's right.
Chapter 8
Safety in Schools
Prevention of Accidents
THE JANITOR DOES not plan the school buildings; neither is
he legally responsible for the safety of the school pupils or
the school property. On the other hand, the janitor can prob-
ably do more than any other individual to provide greater
safety in the school building and on the school grounds. There
are so many possible hazards that it is difficult for the janitor or
the teachers to guard against all of them. In many cases the
teachers and principals have not made a study of pupil and
property hazards. This often throws much of the burden of
protection on the janitor. This may be desirable. He is the man
in a position to know hazards and to do something about them.
In addition to the elimination and prevention of hazards, the
janitor must learn to cope with pupils, many of whom get a
thrill out of taking a risk. The janitor will realize that in most
states the school is not financially responsible for damages
from injury. However, this does not justify negligence in pupil
or property protection. The paragraphs following will point
out many of the hazards in school buildings. More detailed
outlines and methods of repairs will be discussed in section 17
on maintenance and repairs. The broad scope of the subject
"safety" makes it impossible to cover every item. Hence, the
discussion given here is in the nature of a summary of present
knowledge and practices that contribute to pupil and property
safety in school buildings.
144
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 145
Records of accidents, injuries, and property loss indicate that
hazards might be grouped into those applying to the janitor
in his work, those applying to pupils individually and in
groups, and to fire hazards. Those applying to the janitor
usually arise from some such cause as explosion, scalds or burns,
falls, and carelessness in the use of tools. Those applying to
pupils usually arise from falling, slipping, running into sharp
corners, or from falling objects such as statuary. Other pupil
hazards arise from electric shocks, poison, or fire. Property loss
is usually caused by fire, tornado, explosion, theft, or careless-
ness.
Janitor Protection
It is generally understood that the janitor who is not careful
in protecting himself and who is not careful with his tools and
in his methods of work, may also be careless in the protection
of pupils from various hazards. The janitor should avoid ex-
posing himself to unnecessary risks. His tools should be in good
repair and properly stored. Being careful may consume time,
but it is better to be careful than crippled. The janitor should
not attribute his injuries to bad luck, but rather to poor judg-
ment. Some of the cautions that the janitor may observe for
his own safety are:
1. Fix all ladders solidly before mounting. See that rungs and steps are
solid.
2. Keep tools in racks arranged for them. Have all sharp ends of the
tools protected.
3. Use a vise, not the hands, to hold materials for screw driver and
chisel.
4. Wear heavy soled shoes when doing work that might injure the feet.
Old thin soled shoes or tennis shoes are not suitable for this purpose.
5. Use a block to shove short pieces of wood into the saw or planer. If
the material slips, a ringer may be saved.
6. Use a safety belt and/or platform window jack when washing the
146 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
outside of the windows. He should remember that he is working
for a public organization and that injuries arising from carelessness
are not good publicity for the school.
7. Do not wear gloves or loose clothing around machinery such as
pumps or fans, where moving machinery might catch on this cloth-
ing.
8. Do not use gasoline to start fires, and kerosene only sparingly, and
never on hot coals.
Hazards from Slipping and Falling in Building
Many of the accidents that occur are from falling and trip-
ping in and around the school building. While it is true that
children should be and probably are taught not to run down
stairways, it must be remembered that the child is full of life
and that he does not realize what dangers might be involved. As
a consequence, the janitor should endeavor to eliminate haz-
ards which might cause pupil injury in and around the build-
ing. One sign that the janitor should post in his work room is
"PAYING THE LIGHT BILL IS LESS PAINFUL THAN
PAYING FOR ACCIDENT INJURIES." He should realize
that plenty of light is one of the best means of preventing ac-
cidents. This applies particularly to stairways and to dark cor-
ners where pupils and teachers might be injured. Many of the
accidents in schools arise from slipping or falling or from
contact with rough surfaces. Some of these accidents are harm-
ful to children. Some are harmful only to clothing. Some of
the things the janitor can do to protect the pupils or the teacher
and their clothing are:
1. Plane off all floor splinters or replace the boards.
2. Fasten bolts and seats in the furniture so that there is less danger
of falling.
3. Remove splinters in seats and chair legs with file or sand paper, to
protect hosiery.
4. Pull out or drive in protruding nails.
5. Leave no mops or pails in corridors when pupils are passing.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 147
6. Place tape under corners of loose rugs to prevent slipping.
7. See that all hand rails are securely fastened.
8. Reset loose stair treads and nosings.
9. Shield sharp corners.
10. Remove cases and other obstacles from pupil line of traffic.
11. Have exit ways and exit doors opened or unlocked so that the pupils
may open them easily at any time when the building is occupied.
12. See that doors swing out with the line of traffic.
P/aygrouncf
Many pupils are injured each year on the playgrounds from
falling and tripping on rough surfaces and on defective play-
ground equipment. Pupils may be injured by slipping on
walks. The school property usually has walks around it. In
many cases city ordinances require that these walks be pro-
tected as well as the walks on the school grounds. In order
to reduce the number of accidents of this type the janitor
should :
1. Pick up loose nails and boards with nails in them.
2. Keep man-hole of coal pit covered.
3. Remove ice and snow from the walks. If this snow cannot be re-
moved the hazard may be reduced by putting sawdust or salt on the
walk.
4. Fill ditches and holes in the playground.
5. Use only smooth wire in wire fences for the school yard. Barbs are
more effective but also more dangerous. Repair holes in walks.
6. Put away yard scythe, sharp picks, and any other sharp or cutting
tool.
7. Shield teeter boards to prevent catching fingers at the center sup-
port. It is also desirable to put blocks under the ends of the teeter so
that the children will not catch their legs under them.
8. See that all swings and horizontal bars have good and sufficient
supports.
9. Remove rocks from under horizontal bars and horizontal ladders.
10. Place rubber bumpers on swing seats.
11. Remove poison ivy, nettles, briars, thorn bushes, and poison berries
from the school yard.
148 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Hazards — Special Rooms
There are many potential hazards in the school boiler room,
in the laboratories, the home economics department, in the
shop, and in the toilet and shower rooms. In many cases teach-
ers and pupils are not aware that these hazards exist. A num-
ber of pupils are injured through boisterous play in the shower
rooms and around the swimming pools. Other accidents may
occur from carelessness in the use of blow torches or Bunsen
burners, and from certain chemicals in the laboratories. It is
not possible for the janitor to prevent or eliminate all of these
hazards but if he makes a study of them he can take precau-
tions to reduce the possible hazards or to eliminate some of
them. Some precautions that the janitor can take are:
1. Watch all gas heaters for fumes. Flexible hose contacts should be
permitted only between the shutoff cock and the burners. Even then,
a rigid connection is preferable.
2. Watch gas for possible leakage. Gas purchased from service com-
panies usually has in it a malodorant that a leak may be detected
easily. All canned gas purchased in pressure tanks should also have
in it a malodorant.
3. Have fixed racks for acid carboys.
4. In chemical laboratories keep a woolen blanket to use in smother-
ing possible fires in clothing or elsewhere.
5. Treat tops of chemical laboratory tables to make them acid resisting.
6. Have all machine guards in shops fastened securely.
7. Remove rubbish from around power machines. Eliminate slick floor
conditions from around power machines.
8. Keep boiler room clean. Have fire doors free acting. Do not block
fire door openings.
9. Watch boiler steam pressure, also water level in boiler. Even "p°P-
ping off" of the boiler has been known to give alarm to pupils in
the building.
10. Pick up soap in shower rooms.
11. Remove all obstacles that might cause tripping around swimming
pools.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 149
12. Regulate hot water flow in showers and laboratories. Burns from
hot water are painful and should be avoided.
13. Place hand rails on ramps for swimming pool.
Hazards from Electric Current
The electric service in the school buildings creates many
potential hazards. Teachers and pupils generally become ac-
customed to the use of electricity and do not realize the dan-
gers that may be present. Janitors are inclined to forget that
the presence of water on the floor may cause him to be a
grounding connection between the electric current and the
floor. In order to reduce some of the possible electric hazards
the janitor should:
1. Keep electric connections tight. All open face panel boxes or switches
should be locked.
2. Eliminate electric switches around showers. Locate switch in a place
which may be kept dry.
3. Shut off electric current before making repairs or replacing fuse.
Miscellaneous Hazards
A number of school accidents occur from causes which may
be attributed to carelessness or lack of precaution. Some of
these accidents result from falling objects and others from
broken glass. There are a number of precautions that the jani-
tor can take to eliminate this group of injuries. He should:
1. Pick up broken glass.
2. Keep glass in door panels tight to reduce probable breakage. Remove
broken glass from windows and doors (This problem is eliminated
to a great extent where safety or wired glass is used).
3. Remove statuary that cannot be fastened to insure against falling.
4. Make secure all pictures, urns, and vases.
5. Reset loose parapet wall copings, cornices, and brick on flues. If
they cannot be reset, they should be removed. Possible property dam-
age from the removal is less important than probable pupil hazards.
150 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
6. Adjust door checks to prevent slamming that might catch fingers.
7. Remove snow from sloping roofs unless snow guards are provided.
If the snow cannot be removed, place guard fences around the danger
areas until the snow on the roof has melted.
8. Remove large icicles from the eaves. If this cannot be done, place
guard fences around the danger area.
Life Protection
In addition to the duties mentioned in the protection against
these hazards, the janitor has definite obligations in attempting
to protect the health of the pupils. Precautions against health
hazards from poor maintenance of fountains, lavatories, stools,
and electric lights were discussed under different headings.
The janitor should make it a fixed rule to provide ample pro-
tection in case of panic. It seems desirable to restate that "EXIT
DOORS SHOULD NEVER BE LOCKED AGAINST
EGRESS WHEN PUPILS ARE IN THE ROOMS OR
BUILDING." This is applicable to all school rooms. It is par-
ticularly applicable to auditorium and gymnasium units where
large numbers of people may congregate.
Property Protection
The janitor also has obligations in protecting district prop-
erty against loss, excessive wear, and too rapid deterioration.
One loss that occurs frequently around school buildings is that
of theft. The janitor can aid in reducing this loss by locking
doors at night and by fastening windows and other possible
means of entry to rooms and areas where theft is most likely
to occur. It should be the duty of the teachers to lock labora-
tories, laboratory store rooms, shop units, tool rooms, offices,
libraries, storerooms for athletic equipment, and commercial
departments where typewriters and other machines are kept.
If the teachers are instructed and taught by the principal to
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 151
lock these rooms, the janitor can in a rapid examination before
leaving the building determine if these rooms are locked. He
can also check exterior doors before leaving the building. As
stated previously, the janitor will have a set of keys for all doors
in the building and these keys he should not lend.
In some cases the janitor is called upon to watch the build-
ing during the evening when special programs are held in the
building, or on such occasions as Hallowe'en. (Many schools
have eliminated Hallowe'en misdemeanors through school
supervised activities.) In some of the schools the janitor is made
a special policeman with authority to hold or detain miscreants
or vandals. There are some advantages in the janitor being
given the authority of special policeman, but there are some
disadvantages. He probably is not trained as a policeman, and
is not in a position to carry out the usual duties of a policeman.
The janitor should be alert to prevent deterioration of the
building and of the school property. Broken furniture should
be removed at once. Broken gutters should be repaired. Dis-
connected downspouts should not be permitted to dump the
water at a place where it may enter the wall. When the janitor
can make repairs that protect the building, he should make
them. At times it may be necessary for him to make temporary
repairs. At other times it will be necessary for him to report the
need to a superior official. He should also report loss through
breakage or theft immediately.
Fire Prevention in School Buildings
If schools were wholly of fire resistive construction, and if
no people were in them, fire loss would not be a serious prob-
lem, but school buildings are not wholly of fire resistive ma-
terial and even if they were, they have combustible supplies
and materials in them. Those in charge of school buildings
152 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
should know the danger from school fire, not only to the lives
of the pupils, but to the property. Proper methods in caring
for a building will reduce the potential fire hazards and proper
attention given to protective measures and exit facilities will
reduce the possible pupil panic that sometimes ensues when
a fire alarm is given. Since the school janitor has charge of the
building, and since he is the one person who has frequent con-
tact with all parts of the building, it seems that he is best
trained and best fitted to eliminate some of the hazards causing
school building fires.
If the janitor is to help protect these buildings from fire
loss, he should know something of the nature of fire. He should
realize that practically all fires start in a small way and could
be put out before they do damage. Most janitors know that
fire is a form of rapid oxidation. They also know that fire
cannot occur or continue unless three factors are present. The
fire must have air to support combustion; it must have ma-
terial for the fire to consume; there must be sufficient heat to
bring the material to the kindling point. These three items are
part of every fire hazard check.
Fires cause many losses in school buildings each year. A
part of this loss is in property values. When property is de-
stroyed by fire, that material is wasted. It may be replaced by
new materials, but the old material and the old values are gone.
Even if the building is protected by insurance, fire entails losses.
In addition to property loss, there is always the possible loss of
life and injury to pupils. This, of course, is far more impor-
tant than the property loss. Another loss that may occur in
some of the older school buildings is that of records. It is al-
most impossible to replace records destroyed by fire. The pos-
sible loss and the danger to life resulting from fires makes it
essential that school administrators, teachers, and janitors join
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 153
forces in preventing fires and in reducing fire losses and haz-
ards.
One of the best means of reducing fire loss is to construct
buildings of fire resistive materials. This practice is not always
feasible because of cost. A second measure of reducing fire loss
is to get the pupils out of the building as quickly as possible.
Getting the pupils out of the building involves adequate exit
facilities and proper exit practices. It is necessary to have ade-
quate facilities for both regular and emergency purposes. The
third measure of reducing fire losses is a plan for the extinguish-
ment of fires that do occur. Each of these preventive measures
are discussed here.
Fire Prevention and the Janitor
The janitor can do much to reduce the possibility of fires.
One of the first things he should learn is that cleanliness aids
in fire prevention. The second thing he should learn is that
eternal watchfulness is essential in order to keep down an ac-
cumulation of fire hazards. After he has located the hazards
he is in a position to take the proper steps to eliminate a large
number of them. For the purpose of clearness, the possible
hazards are grouped under several headings, including those
from building structure, furnace room, electric wiring, natural
causes, basement and attic areas, special units, roofs, and from
careless housekeeping.
Dangers from Building Structure
In many cases, the janitor will have had no part in planning
the building. He cannot be held responsible for the fire haz-
ards occurring because of faulty structure or poor planning.
He can in many cases reduce the hazard arising because of the
poor planning. In some instances, he can make alterations or
154 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
additions that will reduce the hazard. It is desirable that all
furnace rooms have fire resistive walls and ceilings. In some
instances where these units were not made fireproof, the janitor
has improved the situation by installing asbestos lined ceilings
or by placing metal shields in such a way that they reduce the
possible hazard. In other cases, hazardous ventilating ducts in
combustible partitions and floors have been closed and a dif-
ferent type of ventilation known as corridor ventilation has
been installed by the maintenance force. Building planners
sometimes fail to protect openings like dumb-waiter shafts or
scuttle holes to the attic. The janitor may reduce the hazard by
providing a sheet metal cover for the scuttle hole lid or by
installing a cover of two inch planks. In order to reduce the
hazards arising from the building structure the janitor should:
1. Keep scuttle hole closed.
2. Keep fire doors closed or set with fusible link.
3. Close storage space under stairways or other places where they might
create fire hazards.
Furnace Room Hazards
The furnace room furnishes one of the most dangerous
places for the origin of fires. Records that are available indicate
that the furnace room is one of the hot spots of the building.
The fact that it is used for a heating plant creates some fire
hazard. As stated previously, the furnace room is not always
sufficiently segregated from pupil areas. The location, together
with the use of the room for storage purposes, makes it one
requiring frequent attention from the janitor if fire hazards
are to be eliminated or reduced. Some furnace room practices
which help reduce fire hazards are:
1. Moving out rubbish and waste. The furnace room is not a good
store room.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 155
2. Removing all combustibles from near the furnace. This applies to
coal bins, waste paper boxes, or other fixed or movable materials.
3. Have suitable containers for ashes. Paper or wood boxes are not
suitable containers and should never be so used.
4. Watch the furnace that the fire does not get too hot. Cracked fur-
nace walls or a furnace that is too hot may cause a fire.
5. Gasoline is never used to start fires. Kerosene is used only sparingly
and never applied to hot coals. If kerosene is used, soak stick in the
kerosene and then apply the match to the stick. Kerosene should
not be poured directly from the can or container on the fire.
6. Watch water level in boiler. Explosions resulting from semi-dry
boilers may create fires. Even automatic controls need to be in-
spected.
7. See that steam lines, boiler pipes, and smoke pipes have proper clear-
ance between them and any combustible materials. If this clearance
is not available, provide protection by suspended sheet metal be-
tween the pipe and the combustible material so that air space will
be on either side of the sheet metal and so that the sheet metal will
not contact either the pipe or the combustible material. If possible,
lay a sheet of asbestos on top of the sheet metal.
8. In banking fires, do not leave the doors open, particularly if there
is any combustible material in the boiler room that might be ignited
by flying coals.
9. Inspect smoke flue frequently. Cracks or holes in the flue may lead
to fire loss.
10. Watch adjustment of oil burners. Oil running over into the fire box
creates hazards.
11. Use extreme precautions in lighting gas fires.
Electrical Fire Hazards
Because of the nature of electricity it offers many possible
fire hazards in school buildings. The fact that so many people
have become accustomed to the use of electricity and the fact
that so many of them know little about it adds to the danger
that may be incurred from misuse of electric current and elec-
trical appliances. Electric current represents or is energy. If
properly controlled, there is little hazard but if too much
energy is carried on wires or through connections that are not
156 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
properly adapted to carry this load, the wires may become
hot and cause a fire. Poor connections, overloading, overfusing,
worn out and broken wiring, and misuse are probably the
most common causes of electrical fires. Records indicate
that electric wiring is responsible for a substantial number of
school fires. There are a number of ways in which the jani-
tor can reduce the danger from electrical fires. Some of them
are:
1. Avoid causing wires to heat from overloading or overfusing.
2. Watch for bare or exposed wires resulting from poor splices, from
contact of the wires with some abrasive surface, and from decom-
posed insulation. If the wire inlets have no drip loops, water
may run down the wires, causing the insulation to rot.
3. Discard broken extension cords.
4. Move any combustible materials some distance from open type
motors that might throw ofl sparks.
5. Equip all irons, other heating units, and soldering irons with auto-
matic pilot light which shows red when the unit is in use.
6. Avoid putting radio and clock wire in same conduits with power
currents.
7. Use only rigid connections for heavy duty outlets.
8. Remove fuse boxes and open lamps from laboratories where com-
bustible chemicals and gases may be present.
9. Check picture booths for exits and for automatic door closing de-
vices.
10. Inspect rheostat control of dimmer bank for resistance and heat de-
velopment during use.
A janitor can, by watching and checking the items just men-
tioned, do much to prevent possible electric fires. He can also
reduce the possible hazards by:
11. Supervising or advising against Christmas decorative lighting.
12. By seeing that exit lights are in working order and on when build-
ing is in use at night.
13. By checking switches frequently to note conditions and to see that
there is no arcing.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 157
Spontaneous Combustion, Exposure, Lightning
Certain combustible materials have a tendency to oxidize at
room temperatures. This is particularly true with certain oils
and to a lesser extent with coal. If this oxidation proceeds
rapidly enough, heat is generated to the point that ignition fol-
lows. The danger of ignition is greater if there is little air move-
ment to cool the materials and to carry off the gases that may
be generated. This oxidation and the ignition that follows is
termed spontaneous combustion. Oil and paint soaked rags
are particularly susceptible. When spontaneous combustion
occurs in coal bins it may be possible to check it by soaking
the coal with water. This, however, does not remove the cause.
As the water is removed the trouble may return. In many cases
it will be necessary to move the coal.
School buildings are susceptible to fire hazards from light-
ning and from exposure. Some lightning protection may be
obtained by the installation and maintenance of lightning rods.
This is particularly important in the protection of tall smoke
stacks. Other hazards may arise from exposure from other
buildings, from bonfires, or other fires outside the building.
The janitor can assist in eliminating fires from these sources
by:
1. Putting all oily rags and mops in tight metal containers.
2. Watching coal bins for spontaneous combustion.
3. Making secure all lightning rod connections and by extending
ground connections to moist earth.
4. Using incinerator for burning leaves and papers.
5. Having hose or pails of water ready when bonfires are lit.
6. Reporting probable hazards from neighboring sheds or buildings.
Basement and Attic Areas
Basement and attic areas are the starting points of a large
number of our school fires. In older buildings with high gable
158 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
roofs the attics are often used as a store room for holiday deco-
rations and other combustible materials. In addition, many
buildings have old wiring in the attic from which the insula-
tion has rotted away. Smoke flues often extend up through the
attic and sparks passing through flue cracks may start fires.
Basement areas are also often used as storage rooms for paints,
oils, and other combustible supplies. In most cases these areas
are entered only occasionally. Waste paper may collect and dis-
integrate or be cut up by mice to become a veritable tinder box
ready for the spark. In these somewhat secluded areas, fires that
start may gain considerable headway before being detected. In
order to reduce the fire hazards from these sources the janitor
should:
1. Store no combustibles in these areas.
2. Destroy, not store, highly inflammable materials like scraps of crepe
paper and flimsy decorations.
3. Store paints, oils, and other inflammable materials in fireproof cases
or closets.
4. Burn or bale waste paper.
5. Remove all rubbish.
6. Keep all store rooms clean and visit often.
7. Burn junk.
8. Check wiring in attic for exposed wires and for contact with joists.
9. Examine attic flues for cracks and holes.
Hazards in Special Units
Shops
Because of the nature of the work done in shop units, a num-
ber of fire hazards are created. Some of the most pronounced
hazards arise from the use of glue pots, open motors, blow
torches, gas engines, forges, and from certain activities such as
painting. The presence of shavings and sawdust add to the
possible hazards. In many cases, the instructor should be held
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 159
responsible for- these hazards. Other hazards arise from the lack
of dust bins and suction fans. The janitor can:
1. Place protective insulation under glue pots.
2. Blow dust out of dirty motors.
3. Remove shavings and sawdust.
4. Provide insulation for walls and ceiling of finish room, and fireproof
cases for paints.
5. Keep all gasoline in cans bearing an approved Underwriters label.
6. Oil shaft bearings to avoid hot boxes.
7. Place fireproof floor under forges, provide cooling vat.
Home Economics and Cafeteria Units
The presence of stoves for cooking, greases, and electric irons
help make fire hazards in these units. Some of these hazards
seem inherent in the nature of the work done, however, the
janitor can eliminate some of the worst hazards by:
1. Installing a shield between hot plates and the tables under them.
2. Placing shield under coal and kerosene stoves.
3. Providing metal box storage for matches.
4. The installation of protective pilot lights for all irons and electric
heating units.
Laboratories
The storage of chemicals and the use of motors add to the
possible fire hazards in laboratory rooms. The fumes from
some chemicals are quite inflammable and may ignite with
the first spark. Bunsen burners carelessly used may set fire to
tables. In order to reduce these hazards the janitor may:
1. Install gas tight electric lights.
2. Provide fireproof earthen jars for waste.
3. Provide wool blanket for smothering fire.
Auditorium and Dressing Room Units
The combustible nature of stage scenery and the storage of
stage scenery and costumes in dressing rooms often make fire
160 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
traps of these areas. The large amount of current used for stage
lighting and faulty resistance coils in dimmer banks may add
to these hazards. Picture booths are not always properly in-
stalled, ventilated, or protected. To some extent the janitor can
reduce the fire hazards arising from these causes by:
1. Frequent inspections of wiring and dimmer banks.
2. Removal of rubbish from dressing rooms.
3. Installing fusible link drop shutters and door closers in picture booth.
4. Keeping exits open and exit lights turned on when the room is in use.
Roof Hazards
The roofs of school buildings collect leaves which ignite
easily. Roofs of combustible construction, particularly those
with old wood shingle surfaces, are the source of many school
fires. The janitor should:
1. Remove leaves from valleys and gutters.
2. Make frequent inspections to see if live sparks and cinders have made
dark burned spots on the roof.
3. Advise principal or superior officer of hazards found.
Careless Housekeeping Practices
Hazards arising from careless housekeeping practices are
indefensible. The janitor who knows his job and has a pride in
it will have few or no fires arising from poor housekeeping.
Accumulated dirt or rubbish and fire hazards are boon com-
panions. Lack of attention to details may cost the loss of prop-
erty values and perhaps even the lives of pupils. If the janitor
does not care, he should be replaced by one who does. If he does
not know, he should make an effort to find out how to reduce
the fire hazards in the building. He should know that:
1. Matches should be kept in metal mouseproof cases.
2. Smoking if permitted should be done only in protected areas.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 161
3. Quantities of gasoline or naphtha are not needed in the building.
4. All waste should be removed from the building. This applies par-
ticularly to rags and paper.
5. Gas leaks may cause serious explosions.
6. Broken plaster may admit fire into secluded places where it is
difficult to extinguish.
7. Broken windows should be repaired.
8. Waste cans for paper and other rubbish may prevent fires.
9. Cleaning floors with gasoline is dangerous and should never be
permitted.
10. Fire prevention requires eternal vigilance.
Getting Pupils Out of the Building
Despite the usual fire prevention measures, fires may occur.
Hence, it is desirable that school officials have well developed
plans to get the pupils and teachers out of the building quickly
and with the least possible danger to them. To this end school
officials should plan for building evacuation and practice same
until pupils become familiar with the method of leaving the
building. The task of planning and conducting fire drills be-
longs to the principal and teachers. However, the janitor does
play an important part in building evacuation in case of a
fire. In fact, since the janitor may often be in a position to
be the first one to notice a fire, the safety of the children may
depend much on his action.
One of the first things for a janitor to do when he locates a
fire is to determine whether he can put it out immediately. If
so, he may extinguish it. If he cannot put it out at once, he
should sound the fire alarm. Some school regulations require
that a janitor sound the alarm even after he has extinguished
the fire. It is desirable that average and small sized buildings
be equipped with a mechanical gong fire alarm system that
can be operated from any floor and that will sound on each
floor loudly enough to be heard at all times. If an electric system
162 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
is installed in the building it should meet the same require-
ments and should be wired in conduits separate from the power
and/or lighting current. All fire bells or gongs should be dif-
ferent in tone and volume from the class bells. It may be well
to have established a bell code indicating whether any exit is
blocked.
After sounding the building alarm the janitor should notify
the city fire department if one is available. His later actions
will depend somewhat on the location and nature of the fire.
If the fire is still small he may return to try to prevent spread.
If it is located in a spot where it may be cut off by closing doors,
after pupils are out of this area, he should close these doors. He
should remember that pupil safety is more important than prop-
erty protection. In any well established plan of evacuation he
will have specific duties assigned him. If he does not have a defi-
nite assignment he may find it advisable to check to see if any
pupils remain or if any need help in getting out of the building.
As outlined elsewhere all doors will be unlocked for egress and
will have safe stair and hand rail facilities. He should remem-
ber that panic in the janitor breeds panic with the pupils.
No janitor can expect to render the best service in fire pro-
tection unless he has planned ahead for such occasions and
unless he has made some study of fires and their extinguish-
ment. He should know the various types of school fires; their
methods of spreading, and the hazards involved.
Classes of Fires
There are three or four major types of fires that may occur
in school buildings.
Class "A" Fires — These include those of wood, rubbish, paper, cloth,
coal, asphalts, and other comparatively slow burning materials.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 163
Class "B" Fires — This class includes rapid burning materials such as oils,
paints, varnish, kerosene, gasoline, and linseed oil.
Class "C" Fires — This class includes fires around motors, generators, hot
wiring and other electric equipment.
Class "D" Fires — These include fires in automobiles, busses, and trucks.
They often become a combination of a flashing fire from a volatile gas
accelerated and intensified by oil covered machinery.
Fire Extinguishment
The janitor needs to know the principles of combustion and
of fire extinguishment. He should know that heat, combustible
material, and oxygen are necessary for any fire. Remove either
of these and the fire dies out. It is not generally possible to get
close enough to the fire to extinguish it by removing all com-
bustible material in the burning area. However, this is a prac-
tice often followed in subduing leaf or grass fires and most
janitors are familiar with the method of raking an open path
ahead of leaf or grass fires. A second method of putting out
fires is smothering or cutting off the supply of oxygen. This
is the method used in putting out fire with a blanket or sand.
The third method of extinguishment is to cool or chill the mate-
rial to below the kindling point. Water is the universal agent
for this purpose. However, a few fire extinguishers have a
chemical in the water to aid in reaching the cooling point (for
fire) more quickly.
F/re Extinguishing Agents
Although he may never have to use them, every janitor
should know the various fire extinguishing agents and the
types of fire extinguishers. The most common extinguishing
agent is water. In general, this agent is used to cool the com-
bustible material below the kindling point. On some oil or
164 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
gasoline fires water may float the lighter oil on top of the water
and cause the fire to spread. The skilled janitor or fireman may
be able to use his thumb or some object to form a hooding
spray from the stream of water and cut off the oxygen, thus
smothering the fire. In an emergency this is not recommended
for a janitor who has not practiced this form of extinguish-
ment. Sand or other non-combustible powders may be used
to extinguish small oil fires. They are not of much value for
oil fires in deep vats. Since a fire must have air, certain chemi-
cals that form a non-volatile gas will shut off the supply of air
thus smothering the fire. Carbon-tetrachloride and carbon diox-
ide are two chemicals often used for this purpose. These should
be applied in a small stream or spray at or near the base of
the fire.
Fire Extinguishers
Many schools are now equipped with fire extinguishers.
Some have questioned the value of fire extinguishers in pro-
moting pupil safety, contending that all pupils can be removed
from the building safely if a fire is small enough to be put out
by an extinguisher when first detected. Without attempting to
evaluate this contention we do know that fire extinguishers
properly cared for and used may save a school building and its
contents from destruction. Proper care involves proper place-
ment, protection from freezing for various types, occasional
testing or checking, and for certain types recharging at regular
intervals. The location will depend on the arrangement of the
building. In general certain extinguishers should be located in
known hot spots such as the boiler room, shops, and labora-
tories. One regulation often recommended is that no one
should have to travel over 100 feet from any place in the build-
ing to reach an extinguisher.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 165
Standpipe and Hose
This system is good for Class "A" fires. The hose is usually
an unlined fabric hose about one and one-half to two inches in
diameter. It is of more value if connected to a four inch main.
The hose should be folded in racks so that it may be used
quickly. It should be inspected monthly and tested yearly.
Sprinkler Systems
A few schools are now installing an automatic sprinkler or
spray system. These are set off by heat and are particularly
valuable for secluded hot spots like attics, basement storage
rooms, finishing rooms, or closet spaces. Little care is needed
other than to provide water pressure and to prevent freezing.
Soda-acid Extinguishers
These extinguishers usually come in two-and-one-half gallon
sizes. The body of the can (container) is filled with a strong
soda water solution. In the top just under the lid there is a
bottle of sulfuric acid fitted with a weighted cork. In operation
most janitors carry the can by the top bail or handle held in
the right hand while the left hand holds the bottom of the
can. On approaching the fire the can is inverted. The cork of
the acid bottle falls out and the resulting chemical action from
the acid and soda water forms a pressure to throw a stream
twenty-five to forty feet. This type of extinguisher is effective
on Class "A" fires. Its action comes primarily from cooling.
Before use the can should be hung or set up in a place where
pupils will not turn it over. When it is once turned over it
must be refilled. Since it is subject to freezing it should be pro-
tected against temperatures below 32° F. Ready made refill
charges can be obtained through supply houses. In many cities
166 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
the local fire department will refill free of charge. The janitor
can make up his own refill charges using water, sulphuric acid
and bicarbonate of soda (bulk). The acid bottle in the top is
marked to show the amount of acid to use. About one to one
and one-half pound of soda will be required for two and one-
half gallon extinguishers. Mix soda and water and fill con-
tainer to mark (which is about eight inches below top). Each
of these extinguishers should bear a tag showing date of refill.
They should be refilled yearly. (Note, they are conductors and
should never be used on fires around electric motors or elec-
tric wires.)
Foam Type Extinguishers
These extinguishers are usually filled with water, a solution
of aluminum sulphate, and sodium bicarbonate, plus some
foam making ingredient. Like the soda-acid extinguisher this
one is used by inverting. It is subject to the same care and pro-
tection in preventing against freezing and overturning while
in storage. It works principally as a smothering agent but
because of the water content has some cooling effects. It is best
for Class "B" (oil) fires but has some value on small Class "A"
fires. Not good on electric fires.
Carbon Tefrach/or/c/e Extinguisher
This extinguisher comes in various sizes. It is worked by
the hand pump in the end. It is good for small Class "C" or
electric fires since the material is a non-conductor. It is also
valuable for Class "D" fires and is standard equipment in many
busses. It does not freeze easily. It should be tested frequently
to see if it is filled and in working order. A supply of the
liquid can be kept on hand for refilling. It has a smothering
effect and should be aimed at the base of the fire.
SAFETY IN SCHOOLS 167
Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher
This extinguisher has a cylinder filled with carbonic acid
gas liquid under pressure. The liquid when released forms a
sort of carbon dioxide snow. This has some cooling effect but
works principally by smothering. This type is particularly
adapted for use on Class "B" fires. The carbon dioxide is a non-
conductor; hence, this extinguisher is quite good for Class "C"
fires. It is also good for Class "D" fires. The extinguisher is
operated by releasing a valve. Since this extinguisher is filled
under pressure the filling must be done at a factory or shop
where the pressure is available. The contents are not subject
to frost damage.
Force Pump Tank Extinguisher
This type of extinguisher furnishes an ever ready supply of
water for use on small fires. The pump is operated by hand.
The water contents have a cooling effect on the burning ma-
terials. The water contents should be protected from freezing,
otherwise, no other special care is required.
Other Extinguishers
There are some other extinguishing agents and extinguishers.
Some of them are promoted by manufacturers or sales agencies.
At times efficient extinguishing agencies are recommended
for a use for which they are not adapted. The janitor can de-
termine whether an extinguisher is adapted for the needs of
his building by examining the Underwriters label. This ap-
proving label tells for what use this particular extinguisher is
recommended. While there may be some good extinguishers
not bearing this label, the label is evidence that the extinguisher
has been tested and approved by competent judges.
Characteristics of Hand Fire Extinguishers
TYPE or
EXTINGUISHES
ADAPTED FOR USE ON
METHOD or
OPERATING
PRINCIPAL EX-
TINGUISHING
EFFECT
Class "A"
Fires
Class "B''
Fires
Class "C"
Fires
Class "D'
Fires
Wood, Tex-
tiles, Rub-
bish & Slow
Burning
Materials
Oils,
Paints,
Varnish,
etc.
Electric
Machin-
ery
Switch-
board
Genera-
tors, etc.
Auto-
mobiles,
Trucks,
Motor-
boats,
etc.
SODA Aero
Must be kept in
heated cabinet if
installed in places
subject to freez-
ing
The best
available in
buildings
and places
not subject
to freezing
tempera-
tures
No
No
No
Invert. See
instructions
on extin-
guishers
Cooling or
wetting down
the burning
materials
FOAM
Must be kept in
heated cabinet if
installed in places
subject to freezing
temperatures
Must be
kept in
heated
cabinets in
locations
subject to
freezing
Yes
Very
Good
No
No
Invert. See
instructions
on extin-
guishers
Blanketing or
smothering
also some
cooling effect
TETRACHLORIDE
If proper charge
is used will not
freeze in tempera-
ture at 40° below
zero
No
No
On
small
fires
only
The
best
avail-
able
Hand pump
action or com-
pressed air —
see instruc-
tions on ex-
tinguisher
Blanketing
some cooling
effect on very
small fires
ANTI-FREEZING
This type of ex-
tinguisher when
properly charged
will not freeze in
temperatures at
40° below zero
Very
good
No
No
No
Invert. See
instructions
on extin-
guisher
Cooling or
wetting down
of burning
materials
LOADED STREAM
This type of ex-
tinguisher when
properly charged
will no t freeze
in temperatures
at 40° below
zero
Very
good
No
No
No
Invert. See
instructions
on extin-
guisher
Cooling or
wetting down
of burning
materials also
fire-proofing
effect
PUMP TANKS
Water or with
calcium chloride
added depending
on lowest temper-
ature likely to be
encountered
Yes
No
No
No
Hand pump
action
Cooling or
wetting down
of burning
materials
CARBON DIOXIDE
or COa GAS
This extinguisher
will not freeze
No
The
best
avail-
able
The
best
avail-
able
-VSy-
good
good
Manually
operated valve
or valves. See
instructions
on extin-
guisher
Blanketing
also some
cooling effect
DRY CHEMICAL OR
DRY POWDER
EXTINGUISHER
No
Very
good
Yes
Manually
operated
valves. See in-
structions on
extinguisher
Blanketing or
smothering
168
for First Aid Fire Protection
MAXIMUM
REACH OF
STREAM OR
EXTIN-
GUISHING
AGENT
METHOD
BY WHICH
PRESSURE
Is CREATED
RATED
LIQUID
CAPACITY OR
AMOUNT OF
EXTINGUISH-
ING AGENT
CHEMICALS
EMPLOYED
NATURE OF
PRINCIPAL
EXTINGUISH-
ING AGENT
QUANTITY OF
PRINCIPAL
EXTINGUISH-
ING AGENT
PRODUCED
UNDER-
WRITERS
RATING
40 Ft.
Chemical
reaction
Gallons
Bicarbonate
of soda
water and
sulphuric
Liquid
Soda
Solution
Gallons
Al
acid
40 Ft.
Chemical
reaction
Gallons
Aluminium
sulphate
bicarbonate of
A mass of
bubbles
filled with
Approxi-
mately
20 Gallons
A1.B1
soda and
carbon
if properly
foaming
dioxide gas
charged
agents
40 Ft.
Hand pump
action or
compressed
air
and 2 Qt.
also 1 Gal-
lon
Special liquid
with compo-
nents added to
depress freez-
ing and to
avoid cor-
Liquid fire
gas pro-
duced when
vaporized
by heat of
fire
Quantity
variable
depending
on amount
of liquid
coming in
See Under-
writers
label on ex-
tinguisher
rosion
contact
with fire
40 Ft.
Burning of
2K
Calcium
Liquid cal-
2H
A 1
safety fuse
Gallons
chloride spe-
cial grade
cium chlo-
ride solu-
Gallons
safety fuse
tion
cartridge
40 Ft.
Chemical
reaction
acid mixing
with anti-
2K Gal-
lons
Special acid
and special
anti-freeze
solution
Liquid spe-
cial alkali
metal salt
solution
1-1K &
2% Gal-
lons
See under-
writers la-
bel
freezing so-
lution
40 Ft.
Hand oper-
ated double
2K&5
Gallons
Plain water or
a solution of
Liquid Cal-
cium chlo-
2l/a &5
Gallons
See under-
writers
action
calcium chlo-
ride solu-
label
pump
ride
tion
10 Ft.
Compressed
gas which
expands
many times
10-15
25 pound
sizes
Compressed
liquid car-
bonic acid gas
Inert gas
which re-
sembles
snow when
Quantity
variable
depending
on condi-
See under-
writers
label
i ts volume
liberated
tions
when in-
from cyl-
liberated
inder temp,
about 110°
below zero
12 Ft.
Compressed
gas
20 pounds
Specially
treated Bicar-
Inert gas
and white
Quantity
variable
See under-
writers
bonate of soda
powder
depending
label
and com-
on condi-
pressed gas
tions
169
170 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
In using extinguishers the janitor should know the effect
desired. Smothering type extinguishing agents are effective in
close spaces where there is no strong current of air to bring
fresh oxygen to the fire. For this reason, automatic bomb type
smothering extinguishers are not of great value in large attic
areas. In use this extinguishing agent should be directed at the
base of the fire. Water or other cooling type extinguishing
agents may be applied directly to the burning materials. A
handy chart prepared by Captain H. C. Ousley of the Missouri
Inspection Bureau is shown on the accompanying pages. This
chart describes the types and uses of fire extinguishing agents.
A copy of this or a similar chart should be pasted on the wall
of the workroom of each janitor.
The janitor should make frequent building inspections to
locate the fire hazards and to check the condition of the exits,
the fire escapes, and the fire fighting equipment. In many
school districts the officials of the local fire department will as-
sist the janitor in his study of fire prevention and pupil safety.
In some cases local school officials, the janitor, and a member
of the local fire department make an annual inspection of the
school building to study fire hazards and safety facilities. Some
school officials use the "Self-Inspection" blanks prepared by
the National Board of Fire Underwriters, in checking fire
hazards, with satisfying results.
A number of schools have fire hazard and exit safety check
forms for local use. In some of the janitorial training schools
janitors are taught the methods to be followed in making
building inspections. They are also taught how to remove many
hazards. Most of these periodic inspections cover occupancy
hazards. The building structure hazards are generally covered
in the annual inspection.
The sample check list or inspection blank which follows can
Check List of Fire Hazards and Exit Facilities in Schools
.DISTRICT
.BUILDING CHECKED BY.
APPROVED BY.
.TYPE OF SCHOOL
ENROLLMENT
(Check lists should be made in duplicate, one copy retained by the checker and one
copy turned to the office. Fill blanks by checking " V " in proper column. By com-
paring last check with previous ones it is possible to determine the improvements
made.)
I Exit facilities ... .
SATISFACTORY
FATE
NEEDS ATTENTION
1 Doors
A Open out
B Unlocked when build-
ing occupied
C Panic bolt operation
2 Exit lanes
A Obstructions
B Stair hand rails
C. Slick places on stair
or in entrance
3. Window, screens open out,
easilv
4 Fire escapes
A Rigid accessible
B Free from ice
C ^Vindows wire glass
5. Exit signs and lights
Glass intact lights o k.
n. Fire alarms and fire fighting
facilities
1 Alarms
ATVne
J-J'FC- /
B Accessible
C Condition
D. Fire department con-
2. Fire fighting facilities
A. Hose, location and
B. Wool blanket in lab-
C. Fire extinguishers ....
Type — adapted to
npoH
Chemical recharged
in last 12 months
171
Check List of Fire Hazards and Exit Facilities in Schools
SATISFACTORY
FAIR
NEEDS ATTENTION
in.
Hazards from outside
1. Combustible structures
near
2 Other outside hazards
IV.
Heating plant and furnace
room hazards
1. Furnace
A. Cracks
B. Smoke pipe protec-
tion
C. Combustibles near
D Overloading
2 Steam boiler
A. Pressure control
B. Automatic cut-off. . . .
C. Protected steam lines .
D. Water level
3 Fuels
A. Coal bin inspection . . .
B. Remote cut-off gas or
oil
C. Segregation of fuel. . . .
4. Smoke flue, cracks
5. Fire door, operation
6. Furnace room practices . . .
A. Ash storage
B. Gasoline in room
C. Starting fires
D. Banking fires
E. Rubbish in room
V.
Roof and attic openings
1. Roof
A. Leaves in gutters and
valleys
B. Condition of roof
2. Attic
A Rubbish . .
B Flue leaks
3. Building openings
A Waste in ducts
B. Scuttle hole closed
VI.
Electric hazards
1. Wiring
A. Rigid connections ....
B. Switches — arcing
C. Wires protected
D. Extension cords ....
E Wires, size
F. Overloading ....
G. Fusing
2. Motors protected ....
3. Dimmer bank
172
Check List of Fire Hazards and Exit Facilities in Schools
SATISFACTORY
FAIR
NEEDS ATTENTION
4. Picture booth
5. Pilot lights
6. Hot plate protection
VII. Storage
1. Closets
B. Condition
2. Supply rooms
A. Type of materials
stored
B. Frequent inspection. . .
3. Special storage for com-
bustibles
A Waste paper
B Paints and oils
C Floor waxes
D. Oily rags and mops. . .
E. Gasoline
VEIL Hazards in special rooms
1. Shops
A Glue pots
B. Waste and rubbish . . .
£) Forges
D Paints and oils
2 Auditorium
A Dressing room storage .
B, Picture booth pro-
tection
A Stoves
B Gas connections
C Hot plates
4 Laboratories
A Stone waste jars
B Lights shielded
DC Miscellaneous and housekeep-
ing hazards
1 Use of incinerator
2 Lightning rod connections
3 Housekeeping practices
A Gas leaks
B ^faste cans
C Matches storage
D Smoking
E. Rubbish in the build-
F Broken plaster
G Use of volatile oils
H A^aste cans
Comments:
173
174 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
in most cases be filled out by the janitor. However, local school
officials should assist in making a check of the hazards at least
once each year.
Fire Protection No Job for a Lazy Janitor
It is realized that the duties and obligations of the janitor
outlined here are quite numerous. They may be burdensome
for a swivel chair janitor. However, the alert, energetic, janitor
will want to know more about his job. He will want to be able
to demonstrate the fact that he is a specialist in building care
and management. It is sometimes difficult for the local janitor
to know the things he should do to promote safety in his school.
Many janitorial schools now provide courses for training jani-
tors in fire protection, and in the elimination of hazards in the
school building and on the grounds. If the janitor can provide
proper protection for his building and the people in it he will
have, in addition to the appreciation of his patrons, the satisfac-
tion of a job well done.
Chapter 9
Developing a Planned Work Program
IN CHAPTER THREE the part of the administrator in the de-
velopment of a work program was outlined. In this section
attention will be given to the duties and obligations of the
janitor in developing a work program. Although many cus-
todians admit the need for a system of work, only a few of
them do anything about it. Some of these men feel that the
administrators do not appreciate the many obligations and
duties of the janitor. This complaint may have some basis. The
administrators are busy people and may neglect the janitorial
force until something goes wrong. They have too often ac-
cepted both good and bad work without comment. A part of
this lack of appreciation and understanding is a carry over
from the days when janitorial selection on the basis of sym-
pathy or friendship made it difficult to secure and retain com-
petent men.
During recent years many changes have been made. More
and more the janitor is becoming a trained worker. As a
trained worker he strives to improve the status of his position
and the quality of his work. Janitors should not expect teachers
and administrators to grant them high appreciation and stand-
ing until the janitors have proved themselves worthy. Only
by their own efforts in demonstrating their skills, abilities, and
knowledge with results obtained can the janitors expect to
obtain the appreciation they should merit. Changes in the
175
176 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
standing of the janitorial force are coming. In too many cases,
the janitor still is a worker with his hands and fails to demon-
strate that he has a plan and program of work. Some men may
be called "good fellows" or "hard workers" and yet not gain
much recognition as building maintenance specialists. The man
who is going somewhere should have a destination. He should
have a plan. This plan should be laid out in steps so that he
can see progress as he goes forward. He should also have a
checking device to determine what progress he is making and
the things he expects to do. He should have something tangible
to show to his superior officers. To this end, a work schedule is
of prime importance.
Making a Work Schedule
There are so many factors involved in the making of a work
schedule that it is difficult to lay down any set rules or plans.
The type of school organization and the administration of the
building maintenance program are the determining factors in
schedule development. In some instances, there will be a super-
intendent of buildings and grounds who will collect requisi-
tions from the janitors and group them into one master requi-
sition to be sent to the purchasing officer. This man can assign
men to various jobs and recommend men for demotion and
promotion as well as plan the work for smaller repairs and
outline procedures for various tasks. He keeps all personnel,
payroll, and attendance records, makes the annual report, and
acts as contact agent between janitors and other school officials.
He hears and evaluates complaints, and develops a training
program for apprentices and men in service. In other schools
where no superintendent of buildings and grounds is employed,
the janitor in a building may have to perform all these duties
in some form or other. The janitor has a dual responsibility.
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 177
If a superintendent of buildings and grounds is employed, it
is probable that the janitor will be under his supervision in
repair work, for the quality of his work, and to some extent
for the procedure. On the other hand, he will be under the
supervision of the principal for his relations with the school,
and for those activities that contribute to the welfare of the
school. In addition to this, many janitors are subject to the
call of the teachers for transferring material, cleaning up after
sick children, and for various minor duties or chores. These
add to the difficulty in developing a schedule of activities which
would make best use of the available time of the janitor.
Buildings and Ground Conditions
If all buildings were of equal size and located in similar
areas, schedule making would be comparatively easy. One
building may have fourteen rooms yet not be large enough for
two janitors, while another building of six rooms will require a
full time janitor. It is obvious that the loads will not be com-
parable, yet if the board of education is to secure a good man
for each job, reasonable salaries must be paid and these cannot
be based wholly on the amount of work done. In many build-
ings of thirty to fifty rooms it is easier to divide the work so
that every man will have approximately the same load. Main-
tenance methods vary with the age of the building. Old worn
floors are much more difficult to maintain than are some of
the newer smooth surfaces. Even the height of the building
may make a difference in the total load. It is obviously easier to
care for rooms on the same level than when the janitor must
carry his supplies up and down stairs. The location of the build-
ing is also a factor. Site variations play an important part. Some
playgrounds are muddy and permit pupils to bring in quanti-
ties of dirt which have a deteriorating effect on the floors and
178 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
which make it difficult to maintain a clean building. The size
of the site, the number of ornamental shrubs, the amount of
lawn to mow, the number of walks to clean, and the amount
of hedge to be trimmed must be considered in establishing the
janitor's load and in making out a schedule of activities. Special
rooms like laboratories, cooking rooms, cafeteria, and shop
units, cannot be grouped with regular classrooms in establishing
time unit measures of the work of the janitor. These factors
must be considered in planning the schedule.
Many conditions inside the building also become important
factors in time allotment for the janitor. The type of heating
plant, the location of the heating plant, and the type of fuel
used may make a great difference in the time required each day
for temperature control. Obviously, the janitor having an auto-
matic oil burner or even a stoker with automatic temperature
and ventilation controls has a far different problem than has
the janitor that shovels coal and who may have to carry out
ashes and cinders in pails up narrow stairways. The type or
location of the radiators may also be important since it requires
more time to clean under radiators set close to the floor than
under those hung on the wall or enclosed in cabinets. The num-
ber of plumbing fixtures and the type of fixtures should be
given consideration in planning the daily and weekly activities.
If consideration is not given to these factors, it is probable
that some of the work will be neglected. The amount of bul-
letin board and blackboard space, the size of the window panes,
the type of finish on the woodwork and floors, the amount of
nickel and brass to be polished; and facilities for storing wraps
for children may be important factors in time allotments for
janitorial activities. It is impossible to make a schedule of ac-
tivities for a janitor in a building until these building condi-
tions are taken into consideration.
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 179
Tools and Supplies
In some buildings janitors have more tools than they need.
In others, about the only tools the janitor has are those that
he brings from home. The type of tools and supplies provided
must be given consideration in the development of a work
schedule. The cleaning tools range from the old corn broom
through a list including brushes, dust mops, scrub brushes,
scrubbing machines, sanitary dusters, and radiator brushes, to
a complete vacuum cleaning system. In attempting to set up
a work load of similar areas for men using different types of
cleaning tools, one should consider the time element involved
in obtaining satisfactory work with the different tools. Some
janitors spend hours in dusting erasers by some crude method
while other janitors clean forty to fifty erasers per minute by
some approved method and with a satisfactory tool. The type
of metal and wood working tools usable for repairs will make
a substantial difference in the time required to do minor re-
pair jobs. Likewise, the difference in time in the use of a power
lawn mower and the small hand lawn mower may determine
whether or not the janitor must spend most of his summer
months in lawn mowing. In addition to the tool variation,
the type of chalk used in the building, the type of detergents,
and the type of floor seal and floor wax will make a difference
in the time required for the various activities.
Organization of the School
In setting up any work schedule for a building in a large
system, it is necessary to consider such factors as the age of the
pupils in the building, the organization of the school, the
demands of the teachers, and the local building regulations.
Tests have indicated that it requires more time to sweep under
180 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
small primary seats than under seats used for high school
students. On the other hand, auditorium units with fixed seats
require more time than do similar areas with movable seating;
however, the time required for moving the flexible seating
should be considered. As has been stated several times, the work
of the janitor is for the purpose of maintaining satisfactory
plant facilities for the school program. Variations ki methods
of teacher control may make a big difference in the require-
ments upon the janitor's time. In many cases, he is obligated
to perform many tasks that are in another building performed
by teachers. In some cases the janitor is required to remain in
the toilet room for boys during the morning and afternoon
recess intermissions. This one activity may consume daily
thirty to forty-five minutes of the janitor's time. In other cases,
the janitor is requested to watch that children do not destroy
shrubbery or other school property.
School housekeeping should be a cooperative activity, where
teachers encourage pupils to assist in maintaining an attractive
building by keeping paper off the floor and by refraining from
marking on the walls and destroying property. If pencils and
books are left on the floor and stickers are pasted on the black-
board, the janitor must remove them and must have time al-
lotted for these duties. The local school regulations concerning
the after hour and out of school use of playgrounds by children
may determine the time that the janitor is permitted to lock
up the playground equipment and the toilets before going
home. The fact that many schools do not have a room designated
as a lunchroom may make a difference in the cleaning duties
throughout the building. Teachers may request that their
room be kept excessively warm. In other cases, teachers stay a
long time after school to do work. A plan must be developed
regulating closing practices and room entry for cleaning. There
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 181
must be a definite regulation concerning the amount of the
janitor's time teachers may consume with requests for various
errands and chores. The amount of record keeping and report
making made necessary by local board regulations will play
an important part in the allotment of time to various activities
for the janitor.
Setting Up Time Requirements
One of the first considerations in setting up the time re-
quirement in a work schedule is the total time to be allotted
for janitor work. In most cases the janitor expects to remain
in the building as long as necessary to do the work. The janitor
should not be expected, however, to come to the building at
4:30 or 5:00 o'clock in the morning and then to stay at the
building until 8:30 or 9:00 in the evening in order to close it
after some practice periods or after some public meeting. Re-
gardless of whether the janitor is working at hard labor all of
the time he is in the building, he should not be expected to stay
on the job fifteen or sixteen hours per day. It is true that in
many cases local administrative practices make these long
hours necessary. It is also true that in many cases proper co-
operation between teachers, administrators, and the janitor and
a system of janitorial work make it possible to eliminate the
long hours. If it is not possible for the janitor to do his work in
a reasonable number of hours, more help should be provided.
If it is possible for him to do them in a shorter number of hours
and he, by dilatory practices stretches these hours out, he should
be reprimanded or released. There have been many measures
used in attempting to set up a janitor schedule. Some of these
are square feet of floor area, the amount of yard area, the num-
ber of pupils in the building, number of rooms, and the area of
the yard. The various factors involved make it difficult to
182 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
establish the load of the janitor on any one of these measures.
If the janitor has only cleaning work to do then one can de-
termine the square feet of floor area of treated floor surface that
he may be expected to clean per hour. But when he must care
for certain plumbing fixtures, when he must devote some time
to the care of the heating plant and to yard care, the square foot
of floor area measure loses much of its value. The same is true
of practically any other general measure.
The method which seems to offer the best measure is what
may be called a unit time measure. This measure is established
by the janitor by actual trial. First, the janitor makes up a list
of various activities and duties. This list cannot be made up
until he has been on the job some time. He notes the number
of times per day or per week that each different task recurs.
By checking, he soon determines the time required for each of
these tasks. After noting the number of times this task must be
done each day or week, he soon is able to determine the total
daily or weekly time required for this particular activity. When
he has determined the amount of time required for each
activity during the week, he is in a position to develop a tenta-
tive schedule of activities. However, this schedule cannot be
developed until he has set up the total load. This means that he
must allot some time for emergency activities, and for ever
recurring tasks which must be done weekly or monthly. It
probably will be wise for the janitor to set up a chart on which
he may mark for several days the amount of time required to
do a particular task.
How fo Set Up a Schedule
There is no need for some of the excessively long hours of
service. There are many ways in which these long hours may
be reduced. Extra help can be employed for evening duties.
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 183
Teachers should be told that the janitor must be permitted to
clean classrooms during the day so that he may not have the
bulk of his work piling up after four o'clock in the afternoon.
In large buildings it may be desirable to arrange to have one
man on night duty to serve as a watchman and to do cleaning
tasks that were not reached during the day.
The janitor will have to take the initiative in setting up his
own schedule. With the background outlined above showing
time required for various tasks, the number of times each
week that different tasks must be performed, and the number
of occasional tasks that arise, he is in a position to determine
the time required for routine activities. Then if he gets a sched-
ule of classroom usage he can determine what time is available
for cleaning various rooms and units. With this information
he can work up a tentative schedule. This tentative schedule
should be kept within the general board regulations both as to
time and as to cleaning practices. This tentative schedule should
be presented to the superintendent of buildings and grounds
and to the building principal for approval. They should have
time to study the proposal and to approve. After approval,
copies of this schedule should be made out, one for the janitor,
one for the office of the principal, and one for the office of the
superintendent of buildings and grounds. The principal should
then notify teachers that certain rooms should be available for
cleaning at certain periods of the day and that the janitor
should be permitted in these rooms for cleaning at this time.
Developing the Schedule 1
In addition to developing time requirements for various
duties the janitor will need to make a tabulation of the various
1Viles, N. E. "Administration of Janitorial Service," Proceedings Tenth Annual
Meeting, National Council on Schoolhouse Construction, p. 91-93.
184 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
tasks to be done. One of the important steps in the develop-
ment of a work schedule is to list the tasks to be done on the
basis of frequency. A partial list for one building is outlined
here.
I. Some of the tasks which should be performed daily:
1. Care of heating, ventilating, and mechanical apparatus.
a) Start fires in morning.
b) Bank fires at night.
c) Replenish fires as needed.
d) Inspect thermometers, steam gauge, and water glass.
e) Clean grates and ash pit.
f) Wet down ashes.
g) Start and stop ventilating fans.
h) Clean boiler flues.
i) Inspect pumps, drains.
j) Turn of! lights not needed, particularly when leaving
building for the day.
k) Start and stop pumps and motors.
2. Cleaning:
a) Sweep (or clean) each classroom and office.
b) Sweep corridors and stairs (as often as needed).
c) Inspect and clean fountains, lavatories, and stools.
d) Dust classrooms, desks, tables, chairs, window sills, cases,
shelves, office furniture, doors, and hand rails.
c) Clean locker rooms.
f) Sweep walks near doors.
g) Clean furnace room,
h) Mop toilet room floors.
i) Pick up paper and trash from grounds.
j) Remove marks from walls and walks.
3. Miscellaneous:
a) Burn waste paper.
b) Check supplies in toilet rooms.
c) Lock and unlock outside doors at specified times.
d) Provide chalk and other supplies needed in rooms.
II. Some of the tasks that will be done weekly:
1. Dust radiators.
2. Blow down boiler.
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 185
3. Clean walks on and around yards.
4. Clean blackboards.
5. Wash glass in doors and cases.
6. Clean and mop special rooms.
7. Clean all erasers (may be more often for some rooms).
8. Clean floor brushes, mops, dust brushes, and other tools.
9. Inspect building for fire hazards.
10. Secure supplies from stock room.
11. Inspect all motors, pumps, and engines to sec that they arc
properly oiled and in good condition.
12. Mop composition and masonry floors.
13. Clean all chalk trays (more often if needed).
14. Clean door mats.
15. Wipe or wash door knobs and hand rails.
16. Inspect playground apparatus for broken parts.
Tasks to be done bi-weekly or monthly:
1. Clean glazed wainscot on walls.
2. Dust pictures.
3. Scrub where needed.
4. Wash windows on inside.
5. Polish brass or other polished surface.
6. Read meters and report to supervisor or principal.
7. Report to superior officer things he should know about the
plant.
Tasks that will be done two or three times annually:
1. Receive and check supplies.
2. Make seat adjustments.
3. Mow lawns.
4. Care for shrubbery, flower beds, fences, and hedges.
5. Make minor repairs.
6. Remove snow and ice from walks.
7. Move desks, supplies, scenery, and pianos.
8. Clean up after sick children.
9. Care for plants, aquariums, and grounds during yacations.
10. Assist during fire drills.
11. Receive and store coal.
12. Rake leaves in fall, remove fallen branches.
13. Remove dirt from walks after rains.
14. Open closed sewers, downspouts, stools and urinals.
186 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
15. Report leaks or breaks that need attention or that must be re-
paired by someone else.
16. Supervise pupils in toilet rooms upon orders from principal.
17. Be present when building is open for evening meetings unless
an assistant is employed or unless excused by principal.
18. Open lockers for pupils upon request.
19. Keep records required by officer in charge.
In making up a schedule of work for each day, week, month,
or year, arrangements should be made to include each day or
week some of the tasks that recur at infrequent intervals. A
time should be allotted for each routine task with some time
reserved for emergency tasks. Those responsible for making
schedules should remember that certain tasks must be done at
specified times each day. A satisfactory plan often followed is
to make up a skeleton schedule and after a little practice, study,
and experimentation to fill in the details. A part of a sample
skeleton daily schedule for one building follows:
1. On reaching the building each morning make a hasty inspection for
losses, damages, or fire hazards.
2. Test water gauge, open fires, and examine pumps.
3. Start recirculating fans (if any) as soon as heat is available.
4. Complete dusting of desks, hand rails, and furniture.
5. Check supplies in toilet rooms.
6. Unlock doors at designated times.
7. Check all rooms and radiators to see that room temperature is
properly regulated.
After school opens for the day the work of the janitor will
vary according to the demand and local regulations from day
to day. In some schools he will be required to raise the flag
and to unlock playground apparatus. In other schools certain
pupils or teachers are assigned these tasks. During the day his
work should be so arranged that he can sweep the corridors,
repair seats, or do other odd jobs as per his schedule and as
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 187
the need arises. It is usually desirable for him to start cleaning
classrooms as soon as these rooms become available in the
afternoon. After school closes a definite schedule of room
cleaning may be followed if the principal will notify teachers
that a certain room is to be cleaned at a specified time. The
weekly schedule will include such tasks as the cleaning of
mops, brushes, and door mats, and the washing of door knobs.
A majority of these tasks may be worked into the daily sched-
ule. A few tasks such as the cleaning of blackboards or the
mopping of floors may be done Saturday morning. The com-
mon tendency to leave too many tasks until Saturday morning
should be avoided in making work schedules.
The schedules for the month or for the year will include
many tasks that may be included in the daily work program.
Other tasks must be done as the need arises. Meters should be
read at the time they are checked by the service company.
Windows may be washed on the inside on Saturday morning.
The walls of one or two rooms may be dusted during the week
without interrupting the regular program of work. The avail-
ability of extra sets of erasers and of cleaning tools makes it
possible for the janitor to have a fresh supply ready for use
when needed.
Janitorial Records and Reports
The average janitor has a dislike for records and reports. He
feels that his is a working, not a bookkeeping job. This feeling
has probably had something to do with the lack of progress
made by some janitors. The janitor must use his head as well
as his hands if he is to be of the greatest value to the school.
He should be a skilled workman with a plan. This plan will
be of more value to him and others if he has tangible written
proof for others of certain of his activities. All business organi-
188 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
zations have some records. The school plant represents a con-
siderable investment and records of maintenance are essential.
The janitor does not know when he may be forced by illness
or accident to be off the job. Records should be available to
give his substitute information on supplies and on plant care.
There will be times when the gas, water, or electricity must be
shut off quickly. There should be a chart showing the location
of these cut-off valves or switches. Records of supplies needed,
of goods received, of tools available, of jobs to be done, and of
fuel received should be kept. These essential records should be
kept up to date.
Types and Amounts of Records
It is not always possible to separate records and reports.
Certain reports when filed become records or will be trans-
ferred to a permanent record in the office of the principal or
that of the superintendent of buildings and grounds. Records
and reports should be as brief as possible. They should not be
complicated. In many cases the forms can be so developed
that the janitor can fill them out by checking or by filling in
numbers or single words. Record forms should be uniform in
size. One set can be made up in half page sizes and the others
in full page size. It is a mistake to attempt to keep records on
scraps of paper. These may be lost, and if not lost are difficult
to file because of variations in size and because they have no
identifying marks. Record forms should be printed or mimeo-
graphed. In most cases three or four copies will be needed for
the various vendors and offices. These should be made up in
colors. A plan similar to the following is used in many places.
First or white copies go to the office, blue copies go to the
vendor or delivery agent, and the pink copies are retained by
the janitor as his record. Carbon paper should be used to make
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 189
these copies. The copies retained by the janitor should be filed
in permanent boxes or cases in chronological order for each
form. School officials should realize that the janitor is a busy
man and should limit his record making to essential features.
Information Sheet
When a substitute janitor is working, certain information
may be needed in a hurry. The janitor should make up a sheet
showing this information. One copy should be placed on the
wall of his work room, one copy should be filed with the
principal, and one filed with the superintendent of buildings
and grounds. A sheet similar to the following is often used.
Form 1
Information Sheet
Public Schools
Building
, 19
Janitor Home Address Phone number
Fire Pept. Tel. No Business Office Tel. No
Location of: Fire alarms
Fire Doors
Fire extinguishers
Water cut-off . . Gas cut-off . . Electric cut-off .
Inventory Record
Some time during the year, probably near the close of the
school year, the janitor should make up an inventory of district
owned janitorial supplies and equipment on hand. This record
190 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
will serve as a check on supplies used and to some extent as a
basis for future needs. There are two forms which are used
frequently. The more simple forms show a record of supplies
and equipment now on hand. In order to check use one must
refer to purchase orders and to inventories of the preceding
year. The other form often used shows the amount on hand
at first of year, the amount or number purchased, the amount
used during the year, and the amount now on hand. Separate
forms should be provided for equipment and supplies. Printed
or mimeographed forms save time and are more practical if
supplies and equipment are standardized. Blank spaces should
be provided for articles not shown on the list. The copy of a form
is shown here. When used only for checking or inventory pur-
poses all but one or two columns may be left blank. When com-
pletely filled, it provides a continuing record.
Form 2
Inventory
Filled in by
Public Schools
Building
19.
Loose Equipment
Number
on Hand
Last Report
Number Number Number
Article Received Used Up Now Qn
Durmg or Hand
Year Worn Out
Condition
Snow Shovel
One fair, one
much worn
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 191
It is quite important that the janitor have a record of the sup-
plies used during the year. The differences in quality may make
it necessary for the janitor to use trade names. If the supplies
used are standardized this record will be simplified. Quantities
will be recorded in pints, quarts, gallons, pounds, cases, yards,
or feet. In making up these forms in the main office the names
of the articles can be inserted with spaces left blank for the
janitor to fill in other articles. It would also be possible for the
office to fill in the columns showing carry over from last year
and the quantity received. In either case, the janitor should
check these quantities with his own records.
Form 2 A
Inventory Record
Public Schools
Building
Filled in by , 19. ...
Janitorial Supplies
Quantity Quantity Quantify Remarks as to
on Hand Description Received Quantity NQW Q* Value of, Need,
Last of Supply During Consumed Han<J or Recommenda-
Report Year tions
2 cases 9x 72 folded 70 cases 7 7 cases 7 case Too soft
paper towels
H It
2 gal Pene- 20 gal. 78 gal. 4 gal. Satisfactory
trating floor
seal
192 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
These forms need be filled out only once each year.
Supply and Equipment Requisitions
Many of the progressive schools now use some form of a
requisition blank. If the school has a regular form of requisition
these will be used by the janitor. If none are available he may
find it necessary to have forms made up in the business office.
If supplies are budgeted he may need to carry forward the
Form 3
Requisition
Public Schools
Building
Requested by ,19
Please deliver the following . . to this building:
equipment
Number or Quantity Description Remarks
2 gallons Liquid hand soap None
Approved by
Prin. Supervisor
Delivered date
Refused "
Original allotment this article
Last balance due
This request
New balance " "
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 193
balance of his yearly allotment of that particular article. In
some cases the business office will report balances. In sending
in requisition forms the janitor should turn in two blanks so
that one may be returned to him with the goods. If the requi-
sition is not honored one copy should be returned to the janitor
with denial or refusal noted. His record should show disposi-
tion of request. In school systems where a central store room
is maintained the requisition may go first to the principal or
the superintendent of buildings for approval and then to the
store room keeper. In districts where a central store room is
maintained it is customary to keep most of the supplies in the
central store room and to make general deliveries weekly or
monthly. In other schools enough supplies to last one semester
or one year will be delivered at one time. The local practice
will determine the amount of material to be requisitioned at
one time. The sample requisition form shown on opposite page
may need to be changed to suit local regulations.
If the bottom part of this requisition showing balances is
used it limits each requisition to one article. In many small
systems this part of the requisition is omitted. The local regu-
lations and practices will determine whether balances available
should be carried forward.
Record of Goocfs Received
After supplies are requested the janitor should have a record
of the amounts and type of supplies delivered. In many cases
where there is no central store room the janitor will be re-
sponsible for receiving freight, express, or local deliveries of
books, fuel, and various other supplies. In order to protect the
district he should make some record of such deliveries and the
condition of the goods received. A sample record form for this
purpose is shown here. As with other forms one copy should be
194 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
retained by the janitor, one copy sent to the principal or super-
visor in charge, and one copy to the delivering agent. The
janitor should not sign company receipts for goods which are
damaged or short in count unless such deficiency is noted on
the receipt.
Form 4
Goods Received
Public Schools
Building
From Delivered by
Company or store room
Number or Name or
Quantity Description In Good Order Damaged or Short
(Any acceptance of broken containers or damaged goods subject
to later adjustment)
tons lump coal
T c
Signed
Jan/for
(If damaged, either do not accept or note damages)
Repairs and Job Sheets
In some schools the janitor is required to maintain a record
of requests for repairs that he cannot make and a time record
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 195
of the men making these repairs. He may also be required to
report special tasks. Some of these records are quite valu-
able. In large school systems where a roving maintenance
squad is maintained some form of job repair request is es-
sential. If no repair force is maintained and the work is done
by private companies or individuals employed for that job, the
school officials may wish to know the type of work done and
the time required. In either case, the janitor is best qualified to
check on the time consumed. In no case should this report
keeping be permitted to become burdensome to the janitor. In
the smaller school systems a part of these reports may not be
needed. Samples of some of the forms now used are shown
here.
Form 5
Job or Repair Request
Public Schools
Building
Requested by , 19.
Janitor
Type of Difficulty or
Repair Needed Location Remarks
Sewer line choked Somewhere on grounds Needed at once as
on north side of building toilets are flooding
196
THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Form 6
Job Report
Reported by
Public Schools
.Building
19.
Janitor
Nature of Job
Done
Work Done by
Company or
Individual
Time Consumed Results Obtained
Opening closed Brown Co.,
sewer A. J. Brown
working
hours
Satisfactory
The janitor can use the same form to show some task that
he has performed by inserting self in the proper column to
show who did the work.
Local conditions and regulations may make it desirable for
the janitor to keep a number of records on pupil activities and
on the consumption of water, gas, or electricity. In some schools
he obtains a report of temperature readings in the various
rooms. Some of these protect him from later criticism and others
serve as a check on meter readers.
Service Mefer Records
The janitor should make a record of meter readings. It is
desirable that he read the meters at the time they are read by
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 197
the service company. While the janitor cannot be held re-
sponsible for excess usage, his records may be of value in check-
ing consumption. Samples of various meter record forms are
shown here.
Form 7
Water Meter Record
Public Schools
Building
Reported by , 19.
Janitor
Amount Consumed
Reading Reading Amount Consumed Same Month
Last Month This Month This Month Last Year
Similar forms except as to headings may be used, Form 8
for electric current and Form 9 for gas consumption.
Reports on Pupils
While it is a generally recognized fact that janitors should
not punish pupils, they are sometimes required to report glass
breakage, or certain rule infractions by pupils. Naturally, the
janitor wishes to reduce his reports to a minimum but for self
protection some reports may be necessary. If the janitor has a
record of such accidents or infractions he will not need to
198 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
depend on memory alone if later investigations become neces-
sary. The sample form shown here may be used for breakage,
accident or rule infraction.
Form 10
Report of Breakage, Accident or Rule Infraction
Public Schools
Building
Reported by ,19.
Name of Incident Done by Time Remarks
Broke 2 win- James Brown 4:30 Tuesday Playing ball on
dow panes — and ofhers October 21, school grounds
Room 27 1939 offer school
Temperature Records
In many cases teachers complain that their rooms are not
heating. Sometimes the janitor is sure that the rooms are hot
enough. At other times he wishes a record to show the lack of
heat at certain hours of the day. It is difficult for him to visit
these rooms each hour because of the danger of disturbing class
activities. A record kept in the room by the pupils is often
more convincing to the teacher and less trouble for the janitor.
While it is not recommended that a complete record of room
Room Temperature
Form 1 1
Record
19
RuilrJmr
J
-. Month
At the hour designated show in the pi
cated on the room thermometer. Day
fourth weeks of the school month en
oper column record of the temperature indi-
s listed are for the first, second, third, and
ding , 19
Day Hours When Record Is Made and Temperature at Time
9:00 A.M.
10:OOA.M.
11:00 A.M.
1:00 P.M.
2:00 P.M.
3:00 P.M.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
199
200 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
temperatures be maintained of all rooms, an occasional record
may at times be valuable. The room temperature record shown
here is for one month. The blank space is filled in at the hours
designated by some pupil monitor appointed by the teacher.
Pupils are usually glad for an opportunity to do this. The record
is usually tacked on the bulletin board and is taken down at
the end of the month.
P It is desirable to have some record of the time certain floors
were treated, walls painted, or other improvements made. It
may also be desirable to have some record of the type and
quantities of materials used. In some cases these reports may
be made on Form 6. There are so many different improvement
tasks that a separate report form for each may not be necessary.
As a rule, these forms are made up as needed and to fit the
local demand.
Stock Room Records
The records and reports outlined here do not cover stock
room control. Such forms will probably be developed by the
business office. It is not wise for the janitor to permit record-
keeping to take up too much of his time. He should keep some
records and the forms outlined here may be of value to him in
his record keeping.
Office Records
In a modern school system there should be some central
office records of the janitor and his work. There will also be
some records of supplies and equipment used. The janitor has
no part in preparing these records and forms. The central office
should keep a complete personnel record of each janitor show-
ing time of employment, salary, vacation periods, health record,
and absences. Attached to this there should be a rating sheet or
DEVELOPING A PLANNED WORK PROGRAM 201
a record of achievements and failures. It is to be presumed that
these records will be developed in a fair manner. The janitor
should realize that these records are of value to him. In too
many cases good work goes unrewarded and poor work is for-
gotten because of a lack of accumulative personnel records.
Chapter 10
School Floors
Types and Cleaning
IN A MODERN school building one may find many types of
floor surfaces. The janitor may have had no part in selecting
the floors in his building, but he may have some voice in se-
lecting new floors for additions or for replacement. It is essen-
tial that the janitor know the qualities needed in floors. He
should know the composition and characteristics of various
flooring materials that he may care for them properly. He
should realize that floors having slick surfaces are not desirable
around shop machines, that hard non-resilient floors are not
satisfactory for playrooms, that bare cement or other masonry
floors are not suitable for classroom use, and that certain areas
like library units need soft floors.
Flooring selected for any school use should have the follow-
ing characteristics.
1. It should be adapted to the use for which that particular room was
designed. In certain areas this will include attractiveness.
2. It should be sanitary, easy to clean, and non-absorbent of odors and
water.
3. It should be relatively safe from slipping, with a smooth uniform
surface, free from cracks.
4. It should be durable and wear resistive.
5. It should be reasonably economical, both as to original cost and as to
the cost of maintenance.
6. It should provide the resiliency needed for the purpose for which it
is used, yet have sufficient rigidity to provide a safe stable floor.
202
SCHOOL FLOORS 203
School floor surfaces may be divided into four general types
based on construction. They are wood, masonry, composition,
and cloth. Here is a brief description of each type.
Wood Floors
Wood floors are generally thought of as either hard or soft
wood floors. However, there are many variations. In addition to
these variations, there is a difference in the manner of season-
ing that may play an important part in maintenance. Poorly
seasoned woods may continue the drying and seasoning process
after they are laid. This may cause shrinkage that leaves dirt-
catching cracks between the floor boards. The seasoning process
that once required months and much care is now done in a
few hours. If poorly done, the janitor is faced with difficult
maintenance problems. Although wood floor boards stop
growth when cut from the forest, the cells retain the ability
to expand or contract with the presence or absence of moisture.
This tendency may lead to warping and makes it necessary to
protect the floors from all possibilities of water impregnation.
Hardwood Floors
Probably the most common wood used in hardwood floors is
maple. Maple floors are adapted to many school uses. The
northern hard maple is a dense wood, and is provided in about
three grades. The better grades are white in color and free from
knots. Good maple floors may, if properly protected, outlast the
building. Good maple cleans easily and polishes under wear. It
is resistive to indentations. The better grades of maple bear the
mark of "M.F.M.A." indicating the approval of the Maple
Flooring Manufacturing Association. Floors of soft maple are
laid in some school buildings. They seem to have few if any
advantages over other soft wood floors.
204 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Oak floors are used in many schools in the central part of
the United States. The oak provides a hard floor that resists
wear. It is darker in color than the maple. When the oak is
quarter sawed it presents an attractive appearance. Because of
the porous nature of the oak it is usually necessary to fill these
floors before applying the finish. Some oak has a tendency to
splinter along the edges if not treated. This makes it less de-
sirable for use in gymnasium and playroom floors. Oak floors
take a good finish and provide attractive floors.
Two other woods that are used extensively in certain states
are beech and birch. These are dense woods that wear well
and are attractive in appearance. These take the same treat-
ment recommended for maple and oak.
Soffwooc/ Floors
Of the softer woods, pine, fir, and spruce are most used for
school floors. These do not wear as well and are more suscep-
tible to stains than are the hard woods. If laid with the flat
grain exposed these floors are inclined to splinter and sliver.
Adequate treatment reduces this tendency to some extent.
The vertical grain or quarter sawed boards present an attrac-
tive appearance and wear fairly well. Even with the vertical
grain flooring there is a tendency for the softer wood to wear
out leaving ridges of the more dense layers. Preservation and
surface treatment are essential if these floors are to be main-
tained in an attractive condition.
During recent years, floors made of wood block have been
installed. One such floor is made of short lengths of blocks
set on end. These blocks are usually of pine and present an
attractive appearance. A new pecan wood block has recently
been introduced. These floors are often used in gymnasium
and shop units. Those set in mastic must be guarded against
SCHOOL FLOORS 205
dampness or they will buck up as did the old wood block street
pavements. The other block floor is made up of short floor
boards fastened into squares and laid horizontally. They may
be laid in mastic over a concrete base or may be nailed over
other wood floors.
There are also a number of pressed wood floors on the
market. Most of these are made from sawdust or a form of
wood pulp made by steaming and exploding wood chips. The
pulp is tied together with a cement or glue under pressure.
These floors are usually laid in blocks. They present an at-
tractive appearance and take the usual wood treatments. The
binder is susceptible to and may disintegrate from the effects
of certain chemicals.
All wood floors contract and expand with changes in the
moisture content of the surrounding air. This action often
brings difficulties for the floor maintenance department. If the
floor does not have expansion facilities the boards may buckle
or cup. This action is often evident on large gymnasium floors
where the edge expansion joints are some distance from the
center of the floor. Unless moisture is kept away from the floor
and/or ventilation provided, the resulting cupping often makes
it difficult to maintain a satisfactory floor finish.
Masonry Floors
There are many masonry floors but they can usually be
grouped into three classes; natural stone, manufactured stone,
and clay products such as tile. While not suited for use in
classrooms and in playrooms these floors do have a place in
school buildings, particularly in corridors, stairways, shower,
and toilet rooms. These floors lack resiliency but if properly
surfaced do have good wearing qualities.
206 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Natural Stone
The natural stone most often found in school buildings is
marble. It is used for lobby and corridor floors and for stair-
ways. The marble coming from Vermont usually has a smooth
dense texture, while the Tennessee and Georgia marble often
has a granular texture. Marble has a composition similar to
that of limestone and is subject to damage from acid, strong
alkaline, and abrasive cleaners. It wears well but because of
the difficulty in obtaining the same hardness in all pieces may
show small depressions or holes from the effect of wear. Care-
ful treatment is necessary to preserve the beauty of marble
floors.
Travertine is a porous straw colored stone found in some of
the western states. It hardens when exposed to air and makes an
attractive floor. It absorbs stains and does not resist wear as
well as marble.
Slate floors are seldom used in school buildings and are not
recommended for schools.
Manufactured Stone
The most common artificial stone floors are concrete, ter-
razzo, and magnesite; however, rock asphalt may be classed
as manufactured stone.
Concrete
In addition to its other uses in the building structure, con-
crete serves as a subfloor for wood, mastic, linoleum, and
terrazzo floors. It is also extensively used as a floor surface in
corridors, on stairs, and in toilet rooms. It is perhaps the most
common masonry floor round in school buildings. Concrete is
SCHOOL FLOORS 207
made up of a mixture of rock aggregate, sand, and cement.
The quality of a concrete floor depends on the mixture, the
composition, the curing, and the finishing process. If the floor
is made of the proper proportions and is finished and cured
properly it should show little blooming (dusting), checking,
spalling, or pitting. If a concrete floor is not cared for in a
proper manner it may become ugly and rough with many
surface checks and pits or holes. If it once starts to wear, dust
will float in the air and grit will be carried to other finished
floor surfaces. Natural concrete floors are not very attractive
and architects now provide a coloring compound along with
some metallic hardener to give the surface an attractive tint
and a sheen. The composition of concrete makes it susceptible
to action from any acid cleaners. It is also injured by strong
bleaching agents and oils.
Terrazzo Floors
The terrazzo floor is probably the most attractive of all the
artificial masonry floors. It is composed of a surface of marble
and granite chips embedded in cement. After the floor is laid it
is ground down to a smooth polished surface. With the proper
blending of chips and a good binder a durable attractive floor
can be produced. It offers many possibilities in color combina-
tions. This floor is laid over a cement or a cement and sand
base and a good bond is not always obtained.
Many of the terrazzo floors split and crack. Cleaning
water carrying cleaning compounds enters these cracks and
helps to expand the joints. The marble chips contain calcium
as does the cement and as a result the terrazzo is susceptible to
disintegration from acids. Strong alkaline cleaners may cause
terrazzo to dust and pit. Terrazzo is also subject to efflorescence
208 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
and blooming. Because of these tendencies it is desirable to
use a hardener or seal as on concrete. Unless these are applied
properly they make the floor sticky or slick.
Magnesite Floors
Magnesite floors are composed of magnesium oxide mixed
with fillers and binders such as cork, marble chips, and saw-
dust. These floors are sometimes colored when laid. A chemical
is added to hasten the set. Sometimes trap rock and sawdust are
combined in the mix. These floors may be trowelled over an-
other floor or may be purchased in a block (tile) form. They
have about the same characteristics, such as blooming and
susceptibility to acids, as do the concrete floors. These floors
are less resistant to wear than is concrete and have not been
used extensively in school buildings.
Tile Floors
Tile floors have for many years been used in lobbies and
entryways where a decorative effect is desired. Because they are
easy to clean and are resistive to uric acid they have been used
to a considerable extent in toilet and shower rooms. There are
several types of tile used in floor construction. The ceramic
tiles provide a hard impervious surface. They come in colors
and make an attractive floor. The faience tile are designed by
hand and have a rough surface. They are used primarily for
their decorative effect. The glazed (twice burned) and the
unglazed tile are used for many floors. They come in various
shapes and during recent years have been used rather exten-
sively for stair risers and treads. These tile may be of a natural
color or may be colored in making by use of the proper metallic
oxides. The color is fixed and there is little fading. Another
tile that has much use is the red quarry tile. This tile is cheaper
SCHOOL FLOORS 209
than the others but gives equal service although it is not quite
as attractive in appearance.
The tile floors seem more uniform in texture than are the
different slabs of stone used in stone floors and the floor shows
less wear. The tiles have a surface that resists the effects of
ordinary cleaning compounds. They are easily cleaned. The
ceramic and faience tile are usually laid in small blocks. The
red quarry tile, often used for corridors, is usually laid in larger
blocks, square, triangular, or hexagonal in shape. Tile floors
are slightly alkaline and may effloresce if not treated. The
quarry tile may become dull in color if not treated. The weak
point in tile floors is usually in the seam or joint. The grouting
or cement is subject to deterioration from acids and alkalies.
If the grouting or binder gives way the tiles becomes loose.
Tile floors may turn brown from the effect of iron stains.
Crysfa///zaf/on
All masonry floors are subject to deterioration from crystal-
lization. This fact is often overlooked by janitors. Strong clean-
ing salts (some alkalies) when used in cleaning may enter the
pores in the floor. If not washed or rinsed out they remain in
the pores. As they dry they tend to crystallize and exert a
powerful force on the sides of the pores as they contract and
expand. At the next washing they are again dissolved and if
allowed to remain repeat the process over and over.
Composition Floors
The demand for resilient floors which are both attractive
and durable has led to the development of a number of com-
position floors such as rubber, linoleum, cork, and mastic or
asphalt. Each of these floors has certain properties adapting it
for use in some part of the school building.
210 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Rubber Floors
The rubber floors are composed of a vulcanized rubber and
some filler. The filler may be either mineral or organic matter.
Some of these floors are of the same material throughout and
some have cushion backs of softer materials. Experience seems
to indicate that the solid pieces wear better and last longer.
These floors come in blocks or in wide strips like linoleum.
They are usually quite resilient and silent, and are popular
for use in corridors or libraries where quiet floors are desired.
The soft rubber strips do not permit much slipping. They do
not creep or wrinkle as do lighter materials and hence are often
used for sloping aisles in auditorium units. Rubber tile are
usually glued to a concrete base but the rubber strips may be
loose. Rubber floors are wear resistive but are subject to damage
from sunlight and air which may oxidize the rubber. They are
also injured by oils and abrasives. They resist water but wash-
ing with soap may cause disintegration. They may also be
damaged by any wax containing a spirit solvent.
Linoleum
The linoleum floors have been used in school buildings for
many years. The linoleum floor coverings generally used in
school buildings are known as battleship, inlaid, and printed
linoleums. One of the chief ingredients of linoleum is oxidized
linseed oil, hence, the name. Battleship and inlaid linoleums
also include cork, resin, and some coloring material. All of
these are pressed into and tied with a burlap backing. As a
rule the battleship linoleums are gray, green, or brown in a
solid color. The inlaid linoleum is similarly made except that
there is a color pattern. There is also a cheaper linoleum with
an asphalt base, this is not generally used in school buildings.
SCHOOL FLOORS 211
Linoleum floor coverings may be obtained in blocks or in
rolls, but the roll form seems to be more commonly used in
school buildings. The linoleum floors absorb little moisture.
They are not very resistant to abrasive action and should be
surfaced with a material that may be replaced easily if traffic
lanes appear. Most linoleum floors are rather easily indented
by chair legs and heavy furniture; however, they are not as
susceptible to temperature changes as some of the mastic floors.
Linoleum floors should not be cleaned with a strong alkaline
cleaner, nor should they be subjected to a spirit float wax. These
floors can be cleaned easily by the use of a neutral cleaner.
They are resilient and silent, hence, are liked for classroom
and library use. Some schools also use them for corridors. They
seem to give best service when laid over a smooth concrete
or other masonry surface. They may be laid over a wood sur-
face, if a heavy paper is placed between the linoleum and wood.
However, there seems to be some danger of rotting the wood
under the linoleum.
Cork Floors
Cork floors are often found in library and kindergarten
units. The cork may be obtained in tile form or in rolls. Each
type is glued to the underfloor. The cork flooring is composed
of cork chips pressed and bound together with a binder. The
floor will deteriorate if any cleaning agent which may dissolve
the binder is used. These floors usually come in tan or brown
colors. These floors are resilient and quite durable if given
proper protection. They may be sanded lightly or buffed with
steel wool. They absorb moisture and stains. For protection
they should be treated with a light application of water emul-
sion wax or other substance that does not reduce too much
the resiliency or the acoustical properties.
212 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Mast ic and Asphalt Tile Floors
The term mastic or asphalt floors is applied to both the
poured (trowelled) and the composition tile floors. The chief
ingredients of these floors are asphalt, with a high melting
point, and a filler of asbestos and/or other mineral. The trow-
elled mastic once had wide use. However, the floors wore out
in traffic lanes and were hard to patch without showing the
patch. Most of the asphalt floors laid today are in tile form.
These tile come in a variety of solid or marbleized colors. They
offer many possibilities for borders and for decorative effects.
The asphalt is not much affected by moisture and the tile
are usually laid in a moisture resistant cement. For this reason
these floors are preferred over linoleum for damp ground and
basement floors. The older tiles were soft and showed many
indentations from furniture legs. The newer tile are harder and
not so easily indented. Intense heat will cause the tile to soften.
The tile are also susceptible to extreme dryness. Because of this
tendency many janitors find it necessary to mop or moisten tile
floors above the ground to prevent them from becoming dry
and brittle. These floors are rather hard when dry or when
coated with a wax loaded with gums. They will also become
slick when treated with heavily gummed waxes. They are
susceptible to damage from oils, gasoline, or naphtha. They
should not be subjected to oils or a wax with a spirit solvent.
Strong alkalies may cause the color to fade but this tendency
is not so pronounced in the newer tile. If one tile is damaged
it is easily replaced by the janitor.
Cautions for Composition Floors
The composition floors should be laid over a smooth solid
base. If the base is rough, it is impossible to secure a good bond
SCHOOL FLOORS 213
and the roughness shows up through the composition floor
covering. Composition floors should not be laid over a wood
base. They dry out and show the lines of the floor beneath.
Asphalt tile may crack when laid over wood. Composition
should not be laid over green or poorly cured concrete. When
this is done the composition floor often becomes soft and is
easily marked and indented by the furniture.
Rugs and Carpets
Rugs and carpets are not generally used for schoolroom
floors. However, many school janitors have some cloth or rug
coverings in office units, restrooms, and in other parts of the
building. It is not necessary for the school janitor to make an
extensive study of rugs, but he should know something of the
composition of rugs so that he will be qualified to care for those
found in his building. Most rugs have a wool base, bound
together by a backing or inner web of wool, jute, cotton, or
linen threads. Rugs are generally known by the name Ax-
minster, Wilton, Velvet, Brussels, and Ingram, each of which
is slightly different in type of construction and weave. Most
of the rugs used in school buildings are what is known as
loop-pile-weave with the piles forming the wearing surface.
Some of these rugs, particularly the Velvet, Wilton, and Ax-
minster, have a pile or nap that will flatten down with the
pressure of furniture and foot treads. This flattening may cause
an apparent variation in shade and the effect is more noticeable
on the plain colored than on the flowered rugs. Frequent turn-
ing of the rug to bring the wear in different spots may reduce
the effect of traffic wear and the flattening of the piles. All rugs
are subject to deterioration from any agency which may injure
the cotton, linen, or wool fabric, or that may affect the color
and sizing.
214 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
No floor sweeping compound should be used on the rugs.
The corn broom should be barred, and the sweeping brush
used on waxed or oiled floor should not be used on the rug.
The best cleaning method seems to be the use of the vacuum
cleaner. If a vacuum system is not available, the rug should
be cleaned by the use of a hand sweeper. The janitor should
avoid the use of water or other liquids on the rug without the
advice of one trained in rug care. In many cases, the use of
liquid cleaner by an uninformed maintenance force has re-
moved the sizing from the rug, thus permitting it to become
limp and to wrinkle on the floor.
It is not possible to secure the type of floor desired if the sup-
porting members do not give sufficient rigidity and strength
to prevent springing or sagging. Any floor that vibrates as
pupils walk across it may sooner or later have small cracks to
catch dirt. On the other hand, good school floors must be so
designed that in addition to the rigid support they have a
surface that is not too hard for schoolroom use. After securing
rigid construction it is desirable to select a surfacing material
suitable for use in each particular room. Regardless of the type
of material used, the floor cannot be expected to give the best
results unless it is given proper care.
Cleaning School Floors
For many years little attention was given to school floors.
Treatments given, if any, bleached the wood or permitted the
building up of accumulations of dirt and oils to make the floors
dark and unattractive. Floors represent a considerable part of
the cost of school buildings. They play a most important part
in the appearance of the building and particularly of the school
room. They are the part of the building most used and often-
times the part most abused. Good school plant floors properly
SCHOOL FLOORS 215
maintained don't "just happen." They are the results of proper
construction and proper care. In most cases the maintenance
janitor is not consulted on the type of floors installed in new
buildings. He must adapt his maintenance methods to the type
of floors in the buildings. When he has an opportunity to ad-
vise on floor replacement, he should consider adaptability, dura-
bility, and ease of maintenance. He plays an important part
in maintenance. Proper floor care involves much study and a
considerable amount of work. Many school administrators have
not had an opportunity to study the principles of floor mainte-
nance. Until recently, school janitors learned what they could
about floors by a trial and error or experience method and by
absorbing information given them by agents of various supply
companies. These methods were somewhat wasteful of time
and often confusing. The alert, wide-awake janitor of today
realizes that he must be something of a floor expert. He realizes
the importance of attractive floors to the appearance of the
school and to the school itself. He knows that floors cost money
and that neglect over a short period of time permits floors to
deteriorate.
Adequate Floor Maintenance
If floors are to be maintained in a good condition at an
economical cost, they must be given a suitable surface. Rough
floors wear more rapidly than smooth floors. Certain chemical
compounds will harm floors. Some floors will discolor from
the use of oils, others from acids, and others from strong alka-
line treatments. The janitor who knows floors will not permit
accumulations of dirt, will not use cleaning preparations that
mar the surface, or allow them to deteriorate from lack of
care. In the following discussion of floors, the term "condition-
ing" floors will mean the setting up of new floors, putting them
216 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
in shape for use. The term "reconditioning" floors will mean
setting up of old floors, either by resurfacing or otherwise, to
make them suitable for use. The term "maintenance" will
mean the current treatment that maintains the surface set up
in the conditioning or reconditioning activities. The term
"cleaning" may refer to daily cleaning or to periodic cleaning
by mopping or by scrubbing. School floor care and preservation
may be more costly if the janitor does not know the type of
maintenance best suited for each particular floor. The janitor
should have some record of his maintenance costs and have a
well developed plan showing which floors are to be recondi-
tioned each year and showing how long certain treatments
stand up under the wear in that particular room or rooms.
Scrubbing and Mopping
There is a distinct difference between the terms "scrubbing"
and "mopping." Scrubbing as used here refers to a scouring
or to that activity that is necessary to remove accumulations of
dirt. It is often stated that scrubbing involves the use of some
chemical action to help wet the floor and much elbow grease
to loosen the dirt from the floor. On the other hand, mopping
might be termed damp sweeping. Mopping is not done for the
purpose of removing accumulations of dirt but to remove dust
films and small amounts of dirt that may collect on floor sur-
faces. In neither case is it possible to set up a schedule of fre-
quency for mopping or scrubbing for all floors. At one time,
floors were scrubbed monthly. Today floors are scrubbed only
at rare intervals when it is desirable to change the type of
finish or to remove old accumulations of dirt that cannot be
removed otherwise. In many schools, it is a practice to mop
marble, tile and terrazzo floors weekly, although some janitors
mop these floors more frequently in dirty areas. Most treated
SCHOOL FLOORS 217
floors of wood or composition are never scrubbed unless it is
necessary to remove the old treatment. Some treated floors,
particularly those of masonry, are mopped twice a week.
Floor Cleaning Compounds
Under previous sections, some mention was made of various
cleaning compounds for floors. It seems desirable here to show
the application of some of these cleaning compounds to the
floor. Floor cleaning compounds might be grouped into about
three classes; the abrasives which clean by friction, the chemi-
cals which clean by dissolving or by chemical action, and soaps
or other material of the soap family which aid in wetting the
floor and also in loosening the dirt. The janitor should under-
stand that either of these three cleaning agents may be valuable
on certain floors while on other floors each or all of them may
be harmful. Abrasives are of value only for scrubbing. There is
always a danger that the abrasive will be too harsh and that it
may scratch the floor. Some authorities recommend the use of
abrasives that will pass a 100 mesh screen but which will not
pass a 300 mesh screen. Most abrasives are made of such ele-
ments as volcanic ash, lava, tripoli, and fine sand, or bone meal.
In general, the less harsh abrasives like tripoli, lava, calcium,
soap stone, or volcanic ash are to be preferred. Ground bone is
sometimes used but it seems to break down and get gummy
under pressure and heat. There should be little free alkali in
the abrasive but there may be some soap in order to make it
easier to rinse the dirt off the floor. Abrasives are never used
in mopping and not always in scrubbing. Some acids are used
to clean spots off the floors in various places. There are a
number of instances where the acids may be of value in re-
moving spots from floors. The janitor should be careful in the
use of muriatic acid or oxalic acid. The stronger acids may
218 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
attack the grouting around the chips in the terrazzo floors and
may attack the marble chips. Acids may also attack the mortar
used around tile floor sections.
The chemicals most often used in floor cleaning are the
alkalies such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and
ammonia. The alkaline solutions aid in wetting the floor and
the dirt on the floors but they may also be harmful to the floor
surface. Strong salts or alkalies if put on marble will help to
clean it but that part which remains on the floor may crystallize
when dry and as it crystallizes it exerts pressure that may in
time cause pitting or chipping. Strong alkali such as lye may
burn wood surfaces and cause them to turn red. A small
amount of alkali, properly administered, will help break down
the hardness in the water and will help precipitate certain
sulphates in the water, thus aiding the water to wet the sur-
faces to be cleaned. Janitors sometimes add a mild alkali like
tri-sodium phosphate to the water, a small amount at a time,
until they determine by feeling when the water is slippery or
slick. By measuring the amount used, they then have an idea
as to the amount required for the same amount of water later.
However, the janitor will need to know that the hardness of
the water may vary with the season, even in the same location.
Judiciously used, alkalies may be a great benefit in cleaning.
Water and soap are universal cleaners for floors. Even soaps
may be strong enough to injure the floors. As a rule, the janitor
feels safe in using neutral soap or one containing a small
amount of alkali. There are many floor cleaning compounds
on the market. Most of them have value. On the other hand
some of them contain ingredients that are distinctly harmful
to certain floor surfaces. The janitor should know the com-
position of the material placed on his floors. In many cases he
can prepare his own cleaning compounds.
SCHOOL FLOORS 219
School officials should select scrubbing compounds with
care. They should understand that some floors are seldom
scrubbed, and that certain other floors are scrubbed only when
wishing to remove old finish before retreating. In many cases
these old finishes may be removed by the use of steel wool and
scrubbing. In general, strong alkalies and coarse abrasives
should be used only in extreme cases. Floors and floor condi-
tions vary and it is difficult to set up any one procedure ap-
plicable to all floors. Some janitors set up a scrubbing schedule
similar to the following:
I. General:
1. Water.
a) Use hot water.
b) Break water with T.S.P. until it is slippery.
c) Apply water to only small area at a time.
d) Pick up old water, rinse.
2. Abrasive.
a) Use mild abrasive.
b) Apply friction.
II. Old rough floors:
1. If covered with oil and grime.
a) Apply abrasive on dampened floor.
b) Add water soap solution alkaline until water feels slippery.
2. Old floors, dirty but no oil.
a) Use mild abrasive.
b) Use neutral soap.
III. Treated wood floors:
1. Scrubbing compound will depend on type of floor treatment.
a) On spirit solvent wax use T.S.P.
b) Use mild abrasive.
c) Use neutral soap.
IV. Masonry floors:
1. Concrete.
a) If rough and very dirty use treatment recommended for
dirty wood floors.
220 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
b) If smooth use mild abrasive, neutral soap, and small
amount of T.S.P.
c) Avoid use of acids or strong alkalies.
2. Terrazzo, tile.
a) Use treatment recommended for smooth concrete.
3. Marble.
a) Clear water, can break slightly with T.S.P.
b) Small amount of neutral soap if used wisely and if rinsed
off.
V. Linoleum and asphalt:
1. Can mop, but scrubbing seldom needed.
A small amount of pine oil can be added to scrub water if
desired. Rinsing is essential. Practically the same cleaning com-
pounds with the exception of the abrasives are used in mop-
ping; however, much less soap is used in the mop water.
Scrubbing Tools
One of the best scrubbing tools is the electric scrubbing ma-
chine having a fiber brush. These machines come with cylinder
or disc brushes. When using the disc brush most janitors pre-
fer the single disc. Few men seem to care for the tank mounted
over the brush. In addition to the scrubbing machine, scrubbing
brushes will be needed. One of these should be a small hand
brush with square corners to be used where the large brush does
not reach. The other may be a long handled brush used for simi-
lar purposes. These should have fibers stiff enough to be used as
a friction agent in removing dirt. It will also be necessary to
have at least two pails, one for hot scrub water and one for
rinse water. It will be desirable to have a squeegee, the size
depending upon the floor area to be scrubbed, and a pick-up
pan. The pick-up pan is one with the hump at the edge which
permits the water to be pushed up into the pan without run-
ning back on the floor. It will also be desirable to have one
SCHOOL FLOORS 221
pick-up mop to be used in picking up water in places where it
cannot be reached with the squeegee. The janitor should re-
member that scrubbing is most easily done with hot water,
since hot water of about 150 degrees aids in dissolving greases.
The squeegee should probably be about 16" long of three-ply
flexible rubber. It should be attached to a light metal frame in
order to permit rapid use.
Mopping Tools
The mopping tools will be somewhat different from those
used for scrubbing. The mops are usually about twenty to
thirty-two ounces in size. While the size should depend on the
man, it is usually understood that light mops are time wasters.
The mop handle should be about the same height as the man
using it. The janitor should learn how to use mops. It is
desirable for him to trim off loose strings on the mop. He must
remember that a dirty mop is useless. He should know that a
mop is primed by soaking it before it is put into use. When he
is through using the mop, he should rinse it and hang it up
with the handle down. This permits the mop to spread out and
dry more rapidly. The selection of a mop will be largely up
to the janitor. Linen lasts longer than cotton, but may not have
as much absorbency. In general, wear and absorbency are not
compatible.
It will be necessary to have at least two pails for mopping;
one for dirty water and one for rinse water. It is also desirable
to have screens that fit in the bottom of the pail so that any
dirt that is dropped into the pail may pass through this screen
and be out of the way of the mop when it is dipped. The
janitor can make a screen of this type. The screen should be
a little smaller than the size of the bottom of the pail. A mop
wringer should be attached to the pail. The squeezer type
222 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
wringer seems to give best results. The size of the squeezer
should be adapted to the size of the mop used. For mopping
large areas, some janitors prefer to use a small truck on coasters
with both pails on this truck. Some janitors use a large truck
with a tank on it. The tank is good for mopping large areas,
but it is difficult to move up and down stairways.
One cannot measure the number of tools needed by the
number of men working in the building. In large buildings
where several men are employed it is not necessary to allot so
many tools to each man. However, in smaller buildings where
only one man is employed, a full equipment of mopping tools
is essential. All tools should be properly cared for. Mops should
be washed and rinsed. Squeegee heads should be wiped clean
and hung up. Mop pails should be cleaned after each use.
Mopping Methods
As stated previously, mopping and scrubbing are two differ-
ent procedures. Methods of mopping will vary with the type
of room, the equipment, the condition of the floors, and the
tools available. It is not easy to mop classrooms with fixed seats.
Where possible, it is better to move the seats. Rooms of this
type are usually swept or cleaned daily with a process that does
not involve the use of a wet mop. If it becomes necessary to
mop a classroom with fixed seats, it is desirable to start at one
corner of the room and to mop one aisle at a time. The usual
mop swing cannot be used in rooms of this type. In general,
janitors find it preferable to mop certain floors like marble and
terrazzo frequently. The reason for mopping these floors is
to remove light applications of dust and dirt.
The first step in mopping is to have clean water. It is de-
sirable to have two pails. If necessary, the water may be softened
by using a small amount of tri-sodium phosphate or neutral
SCHOOL FLOORS 223
soap depending on the surface material to be cleaned and the
condition of the water. The wet mop is dipped in the water
and wrung out until it does not drip. The janitor then pro-
ceeds with his mopping, holding the mop in such a shape that
he can get a full swing of the mop of 2l/2' to B1/^' on either side
of him. In mopping, he usually walks backward, taking one
step at a time as he completes his stroke. The mop should
be held so that the janitor has full swing of his arms. Some
janitors hold the top of the mop handle with the left hand
and furnish the power with the right hand. The mop should
be moved in continuous motion with no pause at the end of
the stroke. However, the mop should not be jerked so that
water will be flipped off the end of the mop. The janitor should
be careful not to brush the mop against the furniture or the
baseboards. He should remember that dirty mops will not
clean floors; that the mop should not be too wet, and that the
water should be changed as often as necessary to keep it clean.
The wet mop is not a scrubbing tool.
Scrubbing Methods
Scrubbing as used in this discussion refers to the removal of
accumulations of dirt. The removal of this dirt usually involves
some energy or friction and the use of chemical liquids that
help to remove the dirt or loosen it from the floor. It is almost
impossible to satisfactorily scrub a room having fixed furniture
until the furniture is moved. However, with modern day main-
tenance, scrubbing is seldom done in any rooms. When
scrubbing becomes necessary in a classroom it is usually de-
sirable to start in a corner some distance from the door and to
scrub a small area at a time. In most cases scrubbing involves
the use of abrasive powder. If this powder is put into the
water, it usually settles to the bottom and does little good
224 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
as an abrasive in scrubbing. Hence, most janitors prefer to
dampen the floor with water which may or may not be given
a chemical treatment, depending on the need and on the type
of floor. The abrasive powder is then sprinkled on the floor and
the scrubbing brush is applied to loosen the dirt. After the dirt
is loosened, it is desirable to pick up that which can be picked
up with the squeegee and pick-up pan. This part of the floor
that has been scrubbed is rinsed to remove the powder, the
chemical, and the dirty water before starting to scrub a new
part of the floor.
In scrubbing, the janitor will need one pail for scrub water
and one pail for the rinse water. Under no conditions should
he neglect the rinse. This is important on any floor. It will be
necessary for the janitor to use clean water, both for his scrub
water and for his rinse. After the water becomes dirty it should
be changed. Scrubbing does not necessarily involve soaking
and he should avoid using excessive amounts of water. He
should be careful to clean all corners. Scrubbing can be done
more easily with the use of a scrubbing machine. These ma-
chines are equipped with a heavy fiber brush which applies
the friction necessary to remove the dirt. Even where a scrub-
bing machine is used it will be necessary to use a hand brush
or a long handle fiber brush to remove the dirt from the cor-
ners. In scrubbing the janitor should be careful in the selection
of cleaning compounds. Strong alkaline or acid cleaners may
do harm to the floor surfaces. He will need to select his cleaning
compound to fit the floor to be cleaned. He may need to scrub
to remove certain accumulations of gummed waxes and oils.
Dry Cleaning
Dry cleaning involves the use of steel wool and is done with-
out any application of water. The steel wool machine is used
SCHOOL FLOORS 225
for more purposes than for cleaning. In one respect it replaces
the old burlap bag on the feet of the janitor or on blocks which
were once used for buffing floors. The steel wool machine may
be used for cleaning off old wax or chipped varnish. However,
the machine may not be effective on some varnished finish.
One of the most frequent uses of the steel wool machine is that
of buffing off old wax finish. Oftentimes, the old seal and
finish must be removed before the new finish is applied. The
steel wool for these machines comes in various grades. The
coarser grade used for cutting off varnish is usually Number 3
or Number 4 wool.
When the steel wool machine is used to assist in applying
finish it is first used to remove the old finish and to level
off the nap of the wood that may have been raised with
the cleaning process. In this case, the floor must be swept before
the seal is applied. After the seal is applied and has set for a
short time the buffing machine may be used to buff the seal
into the floor. After the second coat of seal is applied, a buffing
machine may be used again to set the seal. The buffing ma-
chine is also used to give a finish to waxes that are not self-
polishing. It may also be needed for waxes which are built up
with a soap and water content. The water dries out, leaving
the lighter soap on top of the wax. There is also some pos-
sibility that when water gets on the floor the soap may unite
with the water, making a solvent for the wax underneath, thus
causing it to loosen its bond with the floor. When a wax like
this is used the buffing may remove the soap finish before it
gets wet.
The dry cleaning process has some advantages in that it does
not add water to harm the floor. It can also be used to buff the
floor filler which is usually made up of the dust from sanding
and a good seal. The use of the buffing machines gives a sheen
226 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to the seal or wax and aids in preventing slipperiness. The
buffing machine usually uses wool in grades of Number 3 down
to Number 0 for floor finishing. This wool may be purchased in
pads or in long rolls. Either type may be used successfully. The
long roll is usually cut in strips and used on the bottom of a
special brush or disc applied to the scrubbing machine or on
special cylinders made for this purpose with certain steel wool
machines. In any attempt to use steel wool the janitor should be
careful that the wool does not knot and ball up, thus causing
the machine to cut the finish in grooves.
Chapter 11
School Floor Maintenance
SATISFACTORY AND ECONOMICAL school floor maintenance can
best be provided on floors that have been properly condi-
tioned. The floor expert uses the term "conditioning" in de-
scribing the preparation of new floors for use. He uses the term
"reconditioning" when referring to the renovation of old floors.
The school janitor should know how to prepare or condition,
floors. He should be familiar with the procedures in sanding,
scraping, buffing, oiling, sealing, and waxing floors. He should
know the maintenance practices and procedures best adapted
for the various types of floors. He should also know how to vary
his floor treatments and maintenance practices for the various
schoolrooms or units since the different school activities and
room use calls for different floor maintenance practices.
Conditioning and Reconditioning Floors
There has been much improvement in floors since the time
when the footing in enclosed spaces was only the natural dirt.
These floors did have one good quality. They were resilient and
not hard to walk on. They had little else to recommend
them. In our changing from the dirt floor we have developed
some types of floors which may be among the most attractive
features in the room or rooms if properly cared for. The new
floors demand a different type of treatment. Two changed de-
mands for floor service are somewhat opposite in nature. We
227
228 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
desire floors that will resist wear for a long period of years, and
which will at the same time take a surface treatment giving the
proper luster or sheen. On the other hand, we want floors that
are somewhat elastic or have a little spring so that they are not
too hard on the feet of the people walking on them. We also
want floors that are not too noisy. If it were not for these last
two requirements we could put masonry floors everywhere. In
order to get life in the floor we try to put in floors with good
wearing qualities; then we attempt to use treatments that will
build a temporary surface in and on the floor in order to give
the appearance and the degree of softness desired. The type of
treatment then, must depend on the floor. In general, the sur-
face treatments range from none to scrubbing, oiling, sealing,
or sealing and waxing.
Obfa/ning a Smooff) Floor Surface
One of the first steps in floor maintenance is to obtain a
smooth surface. Smooth surfaces look better and wear longer
than do rough surfaces. Sanding, scraping, or buffing may be
necessary in order to obtain the surface desired.
In sanding, a part of the floor surface is cut away with an
abrasive sandpaper. New wood floors are usually sanded before
being put into use. There was a time when all sanding was done
with sandpaper fastened to the bottom of heavy block or brick
weights. This method did improve the surface but it was ex-
tremely slow and could not always be controlled. Today sand-
ing is usually done with a sanding machine which has a disc or
drum covered with sandpaper and driven by a gasoline or
electric motor. Many of the larger schools own sanding ma-
chines while others rent or borrow the machines when needed.
The janitor who does his own sanding should learn how to use
the machines. He should know that the machines should be run
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 229
over the floor at regular speed to avoid digging holes in the floor
or burning the wood fiber. He should also know the drum or
disc speed desirable when using the various grades of paper.
The coarseness of the paper will depend on the type and condi-
tion of the floor and the job to be done. The paper generally
used ranges from Number 3 which is coarse to Number 00. On
rough pine floors he usually starts with Number 3 paper and
changes to Number !/z to Number 0 for finishing.
There is some difference of opinion, relative to the movement
of the sanding machine. On rough floors most janitors find it
desirable to run the machine diagonally with the boards in
making the first cut. Some janitors run the machine crosswise
of the boards in making the first cut. There is danger that the
cups in the board may be cut deeper by the inexperienced op-
erator when running the machine crosswise of the boards, thus
leaving a surface of humps and hollows. Running the machine
in a diagonal line across the boards seems to aid in removing
the cups. After the rough spots have been removed the finer
paper may be used and the machine run lengthwise of the
boards. When the janitor has finished he should have a smooth
floor that does not show scratches and marks from the paper.
The drum sanding machines can be purchased with drums of
various sizes. These run from about seven to about twelve inches
for school use. The disc type machines usually have a grinding
disc of from about 13 1/2 to 15 inches. On convertible machines
it is desirable to have several pulleys or adjustable gears that
permit a change of speed when using the machine for various
purposes. Many schools that are not able to purchase a separate
sanding machine do purchase convertible machines and then
use them for light sanding jobs. In using a machine of either
type the janitor should remember that they are run at a com-
paratively high speed. All bearings should be of a type that will
230 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
stand hard usage. They should have adequate protected lubri-
cating openings. These bearings should be properly oiled. Dust
should not be permitted to collect in the bearings or in the
motor.
Sanding is often one of the necessary steps in reconditioning
old floors. The janitor should study his floors to determine
whether sanding is feasible and practical. Some of the older
floors are so badly worn that sanding is not feasible. Others
have exposed nail heads that tear the sandpaper. Sanding is
done to smooth rough floors and to remove old varnish or oil
finishes. In removing heavy varnish it is often necessary to use
a Number 3 sandpaper, and it may be necessary to reverse the
motion of the machine so that the roller turns upward against
the edge of the cut. This aids in avoiding gumming up the paper
with the old varnish. Usually it is not necessary to use a coarse
paper in sanding old maple or oak floors unless the boards are
badly cupped. A fine grade of paper is also used in sanding cork
floors. Sanding is one of the effective means of removing surface
coatings of oil from old floors. Never cut any floor deeper than
necessary to get smooth surface.
On some floors where the edges of the boards stand up above
the rest of the floor, it may be necessary to remove these high
spots by scraping before sanding. It is impossible to reach all
corners and edges of the floor with the sanding machine. The
janitor will find it necessary to use the hand scraper to smooth
these rough spots.
The term buffing applies both to conditioning and mainte-
nance procedures. The buffing machine is used to remove the
nap from wood floors before and after initial treatments have
been applied. The buffing machine is also used to smooth and
set wax finishes after they are applied. The buffing machine
which is usually a steel wool machine is also of value in condi-
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 231
tioning certain floors. It is used to remove rough spots or de-
teriorated surfaces from asphalt or rubber floor surfaces. It may
be used to remove old applications of seal, varnish, or oil from
smooth floors.
Oiling
Many years ago the schools copied from the neighboring
housekeepers and scrubbed the school floors frequently. Since
scrubbing did not hold down the dust and involved a lot of
labor, janitors tried to combine utility and labor saving by put-
ting oil on the floors. Oil treatment did not seem bad so long as
only light applications of a light oil were made and so long as
frequent scrubbing took up the old oil. However, some janitors
felt that the oil was a cure for all floor ills and soaked the floors
in oil, much of which remained on the surface and made the
floors gummy. Dirt collected on this oil and became imbedded
in it. Then as new applications of oil and dirt were applied and
accumulated the floors became black. They absorbed light that
was brought into the room. They soiled the clothing of the
children. They were unattractive and unsanitary.
A part of this difficulty arose from the types of oils used. Oils
for school room floors may be a vegetable oil such as linseed or
tung oil, or a mineral oil with a paraffin base. The tung oil and
linseed oils do serve as wood preservatives and also aid in hold-
ing down dust. However, each of these is costly and somewhat
difficult to obtain in a natural state, hence, few schools ever use
pure linseed or tung oil. The linseed oil has a tendency to
come up and oxidize, making the floors somewhat dark. The
paraffin oils have gum in them which may collect on the floor
and catch dirt, thus making the floor dark. The lighter the
grade of oil the more penetration it has into the wood and the
less tendency it has to gum up on the floor.
232 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
The janitor should understand that there are two types of
floor oils. One is a cleaning oil composed primarily of kerosene
and creosote. This oil is highly inflammable and is rarely used
in school buildings. The penetrating oils contain paraffin, tur-
pentine, and other ingredients such as pine oil.
Application of Oil
Oiling is not generally recommended today for school floors,
yet it is recognized that there are instances and conditions that
might make oiling desirable. On some old floors which are in a
condition that prevents sanding and smoothing for waxing or
sealing, an application of oil may be about the only possible
means of dust holding. Even then, floors should not be oiled in
one room if this room is close to the other rooms with sealed
and waxed floors for the pupils will carry the oil from one room
into the room with better floors. Where oiling is done, all old
oil should be removed before the new oil is applied each year.
The old oil should be scrubbed or scraped off the floor so that
none of the dark residue remains. When the new oil is added,
only a thin coat should be applied. This may be applied with a
mop or spray. Oil should not be poured on the floor and left to
soak in. A mop may be dipped in the oil and then rung out
comparatively dry so that only a thin film of oil is applied to the
floor. After the oil has been on the floor for a short time, an-
other mop should be used to take up any that may have col-
lected in drops. If a janitor uses a spray he can apply the oil
more easily and perhaps in a better manner. The spray should
deliver a fine mist of oil to the floor. Under no conditions
should the spray nozzle be high enough in the air to permit the
oil to spray on the desks and seats. In either method of appli-
cation there is no need to apply the oil to the edges around the
baseboards since this part of the floor does not get any wear. It
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 233
may be possible for the janitor to make light applications once
or twice during the year, using the spray or the mop. Oil is not
often used on hard wood floors, but is used on floors of soft
wood. Oil is not a preservative and may actually do harm to the
wood floor. Oil should not be applied on asphalt tile, linoleum,
or masonry floors. In applying oil the janitor should use only a
thin oil. Light applications on clean floors are less objectionable
than the heavy applications over old oil and dirt.
Sealing Floors
There are so many different problems involved in sealing and
treating floors that special sealing for terrazzo and concrete will
be considered separately. The word seal as used in this section
refers primarily to the sealing of wood floors. There are two
general types of wood floor seals; penetrating and surface seals.
Each of these treatments has its place in school buildings. The
janitor should understand that seals have a distinct purpose and
that mineral oils are not classified among the sealing agents.
The purpose of sealing is primarily to support the grain of the
wood and to make it impervious to the entrance of water and
other deteriorating agents. The materials forming the basis of
the seal are usually oils like tung or linseed oil. The seal must
fill the wood cells and form a basis for other finish. Bake-
lite, luxite, or copal gums are often made a part of the seal in
order to give sheen and finish. This is particularly true of sur-
face seals.
Surface Sea/5
Surface seals are often used on gymnasium floors where wax
applications are not practical. They also make a good furniture
finish. These seals have more gums than the penetrating seal.
At one time copal gums were used extensively in seals. Copal
234 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
gums have a tendency to turn dark and are not used as much
now as bakelite. The bakelite content of a seal will depend
somewhat upon the use desired. If not enough gums are in-
cluded, the seal may not have the sheen and finish desired, but
if too much of the gum is used, there may be a tendency for the
seal to crack and peel from the floor. The finish obtained from
a good surface seal is somewhat like a lacquer or varnish finish.
It is costlier but stands up better, however. The surface seal
for the gymnasium should not powder or turn white or gray
in color. It should dry in about two hours and should harden
in about twenty-four hours. It should resist friction burns from
rubber shoes. It should resist alcohol and mild caustics and
should provide a hard non-slippery surface. It should be light
in color and should give good footing for rapid gymnasium
activities. The solids of a good seal should not separate from
the liquid when the seal is permitted to stand.
Penetrating Seals
The penetrating seals are used for different purposes. They
are primarily an undercoat serving as a basis for surface treat-
ment. In wood, the penetrating seals help support the grain and
become almost a part of the wood structure. While it is difficult
to get deep penetration in hard woods, the deeper penetration
does wear longer and protects the wood against other impreg-
nations. For this reason, the penetrating seal should be made
thin. Tung oil is one of the basic ingredients of the modern
penetrating seals. The penetrating seal is usually put on in two
coats. The first coat gives the greater part of the penetration
while the second coat bonds to this and in turn furnishes a bond
for the surface treatment to be placed on it. The penetrating
seal should dry in about thirty minutes. It is usually applied
with a lambs wool applicator. About all that the wood will take
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 235
is applied to the floor. The floor should be clean and dry before
applying. The janitor should use different mops for sealing and
waxing. The lambs wool applicator heads do not cost much and
can be cleaned after use.
Janitors can sand the top coating off oiled floors and by seal-
ing immediately can hold down the old oils. This method of
sealing seems to give better results than to attempt to seal over
washed or scrubbed surfaces. If the floor has been washed it
should be thoroughly dried before any attempt is made to seal
it. In sealing porous woods like oak it may be necessary to use a
filler first in order that the floor will not absorb excessive
amounts of the seal. Sealed floors treated with a penetrating
seal do not provide the complete treatment necessary for class-
room floors. If the seal is left exposed, dirt collects on it and in
a short time the floor must be retreated. It is more economical
to cover these floors with a thin application of floor wax which
catches and holds the dirt and which can be removed along
with the dirt. A new wax coating may then be applied. If this
practice is followed frequently, resealing will not be necessary.
Waxing Floors
When wax is placed over an undercoat of preservative seal
the wax helps to protect the under finish and to hold the dirt.
The wax does provide an attractive floor finish and if properly
cared for gives a color that does not absorb excessive amounts
of schoolroom light. There are several bases for wax prepara-
tions. One of these is beeswax which is not much used in school
floor waxes. A second one is ceresin. Carnauba is probably the
most popular base for school floor waxes. This is derived from
a Brazilian palm. Other ingredients, such as potassium, turpen-
tine, ammonia, borax, soap, triethanolamine, mineral oils, or
gasoline are used.
236 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
The waxes come in two general forms; paste and liquid. The
paste is not often used in school buildings. The liquid wax
comes in two types known as spirit float or spirit solvent and
water emulsion wax. The spirit solvent wax was used before the
water wax came into use but it seems today that the water float
wax is becoming more popular. The spirit solvent wax needs to
be polished and should not be used on surfaces that may be
harmed by the spirit solvent. The janitor can make a wax of
this type by the following formula which is given in the United
States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Ma-
terials for the Household, Circular 70, pages 2, 3, and 4. The
following ingredients are used:
Carnauba — two parts by weight, Ceresin — two parts by weight
Gasoline— high (.725) specific gravity— twelve parts
Melt the wax by setting in vessel of hot water and add turpen-
tine and gasoline, cooling rapidly, stirring to a creamy mass. Al-
ways set can in hot water when heating and keep away from
flames as gasoline and turpentine are inflammable.
Wafer Emulsion Wax
This wax is often called a self drying or non-buffing wax. It
is used in many places and on many types of surfaces. It con-
tains few or no chemicals harmful to asphalt tile, mastic, or
cork. The water in the wax applied to the floor dries leaving
a hard surface. If the floor is wet later, there may be a tendency
for the water to reemulsify this wax. These waxes are usually
made up of carnauba or some other suitable wax base in a
water solvent with soap or certain other ingredients added.
The U. S. Bureau of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Cir-
cular Letter, L. C. 275, outlines on page seven a plan for making
cheap water emulsion wax. It is about as follows:
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 237
Dissolve one part (by weight) castile soap in sixteen parts of
soft water. Heat to boiling. Add four parts (by weight) car-
nauba wax chips, stirring to a smooth emulsion. Cool by adding
water to necessary thickness (usually fourteen to sixteen parts
of water). Let mixture cool and filter through cheese cloth,
stirring in a small amount of formaldehyde as a preservative.
The same Bureau of Standards outlines a process of making
the brighter, water emulsion wax. The procedure is about as
follows:
SMALL AMOUNT LARGER QUANTITY
Carnauba — wax (No. 1) 72. grams 6.6 Ib.
Oleic acid 9.1 milliliters .8 pt
Triethanolaminc 10.6 mil. .95 pts.
Borax 5.4 grams .5 Jb.
Boiling water 500. ml. 5.75 gaL
Shellac (dry polishing) 10. grams 1.1 Ib.
Ammonia (28 per cent) 1.75 ml. .175 pL
Water at room temperature 100. ml. 1. gal.
A milliliter, (ml.) is the same as a cubic centimeter.
(Increase in regular multiples for larger quantities.)
Melt wax and add oleic acid @ 194 F. in hot water bath. Add
triethanolamine slowly — stirring. Dissolve borax in 5 ml. boil-
ing water and add — stir five minutes. Add rest of boiling water
slowly — stirring. Add the 100 ml. of water. Add shellac and
stir.
These formulas are not given as an indication that the janitor
should attempt to make his own wax preparations. He probably
can purchase better ones. They are given to indicate to him the
composition of some of the wax preparations and to indicate
that there is no magic formula in their preparation.
Application of Wax
The method of applying wax will vary with the type of floor
and the type of wax used. A homemade applicator may be
238 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
made by cutting off a part of the strings of an old short string
mop. These homemade applicators absorb much of the wax and
are not as well liked as the lambs wool applicators. In most
cases, the old wax has some dirt imbedded in it. Remove this
old wax by buffing or by the use of some solvent before the new
wax is applied. The new wax should be applied in thin layers.
Heavy applications may pile up, causing slick places on the
floor. One coat of wax is usually sufficient, but sometimes two
coats of wax are applied. With some types of wax, the second
coat may cause the first coat to soften and lose its bond with the
floor. The janitor should remember that the wax is to serve as a
protection for the seal, to hold dust, to provide a cushion, and
to give a satisfactory appearance to the floor. Any wax in excess
of the amount needed is wasted. It is not difficult or costly to
apply another coat when needed.
There is some difference of opinion on whether buffing of
wax finish is necessary. The spirit solvent waxes are usually
buffed and polished. Some janitors regularly buff water emul-
sion waxes, contending that the buffing gives a sheen immedi-
ately, and that the buffing removes some of the lighter solvents
that float to the top of the wax. Other janitors contend that the
water waxes will be buffed by the shoes of the children in a
satisfactory manner. Machine or hand buffing does seem to add
to the wearing qualities of the wax.
The janitor should not use any spirit solvent wax on asphalt
tile or linoleum where the solvent might injure the floor. He
should not expect satisfactory results from wax on a rough floor.
He should not use a dirty applicator. He should clean the appli-
cator after each use. He should not wax stair treads. A floor
that is properly waxed with a good wax will not be tacky.
Tackiness can be determined by the way shoe heels seem to
stick to the floor when walking slowly across it. The properly
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 239
waxed floor will present a dry hard surface. It will not scratch
easily and it will have a sheen or luster without a high light re-
fraction. It will be slick and smooth but not too slippery. It will
have good wearing qualities and will be easy to maintain. It will
not streak or get dark and will be resistant to rubber burns.
Other sections have outlined types of floors and methods of
sweeping, mopping, and scrubbing. Modern school floor main-
tenance involves more than cleaning. The janitor in charge of
school buildings must know modern maintenance. It is desir-
able that he have an accurate knowledge of floors, of preserva-
tives, and of surfacing compounds. He should also have a back-
ground of experience in the use, durability, and value of various
surfacing agents. He must recognize the importance of floors
and floor care to the building. He must become a floor specialist.
There are many theories, often conflicting, of the best
methods to use in floor maintenance. Some practices recom-
mended and satisfactory for one floor surface may not be at all
desirable for the same type of floor in another location and used
under different conditions. Few building planners give ade-
quate attention to the floor maintenance problems that may
arise after the building is put into use. The janitor will find it
necessary to study his floors and to provide the treatment that
secures the best service possible from the floors that are in the
building.
In studying floor finish the janitor should realize that the
type of finish may vary with the use of the room. For instance,
gymnasium, library, and shop units may have the same type of
floors but do not need the same maintenance treatments. Like-
wise, the age of the floor, the type of furniture used, and the
condition of the playground may determine the types of floor
finishes that may be applied. Certain floors may be treated with
a wax finish while stair treads and gymnasium units should
240 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
never be waxed. Maintenance methods must be adapted to the
tools, materials, and man power available and the capable jan-
itor will maintain his floors in the best possible manner with
the facilities available.
Maintenance Practices and Standards
1. The janitor should know how to maintain an attractive floor with
the proper sheen in an economical manner.
2. Proper floor maintenance includes those practices which provide dura-
bility and preservation. Good finish lasts longer.
3. The beauty of certain floors should not be marred by a paint that
completely covers them, oils that soften them, or varnish that may
chip and peel.
4. Good finish reduces the burden of daily care.
5. Bleaching agencies have no place on most floors.
6. Dust holding power is desirable but tackiness should be avoided.
In order to maintain floors in a desirable manner with a mini-
mum cost and labor the janitor must know floors, cleaning
methods and surfacing agents. He should be able to evaluate the
claims of salesmen who may promote a material for a use for
which it is not at all adapted. Since various floors require differ-
ent treatment it seems desirable to outline some generally ac-
cepted maintenance practices and to list some cleaning and sur-
facing materials adapted for use on some of the more common
floors.
Cleaning and Surfacing Preparations
The Procurement Division of the U. S. Treasury Department
specifications gives detailed description of the standards set up
for articles purchased by that division. They define one cleaner
which is usable for certain composition floors as a preparation
of linseed oil and potash with a coverage of 4000 square feet on
linoleum or 2000 square feet on mastic. A crack filler of ground
silica and a volatile liquid dryer should cover about 60 to 70
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 241
square feet of oak floor for each pound of filler. A water emul-
sion finish (wax) would have 17 per cent solids of gums and
vegetable waxes, of which at least seven-tenths should be a
vegetable wax. It will have a coverage of 1000 square feet per
gallon on treated wood or composition floors. The same divi-
sion lists several seals varying in content and composition, de-
pending on the use for which they are intended. In general,
they will have some penetrating qualities, will not be slippery,
and shall have preservative qualities. They will have a coverage
of from 300 to 400 square feet per gallon.
As stated previously, floor treatments and floor maintenance
methods vary with the use of the room or unit. It also varies
with the type of floor. Since much of the discussion under the
headings of sealing, waxing, and oiling referred primarily to
wood floors, that part of the wood floor maintenance procedure
will not be repeated here. In general the treatment of classroom
floors preferred by most janitors is first to produce a good sur-
face. If the floor has been sanded, all loose dust should be wiped
up with a burlap cloth or a Turkish towel before a finish is ap-
plied. Next, the janitor applies about all the penetrating seal
that the floor will take. It is often desirable to buff off the loose
wood nap before the second coat of seal is applied. The buffing
may be started before the seal has completely dried. After the
surface has dried the second coat of seal is applied. After the
seal has dried the wax finish is applied.
If the floors need filling, and open grained floors like oak
often do, a filler can be made by one of several processes.
1. A simple effective filler can be made by mixing the dust made by
sanding with a good quick drying seal.
2. Another filler can be made by mixing one part flour, one part corn
starch, one part Japan dryer, and one part linseed oil. Mix powders,
add dryer, and then linseed oil.
242 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
3. Stick shellac or plastic wood make good fillers, particularly for cracks.
4. A satisfactory filler may be made of newspaper pulp and alum boiled
and mixed.
5. Another filler may be made from powdered silex or silica and linseed
oil or turpentine and Japan dryer.
Fillers should be made into a fairly stiff paste. Most janitors
apply filler after the first coat of seal, others feel that less seal is
required if the filler is applied first. The filler should be rubbed
over the floor in a manner to fill pores and cracks. It should be
buffed in and all surplus removed before applying other treat-
ments.
In caring for wood floors the janitor should not apply too
much wax, use only good seals and waxes, and use no oily
sweeping compounds on wax or seal finishes. He should not
attempt to paint or seal over old wax. Worn spots should be
retouched as soon as they appear in the traffic lanes or the
aisles.
Maintaining Masonry Floors
Marble
Marble floors where the floor slabs are of equal hardness wear
well. However, many problems arise in the care of marble. The
marble is sufficiently porous to absorb stains and one cleaning
may injure the surface. Oils, tar, and soaps may stain the mar-
ble. Acids will react on the marble and cause the floor to disinte-
grate. Coarse abrasives are harmful to marble finish. Stains may
be removed by a paste poultice but there is some danger that the
poultice may pit the surface of the marble. Clean water without
any cleaning compound is usually sufficient for marble. The
janitor should avoid crystallization from the use of strong salts
or alkalines. Damp mopping with water containing a mild
abrasive or a small amount of T.S.P. will usually provide all
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 243
of the treatment needed for cleaning. Sealing or waxing are not
usually necessary.
Concrete Floors
There are many concrete floor surfaces in school buildings.
Many of these have not been properly constructed, surfaced, or
cured. Some of these dust and become pitted. The dust or sand
that arises serves as an abrasive to cause further wear of the con-
crete and of the neighboring room floors to which it may be
carried. Concrete floors are subject to deterioration from the
effect of acids, from greases, or from strong alkalies. In cleaning
concrete floors the janitor should be extremely careful in the use
of gasoline or other inflammable liquids. A mild solution of
T.S.P. in warm water will usually clean the floor.
In order to preserve concrete floors many treatments have
been tried. Wax provides a slick surface but does not seem to
stand up. Concrete paints or surface treatments containing rub-
ber asphalt or other flexible materials have been tried. Several
manufacturers have developed paint treatments that wear well
and that give good service. However, not many janitors report
complete satisfaction with any concrete paint preparation for
floors. The impact of sharp heels on the unyielding concrete
seems to cut through the finish. Painted concrete floors worn
into visible traffic lanes are unattractive and are difficult to
maintain.
Concrefe Seals
Probably the most satisfactory treatment to prevent dusting
and pitting is to seal the floors. Many floors are sealed and hard-
ened with some metallic oxide seal when constructed. Some of
these seals add color and seem quite effective. Many of the floors
were not properly sealed and hardened when laid and the jani-
244 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
tor must apply some treatment that will preserve the floors and
prevent further dusting. Some of these pre-hardened floors need
re-sealing in a year or two. There are a number of seals that may
be purchased, most of which are quite effective. If the janitor
does not have these he can prepare his own seal. He may use any
of the following methods. (A part of these formulas are out-
lined in "Circular Letter No. 139," October 28, 1921 from the
United States Bureau of Standards, and in "Circular Letter
No. 42," issued in February 1923 by the same bureau.)
1. Aluminum Sulphate treatment
Add 2 1/2 pounds aluminum sulphate to one gallon water and 2 cc sul-
phuric acid. Mix in barrel or stone jar — stir well. Dilute mixture l/2
for first coat and second one applied one day apart. After another
day add last coat 2 parts solution and one part water. Apply with
brush. This seal is durable and economical.
2. Magnesium fluosilicate applied in three coats. Mix first coat 1 to 2
with water, second coat 1 to 1, and third coat 2 to 1 with water.
This seal is durable.
3. Sodium silicate is probably the most economical and the most easily
applied of all the home made seals. The sodium silicate (sometimes
called water glass) may be purchased at from fifty to ninety cents
per gallon. It is an alkaline, syrupy, viscous liquid. For sealing con-
crete those varieties containing more silica and alkalies seem prefera-
ble. These are mixed about one gallon to four gallons of water. One
gallon of the mixture should cover about 1000 square feet unless the
concrete is in bad condition. A second coat will probably be needed.
The first coat should dry twenty-four hours before the second coat is
applied.
The seals listed here will give a sheen and will retard dusting.
They will wear out but can be replaced in worn areas without
showing the lap. Sealed concrete floors may be cleaned daily
with the same type of tools used for other treated floors. Before
applying the seal, all dirt should be removed. The floor should
be swept to remove dust and sand. In applying the seal over
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 245
worn spots, it is not necessary to apply near the walls where
little wear has occurred.
Terrazzo Floor Care
Terrazzo floors are a combination of cement and marble or
granite chips. These floors are hard and smooth. They may be
mopped with the wet mop and scrubbed with the scrubbing
machine. As a rule, these floors are easily maintained. However,
many of these floors crack. Since they contain a cement binder
they are subject to blooming and pitting.
Varnish is sometimes applied to prevent dusting, but it may
crack and peel, and may discolor the terrazzo. Waxes make the
floor too slick. Probably the best treatment is that of sealing.
There are a number of good seals on the market. They are ap-
plied in the same manner and provide comparable results on
terrazzo floors. Terrazzo can be made too slick for safety. One
of the janitor's tasks is to provide the surface needed without
making the floor slippery. Heavy soaps and strong alkalies
should be avoided in cleaning.
Mcrgnes/fe Floors
Since these floors have a cement base they should have about
the same treatment as that provided for terrazzo and concrete.
The magnesite floors are porous and need sealing.
file Floors
Tile floors are quite impervious and may be cleaned by mop-
ping. Heavy soaps will pile up on the floor and make them
slick. Acids or strong alkalies will attack the grouting or binder
between the tile and may cause the tile to loosen. Their use
should be avoided. Quarry tile may be inclined to bloom and
should be sealed. Waxing is not necessary.
246 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
In the care of masonry floors the janitor should avoid using
strong salts or alkalies that may lead to floor injury. He should
also avoid the use of acids on masonry floors. When either acids
or alkalies are used, the floor should be thoroughly rinsed.
Maintaining Composition Floors
The maintenance problems of the janitor increased with the
introduction of composition floors. The various materials used
made it necessary for him to study the materials used and to
know how to maintain these floors. One problem that arises is
the prevention of scuffing and denting of the floors. Sometimes
these floors are laid on concrete that is damp or that has not had
time to cure. This may lead to softening in linoleum floors.
Dampness may also cause linoleum binding glue to give way
thus permitting the floor to bulge or buckle.
Linoleum Floors
Linoleum floors are usually glazed with lacquer or some sim-
ilar substance at the factory. The use of any abrasive cleaners
may cut this finish and expose the linoleum to the effects of
water and wear. The linoleum is made up of a combination of
linseed oil and cork chips, so no cleaner containing a solvent for
linseed oil should be permitted on it. Corn oil, mineral, or
cotton seed oils and free alkalies are harmful to these floors. The
surface must be protected. Frequent washing may destroy this
surface. In fact, it is often stated that linoleum floors may be
washed out before being worn out. They may be mopped oc-
casionally with water and a neutral soap, linseed oil soap pre-
ferred. If properly cared for no new seal need be applied. Spirit
solvent waxes are harmful and should not be applied. Water
emulsion waxes with a low bakelite content may be applied in
thin coats. Wax treatments of this type bring out the color and
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 247
are essential for linoleum preservation. Waxes loaded with
heavy gums make the surface too slick. The floor should be kept
dry. Oil stains may be removed with a cloth dampened with
hydrogen peroxide.
Cork Floors
These floors often need to be buffed with steel wool before
waxing. The cork chips are bound together with a glue binder
and no cleaner that will dissolve the binder should be used. It
should be kept dry and surfaced with a thin coat of water emul-
sion wax.
Rubber Floors
Rubber floor tile are usually made with a hard plate-like sur-
face by a process called calendering. In caring for rubber floors
the janitor should try to preserve this finish. Abrasives, oils, and
alkaline soaps are particularly harmful to this finish. Naphtha
and other mineral oil products are destructive to rubber. For
this reason, spirit solvent waxes should never be used. Oils make
the rubber spongy. The rubber is not particularly susceptible to
the effects of water but it may deteriorate with age and check or
crack on the surface from the effects of air and sunlight. The
light colored rubber tile seems to check worse than does the
dark colored floor. The hard tile does not seem to deteriorate as
rapidly as does that with a soft cushion back.
The rubber does not soil readily and can be cleaned easily.
The surface should be protected from air and sunlight. A light
application of water emulsion wax may be applied. The floor
may be cleaned with the dust mop and occasionally by mopping.
Soaps are not needed. However, the water may be softened
with T.S.P. If the floor checks or becomes soft it may be re-
surfaced with steel wool. Damaged tile may be replaced.
248 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Mastic and Asphalt Tile
Asphalt tile is particularly adapted for ground floor or base-
ment surfaces. If it gets too dry it may crack. Many janitors
find it advisable to mop these floors occasionally to keep them
moist. This often creates a problem since the water emulsion
wax may be removed by the process. The asphalt tile are particu-
larly susceptible to damage from oils or any petroleum products.
Oils cause them to disintegrate and become gummy. Spirit
solvent waxes should never be used. It may be washed and
should be surfaced with a water emulsion wax. The wax used
should not contain an excessive amount of gums or the surface
may become slippery. With the proper wax treatment the tile
will remain pliable but not too soft. The footing will be safe
and sure. Sand should be kept off the floor since it will mar
the finish. Steel wool may be used to remove soft spots. Dam-
aged tile may be taken up and replaced.
Care of Gymnasium Floors
In many schools it is necessary to use a gynasium floor for
dancing or auditorium activities. For dancing a slick floor is
needed. Corn meal may be used but it cuts the finish. Shoes
with leather soles are hard on the gynasium finish. Borax
flakes or crystals sprinkled on the floor provide the slipperi-
ness needed for dancing and will to some extent protect the
floor. A damp mop may be used to remove the borax crystals.
If the floor remains slick it may be mopped with a mop dipped
in warm water.
M/sce//aneous
One of the first principles of floor maintenance is to provide
a suitable surface. A second principle is protection. A third is
SCHOOL FLOOR MAINTENANCE 249
care and upkeep. The development of a suitable surface has
been outlined. One of the first steps in protection is to keep dirt
out of the building. Rubber, steel, or cocoa mats, scrapers,
brushes, and brooms should be provided as an aid to shoe clean-
ing before pupils enter the building. These are vital to floor
protection. In the care and upkeep of a building all dirt, sand,
and grit should be kept off the floor. Bleached spots and mar-
ring stains should be removed as soon as possible. The school
floor can provide a beautiful base or background for an attrac-
tive school room if properly maintained. On the other hand,
the lack of an attractive floor may mar the appearance of any
otherwise attractive room.
Chapter 12
Heating and Ventilating Systems
THE EFFICIENT SCHOOL janitor should be familiar with the im-
portance of and the principles involved in a modern system
of heating and ventilating school buildings. He should know
the various methods of generating heat, the types of generating
units used, and the methods of distributing this heat. It is
essential that he understand the principles of combustion and
the value of the fuels used. He should know how to care for
his fires to obtain the greatest heat value with a minimum of
effort and of fuel. He should know how to care for the pumps,
fans, and other devices used in a modern heating and ventilat-
ing system.
The discussion in this and the following sections is not in-
tended as a scientific exposition of heating and ventilation. It
is developed for the purpose of aiding the janitor or school
official in a study of his system, the principles involved, and
operating practices that may lead to economical, efficient opera-
tion. Principles and practices that do not apply directly to
school buildings are omitted. Figures denoting measurements
and quantities have of necessity been given as approximate
estimates. These principles and practices are outlined in de-
scriptive form rather than as definite rules and regulations.
This is done on the theory that the modern school janitor-
engineer is an intelligent man. He will have a wider and deeper
knowledge of his job than can be obtained in a list of rules and
250
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 251
regulations on a "do" and "don't" basis. In a few cases definite
suggested regulations are listed.
In school buildings where a number of pupils are brought to-
gether in one room or group and heat and ventilation are closely
related, it is almost impossible to discuss them separately. The
heating system is supposed to provide the temperature needed.
The ventilating system aids in diffusing the heat to the vari-
ous parts of the building and in removing excess heat. In some
types of heating systems, a part of the ventilation is provided
by the warm air brought in. The exhaust ventilation is aided
by the air pressure built up. Either a lack or an excess of heat
or of air movement may make less efficient the other system.
There was a time when school buildings were heated by open
fires in huge fireplaces or by crude box stoves. Some of these
stoves are still in use. The stoves provided a direct heat that
often did not extend very far from the heating unit. Many of
us can remember the old open, stove heated rooms where the
pupils roasted on one side and froze on the other side. The
stoves were difficult to service and gave rise to much dirt in the
room. The room stoves were finally replaced by one large
(stove) heating unit located in the basement and the heat was
piped to the rooms, or perhaps even to several buildings. The
development of the central heating system has created a num-
ber of problems in heat distribution and in heat regulation. The
modern heating and ventilating plants can provide controlled
heat of the temperature desired, with positive air changes, and
the occupants of the room will not realize that any change is
taking place.
Importance of Adequate Heating
Experience and tests indicate that children do more and better
work when they are comfortable. If a room is too cold pupils
252 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
cannot work in comfort. If it is too warm they become slug-
gish. Physicians tell us that controlled temperature within a
desirable range, for pupils seated in a school room, is essential
to promote healthful conditions.
Principles of Heating
An efficient heating plant should maintain the desired room
temperature regardless of outside temperature. In order to over-
come variations in outside temperature, it is necessary that the
heating plant be flexible in operation. It must be able to over-
come the lowest possible temperature yet be able to operate
efficiently when the outside temperature is only a little below
that desired in the room. The pupils in laboratory and gymna-
sium units are more active than are the pupils in other class-
rooms and do not need the same amount of heat. The heating
system should be flexible enough and should be adjusted to
provide the temperature needed in each of these rooms. The
effective temperature in the classroom may be affected by the
moisture in the air and the air motion. In general, classrooms
should have a temperature range of from 67 to 71 ° F. with no
rapid change of more than two degrees.
Hecrf Transfer
In practice the heat is generated in a central furnace located
either in or out of the building. The initial heat is obtained by
the rapid oxidation or burning of fuel. However, this heat
source is usually too far from the classrooms for the direct heat
of the fire to have any effect on room temperature. To obtain
heat for the classrooms the heat from the furnace fire is
brought into contact with a conducting surface, usually some
form of iron. The heat conducted through this metal is trans-
ferred to some flexible medium such as water or air that may
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 253
be sent to the classroom. In some heating plants the heated
water rises or is forced to the classrooms. In other cases the
water is converted into steam which is sent to the rooms. In hot
air systems the heated air rises or is forced to the classrooms.
In all cases the room units are designed to retain the heated
medium until it has given up a considerable part of its heat to
the room air.
With hot air systems the warm air enters and is mixed with
the room air, thus tempering both the room air and the in-
coming air. The heat from classroom steam or hot water units
is delivered in one of three methods. These are conduction,
convection, and radiation. Not much room heat is provided
through conduction, which means the transfer of heat along
and through a substance such as a metal rod. Convective heat
is that which is carried by an air current. Radiated heat is that
which is thrown out or off as an excess from a unit like a stove
or a radiator. The latter two methods of heat transfer are used
extensively in school room heating and are outlined in more
detail.
Heaf Diffusion
A convective heater located in or out of the room with a
forced air circulation around it provides the most rapid method
of heating a school room. In some cases this circulation is in-
duced by shields or ducts which direct moving air around the
unit. In other cases the air movement is accelerated by the use
of fans. Some method of air circulation is the only practical one
for heating large areas with high ceilings.
Radiating heat units are used in many classrooms. These
radiators are located in the room and give up their heat to the
air surrounding them. Radiant heat travels in straight lines and
like the sun's rays gives up little heat to the air, but does warm
254 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
objects in its path. Unless there is some air movement this heat
does not reach all parts of the room. In the installation of direct
radiation an attempt is made to overcome this difficulty by
locating the radiators under the windows so that the warm air
rising from them will mix with the air coming through the
windows and thus be carried over the room. This makes use of
both radiant and convective heat.
This spreading or diffusion of heat is important. If the heat
is not properly diffused it rises to the ceiling. Some parts of the
room in the corners and near the floor may be cold when the
temperature near the ceiling is much too high for comfort. This
condition is particularly noticeable in some of the older base-
ment rooms heated by ceiling radiators. Methods of distributing
and diffusing room heat will be discussed more fully under
the heading of ventilation (Chapter 12).
Methods of Delivery
For many years it has been customary to designate or name
the heating system from the type or method of delivery. There
are many different types of heating plants that deliver their
heat in the same manner. For this reason, it seems better to
discuss methods of delivery separate from the types of heat
generating units. Heat is delivered to the classrooms from or
through one or two types of units (not systems). All units that
are located in the room and deliver their heat to the room are
direct heating units, regardless of the method of diffusing heat
through the room. These include stoves, gas-steam radiators,
steam or hot water radiators, unit heaters or ventilators, and
electric heaters if located in the room to be heated. Some of
these are convectors and some are radiating heaters.
The indirect heat dispensing units are located outside the
room and the air heated by these units is sent to the room.
HE AT ING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 255
In some cases the heat dispensing units are radiators located in
ducts or tunnels below the rooms. Air passing over these coils
is tempered before delivery to the room. In other cases the air
is heated by being passed over a furnace. The latter is called a
hot air furnace. The third method of heat delivery is known
as a split method. This method is a combination of the direct
and the indirect method. One or more direct dispensing units
are located in the room. In addition, tempered air is brought
into the room after having been passed over some indirect units
located elsewhere in the building.
The direct method and the indirect methods may supply heat
generated by either steam or non-steam (hot air) systems. The
split method is supplied by a steam heating system. It should
be noted that all methods depend on the classroom air for their
efficiency. The heat may be carried from the furnace to the
room by steam, hot water, or air. When it reaches the room it
must be transferred to the room air in order to become effective
in controlling room temperatures.
Types of Heating Systems
As stated previously, some heat generating units are located in
the room to be heated. These include stoves, room gas burners,
and electric stoves. These are all isolated or segregated units
and are not used extensively except in rural schools. During
recent years a newer type of room gas heater has been installed
in a number of school rooms. One of these units is known as a
gas-steam radiator. The radiator has a gas burner in its base
and generates room heat from the water or steam in the radia-
tor. The other unit is sometimes called a gas unit heater. It has
a fan which creates air movement around the heating unit. This
unit is best adapted for use in shops or in large areas that are to
be heated for only short periods of time. Each of these units
256 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
need exhaust ventilation for the gas fumes. They should also be
equipped with both safety valves or controls and hand valves
for manual operation. These units present some hazards and
are not often recommended by school heating engineers.
Sfecrm Heating Systems
In general, all steam heating systems generate their heat in
boilers attached to or connected with a fuel consuming furnace.
While there are several types of steam generating units (boilers)
the differences in steam heating systems are primarily in the
method of distribution. The distributing methods are usually
classified as one pipe, two pipe, and vapor vacuum systems.
There is some overlapping and much similarity between these
systems.
One Pipe Steam
There is only one line connecting the radiators to the boiler
in the one pipe system. The steam line usually makes a com-
plete circuit leaving the boiler through a header located at the
top of the boiler and returning at a point near the bottom of the
boiler. In this system the steam line must carry both steam and
the condensed water returning to the boiler. The steam line
must be located under the rooms. The steam enters the radiator
at one end near the bottom and the condensed water leaves by
the same route. This makes it necessary for the radiator to slant
upward from this port. In a few of the older installations, the
steam main sloped upward from the boiler and returning water
flowed backward against the flow of the steam. In later and
better installations the steam line is highest just over the boiler
and slopes downward from this point. All condensation return-
ing to the line flows along with the steam.
The one pipe distributing system is installed only in small
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 257
buildings now. With this system it is desirable to have air valves
on the radiators, otherwise the air in the radiators would block
the inflow of steam. Some of the newer air vents are adjusted
to permit air to escape but to prevent any air from entering the
radiators through these vents. It is contended that such vents
help create a partial vacuum in the radiators thus speeding up
the heating process. While this system can be made fairly effec-
tive, the water in the steam lines cools the steam and makes it
more difficult to supply dry steam to each radiator. Partially
closed radiator valves and water pockets may cause gurgling
and hammering, while air blocks may prevent a free flow of
steam.
Two-Pipe System
The two-pipe system is so arranged that steam travels from
the boiler to the radiator and the condensation travels back to
the boiler in another set of pipes. This avoids having the con-
densed water and the steam in contact in the steam main, and
thus avoids reducing the efficiency of the steam. In this system
it is often necessary to bleed the steam main into the return
line at various points to prevent the accumulation of water
from condensed steam in the main. Two-pipe jobs are generally
trapped at the radiator with traps that permit the passage of
water and cold air from the radiator but which close at the
temperature required for steam. This means that steam is not
supposed to pass through a trap, but that the trap will open to
permit all water and air to pass. This system is more effective
with the installation of a pump or vacuum return traps which
pull water and air out of the return mains thus making the
system react more quickly. With this type of system sufficient
heat is usually provided with a steam pressure of from zero to
two and one-half or three pounds. In poorly installed systems
258 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
where pockets have been allowed to develop in the steam mains
it may be necessary to maintain a steam pressure of ten or
twelve pounds to force the steam through these water pockets.
This condition can usually be corrected by eliminating the low
spots in the lines. In this system the radiator is tilted so that the
low end is near the water outlet. The steam may enter either
near the top or bottom of the radiator. The live steam mains
should slope with the flow but may extend around the building
either under the rooms or in the attic. The return lines are
located below the radiators.
Vapor Vacuum Sysfems
The vapor vacuum system is really an improved type of a
two pipe system. It has a vacuum pump connected with the re-
turn lines. This pump creates a partial vacuum in the return
lines thus aiding the flow of the heating medium. This vacuum
is gauged (measured) in equivalent inches of mercury. The
pump is adjusted to start and stop automatically and to return
water from the condensed steam to the boiler. Because of the
lesser boiler pressure with this system, water is supposed to
steam at a slightly lower temperature.
Sfeam Hof Blast
In some school buildings the steam is piped to radiators
located in a tunnel under the classrooms. There may be one
set of radiators supplying the tunnel but usually one radiator
is located in the opening or duct leading from the tunnel up to
each room. A central fan builds up an air pressure in the tunnel
forcing air over the radiators and up to the rooms. In some
cases room heat control is obtained by thermostatic regulation
of steam flow to the radiator or by controlling the wing or fin
that directs a part of the tunnel air flow into the duct leading
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 259
to each room. This system is sometimes called a hot blast steam
system.
Sp//f System
A combination of direct radiation and a hot blast system is
called a split system. The tunnel and fan set up are similar to
that of the hot blast system. Some radiators are located in the
room as in any direct radiation job. In this case, the air is gen-
erally delivered to a room at a lower temperature than when
the hot blast system is used. Automatic controls on the steam
flow to the room radiators are used to regulate room tempera-
ture in each room.
Unit Heaters
In order to provide individual control and to overcome some
of the objections to the open room radiators some schools have
installed a system of unit heaters (sometimes called unit ventila-
tors). These units make use of the direct room radiator (usually
of copper or other good conducting metal) and add a fan or
set of fans to create a convective heater. Some of these units have
automatically adjusted mixing dampers that regulate the mix-
ing of recirculated room air and of the fresh air brought in
through a port at the rear of the unit. Another and larger type
of unit heater is used to heat large areas like gymnasium units.
These units do provide air movement and heat diffusion in the
room. Some of the newer units equipped with silent fans create
little noise, but some of the older units equipped with poorly
insulated propeller type fans are quite noisy. In installing these
units it is necessary to wire for and to provide a separate motor
for each fan. The fact that the current for the unit heater fans
is usually taken from and metered with the lighting current
makes it difficult to estimate this cost.
260 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Steam Generating Boilers
Steam generating boilers for school buildings may be of cast
iron or steel construction. The cast iron units are usually made
up of "U" shaped sections set on end (inverted) on top of a
cast iron base. The base serves as a part of the ash pit. The "U"
shaped sections are hollow and are fitted together with grooves
and interlocking nipples to permit a flow of water and steam
between sections. Special flat sections form the front and rear
ends. The sections are held together by long bolts extending
from front to rear. (Since there is some expansion when the
boiler is heated these bolts should not bind tightly.) Open ports
are so arranged in the sections that the hot gases from the fire
may flow at least twice through the sections in order to use
most of their heat in heating the water. The heating bed or
furnace usually extends the full length of the boiler and the
length of the boiler is usually limited in the number of sections
that may be used. Such boilers are classed as low pressure
boilers, according to engineers.
Steel Boilers
Steel boilers may be classified under several different head-
ings. One classification may be made on the basis of the steam
pressure carried. Heating boilers carrying a steam pressure of
over 15 Ibs. are classed as high pressure (heating, not power)
boilers, and ones carrying less pressure are classed as low pres-
sure boilers. Another classification may be made on the basis of
the setting. Those boilers set on a brick foundation and partially
or wholly encased in a brick wall with the furnace outside or
below the boiler are classed as brick set boilers. Those having
the furnace encased in a part of the boiler with a water leg ex-
tending down on each side of the furnace or fire box, are usu-
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 261
ally called fire box or water leg boilers. They are sometimes
called portables.
Boilers are also classified according to the direction the flues
run and the method of circulating the smoke and hot gases.
Those boilers having vertical flues are called upright or vertical
boilers. They are not used extensively in school heating. Those
boilers having the flues running from front to back are called
horizontal boilers. If the boiler passes the gases from the furnace
to a smoke box at the other end of the boiler and then returns
it to a smoke box or exhaust chamber over the furnace, from
where it enters the smoke stack, it is known as a horizontal re-
turn tube (H.R.T.) boiler. One type of return tube (H.R.T.)
boiler is sometimes called a three pass boiler, since the hot
gases pass back under the boiler, then through tubes to a front
smoke box, then up and back through another set of tubes to
the rear end exhaust smoke box. If the flues extend only from
the front to the back of the boiler so that the smoke and gases
pass only once through the boiler it may be known by one of
several names such as straight fired or straight tube or even as
a one pass boiler in contrast with the return tube (R.T.) or
double pass boiler.
Boilers may also be classed according to the manner of firing.
Those with a double set of grates which are fired on the upper
grates are known as down draft boilers. They are also called
smokeless boilers. While they probably do consume more of the
gases, the name is to some extent a misnomer. Those boilers
having only one set of grates with the draft coming from the
ash pit up through the grates are known as updraft boilers.
There are several other names or descriptive titles indicating
some particular characteristic of the boiler. Some of these are
marine, locomotive, electric welded, or seamless, etc. However,
the types discussed here cover most of the steel school heating
262 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
boilers. It should be understood that there is much overlapping
of types.
Boiler Rating
There are several methods of rating the capacity or possible
output of school heating boilers. High pressure boilers may be
rated in horse power (H.P.) generated. This rating is usually
of little value to school janitors. However, 1 H.P. is often re-
ferred to as sufficient energy to heat 135 to 140 square feet of
equivalent direct radiation (E.D.R.). The E.D.R. is the amount
of heat service that will give off 240 B.t.u.'s per hour when filled
with steam at a temperature of about 215° (under pressure)
and surrounded with 70° air. One square foot of steam radia-
tion thus becomes 1 E.D.R. under these conditions. Steam
heating boilers are usually rated on the square feet of radiation
they will serve. Boilers are also rated on the furnace grate area,
but variations in the type of fuel used probably make this
measure less valuable than one based on the boiler area exposed
to the furnace heat.
Hot Water Heating Systems
A few schools are heated by hot water systems. The water is
heated in a hot water heater or boiler. This system may operate
on a gravity basis or may have a circulating pump. In the grav-
ity system the water is heated and rises through the lines to the
radiators. The cold water returns through the return lines to be
heated and rise again. An expansion tank is located somewhere
above the top radiator to care for the expansion of the water
when heated. This type of system does maintain regular heat.
It warms up slowly after it has cooled off during the night.
This system requires more radiation than does the steam system.
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 263
Since the radiators and lines are constantly filled with water
this system must be protected against freezing.
Hot Air Heating Systems
During recent years a number of schools have installed hot or
warm air heating plants. These are of two types. One is known
as a gravity plant and the other as a fan or forced air type. In
each type the air is brought into direct contact with the metal
housing of the furnace after which it rises or is forced into the
classrooms. The gravity system is limited to small buildings
where the air will not have to travel any considerable distance
before entering the classroom. It is generally installed in small
buildings where no electricity is available for fan motors.
The fan forced or fan furnace system is more flexible. In
operation, it is quite similar to the steam hot-blast system except
that the air obtains its heat directly from the furnace rather
than through tempering steam radiators. The tempered air
may rise to the rooms in one trunk line or by individual ducts.
In either case definite controls are needed. With this system it
is possible for the air to be dried out (scorched) when it comes
into contact with the hot metal around the furnace. Manu-
facturers or hot air systems now claim to have overcome this
difficulty by a humidifier that throws moisture into the air
stream. Since the air from around the furnace goes directly to
the classrooms it is essential that it be free from any furnace
gases that might seep through furnace cracks. All furnaces
should be absolutely leak proof.
Hot air systems are rated on the basis of the B.t.u. output
rather than on the radiation needed. Air ducts are based on the
air speed at the smallest diameter of the duct. Room registers
are computed on the square inches of clear air passage area.
264 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Air Circulation and Controls
Fan driven air circulating systems are usually pressure systems
and there may be more exfiltration (leakage) than with a non-
pressure system. Circulating air systems are also subject to the
effect of open windows and wind currents. For these and other
reasons automatic control of dampers regulating the flow to
each room is desirable. Air circulation systems will not be effec-
tive unless some method is provided for exhausting used air
from the rooms. In practice a part of the air is exhausted by the
ventilating system and a part of it is returned to be recirculated.
If this air is returned through clean ducts there will probably
be little dust picked up by the air stream. If the air is returned
over dirty corridor floors as is sometimes done, the air may be-
come polluted with dust. One criticism that has been made of
any warm air distributing system is that of noise. This noise
comes from two sources, small ducts through which the air
must pass at rapid speed, and the noise made by the fans. The
first can be corrected by installing larger ducts. The fan noise
can be overcome by installing multiblade fans (the squirrel
cage type) and by connecting the fan housing to the air ducts
with a heavy canvas connection.
Factors in Heating Efficiency
There are a number of factors that must be considered when
attempting to secure efficient economical results from the heat-
ing system. Fuel, method of firing, and plant operation will be
discussed in some detail in Chapter 14. Other factors such as
installation, building exposure, draft, humidity in the air, and
temperature control will be outlined briefly in the following
paragraphs.
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 265
Installation
In many cases the janitor will have no part in planning the
heating plant. In other cases he may find it necessary to make
some changes in the plant. Heating plant efficiency depends
to a great extent on clean flues and a clean furnace. If the boiler
room is small and if there is not sufficient room to permit the
flues to be cleaned easily the whole system may suffer from a
lack of care. The furnace (fire box) should be high enough
to permit combustible gases to be burned before coming into
contact with cooling surfaces. In some cases conditions may be
improved by raising the boiler. Another installation factor is
that of pipe insulation. Exposed pipes or ducts make possible a
heat loss, usually in a place where no heat is needed. Exposed
pipes may lower the temperature of air or steam which is being
sent to distant rooms. Other factors such as the length of the
fire box and smoke flow are also important. Radiator installa-
tion may become a factor in heating efficiency. Tempering
radiators in corridors often prevent a flow of cold air into class-
rooms. In direct radiation the location of radiators under win-
dows permits mixing the warm air from the radiator with cool
air from the window and aids in preventing cold drafts. Radia-
tors painted in gray, black, or some other suitable color will be
more efficient than those with either a bronze or aluminum
finish. Radiator shields help create air circulation in the room.
Building Exposure
The exposure of the building may play an important part in
heating efficiency. The janitor cannot control exposure but he
can have some control over heat loss through infiltration of
cold air and exfiltration of warm air. Window caulking and
266 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
weather stripping of openings may check a large part of this
loss.
Furnace Draft
Furnace draft plays an important part in fuel combustion.
The chimney is erected to help produce the desired draft. Since
smoke travels upward in a sort of spiral motion, a square or
round flue will be more efficient than a flat or oblong one of
equal area. A lack of chimney height may be corrected by ex-
tending the flue. Chimney leaks should be detected and closed.
Relative Humidity
The amount of moisture in the schoolroom air is important
to the comfort of the occupants. The heat required in the room
depends on the amount of moisture, too. The term relative
humidity refers to the present air moisture in terms of a per-
centage of the total that the same air could carry (without
dropping) at the same temperature. For instance, if the air in a
room at a given temperature could carry six quarts of water
and actually has in it three quarts, the relative humidity is fifty
per cent. Warm air will carry more water, hence, when air is
warmed it may contain the same moisture but the relative
humidity will be lower unless more water is added. A relative
humidity of from 30 to 60 or 65% is desirable for schoolrooms.
Experience shows that less heat is required to maintain com-
fortable conditions if the relative humidity is high. A tempera-
ture of 68° with a relative humidity of 62% gives about the
same comfort in feeling as does a 70° temperature with a rela-
tive humidity of 47% ; or 72° with 32% ; or 75° with 15% ; or
77° with 2%. We also know that if we raise the room tempera-
ture from 70° to 75° we use about fifteen per cent more fuel,
and if we raise it to 77° it is necessary to use about twenty-two
HE AT ING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 267
per cent more fuel than is used at 70°. Thus relative humidity
may become an important factor in heating costs. Many mod-
ern heating plants are equipped with an atomizing spray or an
evaporating humidifier to provide air moisture. Some of these
plants are also equipped with humidistats to control the amount
of moisture to be added. These regulators may control the ac-
tual moisture provided but since relative humidity evaluation re-
quires a double measure involving both moisture and tempera-
ture these regulators are not usually exact in operation.
Pup/7 Heaf
In order to understand room heating and its control it is
necessary to know how this heat is developed. When the janitor
comes to the building in the morning he sees that the tempera-
ture in each room is raised. When the pupils arrive, often
chilled, they admit a quantity of cold air as they enter the
building. For a while after they enter the room it may seem
comfortable. However, these pupils may each give off from
200 to 240 B.t.u. of heat per hour. This heat, added to that
provided by the heating plant, may make the room too warm
and make some control necessary.
Radiator and Latent Heat
The radiator heating system uses what is known as Latent
Heat. This heat is best described in the following manner. It is
the heat required to change the physical condition without
changing the temperature. Its use in this case is as follows. It
requires about 970 B.t.u.'s to change one pound of water from
a temperature of 212° F. (still water) over into steam which
will still have a temperature of 212° unless compressed. This is
the latent heat or the heat of evaporation. This steam is sent to
the radiators where it is held in check by the traps on the
268 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
radiators. While held in the radiator the steam condenses and
in so doing gives up its latent heat which is used to temper the
air in the room.
Temperature Control
Temperature control may be an important factor in heating
costs and in heating efficiency. We have previously mentioned
the added cost and waste of fuel with high temperature in the
classrooms. Temperature control also aids in maintaining com-
fortable working conditions for the pupils and in protecting
their health. A constant classroom temperature of from 68° to
71 or 72° F. is desirable. If a teacher does not neglect this duty,
she may still find it difficult to overcome great excesses or
deficiencies in the heat provided by the heating system.
There are several types of temperature controls. The re-
ducing valve on high pressure steam systems is designed pri-
marily to reduce steam pressure. However, since steam under
pressure has a higher temperature, this valve has some effect
in controlling temperature.
Perhaps the most common type of temperature control is the
pneumatic system. This system is operated by air pressure
generated by a pump in the control room. A pipe from a central
storage tank is run to each controlled radiator. A room ther-
mostat is regulated to provide the impulse that closes or opens
the valve in the steam main serving that room. In a few build-
ings one thermostat located in a corridor or elsewhere in the
building is used as the only control. These have some value but
cannot give complete control for each room. Other systems
modeled somewhat after the pneumatic systems have been de-
veloped. These operate wholly within the room. Their use has
not become general. Unit heaters may be controlled by the
pneumatic controls which shut off or turn on the steam supply,
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 269
or by an electric system that regulates the dampers controlling
the amount of fresh air brought in. The hot air systems are
sometimes controlled by a pneumatic system and sometimes by
an electric system. Under either plan the dampers are regulated
to control the amount of heated air delivered to the room. In
some instances controls have been placed on the trunk air lines
and on the damper controlling the inflow of fresh air to the
whole system. Neither these central controls nor the hand
dampers set in the trunk line give adequate control of the air
flow to and the temperature in each room.
The general controls listed here are only a few of those that
have been developed. They represent the general types. Others
have been developed to control various units, combustion rate,
or the heat output. One general regulator has been devised to
regulate fuel combustion on the basis of outside air tempera-
tures. It is actuated by an outside regulating device. Another
device has a thermostatic unit in the smoke chimney. This
device is supposed to close certain dampers when the tempera-
ture of flue gases reaches a certain point. It is thought that
these units prevent excessive fuel waste through the control of
smoke stack loss. One control device cuts off the automatic
stoker when steam pressure reaches a designated point. Another
controls an intake water valve operated by an internal float.
It is designed to admit makeup water to the boiler when the
water level gets low. The steam radiator traps also serve as
regulators.
Radiating Units
In steam and hot water heating systems heat is transferred to
the room through some type of radiator. In some of the earlier
systems this radiator was a series of steam pipes through which
steam flowed unchecked. The pressure in the return lines was
270 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
little less than that in the supply lines. The boiler was required
to work against the pressure in the return line. Modern sys-
tems use a heat dispensing unit or radiator. Some of these
radiators are of cast iron and some are of copper or aluminum.
The radiator should have a large heating surface to transfer
heat readily to the surrounding air. The modern radiator has
slender tubes that expose a large area to the air. Some radiators
are equipped with shields or fans that direct currents of air
around the radiator to hasten the heat absorbing process. In
order to obtain full value from the latent heat in steam it should
be retained in the radiator until it condenses. For this purpose
traps are installed at the outlet end of the radiator. They contain
a thermostatic element which operates a valve that opens or
closes the line. The thermostatic element is often made up of a
bellows-like device that expands at steam temperature thus
forcing a plunger valve down to close the opening. It opens at
water or air temperature to permit water or air passage. There
are several types of traps, but all are designed to serve the same
purpose.
Ventilating Systems
Many theories and principles have been developed on school
room ventilation. At one time it was stated that the carbon
dioxide given off by pupils in the room was poisonous when
rebreathed by others. Another theory was that the air breathed
out by one pupil was toxic in its effect on other pupils. Other
theories cover such features as bodily temperature and air
stratification. Based on the ideas developed, some states passed
laws requiring that schools supply to each room a total of
thirty cubic feet of fresh air per pupil per minute.
In practice these older standards seem to be excessive. They
are impossible to attain without a forced ventilation system.
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 271
Using the 30 cubic foot standard it would be necessary to supply
1050 cubic feet per minute (C.F.M.) of fresh air for a room
housing thirty-five pupils. This would require about eight and
one-half air changes per hour in a classroom 31 X 21 feet with
a 12 foot ceiling. If this air is brought in through a duct having
an opening size of 6 square feet the speed of air flow would be
175 feet per minute. (F.P.M.) This speed would create a draft.
Present Standards
While most authorities on ventilation now agree that 30
C.F.M. standard was too high, there is no general agreement
on the amount of fresh air that should be provided. Some heat-
ing companies now contend that no fresh air need be brought
into the room. They feel that recirculation of room air will
satisfy all needs. Contentions of this type must be carefully
evaluated in the light of the commercial interests involved.
There is a general feeling that some fresh air should be sup-
plied at all times when pupils are in the room. Many engineers
now recommend four to five air changes per hour in full class-
rooms. In rooms containing 630 square feet of floor area or
7560 cubic feet of air space housing 35 pupils this would supply
15 to 20 C.F.M. per child. It should be understood that stand-
ards must vary for different rooms. Auditorium and shop units
present special problems in ventilation.
Importance
Ventilation in school rooms is of vital importance for several
reasons.
1. It removes body odors which may become obnoxious.
2. It creates room circulation to aid in diffusing room heat to all parts
of the room. It aids in preventing air and heat stratification with the
hot air at the top of the room. It thus aids in temperature control.
272 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
3. It aids in regulating the relative humidity.
4. It provides the fresh air needed in the room.
5. It provides a more comfortable room.
Tests indicate that there are fewer pupil absences because of
illness in well ventilated rooms. There are two major types of
ventilating systems. These are known as the gravity and me-
chanical systems.
Gravity Ventilation
When using gravity ventilation the fresh air is brought into
the room through the window or some other port provided
for this purpose. The air coming in at the bottom of the win-
dows is often deflected upward by deflectors placed in the
bottom of the window. If the room is heated by direct radiation
the fresh air is mixed with the warm air coming from the
radiator. This air is spread over the room and extracted from
the room through an opening near the floor line on the cor-
ridor side of the room. (A part of the foul air may be exhausted
through the cloakroom.) The air may be taken from the room
by individual ducts extending from the opening, near the floor
in the corridor wall, out through the roof. Ducts emptying into
the attic do not seem to give as satisfactory results as do those
extending through the roof. In some cases the air is exhausted
by what is known as corridor ventilation. The air is taken from
the room through openings in the lower part of the corridor
wall or through an opening in the bottom of the corridor door.
It is then exhausted from the building through ventilating
ducts extending from the corridor out through the roof. All
gravity vents should be ample size to provide the air changes
needed. Air movement is accelerated if the ducts are capped
with approved ventilating heads. Ducts should be equipped
with dampers that may be closed at night to prevent an inflow
HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 273
of cold air. These dampers should be open when pupils are in
the rooms.
Mechanical Ventilation
Any air movement system that forces air through the rooms
and exhausts a part of it out through ducts in the roof may be
termed mechanical ventilation. A system that circulates room
air without making any provision for taking in fresh air or of
exhausting air through ventilating ducts is called recirculation
and is not considered here as a ventilating system. One of the
most common mechanical ventilating systems is arranged to
take in fresh air from the windows as with gravity ventilation.
Air is exhausted from the room through ducts just as in the
gravity systems. In the attic these ducts empty into a plenum
chamber where a suction fan aids in pulling air from the room
and exhausting it from the building.
Another type of mechanical ventilation is developed by unit
heater (ventilator) systems and by a system of forced hot air
heating. These systems, if properly operated, take in some
fresh air at all times and force it into the room. The air pres-
sure developed in the room aids in exhausting the air out
through the roof if suitable ventilating ducts are provided. This
system is really a combination of the gravity and the mechani-
cal methods.
Toilet rooms, cooking rooms, laboratories, and dressing rooms
create special ventilating problems. Regardless of the system
used these rooms should not be vented with other rooms but
should be vented separately, directly out through the roof. The
janitor should remember that no ventilating system is efficient
unless it is in operation. Ventilating ducts closed with card
board or dampers, do not remove foul air or permit the free
introduction of fresh air. Mechanical ventilating systems with
274 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
the fans idle may even prevent use of the ducts as gravity
vents.
One measure of the efficiency of the ventilation is the air
circulation in the room. This is important in securing a good
diffusion of heat in the room. Room air circulation may be
measured by what is known as a smoke test. A smoke bomb
or pot, made up (or purchased) of tar, asphalt, or other
substance having a smoke that is visible for some time, is
lighted and placed in the air stream near its entrance. By
watching the motion and spread of the smoke it is possible to
determine the rate and direction of the air flow in the room.
Dead spots and stratification can also be detected.
Chapter 13
Fuels and Combustion
ENERGY HAS FOR many years been stored up in various ma-
terials found in nature. Man has found that when these
materials oxidize they give up this energy in the form of heat.
Some of these materials are called fuels. The principal fuels used
to obtain heat for use in school buildings are coal, oil, gas, and
wood. These fuels vary in quality, cost, and in abundance in
various localities.
Coals
Coal is probably used more than any other fuel for heating
school buildings. It has been found in many parts of the United
States. It is easily transported and can be stored for a con-
siderable period of time before being used. It is a product of
ancient vegetation which decomposed and under great pressure
formed the various grades of coal. After being mined coal
may be treated (heated) to provide a derivative called coke.
However, most coal is burned in its natural or raw state. There
are several methods of classifying or rating coal. One classifica-
tion is based on the ratio of carbon to volatile matter, another
on the method or rate of burning, and another on the size of
the pieces sold for use. The United States Geological survey
separates native coal into several classes based on the type or
nature of the coal.
275
276 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Peaf
Peat is an organic matter partially converted into coal. When
first taken from the bog it contains much water. Sometimes
this fuel is moulded into bricks before being marketed. Peat has
not had a wide use for school building heating. It is compara-
tively cheap but school heating plants are not generally adapted
to its use.
Lignite
Lignite is a type of coal having a brown appearance and
woody texture. It is a grade somewhere between peat and sub-
bituminous. It is clean to handle, ignites readily, burns rapidly,
and gives off little smoke. It is ranked low in heating value and
because it dries out rapidly, it slacks worse than does a high
grade coal. It has a tendency to spontaneous combustion. Lig-
nite is found in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico,
North Dakota, and Texas.
Sub-b/fum/nous
This is sometimes called "black lignite." It does not have the
woody appearance of lignite and has more of the heating
qualities of the bituminous coal. It slacks rapidly and may be
subject to spontaneous combustion. It is clean to handle and
burns freely with little or no smoke. It is found in Colorado,
Montana, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming,
and Alaska. This coal is usually ranked next to bituminous in
heating qualities.
Cannel
This coal burns with great heat and a long flame. It is rich
in volatile matter having more volatile matter than fixed
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 277
carbon. It shatters, like glass. It occurs in limited quantities.
Some has been found in most of the coal producing states.
Bituminous
Bituminous coal is widely used as a fuel in school heating
plants. It is little affected by weather, but when it is, particles
will break off that are prismatic in form. Bituminous coal is
commonly called soft coal, but all soft coal is not bituminous.
Bituminous coal in the eastern part of the United States is
usually of higher heating value than that found in other parts.
It is high in volatile matter and burns rapidly. Unless fired
carefully it may give off quantities of smoke. It is mined in
Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Georgia,
Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Montana,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and
Wyoming.
Semi-bituminous
This is a super type of bituminous coal. It has more fixed
carbon and less volatile matter than the bituminous coals. It
burns freely with a long flame and is generally known as a
smokeless coal. It has excellent heating qualities. Clinkers are
not common. The principal sources are West Virginia, Virginia,
and Pennsylvania, with some found in Maryland, Arkansas,
and Oklahoma.
Sem/-Anfhrcrc/fe
This is a low grade of anthracite. It is less dense and has less
of the metallic luster. It ignites easily and burns freely. Since
it has a high fusing temperature there is little clinkering. The
principal sources are Pennsylvania, Arkansas, and Virginia.
278 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Anffiracife
This is a hard dense coal with much carbon and a low
volatile ratio. It ignites and burns slowly with a short flame and
little smoke. It has a high ash fusion temperature and it is not
much inclined to cake, coke, or clinker. With this coal rate of
burning and heat controls are comparatively easy. Most of the
anthracite coal is produced in Pennsylvania, but some of it
comes from Colorado.
Classification on Size
The size of the lumps of coal delivered are an important
factor in the work of the fireman in the regulation of his drafts
and in the passage of air through the fire bed. The anthracite
coal lump sizes are pretty well standardized. They are based on
the size of lump or piece that will pass through the holes of a
round mesh screen of a certain size but will be rejected or
passed over by a smaller size. The sizes are about as follows:
SIZE OF
TRADE NAME SCREEN MESH*
Broken 3Ke to 4Ke"
Egg 2K to 3Ke"
Stove We to 2^"
Nut tf to 1%6"
Pea #to K"
Buckwheat Me to X"
Rice %6 to Me"
Barley %2 to ^6"
The softer coal sizes are not so definitely standardized. In the
bituminous coals the term mine-run is used to designate coal as
it comes from the mine with no screening. Large and small
lumps and dust are intermingled, the quantity of each depend-
ing on the nature of the coal and the methods of handling.
1 Committee of Ten — Coal and Heating Industries. "Mimeographed Reports."
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 279
Other names used to designate sizes are lump, egg, stove, nut,
pea, and slack.
Other Classifications
One classification that is often used rates all coals having
more than 69 per cent of fixed carbon according to the fixed
carbon content, and those coals having less than 69 per cent of
fixed carbon according to the B.t.u. heating value. On this basis,
coals are often rated about as follows : 2
VOLATILE
FIXED CARBON MATTER B.T.U. HEATING
ABOUT ABOUT UNITS
Anthracite
and
Semi-anthracite 97 3
Semi-bituminous 90 to 85 10-15 14,800-15,600
Bituminous— Eastern 85-70 15-30 12,500-14,800
Lignite Up to 50 Over 49 11,000-13,500
The ratings are approximate and may vary for any one type
of coal and even for coals from different levels in the same
mine.
Coals are also classified according to their tendencies to react
to heat, and their tendencies to disintegrate or decompose. The
so-called caking coals show a tendency to melt and run together
when heated. These coals swell when heated and may give rise
to either soft or hard clinkers. Coking coal swells when heated
but does not cake as freely as the caking coal. Free burning coal
swells little when heated. It does not cake or coke. It burns
freely and at times even flashily. The so-called smokeless coal
usually has a low volatile and a high fixed carbon content. As
a rule it ignites and burns slowly with a short flame. Coke is a
fuel prepared from coal by having many of the volatile gases
extracted by heat. It burns slowly with little smoke. Block coal
2 Bartrim, W., "Information on Boilers and Coal."
280 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
is a local term applied to a coal that breaks down into even
faced blocks or lumps. Splint coal is also a local term that is
used to designate coal that breaks into oblong blocks. These
lumps are often hard, sometimes metallic in appearance, and
have a tendency to splinter when heated.
Coal Preparation
As stated previously, some coal is delivered to the bin just
as it comes from the mine. Experience indicates that better re-
sults are obtained when using a treated or prepared coal. One
of the earliest forms of treatment was to separate the coal ac-
cording to size. This earlier separation was performed by pass-
ing the coal over bar grates (called grizzlies) where the fine
coal and thin slabs passed through the grates and the large
pieces passed over the grates. Later methods made use of shak-
ing and rotating screens to separate the various sizes. Each of
these methods creates some coal dust through breakage. Dur-
ing recent years newer methods of preparation include washing
and the addition of dust allaying or anti-freeze solutions. With
these processes the coal is first passed over a conveyor where
pieces of slate and stone are picked out. The coal is then sent
to jigs or washers that grade and clean the coal. This grading is
important for all school coal users and particularly to those
schools using stokers. The washing also aids in reducing the
sulphur content of the coal. Some companies add an oil film
to the coal. Others provide a film of some substance like sodium
silicate, while some add a calcium chloride (salt) treatment.
The salt may have a corrosive effect on the furnace.
Other Fuels
While coal continues to be the fuel used in a majority of the
school buildings many schools can purchase wood cheaply
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 281
enough to make it attractive as fuel. Other schools find that
when gas or oil can be purchased cheaply, their use offers ad-
vantages in added cleanliness and in the constant flow that re-
quires little attention from the janitor.
Gas
Schools located near some of the large gas fields or lines have
used gas successfully for fuel. Gas has the advantage of being
clean and easy to handle. By watching the furnace and the type
of flame produced, the janitor soon can learn the most econom-
ical mixture of air and gas to use in a furnace. If too much air
is used, the gas will spit and may blow out. If too little air is
permitted to enter the burner, the flame is red and will cause
some smoke. The janitor should know that when gas burners
are installed in brick set furnaces, it is desirable to raise the fire
wall to throw the heat up against the boiler and to prevent
waste by excessive draft. Gas used in school buildings should
contain a malodorant which will give off an easily detected
odor as a protection against leak and explosion hazards.
Oil
Oil is fed to the furnace through a specially prepared burner.
The proper mixture of oil and air is essential to secure the best
results from an oil burner. It is essential to have a siphon in the
feed line to the burner to prevent any possible kick-back which
might cause an explosion of the oil in the feed line. If the
janitor does not secure proper combustion, he will have an ac-
cumulation of carbon in the flues. An examination of several
oil burning boilers demonstrates the fact that the smoke from
the oil burner may deposit soot and carbon on the flue sufficient
to prevent full use of the heat provided by the oil. Oils vary in
heat values and in their effect on the boiler.
282
THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Wood
Dry woods available in this country possess no wide variations
in heating value. The water content, however, is an important
factor, as it reduces the net amount of heat available. In green
wood the moisture ranges from thirty to fifty per cent or more,
but after eight or ten months of air drying the moisture is re-
duced to about twenty to twenty-five per cent. Wood is bulky
and a large fire box is needed.
HEATING VALUES OF WOODS AIR DRIED 3
KIND
Ash
Beech
Birch
Cherry
Chestnut
Elm
Hemlock
Hickory
Maple, hard
Oak, live
Oak, red
Oak, white
Pine, white
Pine, yellow
Poplar
Spruce
Walnut
Willow
B.T.U. PER LB. LBS. PER CORD
5450
5400
5580
5420
5400
5400
6410
5400
5460
5460
5460
5400
6830
6660
6660
6830
5460
6830
3520
3250
2880
3140
2350
2350
1220
4500
3310
3850
3810
3850
1920
2130
2130
1920
3310
1920
LBS. OF 13,500
B.T.U. COAL
EQUIVALENT TO A
CORD OF WOOD
1420
1300
1190
1260
940
940
580
1800
1340
1560
1340
1540
970
1050
1050
970
1340
970
Combustion
The process of releasing energy in the form of heat for use
in school buildings is called combustion. The school janitor-
engineer should know the principles and processes of com-
bustion. He should also know how the resulting heat from
combustion is transferred through the walls of the heating
8 Committee of Ten — Coal and Heating Industries, "Solid Fuels and Their Use in
Hand Fired Plants." P. 29.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 283
chamber to a fluid (water or air) medium that will carry this
heat to the desired location where it is released.
Nature and Principles of Combustion
A combustible is a substance that burns and develops heat, or
a material which when heated to the ignition point unites with
oxygen and is partly or wholly consumed. Combustion is in
effect a rapid oxidation or decomposition of a combustible ma-
terial. This decomposition or oxidation takes place in nature
when conditions are right. The rotting of a log in the woods
and the development of bodily heat in animals by the burning
up of body cells are examples. In these cases the oxidation is
comparatively slow and the resulting heat is absorbed by the
surrounding air. A limited quantity of air aids in the retention
of the heat in spontaneous combustion. In the school furnace
oxidation is speeded up by the effect of heat which hastens the
chemical action.
Rapid oxidation or combustion requires at least three things
or conditions for completion. It is necessary to have a combusti-
ble material or fuel. Heat is essential to speed up the process and
enough oxygen must be supplied to combine with the ele-
ments released. During the oxidizing process the oxygen of the
air combines with the carbon of the coal, wood, oil, or gas and
passes off as carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO).
The rapid release of the energy of the fuel produces heat. Man
has learned how to exert some control over the rate of combus-
tion by regulating the flow of air (containing oxygen) through
the fire. He has also learned how to conserve and use a con-
siderable part of the heat developing by confining the fire in
stoves and furnaces of conductive material (metal) which per-
mits transfer of the heat to the heating medium previously
mentioned.
284 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Nature of Fuel
If he is to obtain the best results from the fuel consumed the
janitor must know something of the nature of the fuels used.
The composition of fuels varies some with the type used, but
since the basic elements are similar, the description given here
will refer primarily to coal. Coal contains various natural ele-
ments such as carbon, hydrogen, and sulphur. The air with
which it is combined in combustion contains principally nitro-
gen, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Carbons
The carbon in the coal possesses a high heat value. Some of
the carbon is termed non-fixed carbon and may combine with
oxygen and be released as carbon monoxide. The so-called fixed
carbon is not so easily released and provides much of the heat
value. As stated previously, the fixed carbon content of some of
the better coals may be as much as 90 to 98 per cent of the total.
Vo/af//e Maffer
In coal combustion many elements may pass off as volatile
gases when the coal is heated. Some of these elements such as
hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide are capable of pro-
ducing much heat if subjected to the proper conditions. If they
are permitted to pass out of the furnace before being consumed
much of the heat value of the coal is lost. One of the chief losses
of a volatile gas is in the form known as carbon monoxide. If
sufficient oxygen and heat are supplied the combustion of this
gas may be completed and the residue having no heating value
passes off as carbon dioxide. The amount of draft and the shape
of the furnace or combustion chamber are important factors in
the combustion of volatile gases.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 285
Ignition Temperature and Flame
The ignition temperature is that at which a fuel may begin to
burn or to combine with oxygen and generate heat. This
temperature is higher for the anthracite coals than for some
that contain more volatile matter. This explains why it is harder
to start fires with some coals. Some of the heat released by the
fire is used to raise the temperature of other coal to be burned.
If sufficient temperature is not maintained the fire dies. The
gas, carbon monoxide, requires a temperature of about 1100 to
about 1200° F. before it ignites. It is released at a lower tempera-
ture. This explains the possible loss of this gas if the heat from
the fire bed is not sufficient to ignite it. The ignition tempera-
ture of sulphur and fixed carbon is much less than that required
for the carbon monoxide. This is fortunate since it permits these
elements to burn and create the heat necessary for the consump-
tion of the gas.
The janitor who knows his fuel can learn to regulate his fire
by the appearance and nature of the flame. The carbon mon-
oxide burns with a blue like flame. Solids glow when heated
in red, yellow, and a brilliant white color. Solids like carbon
in the gases may cause the gas flame to glow. Visible smoke
over the flame may consist of unburned carbon and other solids.
Visible flame may be an indication of poor combustion. In
order to obtain complete combustion of the gases it is essential
that the temperature of the flame be not reduced below their
ignition point. For this reason the flames should not be per-
mitted to come into contact with the crown sheet, the flues or
other cooling surfaces. This necessitates a high combustion
chamber for fuels that burn with a long flame. However, the
greatest heat value may be obtained if the flames end just short
of these surfaces since the point of greatest heat is just above
286 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
the flame. It is estimated that a dark red flame from coal has a
temperature of about 950 to 1000° F., a dull cherry red flame of
about 1450 to 1500° F., a clear cherry red of about 1800° F., a
white of about 2370° F., and a bright or dazzling white flame of
about 2500 to 2700° F. By studying the flame, the janitor can
judge their value in heating and in the combustion of the gases.4
The amount of air and space available may play an impor-
tant part in the process and rate of combustion. It is impossible
to state the exact amount of air needed for complete combus-
tion. Even though we know the quantity of oxygen in the air
and the amount of oxygen needed for each part of carbon we do
not always know the amount of available carbon. It has been
estimated that about 11 to 15 pounds of air or about 175 to 200
cubic feet are necessary for complete combustion of one pound
of good coal. This indicates the need for ample draft to insure
good combustion. In a plant burning one-half ton during a ten
hour day or 1% Ibs. per minute a total of 300 to 350 cubic feet
of air per minute may be needed. If the ash pit doors have an
opening of 16" x 40" the air inflow speed necessary to supply
this air will be about 75 feet per minute. The height of the
combustion chamber is also an important factor in the rate of
combustion. If the chamber roof is high enough to permit
complete combustion before the gases are cooled by contact
with these surfaces, more heat is generated by the furnace and
less fuel is needed to produce the heat units desired.
If we were to secure perfect combustion all elements and
temperatures would be brought together in exact ratios. Hence,
there probably is little perfect combustion in the average school
furnace. It is possible to secure what is termed complete com-
bustion where all fuel is consumed. It is often stated that the
presence of much black smoke indicates poor combustion.
4 Bartrim, W., "Information on Boilers and Coal." P. 7.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 287
While this is true, the absence of black smoke is not always an
indication of perfect combustion. An excess of air may reduce
the smoke but may also reduce the efficiency of combustion by
cooling the flues and by heating excess air which is of no value.
Products of Combustion
Combustion releases the minerals in the coal and the gases in
the coal and air used. Some of these different elements combine
in various forms. Some of the carbon and the oxygen combine
to form carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. The water and the
sulphur gas may combine to form a mild sulphurous acid to
pass off in the smoke. The unconsumed minerals such as silica,
aluminum oxides, iron oxide, calcium oxides, etc., are left on
the grates or drop into the ash pit as ashes. As stated elsewhere,
some of these ashes may fuse and be deposited as clinkers.
The reason for controlled combustion in school buildings is
to provide heat. The value of the fuel is determined primarily
by its heat value. This heat value is rated or measured in several
ways. The heat produced is measured in degrees on a ther-
mometer. The heat producing power is measured in terms such
as B.t.u., the therm, calorific value, and sensible value. The
B.t.u. (British thermal unit) is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one pound of water 1° F. when water
is at its greatest density of about 39° F. It will raise the tempera-
ture of 55 cubic feet of air 1 ° F. The therm as a measure of heat,
usually applied to gas heating, represents 100,000 B.t.u. (or
100 cu. ft. of 1000 B.t.u. gas). The calorific heat value is the
amount of heat (in B.t.u.'s) which is generated by the complete
combustion of 1 Ib. of solid or liquid fuel, or one cubic foot of
gas at standard pressure and temperature. Sensible heat is that
required to raise 1 Ib. of water from 32° F. to the boiling point
at about 212° F.
288 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Combustion Controls
The janitor should understand that the rate of combustion
and the completeness of the process of combustion is closely
connected with the rate of air passage through the furnace.
The impetus for his draft is supplied by the chimney. Too much
draft may pull the hot gases into the flues or throw them against
cooling surfaces where they are cooled before being consumed.
On the other hand too little air makes the fire sluggish. The
wise janitor soon learns to regulate the drafts from the ap-
pearance of the flame. After the heat is generated it must be
extracted from the gases before they pass up the chimney, if it
is to be of the greatest value in heating the building. Long
winding tortuous passages in the heater or boiler aid in this
absorption of heat from the gases. A high flue temperature
usually indicates a waste of heat. Smoke stack temperatures of
400 to 600° F. for heating furnaces seems to indicate much less
waste than do temperatures of 1000° F. With slow or banked
fires, stack temperatures may drop to about 200 to 250° F.
Some Heating and Ventilating Terms Defined
The janitor-engineer should be familiar with the more com-
mon terms used in heating and ventilating literature, so that
he may be the better enabled to understand directions given in
instruction sheets, read descriptions in catalogues, etc. Brief
definitions of some of these terms are given here.
Automatic Steam Regulator — A device operated by steam, that limits
the pressure in the boiler by closing drafts, or by retarding the fuel
feed.
Arch Plate — The cast iron plate forming an arch over the fire door.
Aspirating Coil — Heating coil placed in vent stack to accelerate air flow
by convection.
Air Washer — A device using water to clean the air circulating in a
building.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 289
Ash — Non combustible matter left after solid fuel is burned.
Ash Fusion Temperature — Temperature at which ash will melt or fuse
together and form a plastic mass or clinker.
Blow Off Valve — Valve on pipe fitted to lowest point of water space in a
boiler through which sludge may be blown out or the water drained.
Bleeder — A small pipe fitted with a steam trap, through which con-
densed water may pass from the steam main to the return line.
BricJ^ Set Boiler — A boiler whose furnace and combustion chamber is
made of brick; or a boiler so surrounded by brick that much of the
shell is exposed to the heat.
Breeching — The smoke pipe between the outlet from smoke box and the
chimney.
B.t.u. — Abbreviation of British thermal unit. A standard of heat measure-
ment generally used by engineers to express quantity of heat. One
B.t.u. is the amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, when the water is at a maxi-
mum density, or from 39° F. to 40 °F. It will raise the temperature of
55 cu. ft. of air 1° F.
Bottled Heat — Heat that has accumulated in the furnace faster than it
can be absorbed or carried off.
Chec\ Valve — A valve that allows fluids or gases to flow through a pipe
in one direction only. Often used in return lines to prevent water
from flowing back out of boiler.
Combustion — Rapid oxidation.
Combustible — Something that will burn rapidly and release heat.
CO2 — Chemical symbol for carbon dioxide. A gas that is formed when
carbon is burned.
CO — Chemical symbol for carbon monoxide. A gas that is formed when
combustion is not complete.
C.F.M. — Abbreviation for cubic feet per minute.
Calorific Value — Amount of heat in B.t.u. released by complete combus-
tion of one pound of solid or liquid fuel, or 1 cubic foot of gas at
standard pressure and temperature.
Condensation — When a gas changes to a liquid, or a liquid to a solid,
the process is called condensation.
Down Draft Boiler — A boiler whose furnace has two sets of grates; the
upper grates consisting of a row of water tubes and the lower of
ordinary rocker or stationary grates. The fuel is placed on the upper
grates and the draft comes in above it, striking a baffle at the back
which forces the volatile part of the fuel down through the hottest
290 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
part of the fire bed, where it ignites, and then passing over the hot
coke fire on the lower grates, is completely burned. The heat then
passes into fire tubes.
Damper — A device used to control the flow of air through the furnace,
or through ducts in the ventilating system.
Dumping Grates— Grates that can be turned sufficiently to dump the
ashes into the ash pit.
Direct System— A system where all the radiators or heating units are in
the room to be heated.
Defector— A shield that diverts the air stream coming into the room
from windows or other openings; usually throwing it upward, and
thus preventing it from striking persons in the room.
Degree Day — One twenty-four hour period of the heating season with a
temperature 1° F. below an arbitrarily set average of 65° F. One day
with average of 60° F. equals five degree days.
Exfiltration — Air leaving a building through pores, cracks in the walls,
leaky windows, etc.
E.D.R. — Abbreviation for equivalent direct radiation. A square foot of
direct radiation is standard when it will emit 240 B.t.u. with steam at
215° F. in an environment or a surrounding air with a temperature
of 70° F. A modern heating unit that will give off the same quantity
of heat, under the same conditions, is said to be equivalent to one
square foot of direct radiation, or one square foot E.D.R., regardless of
its area.
Effective Temperature — An index of the degree of warmth felt by the
human body under the influence of a composite of ambient tempera-
ture, humidity, and air movement.
Embrittlement — Breaking down of metal of boiler, usually caused by
caustic water.
Fire Box Boiler — A boiler with the fire box inside. The fire box is sur-
rounded by water except at the bottom, and in some cases even the
bottom including the ash pit is surrounded by water.
Furnace — The fire box.
Furnace Baffle — A deflector made of fire brick or refractory tile placed in
the heat stream to direct it against the heating surface of the boiler.
Fuse Plug — A plug made of some metal that will melt at a low tempera-
ture. It is usually placed in the crown sheet or just above the top row
of fire tubes in the flue sheet. If water gets dangerously low the plug
should melt so that escaping steam may extinguish the fire.
F.R.T. — Abbreviation for fire return tube.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION 291
F.P.M.— Abbreviation for feet per minute.
Gusset Stay — A flat bar riveted to angle irons on boiler head and girth
plate to support boiler head.
Gas Steam Radiator — A self contained heating unit. It has a small
boiler cast in the base of the radiator and a gas burner under it.
Steam generated in the base heats the radiator.
Header Drip — A pipe leading down from steam header to return line
to drain water from header. This pipe is sometimes called an equalizer.
High Pressure Boiler — A boiler built to carry over 15 Ibs. pressure per
square inch.
Head Room — Height above grates to crown sheet or cooling surface.
Heating Surface — Surface of boiler or furnace exposed to heat from
furnace on one side and in contact with heating medium (air or
water) on other side.
Hand Holes — Holes fitted with plugs in outside boiler shell, usually at
bottom of mud leg, to facilitate cleaning and inspection.
Humidity — Moisture in the air.
Hygrometer — An instrument used to measure relative humidity.
H.R.T. — Abbreviation for horizontal return tube.
Indirect System — A system where the heating units are outside the rooms
to be heated and the heat is carried through ducts by an air stream to
the rooms.
Insulation — Covering made of low conducting material to prevent heat
loss by radiation from pipes, boilers, etc.
Latent Heat — The quantity of heat required to change the form of a
substance without raising its temperature, i.e. ice to water or water at
212° to steam at 212° F.
Low Pressure Boiler — One having a pressure up to 15 Ibs.
Man Hole — A hole in the boiler shell large enough for a man to enter
for inspection, cleaning, or repairs.
Mixing Dampers — Dampers in air ducts, arranged to regulate the mix-
ture of cool and warm air.
Mb — Symbol meaning 1000 B.t.u.
Mbh — Symbol meaning 1000 B.t.u. per hour.
Peripheral Speed— Speed in F. P. M. of extreme outer edge of fan blades.
Recirculation— Using same air over and over again. Little or no fresh
air added.
R.P.M.— Abbreviation for revolutions per minute.
Reducing Valve— A valve operated either by a diaphragm or a piston that
will reduce the pressure of steam water or air in a pipe. It is often
292 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
used where a group of buildings are heated from a central plant, to
reduce the pressure where the branch main enters each building.
Retort — The box in the furnace at the end of the delivery tube of under-
feed stokers. It receives the green coal and passes it up to the fire bed.
Relative Humidity — The amount of moisture in a given volume of air
at a given temperature compared to the amount it will hold. It is
usually expressed as a percentage of the maximum.
Steam Gauge — An instrument to indicate the pressure per square inch
in the boiler.
Safety Valve — A valve on a short pipe connected directly to the top of
the boiler to relieve all above the safe working pressure. It is some-
times called a pop off valve.
Steam Header — The large horizontal pipe above one or more boilers, to
which all of them are connected, and from which the steam mains
lead ofl.
Steam Trap — A device used to drain condensation from radiators, mains,
risers, etc., without allowing steam to pass. The valve is operated by
either a float or an expanding unit. The latter is called a thermostatic
trap.
Stay Bolt — A long bolt that ties the shell and furnace plates of a boiler
together. They hold the furnace in place and prevent flat surfaces from
bulging.
Stoker — A mechanical fireman.
Safety Clutch — A device to release the motor on a stoker, when the fuel
tube gets choked or clogged up.
Shearing Pin — A device used for the same purpose as safety clutch.
Split System — A system using both direct and indirect heating units for
heating the same room.
Stationary Grates — Ordinary bar grates that are immovable.
Shading Grates — Grates that can be shaken by a bar outside the furnace.
Scale — Mineral salts that have been precipitated on the tubes and furnace
plates of a boiler, hindering the heating of the water.
Sensible Heat — Heat imparted to a body that will cause the temperature
of the body to rise.
Tuyere Bloc^—A casting set around the top of a retort. The forced draft
supplying the fire comes through its ports.
Tempering Coils—Large heating coils placed in the entrance of the fresh
air stream where it enters the building, to raise the temperature of the
fresh air. They are sometimes called blast coils.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
293
Thermostat — Thermometer or heat register designed as a regulator for
steam, air or water flow.
Try Coc1(s — Pet cocks on water column to check level of water in boiler.
Up Draft Boiler — A boiler where the draft travels upward through the
grates and fire bed.
Volatile Matter — Combustible oils and gases that distill out of wood or
coal when heated. Unless they are burned, a considerable portion of
the heat value of the fuel is lost.
Chapter 14
Firing the Furnace
IN LARGE SCHOOL buildings a trained engineer-fireman may be
employed to care for the heating plant. In some cities all
janitor-engineers in buildings of a certain size must be certified
engineers or firemen. However, in a majority of the school
buildings the custodian or janitor must care for the heating
plant. In many cases these men have had little or no preparatory
training for this duty. Some have had brief experience in firing
a boiler for a sawmill or a threshing machine. Firing a school
heating furnace is a type of task requiring specific training in
that field. Previous experience in other lines may be of some
value but does not guarantee success in firing a school furnace.
School heating presents a very different problem than does the
heating of other buildings. The school building houses children
who do not know how to protect themselves against the ail-
ments that may follow extreme heat or cold or rapid tempera-
ture fluctuations. For a considerable part of the day, the building
is not occupied. The pupils enter the building at various times
during the day and bring cold air with them. After entering
the building they are grouped together where body temperature
added to furnace heat may make the rooms too hot. These con-
ditions, together with the fact that most buildings are permitted
to cool down at night and must be heated quickly in the morn-
ing, make regularity in firing almost impossible.
In spite of the difficulties involved, the janitor is expected to
294
FIRING THE FURNACE 295
get results from his heating plant. Children are required to at-
tend school and comfortable conditions should be provided for
them. The janitor may have to use a poor grade of coal. His
heat generator may be too small. On windy days he may have
to heat the inside of the building and a considerable part of the
outside. He may have to arrive at the building at four o'clock in
the morning, but he is expected to keep it warm.
The necessity for heating service under all types of conditions
makes it necessary that the janitor make a study of heating prin-
ciples, of fuels, and their reaction on the fire bed. He must study
his building and his heating system. He must know the cold
spots in his building. He should know how to fire the furnace
with the fuel available to secure the desired results without
wasting fuel and without using time that should be devoted to
other duties. Not all janitors are engineers (although the day
may come when all of them must pass certain tests), but most
of them can with some study become efficient firemen. The
following discussion has been prepared as an aid to the janitor
in the task of generating heat for use in the school building.
The Degree Day
Heating engineers often determine the need for heat and the
amount of fuel needed on the basis of a "Degree Day." This
degree day is thought of as a variation in the average 24-hour
temperature from a fixed point. Ordinarily, no room heating is
required when the outside temperature (average for the 24-hour
day) is equal to or above 65° F., then a one degree day is a day
with an average temperature of 64° F. or 1° below the 65° aver-
age. If the average temperature for the day were 55° F. or 10°
below the base, that 24-hour period would be a 10 degree day.
The sum total of degree days during the heating season repre-
sents the heating load. Engineers know the number of B.tu.'s
296 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
required to supply the heat needed to counteract each degree
day unit per 100 cu. ft. of air. Knowing the degree day load in a
given locality, they can then compute the fuel needed with
efficient firing methods for each building. As a basis for general
information a list of the approximate degree day loads in various
locations is given. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 7953; Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, 7366; Des Moines, Iowa, 6744; Chicago, Illinois,
6300; Lincoln, Nebraska, 6231; Cleveland, Ohio, 6096; Wash-
ington, D. C., 6039; New York City, New York, 5348; In-
dianapolis, Indiana, 5331; Topeka, Kansas, 5282; Baltimore,
Maryland, 4591; St. Louis, Missouri, 4583; Richmond, Virginia,
3789; Raleigh, North Carolina, 3267; Nashville, Tennessee,
3550; Little Rock, Arkansas, 2861; Birmingham, Alabama,
2527; Jacksonville, Florida, 1080.1
In addition to the degree day load many variables such as
wind velocity, size of the building, heat loss through cracks,
and the type of fuel available must be considered. In planning
the school heating plant engineers usually design it to supply
an inside temperature of 70° F. when the outside temperature
is 15° F. below the average low marks for a ten year period.
(This is sometimes termed a "Design Day.") Most school heat-
ing plants are designed to stand an overload of about twenty
per cent for short periods of time. However, the janitor should
know that overloading or crowding with forced fires may in-
jure his heating plant and will in all probability result in a
waste of fuel.
Firing with Coal
Since coal is used as a fuel in most school buildings the dis-
cussion in this section will stress the frequency of firing, firing
1 Committee of Ten — Coal and Heating Industries, "Automatic Coal Heat With
Mechanical Stokers," pp. 27, 33-34.
FIRING THE FURNACE 297
methods, grate care, clinkers, and smoke problems that may
arise when using coal as a fuel. Other discussions define the
types of coal and the principles of combustion. The competent
fireman will know not only his coal and his furnace, but he
will also know his fires. He will learn to judge the efficiency of
his fire by the appearance of the fire bed, the color and length of
flame, and the smoke entering the flues. These conditions will
vary with the type of fuel and furnace used.
Hand Firing Methods
There seems to be no one best method of firing for all coals in
all furnaces. Good firing should produce the heat desired with
an economy of fuel and effort. It should produce a fire bed with-
out holes, little smoke, and few if any clinkers. Some of the
methods used in applying fresh coal are listed in the following
paragraphs.
Ribbon Method
Many authorities consider this one of the most efficient meth-
ods of applying fresh fuel to the fire bed. In using this method
fresh coal is added in strips of about 12 to 14" wide (shovel
width) from the front to the rear of the fire box. This leaves
a strip of fresh coal and a strip of live or hot coals. As the fresh
coal gets hot the volatile gases are distilled. As they pass over
the hot coals the heat should raise the temperature to their igni-
tion point and thus aid in securing a more complete combus-
tion. At the next firing, coal is placed on the alternate strips left
bare at the last firing. It is not possible to set up fixed recom-
mendations on frequency of firing and the amount of coal to be
added. Since large quantities of coal cannot be added at a time
in the narrow strips this method calls for more frequent firing
than do some other methods. This method is best adapted to a
298 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
rectangular fire box of some size. The janitor may determine by
trial the amount of coal to add and the frequency of firing. The
fact that this method requires frequent attention and that the
janitor has other duties that may call him away makes this
method less attractive than some others for school firemen.
Coking Method
This method is considered the most practical and the most
economical for use in the average school furnace by many jani-
tors. It permits adding fuel at less frequent intervals but does
require a little more labor at each firing since a part of the
coals in the fire box are moved before fresh coal is added. Before
adding fresh coal the hot coke and coals are shoved from the
front to the rear of the fire box. They should be shoved back
with the hoe and disturbed as little as possible. Under no con-
ditions should the hoe be permitted to dip deeply enough to
mix the ashes from the grates with the live coals. This mov-
ing should leave from one-half to two-thirds of the front of
the grates with only a thin bed of live coals. The fresh coal
is laid over this thin bed at the front. The whole fire bed
should not be covered. Here again, the janitor must determine
by experience the frequency of firing and the amount of coal
to be added. Many janitors report best results if the coal (egg
size) is applied in a layer of about eight or nine inches. They
usually add the fresh coal when the last charge has become a
red mass.
Most furnaces exhaust the smoke at the rear end of the fire
box. In using the coking method the gases distilled from the
fresh coal at the front as it is heated pass over the live coals at
the rear. The heat from these coals aids in completing the com-
bustion of these gases. This method is adapted for use in any
type of fire box. It is particularly well adapted for furnaces that
FIRING THE FURNACE 299
have their grates so connected that the front and rear sections
can be shaken separately. When this method is properly used
there should be little volatile gas escaping in the smoke.
Alternate Method
This method is somewhat similar to the ribbon method. It
differs from the ribbon method in that one-half (one side) of
the fire bed is covered with fresh fuel at each firing period. It is
particularly well adapted for use in wider furnaces having two
firing doors. This method requires less frequent firing than
does the ribbon method since larger charges may be added. It
may produce more smoke as the gases from a part of the side
having a fresh charge of fuel may reach the flues without hav-
ing to pass over a bed of hot coals. This method is well adapted
for use in furnaces where the grates on one side may be shaken
without disturbing those on the other side. A fire maintained
with this method may not be quite as efficient as with the cok-
ing method when properly done, but it does require less labor.
Conical Method
In using this method fresh fuel is laid (not thrown) in a
cone shaped heap near the center of the fire box. The purpose
is to encourage the fire to burn at the edges. When a new charge
of fuel is added the live coals at the center can be pushed to the
edges of the fire box with the hoe. The same precautions men-
tioned in the coking method concerning ashes should be ob-
served here. This method is not so well adapted for use when a
very active fire must be maintained. It is quite well adapted for
use on mild days when little heat is needed. In using this
method the janitor should watch to prevent the development of
holes around the edges of the fire bed. Frequent applications
of fresh fuel are not necessary when only a light fire is needed.
300 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Layer Method
This method is not often used in school buildings unless the
draft is weak. In using this method a thin layer of coarse coal
is spread evenly over the live fire bed and a thin layer of finer
coal is spread over the top of the coarse coal. It is desirable to
leave some live coals exposed or the fire may be smothered. This
method seems to work better with the anthracite coals than
with the more volatile bituminous coals. There is a slight tend-
ency for air holes to develop in the fire bed.
Heaping Method
In using this method the hot coals are pulled to the front of
the fire box with the hoe and fresh coal added at the rear. It is
not well adapted for use with high volatile bituminous coals but
is sometimes used with anthracite coals. Ashes should not be
mixed with the live coals when pulling these coals to the front
of the fire box.
Ordinary Method
This method is what the name implies both in practice and
in results. It might well be called the piling method. The jani-
tor gets a shovel full of coal, takes an aim at the fire door, and
swings his shovel. He knows that he is getting results by the
black smoke that boils up after the coal hits the fire bed. Some-
times the fire bed seems to settle down where the fuel hits it and
at times the whole fire bed seems dead. The inexperienced fire-
man then may take a slice bar and thrust it under the whole
mass giving a heave to bring some of the red coals to the top.
He also probably brings some ashes into the heat zone where
they are fused into clinkers to cause later trouble both in firing
and in their removal.
FIRING THE FURNACE 301
Frequency
The method used must vary with conditions. Since the jani-
tor in small buildings will have duties in other parts of the
building, he may be absent from the furnace room a consider-
able part of the time. He must adapt his firing methods to the
time available. Theoretically, firing should be done at a con-
stant or uniform rate. Then too, it is often desirable to leave the
fire door slightly ajar after adding a heavy charge of fuel. If the
janitor takes time for this he may neglect some other duty. He
must select the method that best fits his time, the weather,
the furnace to be fired, and the fuel available. During the early
fall months when little heat is required he may use the conical
or coking methods. If these do not supply the heat needed for
cold weather he may then change to another method.
Methods Adapted to Fuel
Under the section on fuels and combustion some coals are de-
scribed as free burning, some are described as having caking
tendencies, and others are listed as coking coals. Some are
shown to be rich in volatile gases, while some have a low per-
centage of volatile gases but have much fixed carbon. Not only
must the janitor adapt his methods to the type of coal but he
must also make allowance for the size of the coal. It is quite
obvious that the methods that are adapted for use with lump
or nut coal may be not at all adapted for use with pea or slack
coals. In using the low volatile anthracite coals almost any
method may be used with the larger sizes. With the smaller or
finer sizes of semi-anthracite the coking or conical methods
seem satisfactory. With this coal the grates should be shaken
down but the fire should not be poked too often with the slice
bar.
302 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
The high volatile caking coals can usually be fired success-
fully with the alternate method. This method disturbs the top
of the fire bed very little and with this method there seems to
be little tendency to clinker. They may be fired by the coking
method if the janitor is careful in using his hoe to push the
live coals to the rear of the fire box. With the high volatile
coking coals (some are both caking and coking) the janitor
may use a modified conical, a coking, or the alternate method.
With either of these coals in fine particles, such as pea or slack
coal, the ribbon or alternate methods may be used successfully.
The high volatile free burning coals are usually fired with a
light charge by either the coking, conical, or alternate method.
These coals are not inclined to cake but holes may develop in
the fire bed. Frequent attention to the fire is necessary. Much
air must be admitted over the fire bed to aid in the combustion
of the gases. Some janitors try to carry a heavy bed, when fir-
ing with these coals, and to control the fire with the dampers.
Down Draft Furnaces
The methods listed have referred primarily to up-draft fur-
naces. However, a large number of school buildings are heated
by down draft furnaces. These furnaces have both an upper
and a lower grate. The firing is done on the upper grate. The
hoe may be used to keep the fire bed even over this grate. No
bare spots or holes should be permitted to develop. A heavy fire
bed is preferred by most janitors. Air for the fire bed is ad-
mitted through the fire door. Live coals and ashes drop to the
lower grates where the live coals help complete the combus-
tion of the gases. However, no firing is done on these lower
grates. Some ashes may collect on the upper grates. These may
be removed by using a small "T" bar run under the fire over
the grates. Coal should not be piled up at the front end of the
FIRING THE FURNACE 303
grates. The ashes should be spread out in a bed over the lower
grates.
Hand Firing Tools
The most used tool in hand firing is the firing shovel. Most
janitors prefer a shovel about 12 inches wide for small furnaces
and 12 to 14 inches for large installations. This shovel should
be a regular coal scoop with shallow side walls. The rake is
used to loosen and remove clinkers from straight grate fur-
naces. Some janitors use a set of clinker tongs for the same
purpose. The "T" bar is used to run under the fire on down
draft furnaces and at times in updraft furnaces to loosen the fire
or to reduce the ash bed under the fire. The slice bar is used to
crack the crust of coking coal. It it probably the one tool too
much used by the average janitor-fireman. Its use to pry up
through the fire may lead to clinkering. The janitor also needs
a hose to wet down the ashes in the ash pit, (put water in first
if pit is depressed below surface) and a long handled shovel
for removing ashes from the ash pit. A hoe is essential for shov-
ing live coals to the rear of the furnace in the coking method of
firing. A wheel barrow or truck is usually needed to bring coal
from the bin to the furnace and to transfer ashes from the fur-
nace to the ash storage bin.
Fuel Bed and Rate of Firing
In theory the janitor should add fuel at a constant rate. In
practice where he has many other duties this is not possible.
One result is that he must carry a deeper fire bed than would
otherwise be necessary. The thickness of the fuel bed will de-
pend on the draft and the type of coal used. It is possible to
carry a higher boiler load with a thin fire bed and there is prob-
ably less clinkering. In using bituminous coals many janitors
304 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
carry a fuel bed of from four to ten inches thick. These men
feel that a bed of seven or eight inches is most economical.
Regardless of the thickness of the bed the janitor should watch
for fire bed holes that may permit cold air to pass through the
furnace to cool the flues.
Never build up large fires and leave them until they burn
down. Unless automatic room heat controls are provided this
practice makes a fluctuating room temperature that may be
harmful to the pupils. Regularity in firing usually proves eco-
nomical. A steam heating plant should be run on the lowest
possible steam pressure. It requires more fuel to fire against
high steam pressure. Lower temperature with adequate air
moisture produces the same feeling of comfort as does a higher
temperature with less humidity. It takes over twenty per cent
more fuel to maintain a room temperature of 77° F. than it
does for a temperature of only 70° F.
Bringing Coal to Furnace
The practice of carrying coal some distance from the coal
bin in shovels is usually a dirt making process and wasteful of
time. A wheelbarrow or truck may often be used with much
better success. The coal should be left in the conveyor until
used. Coal scattered or dumped on the furnace room floor is
unsightly and a mark of poor housekeeping practices. Janitors
do not agree on whether the coal should be wet down before
being placed in the furnace. The water does delay ignition of
rapid burning coal, but generally water in coal is excess bag-
gage that must be evaporated before the coal is ready to burn.
Stoker Firing
Many school furnaces are fired with stokers which are auto-
matic devices to add coal to the furnace as needed. There are
FIRING THE FURNACE 305
several types of stokers for use in schools. One type is known
as a chain grate or a traveling grate. This grate provides a fuel
bed the width of the furnace. The coal is fed to the grate by
gravity from a hopper. Since the fire bed travels toward the
rear of the furnace it is desirable to have a combustion arch at
the front of the furnace to start distillation of the coal gases.
The coal should enter the furnace at an even rate with no
break. The grate travel speed and the thickness of the fuel bed
are controlled by a thermostat. This type of stoker is more
easily installed if the boiler mounting is higher than in ordinary
installations.
There is also an overfeed type of stoker. Most of the under-
feed stokers use a worm screw or a ram to deliver coal to the
furnace. The feed tube delivers the fuel through a head known
as a retort. This retort is capped or surrounded by castings
known as tuyere blocks. These blocks are perforated to permit
entrance of the air from the fan supplying a forced draft. Most
of the stokers are equipped with a clutch or a shearing pin that
disengages the motor if an obstruction enters the feed tube. All
stokers on low pressure boilers are operated by an electric
motor. Most of them use a separate motor to run the fan provid-
ing the air for the forced draft. Many of the stoker installations
have plates inserted at the side of the fire box in water leg fire
boxes as a protection.
One of the principal advantages of stoker firing lies in the
automatic control. This may be provided by a thermostat located
somewhere in the building. In a few of the cheaper installations
control is provided by a pressure gauge operated from the steam
pressure in the boiler. Some stokers have a timing device which
causes them to operate often enough to keep the fire alive dur-
ing warm weather. Others are equipped with stack (chimney)
thermostats to provide the same results. The stoker should have
306 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
a surplus capacity of about 30 to 40 per cent above that of the
furnace served by it.
Stoker Economies
Manufacturers of stokers contend that stokers are economical
in that all coal is consumed. They claim that clinkering is
eliminated, but most janitors contend that this latter claim is
not borne out in practice. The stoker having proper controls
does provide regularity in the production of heat. If adequate
ventilating facilities are provided this heat may be adapted to
changing room conditions in the school rooms. The stoker
does save time for the janitor and releases him for duties in
other parts of the building. Stokers burn a cheaper grade of
coal than it is possible to use with hand firing. In computing
the possible savings made by the stoker, consideration must be
given to depreciation and to the cost of electricity for operating
the stoker and the fans.
Operation
The stoker should be supplied with a type and size of coal
adapted to it. Worm and ram type stokers usually take only
small pieces of coal and some stokers operate successfully on
slack coal. (Note — slack coal does not mean black dirt.) The
janitor should keep sufficient fuel in the hopper. All moving
parts should be oiled. Controls should be checked often and
kept properly adjusted. The stoker fed boiler for school build-
ings should be equipped with an automatic device that shuts
off the feed if the boiler water gets low. Some have automatic
devices that add water as needed. These are assets but the jani-
tor should visit the furnace room often to check the water level
and should not depend too much on the automatic device. A
peep port or hole giving the janitor an opportunity to observe
FIRING THE FURNACE 307
the flame is of value in controlling the rate of combustion.
In some school buildings the janitor regulates but does not
shut off the stoker at night during cool or cold weather. In
other buildings the stoker is shut off at night and starting fires
in the morning may become quite a task. Some janitors have
found that it pays to hand fire the furnace until it has developed
to a point that all firing may be left to the stoker. Cleaning
stoker fired furnaces often becomes a difficult task where the
stoker is located directly in front of the furnace. In these cases
the ash pit doors are usually closed and cleaning must be done
through the fire doors. In many cases this cleaning may be
made more difficult if the stoker and furnace are in a pit. A
few janitors have made ash pans with wide lips that extend
out over the feed pipe. Ashes and clinkers are raked out
through the doors and fall into the pan or on the extended lip
from which they slide down into the pan. If one end of the pan
is properly sloped the ashes are then easily removed with a
shovel.
Draft
As stated in the section on fuels and combustion, good firing
is impossible unless sufficient air is supplied to complete the
oxidation of the fuel. The chimney is provided to help create
the draft needed through the furnace. In forced draft furnaces
this movement is aided by the draft from the fan. If the fire
had a direct passage to the chimney, as in a fireplace, most of
the heat value of the fuel would be wasted. In order to make
use of this heat the smoke and hot gases are forced to pass
through winding or tortuous passages of flues where much of
this heat is absorbed. The effect of the draft is easily affected by
the condition, height, and size of the smoke chimney. It is also
affected by the amount of fresh air available in the furnace
308 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
room. Many janitors have noticed that opening a window or a
duct in the outer wall of the furnace room will cause the fire
to burn more freely.
Damper Control
Dampers are installed on furnaces to enable the fireman to
control the rate of combustion and the heat generated without
having to remain by the furnace adding a small amount of fuel
as heat is needed. Most furnaces are equipped with four damp-
ers. Too often the janitor-fireman has little knowledge of the
importance of and the proper use of each damper. He should
know that dampers cannot be fully effective unless the chim-
ney, breeching and furnace are tight and free from cracks, and
unless doors fit snugly. In up-draft furnaces a major part of the
draft comes from the ash pit through the grates and the fire
bed. If this draft is not sufficient the fire is sluggish. If it is ex-
cessive, cold air may pass through the fire bed and strike the
flues with a chilling effect.
Proper damper control is often said to be a measure of the
janitor's efficiency as a fireman. The use of the dampers listed
in the following paragraphs refer to usage when firing and
not specifically to their use when starting and banking fires.
1. Smoke pipe or turn damper
This damper is often called a turn damper. It is similar to the
smoke pipe damper found in some of our older heating stoves. It is
usually located in the furnace breeching and should always be lo-
cated between the furnace and the by-pass damper. It is operated by a
lever outside the breeching. It is used to regulate the flow of gases to
the chimney. It should always be open when the fire box door is open.
It should never be completely closed when firing with a coal con-
taining much volatile gas. It may be partly closed to offset the excess
draft or chimney pull on windy days. When so used the janitor
should watch carefully that a lull in the outside wind may not result
FIRING THE FURNACE 309
in a smoking furnace. While this damper has a definite place its use
will probably be needed less frequently than will that of the other
dampers.
2. Feed door damper
This damper is sometimes called a fire door damper. It is usually a
perforated slide or a revolving disc in the face of the fire door. The
purpose of this damper is to admit air over the fire bed to aid in the
combustion of the volatile gases arising from the fire bed. It is usually
best to keep this damper open or partly open when firing with a
coal rich in volatile gases, to aid the combustion of these gases. Many
janitors fail to understand the value of and to make the proper use of
this damper. Too much air through this port may cool the gases,
while too little air prevents complete combustion of these gases.
3. Check damper
This damper is often called a by-pass damper. This is probably a
better name for it as it is used to by-pass furnace room air into the
chimney without having it pass through the fire, thus checking a
part of the effect of the chimney draft. It is usually a shutter or lift-
ing lid. In many cases it is connected by chains and a lever to the ash
pit damper in such a manner that when one opens the other closes.
The lever between the two dampers is usually controlled by a thermo-
stat. This damper is closed when firing and open when the fire is
banked. It is usually located on the side of the breeching, and should
be located between the breeching turn damper and the chimney. It
too is important and the fireman should know how to make use of it.
4. Ash pit damper
This is a lift door or a slide with the lift door preferred, since it is
easier to operate. It is usually located in the ash pit door but may be
located over an opening in the side of the furnace base. The purpose
of this damper is to admit air to the under side of the grates. Its use
is vital to proper combustion. Its use is also vital to grate protection.
Theoretically, if the furnace is air tight one could provide complete
control of the rate of burning by regulating the air flow with this
damper. However, such use might destroy the grates. The grates are
subject to intense heat from the fire above them. The air coming
through the ash pit helps keep them cool enough to prevent destruc-
tion. In fact, many janitors keep the ash pit doors open a considerable
part of the time and use the by-pass damper to regulate the fire.
However, leaving the ash pit doors open may admit too much air
310 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to the under side of the fire. If the ash pit dampers are closed sud-
denly on a big fire with little protective ash above the grates the
fire may warp them.
Ash Removal
Ashes are the non-combustible residue from the solid fuel
burned. In hand fired furnaces with movable grates the ashes
are dropped into the ash pit by shaking the grates. In straight
grate furnaces and from the top grates of down draft furnaces
the ashes are worked through the grates by sliding a "T" bar
between the grates and the fire bed. Janitors find it desirable to
retain some ashes on the grates to protect the grates from the
direct heat of the live coals. The thickness of the ash bed will
vary with firing conditions and the type of coal used. It may
vary from two to about five and one-half inches. The janitor
should avoid shaking the grates too vigorously. Red hot coals
in the ash pit are a waste of fuel, a menace to the grates, and
oftentimes a liability to the fire above the grates.
Ashes should never be permitted to pile up under the grates.
They choke off the air needed for combustion and for grate
cooling. For school furnaces it is desirable to have an ash pit
that is slightly depressed below the floor level with a slope at
the front door to make cleaning easier. After each cleaning the
janitor can run some water into this pit. This water will cool
ashes and embers falling into it and will moisten the ashes thus
eliminating much of the dust when cleaning. If the ash pit is
not depressed the janitor may wet the ashes before removal.
The water should be applied at the base some time before re-
moval. When applied in this way no water should be per-
mitted to come into contact with the grates or other hot metal.
To do so might cause breakage. Water or wet ashes standing for
any length of time in contact with metal furnace bases may start
FIRING THE FURNACE 311
a corrosive or rusting action. They seem to have little effect on
the concrete pit.
The janitor should have a long handled shovel for removing
ashes. He should remove ash accumulations from the rear of the
pit. When the ashes are removed they should be placed in a
metal ash can or a wheelbarrow for removal to a fireproof ash
bin. They should never be piled on the furnace room floor or
placed in combustible containers. The floor should be cleaned
after the ashes are removed.
C//nJcers
There are two types of clinkers, the soft clinker, and the hard
clinker. The soft clinker is sometimes confused with the crust
over hot caking coals. They are similar but the real clinker is
the result of ash fusion. Coal ashes are a combination of waste
and various metallic oxides. Some of these oxides do not melt or
fuse readily unless in contact with other oxides which fuse more
readily. This explains why clinkers grow. A clinker may start
and as other ashes and oxides come into contact with it they
are fused and adhere to the mass. Soft clinkers may start as
small pieces and by this addition gradually shut off the air sup-
ply through the grates. As this air supply is shut off, the ashes
are subjected to more heat from the fire above and more clinker
develops. This soft clinker may stay soft while on the grates.
In fact, it may run down and choke the openings in the grates.
It usually becomes hard when deposited in the ash pit.
As stated, clinkers are the result of ash fusion. This ash fusion
point varies with different coals. For the better anthracite coals
it is usually above 2500 °F., but for some of the bituminous coals
it may be as low as 1800°F. Coal ashes containing more iron
and magnesium seem to fuse more readily. Fusing and clinker-
ing are much worse under forced firing. They seem to develop
312 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
more rapidly when excessively heavy fire beds are maintained.
However, a considerable part of the clinkering is caused by the
method of firing. Bottled or excessive heat, poor draft, pud-
dling, and the burning of rubbish are common causes. Ashes
stirred up into the coal bed may become heated to the fusing
point and melt into a clinker. The janitor-fireman in an at-
tempt to force or crowd the fire should never use the slice bar
(better named clinker bar in this case) to slide it under the
fire and pry the coals up, for this mixes the ashes and coals.
This forms clinkers, choking off the draft and makes it neces-
sary to clean the fires.
Smoke Control
Smoke is generally thought of as the result of incomplete
combustion. This is not always true; however, black smoke is
an indication of fuel waste. It usually contains some unburned
carbon and probably some tarry matter together with some fly
ash visible to the eye. Theoretically the smoke product of per-
fect combustion is colorless. In general, black smoke contains a
considerable amount of gases that have been distilled from the
fuel more rapidly than they can be mixed with the proper
amount of oxygen above the fire bed at ignition temperature.
A clear chimney is not always an indication of good combus-
tion, but may indicate excessive draft through the fire bed. In
general, it is considered good practice to have a slight haze
showing above the chimney.
Most school buildings in the southern and central states are
permitted to cool off during the night. Rapid or forced firing
in the morning often causes heavy smoke loss. Several smoke
consuming devices have been developed. Some of these are
placed in the chimney. One is an oxidizer admitting air over
the back part of the fire bed. The best smoke prevention comes
FIRING THE FURNACE 313
through proper firing methods and proper use of the dampers
to aid in burning the gases in the fire box. A large combustion
chamber aids in consuming the smoke gases before they are
cooled by coming in contact with the flues or crown sheet. The
janitor should remember that only those gases that are con-
sumed in the furnace proper are of much value in producing
usable heat.
Starting Fires
One of the first things that the janitor does after coming to
the building on a cold morning is to fire up. Before starting his
fires he should test the water level in the boiler and check the
pump and the pump by-pass valves. The method of starting
the fire will depend on the nature of the fire bank. If the fire
has been properly banked close the by-pass damper, open the
smoke pipe turn damper if closed, open the ash pit door
damper, and break the bank. It may or may not be necessary to
shake the grates depending on the condition of the fire. It is
usually better to let the fire burn until the coals are red before
adding fresh fuel. Adding fresh fuel on unburned coal may
smother the fire and produce much smoke. It is often desirable
to admit air over the fire bed through the fire door damper or
by leaving the fire door slightly ajar until the fire has started if
firing with high volatile coals.
There are two general methods of starting a new fire. In the
regular or ordinary method the kindling is placed on the grates
and a small amount of coal is sprinkled on this after the fire
has started to burn. This method usually produces much
smoke. The other method is called the upside down method.
Many janitors find this method satisfactory for updraft fur-
naces. In using this method a bed of coal is placed on the grates.
The kindling is placed on this and ignited. After it has de-
314 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
veloped a good blaze more coal is sprinkled over the fire. The
coal below will be heated and ignite. The gases coming from
this coal will be forced to pass through the hot blaze and more
of them will be consumed. As a result there is usually less
smoke when firing up.
Banking Fires
The first step in banking a fire is to have a good bed of coals.
Some janitors let the fire die down about one-half an hour be-
fore school closes and then attempt to bank the fire without
having a satisfactory bed of coals when they leave one or two
hours later. In making up a work schedule the janitor should
know how long heat will probably be needed each evening and
then plan the banking accordingly. The fire should be banked
with fresh coal and not with ashes. The by-pass damper should
be open and the ash pit damper closed. Use of the turn damper
will depend on draft conditions. It is usually found practical to
bank with the conical or coking method. The practice of leav-
ing the fire door open on banked fires is hazardous and should
be discouraged. Banking methods will vary with the type of
coal used. In some school buildings a night man is kept on duty.
In some of the northern cities a flying firing squad of night
firemen visits each building one or more times each night dur-
ing cold weather. In either case, the building is not permitted
to cool down and banking fires is not necessary. It is felt in these
schools that the night cooling of the building is more expensive
than the added help.
Bottled Heat
Quick dampering, defective dampers, poor baffles, a wind
shift, insufficient furnace volume, or excessive firing may de-
velop heat more rapidly than the furnace and the exhaust sys-
FIRING THE FURNACE 315
tern will care for it. This may create an intense furnace heat
sometimes known as bottled heat. It may cause clinkering and
in severe cases may destroy grates and furnace linings.
Firing with Other Fuels
A number of school buildings are heated with gas or oil.
These provide clean fuels with a constant flow, requiring little
firing attention from the janitor. However, water and pump
problems may develop as quickly with these fuels as when
firing with coal, and there should be no neglect of the furnace
room. Each of these fuels may cause some soot to be deposited
on the flues, but the oil is a little worse in this respect. As with
coal a proper air supply for combustion is essential. Damper
control of incoming air should be automatic. Ample combus-
tion chambers are needed.
The hazards from leaks and explosions are always present.
Oil lines should have a siphon or trap in them as a protection
against back firing. Both of these fuels are delivered to the fur-
nace under pressure. The furnaces must be watched closely for
leaks. If for any reason the fire goes out or is snuffed out it
should not be ignited again until all gases or oil puddles have
been removed. In lighting these fires a torch made of asbestos
wrapped around the end of a rod and soaked in oil or kerosene
is desirable if there is no pilot light. Lighting one of these fires
with a match may cost a janitor his eyebrows and perhaps his
life. The janitor should learn to estimate the condition of the
fire by the flame and to adjust the air supply accordingly.
Cautions and Economies in Firing
1. Watch temperature and steam pressure. Excess heat and steam
pressure are wasteful.
2. Have a clean heating system and furnace room.
3. Adapt firing methods to weather, fuel used, and type of furnace.
316 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
4. Watch for air, gas, or oil leaks.
5. Watch water level in boiler.
6. Have a good draft. Control it by proper use of dampers.
7. Watch room humidity.
8. Break up large lumps of coal. Shake grates only as needed. Avoid
smothering fire.
9. Burning garbage, forcing fire, or too much poking of fire may in-
duce clinkering.
10. Provide large combustion chamber. Use it.
11. Bank with coal — not ashes.
12. Keep ashes low (no live coals) in ash pit. Dampen if possible before
removing.
Chapter 15
Care of Heating and Ventilating
Systems
THE JANITOR-ENGINEER should know the principles of heating
and ventilation. He should know the various fuels and the
principles of combustion. He must be familiar with the meth-
ods of firing the furnace. He also needs experience and an op-
portunity to study the plant he is to operate. He should be
familiar with the building and the time schedule of the various
school activities in it. He should have enough mechanical skill
to enable him to make most of the adjustments and repairs
needed in the heating and ventilating systems. In fact, he should
be a man who is able to demonstrate to school officials and the
public that he is a skilled workman who knows his job and
who is doing it in a satisfactory manner.
Some of the problems involved in efficient plant operation,
maintenance, and protection are outlined on the following
pages. Since plants and conditions vary, there can be no rule
of thumb regulations that will apply alike to all systems. In
many cases, the procedures outlined represent the experiences
of several hundred active operators who have found these
practices satisfactory. A part of the discussion to follow will
cover operating practices and other parts will cover repairs, ad-
justments, and alterations.
317
318 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Temperature Control
The purpose of a heating plant in a school building is to
provide proper temperature. It would be possible to supply an
excess of heat and to permit the teacher to use as much as
needed. The surplus might be permitted to escape through the
windows. Such procedure is neither practical nor economical.
Better results are obtained with a temperature definitely con-
trolled within fixed limits' at all times. Many factors must be
considered in attempting to provide the temperature regulation
needed in all rooms. The janitor should be familiar with the
principles involved in temperature regulation.
Regulating Devices
Pneumatic heat regulating devices have pumps and air lines.
While most of these operate in a satisfactory manner, none of
them are infallible. Motors get dirty, air lines develop leaks, and
thermostats get out of adjustment. Teachers may complain that
the temperature regulation leaves her room too hot or too cold.
Some of the larger companies selling pneumatic controls have
service men who visit installations to make adjustments. If no
service man is available, the janitor may detect air line leakage
by the speed and time of motor operation. By shutting off some
lines this leakage may be located in a certain line. Sticking
valves may be detected by watching the room thermostat and
the radiator or suspected inlet. Excessive temperature for any
room may be decreased by resetting the control thermostat for
that room.
Limiting Factors
In many cases ample heat is supplied to the room without
satisfying the occupants. After checking the janitor may find
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 319
that the air in the room is stratified with the heated air at the
top. A condition of this type may usually be corrected by cir-
culating the room air. He may also find that a room tempera-
ture of 70° F. does not provide the comfort desired because
of a lack of air moisture. In these cases he may be able to
satisfy the occupants by providing more moisture. The janitor
cannot provide efficient temperature control in an economical
manner unless he can regulate some uncontrolled room heat
losses. It is anticipated that some heat will be lost in room
ventilation. This can be measured and enough heat supplied
to counteract the loss. Window caulking, weather stripping,
and the closing of other cracks will aid in regulating the un-
controlled losses.
Ventilation Controls
Heat regulations must be closely associated with ventilation.
Certain amounts of heat are lost through ventilation. On the
other hand, the ventilating air is used to diffuse and distribute
the heat in the rooms and thus to overcome the tendency
towards air stratification. The general purposes of the venti-
lating systems are to remove odors, provide fresh air, regulate
heat, and in general to contribute to the comfort of the occu-
pants. Even though there is some heat loss through the venti-
lating ducts, this does not justify closing the ducts with card
board or dampers when pupils are in the rooms.
The ventilating system is supposed to aid in controlling air
humidity, and to provide clean fresh air, with the changes
needed, without objectionable drafts. In some systems the jani-
tor may provide moisture for the air by a controlled spray of
water in the air stream. This is possible only when the air
current is of warm air. In other cases the air current is passed
through a curtain of falling water, and at other times it is
320 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
blown across coarse burlap cloth over which water is allowed
to drip. The last two methods also aid in cleaning the air. In
buildings heated by direct radiation evaporating pans on the
radiators provide about the only means of supplying artificial
humidification. Some janitors have speeded the evaporating
process by making evaporating pans to fit the radiators. Humid-
ification with the spray or with an evaporating pan is easily
provided with any hot air heating system. In any case, the
moisture added should not be enough to make the walls and
other room surfaces damp.
Air Flow
Air flow can be controlled by deflectors in the windows or in
the room delivery ducts. If the air speed from fans seems ex-
cessive it can be directed toward the ceiling where it will not
blow directly on the pupils. Fan speed should be regulated so
that there is no appreciable noise or whistling in the ducts. A
floor level air speed of about 40 F.P.M. may be noticeable with
cool air, but is little noticed when moving warm air. Air flow
to or from special rooms may be controlled by fan speed and
vent duct damper control. Mixing dampers in ducts or in unit
heaters should be checked frequently. The use of room fans will
aid in diffusing the heat over the rooms. This method is used
in old basement rooms having only ceiling radiators.
Clean Air
Air cleaning is not easily controlled, except where air washers
are used. In some of the newer ventilating units oiled or mesh
screens are used to filter out the dust. These filters should be
cleaned as often as needed to make them effective. Some of the
filters are cleaned by immersion in an oil bath. Any system of
air movement through dirt laden ducts may throw much dust
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 321
into the classroom air. Corridor ventilation may stir up dust if
the air flow speed is sufficient. Hence, all ventilating ducts, cor-
ridors, or other air passage ways should be kept free of dust.
Furnace Drafts
No furnace may be expected to operate efficiently without
sufficient and controlled draft. The impetus for this air flow
comes from the chimney. Its effectiveness may be governed by
the shape, arrangement, and condition of the furnace.
Chimney Draft
Some chimney and boiler breeching conditions which make
them less efficient are : holes in breeching, loose connection with
chimney, turn damper closed, soot piled up in the breeching
and smoke pipe, breeching entering chimney on a down slant,
breeching extending too far into the chimney, and obstructions
in the chimney. All of these difficulties are easily removed.
There are certain other draft difficulties that cannot usually be
corrected until the heating plant is idle. Some of these are:
broken chimney linings, chimney cracks, and a lack of chimney
height above the roof line or parapet walls which may choke
the draft or at times cause a back draft. Chimney cracks and
holes can usually be detected by a smoke test. (Build small fire
of smoke producing material, cover top of flue for few minutes
and watch for leaks.) The holes and small cracks can be filled
with mortar. The large cracks and broken linings may have to
be repaired by a bricklayer. All breechings and soot boxes
should be cleaned several times each year.
Furnace
Efficient combustion results depend on the draft and the con-
trol of air flow in the furnace. Leaks in the furnace walls or
322 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
through the ash pit make it difficult to control the air flow.
Loose fitting dampers or doors, or cracks in the furnace lining
may admit air where none is needed. Dampers will be more
effective and the draft more easily controlled if all of these
cracks are closed. Many of them can be closed, at least tempo-
rarily, by a mixture of cement and asbestos fiber.
After the air enters the furnace it should follow a prescribed
route in order that it be of greatest value in combustion without
exerting a cooling effect on the boiler or hot air furnace. The
air should be directed up through the fire bed. After passing
through the fire bed it must mix with the gases. With these hot
gases it should pass through the flues. If the air and gases enter
the flues too soon some heat is lost. This combustion requires a
rather high combustion chamber. It is estimated that a furnace
large enough to heat 5000 feet E.D.R. should have a space of at
least 18" below the grates and a space of 42 to 48" between the
grates and the crown sheet. In many cases improved combustion
has been secured by raising the furnace. In some furnaces, the
hot gases pass back under the boiler or heating unit before
entering the flues. In such instances they may pass over a fire
wall. The hot gases should be directed up against the boiler
before they lose too much of their heat. The fire wall should
be built up until the open space between it and the boiler is
only about 12 to 15" for a majority of the school plant installa-
tions.
Furnace Grates
Air entering the ash pit passes into the fire bed through per-
forated or slotted iron grills called grates. These grates are made
of cast iron and are of several types. The older brick set and
some of the older portable furnaces are equipped with fixed
grates of long slotted bars running lengthwise of the furnace.
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 323
Most of the newer furnaces are equipped with cross grates.
Some of these extend all of the way across the furnace. In some
of the larger furnaces the grates from each side run only to the
middle where they rest on a "T" bar. They may be classified as
shaking, rocking, or dumping grates according to their action.
Most school furnaces are equipped with shaking grates which
are controlled by levers at the front of the furnace.
Grafe Control and Protection
Most of the grates installed for use with bituminous coals
have only one-half inch slot openings. This is usually sufficient
to admit the air necessary for grate protection. Most janitors
find it advisable to maintain a bed of ashes of two to four inches
between the grates and the live coals. When this bed of ashes
becomes too thick some of it is shaken down into the ash pit.
The grates should be shaken often enough to control the ash
bed, but if shaken too often or too vigorously the ash protection
will be lost and live coals will drop into the ash pit. The grates
should be protected from clinkers. If shaking does not remove
the clinkers they may be removed by using a slice bar or a
"T" bar run under the fire bed. If soft melted clinkers have
run into and closed some of the openings they should be
chipped out as soon as possible. Heavy banking with the ash
pit doors closed, may create enough heat on the grates to warp
them.
Operation
The shaking grates are slightly convex at the surface to pro-
tect the fingers from the intense heat. The grates should not be
shaken so strenuously that the ends (trunions) may be jerked
out of the slots in which they rest. In those furnaces where the
grates are divided down the center only one side is shaken at a
324 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
time. In furnaces where the rear and front sections shake sepa-
rately the rear sections will probably be shaken more often,
particularly if the coking method of firing is used. After shak-
ing the grates the janitor should place the shaking bar in
such a position that the grates will be flat. If the edges or fingers
are permitted to stick up into the fire bed they may be burned
off. Most shaking bars have latches or slots that mesh or lock
holding the grates in the proper position. These should be
checked and properly meshed each time the grates are shaken.
Warping and Growth
Grates of cast iron absorb some carbon when heated. Thus
grates that seem loose when first installed may expand to fill
the full space provided for them. Grates subjected to intense or
bottled heat may warp or sag. Dumping large quantities of live
coals into the ash pit may also cause warping. Probably the most
common cause of grate failure is caused by ashes which choke
off the draft through the grates. With proper protection one set
of grates should last as long as the furnace.
The Steam Heating System
The use of steam for heating requires a specific type of heat-
ing unit. Unless properly cared for the steam may create certain
hazards. The fact that this steam condenses and must be re-
turned to the furnace to be reheated requires that all steam lines
have the proper slope. If the water is to be heated quickly and
economically the heated gases must have direct contact with the
metal separating the hot gases and the water.
Core of Flues
Boiler flues are of a comparative soft iron having power to
conduct heat rapidly. If these flues become coated with a carbon
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 325
soot which is not a good conductor their efficiency is reduced. A
soot coating of one-thirty-second of an inch may cut efficiency
as much as ten per cent, while a coating one-sixteenth of an
inch thick may reduce efficiency as much as twenty-five per
cent. This soot must be removed. In high pressure boilers a
steam jet is often used to remove the soot. In a few schools hav-
ing a vacuum cleaning system the flues are vacuum cleaned. In
most schools, the flues must be cleaned by using a brush and a
scraper. If used every day, a wire brush may keep the flues clean.
If they become very dirty, the scraper should be used. When
cleaning the flues the damper should be open. Flue cleaning is
more difficult if the space at each end of the boiler does not
permit free use of the cleaning tools. The use of a flexible or
jointed cleaning rod is a dirty process, but regardless of how
dirty the task is, the flues should be cleaned.
Some janitors use a chemical like salt to aid in consuming
the soot. This probably has more effect in cleaning the fire box
than in cleaning the flues. However, many janitors feel that the
use of salt may have a corrosive effect on the metal. The janitor
should be able to replace or rebead leaky flues, or to plug, tem-
porarily, a leaking flue with a wood plug.
Daily Operation
Before firing up each morning the janitor should check by
inspection the water glass and by test the try cocks. He should
check the pump and by-pass valves. After he starts the fire he
should not leave the furnace room too long at a time. As soon
as he has about two pounds of steam pressure he should test the
pop off valve. It is a mistake to try to fire up too quickly. A
gradual warming without having to force the fire is preferable.
In the evening the process is similar but in reverse order. After
banking the fire and before leaving the building the pump by-
326 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
pass valve should be opened. The chain connecting the ash pit
and by-pass dampers should be disconnected, the fire door
closed and tools put away.
Boiler Water
The steam heating system uses water or steam as a medium of
heat transfer. The fact that the water evaporates creates a num-
ber of problems such as the depositing of the water carried
solids inside the boiler, foaming from impurities in the water,
boiler deterioration, and the danger of explosion.
Wafer Level
If the boiler water level gets below the top flues or the crown
sheet and then fresh water is run on to the hot metal an ex-
plosion may ensue. Most school heating boilers are so arranged
that about four inches of water is retained above the crown
sheet. If the water glass is properly located this will mean about
one-third to one-half a glass of water. The janitor should in-
spect the glass often to determine the amount of water in the
boiler. The valve or pet cock at the bottom of the water column
should be opened frequently to know that the two ports of
entry, top and bottom, to the column are not closed. He should
test the try cocks often as a counter check. A surging or rapid
fluctuation in the water glass is often an indication of water
difficulties. If the water gets dangerously low in the boiler the
fire should be smothered and the boiler permitted to cool down
before any make up water is added. The pop valve should not
be opened to reduce steam pressure when the water gets low.
Foaming and Priming
Oil, organic matter, and dirt may cause the water in the boiler
to foam. When this happens water is boiled over into the steam
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 327
mains. This water is of little value in the radiators and may
lower the water in the boiler. When this happens the janitor
must watch the boiler closely until the difficulty is corrected. If
the boiler has a skimmer the water may be brought to the
proper level and some of the surface waste drawn off. Heavier
waste may be blown off at the blow-off or mud valve. If these ,
are not effective a thorough cleaning may be needed. One of
the best methods of cleaning is to remove the pop off valve or
some other top connection and to connect to this port a waste
pipe leading to the sewer or to the outside. A fire is started and
after the water is heated but before it steams the make up valve
is opened slightly. The feed water should be admitted slowly
enough that the overflow water is hot. Priming often occurs
when the water level is too high or the load heavy. Reducing
both may aid in checking the tendency to throw boiler water
over into the steam lines.
The blow-off valve should be opened often to rid the boiler
of sludge and other solids. If possible, the janitor should watch
the water glass when the blow-off valve is opened. It should not
be left open long enough to lower the water to the danger
point. Many janitors claim better results if the blow-off valve is
opened and closed quickly to start the water to surging and then
opened again for the blow down. If the water is dirty or if
boiler water compound is used it may be necessary to blow
down daily.
If water does not return readily to the boiler the janitor
should inspect the pump and the radiator traps to determine the
difficulty. It may be necessary to provide bleeders connecting the
steam line to the return lines. Free flow of both water and steam
is essential. The water glass should be kept clean. It can be
removed and washed in a cup of hot water to which has been
added a small amount of muriatic acid. Some janitors drain the
328 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
glass and open the top water column valve to blow out the
water and warm the glass. The top valve is then closed and the
cup of water and acid is held over the bottom of the tube. By
opening and closing the top valve the solution is drawn up in
the glass several times until it is clean. The glass should then be
washed out by opening both valves. The drain is then closed.
Both top and bottom valves should be left open. '
Wafer Ills
The water used in the boilers contains many impurities.
When the water turns to steam the solids are deposited in the
boiler. These elements may injure the boiler in several ways.
One of the most common difficulties is the deposit of scale. This
scale may be deposited any place up to the water line. It seems
to be deposited more around the flues and over the bridge wall.
A heavy scale prevents good heating. It may also completely
coat the safety soft plug. It is estimated that a scale of one-
sixteenth inch may reduce efficiency by fifteen per cent, a scale
of one-eighth inch twenty-five per cent, and a scale of one-
fourth inch about forty per cent. Scale is a precipitation of the
salts of such minerals as calcium, magnesium, and iron. It may
also affect hot water heaters and hot water lines. It may lead to
boiler buckling. Another difficulty arises from corrosion or
pitting. Strangely enough, this difficulty is not confined to min-
eral laden water. Rainwater has been known to cause severe
pitting. A combination of free acid and oxygen seems to form
a sort of carbonic acid bubble on the flues. After this has started
a small pit, other similar bubbles seem to collect there, each
adding its corrosive effect to the weak spot. Exterior corrosion
may occur on unpainted outer boiler surfaces or around leaks.
Fire box or ash pit corrosion occurs more rapidly if wet ashes
are in contact with the metal.
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 329
These difficulties may become serious. Scale can be removed
by opening the boiler and chipping the scale away with a
hammer. This removal is difficult in some of the smaller heat-
ing boilers. Pitted flues can be replaced. However, continued
water difficulties may lead to caustic embrittlement of the metal
structure of the boiler. There is no one cure-all for these boiler
ailments. The addition of soda ash when no caustic or alkali
is needed may aggravate the trouble. A water test made at one
time may not be valid later as the water composition changes
in rainy or dry seasons. A number of janitor-engineers have
learned how to use a titration test to determine the amount of
scale forming elements contained in the water. Some of the men
have several tests made by commercial laboratories and at the
same time make their own tests by determining the amount of
some water breaking compound needed to precipitate the
solids. These rough tests can give only approximate results.
It is often possible to have the water tested by the chemistry de-
partment of the local school or that of the state university. For
others who cannot or do not trust their ability to test the water,
chemical testing laboratories are available in nearly all cities.
Some of these companies sell a yearly service of testing and
treating boiler water.
Bo//er Safefy
Even if he is not an efficient fireman or a skilled engineer
each janitor should realize that the boiler is a potential engine
of destruction. He cannot afford to trust the often quoted but
erroneous theory, that the low pressure boiler with a steam
pressure of only a few pounds cannot do much damage. He
should remember that this pressure is quoted at so much per
square inch and that the total concentrated energy is immense.
He should carry no more steam pressure than needed. The
330 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
fact that the pocketed lines block free steam movement is not
a valid excuse for high pressure. The lines should be re-sloped.
He should watch the water level and the pressure gauge. The
pop oft valve should be set at a low pressure and tested often.
The janitor who adds extra weights to the level control of the
level pop valve should be replaced. He should watch the vac-
uum pump and the check valves. Any sticking valves should be
repaired or replaced. The soft plug is a second safety valve lo-
cated in the crown sheet. It should be inspected often.
Radiator Care
Having steam pressure in the boiler room is no guarantee of
room heat. Blocked radiators, stuck traps, and trapped lines may
cause difficulties in the distribution system. Often radiators are
painted with a bronze or aluminum finish. This reduces their
radiating efficiency. Exposed steam mains may have their steam
partly condensed before it reaches the radiators.
Radiator Blocking
One of the most common complaints is that certain radiators
won't heat. In one-pipe lines, partially closed intake valves may
cause the water to remain in the radiator until it becomes
water logged. In other cases, the air valve on these radiators
does not permit the cold air to escape. In either case, the live
steam cannot enter the radiator. Some of the air valves on
one pipe radiators are adjustable. It is possible to hasten steam
flow to those radiators farther from the boiler by setting the
air valves on these radiators to permit a more rapid air flow.
In two pipe and vapor vacuum jobs, the radiator trap may
stick, preventing the passage of cold water and air, thus block-
ing the ingress of fresh steam. At other times, certain lines may
be water trapped or air locked, either of which may prevent
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 331
the free passage of steam. Radiators may be tilted the wrong
way, thus blocking the steam. Gurgling and pounding or ham-
mering in the radiators or lines are other common difficulties
that can be corrected by the janitor who knows his heating
system.
The remedies are usually simple. Loss of heat from exposed
lines can be eliminated by covering and protecting the lines.
Cellular asbestos insulation for any size of pipe with metal
strips for attaching in place can be purchased. Water trapped
lines can be relieved temporarily by bleeders draining back
into the return line and permanently by resloping the lines.
Air blocks in one pipe lines can be removed by bleeders. In
two pipe lines they can be eliminated by regulating or replac-
ing the line air valves. Sticking traps may often be repaired by
reseating the valve or by inserting a new thermostatic unit. A
spirit level used on radiators and on steam mains will aid in
locating low spots or a wrong slope. These changes will not
make a ceiling radiator heat the floor air of a room, nor will
they make up for a lack of radiation. A relocation of these units
with new return lines is sometimes necessary. The tasks and
changes listed vary so much in different situations that no at-
tempt is made here to describe each change in detail. How-
ever, the efficient system should warm all radiators with a low
steam pressure and without pounding or gurgling.
Summer Care
As soon as the boiler and furnace are retired for the summer
they should be put in condition for the vacation period. This
task should not be left until July. One of the first tasks in laying
up the system for the summer is to clean it. The furnace chim-
ney and flues should be cleaned first. The grates should be re-
moved and all ashes removed from the hangers and corners.
332 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
The flues should be scraped. The chimney, soot box and breech-
ing should be cleaned. After the dust from this rough cleaning
has settled the janitor should go over it again with a brush.
He should remember that most of the coal burned may contain
sulphur. A small amount of sulphur and water may form an
acid that is corrosive on metal.
He will then be ready to clean the inside of the boiler. All
water should be drained off; clean out plugs, hand hole, and
man hole covers should be removed. In removing the latter he
should attempt to preserve the gaskets. The inside of the boiler
should be washed with a hose and thoroughly cleaned. All
scale and sediment should be removed. The soft plug should
be removed and examined. It may be replaced with a new one
of Banca tin bearing an approved label. He may then wish to
fill the boiler and run in a solution of some mild substance
that will form a protective glaze on the inside of the boiler.
(Some use a sodium silicate or a similar solution.)
If the boiler room is damp he should fill the boiler to the
top for the summer. If the boiler room is dry he may drain, re-
move hand and man hole covers, and leave air dry. An oil stove
set in the fire box for a few hours will dry it out. A fire should
not be lit for this purpose in an empty boiler. The boiler and
furnace will then be retired and should not be used for burning
paper or garbage during the summer. Neither should the
furnace be used as a storage place for paper to be burned later.
Someone might decide to burn it now. The inside of the fire box
can be painted or oiled, and an oiled rag pulled through the
flues will give them a protective coating. Fire doors should be
left open.
The janitor will then be ready to prepare the rest of the sys-
tem for the summer. The pipe and boiler covering will be
painted, valves reseated, pumps repaired and drained, and
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 333
cylinders oil coated. Hot water tanks will be drained and
cleaned. Fan housings will be swept and washed. Dust will be
blown out of motors, and all ventilating ducts will be cleaned
and dusted. Brass and nickel finish should be polished or coated.
Putting info Service
When the janitor is ready to put the boiler into service in the
fall he should treat it almost as he would a new boiler. If it
has been filled with water this should be drained off and new
water added. If it has been dry he will replace all plugs and
man hole or hand hole coverings and fill. He should warm it
up slowly to permit even expansion. He may find it desirable
to take one or two days to bring his plant into active opera-
tion. As it warms up he should test all valves, gauges, and
pumps. Fans and motors should be run for short periods and
stopped for inspection. It may be necessary to redrain the boiler
after warming up the first time. This try out should be done at
a time when the building is not in use. The furnace flues, fire
box and flues may smoke while the oil is burning off, and ac-
cumulated dust in air and ventilating ducts may be blown out
into the rooms.
Care of Hot Air Systems
All previous suggestions concerning the care of the furnace,
fans, motors, and air ducts will apply to the care of a hot air
furnace, as will those on temperature control, air flow, and
humidity. A few additional suggestions seem worth while. Un-
controlled hot air systems are subject to losses from open win-
dows. They are also subject to variations from wind pressure.
Few suggestions other than continued watchfulness in duct
damper control can be offered. If the system has automatic con-
trols the difficulties may be cared for by resetting the room
334 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
thermostats. In operation a hot air system may be warmed up
in the morning without taking in much outside air. After the
pupils arrive full recirculation should not be practiced. The
janitor should not close ventilating ducts in order to conserve
hot air. Air speed should not be sufficient to cause room drafts
or whistling in the pipes. Enough moisture should be added to
prevent the air from becoming too dry. Odors from the hot
metal in the air stream are obnoxious. The furnace should be
checked often. A small seam or crack may permit smoke and
gases to enter the air stream. All ducts should be cleaned often
enough to prevent any dust from them entering the air stream.
Air that picks up dust from corridors or rooms should be
washed or discarded. Rooms and corridors may need to be
cleaned often to prevent accumulations of dust that might en-
ter the air stream. For the same reason floor registers for either
warm or cold air in school rooms are not desirable.
Miscellaneous Operating Problems
Pumps
Pumps should be oiled as needed. All valves should be prop-
erly seated. The vacuum gauge in vacuum pumps should be
checked. By-pass valves should be opened at night. The pump
should be clean, and the floor around it free from oil drippings.
Oil Burners
Oil burners are of two types. The spray nozzle feed is con-
trolled by a butterfly valve. The hinged door type of burner
gets hot and the valve may stick. Before starting the burner
the fire box should be examined for any accumulations of oil.
When the burner is shut off the fan should be run long enough
after the oil is shut off to clear the nozzle.
CARE OF HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS 335
Gas Burner
If this burner is adjusted to give a proper air mixture little
trouble may be anticipated. The janitor should be alert in
watching for leaks. He should not be smoking when he enters
the boiler room for the first time in the morning. In case of
doubt he should open windows and give all free gas an op-
portunity to escape before lighting the burner. After the burner
is turned off it should not be relighted until free gas has had
an opportunity to escape. A pilot light for starting the fire is
desirable.
Cleanliness
Many other problems will arise in the care and management
of the heating plant. The alert capable janitor-fireman will de-
tect many of them before they become serious. He will main-
tain a heating plant that operates freely and efficiently. His
furnace room will be clean from ceiling to floor. It will not be
a catch-all for rubbish. The floor will be free from ashes, coal,
or oil. The furnace or boiler room covering will be clean. Ex-
posed metal will be painted. All tools will be in good working
condition and properly stored.
Chapter 16
Miscellaneous Duties
Care of Furniture
A SCHOOL ROOM WITH good floors and walls may have the
natural attractiveness of the room marred by dirty,
scarred, or squeaky furniture. One of the tasks of the janitor is
to clean the room furniture. Pupils come into contact with the
furniture surfaces and leave deposits of grease and dirt from
their hands. In cleaning furniture the janitor must find and re-
move these dark accumulations. Since some of this dirt will ac-
cumulate in spite of the daily dusting, more effective cleaning is
essential. This periodic cleaning usually involves washing or
the use of some cleaning fluid. In cleaning, the janitor should
be careful not to mar the finish. Strong soaps or cleaning fluids
should never be used. A neutral soap may be used in washing.
The washing may be done with a sponge or with a cloth. The
first washing should be followed with a second sponge or cloth
to remove streaks and surplus water. All soap should be re-
moved. The janitor should not use sufficient water to fill the
joints or cracks. He should also avoid using water hot enough
to mar the finish, or the sprinkling of water on the floor. Many
janitors find it desirable to wash furniture once or twice each
year.
Polishing
Washing alone does not leave the finish desired for furniture.
After the washed surface has dried it should be polished. In ad-
336
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 337
dition to the polishing after washing, frequent polishing during
the year may be necessary. Some janitors use a polish which also
acts as a cleaner, thus making it unnecessary to wash the sur-
faces often. In polishing furniture the janitor should use a polish
that does not leave an oily or sticky surface to catch dirt and
dust. He should also avoid the use of a polish that leaves a high
gloss surface that reflects too much light into the eyes of the
children by using suitable furniture polish on the duster.
Polishing Materials
There are a number of polishes available for use on furniture.
One of the most common of these polishes is a mineral oil such
as paraffin or a mixture of benzine or turpentine and paraffin.
After being applied these must be wiped off. The polish used
should be stable. One that oxidizes easily may leave dark sur-
faces, and one containing too much alcohol may leave white
spots on varnished surfaces. Such vegetable oils as cedar and
linseed are also used in polish. Wax is gaining in favor as a pol-
ish. The school may purchase suitable polishes or the janitor
may prepare his own. One combination of wax and oils may be
made by using: 1 pint raw linseed oil, 2 pints turpentine and 1
or 2 ounces of beeswax. The beeswax is dissolved in the warm
oil. The mixture is cooled and the turpentine added. It should
be shaken before using. One polish that has been used by the
United States Navy department is made up as follows: cider
vinegar 1.25 parts, petroleum spirits (paraffin oil) 2.26 parts,
turpentine 1.35 parts, denatured alcohol .22, boiled linseed oil
1 part, raw linseed oil 1.25 parts. If each complete part is one
pint this will make about one gallon of polish. Because of the
acid vinegar content it should not be kept in a metal container.1
XU. S. Department of Commerce, Washing, Cleaning and Polishing Materials.
Pp. 43-44.
338 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
A polish containing more wax may be prepared by using 2
parts (by weight) carnauba wax, 2 parts ceresin, 2 parts turpen-
tine, 3 parts gasoline. The waxes are melted over a water bath
and the turpentine and gasoline added. Another may be made
by using l/2 lb. carnauba, l/2 lb. beeswax, and 1 gallon of turpen-
tine. The wax is melted in the liquids in a water bath. Avoid
open flame. An emulsion wax polish is made to include an
abrasive in the form of tripoli. This wax contains gasoline 4.4
parts, carnauba or beeswax, .9 parts, tripoli .2 parts, water 4.4
parts, neutral soap .1 part. The wax is dissolved in the gasoline
over water bath and the other parts added. Many janitors prefer
the wax over the oil polishes since it does not leave a sticky sur-
face. The waxes containing some soap help clean the furniture.
The wax also provides some protection against ink stain. It may
leave a surface with too much gloss. When polishing, friction
created by rubbing is important. After the polishing is com-
pleted the sheen may be maintained with the treated duster.
Re finish ing
Most schools have an organized program for furniture re-
placement, but the refinishing of desks and other furniture is
too often neglected. In many cases the desks are scarred and
marked. For badly scarred desks sanding is usually essential. In
a few cases the worst cuts may be removed with a smoothing
plane. The hand sander may then be used to smooth the surface.
The sander may also be used to remove chipped varnish. In other
instances, the old varnish may be removed by a commercial
varnish remover. The janitor can make his own varnish re-
mover by mixing 1 quart benzol and l/2 pint acetone heated
separately. Into this is shaved 2 ounces paraffin. After this has
cooled 1 pint of gasoline and 1 quart of denatured alcohol are
added. Another remover can be made by dissolving 1 lb. lye,
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 339
adding 2 ounces of corn starch, and the same amount of China
clay. This is applied as a paste.
To remove old varnish from fixed seats, many janitors pre-
pare a dipping tank with a derrick or pulley and dip the whole
desk. This requires a tank large enough to dip the seats. The
tank solution should be hot. It may be set over a fire or heated
with a steam coil. For this purpose a caustic alkali (industrial
alkali) of some such substance as caustic soda and soda ash
(ratio about 2% to 1) may be purchased already mixed at a
small cost. The seat should not be left in the bath for more than
1 and l/2 to 2 minutes. If left too long the glue in the seats may
be destroyed. As soon as the seats are cool the old finish is re-
moved with a stiff brush. The seats should then be thoroughly
rinsed, using a hose. The hands should not come in contact
with this solution. After the seats are dry the surfaces are
sanded before finishing.
After the old finish has been removed and after the surface
has been smoothed a new finish coat should be applied. If a
color is desired the stain will be applied first. The stain should
not be too dark. If varnish is applied the first coat may be cut to
80 per cent varnish and 20 per cent turpentine. The surface is
then sanded lightly or buffed and the second coat, cut 10 to 15
per cent, is applied. In many schools a clear bakelite finish
(similar to gymnasium floor finish) is applied instead of the
varnish. The finish should not be too glossy. The suggestions
given here apply to wood furniture. The finish for metal furni-
ture is usually an enamel. The treatment for this finish will vary
little from that for wood.
Care and Maintenance
It is anticipated that the teacher and pupils in the room will
be careful to avoid marring and breaking furniture. In spite of
340 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
this care furniture will deteriorate. Seat bolts will loosen. Desk
glue may cease to hold. Splinters on seats are harmful to stock-
ings and clothing. The janitor should watch seats and other
equipment for loose joints or bolts. A little prevention may
avoid costly breakage. Fixed seats should be securely attached
to the floor. Loose joints may be reglued with hot glue. Some
of the older chairs get loose and squeaky. If they cannot be re-
paired otherwise they may be wired and tightened by partially
concealed wires under the seats.
Chairs and movable furniture may mar floor finish. This is
particularly noticeable on linoleum or mastic flooring. The jani-
tor should attach suitable gliders to the legs of such equipment.
There is now available on the market a glider with a large
rectangular base. This attaches to the leg of the chair and seems
superior to the smaller gliders, which might gouge holes or cut
the surface.
The janitor is often required to refinish table tops on science
tables. An acid proof finish may be applied in the following
manner.
First coat is a solution of 125 grams of potassium chlorate
and 125 grams of copper sulphate to one gallon of water to be
heated and applied hot. Second coat is applied after the first
coat is dry, and consists of the same solution as the first coat,
but is applied cold. This is followed by two coats of a solution
composed of 120 CC Analin oil, 180 CC of hydrochloric acid to
1000 CC of water. When dry they should be given one coat of
raw linseed oil which should be polished and allowed to stand
for at least eight hours. The surface is then washed with hot
soap suds and water and is again rubbed with linseed oil as
above. If any black comes off, the surface is again washed and
oiled in the same manner. This treatment should be continued
until no black comes off in the rubbing.
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 341
Termites and Termite Control
Many janitors have at one time or another had to contend
with termite infestation of their school buildings. Others have
buildings in which termites are now plentiful, without realizing
that termite damage is being done. Janitors often fear termites
as they would a plague because they do not know how to com-
bat them. While termite damage is often exaggerated, it is true
that termites may and do cause untold damage in school build-
ings each year. Termite damage occurs principally in wood but
may be found in papers, books, or cloth stored in favorable
places. It is possible for termites to practically destroy floors, or
to eat out the inside joists or studs until they will collapse
when subjected to unusual strain. The termite works under
cover and may do much damage before being discovered.
How fo Detect Termite Infestation
In many cases the janitor discovers evidence of termite dam-
age by accident. The discovery may come after serious damage
has been done. There are some signs that indicate that termites
are present. The janitor should know and watch for these indi-
cations. If other buildings in the neighborhood have termites
there is a possibility that they may reach the school building.
This is in no wise a sure sign or indication. One sign that may
be visible is the presence of dirt or mud tubes leading from the
ground up the wall or a pier to some wood. At certain times
during the year (in the central Mississippi Valley States this
swarming is more likely to occur during the spring and autumn
months) the termites may come out in a swarm in an attempt
to start a new colony. The swarming termites, sometimes called
flying ants, are an indication of the presence of a mother colony.
At other times books that have been stored for some time in
342 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
damp or musty places may show evidence of termite damage.
Spongy floors may be but are not always an indication of such
infestation. If the janitor suspects that termites may be present
in any particular piece of wood he should test it by tapping it
with a hammer or by the use of an ice pick or knife point.
Wood that is seriously damaged gives of! a dull sound when
tapped. The ice pick or knife point will indicate a soft spongy
condition. However, further examination may be necessary
since other causes may be responsible for the deterioration. An
examination of all pieces of wood extending from the ground
up to other wood in the building may indicate whether the
termites have used this piece of wood as a pathway to the
building.
Nature of Termites
While it is not possible to outline here a complete history and
description of termites, there are a few basic facts with which
janitors and others in charge of school buildings should be fa-
miliar. There are many types of termites. Some are known as
desert, carton nest, and soil dwelling or subterranean termites.
The workers of the termites which may injure school buildings
are grayish white in color. Those that swarm are somewhat
yellow with rather white wings. They resemble ants but do not
have so pronounced a waistline between the thorax and abdo-
men. The termites are able to thrive on the cellulose found in
wood. Those that are often found in school buildings, avoid the
light, and if no wood reaches from the building down to the
ground may build small air-tight mud tubes up to the wood.
Those found in school buildings also seem to need water. The
tubes in the ground lead down to moist earth. This need for
water makes it possible to destroy them by cutting them off
from their water supply.
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 343
Enfrcrnce
Termites almost invariably come into the building from some
outside source. Places where wood is imbedded in concrete or
wood in contact with the ground offer opportunities for en-
trance. Cracks in the concrete or brick foundation offer a means
of entrance. Basement windows, wood piers, or wood steps offer
an easy path. Wood floors on concrete subfloors which rest on
the ground offer ready entrance if the building settles suffi-
ciently to cause a crack in the subfloor. One other source of
entrance is the small dirt tube that the termites erect up the
side of masonry to the wood.
Controls
There are three possible means of controlling termites and
in preventing excessive building damage. They are: preven-
tion, extermination, and elimination. All buildings having
wood in the lower story will be subject to termite damage.
Prevention
The best method of prevention is in the manner of construc-
tion. In buildings having good tight concrete foundations with
no wood closer than twenty-four inches from the ground the
danger of infestation is lessened. Likewise, fire resistive con-
struction so reduces the available food supply that termites do
not thrive. The elimination of any building wood in contact
with the ground cuts off a possible easy means in ingress. The
use of metal shields extending out from and turned down from
the top of the foundations and piers aid in preventing the erec-
tion of tubes up the walls. Anti-termite treatment, if permanent,
of all wood near the ground aids in preventing infestation, or
assists in their later control.
344 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Exferm/ncrf/on
Several methods have been developed for the use of certain
gases and chemicals to kill the termites in the building. It is
possible to kill the termites if the gas or chemicals is introduced
into the wood under pressure. However, unless the chemical
thoroughly impregnates the wood the treatment does not last.
Commercial or home treatments on the surface of the wood are
usually not lasting. One of the chemicals used in impregnating
the wood is zinc chloride.
E/jm/ncrffon
Elimination as outlined here is really one method or form of
prevention. It is now quite well understood that each infesta-
tion is a special case and should be given special study. There
seems to be no one universal method of elimination. Elimina-
tion methods used may be successful but not permanent. Many
chemicals and fumigants are temporary and unless those in
charge watch carefully new infestations may occur. One com-
mon means of elimination is to destroy the tubes that lead
from the ground to the wood above. The termites usually found
in school buildings need moisture. When the termites in the
building are cut off from the soil they seem to die and others
will not reach the wood until new tubes are constructed.
Other methods of elimination that are of value are the de-
struction of old stumps near the building, and the removal of
pieces of building wood in contact with the ground which
might provide an easy means of entrance. Closing cracks in
foundation walls and the painting of walls where tubes have
been found with creosote, discourage termite entrance. In a few
cases custodians have been able to locate the termite colony nest
and to destroy them with chemicals or hot water. Termites
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 345
usually have their nest outside the building. They travel
through ground tubes to the building. If trenches are dug
around the building at points of entrance and the soil treated
with some chemical toxic to the termites further infestation may
be averted. There are several such chemicals available. It is de-
sirable to select a chemical that does not have an odor particu-
larly obnoxious to man but which is obnoxious to termites.
Kerosene, creosote, orthodichlorobenzine, and paradichloroben-
zine may be used. The latter two seem to last longer than the
kerosene-creosote treatment. In applying these treatments the
kerosene and creosote are mixed in the ratio of 3 to 1. One gal-
lon of the mixture will be needed for each eight to ten feet of
trench. A part of it can be poured into the trench and the re-
maining part mixed with the first soil returned to the trench.
Orthodichlorobenzine is applied in the same manner, about one
gallon to each ten feet of trench. Paradichlorobenzine is mixed
in the ratio of one and one-half pound to one gallon of kero-
sene. About one gallon will be required for each ten feet of
trench.
Janitors should remember that eternal vigilance is necessary.
Adequate ventilation in damp basements and under floors may
discourage entrance. Once infestation has been detected, imme-
diate elimination should be brought about to prevent further
damage.
Miscellaneous Helps
Metal polish— A good metal polish may be made by using chip soap, 10
parts by weight, silica dust 20 parts, tripoli (fine) 20 parts, pine oil 2
parts, water 40 parts. Dissolve soap in hot water, add other parts. Don't
fail to use some power in polishing. When leaving polished metal for
summer, coat with vaseline.
Warming up building— Retaining fire (heat) over night saves time in
morning firing. Firing up on Sunday may prevent a cold Monday with
damp walls. Warm up boiler slowly. Avoid turning on oil or gas full
346 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
blast at first. Lock window rails at night to save heat. Caulking and
weather stripping also conserve heat.
Saving water— -Shut off water from automatic flushing tanks at night
and over the week-end. Repair leaky valves.
Removing oil stains from marble— Make poultice of benzol or gasoline
and a dry powder, or can use fullers earth.
From wood— soak cloth in hydrogen peroxide. Dip another in am-
monia and lay over first.
Javelle water— Janitor can make by mixing % Ib. chlorinated lime and
3 Ib. soda in warm water. Stir and add enough water to make ten
gallons. Strain or draw off clear liquid. Keep in stone jar. When using
dilute 1 part to 4 parts of water.
Removing shellac — Rub small spot at a time with denatured alcohol.
Paint brush— Clean in kerosense— wash kerosene out with gasoline-
rinse in water.
Boiler — Wasting hot water to sewer is fuel waste. Always open steam
valves slowly.
Paint— It dulled by washing, sheen may be restored by rubbing with
oiled cloth. Paint applied on green or damp walls will probably peel.
Alkaline spots should be treated before painting.
Light bulb tool — An old plumber's friend with long handle may be
used to loosen or to replace light bulbs in high sockets. A corrugated
cardboard in hollow will take up slack space.
Washing intyudls — Place in pail of water with some T.S.P. Shake. Use
brush if necessary to complete job.
fire extinguishers — Test to see that tube is not choked. Can use straw or
can blow in tube.
Treated mop — Use brush block and two or more treated mop heads.
Paste or glue — On blackboards or walls — use hot water to remove. Spray
naphtha on waxed crayon to remove.
Roaches and other pests — Roaches eat garbage and sewer waste. Use
borax or sodium fluoride to kill. Remove rotting wood as breeding
place. Stop cracks. Mosquitoes — oil pools — watch for old cans con-
taining water. Punch holes in them.
Gas line — Paint heavy soap suds and watch for bubbles to find leak.
Test joints with feather suspended on string. Do not use matches.
Machinery — Oil is a wearing film on friction points. Use it.
Steam and electric lines — Tag or mark to show rooms served.
Glass breakage — Loose glass in doors breaks more easily than that se-
curely fixed. Reset moulding and save breakage.
MISCELLANEOUS DUTIES 347
Carpet stains — Ink — can use ammonia on spots. Talc or cornmeal for
blood. Can dissolve with ammonia.
Paint — Cornstarch film saves paint. Can wash off and replace as new
finish. Will not absorb smoke.
Fruit stain — Warm water — use ammonia if needed.
Candy — Use clear warm water. If chocolate use alcohol or ammonia.
Grease spots, cloth — Soap and water. Can use gasoline or carbon tetra-
chloride. Work to center to avoid spreading.
Glue — dry — Can use white vinegar to remove.
Floors — Sawdust instead of sand in play box will prevent carrying
sand to cut floor finish.
Walls — A piece of cloth or felt, or paper towels cut into small rectangles
and placed as a pad on a board by the mirror in girls' dressing room
helps protect walls from lip stick smears from fingers of girls.
Window glass — Clean old putty out. Put new bed back of glass before
setting. Knead new putty to make pliable. Hold pane with glaziers
points, then apply new putty. Make neat job.
Int( — from wood — Use Yz oz. oxalic acid, l/2 pt. water — apply with
cloth, rinse.
Inl^ — from marble — 2 tablespoons sodium perborate in 1 pint water. Add
whiting to make paste.
Iron stain from marble — Dissolve J4 parts sodium citrate crystals in 1 %
parts water, add equal part glycerine. Mix in whiting to make paste.
Apply. Repeat if necessary — rinse.
Shovel — Can extend shovel handle for removing ashes from ash pit
by using 1 or iy2" gas pipe.
Tools — Keep separate hammer, saw, and hatchet if necessary to lend
to teachers and pupils.
Erasers — An old bristle brush with bristles cut of! to 1" or less and
nailed to board may be used as eraser cleaners.
Floors — If pupils won't clean mud off shoes, sawdust kept at the door
mixes with mud and prevents it sticking to floor. Good, but cleaning
shoes is better.
Floor traps — Anti-freeze or salt may prevent freezing.
Chapter 17
School Building Maintenance and
Repair
PROBLEMS CONNECTED with school building maintenance
J. are so numerous and cover such a wide field that it would
be impossible to describe here the various tasks that need to be
performed. Hence, the discussion in this chapter will be de-
voted primarily to the principles of maintenance, the organiza-
tion of the maintenance force, and the recurrence of certain
maintenance tasks. Some attempt will be made to list the major
fields of maintenance and repair for public school buildings and
to outline some of the general problems involved. It seems
probable that more detailed instructions should be made up in
the form of a separate volume or manual or in the form of job
sheets. The type of detailed instructions necessary will depend
in part on whether skilled or non-skilled workmen are used
for many of the different repair tasks. In school administration
there has always been some difficulty in determining the differ-
ence between maintenance, repairs, capital outlay, and opera-
tion. In the discussions outlined in this chapter, the word "re-
pair" will refer primarily to the replacement of broken pieces
or worn out parts, or to the mending of broken joints and con-
nections. The term "maintenance" will cover all repairs and
replacements and the general upkeep of the plant but will not
include major remodeling jobs such as removing partitions to
348
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 349
make one room out of two, or to a change in the style of the
building or roof structure. The term "capital outlay" as used
here will refer to remodeling tasks that change the building
structure, that provide new additions, or that replace a building
with a new structure. The term "operation" will refer to the
daily, weekly, and monthly activities necessary to provide the
heat, ventilation, sanitation, cleanliness, and attractiveness so es-
sential to the school organization.
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the mainte-
nance program. For many years schools have been expanding
rapidly and most of the funds that could be provided were
needed for program extensions. Most schools have been limited
in the funds available for operation. This was particularly true
during the depression years. The maintenance program is not
one that is usually backed and supported by a group of inter-
ested patrons. In addition, it usually includes tasks which can
be deferred for a short period of time, so, maintenance pro-
grams are often neglected because of demands for other activi-
ties. In many cases maintenance tasks are deferred, and often
the same tasks are deferred from year to year until the whole
plant shows the results of neglect and the lack of suitable main-
tenance. The large sums of money now invested in school build-
ings may be dissipated too rapidly if the buildings are neg-
lected. The lack of suitable maintenance may permit buildings
to deteriorate to the point that public pride in these buildings
lags. Pupil comfort and pupil safety may likewise be jeopard-
ized through the lack of proper maintenance.
We usually think of the life of a school building as about
fifty years, yet many European and some American buildings
are much older. In many cases, proper care with some remodel-
ing to replace obsolete features will add many years of useful
life to these school buildings. During the last few years in one
350 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
state several school buildings, each less than twenty years old
and representing a total original value of several hundred thou-
sand dollars, had to be replaced because the maintenance pro-
gram had been neglected. While it is true that most school dis-
tricts need to limit annual expenditures, it is also true that build-
ing neglect is oftentimes poor economy. The old proverb of "A
stitch in time . . ." and that trade slogan used by one paint
company of "Save the surface and you save . . ." are both ap-
plicable to school buildings. In many cases minor repairs, re-
placements, or improvements such as painting will prevent de-
terioration which might later mean replacements or a lack of
service.
It is essential that some plan be followed in the maintenance
program. That the program may be spread over a period of
years; that funds may be made available at the proper time;
that too many things will not be left undone it is desirable even
in the small schools to have some regular plan of making re-
pairs and replacements. One of the first steps in organizing the
maintenance program is to determine how repairs are to be
made. Several different plans are followed in various school
districts. Under one plan the board hires all repair work done.
In some instances the board supplies the materials and hires
men by the day to make the repairs needed. This practice has
not generally proved satisfactory. In many cases the men se-
lected to do the repair work are not skilled mechanics and of-
tentimes there is insufficient supervision and planning of the
things to be done. Another plan that is sometimes followed is
for the board to let all repair work on contract This probably
has some merit over the selection of day laborers. However,
most boards of education do not know how to make up detailed
specifications setting forth the type of work and the quality of
materials desired in the repair and maintenance program. One
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 351
consequence is that bids are not comparable since the bidders do
not have adequate information. Neither of these practices has
proved fully desirable for the school districts.
Some school districts maintain central repair shops and have
a regular force of repair men who do all of the repair work
needed in the district. These men are available on call for
emergency repairs in any building. When not making emer-
gency repairs they are making other changes set up in their
regular maintenance schedule. This plan has the advantage in
that trained men familiar with the buildings are available at any
time. This method is not practical for small school districts.
During recent years the plan of having a central shop with a
roving mechanic or repair man hired by the rural schools of
the county has been introduced. He is provided a shop and a
truck. During part of the year he may have assistants who will
help him in the repair work. These men visit all buildings
needing attention in order to make the necessary repairs. They
are also available on call for emergency repairs. In some city
districts where a central shop is maintained, the repair men
working out of the general shop make only those emergency
repairs that cannot be handled by the local building janitor. At
other times they are used on building alterations and on heavier
repair tasks.
In some districts the local building men do all of the repair
work. It is often difficult for the district to obtain a man who
can do all types of repair work and who is at the same time
able to take care of the heating plant and to take care of the
cleaning duties in the building. Probably the most satisfactory
plan that has been developed is a combination of the central
shop and the building janitor plan. School boards like to em-
ploy well trained men for all buildings. It is realized that there
is more possibility of holding a good man if he has year round
352 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
employment. If the district selects men who have some ability
to handle tools and to do repair work it is possible in the smaller
towns and school districts to arrange the work so that the men
can help each other. In this way, it may be possible for the local
school janitorial force to do all of the repair work. This is now
done in many school districts. In other districts, the local janitor
does most of the repair work and a special workman is called in
for occasional assistance. If a competent school janitor is em-
ployed, any plan of maintenance that makes use of the local
building men has some advantages. The janitor is on the job
and can make repairs when needed. He has a definite interest in
the building and in maintaining it in a satisfactory condition.
As stated previously, one of the first requirements of a good
maintenance program is that it must be organized. Repair work
should be on a schedule. The janitor on the job should keep a
list showing repair and maintenance tasks that need attention.
It may be desirable for him and some of the school officials to
make an annual or semi-annual inspection of the building to
check other repairs and improvements needed and to make ar-
rangements for the work to be done. If the local custodians
neglect plant maintenance or fail to show results for their ef-
forts they may find that outside men are called in for this work.
The janitor should remember that many of the patrons think
that summer months are a vacation period for the schools.
Many of the patrons do not realize that the employee who
draws salary during the summer will obtain results justifying
the salary paid. The janitorial force doing maintenance work
should have a schedule of activities so that the time of all men
may be used profitably and so that satisfactory results may be
obtained. While many of the building repairs and many of the
maintenance tasks will of necessity be left until summer, not
too many of these tasks should be left until the vacation period.
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 353
In making up a schedule of the repair work in the system,
the janitorial force should know about how often certain repair
tasks will be anticipated. Some janitors have found that atten-
tion must be given more often to the care of floors, the care of
stairways, the drains, roofs, and doors than to any other parts
of the building. However, it is probable that painting is one of
the most costly maintenance activities. Cost of maintenance will
depend somewhat on the type, age, and condition of the build-
ing. In some buildings glazing or the replacement of broken
glass will entail considerable cost each year.
Typical Maintenance Problems
It is not feasible to give here detailed instructions on all the
repair tasks that the janitor may have to perform, likewise, it
probably is not feasible to try to select a few tasks and to ignore
hundreds of other problems that he must face each year. Main-
tenance problems do, however, fall into several general groups.
In the following paragraphs attention will be given to several
of the groups or types of maintenance problems. In practically
every case, those maintenance tasks which may be cared for
by the building janitors or by some one in the janitorial or
maintenance force will be stressed. In some instances, attention
will be given to the importance of repairs and of adequate
maintenance in some particular part of the building.
Roof Repairs
Leaky roofs permit water to enter the building in places
where it may do much damage to the finish, to the structure,
and to the equipment in the building. In many cases, the jani-
tor cannot afford to wait for roofing specialists to come to make
repairs and must make the repairs when they are needed. In
fact, he probably should in most cases anticipate leaks before
354 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
they occur and should make it a point to prevent the leaks if
possible. There are several points at which roof troubles com-
monly occur. The janitor should watch these points and should
know what repairs are needed at each. He should know how to
re-paste flashing up on the parapet wall and around ventilators
and skylights. He should know how to set or reset and anchor
counter flashing. He should not permit gutters and valleys to
be choked with leaves, snow, or ice until water backs up over
them and through the roof. Many janitors have learned how to
re-level gutters and how to close broken or open joints in gut-
ters or down spouts. Any janitor who is handy with tools can
waterproof the inside of parapet walls. He can caulk the joints
between the pieces of coping on top the wall. The janitor should
know the composition of the roof and should have the material
available that he may make repairs as needed. He should know
how to slit large blisters and to paste down the pieces so that the
roof covering will not be broken. Frequent attention to the roof
may prevent later building damage.
Building Structure
School officials and school janitors have too often thought
that after a masonry wall has been erected no further attention
is needed. As a result, many walls have been neglected. The
exterior walls of a building are no better or no more stable than
are their component parts. Buildings settle, foundations and
walls crack, making it possible for moisture to enter and ac-
celerate the process of deterioration. Mortar in walls may de-
teriorate, permitting water to seep through the walls. There are
three major types of masonry wall repair to which janitors
must give frequent attention. In some cases he has found it
necessary to dig under the wall footings and to install new
footings to prevent excessive settling. In many cases, the jani-
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 355
tors have found it advisable to repaint cracks that have appeared
in masonry walls in order to prevent water seeping into the
walls. The third major problem in maintaining exterior ma-
sonry walls is the prevention of seepage. Some janitors have
found it advisable to dig a trench around the building and to lay
farm tile to prevent excessive moisture coming through the
basement and foundation walls. In other districts, janitors have
removed the dirt from around the building and have coated the
basement walls with a water-proofing. In some cases, the upper
walls are treated with a transparent waterproofing in order to
prevent moisture coming through the walls.
Many janitors find it necessary to do some concrete work
around the walls. Some of them lay walks or put in curbs and
gutters. Others find it necessary to mix concrete for anchoring
flag poles or playground equipment, and for the resurfacing
of tennis courts or play areas. It requires only a short time for
the janitor that is skilled in the use of tools to learn how to mix
the concrete, and how to provide the surface desired on walks
and play areas. Janitors also find it necessary to make repairs to
the inner structure of the building. The floor screeds next to
the ground or floor joists without sufficient protection may give
way and the floor may have to be relaid. Door facings may be
destroyed by termites or by rotting. In a number of the school
systems janitors retread wood stairs, do all rough plastering, re-
lay floors, and finish walls at a cost to the district which is
much below that usually paid for helpers hired on an hourly
basis.
Care of Windows and Doors
Janitors are called on frequently to loosen tight doors or tight
windows. Some of them make the mistake of attempting to
plane of! the door or window when other measures might be
356 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
used, only to find that after the door or window has dried out,
it is too lose. The janitor should know how to reset the latch or
the strike in order to make proper contact. He should know
how to reswing doors and how to tighten hinges. Unless the
local regulations make it necessary for the janitor to call a re-
pair man from the central shop, each janitor should be able to
remove windows and to replace weight cords. Neglect or delay
in caring for tasks of this type might result in pupil injury. The
janitor should understand how to take window shades off the
roller that they may be washed. He should be able to replace
window stop nails with adjustable washers and screws that these
stops may be moved as the necessity arises. One of the biggest
tasks that the janitor has in the care of windows is that of glaz-
ing. It is essential that the window openings be closed. The
janitor who is not able to replace the glass may nail a cardboard
over the window. This practice might be accepted as a tempo-
rary measure provided the temporary measure lasts only a few
hours. It is essential that the janitor know how to replace glass.
He should know how to soften the putty, how to prime the
wood so that the putty will not dry out too rapidly, how to lay
a bed of putty before the glass is installed, and how to hold the
glass in place while applying the last putty. Most janitors realize
the hazards that might arise from broken glass in doors and
cases. As a consequence, most janitors attempt to keep glass
tight in these places. Glass in doors is usually fastened with a
wood moulding and it is comparatively easy for the janitor to
set these mouldings so that they fit snugly against the glass.
Janitors often neglect the building hardware. Panic bolts fail
to operate freely. Door checks have lost their tension. Door hold-
ers fail to catch or lock and are not easy to operate. The janitor
should understand that building hardware is placed in the
building to provide service. Door checks should permit the door
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 357
to close rapidly until the door is nearly closed, and then close
slowly without slamming. Panic bolts which are developed for
the purpose of permitting free and easy egress fail to satisfy this
purpose if the panic bolts stick or do not work freely. While it
is not possible to outline here each of the steps necessary in ad-
justing building hardware, the building janitor should under-
stand that this is one of his tasks. In a few school districts, extra
checks are purchased and when one is out of commission it is
taken off and sent to the general shop or to one of the janitors
who is skilled in this type of work. He repairs the check and
has it ready for use when needed. If all of the checks in the
system are of the same make, he may not need to return the
check to the building from which it came. It requires little at-
tention on the part of the janitor to learn how to care for build-
ing hardware. He should take the time required to study the
problem.
Electric Service Mo/nfencmce
There is no general agreement on the amount of electric serv-
ice repair work that should be done by the janitor. School jani-
tors often find that if they do not make the repairs, replace-
ments, and extensions necessary, that pupils and teachers with
no electrical training may attempt to make them. The janitor
who is careful and handy with tools can make a number of
repairs on the electric service system. He may be able to repair
and to adjust clocks, bells, and signals. He should make all fuse
and lamp replacements in the building. He should know how
to blow the dirt out of motors and how to clean motors and
fans. Janitors can learn from the local electric service men how
to make wire splices, how to make extension cords and fuse
testers, how to repair and install lamp sockets, and how to make
trouble lamps. While it does not seem desirable for all janitors
358 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
to attempt to make extensive electric repairs, it is possible for
each man to make some repairs and to make frequent inspec-
tions to determine what repairs are needed.
4
Heating Plant Maintenance
Many modern school buildings have as a part of the heating
and ventilating systems, complicated engines and machinery
that would have puzzled the old time janitor. Some of these
machines are delicately balanced and do not give the best serv-
ice unless given proper attention. Many parts of the plant may
have automatic devices to provide definite mechanical controls.
However, the present day janitor has learned that even with
these newer systems much personal attention is needed. Heating
and ventilation system regulation must be constant and the
janitor cannot always call a repair man when something goes
wrong. He must be able to make immediate repairs and adjust-
ments on pumps and radiator traps, and in the replacement of
broken water glass. He should be able to clean air filters and oil
strainers. He should be able to replace fan belts, pump valves,
and gaskets. He should be able to pack valve stems and to reseat
leaky valves. At times he may find it necessary to plug, tempo-
rarily, leaky tubes, to rebuild fire walls, install new grates, or to
replace fire box baffles or linings. He should be able to replace
insulation on pipes and on the furnace. He will have occasion
to replace boiler flues, to adjust ventilating duct dampers, or to
repair cracks in the furnace. Where the electric current is uncer-
tain the janitor may find it necessary to install a by-pass around
the pump. At other times radiators or steam lines must be re-
sloped.
It is not probable that the janitor can make all of the repairs
and replacements needed to maintain the heating system. The
janitorial force in many school districts do reset hot air furnaces,
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 359
install bleeders on steam lines, and do all other ordinary repair
work. However, unless some of the janitors have enough train-
ing to enable them to supervise the alteration program, a skilled
mechanic should be employed to make all major heating and
ventilating system repairs.
Plumbing Maintenance
Some of the tasks connected with the maintenance of the
plumbing system recur so often that the janitor comes to think
of them as a part of his operation program. The cleaning of
traps and the opening of clogged stools might be termed opera-
tion. On the other hand, neglect of these duties might call for a
maintenance or repair job. Many things can happen that make
it essential for the janitor to know how to make plumbing re-
pairs immediately. It is poor economy for the janitor to permit
waste of water through leaky valves because of neglect in re-
placing valve washers or fuller balls. The capable school janitor
should be able to make all valve replacements. He should be
able to adjust needle valves and to repair self closing valves. He
should be able to make temporary repairs on bursted pipes or
to place clamps around bursted hose. It is essential that he know
how to replace parts in flushometer valves or in flushing tanks.
He should be able to adjust the float control in lever or auto-
matic flushing tanks. He should be able to open closed drains
and sewer lines with a plunger, the wire auger, or the suction
pump. If necessary, he should be able to take up and relay cer-
tain sewer lines. It is sometimes necessary for him to take up
and reset stools and urinals. He should understand something
of the types of piping used in toilet rooms and should know
the types of wrenches or clamps to use on each. During cold
weather the janitor may find it necessary to thaw frozen pipes
and traps. At other times he may find it necessary to use an
36o THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
anti-freeze of some type in exposed traps. He is frequently called
on to adjust fountain valves or to replace broken toilet seats.
The capable janitor will be able to maintain plumbing service
in good working order without excessive cost to the district.
Painting
Since painting is one of the major tasks of school plant main-
tenance and since it is one of the tasks most commonly done by
the regular janitorial force, it seems desirable to give some atten-
tion to the principles and problems involved in schoolhouse
painting. Many school districts do not have a schedule showing
when certain rooms should be repainted. Those which do not
have a schedule seem to practice repainting exterior surfaces
about every three to five years. Those schools having a schedule
seem to repaint interior surfaces at about three to six year
intervals. Of course, the frequency of repainting will depend to
a considerable extent upon the use, the exposure, the location of
the building, and the type of paint used. Many school districts
now practice painting interior surfaces and immediately cover-
ing the job with a coat of starch. Then at the end of a certain
period of time, often two years, the starch coat is washed off
and a fresh coat of paint remains. Other school janitors make
it a practice to paint a part of the building each year. Some
of them then wash the paint every first or second year, depend-
ing on the amount of dirt, and repaint after two washings. If
the janitor is to handle his painting program in an economical
and sensible manner, it is desirable that he know something
about paint and something about the method of handling paint.
He should know the difference between water mixed paints
and oil paints. He should understand that the paint is usually
made up of pigment and of a vehicle or liquid which contains
the drying oils and the thinners. The amount of dryer deter-
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 361
mines the speed at which the paint dries. He should know the
characteristics desired in an exterior paint. It should not soil too
readily; it should have a good tint retention. When oil paint
gives away, it should fail by slow, even chalking, leaving a good
surface for repainting. Paints that check, scale, and alligator do
not leave a good surface for repainting, and it may be necessary
to remove old paints before new coats are applied. It is desirable
that the janitor have some knowledge of the difference between
lead, zinc, and lithopone paints. For interior paints, it is desir-
able to have a surfacing material that will stand washing and
which will provide the attractive surface desired. It should pro-
vide the reflection factor desired for school use without exces-
sive gloss. It should provide in schoolrooms a wall surface with
a reflection factor of from thirty to fifty per cent and a ceiling
reflection of not less than seventy per cent of the light which
hits it.
Usually it is not desirable to paint over masonry until the
walls have thoroughly cured and until the mortar and other
mixtures used in preparing the wall have become chemically
stable. Any moisture that is in the wall will come to the surface
and it may lossen the paint film when it reaches the painted
surface. It is easy to test wall alkalinity (hot spots) with a
mixture of one dram of phenol-phthalein and four ounces of
grain alcohol. Alkaline mortar will show a bright tint when
touched with this mixture. If the moisture has been taken from
the wall, the wall alkalinity may be neutralized by a washing
of zinc sulphate and water applied with a brush. At times the
janitor will find paint peeling from knots in wood. He can
overcome this by giving the knot a treatment of shellac or other
substance that prevents bleeding from the knot through the
paint. New paint should not be applied over old paint covered
with blisters. In general, new paint should not be applied over
362 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
old paint that is badly checked and cracked. Old paint that is
chalked and dusted to an even texture may have new paint
applied after brushing off the loose powdered paint. In general,
light colored paint does not fully cover up older dark paints
unless several coats are applied.
Furniture and Equipment Maintenance
The janitor is frequently requested to make repairs on school
room equipment. Seats get loose or parts are broken. In many
cases, he may be able to replace broken parts with a piece taken
from his supply of parts from dismantled seats. He may need
to sandpaper chair legs to remove rough spots harmful to cloth-
ing. Movable chairs should be equipped with gliders. Loose
chair legs should be tightened, and loose seats should be made
secure. Opera chairs and other fixed seats on masonry floors
may need to be reset. The janitor should be able to make all
of these repairs. He should also be able to plane and sand rough
spots off desks. If desk tops are loose he should reglue the parts.
He should be able to apply acid proof coatings to laboratory
tables, to resurface, and refinish table tops. The janitor who can
maintain all school room furniture in an attractive condition
ready for use is a real asset to the school system.
Miscellaneous Maintenance and Repair Tasks
In addition to the repair and maintenance tasks listed in the
previous paragraphs the janitor will find many others that
should be done. In most cases if he does not make the improve-
ments, they will not be made. While it is not possible to describe
the procedure to follow in making these improvements, some
of the yard and playground maintenance problems, tool repairs
and replacements, and other miscellaneous repairs will be listed.
The janitor usually has the responsibility of caring for the
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 363
playground and the playground equipment. He erects fences
and barriers. He often has to set anchors and posts for giant
strides and other fixed equipment. He can remove stones from
around horizontal bars and ladders. He removes old stumps,
and places shields on teeter boards. In some instances he paves
or resurfaces a part of the playground.
If the school has a work shop and suitable tools some member
of the janitorial force may be assigned the task of making and
installing storm doors and window screens, or of making track
hurdles. Many janitors sand or resurface slate blackboards.
Others make shelves, window boxes, and storage cases for room
and closet use. In one school visited recently the janitors had
made library tables, stage reading desks, and sand (saw dust)
tables. The janitor should be able to reglue loose asphalt tile or
linoleum floors. In many cases these items are not included
when the building is erected. If the janitorial and maintenance
force cannot make them they often are not provided. It is not
anticipated that every janitor be a cabinet maker. However,
many schools are now selecting men who are sufficiently skilled
in the use of tools to make simple pieces of equipment.
Making Too/5
In many cases the janitor has need for tools that are not pro-
vided by the school. In some instances these tools can be pur-
chased more cheaply than the janitor can make them. If the
tools are not provided the ingenious janitor often finds a way
to make them. Oftentimes he can make some of these tools from
scrap material that would otherwise be wasted. In a few cases,
he can make tools that fit his need better than do those he can
purchase. Below is given a partial listing of some of the tools
that are made by some janitors. Many janitors make their own
window jacks out of 2"x4" and I"x6" lumber. While these
364 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
are often heavier than the ones purchased they do answer the
purpose. Other janitors install hooks for window straps. Some
janitors make their own ladders and step ladders. They also
make nonslip feet for these ladders.
Most janitors know how to make a mop pail screen out of
hardware screen, and a mop pail scooter from scrap wood or
tin and some small casters. Some men make grass trimmers for
the edges of walks, and walk scrapers from a garden hoe. Some
men make their own snow shovels if none are provided. Practi-
cally all janitors replace broken handles in hammers and other
tools. A few men have spliced shovel handles to enable them
to clean the back of the ash pit with ease. Coal trucks for use
in bringing coal to the furnace, or dump coal trucks for trans-
porting coal to the stoker hopper may be made on the job.
Foot scrapers, concrete tampers, miter boxes, and eraser cleaners
can be made by almost any janitor. The janitor who can sharpen
his own saws or lawn mowers will find this task easier than
that of using a dull tool. It is not expected that the janitor will
or should make all of these tools but, in many instances, it is
better for him to make them than attempt to do without them.
The various repair and maintenance tasks listed in the preced-
ing paragraphs are only a part of those performed in a satisfac-
tory manner by many janitors. The methods used vary as do
the results obtained. It is probable that the janitor should not
attempt tasks for which he does not have tools or the necessary
skill. Poorly done work is often not economical. However,
many janitors neglect maintenance and repair tasks that they
can do. The janitor that does not have and will not develop the
ability to do ordinary maintenance and repair jobs around his
building may not be able to justify summer employment. He
may be replaced by a man who does not neglect the building,
or who does not need to call for outside help for minor repair
SCHOOL BUILDING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR 365
jobs. It is understood that in some districts local regulations,
city ordinances, or labor conditions make it advisable for him
not to attempt certain repair or replacement tasks. In other dis-
tricts all major repairs are cared for by a repair squad. Even
in these districts the janitor is usually permitted to make many
minor repairs and replacements.
Tools
If the janitor is to maintain his plant in an acceptable manner
he should have the necessary tools. Some of the tools that may
be needed are listed here:
lawn mower
lawn roller
level — spirit
nail set
oil can
paint brushes
paper fork
pick
planes
smoothing
pliers
plumber's friend
pump
pressure
suction
punch
putty knife
reamer
rulers and tapes
folding
steel square
"T" square
tape 50'
sander
axe
blow torch
brace and bit set (wood
and metal)
carpenters pencil
crow bar
chisels — cold
chisels — wood
drawing knife
files
8"
3 cornered
funnel
gimlet
glass gutters
hammers
ball pein
claw
stake or post
hatchet
hose
knives
wood heavy
jack
ladders
extension
step
Not all of these tools will be required by each janitor, but a
majority of them should be available for a complete mainte-
nance program. These tools should be owned by the district.
The janitor should be held responsible for their condition and
preservation. He should provide a suitable case for them and
cross cut (hand)
hack
"P
screw drivers
shovels
No. 2
snow
spade
spidering iron
tin snips
trowels
plasters
masons
trouble lamp
valve seating tool
vise
wheelbarrow
window jack
wire cutters
wrecking bar
wrenches
monkey
"S" set
stillson
366 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
should replace them each time after using. Many janitors paint
the background of a hanger case with a diagram the shape and
size of each tool to be hung on pegs. The tools are then put in a
certain place each time they are stored. A hasty glance shows
which tools are missing. As stated elsewhere, other tools may be
provided for teacher and pupil use.
Maintenance Supplies
The janitor should have available supplies that are used often
and which may be needed at any time. He should dismantle
old seats and store the parts. Large sheets of glass should be
saved to be cut and used later. Supplies should be sorted and
stored in suitable boxes or containers. It is desirable to provide a
case with some open pigeon holes and some drawers for sup-
plies. Some of the supplies often needed are :
bolts — carriage nails — assorted tubing — copper
bolts — stove plastic wood tubing — rubber
candles sand paper washers
glue screws — assorted wicking
gummed tape solder wire — copper
heavy cord sponges wire — iron
Chapter 18
Improving Janitorial Service
THE IMPROVEMENT OF janitorial service has not kept pace
with the improvements made in the types of school build-
ings or in the teaching methods. Many factors have contributed
to this lack of improvement. There have been no generally ac-
cepted standards of janitorial maintenance. In a few cases a
man has been retained on the job many years because he was
considered a good fellow but without rendering adequate serv-
ice. Some of these men would have been willing to do a better
job if they had known what was expected of them. On the
other hand a lack of tenure has been a factor in the slow rate
of improvement. Lacking adequate measures of proficiency
men of ability found less incentive for improvement. At the
end of each year some of them had to compete with untrained
men on a price basis in order to retain their jobs.
During these "dark ages," (dark floors, dingy walls, and
grimy windows,) the school officials repeatedly expressed a
desire for better building service. However, they, like the jani-
tors, did not know how to set up proper standards, or to secure
the service desired. The last fifteen or twenty years have brought
a great change in janitorial work. Trained men are being em-
ployed and retained on the job. The program of work is out-
lined to give employment for the full twelve months of the
year. Prospective janitors as well as those now employed are
encouraged to make a study of the tasks to be done.
367
368 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
Training for Janitorial Service
The older practice of learning by a trial and error method was
slow, inefficient, and costly. The modern school building has in
it costly and intricate machinery, as well as finishes that might
be injured by some blunder by untrained men. The janitor
plays such an important part in protecting the health and lives
of the children that useless experimentation should not be per-
mitted. The logical conclusion is that competent men must be
trained for the job. Those now employed who can and will take
training should be given an opportunity to secure such training.
Those who will not train for the job should be replaced by men
who will qualify.
Training Methods
Several methods have been tried in an attempt to improve
janitorial training. One method that has found favor in the
larger school systems is apprenticeship training. When a new
man is selected he is required to serve as a helper with experi-
enced janitors. He may work under the direction of several men
before being placed in charge of a building. This system of
training has proved to be more practical in schools where the
men arc given an opportunity to meet occasionally to discuss
their problems.
Evening Schools
In some districts evening schools are conducted for all jani-
tors. Many of the janitors are required to work long hours and
find it difficult to attend the evening sessions. In many cases
evening activities in the school buildings are held at the same
time the janitor classes are scheduled. The evening classes have
at times been directed by instructors not skilled in janitorial
IMPROVING JANITORIAL SERVICE 369
work. The short time allotted for the classes has often prevented
an exchange of ideas among janitors. This type of training may
have value if properly directed. It has not generally proved
popular with the janitors.
Part Time Schools
Probably the most popular type of janitorial program is the
part time school. The men are given time off at stated periods
each year when all can attend the school. This type of school
overcomes to a great extent that handicap of isolation for jani-
tors. Many janitors and administrators now realize that most
janitors work in buildings where they have little opportunity
to confer and to discuss problems with other men having simi-
lar problems. This type of school where all men assemble for
several days in training classes not only provides training in
technique but also aids in building a desirable morale and a
pride in the job. Most training schools of this type are con-
ducted during the summer months when all janitors may be
free to attend. Some city districts hold schools each year.
Sfafe and Regional Schools
During the last ten or twelve years many part time schools
have been developed as regional or state schools. The Minne-
apolis and Colorado schools were early examples of this type.
In most cases these schools are directed by some one from the
state department of education or from one of the state colleges
or universities. In a few states one school is held each year at
some central point and regional conferences are held during
the year at various points in the state. These central state schools
have proved popular. In some cases 500 to 600 men attend each
year. (The Iowa and Oklahoma schools are excellent examples
of the central school plan.)
370 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
In at least two states (Missouri and Kansas) the state wide
schools are conducted on a regional basis. At selected points in
the state, schools are held each year. The regional schools prob-
ably do limit to some extent the contacts that each janitor can
make with other men in the state. They may also limit the
courses that may be offered unless a minimum enrollment is
required in order to obtain a school. They do offer an opportu-
nity for men to attend without having to travel to the center of
the state. They also offer an opportunity for the ambitious
janitor to attend more than one school each year.
Instruction and Attendance
In a majority of the schools all instructors are janitors who
have been trained in the methods of teaching. This instruction
is sometimes supplemented with lectures by specialists on some
technical points. Classes are usually held in school buildings.
In most cases the classes are small so the instructor may aid in
setting up the job to be done and then have the men do it under
his supervision. This practice or laboratory period is usually
followed by a general discussion. The classes are open to all
school janitors and others who wish to attend. In many of these
schools all costs of instruction are paid from state and federal
funds and there is no cost to the janitor. Many school boards
give their men time off with pay while attending these schools.
In fact, some school boards pay all costs of transportation and
lodging for their men attending the schools. A few host schools
open their cafeterias and their buildings that the men who
bring cots may stay in the building if they wish. The fact that
many men travel one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles to
attend these schools indicates something of the interest of these
men in learning more about their jobs, and the more efficient
methods employed in custodial service.
IMPROVING JANITORIAL SERVICE 371
Program of Study
There is still a difference of opinion concerning the type of
material that should be offered. In a few training schools, basic
courses in arithmetic and English are offered. In general, most
training school directors have found it desirable to limit the
courses to specific janitorial problems, duties, and obligations.
In some of the earlier janitor schools the men were taught a
little about all of their duties at each school session. The newer
courses are organized on a unit basis, and are so organized
that each janitor may complete one unit during each session.
Some of the schools now offer one or more courses in house-
keeping and floor maintenance, and one or two courses in heat-
ing and ventilation. One or two schools now offer courses in
repairs, replacements, and maintenance, as well as one course in
safety and fire protection.
The courses should be so outlined that the janitor may com-
plete at least one unit at each school held. The completion of
certain units should be followed by an examination and an
inspection of the work done by the janitor in his building before
a certificate of proficiency in these units is awarded. The courses
should be so organized that the janitor may proceed from one
course to another. In one state an itinerant instructor is em-
ployed to inspect the work done in the various buildings and to
consult with the janitors on their problems. In another state the
completion of all prescribed courses, plus inspections, and ap-
proval of local school officials leads to a "Master Janitors',"
certificate of proficiency.
Evaluating the Work of the Janitor
It is difficult to make a valid evaluation of the quality of work
done by the janitor. Some men do a part of their work in an
372 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
excellent manner and ignore other duties or perform them
in slipshod manner. Some men are on duty long hours and
have such a heavy work load that some duties must be neglected.
On the other hand some men have no plan of work and because
of a lack of system waste much time. Some of them who spend
12 to 14 hours per day on the job could do all of their work in
much less time.
During recent years a number of score cards have been devel-
oped for the rating of janitorial service. These have been of
much value in calling attention to the various tasks to be done.
At first their value was limited to school administrators since
they were seldom placed in the hands of the janitors. Some of
them were too complicated for frequent use. At the present time
there is much interest in school building care and janitorial
service. Janitors are making a study of their jobs. Because of
these changed and improved conditions it has seemed desirable
to develop a new type of check on the quality of janitorial serv-
ice rendered.
In developing a method for evaluating janitorial service, it is
desirable to consider the work load, the age and condition of
the building, the amount of community use, and the possibility
of contamination from smoke laden air and muddy yards. It
is also desirable to limit the number of items to be checked. A
check list should probably give more attention to results and
conditions found than to methods and materials used. However,
certain practices that consume time without bringing satisfac-
tory results should receive some attention. The check list or
score card should be simple in form that all checking may be
done rapidly. It should be so arranged that the janitor can
check his own work without having to make minute evalua-
tions of the quality of work done. It should be so arranged and
developed that it is adaptable to any building or janitor. If any
IMPROVING JANITORIAL SERVICE 373
particular item does not apply to that building it should be de-
leted without affecting the comparative score. It should be
possible to fill blanks with a check (X or V) mark. Since cer-
tain conditions may be very bad the check list should provide a
penalty in the form of a minus or negative score for such con-
ditions.
The check list found on the following pages is one that is now
in use. While it omits certain items, it does list many items that
must be considered in evaluating janitorial service. It does pro-
vide a penalty for poor work or conditions. It calls attention to
'the necessity for planning the work and for certain necessary
records. While it probably places too much stress on certain
duties and conditions, it does place emphasis on results.
Check List of Janitorial Service
Place a check in the column that best describes the methods
used, conditions found, or time used. In the first column, check
items that are superior. In the second column, check items that
are acceptable but are not superior. In the third column, mark
with an 0 those items which do not apply to this situation. In
the fourth column, check inferior work or results.
It is difficult to prepare a check list that serves as a rating
scale for all janitors and all buildings. The number of items
under each section does not in all cases indicate the importance
of this item. On the other hand any attempt to give point value
(such as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) may make the check list too complicated
for regular use. However, several superintendents and janitors
do use this check list as a score card by evaluating in the follow-
ing manner. All items checked in column one are rated at jour
points. All items in column two are rated two points. Items in
column three are not rated, and for items checked in column
four deduct three points each. They develop a comparative per-
Check List
.TOWN _
JANITOR _
.DATE
.BUILDING
Load for this janitor.
Type of school
Types of floors, cl. rm. .
Corridors
No. enrolled
, aud
No. cl. rms.
Sq. ft. floor area for this janitor: cl. rms.
auditorium , Total
Yard, area sq.
Does it get muddy
Walks, sq. ft
Corridors
Condition
surface material
Plumbing fixtures, No. stools
lavatories , sinks
Blackboard, sq. ft
Heating plant. Type of fuel
automatic temp, reg
urinals
fountains
., automatic feed .
No. of motors
No. monthly night meetings in building, is extra janitorial night
help employed , total average number hours daily this
janitor
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OR
INFERIOR
1. The janitor
Health
Training for job
Dress
Relations — teachers and
administrators
Relations — pupils
Relations — public
Attitude toward work
374
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
Nor APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OR
INFERIOR
2. Safety and Protection
Protects self from injury
Exits — open for egress
Stair — handrails, treads safe
Corridor — no obstructions
Building protection — theft
Frequent inspections
Fire hazards — reduced
In furnace room
In store rooms
In attics
In electric service
Part in fire drill
3. Daily cleaning
Floors
Tools used
Methods of work
Time done
Time required
Condition — classroom
floors
Condition — corridor floors
Condition — special rm.
floors
Dusting
Methods
375
StJPEMOB
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OK
INTEMOK
Frequency
Condition of desks
Condition of walls
Condition, doors, cases
and windows
Toilet rooms
Methods used
Odors present
Condition of plumbing
fixtures
Condition of floor, walls,
ceiling
4. Cleaning Special Rooms
Tools used
Condition, auditorium
Condition, gymnasium
Condition, offices
Condition, shops
Condition, dressing rooms
5. Occasional cleaning
Glass
Methods used
Frequency
Condition windows
Condition doors and cases
376
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
Nor APPLY
IN THIS
CASK
NEGLECTED
OR
INFERIOR
Blackboards and erasers
Methods used
Frequency
Condition of blackboard
Condition of erasers
Furniture cleaning
Methods used
Condition
Polish
Wall cleaning
Methods
Frequency
Condition
6. Floor Maintenance
Floors sanded
Floors sealed
Surface treatment adapted
to use
Condition corridor floors
Condition classroom floors
Condition special room
floors
Color and sheen on floors
7. Work Program
Has a schedule
377
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OS
INTERIOR
Uses it
Faculty aware of schedule
Records
Has supply record
Has record of tasks done
Has record of equipment
Reports
Supplies used and needed
Of repairs made
Of breakage or rule
infractions
8. Care of Supplies and
Equipment
Supplies
Storage of
Use of
Equipment
Storage
Condition
9. Yard Care
Condition of lawns
Condition of hedges and
shrubbery
Condition of walks
Rubbish or paper on
grounds
378
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OR
INFERIOR
Washes and gullies filled
Condition of fences
10. Miscellaneous duties
Condition of window shades
Care of flag
Radiator cleaning
Helps to teachers
Care of toilet room supplies
Care of electric service
Fusing
Switches protected
Load per circuit
Condition of lamps
11. Repairs and Replacements
Plumbing — valves and traps
Furniture
Condition of seats
Condition of desks
Condition of playground
equipment
Building hardware
Condition panic bolts
Condition door closers
Condition locks and latches
Building
379
SUPERIOR
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
OK
INFERIOR
Condition of roof
Condition of walls
Leaks found
Replacements
Window cords
Window glass
Plumbing parts
Work shop
Storage of tools
Condition of repair tools
Rubbish in room
12. Heating and Ventilation
Furnace room
Clean
Tools in place
Firing the furnace
Methods used
Condition of fuel bed
Amount of fuel used
Care of ashes
Clinkering
Use of dampers
Temperature control
Care of heating plant
Safety measures
380
SUPEKIOH
ACCEPTABLE
NOT APPLY
IN THIS
CASE
NEGLECTED
ox
INFERIOR
Condition of flues
Condition of grates
Condition of exterior
Condition of pumps
Condition of traps
Condition of water glass
Condition inside of boiler
Condition breeching and
chimney
Pipe insulation
Lines trapped — pockets
Condition thermostats
Care of fans and vents
Ducts open
Fans used
Dust in ducts
Humidity supplied
Condition of motors
Condition of air washers
Regulation of unit heaters
Total checks in column
0
Total score of column
X4
X2
X3
Grand total score
Possible score (sum of checks columns 1 and 2, minus sum
of checks in column 4.)
381
382 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
centage score by dividing the total score for each man by the
possible score.
This list shows a total of 133 items with a possible score of
532, divided as follows: the janitor 28 points, safety 44, cleaning
144, floor maintenance 28, work plan 36, supply and equipment
care 16, yards 24, miscellaneous 36, repairs and replacements 64,
heating and ventilation 112. If, in making a check of the work,
60 checks are placed in the first column, the total score for this
column would be 4 X 60, or 240 points. Forty checks in the
second column would give 2 X 40, or 80 points. Eighteen O's
in the third column would indicate that these items do not
apply. Fifteen checks in the fourth column would give 3 X 15,
or 45, which is to be subtracted from the sum of the scores of
the first two columns. Thus 240 plus 80 gives 320. This, minus
the score of 45, gives a final score of 275. If it is desired to obtain
a percentage rating, multiply the number of checks in columns
one, two, and four by 4 (in this case 115 X 4, or 460), to find
the maximum possible score. Dividing the actual score (in this
case 275) will give the percentage rating, which, in the example
given, would be 60%.
COLUMN
ITEMS
CHECKED
SCORE FOR
COLUMN
1
2
3
Total to date
4
60
40
18
15
240
80
0
320
45
Building score 275
Items checked columns 1-2-4, 115
Possible score 460
Percentage — 275 divided by 460 equals .60
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384 THE CUSTODIAN AT WORK
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United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Washing,
Cleaning, and Polishing Materials, Circular C 424, August, 1939.
United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Materials
for the Household, Circular No. 70, December, 1917.
WOMRATH, G. F., Efficient Business Administration of Public Schools,
Bruce Publishing Co., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1932, 450 pp.
Index
Abrasives, 55
Accidents
Electric current, 149
Falling objects, 149
Playground, 147
Prevention of, 144
Protection of janitor, 145
Slipping and falling in bldg., 146
Special rooms, 148
Acid proof finish, 340
Acids, 59
Carbolic, 63
Muriatic, 59, 103
Oxalic, 56, 60
Sulphuric, 60
Acoustical tile board, 2
Air circulation, 264
Air flow, 320
Ammonium sulphate, 131
Ash removal, 310
Athletes foot, 64
Auditorium units, Care of, 95
Authority, Line of, 23
Bakelite seals, 66
Banking fires, 314
Bartrim, W., 279, 286
Blackboards, Care of, 112
Cleaning, 110
Cleaning methods, 111
Bowl scouring powder, 55
Broady, Dr. K. O., iv
Brushes
Counter, 46
Floor, 44
Radiator, 46
Scrub, 45
Toilet, 46
Caustic cleaners, 60
Potash, 61
Soda, 61
Chamois skin, 51, 107
Check List of Janitorial Service, 373
Cheesecloth, 106
Chimney draft, 321
Chlorine, 63
Christmas lighting, 134
Cleaning
Blackboards, 110
Brushes, 44
Drinking fountains, 101
Erasers, 114
Floors, 74
Glass, 104
Glazed tile, 120
Stone, 69
Toilet rooms, 97
Toilet stools, 102
Tools, 42
Urinals, 104
Yard, 131
Clinkers, 311
Coal
Anthracite, 278
Bituminous, 277
Cannel, 276
Lignite, 276
Peat, 276
Semi-anthracite, 277
Semi-bituminous, 277
Sizes, 279
Sub-bituminous, 276
Coal and Heating Industries
Committee of Ten, 278, 282, 296
Code of ethics, 39
Concrete
Floor hardener, 65
Floor maintenance, 243
Seals, 243
Cork floor, Care of, 247
Cork tackboard cleaning, 121
Corridors, Sweeping of, 91
Crack filler, 68
387
388
Crystallization of masonry floors, 209
Current consumption, Control of, 139
Damper control, 308
Dance floor preparation, 67
Degree day, 295
Deodorants, 65
Disinfectants, 62
Door checks, 356
Door mats, Location of, 75
Down draft furnace, 302
Draft, 307
Drain pipe cleaner, 59
Dust mops, 83
Treatment of, 77
Dust pans, 49
Dusters, 48
Dusting, 115
Methods of, 118
Time of, 116
Tools for, 117
Economies in firing, 315
Electric Lighting
Care of lamps, 137
Principles, 137
Records, 140
Types of lamps, 138
Electric service maintenance, 357
Erasers, 114
Extension cords, 134
Fire
Alarms, 161
Classes of, 162
Drills, 161
Hose, 165
Fire Extinguishers
Carbon dioxide, 167
Carbon tetrachloride, 166
Foam type, 166
Force pump, 167
Location of, 164
Soda acid, 165
Fire Prevention
Auditorium and dressing, 159
Basement and attic, 157
Careless housekeeping, 160
Electrical, 155
Furnace room, 154
INDEX
Fire Prevention — Continued
Home Economics, 159
Laboratories, 159
Roof, 160
Shop rooms, 158
Spontaneous combustion and lightning,
157
Flag etiquette, 142
Floors, Care of
Buffing, 230
Conditioning, 228
Dry cleaning, 224
Mopping, 222
Oiling, 231
Reconditioning, 230
Sanding, 228
Scrubbing, 223
Surfacing preparations, 240
Floor Cleaning
Auditorium, 95
Classrooms with fixed seats, 85
Classrooms with loose seats, 87
Classrooms with tables and chairs, 88
Corridors, 91
Frequency, 79
Gymnasium, 94
Methods, 81
Special rooms, 90
Stairways, 92
Time of, 80
Tools, 75
Floor cleaning compounds, 217
Abrasives, 217
Chemicals, 218
Floors
Concrete, 206, 243
Cork, 211, 247
Linoleum, 210, 246
Magnesite, 208, 245
Manufactured stone, 206
Maple, 203
Marble, 242
Mastic or asphalt, 212, 248
Natural stone, 206
Oak, 204
Rubber, 210, 247
Soft wood, 204
Terrazzo, 207, 245
Tile, 208, 245
Wood block, 204
INDEX
Floor seals, 66
Penetrating, 234
Surface, 233
Terrazzo, 67
Floor waxes, 67, 235
Spirit solvent, 236
Water emulsion, 236
Flower planting, 126
Foaming and Priming, 326
Footscrapers, 53
Furnace
Down draft, 302
Draft, 266, 321
Frequency of firing, 301
Grates, 322
Furniture
Care, 336
Polish, 69, 336
Refinishing, 338
Fusing, 133
Gas, 281
Gas burners, 335
Gas leaks, 346
Glass cleaning, 104
Agents, 108
Methods, 106
Time of, 105
Glazed tile cleaning, 120
Grease spot remover, 68, 347
Gum solvent, 69
Gymnasium floor maintenance, 248
Hand firing, 297
Alternate method, 299
Coking method, 298
Conical method, 299
Heaping method, 300
Layer method, 300
Ordinary method, 300
Ribbon method, 297
Tools, 303
Heating
Direct, 254
Hot air, 263
Hot water, 262
Indirect, 254
Plant maintenance, 358
Heavy duty units, 135
Hot air systems, Care of, 333
389
Housekeeping in the school, 6
Purposes of, 3
Information sheets, 189
Ink removal, 69, 347
Inkwell washing, 346
Inventory records, 191
Janitor
Age, physical condition, 10
Character, personal qualities, 11
Control of supplies, 40
Dress and appearance, 12
Education, 12
Hours of labor, 33
Plan of work, 36
Protection, 145
Public relations, 20, 22
Pupil relations, 21
Responsibilities, 17
Responsibility for safety, 18
Rules and regulations, 30
Salaries, 33
Salary schedule, 28, 33
Selection and promotion, 26, 32
Skills and abilities, 14
Teacher relations, 20
Tenure, 27
Work load, 34
Work program, 29
Janitor Records
Goods received, 193
Information sheet, 189
Inventory, 189
Office, records of, 200
Repair and job sheets, 194
Reports on pupils, 197
Requisitions, 192
Room temperature, 198
Service meter, 196
Stock room, 200
Work schedule, 176
Janitorial
Check list of service, 373
Cooperation, 37
Schools, 369
Service training, 368
Javelle water, 64, 346
Journal of American Medical Research,
63
390
Lawn
Care of, 129
Planting and seeding, 127
Light and electric service, 132
Light bulb tool, 346
Linoleum floor, Care of, 246
Litle, Roy F., 11, 27, 28
Machine scrubbing, 51
Magnesium silico fluoride, 66
Mahone, L. W., iv
Maintenance
Program, 348
School, 3
Supplies, 366
Maple Flooring Manufacturing Associa-
tion, 203
Marble floor maintenance, 242
Marble surface cleaning, 120
Marks on walls, 101
Masonry wall repair, 354
Mastic and asphalt tile maintenance, 248
Materials, purchase and storage, 71
Metal polish, 70, 345
Meter records, 140
Mold remover, 69
Montgomery, Dr. I. J., iv
Mopping, 216
Methods, 222
Tools, 221
Mops
Dry, 47
Dust, 83
Wet, 48
Muriatic acid, 59, 103
Nat'l Assn. of Engineers and Custodians,
38
Nat'l Board of Fire Underwriters, 170
Nat'l Council on Schoolhouse Construc-
tion, iv
National Education Association, 28
Odors, 98
Office records, janitor, 200
Oil (fuel), 281
Oil burners, 334
Oiling of floors, 231
Organization, types of, 24
INDEX
Ousley, Capt. H. C., 170
Oxalic acid, 60, 347
Pails and wringers, 50
Paint, cleaner, 70
Paint remover, 68
Painted walls, cleaning, 120
Painting, 360
Pans
Dust, 49
Pick-up, 50
Plastered wall, cleaning, 120
Plumbing maintenance, 359
Polishing materials, 337
Polishing of furniture, 336
Principles of heating, 252
Purchase and storage of materials, 71,
193
Pykaski, Conrad, 36
Qualifications of janitor, 10
Radiating units, 269
Radiators
Care, 330
Installation, 265
Record of Job Requests, 195
Records
Goods received, 193
Room temperatures, 199
Refinishing of furniture, 338
Relative humidity, 266
Repairs
Electrical, 136
Roof, 353
Reports on pupils, 198
Requisitions, 192
Responsibility, teacher, 7
Roach powder, 68, 346
Roaches and pests, 346
Rubber floor, Care of, 247
Rugs and carpets, 213
Safety
Belt, 109
Boiler, 329
Electrical current, 149
Janitor, 145
Playground, 147
INDEX
391
Safety — Continued
Slipping and falling, 146
Special rooms, 148
Sand tables, 347
(Sawdust)
Scrubbing
Compounds, 219
Methods, 223
Tools, 220
Shrubbery
Care of, 128
Planting, 126
Smoke control, 312
Soap, 57
Sodium bisulphate, 62, 103
Sodium hypochlorite, 64
Sodium silicate, 65, 67
Sprinkler systems, 165
Stain remover, 347
Stairways, sweeping of, 92
Starting fires, 313
Steam
Generating boilers, 260
Heating, 256
Heating systems, 324
Steel wool, 56, 224
Stoker firing, 304
Sulphuric acid, 60
Supplies
Cleaning, 55
Control, 40
Sweeping compound, 79
Temperature control, 268, 318
Termites, 341
Terrazzo
Floor care, 245
Seal, 67
Tile floor, Care of, 245
Toilet
Care of, 97
Sanitation, 102
Stools, 102
Supplies, prevention of waste, 99
Tools, 51
Tools
Supplies, Care of, 33, 76
Cleaning, 42
Construction, 363
List of, 365
Selection, purchase, 54
Toilet, 51
Yard, 52
United States Bureau of Standards, 66
United States Dept. of Commerce, 236,
337
Urinals, 104
Vacuum cleaning, 77
Varnish remover, 68
Ventilation
Control, 319
Gravity system, 272
Mechanical system, 273
Window, 272
Viles, N. E., 183
Wainscots, 2
Walks, 131
Wall and ceiling cleaning, 100, 119
Methods of, 121
Waste paper, 131
Weeds and pests, 130
Whitewash, 70
Whiting and oxalic acid, 56
Window jack, 53, 109
Window Shades
Cleaning of, 141
Control of, 141
Types of, 140
Wires and fusing, 133
Womrath, G. R, 10
Wood (fuel), 282
Woodwork, Cleaning of, 100
Work program and schedule, 175
Yard cleaning, 131
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